Food and Fellowship in the Kingdom: Eschatological Meals and Scenes of Utopian Abundance in the New Testament (Wissenschaftliche Untersuchungen Zum Neuen Testament 2 Reihe) 9783161492716, 9783161515774, 3161492714

Citation preview

Wissenschaftliche Untersuchungen zum Neuen Testament · 2. Reihe Herausgeber / Editor Jörg Frey (München) Mitherausgeber / Associate Editors Friedrich Avemarie (Marburg) Judith Gundry-Volf (New Haven, CT) Hans-Josef Klauck (Chicago, IL)

234

Peter-Ben Smit

Fellowship and Food in the Kingdom Eschatological Meals and Scenes of Utopian Abundance in the New Testament

Mohr Siebeck

Peter-Ben Smit, born 1979; MA in Theology at University of Amsterdam; MA in Biblical Studies at the Department of Biblical Studies, University of Sheffield; 2005 Ordination; 2005 Promotion to Dr. Theol.; Doctoral student at the General Theological Seminary, New York City; Assistant to the rectar in the parish of St. Ann, Sayville, Long Island.

e-ISBN PDF 978-3-16-151577-4 ISBN 978-3-16-149271-6 ISSN 0340-9570 (Wissenschaftliche Untersuchungen zum Neuen Testament, 2. Reihe) Die Deutsche Nationalbibliothek lists this publication in the Deutsche Nationalbibliographie; detailed bibliographic data is available in the Internet at http://dnb.d-nb.de. © 2008 by Mohr Siebeck, Tübingen, Germany. This book may not be reproduced, in whole or in part, in any form (beyond that permitted by copyright law) without the publisher’s written permission. This applies particularly to reproductions, translations, microfilms and storage and processing in electronic systems. The book was printed by Laupp & Göbel in Nehren on non-aging paper and bound by Buchbinderei Nädele in Nehren. Printed in Germany.

Preface This book finally reaching a stage of completion marks the end of a journey that began with my doctoral studies at the University of Bern in the fall of 2001. The volume consists of a revised version of a dissertation, which was defended in the winter of 2005 for the Faculty of Old Catholic and Protestant Theology of the University of Bern, Switzerland. Sending the manuscript off to the press is not only a joy and a relief; it is also an occasion for thanksgiving. I have to thank Bishop Jan-Lambert (Bert) Wirix-Speetjens (Haarlem, NL), for allowing me time for further studies abroad, while continuing my course of studies at the seminary of the Old Catholic Church of the Netherlands. I owe Prof. Urs von Arx (Bern) and Prof. Ulrich Luz (Bern) a great debt of gratitude for their patient supervision, their reports as my dissertation readers, and their example. I thank Bishop Dr. h.c. Hans Gerny (Bern) for awarding me a scholarship for the first three terms of my studies, and Prof. Ulrich Luz for employing me as a research assistant. I also thank Prof. Matthias Konradt (Bern) for employing me for three years as one of his research and teaching fellows, for introducing me to academic teaching, and for acting as a de facto third dissertation supervisor. Furthermore, I am grateful to the three professors just mentioned, as well as to the entire Faculty of Old Catholic and Protestant Theology of the University of Bern, for making possible a lively public defense of the theses resulting from my work. During my studies, I received the constant support from faculty and staff of the Faculty of Old Catholic and Protestant Theology of the University of Bern, especially from members of the Institute for Biblical Studies. Specifically, I would like to thank PD Dr. habil. Moisés Mayordomo Marin, Manuel Dubach, Johanna Hess, and Dr. Ulrike Sals. While working for the Protestant Department of the Old Catholic and Protestant Faculty of Theology of the University of Bern, while having a professor in the Old Catholic Department as my primary supervisor, I am grateful for the hospitality and fellowship of both ‘sides’ of the Faculty, and render thanks specifically for the fellowship with the students and faculty of both. As I continued my studies at the Old Catholic Seminary in Utrecht, this required flexibility on the part of that institution, for which I

VI

Table of Contents

have to thank it, especially its secretary, Dr. Koenraad Ouwens, and its students’ chaplain, Fr. Jake Dejonge, who, together with my fellow students was a constant source of support. After my ordination to the diaconate, the Bishop of the Old Catholic Church of Switzerland, the Rt. Rev. Fritz-René Müller (Bern), the Old Catholic Parish St. Peter and Paul (Bern), its vestry, especially its president Dr. Marlies Bachmann, and its clergy, especially Fr. Pierre Schwab, Fr. Lars Simpson and Dcn. Marianne Stirnimann, made it possible for me to grow in ministry alongside academic work. Furthermore, I am grateful to the editor of the Wissenschaftliche Unterschuchungen zum Neuen Testament (2. Reihe), Prof. Dr. Jörg Frey, for his acceptance of my work into this series, and to Dr. Henning Ziebritski of Mohr Siebeck publishers for coordinating its publication. A special word of thanks is due to Ms. Tanja Mix of Mohr Siebeck, who assisted me kindly, clearly, and professionally, drawing from what must be an infinite supply of patience and understanding. In this context, more than a word of thanks is also due to those who helped me with the language and style of this work, especially Alison D. Sauer (Munich), who read the entire manuscript. The development of the thesis into a book took place while training as a hospital chaplain at Bellevue Hospital, New York, and further studies at The General Theological Seminary, New York, under the supervision of Prof. J. Robert Wright, while serving as the assistant to Fr. Ralph M. Campbell, II, the rector of St. Ann’s Parish, Long Island. Often unknowingly, these communities provided me with the spiritual support needed to continue this work as a priest with a passion for both the parish and the library. Special thanks also to my mother, Fiete Smit-Maan, and brother, Jaap-Max Smit, for putting up with an all-too-bookish son and brother. Finally, I have to thank Patricia, for her love, strength, and all the ways in which she makes life a joy to live. New York, on the Feast of St. Matthew the Evangelist, 2007, Peter-Ben Smit

Table of Contents I. Introduction...................................................................................................................1 A. The Aims of This Study................................................................................ 1 B. State of Research – Further Questions .....................................................................2 1. General Contributions.......................................................................................................3 2. Contributions Focusing on Individual Works...................................................................8 3. Concluding Observations and Further Questions .......................................................... .10

C. Methods and Definitions............................................................................. 12 1. Tradition and Motif History............................................................................................12 2. Socio-Cultural Approaches.............................................................................................13 3. ‘Eschatological Meals’ and ‘Utopian Abundance’ .........................................................14 a. Meals and Abundance ................................................................................................14 b. Dimensions of the Eschatological and Utopian .........................................................15

D. The Selection of Texts and the Structure of the Present Study .................. 19 1. Introduction ....................................................................................................................19 2. ‘Eschatological Meals’ and ‘Utopian Abundance’ - Selection and Typology................21 a. Introduction................................................................................................................21 b. Overview....................................................................................................................22 aa. Eschatological Banquets.....................................................................................22 (1) The Celebratory Banquet ...............................................................................22 Old Testament/Hebrew Bible........................................................................22 New Testament..............................................................................................23 Non-Canonical Literature..............................................................................23 (2) Destructive Meals ...........................................................................................23 Old Testament/Hebrew Bible........................................................................24 New Testament..............................................................................................24 Non-Canonical Literature..............................................................................24 (3) Eschatological Wedding Celebration..............................................................25 Old Testament/Hebrew Bible........................................................................25 New Testament..............................................................................................25 Non-Canonical Literature..............................................................................26 bb. Nutritional Abundance – Paradise Regained.......................................................26 (1) Nutritional Abundance....................................................................................26 Hebrew Bible/Old Testament........................................................................26 New Testament..............................................................................................27 Non-Canonical Literature..............................................................................27 (2) The Food of Eden: The Tree of Life, the Water of Life and Manna...............28

VIII

Table of Contents

The Tree of Life ............................................................................................28 The Water of Life..........................................................................................29 Eschatological Manna ...................................................................................29 c. New Testament Texts: Selection................................................................................30 3. Concluding Observations................................................................................................31

II. Eschatological Meals and Utopian Abundance in Mark ................35 A. Meals in Mark ...............................................................................................................35 B. Mark 2:18-20 .................................................................................................................38 1. Introduction ....................................................................................................................38 2. First-Century Weddings..................................................................................................39 a. First-Century Weddings in Socio-Cultural Perspective .............................................39 aa. The Fusing of Families ........................................................................................39 bb. Rituals .................................................................................................................40 b. Wedding and Marriages as Religious Metaphors ......................................................41 aa. Old Testament/Hebrew Bible ..............................................................................41 (1) YHWH as the Husband of His People............................................................41 (2) Nuptial Joy as Eschatological Joy in the HB/OT............................................42 bb. Early Judaism ......................................................................................................43 (1) Lady Wisdom .................................................................................................43 (2) The Messiah as Bridegroom? .........................................................................44 cc. New Testament: A Variety of Metaphors............................................................45 3. Tradition-Historical Observations ..................................................................................45 4. Motif-Historical Observations ........................................................................................49 a. The Groom and the ‘Sons of the Bridal Chamber’.....................................................49 b. Dispensation of Fasting Because of a Wedding.........................................................49 5. Interpretation ..................................................................................................................51

C. Mark 6:32-44/Mark 8:1-10........................................................................................53 1. Introduction ...........................................................................................................53 a. The Land of Cockaigne in the Mediterranean World..........................................54 aa. Greco-Roman and Jewish Traditions ...........................................................54 bb. Diet, Hunger and Famine in the Mediterranean World ................................58 cc. Concluding Observations.............................................................................62 2. Mark 6:32-44/Mark 8:1-10.....................................................................................63 a. Tradition-Historical Observation .......................................................................63 b. Motif-Historical Observations ...........................................................................67 aa. Miraculous Feedings....................................................................................67 bb. Manna and the Exodus ........................................................................................69 cc. Fish .....................................................................................................................71 dd. Eucharistic Catechesis.........................................................................................72 ee. Concluding Observations.....................................................................................74 c. The Miraculous Feedings in Mark 6:32-44/8:1-10 ....................................................74 aa. Mark 6:32-44 .......................................................................................................74 bb. Mark 8:1-10.........................................................................................................78

Table of Contents

IX

cc. Concluding Observations.....................................................................................81

D. Mark 14:25.....................................................................................................................82 1. Introduction ....................................................................................................................82 2. Meals in the Mediterranean World .................................................................................83 a. Meals: Sociological Perspectives ...............................................................................85 b. Jewish and Hellenistic, ‘Secular,’ ‘Religious,’ and ‘Utopian’/’Eschatological’ Meals .......................................................................................................................87 aa. Delineating Hierarchy..........................................................................................87 bb. Inclusion and Exclusion ......................................................................................91 cc. Boundary Marking...............................................................................................95 c. Concluding Observations ...........................................................................................96 3. Tradition-Historical Observations ..................................................................................96 a. The Character of Jesus’ Last Meal .............................................................................97 b. The Word over the Cup and the Eschatological Outlook...........................................99 4. Motif-Historical Observations ...................................................................................... 103 a. The Vindication of the Martyr ................................................................................. 103 b. Wine in the Kingdom of God................................................................................... 104 5. Interpretation ................................................................................................................ 107

E. Conclusions .................................................................................................................. 109

III. Eschatological Meals and Utopian Abundance in Luke ............. 113 A. Meals in Luke ............................................................................................................. 113 B. Luke 5:33-39 ............................................................................................................... 118 1. Introduction .................................................................................................................. 118 2. Luke’s Reception of Mark 2:18-22............................................................................... 118

C. Luke 6:21a.................................................................................................................... 122 1. Introduction .................................................................................................................. 122 2. Tradition-Historical Observations ................................................................................ 124 3. Motif-Historical Observations ...................................................................................... 125 4. Interpretation ................................................................................................................ 127

D. Luke 9:10-17 ............................................................................................................... 130 1. Introduction .................................................................................................................. 130 2. Luke’s Reception of Mark 6:32-44............................................................................... 130

E. Luke 12:37.................................................................................................................... 136 1. Introduction .................................................................................................................. 136 2. Tradition-Historical Observations ................................................................................ 137 3. Motif-Historical Observations ...................................................................................... 141

X

Table of Contents 4. Interpretation ................................................................................................................ 144

F. Luke 13:28-29.............................................................................................................. 145 1. Introduction .................................................................................................................. 145 2. Tradition-Historical Observations ................................................................................ 146 3. Motif-Historical Observations ...................................................................................... 148 a. The Many Coming from East and West and the Sons of the Kingdom ................... 148 b. The Eschatological Presence of the Patriarchs (and Prophets) ................................ 151 4. Interpretation ................................................................................................................ 152

G. Luke 14:15 ................................................................................................................... 155 1. Introduction .................................................................................................................. 155 2. Tradition-Historical Observations ................................................................................ 156 3. Interpretation ................................................................................................................ 156

H. Luke 14:16-24 ............................................................................................................. 157 1. Introduction .................................................................................................................. 157 2. Tradition-Historical Observations ................................................................................ 158 3. Interpretation ................................................................................................................ 161

J. Luke 16:19-31 .............................................................................................................. 167 1. Introduction .................................................................................................................. 167 2. Tradition-Historical Observations ................................................................................ 169 3. Motif-Historical Observations ...................................................................................... 171 4. Interpretation ................................................................................................................ 173

K. Luke 22:16.18 ............................................................................................................. 177 1. Introduction .................................................................................................................. 177 2. The Lukan Reception of Mark 14:17-25 ...................................................................... 179

L. Luke 22:30.................................................................................................................... 185 1. Introduction .................................................................................................................. 185 2. Tradition-Historical Observations ................................................................................ 186 3. Motif-Historical Observations ...................................................................................... 190 a. Eating and Drinking ................................................................................................. 190 b. At My Table in My Kingdom .................................................................................. 192 c. The Thrones and the Ruling ..................................................................................... 193 4. Interpretation ................................................................................................................ 194

M. Conclusions................................................................................................................. 196

Table of Contents

XI

IV. The Eschatological Meal and Utopian Abundance in Matthew ..................................................................................................................... 201 A. Meals in Matthew ...................................................................................................... 202 B. Matthew 5:6 ................................................................................................................. 204 1. Introduction .................................................................................................................. 204 2. Matthew’s Interpretation of Q 6:21a............................................................................. 205

C. Matthew 8:5-13........................................................................................................... 210 1. Introduction .................................................................................................................. 210 2. Matthew’s Reception of Q 13:29-28............................................................................. 211

D. Matthew 9:14-17 ........................................................................................................ 216 1. Introduction .................................................................................................................. 216 2. The Matthean Interpretation of Mark 2:18-22 .............................................................. 217

E. Matthew 14:13-21/15:29 .......................................................................................... 220 1. Introduction .................................................................................................................. 220 2. Matthew 14:13-21......................................................................................................... 221 3. Matthew 15:29-39......................................................................................................... 225 4. The Two Miraculous Feedings in Matthew .................................................................. 228

F. Matthew 22:1-14 ......................................................................................................... 229 1. Introduction .................................................................................................................. 229 2. Motif-Historical Observations ...................................................................................... 230 a. The Wedding Banquet for the King’s Son ............................................................... 230 b. The Wedding Garment............................................................................................. 233 3. Interpretation ................................................................................................................ 236

G. Matthew 25:1-13 ........................................................................................................ 237 1. Introduction .................................................................................................................. 237 2: Tradition-Historical Observations ................................................................................ 238 3. Motif-Historical Observations ...................................................................................... 241 a. The Wedding and the Arrival of the groom ............................................................. 241 b. The Prudent and Imprudent Girls – Being Prepared ................................................ 244 4. Interpretation ................................................................................................................ 246

H. Matthew 26:29 ............................................................................................................ 248 1. Introduction .................................................................................................................. 248 2. Matthew’s Reception of Mark 14:25 ............................................................................ 250

XII

Table of Contents

J. Conclusions ................................................................................................................... 255

V. Eschatological Meals and Utopian Abundance in John ............... 259 A. Meals in John .............................................................................................................. 259 B. John 2:1-11................................................................................................................... 263 1. Introduction .................................................................................................................. 263 2. Tradition-Historical Observations ................................................................................ 264 3. Motif-Historical Observations ...................................................................................... 266 a. The Wedding in John 2:1-11.................................................................................... 266 b. Bacchic Abundance ................................................................................................. 268 4. Interpretation ................................................................................................................ 270

C. John 3:29....................................................................................................................... 274 1. Introduction .................................................................................................................. 274 2. Tradition-Historical Observations ................................................................................ 276 3. Motif-Historical Observations ...................................................................................... 278 a. The ‘Friend of the Bridegroom’ ............................................................................... 278 b. The Voice of the Bridegroom .................................................................................. 280 4. Interpretation ................................................................................................................ 281

D. John 4:1-42, 6:1-15.22-71, 7:37-39 ...................................................................... 283 1. Introduction .................................................................................................................. 283 2. John 4:1-42 and 7:37-39 ............................................................................................... 284 a. Introduction..............................................................................................................284 b. John 4:1-42 .............................................................................................................. 285 aa. Introduction ....................................................................................................... 285 bb. Motif-Historical Observations: Living Water ................................................... 286 cc. Interpretation ..................................................................................................... 287 c. John 4:1-42, 7:37-39: The Water of Life in John..................................................... 293 3. John 6:1-15.22-71......................................................................................................... 297 a. Introduction.............................................................................................................. 297 b. Character, Unity and Development of John 6 .......................................................... 299 c. The Johannine Account of the Feeding (John 6:1-15) ............................................. 300 aa. Introduction ....................................................................................................... 300 bb. Interpretation..................................................................................................... 301 d. The Bread of Life Discourse (John 6:22-59.60-71) ................................................. 306 aa. Introduction ....................................................................................................... 306 bb. John 6:22-40...................................................................................................... 308 cc. John 6:41-59 ...................................................................................................... 312 dd. John 6:60-71...................................................................................................... 317 4. Utopian Satiation in John 4:1-41, 7:37 and 6:1-15.22-71............................................. 319

E. Conclusions .................................................................................................................. 322

Table of Contents

XIII

VI. Eschatological Meals and Utopian Abundance in the Apocalypse of John................................................................................................... 325 A. Meals in the Apocalypse .......................................................................................... 325 B. Apocalypse 2:7 ........................................................................................................... 329 1. Introduction .................................................................................................................. 329 2. Motif-Historical Considerations: The Conquering Faithful.......................................... 330 a. Eating from the Tree of Life .................................................................................... 331 3. Interpretation ................................................................................................................ 332

C. Apocalypse 2:17 ......................................................................................................... 333 1. Introduction .................................................................................................................. 333 2: Motif-Historical Considerations ................................................................................... 334 a. The Hidden Manna................................................................................................... 334 b. The White Stone ...................................................................................................... 335 3. Interpretation ................................................................................................................ 337

D. Apocalypse 3:20 ......................................................................................................... 338 1. Introduction .................................................................................................................. 338 2. Tradition-Historical Observations ................................................................................ 338 3. Motif-Historical Observations: Standing Outside and Knocking ................................. 341 4. Interpretation ................................................................................................................ 342

E. Apocalpyse 7:16-17 ................................................................................................... 343 1. Introduction .................................................................................................................. 343 2. Interpretation ................................................................................................................ 344

F. Apocalypse 19-22 (19:7-9, 21:1-8, 22:1-5 ................................................................. 349 1. Introduction .................................................................................................................. 349 2. Apocalypse 19:7-9 ........................................................................................................ 350 a. Introduction.............................................................................................................. 350 b. Tradition-Historical Observations............................................................................ 351 c. Motif-Historical Observations.................................................................................. 352 d. Interpretation............................................................................................................ 353 3. Apocalypse 21:1-8, 22:1-15.......................................................................................... 358 a. Introduction.............................................................................................................. 358 b. Tradition-Historical Observations............................................................................ 359 c. Motif-Historical Observations.................................................................................. 360 aa. The City Temple as Garden of Eden ................................................................. 360 bb. The Temple and the (Ideal) City ....................................................................... 363 d. Interpretation............................................................................................................ 364

G. Apocalypse 22:14.17.19........................................................................................... 370

XIV

Table of Contents

1. Introduction .................................................................................................................. 370 2. Apocalypse 22:14 ......................................................................................................... 371 3. Apocalypse 22:17 ......................................................................................................... 372 4. Apocalypse 22:19 ......................................................................................................... 373 5. Concluding Observations.............................................................................................. 374

H. Conclusions ................................................................................................................. 375

VII. Conclusions ......................................................................................................... 379 A. Introduction ................................................................................................................. 379 B. Tradition-Historical Trajectories ........................................................................... 379 1. The Eschatological Banquet ......................................................................................... 379 2. Nutritional Abundance.................................................................................................. 381

C. The Eschatological Meal and Utopian Abundance in the New Testament .......................................................................................................... 383 1. The Eschatological Banquet ......................................................................................... 383 a. The Celebratory Banquet ......................................................................................... 383 b. The Destructive Banquet.......................................................................................... 385 c. The Eschatological Wedding Celebration................................................................ 385 2. The Land of Cockaigne ................................................................................................ 388 a. Utopian Abundance.................................................................................................. 388 b. The Foodstuffs of Paradise ...................................................................................... 391

D. Meals and Abundance: Images of a Just World ................................................ 392

Bibliography ................................................................................................................. 395 Dictionaries and Reference Works ............................................................................. 395 Sources ................................................................................................................................ 396 1. Canonical Texts ............................................................................................................ 396 2. Early Jewish and Rabbinic Literature ........................................................................... 396 3. Non-Canonical Early Christian Literature .................................................................... 397 4. Non-Jewish or –Christian Authors ............................................................................... 397

Secondary Literature (Including Commentaries) ...........................................398 Software.......................................................................................................... 439

Indexes ............................................................................................................................. 441

Table of Contents

XV

Index of Ancient Sources .............................................................................................. 441 Old Testament/Hebrew Bible ........................................................................................... 441 New Testament ................................................................................................................. 454 Early Jewish Texts............................................................................................................ 474 Rabbinic Texts.................................................................................................................. 481 Greco-Roman Texts.......................................................................................................... 483

Index of Authors .............................................................................................................. 491 Index of Topics................................................................................................................. 493

I. Introduction A. The Aims of This Study In general, the eschatological meal is both regarded as a widely spread1 and not unimportant part of the eschatological expectations in early Judaisms and Christianities, not in the least in those texts now present in the canon of the NT. In spite of this widely spread opinion, there has been little research on this subject. The available publications are short and often limited to either stating the commonplace that the eschatological meal is an important motif in early Jewish and early Christian apocalyptic imagination or concentrate on giving an overview of the various texts, without dealing with them further.2 Therefore, there is a clear interest in further study in this field even if only for said reason. Furthermore, studying the eschatological expectations or expressions of utopian longing,3 while taking into consideration the socio-cultural context of their emergence, is one of the ways of learning more about the hopes and wishes of the groups or individuals developing and transmitting them. The purpose of this study is thereby given: to study both the (literary) history and the use of the motifs of the eschatological meal and scenes of utopian nutritional abundance4 in the NT, considering the way they express the hopes and expectations of the groups developing and transmitting them. In the form of a question, this can be formulated in the following way: ‘How are what kinds of traditions about eschatological meals included into the NT, and in what way do they function within the theological plan of the authors of the books in which they occur, in view of their first-century social context in general and the community for which a book was written in particular.’ This question will be refined and reformulated after having given an overview of the state of research, which will reveal aporia in the Abbreviations of journals, series, etc. follow Schwertner:1994, those of ancient texts follow Alexander:1999. 1 Cf. below, I.B. on the state of research. 2 There are, however, a few exceptions for the eschatological meal in Mt., Lk., the Apc., and the life of the historical Jesus. Cf. below, I.B.2. 3 For terminological precisions, cf. below, I.C.1. 4 On this terminology, cf. below, I.C.3.

2

I. Introduction

present state of research. After this, the precise methods and definitions used in this study, as well as a selection of texts and an explanation of the structure of this thesis will be presented and discussed.

B. State of Research – Further Questions At the beginning of the 20th century, Albert Schweitzer avidly promoted the theme of the eschatological banquet, and his has been an important voice since then.5 In recent years, however, also a number of publications were devoted to the subject of the eschatological meal. It is still the case, however, that more often6 than not,7 the existence of the motif is taken for granted and presupposed, rather than discussed extensively. Russell’s 1964 statement that the ‘idea of an eschatological banquet is, of course, a familiar one in apocalyptic tradition,’8 repeated by Priest in 1992,9 is still typical. Often this is combined with the (erroneous) assumption of a clear literary relationship between the main HB/OT example of an eschatological banquet, Isa. 25:6-8, and eschatological banquets in the NT.10 Because of this rather static situation, writing a complete history of research is not a useful task. Instead, an overview of the present state of research can provide the necessary background for the research undertaken in the body of this thesis. The works discussed are selected, either because 5

Cf. Schweitzer:1971a, idem:1971b. Schweizer:1946, focuses on the distinction between and possible separation of anamnetically and eschatologically oriented meals, as problematized by Lietzmann:1926, 252, and discusses this within the context of research on the Lord’s Supper in the NT in the first half of the 20th century, also noting, however, that this ‘längst vorhandene Frage’ was firmly underlined by Schweitzer at the beginning of the last century. Wainwright:1971, offers on 1-17 an overview of earlier research in the area of eschatology and (eucharistic) meals, also taking Schweitzer as his starting point. 6 Representative examples include Jeremias:1960, 197-210, even when suggesting a declaration of abstinence as the correct interpretation of Mk. 14:25parr. (209-210), he uses the idea of a ‘messianic meal’ as a matter of course, cf. further: Luz:1990, 13n12, Luz:1997, 237n34, Davies/Allison:1988, 453, Riniker:1999, 84. Klauck:1982, 320-323, refers to ‘the metaphor of the eschatological meal’ as such (321). 7 Careful voices include Chilton:1992, 140, who wonders how common the theme is, and Wright:1996, 532. 8 Russell:1964, 322. 9 Cf. Priest:1992, 223, referring to ‘(...) the common assumption of the pervasiveness of the messianic/eschatological banquet in Jewish apocalyptic thought (...).’ 10 Cf. e.g. Blenkinsopp:2000, 359, claiming that the banquet found in Isa. 25:6 is ‘well represented in the gospels.’ In this respect, Bolyki:1998, 69, is much more careful, stating that dependence cannot be ascertained anymore. See for his own half-page overview of messianic banquets: Bolyki:1998, 193.

B. State of Research – Further Questions

3

they discuss the theme of the eschatological meal within one literary work, or because they provide an overview of the complete theme in early Christian and (early) Jewish literature. This means that only studies with a more elaborate discussion of the topic will be taken into account. The overview differentiates between contributions aiming at giving a general overview, and those concentrating one particular (NT) book. 1. General Contributions First and foremost, two essays should be mentioned here. The first was written by John Priest11 and aims primarily at giving an overview and a classification of the early Jewish and early Christian eschatological and messianic banquets. After listing some examples of eschatological meals from non-canonical writings12 and after discussing the theme in the HB/OT,13 Priest sees six categories of eschatological banquets within the canonical writings of the NT. These are the following: the messianic banquet, hosted by Jesus,14 an eschatological ‘Lord’s Supper’ (Mk. 14:25parr.),15 the Lord’s Supper as memorial with an eschatological outlook (1 Cor. 11:26),16 the banquet as a simple illustration of the kingdom,17 the miraculous feedings,18 and the destructive banquet (Apc. 19:17-19).19 Finally, Priest suggests that all of these traditions ultimately derive from the OT/HB theme of the celebration of God’s victory.20 He concludes his essay with some general observations and conclusions, therein asserting the general pervasiveness of the theme, the immediate background of the theme in theme HB/OT of the divine warrior, and the 11

Priest:1992. Priest:1992, 223-229, these texts include 1 En. 62:12-16, 2 En. 42:5, 3 En. 48:10, 2 Bar. 29:1-8, 4 Ez. 4:33-41 (= chs. 3-14 of the whole of the apocryphal book of Ez., cf. Metzger:1992, 516-559, esp. 516, 2 Ez. 2:33-41 (cf. for an overview of the various subdivisions of Ezra: Charlesworth, OTP 1, 516), Test. Abr. 20:14, Test. Is. 6:22, 8:5-7, Test. Jac. 7:21-28, 1QSa 2:11-22. 13 Priest:1992, 234-237, noting that there are three interrelated themes: eating and drinking before YHWH (cf. e.g. Deut. 12:7-18, 2 Sam. 6:18-19, 1 Chr. 29:22, Ex. 24:111, Neh. 8-10), the slaughter of God’s enemies (cf. Isa. 27:1, 34:5-7, Jer. 25:15-34, 46:10, Ezek. 29:3-5, 32:2-8, 39:17-20, Zeph. 1:7-9, Ob. 16, Ps. 74:13-14, Isa. 51:9-11), and the eschatological meal proper (Isa. 25:6-8, 49:9-12, 55, 65:13-16, Ezek. 34:11-31, Zeph. 3:8-13, Zech. 9:9-17). 14 E.g. Apc. 19:9, Lk. 22:30, cf. Priest:1992, 229-230. 15 Priest:1992, 230-231. 16 Priest:1992, 231. 17 I.e.: Mt. 8:11-12par., Mt. 22:1-14, Lk. 14:15-24, Mt. 25:1-13, cf. Priest:1992, 231. 18 I.e. Mk. 6:32-44parr., 8:1-10parr., Jn. 6:1-15, in relationship with Lk. 24:28-43, Jn. 21:9-14, Lk. 6:21a, 16:19-31, cf. Priest:1992, 231-232. 19 Priest:1992, 232. 20 Priest:1992, 234-237. 12

4

I. Introduction

close association of the eschatological meal with Jesus’ meals and the early Christian Eucharist. Priest calls for more attention to the theme in Jewish and Christian literature after 200 CE as well as in the preceding 400 years, suggesting that extra-Israelite backgrounds should be further taken into consideration, as well as the interaction of the theme with underlying intentions of the authors of relevant texts.21 The second essay to be mentioned here comes from the hand of Dennis E. Smith,22 and pursues a similar goal of organization and systematization, though following a different categorization: Smith mainly discerns between numinous/sacred foods23 on the one hand and messianic or sacred eschatological banquets on the other,24 both in the NT and in its context. In view of the eschatological banquet, he differentiates between texts focusing on victory and reversal,25 scenes of eschatological joy,26 and finally the wedding banquet.27 Smith also draws attention to the interaction of these mythological meals and ‘real,’ i.e. historical meals, noting that these merge at Qumran (1 QSa 2:11-22).28 He does not make any explicit suggestions about the theme’s provenance. The corpus of early Jewish and rabbinic literature dealing with the eschatological meal has been compiled in a number of other works too. The most important among them is that of Billerbeck,29 but also Ginzberg,30 Volz31 and Moore32 have published similar compilations. Even though focusing on rabbinic texts, Billerbeck’s classification of the various 21

Cf. Priest:1992, 237-238. Smith:1991, 64-73. He repeated his view later in Smith:1992 and in his monograph on meals in the NT, Smith:2003, 166-171. 23 E.g. bread of life/manna: Ex. 16:1-17:7, Num. 11:7-9, 20:2-13, Ps. 78:25, Wisd. 16:20, 4 Ez. 1:19, Jos. As. 16:8.14-16, water of life: Jn. 4:10-14, Apc. 22:1-2.17-19, Od. Sol. 6:8-18. 24 Cf. Smith:1991, 65. 25 Isa. 25:6-8, 1 En. 62:12-14, 2 Bar. 29:1-4. 26 Mt. 22:1-10, Lk. 14:16-24, Gos. Thom. 64, and the pilgrimage of the nations (Mt. 8:11-12par.) 27 Mk. 2:19-20parr., Mt. 22:1-14, 25:1-13, Lk. 14:7-11, Jn. 2:1-11, 3:29, Apc. 19:7-9, 21:2.9, 22:17, Gos. Thom. 104. 28 Smith’s view, also the view taken here, is that this Qumranic text looks forward to celebrating the community’s meal in the eschaton, in the presence of both Messiahs. Cf. Smith:1992, 71. 29 Cf. Billerbeck:1928, 888-891.919-921 (abundance of creation), 1146-1147.11541165 (eschatological banquet), and listing texts that deny the existence of (physical) food in the heavenly Garden of Eden on 1132-1133. 30 Cf. Ginzberg:1968d, 4:114-116, idem:1968e,234. 31 Volz:1934, 367-368. 32 Moore:1946, 363-366. 22

B. State of Research – Further Questions

5

texts is of relevance here, as he subdivides the texts using the image of the eschatological banquet into a category dealing with superabundant fertility33 and another category dealing with the eschatological communion of the righteous (with each other and God) in the shape of a meal.34 Billerbeck does not argue these categories extensively, nevertheless they agree with the typology used in the present thesis, as it will be proposed below.35 Beyond these studies the eschatological meal has been considered within the context of the following more recent thematic studies on (eucharistic) meals in the NT.36 In 1971, Wainwright presented a thesis on the Eucharist and eschatology,37 which includes a substantial reflection on HB/OT, intertestamental and NT literature as far as it concerns eschatological banquets. This takes place in view of (eucharistic) meals both as the ‘antepast of heaven,’38 as well as in terms of their relationship to Christ’s parousia.39 Wainwright draws on these texts, as well as on patristic literature, for his further systematic-theological explorations.40 In his section on meals as the ‘antepast of heaven,’ however, Wainwright reflects on the ‘Old Testament preparation,’41 which includes the covenant meal (Ex. 24:9-11),42 (sacred) meals associated with sacrifices,43 wisdom literature,44 and feeding and feasting in the future salvation.45 From the corpus of ‘intertestamental’ literature, Wainwright lists texts dealing with the abundance of food,46 the new manna,47 Passover,48 future (messianic) feasting (1 En. 62:13-16),49 33

Billerbeck, 4.1, 888-889.919-921. Billerbeck, 4.1, 1146-1147.11152-1163. 35 Cf. below, I.D.2. 36 Exceptions, not considering the subject include Wick:2003, Barth:1987, Klinghardt: 1996. 37 Wainwright:1971. 38 Wainwright:1971, 18-59. 39 Wainwright:1971, 60-93. 40 The body of the work, cf. Wainwright:1971, 94-154. 41 Wainwright:1971, 19-21. 42 Wainwright:1971, 19. 43 E.g. Gen. 31:54, Ex. 18:12, Deut. 12:5-7.17-18, 14:23.26, 15:20, 27:7, 1 Sam. 9:1114, cf. Wainwright:1971, 19-20. 44 Prov. 9:1-6, Ps. 23:5, Cant. 5:1, cf. Wainwright:1971, 20. 45 Isa. 25:6-9, 34:6, 48:21, 49:9-10, 55:5, 65:13, Jer. 46:10, Ezek. 34:13-14.23, 39:1720, Zeph. 1:7, Zech. 9:16, cf. Wainwright:1971, 20-21. 46 4 Ez. 8:52-54, 2 Bar. 29:5, cf. Wainwright:1971, 22. 47 4 Ez. 1:19, 2 Bar. 29:8, Midr. Qoh. 1:9, cf. Wainwright:1971, 22. 48 Cf. e.g. Josephus, B. J. 5:98-105, 6:290-295, so: Wainwright:1971, 22-24, also including many patristic references. 34

6

I. Introduction

and finally texts from Qumran.50 As far as the NT is concerned, future feeding and feasting,51 meals during Jesus’ ministry,52 their relationship to one another (focusing among others on Mt. 6:11/Lk. 11:3),53 as well as with the Eucharist, are taken into account (focusing on the intertextual relationships of Mk. 14:22-25parr.).54 This overview serves Wainwright to support his broader thesis that the association of meals with the deity and eschatology is supported by a broad range of texts from the context of the NT and the early Church.55 Even if this is true in general, it does not constitute a workable typology or clear tradition-historical proposal. In his 1990 monograph on early Christian meals, Bernd Kollmann56 focuses explicitly on eschatological meals and on nutritional abundance,57 but concentrates primarily on the place of (eschatological) meals in the ministry of Jesus and their reception through early Christian communities.58 Kollmann discerns between an eschatological ‘Heilsmahl’59 and a messianic ‘Heilsmahl’60 based on the presence or absence of a messianic figure.61 He concludes that Jesus both preached and enacted the eschatological/messianic banquet, which was as such also received in the meal praxis of the early Christian communities. This conclusion, which is not further elaborated, serves as the background for his exegesis of the relevant NT texts.62

49

Wainwright:1971, 24. 4QpPs 37 2:10-11, 1QSa 2:11-22, cf. Wainwright:1971, 24-25. 51 Mt. 8:11/Lk. 13:29, Mt. 5:6/Lk. 6:21a, Mt. 25:14-30, Lk. 12:35-38, cf. Wainwright: 1971, 26-27. 52 Mk. 2:15-20parr., Mt. 11:19/Lk. 7:34, Lk. 15:1-2, 19:1-10, Mt. 11:28, Mk. 6:3044parr., 8:1-10par., Jn. 6:3-15, Mk. 7:24-30, Mt. 15:21-28, Mk. 2:23-28, cf. Wainwright: 1971, 27-29. 53 Wainwright:1971, 29-34. 54 Wainwright:1971, 34-42. 55 Cf. Wainwright:1971, 58-59, for his systematic conclusions, of which the first one is: ‘having the form of a meal, the Eucharist belongs to that universally known realm of spoken and acted imagery which describes the relation between God and men in terms of eating and drinking.’ 56 Kollmann:1990a, 187-189.206-225. 57 Cf. Kollmann:1990a, 207, who refers to both Jn. 2:1-11 and to the synoptic miraculous feedings as reflecting eschatological nutritional abundance. 58 Cf. Kollmann:1990a, 233-238. 59 ‘Meal of salvation.’ Including Mt. 22:1-14par., Lk. 15:11-32par., Mt. 8:11-12par., Lk. 14:7-14, Mk. 2:18-22, cf. Kollmann:1990a, 222. 60 Including Lk. 22:24-30, 12:35-38. 61 Kollmann:1990a, 221-222. Smith:1991, 64, already rightly rejects this suggestion. 62 Mt. 22:1-14/Lk. 14:16-24, Lk. 15:11-32, Mt. 8:11-12/Lk. 13:28-29, Lk. 14:7-14, Mk. 2:18-22, 11:19/Lk. 7:34, Lk. 22:24-30, 12:35-38 (in this order). 50

B. State of Research – Further Questions

7

In the relevant chapter of The Feast of the World’s Redemption,63 Koenig focuses primarily on the NT evidence for the eschatological meal64 within the context of what he understands to be ‘eucharistic meals’ in the NT, interpreting them as one of the foremost early Christian (and Jesuanic) missionary vehicles.65 For this analysis he refers to the work of LaVerdiere, who, however, does not go much further than Koenig, and confines himself in a similar way as Kieffer66 to Jesus’ earthly meals, the miraculous feeding and the Last Supper, all primarily in the context of Lk.67 Therefore, in spite of the terminology used, what is viewed as eschatological meals in this study, remains without much attention. Smith’s 2003 monograph repeats the views on the eschatological meal, which he had published in articles earlier (cf. above). Therefore, his book needs no further discussion in this place.68 Within the context of research on the historical Jesus, attention has been given to the subject of the eschatological meal as well. Apart from the aforementioned contribution by Schweitzer, especially Becker’s work is of importance.69 In his discussion of eschatological meals in Jesus’ preaching and their context, he discerns between an apocalyptic expectation of an exuberant celebration at the end of time70 and a sapiental tradition,71 viewing God as the provider of nutrition per se. In Jesus’ preaching, these two lines of thought have merged in the process of which these sapiental elements were integrated into a general apocalyptic outlook.72 This subdivision is different from those presented earlier, as Becker classes the texts according to their sources (or, in the broader sense of the word: traditions), revealing less about their function than about their (possible) provenance. Among other works on the historical Jesus, Meier refers in the second volume of his trilogy on the historical Jesus to eating and drinking in the 63

Koenig:2000. Koenig:2000, 165-214. 65 Including e.g. Mk. 2:18-20parr., the miraculous feedings, the eschatological outlook at the Last Supper, Mk. 10:35-40parr., Mt. 22:1-14, 25:1-13, Lk. 7:34par., 22:30. 66 Cf. below, I.B.2. 67 LaVerdiere:1996, esp. 79-95. 68 Smith:2003, 166-171. 69 Cf. Becker:1996, 194-211. 70 Including the image of superabundance, Becker lists the following texts as belonging to this tradition: Isa. 11:6-9, 25:6, 62:8-9, 65:17-25, 1 En. 10:18-22, 25-26, 60:6-10.24, 4 Ez. 6:49-52, Test. Lev. 18:11.14, Sib. Or (prologue) 84-86, Sib. Or. 3:704.717-718.767.782.785. Cf. Becker:1996, 194-195. 71 Including: Ps. 104:14-15, 132:15, 136, 145:8-9.15-16, 146:7, Ps. Sol. 5:8-19, Test. Jos. 1:5, cf. Becker:1996, 185-196. 72 Becker:1996, 196. 64

8

I. Introduction

kingdom of God extensively, but without ordering the texts or developing a thesis beyond underlining the pervasiveness of the theme. This makes further discussion of his contribution superfluous at this place.73 The same applies to the discussions by Wright74 and Crossan,75 whereas Theißen/ Merz place, without discussion, the eschatological meals in his category ‘images of judgment.’76 2. Contributions Focusing on Individual Works A first work to be mentioned is the (unpublished) doctoral thesis of Nakamura,77 focusing on the interpretation of Isa. 24:21-23, 25:6-10a. Of this text at least the latter part is a good (and even the only)78 example of an eschatological meal in the OT. Nakamura does not only extensively discuss the occurrence of this kind of meal in the biblical canon, but broadens the horizon in the directions of coronation rituals79 and the mythologeme of a deity’s victory and temple building.80 She thus concludes that Isa. 25:6-8 has to be read in both contexts.81 Though the present study does not deal with the eschatological meal in the HB/OT or ANE in general, it is important to notice the location of one early example of an eschatological meal within the context of the establishment of the rule of a deity, in view of the intimate relationship between the eschatological meal and judgment.82 In his doctoral thesis on the eschatological meal in Matthew, Steffen offers an extensive collection of texts, but without discerning between various kinds of eschatological meals in any of the ways the aforementioned authors do. He prefers short discussions of the individual instances of the meal83 in his section on the ‘Jewish Pre-Understanding of the Messianic Banquet’84 following the corpora of HB/OT,85 early Jewish86 73

Cf. Meier:1994, 302-317. Wright:1996, 530-532. 75 Crossan:1991, 341-344. 76 Cf. Theißen/Merz:2001, 241-244. 77 Nakamura:1992. 78 So Nakamura:1992, 209. 79 Nakamura:1992, 37-83. 80 Nakamura:1992, 84-154. 81 Nakamura:1992, 269. 82 Cf. e.g. Q 13:29-28, Lk. 14:16-24, Mt. 22:1-14, 25:1-13, Apc. 19:7-9.17-19. 83 Cf. Steffen:2001, 45-113, noting correctly that ‘there is lack of evaluation in the field of biblical theology’ in this respect (idem, op. cit., 45-46). 84 Steffen:2001, 45 (sic). 85 Steffen:2001, 45-68, noting in Isa. the intimate connection with the themes of exile and return, Steffen sees references to eschatological abundance in: Isa. 1:19, 9:3 27:26.12-13, 29:17-24, 30:19-29, 32:1-8, 49:5-13, 51:3, 55:1-2, whereas he sees a banquet 74

B. State of Research – Further Questions

9

and rabbinic literature.87 He then places them in the categories of ‘universal’88 and ‘restricted’89 terrestrial meals, which can constitute the inception of the messianic era90 or be a metaphor for its bliss.91 Finally, Steffen suggests that a particular (i.e. exclusive) earthly banquet is typical of Jewish tradition,92 with which Mt. remains in continuity except for the particular aspect of the meal. This subdivision, however, seems to say little about the function of eschatological meals, and even less about their provenance. Therefore this systematization is probably more useful for the task of relating these eschatological meals to (one of the brands of) dispensationalist theology, which Steffen outlines at the very end of his study, than for the task undertaken here.93 Regarding the eschatological meal in Lk., the contributions of Bösen are of central importance.94 He outlines the Lk. meal theology already in the title of one of his books: ‘Jesusmahl – Eucharistisches Mahl – Endzeitmahl.’95 Bösen describes the main line of thought in the Lk. as far as meals are concerned as a reflection of the place in time and space of the Lk. community: between Jesus’ past earthly presence, enjoying his pneumatic and sacramental presence, while moving on towards his (postponed) coming. In none of his monographs, however, the broader field of eschatological meals in the NT, OT/HB or any of their contexts is discussed. only in Isa. 25:6-8. In Ezek., the same relationship between lack of food during the exile (cf. Ezek. 4:13-17, 5:10.12.16-17, 6:11-12, 7:15.19, 12:16-20, 14:13.21) and its abundance after Israel’s restoration (cf. Ezek. 34:13-16.27.29, 36:8-15.29-30.34-35.37) is observed. In Zeph., the relationship between abundance and righteousness, or rather the lack of both, is noted (Zeph. 1:13, 2:6-7.13), whereas the relationship between exile and lack and restoration and prosperity is again encountered in Zech. (cf. Zech. 1:17, 3:8-10, 8:11-12.19, 9:15-17). 86 Steffen:2001, 68-96, discussing: Sib. Or. 3:580-583.601-623.697.740-761 in terms of eschatological prosperity, the eschatological and nutritional role of Leviathan and Behemoth in 1 En. 60:7-9.24, 4 Ez. 6:47-52, 2 Bar. 29:4, and further the banquets and references to abundance in 3 En. 48A:10, Test. Is. 6:22, 8:6, Test. Jac. 7:21-28, 1QSa 2:11-22, 4Q171, 11Q13. 87 Steffen:2001, 96-110, referring to ’Avot 3:17.20, 4:16-17.21-22, b. Shab. 153a, Sem. 8:10, as well as the extensive rabbinic interest in the consumption of mythological animals (pp. 101-104). 88 Steffen:2001, 111-112. 89 Steffen:2001, 112. 90 Steffen:2001, 112. 91 Steffen:2001, 113. 92 Cf. Steffen:2001, 110-113.116: ‘Given the further option that the messianic banquet is either terrestrial or heavenly, the evidence in Matthew favors the Jewish belief that it is terrestrial.’ 93 Steffen:2001, 299-301. 94 Especially in his two monographs: Bösen:1976 and Bösen:1980. 95 Trans.: ‘Jesus’ table fellowship – Eucharist – Eschatological Meal.’

10

I. Introduction

Peres draws the attention to the Lk. eschatological banquet in the context of Greek epitaphs and thus opens up an important motif-historical window, however, he also stops just there. To his insightful comments on esp. Lk. 22:3096 will be returned, however. More recently, Kieffer published an article devoted to the eschatological meal in Lk.,97 but he uses an entirely different definition of the eschatological meal than it will be used in this study.98 Kieffer concentrates on Jesus’ earthly meals and the way in which these are prescriptive for the (meal) praxis of the Lk. community, considering these meals as eschatological, as Jesus is throughout the whole of Lk. already the Risen Lord. The only things in common with the texts, considered in this study are his discussions of Lk. 9:10-17 (miraculous feeding as anticipation of the fullness of the kingdom) and the Lk. account of the Last Supper, as Kieffer leaves all depictions of the age to come as a meal out of consideration. In his commentary on the Apc., Aune offers a concise typology of eschatological meals as an aid to his interpretation of Apc. 19:999 He outlines five kinds of eschatological meals: 1. the slaughter of Leviathan and Behemoth,100 2. a banquet proper,101 3. the provision of food for the redeemed by the Messiah as a further development of (2),102 4. access to the fruit of the tree of life (e.g. Apc. 2:7, 22:14),103 and 5. access to eschatological manna (e.g. Apc. 2:17).104 In this context, Aune notes both the relative sparsity as well as the relative independence of these traditions from one another,105 but does not proceed to a more detailed discussion of any of these kinds of eschatological meals. 3. Concluding Observations and Further Questions A first observation regarding the systematization and categorizations of the eschatological meal as used in the works discussed above is that most stop at precisely that point: providing an overview, without, however, discussing their broader context, the functions of these texts, or their genesis. More precisely, the works in the first category106 often lack attention to the 96

Cf. Peres:2003, 233-237. Kieffer:2004. 98 On which, cf. I.C.3. 99 Aune:1998, 1032-1034 100 E.g. 2 Bar. 29:4, 4 Ez. 6:52, cf. Ps. 74:14, Ezek. 32:4, cf. Aune:1998, 1033. 101 E.g. Isa. 25:6-8, Mt. 8:11-12par., Lk. 14:15, Lk. 22:30, Mk. 14:25parr., 2 Ez. 2:38, Test. Is. 6:22, cf. Aune:1998, 1033. 102 E.g. 1 En. 62:14, 3 En. 48A:10, Lk. 22:28-30, cf. Aune:1998, 1033-1034. 103 Aune:1998, 1034. 104 Aune:1998, 1034. 105 Aune:1998, 1032-1033. 106 Cf. above, I.B.1. 97

B. State of Research – Further Questions

11

eschatological banquet’s literary function and context, whereas the works listed in the second category often lack attention to its provenance and genesis.107 These questions about context, genesis and function, will therefore have to be addressed in the present study, thereby moving beyond the more general contributions mentioned above, and integrating the more particular discussions of individual NT texts or authors. Second, even though it can be stated that most authors writing on the subject practically agree on the corpus of texts108, which needs to be considered, a difference in emphasis and categorization can be observed. Priest, on the one hand, stresses the importance of taking into account in a more thoroughgoing way the ANE history of the motif, as well as its history of reception in rabbinic literature (having discussed most relevant pseudepigraphic texts himself already), and offers a six fold typology. With a more sociological orientation, Smith suggests, on the other hand, two main categories (numinous foods and meals). The latter route seems also to be the route pursued by Aune and partially by Billerbeck, who discern between table fellowship and nutritional abundance. Wainwright and Becker do not clarify their criteria for classing the texts extensively, but in their cases, the provenance of the various traditions seems to be decisive. For a classification interested in the literary functions of eschatological meals within the NT, however, this categorization cannot answer all questions. Of the other authors offering a categorization, Kollmann focuses on the presence or absence of a messianic figure, but, as will become clear in the course of this study, this hardly constitutes a decisive criterion, neither does Steffen’s emphasis on the oppositions of earthly vs. heavenly and universal vs. particular banquets, as this does not reflect the interests of the NT authors using the topic of the eschatological meal. This means that the question for a useful typology of eschatological meals is still open, and will have to be addressed.109 Third, another topic on which a number of proposals have been made is that of the provenance of traditions and motifs used to create the various NT images of the eschatological meals and of scenes of utopian nutritional abundance. The clearest of these is Priest’s suggestion that all eschatological meals finally derive from the motif field belonging to a deity’s victory. Only the outlines of the various possible trajectories have been sketched, however, and the precise interrelations, especially of OT/HB imagery and its NT counterparts, as well as of the latter with (contemporary) social and literary conventions, remain unclear. This is mainly 107

Cf. above, I.B.2. Nakamura:1992 and Steffen:2001 constitute two (partial) exceptions. 108 Cf. however Kieffer:2004, for an entire different corpus of texts. 109 Cf. below, D.2.

12

I. Introduction

due to the preparatory character of the contributions, or their function as a survey within the context of a larger work. The present study will therefore have to deal with this question. In view of the above, it will be clear that the present study does indeed attempt to fill a hiatus in the current state of New Testament studies. This should be achieved in the following directions in particular, and can be formulated in the form of subquestions, refining the broader question formulated earlier.110 These are: a. what is a useful way of systematizing the various occurrences of eschatological meals in the NT into a typology, thus providing a tool, making an overview of the motif possible? b. what are the interrelationships of the various texts, especially with respect to the histories of tradition, motif histories and their mutual interdependence? c. what are the literary functions and the ‘Sitze im Leben’ of these texts in the NT. d. how can the place of these traditions in the history of religions be described.111

C. Methods and Definitions 1. Tradition and Motif History As the interest of the present thesis lies also in the development of the individual texts containing references to eschatological meals within their respective literary contexts, a tradition-historically oriented approach112 is 110

Cf. above, I.A. In this way, also some of the desiderata of Priest:1992, formulated at the end of his contribution (237-238), can be answered: attention to allusions to the meal, the combination of judgment and joy, the relationship with the Eucharist, fragments of the motif in Jewish and Christian literature between 200 BCE and CE, the pre- and nonIsraelite background of the motif and the relationship of the motif, and to the needs of early Christian and Jewish writers that used it. Priest’s wish to move (far) beyond 200 CE cannot be fulfilled, however. 112 Defined with Schnelle:2000, 125: ‘Die Traditionsgeschichte fragt nach dem Werdegang und der Gestalt eines Textes sowohl in seiner mündlichen Phase als auch in schriftlichen Vorformen auf vorredaktioneller Ebene. Sie hat die Aufgabe, die Vorgeschichte des Texts zu erhellen, indem sie dessen Entstehungsgeschichte rekonstruiert. Ziel der Traditionsgeschichte ist es, ein Modell der Genese des vorliegenden Textes zu erarbeiten.’ This agrees with the second kind of tradition history which focuses on the history of the tradition of one particular text, as defined by Utzschneider/Nitsche:2001, 111

C. Methods and Definitions

13

the most appropriate. Further insight into individual concepts (e.g. ‘manna’) used by the NT authors can be gained by broadening the perspective through the use of motif history,113 thus facilitating a comparison with pretexts114 and arriving at a text’s location in the broader use of the motif of, for example, eschatological nutritional abundance. That tradition and motif history will have to be assisted by other tools, especially source and redaction criticism, is obvious. Just as obvious is the fact that the final interpretation of a text can only take place within the text’s own literary context, with appropriate attention to its Sitz im Leben, conceived of as the communicative setting of a text.115 In addition, it should be noted that the chosen combination of a more thematically oriented overview of the various canonical and non-canonical texts concerning eschatological meals (cf. below, par. I.D.2.), with the discussion of the various NT texts in their literary contexts, followed by an again thematically structured concluding chapter, makes an integration of diachronic and synchronic observations possible. In this way, justice can be done to most aspects of the texts under consideration. 2. Socio-Cultural Approaches Less of a commonplace is the use of socio-cultural approaches, even if these have gained their place in biblical studies during the past thirty

200.204-208, to be distinguished from tradition history in a broader sense which comes closer to the development and transmission of a motif (cf. idem/idem, op. cit., 200-204). 113 A useful definition is found in Schnelle:2000, 129: ‘Die Begriffs- und Motivgeschichte fragt nach Herkunft, Geschichte, Bedeutung und Anwendung der im Text vorkommenden Begriffe und Motive. Dabei sollen durch den Vergleich mit literarisch nicht abhängigen Texten theologie- und geistesgeschichtliche Zusammenhänge aufgezeigt werden. Bei einem Motiv handelt es sich um ein Wort, ein Bild, eine Metapher oder ein Thema mit feststehender Bedeutung, auf die der Autor zurückgreifen kann, um einen bestimmten Sachverhalt auszudrücken. Die Begriffsanalyse hat das Ziel, sowohl den geprägten Bedeutungsgehalt eines Begriffs als auch seine konkrete Verwendung im Kontext herauszuarbeiten. Die diachrone und die synchrone Betrachtungsweise ergänzen sich somit bei der Begriffsanalyse.’ Cf. also Schnelle’s remarks on terminological confusion in: idem, op. cit., 129-130. This definition comes close to that of Baldick:1990, 142, who defines ‘motif’ as follows: ‘a situation, incident, idea, image, or character-type what is found in many different literary works, folktales or myths: or any element of a work that is elaborated into a more general theme.’ 114 Cf. for this terminology: Luz:2004, 124-125. 115 Cf. the highly illuminating graphic in Egger:1987, 36, helpfully reinterpreting the enterprise of NT exegesis in terms of reconstructing the communicative process the text was part of (cf. idem, op. cit., 34-40), similarly: Söding:1998, 25-30, for his graphic, cf. 27.

14

I. Introduction

years.116 Within the scope of this study, the tradition-historical analysis will be supported by insights gained from two branches of sociological and anthropological research in particular. In the first place, Mary Douglas’ insights in the analysis of meals will be used for the analysis of eschatological banquets. Her work has already been applied to the study of early Christian meals, mostly regarding the dynamics of inclusion and exclusion, the hierarchical structuring of a meal and the issue of diet as a boundary marker. A second field of sociological research taken into consideration is that of socio-historical research on nutrition, hunger and famine in antiquity, as mainly Garnsey has conducted it. These studies facilitate sketching the broader social context in which the NT texts, in view of their relationship to the expectation or hope of nutritional abundance, can be interpreted. Introductions to both fields will be given before discussing the first text related to one of them.117 3. ‘Eschatological Meals’ and ‘Utopian Abundance’ In order to avoid terminological confusion, it is useful to clarify the use of four terms that will be used repeatedly in the present study: the nouns ‘meal’ and ‘abundance’ and the adjectives ‘eschatological’ and ‘utopian,’ as all four are open to more than one meaning. a. Meals and Abundance A meal is considered a socially structured gathering during which foodstuffs are consumed and community is established.118 This consumption may be explicit or implicit. In this respect, a meal differs from the mere consumption of food, as this does, in itself, not yet constitute a meal: the 116 Cf. e.g. Hochschild:1999, providing a definition on 25-26: ‘Unter dem Begriff „sozialgeschichtliche Exegese“ sollen diejenigen wissenschaftlichen Unternehmungen verstanden werden, die sich mit der Geschichte der sozialen Welt des Urchristentums befassen. Sozialgeschichtliche Exegese analysiert die sozialen Dimensionen des biblischen Textes im Horizont seines sozialen und kulturellen Kontextes. Sie rekonstruiert diese Welt und versucht ebenso, den Einfuß dieser sozialen Welt auf Glauben und Leben des Urchristentums zu erhellen, wie sie diese Welt für uns heute verstehbar und begreifbar machen will.’ The history of research of this discipline is the main topic of the same work, the history and state of one (of the most prominent of these) social science(s) is reviewed by Stegemann:1999, 28-54. See in English the retrospective contributions in Simkins/Cook/Brenner:1999 as well as Pilch:2001, and those in Blasi/Duhaime/Turcotte: 2002, in this volume esp.: Horrell:2002, as well as Blasi:2002. 117 Cf. below, I.D.2.a. and II.C.1.a. 118 Based on the fundamental essay by Douglas, Douglas:1999, cf. also, following Douglas: McGowan:1999, 3-9, as well as Smith:2003, 6-12. See for a discussion of the designation of meals in Greek and Roman literature: Bettenworth:2004, 13-16. Cf. also the terminological considerations in Schmitt-Pantel:1998.

C. Methods and Definitions

15

social component is missing. This may be illustrated by the following citation from Plutarch, emphasizing the social component of dining: ‘But the most truly god-like seasoning at the dining-table is the presence of a friend or companion or intimate acquaintance – not because of his eating and drinking with us, but because of he participates in the give-and-take of conversation (…).’ (Mor. 697D, cf. 679A and 697C).119 The meal can therefore be regarded as the locus of the realization, expression and experience of community with all that belongs to it: especially its order and its mechanisms of inclusion and exclusion. It can be stated that the (formal) meal reflects (ideal) human society on a microcosmic level.120 This applies to common banquets as well as to special banquets such as wedding banquets as a sub variant of the normal banquet.121 In view of these considerations, the theme of nutritional abundance, often occurring without an explicit meal setting, must be conceptualized differently: scenes of nutritional abundance can hardly be considered meals in the sense described above, as no table fellowship is described in them, but ‘merely’ nutritional satiation or the foodstuffs needed. The focus is therefore not so much on sociability but rather on the abundant fertility of creation, or on the provision of food in other ways. This is indeed best understood at precisely level of creation, i.e. at a macrocosmic level. Not so much the level of human society is in view here, but rather of creation as a whole: as life-enabling cosmos and not as chaos. This is closely related to the concept of (ideal) society, as may be clear in view of the ancient commonplace that the rule of a just ruler is thought to bring about this kind of cosmos, including nutritional satiation.122 Important is, however, in the first place the difference in outlook of primarily socially oriented texts and ‘nutritionally’ oriented texts. b. Dimensions of the Eschatological and the Utopian In order to arrive at a distinction between the ‘eschatological’ and the ‘utopian,’ a short discussion of the overarching concept of the ‘utopian’ in

119

Cf. Minar/Sandbach/Helmbold:1961, 4. Cf. so, with Douglas, McGowan:1999, 4-5, and esp. Crossan:1991, 261-264. 121 Cf. on weddings below, II.B.2., see also Smith:2003, 2-6, for a proposal, relating all kinds of meals to the basic form of the symposium. 122 See further below, II.C.1. Cf. also Bell:1997, 123, who draws both dimensions together in one definition of food feasts: ‘Shared participation in a food feast is a common ritual means for defining and reaffirming the full extent of the human and cosmic community. Whether that community is conceived to be rigidly hierarchic or fundamentally egalitarian, the principle of sharing food marks it as community.’ 120

16

I. Introduction

antiquity is needed here, after which both terms will be distinguished from one another. From an historical and literary point of view eschatological expectations in the NT can be seen as part of the much broader corpus of ANE (including the HB/OT) and Hellenistic (and earlier Greek) mythological and paradoxographical literature dealing with an ideal typical, i.e. utopian, world.123 This world functions by means of its ideal typical character as a social critique of the society producing it,124 thereby securing a tight connection with the ‘real’ world. This also applies to the NT eschatological meals and scenes of utopian abundance. Classical examples of this use of myths and fictitious narratives include Plato(‘s Socrates), who in the Timaeus favors protological myth rather than a ‘proper’ theoretical discussion in order to outline his ideas about the ideal state and its citizens.125 His and other early blueprints for an ideal society can legitimately be classed utopian as well as mythological.126 Recalling a past ‘Golden Age,’ as Plato does, is, more generally speaking, a widely spread topic in Greek literature.127 One of the best examples is no doubt Hesiod’s Work and Days.128 In this work the Golden Age (Op. 109-125) is (i.a.) characterized by a creation, bringing forth fruits of itself and flocks, needing no looking after; in short: the inhabitants of this age live like gods, even dying is like falling asleep for them.129 This myth of an original Golden Age has a parallel in the accounts of a good creation, which subsequently de123

Overviews include Bichler:1995. Herzig:2004 presents a similar line of thought. Cf. further: Günther/Müller:1988. With emphasis on the political aspects of the various utopian scenarios: Dawson:1992. Focusing explicitly on the Land of Cockaigne: Richter: 1984 and Ferguson:1975. Cf. also Kytzler:2002, Fauth:1973, Slater:1981, Baldry:1953. 124 Cf. Morgan:2003, 587: ‘Their (the paradoxographers’, pbs) primary purpose was social and moral comment, but they often seem to have been authenticated by an adventure story, which provided entertainment but also drew attention to the question of how literally they were to be believed.’ 125 Cf. Tim. 20C-27A, which contains both hints that the story is true (Tim. 26E, 4-5) and that it is not (Tim. 25E, 4-5). Of similar importance is Plato’s use of the myth of Atlantis in Krit. 108E. See on Plato’s use of myths e.g. Cürsgen:2002, 365-377. See further the myths in: Phaedr. 107C-114C, 246A-257A, 274B-275B, Gorg. 523A-527A, Prot. 320C-323A, Menex. 81A-C, Symp. 189C, 193D, 203B-204A, Pol. 10:613E10:621D, Tim. 20D-25E, 29D-92C, Krit. 108E-121C, and Leg. 713A-E. 126 Cf. Bichler:1995, 135-174, this applies also to the blueprints of: Hippodamos of Milete, Ezekiel, Phaleas of Chalcedon, Isokrates and Xenophon. Aristotle’s outline can be added to this list as well, on which cf. Günther/Müller:1988, 68-70. 127 Cf. Hecken:2002, 706-709 128 Cf. Hesiod, Op. 106-201 for his myth of subsequent eras, all named after a kind of metal, another classical description is the one by Ovid, Metam. 26-27, Cf. Herzig:2004, 4. See Günther/Müller:1988, 18-21. 129 Cf. Herzig:2004, 4, Bichler:1995, 40-53.

C. Methods and Definitions

17

teriorates, e.g. in Gen. (1-4).5-9.130 Within the NT, the whole book of Acts, as well as the Gospels may be seen as reflecting to some extent the ‘Golden Age’ of Jesus’ earthly life and of the budding life of the earliest Christian communities. Beyond locating this Golden Age in the past, the yearning for it was reflected in futuristic (to regain ‘paradise’ or live in the hope of its return) and geographic scenarios (to travel in search of ‘paradise’).131 The first is illustrated by Virgilius’ hope of a returning ‘paradise’ in his fourth Eclogue,132 while the second is eloquently witnessed to by Horace’s (escapist) call to leave one’s home in search of the Islands of the Blessed, as only there the conditions of the Golden Age are still in force.133 It is probably best to associate the vast body of (fantastic) reports of travelers in antiquity134 with this geographical concept of the Islands of the Blessed too. In this respect, the (biblical) idea of the (promised) land flowing with milk and honey is no exception.135 With these two further options, three dimensions of the Golden Age/the Land of Cockaigne have been mentioned: a protological dimension, a futuristic dimension and a geographical dimension.136 A fourth dimension 130

Cf. Keel/Schroer:2002, 191-197. Cf. Günther/Müller:1988, 22-23. 132 Cf. Rushton Fairclough:1999, 48-53. Horace’s ‘escapist’ attitude fits the turbulent time of his writing well (38 B.C.E., cf. Gabba, ‘History,’ 59). Cf. also Günther/ Müller:1988, 94-120.156-170. The return of paradise could also be projected unto historical political leaders, such as Augustus and others (cf. Günther/Müller:1998, 121155). The structural similarity with Jewish and early Christian messianic expectations is obvious, as esp. Ferguson:1975, 146-153, points out, making connections between the creation account (Gen. 1-3), temple garden imagery (esp. Ps. 48, Ezek. 28:12-15), the Eden-desert theme in Isaiah (cf. Isa. 2:2-4, 11:1-9, 32:1-8, 35:1-10, 51:3), the return of paradise in Amos (5:17-24, 6:1-7), the association with a ruler (cf. e.g. Jer. 23:5-6, 31:31-33), while also noting the restoration of a Golden Age in 1 En. (e.g. 38:2, 40:5 48:2.10), cf. also Ps. Sol. 17-18, Philo, Praem.15, Execr. 9, and 1 Macc. 14:8-14. 133 Cf. Horace, Epod. 16, in: Fink:2002, 305-311. The idea of a distant Island of the Blessed already appears in Homer, Od. 4:56-60 and Hesiod, Op. 168-170, cf. Herzig:2004, 2. At least one expedition did indeed set out to find the Islands of the Blessed: that of Sertorius, cf. Plutarch, Sert. 8:2-5, 9:1. 134 Duly ridiculed by e.g. Lucian’s Vera Historia, cf. e.g. the journey to the moon in 1:9-30. 135 Cf. e.g. Deut. 6:11, in this respect already a mere overview of the characterization of the ‘promised land’ as a land overflowing of milk and honey is telling, cf. Ex. 3:8.17, 13:5, 33:3, Lev. 20:24, Num. 13:27, 14:8, 16:13-14, Deut. 6:3, 11:9, 26:9.15, 27:3, 31:20, Jos. 5:6, Job 20:17, Cant. 4:11, Jer. 11:5, 32:22, Ezek. 20:6.15, Sir. 39:26, 46:8, Bar. 1:20. In general, cf.: Knipping:1999. 136 Bichler:1995, 9-72, notes for the early Greek literature (esp. Homer and Hesiod) only geographical and protological dimensions. Herzig:2004, notes the same three dimensions as have been noted here. 131

18

I. Introduction

is that of post-mortal hopes of paradisiac circumstances, in terms of gaining access to the Islands of the Blessed or being admitted to the Land of Cockaigne.137 Even though this dimension is also futuristic, it seems justified to single it out because of its specific localization of the Land of Cockaigne. Finally, what should be considered is that all of these dimensions of the Golden Age were both believed in, as well as ridiculed. The latter happened especially in a large body of satirical literature. Satirical depictions of the Land of Cockaigne reflect hopes for, or attempts at the realization of the Land of Cockaigne in a distorting mirror, enlarging (or diminishing) its proportions ad absurdum and so arriving at a critique, both of the society, producing them, as well as of these hopes or attempts at realization themselves. This is, for example, illustrated both by epitaphs ridiculing the hope of a blissful hereafter138 as well as by part of Petronius’ Satyricon, the Cena Trimalchionis, which can well be seen as a parody of someone’s (apparent) realization of the conditions of the Land of Cockaigne.139 It is evident that this four-dimensional spectrum of utopian imagination is not the same as what is commonly called ‘eschatological.’ This term should be reserved for those utopian concepts, located in the future (futuristic eschatology), or for those concepts, assuming that the Golden Age has indeed returned (realized eschatology). The eschatological is therefore only one dimension of the utopian. In this study the emphasis will be on ‘eschatological meals’: meals, taking place in the eschaton. With this principal emphasis, however, the present study cannot be complete. Apart from the fact that one may want to debate the precise selection of texts belonging to the set of ‘eschatological meals,’ there are also some other texts referring to meals which one might want to include as they seem to be transparent for (eschatologically oriented) utopian hopes. This concerns especially the utopian scenario of 137

Cf. for this the examples given by Peres:2003, 75-81, and Günther/Müller:1988, 171-189, see also: Diogenes Laertius, Vit. Phil. 8:38, describing the unpleasantness of the underworld in terms of nutrition, which can well be contrasted with fr. 108 of the work of Pherekrates (cf. Athenaeus, Deipn. 268E) and Antiphanes, fr. 217. See: Dohm:1964, 6163. It should be noted that a much broader variety of locations for post-mortal existence was available; Peres, op. cit., 106-121, lists and discusses subsequently: the dwelling places of the pious, the Elysian fields, the air, the ether, the court of Zeus, the Olympus, the heaven and the heavenly city. Among NT texts, Mk. 14:25parr. is probably the most prominent representative of a text, combining post-mortal hopes with meal imagery. For a broad overview of the development of the afterlife in early Judaism, cf. Bremmer:2002, 41-55. 138 See e.g. Peres:2003, 30-31, see: Beckby:1965, no. 254, cf. Ovid, Metam. 15:153. 139 Cf. Pervo:1985, 307-325.

D. The Selection of Texts and the Structure of the Present Study

19

the miraculous feedings in the NT,140 but may also apply to descriptions of meals of the earthly Jesus.141 The latter are in this study not regarded as enactments of the eschatological meal sensu stricto; rather, authentic table fellowship with Jesus is seen as the shape of the invitation to participate in the heavenly banquet. The former set of texts, however, reflecting the (utopian) yearning for sufficient food expected from a just order (the macro-level, cf. above), will have to be touched upon, as here (proleptic) enactment of such a utopian scenario seems to play a role of importance.

D. The Selection of Texts and the Structure of the Present Study 1. Introduction The present study deals primarily with eschatological meals in the New Testament, the body of early Christian writings that became canonical in the early Church.142 This emphasis on canonical texts may be justified in (at least) three ways: first, historically by taking into account the importance of this body of writings for later tradition; second from the point of view of the canonical NT’s importance for (mainstream) Christian theology. Third and practically, the attempt to deal in detail with more texts than already contained in the NT canon would lead (far) beyond the intended scope of this study. For the selection of texts, this restriction to the NT, implies, however, that neither HB/OT or early Jewish texts, nor Greek, Roman, or Hellenistic texts dealing with eschatological meals, or, more broadly speaking, the Land of Cockaigne (‘utopia’), can be discussed separately in this study: they will be treated as part of the context of the NT. This applies to most archaeological evidence as well. The impression of the dimensions of ‘utopia,’ given above, will be deepened in the excursuses and motifhistorical sections, thus securing the connection with the broader range of

140

Mk. 6:32-44parr., 8:1-10parr., Lk. 5:1-11, Jn. 2:1-11, 21:1-14. Cf. primarily Mk. 2:13-17parr., Lk. 7:33-34/Mt. 11:18-19. These meals are, however, just as the various descriptions of early Christian meals in Acts, part of a ‘Golden Age,’ utopian meals in the protological sense of the word: indirectly prescribing a certain kind of table fellowship for the readership of Acts. Cf. e.g. Acts 2:42.46. In 1 Cor. 11:17-34, Paul takes up a prescriptive description of one of the primary meals from this ‘Golden Age’ to tell the Corinthian community what (not) to do, thereby showing the social force of utopian thought. 142 In view of the word ‘canonical’ it is useful to note that the OT canon presupposed in this thesis is that of the LXX, in line with Old Catholic theology and tradition and, as such, with (at least a considerable part of) the early Church. 141

20

I. Introduction

this myth,143 to which the eschatological table fellowships and utopian nutritional abundance in both the HB/OT as well as in the NT are related. In the following, a typology of eschatological meals/scenes of utopian nutritional abundance will be provided, which concentrates on the JewishChristian tradition, and which makes the selection and organization of NT texts, discussed in the body of this thesis, possible. Having established a selection of relevant NT texts, these texts will be discussed within their literary contexts. This means that the eschatological meals and scenes of nutritional abundance in Mk., Lk., Mt. Jn. and the Apc. will each receive a chapter of their own. The order of the chapters is based upon the observation that it is convenient to discuss Mk. as a source and model of both Lk. and Mt. first. It is followed by the chapter on Lk., the Gospel using meal imagery most extensively. This has the advantage that the possibilities of the use of (eschatological) meal imagery become evident as quickly as possible. The picture of the synoptic tradition is completed by discussing Mt. Afterwards Jn. and the Apc. are discussed. In doing so, the typology of eschatological meals and scenes of nutritional abundance (cf. below) will be left aside in this study body, but to be returned to in its final conclusions. To avoid neglecting the literary and socio-historical contexts of these various traditions, the sections discussing the first example of a text belonging to one of the categories listed below will be preceded by a broader overview of its literary and socio-historical context. For example, the first instance of an eschatological wedding celebration will be preceded by a discussion of the social importance of first-century weddings, their ritual as well as their religious significance. The individual texts will then be discussed separately, while considering their tradition histories, attempting to retrace their prehistories as far as is useful for the present study, their broader motif-historical background, and their literary and theological contexts. Analysis of the integration of the various texts into the fabric of the respective NT books is ascertained in this way, as well as by an introductory section to each of the five chapters discussing NT books, considering the use of (eschatological and utopian) uses of food and meal imagery in them. After having concluded each chapter with observations on the importance and function of eschatological meals and utopian abundance in a particular book of the NT, thematic and theological conclusions will conclude this thesis.

143

In the positive sense of the word: a narrative enabling the shaping of a worldview and hence the development of an identity. Cf. Price/Kearns:2003, xii-xxi.

D. The Selection of Texts and the Structure of the Present Study

21

2. ‘Eschatological Meals’ and ‘Utopian Abundance’ – Selection and Typology a. Introduction In selecting and organizing the various texts, the aforementioned subdivision of the whole body of relevant literature into eschatological meals and scenes depicting nutritional abundance will be followed.144 The following considerations have led to this preference. To begin with, a subdivision of the various texts, focusing on the presence or absence of a messianic figure is not helpful, as this is not decisive for the character of a text (cf. e.g. Q 13:28-29 with Lk. 12:37).145 A subdivision based both on this criterion and the relationship of a meal to the Lord’s Supper is not useful either, as it overprivileges the Lord’s Supper and does not view it sufficiently within the context of other Jesuanic and early Christian meals.146 Subdivisions focusing on banquets on the one hand and foodstuffs on the other, as Smith and Aune, as well as Billerbeck have put them forward,147 are more appropriate. In view of what has been argued above, it may be clear that banquets with their strong emphasis on (the structuring of) fellowship148 are a category of their own. In that light it may be suggested that all other texts, not expressly dealing with a banqueting scene, but, conversely, with the abundant availability of foodstuffs, may be placed in a (broader) category of texts, which is characterized by the depiction of paradisiac circumstances, such as the (abundant) availability of (certain) foodstuffs associated with ‘paradise regained.’ The special (paradisiac) foodstuffs of Jewish-Christian tradition (tree of life, water of life, bread of life/manna) belong to this group too. In the following, the two main categories of banquets/meals and scenes depicting nutritional abundance will be further refined. The category of banquets will be further subdivided in celebratory banquets, destructive banquets, and marriage banquets or celebrations. All of these banquets signify the (final) establishment of God’s rule, but with clearly differing emphases and imagery. The broader category of scenes depicting nutritional abundance, i.e. ‘paradise regained,’ will be further subdivided into a category which lists the texts dealing with nutritional abundance/ overabundant creation in general, and a category, which discusses the three

144 Cf. above, I.C.3. on this terminology. This is in line partially with the proposals of Billerbeck, Smith and Aune (cf. above, I.B.1.) 145 Cf. above, I.B.1., see esp. the proposal of Kollmann:1990a. 146 Cf. above, I.B.1., comp. esp. the proposal of Priest:1992. 147 Cf. the proposals of Smith, Aune and Billerbeck in I.B.1-2. 148 On which, cf. esp. II.D.2. below.

22

I. Introduction

foodstuffs of Eden: the (fruits of the) tree of life, the water of life and the bread of life/manna. This categorization is of course to be understood as a sorting tool only, which makes it possible to map the variety of eschatological banquets in Jewish-Christian tradition, as is necessary for this study. b. Overview149 aa. Eschatological Banquets As indicated, eschatological banquets may well be thematically subdivided into three categories. The first deals with the community of the elect, who gather in the setting of a meal. The second describes the annihilation of God’s enemies in terms of their consumption at a destructive banquet. As such, the destructive banquet is an outright perversion of its celebratory counterpart, achieving precisely the opposite of what a symposium should achieve. The third category is that of eschatological wedding celebrations, as one important part of these is precisely the banquet. (1) The Celebratory Banquet Old Testament/Hebrew Bible Isa. 25:6-8 is the only150 certain and therefore also the parade example of an eschatological banquet in the HB/OT.151 As a victory banquet, it is part of the myth of the divine warrior.152 Much less certain is Ps. 23:5, which might, however, refer to a post-mortal, and in that sense eschatological, banquet.153 149

The references to the NT in the following overview are intended to be exhaustive, the examples from the HB/OT and non-canonical literature are, in view of the amount of material, representative. 150 Cf. Day:1985, esp. 142-151, 150, noting that Isa. 25:6-8 is the first reference to an eschatological banquet in Judaism, cf. also Nakamura:1992, 209: ‘a concept without parallel in the Hebrew Bible,’ and Steffen:2001, 48. Alternatively, Caquot:1989, 109, views the banquet as a destructive meal for God’s enemies. For this interpretation, Caquot has to resort to many alternative interpretations and translations 151 Isa. 25:6-8 is both connected with the giving of the covenant in Ex. 24:11 (cf. esp. the connection with Isa. 24:23, when considering Isa. 25:1-5 an insertion, cf. Nakamura:1992, 12-16, see also Steffen:2001, 47) as well as in a cycle of Ugaritic myths dealing with the victory of Baal over Mot (cf. Steffen:2001, 55-56, see: KTU 1.5 i 1-4). 152 Cf. in general: Miller:1973, esp. 64-165, on the ‘cosmic war and holy war in Israel,’ focusing on Deut. 33:2-5.26-29, Jgs. 5, Ps. 68, Ex. 15, Hab. 3:3-15, 2 Sam. 22:718 (= Ps. 18:7-18), and Josh. 10:12-13 as parts of Israel’s early poetry, and on Josh. 5:1315, Gen. 32:2-3, 2 Sam. 5:22-25, 2 Kgs. 6:15-19, 7:6, Isa. 13:1-22, Joel 4:9-13, Isa. 40:26, 45:12, Zech. 4, as representatives of later traditions, cf. further: Sherlock:1993, Kang: 1989, Day:1985,142-151, Yarbro Collins:1976, esp. 57-100, for a broader overview of the history of religions in this respect. 153 Cf. the argument of Hunziker – Rodewald:2001, 176-179.

D. The Selection of Texts and the Structure of the Present Study

23

New Testament While noting that the connection between Isa. 25:6-8 and the eschatological banquets in the NT is more phenomenological than literary – what is stressed in Isa. 25:6-8, is absent in the NT texts –, the following texts can be counted as eschatological banquets in the NT: Mk. 14:25/Mt. 26:29/Lk. 22:16.18, Lk. (Q) 13:28-29 \ Mt. (Q) 8:11-12, Lk. 12.37, Lk. 14:15.16-24, 22:30, Apc. 3:20. Non-Canonical Literature Among the DSS, one text stands out: 1QSa 2:11-22 is best interpreted as referring to the community’s main meal in the messianic era.154 The text seems to envisage a clear continuity between the community’s actual meals (cf. also 1QS 6) and those in the eschaton. The main difference is that the latter which will be presided over by the priestly Messiah.155 A number of pseudepigraphic texts can be mentioned here as well. The clearest examples are 1 En. 62:14 and 2 En. 42:5 (J text) whereas 3 En. 48:10A offers a clear but later parallel.156 2 Ez. 2:38 is because of its earlier date again of greater relevance, whereas the notes on the millennial banquet in Test. Is. 6:22 and 8:11 are relatively late and probably Christian,157 which also applies to Test. Sim. 6:7. In later rabbinic traditions, which will not be discussed independently because of their uncertain and probably late date,158 the theme of the eschatological meal surfaces often, interestingly enough never with reference to Isa. 25:6-8, but rather to Isa. 64:3159 (cf. 1 Cor. 2:9).160

(2) Destructive Meals Related to the texts listed above, a group of texts discussing the victory of the deity in terms of their slaughter and consumption exists in the HB/OT and beyond, (part of) the conceptual background is probably again the myth of the divine warrior.

154

See for a discussion: Steffen:2001, 84-91. Cf. Steffen:2001, 84, and especially the discussion by Schiffman:1989, 53-67. 156 Cf. Steffen:2001, 79-80. 157 Cf. Steffen:2001, 80-81. 158 Rabbinic texts as such are (practically) excluded for chronological reasons, not only because of their uncertain dating, but also because most references to an eschatological meal are to be dated to the post-tannaitic era. Cf. Priest:1992, 234. ’Avot 3:16, 4:2 may be exceptions, but are too vague to allow any definitive conclusions, cf. Becker:1996, 196, Billerbeck:1928, 1146-1147.1152-1163. 159 So also Reiser:1990, 220-221, who also draws attention to the importance of Ps. 23:5 and Isa. 65:13. Possibly the reference to the pilgrimage of the nations, which is associated with the meal in Isa. 25:6 caused the rabbi’s not to appeal to this text. 160 Steffen’s claims that Isa. 25:6-8 is ‘the most influential for later Jewish expectation’ (2001, 48) is unwarranted. 155

24

I. Introduction

Old Testament/Hebrew Bible The clearest examples of this kind of eschatological banquet161 are found in the feast for the birds of the sky in Ezek. 39:1-21162 and in the wild beasts’ role as God’s hangmen in Jer. 12:9 and Isa. 56:9.163 A similar idea, but in terms of a sacrificial banquet, is found in Isa. 34:5-8 and Jer. 46:10.164 The destruction and (often) consumption of two specific ‘foes,’ i.e. Leviathan and Behemoth, occupies a place of its own in this context:165 cf. Ps. 74:13-14 (protologically), 166 as an image for the defeat of the Pharaoh in Ezek. 32:116,167 and further: Isa. 27:1, Job 40:15-41:26, Ps. 104:24-26.168 Another related theme is that of the serving of destructive foodstuffs and, more often, liquids by God to those he wants to punish: the nations,169 Israel (Isa. 51:17-22, Jer. 8:14, 9:14, Ezek. 23:31-34), and individuals (Hab. 2:15-17, Ps. 75:9).170 This more than once occurs together with shameful drunkenness (cf. e.g. Hab. 2:15-17, Ob. 16). 171

New Testament Within the NT, the only example of the use of this tradition is the use of Ezek. 39:17-20 in Apc. 19:17-18.21, which will be discussed as a mirror image to the wedding supper in Apc. 19:7-9172 (cf. 17:16). The theme of the ‘deadly dinner’ returns as the cup of wrath in: Apc. 14:10.19, 15:7, 16:1.19, (17:4, 18:6), 19:15, cf. also 14:18, 18:3, though the theme is less than central in the NT at large.173 To see a similar banquet in the reference to the corpses and vultures in Mt. 24:28, is probably to overinterpret this text.174 Non-Canonical Literature Whereas the destruction and consumption of Leviathan and Behemoth receives much elaboration in rabbinic literature,175 there are only two clear references to the subject 161

Cf. Steffen’s overview: 2001, 46. Cf. on this text, from the perspective of the destructive meal: Steffen:2001, 63. 163 Cf. Zimmerli:1979, 952-953, Pohlmann:2001, 523-524. 164 The ironical note in Isa. 25:8 on the ‘swallowing’ of the swallower Mot by God can also be taken into account, cf. Steffen:2001, 51, further: Ex. 15:12, Num. 16:30.32.34, 26:10, Deut. 11:6, Ps. 106:17, Prov. 1:12, see also Isa. 51:8. 165 Cf. in general Batto:1999, 165-169, and Uehlinger:1999, 511-515. See also Steffen:2001, 57-61, and Day:1985, 62-87.88-140. 166 Cf. Day:1985, 21-23, cf. also Romer:1989, 561-573, as well as Keel/Schroer:2002, 123-133. 167 Cf. Day:1985, 94-95. 168 See further the discussion of Apc. 19:17-20 in VI.F.2.d. 169 Cf. Jer. 25:15-34, 49:12, 51:7, Lam. 4:21, Ob. 16, Zech. 12:2. 170 Cf. e.g. Rossing:1999, 63-66. 171 Cf. Carroll:1999, 114. Cf. also McKane:1980, 474-492. 172 Cf. Aune:1998, 1048-1050. Cf. also below, VI.F.2.d. 173 Cf. Aune:1998a, 833, and Légasse:1999, 173-179. 174 Cf. Steffen:2001, 272-276. 175 Cf. Steffen:2001, 100-101. Cf. the collection of texts in Billerbeck 4.1, 1159-1161. 162

D. The Selection of Texts and the Structure of the Present Study

25

within pseudepigraphic literature: 4 Ez. 6:52 as part of an account of creation,176 and, possibly in dependence on this text, 2 Bar. 29:4.177 A further reference is found in 1 En. 60:7-10.24,178 where, however, a relocation of Leviathan and Behemoth rather than their destruction seems to be in view.179

(3) Eschatological Wedding Celebration180 One of the most interesting traditions concerning a feast related to the eschaton is the motif of the eschatological wedding feast. What will be under consideration here, however, is not the larger field of the metaphor of the (eschatological) (re)marriage to describe the relationship between God and his people, but rather those texts, which refer to its joyful celebration in the eschaton. Old Testament/Hebrew Bible As the more general theme of the deity’s relationship to his people in terms of a marriage (contract) is not in view here, but only its celebration, or the association of nuptial joy with the eschaton, the number of relevant HB/OT texts is limited. Of significance are, however: Ps. 45,181 Isa. 61:10, 62:5 and the stereotypical phrase in Jer. 7:34, 16:9, 25:10, 33:11, referring as it does to the joy of groom and bride. In addition, both in Hos. 2:19-23 as well as Isa. 54-55 expressions of celebratory joy in relationship to both a marriage and nutritional abundance are found.

New Testament The following NT texts are of importance: Mk. 2:18-20parr., Mt. 22:1-14, 25:1-13, Jn. 3: 29, Apc. 19:7-9, 21:2.9, the latter within the context of the vision of paradise, which includes references to utopian abundance (cf. Apc. 21:6, 22:1-2). Texts such as 1 Cor. 11:3, 2 Cor. 11:2, or Eph. 5:22-33 have more to do with relationships than with celebrations, and are of less relevance for the present study.

176

Cf. Steffen:2001, 74-75. Cf. Steffen:2001, 76-79. 178 Cf. Steffen:2001, 70-73. 179 Due to a text-critical problem, they may either be eaten by, or, conversely, be fed with those punished by God (cf. 1 En. 60:24). This cannot be decided here, Steffen:2001, 71n69, follows Black:1985, 230, and Knibb:1978, 148, diff.: Isaac:1983, 5-89, here: 42, in rendering the verb passive: ‘and they will be feasted,’ taking this to mean ‘they will be fed.’ 180 Cf. in general the extensive work by Zimmermann:2001, which is referred to more extensively below, II.B.2.a. See also Lütgehetmann:1990, 140-147. 181 Cf. below II.B.2.bb.(2). 177

26

I. Introduction

Non-Canonical Literature The pseudepigrapha of the Old Testament use the metaphor of an eschatological wedding celebration occasionally. In a certain way, Jos. As. seems to be the most elaborate example of this, esp. in view of the wedding banquet in Jos. As. 21, which might, however, only have a limited relevance for early Jewish eschatology. Rabbinic texts dwell relatively extensively on the eschatological wedding as a joyful occasion;182 to some of them as well as to some Tgg. will be returned later on in view of the early interpretation of Ps. 45.183 Among early Christian extra-canonical texts, Od. Sol. 38:9-15 (cf. also 42:8-9) and Act. Thom. 7 are the only ones where not only the imagery of Christ and the soul, or, for that matter, the church as bridegroom and bride are used, but where also the celebration of this wedding is in view, not only its relational aspect.184 For the interpretation of the NT eschatological wedding celebrations, their value is limited, however, due to their date and probable dependence on the NT.

bb. Nutritional Abundance – Paradise Regained (1)

Nutritional Abundance

This is probably the broadest category used in this typology, as it deals with the expectation of a general superabundance of foodstuffs or of a ‘Land of Cockaigne.’ The texts listed here do not deal with meals or banquets as such; their focus is rather on eschatological/utopian nutritional abundance. As this can be conceptualized as a ‘return to paradise,’ the foodstuffs belonging to Eden are included here as well. Hebrew Bible/Old Testament The theme of eschatological nutritional abundance185 surfaces in the HB/OT within the context of passages dealing with the (eschatologically connotated) return from the exile,186 or with blessings following Israel’s repentance.187 The theme stands within the broader theme of the topic of the restoration of creation as a consequence of the returned

182

Cf. however Billerbeck:1922, 517-518, 4.1, 827. Cf. below, II.B.2.bb.(2). 184 In this respect, the present research presents a different perspective than Zimmermann’s research: where he is interested in the metaphoric of gender, here the interest is in celebrations, for this reason Od. Sol. 3:5.7, 7:1, 8:21, with their language of the ‘Beloved’ are of limited interest here. Cf. on the Od. Sol.: Zimmermann:2001, 608614. 185 The subject of hunger and thirst as well as their dissolution in the HB/OT cannot be discussed extensively here, cf. however: Schroedel:1998, 204, and Seidl:1993, and cf. below, II.C.1.bb. on a broader discussion of hunger and famine in the ancient world. 186 Cf. with Steffen:2001, 45-113, e.g. Isa. 1:19, 9:3 27:2-6.12-13, 29:17-24, 30:1929, 32:1-8, 49:5-13, 51:3, 55:1-2, and in Ezek. the same relationship between lack of food during the exile (cf. 4:13-17, 5:10.12.16-17, 6:11-12, 7:15.19, 12:16-20, 14:13.21) and its abundance after Israel’s restoration (cf. 34:13-16.27.29, 36:8-15.29-30.34-35.37) can be observed. 187 Cf. Steffen:2001, 47-48. 183

D. The Selection of Texts and the Structure of the Present Study

27

divine favor.188 Examples include: Isa. 49:10,189 while the invitation in Isa. 55:1-2 functions along similar lines, as does Isa. 65 (esp. vv. 13-14), whereas an extensive scenario is sketched in Ezek. 36:21-38, in which the restored Israel is explicitly compared with the Garden of Eden (cf. Ezek. 36:35). The motif also appears in Zech. 9:17,190 and in the Pss. nutritional abundance is a sign of the divine rule, cf. e.g. Ps. 22:27. Within the context of the motif of the divine shepherd whose task is (i.a.) the provision of nutrition for his flock, also Ezek. 34:23-31 is of relevance, as well as Ps. 23:1-3.5, whereas in Joel 2:18-27, 4:18 the Day of the Lord brings about an abundance of foodstuffs. The note of the restoration of a ‘paradise lost’ is present in all of these texts. Two wisdom texts should also be mentioned here: Sir. 24:19191 and Prov. 9:5,192 even if they are not related directly to eschatological hopes, but rather to the enjoyment of wisdom itself.

New Testament Within the NT a number of texts apply the theme of eschatological nutritional abundance and/or satiation as such: Q 6:21a (Lk. 6:21a/Mt. 5:6, in Lk. especially when considered together with Lk. 16:19-31), Jn. 4:1314, 6:35, Apc. 7:16-17 and 21:6. The various references to eschatological foodstuffs (tree of life, water of life and the hidden manna) in the Apc. are probably also best interpreted in view of the book’s progression to a ‘paradise regained’ in Apc. 21-22. Also the gift miracles in Mk. 6:3244parr. and Mk. 8:1-10par. (with Jn. 6:1-15), Lk. 5:1-11, Jn. 2:1-11, and 21:1-14 focus on the theme of nutritional abundance, which is in Jn. also the conceptual background of the water of life discourse in Jn. 4:1-42 and the bread of life discourse in Jn. 6:22-59. Non-Canonical Literature References to (the restoration of) nutritional abundance in the eschaton are found in a number of pseudepigraphic texts, including: 1 En. 10:18-19, 4 Ez. 6:44, 2Bar. 29:5-7.193 To a certain extent 4 Ez. 9:19 should be counted in this group as well, as in that text ‘the wicked’ do not appreciate their abundance. A similar vision is found in Sib. Or. 3:619623, which describes the state of affairs after the judgment on the nations (see the eschatological kingdom in Sib. Or. 3:767-795).194 Ap. El. 1:9 (probably drawing on Apc. 188 Cf. e.g. in Isaiah in general: 1:19, 9:3, 27:2-6.12-13, 29:17-24, 30:19-29, 32:1-8, 49:6-13, 51:3, 55:1-2, with a relationship to the coming of the Messiah: Isa. 9:6-7, 24:23, 26:1-4.15-19, 27:6.13, 35:1-10, 43:5-7, 45:20, 49:8-13.22-23, 51:11-14, 54:7, 60:4-14, and, with the inclusion of the nations or the dispersion: Isa. 2:1-4, 9:1, 11:10-12, 18:7, 19:18-25, 42:6, 49:6-7.22-23, 56:3, 61:7, 66:21 (cf. Steffen:2001, 48). 189 Cf. also Steffen:2001, 48. 190 See for the same dynamics already noted for Isa. and Ezek. in Zech.: 1:17, 3:8-10, 8:11-12.19, 9:15-17, 10:1; see also: Steffen:2001, 65-66. 191 Cf. McKinley:1996, 133-154. 192 Cf. extensively McKinley:1996, 38-65. 193 Cf. also Irenaeus’ quotation of Papias in Haer. 5:33:3-4. 194 Cf. Steffen:2001, 68-70.

28

I. Introduction

3:12, 7:3.16, 14:1) stands in the same tradition. Among the DSS, 4QpPs 37 2:10-11, 11Q13, 4Q521 5 ii 5-13 should be mentioned.

(2)

The Food of Eden: The Tree of Life, the Water of Life and Manna

A number of texts referring to ‘special foodstuffs’ are discussed in a separate section here, but belong conceptually to the texts discussed in the previous section, as the (fruit of the) tree of life, the manna/the bread of life, and the water of life can all be seen as the foodstuffs of paradise. The Tree of Life Hebrew Bible/Old Testament The tree of life as a component of the paradisiac garden (cf. apart from Gen. 2-3, also Ezek. 31:2-9), is part of a wide field of tree-symbolism in the ANE, which cannot be discussed here separately. 195 The expression ‘tree of life’ as such occurs in the HB/OT in Gen. 2:9, 3:22.24 and Prov. 3:18, 11:30, 13:12, 15:4, though only in Gen. eating from (the fruits of) this tree is in view and none of these instances is clearly eschatological, even though Gen. 2-3 are certainly also examples of protological utopian thought.

New Testament In the NT, there are four references to this motif. They are all found in the Apc. (Apc. 2:7, 22:2.14.19),196 where they function as an eschatological reward for the faithful, envisaged as partaking of the blessings of the eschatological paradisiac garden, i.e. the heavenly Jerusalem. Non-Canonical Literature In the pseudepigrapha of the HB/OT, a number of references to the tree of life can be found in the context of eschatological expectations. Within the Enochic corpus 1 En. 25:4-5, and 3 En. 23:18 refer to eating from the tree of life as part of the eschatological reward for the righteous. Test. Lev. 18:11,197 Test. Jac. 7:23-24, Ap. Mos. 28:4, Ap. El. 5:6198 and, without a reference to the consumption of its fruits, 4 Ez. 8:52, all refer to enjoying the (fruit of) the tree of life in the world to come along similar lines too. Of lesser interest is the use of the motif of the tree of life to designate the community of the elect, the idea of ointment produced from the tree of life, or of the equation of the tree of life and the Torah.199 A similar interest can be observed in rabbinic literature, the texts

195

Cf. in general: Schroer:1995, 602-603. Cf. Aune:1997, 151-154, gives a tradition history in a very condensed form. 197 Possibly a Christian interpolation. So e.g. Aune:1997, 152. 198 This text is part of the history of reception of Apc. 2:7, however, cf. Aune:1997, 153. 199 Aune:1997, 153-154. Cf. also 4 Macc. 18:16, quoting Prov. 3:18, comparing the one who does God’s will to a tree of life. 196

D. The Selection of Texts and the Structure of the Present Study

29

can, again, not be discussed extensively here, but these traditions follow the lines also found in the pseudepigrapha.200

The Water of Life Old Testament/Hebrew Bible The HB/OT knows of the divine gift of water as part of redemptive events (cf. e.g. Isa. 41:18, 43:20, 44:3-4), as part of creation (cf. e.g. Gen. 2:10-14, Ps. 104:10-13), as property of the promised land (Deut. 8:7), and especially as part of eschatologically oriented temple (re)creation imagery (Ezek. 47:1-12, Joel 4:18, Zech. 14:8).201 Also Jer. 2:13 and 17:13 are of significance, where God is directly described as Israel’s source of living water.

New Testament Within the NT, the expression ‘water of life’ is a proprium of Jn. and the Apc. (cf. Jn. 4:10-15, 7:38, Apc. 7:17, 21:6, 22:1.17), primarily drawing on the HB/OT motif of the living water flowing from the temple/paradise. Especially within Apc. the connection with temple/paradise garden imagery is hard to miss.202 Non-Canonical Literature Among non-canonical writings, references to (paradisiac) living water can be found in 1 En. 17:4 (cf. also 22:9), and among the DSS in: CD 19:34, 1 QH 16:7-8, 1Q28b 1:3, 4Q418, fr. 103, line 2:6, 11Q19 45:16, but not always as a symbol of salvation.

Eschatological Manna Hebrew Bible/Old Testament203 Manna does not play a role in HB/OT eschatology as such, but the formative traditions for later developments are found here: the narratives Ex. 16, Num. 11:7-9, and the notes on manna as an example of divine care in Deut. 8:2-6, Neh. 9:15, Pss. 78:25, 105:40. Finally, Wisd. 16:20-26 adds some more miraculous properties to the food.

New Testament In the NT, eschatological manna plays an explicit role only in Jn. 6:22-59 and Apc. 2:17. Mk. 6:32-44parr., Mk. 8:1-10par., and Jn. 6:1-15 focus not primarily on manna, but on nutritional abundance, though hints of Exodus 200 Cf. Billerbeck:1921, 1, 593-594, 3, 792, 4.1, 885.933.1121-1224.1128.1132.11371138.1143-1147.1151-1152. 201 Cf. Lang:2001a, 1061-1065. 202 Cf. in general: Lang:2001a, cf. further esp.: Jones:1997, 89-146, and below, VI.F.3. 203 Cf. Maiberger:1983, passim. Cf. further also and esp.: Dumoulin:1994, 41-164.

30

I. Introduction

(and hence manna) traditions are evident.204 Jn. 6:22-59 connects the (eschatological) gift of salvation in Jesus as bread of life to the gift of manna earlier in salvation history and will have to be discussed accordingly. In Apc. 2:17 hidden manna is a reward for the conqueror. The concealment of this manna is probably related to the idea that manna is kept in heaven, in order to be distributed to the elect.205 The references to manna in 1 Cor. 10:1-13 and Heb. 9:4 are not eschatologically oriented and can be left out of consideration here. Non-Canonical Literature Among the various non-canonical texts, esp. in the pseudepigrapha of the HB/OT,206 manna features in a number of eschatological contexts: 2 Bar. 29:8 refers to it in the context of the millennium, and Sib. Or. 7:149 refers to manna as the only food in the restored world. In Hist. Rech. 13.2, the Rechabites, inhabiting a utopian land, subsist on manna during Lent.207 Test. Jac. 7:23-24 refers to the bread of life208 as a reward for the compassionate. 209 In Jos. As. 8.5, 16:14, a honeycomb with the properties of manna is used as part of the ritual of Aseneth’s conversion. Rabbinic traditions reflect and elaborate this spectrum of traditions, but will not be discussed separately here.210

c. New Testament Texts: Selection This leaves the following texts to be discussed in the body of this thesis. Eschatological Banquets: — The Celebratory Banquet: Mt. 8:11-12/Lk. 13:28-29, Lk. 22:30, Mk. 14:25/Mt. 26:29/Lk. 22:16.18, Lk. 12:37, Lk. 14:15.16-24, Apc. 3:20. — The Destructive Banquet: Apc. 19:17-19.211

204

Cf. below, II.C.2.b.aa. Cf. below, VI.C.2.a. and Aune:1997, 189. 206 And in its later translations, cf. Malina:1968, discussing the Palestinian Tgg. of: Ex. 16, Num. 11:6-9, 21:5-6, Deut. 8:3.16, Josh. 5:5-6:1, Pss. 78:23-25, 105:40-42, and the occurrence of manna in the Tgg. of Eccl. 12:11, Cant. 4:5. 207 Precisely 13:2, as part of 12:9a-13:5c, however, as well as 16:1b-8 are commonly regarded as Christian interpolations in an originally Jewish text. Cf. Charlesworth:1985b, 443-461, here: 444-445, how to date this manna tradition is therefore uncertain. 208 Parallel to the bread of life the (fruit of the) tree of life is mentioned. 209 Another early Christian text, ActThom 7 (v. 42) refers in the Greek version to a banquet, missing in the Syrian text, though the latter may instead contain an obscure reference to manna. Cf. Bovon/Géoltrain:1997, 1337. 210 Cf. Billerbeck:1924, 481-482, 2, 737.739.792-793, Billerbeck:1928, 506.509.890. 954, for collections of the most relevant material. 211 To be discussed in the context of Apc. 19:7-9. 205

D. The Selection of Texts and the Structure of the Present Study

31

— The Eschatological Wedding Celebration: Mk. 2:18-20/Mt. 9:14-17/Lk. 5:33-39, Mt. 22:1-14, Mt. 25:1-13, Jn. 3:29, Apc. 19:7-9. Utopian Nutritional Abundance: — Nutritional Abundance: Lk. 6:21a/Mt 5:6 (= Q 6:21a), Lk. 16:19-31, Mk. 6:32-44/Mt. 14:13-21/Lk. 9:10-17, Mk. 8:1-10/Mt. 15:29-39, Jn. 2:111, 4:1-26(-42), 6:1-15.22-71, 7:37-39, Apc. 7:16-17, 21:6, 22:1-2. — The Food of Eden: Water of life: Jn. 4:1-26, 7:37-39, Apc. 21:6, 22:12.17. Bread of life/eschatological manna: Jn. 6:1-15.2271, Apc. 2:17. Tree of life: Apc. 2:7, 22:2.14.19. 3. Concluding Observations In view of this selection, one might consider making different decisions in a few instances, which necessitates a few comments here. In the first place, descriptions of the meals of early Christian communities, as reflected in Acts and the epistolary literature, in spite of their centrality to the life and ethos of early Christianity212 and their (protological) utopian character, have been excluded. This is also true of the records of Jesus’ earthly meal praxis,213 including the post-resurrection meals.214 This can be accounted for by the focus of the present study on eschatological meals as meals taking placing in the eschaton, even if it could be argued that this eschaton is proleptically present in Jesus’ earthly meals.215 The only exception to this rule is therefore the inclusion of the gift miracles in Mk. 6:32-44parr., 8:1-10par., Jn. 2:1-11, Jn. 6:1-15.22-71 and with the latter Jn. 4:1-26.27-41/7:37-39. These texts should, however, not principally interpreted as eschatological banquets, but rather as utopian scenarios of nutritional abundance, which makes it difficult not to deal with them more extensively. The gift miracles in Lk. 5:1-11 and Jn. 21:114 could therefore have been discussed on their own as well. However, it has been chosen not to do so, because of the smaller importance of satiation in these stories, as well as the metaphorical appropriation of catching fish in Lk. 5:1-11 and the function of the provision of the fishes as an aid for recognizing Jesus in Jn. 21:1-14. Both of these texts will be accounted for, however, when taking into account the literary structure of 212

Cf. Konradt:2003b, see also: Klinghardt:1996, 153-174. Cf. most notably Mk. 2:13-17parr., and Q 7:33-34. 214 Cf. Lk. 24:13-35.36-43, Jn. 21:1-14, Acts 1:4-8, 10:41. 215 Cf. the definitions of eschatological and utopian above, I.C.3. 213

32

I. Introduction

Lk. and Jn. These considerations would seem to apply to Jn. 2:1-11 too, but there the reference to a wedding already necessitates its discussion, which also explains the inclusion of Mk. 2:18-20parr. and Jn. 3:29, as they seem to refer to an eschatological wedding feast. The pneumatological and christological applications of the gift of nutritional abundance in Jn. 4 and 6 still have a clear focus on satiation and should therefore be included here. A few other texts have been excluded, following the premise that one should not assume the presence of a full-blown eschatological banquet or scenario of utopian abundance, if only one of its possible elements is hinted at.216 Even if absence of evidence is not the same as evidence of absence, presumably ‘implied’ elements should still be seen as absence of emphasis if a text does, e.g. refer to foodstuffs but not their consumption or to table fellowship but not to eating.217 These considerations lead to the exclusion of the following texts. Mk. 10:35-45, esp. vv. 37-40 and consequently the parallel in Mt. 20:20-28, esp. vv. 20-23, are not incorporated, as the imagery which seems to be in view there is rather that of a throne room, suggested by the language of glorification,218 than that of a banquet. Furthermore, the combination of throne scenes and meal scenes is, as is commonly noticed in view of Lk. 22:30, rare.219 In addition, the references to Jesus’ death in the saying about the baptism and the cup (Mk. 10:38-39, Mt. 20:22-23), show a relationship with the crucifixion rather than with a banquet, as in Mk. 15:27 two criminals are crucified with Jesus, in view of which Mt. has changed the Mk. evx avristerw/n in Mk. 10:37.40 into evx euvwnu,mwn in Mt. 20:21.23, the word used in both Mk. 15:27 and Mt. 27:38. Therefore, the cup is not so much the cup of the eschatological banquet (Mk. 14:25, Mt. 216 A textbook example is in this respect Thiselton:2000, 888, spins the thread further and suggests that ‘[i]n this sense the fellowship gathered around the table of the Lord (10:21) provisionally and in partial measure constitutes the pledge and first preliminary foretaste of the “Supper of the Lamb” of the final consumption to which the Lord’s Supper points.’ This might be true, but 1 Cor. 11:26 does not explicitly refer to consumption in the form of a meal. It is possible that 1 Cor. 11:26 has retained traces of something like Mk. 14:25, but this is a mere possibility. 217 Even with Eco: an aporia does indeed activate the reader’s imagination, but still guided by the shape of the gap in the texts that wants to be filled out. Cf. Eco:1971, 2759. 218 Cf. Mk. 10:37 evn th/| do,xh| sou; the expression evk dexiw/n kai. ei-j evx avristerw/n (Mk. 10:37) is in the LXX used in court scenes and similar displays, not in meals, cf. e.g. 2 Chr. 18:18, Neh. 8:4, Ezek. 1:10, cf. further: Gen. 48:13-14, 1 Kgs. 7:35, 2 Chr. 4:6-7, the same is true for the Mt. expression evk dexiw/n sou kai. ei-j evx euvwnu,mwn, cf. 2 Sam. 16:6, 1 Kgs. 22:19 (!), 2 Ch. 3:17, 4:8, Ezek. 9:44-45, cf. also Zech. 4:3-11). Cf. also the convincing considerations of Roose:2004a, 107-135. 219 Cf. below, III.L.3.a-c.

D. The Selection of Texts and the Structure of the Present Study

33

26:29), but rather the final and deadly cup Jesus drinks (Mk. 14:36, Mt. 26:39). In view is therefore a paradoxical enthronization, not an eschatological meal. Staying with Mt., it should be noted that apart from Mt. 20:20-28, neither Mt. 6:11 (the reference is to the daily bread, not eschatological bread), nor Mt. 15:23,220 though taken into account when discussing Mt. 14:13-21 and Mt. 15:29-39, nor Mt. 25:14-30,221 can be regarded as eschatological meals. In Lk., apart from Lk. 11:3, where the daily bread is of importance in view of the theme of nutritional satiation in Lk., but not directly in view of Lk. eschatology, also Lk. 15:5.7,222 and Lk. 15:11-32 should be excluded from the category of eschatological banquets. In Lk. 15:22-31, a feast is in view, but its orientation is not so much eschatological as ecclesiological. In Acts, apart from the resurrection meals (1:4-8, 10:41) and meals of the community (e.g. 2:42.46), also Peter’s vision in Acts 10:9-16 needs to be excluded, as it focuses on matters of (im)purity primarily. From among the epistolary literature, the most important text that is not discussed is 1 Cor. 11:26, as it presents the reader only with the eschatological outlook of the Corinthian (/ Pl. Antiochene) eucharistic liturgy, without shaping this as a meal. In Rom. 14:17, Paul does refer to the kingdom of God in terms of food and drink, albeit negatively, but describes it immediately afterwards in positive terms, which are related to the symposium again,223 but seems to have an earthly, rather than heavenly meal in view. In view of the destructive meal, which, as such, only occurs in the Apc.,224 a limitation has been made as well, as it has been decided to treat this meal, which functions primarily as the counterpart either to constructive banquets (Apc. 17:16, 19:17-18.21) or true nutrition,225 thus constituting its perversion, only in an exemplary way. Therefore Apc. 19:17-18.21 will only be touched upon in the context of Apc. 19:7-9. 220

Cf. however Schweizer:1986a, 305. Cf. however: Wainwright:1971, 26-27, in view of the reference to joy in Mt. 25:23, which may be related to a meal, but there is nothing in the text, apart from the preceding Mt. 25:1-13, which, however, does not refer to joy, which forces one to think of a meal here. 222 Considered by Wainwright:1971, 26-27, in view of the references to joy in these verses. 223 Cf. on the values of the symposium: Klinghardt:1996, 163-174, mentioning the themes of dikaiosu,nh (166-167), eivrh,nh (168) and cara, (cf. 169). 224 Cf. Apc. 17:16, 19:17-18.21 for destructive meals, and further the theme of the cup of wrath, cf. Apc. 14:10.19, 15:7, 16:1.19, (17:4, 18:6), 19:15, see also: 14:18, 18:3. 225 E.g. the cup of wrath, cf. Apc. 14:10.19, 15:7, 16:1.19, (17:4, 18:6), 19:15, see also: 14:18, 18:3. 221

34

I. Introduction

Having argued and outlined the interest and structure of this thesis, the road towards the main part of the work has been cleared: a discussion of the various meals and images of abundance within their literary contexts in the NT.

II. Eschatological Meals and Utopian Abundance in Mark A. Meals in Mark Before interpreting the eschatological meal in Mk., it is useful to provide an overview of the use of meals in Mk. in general,1 as these form a significant part of the context of the Mk. eschatological meals and scenes of nutritional abundance. Whereas it is more generally recognized for Lk.,2 Mk. also has a considerable interest in meal scenes, both in the use and provision of various comestibles as well as in table fellowship.3 Three main themes are related to this, while a number of other texts also utilizing nutritional imagery are scattered throughout Mk. Since the social and religious profile of the Mk. community shines through in these meals, this section also facilitates an orientation to this community. First, Mk. ecclesiology can be found in two sets of interrelated texts using nutritional and meal imagery. The first of these is Mk. 2:13-28, which is concerned with Jesus’ authority in matters of traditional religious customs and thus the boundaries of the community, in which Mk. has a considerable interest. This is confirmed by the return to the theme in Mk. 7:1-23.24-30 (esp. 7:3.29).4 Another text, which might be counted in this cluster, is Mk. 14:3-9.5 Apart from nutritional imagery, these texts have Jesus’ relativization of purity laws in view, thus making the establishment of table fellowship easier. The second set can be found in Mk. 6-8, where the first narrative of the miraculous feeding (Mk. 6:30-44) is contrasted with Herod’s macabre banquet (Mk. 6:21-29)6 and connected with the exchange between Jesus and the Syrophoenician woman (Mk. 7:24-30) who convinces Jesus to ‘feed’ her as well. The subsequent second miraculous feeding (Mk. 8:11

For what follows, cf. Bolyki:1998, 166-170, Smith:2003, 240-253, and especially Klosinski:1988. 2 Cf. below, III.A. 3 Cf. Klosinski:1988, 3. 4 Cf. Pesch:1976, 14. Klosinski:1988, 115-119. 5 Cf. Smith:2003, 241, Klosinski:1988, 115.119-120. 6 Cf. Klosinski:1988, 119.

36

II. Eschatological Meals and Utopian Abundance in Mark

10), explicitly taking place in ‘Gentile’ territory,7 is closely related to this. Jesus’ (first) feeding is recalled and once more contrasted with the ‘food’ of Herod and the Pharisees in Mk. 8:14-20. This creates a vivid image of Jesus’ ministry to the ‘Gentiles’ and the scope of Mk.’s community. Table fellowship is therefore intimately connected with Mk. ecclesiology, which is, as the meal scene in Mk. 14:17-26 shows, based on the (universal) salvific effects of Jesus’ self-giving, also expressed in terms of ‘drinking the cup’ in Mk. 10:37-39.8 The eschatological outlook in Mk. 14:25 is most likely a martyriological statement in the first place. Second, the theme of discipleship, expressed in terms of (table) service,9 should be noted. This topic surfaces in Mk. 1:13 (possibly), 1:31, 9:35, 10:43.45 and 15:41. (Table) service as a characteristic of discipleship stands in harsh contrast with the denouncement of the scribes for taking places of honor at a banquet (Mk. 12:39). It should be added, however, that the semantic range of the root diakon- and its derivates is, admittedly, larger than merely the aspect highlighted here.10 In addition, Mk. is painfully aware of the possibility of the violation of this table fellowship as well, as is the whole of the gospel tradition (cf. Mk. 14:18parr.). Third, divine (nutritional) provision is another significant theme in Mk. This is expressed in the angelic care that Jesus receives in Mk. 1:13, the miraculous provision of foodstuffs by Jesus in Mk. 6:32-44, 8:1-10 and the reference to them in Mk. 8:16-21, together with Mk. 7:24-30, where the Syrophoenician woman refers to the crumbs falling from the table. Possibly Jesus’ prohibition to the disciples to take any bread with them in Mk. 6:8 may also be an expression of faith in God’s providing (cf. Mk. 6:32). Not directly related to the themes of ecclesiology/table fellowship or nutritional abundance are remarks on the ascetic way of life of John the Baptist (Mk. 1:7),11 the aside that Jesus’ and his disciples’ ministry is so busy that they do not have time to eat (Mk. 3:20, 6:8),12 the note that the daughter of Jairus should be given something to eat (Mk. 5:43), and the remark that everyone who gives a thirsty person a cup of water will not go unrewarded (Mk. 9:41). Further food-related texts unconnected with any of the groups mentioned above are: Jesus’ cursing of a fig tree (11:12-14.207

Cf. below, II.C.2.c. Esp. on the basis of Mk. 14:23-24. Cf. Smith:2003, 241-242.243-247, Klosinski: 1988, 131. 9 Cf. Klosinski:1988, 128-132, for the semantic field, see Beyer:1935, Vanoni:1988. 10 Cf. Klosinski:1988, 128. 11 Cf. Klosinski:1988, 114. 12 Cf. Klosinski:1988, 114. This similarity between Jesus and his disciples is of course relevant for Mk.’s depiction of the disciples, though it cannot be discussed any further here. 8

A. Meals in Mark

37

25, 13:28-31) and the wine and vinegar on the cross (Mk. 15:23.36). In this context also the parables in Mk. 4:1-9.13-20.26-29.30-32 as well as those in Mk. 5:1-13, 12:1-11 may be mentioned.13 Within Mk.’s literary conception, all the meal scenes, with the exception of Mk. 14:17-26, take place within the first part of Mk.’s triptych (Mk. 1:1-8:26, 8:27-10:52, 11:1-16:8), in which the scope of Jesus’ ministry is outlined. After Peter’s confession, functioning as a bridge between the first and second parts of the Gospel, the interest of Mk. shifts in a section structured by the three predictions of Jesus’ suffering, to a large extent to the theme of discipleship.14 This section also includes two of the descriptions of this in terms of (table) service (Mk. 9:35, 10:45), which are, together with the theme of fellowship in the one final meal (Mk. 14:17-25), taken up again in Mk. 15:41 in the third part of Mk. (11:116:8), which describes Jesus’ final stay in Jerusalem. In this context, it is also worthwhile to consider Klosinski’s proposal for the interpretation of the connections between the miraculous feedings and the Last Supper in terms of a triad,15 which progressively unfolds Jesus’ significance through his meals. Therefore, meal scenes and meal related imagery are an integral part of the fabric of Mk.’s Gospel, allowing for the delineation of the Mk. community’s stance in matters of (ritual) purity, the community’s (ethnic) composition, and discipleship.16 It is within this framework of themes and clusters of texts that the relevant Mk. texts will have to be discussed. As the selection of texts in this chapter (Mk. 2:18-20, 6:32-44, 8:1-10, 14:25) has already been accounted for, it need not be discussed here.17

13

Cf. Klosinski:1988, 114-115. Following every prediction of the Messiah’s suffering, cf.: Mk. 8:34-9:1, 9:33-37, 9:17-31, 10:25-45. 15 Cf. Klosinski:1988, 135-136. 16 The location of the writing of the Gospel of Mark cannot be discussed extensively here, especially as there is anything but agreement in this matter. The powerful argument in favor of Mk.’s composition in Rome by Van Iersel:1998, 30-57, also acknowledges that this ‘cannot be proved beyond question’ (p. 56), and that other options (Syria, Galilee) will have to remain open. Similarly: Pesch:1976, 12-14. Ernst:1981, 21-22, suggests Rome as the least uncertain option. Theißen:1989, 246-270, suggests Syrian origins. Unambiguous indications for composition just before or just after 70 CE are also missing: any date close to the (foreseeable) fall of Jerusalem may do justice to the Gospel, esp. to the crucial ch. 13. 17 Cf. above, I.D.2. 14

38

II. Eschatological Meals and Utopian Abundance in Mark

B. Mark 2:18-20 1. Introduction Mk. 2:18-20 is part of the longer pericope Mk. 2:18-22 which deals, broadly speaking, with the effects of Jesus’ presence among his disciples, making fasting impossible and, at a more general level, discusses the incompatibility of the new and the old (esp. vv. 21-22).18 Jesus’ presence is represented by the image of a groom, his disciples are the wedding guests (Mk. 2:19-20). Within Mk., the pericope is the second of three successive narratives, all dealing with the controversial consumption of foodstuffs. First, preceding Mk. 2:18-22, Jesus’ call of Levi and the meal in his house (Mk. 2:13-17) bring Jesus into the disfavor of the scribes of the Pharisees (Mk. 2:16), and outline the scope and goals of his ministry (Mk. 2:17). On this Mk. 2:18-22 follows, dealing with the characterization of Jesus’ ministry, now in terms of (eschatological) joyfulness, and again in discussion with Pharisees now together with disciples of John the Baptist. The third narrative, Mk. 2:23-38, deals not with table fellowship or with the appropriate time for eating, but with the preparation of food on the Sabbath. Within the larger framework of the Mk. narrative, this set of texts is bracketed by a series of healings and exorcisms.19 They are closely tied to Jesus’ preaching (cf. Mk. 1:21-22.38-39) and lead, together with Mk. 2:1338, to the plot against Jesus’ life (Mk. 3:6). All this is part of the initial characterization of the success of Jesus’ beginning ministry, which is after the baptism (Mk. 1:9-11) and the temptation (Mk. 1:12-13) initiated in Mk. 1:14-15 with a summary of his preaching as well as with the call of the first disciples in Mk. 1:16-20. After discussing the place of Mk. 2:18-20 in the Mk. narrative and reconstructing a history of tradition of the text,20 two elements will be highlighted by means of a motif-historical enquiry: the reference to oi` ui`oi. tou/ numfw/noj (Mk. 2:19) and the relationship of fasting and wedding celebrations, before an interpretation of the text is offered. As the present chapter will be concerned with the first example of a specific kind of ‘eschatological meal,’ i.e. eschatological wedding celebrations, a short introduction to first-century wedding customs, their social significance as well as their role as religious metaphors has to be offered 18

So e.g. Gnilka:1978, 111. Mk. 1:23-28.29-31.32-34.40-45, 2:1-12, 3:1-6. 20 The obviously dependent parallels of this text, Mt. 9:14-17 and Lk. 5:33-38, will be discussed in the chapters on Mt. and Lk. Cf. for this dependence e.g. Meier:1994, 439, but O’Neill:1988, disagrees, assuming Mt. priority. 19

B. Mark 2:18-20

39

first, as these constitute (a significant part of) the historical context in which Mk. 2:18-20 will have to be interpreted. 2. First-Century Weddings a. First-Century Marriage in Socio-Cultural Perspective aa. The Fusing of Families Even though a variety of marriage strategies can be observed in the (world of the) HB/OT and in Greco-Roman societies,21 Malina’s statement that ‘in the first-century Mediterranean world and earlier, marriage symbolized the fusion of the honor of two extended families and was undertaken with a view to political and/or socio-economic concerns (…)’22 is correct in general. From the perspective of women’s studies,23 Ilan confirms this: ‘[t]hroughout the Hellenistic-Roman period, and according to all relevant sources, marriage was a matter to be settled by the parents of the bride and groom, on the basis of social connection and status.’24 That this was true for the highest levels of society as well as for the middle classes can be conveniently shown in the literary heritage of Josephus25 and the (later) sages.26 Due to lack of sources, it has to remain a suspicion that there was a little more freedom in choosing a partner in the lower levels of society.27 Marriage was not a romantic affair, as is clear from the above considerations. This impression is confirmed by the fact that betrothal, or, as 21

For the HB/OT and early Christian communities, cf. Malina:2001, 145-169. Cf. Malina:2001, 143, in spite of his problematic use of the concept of honor, cf. Downing:1999. 23 Cf. Ilan:1995, xi. 24 Ilan:1995, 79. See also Wright:1992, 766. 25 Cf. Josephus, Ant. 17:14-18: Herod’s matchmaking for his children; Ant. 16:221226/B. J. 1:487: Herod’s thwarting the attempt of his own sister Salome to pick her own husband; Ant. 18:113, the consequences of Herodias’ independence in canceling her marriage to Herod Phillip and marrying Herod Antipas, who, to that purpose, had to divorce his present wife, the daughter of the Nabatean king Aretas, who subsequently declared war on Antipas and defeated him (Ant. 18:109-115). Josephus’ suggestion is that if Herodias would not have been allowed to pick her own partner, these political troubles would have been avoided. Berenice’s marriage to Polemo, king of Cilicia, arranged on her own account, is probably best seen as happening with the silent consent of her brother, Agrippa II (cf. Ant. 20:145-146). The cases of Berenice’s sisters (cf. Ant. 20:141.147) might be similar, as Josephus’ polemic against these women might have led to an exaggeration of their (perilous) initiatives. 26 Cf. e.g. R. Meir’s statements in Sotah 5:11: mutual love is the product of a wellmatched marriage, not the other way around. 27 So Ilan:1995, 83, on the basis of the social location of R. Aqiba, who was chosen by his own wife and the dancing of the daughters of Jerusalem on the 15th of Av and on the Day of Atonement in relation to matchmaking (Taan. 4:8). 22

40

II. Eschatological Meals and Utopian Abundance in Mark

Zimmermann puts it with Driver and Miles,28 inchoative marriage,29 in rabbinic times could be discussed together with the purchase of a slaves, cattle and various other kinds of property.30 The betrothal contract, the hB'tuK. ,31 put the future bride in the same legal position as a married woman32 and existed ‘between bride and groom with the purpose of ensuring the bride’s maintenance in the event of divorce or the husband’s death.’33 It may be noted that these contracts tended to be unilateral: the future groom made a contract with the bride, without any reciprocity being voiced in the text. This is a notable difference from other Hellenistic marriage contracts.34 As there seems to be enough of a scholarly consensus concerning this subject for the purpose of this study, further discussion is superfluous here. With the above as necessary background, an exploration of wedding ceremonial can follow, keeping in mind that rites of passage change slowly. bb. Rituals If a first-century Jewish wedding is viewed as one long process, the following stages can be discerned:35 (1) the (formal) courting, including the working out of suitable marriage conditions, leading to (2) the engagement contract mentioned above, (3) an interim period of no longer than twelve months; a next phase (4) consisted of the call of the groom to the bride to come to his house and, according to some sources, the celebration of a pre-wedding in the bride’s house, followed some time later by the wedding proper, possibly beginning with a first meal in the house of the bride’s family, (5) followed by a procession in which the bride is carried from her father’s house to that of her future husband. The bride is 28

Cf. Driver/Miles:1956, 322-324, of importance are Cod. Hammurapi § 130 and Cod. Esnunna § 26. See also Otto:1994, 51-54. 29 Cf. Zimmermann:2001, 235. 30 Cf. Ilan:1995, 88, see: m. Qidd. 1:1-5, cf. also McCracken Flesher:1989, 219-231. 31 Possibly written, cf. Tob. 7:14. Cf. Ilan:1995, 89. 32 Zimmermann:2001, 235, cf. Deut. 22:22-27, and also Gen. 29:21, Mt. 1:20. See also the reference to cohabitation in a legal contract found in the Babatha-archive, referring to partners who were already living together before the drafting of the document, cf. Lewis:1989, 130-133, esp. 130. See also Mayer:1987, 59-61. 33 Cf. Ilan:1995, 89, on the hB'tuK. , cf. idem, op. cit., 89-94, and Zimmermann:2001, 233-234. Cf. for some examples of contracts dating from the Bar Kokhba period: Yadin: 1971, 237-239 (Aramaic), and Lewis:1989, 76-82.130-133 (Greek). 34 So Zimmermann:2001, 234, see also Mayer:1987, 60-61. 35 Following Zimmermann:2001, 230-240, whose views are confirmed by Ilan:1995, 57-86, see further: Mayer:1987, 51-70, Von Stirtzky:1991, esp. 914-921, and Nussbaum: 1976, esp. 917-923. See also the reconstruction of Mell:1996, 12-13. Keener:2003a, 498499, gives yet another overview.

B. Mark 2:18-20

41

carried on a litter to her husband’s house, accompanied by the groomsmen and the ‘best man.’ This is one of the most public and, certainly in later rabbinic literature, important features of the wedding. In the husband’s house the actual feast takes place, (6) ideally lasting multiple days, during which the drinking of wine did not play a role of minor importance.36 Blessings of the new couple will have been part of this occasion, even if there are indications that the bride spent her time in the bridal chamber, separated from the main party, though the reasons for this are not entirely clear. The final phase of the actual wedding ceremony (7) is the entrance of the groom into the bridal room (hpwx). A comparison with the (structurally not dissimilar)37 Greco-Roman rites and customs whose existence can only be mentioned here,38 shows the importance of engagement/inchoative marriage as well as the unilateral structure of the contracts on the Jewish side, whereas Greco-Roman rituals tend to be more explicitly religious, including a more prominent role of Hera/Juno and Zeus/Jupiter.39 b. Wedding and Marriage as Religious Metaphors aa. Old Testament/Hebrew Bible (1) YHWH as the Husband of His People The metaphor of YHWH as the male partner of his people or as her jealous lover, is a part of the broader mythologeme of the hieros gamos, and therefore a central part of religious imagination40 throughout the ANE and Greco-Roman world.41 It has been the subject of extensive discussion in recent years, not in the least thanks to the critical input from feminist biblical scholars, such as Brenner.42 Zimmermann has recently offered a helpful overview of the discussion that need not be repeated here.43 Rather some important textual complexes may be referred to: Gen. 6:1-4; a variety of prophetic texts related to a hieros gamos, often using the metaphor of Israel as the (un)faithful wife of YHWH (Hos. 1-3, Jer. 2-3, 31:3-4), and 36 Cf. Walsh:2000, 237, rightly noting that ‘drinking was of course a main activity of the wedding banquet.’ 37 Cf. Zimmermann:2001, 257: ‘In der Grundstruktur von Verlobung/Werbung mit Ehevertrag, Heimführung, Fest(mahl) und Eintritt in das Brautgemach treffen sich alle Riten dieser Zeit.’ 38 Cf. Zimmermann:2001, 248-257, and below in the discussion of Mt. 25:1-13. 39 Cf. Zimmermann:2001, 258. 40 Used in a very positive sense: without imagination there is no religious expression. 41 See Zimmermann:2001, 53-87, for a broad overview of this myth. 42 Cf. e.g. Brenner:1997, 153-174, Brenner:1993. See further: Abma:1999, Baumann: 2000, and especially also the overview by Zimmermann:2001, 91-152. 43 Zimmermann:2001, 91-152, with attention to feminist criticism on 146-150.

42

II. Eschatological Meals and Utopian Abundance in Mark

showing the Jerusalem/Zion-woman in various other stages of her relationship to the deity;44 and possibly the Song of Songs. With Zimmermann, the core statement of these metaphors can be schematized as follows: 45 Defective relationship: Jerusalem/Zion = Whore/Deserted woman Successful relationship: Jerusalem/Zion = Bride, Wife, Beloved from one’s youth Concepts used to describe the defective and/or successful relationship between deity and people/city are: idolatry, the related binary oppositions of faithfulness – unfaithfulness and whore/adulteress – bride/wife,46 the imagery of a male deity and a female city, esp. in the later texts, and the remembrance of a golden past (‘betrothal’) as the model for a bright future. In these constellations, the male is commonly the (morally superior) faithful partner, who attempts to reconquer his wife. All this is accompanied by an emphasis on religious monogamy.47 (2) Nuptial Joy as Eschatological Joy in the HB/OT With the NT texts in mind,48 it should be observed that on a semantic level, there are a number of instances in the HB/OT, in which joyfulness and weddings are explicitly combined. Of special importance is an expression used four times by Jeremiah (7:34, 16:9, 25:10, 33:11), paralleling ‘the voice of mirth and the voice of gladness’ (NRSV, MT: hx'm.fi lAqåw> !Aff' lAqÜ) to ‘the voice of the bridegroom and the voice of the bride’ (NRSV, MT: hL'(K; lAqïw> !t"ßx' lAqï). At least for the work of Jer. this shows that nuptial joy could well be used as pars pro toto for joy as such.49 Thus, even though joy is related to a variety of other occasions in the HB/OT as well,50 it may nevertheless ring true, as has Kutsch argued, that the

44 E.g. a whore in Ezek. 16 and 23, cf. further often in terms of renewed acceptance: Isa. 49:14-50:3, 54:1-10, 60:1-22, 62:1-12. On the metaphor of the whore, see the extensive discussion by Sals:2004. Cf. Gen. 11:1-9, Zech. 5:5-11, Ps. 137, Isa. 13, 14, 21, 47, Jer. 25:1-5, 25:15-31, 50-51. 45 Zimmermann:2001, 145, cf. also 219-223. 46 Cf. Zimmermann:2001, 123-128, Sals:2004, 28-43. 47 So Zimmermann:2001, 151-152. 48 Esp. Mk. 2:19parr. and Jn. 3:29. 49 Cf. in this respect also, partially in an eschatological sense: Cant. 1:4, 3:11, Deut. 24:5, Pss. 19:6, 45:16, Isa. 61:10, 62:4-5. 50 For an overview, cf. Vanoni:1995. See also Pss. 98:4 and 118:24, which refer also to joy as something eschatological, though without mentioning a wedding.

B. Mark 2:18-20

43

designation !t'x' (bridegroom) in the HB/OT denotes more the (arche)type of someone rejoicing, than someone who is actually marrying.51 bb. Early Judaism (1) Lady Wisdom In wisdom literature from the Second Temple period (excluding Eccl.), as well as in Philo, the mediating figure of the divine wisdom appears as a woman in a variety of ways,52 for example in the context of metaphors using the imagery of erotic relationships. In Prov. 1-9, the dynamics of eroticism revolve around the ‘strange/foreign woman’ (Prov. 2:16-19, 5, 6:24-35, 7:5-27)/‘lady foolishness’ (9:13-18), attempting to seduce the youngster to whom Prov. addresses itself, in contrast to the courting of (Lady) Wisdom and her promises (cf. esp. 8:1-36 and throughout 1-9).53 As Lady Wisdom can make these promises, she is the road towards prosperity and is indeed herself ‘a woman of substance.’54 Striking is also the occurrence of a meal in Prov. 9:1-5, even though it is probably not a marriage meal. In Sir. 15:1-10, 24:20 and partially also in Sir. 51:13-30 (cf. 11Q5 21:11-17), similar imagery drawn from the field of courtship is used.55 Philo however, even if he is preoccupied with the (male) lo,goj, also needs to be mentioned here.56 First, it should be noticed that he depicts the union between nou/j and sofi,a in terms of a wedding, albeit one consummated through ascetism.57 Thus, the philosopher can be described as a lover of wisdom (evrasth,j sofi,aj, cf. e.g. Migr. 101, Virt. 62, and compare Philo’s interpretation of Gen. 31:12 in Somn. 1:200). Second, Philo could 51

So Kutsch:1982, 292. Cf. Ps. 19:5-6, further: Isa. 61:10, 62:5, Jer. 7:34, 16:9, 25:10, 33:11, however, in many other instances, often with the meaning of ‘son-in-law’ nothing particularly joyful is in view: Gen. 19:12.14, 34:9, Ex. 4:25.26, Deut. 7:3, Jos. 23:12, Jgs. 15:6, 19:5, 1 Sam. 18:18.21.22.23.26.27, 22:14, 1 Kgs. 3:1, 2 Kgs. 8:27, 2 Chr. 18:1, Ez. 9:14, Neh. 6:18, 13:28, Joel 2:16. 52 With Schroer:1996, 29. 53 Cf. the invitations to wisdom in Prov. 1:8-3:35, where foolishness is warned against in terms of a warning against seduction (cf. Prov. 1:10, 2:16-19). See also the call to wisdom in ch. 4 that is contrasted with the warning for the foreign woman in ch. 5. After this, a discussion of wisdom in daily life (Prov. 6:1-19), culminating in a teaching on faithfulness in marriage (Prov. 6:20-7:27), is followed by Prov. 8:1-36, whereas Prov. 19 is crowned by 9:1-18: an invitation to Lady Wisdom’s banquet. 54 Cf. Yoder:2001, drawing attention to precisely this aspect of Lady Wisdom’s personality. 55 Cf. Zimmermann:2001, 166-172. 56 Cf. for the following: Zimmermann:2001, 178-185. 57 Cf. e.g. Congr. 71-80, Leg. 3:65-181, Migr. 217-218, Post. 132, Mos. 2:68-69, Mut. 132, Vita 32.68-69.73

44

II. Eschatological Meals and Utopian Abundance in Mark

also describe creation in terms of God’s mating with the evpisth,mh, a word used synonymously with sofi,a (cf.: Ebr. 30-36, esp. 30-31). The virtues come into being in a similar way: through intercourse between YHWH and the wives of the patriarchs (Cher. 40-52). Among narrative texts, Jos. As. stands out. There, Aseneth’s conversion occurs in the context of a marriage and she is described as a city of refuge, closely related to God (15:7-8), as a bride (cf. 4:1) to God, while heavenly messengers and Joseph merge to a certain extent (cf. 14:9!);58 the celebration of the marriage takes place at a banquet (Jos. As. 21). (2) The Messiah as Bridegroom? Recently, Jeremias’ thesis59 that in early Judaism the title ‘groom’ was not at all applied to the Messiah has been questioned by Zimmermann.60 Zimmermann, using a definition of ‘Messiah’ as an (anointed) eschatological savior,61 presents a number of texts that could move the origin of the bridegroom-messianology/christology, so popular in rabbinic62 and early Christian texts, back considerably. The first text is Ps. 45, which clearly deals with the wedding of an ideal/utopian king, who is for Zimmermann a messianic figure. Furthermore, the bride of this messianic king seems to represent Zion, thus completing the picture.63 A second text might be 1QIsa 61:10, where the addition of !hwkk to the MT could refer to a messianic groom.64 A third relevant text might be Tg. Zech. 3:1-10,65 where a juxtaposition of the eschatological high priest-bridegroom Joshua and a messianic figure appears. Fourth, the Tg. Cant. contains, esp. in the final section 7:12-8:14,66 identifications of the beloved with the Messiah,67 and finally Pesiq. Rab. 37 on Isa. 61:10,68 identifies the Messiah with a bridegroom and Israel with a bride. Even if of these texts Tg. Cant. 7:128:14, Tg. Zech. 3:1-10, and Pesiq. Rab. 37 are probably (much) younger 58 59

Cf. more extensively: Zimmermann:2001, 188-199. Cf. Jeremias:1942, 1094. Following him: Gnilka:1960. So also e.g. Meier:1994,

441. 60

Zimmermann:2003, idem:2001, 258-272. In nuce already: O’Neill:1988, 485. Cf. Zimmermann:2003, 86. 62 Especially in parables, cf. Zimmermann:2001, 210-213, see e.g. Pesiq. Rab. 12:11, 19:4, Ex. Rab. 15:31. 63 Cf. Zimmermann:2003, 86-90. That this interpretative option is inscribed into the text of Ps. 45 is clearly shown by the text’s later history of interpretation, cf. the Tg. of Ps. 45:3.7, 4Q521 fr. 2 ii.7, 4Q434 fr. 1 i.7, Heb. 1:8. 64 Cf. Zimmermann:2003, 90-93. 65 Cf. Zimmermann:2003, 93-96. 66 Cf. Zimmermann:2003, 97-98. See e.g. Tg. Cant. 8:1. 67 Cf. Zimmermann:2001, 204-219. 68 Cf. Zimmermann:2003, 98-99. 61

B. Mark 2:18-20

45

than the NT, Ps. 45 and the witness of 1QIsa 61:10 as well as Joseph’s role in Jos. As. are clearly in favor of Zimmermann’s thesis.69 cc. New Testament: A Variety of Metaphors Within the NT, marriage is used as a metaphor in a number of ways. To begin with: Paul draws in 2 Cor. 11:1-4 heavily on the (monogamous) tradition of early Judaism while comparing the Christian community to a pure bride led to her (heavenly) husband.70 In a similar way, in Eph. 5:2133, the well-known comparison between the relationship of husband and wife to the believer’s devotion to Christ is made.71 Drawing on the same background of the hieros gamos, the Apc. identifies the community of the elect and the new Jerusalem with a bride (cf. Apc. 19:7-9, 21:1-8.9-22:5, cf. 22:17) and God’s enemies with a whore (cf. e.g. Apc. 17:1-18).72 This concept of the divine marriage may also be at the background of the Mt. use of the image of the eschatological wedding banquet (cf. Mt. 9:15, 22:114, 25:1-13). The same should be doubted for its Lk. usage (cf. Lk. 5:3339) as well as for Mk. (cf. Mk. 2:18-20) and Jn. (cf. 3:29),73 however, as here is probably primarily the OT/HB association of weddings, grooms and joyfulness in view (cf. also Apc. 19:7). The remarks about the impossibility of fasting in a groom’s presence in Mk. 2:18-20/Lk. 5:33-39 suggests this, as does the agreement between the emphatical Semitism74 cara/| cai,rei in Jn. 3:29 and Isa. 61:10MT (fyfia' fAf), a messianically interpreted text in rabbinic traditions, as has already been noted above.75 In Jn. 2:1-11 the wedding is probably not a metaphor at all.76 3. Tradition-Historical Observations The triple tradition in Mk. 2:18-22, Mt. 9:14-17, and Lk. 5:33-39 (cf. Gos. Thom. 47, 104) is, in spite of some minor agreements, best explained by assuming Mk. priority.77 It is furthermore generally agreed upon that the present context of the controversy dialogue is probably Mk.78 This includes 69

So Zimmermann’s careful conclusion, cf. idem:2003, 100. Cf. the extensive discussion in Zimmermann:2001, 300-325. 71 Cf. Zimmermann:2001, 327-385. 72 Cf. on the Apc.: Zimmermann:2001, 388-488. 73 Cf. below, III.B.2., II.B.5., V.C.4. 74 Cf. BDR § 198.6, Keener:2003a, 580, Ridderbos:1997, 147, Barrett:1990, 242-243, seeing curious but not impossible Greek here. 75 Cf. II.B.b.aa.(2). 76 Cf. below, V.B.3.a. 77 So e.g. Zimmermann:2001, 276-277, cf. on the minor agreements Schramm:1971, 105-111. 78 Cf. Reicke:1974, 321-328. 70

46

II. Eschatological Meals and Utopian Abundance in Mark

the combination with the call of Levi and the subsequent meal (Mk. 2:1314.15-17).79 The same may well be true for the combination of Mk. 2:1820 with the sayings in Mk. 2:21 and Mk. 2:22 (cf. their separation in Gos. Thom. 47, 104).80 The next question arising therefore concerns the tradition history of Mk. 2:18-20 itself. In view of Mk. stylistic characteristics,81 Mk. 2:18a82 may well be assumed to be a Mk. redactional introduction. 83 This turns the pre-Mk. version of the question in Mk. 2:18b into an anonymous one,84 well suiting the third person plural of the question in Mk. 2:18c.85 Something similar can be argued for the presence of the Pharisees in Mk. 2:18c: except for Mk. 2:18-20, throughout Mk. 2:1-3:6 no interest in the competition of the Jesus movement with followers of the Baptist (dealt with in 1:1-11) arises,86 but the controversy with the (disciples87 of the) Pharisees as well as their scribes is emphasized.88 This suggests that the reference to the Pharisees is redactional and the one to the followers of the Baptist traditional. Furthermore, textual variants show that the triple occurrence of maqhtai, in Mk. 2:18 has made some scribes uncomfortable. They hardly delete both the

79

Cf. e.g. Pesch:1976, 162-163.170-171, France:2002, 136, Guelich:1989, 107-108, Gnilka:1978, 111; Ernst:1981, 97, considers the combination of Mk. 2:15-17 with 2:1820 at a pre-Mk. stage of tradition already. 80 Cf. without reference to Gos. Thom. e.g. Gnilka:1978, 111-113, with this reference: Zimmermann:2001, 282. 81 I.e. the tendency to repeat, or to use ‘duality’ to get a point across, cf. Meier:1994, 440.442, Zimmermann:2001, 281, in Mk. 2:18 not only the actors are repeated, but also the keyword nhsteu,w (three times in Mk. 2:18, twice in Mk. 2:19 and once in Mk. 2:20). See further: Mk. 3:7.8.14.16, 4:30, 5:3.4.15, 8:25, 12:14, 12:44. 82 Dividing Mk. 2:18 as follows: (a) Kai. h=san oi` maqhtai. VIwa,nnou kai. oi` Farisai/oi nhsteu,ontejÅ (b) kai. e;rcontai kai. le,gousin auvtw/|\ (c) dia. ti, oi` maqhtai. VIwa,nnou kai. oi` maqhtai. tw/n Farisai,wn nhsteu,ousin( (d) oi` de. soi. maqhtai. ouv nhsteu,ousinÈ 83 This is the majority view. Cf. e.g. Pesch:1976, 171-172, Gnilka:1978, 112, Zimmermann:2001, 281, Klauck:1978, 160. 84 With Mell:1996, 4-5, Pesch:1976, 171-172, France:2002, 138. 85 Cf. Zimmermann:2001, 278, self-reference in the third person is exceptional. Cf. also Lührmann:1987, 62-63. 86 The early character of the combination of the behavior of (the disciples of) John the Baptist and Jesus’ answer using the metaphor of the groom, warns against isolating Mk. 2:19b completely, as is often done, cf. Bultmann:1995, 17-18, Gnilka:1978, 112, Becker:1996, 148, Mell:1996, 9.17-18. 87 In this respect, ‘oi` maqhtai. tw/n Farisai,wn’ is best interpreted as ‘those attracted to the Pharisaic way of life’ without being a Pharisee in the narrower sense of the word, cf. Josephus, Ant. 13.10:5 and Mt. 22: 16. 88 Cf. Mk. 2:16.18.24, 3:3:2.6 and probably also Mk. 2:6, if the scribes mentioned there belong to the party of the Pharisees as well. See Meier:1994, 443-445.

B. Mark 2:18-20

47

second and third use of maqhtai,, however.89 Proposing the secondary character of the Pharisees in Mk. 2:18b seems therefore justified, leaving as a core what is now Mk. 2:18bcd without the reference to the disciples of the Pharisees. This makes it possible to address the tradition history of Mk. 2:19-20.90 Before addressing the question of Mk. 2:19ab, it should be asked what to make of Mk. 2:19cd-20. There are good reasons to suggest that Mk. 2:20 is part of a later development of the Jesuanic logion by an early Christian community, seeking to legitimate its own praxis of fasting,91 whereas the question asked in Mk. 2:18 is not concerned with this all.92 This is rendered perspicuous by the more general observation that early Christian communities began fasting again, though at least in some instances, on different days than ‘the Synagogue’ did.93 This suggestion gains plausibility by imagining an early Christian community coming to terms with the loss of Jesus in terms of Jewish piety, in which context fasting is a perfectly reasonable method. Working backwards, Mk. 2:19d, with its repetitious character94 showing a Mk. stylistic characteristic, should now be interrogated. The suspicion is justified that Mk. 2:19d, by taking up evn w-| (Mk. 2:19c) and underlining it by means of o[son cro,non prepares for Mk. 2:20 which has just been found In Mk. 2:18c C2 D f1.13 j syh bopt delete only maqhtai, (cf. Lk. 5:33). W and D also remove oi`, Q 1424 pc a ff2 read kai. oi` Farisai/oi (cf. also Mt. 9:14), A pc have nothing in this place, the text of NA27 is (convincingly) supported by P88 a B C*vid L 33.565.892.2427 pc e syhmg sa. In Mk. 2:18d variants (influenced by the parallel in Lk. 5:33) appear in this respect as well, deleting maqhtai,: B 565.2427 pc bopt (the variant maqhtai. sou in a [‰D] Q 28.2542 pc is not relevant here). The text of NA27 is again more convincing, supported as it is by A C D L W f1.13 33 j. 90 For purposes of the present discussion divided into: Mk. 2:19 (a) kai. ei=pen auvtoi/j o` VIhsou/j\ (b) mh. du,nantai oi` ui`oi. tou/ numfw/noj (c) evn w-| o` numfi,oj metV auvtw/n evstin nhsteu,einÈ (d) o[son cro,non e;cousin to.n numfi,on metV auvtw/n ouv du,nantai nhsteu,ein. 2:20 (a) evleu,sontai de. h`me,rai o[tan avparqh/| avpV auvtw/n o` numfi,oj( (b) kai. to,te nhsteu,sousin evn evkei,nh| th/| h`me,ra|. 91 Cf. Mell:1996, 17, Pesch:1976, 171, Ernst:1981, 99. Assuming this Sitz im Leben also allows for avoiding the problem O’Neill, ‘Source,’ p. 486, sees: if Mk. 2:18-20 is a creation of the early church, then any reference to the resurrection is missing, which would be odd to say the least. 92 So also Meier:1994, 444-445, Becker:1996, 148, see also Mell:1996, 1-2.5-6. 93 Cf. e.g. Muddiman:1992, esp. 774-775, Hall/Crehan:1983, 48-59, esp. 49-55. 94 Cf. Klauck:1978, 160-161, Meier:1994, 445. Cf. also the textual variants: D W f1 33. 700 it vgmss delete it as a whole, the text of NA27 is supported by a B C Q 28. (565).892.2427. (l 2211) lat sy(p).h co (k88 L 2542, reading the same, but with meqV e`autw/n instead of metV auvtw/n; with the same additional variant, while further supporting the text of NA27, but before e;cousin: A f13 j f q. This variant is probably influenced by Lk. 5:33 and indicates that the repetitious character of Mk. 2:19d is redundant from a stylistic point of view. 89

48

II. Eschatological Meals and Utopian Abundance in Mark

to be a later development as it presupposes Jesus’ death, thus moving beyond merely pointing towards it as could have been assumed for ‘authentic’ Jesus tradition.95 This makes it plausible to regard Mk. 2:19d as Mk. redaction too. The occurrence of evn w-| in Mk. 2:19c itself, need not be Mk., however.96 The next question then regards the stage of tradition of Mk. 2:19c and especially of the emphatic reference to the presence of the numfi,oj. As Mk. 2:19b (with nhsteu,ein) is the minimal reply by Jesus, it can be taken as the basis for an interpretation of Mk. 2:19c. As will be outlined below,97 Mk. 2:19b is probably best appreciated, when it is read in the context of the overwhelming joyfulness a wedding caused, suspending religious obligations and certainly fasts. If this indeed applies to Mk. 2:19b, an interpretation of Mk. 2:19c highlighting the presence of the groom along the same lines becomes plausible. The groom’s presence, turning any situation into a wedding-like occasion, would make voluntary fasting impossible. This can be integrated into Jesus’ own preaching without too much difficulties,98 especially as it coheres well with other depictions of Jesus (cf. Q 7:33-34) contrasting Jesus and John the Baptist in terms of diet, and the general open table fellowship99 practiced by Jesus.100 The ‘authenticity’ of the tradition may be argued in favor of when using the criterion of double discontinuity too (flawed as it is): the tradition is discontinuous with the Pharisaic custom of voluntary fasting and the penitential fasting practiced by the Baptist on the one hand, and on the other hand also partially at odds with early Christian fasting.101

95

Meier:1994, 445-446, Mell:1996, 5-6, Klauck:1978, 167. Similarly: Gnilka:1978, 112. 97 Cf. below, II.B.5. 98 Such as too high a messianic consciousness or the problem of the use of the metaphor of the groom for the Messiah. With Kollmann:1990a, 219-220, contra e.g. Becker:1996, 148: no allegory is in view as the text simply does not deal with the relationship between God and Israel primarily, but ‘merely’ with eschatological joy. 99 That Mk. 2:19bc primarily aimed at legitimizing the latter seems to be unlikely, however: the opposition between table fellowship with or without ‘sinners’ is not the same as that between fasting or non-fasting; the one aims at invitation and inclusion, the other at the christological identification of Jesus in terms of his causing of eschatological joy. Contra e.g. Gnilka:1978, 114, Becker:1996, 149. 100 Cf. Meier:1994, 446-448, Becker:1996, 149, Mell:1996, 14-15. 101 So Mell:1996, 13, see however the cautionary remarks of Muddiman:1989, 271272. Gundry:1993, 133, is mistaken in pointing out that evidence for Christian fasting post-dates the NT: cf. Acts 13:2. 96

B. Mark 2:18-20

49

4. Motif-Historical Observations a. The Groom and the ‘Sons of the Bridal Chamber’ If the above history of tradition is plausible, the primary field of investigation to deepen understanding the expressions oi` ui`oi. tou/ numfw/noj and numfi,oj is that of early Jewish wedding customs. In this respect, the groom as the type of a rejoicing person has already been mentioned above.102 The most satisfactory interpretation of oi` ui`oi. tou/ numfw/noj in Mk. 2:19 is achieved when the rabbinic parallel hpwx ynb (cf. y. Sukkah 5:53a, t. Ber. 5:10),103 which can well be imagined to be the source of the expression now found in Greek translation in Mk. 2:19, is taken into account.104 This would bring the meaning of the ‘sons of the bridal chamber’ down to the closest (male) friends of the groom, sharing the joy of the wedding with him,105 much like in the picture of Jn. 3:29 (cf. e.g. Jgs. 14:11, 1 Macc. 9:39). b. Dispensation of Fasting Because of a Wedding First, it should be noted that Mk. 2:18-20 is probably not referring to fasting in general.106 In early Judaism, this was only prescribed for the Day of Atonement.107 Rather, as the identity of Jesus’ opponents in Mk. 2:18 already indicates,108 voluntary fasting is in view here. Both kinds of fasting

102

Cf. above, II.B.4.a. Cf. so e.g. Klauck:1978, 161n65, cf. for further evidence: Billerbeck:1922, 4553.500-518. 104 Cf. Zimmermann:2001, 286, Becker:1996, 149. Cf. e.g. Tob. 6:14.17, Jos. As. 15:7, cf. Mell:1996, 1n6, see also p. 12, see also Cremer:1967, esp. 246-247. 105 Cf. e.g. Guelich:1989, 110, Gundry:1993, 136, though this not necessarily in view of a theology of creation, so e.g. Mell:1996, 20-21. 106 With e.g. Gnilka:1978, 113, contra e.g. Van Iersel:1998, 155. Cf. for Jesus’ fasting: Q 4:1-13, Jesus does not fast in Mk. 14:25parr.. 107 This fast Jesus and his disciples probably held, cf. e.g. Kee:1969, 162. Cf. for this prescription as such: Lev. 16:29-34, 23:26-32, Num 29:7, CD 6:19. Along these lines also: Schenk:1997, 270-271, Gnilka:1978, 113n21, Guelich:1989, 108-109, Gundry: 1993, 131, Lührmann:1987, 63. Pesch:1976, 172-173, notes that fasting as such was already a sign of piety, as does Kee:1969, 163, in view of the Lk. addition that the Baptist’s disciples offer prayers as well (cf. Lk. 5:33). Cf. on voluntary and obligatory fasting in the OT/HB and early (rabbinic) Judaism: Grimm:1996, 14-33, Gerlitz:1983, 42-45, Mantel:1983, 45-48, Hall/Crehan:1983, 41-59, Billerbeck:1924, 241-244, Billerbeck:1928, 77-114, Behm:1942, 925-935. 108 The followers of the Baptist as an exceptional penitent movement (cf. Q 7:33) and the disciples of the Pharisees as advocates of a stricter piety. Cf. France:2002, 138, Pesch:1976, 172, Guelich:1989, 109, cf. e.g. Lk. 18:12. 103

50

II. Eschatological Meals and Utopian Abundance in Mark

continue themes from the HB/OT.109 There, fasting is appropriate in the context of repentance and confession,110 i.e. when forgiveness, atonement and healing are sought.111 Fasting even characterized Jews in the eyes of ‘Gentile’ authors.112 Having stated this, it is useful to consider the fact that from the HB/OT on, through early Jewish literature113 to rabbinic tradition, the wedding is the occasion for joyful feasting,114 with practically all other obligations excused. Within the HB/OT, the best-known example is arguably the exemption of a newly married man from military service for a year (Deut. 24:5). Within the same corpus, Joel 2:15-16 is probably the most eloquent witness to the tension between fasting and wedding joy as it states that even the groom and bride have to join in the fast. Among rabbinic traditions, the one tradition seems to outbid the other as far as exemptions to all kinds of obligations are concerned,115 even amounting to exemption from the study of the Torah116 in order to praise and acclaim the beauty of a bride.117 Rejoicing with the bride and groom could be seen as a religious obligation, on a par with mourning with the bereaved.118 The argument that 109 For examples of penitential fasting, cf. Lev. 16, 1 Kgs. 21:27, Isa. 58, for mourning: cf. Est. 4:3, 1 Sam. 21:13, Jdt. 8:6, for supplicant fasting, cf. 2 Sam. 12:21-23, Ez. 8:23, Jon. 3:5-9LXX, Ps. Sol. 3:8-9, and the rabbinic examples given by Mell:1996, 18-19, locating John the Baptist’s observances within the HB/OT theology of repentance (see e.g. 2 Kgs. 12:15-23, Jdt. 4:9-15, Ezek. 11:4-11, Joel 2:15, Dan. 9:3-19.) For fasting as a means of purification and dedication, cf. Jos. As. 10:17 (and further: 11:2.6.12.17, 13:1, 15:3), Ps. Sol. 3:8, see Schenk:1997, 273-276. 110 Cf. e.g. 1 Kgs. 2:21.27-29, Neh. 1:4, see Gnilka:1978, 113. 111 Cf. e.g. Dan. 9:3, Ps. Sol. 3:6-8, and also Apc. El. 1:21. 112 Cf. Muddiman:1989, 276, Schenk:1997, 272-273, see esp. Tacitus, Hist. 5:4, Suetonius, Aug. 76:2. Tacitus’ remarks have been discussed extensively by Bloch:2002, cf. on fasting esp. 92.97. 113 1 Macc. 1:25-28 is an eloquent and important witness in this case. Cf. Becker:1996, 149; Josephus, B. J. 6:300-301 is less relevant: the woes uttered there simply apply to the bride and the groom too. 114 Cf. in the NT only Mt. 22:4 and Jn. 2:1-11, the parallel between wedding and symposium (or, possibly more to the point, drinking bout) in the OT is telling, cf. Jgs. 14, see also: Zimmermann:2001, 285. 115 Even if after the destruction of Jerusalem elements of mourning were introduced into Jewish wedding ritual, cf. Zimmermann:2001, 285-286. See Billerbeck:1922, 509n1. 116 So Bovon:1989, 260, Schweizer:1983, 33, for the texts, cf. Billerbeck:1922, 511. See for the exemption from daily prayers: T. Ber. 2:10, excluding, however, the recitation of the Shema Jisrael, for the exemption from living in tents during Sukkoth, cf. b. Sukkah 25b, y. Sukkah 2:5, § 1 117 See Billerbeck:1922, 503-504.511, cf. e.g. y. Ketub. 17a, m. Meg. 29b, cf. Mell:1996, 14. 118 Cf. Keener:2003a, 580, see: b. Ber. 6b, y. Ketub. 1:1 §6, and see also Apc. 19:7, further: Safrai:1976b, 759.

B. Mark 2:18-20

51

one should suspend one’s voluntary fast in order to join the bridal mirth makes perfect sense within this context, especially since fasts are not only an expression of devoted prayer, but also of mourning and penance. 5. Interpretation As it is found now in the canonical text, Mk. 2:18-20 is a chreia,119 presenting a rabbi’s defense of his pupils. The chreia’s semantic unity is secured by means of the verb nhsteu,w120 and the use of words building on the root numf-.121 The chreia has a chiastic structure, revolving around the presence and absence of the groom. In Mk., the primary reference of the traditional narrative, oi` maqhtai. VIwa,nnou (Mk. 2:18), has retreated in favor of the Pharisees and their disciples (twice in Mk. 2:18). This shift in focus is also indicated by the relative disinterest in John the Baptist and his followers throughout Mk. 2:1-3:6 and the high interest in the Pharisees.122 Within the direct literary context, other controversies with Pharisees and their scribes can be found in Mk. 2:13-17 (on the issue of table fellowship, where Jesus’ ‘offensive holiness’123 and the Pharisaic ‘defensive holiness’ conflict), and in Mk. 2:23-28 (on Jesus’ authority124 and orthopraxis in view of the Sabbath).125 These compositional observations, however, only explain part of the redactional elements found in Mk. 2:18-20. Two further elements have to be accounted for differently: the reference to the removal of the groom (Mk. 2:19-20), which now occupies much space in the Mk. version of the narrative, and the return to fasting afterwards. The former is still best taken as an allusion to Jesus’ death126 and not as part of the normal wedding rite127 (even if explicit passion predictions only occur

119 So Schenk:1997, 268-269, the structure of the chreia would be: questio: Mk. 2:18ab, propositio: Mk. 2:18cd, refutatio: Mk. 2:19-22, consisting of a ratio (Mk. 2:19ab) and an elaboratio (Mk. 2:19c-22), which, in turn, can be further structured into confirmatio (Mk. 2:19cd), argumentatio e contrario (Mk. 2:20), and exornatio 1 and 2 (Mk. 2:21-22c), together with a conclusio: Mk. 2:22d. 120 Six times: Mk. 2:18 (3), Mk. 2:19 (2), Mk. 2:20 (1), cf. Pesch:1976, 170. 121 Mk. 2:19: numfw,n, Mk. 2:19 (2), Mk. 2:20 (1): numfi,oj. 122 Mk. 2:16.18.24, 3:3:2.6, cf. also Mk. 2:6. 123 Cf. e.g. Berger:1984, 309. 124 This does not allow for Gundry’s suggestion (1989, 131) that Mk. 2:18-20 is also primarily about Jesus’ authority as such, rather the ‘authority’ of Jesus’ joyful message is in view. 125 In fact, throughout the whole of Mk. 2:1-3:6, cf. Guelich:1989, 108. 126 Cf. Zimmermann:2001, 297-298, ‘being taken away’ as a euphemism for ‘dying’ also occurs in Gen. 5:24 (Enoch), Isa. 53:8, CD 19:35, 20:14. This is more likely than a reference to Jesus’ ascension (cf. Acts 1:9-11). So also Klauck:1978, 161. 127 Cf. Zimmermann:2001, 287-288.298, so also Pesch:1976, 175.

52

II. Eschatological Meals and Utopian Abundance in Mark

after Peter’s confession in Mk. 8:27-29).128 The latter, however, is best explained in view of an early Christian community responding to her Lord’s absence by fasting.129 This is probably not only to be seen as an act of mourning over his passion, but – well in line with (early) Jewish religious practice – as an act of dedication as well (cf. Acts. 13:2). Legitimization for this praxis was found in an enlarged dominical saying.130 Apparently, new wine sometimes fits old skins perfectly well.131 Interpreting ‘on that day’ as a reference to a fixed one-day fast in early Christianity, however, is difficult in view of the lack of additional evidence for this praxis.132 In view of Gos. Thom. 47 and their different subject matter,133 the similes in Mk. 2:21.22 are probably later additions to Jesus’ speech.134 Never128 Therefore the reference to Jesus’ disappearance in Mk. 2:20 is at best a veiled reference to his violent death, cf. Meier:1994, 441. See however Mk. 3:6, where the Pharisees and the supporters of Herod plan Jesus’ downfall. 129 Gundry:1993, 133, gives a concise overview of the various fasts in early Judaism and in the emerging church, without taking a clear view himself. Gnilka:1978, 115n33, suggests cautiously a reference to a yearly fast in relationship to the Christian Passover, whether anything so specific is in view, must remain unclear, however. Most to the point is Pesch:1976, 175, noting that the reference to ‘that day’ is a temporal definition, which remains undefined at the same time. Braumann:1963, 264-267, suggesting that the reference to the ‘day(s)’ is to be understood purely eschatologically, does not take into account sufficiently the function of the text: legitimizing the voluntary fasting of an early Christian community. Muddiman:1989, 270, moves just as far beyond the text, by reading the reference to the future in terms of Jesus’ journey from Galilee to Jerusalem, a journey, which is in Mk. 2:20 referred to apocalyptically. 130 So indeed Pesch:1976, 174, Kee:1969, 170-173, Kollmann:1990a, 217-218. Guelich:1989, 112-114, suggests, however, to read the ‘fasting’ metaphorically, and emphasizes the advent of the joy of salvation over against the previous mourning and penance. 131 Contra the reference to the opposition of ‘Christian faith’ and ‘Jewish religion’ made by Mell:1996, 4. There is no good reason for viewing the fasting as symbolic either, cf. Guelich:1989, 113. 132 Gnilka:1978, 115, Mell:1996, 6, see: Did. 8:1. Const. Ap. 7.23:1-2 refers to a twoday fast, for further early Christian fasting, cf. e.g. Mt. 6:16-18 (!), Acts 10:30, 13:2, 14:23, 27:9, 1 Cor. 7:5, 2 Cor. 6:5, 11:27. The use of the expression ‘on that day’ has a much more illuminating parallel in Am. 8.11LXX, where the same switch from a plural ‘in those days’ to ‘on that day’ can be observed. It is not necessary therefore, to attribute much weight to the plural or singular in Mk. 2:19-20. A direct reference to the Day of Atonement, as Mell:1996, 21-23, proposes, is therefore beyond the text. Pesch:1976, 175-176, suggests an early Christian fasting on Fridays because of Jesus’ execution on that day, but this has to remain uncertain. 133 Contra Zimmermann:2001, 280: the damage done to the garment and the old wine skins is not the same as fasting, i.e. Mk. 2:21-22 do not contain a commandment to fast. 134 They are certainly not ‘nahtlos angehängt’ as Pesch:1976, 170, sees it. Taking the reference to the garment as a reference to the wedding garment and seeing a parallel

C. Mark 6:32-44/Mark 8:1-10

53

theless, they further develop a line of thought that Mk. saw in what he included in Mk. 2:18-20: the change of regime (from old to new), inaugurated with the ministry of Jesus as well as the incompatibility of both.135 The imagery of Jesus as groom leads off these considerations: as numfi,oj Jesus is the carrier of (eschatological) joy, surpassing any mourning and, in this way, inaugurating a new era.136 That Mk. 2:21-22 can be interpreted within this light supports the present interpretation of Mk. 2:19 and there is therefore no need to assume a full-blown nuptial christology for Mk.,137 as may be suspected for Mt. and the Apc. as well as for Paul.138

C. Mark 6:32-44/Mark 8:1-10 1. Introduction The two miraculous feedings recounted in Mk. 6:32-44 and 8:1-10 are found in the first part of Mk. (1:1-8:26), outlining Jesus’ ministry before his journey towards Jerusalem begins (Mk. 8:27-10:52). The first feeding (Mk. 6:32-44) is integrated into the story of the sending out and the return of the disciples (Mk. 6:6b-13.30-32), and is contrasted with the story about Herod’s birthday banquet and John the Baptist’s death (Mk. 6:14-29). Between the first and second accounts of the miraculous feeding, the emphasis seems to lay on the correct concept of purity (Mk. 7:1-23.24-30) and the closely related theme of the relationship between Jews and ‘Gentiles’ (Mk. 7:24-30.31-37). In this respect, the account of the request of the Syrophoenician woman in Mk. 7:24-30 is of special importance, as her remark that ‘even the dogs under the table eat the children’s crumbs’ (Mk. 7:28, NRSV) may well be seen to be fulfilled not only in the healing of her daughter (Mk. 7:29-30), but also in the second feeding, as here the fed are ‘Gentiles.’139 In addition, as Mk. 8:14-21 indicates, both miraculous feedbetween the removal of the patch from the garment and the removal of the groom, does not fit either: there is no hint whatsoever that the garment is a wedding garment, neither does the interpretation of the new patch with the person of Jesus suggest itself (so, however, Gundry:1993, 134). 135 See the reference to Jesus’ new teaching in Mk. 1:27. Cf. e.g. Klauck:1978, 169174, Guelich:1989, 117, Gnilka:1978, 116, and in more detail: Hahn:1971, esp. 369-375. 136 Meier:1994, 441, so also Gnilka:1978, 114, Pesch:1976, 173: Jesus argues from the point of view of his ministry and (hence) person. 137 Therefore numfi,oj is not used as in Mt. 25:1-12 or Eph. 5:22-33 as Pesch:1976, 174, and France:2002, 130, claim. 138 Cf. above, I.D.2.b.aa.(3). 139 Cf. below, II.C.2.c.bb. This in marked contrast to the Mt. reception of Mk. 8:1-10, cf. below, IV.E.3.

54

II. Eschatological Meals and Utopian Abundance in Mark

ings also serve a didactic end, bringing the disciples gradually (cf. Mk. 8:22-26) to an understanding of Jesus’ true (secret) identity, which is, even when confessed properly (Mk. 8:27-30), not necessarily properly understood (Mk. 8:31-33). Therefore, the two miraculous feedings can be seen to serve a didactic and christological end within the larger framework of Mark, as well as the ecclesiological theme already mentioned. As indicated earlier, the tradition and motif-historical discussion of aspects of both feedings as well as their respective interpretations will be preceded by an overview of the socio-historical background of utopian nutritional fantasies. a. The Land of Cockaigne in the Mediterranean World Utopian thought and imagination constitute an important part of Greek and Greco-Roman philosophical and religious traditions as well as of Jewish and ANE (politico-)religious thought. A variety of philosophical models and mythological narratives, dealing among (many) other things with the fantasy of a heavenly banquet and an abundance of foodstuffs have been developed. Whereas the first reflects an ideal society, the microcosmos of the polis,140 the latter reflects an ideally functioning creation and agriculture: the ideal (macro-)cosmos.141 These banquets and scenarios of abundance reflect both the real concerns of those organizing banquets and those either experiencing hunger or being in charge of the distribution and provision of foodstuffs, as well as philosophical and religious reflection upon the ideal world. ‘Proper’ philosophical discourse and fictional narrative are in this respect anything but mutually exclusive. Although within the NT the miraculous feedings have the features of both a meal and a scene of abundance, here the focus will lie on scenes of utopian abundance in the ANE, Jewish culture and the Greco-Roman world, as one kind of utopian scenario, together with their social contexts. This seems to be the best way to provide the necessary background for the interpretation of the NT traditions on nutritional abundance. That this cannot be more than an outline should be clear from the start. aa. Greco-Roman and Jewish Traditions Both in Greco-Roman and in (early) Jewish thought, the utopian scenario of nutritional abundance existed on a number of levels: protological myth,142 post-mortal expectations,143 futuristic utopian thought,144 as well 140

Cf. below, II.D.2. On which, cf. above, II.C.1.a.aa. 142 The clearest example is Hesiod’s Op. 167-173, see further also: Op. 109-126 (golden race) and Pindar, Ol. 2:48-95 on the fate of the virtuous. The paradise story in 141

C. Mark 6:32-44/Mark 8:1-10

55

as ethnographical fantasy.145 Boundaries between these categories are fluid: the past golden age can return, one can enter the abode of the dead (Hades or the Elysion) as a living person and enjoy its fullness there, and one can attempt to sail to the Islands of the Blessed.146 The very same dimensions are found in Jewish literature.147 In addition, in both cultural realms, entering heavenly abundance is related to a virtuous or righteous life148 or to eschatological reversal/compensation.149 The first can be shown with the example of Menelaos, who is taken away to the Elysian Fields, no doubt because of his virtue and his partially divine descent.150 The following example from Kratinos’ Plutoi shows what the imagery of the Land of Cockaigne could look like:

Gen. 2:4b-3:24 can certainly be read in this context and so can the creation hymn Ps. 104. Cf. Keel/Schroer:2002, 142-184. 143 Peres:2003, 31.78.80-81 has published and discussed a very valuable sample of epigraphic material related to NT eschatology. Some of his examples show clearly the expectation of a Land of Cockaigne. Cf. in early Jewish apocalyptic literature e.g. Test. Lev. 18:10-11, Ps. Sol. 14:3, 1 En. 17-19, 60:8, 61:12, and see also Lk. 23:43, as well as Apc. 7:16-17, 21:1-8, 22:1-2. 144 Cf. Hesiod, Op. 228-237: the vision of a ‘paradise on earth’ brought about by the just behavior of humankind and Zeus’ favor. Further: Krates, Theria (F 17 Edmonds = Athenaeus, Deipn. 3:119C, also F 14 = Athenaeus, Deipn. 6:267E-F. As biblical eschatological thought, did not focus so strongly on post-mortal conditions, it is justified to list some of the most important texts here: Ezek. 34:23-31, 36:1-15 the promises to Israel’s mountains, as well as 36:16-37, this text is typical in depicting utopian conditions in the context of the returning mercy of God upon his people. 145 E.g. the Ethiopians, busy with bringing hecatombs to the gods (Homer, Od 1:1930), or the isle of the Phaeacians (Homer, Od. 112-133). Herodotus notes the following: lower Egypt as well as Babylonia are characterized by extremely rich harvests (Hist. 1:193, 2:14), legendary Kinyps has the same property (Hist. 4:198), the Ethiopians are accused of fooling themselves by claiming that the Sun-God gives them meat (Hist. 3:18), cf. on this subject in general: Bichler:1995, 19-39.110-134. This tradition seems to be less widespread in Jewish thought, but cf. Hist. Rech. 146 Cf. Plutarch, Sert. 8, Sertorius (Roman governor of Spain, 86-72 BCE) apparently undertook an expedition to find this place. 147 Cf. above, I.D.2.b.bb.(1). 148 Cf. below on Lk. 16:19-31. 149 Cf. below on Q 6:21a. See also the motif-historical observations made by Schmitt:1996, esp. in view of Ps. 73, Mal. 3:13-21 and 1 En. 92-105. 150 There were only a limited number of candidates who would be admitted to the Elysion. Rapture was one option for heroes during their lifetime, the other was postmortal admission (e.g. Menelaus: Homer, Od. 4:563-568). The latter was also an option for others fulfilling the requirements, cf. Peres:2003, 81.

56

II. Eschatological Meals and Utopian Abundance in Mark

Kratinos, Plutoi (= Athenaeus, Deipn. 6:267E = F 160 Edmonds)151 Oi` th/j avrcai,aj kwmw|di,aj poihtai. peri. tou/ avrcai,ou bi,ou dialego,menoi o[ti ouvk h=n to,te dou,lwn crei,a toia,de evkti,qenai Krati/noj evn Plou,toij\ oi-j dh. basileu.j h=n to. palaio,n o[te toi/j a;rtoij hvstraga,lizon, ma/zai d’evn tai/si palai,straij Aivginai/ai katebe,blhnto drupepei/j bw,loij te komw/sai.

The poets of Old Comedy, when they speak of the ancient life and how in those days there was no need of slaves, give such evidence as this: Kratinos in the Plutoi: ‘whose king was Kronos of old, when they played with buns for knucklebones, and Aeginean bread, ready and ripe in its circle of leaves on the wrestling-plots was shed.’

The same concept can be illustrated by considering the OT example of Isa. 65:16e-25, which also has the characteristics of Hesiod’s farmer’s paradise,152 and by Ezek. 35:22-38. Closer to the writings of the NT are e.g. 1 En. 10:18-19, 4 Ez. 9:19, Ap. El. 1:9 and especially 2 Bar. 29:5-8, cf. also Tg. Cant. 8:2. The fact that the abundance in the texts highlighted above is related to the reign of particular deities (the chthonic Pluto/Hades and YHWH), both featuring more than one trait of a fertility deity, makes it possible to draw attention to the intimate relationship between (the provision of) nutritional abundance and ruler ideology in terms of the imitatio dei in the ANE and Greco-Roman world.153 This can be easily shown when considering the biblical portrayal of David154 on the one hand and the ideology of divine kingship in the Psalms on the other.155 As Dietrich points out, the biblical David in a (not always positive) way relates to the five main aspects of ANE royal ideology, as they may be distilled from other portrayals of kings. These are: 1. personal merits,156 2. legitimization of the rule,157 3.

151

Cf. Edmonds:1957, 74-75, for overviews, cf. Baldry:1953, 49-60, Fauth:1973, 39-

62. 152 Hesiod’s protological and utopian thinking does not deal with a Land of Cockaigne as such, but rather with the ideal conditions for farming (cf. Op. 167-173), the same can be observed among Egyptian post-mortal expectations. Cf. for an overview Milde:1994, 15-35. 153 Cf. Launderville:2003, passim, on agriculture, cf. esp. 113-119, see further: Laato:1997, esp. 13-32.88-92. 154 Cf. on this: Dietrich:2003, and idem:1980, 251-268, and Lohfink:1987a. See further: Niemann:2002, 1593-1597. 155 Another illuminating biblical text is in this respect the teaching to Lemuel in Prov. 31:1-9. 156 Dietrich:2003, 6.12 (David is handsome, valiant, a keen musician and a clever person) 157 Dietrich:2003, 6-8.12-14 (David’s lineage was anything but royal, emphasis is therefore placed on his political career as Saul’s loyal servant: marrying into his family,

C. Mark 6:32-44/Mark 8:1-10

57

political and military achievements,158 4. success for the nation’s internal peace and its prosperity and159 5. a special relationship with the deity/ deities, assuring his/their blessing.160 This categorization may well be systematized further, if the thesis is true that the divinely legitimized king shared his primary task with the central deity of a pantheon, who is, in the end, the true king. Then the task of both can be described as creation (from/against chaos) and its maintenance.161 If this is indeed the core of ANE royal ideology, then the other elements of Dietrich’s typology can be arranged accordingly: internal politics (often associated with building projects)162 relate to the maintenance of creation analogous to Gen. 1:2630163 and external politics to defending their own cosmos (i.e. the nation) against chaos, endangering it.164 The abundance of creation is therefore intrinsically linked with true kingship, which maintains creation, i.e. order, and thus assures fertility in the land.165 In this respect Ps. 72166 is paradigmatic, sketching the rule of the ideal king who is divinely instituted (v. 1), rules justly, i.e. he cares for the poor and oppressed (vv. 2-4.7.1214), and overcomes any adversaries (vv. 4c, 8-11.15). The blessing bestowed upon him (vv. 2.15) leads to an abundance of creation (v. 16), which is ‘the way it should be.’ The same notion can well be expressed in terms of a shepherd-king, who should be ‘leading, protecting, providing physical needs, bringing fertility, and carefully watching.’167 It is precisely fighting for him, remaining loyal after losing his favor, being absent from the battlefield where Saul and Jonathan fall, lamenting them, etc.). 158 Dietrich:2003, 8-9.14 (the Goliath narrative, reports of expansionary wars in e.g. 2 Sam. 8-12). 159 Dietrich:2003, 9-10.14-15 (the David-cycle focuses on political achievements, rather than nutritional prosperity). 160 Dietrich:2003, 10-11.15-16 (e.g. David’s intention of building a temple). 161 Cf. e.g. Launderville:2003, 43-47. 162 Hence, it is not insignificant that Solomon, not David, builds the temple, which is the seat of the divine monarch and the centre of the cosmos. Cf. on this below, while discussing Apc. 21:1-22:5. 163 Cf. Keel/Schroer:2002, 181-184. 164 This approach through creation theology was kindly suggested by Prof. Dr. Ernst Axel Knauf. Cf. also Keel/Schroer:2002, 132-133, and esp. the extensive discussion by Auffarth:1991, 45-77.78-106, cf. also 524-572, making the connection to the hieros gamos. 165 Cf. Launderville:2003, 331-336. 166 Cf. further: Pss. 104, 145-147. On the conceptual importance of the royal psalms within the book of Psalms, cf. Leuenberger:2004, esp. 42-92. See also the overview in Zenger:1995, 510-513. Cf. on Ps. 104 esp. Krüger:1993, 49-74. 167 McDaniel:1984, 78. On the metaphors of shepherd and flock in the Old Testament, cf. Hunziker-Rodewald:2001. The motif of the shepherd as the leader (king) of a people was well known throughout the ANE (Hunziker-Rodewald:2001, 16-38), which is therefore true for the Old Testament as well (cf. Hunziker-Rodewald:2001, passim and

58

II. Eschatological Meals and Utopian Abundance in Mark

this connection that is also reflected in the fourth petition of the Lord’s Prayer (Lk. 11:3/Mt. 6:11), which stands in this tradition of divine kingship.168 In addition, texts related to the return from exile, implying the restoration of ‘paradise’ in the land to which the exiled return, are fully in line with this. Access to foodstuffs as such,169 enjoying the work of one’s own hands and the opportunity for agriculture170 as well as the image of a just and bountiful creation171 are among the clearest expressions in this context. Manifestations of nutritional abundance within Jesus’ ministry or its promise are therefore best interpreted within this matrix. bb. Diet, Hunger and Famine in the Mediterranean World As will be clear from the short overview presented in the previous section, foodstuffs and their provision enjoyed an extensive interest in antiquity. This invites further exploration of the theme in two ways, before moving on to the analysis of the relevant NT texts. First, it is necessary to gain an impression of the diet of the middle to lower classes of the Roman Empire. Second, the significance of famine and hunger for these classes needs to be considered. It does not seems necessary to deal with Palestine separately in this respect as diet, hunger and famine played the same role as in the wider ‘Mediterranean world,’172 even if items on the menu may have differed regionally. 39-42, for a succinct overview). It is related to the patriarchs (cf. Gen. 13, 26:12-23, 3031), kingship (David-cycle, 1 Sam. 16-17), its prophetic critique (e.g. Ezek. 34:1-10, Zech. 9-14) as well as to eschatological expectations (e.g. Mich. 4:14-5:5, Ezek. 34:2324). The range of the theme can also be illustrated using the texts Hunziker-Rodewald concentrates on: Jer. 23:1-4: YHWH gathers his flock again, as in Mich. 2:12-13, and in Jer. 50:19: YHWH allows his sheep to return, promising to satiate ([B;f.Ti) them. In the context of Pss. 73-83, which revolve around the theme of divine acceptance, the motif of the shepherd and his flock is used in 74:1, 77:21, 78:52, 79:13, 80:2, mostly focusing on leadership and guidance. Mich. 7:14 is another petition to YHWH to act as a shepherd, which YHWH does indeed in Isa. 40:11, the same is true of Jer. 31:10-14, as in 50:19, with a strong emphasis on nutrition and satiation (cf. Jer. 31:12.14). Ezek. 20:37 has YHWH take Israel under his crook, in Ezek. 34:11-15 God himself guides his sheep to rich pastures, clearly suggesting the provision of abundance as one characteristic of good shepherding, which is of course the case in Ps. 23 as well, esp. in v. 5, on which cf. Hunziker-Rodewald:2001, 179-182. See further also the overviews provided by McDaniel:1984, 39-78, Beutler:1991, 18-32, Turner:1991, 33-52. 168 Cf. esp. and extensively: Kratz:1992, esp.: 27-24.39. 169 Paradigmatic: Isa. 32:1.6, further: Isa. 25:6-8, 49:9b-10, 55:1-2 170 Isa. 32:16-20, Ps. 107:1-42, note the hunger and thirst imagery in vv. 5.9, Ezek. 36:7-11. 171 E.g. Ezek. 36:29-30. Cf. above, I.D.2.b.bb.(1). 172 The findings of Garnsey:1999 and Hamel:1990 agree with each other. The earlier period in Israel is covered by Borowski:2003, 63-74. See also Garnsey:1998, esp. 226-

C. Mark 6:32-44/Mark 8:1-10

59

As society was stratified,173 so was the diet of the layers of society, featuring everything from a minimum of low-prestige and low-quality foodstuffs to an overabundance of high-prestige and high-quality foodstuffs.174 The work of Galen witnesses to this,175 as well as archaeological findings and some documents illustrating the acceptable minimum of food for a single person. The following two examples are taken from a Greek context and from a Jewish context.176 Athenaeus, Deipnosophistae 1:54E177

m. Ketub. 5:8178

My man is a pauper and I am an old woman with a daughter and a son, this boy and this nice girl beside, five in all. If three of us get a dinner, the other two must share with them only a tiny barley cake. We wail miserably when we have nothing, and our complexions grown pale with lack of food. The elements and sum of our livelihood are these: bean, lupine, greens, turnip, pulse, vetch, beechnut, iris bulb, cicada, chickpea, wild pears, and that god-given inheritance of our mother country, darling of my heart, a dried fig.

If a husband maintained his wife at the hands of a third person, he may not grant her less than two kabs of wheat or four kabs of barley [every week]. R. José said: Only R. Ishmael provided her with barley [at such an estimation] because he lived near Edom. He must also give her half a kab of pulse and half a log of oil and a kab of dried figs or a mina of fig-cake; and if he has none of these, he must provide her with other produce in their stead.

These two texts are eloquent in themselves and illustrative of the subsistence level of large numbers of inhabitants of the Roman Empire.179 Fish and meat will have figured marginally.180

252, on the menu and on ‘Famine in History,’ on 272-292, as well as Garnsey:1988, 218268. Cf.: further Applebaum:1976, 631-700, Safrai:1994, esp. 104-221, on the agricultural ideal of the rabbi’s, cf. 304-315, and Oakman:1986, 17-35, on the character of production in first-century Palestine, as well as 37-91, on first-century economic distribution in the same area. See further: Harland:2002, 511-527 and Brothwell/ Brothwell:1998 , 13-174.175-192. 173 Cf. the useful diagram presented by Carter:2000, 17-21, esp. 18, which draws on Arlandson:1997, 22. A similar image is presented by Green:1995, 10 174 Cf. Garnsey:1999, 113-127, Davidson:1999, 256-273, see also Weeber:2003, 9-14. 175 Galen (2nd century CE), though from an upper class background (as the title De subtiliante diaeta - On Slimming Diets shows he was also writing for this audience), is in this respect one of the foremost literary sources for the diet of the ordinary people as he pays extensive attention to it in his De alimentorum facultatibus. 176 Cf. Garnsey:1999, 115-116. 177 Translation: Gulick:1927. 178 Cf. t. Ketub. 5.8:267, Ketub. 5:8. Hamel:1990, 40n296. Translation taken from: Danby:1933. 179 Cf. for discussions of nutritional value: Garnsey:1999, 19-21. 180 Cf. e.g. Garnsey:1999, 116-117.

60

II. Eschatological Meals and Utopian Abundance in Mark

Though a mixture of imagination and reality, the documents illustrating the culinary snobbery in the upper class of the Roman Empire contain more than a kernel of historical truth.181 Illustrative are not only the extensive lists of exotic and exquisite foodstuffs in Petronius’ Satyricon182 or the discussions of the same in Athenaeus’ work,183 but also Gellius’ Attic Nights,184 Achestratus’ The Life of Luxury (4th century BCE)185 as well as the work of Apicius, whose banquets were so bountiful that they drove him into bankruptcy and suicide. The following recipe is taken from his work and serves here to illustrate the range of options, especially when compared with the examples cited above: Apicius, De re coquinaria 6.6:1186 In fenicoptero: Fenicopterum eliberas, lavas, ornas, includis in caccabum, adicies aquam, salem, anethum, et aceti modicum. Dimidia coctura alligas fasciculum porri et coriandri, ut coquatur. Prope cocturam defritum mittis, coloras. Adicies in mortarium piper, cuminum, coriandrum, laseris radicem, mentam, rutam, fricabis, suffundis acetum, adicies caryotam, is de suo sibi perfundis. Reexinanies in eundem caccabum, amulo obliges, ius perfundis et infers. Idem facies et in psitacco.

Flamingo. Pluck the flamingo, wash, truss and put it in a saucepan; add water, dill and a little vinegar. Halfway through the cooking, make a bouquet of leek and coriander and let it cook with the bird. When it is nearly done, add defrutum to give it color. Put in a mortar pepper, caraway, coriander, asafoetida root, mind, rue; pound; moisten with vinegar, add Jericho dates, pour over some of the cooking-liquor. Put it in the same saucepan, thicken with cornflour, pour the sauce over the bird and serve. The same recipe can also be used for parrot.

Thus, the situation can be summarized as follows: the rich could choose from a large scale of high-quality foodstuffs and drinks, the poor (er) could only take what they could get: small amounts of low-quality foodstuffs. Among all strata, however, women of childbearing age and children were especially vulnerable, as they lacked reserves and had less than healthy

181 182

Cf. for a well-illustrated overview: Weeber:2003, 15-36. Cf. Petronius, Sat. 31:9-11, 33:3-8, 34:6-7, 35:1-6, 36:1-37:1, 40:1-41:1, 47:8-

48:1. 183

Cf. Athenaeus, Deipn. 2:11-14, 4:143-153. Cf. Aulus Gellius, Noct. Att. 13:11. 185 Cf. Achestratus, Frag. 186 Apicius, De re coquinaria, 92, text taken from: Maier:1991. See there also the biographical information and a note on the Roman cookbook, 247-260, the flamingo recipe does probably go back to Apicius himself (251). Translation: Garnsey:1999, 113. Cf. on Apicius suicide: Seneca, Cons. 10:8-9. 184

C. Mark 6:32-44/Mark 8:1-10

61

alimentary habits.187 Furthermore, the diet can be characterized as follows.188 Except for beer-drinking Egypt and Gaul, water and cheap wine were the drink of the lower classes; exquisite wines that of the very rich.189 Poor quality barley (bread) was the staple food of the poor;190 high quality wheat bread that of the well-off. The poor were able to add salt,191 some legumes or pulses,192 sometimes vegetables,193 and, in ascending order of exceptionality, fruits,194 fish,195 and meat196 to their diet; whereas the rich were more able to add fruits, fish and meat, eventually entering the arena of culinary snobbery. At the peak of this pyramid of prestige foods stands high quality red meat. As indicated, a short discussion of famine, hunger, malnutrition, and undernourishment is necessary here too, not only to avoid terminological confusion,197 but also to allow for an informed response to the thesis that it 187

Cf. Garnsey:1999, 100-108, on weaning, cf. e.g. Soranus, Gyn. 2.17-18 and Galen, San., 10:31, the latter suggesting bread as the first food to wean children on (which is to say: exclusively bread). See also Garnsey:1998, 253-271, esp. 264-270. 188 Cf. in general Garnsey:1999, 118-127, Hamel:1990, 8-56. 189 Cf. the remark of Athenaeus about beer being invented for those who could not afford wine (Deipn. 134B). Still, some ordinary Egyptians also drank cheap wine (cf. Strabo, Geogr. 17:1.14). An exemplary study is Tschernia:1986, for the Palestinian context cf. Broshi:2001b, and 2001c, as well as Dar:1995, 326-335. Cf. further: Garnsey: 1999, 118-119, Hamel:1990, 21-22. 190 On the wheat/barley discussion, cf. Galen, Aliment. 6:507, but also Origen Hom. Gen. 12:5, who, while comparing the word sown in the Law to barley and that in the Gospels to wheat, also comments on the nutritional value of both, cf. Garnsey:1999, 1721, also 119-122, further: Hamel:1990, 11-15. 191 Cf. e.g. Hamel:1990, 21. 192 Cf. Hamel:1990, 15-17, a variety of pulses and beans, such as lentils were used, normally after cooking and pounding them, cf. Garnsey:1999, 15, and idem:1998, 201213.214-225.226-252. 193 Including onions, garlic, leek, squash, cabbage, radish and beets, cf. for an overview: Hamel:1990 17-18. 194 Cf. for Palestine e.g. Hamel:1990, 9-10. 195 The opportunity for consuming fish depended of course largely on the availability of a sea, a river or a lake. On the situation in Athens, a city, however close to the sea, which never switched to a fish-centered diet, cf. Garnsey:1999, 116-117, focusing on fish eaten by the lower social strata, referring to evidence collected by Athenaeus. For Palestine, cf. Hamel:1990, 20: even in Palestine, fish was only common close to rivers or lakes as transport and conservation was a problem. 196 Cf. Hamel:1990, 19-21, Garnsey:1999, 122-127, focusing on its function as a male prestige food (therefore well represented on the army menu). 197 Useful definitions, apart from a more extensive terminological discussion by Garnsey:1998, 272-292, are those given by Garnsey:1983, 6: ‘[F]amine is a critical shortage of essential foodstuffs leading through hunger to starvation and a substantially

62

II. Eschatological Meals and Utopian Abundance in Mark

was the fear of starvation (as a result of famine) that suggested to many the idea of the Land of Cockaigne. In his studies of famine, hunger, malnutrition and undernourishment, again Garnsey has shown that the picture is more diverse than this. As one would have expected on the basis of the previous section, the Mediterranean world was not a unified whole as far as the level nutrition was concerned. Overall, middle and upper classes as well as the army can be assumed to have been relatively well fed (and healthy), with a decrease of this in the lower classes, suffering from two problems in this respect. On the one hand, as Garnsey puts it, they had enough food to survive, but not enough to remain healthy or to accumulate physical reserves.198 Furthermore, also some dietary characteristics made them vulnerable to a number of diseases and disorders as minerals and vitamins were often lacking in the available foodstuffs. In addition to this, hunger and nutritional conditions were not so much a problem on the level the availability of food, but rather on the level of its actual supply.199 The fact that in a highly stratified society many were subsisting on a minimum explains why famine, when it struck, could be so disastrous: the bodies of the majority of the population did not have the resources to deal with it for a longer period of time. It should be added, however, that in general the number of true famines was limited, though periods of hunger and having to subsist on a level (just) below the minimum, occurred more often. Crop failure caused by drought was its main reason. cc. Concluding Observations Having provided an overview of some aspects of the Land of Cockaigne and its socio-historical context, it is reasonable to assume that two issues are of central importance. First, the strong relationship between social stratum and access to foodstuffs in a quantitative and qualitative sense should be stressed. Second, the persistent vulnerability of the lower social strata to hunger and the effects of malnutrition as well as underincreased mortality rate in a community or region,’ and shortage is defined as: ‘[a] shortterm reduction in the amount of available foodstuffs, as indicated by rising prices, popular discontent, hunger, in the worst cases bordering on starvation.’ Garnsey goes on to argue convincingly that whereas the later was relatively frequent, the former was not (Garnsey:1988, 8-39), the situation among the ‘subjects of Rome’ is discussed on 244268. His findings are in agreement with those presented in an earlier volume: Garnsey/ Whittaker:1983, cf. in this volume especially: Jameson:1983, 6-16, Rathborne:1983, 4555, Garnsey:1983b, 56-65. Cf. for a more detailed discussion of famine and hunger in Palestine: Hamel:1990, 44-52. In 38-39 CE a drought occurred (cf. Josephus, Ant. 18:285), 45-46 CE a famine is recorded (Josephus, Ant. 18:8, 20:51-53:101), 69-70 CE in the context of the Jewish War (Josephus, B. J. 5:409-410.571). 198 Cf. Garnsey:1988, 271. 199 Garnsey:1988, 271.

C. Mark 6:32-44/Mark 8:1-10

63

nourishment should be taken into consideration. The fact that these phenomena were widely spread throughout the highly stratified Mediterranean world explains why the image of the Land of Cockaigne is equally widely spread. It is this background against which NT texts dealing with an unusual overabundance of foodstuffs should be interpreted, as well as texts expressing a yearning for nutrition. 2. Mark 6:32-44/Mark 8:1-10 a. Tradition-Historical Observations A discussion of the history of tradition of the narratives of the miraculous feedings needs to address the relationship of the Mt. and Lk. accounts to the Mk. narratives, the relationship of the synoptic traditions to the narrative in Jn. 6:1-15, as well as the relationship of the two Mk. accounts to one another, and their prehistory. In accordance with the structure of this study, here only the two Mk. accounts will be interpreted. In addition, the tradition history of the Jn. account will be discussed on its own at a later stage, as it is part of a larger narrative relevant to this study, and possibly represents a relatively independent string of tradition.200 Throughout the history of interpretation, a large number of proposals have been put forward concerning the meaning of the story as well as its historical background or core. Not all of them need to be discussed extensively here, however. It is better to refer to the overviews provided by Luz201 and Davies/Allison202 in view of the Mt. miraculous feedings. These overviews apply to Mk. too as far as the scope of the interpretative traditions and the question of historicity are concerned. In spite of the large amount of minor agreements of Lk. 9:10b-17 and Mt. 14:13-21 over against Mk. 6:32-44, it is still well possible to assume Mt. and Lk. redaction of Mk.,203 rather than vice versa. The dependence of 200

Cf. below, V.D.3.c. Luz:1997, 398-399, focusing on the ‘meaning’ of the story, listing salvationhistorical, ethical, social, spiritual, eucharistic as well as ecclesiological readings of the text. 202 Davies/Allison:1991, 483-484, offer an overview of attempts to isolate an historical core from the tradition and list the following solutions: the feeding was in reality a sharing of foodstuffs; Jesus’ ascetic lifestyle was later understood as miraculous; the number of participants is inflated; the stories constitute a misunderstanding of a speech of Jesus about bread; the narratives are a mere legend inspired by OT traditions; the stories are to be understood ‘sacramentally,’ or as a repetition of a manna miracle. 203 Cf. Davies/Allison:1991, 478-480: avnecw,rhsen (Mt. 14:13)/u`pecw,rhsen (Mt. 9:10) vs. avph/lqon (Mk. 6:32); avnacwre,w is a Mt. favorite, the Lk. use of u`pocwre,w is probably inspired by Lk. 5:16 (cf. Mk. 1:56). Mt. 14:13/Lk. 9:11, oi` de. o;cloi (…) hvkolou,qhsan auvtw/| is without Mk. parallel: this is a favorite construction of Mt. (cf. Mt. 4:25, 8:1, 12:15, 14:13, 19:2, 20:29, Mk. 5:24, Lk. 7:9, 9:11, Jn. 6:2), whereas also Lk. 7:9 is 201

64

II. Eschatological Meals and Utopian Abundance in Mark

Mt. 15:32-39 on Mk. 8:1-10 is even less questioned,204 as is the dependence of Lk. 9:12-17 on Mk. 6:32-44.205 Both issues require no further discussion here. The question of Johannine dependence on the Synoptics, esp. on Mk., is much more debated. For the purposes of this thesis it is decisive that Riniker has shown that the relationship between John and the Synoptics, at least as far as Jn 6:1-15 is concerned, cannot be a of direct ‘cut and paste’ kind, as it is impossible to retrace with any certainty traits of synoptic redaction in Jn.’s version of the narrative.206 This only leaves open the options of Jn. access to traditions also available to the Synoptics or the option of the latter’s second life in oral tradition – the latter option would also explain the Jn. use of the genre of the gospel.207 These observations make a further step possible in retracing the tradition-historical path: attempting to move beyond the Mk. doublet, as it redactional; Mk. 6:34 o[ti h=san w`j pro,bata mh. e;conta poime,na has no parallel in Mt. and Lk., Mt. has moved the quotation from Num. 27:17 to 9:36 and its omission fits well into Lk.’s abbreviating tendency. In Mk. 6:34 Jesus teaches, in Mt. 14:14/Lk. 9:11 he heals, this change might have been effectuated by the connection of the verb splagcni,zomai with healing (cf. Mt. 9:36, 14:14, 15:32, 20:34, Mk. 1:41 v.l., 8:2, 9.22, Lk. 7:13), rather than teaching. The o[ti in Mk. 6:35 is omitted in Mt. 14:15/Lk. 9:12, but fits well into the Mt. and Lk. tendency to use less o[ti recitativum than Mk. (cf. BDR § 470.1). The expansion of auvtou,j (Mk. 6:36) into tou.j o;clouj (Mt. 14:15)/to.n o;clon (Lk. 9:12) agrees well with similar clarifications elsewhere, e.g. Mt. 15:39, Lk. 9:16; the Mt. (14:15) and Lk. (9:13) brw,mata might have been inspired by the context. The change of kai, (Mk. 6:36) to oi` de. (Mt. 14:17/Lk. 9:13) cannot be decisive as it might be purely stylistic. Mt. and Lk. omit the dialogue in Mk. 6:37-38, probably to remove the sarcastic remark of the disciples in v. 37. This also explains the next (partial) agreement in Mt. 14:15/Lk. 9:15. To. perisseu/on (Mt. 14:20/Lk. 9:17) can be understood as a correction of the construction in Mk. 6:43; finally w`sei, (Mt. 14:21/Lk. 9:14) is often redactional (cf. Mt. 3:16, 9:36, Lk. 3:23, 9:28, 22:41.59, 23:44, 24:11). Cf. also Neirynck:1974, esp. 112117, and Ennulat:1994, 137-179, suggesting a different version of Mk. on Lk.’s and Mt.’s desks. In spite of this, one cannot definitively exclude other solutions as Luz cautions (Luz:1990, 396), retaining that one cannot exclude the influence of a ‘deutero-Mk.’ redaction or the influence of oral traditions completely, even if it seems that influence of oral traditions would make the hypothesis of a deutero-Mk. superfluous. Also the influence of a parallel tradition contained in Q seems to be unlikely (with Bovon:1989, 467). Fitzmyer:1981, 763, argues that a different Vorlage than Mk. is difficult to prove. 204 Cf. Luz:1997, 439, Davies/Allison:1991, 562. The Mt. tendency to assimilate the two accounts to one another might be indicative of this dependence, i.e. that Mt. is taking over both accounts from the same source. 205 Cf. Schürmann:1990, 509, with on p. 509-510nc a bibliography up to 1968, further: Fitzmyer:1981, 761, Bovon:1989, 467, Schweizer:1986a, 101. 206 Cf. Riniker:1999, 41-67. In agreement also: Schenke:1983, 38, Kollmann:1990a, 199-200. 207 See for a discussion of the problem with the same conclusion: Meier:1994, 951956, and esp. Labahn:2000, 231-246, on which cf.: Borgen:2002, 215-223, drawing on earlier work, see esp. the discussion with Neirynck in Dungan:1990.

C. Mark 6:32-44/Mark 8:1-10

65

is commonly assumed that both reflect a tradition that is in the core the same.208 The options that the two stories reflect two incidents from Jesus’ life209 or that one version is merely a Mk. derivate of the other210 are both implausible.211 The question remains to what extent Mk. redactional as well as traditional elements can be found in either text. In Mk. 8:1-10, the redactional pattern is quite straightforward: it is generally assumed that the whole of v. 1 (cf. the reduplication with v. 2), the reference to the three days in v. 2 (in case it refers to the resurrection indeed), in v. 3 avpo. makro,qen (cf. Mk. 5:6, 11:13, 14:54, 15:40), and v. 7 (as it works as an appendix) are redactional.212 V. 10 is, finally, a redactional bridge to the next episode (Mk. 8:11-13). Much of the rest of the pericope may be regarded as traditional, especially in view of its high number of hapax legomena.213 This, however, does not mean that it is more authentic than the version in Mk. 6.214 For Mk. 6:30-44 the situation is more complicated. Mk. 6:30-33 contains probably practically no traditional elements, as these verses integrate the multiplication story into the larger narrative block of Mk. 6:6b-56.215 The same might be true for v. 34, as the motif of compassion as it occurs there does not figure in the dialogue opening the feeding proper

208

So Labahn:2000, 115, in his note 2 a representative overview of voices pro and con is given, which needs not be repeated here. Labahn is in agreement with Masuda:1982, 191-219. 209 Cf. Gundry:1993, 395-401. Against this option: e.g. Schenke:1983, 13-16, so also Meier:1994, 957. 210 With e.g. Gnilka:1978, 300, Ernst:1981, 189, cf. for a critical overview: Meier:1994, 957-958. So, however, Fowler:1981, 181, ‘Rather, one story is traditional (8:1-10) and the other a Markan composition (6:30-44).’ Cf. the analysis of Fowler:1981, 43-90. What mainly speaks against this is the much stronger focus on Jesus in Mk. 8:110, which is unlikely to have been removed in Mk. 6:32-44. Cf. Fowler:1981, 69-90. Donfried:1980, 95-103, assumes Mk. duplication of one traditional story. Labahn:2000, 117-147, arguing for the Mk. redaction of two related traditions, takes Act. Joh. 93 into account as well. 211 Cf. also the rejection of this option by Van Cangh:1988, 309-346, esp. 324-327. Similarly: e.g. Bammel:1984, 211-240, esp. 211-212, and Gnilka:1978, 255, Kollmann: 1990a, 199. 212 Diff.: Gnilka:1978, 301. 213 The account in Mk. 8:1-10 is commonly taken to be traditional apart from vv. 1-2, 7 and 10, cf. Fowler:1981, 47-54; the remaining verses are characterized by a large number of hapax legomena, v. 2: prosme,nw, v. 3: nh/stij, evklu,omai, h[kw, v. 4: evrhmi,a, v. 7: ivcqu,dion, v. 8: peri,sseuma of which two also occur in v. 10 (me,rh Dalmanouqa,), cf. the discussion by Fowler:1981, 54-57. See also Labahn:2000, 136-140. 214 Cf. the discussion by Kollmann:1990a, 199. 215 Fowler:1981, 69, Labahn:2000, 118, Pesch:1976, 345, Gnilka:1978, 254, Schenke:1983, 50-51, Bolyki:1998, 97, Lührmann:1987, 118, Klosinski:1988, 146-147.

66

II. Eschatological Meals and Utopian Abundance in Mark

(vv. 35-37) and is possibly inspired by the HB/OT quotation216 in the same verse.217 The verse itself might still contain a core of traditional material, in its present form, however, it shows Mk. characteristics.218 In vv. 35-37, more of a traditional core might be reflected,219 and vv. 38-40 probably reflect the tradition nearly completely faithfully (with the possible exception of the fish in Mk. 6:38).220 The same might be true for vv. 41-44, even if the fish in vv. 41.43 are problematic.221 Mk. 8:1-10 is therefore clearly less heavily edited than Mk. 6:34-44 and, because of the less fantastic numbers, might in this respect preserve an older tradition. The stronger focus on Jesus in Mk. 8:2-3 as well as the accentuated role of the disciples in Mk. 8:6 points in a different direction, however.222 The most plausible thesis is therefore that Mk. 6:32-44 and 8:1-10 represent different pre-Mk. developments of one core tradition. An exhaustive reconstruction cannot be offered at this point. It is seems best to conclude that the tradition underlying both narratives probably contained the following elements: the presence of Jesus and a crowd at a lonely place (Mk. 6:34, 8:3, Jn. 6:2.5), a lack of foodstuffs (Mk. 6:35, 8:2, Jn. 6:7), Jesus’ compassion with the crowd (Mk. 6:34, 8:1, possibly implied in Jn.), a dialogue with the (skeptic) disciples (Mk. 6:35-38, 8:2-4, Jn. 6:5-9), the establishment of the available foodstuffs (Mk. 6:38, 8:5, Jn. 6.9), the order to the crowd to recline (Mk. 6:39, 8:6, Jn. 6:10), Jesus’ thanksgiving and the distribution of the food (Mk. 6:41, 8:6, Jn. 6:11), the crowd’s eating and satiation (Mk. 6:42, 8:8, Jn. 6:11), a note on the leftovers (Mk. 6:4344, 8:8-9, Jn. 6:13), and a remark about the size of the crowd (Mk. 6:44,

216

Possibly, but not necessarily taken from Ezek. 34:5, contra: Bammel:1984, 212-

213. 217 On this, cf. Klosinski:1988, 147-148, and extensively: Labahn:2000, 120-123: in Mk. 6:34 the motif of compassion is not, as in Mk. 8:2, directly related to the lack of foodstuffs, but to Jesus’ teaching (a central Mk. theme as such, cf. Mk. 1:21-22, 2:13, 4:1.2, 6:2-6, 8:31, 9:31, 10:1, 11:17, 12:35, 14:49, see: Labahn:2000, 120-121, 121n29); it is part of Mk.’s characterization of Jesus on the basis of HB/OT traditions concerning good and bad shepherds (cf. Ezek. 34:23-24, 37:24, Jer. 3:15, 23:4, Mich. 5:3). In rabbinic tradition, Moses could be well depicted as a shepherd as well, cf. Billerbeck: 1922, 755.972, 2, 209.536.538. 218 Labahn:2000, 122: ‘Mitleid und das hirtenlose Volk des AT-Zitats bilden einen Interpretationszusammenhang, der im Lehren Jesu kulminiert.’ Cf. also Gnilka:1978, 255. 219 Cf. the analysis by Labahn:2000, 124-130, as well as that by Klosinski:1988, 147150. 220 See Labahn:2000, 130-131, Klosinski:1988, 150-151. 221 It is not necessary, however, that Mk. has added them. See Labahn:2000, 131132.135-136, as well as Klosinski:1988, 152-155. 222 Cf. e.g. Gundry:1993, 393, Schenke:1983, 88, Kollmann:1990a, 199.

C. Mark 6:32-44/Mark 8:1-10

67

8:9, Jn. 6:9).223 To what extent this tradition reflects an event from the life of Jesus is much debated. While not rehearsing the various options here, it seems plausible to argue that an attractive possibility for a historical ‘core’ underlying these narratives – in spite of the clear simulation of 2 Kgs. 4:42-44, the relationship with manna traditions and the presence of elements of eucharistic catechesis (cf. infra) – lies in the early Christian interpretation of Jesus’ table fellowship. The latter was, presumably in the context of early Christian communal meals, a locus of christological and ecclesiological reflection of which the miraculous feedings can be the result.224 b. Motif-Historical Observations aa. Miraculous Feedings Though Theißen is no doubt right in classifying the traditions of the multiplication of the bread as ‘gift miracles,’225 thereby placing them into the wider context of the history of religions in which gift miracles are more than common,226 it is also well possible to point to one specific reference text from the HB/OT: 2 Kgs. 4:42-44.227 This text shows a number of 223 See Labahn:2000, 115, and further Schenke:1983, 35-38.40-42, Meier:1994, 959. Cf. also Gnilka:1978, 255-256. 224 In this sense also Luz:1997, 397-398. Cf. further: Schenke:1983, 111-117, Meier: 1994, 966-967. Gnilka:1978, 263, prefers to think of a special event in Jesus’ life, however, cf. similarly Kollmann:1990a, 203, Bolyki:1998, 93. Schweizer:1983, 75, prefers to think of a ‘Wanderlegende.’ Probably representative for many others, Keener: 2003a, 663-664, argues against ‘antisupernaturalist presuppositions’ and in favor of Jn.’s historical reliability. Similarly: Hagner:1995, 416-417. 225 Cf. Theißen:1974a, 111-114, esp. 112, where he also presents the religio-historical parallel in b. Taan. 24b about the wife of R. Chanina b. Dosa. Theißen’s classification is an improvement with respect to Bultmann’s form critical classification as a ‘nature miracle,’ cf. Bultmann:1990, 230-233, esp. 231-233. For a similar point of view, cf. e.g. Pesch:1976, 34, Gnilka:1978, 257-258, Lührmann:1987, 119, and Kollmann:1990a, 197. Bammel:1984, 218, draws attention to the relative popularity of precisely the feeding miracle in apocryphal Christian works (cf. Act. Joh. 93, Act. Paul. 79, Act. Thom. 47, Ep. Apost. 5, and esp. Sib. Or. 1:356-359 as the climax of Jesus’ miracles). 226 Jewish and Hellenistic parallels are listed by Kollmann:1990a, 203n63, and Van Cangh:1988, esp. 309-321, where with respect to the ‘divine man’ special reference is made to the biography of Apollonius of Tyana by Flavius Philostratus, Philo’s description of Moses in Vit. Mos., Flavius Josephus’ description of Elisha in Ant. 9:45-94 as well as to rabbinic parallels: b. Taan. 23a (Honi), 24b-25a, further b. Yoma 39a (Simeon the Righteous) and b. Shab. 33b (Simeon b. Yochai and his son), cf. also the example presented by Körtner:1984, 24-35, here: p. 24. Cf. also Grant:1982, 1-15. 227 So e.g. Ernst:1981, 190, Bolyki:1998, 94-96, Van Cangh:1988, 321; this is practically exegetical consensus. Van Cangh:1988, 323, lists the agreements between the stories. See also Pesch:1976, 354, for an overview of the similarities. For a synopsis of

68

II. Eschatological Meals and Utopian Abundance in Mark

parallels with (the core of) the gift miracle in Mk. 6:32-44/8:1-10. Even though the setting of 2 Kgs. 4:42-44 is different (cf. 2 Kgs. 4:42)228 the logistic problem remains similar.229 The dialogue in 2 Kgs. 4:42-43, though not mentioning any emotions of Elisha (e.g. spla,gcnon, cf. Mk. 6:34), is comparable to that of the disciples and Jesus in Mk. 6:35-38/8:15. Especially the commands of Elisha and Jesus in 2 Kgs. 4:42 and Mk. 6:37parr. are very similar, as are the answers of Elisha’s servant and Jesus’ disciples.230 It should be noted that Elisha takes the initiative in 2 Kgs. 4:42 in a way quite similar to that of Jesus in Mk. 8:1-2/Mt. 15:32/Jn. 6:5, this element might therefore be more archaic than suggested earlier. The conclusion of 2 Kgs. 4:42-44, namely the reference to abundant satiation,231 occurs with a different wording in the NT texts.232 It will be clear that the much longer NT narratives contain a number of elements foreign to 2 Kgs. 4:42-44.233 Still, the agreements listed above suffice to establish the connectedness of these narratives. Striking differences are, apart from the fact that the NT traditions clearly outbid Elisha’s miracle quantitatively,234 the emphasis on the location of the miracle, the reclining of the participants as well as Jesus’ explicit performance of the role of the host of this meal.235 Finally, and as has already been indicated above,236 it should be stressed that the provision of nutrition was regarded as one of the primary tasks of a deity, and of his (/her) regent: the monarch. The miraculous feedings can well be seen to interact with this concept as well, especially as both Jesus and Elisha are prophetic characters, controversially representing the divine rule.

the ministries of Elijah, Elisha and Jesus cf. Guillaume:1999, 21-23. An intentional copying of both 2 Kgs. 4:42-44 as well as 1 Kgs. 17:16, 2 Kgs. 4:6 to arrive at two feeding accounts is questionable, however. Schenke:1983, 43-46.94-86, points not only to 1 Kgs. 17:7-17 and 2 Kgs. 4:1-7.42-44 but also to Jn. 2:1-12 and Lk. 5:1-11. See also Bovon:1993, 26-31, esp. 28-29. 228 2 Kgs. 4:42 LXX: a;rtouj kriqi,nouj, cf. Jn. 6:9 for the similar kind of bread; barley bread was commonly associated with the lower social layers, cf. Hamel:1990, 35, and Labahn:2000, 173-174, see: Pliny the Elder Nat. 18:15.71-75, Josephus, B. J. 5:427, Seneca, Ep. 18:10, Philo, Spec. 3:57. 229 Cf. also the reference to famine (limo,j) in 2 Kgs. 4:38. 230 Cf. 2 Kgs. 4:43, cf. Mk. 6:37, 8:4, Mt. 14:17, 15:33, Lk. 9:13 (Jn. 6:5). 231 Cf. also Ruth 2:14, 2 Chr. 31:10. 232 Mt. 14:20, 15:37, Mk. 6:42, 8:8, Lk. 9:17, Jn. 6:26. 233 Van Cangh:1988, 324. 234 Including the amount of foodstuffs, the number of participants as well as the collection of the baskets with leftovers. 235 Cf. Meier:1994, 960-961. 236 Cf. above, II.C.1.a.aa.

C. Mark 6:32-44/Mark 8:1-10

69

bb. Manna and the Exodus The motif-history of the Jewish-Christian manna traditions needs to be mentioned here because of the relationship between Jesus’ feeding in the wilderness and the provision of manna during Israel’s wilderness wanderings. Apart from the more general concept of food miraculously provided by the deity, for which parallels abound, the starting point for the JewishChristian manna tradition lies in the Old Testament traditions on Israel’s wilderness wanderings after the exodus from Egypt.237 Eschatological elements in the manna tradition emerge for example in the Tg. Ps.-J. Ex. 16:4.15, in which manna is protologically located in heaven.238 In the NT, the manna tradition plays a role of importance explicitly in 1 Cor. 10:1-14, Jn. 6:30-51 and Apc. 2:17. Though the text in 1 Cor. 10:1-14 is not directly related to the consumption of manna/the bread of life, it does share a certain typological way of thinking (cf. 1 Cor. 10:6) with Jn. 6:30-51 and also draws on the muttering of the Israelites in the desert.239 Both Apc. 2:17 as well as Jn. 6:30-51 add to the early Jewish evidence found in 2 Bar. 29:8, Sib. Or. 7:149, Hist. Rech. 13:2, and (later) rabbinic traditions that the return of manna is one of the characteristics of the world to come.240 In addition to this, Jos. As. 16:1-17:4 seems to be close to Apc. 2:17, Jn. 6:30-51, and 2 Bar. 29:8 (cf. Sib. Or. 7:149) as in these texts the partaking of the honeycomb/manna/bread of life is closely associated with gaining access to salvation. In fact, Jos. As. provides the only relevant extra-NT parallel to the Jn. expression ‘bread of life.’241 As has been suggested by many, all versions of the miraculous feeding contain elements that might be reminiscent of the HB/OT Exodus traditions at large as well.242 Allison243 observes the following agreements between the miraculous feedings in the gospels and the manna traditions: 237

Esp. Ex. 16:1-36, Num. 11:6-9, 21:5, Deut. 8:3.16, Josh. 5:12, Pss. 78:23-25, 105:40, Neh. 9:15.20, Wisd. 16:20. Cf. extensively Maiberger:1983 1-2, esp. part one, 3322 (with notes in part 2), on NT and early Jewish texts: 234-264, Malina:1968, esp. 141. Cf. also Ps.-Philo, Ant. Bib. 10 and Josephus, Ant. 3:26-32, Philo’s interpretations are found in Mut. 259-260 and Leg. 3:162-168, on this cf. Borgen:1965, 99-121.122-146. 238 Cf. on this: Malina:1968, 43-63. 239 Cf. the occurrence of goggu,zw, 1 Cor. 10:10, Jn. 6:41. On 1 Cor. 10:1-14, cf. Konradt:2003a, 370-386, on the muttering, cf. 377-379. 240 Rabbinic evidence is collected in Billerbeck:1924, 480-482, cf. e.g. Num. Rab. 11:2 on Num. 6:22, Qoh. Rab. 1:9.28, Gen. Rab. 82:8 on Gen. 35:17 241 Cf. on this especially Burchard:1996, 263-295, esp. 280-282. The expression is found in Jos. As. 8:5.9, 15:5, 16:16, 19:5, 21:21 and Jn. 6:35.38 cf. also 6:51. 242 So e.g. Van Cangh:1988, 321. See also in general: Hessing:1966, 21-30.39-50.5160, and Schenke:1983, 104-107. 243 Allison:1993, 239.

70

II. Eschatological Meals and Utopian Abundance in Mark

1. manna was identified as bread,244 2. in Mk. 6:40 the people sit down in an organized way similar to the descriptions in Ex. 18:21 (cf. 1QS 2:21-22, CD 13:1-2), 3. according to Wisd. 19:12 (cf. Num 11:31-32, see Ex. 16:13) the quails come out of the sea and Sif. Num. 95 notes that the Israelites ate fish in the desert, 4. both Jesus, his followers and the Israelites are fed in a deserted place after having crossed a sea,245 5. the description of the crowd as being like sheep without a shepherd in Mk. 6:34 might be a Mosaic reference as well (cf. Num. 27:17, even if h[,ro? is here used with reference to Joshua), 246 6. both manna and bread were, according to Num 11:9 and Mk. 6:35, provided later in the day, 7. as the Pentateuch contains two narratives about manna (cf. Ex. 16:1-36, Num. 11:1-20), so Mk. has two accounts of a miraculous feeding, 8. there is some shared vocabulary between the Exodus accounts and the multiplication narratives.247 Apart from these directly intertextual observations, it should be added (9) that the theme of an eschatological exodus was alive and well in the first-century, both in the DSS and beyond.248 The same is true for the expectation of an

244

Deut. 8:3, Neh. 9:15, Ps. 78:24, cf. Jn. 6:31-59. Cf. Mk. 6:32 eivj e;rhmon to,pon (par. Mt. 14:13) Mk. 8:4 evpV evrhmi,aj (par. Mt. 15:33, evn evrhmi,a|), Lk. 9:12 (w-de evn evrh,mw| to,pw| evsme,n). It might be added that the e;rhmoj to,poj is also left by crossing water (Mk. 6:45, 8:10, Mt. 14:22, 15:39, Jn. 6:1617). Though e;rhmoj to,poj (Mk. 6:31) is in the LXX nowhere used for the desert of the Exodus, e;rhmoj is used in this context often, however (cf. only in Ex.: 13:18.20, 14:3.1112, 15:22 (2), 16:1.3.10.19.32, 17:1, 18:5, 19:1-2, 23:31). In addition to this, the larger framework of feedings in the wilderness provides the fit with the Exodus tradition, cf. e.g. Mauser:1963, 21. References to texts describing God’s care in the wilderness are given by Kittel:1935, 654-657. With Gibson:1995, 60-61, it may be assumed that desert and Exodus were closely associated. 246 Cf. Num. 27:17, further: Jdt. 11:19, 2 Chr. 18:16, Ezek.. 34:5, 1 Kgs 22:17, cf. Ernst:1981, 190, Allison:1993, 213-216. 247 Allison:1993, 239n246: avna,pausij/avnapau,w (Ex. 16:23, Mk. 6:31), a;rtoj (Ex. 16:3.4.8.12.15.29.32, Mk. 6:37.38.41.44, ginw,skw 16:6.12, Mk. 6:33-38, di,dwmi, Ex. 16:8.15.29, Mk. 6:37.41, e;rhmoj, Ex. 16:1.3.10.14.32, Mk. 6:35, ku,klw|, Ex. 16:13, Mk. 6:36, ouvrano,j, Ex. 16:4, Mk. 6:41, suna,gw, Ex. 16:5.16, Mk. 6:30, sunta,ssw/evpita,ssw, Ex. 16:16.24.32.34, Mk. 6:39, to,poj, Ex. 16:29, Mk. 6:31.32.35. See also Stegner:1989, 61-72. 248 References to the desert are found in e.g. 1QM 1:2 (cf. 1QH 16:24), 1QM 2:12, 1QM 10:13, 1QS 8:13-14, 1Q20GenAp 21.12.28.30, 4Q171 3 fr. 3+4.1, 4Q176 fr. 1-2, 4Q179, 4Q203 fr. 8:13, 4Q209 23:9, 4Q256.18:3 ( = 1QS 9:19-23, 4Q258 6:6-7, 4Q365 6.2:1-15,4Q530 3:5. Cf. e.g. Talmon:1993, 216-254, esp. 245. Also the references of Josephus to a number of prophet(-like character)s leading their followers into the desert are of importance, cf. Ant. 20:167/B. J. 2:261 (cf. Acts 21:38), Ant. 20:188/B. J. 2:259, B. J. 6:351, B. J. 7:438, B. J. 2:578 (see Ex. 18:25), B. J. 2:570, Vit. 79 (cf. Ex. 24:1, Num. 11:16, Lk. 10:1-17). On this aspect of Josephus’ work in general, cf. Smith:1999, 501568. See also: Schwartz:1991, 29-43, discussed by Longenecker:1998, 322-336. 245

C. Mark 6:32-44/Mark 8:1-10

71

eschatological gift of manna for which Jn. 6:1-58 is already an eloquent witness. Even though no single one of these arguments is decisive on its own and despite the fact that it is of importance to retain Theißen’s classification of the multiplications of the bread as gift miracles,249 the intertextual connections of the feedings and Exodus traditions are so strong that they should be assumed to be of significance. A narration of a miraculous abundance of bread in a lonely place in the context of a prophetic movement is hard not to associate with the Exodus. This is not to say that Jesus mainly enacted an eschatological Exodus (according to Mk.), but rather that this reinterpretation of his meal fellowship did indeed draw on Exodus imagery to clarify its significance. That some elements of the feeding (the collection of the leftovers and the fish) are at odds with the manna tradition cannot be used as a conclusive argument against their association. cc. Fish Bread was among the staple foods of the area around the Sea of Galilee – this is also true of fish, but to a lesser extent.250 Whereas the bread might be transparent for manna, the presence of fish in this tradition raises questions as they are absent in both 2 Kgs. 4:42-44 and in the Exodus narratives (cf. however Num. 11:5.22). Their occurrence in the narratives reporting the multiplication of the bread251 has invited a number of explanations: 252 the fish can be equated with the quails, which come, according to Wisd. 19:12 and Sif. Num. 95 (Num. 11:5.22), out of the sea,253 furthermore they have be seen as a reference to (the eucharistic) Christ254 or to Leviathan and Behemoth. In the end, none of these solutions is satisfactory. First, the motif of the fish seems to retreat,255 the more the story functions as eucharistic catechesis, which does not accord with a

249

Cf. above, II.C.2.b. Cf. above, II.C.1.a.bb. 251 Cf. Mk. 6:38.41 (2).43, Mt. 14:17.19, Lk. 9:13.16/Mk. 8:7, Mt. 15:34.36 (Jn. 6:9.11). 252 Van Cangh:1988, 335-337, lists these various options. So do Davies/Allison:1991, 481-483. 253 This thesis was developed based on Num 11:31 (~Y"h;-!mi ~ywIl.f;). See also Billerbeck:1922, 186, Billerbeck:1926, 406-408, defended by Hessing:1966, 21, and more recently by Little:1998, 138-140. 254 Esp. on the basis of early Christian art, cf. esp.: Hiers/Kennedy:1976, 20-47, cf. also Körtner:1984, 29-30. 255 Van Cangh:1988, 345, though it is paralleled in Mt. 15:32-39 with a tendency to assimilated that account to the one in Mt. 14:13-21, cf. Van Iersel:1964, 167-194, esp. 171-172. 250

72

II. Eschatological Meals and Utopian Abundance in Mark

symbolic interpretation of the fish as one of the eucharistic elements.256 Second, if it is indeed the case that the narratives exhibit an intertextual relationship with the Exodus traditions, there is no immediate need to appeal to the interpretation of quails as coming from the sea (and hence thought of as fish, cf. Num 11:5.22). Third, Leviathan and Behemoth are sea monsters, or at least one of them is, and thus hardly ‘little fish.’257 In addition, it can be argued that fish, in a number of instances, were introduced into the accounts of miraculous feedings at a later stage of their literary development: it is generally accepted that both Mk. 6:41.43 as well as Mk. 8:7 represent redaction.258 When assuming the secondary character of Mk. 6:38 as well, removing the incoherence between Jesus’ question and the answer he gets,259 the miraculous feeding appears to have existed without fish for some time. It seems therefore that the most plausible solution, which can account for the additional character of most of the references to fish, is also the most sober and straightforward one: the fish function as a common ‘side dish’ to the bread, making the meal more substantial.260 dd. Eucharistic Catechesis It is clear that the narrations of the miraculous feedings and the stories of Jesus’ last meal have a number of features in common.261 A certain amount of disagreement exists, however, as to the interpretation of this observation. It is probably correct to argue, as e.g. Boobyer has done,262 that it is not justifiable to view the miraculous feedings as prefigurations of the Eucharist, or even as eucharistic meals.263 The intertextual connections, however, are too strong to deny any connection at all.264 256

Cf. e.g. Meier:1994, 964. Cf. below, II.C.2.b.dd. Cf. 2 Bar. 29:3-8, 4 Ez. 6:52, 1 En. 60:24. With e.g. Neugebauer:1986, 255-277, esp. 269. 258 So Körtner:1984, 28.33, with many others, the redaction in Mk. 6 is probably preMk., in Mk. 8:7 it might be Mk. 259 Körtner:1984, 31. The thesis that the fishes were removed from Mk. 8 and reinserted later is less likely, cf. however Van Cangh:1971, 81. 260 So e.g. Körtner:1984, 35, Labahn:2000, 132-133, Keener:2003a, 667, Van Iersel: 1998, 228. 261 So rightly e.g.: Schenke:1983, 94.114-116, Meier:1994, 962-963. 262 Cf. Boobyer:1952, 161-171. Pesch:1976, 248, also rejects a eucharistic interpretation of Mk. 6:41 and so do Gundry:1993, 332, Fowler:1981, 137-147, and Kollmann:1990a, 199-203. The latter only sees the possibility of interpreting the miraculous feedings in terms of the Eucharist, not vice versa. 263 So correctly Schenke:1983, 142. 264 Cf. the agreements between the following verses: Mk. 6:41/8:6 with Mk. 14:22; Mt. 14:19/Mt. 15:36 with Mt. 26:26, and Lk. 9:16 with Lk. 22:19. Cf. Van Iersel:1964, 16. Van Iersel especially emphasizes the presence of di,dwmi (169). Jesus’ gesture of looking up to 257

C. Mark 6:32-44/Mark 8:1-10

73

Probably Van Iersel’s suggestion of eucharistic catechesis as one of the layers of meaning within the tradition of the miraculous feeding is still valid as it has the advantage of allowing for both the integration of the intertextual connections with the ‘institution narratives’ as well as for respecting the character of the miraculous feeding as a gift miracle.265 This means that the gift miracle sheds light on the meaning of the Eucharist without being one itself.266 With Van Iersel, this is maintained for all accounts of the miraculous feeding. In this respect, Luz is probably right when he argues that the choice between the Lord’s Supper and a common meal is a false one in the sense that both are transparent for one another.267 Thus, to put it (again) with Van Iersel, ‘the ritual known from personal experience and the narrated ritual evoke each other.’268 The absence of the cup and the presence of the fish does not necessarily speak against this association: intertextual connections with the Last Supper can function without a cup and, as has been suggested above, the fish function mainly to emphasize the completeness of the meal without having an additional theological function.269 The emphasis on the abundance of the meal could imply that one of the aspects of the early Christian eucharistic celebration was indeed also the feeding of the community, especially in view of 1 Cor 11:17-34. This circumstance invites an even closer association of Eucharist and miraculous feeding.270 Not only the miraculous feedings will therefore have to be read in the light of the Eucharist, but also the Eucharist (Mk. 14:22-25) needs to be read in terms of the miraculous feedings.271

heaven while praying is relatively rare (but cf. e.g. Ps. 123:1, Philo, Contempl. 66:5, Josephus, Ant. 11:162, Mt. 7:34, Lk. 18:13, Jn. 11:41, 17:1) and may be reminiscent of eucharistic liturgy as well, though it does not increase the intertextual relationship with the narrative of the Last Supper (cf. Davies/Allison:1991, 490). Gnilka:1978, 261.301-302, remains very skeptical, arguing that Mk. has done nothing to increase the intertextuality between the two narratives (303). Similarly: Patsch:1971, 210-231. 265 Cf. Van Iersel:1964, similarly: Ernst:1981, 218. 266 Cf. Van Iersel:1964, 194. Van Cangh:1988, 331, agrees, as do Hessing:1966, 6168, and Gnilka:1978, 305. 267 Without being identical, cf. Luz:1997, 402, France:2002, 267, diff. e.g. Labahn:2000, 133-135, certainly a tradition like that of the miraculous feeding is capable of carrying more than one layer of meaning. Similarly: Wengst:2000, 221, contra: Schnackenburg:1985, 21-22, Becker:1991, 230-231, Ridderbos:1997, 214-215 (in view of the multiplication stories in general), Guelich:1989, 342-343, and Gundry:1993, 331332. 268 Van Iersel:1998, 427. 269 See for a similar view: Van Aarde:1994, 196-197. 270 Cf. the remark in Davies/Allison:1991, 494. 271 Cf. below, II.E., see also Klosinski:1988, 175-176.

74

II. Eschatological Meals and Utopian Abundance in Mark

ee. Concluding Observations After this tour d’horizon of motifs related to the tradition of the miraculous feeding, it must be concluded that the occurrence of none of these motifs can discounted as such. This implies also that neither of them can be regarded as the sole relevant frame of reference for the interpretation of any of the accounts. Consequently, the interpretation of these narratives must take into consideration the multi-layered character of the stories: even though the narratives are in the first place gift miracles modeled on 2 Kgs. 4:42-44, the echoes of the Exodus-narrative and the Eucharist are too evident to be overlooked. c. Interpretation: The Miraculous Feedings in Mark 6:32-44/8:1-10 aa. Mark 6:32-44 Assuming, as indicated above, that the two miraculous feedings contribute to the (didactic) process of identifying Jesus in Mk., Mk. 6:32-44 contributes a number of elements to this. To begin with, its narrative context presents the meal as an alternative to the episode on Herod’s macabre banquet in Mk. 6:14-29,272 including Herod’s christological questions (Mt. 6:14-16), which are framed273 by the sending out (Mk. 6:6-13) and the returning and reporting of the disciples in Mk. 6:30-31. The fact that Herod’s banquet and Jesus’ miraculous feeding are only combined in the synoptic tradition (diff. Jn. 6), whereas the story is in all four versions combined with Jesus’ walking on the sea, suggests Mk. composition.274 This agrees well with the observation that from the beginning of the narration of the miraculous feeding on Jesus is set up as a different kind of authority over against the tetrarch. The motifs of Jesus’ spla,gcnon, probably suggesting divine compassion,275 and Jesus’ teaching, as well as the use of the shepherd language – sheep metaphors (Mk. 6:34)276 are of

272

With whom Jesus should (Herod) or should not (Mk.) be identified, cf. Öhler:1997, 111-118. Cf. France:2002, 260, see also Fowler:1981, 85-86. Diff.: Gundry:1993, 334. 273 An example of Mk.’s sandwiching technique, cf. Edwards:1989, clearly aiming at a contrast between the two halves of the sandwich and its filling. See also Shepherd:1993, esp. 172-209. 274 Compositionally also filling the time gap between the sending out of the disciples (Mk. 6:6b-13, – already without food, cf. Mk. 6:8) and their return (Mk. 6:30). 275 Cf. Gnilka:1978, 259. Lührmann:1987, 119-120, notes correctly that the motif of compassion strengthens the impact of the shepherd-sheep metaphor. 276 Cf. Num. 27:17, there applied to Moses’ death, further: 1 Kgs. 22:17/2 Chr. 18:16 (after Ahab’s death), and the prophecy in Ezek. 34:23-24, cf. on Mk. 6:34 in view of Mosaic themes in the NT the encompassing study by Lierman:2004, on Mt. 6:34 esp.: 108-110.

C. Mark 6:32-44/Mark 8:1-10

75

central importance and facilitate a typically Mk.277 portrayal of Jesus as the one who leads the crowds in an ideal and multi-dimensional way.278 This is firmly rooted in OT/HB traditions of (divine) leadership.279 Feeding the people is part of this broader concept and begins, strictly speaking, in v. 35 with the disciples’ suggestion to Jesus that he dispatch the (Jewish) crowd as there is no food available (cf. Mk. 6:8).280 This dialogue serves primarily to indicate the extent of the logistic problem281 (vv. 35-38). As such, it might well be reminiscent of the exchange between Elisha and his servant in 2 Kgs. 4:43. Mk. 6:39-40 contains some features that are reduced in Mt. and Lk.: the seating order282 and the green grass (v. 39). This emphasis on the seating order is reminiscent of Exodus traditions (Ex. 18:21), and draws attention to the communal character of the event. It has parallels in the DSS283 and in Philo’s description of the Therapeutae in Contempl. 6484; these texts emphasize the ordered character of the meals they describe, which is also part of Hellenistic etiquette.284 If the Mk. emphasis on the organization of the meal is of any importance – the amount of space devoted to it certainly suggests this – it most likely underlines the Exodus imagery already present in the story by aligning the crowd fed by Jesus with the crowd organized and led by Moses and fed by God. This reveals God as a providing and caring deity and Moses as his legitimate representative, thereby adding to the impact of the text. Ascribing further numerical

277 Cf. Bolyki:1998, 97, Van Cangh:1988, 343-344, see however Lk. 9:11. See further: Schenke:1983, 96-101. 278 Cf. Ezek. 34:5, 1 Kgs. 22:17, Zech. 13:7, cf. Ps. Sol. 17:40, in spite of Num. 27:17, Jesus is not the eschatological Moses, rather the ideal shepherd, cf. Gnilka:1978, 259, Pesch:1976, 350, Gundry:1993, 323-324, Guelich:1989, 341. Cf. in view of the encompassing nature of the shepherding: Bolyki:1998, 97: ‘das Weiden ist eine Metapher, die sich vom politischen Regiment bis zur geistlichen Stärkung ausstreckt.’ Diff.: Ernst:1981, 191. 279 Cf. Gnilka:1978, 259. Cf. above, II.C.1.a.cc, II.C.2.b.aa. 280 It may be assumed that in Mk. the crowd in Mk. 6:32-44 is Jewish and the one in 8:1-10 not, cf. the discussion around Mt. 15:29-39 in IV.E.3. Van Cangh:1988, 327-330, discusses the location of the feedings in Mk., concluding that the first is on the western and the second on the eastern shore of the Lake of Galilee, assuming that this is due to Mk. redaction (330. 341). 281 E.g. by underlining the loneliness of the spot (repetition from v. 32) and the amount of money needed (v. 36), which is not necessarily a rhetorical question. 282 V. 39 sumpo,sia sumpo,sia, v. 40 prasiai. prasiai. kata. e`kato.n kai. kata. penth,konta. Mk.’s Greek shows here either ‘vulgar’ or Semitic tendencies, cf. DBR, § 493.2. 283 Ordinary organization: 1QS 2:21-22, eschatological battle CD 13:1-3, cf. also the eschatological meal in 1QSa 2:11-22. See e.g. Pesch:1976, 352, Schenke:1983, 101-103, Guelich:1989, 341. 284 Cf. above, II.D.2.b.aa-bb.

76

II. Eschatological Meals and Utopian Abundance in Mark

symbolism to the number of seated is highly speculative.285 The fact that in Mk. 6:39 the assembly sits down evpi. tw/| clwrw/| co,rtw| might,286 however, be a reference to the same in Ps. 23:2MT/22:2LXX,287 especially when taken together with Mk. 6:34288 and the possible relevance for the theme of utopian divine care of Ps. 23:5MT/22:5LXX as such.289 This assumption could be confirmed by the occurrence of avna,pausij in Ps. 22:2LXX and of avnapau,w in Mk. 6:31,290 as well as of dida,skw in Mk. 6:34, which could recall the reference to guidance in Ps 22:3LXX. The whole narrative might have a celebratory touch because of the use of avnakli,nw.291 Here as elsewhere, however, the allusive nature of the narrative makes any definite conclusions difficult, though the image of a teaching Jesus providing orientation as well as nourishment for his people (beyond Israel, cf.

285 Similarly: Gnilka:1978, 262, what Steffen:2001, 196, argues for the Mt. feedings, applies to all of them: ‘If any symbolism is intended by the numbers, Matthew does nothing to guide the reader in that direction.’ With more openness for numerical symbolism: Van Iersel:1964, 181.185-186, Pesch:1976, 355, France:2002, 266, Masuda :1982, 203-206. 286 The combination of the shepherd-motif and the green grass makes it plausible, cf. also Gnilka:1978, 260, who suggests that the green grass serves to make the occasion even more joyful. 287 Rather than the memory of an eyewitness. So Keener:2003a, 664, more to the point: Van Iersel:1998, 228. Cf. also Gnilka:1978, 260. Bolyki:1998, 97, suggests a connection between co,rtoj and corta,zw, but it is hard to see what it contributes to the interpretation of the narrative. 288 Cf. Guelich:1989, 339. 289 Cf. in general: Allison:1983. Certainly seeing a reference to Ps. 23:2 is at least as plausible as interpretations suggesting that this is a ‘sure trace of an eye-witness,’ a reference to the Palestinian spring (on the basis of Jn. 6:4-10) or to a sign of the utopian/ messianic bloom of the end time, cf. the discussion by Allison:1983, 134. 290 Suggesting this: Pesch:1976, 346, also Gundry:1993, 328, Gundry:1993, 328. 291 E.g. Lohfink:1991a 135. Different from e.g. 3 Macc. 5:16, there are in the tradition of the miraculous feedings no further traces of an emphatically festive atmosphere, however. Cf. further: Gnilka:1978, 260. The verb avnakli,nw refers to the originally Hellenistic praxis of eating while reclining on couches (cf. for this: Dunbabin:2003, 1113). It might indicate an important and celebratory occasion, as the habit of reclining probably entered Judaism through the upper classes and was not taken for granted immediately (cf. the polemic in Am. 3:12, 6:4, on which cf. the comments of Lang:1983, esp. 115.124 and see m. Pes. 10:1). However, both the LXX (Jud. 12:15-16, Est. 1:6, Tob. 2:1-2, Sir. 25:18, 32:1-2, 3 Macc. 5:16) and early Jewish texts do refer to it occasionally (cf. 1 En. 62:14, cf. 2 En. 42:5 (J text), 3 En. 48:10A , 2. Ez 2:38, Test. Is. 6:22, 8:11), cf. Davies/Allison:1991, 29-30. The other occurrences of avnakli,nw in the NT are: Mt. 8:15, 14:19, Lk. 2:7, 12:37, 13:29.

C. Mark 6:32-44/Mark 8:1-10

77

corta,zw in Mk. 7:27 and Mk. 6:42)292 in a ‘eucharistic way,’293 fits the image of a shepherding294 king/leader well.295 The eucharistic dimension of the story has already been argued in favor of above.296 What might be underlined, however, is the role the disciples have in distributing the foodstuffs (Mk. 6:41), as well in collecting the abundant amount of leftovers (Mk. 6:43). Both elements may well be transparent for elements of Mk. ‘theology of ministry.’297 Apart from this, it may be noted that both the leftovers are not only a sign of overabundance but in contemporary gastronomic thought also the hallmark of overwhelming hospitality.298 Returning with these observations to the miracle’s immediate narrative context, the contrast between the first Mk. miraculous feeding and the macabre banquet preceding it (Mk. 6:17-29) becomes even more apparent. The overarching contrast is probably that of the public royal rule of Herod (consisting of eating and drinking, but not of doing righteousness, cf. Jer. 22:15) with that of Jesus, who rules and feeds his people in a overabundant way as an ideal (divine) king and shepherd.299 In line with Mk.’s use of irony,300 Herod is depicted as a ridiculous king and host, who cannot control himself at his own birthday banquet, makes promises he does not want to keep, and only disposes of John half-heartedly. Jesus, the true messianic king and beneficent host, is entirely in control of his banquet, fulfills impossible demands, and comes out of the comparison with Herod accordingly. It is also possible to relate this theme of ruling to the place the feeding has in the larger plan of Mk.: the section concludes Jesus’ ministry to the Jews in Galilee. When relating this to Herod’s identity as a dubious 292 Here also a ‘salvation-historical’ continuity can be seen: the same expression is used in 2 Kgs. 4:44 and Ex. 16:8.12. The verb evmpi,plhmi is in some contexts used with a meaning similar to corta,zw, cf. the parallelism in Ps. 106:9LXX. 293 Cf. above II.C.2.b.dd., on eucharistic catechesis. 294 A motif not foreign to Mk. as such, cf. Mk. 14:27-28, here not citing Ps. 23 but rather Zech. 13:7, cf. Allison:1983, 136-137. 295 See also France:2002, 265. Jesus’ (salvific) authority is underlined in the stilling of the storm in Mk. 6:45-52) afterwards. 296 Cf. II.C.2.b.dd, II.C.2.c.cc. 297 Cf. above, II.1 for an overview of relevant texts. 298 Cf. Athenaeus, Deipn. 4:130C, Plutarch, Mor. 702D-704B, cf. Keener:2003a, 668. There is of course an obvious contrast with the prohibition to gather the leftovers of the manna (Ex. 16:17-18), though not too much should be read into it in terms of an opposition between Jesus’ bread and Moses’ as Little:1998, 155-162, proposes: the overwhelming size of the miracle seems to be of more importance than a salvation historical contrast. 299 Cf. Mk. 6:34, and above in the tradition-historical discussion, e.g. Bolyki:1998, 99. Cf. above, II.C.1.a.aa. on royal ideology. 300 Cf. in general: Camery-Hoggat:1992, on Mk. 6:30-44, see 146-147.

78

II. Eschatological Meals and Utopian Abundance in Mark

Jewish ruler, it may well be suggested that Jesus establishes himself as the true (Jewish) ruler at the end of his mission on Jewish territory. He does this by giving a foretaste of the (nutritional) fullness of God’s rule, which he represents. This fullness is overwhelming, matching the fullness of Israel (twelve baskets, cf. Mk. 6:43),301 revealing Jesus as a host, offering a superb kind of hospitality,302 satiating his people in the footsteps of the OT/HB prophets. ‘Out of the window,’ this challenge of a certain kind of political authority by Jesus’ ideal typical rule may well reflect the political tense times during which Mk. was written and the challenge the kingdom of God is for the empire.303 bb. Mark 8:1-10 Looking at Mk. 8:1-10 makes some observations possible about the pericope’s own meaning, as well as about its elaboration of the significance of Mk. 6:32-44.304 The relative independence of the tradition has been argued above.305 Mk. is in 8:1 (pa,lin) already aware of the repetitive character of the story,306 which seems to be taking place in Gentile territory or at least with a crowd consisting of non-Jews.307 Indications for this significant difference are the following: despite the unclear geographical reference to the area of Dalmanutha in 8:10, which might be Jewish as the appearance of Pharisees (8:11) could suggest, it is at least just as plausible to assume a continuity between the locations of 7:24-37308 and the story in 8:1-10. This impression is strengthened by the observation that Mk. 8:1-10 follows after the dialogue with the Gentile woman in Mk. 7:27-28309 and the healing in the Decapolis (Mk. 7:31-37), which forms a ‘set’ of miracles to the benefit 301

Cf. also Little:1998, 119-120. For abundance as a sign of overwhelming hospitality, cf. Athenaeus, Deipn. 4:130C, Plutarch, Mor. 702D-704B, cf. Keener:2003a, 668. 303 Cf. the convincing outline of Theißen:1989, 270-284 304 The two stories need to be read in relationship with one another, cf. Gnilka:1978, 300. 305 Cf. above, II.C.2.a. 306 Cf. France:2002, 307, Gundry:1993, 392-393, Gnilka:1978, 301, Lührmann:1987, 134. 307 Cf. e.g. Ernst:1981, 221, Guelich:1989, 402-403, Baudoz:1999, 102-103. This difference is not further emphasized in either of the narratives, however. For Gnilka: 1978, 262, this is reason enough to deny any significance of the location where the feedings take place. 308 V. 24: ta. o[ria Tu,rou, v. 31: avna. me,son tw/n o`ri,wn Dekapo,lewj. 309 So e.g. France:2002, 294-295.305, Pesch:1976, 400. The expression avpo. makro,qen (Mk. 8:3) could also be indicative of this, cf. its omission by Mt., cf. further: Eph. 2:13.17, Acts 2:39, 22:21. So also Gnilka:1978, 302. 302

C. Mark 6:32-44/Mark 8:1-10

79

of ‘Gentiles’ similar to the ones the Jews have been given earlier. In addition, the note that at least part of the crowds have come from afar (Mk. 8:3) may, in view of LXX and rabbinic usage of this expression, indicate their ‘Gentile’ provenance.310 The case of the location of the first feeding in Mk. 6:32-44 is more complicated, but if the feeding takes place on a spot from where one can go to Bethsaida (cf. Mk. 6:45)311 one may assume that it is in Galilean territory and therefore predominantly Jewish. This interpretation may be confirmed by Mt.’s redactional application of the story, changing the crowd from a ‘Gentile’ one into its Jewish counterpart.312 In comparison to Mk. 6:32-44, it is striking in Mk. 8:1-10 that Jesus himself takes the initiative by noting the precarious situation, not the disciples (Mk. 8:1-3). Jesus’ spla,gcnon (Mk. 8:2) is in the second feeding expressed in his feeding of the crowd, rather than in his teaching (diff.: Mk. 6:34, which is probably Mk. redaction,313 strengthening the pattern of Mosaic allusions). The disciples’ reply (Mk. 8:4) to Jesus’ expression of his concern about the crowd and his related question (Mk. 8:2-3) is shorter and less detailed than in Mk. 6:37, which may reflect the same interest to highlight Jesus’ role.314 At the same time, the disciples’ lack of understanding is emphasized.315 Also the short dialogue establishing the amount of available foodstuffs (Mk. 8:5), in this case only seven loaves of bread, is shorter than in Mk. 6:38, and in Mk. 8:6 Jesus is the sole actor (once more), making the people sit down and leading the meal all by himself. The ‘diaconal’ role of the disciples, however, also exists in Mk. 8:6 (cf. Mk. 6:37). The differences in numbers need no extensive attention, as they are best attributed to differences in tradition, rather than intentional numerical symbolism, which, even if it was present in the mind of Mk., can no longer be deciphered.316 The only thing that can be noted, is the agreement between the number of loaves and the number of baskets, emphasizing the size of the miracle.317 Furthermore, it may be noted that

310 Cf. Josh. 9:6LXX, Isa. 60:4LXX, Billerbeck:1926, 585-586, and see Acts. 2:39, 22:21, Eph. 2:11-12. So: Guelich:1989, 404. 311 Cf. Gnilka:1978, 259, noting ‘Der Zielort bleibt als einsamer Ort reichlich unbestimmt.’ 312 Cf. below, IV.E.3. 313 Cf. above, II.C.2.a. 314 Cf. Gnilka:1978, 300-301, who views this as a later stage of the tradition. 315 Cf. Gnilka:1978, 303. 316 So e.g.: Guelich:1989, 405, Gnilka:1978, 303, diff.: Pesch:1976, 403, Ernst:1981, 219-220. Unlikely is the hypothesis of Countryman:1985, esp. 650, who suggests that the declining numbers represent a decline in Jesus’ miraculous powers. 317 Contra e.g. Bovon:1989, 467.

80

II. Eschatological Meals and Utopian Abundance in Mark

the echoes of 2 Kgs. 4:42-44 are much less evident than in 6:32-44,318 as are allusions to themes related to the Exodus.319 Of interest is also the blessing of the foodstuffs (rather than God) of the fish, at least in v. 7, but possibly also in v. 6.320 However, if euvcariste,w and euvloge,w are interpreted as ‘saying a blessing over,’ which would explain the accompanying accusatives, this problem disappears.321 In a sense, Mk. 8:1-10 is more straightforward than Mk. 6:32-44 by alluding less to these earlier traditions, but foregrounding Jesus more clearly, depicting him as compassionate (cf. his speech in 8:1-3) and as the provider of an abundance of food, with all the allusions, belonging to it (cf. above on Mk. 6:32-44). It may be observed, however, that due to the evaporating of some allusions to HB/OT texts the intertextual connection with the narrative of institution stands out clearer in the second feeding.322 When reading Mk. 8:1-10 as part of the literary plan of Mk., a number of things should be observed. In the first place, Mk. 8:1-10 indicates that Jesus is exercising the same ministry to ‘Gentiles’ as to Jews. This is strongly suggested by the repetition of the same miracle in ‘Gentile’ territory, depicting Jesus as having the same merciful attitude towards both Jews and ‘Gentiles’ (cf. Mk. 6:34, 8:2). This development is narratively prepared for by Jesus’ encounter of and persuasion by the ‘Gentile’ woman in Mk. 7:24-30 with explicit reference to feeding (Mk. 7:28) and satiation (cf. Mk. 6:42, 7:27, 8:4.8). The verb corta,zw occurs in Mk. only in the context of this tripartite feeding. Furthermore, just as it is the case in Mk. 6:32-44 with respect to the mission in Galilee, Mk. 8:1-10 forms the ‘grand finale’ of Jesus’ mission to the ‘Gentiles,’ which takes place from Mk. 7:1 onwards. The implication of this narrative format is that the messianic rule of Jesus, represented by his feeding of the crowd, is extended to the ‘Gentiles’ who participate in this sign of the fullness of the coming divine royal rule just as the Jews earlier. It is this respect significant that Mk. 8:1-10 is, as Mk. 6:32-44, set in explicit contrast to the claims to authority of Herod through the reference to the leaven of the Pharisees and Herod in Mk. 8:15.323 The latter’s answer to Mk.’s christological question (Mk. 6:15) finds its correction in Mk. 8:29, prepared by a repeated reference to the multiplication of the loaves (Mk. 8:19, cf. 8:11-13), and by a parabolic 318

Cf. Pesch:1976, 401. Nevertheless, the emphasis on satiation establishes a considerable degree of continuity with 2 Kgs. 4:44 and Ex. 16:8.12. 320 Noted by e.g. Gnilka:1978, 301. 321 The two verbs are in any case certainly not indicative of a Jewish-Christian provenance of the first and a Hellenistic-Christian provenance of the second miraculous feeding, as both verbs can be used interchangeably. Cf. e.g. Guelich:1989, 401. 322 Schenke:1983, 130-134. 323 Cf. e.g. Baudoz:1999, 102. 319

C. Mark 6:32-44/Mark 8:1-10

81

narrative on growing perception and faith, encouraging the reader in the process of discernment as exemplified by the disciples (Mk. 8:22-26). 324 Apart from being a didactic christological composition, the narrative thus also represents both a reflection upon and justification of the Mk. community’s experiences as far as (eucharistic) meal fellowship is concerned and thus the structure of said community. The eucharistic allusions in both accounts of the miraculous feeding are hard to overlook and the shared eucharistic table for both Jews and ‘Gentiles’ was probably part of the Mk. community’s life. This seems to be a plausible interpretation of the Mk. usage of his two accounts of miraculous feedings, well in line with the earlier narratives of Jesus’ controversial meal praxis in Mk. 2:13-17 (cf. 7:1-23.24-30). This adds to what has been observed in the discussion of Mk. 6:32-44: Mk. deepens the significance of this miraculous meal fellowship and therefore that of his own community by relating the narratives of the miraculous feedings to Jesus’ passion by means of the intertextual connections with Mk. 14:17-25. In addition, the motif of nutritional abundance, associated with the good rule of a just monarch – elaborated at the cost of Herod and the Pharisees – may still echo here, just as the ecclesiological theme of the ‘diaconal’ task of Jesus’ disciples in the narrative might do. The relationship between Mk. 8:1-10 and the following didactic discourse has already been touched upon above.325 cc. Conclusions The two Mk. accounts of the miraculous feeding manifest themselves as extraordinarily rich texts. Narratively, they fulfill two main roles. First, they play a role in the dynamics of disciples’ christological instruction (and incomprehension): they further the ever more challenging326 identification of Jesus as Christ in Mk. as the one who is God’s true representative in terms of providing abundantly for his people and beyond,327 in

324 Cf. Theißen:1989, 298-301, Jesus’ true messianic identity is only publicly revealed at the cross (Mk. 15:39). 325 Cf. above, II.C.1. 326 This portrayal of Jesus and the claims belonging to it are put into direct contrast to the feasting and feeding of Herod and the Pharisees. Therefore, also on a politicotheological level, this utopian scenario is rather explosive, as the question of the true leader/king of Israel is asked unambiguously and the appropriate recognition of Jesus as the true Christ (Mk. 8:29), by Peter as the representative of the disciples follows practically directly upon this: Jesus as Christ is intrinsically connected with Jesus the provider. 327 Cf. Ernst:1981, 193: ‘der Kern- und Grundgedanke ist einfach: Jesus hat für die Menschen, die ihm vertraut haben, gesorgt.’

82

II. Eschatological Meals and Utopian Abundance in Mark

line with expectations of God’s utopian rule (cf. Mk. 1:15).328 Second, they also provide a narrative interpretative framework for understanding the Last Supper in Mk. 14:17-25, alluding to it by means of ‘eucharistic’ language, while offering a blueprint for the Mk. community through the description of the participants and their roles at the meal. The (international, cf. Mk. 7:24-30)329 symposiastic fellowship in Mk. 6:32-44, 8:1-10 is clearly structured and the disciples have a ministering role under the auspices of Jesus. This may well throw a paraenetic light on the appropriate way of celebrating the common meal (Eucharist)330 of the Mk. community. Both the shape of the (ideal typical) community of Jesus followers, its core belief and its yearning (nutritional abundance under the rule of the just ‘monarch’) are thus outlined by means of the two miraculous feedings in Mk.

D. Mark 14:25 1. Introduction Mk. 14:25, the eschatological outlook of the Mk. account of Jesus’ Last Supper, describes Jesus as looking forward to the future drinking of wine in the kingdom, while at the same time indicating that it is the last time he drinks wine during his earthly existence. This future wine drinking makes the text highly relevant for the present study. Mk. 14:17-25, to which Mk. 14:25 belongs, is the description of Jesus’ final Passover meal, the Last Supper. Quite apart from the interpretative sayings over cup and bread, this meal stands already emphatically in the context of Jesus’ impending betrayal and death. This is indicated by Mk. 14:1-2, the resumption of the Mk. narrative after the ‘eschatological discourse’ in Mk. 13, describing the plot of the high priests and scribes (cf. Mk. 3:6), followed by Jesus’ pre-burial anointment in Mk. 14:3-9 and the narration of Judas’ betrayal (Mk. 14:10-11). Apparently unaware of all this, the disciples ask Jesus in Mk. 14:12 where to prepare the Passover meal, the unusual preparations of which are narrated in Mk. 14:13-16. After this, the account of the meal itself follows (Mk. 14:17-25), beginning with Jesus’ announcement of the betrayal by Judas (Mk. 14:17-21),331 328

Cf. Kollmann:1990, see also Günther/Müller:1988, 186-187, commenting on a fresco of the miraculous feeding. 329 So Schenke:1983, 144. 330 Cf. Ernst:1981, 193. 331 Betrayal in the context of a meal is betrayal at a high level of intimacy, cf. the association with Ps. 41:10 in Jn. 13:18. This may have been appreciated thus in a wide cultural circle: betrayal by a friend could be regarded worse than an enemy’s insult (cf.

D. Mark 14:25

83

moving on to the narration of meal proper, consisting of the sayings over and actions with bread and cup (Mk. 14:22-25), and concluding with the chanting of hymns (Mk. 14:26). The meal is followed by Jesus’ announcement that all will forsake him (Mk. 14:26-31) and his prayer in Gethsemane (Mk. 14:32-42) as a final upbeat to Jesus’ capture in Mk. 14:43-52, his subsequent mock trial, crucifixion and burial (Mk. 14:53-15:44), as well as the resurrection account in Mk. 16:1-8. Before proceeding to an interpretation of Mk. 14:25 within the context of Mk., however, it will be useful to give an overview of Mediterranean meal customs and etiquette, in order to appreciate the meal in Mk. 14:1725 better, precisely as a meal. After this, the usual tradition-historical and motif-historical considerations will be offered. 2. Meals in the Mediterranean World332 Meals without doubt belonged to the most important structural elements of the cultures of the Mediterranean basin in Jesus’ time,333 as well as long before and long afterwards.334 This is eloquently shown by the interest a variety of groups and authors had in the issue of, at the most general level, the symposiastically organized fellowship.335 The various functions of a Lysias, Or. 6.23, 8.5-6, Chariton, Chaer. 5.6:2, Cornelius Nepos Lib. Ex. 14.6:3, 14.11:5, Sir. 22:21-22, Test. Jud. 23:3; the higher the degree of intimacy, the worse the betrayal (cf. Cicero, Rosc. Amer. 40:116), cf. for disgust for traitors of their people: Xenophon, Hell. 1.7:22, Cicero, Fin. 3:9.32, Virgilius, Aen. 6:621, Livius, Urb. Cond. 1.11:6-7, 5.27:6-10, Valerius Maximus, Fact. 1.1:13, Seneca, Controv. 7:7, Cornelius Nepos Lib. Ex. 4:4. What may well be in the background as well are the strong bonds established especially by hospitality and guest friendship (cf. e.g. Lysias, Or. 12:24, 18:10, Plutarch, Cor. 10:3, Cicero, Fam. 13:19.25.36), for guest friendship and for the rejection of unkindness/violence against those who had shared the same table cf. e.g. Homer, Il. 21:76, Od. 4:534-535, 11:414-420, 14:404-495, Hesiod, Op. 327, Euripides, Cycl. 11261128, Hec. 25-26, 710-720, 850-856, Ovid, Metam. 1:144, 10:225-228, Livy, Urb. Cond. 25.16:6. Cf. Keener:2003b, 912-913, Delorme:1999, 111-112. 332 Cf. also already above, I.C.3.a. on the definition of meals. 333 There are hardly any scholars who take a different point of view, see for a concise formulation of the thesis illustrated here: Stegemann/Stegemann:1997, 232-237, 232-233: ‘Denn einerseits sind gemeinsame Mahlzeiten ein fundamentales Element antiker Gruppensoziologie. (…) Andererseits replizieren gemeinsame Mahlzeiten die sozialen Positionen und Beziehungen von Menschen und erweisen sich als besonders träge gegenüber sozialem Wandel.’ 334 See for the developments in early Christianity e.g. McGowan:1999, passim, and Klinghardt:1996, 373-492 (focusing on the Didache), and further, idem, op. cit., 493-534. 335 Cf. e.g. Philo’s discussion of the Therapeutae (Contempl. 40-89) on which cf. e.g. Klinghardt:1996, 183-216, and the meals of the Qumran community (cf. 1QS 6:2-5, 1QSa 2:11-22), see again Klinghardt:1996, 217-249. That early Christian communities are best interpreted in the context of ancient societies has recently been shown by Ebel: 2004, offering detailed descriptions of the two non-Christian collegia: the ‘cultores

84

II. Eschatological Meals and Utopian Abundance in Mark

meal as they were known in antiquity and reflected in literary works, including the NT therefore also constitute a significant part of the cultural encyclopedia, shared by (most) members of the audiences of these works.336 Of course, this does not mean that everyone should be imagined to have thought in a similar way about the same issues – there is a considerable difference between knowing about the ordering and structuring function of a meal and to opt for either an egalitarian or a strongly hierarchical seating order –. Rather, it may be assumed that, as far as table fellowship is concerned, the topics at the centre of interest were largely the same or very similar. In this respect, appropriate attention to these social functions should be part of a socio-historical approach to NT meals.337 Even if the present thesis does not concentrate on the topic of meals in the first-century Mediterranean world, but on eschatological banquets, it is necessary to outline parts338 of the ‘entry on meals’ in the first-century cultural encyclopedia, in order to shed light on one of the most immediate frames of reference for the interpretation of eschatological and utopian meals: ‘real’ meals. Eschatological meals only become intelligible in relationship with them, being their ideal typical counterparts.339 Due to the abundance of literary sources,340 mainly the literary corpus that played a role in first and second centuries BCE and the first two centuries CE will be discussed, after having considered the methodological framework used to interpret these: the sociology of the meal.

Dianae et Antonoi (12-75) and that of a society dedicated to Dionysus (76-142), noting in the introduction (1-12, here: 2) that the meal was central to these societies. See further the essays collected in: Kloppenborg/Wilson:1996, esp. McCready:1996. Cf. further again Klinghardt:1996, 251-267, and in general also Klosinski:1988, 58-112. 336 Klauck:1982, 31-233, gives an extensive overview of the ‘sacred meal’ in the Hellenistic world, see similarly: Bolyki:1998, 177-207, and in more general terms: Smith:2003, 13-172, Klinghardt:1996, 21-267. 337 For a definition of social historical exegesis, cf. the one by Hochschild:1999, 2526, and above, I.C.2. 338 In view of the meals concerned, however, part of the meal customs, such as the preferred kind of dining rooms, are of lesser general interest and, if necessary, will be touched upon separately. Klinghardt:1996, 21-152, discusses these items extensively, they have little bearing on the meals discussed here, however. 339 On the critical function of utopian scenes, cf. above, I.C.3.b. 340 Cf. for a recent overview: Smith:2003, 13-131, esp. 47-65, on the philosophical banquet. Significant texts include Plutarch (ca. 45-125 CE), Septem Sapientium Convivium, Petronius (ca. 27-66 CE), Satyricon, Athenaeus, Deipnosophistae (around 200 CE), Aulus Gellius (ca. 130-180), Noctes Atticae.

D. Mark 14:25

85

a. Meals: Sociological Perspectives The sociology of food and the meal341 concerns itself with the ‘social’ aspects of nutritional behavior. Though there is a variety of methods available in this field, the probably best known and for the present research most useful is the approach of Mary Douglas, working partly in the tradition of Lévi-Strauss.342 Her approach is outlined fundamentally in her essay ‘Deciphering a Meal.’343 She is primarily interested in the structure and outline of a (series of) meal(s), as they take place during a day, a year or a life. In her own words: ‘Between breakfast and last nightcap, the food of the day comes in an ordered pattern. Between Monday and Sunday, the food of the week is patterned again. Then there is the sequence of holidays and fast days throughout the year, to say nothing of life cycle feasts, birthdays and weddings.’344 What kinds of foodstuffs are eaten, with whom, where and when is extraordinarily telling for the significance of a meal; to quote Douglas again: ‘Meals are ordered in a scale of importance in relation to each other, by the addition or omission of an item, thought the week and the day down to the meanest pause for a snack.’345 These various categories of meals express and constitute social hierarchy, exclusion, inclusion, boundaries and their crossings, again with Douglas: ‘(…) the messages [food] encodes will be found in the pattern of social relations being expressed. The message is about different degrees of hierarchy, inclusion and exclusion, boundaries and transactions across boundaries.’346 Meals are therefore a means of communication as well as a means of organizing society. In this tradition, the historian of early Christianity McGowan formulates the issue as follows: ‘I will argue that meals and food, or at least the meals and the food of early Christianity, are best understood by relating them to the world of culinary signification, itself part of a wider world of social signification. The foods of the ancient Christian Eucharist are therefore to be set in the context of the patterns of eating in Greco-Roman antiquity, which themselves need to be understood as part of systems of power.’347

341 The history of research has been surveyed by Mintz/Du Bois:2003. See further the following overviews: Mennell/Murcott/Van Otterloo:1994, 1-19.28-34, Beardsworth/ Keil:1997, 73-99, Lupton:1996, 6-36, Barlösius:1999, esp. 165-198, Wood:1995, 145.49-79. 342 Cf. fundamentally: Lévi-Strauss:1969. 343 Cf. Douglas:1999. Other key texts are Douglas: 1984 and Douglas: 1989. See further Beardsworth/Keil:1997, 73-99, and for the reception in biblical studies e.g. Smith:2003, 7-8 and in patristics: McGowan:1999, 3-9. 344 Douglas:1999, 232. 345 Mennell/Murcott/Van Otterloo:1994, 10. 346 Douglas:1999, 231. 347 McGowan:1999, 5.

86

II. Eschatological Meals and Utopian Abundance in Mark

This does by no means imply a reduction of the meal to these categories, but constitutes only an attempt at a better understanding of what actually happens at a meal.348 Klosinski sums it up as follows: ‘Eating together is far more than the ingestion of comestibles. It can symbolize a complex number of feelings and relationships, mediate social status and power, and be a means of expressing the boundaries of group identity.’349 This theoretical perspective outlined will be given a historical fundament in the subsequent sections.350 That ‘fictional’ or ‘literary’ meals can and should be read in relationship with ‘historical’ meals may be indicated by the following insight of Douglas: ‘(…) the meaning of a meal is found in a system of repeated analogies. Each meal carries something of the meaning of the other meals; each meal is a structured social event which structures others in its own image.’351 In view of the above, it may therefore be assumed that meals function in four (related) main areas: 1. the definition and symbolization of social hierarchies, 2. the inclusion of people into peer groups, 3. the exclusion of people from it, 4. boundary marking with respect to the foodstuffs consumed, whereby 2 and 3 can be discussed together. Generalizing even more, this structuring function of meals, means that they can be seen as the expression of the shape of a community (e.g. of the po,lij),352 which they (performatively) structure and constitute, delineating the relationships of the various members with one another, including the relationship with the deity. In first-century terms, a symposium can in a certain way be seen as a microcosmic reflection of society.353 What this looks like in each particular case, differs from meal to meal.

348

McGowan:1999, 5, further also 6-7. Klosinski:1988, 56. 350 With Klinghardt:1996, 154n1, ‘Diese Überlegung will streng historisch verstanden werden und unterscheidet sich darin von der kulturanthropologischen These, daß gemeinsame Mahlzeiten in allen Kulturräumen verschiedener Zeiten eine zentrale Rolle spielen (…): Der Nachweis struktureller Gemeinsamkeiten beruht nicht auf einer anthropologischen Konstanz, sondern auf analogen sozialen Bedingungen, die historisch vermittelt sind.’ Diff. e.g. Bammel:1950. 351 Douglas:1999, 240. 352 Cf. Klinghardt:1996, 159, and esp.: Levine:1985. 353 Admittedly in a rather conservative way, rather preserving old than enabling new social structures, i.e. the merging and/or intermingling of peer groups. Cf. e.g. Braun:1995, 105. 349

D. Mark 14:25

87

b. Jewish and Hellenistic, ‘Secular,’ ‘Religious,’ and ‘Utopian’/‘Eschatological’ Meals Even though one cannot equate the various cultures of the Mediterranean world without any consequences, it should be maintained that every single one of them354 was strongly structured and constructed by meals and banquets.355 In what follows, the functions of these meals will be pursued further. In the course of this it will be shown that every function available for ‘earthly’ meals (including explicitly religious meals)356 is also exists for ‘heavenly’ banquets, thus providing an interpretative matrix for the eschatological banquets proper. This applies to Hellenistic circles357 just as well as to the ANE world of the OT/HB.358 The literary examples provided here are representative in the sense that they address a certain theme on a certain level (e.g. seating order on an earthly or utopian level). The point of view of the example, however, need not be representative. They merely show that a certain theme, e.g. the problem of a just seating order, was a matter of discussion. aa. Delineating Hierarchy The fact that meals and especially formal banquets always contain a hierarchical element needs little further justification, as this has been firmly established within the field of sociology of the meal, as well as much 354 Mußner’s well-known thesis that ‘the essence of Christianity is sunesqi,ein’ is rendered rather bleak by these observations: it can with just as much right be said that the being of first-century culture was sunesqi,ein. Cf. Mußner:1988, 423, and Mußner:1975. Rather, the essence of Christianity is not merely eating together, but doing this in a specific way, as the interrelationship between ethos and etiquette in early Christianity shows. 355 See: Klinghardt:1996, 156: ‘Es ist überraschend, in welch hohem Maß Gemeinschaft als Mahlgemeinschaft realisiert wurde, denn zunächst ist Koinonia ein ganz umfassender Wertbegriff für alle Formen sozialen Zusammenlebens, der beispielsweise in den antiken, an der Polis orientierten Staatstheorien eine zentrale Rolle spielte.’ See especially also: Schmitt-Pantel:1992, 1-13, Davidson:1999, 58-91, Dunbabin:2003, 1-10, Dayagi-Mendels:1999, 79-97, esp. 79. This is also the view shared by most contributions to reference works, which therefore need not be listed here. 356 They will therefore be treated as common meals as far as their function is concerned. See especially also Smith’s analysis, (Smith:2003a, 67-85). 357 Cf. in this respect the evidence collected by: Peres:2003, 217-232, offering a host of examples from Greek epitaphs, which illustrate that the concept of a post-mortal banquet with deities is very common. At least in a Roman context, burial was (for those who could afford it) not an individual affair, but community endured in the afterlife as well, expressed by the funerary architecture, including epitaphs referring to banqueting, as well as depictions of dining deceased. Cf. on the latter: Hope:1997, 69-88. 358 Hunziker-Rodewald:2001, 177, has, in view of Ps. 23:5, collected evidence on the same subject, but focusing on the ANE, showing the same. Cf. also Assmann:1991, 200234, Martin:1984, and Marx:2004, 35-50.

88

II. Eschatological Meals and Utopian Abundance in Mark

earlier. As Douglas puts it: ‘Meals require […] a seating order […],’359 and it is precisely with the word ‘order’ that one reaches a problem was much discussed in antiquity: the relationship and tension between order (ta,xij) and equality (ivsonomi,a) as a rightly ordered (euvkosmi,a) community (koinwni,a) ought to do justice to both.360 Put differently: the question is how a highly stratified society which is as such not necessarily problematized, can be related to the equally clearly articulated idea of equality (ivsonomi,a) in such a way that euvkosmi,a is achieved, a well-ordered whole, in which all receive the honor due to them according to one’s avreth,. Applied to a meal situation, it can be argued with Plutarch that it is only as an euvkosmi,a that a table can truly function as a ‘maker of friends.’361 This aim of creating a harmonious euvkosmi,a also explains, why conversational topics like war, fights, drunkenness (as a danger for the good order),362 or on the other hand, somberness363 were not appreciated364 and why it was agreed upon that rather cheerfulness (euvfrosu,nh) or joy (cara,) should rule.365

359

Douglas:1999, 236. This can be well illustrated by referring to Plato’s idea of a double ivsonomi,a: an absolute one: everyone is equal, and one according to avreth,, cf. Leg. 756E-758A. This double ivsonomi,a is necessary, as it would be unjust to give the same honor to those who have acquired much avreth, and to those who have not done so, cf. Resp. 8:558C. See also Klinghardt:1996, 160-161, Günther/Müller:1988, 49-51.52-67, Gnüg:1999, 23. 361 Cf. e.g. Mor. 149A-B, 158C, 621C), even if these friendships should be thought of in pragmatic, rather than emotional terms (see: Plutarch, Mor. 616A, cf. Mor. 660B-C). On equality and Roman meals in general, cf. D’Arms:1990, 308-320, who notes that another Roman poet, Statius (Silv. 1:43-45, cf. Juvenal, Sat. 2:110) praises these banquets of Domitian, whereas Augustus was known for organizing his cenae rectae (formal dinners) strictly according to social hierarchy, cf. e.g. Suetonius, Aug. 75, and see Macrobius, Sat. 2.4:28. 362 Slater:1990, 214-215, the classical example of this kind of u[brij is the unhappy ending of the wedding celebration of Peirithoos and Hippodameia to which the Centaurs had been invited as well and who get drunk (cf. Slater:1990, 216, Homer, Od. 21:295304). Slater himself proposes convincingly that in the Odyssey a contrast is made between the ideal symposium of the Phaeacians on the one hand (Od. 8) and the celebrations of Penelope’s suitors, all through the Odyssey. Paul:1991, 157-169, underlines that disorderly conduct was closely associated with symposia, especially with those associated with collegia (cf. e.g. Plato, Leg. 671A, Plutarch, Alc. 4:4-6, Athenaeus, Deipn. 12:534E-F). 363 So Slater:1990, 213-214, cf. Plutarch, Mor. 612E, Lucian, Par. 51. 364 Cf. Anakreon fr. 9 (Diehl). Murray:1991, 83-103, surveys the association of drinking fellowship and military fellowship, however. 365 See e.g. Xenophanes, fr. 1 (Diels/Kranz), Homer, Od. 9:5-10. and Acts 2:46, Rom 14:17. Cf. more extensively: Klinghardt:1996, 173-174. 360

D. Mark 14:25

89

The four elements of meals, which contribute to the structuring of a meal (1. official functions,366 2. the seating order,367 3. the distribution of equal portions and 4. table service), both on a ‘secular,’ a ‘religious’ and a ‘utopian’ level, can all be illustrated by means of a text of the 1st century (CE) Roman author Martialis: On the banquet, given to the people of Rome by Domitian after his victory over the Sarmatians (Martialis Epig. 8.50)368 Quanta Gigantei memoratur mensa triumphi/quantaque nox superis omnibus illa fuit/qua bonus accubuit genitor cum plebe deorum/et licuit Faunis poscere vina Iovem:/tanta tuas celebrant, Casesar, convivia laurus;/exhilarant ipsos gaudia nostra deos. Vescitur omnis eques tecum populusque patresque/et capit ambrosias cum duce Roma dapes./Grandia pollicitus quanto maiora dedisti!/Promissa est nobis sportula, recta data est.

Great was (we are told) the feast at the triumph over the Giants,/great as was that night for all the High Ones,/when the good Father reclined with the common run of deities/and the Fauns had license to call on Jove for wine:/so great, Caesar, is the banquet that celebrates your laurels;/our joys cheer the gods themselves./All the knights eat with you;/Rome takes ambrosial fare along with her leader./Large as were your promises, how much grander your gifts!/We were promised a dole, we have been given a true banquet.

Martialis’ description of this earthly meal takes place in utopian terms (the earthly meal is related to the Olympian one) and contains all four elements indicated above. First, at Domitian’s banquet, Domitian himself may be thought of as the president, i.e. host of the meal (element 1); second the stratification of the participants of the meal, in heaven (cf. line two) as well as on earth369 is evident, even if a Saturnalian element is certainly 366 At least someone who was presiding over the meal, for example the pater familias. At a symposium, the leader of the symposium did not need to be the host. Depending on the kind and the scale of the meal, there were more or less officers, the aim of their functions is expressed well by the title ‘eu;kosmoj,’ used to refer to one of these functions, cf. Schmeller:1995, 43. 367 Compare and contrast Jesus’ open and non-hierarchical earthly meals with 1QS 6:1-23, 1QSa 2:11-22, and the discussion by Plutarch Mor. 615C - 619A. 368 Text and translation: Shackleton Bailey:1993, 199 (adapted). See also Martialis:1999, 562-563. The subject of public dining, of which the banquet described in this epigram is an eloquent example, is discussed extensively by Dunbabin:2003, 72-102. 369 The Roman society is described in hierarchical terms: eques, populus, patres, line 7. Within a Jewish context, the examples of the Qumran community (cf. 1QS 6) and the Therapeutae (cf. Philo, Contempl. 30) are clear enough, as are Lk. 20:45-47 and Jas. 2:14. Cf. in general e.g. Stegemann/Stegemann:1997, 58-100. The Roman emperors’

90

II. Eschatological Meals and Utopian Abundance in Mark

present in relationship to table service (4).370 Even though the equal distribution of portions is not mentioned explicitly and was certainly not common,371 it may be assumed that the distribution of foodstuffs is imagined to take place in such a way that it did not disturb Martialis.372 This, however, does not mean that everyone received the same, but rather that everyone re-ceived a ‘just’ share. The goal of a just and harmonious order apparently was reached. Considering texts dealing with otherworldly meals from the perspective of the depiction and construction of a hierarchy, it becomes clear that a similar image appears as when considering ‘earthly’ meals: there is no unified ideal but the same themes, accentuated differently from text to text occur time and again. In this respect, the role of the host (Zeus/Domitian in Martialis’ epigram) can be fulfilled by a deity373 who can be a guest as well, however.374 The seating order can be strict375 as well as liberal.376 The same is true for the theme of table service: in NT texts,377 where the returned Lord can even wait at the table himself,378 and slaves serving at a table banquets are best imagined as a spectacular show-down of precisely this stratified society (cf. D’Arms:1990, 310-311). 370 Cf. line 4: ‘licuit Faunis poscere vina Iovem.’ On the Saturnalia, which were not only celebrated in the city of Rome, but also in the army, cf. Döpp:1993, 145-177, Versnel:1993, 136-227, and Distelrath:2001, 113-115. 371 Hence, the emphasis of Pliny the Younger, Ep. 2.6:3 on serving everyone the same, opposed as he was to disorderly dinner parties (cf. Ep. 9.5:3). Juvenal supports Pliny’s view on portions, cf. Sat. 8:177-178, cf. also Plutarch, Mor. 61D-D, Athenaeus, Deipn. 1:12-14. 372 Martialis is in this respect rather sensitive, cf. Epig. 1:20, 3:49.60, 4:68.85, 6:11, see further: Pliny the Younger, Ep. 2:6, Juvenal, Sat. 5:24-28, Lucian, Sat. 17-18, Merc. cond. 26, within an early Christian context, cf. 1 Cor. 11:17-34, on which cf. e.g. Theißen:1974b, 179-206, Klinghardt:1996, 269-371. 373 Cf. Isa. 25:6-8, Lk. 14:16-24, in 1QSa 2:11-22 it concerns mainly the priestly Messiah. 374 Cf. Apc. 3:20, see also: Lk. 24:13-32. 375 See once more: 1QSa 2:11-22, cf. Philo, Contemp. 67-68: the seating order is determined by the order of admission to the community. The vision expressed in this text accords well with the early Jewish idea that there exists a hierarchy in ‘heaven’ as well, cf. Konradt:2003a, 236, in view of 1 Cor. 3:8. See further: Mt. 5:19, 11:11, 18:1-4, Mk. 10:37.40par., 4 Ez. 8:49, 10:57 and see: Billerbeck:1922, 249-250, 4.2, 1138-1143. 376 Cf. Petronius, Sat. 70:11-13, a text with a clear utopian outlook, similarly: Lucian, Sat., 15, 19, 22. 377 These have a tendency towards a more egalitarian approach in these matters. This is elegantly shown in 1 Cor. 11:17-34. In Jas. 2:2-5, as well as in Lk. 14:7-11 the theme of the seating order is discussed with a similar preference whereas the subject of invitations is discussed in Lk. 14:12-14. Cf. for table service further: Mk. 1:13par, 1:31parr. (cf. 10:45parr., 15:41parr.), Lk. 10:40, 12:37, 17:8, 22:26-27, Jn. 12:2 (cf. 12:26, 13:120), Acts 6:2. 378 Cf. Lk. 12:37b, see further Lk. 22:24-27.28-30, Jn. 13:1-20.

D. Mark 14:25

91

are generally absent.379 In other texts, however, meals prepare themselves, which makes the existence of slaves superfluous,380 or they are, conversely, assumed to be there.381 These observations support the thesis that one cannot take a certain ‘commonly known’ ideal (eschatological/utopian) banqueting situation as point of departure. What can be observed is rather that a number of banquet-related themes are used to envision certain utopian as well as eschatological hopes, the precise shape of which, of course, depends on someone’s religious and/or philosophical convictions. bb. Inclusion and Exclusion Cicero’s questioning answer, ‘oro te, quis tu es?’382 to an all too intrusive, want-to-be host shows that invitations, their absence as well as their acceptance or rejection, played an important part in the structuring of table fellowship and, through this medium, in the structuring of society as a whole.383 Truly charitable invitations were quite unheard of and gifts of food to the needy were not commonly accompanied by a meal.384 Also, Plutarch’s praise of Chilon in the Septem Sapientium Convivium reveals how important it was to be part of an acceptable table fellowship and therefore to be careful in (not) accepting an invitation: Plutarch, Septem Sapientium Convivium (Mor. 146B-164E), 148A385 o[qen a;rista Ci,lwn( kalou,menoj evcqe,j( ouv pro,teron w`molo,ghsen h' muqe,sqai tw/n keklhme,nwn e[kaston) e;fh ga.r o[ti

Wherefore Chilon showed most excellent judgment when he received his invitation yesterday, in not agreeing to come until he

379 Cf. however Lk. 17:7-10, Jn. 13:1-20 for their role at a meal. If the image of a servant service is used, however, this is primarily to address the relationship between the Lord and his faithful, cf. the overview provided by Rengstorf:1935, 262-283, esp. 276280. 380 Cf. Ps.-Plat. Anioch 37D, on the theme of the ‘automatikon’ cf. further also the mechanic servants designed by Hephaestus, Homer Il. 18:373-377.417-420, cf. Günther/ Müller:1988, 95, Kytzler:2002, 1070-1072. 381 Cf. e.g. their appearance throughout the Cena Trimalchionis. Philo underlines the issue in Contempl. 70-72. 382 Cicero, Fam. 7:16.2. 383 See especially: Braun:1995, 73-97.98-131. Gowers:1993, 220-310, studies Latin invitation poems, which show a considerable interest in elaborate formal invitations, cf. e.g. the (partially mock) invitations: Catullus, Epig. 13, Martialis, Epig. 5:78, 10:48, 11:52, Pliny the Younger, Ep. 1:15. 384 Cf. Braun:1995, 102.116-120, as well as Kim:1998, 253-287, esp. on the motifs of euergetism, 269-272. Cf. the also the realistic account of early Jewish, early Christian and Greco-Roman charity, given by Hamel:1990, 212-221.

92

II. Eschatological Meals and Utopian Abundance in Mark

su,mploun avgnw,mona dei/ fe,rein kai. su,skhnon oi-j plei/n avna,gkh kai. strateu,esqaiÇ to. de. Sumpo,taij e`auto.n w`j e;tuce katamignu,ein, ouv nou/n e;contoj avndro,j evstin.

had learned the name of every person invited. For he said that men must put up with an inconsiderate companion on shipboard or under the same tent, if necessity compels them to travel or to serve in the army, but that to trust luck regarding the people one is to be associated with at table is not the mark of a man of sense.

That Chilon’s behavior is indeed justified is illustrated by a later anecdote from the same work, where Aleximedus of Milete is angry over not receiving a suitable place at an invitation of Periander (cf. Mor. 148F).386 When turning towards the various cultic associations which permeated the Greco-Roman world and which show similarities with the way early Jewish and Christian groups were organized,387 it is striking that there is evidence for formal invitations, extended by the society’s patron deity.388 In this case, the deity is acting as the host of a meal, which is, however, but one option.389 The other option was to view the deity as the guest of honor at a banquet (theoxenia).390 In view of this evidence, one may assume the same dynamics of acceptance and refusal, or inclusion and exclusion in this context, even if membership of a cultic society or devotional guild is also a statutory matter.391 Within the HB/OT, attention 385

Babbitt:1962, 357-359, cf. also Mor. 708D. Another anecdote recounted by Plutarch is the altercation between Pupius Piso and Clodius, Mor. 511D-E Cf. also: Sir. 31:12-32:13 as well as Lk. 14:7-11.16-24/Mt. 22:114. 387 Cf. Ebel:2004, passim, McCready:1996, Klinghardt:1996, 251-267, and Klosinski: 1988, 58-112. 388 Cf. the invitation to the kli,nh of Serapis in PKöln 57 (in Horsley:1981, 5). 389 Cf. Smith:2003, 78, further Jameson:1988, 959-979, here: 966-967, e.g. Xenophon, Anab. 5.3:7-13, see also the role of Persephone as host in Aristophanes’ Ran. 503-507. See from the HB/OT e.g.: Ps. 23:5, Isa. 25:6-8, 55:1-2, a function also exercised by Lady Wisdom: cf. Prov. 9:5 and Sir. 24. Cf. McDaniel:1984, 105-110, and DayagiMendels:1999, 99-103.107. 390 Cf. Kolwalzig:2002, 610-612. On theoxenia cf. further Smith:2003, 78, Gill:1974, 117-137, Bruit:1990, 162-174, esp. 170-171, Jameson:1998, 35-57. Within the OT/HB, not only Isa. 65:11 (negatively), but also Gen. 18 (positively) constitute classical examples (elaborated exegetically by e.g. Philo, Abr. 107-132). Cf. for a further overview e.g. Schwemer:2004, 186-226, here esp.: 197-201. 391 See the statutes of the Athenian society of Bacchus, e.g. in Schmeller:1995, 110115, esp. on p. 111, where criteria are listed, though the exact meaning of the decisive words a;xioj and evpith,deioj is left open, whereas the height of the contribution (40 denarii and a libation offering) is defined precisely. 386

D. Mark 14:25

93

may be drawn to the theme of eating and drinking before YHWH as one possible, if not the expression of communion with him.392 It should furthermore be taken into consideration that the concept of (Lady) Wisdom as host is of importance in biblical tradition,393 as the imagery of e.g. Prov. 9:1-6394 and Sir. 24:19-22395 shows (cf. also Isa. 55:1-2). In view of the fact that these kinds of (sacrificial)396 meals with the deity are generally assumed to be common throughout the Mediterranean world, it is not necessary to argue their importance extensively here.397 The dynamics of divine invitations exist within a utopian/eschatological context as well, which can be illustrated by reference to the idea of rapture and election, which is, for example associated with traditions about the Elysion398 and in early Judaism with reaching ‘heaven’ as well.399 From the OT, one example of divine hospitality is Ps. 23:5. Hunziker-Rodewald has

392 This opinion was also expressed orally by Prof. Dr. Silvia Schroer and Prof. Dr. Ernst Axel Knauf in the discussion following the presentation of a paper based on the research undertaken for the present study in the research seminar of the Institute for Biblical Studies of the Faculty of Theology of the University of Berne on 27/4/2004. Cf. also Burkert:1990, 92-95. Cf. e.g. Deut. 12:7-18, 2 Sam. 6:18-19, 1 Chr. 29:22, Ex. 24:111, Neh. 8-10. Janowski/Zenger:2003 lay out exemplarily the (utopian!) significance of feasting in Israel and its cultural and religious context. 393 Cf. for an overview: Stallmann:2000, 117-133, esp. 120-123. 394 Cf. Fox:2000, 295-300.303-306. See also Fuhs:2001, 164-171, on 165-166, where he rightly remarks that a ‘cultic’ or sacrificial meal is not in view here. The ANE context cannot be discussed here, but cf. Fuhs:2001, 167. 395 Cf. Sauer:2000, 184-185. Further: Kieweler:1998, 191-215. 396 The subject is often discussed within the context of treatments of the place of sacrifices in the OT/HB, cf. Marx:1997, 203-217, Marx:2003, 572-576, Janowski/ Backhaus: 2001, 36-43, Borgeaud:2003, 570-572, Gerlitz:1995, 253-258, Seebaß:1995, 258-257. 397 Cf. texts referring to the Passover meal (Deut. 16:1-8, Ex. 12:1-11), to the xb;zm; should be mentioned here.408 Occurring only twice in the HB/OT (Am. 6:7, Jer. 16:5), it is probably related to ancestor cults and at is at the same time the closest Semitic parallel to the Greco-Roman collegium.409 Even though this subject has been anything but exhausted here, what has been sketched up until now may well serve as a framework for 400 Hunziker-Rodewald:2001, 174.176, thereby following the LXX and Jerome, cf. McDaniel:1984, 153n1. 401 Cf. McDaniel:1984, 152-154, noting various uses of tw).”’ 275

F. Apocalypse 19-22 (19:7-9, 21:1-8, 22:1-5)

367

rivers spring from temples (cf. esp. Ezek. 47:1, compare Gen. 2:10-14).283 This notion, adapted from Ezek. 47:1, is in Apc. 22:1 enriched with the notion that the water is life giving, which probably derives from Zech. 14:8(LXX), while the water in Ezek. 47:1-12 also has this effect, even if it is not called so. In this way Apc. 22:1 achieves a clarification of the living water in Apc. 21:6 (cf. 7:17) and 22:17. It is now clear where its source is and the full range of the promises to the (conquering) thirsty in both texts becomes clear: they will be the inhabitants of the new city.284 In Apc. 22:2 (cf. Ezek. 47) the vegetation of the city is described, consisting of a285 tree of life, reminiscent of Gen. 2:9286 as far as its further qualification is concerned, and of Ezek. 47:12 regarding its location and function. Apc. 22:2 remains also in line with Ezek. 47:12 as far as the fruitfulness of the trees is concerned: every month the trees bear fruit.287 That the fruit of these trees of life is eaten is not noted expressly, but it may well be implied in Apc. 22:14. Even though the topic of enormous fertility derives from Ezek. 47:12, it may within the Apc. be associated with the hieros gamos as part of which it is presented (diff. Ezek.).288 The emphasis on the fact that the tree is a tree of life relates it not only to the Garden of Eden (cf. Gen. 2:9), but also to the Apc.’s broader interest in ‘life’ and ‘life-givingness.’289 This semantic field is closely associated with God and the Lamb/Christ.290 In the context of Apc. 22:2, the epithet zwh/j binds the tree closely together with the water mentioned one verse earlier. The new creation therefore has the same attributes as its creator(s). Furthermore, the paradise in which the tree occurs in Apc. 22:2 offers the interpretative framework for the trees of life in Apc. 2:7 and Apc. 22:14.19, clarifying the promises and the curse in those verses291 The note 283

Cf. above, VI.F.3.aa. Cf. Deutsch:1987, 118-122, so also Lee:2001, 274-275. 285 The grammatical problem of the xu,lon zwh/j (singular) in Apc. 22:2 appearing to stand all over the place might again be due, either to the Apc.’s mastery of Greek or his conscious allusion to to. xu,lon th/j zwh/j (singular) in Gen. 2:9, though it seems likely that the singular is used in view of the singular in Ezek. 47:12 and has a generic meaning. So e.g. Beale:1999, 1106. Diff.: Prigent:2001, 626. 286 In addition, in apocalyptic literature, cf. 2 En. 8-10, Apc. Abr. 21:6, Apc. Pet. 16. 287 The textual variant represented by 051s and MA e[na e[kaston is a clear attempt to surpass Ezek. 47:12. Cf. Aune:1998, 1178. This abundance is a common theme in apocalyptic literature, cf. e.g. 1 En. 10:18-19 and above, I.D.2.b.bb.(1). 288 So the suggestion of Yarbro Collins:1976, 226-227. 289 Apc. has a certain predilection for the noun zwh,, cf. Apc. 2:7.10, 3:5, 7:17, 11:11, 13:8, 16:3, 17:8, 20:12.15, 21:6.27, 22:1-2.14.17.19, as well as the verb za,w, cf. Apc. 1:18, 2:8, 3:1, 4:9-10, 7:2, 10:6, 13:14, 15:7, 19:20, 20:4-5. 290 Cf. Apc. 1:18, 2:8, 4:9-10, 7:2, 10:6, 11:11, 15:7. 291 Even though direct consumption of any fruits is not in view in Apc. 22:2, cf. Giesen:1997, 474. 284

368 VI. Eschatological Meals and Utopian Abundance in the Apocalypse of John that the leaves of the tree serve to heal is also based on Ezek. 47:12, be it only partly: that the healing is the healing of the nations is not prepared by Ezek., nor directly by any other OT/HB text.292 Even though healing may be synonymous with conversion here,293 its precise function remains difficult to see. In 4 Ez. 7:123 and 2 Bar. 29:8, healing occurs in the context of the fruits of paradise, but the nations are not in view in either text. The apocalypticist might have added the note in view of the Lamb’s universal significance (cf. Apc. 21:24-25), or because in order to add to the fantastic properties of the vegetation in the new Jerusalem.294 Having described the city’s vegetation and source, the Apc. moves on (Apc. 22:3) to note the future absence of God’s curse. This may be related to Gen. 3:14,295 but is probably more directly inspired by Zech. 14:11 (LXX),296 where it is as unexpected as in Apc. 22:3. Still, it is well chosen to pinpoint the utopian character of the new creation (cf. Apc. 21:4). The inhabitants of the city, benefiting from its paradisiac properties, are more clearly described in Apc. 22:3-4. It is emphasized that they are the servant of God and the Lamb,297 and as in Apc. 7:15 they are worshipping God.298 In a chiastic construction, the same is repeated, as the servants299 are further described as seeing ‘his’ countenance,300 partially explaining the absence of the temple, and as having ‘his’ name on their foreheads (cf. Apc. 2:7, 3:12, 14:1). The blessedness of this city is further underlined in

292

Joel 1:14LXX and Jer. 3:17, suggested in the margin of NA27 are similar but are not the sources of Apc. 22:2. 293 So Giesen:1997, 474-475. 294 So Beale:1999, 1108. 295 However, evpikata,ratoj is used there, not the unusual kata,qema. 296 Zech. 14:11LXX: kai. ouvk e;stai avna,qema e;ti. 297 As more often in the Apc. (cf. Beale:1999, 1113, and Apc. 3:21, 5:11-13, 7:17 and 1 En. 51:3) referred to with a singular (auvtou/) instead of a plural, which can be the result of sloppy editing, awry Greek, profound theology, or a reference to a bisellium (cf. Apc. 3:21, and see VI.D.2.). Cf. for the penultimate option: Giesen:1997, 475. The reference to the throne shows a similar phenomenon: o` qro,noj tou/ qeou/ kai. tou/ avrni,ou. 298 Though no longer in a temple (diff. Apc. 7:15). Nevertheless, the verb latreu,w has a cultic connotation, cf. Beale:1999, 1113. 299 Giesen:1997, 475, stresses that this word should be thought of as including women, even if the Greek uses a male plural. 300 I.e. the originally cultic expression o`ra,w to. pro,swpon tou/ kuri,ou with its variants (cf. Pss. 24:3-6, 42:3, see also Ex. 23:15.17) indicates communion with God, cf. 4 Ez. 7:98, Mt. 5:8, Heb. 12:14, 1 Cor. 13:13, 1 Jn. 3:2, cf. for the opposite: Ex. 33:20 with Isa. 6:5, Jn. 1:18. The cultic aspect of the expression probably still resonates: the heavenly Jerusalem is a temple where worship takes place. This in spite of the more general use of the expression for eschatological fulfillment (e.g. Apc. Abr. 29:20, 4 Ez. 7:98, Mt. 5:8, 1 Jn. 3:2). Cf. Giesen:1997, 475.

F. Apocalypse 19-22 (19:7-9, 21:1-8, 22:1-5)

369

Apc. 22:5, elaborating upon the city’s illumination301 and the eternal coreign of the faithful.302 Thus, the imagery of paradisiac foodstuffs as used in Apc. 22:1-5 to outline the fertility and abundance of paradise city has its place within the overarching concept of a new creation, the result of the Lamb’s victory, culminating in his marriage. Gaining access to the fruits of paradise implies gaining access to paradise itself: being redeemed. In this way, Apc. 22:1-5 places the foodstuffs of paradise in their context. This was pending since their first appearance (Apc. 2:7, 7:17). Thus, it is also only within the larger context of the Apc. that the significance of Apc. 22:1-2 becomes clear. A few remarks can be made in this respect. As becomes ever more clear, the theme of the paradisiac foodstuffs reflects much of the dynamics of the Apc. In other words, what is promised to the conqueror as a reward and as the shape of his vindication in Apc. 2:7.17, 3:20, 7:17 is referred to in terms of an invitation in Apc. 19.21-22 and is subsequently described in Apc. 22:14.17.19.303 However, this is only the positive half of the climax of the Apc.’s nutritional imagery in the vision of the new Jerusalem. In the discussion of the contrast between Apc. 19:7-9 and 19:17-18.21,304 it was already noted that, analogously to the contrast between two rather different meals in Apc. 19, within the Apc. a similar contrast emerges between the foodstuffs to be consumed by the (followers of the) whore (including the whore herself, cf. Apc. 17:16) or the beast (whose followers are equally consumed, Apc. 19:21), and the paradisiac foodstuffs for the redeemed. Beyond the destruction of the evildoers through their consumption, the imagery includes the following elements. First, the cup of God’s wrath is handed out to the followers of the beast and the harlot.305 Second, the harlotry of the whore is captured in the image of a cup full of the filth of this harlotry (Apc. 17:2.4). Third, the same harlot is drunk with the blood of the saints and witnesses (Apc. 17:6), rather than partaking of the fruits of Eden. It is possibly precisely this cup, which will be mixed for her in Apc. 18:6 as her punishment.306 Fourth, hunger and thirst are part of the plagues descending 301

Taking up and restating Apc. 21:25b, while adding, in the manner of OT/HB blessings, evpV auvtou,j (cf. Num. 6:25, further Ps. 80:4, 118:27, Giesen:1997, 476). 302 Cf. e.g. Giesen:1997, 476. 303 As Reader:1971, 137, rightly elaborates, the water of life and the tree of life belong to a wider range of eschatological symbolism including the wreath of life (Apc. 2:10) and the book of life (cf. Apc. 3:5, 13:8, 17:8, 20:12.15, 21:27). 304 Cf. above, VI.F.d. 305 Cf. Apc. 14:10, where the cup is for the followers of the beast and Apc. 16:19 where the cup is handed to (the harlot) Babylon, similarly: 18:3.6-7. 306 To this kind of symbolism also the winepress imagery of Apc. 14:17-20, 19:15 belongs; cf. the similar use of the motif of a field of wheat in Apc. 14:14-16.

370 VI. Eschatological Meals and Utopian Abundance in the Apocalypse of John upon the earth throughout the Apc.307 The impact and significance of the imagery of the satiating (cf. Apc. 7:17, 21:6) foodstuffs of paradise increase, the more this (binary) opposition reveals itself: satiation for the redeemed in the Apc. means not only redemption from the marginalization (cf. Apc. 7:16-17, 21:4), but, in view of these destructive foodstuffs, also redemption from the fate of the beast, the whore and their followers. Instead of being eaten or consumed by the cup of God’s wrath, those who have washed their garments in the Lamb’s blood308 will enter Eden and enjoy the fullness of God’s/the Lamb’s presence which is expressed in terms of nutritional fulfillment, access to which comes in the form of an invitation to a table fellowship (Apc. 19:7-9, cf. 3:20).309

G. Apocalypse 22:14.17.19 1. Introduction The exhortative and inviting310 epilogue of the Apc. begins in Apc. 22:6 with a reflection upon and a recapitulation311 of the significance of the visions contained in the book. This takes place in verbal agreement with the introduction of the Apc. in Apc. 1:1-3.312 At the end of the epilogue, there is another return to the beginning of the Apc.: Apc. 22:21 concludes the work in epistolary style, in agreement with the characterization of the whole work as a letter (cf. Apc. 1:4-8).313 Even if it is generally agreed upon that the vision of the heavenly Jerusalem ends in Apc. 22:5314 and that the epilogue of the book occupies Apc. 21:6-21 or at least 21:10-21,315 the genre and structure of these verses are debated and remain unclear in 307

Cf. Apc. 6:8, 8:11, 11:6 (cf. 16:4-6), and 18:8. Cf. above, VI.E.2., on this (Apc. 7:14) and Apc. 7:16-17. 309 To argue, as Grelot:1999, 200, does that Apc. 3:20 and 19:7-9 do not mention foodstuffs because they take place beyond time and space, is to miss the point: as so often elsewhere in the NT, the focus of some texts in the Apc. is primarily on fellowship, whereas that of others is on nutritional fulfillment. 310 So rightly Rossing:1999, 159-160. 311 Cf. Prigent:2001, 633, Beale:1999, 1123-1124. 312 Cf. esp. Apc. 1:1 and 22:6, and 1:3 with 22:10, see Prigent:2001, 631-632, Giesen: 1997, 481, Aune:1998, 1205-1206 (offering a helpful chart with the correspondences between the introduction and epilogue of the Apc). Allusions to HB/OT works abound, however, cf. Isa. 65:16, Dan. 2:45b, cf. Beale:1999, 1123-1124. 313 In addition, however, the section also finds a parallel in Apc. 19:9-10. Cf. Prigent: 2001, 632. 314 Cf. e.g. Prigent:2001, 631, Beale:1999, 1122. 315 So Aune:1998, 1201, offering form critical observations as far as the use of the word ‘epilogue’ is concerned for describing Apc. 22:10-21. 308

G. Apocalypse 22:14.17.19

371

the end. This can be ascribed to the quick succession of (unclearly identified) speakers and voices, which could find an explanation in the text’s (possibly) liturgical character,316 and the quick variation of themes throughout the pericope.317 Despite these problems, the structure of the whole may be sketched by means of a thematic subdivision, rather than a subdivision according to the various speakers. The following elements can be distinguished. Apc. 22:6-7 is the introduction to the epilogue and contains a first emphasis on the truthfulness of the Apc. and the necessity of sticking to its message. Apc. 22:8-9 narrates the theocentric correction of the importance of the angelus interpres. In Apc. 22:10a, the sealing of the book is related. Subsequently, in Apc. 22:10b-15, Christ’s parousia is announced and the judgment outlined. Apc. 22:16 identifies Jesus as the true author of the Apc. Apc. 22:17 contains liturgical acclamations of the community. Apc. 22:18-19 curses those who alter the Apc., Apc. 22:20a is a final assurance that Christ will come, Apc. 22:20b contains yet another acclamation of the community, and Apc. 22:21 is the work’s formal epistolary conclusion.318 Within this amalgam, the tree of life occurs as reward in Apc. 22:14, the denial to take part of this tree surfaces as a punishment in Apc. 22:19 (both speeches of Christ), and the water of life appears in Apc. 22:17 in the acclamations of the community. 2. Apocalypse 22:14 The image of the tree of life and partaking of it(s fruits) runs through the whole of the Apc., thus connecting its various parts: introduced in a promise to the conqueror Apc. 2:7,319 the tree returns in Apc. 22:2 and penultimately (cf. v. 19) surfaces in Apc. 22:14 in the context of Christ’s proclamation of his own future coming (cf. Apc. 22:7) and the rewarding of all according to their deeds (Apc. 22:12). Christ has the authority to do this as the alpha and omega (Apc. 23:13).320 The fruits’ beneficiaries are those who have washed their clothes (cf. Apc. 7:14). Apart from the fruit of the 316

Not to be discussed extensively here, but cf. Aune’s overview (1998b, 1206-1208) of proposals in this direction. 317 Cf. Giesen:1997, 480-481, Beale:1999, 1122-1123, noting on 1122 that the section is organized in a ‘haphazard’ way. Aune:1998, 1204-1205, discusses the various proposals for de- and recomposition of the section. 318 Cf. Giesen:1997, 481, Beale:1999, 1123, prefers a division according to the repeated references to Christ’s coming or the nearness of the end. The structure of the concluding section of the Apc. is so unclear, however, that it cannot serve as the basis for an interpretation. 319 Aune:1998b, 1219, remarks correctly that the washing of the garments and overcoming are ‘functionally equivalent,’ as both are rewarded in the same way, i.e. with access to the tree of life (and thus, implicitly, to the city). 320 Cf. Apc. 22:13 and 21:6 in relationship to the water of life.

372 VI. Eschatological Meals and Utopian Abundance in the Apocalypse of John tree of life, the reward entails also the access to the city (Apc. 22:14). As throughout the Apc., the reward is accentuated by outlining the punishment for the others: they are turned into true ‘outsiders,’ i.e. they are not allowed to enter the city (Apc. 22:15a). The reason for this is given with their characterization with a catalogue of vices (Apc. 22:15b).321 As indicated, the apocalypticist does not introduce a new theme, but repeats an already known image, while emphasizing the interrelation of tree and city (cf. also Apc. 2:7, 3:12),322 and connecting it with another repeated image: the washing of the clothes/garments (cf. Apc. 7:14). This is in Apc. 22:14 the requirement for partaking of the tree of life, just as it was in Apc. 7:17 the precondition for access to the source of the water of life.323 There, the image was taken to refer to faithfulness to Christ at large, not necessarily to martyrdom in the narrow sense of the word.324 The form of a macarism in which the image of the tree of life appears in Apc. 22:14 is used in the Apc. before. Its occurrence in Apc. 22:14 is the last instance of a series of seven macarisms,325 all blessing or congratulating the faithful and (hence) redeemed, and as such constituting a clear call to persist in the behavior leading to this bliss.326 In sum: especially through its repetitive character and its position at the end of the Apc. – just after the vision of new Jerusalem – the image of the tree of life in the macarism in Apc. 22:14 recapitulates the reward of utopian satiation and paradisiac conditions for those who remain faithful to Christ. Subsequently, Apc. 22:19, where the tree of life surfaces one last time, presents the reader with a curse, specifying the kind of faithfulness demanded by the Apc. by unmistakably outlining the results of tampering with its contents: exclusion the tree of life, i.e. from the heavenly Jerusalem. 3. Apocalypse 22:17 The water of life, already of importance in Apc. 7:17, 21:6 and 22:1 for connecting the need for water as such with the need for ‘life eternal,’ is taken up one last time in Apc. 22:17 in the puzzling327 call to the thirsty to come and take from the living water for free. This invitation stands in the 321

Cf. Prigent:2001, 641-643, Aune:1998, 1222-1224, see also Apc. 21:8. Cf. Prigent:2001, 640, Giesen:1997, 488. 323 Cf. Prigent:2001, 640, Beale:1999, 1139-1140. 324 Cf. above, VI.E.2. With Giesen:1997, 487, Beale:1999, 1138-1139, Aune:1998, 1220. 325 Cf. Prigent:2001, 640, the other macarisms are: Apc. 1:3, 14:13, 16:15, 19:9, 20:6, 22:7.14. 326 Cf. Giesen:1997, 488. 327 The problems are i.a. ‘who is who?’ (cf. for an overview of solutions: Prigent: 2001, 645-647) and the connection with the preceding and following verses (cf. Giesen: 1997, 490). 322

G. Apocalypse 22:14.17.19

373

contexts of a number of calls in Apc. 22:17. Of these, the (liturgical and earthly)328 call of the spirit329 and the bride for someone to come in Apc. 22:17ab is addressed to Christ,330 who has indeed promised to do so (cf. e.g. Apc. 22:7). Those progressing in 22:17cd, however, are not to be identified with Christ, but rather with Christians’ movement towards Christ: the thirsty (cf. Apc. 7:16-17, 21:6).331 The connection between the two halves of Apc. 22:17 is therefore associative: the catchword e;rcomai, occurring in both halves of the verse, facilitates references to both the advent of Christ and to the believer’s advancing to the living water possible within one breath.332 The image of living water for the thirsty is already known from the immediate context of Apc. 22:17, as it is used in Apc. 21:6 and 22:1 as part of the description of the new heaven and earth and was already referred to proleptically in Apc. 7:17. In all its contexts this is part of the process of divine vindication of the faithful. In Apc. 7:17, as well as in Apc. 21:6, reference is also made to the source of the water of life, which is absent in Apc. 22:1.17, but this does not hamper the imagery as such. Whereas the living water in Apc. 7:17, 21:6, 22:1 functions as an eschatological reward, it may have a contemporary aspect in Apc. 22:17: those who come to Christ now (in the liturgy?), will already drink from the water of life. Alternatively, it may be the case that by means of a time lapse conversion (‘coming’) and access to paradise city are juxtaposed. 4. Apocalypse 22:19 The meanwhile well-known image of the (fruits of the) tree of life occurs one final time in Apc. 22:19 (cf. 2:7, 22:2.14), where it stands in the context of a double curse on all those who either add something to the Apc. – to them all the plagues described in the Apc. may be added –, or who subtract something from it: their portion from the tree of life as well as from the holy city may be taken from them. In this way, Apc. 22:19 forms counterpart to Apc. 22:14, where precisely partaking from the tree of life and entering the city are promised to those who remain faithful to Christ. The context of this reversed promise is the protection of the integrity of the book, whose trustworthiness (Apc. 22:6) and importance (Apc. 22:7) has already been emphasized, but which has not been sealed (Apc. 22:10). The form of this protection, the curse in Apc. 22:19, is a well-known method of doing so, evidenced by a variety of literary 328

Cf. Prigent:2001, 645. Of prophecy, cf. Apc. 19:10, see also 14:13, see e.g. Giesen:1997, 491, Beale: 1999, 1149. 330 Cf. Giesen:1997, 491. 331 Cf. Giesen:1997, 491, Beale:1999, 1148. 332 Cf. also Aune:1998, 1227-1228. 329

374 VI. Eschatological Meals and Utopian Abundance in the Apocalypse of John parallels.333 Similar formulas occur in contracts and treaties. In a Jewish context, such formulas are applied to God’s commandments,334 and in early Christian circles, this use was inherited.335 By using the image of the city and the tree again, the apocalypticist reemphasizes one of the core themes of his visionary work: the need for faithfulness not only to Christ as such, but to Christ as he appears in the Apc. (Only) this will be rewarded with access to the holy city and the enjoyment of the eschatological paradise. Not to fulfill this faithfulness means to fall away and to be denied precisely these two things.336 5. Concluding Observations In concluding the work, the final section of the Apc. recapitulates much of the content and imagery of the body of the book. In this process, the foodstuffs of paradise occupy a prominent place. The motifs of the tree of life and the water of life secure a tight connection of the epilogue Apc. 22:6-21 to the preceding body of the Apc., especially also with the letters to the churches in Apc. 2-3,337 the proleptic pericope Apc. 7:1-17 (Apc. 7:16-17: water of life) and the vision of the new Jerusalem in Apc. 21:1-22:5. The themes of utopian satiation and paradisiac conditions therefore permeate the whole work. Even though the foodstuffs of paradise are used with different accentuations in their respective contexts, they retain their significance as ciphers for access to paradise and thereby their function of reward for the faithful throughout the Apc. The foodstuffs are boundary and/ or identity markers for the community of the elect: among other things, their diet sets them apart from others. The opposite is also the case: also the unfaithful are characterized by their (lethal) diet.338 The image of the (fruits of the ) tree of life (Apc. 22:14), to be enjoyed by those who have washed their garments, combines the call to faithfulness to Christ (cf. Apc. 22:11), i.e.: the conquering mentioned in Apc. 2:7, with the vision of the heavenly paradise (Apc. 22:2) and the impending judgment (Apc. 22:10-15, cf. Apc. 2:7). Apc. 22:19 differs slightly in emphasis, as it focuses on a particular kind of faithfulness: faithfulness to 333 Cf. the classic contribution of Van Unnik:1949, as well as the discussion in Aune:1998b, 1208-1215. 334 Cf. in view of the seer’s intense use of the OT/HB esp. Deut. 4:1-2, 12:32, 29:1920, these may well provide the closest parallels and his most direct source of inspiration. So Beale:1999, 1150-1151. Cf. further e.g. Josephus, C. Ap. 1:42-43, Ant. 12:109, 1 En. 104:11, 11QTemple 54:5-7, Ep. Arist. 311, Philo, Mos. 2:34. 335 Cf. e.g. Did. 4:13, Barn. 19:2. Cf. Prigent:2001, 648. 336 Cf. also Beale:1999, 1152, Aune:1998, 1232. 337 Cf. Beale:1999, 1152, see Apc. 2:23 / 22:12, 2:7 /22:14.19, and 3:12 / 22:14.19. 338 Cf. above, II.D.2.b.cc. on diet and identity.

H. Conclusions

375

the words of the Apc., whose importance was already underlined in Apc. 22:6, and thus to the content of the Apc. In addition, the promise of the tree of life in Apc. 22:19 is formulated negatively and pleonastically: together with access to the city it will be taken away from those who take away something from the Apc. Its consequence can be imagined as starvation outside the city walls. The penultimate occurrence of a utopian foodstuff is the water of life in Apc. 22:17, connecting with Apc. 7:17, 21:6, 22:1. It is probably not (merely) utopian (eschatological) as the other occurrences are, though it certainly evokes eschatological expectations (cf. Apc. 22:6, 22:1). It may, however, simultaneously be interpreted as a ‘flash forward’ from conversion to reward. Just as in its the body, the Apc. encourages its audience through the intensive use of imagery of utopian foodstuffs to be faithful to (its particular brand of) Christianity so that it may enjoy the fruits of the passion of the Lamb in its epilogue.

H. Conclusions The Apc. offers a clear and within the NT unique use of eschatological foodstuffs and the theme of eschatological satiation, finding its integrative centre in the vision of the nuptial heavenly paradise/the new Jerusalem in Apc. 21-22. Flanking this main theme there are two occurrences of (eschatological) banquets: Apc. 3:20 and Apc. 19:7-9 (with Apc. 19:17-21). The use of eschatological foodstuffs is clustered in three blocks, which are also connected with the two instances of (eschatological) banquets. First, within the introductory seven letters to the churches in Apc. 2-3, the reward for those who conquer, i.e. remain truly faithful to Christ, is expressed in two instances in terms of a foodstuff: eating from the tree of life in Apc. 2:7 and receiving the hidden manna in Apc. 2:17. In addition, the arrival of the Lord already standing in front of the door of the community of Laodicea is conceptualized as table fellowship in Apc. 3:20. As has been suggested above, both manna and the tree of life339 conceptually belong to the paradise (city), outlined in Apc. 21-22, where after the proleptic vision in Apc. 7:1-17 (water of life in Apc. 7:17) the next block of references to eschatological foodstuffs can be found. Water of life occurs in Apc. 21:6 (as reward, cf. 21:7!) and in Apc. 22:1, whereas the tree of life is mentioned in Apc. 22:2 as part of the inventory of the heavenly city, the new Jerusalem that is at the same time as the new Temple the new Garden of Eden. As access to this city both in the letters (cf. Apc. 3:12, compare Apc. 2:17), as well as in the concluding vision (Apc. 22:14-15), is 339

Apc. 2:7 underlines this by qualifying the tree of life as o[ evstin evn tw/| paradei,sw| tou/ qeou/.

376 VI. Eschatological Meals and Utopian Abundance in the Apocalypse of John the reward for remaining faithful to Christ, and as the same reward is expressed in terms of eschatological foodstuffs located in the city, access to paradise city and enjoying these foodstuffs appear in the Apc. as two ways of saying the same thing, drawing on motifs, which are, finally, all associated with the concept of the temple garden/garden city. That this concept is indeed what the Apc. intends, is shown by the last series of references to eschatological foodstuffs in the epilogue of the Apc.340 Here, precisely the two foodstuffs, tightly integrated into the image of the heavenly Jerusalem (the water of life and the tree of life) recur in a final exhortation and description of rewards (Apc. 22:14, tree of life), a promise (Apc. 22:17, water of life), and a final (exhortative) curse (Apc. 22:19, tree of life), thereby forming a full circle with Apc. 2-3, which may well be part of the epilogue’s intention. Second, it should be noted that nutritional fulfillment is closely related to the concept of paradisiac foodstuffs as the reward for the faithful and as a symbol for gaining the citizenship of the new Jerusalem. Particularly access to the (source of the) water of life is associated with the annihilation of hunger and thirst. This combination first occurs proleptically in Apc. 7:17, is subsequently repeated in the integrative vision in Apc. 2122 (21:6, 22:1), and taken up once more in the epilogue (Apc. 22:17). As in Jn.,341 the foodstuffs of paradise have a more than symbolic or ‘spiritual’ meaning in the Apc., despite the fact that heavenly citizenship implies a much more encompassing satiation than ‘merely’ nutritional fulfillment. Nevertheless, the dissolution of physical thirst remains part of the seer’s vision of ‘paradise.’ Third, it should not be underestimated that the vision of paradise is presented as part of yet another image: the wedding of the Lamb with the new Jerusalem. The paradise garden is part of the description of the new Jerusalem as the heavenly bride of the Lamb (cf. Apc. 21:2, 21:9-11). This wedding is celebrated in Apc. 19:9 already; being invited to this is reason enough to be called ‘blessed’ (cf. Apc. 19:9). The celebration in Apc. 19:9, which suggests an eschatological, joyful meal, quite opposed to the destructive eschatological consumption of the ‘unfaithful’ in Apc. 19:17-19, is nowhere really enacted, but the invitation to it, emphasized in Apc. 19:9 (cf. Apc. 3:20), is central to the function of the vision of the bridal Jerusalem in Apc. 21-22: it is not only about seeing the city but most of all about entering it (cf. 21:7, 22:3.19). This emphasis is expressed as follows. 340 If this part of the work, together with the letters, is part of a secondary reworking of the book (by the same author), this shows all the strong interest of the seer in eschatological foodstuffs as an image of eschatological bliss and reward. Cf. Aune:1997, cxxcxxxiv, esp. cxxxii-cxxxiv. 341 Cf. above, V.E.

377 A.: As already indicated, the invitation to the wedding meal in Apc. 19:9 mentions both the individual ‘members’ of the church (those who are called blessed), as well as the church as an entity (the wife, cf. Apc. 19:78): the final union of the Lamb with his bride, implies the table fellowship of the Lamb with the faithful (cf. similarly, though without nuptial overtones the stress on the table fellowship as a cipher for conversion and ensuing vindication: Apc. 3:20-21). The distinction between the bride as the whole of the community and its individual members implies an emphasis on the need for a ‘personal invitation.’342 B.: This concept of communion is once more expressed in Apc. 21:9-22:5: the imagery of the hieros gamos is repeated and the bride is this time conceptualized as the heavenly Jerusalem, but still functions as a cipher for the community (cf. the names in Apc. 21:12-14), the individual members of the community (cf. Apc. 22:3-4, cf. 21:24), and the Lamb (cf. 21:22) are mentioned. A wedding as such, or its celebration, is not described, but communion is achieved both by letting the redeemed be present in the city (Apc. 22:3-4) as well as by showing the eschatological foodstuffs promised to the victorious as part of the city’s inventory (cf. Apc. 22:1-2). Fourth, these positive images gain much depth as they are throughout out the Apc. contrasted with their negative counterparts: the destructive banquets and foodstuffs, which the opponents of the Lamb and his followers have to endure. Joining the wedding celebration of the Lamb (Apc. 19:7-9) means simultaneously redemption from marginalization as well as deliverance from the fate of the Lamb’s adversaries (cf. Apc. 19:17-18.21), and partaking of the foodstuffs of paradise implies not only redemption from hunger and thirst, but also from the foodstuffs the unfaithful have to endure. Thus, the expression of the salvific communion with and full and permanent presence of the Lord, the Lamb, the bride and the faithful by means of the traditional concept of the hieros gamos, enables the Apc. to draw the lines of paradisiac nutrition and table fellowship by both using the image of celebration of the wedding as well as the concept of its fruits, amply available in the new Jerusalem, but only for the invited, i.e. the faithful, who will enjoy fellowship with the Lord on earth as well as in heaven (cf. Apc. 3:20, 19:7-9), tasting the fruits of paradise (cf. Apc. 22:19 for possibly earthly water of life).

342

Not far removed from the Lk. emphasis on struggling to enter (cf. Lk. 13:24).

VII. Conclusions A. Introduction In view of the explorations presented above, a number of general conclusions can be drawn on the occurrence of the various kinds of eschatological banquets and of the various texts reflecting or referring to utopian nutritional abundance in the NT. In this respect it will be useful to return to the initial question posed in the introduction: ‘In what way are what kinds of traditions about eschatological meals received in the NT, and in what way do they function within the theological plan of the authors of the books in which they occur, in view of first-century society in general and the community for which a book was written in particular?’1 This question was subsequently refined in the following subquestions:2 a. the search for a useful typology, classing the various texts up in appropriate categories, in order to provide a tool to compare the various texts with one another, while respecting their individual emphases; b. the question of the interrelationships of the various texts, especially with respect to the histories of tradition, motif histories and their mutual interdependence; c. the question of their literary functions and their Sitze im Leben; d. thus providing access to the various traditions in the history of religions. As an answer to the subquestions a and b was in fact already given in the typology as she was presented in the introduction, mainly the overarching question and the subquestions c and d will be taken up here.

B. Tradition-Historical Trajectories 1. The Eschatological Banquet The suggestion of a specific HB/OT paradigm for the eschatological banquet in the NT in general, e.g. Isa. 25:6-8, for eschatological meals in the NT was rejected. Despite obvious thematic similarities, for none of the 1 2

Cf. above, I.A. Cf. above, I.B.3.

380

VII. Conclusions

eschatological banquets this particular text, or any other, could with any degree of probability be pinpointed as its source of inspiration. (The exception to this rule is the destructive meal in Apc. 19:17-18.21, whose pretext is clearly Ezek. 39:17-20.) Therefore, solution to this tradition-historical aporia cannot lie in replacing Isa. 25:6-8 with another text. Rather, it seems to be plausible to assume for eschatological banquets as banquets a broader background upon which the creators/users of the image of the eschatological banquet could freely draw: the central importance of (formal) meals in first-century Hellenistic and Jewish culture for creating and imagining (an ideal) community on a religious and (no less religious) social level.3 This, however, does not answer the question of the traditionhistorical trajectory of eschatological banquets. Some observations can be made as to the provenance of the various eschatological banquets in the NT. To begin with, Q is a significant supplier of the image of an eschatological table fellowship, though it is hard, for obvious methodological reasons, to be certain to what extent precisely.4 Other texts belong to Lk.5 or Mt. special tradition,6 the tradition of the Apc.7 or should be imagined to be created by one of the NT authors themselves.8 This overview, still apart from the question about the possibility of retracing eschatological meals to the preaching of the historical Jesus, explains the prominence of the eschatological banquet in Mt. and Lk., its absence in Jn. (Jn. 3:29 remains an exception)9 and the epistolary literature, its virtual absence in Mk.,10 and the merely two occurrences in the Apc. (Apc. 3:20, 19:7-9).11 The combination of various traditions in Mt. and Lk. creates an accumulation of eschatological meals in these Gospels, which is in Lk. strengthened through his redactional creation of two more eschatological banquets (Lk. 12:37, 22:30). The suspicion seems justified that the interaction between the various branches of tradition with the meals of the early Christian com3

On which, cf. above, II.D.2. Cf. Lk. 12:37 (possibly), with much more certainty Q 13:29-28, and possibly, but rather not Lk. 14:16-24/Mt. 22:1-10. 5 Possibly Lk. 12:37 (though possibly Q as well) and Lk. 14:16-24 (with the same uncertainty), unlikely: Lk. 14:15, which is probably a Lk. creation. 6 Probably: Mt. 22:1-14 (though vv. 1-10 possibly Q), with more certainty: Mt. 25:113. 7 With hard to ascertain tradition-historical roots, cf. Apc. 3:20, 19:7-9. 8 For Lk.: probably Lk. 14:15, the Lk. redaction in Lk. 22:16.18 also points into this direction; Lk. 22:30 is certainly of importance. In Mt., Mt. 26:29 is of significance. 9 The wedding celebration in this text has little to do with a banquet in the first place, cf. above, V.C.3.c. 10 Possibly implied in Mk. 14:25. 11 With Apc. 19:17-18.21 as its negative counterpart. Where Apc. 3:20 is a ‘common’ eschatological banquet, Apc. 19:7-9 is a wedding celebration. 4

B. Tradition-Historical Trajectories

381

munities gave rise to this accumulation. This dynamic may also explain the theme’s later (liturgical) prominence. The case is different for the imagery of the eschatological wedding celebration, which occurs with different emphases in various branches of tradition: Mk.,12 Mt.,13 Jn.14 and the Apc.15 and is, as such, more widely spread among early Christian traditions (with the exception of Q). Only for the NT’s only destructive eschatological banquet (Apc. 19:1718-21) a clear tradition-historical model was found in Ezek. 39:17-20, an example of the HB/OT use of the myth of the divine warrior. It is probably a creation of the apocalypticist himself.16 As the tradition-historical question was pursued beyond special traditions, Q and Mk., it could be established that some variants of the use of image of the eschatological meal could, with an substantial degree of probability, be traced back to the preaching of the historical Jesus,17 in which the imagery of eschatological meals formed a dynamic and paraenetic unity with Jesus’ actual meal praxis, whereby the latter can be imagined as (part of) the invitation to the fellowship, which would, eventually, enjoy the heavenly banquet. The dynamics of inclusion and exclusion, which are central to most of these meals, provide the paraenetic function of these texts in Jesus’ preaching, emphasizing the place of the faithful in the coming kingdom,18 thus calling to faithfulness. These Jesuanic traditions probably found their way into the canon of the NT both by way of Q19 and by way of special traditions.20 Though with a different focus, also the core of Mk. 2:18-20 was considered part of Jesus’ preaching.21 2. Nutritional Abundance In view of these traditions, a number of observations should be drawn together. The various traditions which have come together in the NT reflect 12

Cf. Mk. 2:18-20parr. Mt. special tradition, cf. Mt. 22:1-14, 25:1-13, where the wedding imagery adds to the image of the banquet. 14 Cf. Jn. 3:29, to a much lesser extent and probably only by way of association: Jn. 2:1-11. 15 As a banquet: Apc. 19:7-9, cf. further: Apc. 21:2.9. 16 Cf. above, VI.F.2.b. and Priest:1992, 234-237. 17 Q 13:29-28, Lk. 12:37, the core of Lk. 14:16-24/Mt. 22:1-10, possibly Mt. 25:1-13, as well as Mk. 14:25, though the imagery is not unambiguous. 18 Emphasizing the aspect of reward in this respect even more is the imagery of the serving Lord in Lk. 12:37. 19 Q 13:29-28 20 Lk. 14:16-24/Mt. 22:1-10, possibly Mt. 25:1-13, and when counting Mk. 14:25, also by way of Mk. tradition. 21 Cf. above, II.B.3. 13

382

VII. Conclusions

rather diverse tradition-historical trajectories, which cannot all be traced back equally far. The foodstuffs of Eden all22 occur in the Apc.,23 two of them (manna/ bread of life and water of life) in Jn., and none in the Synoptics (at least not explicitly), where only manna is hinted at in the miraculous feedings. As it appeared less useful, in view of the uncertainty of the results, to try and trace the tradition-history of these texts (much) beyond the Apc. and Jn. and more profitable to show motif-historically how these traditions are well integrated into early Jewish eschatology in terms of the expectation of gaining access to a Garden of Eden, its inventory or its circumstances,24 the tradition-historical question in the narrower sense of the word had to be abandoned here. In other words, in these cases the broader motif-historical question absorbed the narrower tradition-historical one. The exception is (again) the Apc., where the vision of paradise vision from Ezek. 40-48 is clearly received in Apc. 21:1-22:5. The thesis that all of these texts stand in a broader trajectory, reaching from the paradise iconography and garden imagery associated with the (Jerusalem) Temple, protological and eschatological elaborations of the latter, to the ‘historical’ memory of the Exodus events (as such also: return to paradise!) and their theological elaboration, especially in view of the return of manna, was not seriously challenged for any of these texts. In view of the Jn. traditions of christological and pneumatological nutritional abundance, an additional connection with HB/OT and early Jewish traditions associating Wisdom with Torah and living water was observed. Having considered this, the results of the other texts, dealing with nutritional abundance may be drawn together. For the miraculous feedings,25 which also clearly draw on the yearning for utopian satiation, the tradition-historical trajectory, which could be outlined more precisely, was suggested to include three elements. First, associations with stories of prophets miraculously providing for (their) people, thus reflecting the (shepherding) care of the deity were considered, as the various accounts of miraculous feedings are clearly transparent for them, especially for Elisha’s feeding in 2 Kgs. 4:42-44 and the provision of manna through Moses during Israel’s wilderness wanderings (Ex. 16, Num. 11). In view of this, the connection with ANE and Hellenistic royal ideology was strongly underlined. Also the intimate connection of the miraculous feedings and the narratives of Jesus’ Last Supper, also reflecting early Christian meal 22 In the miraculous feedings, which also reflect manna traditions, the focus is probably more on the Exodus than on Eden. 23 Apc. 2:7.17, 21:6, 22:1-2.14.17.19. 24 Cf. above, VI.F.3.c. 25 Cf. Mk. 6:32-44parr., 8:1-10par., Jn. 6:1-15.

B. Tradition-Historical Trajectories

383

praxis, was taken into account as part of the process of shaping the narrations of the miraculous feeding as a further reflection upon the significance of table fellowship with Jesus.26 Yet another trajectory was imagined for the macarism about the hungry, Lk. 6:21a/Mt. 5:6). This macarism was, however tentatively, traced back with a fair degree of probability to the preaching of the historical Jesus. The yearning it reflects is so general, however, that some caution is necessary: it is part of a much broader and not just typically Jesuanic yearning for utopian abundance.27 Within this context, the tradition-historical trajectory of Lk. 16:19-31 was also pursued. The pericope was assumed to be traditional in its first half, though hard to retrace further, and suggested to be combined at a later stage with a more heavily edited second part.28 In this way, Lk. adapted an earlier narration with a now lost ending in his own theological interest in to solve injustice of the coexistence of poverty and wealth.

C. The Eschatological Meal and Utopian Abundance in the New Testament In this section, the occurrences of the eschatological banquet and the scenes of utopian nutritional abundance will be reflected from a systematic perspective, using once more the typology proposed in this study. 1. The Eschatological Banquet a. The Celebratory Banquet Within the NT, the celebratory eschatological banquet occurs clearly in Mt.,29 Lk.30 and the Apc.,31 at most implicitly in Mk. (Mk. 14:25), and not at all in Jn. When the sources of this meal are considered, its absence from both the oldest and the youngest Gospel can be explained by the fact that much of the material stems from Q, Mt./Lk. special traditions or was introduced through the redaction of Mt. and Lk. There is no clear traditionhistorical model sensu stricto for the provenance of these texts, which are consequently best understood as reflections of and upon first-century meal 26

Cf. above, II.C.2.cc. Cf. above, III.C.3. See also the yearning expressed in Apc. 7:16 (cf. Apc. 7:17, 21:6). 28 Cf. above, III.J.2. 29 Mt. 8:11-12, 26:29; Mt. 22:1-14 and 25:1-13 are wedding banquets. 30 Lk. 12:37, 13:28-29, 14:15.16-24, 22:16-18, 22:30. 31 Apc. 3:20; Apc. 19:7-9 is a wedding banquet. 27

384

VII. Conclusions

praxis,1 itself a vehicle for utopian and critical social thinking and imagination,2 due to its function as a reflection of society at large. In view of all of these meals, it can already be concluded that their use of meal imagery is very sparse: foodstuffs are hardly mentioned (exc. Mt. 22:4), and often not more than one or two details of a meal are focused on: invitations, 3 the appropriate preparation for a banquet,4 the seating order,5 and table service,6 are the most prominent elements. Despite this sparsity, the imagery remains forceful. Nevertheless, among the social functions of meals which help to structure and constitute the dining party, two emerge prominently among the eschatological banquets in the NT and among some occurrences of the wedding banquet as a special kind of banquet/symposium as well (i.e. Mt. 22:1-14, 25:1-13, Apc. 19:7-9). The first of these is role meals play in outlining the boundaries of a community. This topic occurs in two ways: in view of being in- or excluded through (not) responding positively to the preaching of Jesus,7 and, just as important, in view of in- exclusion of community members from the ‘true’ Christian community at the judgment.8 By means of the first kind of in- and exclusion, both a call is issued to convert and join the community of Jesus-followers, and simultaneously ecclesiological self-legitimization and comfort is provided. Through the second kind of in- and exclusion, which is more focused on the shape of life within the community, and hence on its ethics and ecclesiology, not so much comfort is provided, but rather a call to vigilance is uttered, which suits the situation of the generation of Christians for which Lk., Mt. and the Apc. were written, having to face the challenge to find a long-term way of shaping their communal life. In view of this double dynamics of in- and exclusion, a further central characteristic of the eschatological symposium in the NT becomes clear: it is as much the shape of the judgment,9 as it is the shape of the kingdom,10 1

Cf. I.D.2.b.aa. and the lack of specific ‘pretexts’ emerging from the traditionhistorical considerations of all of these texts. 2 Cf. above, II.D.2.b. 3 Cf. Mt. 8:11-12/Lk. 13:28-30, Mt. 22:1-10/Lk. 14:16-24, Lk. 22:30, cf. also Apc. 3:20, 19:7-9.17-18-21. 4 See Mt. 22:1-14, 25:1-13, Apc. 19:7-9, cf. Lk. 13:28-29. 5 See Lk. 22:28-30, cf. Apc. 3:20-21. 6 See Lk. 12:37, cf. Lk. 22:24-27.28-30. 7 Cf. Mt. 8:11-12, 22:1-10/Lk. 14:16-24, Apc. 3:20. 8 Cf. Mt. 22:11-14, 25:1-13, Lk. 12:37 (cf. 12:41-48), 13:28-29, 22:30, Apc. 3:20, 19:7-9 (garment!). 9 Cf. Mt. 8:11-12, 22:1-14, 25:1-13, Lk. 13:28-29, 14:16-24, see also Lk. 12:37 in its context, and cf. Apc. 19:7-9 with 19:17-18.21.

C. The Eschatological Meal and Utopian Abundance in the New Testament

385

i.e. an ideal society, imagined as the fellowship of the righteous,11 to which, however ‘unfaithful’ have no access. Significant is that those participating in the banquet are often not those expecting or expected to do so.12 Returning to the functions of the symposium in first-century culture, a second theme is prominently elaborated upon in the various eschatological banquets: the seating order, i.e. the actual hierarchical or more egalitarian structure of the community, a hotly debated topic in contemporary symposiastic literature.13 In general, the NT eschatological meals opt for an egalitarian, if not outright subversive stance in these matters: those who are (often) described as underprivileged/marginalized are finally, (often) on the basis of their faithfulness to (God in) Christ, vindicated.14 This stance on (eschatological) etiquette is christologically inspired, i.e. by the image of Christ as (vindicated) servant.15 b. The Destructive Banquet The destructive banquet, in the NT only encountered in the Apc. (primarily Apc. 19:17-18.21, cf. 17:16),16 is the counterpart to the salvific meal in Apc. 19:7-9. As such, it is the perversion of an ideal meal, aiming at destroying, rather than at creating community: those who are not beneficiaries of the eschatological (wedding) banquet are imagined to be turned into foodstuffs themselves and to be devoured. The same rings true for the use of destructive alimentary processes, which are in a way perversions of the salvific foodstuffs of paradise and form one complex with them in the Apc. c. The Eschatological Wedding Celebration The eschatological wedding celebration principally occurs in the NT in two ways: in texts focusing on the wedding celebration as a banquet celebrating the marriage of the Messiah (including its relational aspect),17 and 10 In view of the kingdom as a meal, cf. explicitly so: Mt. 22:1, 25:1, 26:29, Lk. 14:15, more implicitly so: Lk. 13:28-29/Mt. 8:11-12, Lk. 14:16-24, 22:16-18, 22:30, Apc. 3:20 (possibly), 19:7-9. 11 Cf. Mt. 8:11-12/Lk. 13:28-29, on the presence of the patriarchs there, cf. above, III.F.3.b. 12 This has both a paraenetic and a consolatory function. 13 Cf. above, II.D.2.b.aa. 14 Cf. Mt. 8:11-12, 22:1-14, (not: 25:1-13), 26:29 has also retained the character of vindication from Mk. 14:25, further: Lk. 13:28-29, 14:16-24, partially 22:16-18, clearly 22:30. The most radical text is Lk. 12:37. 15 See Lk. 22:24-27 with 22:28-30, cf. Lk. 12:35-48. 16 Cf. further Apc. 17:16, and the occurrences of the cup of wrath, Apc. 14:10.19, 15:7, 16:1.19, (17:4, 18:6), 19:15, see also: Apc. 14:18, 18:3. 17 Mt. 22:1-14, 25:1-13, Apc. 19:7-9, cf. also Apc. 21:2.9.

386

VII. Conclusions

in texts which focus less on the banqueting part of the celebration, but rather on its joyful character.18 The first group of texts functions to a large extent functions analogously to ‘common’ celebratory eschatological banquets, as they are, from a sociological point of view, primarily a special kind of banquet. However, as observed during their discussion, especially in view of the comparison of Mt. 22:1-10 with Lk. 14:16-24, the association of an eschatological banquet with a wedding adds considerably to its impact, as, in this way, the OT/HB (and broader Mediterranean/ANE) concept of the hieros gamos comes into play, while at the same time the image of a wedding celebration, precisely due to its function as a special kind of banquet, heightens its (social) significance. The occurrences of the wedding banquet in Mt. and in Apc. function primarily to outline the two-stage composition of the eschatological wedding party. A first stage is to answer positively (or not) to the invitation (Mt. 22:1-10, cf. Mt. 9:15), which is very appealing as an invitation to a (royal) wedding.19 A second stage is to show up properly prepared (Mt. 22:11-14, 25:1-13, compare Apc. 19:7-9). Thus, the social significance of a wedding celebration is employed to underline that for this occasion an appropriate preparation on the part of the guests is even more important than at a common dinner (cf. Lk. 13:28-29). This preparation can be seen as living up to the positive response to the invitation (/ call). This Mt. dynamics also occurs in the Apc., where the heavenly bride is dressed in a garment consisting of the saints’ righteous deeds (Apc. 19:8), thus tying together, as in Mt. 22:11-14 and 25:1-13, ethics and admission to the meal20 by means of the topic of appropriate preparation. In all three of its occurrences, the eschatological wedding banquet seems to be strongly, if not primarily,21 connected with ethical paraenesis to the (Christian) community, from which the participants in the eschatological wedding banquet will be drawn.22 This is different in the case of practically all ‘common’ eschatological banquets.23 The wedding banquet is an appropriate image for outlining this process, as it can differentiate between bride (communi18 Mk. 2:18-20, Mt. 9:14-17, Lk. 5:33-39, Jn. 3:29. Jn. 2:1-11 may, by means of association, also be related to this theme, but it is not this text’s primary focus. 19 Cf. above, IV.F.2.a. 20 In the Apc., the guests are at the same time somehow part of the bride: the Lamb marries the whole community, whereas its members are invited to the celebration. Cf. VI.F.2.d. 21 Cf. Mt. 25:1-13, Apc. 19:7-9, diff. Mt. 22:1-10.11-14. 22 This also forms the bridge between Apc. 19:7-9 and 21:2.9, as the participant in the wedding of bride and Lamb will enjoy the paradisiac conditions of the nuptial Jerusalem. 23 Mt. 8:11-12/Lk. 13:28-29, Mt. 26:29, Lk. 12:37, 14:15.16-24, 22:16.18, 22:30, diff. poss. Apc. 3:20.

C. The Eschatological Meal and Utopian Abundance in the New Testament

387

ty), groom (God/Christ), and other participants in the wedding. In this way, the dialectic between individual responsibility and promises made to the community can be outlined. The second group of occurrences of the eschatological wedding celebration has a different focus and is primarily connected with the previous group through the shared background of the motifs used, as it concentrates on characterizing the ministry of Jesus as a joyful event, i.e. a celebratory occasion, either by means of his own words (cf. Mk. 2:18-20parr.), or through the confession of the Baptist (Jn. 3:29). It was assumed for Mk. 2:18-20 and Lk. 5:33-39 that not nuptial christology in terms of a christology expressing the relationship between Christ and his community by means of the image of a wedding is in view, but rather in terms of the characterization of Jesus and his presence and ministry as a groom celebrating his wedding, just as the presence of a celebrating groom causing mirth. This interpretation suggests itself tradition-historically as the most pristine24 and is supported by the observations that any hint of relational symbolism is missing in these texts (e.g. the bride is absent) and that neither Mk. nor Lk. display any measurable interest in nuptial christology elsewhere. This is different in the case of Mt., who in Mt. 9:14-17 receives Mk. 2:18-2025 and displays throughout his Gospel an interest in nuptial christology (cf. Mt. 22:1-14, 25:1-13), inviting the reader, at least retrospectively, to interpret Mt. 9:14-17 in this light, whereby the joyful presence of the earthly Jesus is related to the imagery of his eschatological wedding to his people. Jn. 3:29, even though it stands in a gospel with no particular interest in nuptial christology,26 seems, in view of the explicit reference to the bride who the groom ‘has,’ nevertheless to bind together joy, referred to extensively in this verse, and the imagery also used in Mt. 22:1-14, 25:1-13, drawing attention to the relational aspect of the wedding. The image of the wedding celebration therefore occurs in two different ways in the NT, which sometimes merge: first, with emphasis on the banquet and, in that context, on the communion between God/(in) Jesus and the community, urging the members of this community to live up to the final eschatological establishment and celebration of this fellowship; second, with emphasis on the joyful, not so much the relational character of the wedding celebration.

24

Cf. above, II.B.3. on the tradition history of Mk. 2:18-20. Cf. above, IV.D.2. on the Mt. reception of Mk. 2:18-20. 26 Cf. above, V.E., the conclusions on the eschatological meal in Jn. 25

388

VII. Conclusions

2. The Land of Cockaigne a. Utopian Abundance A substantial number of texts in the NT take up the practically universal theme of yearning for utopian nutritional fulfillment, as it was current in the ANE and Mediterranean world, including the worlds of the HB/OT and early Judaism.27 As indicated, the texts reflecting this yearning can be divided in a more general group referring to yearning and its fulfillment and a group of texts dealing with the foodstuffs of paradise.28 Not dissimilar to the observation of the sparse use of meal imagery at the eschatological meal, it can be noted from the start that the foodstuffs featuring in the various accounts remain very sober: utopian satiation is provided or promised, but never in a ‘decadent’ way. The only exceptions to this rule are probably Lk. 5:1-11, Jn. 2:1-11, and 21:1-14. Taking into account that both Hellenistic traditions, early Jewish traditions, and the HB/OT had no trouble with a much more abundant imagination,29 it may well be suggested that either the menu plan of many early Christians shines through here, that an ascetic ideal is in view, or that the fact of satiation is more important than its shape, which seems to be very likely. The latter thesis becomes attractive, when it is considered that the promise or the factual provision of satiation appears most often in the context of the elaboration of the significance of Jesus,30 the Spirit,31 God,32 and that often symbolic foodstuffs are used, which point beyond themselves. The foodstuffs of paradise are exemplary in this respect. Of the texts expressing a yearning for nutritional fulfillment, Lk. (Q) 6:21a is probably the most eloquent example of the yearning for basic nutrition33 and the promise of its eschatological provision,34 of which Mt. 5:6 provides a theologically expanded version. This outlook on eschatological/utopian satiation is also present in a nearly identical wording in Apc. 7:16, where it is connected with the gift of living water in the subsequent verse (cf. also Apc. 21:6). Here, it may be noted that the Lk. (and

27

Cf. on the social backgrounds, above, II.C.1.a.bb. Cf. I.D.2. 29 Cf. above, II.C.1.a.aa. 30 Cf. Mk. 6:32-44parr., Mk. 8:1-10par., Jn. 2:1-11, 6:22-71, cf. also Lk. 5:1-11, Jn. 21:1-14. See also in the Apc., where either Jesus Christ or the Lamb provide foodstuffs: Apc. 2:7.17, 7:16-17, cf. 22:14.17.19. 31 Cf. Jn. 4:1-42, 7:37-39. 32 See. Mt. 5:6/Lk. 6:21a, Lk. 16:19-31, cf. Lk. 1:53, Apc. 21:6, 22:12. 33 Cf. Lk. (Q) 11:3/Mt. 6:11. 34 Not without consequences for Lk. theology (cf. Lk. 1:53) and ethics (cf. e.g. Lk. 6:25, 18:18-30). 28

C. The Eschatological Meal and Utopian Abundance in the New Testament

389

possibly Jesuanic)35 macarism is by far the most radical of all, both in directly expressing the yearning and in promising the unconditional vindication of those suffering hunger and thirst (cf. Lk. 16:19-31). This is still included in the Mt. longing for righteousness, but has there receded into the background to the benefit of the overarching concept of righteousness,36 and in Apc. 7:16-17 primarily the community of redeemed is in view,37 missing the universal Lk. perspective. Furthermore, within the Jn. accounts of the living water and bread of life, promises of eternal satiation (cf. Jn.4:14-15, 6:35) leading to eternal life (Jn. 4:14, 6:50-51.58) are made, thereby taking the theme of yearning for (nutritional) satiation yet one step further. They will be addressed further below. The group of texts describing the provision of utopian nutritional abundance and satiation, consists of gift miracles,38 discourses of Jesus,39 parables,40 and, in the Apc., a description of the paradisiac conditions characterizing the heavenly Jerusalem.41 When turning to the gift miracles discussed in this thesis,42 and when concentrating on the miraculous feedings first, it may be observed that these all pursue similar aims: to identify Jesus as the one who truly ‘shepherds’ his people, presenting himself as the one who acts as the true earthly representative of the deity by feeding his people, in combination with, depending on the variant, teaching43 and healing.44 This places Jesus in a clear continuity with earlier prophets (Moses and Elisha) and associates him with the divine rule, thus shown to be present in his ministry. At the same time these miracles address hopes, attached to eschatological abundance (e.g. of wine) and, more specifically, the eschatological return of the gift of manna. In addition, however, through the (compositional) contrast with other authorities, who are in a less happy way associated with banquets and foodstuffs, the claims about Jesus’ identity, formulated in the

35

Cf. above the tradition-historical considerations about Lk. (Q) 6:21a. Cf.4.B.2. 37 Cf. II.E.2. 38 Mk. 6:32-44parr., 8:1-10par., Jn. 6:1-15, (21:1-14, Lk. 5:1-11). 39 Jn. 4:1-26, 6:22-71. 40 Primarily Lk. 16:19-31. 41 On which, cf. further below, in VII.C.2.b. see esp. the occurrence of living water and the tree of life in the city in Apc. 22:1-2, of which the first was promised to the thirsty in Apc. 7:16-17. 42 Mk. 6:32-44, 8:1-10, Mt. 14:13-21, 15:29-39, Lk. 9:10-17, Jn. 6:1-15 and Jn. 2:111. 43 Cf. Mk. 6:34. 44 Mk. 8:1-10 with Mk. 7:31-37, Mt. 14:13-14 with Mt. 15:15-21, Mt. 15:29-31 with Mt. 15:32-39, Lk. 9:10-11, in Jn., Jesus has healed beforehand (cf. Jn. 6:2). 36

390

VII. Conclusions

depiction of his feeding activity, are accentuated.45 In this way, the miraculous feedings in the NT lead the way to a further development of the reader’s understanding of Jesus’ significance.46 In all four canonical Gospels, the miraculous feedings are part of a didactic process, guiding the reader to confessing his belief in Jesus as God’s Messiah.47 Furthermore, in the case of the miraculous feedings, the crowds who are fed are turned into an organized community48 with roles for Jesus,49 the disciples and the crowds. This can be evaluated as input for the respective ecclesiologies and theologies of ministry of the Gospels. Apart from this, the gift miracles in Lk. 5:1-11 and Jn. 21:1-1450 are, as far as the orientation of the miracles is concerned, either missiologically oriented (Lk. 5:1-11) or used to identify Jesus (Jn. 21:1-14). The gift miracle in Jn. 2:1-11, where the wedding is merely the setting of the scene for Jesus’ sign,51 puts Jesus into competition with Dionysus and continues lines of the YHWH-theological vocabulary, especially as it is associated with large quantities of wine as (one possible) part of the abundance of the age to come. This miracle serves therefore primarily to introduce Jesus’ identity qua glory in Jn., i.e. Jesus’ ‘honor,’ which he gains by saving the reputation of others. In this context, also the parable of Lazarus and the rich man (Lk. 16:1931) should be mentioned. This is not so much a gift miracle, but enacts the vindication of the hungry in the context of Lk.52 Thus, in the miraculous feedings a situation of lack is resolved through the intervention of the deity’s true representative, who acts as the supreme host, when other hosts fail to do so. This reflects the fulfillment of utopian yearnings and suggests that the performer of the miracle represents the 45

Cf. the contrasts with Herod’s banquet in Mk. 6:17-29.30-44, Mt. 14:3-12.14-21, and with the leaven of the Pharisees in Mk. 8:14-21, following Mk. 8:1-10, similarly: Mt. 16:5-12, following Mt. 15:29-39. In Lk. 9:7-9.10-17, the question of Herod (Lk. 9:9) is answered narratively in the feeding. Only the Jn. tradition does not feature such a contrast, but contrasts Jesus’ (implicit) concept of kingship with that of the crowds who want to make him king (cf. Jn. 6:15). 46 On the differences between the beneficiaries of the feeding, esp. between Mk. and Mt., cf. below, when comparing the various concepts of miraculous feedings/nutritional abundance in Mk, Mt., Lk., Jn., and the Apc. 47 Cf. Mt. 16:15, Mk. 8:29, Lk. 9:20, Jn. 6:69. 48 Cf. apart from being fed, they are also organized, cf. Mk. 6:39-40, 8:10, Mt. 14:19, 15:35, Lk. 9:14-15, and Jn. 6:10. 49 Their actions are emphasized to different degrees. Tendentially, however, in later versions of the feeding, Jesus’ role is foregrounded clearer at the expense of the activity of the disciples. 50 Cf. above, I.D.3. 51 On which, cf. above, V.B. 52 Cf. above, III.J.

C. The Eschatological Meal and Utopian Abundance in the New Testament

391

(utopian) rule of the supreme deity, vindicating those in need as is HB/OT traditions (and beyond) expected from a divinely legitimized ruler. Through the gift miracles, Jesus is constructed as this ruler, challenging those rulers who fail to feed the way he does this,53 and outlining his own kind of (shepherding) ‘rule’. Though with a different theological interest, Jn. 2:1-11 constitutes a parallel to the miraculous feedings in this respect. b. The Foodstuffs of Paradise In the NT, the foodstuffs of paradise primarily figure as utopian foodstuffs in the Apc. and in the two Jn. discourses,54 dealing with the Spirit as water of life (Jn. 4:1-26/42, 7:37-39) and Jesus as bread of life (Jn. 6:22-71). Both in the Apc. and in Jn., the life-giving foodstuffs of paradise are contrasted with their perverted counterparts, i.e. foodstuffs, which bring death, rather than life. In the Apc., this is forms a significant part of the work’s literary structure.55 In Jn., a contrast is drawn between manna, which does not prevent from dying (Jn. 6:49), and the bread of life as part of the bread of life discourse, as well as between the water of life (cf. Jn. 4:14) and the water from Jacob’s well (cf. Jn. 4:13-14). The orientation of both usages of the symbolism of the foodstuffs of paradise, is, however, rather different. In the Apc., the foodstuffs of paradise – the water of life, the tree of life, and in one instance manna (Apc. 2:17) – appear primarily in terms of the reward for the true faithful. They are well integrated into the whole of the compositional structure of the Apc., through Apc. 7:16-17 binding together the letters to the churches (Apc. 2-3)56 with the Apc.’s climax in the vision of the heavenly Jerusalem (Apc. 21-22)57 and its epilogue (Apc. 22:6-21),58 thereby using these paradisiac foodstuffs to signify satiation (and redemption) per se, while simultaneously employing them to indicate the final vindication of the underprivileged (cf. Apc. 7:16-17, 21:6). The fate of the oppressors or the unfaithful, is conceptualized by way of contrast in terms of foodstuffs, which they are either themselves (Apc. 17:16, 19:1718.21), or which they have to consume, e.g. the cup of wrath.59 53

Cf. esp. II.C.2.c.cc., III.E.4. Even though it was argued that the miraculous feedings also draw on the expectation of eschatological manna, this theme is not at the foreground in these narratives, but rather subordinated to the overarching theme of the providing deity, and has therefore been discussed above. 55 Cf. more extensively above, VI.H. 56 Cf. especially the foodstuffs in Apc. 2:7.17, the reference to entering the city, as well as receiving a new name in Apc. 3:12, which confirms this connection. 57 Cf. especially the foodstuffs in Apc. 21:6, 22:1-2. 58 Cf. esp. the foodstuffs in Apc. 22:14.17.19. 59 See: Apc. 14:10.19, 15:7, 16:1.19, (17:4, 18:6), 19:15, cf. also 14:18, 18:3. 54

392

VII. Conclusions

In Jn., there is no hint of a theology of vindication in Jn. 4:1-26, 7:37-39 and 6:22-71. Rather, as already stated, foodstuffs of paradise, the water and the bread of life, are used in a didactic discourse, outlining to the Samaritan woman/the (Jewish) crowds, i.e. also to the readership of Jn.’s Gospel, the significance of the Spirit and the Son in terms of their lifegiving and life-enabling character. Thus, the foodstuffs of paradise are employed to develop and propagate pneumatological and christological insights. The construction of the attractiveness of Jn. christology and pneumatology, as well as their significance, takes place in the transferal of the association of encompassing satiation (hunger, thirst, and death disappear) from bread and water of life to Christ and the Spirit by identifying them with one another. This construction is strengthened by the contrast drawn between Christ and the Spirit qua bread and water of life, with foodstuffs familiar to the audience/Jesus’ conversation partners, but which lack these satiating properties (cf. Jn. 4:13-14, 6:49).1 Further theological insights related to Jn.’s theology of incarnation and glorification are developed through the Jn. dwelling on the process of eating in Jn. 6, which, as such, has little to do with the bread of life as a paradisiac foodstuff, but rather with its fundamental character as a foodstuff. Nevertheless, the necessity of drinking the water of life and eating the bread of life, shows that in Jn. eating and drinking the deity as the road towards life eternal has taken the place of earthly and heavenly banqueting with Jesus known from Lk., Mt. and the Apc.

D. Meals and Abundance: Images of a Just World As may have become clear throughout this thesis, nutritional abundance and table fellowship are hardly entirely mutually exclusive, in spite of the fact that the various texts usually emphasize only one of these aspects. It is possible, however, to think them together in one unified concept. This becomes evident when observing that, especially in Lk., Mt. the Apc., and partially Mk., 2the intertextual connections of the texts dealing with nutritional abundance as well as those dealing with eschatological table fellowship form a clearly connected web, which binds together both fellowship and abundance. Here, it will be argued by way of initial (biblical) theological conclusion that banquets and abundance, to a certain extent, comprise both sides of a coin, reflecting two complimentary images of a (more) just world. 1 2

Cf. above, V.D.4. Cf. above, III.M., IV.J. VI.H., II.E.

D. Meals and Abundance: Images of a Just World

393

As shown before, the most plausible reason for the suitability of the image of the eschatological banquet for outlining the shape of the coming kingdom, was the tight connection between ideal table fellowship as a (micro-)community and the thought of an ideal, justly ordered society (/ community), just as this should be the case with a successful banquet.3 The eschatological meal as a judgment indeed ‘adjusts’ the earthly community to a truly ‘heavenly’ community. Within the NT, this (re)ordering takes principally place at two levels. First, at the level of initial (self-)inclusion in and (self-)exclusion from the community of Jesus-followers, a line is drawn between the participants in the banquet and those not responding positively to Jesus initially (cf. Lk. 14:16-24/Mt. 22:1-10), not with adequate faith (cf. Mt. 8:1112), or without living up to their acceptance of the invitation (cf. Lk. 13:28-29, Mt. 22:11-14, 25:1-13). Second, a certain (re)ordering is observable at this eschatological banquet: those who were (seemingly) inside, are out now, and those who were outside, are inside now (cf. Lk. 14:16-24/Mt. 22:1-10). This reordering, which is expected to take place at the eschatological banqueting couch, also has another side: the possibility of a subversive seating order: not only can the underprivileged dine with the righteous of old (cf. Lk. 13:2829/Mt. 8:11-12), but also the Lord can appear as a servant (Lk. 12:37, cf. 22:24-27). The etiquette of the meal in the kingdom, reflects an order which challenges both common meal praxis and the structure of society, expressing both the yearning for as well as the expectation and promise of a different order which reflects God’s righteousness (cf. Mt. 5:6): a community, which is characterized as the community of the righteous (cf. Lk. 13:28-29/Mt. 8:11-12)4 with God (cf. Lk. 14:16-24) and/or Jesus (cf. Lk. 12:37, 22:16.18, Mt. 22:1-14,5 25:1-13, 26:29). In a number of texts, this is related to vindication. A prime example is the tradition issuing from Mk. 14:25, i.e. Mt. 26:29, Lk. 22:16.18, vindicating the martyr (Mk. 14:25) and those following his way of life (Mt. 26:29, Lk. 22:16.18 with 22:30!). Apc. 19:7-9 provides a full parallel to this concept, which is in the Apc. flanked by its use of paradisiac foodstuffs to outline the vindication of the faithful. Precisely at this point, the eschatological meal intersects with those texts,6 which express the longing for an abundance of foodstuffs or the disappearance of hunger and thirst, and, as argued earlier, closely related to the ideology of (divine) kingship, as was concluded for Mk., Mt., Lk., 3

Cf.2.D.2.b. On the patriarchs as prototypical righteous, cf. above, III.F.3.b. 5 Assuming the son’s presence at his own wedding. 6 Lk. 6:21a (/ Mt. 5:6), Mt. 6:32-44parr., 8:1-10par., Jn. 4:1-26.27-42, 6:1-15.22-71, 16:19-31, Apc. 2:7.17, 7:16-17, 21:6, 22:2.14.17(.19). 4

394

VII. Conclusions

and the Apc. Providing nutrition for his (/ her) subjects was generally considered a significant part of the task of the monarch in the ANE and in the Hellenistic world, which (s/)he enacted as part of his (/her) share in the rule of the ultimately divinely ruled world.7 Failing to do so, especially when allowing the coexistence of hunger and exuberance, meant to fail to rule justly. Scenarios of nutritional abundance are therefore scenarios of a justly ruled and divinely blessed society, profiting from a functioning, i.e. fertile, cosmos/creation. This is highly relevant in view of the connection of the theme of nutritional abundance and the eschatological banquet: both are reflections of a (future) justly (since divinely) rule, both on a microcosmic (social) as well as on a macrocosmic (creation at large) level. In this respect, it is also of special importance that in quite a few NT texts dealing with future nutritional abundance,8 especially in the macarism for the hungry and in the Apc.’s use of paradisiac foodstuffs, the theme of vindication belongs to the core of the texts’ statements (cf. also Lk. 16:1931): those who were (nutritionally and otherwise) underprivileged will be vindicated (in terms of foodstuffs and more) as soon as the rule of God is established. This means, however, that this complex of images should at the same time be seen as an image of judgment: the non-utopian nutritional situation, those who allow it to continue to exist as well as those who do not live up to their acceptation of the invitation to the eschatological banquet, or do not respond positively to it to begin with, are under judgment.9 Thus, what seem to be two different tracks of nutritional symbolism, one focusing on meals, the other on satiation, can and should be thought together, from the overarching perspective of the concept of an utopian just rule (in the NT: the kingdom of God). The various texts, however, retain their own interests and emphases, even though they are bound together intertextually by the literary compositions they are part of.

7

Cf. II.C.1.a.aa. Excluding miraculous feedings and other gift miracles, as well as the Jn. metaphorical use of eschatological foodstuffs, this leaves Lk. 6:21a/Mt. 5:6, Apc. 2:7.17, 7:16-17, 21:6, 22:2.14.17(.19). 9 Cf. Theißen/Merz:2001, 241-244. 8

Bibliography Dictionaries and Reference Works Balz, Horst Robert/Gerhard Krause/Gerhard Müller e.a. (eds.), Theologische Realenzyklopädie , Berlin: de Gruyter, 1976–. (TRE). Balz, Horst Robert/Gerhard Schneider (eds.), Exegetisches Wörterbuch zum Neuen Testament, Stuttgart: Kohlhammer, 21991. (EWNT) Bauer, Walter, Griechisch-deutsches Wörterbuch zu den Schriften des Neuen Testaments und der frühchristlichen Literatur, ed. Kurt Aland/Barbara Aland; Berlin: de Gruyter, 6 1988. (Bauer-Aland) Betz, Hans Dieter, e.a. (eds.), Religion in Geschichte und Gegenwart, Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 41988–. (RGG) Blass, Friedrich/Albert Debrunner/Friedrich Rehkopf, Grammatik des neutestamentlichen Griechisch, Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 171990. (BDR) Botterweck, Gerard. Johannes, e.a. (eds.), Theologisches Wörterbuch zum Alten Testament, Stuttgart: Kohlhammer, 1970-2000. (ThWNT) Cancik, Hubert/Helmuth Scheider/Manfred Landfester (eds.), Der Neue Pauly: Enyklopädie der Antike, Stuttgart: Metzler, 1996-2003. (DNP) Franz Joseph Dölger-Institut (ed.), Reallexikon für Antike und Christentum, Stuttgart: Hiersemann, 1950–. (RAC) Freedman, David Noel e.a. (eds.), The Anchor Bible Dictionary, New York: Doubleday, 1992. (ABD) Gesenius, Wilhelm, Hebräisches und aramäisches Handwörterbuch über das Alte Testament, ed. Frants Buhl; Berlin: Springer, 1962 [= 171915]. (Gesenius) Görg, Manfred/Bernhard Lang, Neues Bibel-Lexikon (Zürich: Benziger, 1988-2001). (NBL) Helck, Wolfgang/Wolfhart Westendorf e.a. (eds.), Lexikon der Ägyptologie (Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz, 1972-1992). (LÄ) Kasper, Walter e.a. (ed.), Lexikon für Theologie und Kirche, Herder: Freiburg i. B., 3 1993-2001. (LThK) Kittel, Gerhard, e.a. (eds.), Theologisches Wörterbuch zum Neuen Testament, Stuttgart: Kohlhammer, 1933-1979. (ThWNT) Lampe, Geoffrey W. H. (ed.), A Patristic Greek Lexicon, Oxford: Clarendon, 51978. (Lampe) Liddell, Henry George/Robert Scott/Henry Stuart Jones, A Greek-English Lexicon: With a Revised Supplement (Oxford: Clarendon, 91996). (LSJ) Toorn, Karel van der/Bob Becking/Pieter W. van der Horst (eds.), Dictionary of Deities and Demons in the Bible (Brill: Leiden, 21999). (DDD)

396

Bibliography

Sources 1. Canonical Texts Aland, B./Kurt Aland e.a. (eds.), Novum Testamentum Graece, Stuttgart: Deutsche Bibelgesellschaft, 271993. (NA27) Aland, Kurt, Synopsis quattuor Evangeliorum, Stuttgart: Deutsche Bibelgesellschaft, 15 1996. Elliger, K./Wilhelm Rudolph (eds.), Biblia Hebraica Stuttgartensia. Editio funditus renovata , Stuttgart: Deutsche Bibelgesellschaft, 51997. (MT) Rahlfs, A., e.a. (ed.), Septuaginta. Id est Vetus Testamentum graece iuxta LXX interpres, Stuttgart: Deutsche Bibelgesellschaft, 1935. (LXX, where the 1931– edition does not provide) Rahlfs, A., e.a. (eds.), Septuaginta. Vetus Testamentum graecum auctoritate Societatis scientarum Gottingensis editum, Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1931-) (LXX) 2. Early Jewish and Rabbinic Literature Billerbeck, Paul/Hermann L. Strack, Kommentar zum Neuen Testament aus Talmud und Midrasch 1-6, München: Beck, 1922-1961. (Billerbeck:1922-1961) Boertien, Maas, Nazir (Nasiräer) Die Mishna 3.4, Berlin: De Gruyter, 1971. (Boertien:1971) Charlesworth, James H. (ed.), The Old Testament Pseudepigrapha 1-2, New York: Doubleday, 1983-1985. (Charlesworth:1983, Charlesworth:1985a) Danby, Herbert, The Mishnah, Oxford: Oxford University, 1933. (Danby:1933) García Martinez, Florentino/Eibert J. C. Tigchelaar (eds.), The Dead Sea Scrolls 1-2, Leiden: Brill, 1997-1998. (DSS) Ginzberg, Louis, The Legends of the Jews 1-5, Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society of America7, 1968. (Ginzberg:1968a-e) Henten, Jan Willem van/Friedrich Avemarie (eds.), Martyrdom and Noble Death. Selected Texts from Graeco-Roman, Jewish and Christian Antiquity, London: Routledge, 2002. (Henten/Avemarie:2002) Hollander, Harm W./Marinus de Jonge, The Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs: A Commentary SVTP 8, Brill: Leiden, 1985. (Hollander/De Jonge:1985) Klein, Michael L. The Fragment-Targums of the Pentateuch According to their Extant Sources 1-2, AnBib 76, Rome: Pontifical Biblical Institute, 1980. (Klein:1980ab) Knibb, Michael A., The Ethiopic Book of Enoch: A New Edition in the Light of the Aramaic Dead Sea Fragments 2, Oxford: Clarendon, 1978. (Knibb:1978) Kümmel, Werner Georg (ed.), Jüdische Schriften aus hellenistisch-römischer Zeit 1-5, Gütersloh: Gütersloher, 1973–. (JSHRZ) Lewis, Naphtali, The Documents from the Bar Kokhba Period in the Cave of Letters. Greek Papyri, Jerusalem: Israel Exploration Society, 1989. (Lewis:1989) Meshorer, Ya’akov, Ancient Jewish Coinage, Volume II: Herod the Great through Bar Cochba, New York: Amphora Books, 1982. (Meshorer:1982)

Bibliography

397

3. Non-Canonical Early Christian Literature Bovon, François/Pierre Géoltrain (eds.), Écrits apocryphes chrétiens, Paris: Gallimard, 1997. (Bovon/Géoltrain:1997) Hoffmann, Paul/Christoph Heil, Die Spruchquelle Q. Studienausgabe Griechisch und Deutsch, Leuven: Peeters, 2002. (Hoffmann/Heil:2002) James, Montague Rhodes, (ed.), The Apocryphal New Testament, Oxford: Clarendon, 1924. (James:1924) Körtner, Ulrich H. J., ‘Papiasfragmente’, in: idem/Martin Leutsch (eds. and trans.), Papiasfragmente. Hirt des Hermas. Schriften des Urchristentums 3, Darmstadt: WBG, 1998, 1-103. (Körtner:1998) Robinson, James M./Paul Hoffmann/John S. Kloppenborg (eds.), The Critical Edition of Q, Leuven: Peeters, 2000. (IQP) Schneemelcher, Wilhelm (ed.), Neutestamentliche Apokryphen 1-2, Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck6, 1990-1999. (NTA 1-2) 4. Non-Jewish or –Christian Authors Barié, Paul/Wilfried Schindler (ed. and trans.), M. Valerius Martialis. Epigramme, Düsseldorf: Artemis & Winkler, 1999. (Barié/Schindler:1999) Beckby, Hermann (ed.), Anthologia Graeca, München: Heimeran2, 1965. (Beckby:1965) Betz, Hans Dieter (ed.), The Greek Magical Papyri in Translation. Including the Demotic Spells, Chicago: University of Chicago2, 1992. (Betz:1992) Cole Babbitt, Frank (ed. and trans.), Plutarch’s Moralia 2 LCL 222, Cambridge, MA: Harvard University, 1962. (Cole Babbitt:1962) Diehls, Ernestus (ed.), Anthologica Lyrica Graeca 1-2 BSGRT, Leipzig: Teubner, 19361942. (Diehls:1936-1942) Diels, Hermann/Walter Kranz, Die Fragmente der Vorsokratiker 1-3, Berlin: Weidmann6, 1951. [Diels-Kranz] Driver, Godfrey R./John C. Miles, The Babylonian Laws 1, Oxford: Clarendon2, 1956. (Driver/Miles:1956) Edmonds, John Maxwell, The Fragments of Attic Comedy 1, Leiden: Brill, 1957. (Edmonds:1957) Edmonds, J. M. (ed. and trans.), Lyra Graeca:Being the Remains of all the Greek Lyric Poets from Eumelus to Timotheus, excepting Pindar LCL 132-142, Harvard: Harvard University, 1958-1968. (Edmonds:1958-1968) Egypt Exploration Society (ed.), The Oxyrhynchus Papyri, London: Egypt Exploration Society. (POxy) Fink, Gerhard (ed. and transl.), Q. Horatius Flaccus. Oden und Epoden, Düsseldorf: Artemis & Winkler, 2002. (Fink:2002) Gulick, Charles Burton, (ed. and trans.), Athenaeus. The Deipnosophists LCL 204, London: Heinemann, 1927. (Gulick:1927) Harmon, A. M., Lucian 2 LCL 54, Cambridge, MA: Harvard University, 1915. (Harmon:1915) Horsley, G.H.R., A Review of the Greek Inscriptions and Papyri published in 1976 New Documents Illustrating Early Christianity 1, North Ryde: Ancient History Documentary Research Centre, 1981. (Horsley:1981) Jacoby, Felix e.a. (eds.), Fragmente der griechischen Historiker, Berlin: Weidmann, 1923–. [FGH]

398

Bibliography

Maier, Robert (trans. and ed.), Marcus Gavius Apicius: De re coquinaria/Über die Kochkunst, Stuttgart: Reclam, 1991. (Maier:1991) Melmoth, William (ed.), Pliny. Letters 1 LCL, Cambridge, MA: Harvard University, 1952. (Melmoth:1952) Merkelbach, Reinhold/Josef Stauber, Steinepigramme aus dem griechischen Osten 1, München: Saur, 1998. (Merkelbach/Stauber:1998) Minar, Edwin L./F. H. Sandbach/W. C. Helmbold (trans. and ed.), Plutarch’s Moralia 9 LCL 425, Cambrige, MA: Harvard University, 1961. (Minar/Sandbach/Helmbold: 1961) Pritchard, James B., Ancient Near Eastern Texts Relating to the Old Testament 1-3, Princeton: Princeton University3, 1969. (ANET) Rushton Fairclough, H. (ed. and transl.), Virgil. Eclogues, Georgics, Aeneid I-VI LCL 63, Cambridge, MA: Harvard University, 1999. (Rushton Fairclough:1999) Schnelle, Udo, e.a., (ed.) Neuer Wettstein. Texte zum Neuen Testament aus Griechentum und Hellenismus. Band I/2 Texte zum Johannesevangelium, Berlin: De Gruyter, 2001. (Schnelle:2001) Shackleton Bailey, D. R., Martial. Epigrams 2, LCL 95, Cambridge, MA: Harvard University, 1993. (Shackleton Bailey:1993).

Secondary Literature (Including Commentaries) Aageson, James W., ‘Lectionary A. Early Jewish Lectionaries,’ ABD 4, 270-271. (Aageson:1992) Aarde, Andries G. van, God-With-Us. The Dominant Perspective in Matthew’s Story HTS.S 5, Pretoria: Hervormde Teologiese Studies, 1994. (Aarde:1994) Abma, Richtsje, Bonds of Love: Methodic Studies of Prophetic Texts with Marriage Imagery (Isaiah 50:1-3 and 54:1-10, Hosea 1-3, Jeremiah 2-3), Assen: Van Gorcum, 1999. (Abma:1999) Alexander, Loveday, ‘Luke’s Preface in the Context of Greek Preface-Writing,’ NT 28 (1986), 48-74. (Alexander:1986) Alexander, Loveday, The Preface to Luke’s Gospel. Literary Convention and Social Context in Luke 1:1-4 and Acts 1:1 MSSNTS. 78, Cambridge: Cambridge University, 1993. (Alexander:1993) Allison, Dale C., ‘Who will come from East and West? Observations on Matt. 8.11-12 – Luke 13.28-29,’ IBSt 11 (1989), 158-170. (Allison: 1989) Allison, Dale C., ‘Psalm 23 (22) in Early Christianity. A Suggestion,’ IBS 5 (1983), 132137. (Allison:1983) Allison, Dale C., The New Moses. A Matthean Typology, Minneapolis: Fortress, 1993. (Allison:1993) Anderson, Paul N., The Christology of the Fourth Gospel WUNT 2.78, Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 1996. (Anderson:1996) Anderson, Paul N., ‘The Sitz im Leben of the Johannine Bread of Life Discourse and Its Evolving Context,’ in: Culpepper:1997, 1-59. (Anderson:1997) Applebaum, Shimon, ‘Economic Life in Palestine,’ in: Safrai/Stern:1976, 631-700. (Applebaum:1976) Arlandson, James Malcolm, Women, Class and Society in Early Christianity, Peabody: Hendrickson, 1997. (Arlandson:1997)

Bibliography

399

Assmann, Jan, ‘Der schöne Tag. Sinnlichkeit und Vergänglichkeit im altägyptischen Fest,’ in: idem, Stein und Zeit. Mensch und Gesellschaft im alten Ägypten, München: Fink, 1991, 200-234. (Assmann:1991) Auffarth, Christoph, Der drohende Untergang. “Schöpfung” in Mythos und Ritual im Alten Orient und in Griechenland am Beispiel der Odyssee und des Ezekielbuches RVV 39, Berlin: De Gruyter, 1991. (Auffarth:1991) Aune, David E., ‘Magic in Early Christianity,’ ANRW 2.23.2, 1507-1557. (Aune:1980) Aune, David E., ‘Jesus II,’ RAC 17, 821-837. (Aune:1996) Aune, David E., Revelation 1-5 WBC 52A, Dallas: Word Books, 1997. (Aune:1997) Aune, David E., Revelation 6-16 WBC 52B, Nashville: Word Books, 1998. (Aune:1998a) Aune, David E., Revelation 17-22 WBC 52C, Nashville: Word Books, 1998. (Aune: 1998b) Bailey, Kenneth E., Through Peasant Eyes: More Lukan Parables, their Culture and Style, Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1980. (Bailey:1980) Balabanski, Vicky, Eschatology in the Making MSSNTS 97, Cambridge: Cambridge University, 1997. (Balabanski:1997) Baldick, Chris, The Concise Oxford Dictionary of Literary Terms, Oxford: Oxford University, 1990. (Baldick:1990) Baldry, Harold C., ‘The Idler’s Paradise in Attic Comedy,’ Greece and Rome 22 (1953), 49-60. (Baldry:1953) Bammel, Fritz, Das heilige Mahl im Glauben der Völker. Eine religionsphänomenologische Untersuchung, Gütersloh: Bertelsmann, 1950. (Bammel:1950) Bammel, Ernst, ‘The Feeding of the Multitude,’ in: Idem/Charles F. D. Moule, Jesus and the Politics of His Day, Cambridge: Cambridge University, 1984, 211-240. (Bammel: 1984) Barlösius, Eva, Soziologie des Essens, Eine sozial- und kultur-wissenschaftliche Einführung in die Ernährungsforschung, München: Juventa, 1999. (Barlösius:1999) Barrett, Charles Kingsley, ‘Luke XXII 15: to Eat the Passover,’ JThS 9 (1958), 305-306. (Barrett:1958) Barrett, Charles Kingsley, Das Evangelium nach Johannes KEK.S., trans. Hans Bald; Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1990. (Barrett:1990) Barth, Markus, Das Mahl des Herrn. Gemeinschaft mit Israel, mit Christus und unter den Gästen, Neukirchen-Vluyn: Neukirchener, 1987. (Barth:1987) Batto, Bernard Frank, ‘Behemoth,’ DDD, 165-169. (Batto:1999) Bauckham, Richard, ‘Synoptic Parousia Parables and the Apocalypse,’ NTS 23 (1977), 162-176. (Bauckham:1977) Bauckham, Richard, ‘The Rich Man and Lazarus: The Parable and The Parallels,’ NTS 37 (1991), 225-246. (Bauckham:1991) Bauckham, Richard, ‘The Apocalypse as a Christian War Scroll,’ in: idem, The Climax of Prophecy, Edinburgh: T&T Clark, 1993, 210-237. (Bauckham:1993a) Bauckham, Richard, The Theology of the Book of Revelation, Cambridge: Cambridge University, 1993. (Bauckham:1993b) Bauckham, Richard, ‘The Parable of the Royal Wedding Feast (Matthew 22:1-14) and the Parable of the Lame Man and the Blind Man (Apocryphon of Ezekiel),’ JBL 115 (1996), 471-488. (Bauckham:1996) Bauckham, Richard, ‘Descents to the Underworld,’ in: idem, The Fate of the Dead. Studies on Jewish and Christian Apocalypses NT.S 93, Leiden: Brill, 1998, 9-48. (Bauckham:1998)

400

Bibliography

Bauckham, Richard, ‘Did Jesus Wash His Disciples’ Feet,’ in: Bruce Chilton/Craig A. Evans (eds.), Authenticating the Activities of Jesus NTTS 28.2, Leiden: Brill, 1999, 411-429. (Bauckham:1999) Baudoz, Jean-François, ‘Le repas du seigneur d’après la section des pains en Marc. Mc 6, 6b – 8, 30,’ in: Quesnel/Blanchard/Tassin:1999, 91-106. (Baudoz:1999) Bauernfeind, Otto, ‘nika,w ktl,’ ThWNT 4, 941-945. (Bauernfeind:1942) Baumann, Gerlinde, Liebe und Gewalt. Die Ehe als Metapher für das Verhältnis JHWHIsrael in den Prophetenbüchern SBS 185, Stuttgart: Katholisches Bibelwerk, 2000. (Baumann:2000) Baumgarten, Albert I., ‘Finding Oneself in a Sectarian Context: A Sectarian’s Food and Its Implications,’ in: idem/Jan Assmann/Guy G. Stroumsa (eds.), Self, Soul and Body in Religious Experience SHR 78, Leiden, 1998, 125-147. (Baumgarten:1998) Bayer, Hans F., Jesus’ Predictions of Vindication and Resurrection WUNT 2.20, Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 1986. (Bayer:1986) Beale, Gregory K., The Book of Revelation NIGTC, Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1999. (Beale:1999) Beardsworth, Alan/Teresa Keil Sociology on the Menu: An Invitation to the Study of Food and Society, New York: Routledge, 1997. (Beardsworth/Keil:1997) Beasley-Murray, George R., John WBC 36, Waco: Word Books, 1987. (Beasley-Murray: 1987) Becker, Jürgen, Das Evangelium nach Johannes 1 ÖTBK 4.1, Gütersloh: Gütersloher3, 1991. (Becker:1991) Becker, Jürgen, Jesus von Nazaret, Berlin: De Gruyter, 1996. (Becker:1996) Becker, Jürgen, Johanneisches Christentum, Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 2004. (Becker: 2004) Johannes Behm/Georg Bertram, ‘diya,w, di,yoj,’ ThWNT 2, 230-232. (Behm/Bertram: 1935) Behm, Johannes, ‘diaqh,kh,’ ThWNT 2, 106-137. (Behm:1935) Behm, Otto, ‘nh/stij ktl,’ ThWNT 4, 925-935. (Behm:1942) Bell, Catherine, Ritual. Perspectives and Dimensions, Oxford: Oxford University, 1997. (Bell:1997) Bendemann, Reinhard von, Zwischen DOXA und STAUROS: eine exegetische Untersuchung der Texte des sogenannten Reiseberichts im Lukasevangelium BZNW 101, Berlin: de Gruyter, 2001. (Bendemann:2001) Benoit, Pierre, ‘Le récit de la cène dans Lc xii, 15-20,’ RB 43 (1939), 357-393. (Benoit: 1939) Berger, Klaus, Die Amen-Worte Jesu BZNW 39, Berlin: De Gruyter, 1970. (Berger:1970) Berger, Klaus, Formgeschichte des Neuen Testaments, Heidelberg: Quelle & Meyer, 1984. (Berger:1984) Berger, Klaus, Theologiegeschichte des Urchristentums, Tübingen: Francke2, 1995. (Berger:1995) Berger, Klaus, Am Anfang war Johannes. Datierung und Theologie des vierten Evangeliums, Stuttgart: Quell, 1997. (Berger:1997) Berges, Ulrich, ‘Gottesgarten und Tempel: die Neue Schöpfung im Jesajabuch,’ in: Keel/ Zenger:2002, 69-98. (Berges:2002) Bernhardt, Karl-Heinz ‘Nasiräer,’ TRE 24, 10-12. (Bernhardt:1994). Bettenworth, Anja, Gastmahlszenen in der antiken Epik von Homer bis Claudian Hypomnemata 153, Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 2004. (Bettenworth:2004) Betz, Hans Dieter, ‘The Sermon on the Mount in Matthew’s Interpretation,’ in: Pearson/ Kraabel/Nickelsburg:1991, 258-275. (Betz:1991)

Bibliography

401

Betz, Hans-Dieter, The Sermon on the Mount Hermeneia, Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 1995. (Betz:1995) Beutler, Johannes/Robert T. Fortna (eds.), The Shepherd Discourse of John 10 and Its Context MSSNTS. 67, Cambridge: Cambridge University, 1991. (Beutler/Fortna: 1991) Beutler, Johannes, ‘Der alttestamentlich-jüdische Hintergrund der Hirtenrede in Johannes 10,’ in: idem/Fortna:1991, 18-32. (Beutler:1991) Beutler, Johannes, ‘The Structure of John 6,’ in: Culpepper:1997, 115-127. (Beutler: 1997) Beyer, Hermann Wolfgang, ‘diakone,w, diakoni,a, dia,konoj,’ ThWNT 2, 81-93. (Beyer: 1935) Bichler, Reinhold, Von der Insel der Seligen zu Platons Staat. Geschichte der antiken Utopie I Alltag und Kultur im Altertum 3, Wien: Böhlau, 1995. (Bichler:1995) Bieringer, Reimund/Didier Pollefeyt/Frederique Vandecasteele-Vanneuville (eds.), AntiJudaism and the Fourth Gospel. Papers of the Leuven Colloquium, 2000, Assen: Van Gorcum, 2001. (Bieringer/Pollefeyt/Vandecasteele-Vanneuville:2001) Black, Matthew, The Book of Enoch, SVTP 7, Leiden:Brill, 1985. (Black:1985) Blank, Josef, ‘Der “eschatologische Ausblick” Mk 14,25 und seine Bedeutung,’ in: PaulGerhard Müller/Werner Stenger (eds.), Kontinuität und Einheit, FS Franz Mußner; Freiburg: Herder, 1981, 508-518. (Blank:1981) Blasi, Anthony J./Jean Duhaime/Paul-André Turcotte (eds.), Handbook of Early Christianity. Social Science Approaches, Walnut Creek: Altamira, 2002. (Blasi/ Duhaime/ Turcotte:2002) Blasi, Anthony J., ‘General Methodological Perspective,’ 61-79, in: idem/Duhaime/Turcotte:2002. (Blasi:2002) Blatz, Beate, ‘Das koptische Thomasevangelium,’ NTA 1, 93-113. (Blatz:1990) Blenkinsopp, Joseph, Isaiah 1-39 AB 19, New York: Doubleday, 2000. (Blenkinsopp: 2000) Bloch, René S., Antike Vorstellungen vom Judentum Historia. Einzelschriften 160, Stuttgart: Steiner, 2002. (Bloch:2002) Blumberg-Straus, Jonathan, ‘Not by Bread alone...,’ Semeia 86 (1999), 165-191. (Blumberg-Straus:1999) Bodi, Daniel, ‘Der altorientalische Hintergrund des Themas der “Ströme lebendigen Wassers” in Joh 7,38,’ in: Martin Rose (ed.), Johannes-Studien. Interdisziplinäre Zugänge zum Johannes-Evangelium, FS Jean Zumstein; Zürich: TVZ, 1991, 137-158. (Bodi:1991) Bøe, Sverre, Gog and Magog WUNT 2.135, Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 2001. (Bøe:2001) Boers, Hendrikus, Neither on this Mountain Nor in Jerusalem SLBMon 35, Atlanta: Scholars, 1988. (Boers:1988) Bolyki, János, Jesu Tischgemeinschaften WUNT 2.96, Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 1988. (Bolyki:1988) Boobyer, George H., ‘The Eucharistic Interpretation of the Miracles of the Loaves in St. Mark’s Gospel,’ JThS 3 (1952), 161-171. (Boobyer:1952) Borgeaud, Philippe, ‘Opfer I. Religionswissenschaftlich,’ 4RGG 6, 570-572. (Borgeaud: 2003) Borgen, Peder, Bread from Heaven NT.S 10, Leiden: Brill, 1965. (Borgen:1965) Borgen, Peder, ‘John 6: Tradition, Interpretation and Composition,’ in: Culpepper:1997, 95-114. (Borgen:1997) Borgen, Peder, Review of: Labahn, Offenbarung, JThSt 53 (2002), 215-223. (Borgen: 2002)

402

Bibliography

Boring, M. Eugene, ‘A Proposed Reconstruction of Q 13:28-29,’ in: David J. Lull (ed.), SBL.SP 1989, Atlanta: Scholars, 1989, 1-22. (Boring:1989) Bormann, Lukas, Recht, Gerechtigkeit und Religion im Lukasevangelium StUNT 24, Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 2001. (Bormann:2001) Bornkamm, Günther, ‘Die Komposition der apokalyptischen Visionen in der Offenbarung Johannis,’ in: idem, Studien zu Antike und Urchristentum, BETh 28, München: Kaiser, 1959, 204-222. (Bornkamm:1959) Bornkamm, Günther, ‘Die Verzögerung der Parusie,’ in: idem, Geschichte und Glaube. Erster Teil. Gesammelte Aufsätze 3 BEvTh 48, München: Kaiser, 1968, 46-55. (Bornkamm:1968) Borowski, Oded, Daily Life in Biblical Times, Atlanta: Scholars, 2003. (Borowski:2003) Bösen, Willibald, Das Mahlmotiv bei Lukas: Studien zum lukanischen Mahlverständnis unter besonderer Beruecksichtigung von Lk 22, 14-20, Diss. Phil. Saarbruecken, 1976. (Bösen:1976) Bösen, Willibald, Jesusmahl. Eucharistisches Mahl. Endzeitmahl. Ein Beitrag zur Theologie des Lukas SBB 97, Stuttgart: Katholisches Bibelwerk, 1980. (Bösen:1980) Bösen, Willibald, Der letzte Tag des Jesus von Nazareth. Was wirklich geschah, Freiburg: Herder, 1994. (Bösen:1994) Böttrich, Christfried, ‘Ideal oder Zeichen? Besitzverzicht bei Lukas am Beispiel der “Ausrüstungsregel”’ NTS 49 (2002), 372-392. (Böttrich:2002) Bousset, Wilhelm, Kyrios Christos. Geschichte des Christusglaubens von den Anfängen des Christentums bis Irenaeus, Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 21921. (Bousset:1921) Bovon, François, ‘The Role of the Scriptures in the Composition of the Gospel Accounts: The Temptations of Jesus (Lk 4:1-13 par.) and the Multiplication of the Loaves (Lk 9:10-17 par.),’ in: Gerald O’Collins/Gilberto Marconi (eds.), Luke and Acts, trans. Matthew J. O’Collins; New York: Paulist, 1993, 26-31. (Bovon:1993) Bovon, François, Das Evangelium nach Lukas 1, EKK 3.1, Zürich: Benziger, 1989, (Bovon:1989) Bovon, François, Das Evangelium nach Lukas 2, EKK 3.2, Zürich: Benziger, 1996. (Bovon:1996) Bovon, François, Das Evangelium nach Lukas 3, EKK 3.3, Zürich: Benziger, 2001. (Bovon:2001) Braumann, Georg, ‘“An jenem Tag” Mk 2,20,’ NT 6 (1963), 264-267. (Braumann:1963) Braun, Willi, Feasting and Social Rhetoric in Luke 14 MSSNTS 85, Cambridge: Cambridge University, 1995. (Braun:1995) Bremmer, Jan N., ‘Paradise: From Persia, via Greece, into the Septuagint,’ in: Luttikhuizen:1999, 1-20. (Bremmer:1999) Bremmer, Jan N., The Rise and Fall of the Afterlife, Routledge: New York, 2002. (Bremmer:2002) Brenner, Atalya, ‘On “Jeremiah” and the Poetics of (Prophetic) Pornography,’ in: idem/ Fokkelien van Dijk - Hemmes, On Gendering Texts. Female and Male Voices in the Hebrew Bible BIS 1, Leiden: Brill, 1993, 177-193. (Brenner:1993) Brenner, Atalya, The Intercourse of Knowledge: On Gendering Desire and “Sexuality” in the Hebrew Bible BIS 26, Leiden: Brill, 1997l. (Brenner:1997) Brent, Allen, The Imperial Cult and the Development of Church Order VigChrSup 45, Leiden, Brill, 1999. (Brent:1999) Breytenbach, Cilliers, ‘Grundzüge markinischer Gottessohn-Christologie,’ in: idem/ Henning Paulsen (eds.), Anfänge der Christologie, FS Ferdinand Hahn; Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1991, 169-184. (Breytenbach:1991)

Bibliography

403

Bridge, Steven L., ‘Where the Eagles are Gathered.’ The Deliverance of the Elect in Lukan Eschatology JSNT.S 240, London: Sheffield Academic, 2003. (Bridge:2003) Briggs, Robert A., Jewish Temple Imagery in the Book of Revelation Studies in Biblical Literature 10, Bern: Lang, 1999. (Briggs:1999) Broer, Ingo, ‘Noch einmal: Zur religionsgeschichtlichen “Ableitung” von Jo 2,1-11,’ SNTU.A 8 (1983), 103-123. (Broer:1983) Broer, Ingo, Die Seligpreisungen der Bergpredigt BBB 61, (Bonn: Hanstein, 1986. (Broer:1986) Broer, Ingo, ‘Das Weinwunder zu Kana (Joh 2,1-11) und die Weinwunder in der Antike,’ in: Ulrich Mell/Ulrich B. Müller (eds.), Das Urchristentum in seiner literarischen Geschichte BZNW 100, FS Jürgen Becker; Berlin: De Gruyter, 1999, 291-308. (Broer:1999) Brongers, Hendrik A., ‘Die Zehnzahl in der Bibel und in ihrer Umwelt,’ in: s.a. Studia Biblica et Semitica Theodore Christiano Vriezen (…) dedicata, Wageningen: Veenman, 1966, 30-45. (Brongers:1966) Broshi, Magen, ‘The Diet of Palestine in the Roman Period: Introductory notes’, in: idem:2001a, 121-143. (Broshi:2001b) Broshi, Magen, Bread, Wine, Walls and Scrolls, JSPSup 36, Sheffield: Sheffield Academic, 2001. (Broshi:2001a) Broshi, Magen, ‘Wine in Ancient Palestine: Introductory Notes,’ in: idem:2001a, 144173. (Broshi:2001c) Brothwell, Don/Patricia Brothwell, Food in Antiquity, Baltimore: John Hopkins University, 1998. (Brothwell:1998) Brown, Raymond E., The Gospel according to John (I-XII), AB 29A, New York: Doubleday, 1966. (Brown:1966) Brown, Raymond E., The Death of the Messiah, From Gethsemane to the Grave, A Commentary on the Passion Narratives, New York: Doubleday, 1994. (Brown:1994) Bruit, Louise, ‘The Meal at the Hyakinthia: Ritual Consumption and Offering,’ in: Murray:1990, 162-174. (Bruit:1990) Bultmann, Rudolf, Das Evangelium des Johannes KEK 2 (Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht20, 1978. (Bultmann:1978) Bultmann, Rudolf Theologie des Neuen Testament UTB, Tübingen: Siebeck Mohr9, 1984. (Bultmann:1984) Bultmann, Rudolf, Geschichte der synoptischen Tradition. Mit einem Nachwort von Gerd Theißen, Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht10, 1995. (Bultmann:1995) Burchard, Christoph, ‘Joseph and Aseneth,’ in: Charlesoworth:1985, 177-247 (Burchard: 1985) Burchard, Christoph, ‘Versuch, das Thema der Bergpredigt zu finden,’ in: Georg Strecker (ed.), Jesus Christus in Historie und Theologie, FS Hans Conzelmann; Tü-bingen: Mohr Siebeck, 1975, 409-432. (Burchard:1975) Burchard, Christoph, ‘Miszellen zu Matthäus 8,5-13,’ ZNW 84 (1993), 278-288. (Burchard:1993) Burchard, Christoph, ‘The Importance of Joseph and Aseneth for the Study of the New Testament: A General Survey and a Fresh Look at the Lord’s Supper,’ in idem, Gesammelte Studien zu Joseph und Aseneth SVTP 13, Leiden: Brill, 1996, 263-295. (Burchard:1996) Burger, Christoph, ‘Jesu Taten nach Matthäus 8 und 9,’ ZThK 70 (1973), 272-287. (Burger:1973) Burkert, Walter, Antike Mysterien. Funktionen und Gehalt, München: Beck, 1990. (Burkert:1990)

404

Bibliography

Busse/May: Ulrich Busse/Anton May, ‘Das Weinwunder von Kana (Joh 2,1-11),’ BN 12 (1980), 35-61. (Busse/May:1980) Busse, Ulrich, Die Wunder des Propheten Jesus. Die Rezeption, Komposition und Interpretation der Wundertradition im Evangelium des Lukas FzB 24, Stuttgart: Katholisches Bibelwerk, 1977. (Busse:1977) Byron, John, Slavery Metaphors in Early Judaism and Pauline Christianity WUNT 2.162, Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 2003. (Byron:2003) Cadbury, Henry Joel, ‘A Proper Name for Dives,’ JBL 81 (1962), 399-402. (Cadbury: 1962) Cadbury, Henry Joel, ‘Name for Dives,’ JBL 84 (1965), 73. (Cadbury:1965) Caird, George B., A Commentary on the Revelation of St. John the Divine, London: Black, 1966. (Caird:1966) Camery-Hoggat, Jerry, Irony in Mark’s Gospel. Text and Subtext MSSNTS 72, Cambridge: Cambridge University, 1992. (Camery-Hoggat:1992) Cangh, Jean-Marie van, ‘Le thème des poissons dans les récits évangeliques de la multiplication des pains,’ RB 78 (1971), 71-83. (Cangh:1971) Cangh, Jean-Marie van, ‘La Multiplication des Pains dans l’Évangile de Marc. Essai d’exégèse globale,’ in: Maurits Sabbe (ed.), L’Évangile selon Marc. Tradition et Rédaction, Leuven: Peeters, 1988, 309-346. (Cangh:1988) Cangh, Jean-Marie van, ‘Le déroulement primitif de la cène,’ RB 102 (1995), 193-225. (Van Cangh:1995) Cangh, Jean-Marie van, ‘Evolution in the Tradition of the Last Supper,’ in: Bernd Kollmann/Wolfgang Reinbold/Annette Steudel (eds.), Antikes Judentum und Frühes Christentum BZNW 97, FS Harmut Stegemann; Berlin: De Gruyter, 1999, 364-388. (Van Cangh:1999a) Cangh, Jean-Marie van, ‘L’évolution de la tradition de la cène,’ in: Jean-Marie Auwers/ André Wénin (eds.), Lectures et Relectures de la Bible BEThL 144, FS Pierre-Marie Bogaert; Leuven: Peeters, 1999, 257-285. (Van Cangh:1999b) Caquot, André, ‘Remarques sur le “banquet des nations” en Esaie 25:6-8,’ RHPhR 69 (1989), 109-119. (Caquot:1989) Carroll, John T., ‘Luke’s Portrayal of the Pharisees,’ CBQ 50, 604-621, 1998. (Carroll: 1998) Carroll, Robert P., ‘YHWH’s Sour Grape’s: Images of Food and Drink in the Prophetic Discourses of the Hebrew Bible,’ Semeia 86 (1999), 113-131. (Carroll:1999) Carson, Donald A., ‘Understanding Misunderstandings in the Fourth Gospel’, TyndBul 53 (1982), 59-91. (Carson:1982) Carter, Warren, ‘Resisting and Imitating Empire. Imperial Paradigms in Two Matthean Parables,’ Int 56 (1992), 260-272. (Carter:1992) Carter, Warren, Matthew and the Margins. A Socio-Political and Religious Reading JSNT.S 204, Sheffield: Sheffield Academic, 2000. (Carter:2000) Casey, Maurice, Aramaic Sources of Mark’s Gospel, MSSNTS 102, Cambridge: Cambridge University, 1998. (Casey:1998) Catchpole, David R., ‘The Centurion’s Faith and Its Function in Q,’ in: Van Segbroeck/ Tuckett/Van Belle/Verheyden:1992, 517-540. (Catchpole:1992a) Catchpole, David R., ‘The Mission Charge in Q,’ Semeia 55 (1992), 147-174. (Catchpole:1992b) Catchpole, David R., The Quest for Q, Edinburgh: T&T Clark, 1993, 151-188. (Catchpole:1993) Charles, Robert Henry, The Revelation of St. John 1-2, Edinburgh: T&T Clark, 1920 (Charles:1920a/Charles:1920b)

Bibliography

405

Charlesworth, James H., ‘History of the Rechabites,’ in: idem:1985a, 443-461. (Charlesworth:1985b) Charlesworth, James H., ‘The Qumran Beatitudes (4Q525) and The New Testament (Mt. 5:3-11, Lk. 6:20-26), RHPhR 80 (2000), 13-35. (Charlesworth:2000) Chilton, Bruce, The Temple of Jesus: His Sacrificial Program Within a Cultural History of Sacrifice, University Park: Pennsylvania State University, 1992. (Chilton:1992) Chilton, Bruce, A Feast of Meanings, Eucharistic Theologies from Jesus through Johannine Circles, NT.S 72, Brill: Leiden, 1994. (Chilton:1994) Clifford, Richard J., The Cosmic Mountain in Canaan and the Old Testament, Cambridge: Cambridge University, 1972. (Clifford:1972) Collins, Raymond F., ‘Cana (John 2:1-12) – the First of His Signs or the Key to his Signs,’ in: idem: These Things Have Been Written LThPM 2, Leuven: Peeters, 1990, 158-182. (Collins:1990) Collins, Matthew S., ‘The Question of Doxa: A Socioliterary Reading of the Wedding at Cana,’ BTB 25 (1995), 100-109. (Collins:1995) Conzelmann, Hans, Die Mitte der Zeit. Studien zur Theologie des Lukas BHTh 17, Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck6, 1977. (Conzelmann:1977) Cook, Stanley Arthur, The Religion of Ancient Palestine in the Light of Archaeology, London: Milford, 1930. (Cook:1930) Cosgrove, Charles H., ‘The Divine DEI in Luke-Acts: Investigations into the Lukan Understanding of God’s Providence,’ NT 26 (1984), 168-190. (Cosgrove:1984) Countryman, L. William, ‘How Many Baskets Full? Mark 8.14-21 and the Value of Miracles in Mark,’ CBQ 47 (1985), 643-655. (Countryman:1985) Cousland, J. Robert C., ‘The Feeding of the Four Thousand Gentiles in Matthew? Matthew 15:29-39 as a Test-Case,’ NT 46 (1999), 1-23. (Cousland:1999) Cremer, Franz Gerhard, ‘“Die Söhne des Brautgemachs” (Mk 2, 19parr) in der griechischen und lateinischen Schrifterklärung,’ BZ 11 (1967), 246-253. (Cremer: 1967) Crossan, John Dominic, ‘It is Written: A Structuralist Analysis of John 6,’ Semeia 26 (1983), 3-21. (Crossan:1983) Crossan, John Dominic, The Historical Jesus. The Life of a Mediterranean Jewish Peasant, HarperCollins: San Francisco, 1991. (Crossan:1991) Crossan, John Dominic, Who Killed Jesus?, San Francisco: HarperSanFrancisco, 1995. (Crossan:1995) Cullmann, Oscar, Urchristentum und Gottesdienst AThANT 4, Zürich: Zwingli2, 1950. (Cullmann:1950) Culpepper, R. Alan (ed.), Critical Readings of John 6 Biblical Interpretation Supplements 22, Leiden: Brill, 1997. (Culpepper:1997) Cürsgen, Dirk, Die Rationalität des Mythischen QSP 55, Berlin: De Gruyter, 2002. (Cürsgen:2002) D’Arms, John, ‘The Roman Convivium and the Idea of Equality,’ in: Murray:1990, 308320. (D’Arms:1990) Danker, Frederick W., Benefactor: Epigraphic Study of a Graeco-Roman and New Testament Semantic Field, St. Louis: Clayton, 1982. (Danker:1982) Dar, Shimon, ‘Food and Archeology in Romano-Byzantine Palestine,’ in: Wilkins/Harvey/Robson:1995, 326-335. (Dar:1995) Daube, David, New Testament and Rabbinic Judaism, London: London University, 1956. (Daube:1956) Dautzenberg, Gerhard, ‘Reich Gottes,’ NBL 3, 307-313. (Dautzenberg:2001)

406

Bibliography

Davidson, James N., Kurtisanen und Meeresfrüchte. Die verzehrenden Leidenschaften im klassischen Athen, trans. Gennaro Ghirardelli; Darmstadt: Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft, 1999. (Davidson:1999) Davies William D./Dale C. Allison, The Gospel According to Saint Matthew 1 ICC, Edinburgh: T&T Clark, 1988. (Davies/Allison:1988) Davies, William D./Dale C. Allison, The Gospel According to Saint Matthew 2 ICC, Edinburgh: T&T Clark, 1991. (Davies/Allison:1991) William D. Davies/Dale C. Allison, The Gospel According to Saint Matthew 3 ICC, Edinburgh: T&T Clark, 1997. (Davies/Allison:1997) Davies, Eryl W., ‘Walking in God’s Ways: The Concept of Imitatio Dei in the Old Testament,’ in: Edward Ball (ed.), In Search of True Wisdom. Essays in Old Testament Interpretation in Honour of Ronald E. Clements JSOT.S 300, Sheffield: Sheffield Academic, 1999, 99-115. (Davies:1999) Dawson, Doyne, Cities of the Gods. Communist Utopias in Greek Thought, Oxford: Oxford University, 1992. (Dawson:1992) Day, John, God’s Conflict with the Dragon and the Sea. Echoes of a Canaanite Myth in the Old Testament, Cambridge: Cambridge University, 1985.(Day:1985) Dayagi-Mendels, Michal, Drink and Be Merry. Wine and Beer in Ancient Times, Jerusalem: The Israel Museum, 1999. (Dayagi-Mendels:1999) Déaut, Roger le, La nuit pascale. Essai sur la signifcation de la Pâque juive à partir du Targum d’Exode XII, 42 CollAnBib 22, Rome: Pontifical Biblical Insitute, 1963. (Déaut:1963) Degenhardt, Hans-Joachim, Lukas – Evangelist der Armen. Besitz und Besitzverzicht in den lukanischen Schriften, Stuttgart: Katholisches Bibelwerk, 1964. (Degenhardt: 1964) Dehandschutter, Boudewijn, ‘Martyrium und Agon: über die Wurzeln der Vorstellung vom AGON im Vierten Makkabäerbuch,’ in: Jan Willem van Henten/Boudewijn Dehandschutter/Johannes van der Klaauw (eds.), Die Entstehung der jüdischen Martyrologie StPB 38, Leiden: Brill, 1989, 215-219. (Dehandschutter:1989) Deines, Roland, Jüdische Steingefäße und pharisäische Frömmigkeit WUNT 2.52, Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 1993. (Deines:1993) Delling, Gerhard, ‘Abendmahl II. Urchristliches Mahlverständnis,’ TRE 1, 47-58. (Delling:1977) Delorme, Jean (ed.), Les Paraboles Evangéliques LD 135, Paris: Cerf, 1989. (Delorme: 1989) Delorme, Jean, ‘Le dernier repas de Jésus dans le texte. Mc 14, 16-25,’ in: Quesnel/ Blanchard/Tassin:1999, 107-120. (Delorme:1999) Derrett, J. Duncan M., ‘Water into Wine,’ BZ 7 (1963), 80-97. (Derrett:1963) Derrett, J. Duncan M., ‘Law in the New Testament: The Syro-Phoenician Woman and the Centurion of Capernaum,’ NT 15 (1973), 161-186. (Derrett:1973) DeSilva, David A., ‘Final Topics: The Rhetorical Functions of Intertexture in Revelation 14:14-16:21,’ in: Duane F. Watson, The Intertexture of Apocalyptic Discourse in the New Testament SBL Symposium Series 14, Leiden: Brill, 2002, 215-241. (DeSilva:2002) Deutsch, Celia, ‘Transformation of Symbols: The New Jerusalem in Rv 21,1-22,5,’ ZNW 78 (1987), 106-126. (Deutsch:1987) Dietrich, Walter, ‘Gott als König,’ ZThK 77 (1980), 251-268. (Dietrich:1980) Dietrich, Walter, ‘Der rote Faden im Alten Testament,’ EvTh 49 (1989), 232-350. (Dietrich:1989)

Bibliography

407

Dietrich, Walter, ‘König David – biblisches Bild eines Herrschers im altorientalischen Kontext,’ in: idem/Hubert Herkommer (ed.), König David – biblische Schlüsselfigur und europäische Leitgestalt, Freiburg i.Ue.: Universitätsverlag, 3-31, 2003. (Dietrich: 2003) Dihle, Albrecht, ‘Gerechtigkeit,’ RAC 10, 233-266. (Dihle:1978) Dijkstra, Meindert, ‘He Pours the Sweet Wine off, only the Dregs Are for the Wicked. An Epigraphic Note on mizzeah in Psalm 75:9,’ ZAW 107, 296-300 (1995). (Dijkstra:1995) Dillon, Richard J., ‘Wisdom Tradition and Sacramental Retrospect in the Cana Account (Jn 2,1-11),’ CBQ 24 (1964), 268-296. (Dillon:1964) Distelrath, Götz, ‘Saturnalia,’ DNP 11, 113-115. (Distelrath:2001) Dobbeler, Alex von, ‘Die Restitution Israels und die Bekehrung der Heiden. Das Verhältnis von Mt 10,5b.6 und Mt,19-20 unter dem Aspekt der Komplementarität. Erwägungen zum Standort des Matthäusevangeliums,’ ZNW 91 (2000), 18-44. (Dobbeler: 2000) Dobbeler, Stephanie von, ‘Auf der Grenze. Ethos und Identität der matthäischen Gemeinde nach Mt 15, 1-20,’ BZ 45 (2001), 55-78. (Dobbeler:2001) Dodd, Charles Harold, Historical Tradition in the Fourth Gospel, Cambridge: Cambridge University, 1965. (Dodd:1965) Dohm, Hans, Mageiros. Die Rolle des Koches in der griechisch-römischen Komödie, München: Beck, 1964. (Dohm:1964) Dommershausen, Werner, ‘!yIy:,’ ThWAT 3, 614-620. (Dommershausen:1982) Donaldson, Terence L., Jesus on the Mountain. A Study in Matthean Theology JSNT.S 8, Sheffield: JSOT, 1985. (Donaldson:1985) Donfried, Karl Paul, ‘The Allegory of the Ten Virgins (Matt 25:1-13) as a Summary of Matthean Theology,’ JBL 93 (1974), 415-428. (Donfried:1974) Donfried, Karl Paul, ‘The Feeding Narratives and the Marcan Community,’ in: Dieter Lührmann/Georg Strecker (eds.), Kirche, FS Günther Bornkamm; Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 1980, 95-103. (Donfried:1980) Döpp, Siegmar, ‘Saturnalien und lateinische Literatur,’ in: idem (ed.), Karnevaleske Phänomene in antiken und nachantiken Kulturen und Literaturen Bochumer altertumswissenschaftliches Colloquium 13, Trier: Wissenschaftlicher Verlag, 1993, 145177. (Döpp:1993) Dorn, Klaus, Die Gleichnisse des lukanischen Reiseberichts aus Sondergut und Logienquelle, Th.D. thesis Würzburg, 1988. (Dorn:1988) Doubordieu, Annie, ‘Totenkult V. Rom,’ DNP 12.1, 711-713. (Doubordieu:2002) Douglas, Mary, Food in the Social Order: Studies of Food and Festivities in Three American Communities, New York: Russell Sage Foundation, 1984. (Douglas:1984) Douglas, Mary, Constructive Drinking: Perspectives on Drink from Anthropology, Cambridge: Cambridge University, 1989. (Douglas:1989) Douglas, Mary, ‘Deciphering a Meal,’ in: idem, Implicit Meanings, London: Routledge2, 1999, 231-251. (Douglas:1999) Downing, Gerald F., ‘“Honor” among Exegetes,’ CBQ 61 (1999), 53-73. (Downing: 1999) Dumoulin, Pierre, Entre la manne et l’eucharistie AnBib 132, Rome: Pontifical Biblical Institute, 1994. (Dumoulin:1994) Dunbabin, Katherine M. D., The Roman Banquet. Images of Conviviality, Cambridge: Cambridge University, 2003. (Dunbabin:2003) Dunderberg, Ismo, Johannes und die Synoptiker. Studien zu Joh 1-9, Helsinki: Suomalaine Tiedeakatemia, 1994. (Dunderberg:1994)

408

Bibliography

Dunn, James D. G., ‘John VI – A Eucharistic Discourse?’ NTS 17 (1971), 328-338. (Dunn:1971) Dupont, Jacques, ‘Vin vieux, vin nouveau (Luc 5,39),’ CBQ 25 (1963), 286-304. (Dupont:1963) Dupont, Jacques, ‘“Béatitudes” égyptiennes,’ Bib 47 (1966), 185-222. (Dupont:1966) Dupont, Jacques, ‘La parabole du maître qui rentre tard dans la nuit (Mc 13,34-36),’ in: Albert Descamps/André de Halleux (eds.), Mélanges bibliques en homage au R.P. Béda Rigaux, Louvain-la-Neuve: Duculot, 1966, 89-116. (Dupont:1966) Dupont, Jacques, ‘Le logion des douze trônes,’ in: Jacques Dupont/Frans Neirynck (eds.), Études Synoptiques 2 BEThL 70, Leuven: Peeters, 1985, 706-743. (Dupont:1985) Ebel, Eva, Die Attraktivität früher christlichen Gemeinden WUNT 2.178, Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 2004. (Ebel:2004) Eckey, Wilfried, Das Lukasevangelium unter Berücksichtigung seiner Parallelen 1-2, Neukirchen-Vluyn: Neukirchener, 2004. (Eckey:2004a/Eckey:2004b) Eco, Umberto, Das offene Kunstwerk (trans. G. Memmert); Frankfurt: Suhrkamp, 1971. (Eco:1971) Edwards, James R., ‘Markan Sandwiches. The Significance of Interpolations in Markan Narratives,’ NT 31 (1989), 193-216. (Edwards:1989) Egger, Wilhelm, Methodenlehre zum Neuen Testament, Freiburg: Herder, 1987. (Egger: 1987) Ego, Beate, ‘Abraham als Urbild der Toratreue Israels,’ in: Friedrich Avemarie/Hermann Lichtenberger (eds.), Bund und Tora WUNT 1.92, Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 1996, 25-40. (Ego:1996) Ehrman, Bart D., ‘The Cup, the Bread, and the Salvific Effect of Jesus’ Death in LukeActs,’ in: Eugene H. Loverin, Jr. (ed.) SBL.SP 1991, Atlanta: Scholars, 1991, 576591. (Ehrman:1991) Ennulat, Andreas, Die “Minor Agreements.” Untersuchungen zu einer offenen Frage des synoptischen Problems WUNT 2.62, Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 1994. (Ennulat:1994) Erlemann, Kurt, Naherwartung und Parusie-Verzögerung im Neuen Testament TANZ 17, Tübingen: Francke, 1995. (Erlemann:1995) Ernst, Josef, Das Evangelium nach Lukas RNT, Regensburg: Pustet, 1976. (Ernst:1976) Ernst, Josef, ‘Gastmahlgespräche: Lk 14,1-24,’ in: Rudolf Schnackenburg/Josef Ernst/ Joachim Wanke (eds.), Die Kirche des Anfangs, FS Heinz Schürmann; Herder: Freiburg i.B., 1978, 57-78. (Ernst:1978) Ernst, Josef, Das Evangelium nach Markus RNT, Regensburg Pustet, 1981. (Ernst:1981) Ernst, Josef, Lukas. Ein theologisches Porträt, Düsseldorf: Patmos, 1985. (Ernst:1985) Ernst, Michael, ‘Hellenistische Analogien zu ntl. Gleichnissen,’ in: Friedrich V. Reiterer (ed.), Ein Gott, eine Offenbarung. Beiträge zur biblischen Exegese, Theologie und Spiritualität, FS Notker Füglister; Würzburg: Echter, 1991, 461-480. (Ernst:1991) Eskola, Timo, Messiah and the Throne WUNT 2.142, Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 2001. (Eskola:2001) Evans, Craig A., ‘The Twelve Tribes of Israel, Scripture and Politics in Luke 22:24-30,’ in: Bruce Chilton/Craig A. Evans, Jesus in Context, Temple, Purity, and Restoration AGAJU 39, Leiden: Brill, 1997, 455-481. (Evans:1997) Fauth, Wolfgang, ‘Kulinarisches und Utopisches in der griechischen Komödie,’ WSt.NF 7 (1973), 39-62. (Fauth:1973) Ferguson, John, Utopias of the Classical World, Ithaca, NY: Cornell University, 1975. (Ferguson:1975) Fitzer, Gottfried, ‘sfragi,j ktl,’ ThWNT 7, 939-954. (Fitzer:1964)

Bibliography

409

Fitzgerald, John T. (ed.), Friendship, Flattery, and Frankness of Speech. Studies on Friendship in the New Testament World NT.S 82, Leiden: Brill, 1996. (Fitzgerald: 1996a) Fitzgerald, John T., ‘Philippians in the Light of Some Ancient Discussions of Friendship,’ in: idem:1996, 141-160. (Fitzgerald:1996b) Fitzgerald, John T. (ed.), Greco-Roman Perspectives on Friendship SBL Resources for Biblical Study 34, Atlanta: Scholars, 1997. (Fitzgerald:1997) Fitzmyer, Joseph A., The Gospel According to Luke (I-IX) AB 28, New York: Doubleday, 1981. (Fitzmyer:1981) Fitzmyer, Joseph A., The Gospel According to Luke (X-XXIV) AB 28, New York: Doubleday, 1981. (Fitzmyer:1981) Flebbe, Jochen ‘Alter und neuer Wein bei Lukas: Zum Verständnis der sogenannten “Weinregel” Lk. 5,39,’ ZNW 96 (2005), 171-187. (Flebbe:2005) Fleddermann, Harry, ‘The End of Q,’ in: David J. Lull (ed.) SBL.SP 1990, Atlanta: Scholars, 1990, 1-10. (Fleddermann:1990) Fleischer, Gunther, ‘vAryTi,’ ThWAT 8, 643-653. (Fleischer:1995) Foster, Paul, Community, Law and Mission in Matthew’s Gospel WUNT 2.177, Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 2004. (Foster:2004) Fowler, Robert M., Loaves and Fishes. The Function of the Feeding Stories in the Gospel of Mark SBL.DS 54, Chico: Scholars, 1981. (Fowler:1981) Fox, Michael V., Proverbs 1-9 AB 18a, New York: Doubleday, 2000. (Fox:2000) France, Richard Thomas, The Gospel of Mark NIGTC, Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2002. (France:2002) Frankfurter, David, ‘Jews or Not? Reconstructing the “Other” in Rev 2:9 and 3:9,’ HThR 94 (2001), 403-425. (Frankfurter:2001) Frey, Jörg, Die johanneische Eschatologie 3 WUNT 1.117, Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 2002. (Frey:2000) Fritz, Volkmar, ‘Becher,’ NBL 1, 254. (Fritz:1991) Fuhs, Hans F., Das Buch der Sprichwörter fzb 95, Würzburg: Echter, 2001. (Fuhs:2001) Gamberoni, Johann, ‘ht'v',’ ThWAT 8, 507-535. (Gamberoni:1995) Gamer-Wallert, Ingrid, ‘Lebensbaum,’ LÄ 1, 655-660. (Gamer-Wallert:1975) Garland, David E., Reading Matthew: a Literary and Theological Commentary on the First Gospel, New York: Crossroad, 1993. (Garland:1993) Garnsey, Peter/Charles R. Whittaker, Trade and Famine in Classical Antiquity, Cambridge: Cambridge Philological Society, 1983. (Garnsey/Whittaker:1983) Garnsey, Peter, Food and Society in Classical Antiquity, Cambridge: Cambridge University, 1999. (Garnsey:1999) Garnsey, Peter, ‘Famine in Rome,’ in: idem/Whittaker:1983, 1983, 56-65, 1983. (Garnsey:1983) Garnsey, Peter, Famine and Food Supply in the Graeco-Roman World, Cambridge: Cambridge University, 1988. (Garnsey:1988) Garnsey, Peter, Cities, Peasants and Food in Classical Antiquity (ed. Walter Scheidel), Cambridge: Cambridge University, 1998. (Garnsey:1998a) Gates Brown, Tricia, Spirit in the Writings of John JSNT.S 253, London: T&T Clark, 2003. (Gates Brown:2003) Gaugler, Ernst, Das Abendmahl im Neuen Testament GBTh 2, Basel: Majer, 1943. (Gaugler:1943) Gehrke, Hans-Joachim, ‘Euergetismus,’ DNP, 228-230. (Gehrke:1998) Gemünden, Petra von, ‘Pflanzensymbolik II. Altes Testament,’ TRE 26, 412-414. (Gemünden:1996a)

410

Bibliography

Gemünden, Petra von, ‘Pflanzensymbolik III. Antikes Judentum,’ TRE 26, 414-417. (Gemünden:1996b) Gemünden, Petra von, ‘Pflanzensymbolik IV. Neues Testament,’ TRE 26, 417-419. (Gemünden:1996c) Gerlitz, Peter, ‘Fasten/Fasttage. I. Religionsgeschichtlich TRE 11, 42-45. (Gerlitz:1983) Gerlitz, Peter, ‘Opfer I. Religionsgeschichte,’ TRE 25, 253-258. (Gerlitz:1995) Gersht, Rivka, ‘Dionysos and his Retinue – Sculpted Images,’ in: Rosenthal-Heginbottom:1998, 33-39. (Gersht:1998) Giblin, Charles H., ‘Suggestion, Negative Response, and Positive Action in St. John’s Portrayal of Jesus (John 2,-111; 4,46-54; 7,2-14; 11:1-44),’ NTS 26 (1980), 197-211. (Giblin:1980) Gibson, Jeffrey B., The Temptations of Jesus in Early Christianity JSNT.S 112, Sheffield: Sheffield Academic, 1995. (Gibson:1995) Giesen, Heinz, Die Offenbarung des Johannes RNT, Regensburg: Pustet, 1997. (Giesen: 1997) Gill, David, ‘Trapezomata: A Neglected Aspect of Greek Sacrifice,’ HThR 67 (1974), 117-137. (Gill:1974) Glombitza, Otto, ‘Der reiche Mann und der arme Lazarus,’ NT 12 (1970), 166-180. (Glombitza:1970) Gnilka, Joachim, ‘“Bräutigam – spätjüdisches Messiasprädikat?’ TTZ 69 (1960), 298301. (Gnilka:1960) Gnilka, Joachim, Das Evangelium nach Markus 1 EKK 2.1, Zürich: Benziger, 1978. (Gnilka:1978) Gnilka, Joachim, Das Evangelium nach Markus 2 EKK 2.2, Zürich: Benziger, 1979. (Gnilka:1979) Gnilka, Joachim, Das Matthäusevangelium 1 HThK.NT 1.1, Freiburg: Herder, 1980. (Gnilka:1980) Gnilka, Joachim, Das Matthäusevangelium 2 HThK.NT 1.2, Freiburg: Herder, 1992. (Gnilka:1992) Good, R.S., ‘Jesus, Protagonist of the Old in Lk 5:33-39,’ NT 25 (1983), 19-36. (Good: 1983) Goodenough, Edwin R., Jewish Symbols of the Greco-Roman period 3, New York: Pantheon Books, 1953. (Goodenough:1953) Goodnick Westenholz, Joan (ed.), Capital Cities: Urban Planning and Spiritual Dimensions, Jerusalem: Bible Lands Museum, 1998. (Goodnick Westenholz:1998) Goppelt, Leonhard, ‘peina,w (limo,j),’ ThWNT 5, 12-22. (Goppelt:1954) Goppelt, Leonhard, ‘tra,peza,’ ThWNT 8, 209-215. (Goppelt:1969a) Goppelt, Leonhard, ‘u[dwr,’ ThWNT 8, 313-333. (Goppelt:1969b) Gourgues, Michel, ‘Les béatitudes matthéennes (Mt 5.3-12),’ NTS 44 (1998), 357-379. (Gourgues:1998) Gowers, Emily, The Loaded Table. Representations of Food in Roman Literature, Oxford: Clarendon, 1993. (Gowers:1993) Gowler, David B., Host, Guest, Enemy and Friend. Portraits of the Pharisees in Luke and Acts Emory Studies in Early Christianity 2, Bern: Lang, 1991. (Gowler:1991) Graf, Fritz, ‘Ambrosia,’ DNP 1, 581-582. (Graf:1996) Graf, Fritz, ‘Dionysios,’ DDD, 253-259. (Graf:1999a) Graf, Fritz, ‘Kannibalismus,’ DNP 6, 247. (Graf:1999b) Grant, Robert M., ‘The Problem of Miraculous Feedings in the Graeco-Roman Period,’ in: Irene Lawrence (ed.), The Problem of Miraculous Feedings in the Graeco-Roman World, Berkeley: Center for Hermeneutical Studies, 1982, 1-15. (Grant:1982)

Bibliography

411

Grappe, Christian, ‘Le logion des douze trônes. Eclairages intertestamentaires’, in: Philonenko:1993, 204-211. (Grappe:1993) Grappe, Christian (ed.), Le Repas de Dieu/Das Mahl Gottes, WUNT 1.169, Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 2004. (Grappe:2004) Green, Joel B., The Death of Jesus WUNT 2.33, Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 1988. (Green: 1988) Green, Joel B., The Theology of the Gospel of Luke New Testament Theology, Cambridge: Cambridge University, 1995. (Green:1995) Green, Joel B., The Gospel of Luke NIGTC, Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1997. (Green: 1997) Green, H. Benedict, Matthew, Poet of the Beatitudes JSNT.S 203, Sheffield: Sheffield Academic, 2001. (Green:2001) Grelot, Pierre, ‘Le repas de la noce de l’agneau,’ in: Quesnel/Blanchard/Tassin:1999, 193-202. (Grelot:1999) Greßmann, Hugo, Vom reichen Mann und armen Lazarus APAW.PH 7, Berlin: Verlag der Königlichen Akademie der Wissenschaften, 1918. (Greßmann:1918) Grimm, Werner, ‘Zum Hintergrund von Mt 8,11f/Lk 13,28f,’ BZ 16, 255-256. (Grimm: 1972) Grimm, Veronika E., From Feasting to Fasting. The Evolution of a Sin, New York: Routledge, 1996. (Grimm:1996) Grobel, Kendrick, ‘Whose Name was Neves,’ NTS 10 (1964), 373-382. (Grobel:1964) Gruben, Gottfried, Griechische Tempel und Heiligtümer, München: Hirmer5, 2001. (Gruben:2001) Guelich, Robert A., Mark 1-8:26 WBC 34A, Dallas: Word Books, 1989. (Guelich:1989) Guilding, Aileen, The Fourth Gospel and Jewish Worship, Oxford: Clarendon, 1960. (Guilding:1960) Guillaume, Philippe, ‘Miracles Miraculously Repeated,’ BN 98 (1999), 21-23. (Guillaume:1999) Gundry, Robert H., Matthew. A Commentary on His Literary and Theological Art, Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1982. (Gundry:1982) Gundry, Robert H., Mark. A Commentary on His Apology for the Cross, Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1993. (Gundry:1993) Günther, Rigobert/Reimar Müller, Das goldene Zeitalter. Utopien der hellenistischrömischen Antike, Stuttgart: Kohlhammer, 1988. (Günther/Müller:1988) Haenchen, Ernst, ‘Das Gleichnis vom großen Mahl,’ in: idem, Die Bibel und wir, Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 1968, 135-155,. (Haenchen:1968) Haenchen, Ernst, Das Johannesevangelium (ed. Ulrich Busse), Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 1980. (Haenchen:1980) Hagner, Donald A., Matthew 1-13 WBC 33A, Dallas: Word Books, 1993. (Hagner:1993) Hagner, Donald A., Matthew 14-28 WBC 33b, Dallas: Word Books, 1995. (Hagner:1995) Hagner, Donald A., ‘Matthew: Apostate, Reformer, Revolutionary,’ NTS 49 (2003), 193209. (Hagner:2003) Hahn, Ferdinand, ‘Das Gleichnis von der Einladung zum Festmahl,’ in: Otto Böcher/ Klaus Haacker (eds.), Verborum Veritas, FS Gustav Stählin; Wuppertal: Brockhaus, 1970, 51-82. (Hahn:1970) Hahn, Ferdinand, ‘Die Bildworte vom neuen Flicken und vom jungen Wein (Mk. 2, 21f. parr),’ EvTh 31 (1971), 357-375. (Hahn:1971) Hahn, Ferdinand, ‘Die Worte vom lebendigen Wasser im Johannesevangelium. Eigenart und Vorgeschichte von Joh 4,10.13f; 6,35; 7,37-39,’ in: Jacob Jervell/Wayne A.

412

Bibliography

Meeks (eds.), God’s Christ and His People. Studies in Honour of Nils Alstrup Dahl, Oslo: Universitetsforlaget, 1977, 51-70. (Hahn:1977) Hahn, Ferdinand, ‘Abendmahl I. Neues Testament,’ 4RGG 1, 10-15. (Hahn:1988) Hall, Stuart G./Joseph H. Crehan, ‘Fasten/Fasttage III. Biblisch und kirchenhistorisch,’ TRE 11, 48-59. (Hall/Crehan:1983) Hamel, Gildas, Poverty and Charity in Roman Palestine, First Three Centuries C.E. Near Eastern Studies 23, Berkeley: University of California, 1990. (Hamel:1990) Hamid-Khani, Saeed, Revelation and Concealment of Christ WUNT 2.120, Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 2000. (Hamid-Khani:2000) Harland, Philip A., ‘The Economy of First-Century Palestine: State of the Scholarly Discussion,’ in: Blasi/Duhaime/Turcotte:2002, 511-527. (Harland:2002) Harnisch, Wolfgang, Die Gleichniserzählungen Jesu, Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht4, 2001. (Harnisch:2001) Harrington, Daniel J., The Gospel of Matthew SP 1, Collegeville: Minnesota, 2001. (Harrington:1991) Hasler, Victor, ‘Die königliche Hochzeit, Matth. 22,1-14,’ ThZ 18 (1962), 25-35. (Hasler: 1962) Haupt, Paul, ‘Abraham’s Bosom,’ AJP 42 (1921), 162-167. (Haupt:1921) Hawthorne, Gerald F./Otto Betz (eds.), Tradition and Interpretation in the New Testament (FS E. Earle Ellis) Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1982. (Hawthorne/Betz:1982) Heckel, Ulrich, Der Segen im Neuen Testament. Begriff, Formeln, Gesten WUNT 1.150, Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 2002. (Heckel:2002) Hecken, Hartwig, ‘Zeitalter,’ DNP 12.2, 706-709. (Hecken:2002) Hegermann, Harald, ‘Krieg. III. Neues Testament,’ TRE 20, 25-28. (Hegermann:1990) Heil, Christoph, e.a. (eds.), Q 22:28, 30 You Will Judge the Twelve Tribes of Israel Documenta Q, Leuven: Peeters, 1998. (Heil:1998) Heil, John Paul, The Meal Scenes in Luke Acts. An Audience-Oriented Approach SBLMon 52, Atlanta: Society of Biblical Literature, 1999. (Heil:1999) Heil, Christoph, Lukas und Q. Studien zur lukanischen Redaktion des Spruchevangeliums Q BZNW 111, Berlin: De Gruyter, 2003. (Heil:2003) Heiniger, Bernhard, Metaphorik, Erzählstruktur und szenisch-dramatische Gestaltung in den Sondergutgleichnissen bei Lukas NTA.NF 24, Münster: Aschendorff, 1991. (Heiniger:1991) Heininger, Bernhard, ‘Neues Testament,’ in: Gottfried Vanoni/Bernhard Heiniger, Das Reich Gottes. Perspektiven des Alten und Neuen Testaments NEB.Th. 4, Würzburg: Echter, 2002, 84-89. (Heininger:2002) Held, Heinz Joachim, ‘Matthäus als Interpret der Wundergeschichten,’ in: Günther Bornkamm/Gerhard Barth/Heinz Joachim Held, Überlieferung und Auslegung im Matthäusevangelium WMANT 1, Neukirchen: Neukirchener, 1965, 155-287. (Held: 1965) Hemer, Colin J., The Letters to the Seven Churches of Asia in Their Local Setting, Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1989, (Hemer:1989) Hengel, Martin/Siegfried Mittmann/Anna Maria Schwemer (eds.), La Cité de Dieu/Die Stadt Gottes WUNT 1.129, Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 2000. (Hengel/Mittmann/ Schwemer:2000) Hengel, Martin, ‘Zur matthäischen Bergpredigt und ihrem jüdischen Hintergrund,’ ThR 52 (1987), 327–400. (Hengel:1987) Hengel, Martin, ‘“Setze dich zu meiner Rechten!” Die Inthronisation Christi zu Rechten Gottes und Psalm 110,1,’ in: Philonenko:1993, 108-194. (Hengel:1993)

Bibliography

413

Hengel, Martin, ‘The Dionysiac Messiah,’ in: idem, Studies in Early Christology, Edinburgh: T&T Clark, 1995, 293-331. (Hengel:1995) Hengel, Martin, ‘Die “auserwählte Herrin”, die “Braut”, die “Mutter” und die “Gottesstadt,’ in: Hengel/Mittmann/Maria Schwemer:2000, 245-285. (Hengel:2000) Hengel, Martin, ‘Das Mahl in der Nacht, “in der Jesus ausgeliefert wurde”,’ in: Grappe: 2004, 115-160. (Hengel:2004) Henrichs, Albert, ‘Changing Dionysiac Identities,’ in: Ben F. Meyer/Ed P. Sanders (eds.), Jewish and Christian Self-Definition 3, Philadelphia: Fortress, 1982, 137-160. (Henrichs:1982) Henten, Jan Willem van, The Maccabean Martyrs as Saviours of the Jewish People, JSJ.S 57, Leiden: Brill, 1997. (Henten:1997) Herzig, Heinz E., ‘Mythos und Traum: Von den “Inseln der Seligen” zum “besten Staat”,’ in: Peter Rusterholz/Rupert Moser (eds.), Verlorene Paradiese Berner Universitätsschriften 48, Bern: Haupt, 2004, 1-16. (Herzig:2004) Hessing, Alkuin, Die Botschaft der Brotvermehrung SBS 15, Stuttgart: Katholisches Bibelwerk, 1966. (Hessing:1966) Hiebert, Theodore, ‘Warrior, Divine,’ ABD 6, 886-880. (Hiebert:1992) Hieke, Thomas, e.a. (eds.), Q 6:20-21. The Beatitudes for the Poor, Hungry and Mourning Documenta Q, Leuven: Peeters, 2002. (Hieke:2002) Hiers, Richard H./Charles A. Kennedy, ‘The Bread and Fish Eucharist in the Gospels and Early Christian Art,’ PRS 3 (1976), 20-47. (Hiers/Kennedy:1976) Hilberath, Bernd Jochen/Dorothea Sattler (eds.), Vorgeschmack: Ökumenische Bemühungen um die Eucharistie (FS Theodor Schneider), Mainz: Grünewald, 1995, 134163. (Hilberath/Sattler:1995) Hochschild, Ralph, Sozialgeschichtliche Exegese. Entwicklung, Geschichte und Methodik einer neutestamentlichen Forschungsrichtung NTOA 42, Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1995. (Hochschild:1999) Hock, Ronald F., ‘Lazarus and Micyllus: Greco-Roman Backgrounds to Luke 16:19-31,’ JBL 106 (1987), 447-463. (Hock:1987) Hodges, Horace Jeffrey, Food as Synecdoche in John’s Gospel and Gnostic Texts, Ph.D. thesis, University of California, 1995. (Hodges:1995) Hoffmann, Paul, Studien zur Theologie der Logienquelle NTA.NF 8, Münster: Aschendorff, 1972. (Hoffmann:1972) Hoffmann, Paul, ‘Pa,ntej evrga,tai avdiki,aj‚’ in: idem, Tradition und Situation: Studien zur Jesusüberlieferung in der Logienquelle und den synoptischen Evangelien NTA. NF 28, Münster: Aschendorff, 1995, 135-161. (Hoffmann:1995) Hoffmann, Paul, ‘Betz and Q,’ ZNW 88 (1997), 197-210. (Hoffmann:1997) Hoffmann, Paul, ‘Herrscher in oder Richter über Israel? Mt 19,28/Lk 22,28-30 in der synoptischen Überlieferung,’ in: Klaus Wengst/Gerhard Saß (eds.), Ja und nein. Christliche Theologie im Angesicht Israels, FS Wolfgang Schrage; NeukirchenVluyn: Neukirchener, 1998, 253-264. (Hoffmann:1998) Holleman, Joost, Resurrection and Parousia NT.S 84, Leiden: Brill, 1996. (Holleman: 1996) Holtzmann, Heinrich Julius, Die Synoptiker HC 1.1, Tübingen: Mohr3, 1901. (Holtzmann:1901) Hope, Valerie, ‘A Roof over the Dead: Communal Tombs and Family Structure,’ in: Laurence, Ray/Andrew Wallace-Hadrill (eds.), Domestic Space in the Roman World: Pompeii and Beyond Journal of Roman Archeaology Supplementary Series 22, Michigan: JRA, 1997, 69-88. (Hope:1997)

414

Bibliography

Hoppe, Rudolf/Ulrich Busse (eds.), Vom Jesus zum Christus. Christologische Studien BZNW 93, Berlin: De Gruyter, 1998. (Hoppe/Busse:1998:) Hoppe, Rudolf, ‘Das Gastmahlgleichnis Jesu (Mt 22,1-10/Lk 14,16.24) und seine vorevangelische Traditionsgeschichte,’ in: idem/Busse (eds.):1998, 277-293. (Hoppe: 1998) Horn, Friedrich Wilhelm, Glauben und Handeln in der Theologie des Lukas GTA 26, Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1983. (Horn:1983) Horrell, David G., ‘Social Sciences Studying Formative Christian Phenomena: A Creative Movement,’ in: Blasi/Duhaime/Turcotte:2002, 3-28. (Horrell:2002) Horst, Pieter W. van der, Ancient Jewish Epitaphs Contributions to Biblical Exegesis and Theology 2, Kampen: Kok Pharos, 1991. (Horst:1991) Hultgård, Anders, ‘Das Paradies: vom Park des Perserkönigs zum Ort der Seligen,’ in: Hengel/Mittmann/Schwemer:2000, 1-43. (Hultgård:2000) Hunziker-Rodewald, Regine, Hirt und Herde. Ein Beitrag zum alttestamentlichen Gottesverständnis BWANT 155, 2001, Stuttgart: Kohlhammer. (Hunziker-Rodewald: 2001) Hurschmann, Rolf, ‘Kleidung,’ DNP 6, 505-513. (Hurschmann:1999) Hurschmann, Rolf, ‘Thron,’ DNP 12.1, 501-503. (Hurschmann:2003) Iersel, Bas M.F. van, ‘Die wunderbare Speisung und das Abendmahl in der synoptischen Tradition,’ NT 7 (1964), 167-194. (Iersel:1964) Iersel, Bas M. F. van, Mark A Reader-Response Commentary JSNT.S 164 (Sheffield: Sheffield Academic, 1998. (Iersel:1998) Ilan, Tal, Jewish Women in Greco-Roman Palestine TSAJ 44, Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 1995. (Ilan:1995) Isaac:1983, E. ‘1 Enoch,’ in: Charlesworth:1983a, 5-89. (Isaac:1983) Jameson, Michael, ‘Famine in the Greek World,’ in: Garnsey/Whittaker:1983, 6-16. (Jameson:1983) Jameson, Michael, ‘Sacrifice and Ritual: Greece,’ in: Michael Grant/Rachel Kitzinger (eds.), Civilization of the Ancient Mediterranean 2, New York: Charles Scribner, 1988, 959-979. (Jameson:1988) Jameson, Michael, ‘Theoxenia,’ in: Robin Hägg (ed.), Ancient Greek Cult Practice from the Archaeological Evidence, Stockholm: Aströms, 1998, 35-57. (Jameson:1998) Janowski, Bernd/Knut Backhaus, ‘Opfer,’ NBL 3, 36-43. (Janowski/Backhaus:2001) Janowski, Bernd/Erich Zenger, ‘Jenseits des Alltags. Fest und Opfer als religiöse Kontrapunkte zur Alltagswelt im alten Israel,’ JBTh 18 (2003), 63-102. (Janowski/Zenger: 2003) Janowski, Bernd, ‘Die heilige Wohnung des Höchsten. Kosmologische Implikationen der Jerusalemer Tempeltheologie,’ in: Keel/Zenger:2002, 24-68. (Janowski:2002) Jeremias, Joachim, ‘nu,mfh, numfi,oj,’ ThWNT 4, 1092-1099. (Jeremias:1942) Jeremias, Joachim Die Abendmahlsworte Jesu, Göttingen: Vandenhoeck und Ruprecht4, 1960. (Jeremias:1960) Jeremias, Joachim, Die Abendmahlsworte Jesu, Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht3, 1962. (Jeremias:1962) Jeremias, Joachim, ‘LAMPADES Mt 25 1.3f. 7f.,’ ZNW 56 (1965), 197-210. (Jeremias: 1965) Jeremias, Joachim, Die Sprache des Lukasevangeliums, Redaktion und Tradition im Nicht-Markusstoff des dritten Evangeliums, KEK.S, Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1980. (Jeremias:1980) Jeremias, Joachim, Jesus’ Promise to the Nations, Philadelphia: Fortress, 1982. (Jeremias:1982) Jeremias, Jörg, ‘Königtum Gottes,’ NBL 2, 520-522. (Jeremias:1995)

Bibliography

415

Jeremias, Joachim, Die Gleichnisse Jesu, Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht11, 1998. (Jeremias:1998) Jervis, L. Ann, ‘Suffering for the Reign of God. The Persecution of the Disciples in Q,’ NT 44 (2002), 313-332. (Jervis:2002) Johnson, Luke Timothy, The Gospel of Luke SP 3, Collegeville: Liturgical, 1991. (Johnson:1991) Johnston, Sarah Iles, ‘Totenkult IV. Griechenland,’ DNP 12.1, 710-711. (Johnston:2002) Jones, Ivor Harold, The Matthean Parables. A Literary and Historical Commentary NT.S 80, Brill: Leiden, 1995. (Jones:1995) Jones, Larry Paul, The Symbol of Water in the Gospel of John JSNT.S 145, Sheffield: Sheffield Academic, 1997 (Jones:1997) Jonge, Marinus de, ‘Jesus as Prophet and King in the Fourth Gospel,’ in: Marinus de Jonge, Jesus: Stranger from Heaven and Son of God (trans.: John E. Steely) Missoula: Scholars, 1977, 49-76. (Jonge:1977) Jonge, Marinus de, ‘The Pre-Mosaic Servants of God in the Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs and in the Writings of Justin and Irenaeus,’ VigChr 39 (1985), 157-170. (Jonge:1985) Jonge, Marinus de, ‘Mark 14:25 among Jesus' words about the Kingdom of God,’ in: Petersen/Vos/De Jonge:1997, 123-135. (Jonge:1997) Jonge, Henk Jan de, ‘The ‘Jews’ in the Gospel of John,’ in: Bieringer/Pollefeyt/Vandecasteele-Vanneuville:2001, 239-259. (Jonge:2001) Joosten, Jan, ‘Le camp et la ville. L’arrière-plan vétéro-testamentaire d’une équation étonnante,’ in: Hengel/Mittmann/Schwemer:2000, 119-137. (Joosten:2000) Just Jr, Arthur A., The Ongoing Feast. Table Fellowship and Eschatology at Emmaus, Collegeville: Liturgical, 1993. (Just:1993) Kahlefeld, Heinrich, Gleichnisse und Lehrstücke im Evangelium 1, Frankfurt: Knecht2, 1964. (Kahlefeld:1964) Kähler, Christoph, Studien zur Form- und Traditionsgeschichte der biblischen Makarismen, Th.D. thesis, University of Jena, 1974. (Kähler:1974) Kähler, Christoph, ‘Sklaverei: II. Neues Testament,’ TRE 31, 373-377. (Kähler:2000) Kang, Sa-Moon, Divine War in the Old Testament and in the Ancient Near East BZAW 177, Berlin: De Gruyter, 1989. (Kang:1989) Karris, Robert J., Luke Artist and Theologian. Luke’s Passion Account as Literatures, New York: Paulist, 1985. (Karris:1985) Kee, Alistair, ‘The Question about Fasting,’ NT 11 (1969), 161-173. (Kee:1969) Keel, Othmar/Ernst Axel Knauf/Thomas Staubli, Salomons Tempel, Fribourg:Universitätsverlag, 2004. (Keel/Knauf/Staubli:2004) Keel, Othmar/Silvia Schroer, Schöpfung. Biblische Theologien im Kontext alt-orientalischer Religionen, Freiburg i.Ue.: Universitätsverlag, 2002. (Keel/Schroer: 2002) Keel, Othmar/Christoph Uehlinger, Göttinnen, Götter und Gottessymbole. Neue Erkenntnisse zur Religionsgeschichte Kanaans und Israels aufgrund bislang unerschlossener ikonographischer Quellen QD 134, Freiburg: Herder4, 1998. (Keel/ Uehlinger:1998) Keel, Othmar/Erich Zenger (eds.), Gottesstadt und Gottesgarten. Zu Geschichte und Theologie des Jerusalemer Tempels QD 191, Freiburg: Herder, 2002. (Keel/Zenger: 2002) Keel, Othmar, Die Welt der altorientalischen Bildsymbolik und das Alte Testament am Beispiel der Psalmen, Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht5, 1996. (Keel:1996) Keel, Othmar, ‘Die kultischen Massnahmen Antionchus’ IV. Religionsverfolgung und/ oder Reformversuch?’ in: idem/Urs Staub, Judentum und Hellenismus OBO 178, Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 2000, 87-121. (Keel:2000)

416

Bibliography

Keener, Craig S., A Commentary on the Gospel of Matthew, Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1999. (Keener:1999) Keener, Craig S., The Gospel of John. A Commentary 1-2, Peabody: Hendrickson, 2003. (Keener:2003a/Keener:2003b) Keller, Erwin, Eucharistie und Parusie SF.NF 70, Freiburg i.Ue.: Universitätsverlag, 1989. (Keller:1989) Kellermann, Ulrich, Auferstanden in den Himmel: 2 Makkabäer 7 und die Auferstehung der Märtyrer SBS 95, Stuttgart: Katholisches Bibelwerk, 1979. (Kellermann:1979) Kertelge, Karl, ‘Das Abendmahl Jesu im Markusevangelium,’ in: Josef Zmijewski/Ernst Nellessen (eds.), Begegnung mit dem Wort BBB 53, FS Heinrich Zimmermann; Bonn: Hanstein, 1989, 67-79. (Kertelge:1980) Kieffer, René, ‘Les repas eschatologiques chez Luc,’ in: Grappe:2004, 161-175. (Kieffer: 2004) Kieweler, Hans-Volker, ‘Benehmen bei Tisch,’ in: Renate Egger-Wenzel/Ingrid Krammer (eds.), Der Einzelne und seine Gemeinschaft bei Ben Sira BZNW 270, Berlin: De Gruyter, 1998, 191-215. (Kieweler:1998) Kim, Kyoung-Jin, Stewardship and Almsgiving in Luke’s Theology JSNT.S 155, Sheffield: Sheffield Academic, 1998. (Kim:1998) Kirk, Alan, The Composition of the Sayings Source. Genre Synchrony and Wisdom Redaction in Q NT.S 91, Leiden: Brill, 1998. (Kirk:1998a) Kirk, Alan, ‘Upbraiding Wisdom: John’s Speech and the Beginning of Q (Q 3:7-9, 1617),’ NT 40 (1998), 1-16. (Kirk:1998b) Kittel, Gerhard, ‘e;rhmoj ktl.,’ ThWNT 2, 654-657. (Kittel:1935) Klaiber, Walter, ‘Der irdische und der himmlische Zeuge. Eine Auslegung von Joh. 3. 22-36,’ NTS 36 (1990), 205-233. (Klaiber:1990) Klauck, Hans-Josef, Allegorie und Allegorese in synoptischen Gleichnistexten NTA.NF 13, Münster: Aschendorff, 1978. (Klauck:1978) Klauck, Hans-Josef, Herrenmahl und hellenistischer Kult NTA.NF 15, Münster: Aschendorff, 1982. (Klauck:1982) Klauck, Hans-Josef, ‘Der Weggang Jesu. Neue Arbeiten zu Joh 13-17,’ BZ 40 (1996), 236-250. (Klauck:1996) Klein, Hans, Barmherzigkeit gegenüber den Elenden und Geächteten. Studien zur Botschaft des lukanischen Sonderguts BThS 10, Neukirchen-Vluyn: Neukirchener, 1987. (Klein:1987) Klein, Wassilios, ‘Pflanzensymbolik I. Religionsgeschichtlich,’ TRE 26, 410-412. (Klein: 1990) Klinghardt, Matthias, Gemeinschaftsmahl und Mahlgemeinschaft: Soziologie und Liturgie frühchristlicher Mahlfeiern TANZ 13, Tübingen: Francke, 1996. (Klinghardt:1996) Kloppenborg, John S./Stephen G. Wilson (eds.), Voluntary Associations in the GraecoRoman World, London: Routledge, 1996. (Kloppenborg/Wilson:1996) Kloppenborg, John S., Excavating Q: The History and Setting of the Sayings Gospel, Minneapolis: Fortress, 2000. (Kloppenborg:2000) Klosinski, Lee Edward, The Meals in Mark, Ph.D. Dissertation, Claremont Graduate School, 1988. (Klosinski:1988) Knipping, Burkhard B., ‘Die Wortkombination “Land, fließend Milch und Honig.“ Eine kurze Problematisierung ihrer Ausdeutung, ihrer Überlieferungsgeschichte und der Tragweite eines Pentateuchmodells,’ BN 98 (1999), 55-71. (Knipping:1999) Knoppers, Gary N., ‘Sex, religion, and politics: the Deuteronomist on intermarriage,’ HAR 14 (1994), 121-141. (Knoppers:1994)

Bibliography

417

Knöppler, Thomas, Sühne im Neuen Testament WMANT 88, Neukirchen: Neukirchener, 2001. (Knöppler:2001) Knowles, Michael David, ‘Reciprocity and ‘Favour’ in the Parable of the Undeserving Servant (Luke 17.7-10),’ NTS 49 (2003), 256-260. (Knowles:2003) Koch, Dietrich-Alex, ‘Jesu Tischgemeinschaft mit Zöllnern und Sündern. Erwägungen zur Entstehung von Mk 2,13-17,’ in: idem/Gerhard Sellin/Andreas Lindemann (eds.), Jesu Rede von Gott und ihre Nachgeschichte im frühen Christentum (FS Willi Marxsen), Güterloh: Gütersloher, 1989, 57-73. (Koch:1989) Koenig, John, The Feast of the World’s Redemption, Harrisburg: Trinity, 2000. (Koenig: 2000) Koester, Helmut ‘Apocryphal and Canonical Gospels,’ HThR 73 (1980), 105-130. (Koester:1980) Koester, Craig R., The Dwelling of God. The Tabernacle in the Old Testament, Intertestamental Jewish Literature, and the New Testament CBQ.MS 22, Washington: The Catholic Biblical Association of America, 1989. (Koester:1989) Koester, Craig R., Symbolism in the Fourth Gospel. Meaning, Mystery, Community, Minneapolis: Fortress2, 2003. (Koester:2003) Kollmann, Bernd, Ursprung und Gestalt der frühchristlichen Mahlfeier GTA 43, Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1990. (Kollmann:1990a) Kollmann, Bernd, ‘Lk 12,35-38 – ein Gleichnis der Logienquelle,’ ZNW 81 (1990), 254261, 1990. (Kollmann:1990b) Kolwalzig, Barbara, ‘Xenia,’ DNP 12.2, 610-612. (Kolwalzig:2002) Konradt, Matthias, Christliche Existenz nach dem Jakobusbrief. Eine Studie zu seiner soteriologischen und ethischen Konzeption STUNT 22, Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1998. (Konradt:1998) Konradt, Matthias, Gericht und Gemeinde BZNW 117, Berlin: De Gruyter, 2003. (Konradt:2003a) Konradt, Matthias, ‘Die gottesdienstliche Feier und das Gemeinschaftsethos der Christen bei Paulus,’ JBTh 18 (2003), 203-229. (Konradt:2003b) Konradt, Matthias, ‘Die Sendung zu Israel und zu den Völkern im Matthäusevangelium, im Lichte seiner narrativen Christologogie,’ ZThK 101 (2004), 397-425. (Konradt: 2004) Körtner, Ulrich H. J., ‘Das Fischmotiv im Speisungswunder,’ ZNW 75 (1984), 24-35. (Körtner:1984) Kowalski, Beate, ‘Vrouwenfiguren in de Openbaring van Johannes,’ TvT 42 (2002), 378389. (Kowalski:2002) Kowalski, Beate, Die Rezeption des Propheten Ezechiel in der Offenbarung des Johannes SBB 52, Stuttgart: Katholisches Bibelwerk, 2004. (Kowalski:2004) Kramolisch, Herwig, ‘Phoinix,’ DNP 9, 936-940. (Kramolisch:2000) Kratz, Reinhard Gregor, ‘Die Gnade des täglichen Brots. Späte Psalmen auf dem Weg zum Vaterunser,’ ZThK 89 (1992), 1-40. (Kratz:1992) Kreitzer, Larry, ‘Luke 16:19-31 and 1 Enoch 22,’ ExpT 103 (1992), 139-142. (Kreitzer: 1992) Kreuzer, Siegried, ‘Zion,’ NBL 3, 1217-1219. (Kreuzer:2001) Krüger, Thomas, ‘”Kosmo-Theologie” zwischen Mythos und Erfahrung. Psalm 104 im Horizont altorientalischer und alttestamentlicher “Schöpfungs”-Konzept,’ BN 68 (1993), 49-74. (Krüger:1993) Kügler, Joachim, Der Jünger, den Jesus liebte SBB 16, Stuttgart: Katholisches Bibelwerk, 1988. (Kügler:1988) Kügler, Joachim, ‘Der Sohn im Schoß des Vaters,’ BN 89 (1997), 76-87. (Kügler:1997)

418

Bibliography

Kügler, Joachim, Der andere Köning. Religionsgeschlichtliche Perspektiven auf die Christologie des Johannesevangeliums SBS 178, Stuttgart: Katholisches Bibelwerk, 1999. (Kügler:1999) Kupp, David D., Matthew’s Emmanuel. Divine Presence and God’s People in the First Gospel MSSNTS 90, Cambridge: Cambridge University, 1996. (Kupp:1996) Kurz, William S., ‘Luke 22:14-38 and Greco-Roman and Biblical Farewell Addresses,’ JBL 104 (1985), 251-268. (Kurz:1985) Kutsch, Ernst, ‘!t'x',’ ThWAT 3, 288-296. (Kutsch:1982) Kytzler, Bernhard, ‘Utopie,’ DNP 12.1, 1070-1072. (Kytzler:2002) Laato, Antti, Josiah and David Redivivus ConBib. 33, Stockholm: Almqvist & Wiksell International, 1992. (Laato:1992) Laato, Antti, A Star is Rising. The Historical Development of the Old Testament Royal Ideology and the Rise of Jewish Messianic Expectations International Studies in Formative Christianity and Judaism 5, Atlanta: Scholars, 1997. (Laato:1997) Labahn, Michael, Jesus als Lebensspender: Untersuchungen zu einer Geschichte der johanneischen Tradition anhand ihrer Wundergeschichten, BZNW 98, Berlin: De Gruyter, 1999. (Labahn:1999) Labahn, Michael, Offenbarung in Zeichen und Wort WUNT 2.117, Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck. 2000. (Labahn:2000) Lambrecht, Jan, ‘The Wise and Foolish Virgins (Matt 25:1-13),’ in: idem, Out of the Treasure. The Parables in the Gospel of Matthew LThPM 10, Leuven: Peeters, 1992, 199-215. (Lambrecht:1992) Lambrecht, Jan, ‘”Synagogues of Satan” (Rev 2:9 and 3:9): Anti-Judaism in the Book of Revelation,’ in: Bieringer/Pollefeyt/Vandecasteele-Vanneuville:2001, 514-530. (Lambrecht:2001) Landis, Stephan, Das Verhältnis des Johannesevangeliums zu den Synoptikern BZNW 74, Berlin: De Gruyter, 1994. (Landis:1994) Landmesser, Christoph, Jüngerberufung und Zuwendung zu Gott WUNT 1.133, Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 2001. (Landmesser:2001) Lang, Bernhard, ‘The Social Organisation of Peasant Poverty in Biblical Israel,’ in: idem, Monotheism and the Prophetic Minority, Sheffield: Almond, 1983, 114-127. (Lang: 1983) Lang, Bernhard, ‘Wasser,’ NBL 3, 1061-1065. (Lang:2001a) Lang, Bernhard, ‘Thron,’ NBL 3, 841-843. (Lang:2001b) Lattimore, Richmond, Themes in Greek and Latin Epitaphs, Urbana: University of Illinois, 1962. (Lattimore:1962) Launderville, Dale, Piety and Politics. The Dynamics of Royal Authority in Homeric Greece, Biblical Israel and Old Babylonian Mesopotamia, Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2003. (Launderville:2003) LaVerdiere, Eugene, The Eucharist in the New Testament and in the Early Church, Collegeville: Liturgical, 1996. (LaVerdiere:1996) Lebeau, P., Le vin nouveau du Royaume. Étude exégétique et patristique sur la Parole eschatologique de Jésus à la Cène, Paris: Desclée De Brouwer, 1966. (Lebeau:1966) Lee, Pilchan, The New Jerusalem in the Book of Revelation. A Study of Revelation 21-22 in the Light of Its Background in Jewish Tradition WUNT 2.129, Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 2001. (Lee:2001) Légasse, Simon, ‘La parabole des dix vierges (Mt 25,1-13): essai de synthese historicolitteraire,’ in: Delorme:1989, 349-360. (Légasse:1989) Légasse, Simon, ‘La passion comme “coupe.” Essai sur la genèse d’une métaphore,’ in: Quesnel/Blanchard/Tassin:1999, 173-179. (Légasse:1999)

Bibliography

419

Lehtipuu, Outi, ‘Characterization and Persuasion: The Rich Man and the Poor Man in Luke 16.19-31,’ in: David Rhoads/Kari Syreeni (eds.), Characterization in the Gospels. Reconceiving Narrative Criticism JSNT.S 184, Sheffield: Sheffield Academic, 1999, 73-105. (Lehtipuu:1999) Léonard, Jeanne-Marie, ‘Notule sur l’Évangile de Jean,’ ETR 57 (1982), 119-120. (Léonard:1982) Léon-Dufour, Xavier, Abendmahl und Abschiedsrede im Neuen Testament, Stuttgart: Katholisches Bibelwerk, 1983. (Léon-Dufour:1983) Léon-Dufour, Xavier, ‘Abendmahl, Letztes A. Jesu. I. Im Neuen Testament,’ 3LThK 1, 30-34. (Léon-Dufour:1993) Leuenberger, Martin, Konzeptionen des Königtums Gottes im Psalter AThANT 83, Zürich: TVZ, 2004. (Leuenberger:2004) Levenson, Jon D., ‘Zion Traditions,’ ABD 6, 1098-1102. (Levenson:1992) Levin, Christoph, ‘Das Amosbuch der Anawim,’ ZThK 94 (1997), 407-436. (Levin:1997) Levine, Daniel B., ‘Symposium and Polis,’ in: Thomas J. Figueira/Gregory Nagy (eds.), Theognis of Megara: Poetry and the Polis, Johns Hopkins: Baltimore, 1985, 176-196. (Levine:1985) Lévi-Strauss, Claude, The Raw and the Cooked, New York: Harper & Row, 1969. (LéviStrauss:1969) Lichtenberger, Hermann, ‘Die Mahlmetaphorik in der Johannesapokalypse,’ in: Grappe:2004, 227-252. (Lichtenberger:2004) Lierman, John, The New Testament Moses. Christian Perceptions of Moses and Israel in the Setting of Jewish Religion WUNT 2.173, Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 2004. (Lierman:2004) Lietzmann, Hans, Messe und Herrenmahl. Eine Studie zur Geschichte der Liturgie, Bonn: Marcus und Weber, 1926. (Lietzmann:1926) Lieven, Alexandra von, ‘Totenkult II. Ägypten,’ DNP 12.1, 708. (Lieven:2002) Liew, Tat-sion Benny, ‘Endless Friends? Problematizing John’s Paradoxical Politics of Friendship,’ in: Gary A. Phillips/Nicole Wilkinson Duran (eds.), Reading Communities. Reading Scriptures, FS Daniel Patte; Harrisburg: Trinity, 2002, 292-310. (Liew:2002) Lifshitz, Bernard, ‘Notes d’épigraphie palestinienne,’ RB 71 (1966), 248-257. (Lifshitz: 1966) Lindars, Barnabas, ‘Two Parables in John,’ NTS 16 (1970), 318-329. (Lindars:1970) Lindemann, Andreas, ‘Herrschaft Gottes/Reich Gottes. IV,’ TRE 15, 196-218. (Lindemann:1986) Lindemann, Andreas (ed.), The Sayings Source Q and the Historical Jesus BEThL 156, Leuven: Peeters, 2001. (Lindemann:2001) Link, Andrea,“Was redest du mit ihr?” BU 24, Regensburg: Pustet, 1992. (Link:1992) Linnemann, Eta, ‘Überlegungen zur Parabel vom großen Abendmahl,’ ZNW 51 (1960), 246-255. (Linnemann:1960) Linnemann, Eta, ‘Jesus und der Täufer,’ in: Gerhard Ebeling/Eberhard Jüngel/Gerd Schunack (eds.), Festschrift fur Ernst Fuchs, Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 1973, 219236. (Linnemann:1973) Linnemann, Eta, ‘Die Hochzeit zu Kana und Dionysos,’ NTS 20 (1974), 408-418. (Linnemann:1974) Linnemann, Eta, Gleichnisse Jesu: Einführung und Auslegung, Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 19787. (Linnemann:1978)

420

Bibliography

Little, Edmund, Echoes of the Old Testament in The Wine of Cana in Galilee (John 2:111) and The Multiplication of the Loaves and Fish (John 6:1-15). Towards an Appreciation CRB 41, Paris: Gabalda, 1998. (Little:1998) Lohfink, Norbert, ‘Von der “Anawim-Partei” zur “Kirche der Armen.” Die bibelwissenschaftliche Ahnentafel eines Hauptbegriffes der “Theologie der Befreiung”,” Bib 67 (1986), 153-176. (Lohfink:1986) Lohfink, Norbert, ‘Der Begriff des Gottesreiches vom Alten Testament her gesehen,’ in: Josef Schreiner (ed.), Unterwegs zur Kirche. Alttestamentliche Konzeptionen QD 110, Freiburg: Herder, 1987, 33-86. (Lohfink:1987a) Lohfink, Norbert, ‘Die Sorge Gottes um die rechte Gesellschaft – eine gemeinsame Perspektive von Altem und Neuem Testament’ in: Martin Klopfenstein/Ulrich Luz/ Shemaryahu Talmon/Emmanuel Tov (eds.), Mitte der Schrift? Ein jüdisch-christliches Gespräch JuC 11, Bern: Lang, 1987, 357-384. (Lohfink:1987b) Lohfink, Gerhard, ‘Wie werden im Reich Gottes die Hungernden satt? Zur Erzählintention von Mk 6,30-44,’ in: Johannes Joachim Degenhardt (ed.), Die Freude an Gott – unsere Kraft, Stuttgart: Katholisches Bibelwerk, 1991, 135-144. (Lohfink: 1991a) Lohfink, Norbert, ‘Bund,’ NBL 1, 344-348. (Lohfink:1991b) Lohmeyer, Ernst, Kultus und Evangelium, Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1942. (Lohmeyer:1942) Löhr, Hermut, ‘Speisenfrage und Tora im Judentum des Zweiten Tempels und im entstehenden Christentum,’ ZNW 94 (2003), 17-37. (Löhr:2003) Lohse, Eduard, Die Offenbarung des Johannes NTD 11, Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1988. (Lohse:1988) Longenecker, Bruce W., ‘The Wilderness and Revolutionary Ferment in First-Century Palestine: A Response to D.R. Schwartz and J. Marcus,’ JSS 29 (1998). (Longenecker:1998) López, Jesûs, ‘Gastmahl,’ LÄ 2, 383-386. (López:1977) Lührmann, Dieter, Das Markusevangelium HNT 3, Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 1987. (Lührmann:1987) Lull, David J., ‘The Servant-Benefactor as a Model of Greatness (Luke 22.24-30),’ NT 28 (1986), 289-305. (Lull:1986) Lundström, Steven, ‘Totenkult I. Mesopotamien,’ DNP 12.1, 707. (Lundström:2002) Lupieri, Edmondo, ‘Johannes der Täufer. I. Neues Testament,’ 4RGG 4, 514-517. (Lupieri:2001) Lupton, Deborah, Food, the Body and the Self, London: Sage Publications, 1996. (Lupton:1996) Lütgehetmann, Walter, Die Hochzeit von Kana (Joh 2,1-11). Zu Urprung und Deutung einer Wundererzählung im Rahmen johanneischer Redaktionsgeschichte BU 20, Regensburg: Pustet, 1990. (Lütgehetmann:1990) Lütgehetmann, Walter, ‘Die Hochzeit von Kana – Der Anfang der Zeichen Jesu,’ in: Josef Hainz, (ed.) Theologie im Werden. Studien zu den theologischen Konzeptionen im Neuen Testament, Paderborn: Schöningh, 1992, 177-197. (Lütgehetmann:1992) Luttikhuizen, Gerard P. (ed.), Paradise Interpreted. Representations of Biblical Paradise in Judaism and Christianity Themes in Biblical Narrative 2, Leiden: Brill, 1999. (Luttikhuizen:1999) Luz, Ulrich, ‘Intertexts in the Gospel of Matthew,’ HThR 97 (2004), 119-137. (Luz:2004) Luz, Ulrich, ‘Das Geheimnismotiv und die markinische Christologie,’ ZNW 56 (1965), 930. (Luz:1965)

Bibliography

421

Luz, Ulrich, ‘Die Erfüllung des Gesetzes bei Matthäus (Mt 5:17-20),’ ZThK 75 (1978), 398-435. (Luz:1978) Luz, Ulrich, ‘Die Wundergeschichten von Mt 8-9,’ in: Hawthorne/Betz:1987, 149-165. (Luz:1987) Luz, Ulrich, ‘Eine thetische Skizze der matthäischen Christologie,’ in: Breytenbach/ Paulsen:1991, 221-235. (Luz:1991) Luz, Ulrich, The Theology of the Gospel of Matthew New Testament Theology, Cambridge: Cambridge University, 1995. (Luz:1995) Luz, Ulrich, ‘Matthäus und Q,’ in: Hoppe/Busse:1998, 201-215. (Luz:1998) Luz, Ulrich, Das Evangelium nach Matthäus 1 EKK 1.1, Zürich: Benziger5, 2002. (Luz: 2002a) Luz, Ulrich, Das Evangelium nach Matthäus 2 EKK 1.2, Zürich: Benziger, 1990. (Luz: 1990) Luz, Ulrich, Das Evangelium nach Matthäus 3 EKK 1.3, Zürich: Benziger, 1997. (Luz: 1997) Luz, Ulrich, Das Evangelium nach Matthäus 4 EKK 1.4, Zürich: Benziger, 2002. (Luz: 2002b) Luz, Ulrich, ‘Vaterunser I. Neues Testament,’ TRE 34, 504-512. (Luz:2002c) Luz, Ulrich, ‘Warum zog Jesus nach Jerusalem,’ in: Jens Schröter/Ralph Brucker, Der Historische Jesus. Tendenzen und Perspektiven der gegenwärtigen Forschung BZNW 114, Berlin: De Gruyter, 2002, 409-427. (Luz:2002d) Mackay, Ian D., John’s Relationship with Mark WUNT 2.182, Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 2004. (Mackay:2004) Maiberge, Paul/Bernard Lang, ‘Palme,’ NBL 3, 61-62. (Maiberger/Lang:2001) Maiberger, Paul, Das Manna: eine literarische, etymologische und naturkundliche Untersuchung, ÄAT 6.1-2, Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz, 1983. (Maiberger:1983) Maiberger, Paul, ‘hw"r',’ ThWAT 7, 378-381. (Maiberger:1993) Maier, Christl/Ernst Michael Dörrfuß, ‘”Um mit ihnen zu sitzen, zu essen und zu trinken” Am 6,7; Jer 16,5 und die Bedeutung von marzeah’, ZAW 111 (1999), 45-57. (Maier/Dörrfuß:1999) Maier, Johann, Die Tempelrolle vom Toten Meer und das “Neue Jerusalem,” München: Ernst Reinhardt3, 1997. (Maier:1997) Malina, Bruce J./Richard L. Rohrbaugh, Social-Science Commentary on the Gospel of John, Minneapolis: Fortress, 1998. (Malina/Rohrbaugh:1998) Malina, Bruce J., The Palestinian Manna Tradition AGJU 7, Leiden: Brill, 1968. (Malina:1968) Malina, Bruce J., The New Testament World: Insights from Cultural Anthropology, Westminster: John Knox3, 2001. (Malina:2001) Manson, T. W., The Sayings of Jesus, London: SCM, 1949. (Manson:1949) Mantel, Hugo, ‘Fasten/Fasttage. II. Judentum,’ TRE 11, 45-48. (Mantel:1983) Marcus, Joel, ‘Rivers of Living Water from Jesus’ Belly (John 7:38),’ JBL 117 (1998), 328-330. (Marcus:1998) Mare, W. Harold, ‘Zion,’ ABD 6, 1095-1098. (Mare:1992) Marguerat, Daniel, Le jugement dans l’Évangile de Matthieu, Genève: Labor et Fides, 1981. (Marguerat:1981) Marmorstein, Arthur, ‘The Imitation of God (imitatio Dei) in the Haggadah,’ in: Jospeh Rabbinowitz (ed.), Studies in Jewish Theology, Oxford: Clarendon, 1950, 106-121. (Marmorstein:1950) Marshall, Mary J., ‘Jesus: Glutton and Drunkard?,’ JSHJ 3 (2005), 47-60. (Marshall: 2005)

422

Bibliography

Martin, Karl, ‘Speisetischszene,’ LÄ 5. (Martin:1984) Marx, Alfred, ‘La place du sacrifice dans l’ancien Israël,’ in: James A. Emerton (ed.), Congress Volume Cambridge 1995 VT.S 66, Leiden: Brill, 1997, 203-217. (Marx: 1997) Marx, Alfred, ‘Opfer I. Religionsgeschichtlich.1 Alter Orient und Altes Testament,’ 4 RGG 6, 572-576. (Marx:2003) Marx, Alfred, ‘Le Dieu qui invite au festin. À propos de quelques métaphores sacrificielles de l’Ancien Testament,’ in: Grappe:2004, 35-50. (Marx:2004) Massingberd Ford, Josephine, ‘The Parable of the Foolish Scholars,’ NT 9 (1967), 107123. (Massingberd Ford:1967) Masuda, Sanae, ‘The Good News of the Miracle of the Bread. The Tradition and its Markan Redaction,’ NTS 28 (1982), 191-219. (Masuda:1982) Mauser, Ulrich, Christ in the Wilderness: The Wilderness Theme in the Second Gospel and its Basis in the Biblical Tradition, Naperville: Allenson, 1963. (Mauser:1963) Mayer, Günter, Die jüdische Frau in der hellenistisch-römischen Antike (Stuttgart: Kohlhammer, 1987. (Mayer:1987) Mayordomo Marin, Moises, Den Anfang hören: Leserorientierte Evangelienexegese am Beispiel von Matthäus 1-2 FRLANT 180, Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1998. (Mayordomo Marin:1998) McCracken Flesher, Paul Virgil, ‘Are Women Property in the System of the Mishnah?’ in: Jacob Neusner/Ernest S. Frerichs (eds.), From Ancient Israel to Modern Judaism: Intellect in Quest of Understanding. Essays in Honor of Marvin Fox 1 BJSt 149, Atlanta: Scholars, 1989, 219-231. (McCracken Flesher:1989) McCready, Wayne O., ‘Ekklesia and Voluntary Associations,’ in: Kloppenborg/Wilson: 1996, 59-73. (McCready:1996) McDaniel, Ferris Lee, The Relationship between the Shepherd and the Banquet Motifs of Psalm 23, Th.D. dissertation, Dallas Theological Seminary, 1984. (McDaniel:1984) McGowan, Andrew, Ascetic Eucharists. Food and Drink in Early Christian Ritual Meals, Oxford: Oxford University, 1999. (McGowan:1999) McKane, William, ‘Poison, Trial by Ordeal and the Cup of Wrath’, VT 30 (1980), 474492. (McKane:1980) McKinlay, Judith, Gendering Wisdom the Host. Biblical Invitations to Eat and Drink JSOT.S 216, Sheffield: Sheffield Academic, 1996. (McKinlay:1996) McLaughlin, John, The Marzeah in the Prophetic Literature VT.S 86, Leiden: Brill, 2001. (McLaughlin:2001) Meeks, Wayne A., The Prophet-King. Moses Traditions and the Johannine Christology NT.S 14, Leiden: Brill, 1967. (Meeks:1967) Meeks, Wayne, ‘The Man from Heaven in Johannine Sectarianism,’ JBL 91 (1971), 4472. (Meeks:1971) Meier, John Paul, Jesus. A Marginal Jew 1-3 ABRL, New York: Doubleday, 1991-2001. (Meier:1991-2001) Mell, Ulrich, ‘”Neuer Wein (gehört) in neue Schläuche” (Mk 2,22c),’ ThZ 52 (1996), 131. (Mell:1996) Menken, Maarten J. J., ‘The provenance and meaning of the Old Testament quotation in John 6:31,’ NT 30 (1988), 39-56. (Menken:1988) Menken, Maarten J. J., ‘The Origin of the Old Testament Quotation in John 7:38,’ NT 37 (1996), 160-175. (Menken:1996) Menken, Maarten J. J., ‘John 6:51c-58: Eucharist or Christology,’ in: Culpepper:1997, 183-204. (Menken:1997)

Bibliography

423

Mennell, Stephen/Anne Murcott/Anneke H. van Otterloo, The Sociology of Food: Eating, Diet and Culture, London: Sage Publications3. (Mennell/Murcott/Van Otterloo:1994) Merklein, Helmut, ‘Erwägungen zur Überlieferungsgeschichte der neutestamentlichen Abendmahlstraditionen,’ in: idem, Studien zu Jesus und Paulus WUNT 1.43, Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 1987, 167-180. (Merklein:1987) Merklein, Helmut, ‘Gott und Welt. Eine exemplarische Interpretation von Joh 2,23-3,21; 12,20-36 zur theologischen Bestimmung des johanneischen Dualismus,’ in: Thomas Söding (ed.), Der lebendige Gott. Studien zur Theologie des Neuen Testaments NTA.NF 31 (FS Wilhelm Thüsing), Münster: Aschendorff, 1996, 287-305. (Merklein: 1996) Meshorer, Ya’akov, Jewish Coins of the Second Temple Period, Tel Aviv: Am Hassefer, 1967. (Meshorer:1967) Metzger, Bruce M., ‘The Fourth Book of Ezra,’ in: Charlesworth:1983, 516-559. (Metzger:1983) Metzger, Martin, ‘Keruben und Palmetten als Dekoration im Jerusalemer Heiligtum und Jahwe, “der Nahrung gibt allem Fleisch”,’ in: Ferdinand Hahn/Frank-Lothar Hossfeld/Hans Jorissen/Angelika Neuwirth (eds.), Zion. Ort der Begegnung BBB 90, Bodenheim: Athenäum Hain Hanstein, 1993, 503-529. (Metzger:1993) Metzger, Bruce M., A Textual Commentary on the Greek New Testament, Stuttgart: Deutsche Bibelgesellschaft2, 1994. (Metzger:1994) Metzger, Martin, ‘Himmlisches Jerusalem und Tempelarchitektur. Ein Beitrag zum Verständnis von Apokalypse 21,16f,’ in: idem, Schöpfung, Thron und Heiligtum. Beiträge zur Theologie des Alten Testaments BThS 57, Neukirchen-Vluyn: Neukirchener, 2003, 39-74. (Metzger:2003) Meyer, Rudolf, ‘ko,lpoj ktl,’ ThWNT 3, 824-826. (Meyer:1938) Michaelis, Wilhelm, Gleichnisse Jesu, Hamburg: Furche3, 1956. (Michaelis:1956) Milde, Henk, ‘“Going out into the Day.” Ancient Egyptian Beliefs and Practices Concerning Death and Immortality,’ in: Jan N. Bremmer/Theo P.J. van den Hout/Ruud Peeters (eds.), Hidden Futures: Death and Immortality in Ancient Egypt, Anatolia, the Classical, Biblical and Arabic-Islamic World, Amsterdam: Amsterdam University, 1994, 15-35. (Milde:1994) Mildenberg, Leo, The Coins of the Bar Kokhba War Typos 6, Frankfurt: Sauerländer, 1984. (Mildenberg:1984) Miller, Patrick D., The Divine Warrior in Early Israel, Cambridge, MA: Harvard University, 1973. (Miller:1973) Miller, Kevin E., ‘The Nuptial Eschatology of Revelation 19-22,’ CBQ 60 (1998), 301318. (Miller:1998) Mineshige, Kiyoshi, Besitzverzicht und Almosen bei Lukas WUNT 1.163, Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 2003. (Mineshige:2003) Mintz, Sidney W./Christine M. Du Bois, ‘The Anthropology of Food and Eating,’ ARA 31 (2003), 99-119. (Mintz/Du Bois:2003) Mitchell, Alan C., ‘”Greet the Friends by Name”: New Testament Evidence for the Greco-Roman Topos on Friendship,’ in: Fitzgerald:1997, 225-262. (Mitchell:1997) Mittmann, Siegried, ‘ha-Morijja – Präfiguration der Gottesstadt Jerusalem (Genesis 22,114.19),’ in: Hengel/Mittmann/Schwemer:2000, 67-97. (Mittmann:2000) Moessner, David P., Lord of the Banquet. The Literary and Theological Significance of the Lukan Travel Narrative, Minneapolis: Fortress, 1989. (Moessner:1989) Moloney, Francis J., ‘From Cana to Cana (John 2:1-4:54) and the Fourth Evangelist’s Concept of Correct (and Incorrect) Faith,’ in: Elisabeth A. Livingstone (ed.), Studia

424

Bibliography

Biblica 1978. II. Papers on The Gospels JSNT.S 2, Sheffield: JSOT, 1980, 185-213. (Moloney:1980) Moloney, Francis J., Signs and Shadows: Reading John 5-12, Minneapolis: Fortress, 1996. (Moloney:1996) Moloney, Francis J., ‘The Function of Prolepsis in the Interpretation of John 6,’ in: Culpepper:1997, 129-148. (Moloney:1997) Moloney, Francis J., The Gospel of John SP 4, Collegeville: Liturgical, 1998. (Moloney: 1998) Moore, George Foot, Judaism in the First Centuries of the Christian Era. The Age of the Tannaim 3, Cambridge, MA: Harvard University, 1946. (Moore:1946) Morgan, John R. ‘Fantastic Literature,’ in: Simon Hornblower/Antony Spawforth (eds.), The Oxford Classical Dictionary, Oxford: Oxford University3, 2003, 587. (Morgan: 2003) Morgen, Michèle, ‘Le festin des noces de Cana (Jn 2, 1-11) et le repas d’adieu (Jn 13, 130),’ in: Quesnel/Blanchard/Tassin:1999, 139-154. (Morgen:1999) Moxnes, Halvor, ‘Kingdom takes place: Transformations of Place and Power in the Kingdom of God in the Gospel of Luke,’ in: Pilch:2001, 176-209. (Moxnes:2001) Muddiman, John B., ‘Jesus and Fasting,’ in: Jacques Dupont (ed.), Jésus aux origines de la christologie BEThL 40, Leuven: Peeters2, 1989, 271-281. (Muddiman:1989) Muddiman, John, ‘Fast, Fasting,’ ABD 2, 773-776. (Muddiman:1992) Müller, Ludolf, ‘Die Hochzeit zu Kana,’ in: Gerhard Müller/Winfried Zeller (eds.), Glaube, Geist, Geschichte, FS Ernst Benz; Leiden: Brill, 1967, 99-106. (Müller:1967) Müller, Reimar, ‘Griechenland,’ in: Günther/idem:1988, 49-51. (Müller:1988) Müller, Augustin R., ‘Wein,’ NBL 3, 1072-1074. (Müller:2001a) Müller, Augustin R., ‘Weinstock,’ NBL 3, 1075-1076. (Müller:2001b) Müller, Ulrich B., Johannes der Täufer, Leipzig: Evangelischer Verlagsanstalt, 2002. (Müller:2002) Müller-Fieberg, Rita, Das “neue Jerusalem.” Vision für alle Herzen und alle Zeiten? BBB 144, Berlin: Philo, 2003. (Müller-Fieberg:2003) Murcott, Anne (ed.), The Sociology of Food and Eating, Aldershot: Gower Publishing, 1983. (Murcott:1983) Murphy, Roland E., The Tree of Life, Grand Rapids: Eerdmans3, 2002. (Murphy:2002) Murray, Oswyn (ed.), Sympotica. A Symposium on the Symposion, Oxford: Clarendon, 1990. (Murray:1990) Murray, Oswyn, ‘War and the Symposium,’ in: Slater:1991, 83-103. (Murray:1991) Mußner, Franz ‘Das Wesen des Christentums ist sunesqi,ein. Ein authentischer Kommentar,’ in: Heribert Roßmann/Joseph Ratzinger (eds.), Mysterium der Gnade (FS Johann Auer), Regensburg: Pustet, 1975, 92-102. (Mußner:1975) Mußner, Franz, Der Galaterbrief HThK.NT 9, Freiburg: Herder5, 1988. (Mußner:1988) Nakamura, Catherine Lynn, Monarch, Mountain, and Meal: The eschatological Banquet of Isaiah 24:21-23: 25:6-10a, Ph.D., Princeton Theological Seminary, 1992. (Nakamura:1992) Neirynck, Frans, The Minor Agreements of Matthew and Luke Against Mark with a Cumulative List BEThL 37, Leuven: Peeters, 1974. (Neirynck:1974) Neirynck, Frans, ‘The Matthew – Luke Agreements in Mt 14,13-14/Lk 9.10-11 (Par Mk 6,30-34),’ EThL 60 (1984), 25-44. (Neirynck:1984) Neirynck, Frans, ‘Response to the Multiple-Stage Hypothesis,’ in: David L. Dungan (ed.), The Interrelations of the Gospels BEThL 95, Leuven: Peeters, 1990, 81-124. (Neirynck:1990)

Bibliography

425

Neirynck, Frans, ‘Q 6:20b-21; 7:21 and Isaiah 61,’ in: Tuckett:1997, 27-64. (Neirynck: 1997) Neirynck, Frans, ‘The Signs Source in the Fourth Gospel. A Critique of the Hypothesis,’ in: idem, Evangelica 2 (ed. Frans van Segbroeck), BEThL 99, Leuven: Peeters, 1999. (Neirynck:1999) Nelson, Peter K., Leadership and Discipleship. A Study of Luke 22:24-30 SBL.DS 138, Atlanta: Scholars, 1994. (Nelson:1994) Neugebauer, Fritz, ‘Die wunderbare Speisung (Mk 6,30-44 parr.) und Jesu Identität,’ KuD 32 (1986), 255-277. (Neugebauer:1986) Neyrey, Jerome H. (ed.), The Social World of Luke-Acts, Peabody: Hendrickson, 1991. (Neyrey:1991) Nickelsburg, George W. E., Resurrection, Immortality and Eternal Life in Intertestamental Judaism HThSt 26, Cambridge, MA: Harvard University, 1972. (Nickelsburg: 1972) Nicklas, Tobias, ‘Literarkritik und Leserrezeption. Ein Beitrag zur Methodendiskussion am Beispiel Joh 3,22-4,3,’ Bib 83 (2002), 175-192. (Nicklas:2002) Niederwimmer, Kurt, ‘game,w’ EWNT 1, 564-571. (Niederwimmer:1992) Niederwimmer, Kurt ‘Der Didachist und seine Quellen,’ in: Clayton N. Jefford (ed.), The Didache in Context: Essays on its Text, History, and Transmission NT.S 77, Leiden: Brill, 1995, 15-36. (Niederwimmer:1995) Nielsen, Anders E., Until it is Fulfilled. Lukan Eschatology According to Luke 22 and Acts 20 WUNT 2.126, Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 2000. (Nielsen:2000) Niemand, Christoph, ‘Jesu Abendmahl. Versuche zur historischen Rekonstruktion und theologischen Deutung,’ in: idem (ed.), Forschungen zum Neuen Testament und seiner Umwelt LPhThB 7, Bern: Lang, 2002, 81-122. (Niemand:2002) Niemann, Hermann Michael, ‘Königtum in Israel’ 4RGG 4, 1593-1597. (Niemann:2002) Noetzel, Heinz, Christus und Dionysos. Bemerkungen zum religionsgeschichtlichen. Hintergrund von Johannes 2,1-11, Berlin: Evangelischer Verlagsanstalt, 1960. (Noetzel:1960) Nolland, John, Luke 1-9:20 WBC 35A, Dallas: Word Books, 1989. (Nolland:1989) Nolland, John, Luke 9:21-18:34 WBC 35B, Dallas: Word Books, 1993. (Nolland:1993a) Nolland, John, Luke 18:35-24:53 WBC 35C, Dallas: Word Books, 1993. (Nolland: 1993b) Noort, Ed, ‘Gan-Eden in the Context of the Mythology of the Hebrew Bible,’ in: Luttikhuizen:1999, 21-36. (Noort:1999) Norn, Stig, ‘Die Stätte, die der Herr erwählt,’ in: Hengel/Mittmann/Schwemer:2000, 99118. (Norn:2000) Novakovic, Lilija, Messiah, the Healer of the Sick WUNT 2.170, Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 2003. (Novakovic:2003) Nussbaum, O., ‘Geleit’, RAC 9, 908-1049. (Nussbaum:1976) O’Day, Gail R., ‘John 6:15-21: Jesus Walking on Water as Narrative Embodiment of Johannine Christology,’ in: Culpepper:1997, 149-159. (O’Day:1997) O’Neill, John C., ‘The Source of the Parables of the Bridegroom and the Wicked Husbandmen,’ JThS 39 (1988), 485-489. (O’Neill:1988) O’Toole, Robert, ‘Last Supper,’ ABD 4, 234-241. (O’Toole:1992) Oakman, Douglas E., Jesus and the Economic Questions of His Day SBEC 8, Lewiston: Mellen, 1986. (Oakman:1986) Oakman, Douglas E., ‘The Lord’s Prayer in Social Perspective,’ in: Bruce Chilton/Craig A. Evans (eds.), Authenticating the Words of Jesus NTTS 28.1, Leiden: Brill, 1999, 137-186. (Oakman:1999)

426

Bibliography

Oeming, Manfred, ‘rk;v',’ ThWAT 8, 1-5. (Oeming:1995) Öhler, Markus, Elia im Neuen Testament BZNW 88, Berlin: De Gruyter, 1997. (Öhler: 1997) Ollenburger, Ben C., Zion, the City of the Great King JSOT.S 41, Sheffield: JSOT, 1987. (Ollenburger:1987) Olsson, Birger, Structure and Meaning in the Fourth Gospel ConBib 6, Lund: Gleerup, 1974. (Olsson:1974) Orton, David E., The Understanding Scribe. Matthew and the Apocalyptic Ideal JSNT.S 25, Sheffield: JSOT, 1989. (Orton:1989) Osborne, Catherine, ‘Ancient Vegetarianism,’ in: Wilkins/Harvey/Dobson:1995, 214224. (Osborne:1995) Otto, Eckart, Theologische Ethik des Alten Testaments, Stuttgart: Kohlhammer, 1994. (Otto:1994) Ottoson, Magnus, ‘lk;a',’ ThWAT 1, 252-259. (Ottoson:1973) Painter, John, The Quest for the Messiah. The History, Literature and Theology of the Johannine Community, Edinburgh: T&T Clark, 1991. (Painter:1991) Painter, John, ‘Jesus and the Quest for Eternal Life,’ in: Culpepper:1997, 61-94. (Painter: 1997) Palmer, Humphrey, ‘Just Married, Cannot Come,’ NT 18 (1976), 241-257. (Palmer:1976) Patsch, Hermann, ‘Abendmahlsterminologie außerhalb der Einsetzungsberichte,’ ZNW 62 (1971), 210-231. (Patsch:1971) Patsch, Hermann, Abendmahl und historischer Jesus CThM 1, Stuttgart:Calwer, 1972. (Patsch:1972) Patte, Daniel, The Gospel according to Matthew, Valley Forge: Trinity, 1996. (Patte: 1996) Paul, George, ‘Symposia and Deipna in Plutarch’s Lives and in Other Historical Writings,’ in: Slater:1991, 157-169. (Paul:1991) Pearson, Birger A./Thomas A. Kraabel/George W. E. Nickelsburg (eds.), The Future of Early Christianity (FS Helmut Koester), Minneapolis: Fortress, 1991. (Pearson/ Kraabel/Nickelsburg:1991) Peres, Imre, Griechische Grabinschriften und neutestamentliche Eschatologie WUNT 1.157, Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 2003. (Peres:2003) Pervo, Richard I., ‘Wisdom and power: Petronius' Satyricon and the social world of early Christianity,’ ATR 67 (1985), 307-325. (Pervo:1985) Pesce, Mauro/Adriana Destro, ‘La lavanda dei piedi di Gv 13,1-10, il Romano di Esopo e i Saturnalia di Macrobio,’ Bib 80 (1999), 240-249. (Pesce/Destro:1999) Pesch, Rudolf, Das Markusevangelium 1 HThK 2.1, Freiburg: Herder, 1976. (Pesch: 1976) Pesch, Rudolf, Das Markusevangelium 2 HThK 2.2, Freiburg: Herder, 1984. (Pesch: 1984) Petersen, William L./Johan S. Vos/Henk J. de Jonge (eds.), Sayings of Jesus: Canonical and Non-Canonical NT.S 89, Leiden: Brill, 1997. (Petersen/Vos/De Jonge:1997) Petzke, Gerd, Das Sondergut des Evangeliums nach Lukas ZWKB, Zürich: TVZ, 1990. (Petzke:1990) Pfitzner, Victor C., Paul and the Agon Motif NT.S 16, Leiden: Brill, 1967. (Pfitzner: 1967) Phillips, Gary, ‘This Is a Hard Saying. Who Can Be a Listener to It? Creating a Reader in John 6,’ Semeia 6 (1983), 23-56. (Phillips:1983) Philonenko, Marc (ed.), Le Trône de Dieu WUNT 1.69, Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 1993. (Philonenko:1993)

Bibliography

427

Philonenko, Marc, ‘“Ceci est mon corps“, „ceci est mon sang.“ La prehistoire d’une formule cultuelle,’ in: Grappe:2004, 177-186. (Philonenko:2004) Pichler, Josef, ‘Abraham,’ in: Markus Öhler (ed.), Alttestamentliche Gestalten im Neuen Testament, Darmstadt: Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft, 1999, 54-74. (Pichler: 1999) Pierson, Parker, ‘Two Editions of John,’ JBL 75 (1956), 303-314. (Pierson:1956) Pilch, John J. (ed.) Social Scientific Models for Interpreting the Bible: Essays by the Context Group in Honor of Bruce J. Malina Biblical Interpretation Supplements 53, Leiden: Brill, 2001. (Pilch:2001) Piper, Ronald A., ‘Social Background and Thematic Structure in Luke 16,’ in: Van Segbroeck/Tuckett/Van Belle/Verheyden:1992, 1637-1662. (Piper:1992) Pittner, Bertram, Studien zum lukanischen Sondergut EthS 18, Leipzig: Benno, 1991. (Pittner:1991) Plummer, Alfred, The Gospel According to Luke ICC, Edinburgh: T&T Clark, 1914. (Plummer:1914) Pohlmann, Karl-Friedrich, Das Buch des Propheten Hesekiel (Ezechiel) 2, ATD 22.2, Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 2001. (Pohlmann:2001) Poplutz, Uta, Athlet des Evangeliums. Eine motivgeschichtliche Studie zur Wettkampfmetaphorik bei Paulus HBS 43, Freiburg: Herder, 2004. (Poplutz:2004) Popp, Thomas, Grammatik des Geistes. Literarische Kunst und theologische Konzeption in Johannes 3 und 6 Arbeiten zur Bibel und ihrer Geschichte 3, Leipzig: Evangelische Verlagsanstalt, 2001. (Popp:2001) Porsch, Felix, Das Johannes-Evangelium SKK 4, Stuttgart: Katholisches Bibelwerk, 1988. (Porsch:1988) Porter, Stanley E., Verbal Aspect in the Greek of the New Testament, with Reference to Tense and Mood Studies in Biblical Greek 1, Bern: Lang, 1993. (Porter:1993) Powell, Mark Alan, ‘Matthew’s Beatitudes: Reversals and Rewards of the Kingdom,’ CBQ 58 (1996), 460-479. (Powell:1996) Prayon, Friedhelm, ‘Totenkult III. Etrurien,’ DNP 12.1, 708-709. (Prayon:2002) Price, Price/Emily Kearns, ‘Introduction,’ in: idem/idem, The Oxford Dictionary of Classical Myth and Religion, Oxford: Oxford University, 2003, xii-xxi. (Price/ Kearns: 2003) Priest, John F., ‘A Note on the Messianic Banquet,’ in: James H. Charlesworth (ed.), The Messiah, Minneapolis: Fortress, 1992, 222-238. (Priest:1992) Prigent, Pierre, Commentary on the Apocalypse of St. John (trans. Wendy Pradels), Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 2001. (Prigent:2001) Puech, Émile, ‘4Q525 et les pericopes des béatitudes en Ben Sira et Matthieu,’ RB 98 (1991), 80-106. (Puech:1991) Puech, Émile, ‘Une apocalypse messianique (4Q521),’ RQ 15 (1992), 472-522. (Puech: 1992) Puig i Tàrrech, Armand, La Parabole des dix Vierges AnBib 102, Rome: Pontifical Biblical Institute, 1983. (Puig i Tàrrech:1983) Quesnel, Michel/Yves-Marie Blanchard/Claude Tassin (eds.), Nourriture et Repas dans les milieux juifs et chrétiens de l’antiquité LD 178 (FS Charles Perrot), Paris: Cerf, 1999. (Quesnel/Blanchard/Tassin:1999) Quesnel, Michel, Jésus Christ selon Saint Matthieu. Synthèse théologique, Paris: Desclée, 1991. (Quesnel:1991) Rahner, Johanna, ‘Mißverstehen um zu verstehen’, BZ 43 (1999), 212-219. (Rahner: 1999)

428

Bibliography

Rathborne, Dominic, ‘The Grain Trade and Grain Shortages in the Hellenistic East,’ in: Garnsey/Whittaker:1983, 45-55. (Rathborne:1983) Reader, William W., Die Stadt Gottes in der Johannesapokalypse, Diss. Göttingen, 1971. (Reader:1971) Reibnitz, Barbara von, ‘Freundschaft,’ DNP 4, 669-674. (Reibnitz:1988) Reicke, Bo, ‘Die Fastenfrage nach Luk. 5,33-39,’ ThZ 30 (1974), 321-328. (Reicke:1974) Reifenberg, Adolf, Ancient Jewish Coins, Jerusalem: Mass2, 1947. (Reifenberg:1947) Reinhartz, Adele, ‘“Jews“ and Jews in the Fourth Gospel,’ in: Bieringer/Pollefeyt/ Vandecasteele-Vanneuville:2001, 341-356. (Reinhartz:2001) Reinhartz, Adele, ‘The “Bride” in John 3.29: A Feminist Reading,’ in: Mary Ann Beavis (ed.), The Lost Coin. Parables of Women, Work and Wisdom, Sheffield: Sheffield Academic, 2002, 230-241. (Reinhartz:2002) Reinmuth, Eckart, ‘Ps.-Philo, Liber Antiquitatum Biblicarum 33,1-5 und die Auslegung der Parabel Lk 16:19-31,’ NT 31 (1989), 16-38. (Reinmuth:1989) Reiser, Marius, Die Gerichtspredigt Jesu: eine Untersuchung zur eschatologischen Verkündigung Jesu und ihrem frühjüdischen Hintergrund, NTA NF 23, Münster: Aschendorff, 1990. (Reiser:1990) Reiser, Marius, ‘Eucharistische Wissenschaft. Eine exegetische Betrachtung zu Joh 6,2659,’ in: Hilberath/Sattler:1995, 164-177. (Reiser:1995) Reiser, Marius, Sprache und literarische Formen des Neuen Testaments (Paderborn: Schöningh, 2001. (Reiser:2001) Renger, Johannes, ‘Wein 1. Ägypten und Alter Orient,’ DNP 12.2, 423. (Renger:2003) Rengstorf, Karl Heinrich ‘dou/loj ktl.,’ ThWNT 2, 262-283. (Rengstorf:1935) Rengstorf, Karl Heinrich, ‘Stadt der Mörder (Mt 22 7),’ in: Walther Eltester (ed.), Judentum, Urchristentum, Kirche BZNW 26, Berlin: Töpelmann, 1964, 106-129. (Rengstorf:1964) Rengstorf, Karl Heinrich, Das Evangelium nach Lukas NTD 3 (Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1969. (Rengstorf:1969) Repschinski, Boris, The Controversy Stories in the Gospel of Matthew: Their Redaction, Form and Relevance for the Relationship between the Matthean Community and Formative Judaism FRLANT 189, 2000, Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht. (Repschinski:2000) Reymond, Philippe, L’eau, sa vie, et sa signification dans l’Ancien Testament VT.S 6, Leiden: Brill, 1958. (Reymond:1958) Richter, Dieter, Schlaraffenland. Geschichte einer populären Phantasie, Köln: Diederichs, 1984. (Richter:1984) Ridderbos, Herman, The Gospel of John. A Theological Commentary (Trans. John Vriend), Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1997. (Ridderbos:1997) Ringe, Sharon, Wisdom’s Friends: Community and Christology in the Fourth Gospel, Louisville: Westminster John Knox, 1999. (Ringe:1999) Riniker, Christian, ‘Jean 6,1-21 et les évangiles synoptiques,’ in: Jean-Daniel Kaestli/ Jean-Michel Poffet/Jean Zumstein (eds.), La communauté johannique et son histoire, Genève: Labor et Fides, 41-68, 1990. (Riniker:1990) Riniker, Christian, Die Gerichtsverkündigung Jesu EHS.T 653, Bern: Lang, 1999. (Riniker:1999) Robbins, Vernon K., ‘The Social Location of the Implied Author of Luke-Acts,’ in: Neyrey:1991, 305-332. (Robbins:1991) Rohrbaugh, Richard L., ‘The Pre-Industrial City in Luke-Acts: Urban Social Relations,’ in: Neyrey:1991, 125-149. (Rohrbaugh:1991)

Bibliography

429

Roloff, Dietrich, Gottähnlichkeit, Vergöttlichung und Erhöhung zu seligem Leben UALG 4, Berlin: De Gruyter, 1970. (Roloff:1970) Roloff, Jürgen, Die Johannesoffenbarung ZB.NT 18, Zürich: TVZ, 1984. (Roloff:1984) Roloff, Jürgen, ‚“Siehe, ich stehe vor der Tür und klopfe an.” Beobachtungen zur Überlieferungsgeschichte von Offb 3,20,’ in: Hubert Frankemölle/Karl Kertelge (eds.), Vom Urchristentum zu Jesus, FS J. Gnilka; Herder: Freiburg i.B., 1989, 452-466. (Roloff:1989) Roloff, Jürgen, ‘Neuschöpfung in der Offenbarung des Johannes,’ JBTh 5 (1990), 119138. (Roloff:1990) Romer, Thomas, ‘La redécouverte d'un mythe dans l'Ancien Testament: la création comme combat,’ EThR 64 (1989), 561-573. (Romer:1989) Roose, Hanna, Eschatologische Mitherrschaft. Entwicklungslinien einer urchristilichen Erwartung NTOA 54, Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 2004. (Roose:2004a) Roose, Hanna, Teilhabe an JHWHs Macht Beiträge zum Verstehen der Bibel 7, Münster: Lit, 2004. (Roose:2004b) Rosenkranz, Simone, ‘Vom Paradies zum Tempel,’ in: Simon Lauer/Hanspeter Ernst (eds.), Tempelkult und Tempelzerstörung (70 n. Chr.) JuC 15, FS Clemens Thoma, Bern: Lang, 1995, 27-131. (Rosenkranz:1995) Rosenthal-Heginbottom, Renate (ed.), Dionysos and His Retinue in the Art of EretzIsrael, Haifa: Ayalon, 1998. (Rosenthal-Heginbottom:1998) Rossing, Barbara R., The Choice Between Two Cities. Whore, Bride and Empire in the Apocalypse HThS 48, Harrisburg: Trinity, 1999. (Rossing:1999) Roy Yoder, Christine, Wisdom as a Woman of Substance. A Socioeconomic Reading of Proverbs 1-9 and 31:10-31 BZAW 304, Berlin: De Gruyter, 2001. (Roy Yoder:2001) Rubenstein, Jeffrey L., The History of Sukkot in the Second Temple and Rabbinic Periods BJSt 302, Atlanta: Scholars, 1995. (Rubenstein:1995) Ruckstuhl, Eugen/Peter Dschulnigg, Stilkritik und Verfasserfrage im Johannesevangelium. Die johanneischen Sprachmerkmale auf dem Hintergund des Neuen Testaments und des zeitgenössischen hellenistischen Schrifttums NTOA 17, Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1991. (Ruckstuhl/Dschulnigg:1991) Ruffing, Kai/Andreas Gutsfeld ‘Wein II. Klassische Antike,’ DNP 12.2, 424-434. (Ruffing/Gutsfeld:2003) Ruffing, Andreas, ‘Krieg,’ NBL 2, 553-555. (Ruffing:1995) Ruiten, Jacques T. A. G. M. van, ‘Eden and the Temple: The Rewriting of Genesis 2:43:24 in The Book of Jubilees,’ in: Luttikhuizen:1999, 63-94. (Ruiten:1999) Ruiz, Jean Pierre, Ezekiel in the Apocalypse: The Transformation of Prophetic Language in Revelation 16,17-19,10 EHS.T 376, Bern: Lang, 1989. (Ruiz:1989) Russell, David Syme, The Method and Message of Jewish Apocalyptic: 200 BC – AD 100 OTL, London: SCM, 1964. (Russell:1964) Safrai, Shmuel/Menahem Stern (eds.), The Jewish People in the First Century 2, Assen: Van Gorcum, 1976. (Safrai/Stern:1976) Safrai, Shmuel, ‘Home and family. Religion in everyday life,’ in: idem/Stern:1976, 728833. (Safrai:1976) Safrai, Ze’ev, The Economy of Roman Palestine, London: Routledge, 1994. (Safrai:1994) Sals, Ulrike, Die Biographie der “Hure Babylon.” Studien zur Intertextualität der Babylon-Texte in der Bibel FAT 2.6, Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 2004. (Sals:2004) Sancisi-Weerdenburg, Heleen, ‘Persian Food: Stereotypes and Political Identity,’ in: Wilkins/Harvey/Dobson:1995, 286-302. (Sancisi-Weerdenburg:1995) Sand, Alexander, Das Evangelium nach Matthäus RNT, Regensburg: Pustet, 1986. (Sand:1986)

430

Bibliography

Sand, Alexander, ‘Briefe als interpretierende Begleitschreiben,’ in: Knut Backhaus/Franz Georg Untergaßmair (eds.), Schrift und Tradition, FS Josef Ernst; Paderborn: Schöningh, 1996, 373-383. (Sand:1996) Sanders, James A., ‘The Ethics of Election in Luke’s Great Banquet Parable,’ in: James L. Crenshaw/John T. Willis (eds.), Essays in Old Testament Ethics. J. Phillip Hyatt, In Memoriam, New York: Ktav, 1974, 247-271. (Sanders:1974) Sanders, Ed P., Jesus and Judaism, Philadelphia: Fortress, 1985. (Sanders:1985) Sato, Migaku, Q und Prophetie. Studien zur Gattungs- und Traditionsgeschichte der Quelle Q WUNT 2.29, Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 1988. (Sato:1988) Sauer, Georg, Jesus Sirach/Ben Sira ATD.Ap. 1, Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 2000. (Sauer:2000) Schapdick, Stefan, Auf dem Weg in den Konflikt. Exegetische Studien zum theologischen Profil der Erzählung vom Aufenthalt Jesu in Samarien (Joh 4,1-42) im Kontext des Johannesevangeliums BBB 126, Berlin: Philo, 2000. (Schapdick:2000) Scheffler, E., ‘A Psychological Reading of Luke 12:35-48,’ Neotest 22 (1988), 355-371. (Scheffler:1988) Schenk, Wolfgang, ‘Auferweckung der Toten oder Gericht nach den Werken. Tradition und Redaktion in Mattäus xxv 1-13,’ NT 20 (1978), 278-299. (Schenk:1978) Schenk, Wolfgang, ‘Die rhetorische Funktion der Fastenwarnung Mk 2,20,’ in: Petersen/ Vos/De Jonge:1997, 251-276. (Schenk:1997) Schenke, Ludger, Die wunderbare Brotvermehrung. Die neutestamentlichen Erzählungen und ihre Bedeutung, Würzburg: Echter, 1983. (Schenke:1983) Schenke, Ludger, ‘Die literarische Vorgeschichte von Joh 6,26-58,’ BZ 29 (1985). (Schenke:1985) Schenke, Ludger, Johannes. Kommentar, Düsseldorf: Patmos, 1998. (Schenke:1998) Schiffman, Lawrence H., The Eschatological Community of the Dead Sea Scrolls SBL.MS 38, Atlanta: Scholars, 1989. (Schiffman:1989) Schipper, Bernd Ulrich, ‘Salomo und die Pharaonentochter - zum historischen Kern von 1 Kon 7,8,’ BN 102 (2000), 84-94. (Schipper:2000) Schlatter, Adolf, Das Evangelium nach Lukas aus seinen Quellen erklärt, Stuttgart: Calwer, 1931. (Schlatter:1931) Schlier, Heinrich, ‘Der Ruf Gottes,’ in: idem, Besinnung auf das Neue Testament. Exegetische Aufsätze und Vorträge 2, Freiburg: Herder, 1964, 219-226. (Schlier: 1964) Schlosser, Jacques, Le Règne de Dieu dans les dits de Jésus 1, Paris: Gabalda, 1980. (Schlosser:1980) Schlosser, Jacques, Les Logia du Règne, Étude sur le vocable ‘Basileia tou theou’ dans la prédication de Jésus, Lille: Université de Lille III, 1982. (Schlosser:1982) Schmeller, Thomas, Hierarchie und Gleichheit. Eine Sozialgeschichtliche Untersuchung paulinischer Gemeinden und griechisch-römischer Vereine SBS 162, Stuttgart: Katholisches Bibelwerk, 1995. (Schmeller:1995) Schmidt, Karl Ludwig, ‘ka,lew ktl.’ ThWNT 3, 488-539. (Schmidt:1938) Schmitt, Armin, Wende des Lebens BZAW 237, Berlin: De Gruyter, 1996. (Schmitt: 1996) Schmitt-Pantel, Pauline, La Cité au Banquet. Histoire des Repas Publics dans les Cités Grecques Collection de l’École Française de Rome 157, Rome: École Française, 1992. (Schmitt-Pantel:1992) Schmitt-Pantel, Pauline, ‘Gastmahl. II. Griechenland,’ DNP 4, 798-799. (Schmitt-Pantel: 1998)

Bibliography

431

Schnackenburg, Rudolf, Das Johannesevangelium 1 HThK 4.1, Freiburg: Herder4, 1979. (Schnackenburg:1979) Schnackenburg, Rudolf, Das Johannesevangelium 2 HThK 4.2, Freiburg, Herder4, 1985. (Schnackenburg:1985) Schneider, Franz/Werner Stenger, ‘Die offene Tür und die unüberschreitbare Kluft. Strukturanalytische Überlegungen zum Gleichnis vom reichen Mann und armen Lazarus (Lk 16, 19-31),’ NTS 25 (1979), 273-283. (Schneider/Stenger:1979) Schneider, Johannes, ‘xu,lon,’ ThWNT 5, 36-40. (Schneider:1954) Schneider, Gerhard, ‘Imitatio Dei als Motiv der Ethik Jesu,’ in: Helmut Merklein (ed.), Neues Testament und Ethik, FS Rudolf Schnackenburg, Freiburg: Herder, 1987, 7183. (Schneider:1987) Schnelle, Udo, Antidoketische Christologie im Johannesevangelium FRLANT 144, Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1987. (Schnelle:1987) Schnelle, Udo, Das Evangelium nach Johannes ThHNT 4, Leipzig: Evangelischer Verlagsanstalt, 1998. (Schnelle:1998) Schnelle, Udo, ‘Ein neuer Blick. Tendenzen gegenwärtiger Johannesforschung,’ BThZ 16 (1999), 29-40. (Schnelle:1999) Schnelle, Udo, Einführung in die neutestamentliche Exegese, Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht5, 2000. (Schnelle:2000) Schnelle, Udo, Einleitung in das Neue Testament, Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht4, 2002. (Schnelle:2002) Scholtissek, Klaus, ‘Neue Wege in der Johannesauslegung. Ein Forschungsbericht I,’ ThGl 89 (1999), 263-295. (Scholtissek:1999) Scholtissek, Klaus, ‘Neue Wege in der Johannesauslegung. Ein Forschungsbericht II,’ ThGl 91 (2001), 109-133. (Scholtissek:2001a) Scholtissek, Klaus, In ihm sein und bleiben. Die Sprache der Immanenz in den johanneischen Schriften HBS 2, Herder: Freiburg i.B., 2001. (Scholtissek:2001b) Scholtissek, Klaus, ‘Die Brotrede Jesu in Joh 6,1-71. Exegetische Beobachtungen zu ihrem johanneischem Profil,’ ZKTh 123 (2001), 35-55. (Scholtissek:2001d) Schottroff, Luise, ‘Das Gleichnis vom großen Gastmahl in der Logienquelle,’ EvTh 47 (1987), 192-211. (Schottroff:1987) Schramm, Tim, Der Markus-Stoff bei Lukas. Eine literarkritische und redaktionsgeschichtliche Unterschung MSSNTS 14, Cambridge: Cambridge University, 1971. (Schramm:1971) Schramm, Tim, ‘“Magic and Meal” … Wie Jesus Feste Feierte, J.D. Crossans “Historical Jesus” referiert,’ in: Peter Stolt/Wolfgang Grünberg/Ulrike Suhr (eds.) Kulte, Kulturen, Gottesdienste (FS Peter Cornehl), Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1996, 142-155. (Schramm:1996) Schreiner, Josef, Sion-Jerusalem. Jahwes Königssitz. Theologie der heiligen Stadt im Alten Testament StANT 7, München: Kösel, 1963. (Schreiner:1963) Schröder, Jörg-Michael, Das eschatologische Israel im Johannesevangelium. Eine Untersuchung der johanneischen Israel-Konzeption in Joh 2-4 und Joh 6 NET 3, Tübingen: Francke, 2003. (Schröder:2003) Schroedel, Joachim, ‘Hunger,’ NBL 2, 204. (Schroedel:1998) Schroer, Silvia, ‘Lebensbaum,’ NBL 2, 602-603. (Schroer:1995) Schroer, Silvia, Die Weisheit hat ihr Haus gebaut. Studien zur Gehalt der Sophia in den biblischen Schriften, Mainz: Grünewald, 1996.( Schroer:1996) Schroer, Silvia, ‘Griechische Heiligtümer im Spiegel alttestamentlicher Kosmologien und Theologien,’ in: Keel/Zenger:2002, 231-288. (Schroer:2002)

432

Bibliography

Schulz, Siegfried, Q die Spruchquelle der Evangelisten, Zürich: TVZ, 1972. (Schulz: 1972) Schumacher, Leonhard, Sklaverei in der Antike. Alltag und Schicksal der Unfreien, München: Beck, 2001. (Schumacher:2001) Schürmann, Heinz, Der Paschamahlbericht Lk 22, (7-14) 15-18. I. Teil einer quellenkritischen Untersuchung des Lukanischen Abendmahlsberichtes Lk 22,7-38 NTA 19.5, Münster: Aschendorff, 1952. (Schürmann:1952) Schürmann, Heinz, Der Einsetzungsbericht Lk 22, 19-20. II. Teil einer quellenkritischen Untersuchung des lukanischen Abendmahlsberichtes Lk 22,7-38 NTA 20.4, Münster: Aschendorff, 1953. (Schürmann:1953) Schürmann, Heinz, Jesu Abschiedsrede. Lk 22,21-38. III. Teil einer quellenkritischen Untersuchung des Lukanischen Abendmahlsberichtes Lk 22,7-38 NTA 20.5, Münster, 1957. (Schürmann:1957) Schürmann, Heinz, ‘Lk 22,19b-20 als ursprüngliche Textüberlieferung,’ in: idem:1968c, 159-192. (Schürmann:1968a) Schürmann, Heinz, ‘Lk 22,42a. Das älteste Zeugnis für Lk 22,20?,’ in: idem, 1968c, 193197. (Schürmann:1968b) Schürmann, Heinz, Traditionsgeschichtliche Untersuchungen zu den synoptischen Evangelien KBANT, Düsseldorf: Patmos, 1968. (Schürmann:1968c) Schürmann, Heinz, ‘Der Abendmahlsbericht Lk 22,7-38 als Gottesdienstordnung, Gemeindeordnung, Lebensordnung,’ in: idem, Ursprung und Gestalt. Erörterungen und Besinnungen zum Neuen Testament KBANT, Düsseldorf: Patmos, 1970, 108-150. (Schürmann:1970) Schürmann, Heinz, Das Lukasevangelium HThK.NT 3.1, Freiburg: Herder4, 1990. (Schürmann:1990) Schürmann, Heinz, Das Lukasevangelium HThK.NT 3.2, Freiburg: Herder, 1994. (Schürmann:1994) Schwartz, Daniel R., ‘Temple and Desert: On Religion and State in Second Temple Period Judaea,’ in: idem, Studies in the Jewish Background of Christianity WUNT 1.60, Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 1991, 29-43. (Schwartz:1991) Schwartz, Joshua, ‘Treading the Grapes of Wrath, the Wine Press in Ancient Jewish and Christian Tradition,’ ThZ 49 (1993), 215-228.311-324. (Schwartz:1993) Schwarz, Günther, ‘Zum Vokabular von Matthäus XXV. 1-12,’ NTS 27 (1981), 270-276. (Schwarz:1981) Schweitzer, Albert, Die Mystik des Apostels Pauls Gesammelte Werke 4, Berlin: Union, 1971 (first published: Tübingen: Mohr, 1930). (Schweitzer:1971a) Schweitzer, Albert, Geschichte der Leben-Jesu-Forschung Gesammelte Werke 3, Berlin: Union, 1971 (first published under this title: Tübingen: Mohr, 1913). (Schweitzer: 1971b) Schweizer, Eduard, ‘Das Abendmahl, eine Vergegenwärtigung des Todes Jesu oder ein eschatologisches Freudenmahl?,’ ThZ 2 (1946), 81-100. (Schweizer:1946) Schweizer, Eduard, ‘Das johanneische Zeugnis vom Abendmahl,’ in: idem, Neotestamentica, Zürich: Zwingli, 1963, 371-396. (Schweizer:1963) Schweizer, Eduard, ‘ui`o.j ktl. D. Neues Testament,’ ThWNT 8, 364-395. (Schweizer: 1969) Schweizer, Eduard, Die Bergpredigt, Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1982. (Schweizer:1982) Schweizer, Eduard, Das Evangelium nach Markus NTD 2, Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht7, 1983. (Schweizer:1983)

Bibliography

433

Schweizer, Eduard, Das Evangelium nach Lukas NTD 3, Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht3, 1986. (Schweizer:1986a) Schweizer, Eduard, Das Evangelium nach Matthäus NTD 1, Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht4, 1986. (Schweizer:1986b) Schwemer, Anna Maria, ‘Himmlische Stadt und himmlisches Bürgerrecht bei Paulus (Gal 4,26 und Phil 3,20),’ in: Hengel/Mittmann/Schwemer:2000, 195-243. (Schwemer:2000) Schwemer, Anna Maria, ‘Das Problem der Mahlgemeinschaft mit dem Auferstandenen,’ in: Grappe:2004, 186-226. (Schwemer:2004) Seebaß, Horst, ‘Opfer. II Altes Testament’, TRE 25, 258-257. (Seebaß:1995) Seesemann, Heinrich, ‘oi=noj,’ ThWNT 5, 163-167. (Seesemann:1954) Seidl, Theodor, ‘b['r',’ ThWAT 7, 555-566. (Seidl:1993) Selms, Adrianus van, ‘The Best Man and the Bride. From Sumer to St. John,’ JNES 9 (1950), 65-75. (Selms:1950) Senior, Donald P., The Passion Narrative According to Matthew. A Redactional Study BEThL 39, Leuven: Peeters, 1982. (Senior:1982) Sevrin, Jean-Marie, ‘Un groupement de trois parables contre les richesses dans l’Évangile selon Thomas,’ in: Delorme:1989, 423-439. (Sevrin:1989) Sharon, Diane M., Patterns of Destiny, Narrative Structures of Foundation and Doom in the Hebrew Bible, Winona Lake: Eisenbrauns, 2002. (Sharon:2002) Shellard, Barbara, New Light on Luke. Its Purpose, Sources and Literary Context JSNT.S 215, Sheffield: Sheffield Academic, 2002. (Shellard:2002) Shepherd, Tom, Markan Sandwich Stories. Narration, Definition and Function AUSDDS 18, Berrien Springs: Andrews University, 1993. (Shepherd:1993) Sherlock, Charles, The God Who Fights. The War Tradition in Holy Scripture Rutherford Studies in Contemporary Theology 6, Lewiston: Edwin Mellen, 1993. (Sherlock: 1993) Shogren, Gary Steven, ‘“Is the Kingdom of God About Eating and Drinking or Isn’t It?” (Romans 14:17),’ NT 42 (2002), 238-256. (Shogren:2002) Sim, David C., ‘Matthew 22:13a and 1 Enoch 10:4a: A Case of Literary Dependence?,’ JSNT 47 (1992), 3-19. (Sim:1992) Sim, David C., Apocalyptic Eschatology in the Gospel of Matthew MSSNTS 88, Cambridge: Cambridge University, 1996. (Sim:1996) Sim, Unyong, Das himmlische Jerusalem in Apk 21,1-22,5 im Kontext biblisch-jüdischer Tradition und antiken Städtebau BAC 25, Trier: Wissenschaftlicher, 1996. (Sim: 1996) Sim, David C., The Gospel of Matthew and Christian Judaism: The History and Social Setting of the Matthean Community, Edinburgh: T&T Clark, 1998. (Sim:1998) Slater, William J., ‘Peace, the Symposium and the Poet,’ ICS 6 (1981), 205-214. (Slater: 1981) Slater, William J., ‘Sympotic Ethics in the Odyssey,’ in: Murray:1990, 213-220. (Slater: 1990) Slater, William J. (ed.), Dining in a Classical Context, Ann Arbor: University of Michigan, 1991. (Slater:1991) Smend, Rudolf, ‘Essen und Trinken – ein Stück Weltlichkeit des Alten Testaments,’ in: Herbert Donner/Robert Hanhart/Rudolf Smend (eds.), Beiträge zur Alttestamentlichen Theologie, FS Walther Zimmerli; Göttingen: Vandenhoeck und Ruprecht, 1977, 446459. (Smend:1977) Smith, Dennis E., ‘Table Fellowship as a Literary Motif in the Gospel of Luke,’ JBL 106 (1987), 613-638. (Smith:1987)

434

Bibliography

Smith, Dennis E., ‘The Messianic Banquet Reconsidered,’ in: Pearson/Kraabel/ Nickelsburg:1991, 64-73. (Smith:1991) Smith, Dennis E., ‘Messianic Banquet,’ ABD 4, 788-791. (Smith:1992) Smith, D. Moody, The Theology of the Gospel of John New Testament Theology, Cambridge: Cambridge University, 1995. (Smith:1995) Smith, Morton, ‘On the Wine God in Palestine’, in: idem, The Cult of Yahweh 1, Brill: Leiden, 1996, 227-237. (Smith:1996) Smith, Morton, ‘The Troublemakers,’ William Horbury/William D. Davies/John Sturdy (eds.), The Cambridge History of Judaism 3, Cambridge: Cambridge University, 1999, 501-568. (Smith:1999) Smith, Dennis E. From Symposium to Eucharist. The Banquet in the Early Christian World, Minneapolis: Fortress, 2003. (Smith:2003) Smitmans, Adolf, Das Weinwunder von Kana: die Auslegung von Jo 2,1-11 bei den Vätern und heute BGBE 6, Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 1966. (Smitmans:1966) Söding, Thomas, ‘Das Mahl des Herrn: Zur Gestalt und Theologie der ältesten nachösterlichen Tradition,’ in: Hilberath/Sattler:1995, 134-163. (Söding:1995) Söding, Thomas, ‘Das Gleichnis vom Festmahl (Lk 14,16-24 par Mt 22,1-10),’ in: Rainer Kampling/Thomas Söding (eds.), Ekklesiologie des Neuen Testaments (FS Karl Kertelge), Freiburg: Herder, 1996, 56-84. (Söding:1996) Söding, Thomas, Wege der Schriftauslegung. Methodenbuch zum Neuen Testament, Freiburg: Herder, 1998. (Söding:1998) Soggin, Jan Alberto, ‘Krieg. II. Altes Testament,’ TRE 20, 19-25. (Soggin:1990) Spicq, Ceslaus, ‘TRWGEIN: est-il synonyme de FAGEIN ed d’ESQIEIN dans le Nouveau Testament?,’ NTS 26 (1979), 414-419. (Spicq:1979) Stallmann, Robert C., ‘Divine Hospitality and Wisdom’s Banquet in Proverbs 9:1-6,’ in: James I. Packer/Sven K. Soderlund, The Way of Wisdom, FS Bruce K. Waltke, Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 117-133, 2000. (Stallmann:2000) Stanley, Christopher D., ‘Who is Afraid of a Thief in the Night,’ NTS 48 (2002), 468486. (Stanley:2002) Stanton, Graham N., ‘The Origin and Purpose of Matthew’s Sermon on the Mount,’ in: Hawthorne/Betz:1987, 181-192. (Stanton:1987) Stare, Mira, Durch ihn leben: die Lebensthematik in Joh 6, NTA NF 49, Münster: Aschendorff, 2004. (Stare:2004) Stauffer, Ethelbert, ‘avgw,n ktl,’ ThWNT 1, 134-140. (Stauffer:1933a) Stauffer, Ethelbert, ‘avqle,w ktl,’ ThWNT 1, 166-167. (Stauffer:1933b) Stauffer, Ethelbert, ‘game,w’ ThWNT 1, 646-655. (Stauffer:1933c) Steck, Odil Hannes, Israel und das gewaltsame Geschick der Propheten WMANT 23, Neukirchen-Vluyn: Neukirchener, 1967. (Steck:1967) Steffen, Daniel S., The Messianic Banquet as a Paradigm for Israel-Gentile Salvation in Matthew, Ph.D. dissertation, Dallas Theological Seminary, 2001. (Steffen:2001) Stegemann, Ekkehard W./Wolfgang Stegemann, Urchristliche Sozialgeschichte, Stuttgart: Kohlhammer2, 1997. (Stegemann/Stegemann:1997) Stegemann, Wolfgang, ‘Kulturanthropologie des Neuen Testaments,’ VuF 44 (1999), 2854. (Stegemann:1999) Stegner, William Richard, Narrative Theology in Early Jewish Christianity, Louisville: Westminster John Knox, 1989. (Stegner:1989) Stein, S., ‘The Influence of Symposia Literature on the Literary Form of the Pesah Haggadah,’ in: Henry A. Fischer (ed.), Essays in Greco-Roman and Related Talmudic Literature, New York: KTAV Publishing, 1977, 198-229. (Stein:1977)

Bibliography

435

Stemberger, Günter, Der Leib der Auferstehung: Studien zur Anthropologie und Eschatologie des palästinensischen Judentums im neutestamentlichen Zeitalter (ca. 170 v. Chr. – 100 n. Chr.) AnBib 56, Rome: Pontifical Biblical Institute, 1972. (Stemberger:1972) Stemberger, Günter, ‘Pesachhaggada und Abendmahlsberichte des Neuen Testaments,’ Kairos 29 (1987), 147-158. (Stemberger:1987) Stemberger, Günter, Einführung in Talmud und Midrasch, München8, 1992. (Stemberger: 1992) Stenger, Jan, ‘Nektar,’ DNP 8, 807. (Stenger:2000) Stevenson, Gregory, Power and Place. Temple and Identity in the Book of Revelation BZNW 107, Berlin: De Gruyter, 2001. (Stevenson:2001) Stirtzky, Maria-Barbara von, ‘Hochzeit I,’ RAC 15, 911-930. (Stirtzky:1991) Stowasser, Martin, Johannes der Täufer im Vierten Evangelium: eine Untersuchung zu seiner Bedeutung für die johanneische Gemeinde ÖBS 12, Klosterneuburg: Österreichisches Katholisches Bibelwerk, 1992. (Stowasser:1992) Strecker, Georg, Der Weg der Gerechtigkeit. Untersuchung zur Theologie des Matthäus FRLANT 82, Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht2, 1966. (Strecker:1966) Strecker, Georg, ‘Die Makarismen in der Bergpredigt,’ NTS 17 (1970), 255-275. (Strecker:1970) Strecker, Georg, Die Bergpredigt. Ein exegetischer Kommentar, Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1984. (Strecker:1984) Strobel, August, ‘Zum Verständnis von Mt XXV 1-13,’ NT 2 (1958), 199-227. (Strobel: 1958) Strobel, August, ‚“In dieser Nacht.” Zu einer älteren Form der Erwartung in Lk 17, 2037,’ ZThK 58 (1961), 16-29. (Strobel:1961) Stuhlmacher, Peter, ‘Das neutestamentliche Zeugnis vom Herrenmahl,’ ZThK 84 (1987), 1-35. (Stuhlmacher:1987) Sussman, Varda, ‘Lighting the Way Through History. The Evolution of Oillamps,’ BAR 9 (1985), 42-56. (Sussman:1985) Sweet, John, Revelation, London: SCM, 1979. (Sweet:1979) Swete, Henry Barclay, The Apocalypse of St John, London: MacMillan, 1906. (Swete: 1906) Taeger, Jens-W., Johannesapokalypse und johanneischer Kreis. Versuch einer traditionsgeschichtlichen Ortsbestimmung am Paradigma der Lebenswasser-Thematik BZNW 51, Berlin: De Gruyter, 1988. (Taeger:1988) Taeger, Jens-W., ‘“Gesiegt, O himmlische Musik des Wortes!“ Zur Entfaltung des Siegesmotivs in den johanneischen Schriften,’ ZNW 85 (1994), 23-46. (Taeger:1994) Tagawa, Kenzo, ‘People and Community in the Gospel of Matthew,’ NTS 16 (1970), 149-162. (Tagawa:1970) Talgam, Rina, ‘Dionysos in the Mosaics of Eretz-Israel,’ in: Rosenthal-Heginbottom: 1998, 28-32. (Talgam:1998) Talmon, Shemaryahu, ‘The Desert Motif in the Bible and in Qumran Literature,’ in idem, Literary Studies in the Hebrew Bible, Jerusalem: Magness, 1993, 216-254. (Talmon: 1993) Tanghe, Vincent, ‘Abraham, son fils et son envoyé (Luc 16, 19-31),’ RB 91 (1984), 557577. (Tanghe:1984) Tannehill, Robert C., ‘The Lukan Discourse on Invitations (Luke 14,7-24),’ in: Tuckett/ Van Belle/Verheyden:1992, 1603-1616. (Tannehill:1992) Theißen, Gerd/Annette Merz, Der historische Jesus. Ein Lehrbuch, Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht3, 2001. (Theißen/Merz:2001)

436

Bibliography

Theißen, Gerd, Urchristliche Wundergeschichten SNT 8, Gütersloh: Gütersloher, 1974. (Theißen:1974a) Theißen, Gerd ‘Soziale Integration und sakramentales Handeln,’ NT 16 (1974), 179-206. (Theißen:1974b) Theißen, Gerd, Lokalkolorit und Zeitgeschichte in den Evangelien. Ein Beitrag zur Geschichte der synoptischen Tradition NTOA 8, Freiburg i.B.: Universitätsverlag, 1989. (Theißen:1989) Theißen, Gerd, Zeichensprache des Glaubens. Chancen der Predigt heute, Gütersloh: Gütersloher, 1994. (Theißen:1994) Theißen, Gerd, Die Religion der ersten Christen: eine Theorie des Urchristentums, Gütersloh: Gütersloher, 2000. (Theißen:2000) Theobald, Michael, ‘Der Primat der Synchronie vor der Diachronie als Grundaxiom der Literarkritik. Methodische Erwägungen an hand von Mk 2,13-17/Mt 9,9-13,’ BZ 22 (1978), 161-186. (Theobald:1978) Theobald, Michael, ‘Schriftzitate im “Lebensbrote”-Dialog Jesu (Joh 6). Ein Paradigma für den Schriftgebrauch des vierten Evangelisten,’ in: Tuckett:1997, 327-366. (Theobald:1997) Thiselton, Anthony C., The First Epistle to the Corinthians. A Commentary on the Greek Text NIGTC, Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2000. (Thiselton:2000) Thyen, Hartmut, ‘Aus der Literatur zum Johannesevangelium,’ ThR 43 (1978), 328-359. (Thyen:1978) Thyen, Hartmut Das Johannesevangelium HNT 6, Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 2005. (Thyen:2005) Tigchelaar, Eibert J. C., ‘Eden and Paradise: the Garden Motif in Some Early Jewish Texts (1 Enoch and Other Texts Found at Qumran),’ in: Luttikhuizen:1999, 37-61. (Tigchelaar:1999) Tilborg, Sjef van, Reading John in Ephesus NT.S 83, Leiden: Brill, 1996. (Tilborg:1996) Tilly, Michael, Johannes der Täufer und die Biographie der Propheten. Die Synoptische Täuferüberlieferung und das jüdische Prophetenbild zur Zeit des Täufers BWANT 137, Stuttgart: Kohlhammer, 1994. (Tilly:1994) Tomson, Peter J., ‘Jewish Food Laws in Early Christian Community Discourse,’ Semeia 86 (1999), 193-211. (Tomson:1999) Toorn, Karel van der, Family Religion in Babylonia, Syria and Israel. Continuity and Change in the Forms of Religious Life Studies in the History and Culture of the Ancient Near East 7, Leiden: Brill, 1996. (Toorn:1996) Trilling, Wolfgang, ‘Zur Überlieferungsgeschichte des Gleichnisses vom Hochzeitsmahl Mt 22, 1-14,’ BZ 4 (1960), 251-265. (Trilling:1960) Trimaille, Michel, ‘“Manger et boire” dans l’oeuvre de Luc,’ in: Quesnel/Blanchard/ Tassin:1999, 121-137. (Trimaille:1999) Tschernia, A., Le vin de l’Italie romain: essai d’histoire économique d’après les amphores, Rome: Ecole française, 1986. (Tschernia:1986) Tuckett, Christopher M., Q and the History of Early Christianity, Edinburgh: T&T Clark, 1996. (Tuckett:1996) Tuckett, Christopher M. (ed.), The Scriptures in the Gospels BEThL 131, Leuven: Peeters, 1997. (Tuckett:1997) Tuckett, Christopher M. ‘Q 22:28-30,’ in: Horrell, David G./Christopher M. Tuckett (eds.) Christology, Controversy and Community, New Testament Essays in Honour of David R. Catchpole NT.S 99, Leiden: Brill, 2000, 99-116. (Tuckett:2000) Turner, John D. ‘The History of Religions Background of John 10,’ in: Beutler/ Fortna:1991, 33-52. (Turner:1991)

Bibliography

437

Uehlinger, Christoph, ‘Leviathan’ DDD, 511-515. (Uehlinger:1999) Ulfgard, Håkan, Feast and Future. Revelation 7:9-17 and the Feast of Tabernacles, Upsala: Almqvist & Wiksell International, 1989. (Ulfgard:1989) Unnik, Willem C. van, ‘De la règle mh,te prosqei/nai, mh,te avfeilei/n dans l’histoire du canon,’ VigChr 3 (1949), 1-36. (Unnik:1949) Un-Sok Ro, Johannes, Die sogenannte “Armenfrömmigkeit” im nachexilischen Israel BZAW 322, Berlin: De Gruyter, 2002. (Un-Sok Ro:2002) Utzschneider, Helmut/Stefan Ark Nitsche, Arbeitsbuch literaturwissenschaftliche Bibelauslegung, Gütersloh: Kaiser, 2001. (Utzschneider/Nitsche:2001) Segbroeck, Frans van/Christopher M. Tuckett/Gilbert van Belle/Jacques Verheyden (eds.), The Four Gospels 1992 BEThL 100, Leuven: Peeters, 1992. (Van Segbroeck/ Tuckett/Van Belle/Verheyden:1992) VanderKam, James C., ‘Sabbatical Chronologies in the Dead Sea Scrolls and Related Literature,’ in: Timothy H. Lim/Larry Hurtado (eds.), The Dead Sea Scrolls In Their Historical Context, Edinburgh: T&T Clark, 2000, 159-178. (VanderKam:2000) Vanoni, Gottfried, ‘Dienen,’ NBL 1, 428-431. (Vanoni:1988) Vanoni, Gottfried, ‘x;mef',’ ThWAT 8, 807-822. (Vanoni:1995) Veerkamp, Ton, ‘Die Frau am Jakobsbrunnen,’ TeKo 101/102 (2004), 71-95. (Veerkamp: 2004) Verheyden, Jacques, ‘The Conclusion of Q. Eschatology in Q 22,28-30,’ in: Lindemann: 2001, 695-718. (Verheyden:2001) Versnel, Henk S., Transition and Reversal in Myth and Ritual Inconsistencies in Greek and Roman Religion 2, Leiden: Brill, 1993. (Versnel:1993) Vetrale, Tecle, ‘”Ecco, io sto alla porta e busco” (Ap 3,20). L’amore risveglia il fervore e sollecita l’incontro,’ StEc 13 (1995), 271-295. (Vetrale:1995) Villard, Pierre, ‘Boire seul dans l’antiquité grecque,’ in: Martin Aurell/Olivier Dumoulin/ Françoise Thelamon (eds.), La sociabilité à table Publications de l’Université de Rouen 178, Mont Saint Aignan: Université de Rouen, 1992, 77-81. (Villard:1992) Vledder, Evert-Jan, Conflict in the Miracle Stories. A Socio-Exegetical Study of Matthew 8 and 9 JSNT.S 152, Sheffield: Sheffield Academic, 1997. (Vledder:1997) Vögtle, Anton, ‘Die Einladung zum großen Gastmahl und zum königlichen Hochzeitsmahl. Ein Paradigma für den Wandel des geschichtlichen Verständnishorizonts,’ in: idem, Das Evangelium und die Evangelien KBANT, Düsseldorf: Patmos, 1971, 171218. (Vögtle:1971) Vögtle, Anton, ‘”Da sah ich einen neuen Himmel und eine neue Erde…” (Apk 21,1),’ in: Erich Gräßer/Otto Merk (eds.), Glaube und Eschatologie, FS Werner Georg Kümmel, Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 1985, 303-333. (Vögtle:1985) Vögtle, Anton, Gott und seine Gäste. Das Schicksal des Gleichnisses Jesu vom großen Gastmahl BThS 29, Neukirchen-Vluyn: Neukirchener, 1996. (Vögtle:1996) Volz, Paul, Die Eschatologie der jüdischen Gemeinde im neutestamentlichen Zeitalter, Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 1934. (Volz:1934) Vos, Louis A., The Synoptic Traditions in the Apocalypse, Kampen: Kok, 1965. (Vos: 1965) Wainwright, Geoffrey, Eucharist and Eschatology, London: Epworth, 1971. (Wainwright:1971) Wallace, Howard N., ‘Tree of Knowledge and Tree of Life,’ ABD 6, 656-660. (Wallace: 1992) Walsh, Carey Ellen, The Fruit of the Vine: Viticulture in Ancient Israel HSM 60, Winona Lake: Eisenbrauns, 2000. (Walsh:2000)

438

Bibliography

Wanke, Joachim, Beobachtungen zum Eucharistieverständnis des Lukas, Leipzig: Benno, 1973. (Wanke:1973) Wasserberg, Günter, Aus Israels Mitte – Heil für die Welt. Eine narrativ-exegetische Studie zur Theologie des Lukas BZNW 92, Berlin: De Gruyter, 1998. (Wasserberg: 1998) Watts Henderson, Suzanne, ‘“Concerning the Loaves’ Comprehending Incomprehension in Mark 6.45-52,’ JSNT 69 (2001), 3-26. (Watts Henderson:2001) Webster, Jane S., Ingesting Jesus. Eating and Drinking in the Gospel of John SBL Academia Biblia 6, Atlanta: SBL, 2003. (Webster:2003) Weder, Hans, Die Gleichnisse Jesu als Metaphern. Traditons- und redaktions-geschichtliche Analysen und Interpretationen FRLANT 120, Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1978. (Weder:1978) Weder, Hans, Die “Rede der Reden”, Zürich: TVZ, 1985. (Weder:1985) Weeber, Karl Wilhelm, Die Schwelgerei, das süße Gift…Luxus im alten Rom, Darmstadt: Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft, 2003. (Weeber:2003) Wegner, Uwe, Der Hauptman von Kafarnaum: Mt 7,28a; 8,5-10.13 par Lk 7,1-10: ein Beitrag zur Q-Forschung WUNT 2.14, Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 1985. (Wegner: 1985) Welck, Christian, Erzählte Zeichen WUNT 2.69, Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 1994. (Welck:1994). Wengst, Klaus, Das Johannesevangelium ThKNT 4.1, Stuttgart: Kohlhammer, 2000. (Wengst:2000) Weren, Wim/Wim Beuken (eds.), Brood uit de hemel: lijnen van Exodus 16 naar Johannes 6 tegen de achtergrond van de rabbijnse literatuur, Kampen: Kok, 1985. (Weren/Beuken:1985) Weren, Wim J. C., ‘From Q to Matthew 22,1-14,’ in: Lindemann:2001, 661-679. (Weren: 2001) Wick, Peter, Die urchristlichen Gottesdienste BWANT 150, Stuttgart: Kohlhammer2, 2003. (Wick:2003) Wick, Peter, ‘Jesus gegen Dionysios? Ein Beitrag zur Kontextualisierung des Johannesevangeliums,’ Bib 85 (2004), 179-198. (Wick:2004) Wieser, Friedrich Emanuel, Die Abrahamsvorstellungen im Neuen Testament, Bern: Lang, 1987. (Wieser:1987) Wilckens, Ulrich, Das Evangelium nach Johannes NTD 4, Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 2000. (Wilckens:2000) Wilkins, John/David Harvey/Mike Dobson, Food in Antiquity, Exeter: University of Exeter, 1995. (Wilkins/Harvey/Dobson:1995) Williams, Ritva H., ‘The Mother of Jesus at Cana: A Social-Science Interpretation,’ CBQ 59 (1999), 679-692. (Williams:1999) Wilson, Jeffrey, ‘The Integrity of John 3:22-26,’ JSNT 10 (1982), 24-41. (Wilson:1982) Winter, Martin, Das Vermächtnis Jesu und die Abschiedsworte der Väter. Gattungsgeschichtliche Unterschung der Vermächtnisrede im Blick auf Joh. 13-17 FRLANT 161, Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1994. (Winter:1994) Wood, Ron C., Sociology of the Meal, Edinburgh: Edinburgh University. (Wood:1995) Wright, C. J. H., ‘Family,’ ABD 2, 761-769. (Wright:1992) Wright, N. T., Jesus and the Victory of God, Minneapolis: Fortress, 1996. (Wright:1996) Wright, Stephen I., ‘Parables on Poverty and Riches (Luke 12:13-21; 16:1-13; 16:1931),’ in: Richard N. Longenecker (ed.), The Challenge of Jesus’ Parables, Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2000, 217-239. (Wright:2000)

Bibliography

439

Yadin, Yigael, Bar Kokhba: Rediscovery of the Legendary Hero of the Second Jewish Revolt, Jerusalem: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1971. (Yadin:1971) Yadin, Yigael, The Temple Scroll. The Hidden Law of the Dead Sea Sect, London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1985. (Yadin:1985) Yarbro Collins, Adela, The Combat Myth in the Book of Revelation HDR 9 (Missoula: Scholars, 1976. (Yarbro Collins:1976) York, John O., The Last Shall Be First. The Rhetoric of Reversal in Luke JSNT.S 46, Sheffield: Sheffield Academic, 1991. (York:1991) Zangenberg, Jürgen, SAMAREIA. Antike Quellen zur Geschichte und Kultur der Samaritaner in deutscher Übersetzung TANZ 15, Tübingen: Francke, 1994. (Zangenberg:1994) Zangenberg, Jürgen, Frühes Christentum in Samarien. Topographische und traditionsgeschichtliche Studien zu den Samarientexten im Johannesevangelium TANZ 27, Tübingen: Francke, 1998. (Zangenberg:1998) Zeller, Dieter, ‘Das Logion Mt 8,11f/Lk 13:28f und das Motiv der “Völkerwahlfahrt”,’ BZ 16 (1973), 222-237 and BZ 17 (1974), 84-93. (Zeller:1973/Zeller:1974) Zeller, Dieter, ‘Seligpreisung,’ NBL 3, 564-565. (Zeller:2001) Zenger, Erich, ‘Königspsalmen,’ NBL 2, 510-513. (Zenger:1995) Ziesler, J. A., ‘The Removal of the Bridegroom: A Note on Mark II. 18-22 and Parallels,’ NTS 19 (1973), 190-194. (Ziesler:1973) Zimmerli, Walther, Ezekiel 2, BK 13, Neukirchen-Vluyn: Neukirchener, 1979. (Zimmerli:1979) Zimmermannm Mirjam/Ruben Zimmermann, ‘Der Freund des Bräutigams (Joh 3,29): Deflorations- oder Christuszeuge,’ ZNW 90 (1999), 123-130. (Zimmermann/Zimmermann:1999) Zimmermann, Ruben, Geschlechtermetaphorik und Gottesverhältnis WUNT 2.122, Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 2001. (Zimmermann:2001) Zimmermann, Ruben, ‘Das Hochzeitsritual im Jungfrauengleichnis. Sozialgeschichtliche Hintergründe zu Mt 25.1-13,’ NTS 48 (2002), 48-70. (Zimmermann:2002) Zimmermann, Ruben, ‘“Bräutigam“ als frühjüdisches Messias-Prädikat?,’ BN 103 (2003), 85-100. (Zimmermann:2003) Zumstein, Jean, Kreative Erinnerung. Relecture und Auslegung im Johannesevangelium (Trans. Esther Straub), Zürich: Pano, 1999. (Zumstein:1999) Zumstein, Jean, ‘Le lavement des pieds (Jean 13,1-20), un exemple de la conception johannique du pouvoir,’ RThPh 132 (2000), 345-360. (Zumstein:2000) Zwickel, Wolfgang, Der Tempelkult in Kanaan und Israel FAT 10, Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 1991. (Zwickel:1991) Zwickel, Wolfgang, ‘Die Tempelquelle Ezechiel 47,’ EvTh 55 (1995), 140-154. (Zwickel:1995) Zwickel, Wolfgang, Der salomonische Tempel Kulturgeschichte der antiken Welt 83, Mainz: Von Zabern, 1999. (Zwickel:1999)

Software BibleWorks 6.0, Norfolk, VA: BibleWorks LCC, 2003. Thesaurus linguae Graecae E, Irvine: University of California, 1999.

Index of Ancient Sources

Old Testament/Hebrew Bible 12Genesis 1-2 1-3 1-9 1:2 1:21 1:26-30 2-3 2:4-3:24 2:9 2:10-14 3:14 3:22 3:24 5:24 7:16 8:2 9:18-29 11:1-9 12:2-3 13 13:16 15:5 15:6 17:4 18 18:1-8 19:12 19:14 21:22 21:32 22:1 22:17 23:2 24 24:10 24:22

287 17, 28 17 356 356 57 361, 362 54 28, 367 29 368 28 28 41 248 356 105 42 151 58 346 346 152 152 92 142 43 43 278 278 302 346 218 (LXX) 288 244 244

24:54 26:4 26:12-23 26:26 26:28-31 26:30-31 27:1-40 27:28 29:21 29:22 30:13 31:7 31:12 31:46-54 31:54 32:2-3 32:13 33:19 34:9 40:16-18 41:21 41:25 41:55 43:32 48:22 49:10-12 49:11

191 346 58 278 93, 191 58, 105, 191 248 105 40 105 127 (LXX) 244 43 93 5, 191 22 346 285 43 224 132 132 266 192 285 270 105

Exodus 2:15-22 3:3 3:6 3:8 3:14 3:17 3:23 3:32

288 224 151 17 291 17 224 224

442 4:25-26 7:9 12:1-11 12:7 12:13 12:14 12:22-28 12:37 12:39 13:3 13:5 13:18 13:20 14:3 14:11-12 15 15:12 15:22 15:22-27 15:25 16 16:1-36 16:1-17:7 16:2 16:4 16:7 16:8 16:12 16:13 16:15 16:15-21 16:31 16:32-34 17:1-7 17:3 18:5 18:12 18:21 18:25 19-34 19:1-2 19:8 19:9 19:10-11 19:16 19:20 19:20-23:33 20:2-13 20:20 20:24 22:31 23:15

Index of Ancient Sources 43 356 93 345 345 183 345 224 132 183 17 70 70 70 70 22 24 70 287 302 29, 382 69, 70, 77, 305 4, 70 312, 313 302, 307, 310 312, 313 80 80, 312, 313 70 310 304 337 334 305 312 70 5 70, 75 132 359 70 267 267 267 267 267 122 4 302 93 174 368

23:17 23:31 24:1-11 24:1-14 24:7 24:8 24:9-11 24:11 24:23 28:11-21 28:17-21 28:30 32:6 33:3 34:6 34:13 34:15 34:26

368 174 3, 93, 191 189 266 108, 181, 254 5, 105 21, 191 22 345 335 335 105, 191 17 129 304 95 105

Leviticus 3:1-9 4:7 4:18 4:25 4:30 4:34 7:11-12 8:2 8:26 8:31 10:9 11:27 19:2 20:24 21:17-23 26:31

93 253 253 253 253 253 93 224 224 224 106 174 129 17 162 233

Numbers 1:1-54 6:1-5 6:1-21 6:3 6:15 6:17 6:19 6:25 11 11:1 11:1-20 11:5 11:7-9

347 106 95 105 224 224 224 369 382 312 70 71, 72 29, 69, 70

Index of Ancient Sources 11:12 11:13 11:21 11:21-22 11:22 11:31-32 13-16 13:23-24 13:27 14:8 14:22 14:27 14:29 14:39 15:1-29 16 16:13-14 16:29-34 16:30 16:32 16:34 17:6 17:20 18:12 20:5 22-24 23:26-32 25:1 26:1-56 26:10 27:17

168 302 224 132 71, 72 70 95 105 17 17 244 312 312 218 (LXX) 105 50 17 49 24 24 24 312 312 105 105 333 49 325 347 24 64, 70, 74, 75

Deuteronomy 4:1-2 4:10 4:31 4:44-26:19 6:3 6:11 8:2-6 8:3 8:7 7:3 7:13 8:7-8 11:6 11:9 11:14 12-26 12:7-18 12:16

374 280 129 123 17 17, 105 29, 69 70, 205, 310 29 43 105 105 24 17 105 363 3, 5, 93 105

12:32 13:3 14:23 14:26 14:28-29 15:2-11 15:20 16:1-8 16:11-14 18:15-22 20:5-7 22:22-27 24:5 26:1 26:9 26:15 27:3 27:7 27:15-28:14 28:39 29:19-20 30:1-4 30:20 31:1 31:20 32:14 32:32 32:38 32:39 32:45 33:2-5 33:26-29 57:6 65:11

443 374 302 5 5, 93 176 176 5, 93 93 93 305 162 40 42, 283 94 17 17 17 5 126 105 374 304 103 248 (LXX) 17 105 106 106 103 248 22 22, 127 106 106

Joshua 1:11 5:6 5:12 5:13-15 6:5 6:16 6:20 9:5 9:6 10:12-13 11:14 14:11 15:37 23:12 24:2

132 17 69 22 233 233 233 132 79 (LXX) 22 132 49 227 43 152

Index of Ancient Sources

444 Judges 2:22-3:1 3:10 5 5:30 6:19 7:4 7:8 8:26 9 9:27 12:11 13 13:10-11 14 14:20 15:2 15:6 19:4 19:5 19:6 19:8 19:19 19:21 20:10 20:26 21:4

302 189 22 129 224 302 132 173 105 191 191 105 279 50, 105 278, 279 279 43, 279 190 43 190 190 190 190 132 93 93

20:29 20:34 21:13 22:14 25:41 28:7-20 29:24-29 30:16

192 191, 192 50 43 142 176 93 191

2 Samuel 3:20-21 5:22-25 6:17 6:18-19 9:7 9:9-13 9:10-11 9:13 10:4 11:11 11:13 12:3 12:8 12:21 12:21-23 19:29 19:35 22:7-18

93 22 93 3, 93 192 143 192 192 233 191 106, 191 168 168 191 50 192 191 22

Ruth 3:3 4:2 4:16-17

191 244 168

1 Samuel 1:3-4 1:7 1:8 2:1-10 8:14 9:11-14 9:27 16-17 16:5 16:11 18:18 18:21 18:22-23 18:26-27 20:24 20:27

93 191 244 127 106 5, 93 281 58 93 93 43 43 43 43 192 192

1 Kings 1:25 1:33 2:7 2:21 2:27-29 3:1 3:20 4:20-25 5:1 5:5 5:5 6-7 7:8 8:65 11:1-8 11:21 13:20 16:8-9 17:1 17:7-17 17:7-24

191 143 192 50 50 43, 191 168 191 192 191 105 361, 362 232 191 232 151 192 106 287 68, 132 265

Index of Ancient Sources 17:8-24 17:12 17:15-16 17:16 18:5-8 18:41-42 19 19:6 19:8 19:13 20:15-21 21:1-2 21:4 21:19 21:24 21:27 22:17 25:41 28:20

305 222 271 224 191 191 359 191 191 280 106 106 191 174 174 50 70, 74, 75, 280 191 191

2 Kings 4:1-7 4:2 4:6 4:6-7 4:38 4:42-44

4:43 4:44 5:18 6:15-19 6:22-23 7:6 8:27 9:34 9:37 12:15-23 13:13 14:16 14:29 17:24-34 18:24 18:31 23:27

68 223 271 224 68 67, 68, 71, 74, 79, 223, 303, 304, 305, 382 75, 132 77, 80 224 191 22 191 22 43 191 354 50 151 151 151 291 143 191 233

1 Chronicles 9:29 11:18-19 12:39

105 314 191

27:1-15 27:23 29:22

445 347 346 3, 93, 191

2 Chronicles 13:11 18:1 18:16 29:31 30:9 30:10 31:10 32:31 32:33 33:16

192 43 70, 74 93 129 232 191 302 151 93

1 Maccabees 1:25-28 1:47 4:46 8:14 9:27 9:39 9:73 10:7 10:62 13:51 14:12 14:41-43

50 269 305 173 345 49, 279 189 269 173 347 105 305

2 Maccabees 1:27-28 2:4-8 2:18 4:33-38 6:7 7 7:9 7:11 7:14 7:23 7:29 7:36 11:8 12:43-45 14:33 14:46 15:12-16

195 334 195 103 269 103 296 296 296 296 296 296 347 296 269 296 103

Index of Ancient Sources

446 3 Maccabees 2:29 5:16

269 76

4 Maccabees 5:2 5:37 6:6 6:10 6:28-29 6:29 7:13 7:19 9:8 9:24 12:17 13:2 13:17 15:3 16:16-23 16:21 16:24-25 17:11-16 17:18-19 17:22 18:16 18:16-23 18:23-24

95 152 316 330 103 184 351 103, 151 103 103 103 143 152 151, 296 178 103 103, 151, 152 330 103, 151 103, 184 28 103 151

Psalms 1:1-12 1:3 2 2:10 2:12 6:9 12:6 14:7 16 16:15 18 18:7-18 18:25 19:5-6 19:6 21:16 22:27 23 23:1-2 23:1-3

126 332 356 189 126 153 127 234 193 205 356 22 208 43 42, 283 174 27 58, 77, 131, 225 348 (LXX) 27

23:2 23:4 23:5 24 24:3-6 24:4 25 26 32:1-12 32:12 33:7 33:11 34 34:7 34:8 34:11 34:14 34:19 35 35:16 36:8-9 36:18-19 37 37:11 37:12 37:19 40 40:5 40:18 41:1 41:3 41:10 42:2 42:3 42:8 44 44:20 45 45:14 45:16 46 46:2-8 46:4-5 46:5 48 48:5-9 50:3-5 62 63:1 63:10 65:5

76, 223, 287, 303 94 5, 22, 23, 27, 87, 92, 93, 105, 107 356, 362 368 208 127 356 126 157 356 205 127 127 126 127 218 (LXX) 157 127 215 348 205 127 210 215 127 127 157 127 126 205 82 206, 287 368 356 252 (LXX) 94 25, 26, 44 352 42, 283 356 360 348 362 17, 356 360 205 127 207, 287 309 309

Index of Ancient Sources 65:10 68 69 70:6 72 72:17 73 73-83 74:12-18 74:13-14 74:14 74:14-17 75:9 76 77:2 77:17-21 77:18 77:38 78:23-25 78:24 78:25 79:2-3 80:4 80:7 84:12 84:13 85:15 87:3 87:4 89 89:8-11 89:16 92:12-13 93:1-12 95:3 95:5 96:5 96:10 97 98:4 102 102:5 102:8 104 104:1 104:10-13 104:11-28 104:14-15 104:24-26 104:30 105:1 105:5

362 22 127 127 57 126 55, 127 58 356 3, 24, 355 10 286 24, 106 127, 356 183 286 356 129 69 70, 307, 310 4, 29, 132 316 369 224 126 157 129 360 356 356 356 157 332 362 362 362 362 362 356 42 127 191 129 57 351 29 362 7, 105, 106, 107 24, 355 287 351 183

105:40 106:1 106:5 106:7 106:9 106:13 106:16 106:17 106:21 107 107:1-42 107:2-9 107:3-9 107:10-14 107:26 107:36-41 108:12 109 110:1 110:4 111:1 111:4 112:1 112:9 112:10 113:1 114:1 115:1 116:1 116:13 117:1 118:1 118:24 118:27 119:1 119:105 123:1 127:5 128:2 131:15 132 132:15 134:1 135:1 136 136:25 137 140 143:6 144 144:8

447 29, 69 351 205 (LXX) 312 77 (LXX), 205 (LXX) 312 312 24 312 149 58 304 127 94 356 127 129 127 351 129 351 129, 183 351 127 215 351 351 351 351 107 351 351 42 369 126 246 73 126 127 205 356 7 351 351 7 362 42 127 207, 287 356 129

Index of Ancient Sources

448 145-147 145:1 145:8-9 145:15-16 146:1 146:2 146:5 146:7 147:1 147:7-9 148:1 148:7 149 149:1 149:7 150:1 150:6

57 351 7 7, 362 351 127 157 7, 206 351 362 351 356 127 351 356 351 351

31:22

43 43 24 43 105 126 28, 103, 332 43 43 43 246 43 43 43 356 356 356 168 5, 105 43 311 27, 92, 294 43 28, 332 28 287 348 28, 332 157 191 191

Song of Songs (Cant.)

Proverbs 1-9 43 1:8-3:35 1:10 1:12 2:16-19 3:10 3:13 3:18 5 6:1-19 6:20-7:27 6:23 6:24-35 7:5-27 8:1-36 8:24 8:27-28 8:29 8:30 9:1-6 9:1-18 9:4-5 9:5 9:13-18 11:30 13:12 13:14 14:27 15:4 16:20 23:7 31:4-7

173

Ecclesiastes (Qohelet) 2:24-25 3:13 5:17 7:19 8:15 9:7 10:16 10:16-17 14:1-2 14:20 25:8 28:19 31:8 34:15 48:11 50:28

1:4 3:11 4:11 5:1 5:2 7:3-10

191 191 191 244 191 191 106 126, 127 126 126 126 126 126 126 126 126

42, 283 42, 283, 351 17 5 338, 339, 340, 341 105

Job 1:4 3:5 5:17 7:12 9:13 10:21-22 12:22 16:16 19:3 20:17 24:7 24:9-10 26:12 28:3 34:22 38-41 38:16 38:17 40:15-41:26 42:11

191 94 126 356 356 94 94 94 244 17 94 126 356 94 94 356 356 94 24, 355 191

Index of Ancient Sources Wisdom 3:7-8 3:9 3:13-14 4:2 4:15 9:1-6 9:10 16:20 16:20-26 17:20 19:12 21:17 23:20-21 23:29-35

193, 194 235 126 330 235 93 311 4, 69, 310 29 215 70 106 106 106

Jesus Sirach 4:10 9:1-9 9:9 9:10 14:20-27 15:2-3 15:3 19:1-2 22:21-22 24 24:19-20 24:19-21 24:21 24:21-22 24:25 24:30 25:7-11 25:18 30:18 31:12-32:23 32:1-2 36 39:26 45:10 46:8 48:10 50:15 51:23-24 51:24

192 287 106 121 126 287 311 106 83 92 27, 93 294 205, 311 207 287 287 126 76 94 92, 105, 106 76, 267 195 17 173 17 195 105 294, 311 287

1:19 1:22 2:1-5 2:2 2:2-3 2:2-4 3:10-11 3:14-15 3:26 5:8-23 5:11-22 7:14 8:6-7 9:1 9:3 9:6-7 11:1-9 11:6-9 11:9 11:10-12 11:11-12 12:3 13-14 13:1-22 15:1-10 16:8 16:10 18:7 19:8 19:14 19:18-25 21 21:1 21:5 22:13 23:38 24:4 24:5-7 24:7 24:20 24:21-23 24:23 25:1-5 25:6 25:6-7 25:6-8

Isaiah 1:7 1:9

233 233

25:6-9 25:6-10 25:8

449 8, 26, 27 104 149 359 214 17, 27 128 127 317 126 106 222 362 27, 94 8, 25, 27 27 17, 149 7 359 27 304 294, 348 42 22 43 218 105 27 218 106 27 42 356 191 191 191 218 (LXX) 3 218 (LXX) 43 8 27 21 7, 104, 105 359 2, 3, 4, 8, 9, 10, 22, 23, 58, 90, 92, 93, 149, 165, 204, 355, 379 5 8, 226 24, 344, 348

450 25:15-34 26:1-4 26:15-19 26:19 27:1 27:2-6 27:6 27:12 27:12-13 28:1-4 28:7-8 28:20 29:17-24 29:18 29:19 29:23 30:18 30:19-29 31:9 32:1 32:1-8 32:15 32:16-17 32:16-20 32:20 33:9 33:21 34:6 34:5-8 35:1-10 35:5-7 35:5-6 35:6-7 37:32 40:11 40:26 41:17-18 41:17-20 41:18 42:1-6 42:6 42:18 42:19 43:5 43:5-7 43:20 44:1-5 44:3-4 44:24-28 45:6 45:12

Index of Ancient Sources 24 27 27 225 3, 24, 355, 356 8, 26, 27 27 292 8, 26, 27 106 106 191 4, 26, 27, 127 225 127 225 126, 157 8, 26, 27 126 (LXX) 207 8, 17, 26, 27, 58, 126 287 207 58 127 218 (LXX) 348, 362 5 24 17, 27 225 226 287 153 58 22 287 362 29 149 27, 205, 254 225 143 362 27, 149 29 362 29, 287 362 214 22

45:20 45:22-25 46:22-23 47 48:2 48:12 48:21 49 49-66 49:5-13 49:6 49:9-12 49:10 49:12 49:14-50:3 49:22-23 51:1-16 51:3 51:4 51:7 51:9 51:9-10 51:11-14 51:13-30 51:17-22 52:1 52:2 53:4 53:8 53:11-12 53:12 54-55 54:1-10 54:7 54:13 55 55:1-2 55:1-3 55:5 55:10-11 55:12-13 56:1-8 56:3 56:6-7 56:9 59:19 58 58:7 59:1-11 59:7

27 149 27 42 360 234 5 149 363 8, 26, 27 205, 345 3, 5, 58, 254 27, 127, 205, 210, 348 24 42 27 362 8, 17, 26, 27 24 24 356 286 27 43 24 360 360 254 51 108 254 25 42 27 313 3 8, 26, 27, 58, 92, 93, 105, 287, 294 311, 348 5 311 362 149, 362 27 359 24, 355 214 50 126 3 254

Index of Ancient Sources 60:1 60:1-22 60:3 60:3-4 60:4 60:4-14 60:14 60:21 61-62 61:1-11 61:1-12 61:2-3 61:3 61:7 61:10 62:1-12 62:2 62:4-5 62:5 62:8-9 64:3 65:11 65:13 65:13-16 65:15 65:16 65:17-25 65:25 66 66:10 66:14-15 66:18 66:18-24 66:20 66:21 66:23 66:24 69:10

205 42 205 214 79 (LXX) 27 360 332 353 209 125, 127 205 332, 362 27 25, 42, 43, 45, 280, 283, 350, 352 42 336 42, 283 25, 43 7 23 92 23, 127 3, 5, 27 336 370 7, 56, 362 359 127 363 362 304 149 359, 363 27 149 147 127

Jeremiah 2-3 2:6 2:13 3:15 3:16-17 3:17 7:18 7:34 8:14

41 94 29, 287, 294, 348 (LXX) 66 360 368 106 25, 42, 43 24

9:14 11:5 12:1-4 12:9 13:16 14:1-6 16:5 16:8 16:9 17:10 17:13 17:26 20:7-13 20:12 22:15 22:15-16 23:1-4 23:3-4 23:4 23:5-6 23:9 23:18 25:1-5 25:10 25:15-34 31:3-4 31:8 31:10-14 31:12 31:12-14 31:25 31:31 31:31-34 31:34 32:22 32:29 32:37 33 33:11 34:5-8 35:1-19 38:12 38:25 46:10 48:33 50-51

451 24 17 127 355 94 287 93, 94 105, 191 25, 42, 43 302 29, 287, 294 93 127 302 77, 191, 210 189, 195 58 304 66 17 24 280 42 25, 42, 43 3, 42 41 226, 304 58, 105 127 226 127 181, 254 17, 108 254 17 106 304 363 25, 42, 43, 93, 280 355 106 127 (LXX) 127, 207 (LXX) 3, 5, 24, 355 105 42

Baruch 1:20 2:9-10 2:18

17 309 207

Index of Ancient Sources

452 4-5 4:36-37 5:5

195 149 149

Lamentations 2:12 4:21

105 24

Ezekiel 4:13-17 5:5 5:10 5:12 5:16-17 6:11-12 7:15 7:19 9 9:5 11:4-11 11:17 12:16-20 14:13 14:21 20:6 20:15 20:28 20:37 21 23:31-34 25:22-38 28 28:12-15 28:25 29:3 29:3-5 31 31:2-9 32:1-16 32:2-8 32:4 32:5-6 34:1-10 34:5 34:11-15 34:11-31 34:13-14 34:13-16 34:23 34:23-34 34:23-24

9, 26 361 9, 26 9 9, 26 9, 26 9, 26 9, 26 346 345 50 304 9, 26 9, 26 9, 26 17 17 106 58 362 24 56 361 17 304 356 3 361, 362 28 24, 355 3 10 316 58 66, 70, 75 58 3 5 9, 26 5, 348 66, 74 58

34:29 34:23-31 34:36-27 34:27 34:29 36:1-15 36:8-15 36:16-37 36:29-30 36:34 36:34-35 36:37 37:3 37:7-11 37:24 38-39 38:12 38:14-16 39:1-6 39:1-21 39:17-20 39:20 40-48 43:7-9 44:21 44:24 47 47:1 47:1-12

127 27, 55 226 9, 26 9, 26, 127 55 9, 26 55 9, 26, 127 304 9, 26 9, 26 103 58 66 355 361 356 456 24 3, 5, 24, 380, 381 192 360, 363, 365, 366, 382 360 106 189 361, 362 294, 295 29, 287, 367

Ezra 3:3 4:10 5:11 8:23 9:14 9:54

191 191 143 50 43 191

Nehemia 1:4 6:18 8-10 8:10 9:15 9:17 9:20 9:31 10:30 11:1

50 43 3, 93 191 29, 69, 70, 310 129 69 129 143 360

Index of Ancient Sources 11:8 13:28

360 43

2:23-24 4:3 9:3 10:5

76 106 94 49 49 191 191 191 191 232 309 309 191 281 125, 128 126, 127 351 149

Amos

Tobit 2:1-2 4:15 4:17 6:14 6:17 7:10-11 7:15 8:1 8:20 9:5 12:7 12:11 12:19 13:1 13:14 13:15-16 13:18 14:6-7 Esther 1:1-8 1:6 2:15-20 4:3 4:16-17 5:5-8 7:1-10 8:15

105 76, 173 231 50 191 195 195 173

Judith 4:9-15 8:6 11:4 11:19 12:1-4 12:15-16 12:20 13:4-10 16:17

50 50 143 70 95 76 106 106 215

1:2 2:12 3:12 4:5 5:5 5:8 6:4 6:4-7 6:7 8:8 8:11 9:5 9:11-13

453 105 218 105 218

218 106 76 93 105 94 76 106 93, 94 218 52 (LXX), 205, 207 218 105

Micah 2:11 2:12 4:1-5 4:1-12 4:4 4:6-7 4:14-5:5 5:1-5 5:3

106 58, 304 359 214 105 226 58 149 66

Joel 1:8-12 1:9-10 1:14 2:15-16 2:16 2:18-27 3:1-8 3:2 4:9-13 4:13 4:18 4:18-21

105 218 368 (LXX) 50 43 27, 105 348 356 22 292 362 29, 105

Hosea 1-3 2:1 2:11 2:19-23

41 346 105 25

Obadiah 16

3, 24

Index of Ancient Sources

454 Jonah 3:5-9

9:15-17 9:16 9:17 10:1 10:7 11:12 12:1-9 12:2 12-14 13:1 13:7 14:2 14:8 14:11 14:16 14:18

50 (LXX)

Habbakuk 2:15-17 3:3-15

24 22

Zephaniah 1:7 1:7-9 1:13 2:6-7 2:22 2:13 3 3:8-13 3:14 3:20

5 3 9 9 149 9 127 3 360 304

Malachi 1:11 3:13-31

Haggai 1:10-11

214 55

Daniel 287

Zechariah 1:17 2:15 3:8-10 4 5:5-11 7:6 8:3 8:7 8:11-12 8:19 8:20-23 8:23 9-14 9:9 9:9-17 9:9-10 9:11

9, 27 5 27, 105 27 105 249 356 24 363 362 75 356 294, 295, 348, 362 368 359 29

9, 27 149 9, 27, 105 22 42 191 359 149 9 9 214 243 58 360 3 149 108 (LXX), 254

1:8-16 2:45 3:93 (Th) 6:21 7:9-27 7:18 7:22 7:27 9:3-19 9:11 9:12 9:30 11:21 11:34 12:1 12:2-3 12:10 12:12

95 370 143 143 194 193 193 193 50 143 189 50 345 345 345 297 345 126

New Testament Matthew 1-2 1:3 1:5

215 204, 215 204, 215

1:6 1:20 1:23 2:1-12 2:6

204, 215 40 219, 222, 248, 253 215 195

Index of Ancient Sources 2:7 2:15 3:1-4:11 3:2 3:4 3:9 3:13-17 3:15 3:16 3:18 4:3-4 4:8 4:11 4:12 4:12-15 4:12-17 4:17 4:18-20 4:18-22 4:20 4:21 4:22 4:23 4:23-25 4:24 4:25 5:1-7:29 5:1-2 5:3-6 5:3-10 5:3-12 5:6

5:8 5:10 5:11 5:11-12 5:13-16 5:14 5:14-16 5:17-20 5:19 5:20 5:25 5:44 5:45 6:1 6:6-18 6:8 6:10

214 214 205 251, 253, 278 201 214 278 206, 209 64 223 201 204 202 282 204 205 251, 253, 278 204 205 188 214, 232 188 204 205 170, 204 63, 188, 204 204, 211, 216 205, 206 209 126 204, 206, 208 6, 27, 31, 124, 202, 203, 204-210, 224, 227, 255, 257, 383, 388, 393, 394 368 206, 207, 209 208 205, 209 205 204 245 206 90 209, 214, 247 204 246 235 206, 209 219 223 178

6:10-11 6:11 6:12-15 6:16-18 6:20 6:24 6:25 6:25-34 6:30 6:31 6:33 7:7-11 7:9 7:13-14 7:21 7:24-27 7:25-27 7:28 7:28-29 7:34 8-9 8:1 8:1-17 8:1-15 8:1-9:34 8:5-13 8:10 8:11 8:11-12(par.)

8:15 8:16 8:19 8:22-23 8:26 8:28-34 8:29 9:1 9:1-8 9:1-26 9:9 9:9-13 9:10-13 9:13 9:14

455 210, 255 6, 58, 202, 388 208 73, 201 247 142 202 142 221 202 206, 207, 209 212 202 240 243 205 238 248 206 7 205, 216, 220 63, 188, 204 212 215 211 210-216, 225, 247, 299 188, 255 6, 152 3, 4, 6, 8, 10, 23, 30, 100, 146-148, 202, 203, 215, 220, 255, 256, 257, 258, 383, 384, 385, 386, 393 76, 202 222 188 188 222, 247 225 265 170 254 215 188, 219 201, 202, 215, 220, 257 219 208, 214, 232 217

456 9:14-17 9:15

9:16-17 9:19 9:25 9:27 9:27-28 9:35-11:1 9:36 10:2 10:5-6 10:8 10:9-10 10:11-14 10:14 10:32 10:38 10:40-41 11:1 11:2-12:50 11:5 11:11 11:12-14 11:14 11:15 11:18-19 11:19 11:28 11:29 12:1-8 12:1-16:12 12:15 12:17 12:22 12:31 13:1-53 13:9 13:16-17 13:24-30 13:30 13:33 13:37-43 13:38 13:42 13:43 13:47-50 13:50 13:53

Index of Ancient Sources 31, 38, 201, 216220, 257, 386, 387 45, 109, 118, 230, 237, 243, 246, 247, 283, 386 217 188 244 188, 222 226 211 64, 222 204 203 244 202 202 135 246 188 135 248 211, 220 225, 226 90 279 135 329 19, 95, 202 6, 114, 188, 220, 257 6 208 201 211 63, 188 208 226 97 220 329 139 141, 246 216 201 235, 246 151, 214 147 329 235, 246 147 248

13:54-58 14:1-2 14:1-12 14:1-16:20 14:3-12 14:5 14:13 14:13-14 14:13-21

14:14 14:15 14:19 14:20 14:22-33 14:23 14:28-32 14:31 14:33 14:34 14:34-36 15:1-11 15:1-20 15:2-27 15:15-21 15:19 15:21-28 15:22 15:26-27 15:27 15:29 15:29-39

15:29-31 15:33 15:36 15:37 16:5-12 16:5-6 16:6 16:8 16:11-12 16:13-20 16:13-30 16:15 16:16 16:16-18

220 222 221, 228 220 202, 221, 390 221 70, 131, 188, 267 229 31, 63, 64, 68, 71, 72, 202, 203, 213, 215, 220-229, 253, 255, 258, 389, 390 226 142, 267 76, 184, 304 210, 304 221 204, 222 204 221, 247 221 170 229 95 201, 203, 221, 229 174 389 204, 245 6, 203, 215, 221, 225, 229, 255 222 202 192 302 31, 64, 68, 71, 72, 75, 202, 203, 213, 220-229, 253, 255, 258, 389 229, 301 210, 224, 267, 304 180, 184 210, 304 228, 255 229 201 221, 247 201, 221, 229 221, 229 229 390 221, 229, 255 204

Index of Ancient Sources 16:17 16:21 16:23 16:24 16:28 17:1 17:1-8 17:9 17:11-13 17:15 17:20 18:1-4 18:5 18:8 18:12 18:23-35 18:33-34 19:1 19:2 19:3-9 19:14 19:21 19:27-30 19:27-28 19:28 20:1-16 20:8 20:20-29 20:21-22 20:22-23 20:24-28 20:25 20:28 20:29 20:30 20:30-31 20:28 20:34 21:1 21:1-23:39 21:5 21:9 21:14 21:21 21:23-27 21:31 21:32 21:33-46 21:34-36 21:35 21:35-36

127 244 319 188 251 204 204 204 278 222 204, 221, 247 90 135 226 204 142 208 248 63, 188 278 251 170, 188 186 188 186-190, 340, 343, 345 342 222 202 194 201 142 194 315 63, 188 226 222 254 188, 222, 226 204 229 208, 221 188 226 204, 246 275 230, 234, 235 206, 209, 235 214, 230, 342 230 159, 233 160

21:38-39 21:41 21:43 22:1-10 22:1-14

22:4 22:11-14 22:13 22:15-22 22:16 22:23-33 22:28 22:37 23 23:6 23:11 23:25 23:30-31 23:35 23:37 23:39 23:43-44 23:50 24:1-25:46 24:3 24:12 24:16 24:21 24:28 24:31 24:33 24:36-44 24:38-39 24:42 24:42-25:30 24:43 24:44 24:45-50 24:45-51 24:45-25:30 24:46-47 24:47 24:48

457 233 235 151, 230, 235 214, 381 3, 4, 6, 7, 8, 25, 31, 45, 92, 100, 109, 158-161, 202, 215, 220, 229-237, 247, 255, 256, 257, 258, 282, 283, 352, 357, 358, 380, 381, 383, 384, 385, 386, 387, 393 50 214, 246 147, 215 230 46 230 249 246 204 202 202 201 233 254, 316 232 252 138 147 238, 246, 247, 248, 249 204 246 204 345 24, 355 170, 205 342 237 201 240, 244 235 137, 243 244, 342 142 237, 238 246 139 170 238

458 24:49 24:51 25:1 25:1-13

25:14 25:14-30 25:27 25:30 25:31-32 25:31-46 26-28 26:1-27:66 26:1-5 26:6-13 26:14-30 26:20 26:20-29 26:20-56 26:23 26:26 26:26-27 26:26-29 26:27 26:28 26:29

26:30 26:36-46 26:39-44 26:58 26:64 27:4 27:6 27:8 27:11 27:24-25 27:29 27:34 27:49 27:55 27:57 28:16

Index of Ancient Sources 201 147 352 3, 4, 7, 8, 25, 31, 41, 45, 53, 100, 109, 138, 202, 214, 220, 230, 236, 237-248, 255, 256, 257, 258, 282, 283, 357, 358, 380, 381, 383, 384, 385, 386, 387, 393 140, 170 6, 138, 142, 235, 237 188 215 193, 304 175, 202, 230, 238 238 248 249 202, 249 249 132, 222 202, 215, 222 250 202 72, 184, 227 183 248-254 180 227, 315 30, 97, 102, 109, 203, 215, 255, 257, 279, 383, 385, 386, 393 204 204 201 188 252 316 316 316 221 316 221 201 201 188, 202 222, 251 204

28:16-20 28:20

212, 215, 253 204, 219, 222, 248, 255, 258

Mark 1:1-11 1:4 1:7 1:9-11 1:12-13 1:13 1:14 1:14-15 1:15 1:16-20 1:21-22 1:23-24 1:24 1:31 1:32 1:38-39 1:40-45 1:56 2:1-12 2:12 2:13 2:13-17parr. 2:14 2:15-20parr. 2:16 2:17 2:18-20(parr.)

2:18-22 2:19 2:19-20parr. 2:21-22 2:23-28 2:23-38 3:1-6 3:6 3:7-8 3:7-12 3:14 3:16 3:20 3:28 4:1-2

46 251 36 38, 278 38 36, 90 277, 282 38, 82 251, 278 38, 278 38, 66 38 265, 319 36, 90 222 38 38 63 38 271 66 19, 38, 46, 51, 81 219 6, 110, 119 38, 192 38 38-53, 109, 110, 121, 162, 241, 243, 266, 282, 280, 386, 387 6, 7, 37, 38, 118, 217-220, 277 192, 277, 278, 279 4, 25, 31,120, 283 52, 53 6, 51 38 38 38, 52, 82 46 123 46 46 36 97, 100 66

Index of Ancient Sources 4:1-9 4:9 4:13-20 4:22 4:23 4:26-29 4:30 4:30-32 5:1-13 5:3-4 5:6 5:7 5:15 5:21 5:24 5:43 6 6:6-13 6:14-16 6:6-56 6:8 6:11 6:14-29 6:14-16 6:15 6:17-29 6:18 6:21-29 6:25 6:30 6:30-31 6:31 6:32 6:32-44(parr.)

6:32-53 6:34 6:35 6:33-36 6:37-38 6:39-40 6:41 6:41-42 6:41-43 6:42 6:45 6:45-52 6:53 6:53-56

37 329 37 277 329 37 46 37 37 46 65 265 46, 271 170 63 36 221 74 131 65 36, 75 135 74, 76, 110, 131 134 80 390 278 35 132 221 222 131, 267 135, 267 3, 6, 19, 27, 29, 31, 35, 36, 37, 53-82, 109, 130, 222-229, 301, 302, 382, 388, 389, 390, 393 299 131 267 131 132 133 304 143 271 304 79 77 170 131

7:1-13 7:1-23 7:24-30 7:24-37 7:27 7:27-28 7:28 7:31-37 8:1 8:1-10par.

8:4 8:6 8:7 8:8 8:12 8:14-20 8:15 8:19 8:22-26 8:26 8:27-29 8:27-30 8:27-33 8:29 8:31-33 8:35 8:34-9:1 9:1 9:12-13 9:17-31 9:31 9:35 9:33-37 9:37 9:41 9:43 10:1 10:2-12 10:14 10:15 10:17 10:25-45 10:30 10:32-34 10:37

459 95 35, 53, 79, 81, 95, 110, 113, 203 6, 35, 36, 53, 80, 81, 82, 110 78, 131 77 174 192 53, 225, 389 132 3, 6, 19, 27, 29, 31, 36, 37, 53-82, 109, 197, 213, 225-229, 301, 382, 388, 389, 390, 393 132, 267, 304 180, 184 133 271, 304 100 36, 53, 111, 283, 390 80, 110 184 81, 111, 131, 229 213 52, 54 229 319 81, 111, 390 54, 66, 107 46 37 251 278 37 66, 107 36, 37 37 135 36, 100 226 66 278 251 100, 135 296 37 296 107 108, 194

460 10:38-39 10:35-40parr. 10:41-45 10:42 10:43 10:45 11:12-14 11:17 11:19 11:20-25 11:27-33 12:1-11 12:1-12 12:13-17 12:14 12:18-27 12:21 12:35 12:39 12:44 13 13:1-37 13:5-37 13:19 13:27 13:28-31 13:29 13:33-37 14:1 14:1-2 14:3-9 14:10 14:10-12 14:12-16 14:13-16 14:17-26 14:18 14:22-24parr. 14:24 14:25parr.

14:26-16:8 14:27-28 14:36 14:49 14:54 15:6 15:23

Index of Ancient Sources 107, 108 7, 36, 90 142, 186 202 36 36, 37, 90, 108, 183 36, 65 66 6 36, 100 275 37, 142 230 230 46 230 181 66 36 46 37, 82 238 140 345 170 37, 100 342 138, 139, 142, 240, 339, 341 249 82, 98, 134 35, 100 249 82 249 82 36, 37, 81, 82-109, 179-185 116 6, 73, 248, 250-254 315 3, 10, 18, 23, 30, 37, 49, 82-109, 111, 248, 250-254, 322, 380, 381, 393 83 77 108 66 65 98 37

15:36 15:40 15:41 15:42 15:43 16:1-8

37, 107 65 36, 37, 90 98 135, 251 83

Luke 1-2 1:1-4 1:3 1:5 1:8-9 1:13 1:14 1:15 1:22 1:32-33 1:33 1:38 1:46-55 1:48 1:53 1:53-55 1:68-73 1:73 2:7 2:11 2:25 2:28 2:29 2:34 2:37 2:38 2:45 2:49 3:3 3:4-6 3:8 3:10-11 3:11 3:15-16 3:20 3:21-22 3:23 4:2 4:2-3 4:6-7 4:14-6:49 4:18-21

118, 193 117 188 170 180 180 122, 123 95, 114, 180 187 190 188 142 128, 129 124 127, 129, 134, 169, 177, 197, 388 115, 117, 123 190 180 76 144 135, 139 135 124 115 114 135, 139 180 189 175 115 175, 180 129 115, 117 278 282 278 64 189 114 224 118, 122 123, 129, 198

Index of Ancient Sources 4:21 4:24 4:34 4:38-39 4:39 4:43 5:1 5:1-11 5:1-47 5:6-7 5:10 5:16 5:27 5:27-32 5:29 5:30 5:32 5:33 5:33-39

6:1 6:1-5 6:4 6:6-11 6:12-16 6:13 6:17-19 6:20 6:20-22 6:20-26 6:20-49 6:21

6:22 6:22-23 6:24 6:24-26 6:25 6:27-38 6:31-36 6:38 6:39

180 180 265 197 116, 134, 144, 199 123, 131 300 19, 27, 31, 115, 197, 388, 389, 390 301 271 124, 181 63 170 113, 116, 121, 131, 132, 135, 197, 200 119 119, 122, 174, 180, 189, 192 162, 175, 198 47, 49, 122, 180, 181, 189, 192 31, 38, 45, 113, 114, 116, 118-122, 197, 199, 200, 217, 386, 387 189 114, 121, 199 189 154 123, 132 196 123, 131 123, 170, 198 157 115, 128, 129, 173 124 3, 6, 27, 31, 115, 117, 118, 122-130, 169, 177, 197, 199, 205, 383, 388, 389, 393, 394 208 128 167, 175, 198 126, 128, 177 115, 117, 124, 127, 169, 198, 388 128, 154 129 170 120

6:47-49 7:1 7:1-10 7:1-35 7:4-22 7:9 7:11-17 7:13 7:22 7:25 7:31-35 7:33-34 7:34 7:36 7:36-50 7:39 8:1 8:3 8:8 8:13 8:14 8:15 8:22-56 8:26-39 8:40 8:41 8:55 9:1-6 9:1-17 9:2 9:3 9:5 9:7-9 9:10-17

9:11 9:12 9:13 9:16 9:17 9:18-22 9:20 9:22 9:23-27 9:27

461 238 128 123, 299, 301 137 129 63 154 64 198 129, 170 95 19, 114, 135, 189, 192, 197, 200 6, 7, 113, 116, 119, 122 189 113, 115, 116, 119, 154, 197, 199 162, 174, 198 123, 131 116, 129, 134, 170, 199 329 122, 135 129 141 130 135 135 170 114, 189 130, 131 132 123, 131 115 135, 194 130, 131, 134, 390 10, 31, 63, 64, 68, 71, 113, 115, 117, 118, 130-135, 169, 197, 199, 200, 389, 390 75, 123 70, 267 189 205 177, 189, 304 130, 131, 134 390 64, 181 154, 194 123

462 9:28 9:28-36 9:48 9:53 9:57-62 10:7 10:8 10:9 10:10 10:10-11 10:11 10:13 10:17 10:17-20 10:21-24 10:22 10:25 10:25-37 10:29-42 10:30 10:32 10:38 10:38-42 10:40 10:46 11:1 11:1-13 11:2 11:3 11:5-8 11:5-13 11:7-10 11:9 11:10 11:13 11:19 11:21 11:27-28 11:37 11:37-41 11:37-54 11:38-40 11:39 11:41 11:42 11:43 11:50-51 12 12:1 12:13-21

Index of Ancient Sources 64 134 135, 170 135 154, 194 115, 116, 180, 189, 192 135, 188, 189 123, 141 135 194 123, 141 135 122 194 194 189 296 115, 154 129 170 181 135, 170 113, 116, 197, 199 134, 144, 199 115 119 194 180 115, 197, 200, 388 128, 129, 154 115 341 188 123 6, 58, 170 113 170 114 174 95 113, 115, 116, 119, 154, 197, 199 114 124 115 129 157, 199, 200 254 136-137, 145 114 115, 116, 128, 129

12:14 12:15 12:16 12:16-21 12:19 12:22 12:29 12:32 12:33 12:33-34 12:34 12:35-38 12:35-40 12:35-48 12:36 12:37

12:39 12:39-46 12:40 12:41-48 12:41-46 12:43-44 12:44 12:45 12:45-46 12:49-53 12:52 13:1 13:1-5 13:1-9 13:3 13:5 13:10-17 13:10-30 13:20-21 13:22 13:22-24 13:22-30 13:24 13:25 13:26 13:26-27 13:27 13:28-29

190 170, 180 120 167 173, 174, 189, 192 189 189, 192 194 170 128, 129 141 6, 240, 341 136-145, 339 116, 141, 142, 144, 385 135 21, 23, 30, 76, 90, 94, 113, 118, 129, 133, 134, 156, 196, 197, 198, 199, 200, 342, 343, 380, 381, 383, 384, 386, 393 243 238 141 134, 384 199 139 170 189, 192, 238 115 194 124 116 278 154 175 175 114 145, 153-155 114 152 240 158, 194 238, 330 240, 248 113, 189, 192, 197 199, 240 200 6, 8, 23, 30, 94, 100, 113, 118, 145155, 197, 198, 200,

Index of Ancient Sources

13:29 13:30 13:31 13:31-35 13:34-35 14:1 14:1-24

14:2 14:3 14:7 14:7-14 14:8-9 14:12 14:13 14:12-14 14:15

14:15-24 14:16 14:16-24

14:17 14:18-20 14:21 14:25-35 14:27 14:33 14:35 15:1-2 15:1-10 15:1-32 15:2 15:3 15:4 15:7 15:8 15:10

211-216, 383, 384, 385, 386, 393 6, 76, 133,180 240 154 155, 158 154 189 115, 116, 119, 154, 155, 156, 157, 158, 161, 162, 166, 196, 197, 199 170 174 120 4, 6, 90, 92, 145, 158, 200 190 167 198 135, 158, 162, 163, 164 10, 23, 30, 113, 118, 155-157, 167, 189, 352, 380, 383 3, 92, 94, 197 170 4, 6, 8, 23, 30, 90, 100, 113, 118, 123, 129, 142, 154, 155, 157-167, 198, 200, 202, 230, 231, 380, 381, 383, 384, 385, 386, 393 232 129 198 154, 155, 162, 166, 167, 194 190 170 329 6, 116, 135 113, 174 194 135, 139 120 170 122, 175 180 122, 175

15:11-32 15:11 15:14 15:15-16 15:16 15:17-18 15:23 15:23-32 15:23-24 15:29 15:32 16:1 16:1-8 16:1-12 16:4 16:4-9 16:7 16:9-13 16:13-15 16:14 16:16 16:16-18 16:18 16:19-31

16:21 16:25 17 17:1-19 17:3-4 17:7-10 17:8 17:19 17:20-21 17:21 17:24-30 17:25 17:26-27 17:27 17:28 17:30 17:34-35 17:37 18:1

463 6, 115, 116, 154, 174 170 115 174 177, 189 189 189 115, 197 173, 174 173, 174 173, 174 170, 177 154, 167 129, 134, 142, 174, 176 177 135 278 128, 129, 167, 198 129, 176 156, 167, 174 330 167 278 3, 27, 31, 55, 113, 115, 116, 117, 118, 128, 129, 151, 154, 167-177, 197, 198, 199, 383, 388, 389, 390, 393, 394 192 124 167 167-168 154, 175 91, 116, 141, 142, 145 90, 134, 144, 189, 192, 199 190 141 123 141 181 238 115, 189, 192 180, 189, 192 238 238 355 120

464 18:1-8 18:9-30 18:12 18:13 18:17 18:18-30 18:23 18:25 18:30 18:35-43 19:1-10 19:1-27 19:3 19:6 19:8 19:11 19:11-27 19:12 19:13 19:15 19:23 19:28 19:38 19:42 20:1-8 20:3 20:9 20:34-36 20:45-47 21:8 21:10 22:21 21:23 21:29 21:31-32 21:34-36 22:1-53 22:1-23:56 22:2 22:3 22:3 22:7 22:7-38 22:8 22:11 22:14 22:14-18 22:14-20 22:15-16

Index of Ancient Sources 129 115 49 73 135 128, 129, 154, 198, 388 238 129 124 154 6, 113, 116, 119, 129, 197 128, 129 198 135 170 141, 156 138, 142, 190, 192, 238 170, 188 162 188 188, 192 156 193 124 275 188 120, 170 162 89, 129 141 356 192 124 120 123 141 178 177 238 113, 117, 196 195 199 116, 185, 197 189, 196 189 196 113 177-185, 198 189

22:16.18

22:17 22:18 22:19 22:19-20 22:21-23 22:24-27

22:24-30 22:24-38 22:25 22:26-27 22:27 22:28 22:28-30

22:29 22:30

22:31-32 22:31-34 22:36 22:39 22:41 22:42-43 22:59 22:69 23:4 23:13-32 23:35 23:37 23:43 23:44 23:46 23:50 23:50-53 23:51 24:11 24:13-35 24:19-21 24:25-27 24:28-43 24:29

97, 99, 100, 118, 119, 186, 197, 200, 260, 279, 383, 384, 385, 386, 393 135, 124, 248 226 72, 113, 133, 198, 200, 248, 315 113, 116, 155, 181 139, 142, 143, 145, 157, 186, 196, 198, 199, 200, 385, 393 6, 90, 116, 134, 144, 196, 260 185 163 134, 199 195 200 10, 100, 118, 141, 142, 184-196, 197, 198, 339, 340, 342 192 3, 7, 10, 23, 30, 94, 156, 180, 200, 343, 380, 383, 384, 385, 386, 393 117 195 124, 181 196 64 185 64 124 117 90, 117 124 137 55 64 188 170 129 135, 139 64 113, 116, 177 190 176 3, 252 132

Index of Ancient Sources 24:30 24:35 24:36 24:41-42 24:43 24:44-47 24:46 24:47 24:49 24:50-53 24:52

116, 184 184 156 114, 122, 197 189 176 180, 181 175 189 316 122

John 1:1 1:1-18 1:4 1:6-9 1:7-8 1:10 1:14 1:15 1:17 1:18 1:19 1:19-36 1:28 1:29-34 1:29-36 1:32-33 1:33 1:35 1:35-37 1:35-51 1:38 1:38-39 1:43 1:48 1:49 1:50-51 2:1 2:1-11

2:1-4:54 2:2 2:4 2:6 2:9

317 261, 268 296 276 278 317 291, 314, 315, 317 276 271 168, 170, 273, 314 302 276, 277 276 263, 276, 278 259, 278 309 282, 319 302 278 263, 274 264, 277 309 302 273, 293, 313 305 272 302 4, 6, 19, 27, 31, 45, 50, 68, 96, 243, 259, 260, 261, 263-274, 283, 284, 286, 293, 306, 319, 322-324, 386, 388, 389, 390 263 232 313 292 278, 289, 313

2:12 2:12-13 2:13 2:13-22 2:13-25 2:19-20 2:19-21 2:23 2:23-25 3:1 3:1-26 3:2 3:3-5 3:5 3:8 3:13 3:14 3:15-16 3:16 3:17 3:19-21 3:22-36 3:26 3:27 3:29

3:30 3:31 3:31-36 3:33 3:36 4:1-26 4:1-42

4:1-46 4:10-14 4:10-15 4:11 4:14 4:15 4:16 4:21-23 4:22 4:26 4:31-34 4:34 4:36

465 309 298 271, 302 263, 273, 291, 295 259 264 265 273, 302 263, 273 271 263, 275 288, 297 265 271 265, 273, 293, 313 276, 285 296 304 297 309 274-283, 284 285 276 4, 25, 31, 42, 45, 49, 243, 259, 260, 261, 267, 272, 274283, 322-324, 380, 381, 386, 387 284 276 317 322 297, 309 260, 275, 279, 306, 312, 389, 392 27, 31, 261, 263, 283-297, 319-324, 388, 391, 393 259 4, 27, 29 265 265, 273, 311, 313 348 308 305 265 271 311 260, 265 273 281

466 4:40 4:44 4:45 4:46 4:46-54 4:48 4:53-54 5-7 5:1 5:1-9 5:1-18 5:1-47 5:20 5:24 5:24-25 5:25 5:26 5:28 5:29 5:38 5:39-40 5:40 6:1-15

6:1-71 6:2 6:3 6:3-15 6:4 6:4-10 6:5 6:5-9 6:6 6:9 6:10 6:11 6:13 6:14 6:15 6:22-59 6:22-71 6:23 6:26 6:27 6:30 6:31 6:32 6:32-35

Index of Ancient Sources 309 305 135 268, 272 265, 284, 298 273 272 298 271, 285, 302 298 284 283 279 296, 297 281 265, 291 296 281 296, 297 309 296 232 3, 27, 29, 31, 63, 64, 66-67, 259, 260, 272, 382, 389 261, 283, 284, 297324, 393 226 226 6 271 76 273, 293 288 265 68, 223 390 180 271 274 390 27, 29, 30, 31, 69, 70, 71, 272 260, 388, 389, 391, 392 180 68 296 272, 276 267, 276 290 266

6:33 6:34 6:35 6:40 6:41-42 6:47-48 6:49 6:50-51 6:51 6:51-53 6:53-57 6:53-54 6:54 6:60-71 6:63 6:68 6:69 6:65 7:2-14 7:3 7:4 7:9 7:13 7:14 7:22 7:27 7:27-28 7:28 7:30 7:33-36 7:37 7:37-38 7:37-39

7:38 7:40 7:52 8:12 8:14 8:18 8:20 8:21-22 8:24 8:28 8:31 8:31-33 8:35 8:51-52 8:51-53 8:52-53

276, 296 277 27, 296 296 266, 276 296 267 276 296 266 272, 293 296 99 292 296 296 390 275 265 272 277 309 271 294 271 265 273, 293, 313 294 265 266 302 260 31, 261, 271, 293297, 283, 284, 287, 289, 291, 312, 319324, 388, 391, 392 29, 291 305 305 296, 297, 311 265, 273, 293, 313 311 265 266 311 311 309 266 309 259 266 304

Index of Ancient Sources 8:56 8:56-58 8:58 9:1-41 9:3 9:4 9:17 9:29 9:29-30 9:41 10:1-16 10:3-4 10:7 10:9 10:10 10:11 10:14 10:16 10:27 10:28 10:40 11:1 11:1-44 11:3 11:6 11:11 11:11-15 11:15 11:19 11:23-26 11:25 11:36 11:41 11:45 11:50 11:53 11:55 11:54 12:1 12:1-8 12:1-11 12:2 12:9 12:12 12:13 12:15 12:16 12:21 12:23 12:24 12:25 12:26

281 266 311 283 309 285 305 265 273, 293, 313 309 342 281 311 311 296, 304 311 311 281 281 296, 304 309 264 265, 283 279 309 279 266 281 271 266 296, 297, 311 279 73 271 304 304 271 309 302 259 260, 261 90 271 302 305, 347 305 265, 274 264 265, 274 259, 309 296, 297, 304 90

12:27 12:27-28 12:28 12:32-34 12:33 12:34 12:46 12:50 13 13:1 13:1-11 13:1-20 13:1-30 13:1-18:5 13:7-11 13:16-17 13:17 13:18 13:19 13:23 13:27-29 13:31-32 14:4-5 14:6 14:7-14 14:10 14:17 14:19 14:21-31 14:23 14:25 14:26 14:28 15:1 15:1-17 15:3 15:3-8 15:5 15:5-6 15:11 15:12-20 15:14-15 15:16 15:23 16:1-2 16:2 16:4 16:17-18 16:20-24 16:24 16:25 16:27

467 273 265 274, 276 266 302 285, 304 309 296 248 265, 302 271 90, 91, 142, 143, 259, 273 260, 261 266 139 127 82 311 168, 170 266 274 266 296, 297, 311 266 309 309 296 266 291, 340 309 319 281 268, 311 259 271 309 311 304 280 142 279 309 279 262 265 265 266 281 280, 265 279

468 16:28 16:33 17:1 17:2-3 17:4 17:11 17:12 17:13 18-19 18:4 18:5-6 18:8 18:9 18:11 18:12 18:28 18:33 18:36 18:36-37 18:37 18:39 19:3 19:9 19:11 19:12 19:14-15 19:19 19:20-21 19:28-29 19:21 19:26 19:28 19:31 19:30 19:36 19:38 19:40 19:42 20-21 20:1 20:2 20:9 20:19 20:20 20:22 20:22-23 20:23 20:26 20:31 21:1

Index of Ancient Sources 314 345 73, 265, 274 296 273 319 304 280, 281 260 302 311 311 304 261 271 261, 271 271, 305 322 305 281, 340 271, 305 271, 281, 305 272, 273, 293, 313 275 305 305 271, 305 271 261 305 313 283, 288 309 273, 288, 295 254 271 271 271 316 302 279 265, 285 302 281 295, 319 323 296 302 296 301

21:1-14

21:5 21:6 21:8 21:13 21:15-17 21:15-23 21:22-23 21:23

19, 27, 31, 259, 260, 261, 306, 322, 324, 388, 389, 390 323 224 224 252 279 260, 261, 262 309 291

Acts 1:1-4 1:3 1:4 1:4-8 1:6 1:6-7 1:6-8 1:8 1:9-11 1:11 1:25 2 2:16-18 2:22-23 2:22-36 2:30 2:36 2:38 2:39 2:41 2:42 2:43-47 2:44 2:45 2:46 3:2 3:6 3:18 3:19 3:20-21 3:25 4:26-27 4:32 4:32-37 4:34 4:37 5:1-11

117 123, 180, 181 252 116, 185 188 190 141 123 316 123 129 193 123 190 193 170 190 175 78, 79 135 19, 184 128 198 115, 117, 129 19, 88, 99, 116, 181, 184, 185 170 170 180, 181 175 123, 135, 190 188 193 170, 198 115, 117,128, 129 170 170 128, 129

Index of Ancient Sources 5:4 5:28 5:30-31 5:31 5:38-39 6:1-7 6:2 7:1-56 7:30 7:32 7:38 7:55 8:9 8:12 8:14 8:14-24 8:16 8:22 9:9 9:33 9:36 9:36-43 10:1 10:9-16 10:12 10:13-14 10:30 10:41 11:7 11:11 11:18 11:27-30 13 13:2-3 13:24 13:26-29 13:33 13:45-56 14:22 14:23 16:1 16:3 16:16-23 16:19 16:20 16:34 16:37 17:3 17:7 17:11 17:24

170 316 193 176 275 128, 129 90, 116 193 170 151 135 170 170 123 135 129 170 175 189 170 170 129 170 95 170 189 52 180, 252 189 135 176 129 193 48, 52, 119, 122, 219 176 190 190 166 345 52, 122 170 170 129 170 170 192 170 180, 181, 188 135 135 170

17:27 17:29 17:30 17:30-31 18:6 18:24-28 18:27 19:1-7 19:4 19:23-40 19:36 19:40 20:7 20:11 20:21 20:25 20:26 20:32 20:35 21:2 21:17 21:20 21:38 22:3 22:5 22:20 22:21 23:12 23:21 24:3 24:15 25:8 26:20 27:9 27:12 27:21 27:34 27:35 28:7 28:15 28:18 28:21 28:23 28:23-28 28:30 28:31

469 170 170 175 123 316 278 135 278 176 129 170 170 181, 184 181, 184 176 123 316 188 129 170 135 170 70 170 135 254 78, 79 189 135, 189 135 135 117 175, 176 52 170 170 170 116, 180, 184, 189 170 180 170 135 123 166 135 123

Romans 1:1 1:3-4 2:7

143 193 296

Index of Ancient Sources

470 3:15 3:27-28 4 4:19 5:3 5:21 6 6:16-20 6:22-23 8:9 8:15 8:34 8:35-36 9:32 12:1 13:11 13:14 14:17

254 309 152 170 345 296 142 143 296 295 142 193 345 309 129 243, 244 234 88

1 Corinthians 1:3 1:23 2:9 3:8 7:5 7:21-23 7:26 8 9:25-27 10 10:1-13 10:10 10:16 11:3 11:7 11:17-34 11:18 11:23 11:23-26 11:24 11:24-25 11:25 11:26 12:22 13:13 13:3 15:24-25 21:9-14

129 319 23 90 52 143 170 95 330 95 30, 69 312 184, 224 25, 283 170 19, 73, 90, 96, 98, 164 170 315 179, 180, 183 102, 180, 184, 227 181 99, 184 3, 252 170 268 170 193 3

2 Corinthians 1:22 4:5 5:4 6:5 8:17 11:1-4 11:2 11:27 12:4 12:16

309, 345 143 234 52 170 45 25, 279, 283 52 331 170

Galatians 1:14 2:11-14 2:14 2:16 3 3:2 3:27 4:1-7 4:26 5:11 6:8 6:17

170 95, 204 170 309 152 309 234 143 364 319 296 345

Ephesians 1:3 1:13 2:11-12 2:13 2:13-16 2:17 4:24 4:30 5:14 5:22-33 6 6:5-8

309 345 79 78 316 78 234 345 243, 244 25, 45, 53, 283 357 143

Colossians 1:20-22 1:29 2:6-3:1 3:12 4:14

316 330 193 129 117

Philippians 1:1

143

Index of Ancient Sources 1:2 1:23 1:28 2:6 2:7 3:3 3:20

129 139 330 139, 170 143 295 170, 364

1 Thessalonians 1:2 2:2 4:13-17 5 5:2 5:4 5:4-5 5:6 5:10

232 330 244 357 342 342 243 244 244

2 Thessalonians 1:8

1:1 2:1-5 2:15 5:5 5:11

1:1 2:21 2:23

330

2 Peter

345 345 330 139

345 89, 90, 127 170 173 129

1:8 2:19 3:10 3:11 3:13

345 181 181

170 170 243, 342 170 206, 207

1 John

Hebrews 1:3-4 1:7 2:18 4:6 8:1 9:4 9:19-22 9:26 10:12-13 10:16-19 10:19-31 10:28 10:32-33 10:34 11:5 11:12 11:21

James

170

2 Timothy 2:19 3:12 4:5-8 4:6

170 330 193 330 316 368 252 328 252 363 181

1 Peter

1 Timothy 6:11-12

11:29 11:33 12:2 12:3-4 12:4 12:14 12:14-29 12:22-23 13:9-15 13:11-14 13:12

471

193 170 181 193 193 30 254 181 193 251 252 129 330 170 251 346 170

3:2

273, 368

Jude 3

330

Apocalypse of John 1:1 1:1-8 1:3 1:5 1:9 1:9-3:22 1:1-20 1:11 1:14 1:16

346 370 350, 372 346 345 327 329 350 170, 347 333

472 1:17 1:18 1:19 2-3

2:1 2:7

2:8 2:9 2:9-10 2:10 2:11 2:12 2:13 2:14 2:17

2:18 2:20 2:22 2:23 2:26 2:29 3:1 3:3 3:4 3:4-5 3:5 3:6 3:7 3:9 3:10 3:12 3:13 3:14 3:15-19 3:18 3:20

3:20-21

Index of Ancient Sources 341 367 350 329, 330, 333, 338, 342, 358, 365, 374, 375, 376, 391 341, 350 10, 28, 326, 327, 329-332, 337, 341, 364, 367, 368, 369, 372, 373, 374, 382, 388, 393, 394 341, 350, 367 328 345 244, 337, 367, 369 341 341, 350 327 325 10, 29, 30, 69, 326, 327, 333-338, 341, 347, 369, 382, 388, 393, 394 170, 341, 350 325, 346, 353 345 374 331 341 341, 350, 367 243, 342 352, 353 337, 347 234, 337, 353, 367 341 341, 350 328 327 28, 336, 337, 354, 368, 374 341 341, 350 342 337, 347, 352, 353 22, 30, 90, 243, 322, 325, 327, 334, 336, 337, 357, 369, 370, 372, 380, 383, 384, 385, 386 189, 195, 338-343, 377

3:21 3:22 4-5 4:1-9 4:1-11 4:4 4:9-10 5:1-14 5:5 5:5-6 5:6 5:9 5:10 5:11-13 6:1-8 6:2 6:6 6:8 6:9 6:10 6:11 6:12 6:17 7 7:2 7:3 7:1-17 7:3 7:3-8 7:9-17 7:9 7:10 7:13 7:13-15 7:14 7:15 7:16 7:16-17

7:17 8:1 8:7 8:8 8:11 9:4 9:8 9:13

193, 368 341 252, 328 193 348 337, 347 367 348 330, 331 193 326 326, 346 194, 348 368 346 330, 347 326 326, 370 326, 345 316, 346 346, 347, 353 343, 346 343, 344 343-344 367 346 346, 374, 375 28, 345 346 347, 348, 349 344, 347 193 347 353 346, 352, 370, 371, 372 368 321 27, 28, 29, 31, 55, 287, 326, 327, 343349, 365, 370, 373, 383, 388, 389, 391, 393, 394 367, 368, 369, 372, 375, 376 343 326, 346 346 326, 370 345 352 344

Index of Ancient Sources 10:6 10:7 10:9-10 11:2 11:3-14 11:6 11:7 11:8 11:11 11:13 11:15 11:15-19 11:18 12:1 12:1-14:5 12:4 12:6 12:10-12 12:11 12:13-17 13:6 13:7 13:8 13:14 13:17 14:1 14:1-4 14:1-5 14:4 14:6-20:15 14:9-11 14:10 14:11 14:13 14:14 14:14-20 14:17-20 14:18 14:19 14:20 15:2 15:2-4 15:3-4 15:4 15:7 16:1 16:3 16:3-4 16:4 16:4-6 16:5

367 346 326 354 327 326, 346, 370 330 337, 354 367 354 193, 344 348 346 352 327 352 326, 352 348 330, 331, 346 352 337 330 367, 369 367 337 337, 345, 368 344, 346 346 352 350 345 24, 326, 369, 385, 391 337 139, 350, 372, 373 347 326 369 24, 385, 391 24, 385, 391 346, 354 330, 337 348 353 337 24, 367, 385, 391 24, 385, 391 367 346 337 370 353

16:6 16:7 16:9 16:14 16:15 16:19 17-18 17:1-19:10 17:1-18 17:2 17:3-4 17:4 17:6 17:6-7 17:4 17:5 17:6 17:8 17:9 17:12-14 17:14 17:16 17:18 18:3 18:6 18:6-7 18:8 18:14 18:23 18:24 19-22 19:1-10 19:2 19:2-5 19:7-9

19:7-10 19:8 19:9 19:10 19:12 19:12-13 19:13

473 263, 346 353 337 355 243, 342, 350, 353, 372 24, 326, 369, 385, 391 327, 350, 354, 358 349 45 325, 326, 369 352 325, 326, 369, 385, 391 325, 326, 369 352 24 337 346 367, 369 352 355 330, 331 24, 326, 369, 385, 391 352 24, 326, 369, 385, 391 24, 385, 391 326, 369 370 326 325 346 349-370 346, 348 316, 346 346 4, 8, 24, 25, 45, 100, 283, 322, 325, 327, 336, 343, 377, 380, 381, 383, 384, 385, 386, 393 370 234, 337 3, 8, 10, 232, 246, 372, 376 373 170 337 170, 346

Index of Ancient Sources

474 19:15 19:16 19:17-18 19:17-19 19:21

20:1-6 20:4 20:6 20:11 20:11-15 21-22 21:1-22:5 21:1-8 21:2 21:4 21:6

21:8

24, 326, 333, 385, 391 337 327, 377, 380, 381, 384, 385, 391 3, 24, 31, 100, 376 24, 327, 333, 377, 380, 381, 384, 385, 391 346 194 372 347 337 328, 330, 332, 375, 376, 391 286, 325, 346, 374, 377, 382 45, 55, 327, 337 4, 25, 283, 381, 385, 386 344 25, 27, 29, 31, 326, 344, 371, 372, 373, 375, 382, 388, 393, 394 337

21:9 21:9-22:5 21:12 21:12-14 21:19-20 21:24 22 22:1 22:1-2 22:1-5 22:2 22:3 22:4 22:5 22:6 22:6-21 22:12 22:14 22:17 22:17-19 22:19 22:20

4, 25, 283, 381, 385, 386 45, 377 195, 345 344 189, 345 344, 345 370-375 348 4, 25, 28, 29, 31, 55, 287, 326, 344, 382, 389 327 331, 337, 393, 394 344, 345, 346 337, 345 343 346 327 345, 388 10, 28, 31, 326, 331, 345, 382, 388, 393, 394 4, 29, 31, 45, 287, 326, 382, 388, 393, 394 4, 28 326, 331, 382, 388, 393 252

Early Jewish Texts Apocalypse of Abraham

Apocalypse of Zephaniah

9-31 9:8-9 13:14 20:1-3 21:6 29

9:4-5 11:1-6

151 359 147 234 367 235

Apocalypse of Elijah 1:9 1:9-10 1:21 5:4-6 5:6

27, 56 345 50 345 28, 331

Apocalypse of Moses 9:3 13:2-3 23:4

332 332 28, 331

151 151

Aristeas Epistula 85 256 261 311

361 143 281 374

Ascension of Isaiah 7:22 8:14 8:26 9:9 9:24-26

234 234 234 234 234

Index of Ancient Sources 1 Enoch 1-71 5:1-9 10:4-5 10:10 10:18-22 10:18-19 10:19 10:21 15:4 15:6 17-19 17:4 18:6-9 18:11-16 21:1-10 22 22:1-14 22:9 24:4 24-25 25-26 25:4-5 25:5 32:2-6 32:3 33:3 37:4 38:1-5 38:2 38:5 39:4-5 40:5 40:9 48:1 48:2 48:4-5 48:9 48:10 49:1 51:1-3 51:3 56:5-6 57:1 58:2-3 58:3 58:4 60:6-10 60:7-9 60:8 60:23

362 235 147 296 7, 27, 56, 105 367 270 149 101, 296 296 55 29 361 175 175 168 175 29, 175 332 361 7 28, 332 331 361 311 361 296 193 17 194 151 17 296 287, 311 17 149 193, 194 17, 210 311 193 368 356 149 126, 127 296 207 7 9, 24, 55 361 361

60:24 61:12 62-63 62:12-14 62:12-16 62:14 62:15-16 63:6 63:10 70:3-4 70:4 77:3 81:4 82:4 82:4-7 90:13-19 90:19 90:33-36 91:12 92-105 93:2 95:3 96:1 96:6 98:12 99:4 102-103 103:3 103:5 104:11 105:1 108:3 108:5

475 7, 24, 25 361 209 4, 55 3, 5 10, 76, 94, 104, 189, 195 234 215 215 361 151 361 126 126 98 356 193 149 194 55, 103, 173 332 193, 194 193 287, 348 193, 194 356 104 151 126 374 149 215 215

2 Enoch 8-10 8:1-9:1 18:1 42:3-5 42:3-14 42:5 42:6 42:6-14 52:1 52:1-14

367 363 331 234 363 3, 76 157 126 157 126

3 Enoch 23:18 48:10

28, 331, 332 3, 9, 10, 23, 76

Index of Ancient Sources

476 2 Baruch 4:2-7 4:4 10:6-7 23:4-5 29:1-4 29:1-8 29:4 29:5 29:8 44:15 48:37 51:1-12 59:2 70:7 76:3 78:1-9

363 151 126 153 4 3, 27, 56, 72, 105 9, 10, 25 5, 270 5, 30, 69, 334, 368 235 356 363 246 356 359 345

3 Baruch 4 12:6 14:1-15:4

215 330 246

4 Baruch 4:10

127

2 Ezra 2:33-41 2:38

3 10, 76, 94

4 Ezra 1:19 2:38-41 2:39 2:45 4:14 4:33-41 4:127-128 5:46 6:4-6 6:7-10 6:44 6:47-52 6:49-52 6:52 7-8 7:123 7:36 7:98

4, 5 345 234 234 151 3 330 244 345 151 27 9 7 10, 25, 72 235 368 361 368

8:1 8:9 8:52 8:53-54 8:59 9:19 10:57 13:33-38 13:39-50 14:20-21

153 90 28, 361 5 174 27, 56 90 356 345 246

Flavius Josephus Antiquitates Iudaicae 2:69 2:194-195 2:317 3:26-32 3:102-178 3:216-217 4:309-331 5:39 5:115-119 7:367 8:198 8:257 9:45-94 9:263-266 11:70 11:90 11:101 11:133 11:162 13:18-21 11:306-312 11:340-346 12:109 13:255-256 13:407 16:221-226 17:14-18 18:8 18:29-30 18:55-56 18:108-115 18:113 18:205-224 18:285 18:398-404 19:343-354 20:51-53:101 20:141

285 178 98 69 361 189 178 143 178 143 143 143 67 232 143 143 143 346 73 231 289 289 374 295 188 39, 232 39, 232 62 289 295 39, 232 39 178 62 178 178 62 39

Index of Ancient Sources 20:145-146 20:147 20:167 20:188

39, 232 39 70 70

Contra Apionem 1:42-43 2:189

374 281

De bello iudaico 1:81-84 1:487 1:628 1:665-673 2:259 2:261 2:570 2:578 3:459 3:354 4:112-113 5:98-105 5:99 5:208-218 5:334 5:409-410 5:427 5:571 6:290-295 6:300-301 6:351 6:423 7:70-71 7:100-103 7:119 7:323 7:438

178 39, 232 206 178 70 70 70 70 293 143 293 5 98 361 314 62 68 62 5 50 70 244 293 293 293 143 70

Vita 79 244 259

70 293 293

Greek Life of Adam and Eve 15:1-19:5 25 361 36:2 38-41 40:1-3

363 332 363 332

477

History of the Rechabites 13:2

30, 69, 335, 337

Jubilees 3:1-35 4:23 4:26 6:32-35 7:29 8:19 13:20 14:4-5 22:1-23:1 23:2 23:23 24:29 35:17-19 36:6

361 362 362 98 215 361 346 346 248 168 356 193 248 281

Joseph and Aseneth 3:4 4:1 7:1 8:5 8:9 10:17 11:2 11:6 11:12 11:17 13:15 14:9 15:4-5 15:5 15:7-8 16:1-17:4 16:6 16:7-8 16:8 16:14-16 18:5-10 19:5 19:8 20:1-5 21 21:21

281 44 95 30, 69 69, 296 50 50 50 50 50 142 44 311 69 44, 49 69 107 125 4, 311 4, 30, 69, 311 352 69 244 142 44 69

Odes of Solomon 1:2

332

Index of Ancient Sources

478 3:1-11 3:5 3:7 4:7-8 6:8-18 7:1 8:13-19 8:21 11:1 11:16-21 21:2-3 25:8 36:35-37 38:9-15 38:11 42:8-9

282 26 26 345 4 26 345 26 332 332 234 234 332 26 282 26, 282

De migratione Abrahami (Migr.) 101 114 200 217-218

43 333 330 43

De mutatione nominum (Mut.) 46 81-82 132 259-260

143 330 43 69, 311

De opificio mundi (Opif.) 78 158

161 311

Philo De Abrahamo (Abr.) 48 70-71 79-80 107-132

330 151 151 92

De Agricultura 119-121

330

De Cherubim (Cher.) 40-52

44

De congressu eruditionis gratia (Congr.) 71-80

43

De ebrietate (Ebr.) 30-36 107

132 172 182

43 207 143

De praemiis et poenis (Praem.) 4-6 30:58

330 151

De sacrificiis Abelis et Caini (Sacr.) 5-7

151

De sobrietate (Sobr.) 126 131

143 143

De somniis (Somn.) 44 151

De fuga et inventione (Fug.) 55 78 137 138 139 176-177 195 202

De posteritate Caini (Post.)

296 296 310 311 207 311 311 311

1:37 1:200 2:51 2:226-227

361 43 143 151

De specialibus legibus (Spec.) 2:147 3:57

254 68

De virtutibus (Virt.) 62 79

43 207, 311

Index of Ancient Sources De vita contemplativa (Contempl.) 30 64-84 66:5 67-68 70-72

89 75 73 90 91

De vita Moysis (Mos.) 1:96 1:158 1:264-314 2:16-26 2:34 2:68-69

244 305 333 361 374 43

Legum allegoriarum (Leg.) 1:43-60 2:108 3:27 3:65-181 3:82 3:162 3:162-168 3:169

363 330 151 43 269 310 69 310

Quod omnis probus liber sit (Prob.) 17 26-27 110-111

143 330 330

Quaestiones et solutionis in Genesim (Quaest. in Gen.) 3:11

151

Quod deterius potiori insidiari soleat (Det.) 117 118

287 310

Quis rerum divinarum heres sit (Her.) 191

311

Psalms of Solomon 2:1-2 3:6-8 3:8-9 3:10-12

5:8-19 6:1 11 11:2 14:3 14:9 15:6 15:9 15:10 17:22-23 17:28 17:28-31 17:40 17:44 17:50 18:6

479 7 157 195 149 55, 332 215 345 345 215 356 189 195 75 126 195 126

Pseudo-Philo Liber antiquitatum biblicarum (Ant. Bib.) 4:11 10 12:8 14:2 18:5 19:1-16 19:10-13 23:13 33:1-5 62:6

151 69 332 346 151 178 363 296 171 101

Testament of Abraham 13:6 14:14 20:14 20:15

189, 194 296 3, 168, 296

Testament of Isaac 6:22 8:1-2 8:5-7 8:6 8:11

3, 9, 10, 23, 76, 94 151 3 9 23, 76, 94

Testament of Jacob 356 50 50 296

7:21-28 7:24

3, 9, 28, 30 331

Index of Ancient Sources

480 Testament of Simeon

Testament of Job

6:7

4:10 27:3

23

330 330

Testament of Levi 8:15 13:5 18:1-14 18:10-11 18:11 18:14

305 207 362 332 7, 28, 55, 331 7, 151

Testament of Judah 15:2 18:6 23:3 25:1 25:1-2 25:5

143 143 83 152, 189 194 151, 152

Testament of Zebulon 10:2

152

Testament of Dan 5:9-13

363

Testament of Naphtali 1:1-4 6:10

248 151

143 296 296

Testament of Joseph 1:5 7:8 19

7 143 356

Testament of Benjamin 10:5-6 10:6-10 10:7

3:4 4:9

195 195

Sibylline Oracles (Prol. ) 84-86 1:356-359 2:247-252 2:316-318 3:580-583 3:601-623 3:619-623 3:663-668 3:697 3:704 3:717-718 3:740-761 3:767 3:767-795 3:781-782 3:782 3:785 4:24 7:149

7 67 361 270 9 9 27 356 9 7 7 7 7 27 193 7 7 157 30, 69, 334

Dead Sea Scrolls CD

Testament of Asher 3:2 5:2 6:6

Testament of Moses

151 152 194

1:1 2:14 2:14-19 3:16 6:4-5 6:16-17 13:1-2 13:1-3 13:7 19:34 19:35 20:14

309 309 309 287 287 287 70 75 309 29, 287 51 51

1QH 5:36 6:14-18 8:5-6

309 332 332

Index of Ancient Sources 10:25-26 16:4-24 16:7-8

332 363 29

1 QM 1:2 2:12 10:13

1Q20GenAp 21.12.28.30

70

1Q28b 70 70 70

1QM 1:11-12 2:1-2 2:2 2:7-8 3:13 5:1 7:4-6 14:7

481

1:3 1QH 16:12-22

345 194 195 195 195 195 162 126

29

287

1QpHab 5:3-6

189, 192, 194

4QpPs 37 2:10-11

6, 28

4Q161 1QS 4:4 4:20-21 6 6:1-23 6:2-3 6:2-5 8:5-10 8:7-8 8:10 9:11 8:13-14 9:3-6 11:8

309 295 23 89 189 82 328 193 193 305 70 295 328, 363

198 162 3, 4, 6, 9, 23, 70, 74, 83, 89, 90, 94

1QIsa 61:10

45

1QapGen 20:10-11 20:31

193

4Q164

194

4Q171

9

4Q175

305

4Q286 2:1-13

126

4Q418 fr. 103, 2:6

29

4Q521

1QSa 2:5-7 2:5-22 2:11-22

fr. 8-10

180 173

passim ii 5-13 ii 5-14

126 28 209

4Q525

126

4QpIs-d

189

11Q5 21:11-17

43

11Q13

9, 28

Index of Ancient Sources

482 11Q19 45:16

57:11-14

194

29

Rabbinic Texts b. Taan. 23a 24b 24b-25a

67 224 67

67 9, 231, 234

b. Sanh. 100a

207

67

69

59

76

m. Sanh. 10:1

231 70

5:10

49

4:8

39

2:5 5:53a

50 49

6:23c

159

2:77d

159, 172

y. Sanh. 226

Pirqe ’Avot 1:4 3:16 3:17 3:20

15:17-21 95

y. Hag. 69

Pesiq. Rab. 41:5

Sif. Num.

y. Sanh. 153

Num. Rab. 11:2

39

y. Sukkah

m. Pes. 10:1

Sotah

Ta’an

m. Ketub. 5:8

9

t. Ber.

Gen. Rab. 82:8

8:10

5:11

b. Yoma 39a

23 9 121 9

Sem.

b. Shab. 33b 153a

4:2 4:16-17 4:20 4:21-22

6:23c

172

b. Sukkah 207 23 9 9

25b

50

Early Christian Texts Acts of John 93

67

Acts of Paul 79

67

Acts of Paul and Tecla

8:1 8:1-3 9-10 9:4 10:5 16:1 Ep. Apost. 5

25

309

Apocalypse of Peter 3 16

234 367

Acts of Philipp 135

52, 218, 219 204 252 99, 304 99 138

67

Gospel of Thomas 21 47 64

243 45, 52, 120 4, 158-161, 202,

230 103 104

243 4, 45

234 Ignatius of Antioch

Acts of Thomas 7 47 94

Ephesians 26 67 210

20:2

316

Irenaeus of Lyons

Augustine

Adversus Haereses (Adv. Haer.)

Quaestiones evangeliorum (Quest. Ev).

5.33:2 5.33:3-4

1:43

252 270

252 Jerome

Const. Ap. 7.23:1-2

52

24:3

2 Clement 3:6

Commentarium in Evangelium Matthaei (Comm. in Matth.)

309

244

John Chrysostom

Clement of Alexandria

In Epistolam ad Ephesios (Hom. Eph.)

Quis dives salvetur (Quis Div.)

62.151:32

42:5

De turture (Turt.)

345

55.602:3

Didache 4:13

374

268

268

Index of Ancient Sources

484 Justin Martyr

Polycarp

Apologia

Philippians

1.14:6-8

164

7:1 8:1

262 262

Origen In Genesim homiliae (Hom.Gen.) 12:5

Homiliae

61

15 16

Pastor Hermas 8.2:3 8.2:4 8.6:3 16.3-5 17.4

Theodore of Mopsuestia

234 345 345 345 345

252 252

Theodoretus Quaestiones in libros Regis es Paralipomena (Quaest. in libr. Reg. et Paralip.) 80.625:24

268

Greco-Roman Texts Achilleus Tatius

Vespae (Vesp.)

De Leucippes et Clitophontis amoribus (Leuc.)

605-611

2.2:1-2.3:1 2.11:1

268 245

Aristotle Rhetorica (Rhet.)

Aeschylos

2.2:1

Eumenides (Eumen.)

De caelo (Cael.)

737-756

291B

335

142

163

207

Apicius

Ethica Eudemia (Eth. Eud.)

De re coquinaria

7.9

280

66:1

60

Apuleius

92

60

Metamorphoses (Metam.)

Aristophanes

312

Ranae (Ran.)

Arrian

503-507 734 1433

92 293 293

161

Indica (Ind.) 1:2 36:3

293 293

Index of Ancient Sources Athenaeus

14.11:5

485 83

Deipnosophistae (Deipn.)

Dio Cassius

1:12-14 1:54 2:11-14 4:130 4:143-153 7:288-289 12:534

Historia Romana (Hist.)

90 59 60 77, 78 60 293 88

59.28:7 Epitome (Ep.) 66.25:5

Aulus Gellius

Dio Chrysostom

Noctae atticae (Noct. Att.)

Orationes (Or.)

3:11

8:15-16 9:11-12

60

Catullus

335

331 331

Diodorus Siculus

Epigramma (Epig.) 13

168

Bibliotheca historica (Bib. Hist.) 91

Chariton

3.66:2 16.91:4

Chaereas et Callirhoe (Chaer.)

Diogenes Laertius

3.2:10 5.6:2

Vitae philosophorum (Vit. Phil.)

231 83

Cicero

91 83

Epistulae ad Quintum Fratrem (Quint. Frat.) 3:5

18

Epictetus

Epistolae ad familiares (Fam.) 7:16.2 13:19.25.36

8:38

268 231

Diatribae (Diatr.) 1.22:16 2:18:27-28 3:10:6-8 15:2-5 25:2-5

283 331 331 331 331

207 Euripides

Pro Roscio amerino (Rosc. Amer.) 40:116

83

De finibus (Fin.) 3:9.32

1126-1128

83

Hecuba (Hec.) 83

Cornelius Nepos Liber de excellentibus ducibus exterarum gentium (Lib. Ex.) 4:4 14.6:3

Cyclops (Cycl.)

83 83

25-26 71-720 850-856

83 83 83

Hercules furens (Herc. fur.) 48

293

Index of Ancient Sources

486 Hippolytus (Hipp.) 992

Odyssee 95

Troiades (Tro.) 343-344

245

Galen De alimentorum facultatibus (Aliment.) 6:507

61

1:19-30 4:56-60 4:534-535 4:563-568 8 9:5-10 11:414-420 14:404-495 21:295-304 112-133

De sanitate tuenda (San.)

Horace

10:31

Epistula (Ep.)

61

1.18:23 2.1:14

Hesiod

55 17 83 55 88 88 83 83 88 55

207 121

Opera et dies (Opera) 106-201 109-125 143-155 154-210 167-173 168-170 228-237 327 452-506 617-739 820-885

16 16, 54 95 356 54, 56 17 55 83 356 356 356

Theogonia (Theog.) 95 954-955 793-803

125 125 195

1.4:116-117

Historia

121

Carmina (Carm.) 2.19:9-12

268

Juvenal Satyricon (Sat.) 2.110 2:120 5:24-28 8:177-178

88 168 90 90

Krates F 14 F 17

Herodotus

1:193 2:14 3:18 4:198

Saturnalia (Sat.)

55 55

Kratinos 55 55 55 55

F 160

56

Livius Ab urbe condita (Urb. Cond.)

Homer Ilias 18:373-377 18:417-420 21:76

91 91 83

1.11:6-7 5.27:6-10 25.16:6

83 83 83

Index of Ancient Sources Lucianus

Lysias

De bello civili (Bell. Civ.)

Orationes (Or.)

2:356

6.23 8.5-6 12:24 18:10

245

Demonax 43

176

172

Cataplus 3-4 7-14 14-15 26 28-29

172 172 173 172 172

De parasito (Par.) 51

1:9-30 Nigrinus (Nigr.) 161

Saturnalia (Sat.) 15 17-18 19 22

90 90 90 90

De iis qui mercede conducti (Merc. cond.) 26

Saturnalia (Sat.) 1.2:6-7 1.18:11 2.4:28

163 269 88

Marcus Aurelius Ad se Ipsum 4:4

331

Martialis 88

Vera Historia

24

83 83 83 83

Macrobius

Gallus 9-12

487

Epigrammata (Epig.) 1:20 2:91 3:49 3:60 4:68 4:85 5:78 6:11 8.50 10:48 11:52

90 293 90 90 90 90 91 90 89 91 91

Nonnus Dionysius (Dion.) 16:252-254

268

90 Ovid

Symposium (Symp.) 21-27

163

John Lydus De mensibus (De Mens.) 4:53

269

Metamorphoses (Metam.) 1:144 1:483 1:763 4:758-759 6:430 10:225-228 10:6

83 245 245 245 245 83 245

Index of Ancient Sources

488 12 13:650-655 15:41-42 26-27

231 268 335 16

Pausanias Descriptio Graeca (Descr.) 1.40:30 2.20:6 6.26:2 8.31:2 9.26:8

293 293 268 293 293

Petronius Satyricon 31:9-11 33:3-8 34:6-7 35:1-6 36:1-37:1 40:1-41:1 47:8-48:1 70:11-13

60 60 60 60 60 60 60 90

Philostratus

16

Leges (Leg.) 671A 713A-E 756E-758A 782C

88 16 88 95

Menexenus (Menex.) 81A-C

16

Phaedrus (Phaedr.) 69C 107C-114C 246A-257A 274B-275B

235 16 16 16

Politeia (Pol.) 10:613E10:621D

16

Protagoras (Prot.) 320C-323A

16

Respublica (Resp.)

Vita Apollonii (Vit. Apoll.) 2:20

108E-121C

173

Pindar

4:433A 4:562C 8:558C 10:614D

206 207 88 176

Olympian Odes (Ol.)

Symposium (Symp.)

1:60-64 2:48-95 7:11

189C 193D 203B-204A

96 54 125

Pythian Odes (Pyth.)

Timaeus (Tim.)

5:46 9:63

125 96

20C-27A 20D-25E 25E 26E 29C-92C

16

Ps.-Plat.

Plato Gorgias (Gorg.) 523A-527A

16 16 16 16 16

Axiochus (Axioch)

Kritias (Krit.) 108E

16 16 16

16

37D

91

Index of Ancient Sources Pliny the Elder

Pompeius (Pomp.)

Naturalis historia (Nat.)

73:6-7

2:231 18:15.71-75 31:16

Sertorius (Sert.)

268 68 268

Pliny the Younger Epistula (Ep.) 1:15 2.6 9.5:3 10:116

142

55 17 17

Vitae parallelae (Vit.) 91 90 90 231

Plautus Casina (Cas.) 5

8 8:2-5 9:1

489

121

3.38:3-4 5.27:5 7.18:3 5.20:2-3 6.45:5-46:9 8.38:2 8.78:7 8.79:1-5 9.76.1-9 11.38:12

178 178 178 178 178 178 178 178 178 178

Plutarch Propertius

Alcibiades (Alc.) 4:4-6

88

Elegiae (Eleg.) 4.6:7

293

Moralia (Mor.) 61D 148A 148F 149A-B 158C 159C 186F 263F 460B 502E 511D-E 669E-671C 679A 697C 697D 702D-704B 612E 615C - 619A 616A 621C 660B-C 671C-672C 830B

90 91 92 88 88 95 335 245 206 163 92, 161 95 15 15 15 77,78 88 89 88 88 88 269 293

Quintus Ennius Annales (Ann.) Fr. 467

121

Seneca the Elder Controversiae (Controv.) 7:7

83

Seneca the Younger De constantia sapientis (Cons.) 10:8-9

60

Epistula (Ep.) 18:10 78:15-16 108:32

68 331 95

Index of Ancient Sources

490 Silius Italicus

Tacitus

Punica (Pun.)

Historia (Hist.)

7:186-190

268

(Ps.-)Socrates Epistula (Ep.) 6:4

Facta et dicta memorabilia (Fact.) 1.1:13 1.3:2

Silvae (Silv.) 88

83 269

Virgilius Aeneas (Aen.)

Strabo Geographia (Geogr.) 61

4:338-339 6:621 7:388

Suetonius

Culex

Divus Augustus (Aug.)

346

75 76:2 94:8

Eclogues (Ecl.)

88 50 168

8:29

Gaius Caligula (Cal.)

Xenophon

25

Anabasis (Anab.)

168

Viri illustri (Vir. Ill.) 25:4

125

Valerius Maximus 61

Statius

17:1.14

Idylli (Id.) 12:34

Gynaeceia (Gyn.)

1:43-45

168 50 95, 269

Theocritus 125

Soranus

2.17-18

3:74 5:4 5:5

121

5.3:7-13

245 83 245

245

245

92

Hellenica (Hell.) 1.7:22

83

Zosimus Hermetica (Hermet.) 4.3:3

206

Index of Authors Allison, D.C., 63, 69, 148, 149, 207 Anderson, P.N., 306 Aune, D.E., 10, 21, 334, 339, 340, 341 Balabanski, V., 240 Barth, M., 113 Bauckham, R., 172, 346 Beale, G.K., 336, 337, 353 Becker, J., 7, 150 Berger, K., 99, 100 Billerbeck, P., 4, 11, 21 Bösen, W., 9, 113, 135 Boobyer, G.H. 72 Borgen, P., 306 Bornkamm, G., 242 Braun, W., 163, 164 Brenner, A., 41 Bultmann, R., 268, 297, 299 Burchard, C., 151, 213 Crossan, J.D., 8 Davies, W.D., 63, 148, 149, 207 Dietrich, W., 57 Douglas, M., 14, 85, 86, 88 Driver, G.R. 40

Jeremias, J., 44, 97 Just, A.A., 113 Karris, R.J., 114, 115 Keener, C.S., 307 Kieffer, R., 7, 10 Koenig, J., 7 Klauck, H.-J., 140 Klosinski, L.E., 37, 86 Kollmann, B., 6, 11 Kutsch, E. 42 Labahn, M., 265 Lévi-Strauss, C., 85 Lietzmann, H., 97 Lütgehetmann, W., 262 Luz, U., 63, 73, 211, 228 Malina, B.J., 39 McGowan, A., 85 Meier, J.P., 7 Merz, A., 8 Miles, J.C., 40 Moessner, D.P., 113 Moore, G.F., 4 Nakamura, C.L., 8

Frey, J., 295 Garnsey, P., 14, 62 Ginzberg, L., 4 Goppelt, L., 286 Greßmann, H. 171 Heil, J.P., 113 Hemer, C.J., 334, 336 Hoppe, R., 161 Hunziker-Rodewald, R., 93, 94 Iersel, Van, B., 73

Ottoson, M., 191 Peres, I., 10 Priest, J., 2, 3, 4, 111 Prigent, P., 336 Riniker, C., 64 Russell, D.S., 2 Schürmann, H., 133 Schweitzer, A., 2, 7 Smend, R., 191 Smith, D.E., 4, 7, 11, 21, 113

492 Steffen, D.S. 8, 9,11, 257 Theißen, G., 8, 67, 71, 265 Volz, P., 4 Vos, L., 339 Webster, J.S., 259

Index of Authors Wieser, F.E., 152 Wainwright, G., 5, 11 Wright, N.T., 8 Zeller, D., 149 Zimmermann, R., 40, 41, 42, 44, 45, 240, 242, 279

Index of Topics Abraham 174-175, 346 Abstinence 95 Abundance (Nutritional) passim – In OT/HB 26-27 – In NT 27 – In Extra-Can. Lit. 27 – Definition 14-15 – Utopian 3, 7, 31, 32, 122-130, 134 Amen 99-100 Apocalypticism 2 Archaeology 19 Babylon 350-351, 354 Bacchus/Dionysos 268-270 Baptist, John the, 46, 51, 53, 77, 95, 114, 121, 131, 150, 205, 216, 217, 260, 274-283 Best man 41, 278-280 Bethsaida 131, 135 Boundary marking 95-96 Bread of life discourse 306-319 Bride 40-41, 42, 50, 282 Bridegroom 42-43, 44-45, 48, 49, 50, 118-122, 216-220, 241-243, 260, 274283 Bridegroom, Friend of 278-280 Cana 260, 263-274 Canon, Biblical 19 Catechesis 71-73 Centurion 210-216 Chaos 15 Charity 163 Chreia 51 City (ideal) 363-364 Class, Social 58-62, 161, 167-177 Cockaigne, Land of 17-19, 54-58, 63, 321 Collegium 94 Community passim

Compassion 74, 79, 222 Conquering 330-331, 332, 337-338 Cosmos 15 Covenant 184, 191 Creation 16-17, 57-58 Crucifixion 32 Cup 32-33 – Eschatological 99-102 David 56-57 Diaconate 79, 116, 134, 136-145 Diaspora 149 Diet 58-62, 292, 303 Discipleship 36, 144 Disease 62 Domitian 89, 90 Doorkeeper 140 Doublet 64-65 Eating and drinking (motif) 190-192 Eden 22, 27 Elisha 68, 75, 132, 225 Elysion 55, 93 Emmaus 177 Empire, Roman 58-59, 78 Enthronization 33 Ephesus 329 Equality 88 Eschatology 2 – Definition 14-19 – Realized 31 Eschatological Banquet passim – In OT/HB 3, 5, 8, 22 – In NT (overview) 23 – In Extra-Can. Lit. 23 – In ANE 8 – In Greek Sources 10 Eucharist 5, 6, 9, 12, 72-73, 82, 156, 224, 227, 252, 271-272, 304, 316, 317, 318

494

Index of Topics

Exclusion 91-94 Exodus 69-72, 74, 133, 223, 314, 334, 335 Familia Dei 211 Family 39-40 Famine 58-62 Fasting 38, 47, 48, 49-50, 52, 114, 118, 216-220 Fertility 5 Feeding, Miraculous 35-36, 53-82, 130135, 177, 220-229, 300-306 Fish 70-73 Food passim – Sacred 4, 11 Friendship 280-281 Galen 59 Galilee 263, 275, 285, 301 Garden 360-363 Garment (wedding) 233-235, 352-353 Gentiles 36, 78-79, 81, 148, 149, 150, 165, 166, 203, 213, 227, 236-237, 253, 301, 345, 368 Gift miracles 67, 71, 74, 261, 265, 266 Glory 267, 319, 321 God-fearer 117 Golden Age 16-18 Gospel, genre 64 Guests 159 – Wedding guests 49, 277 Hades 55, 56 Herod 35, 74, 77, 80, 81, 130, 131, 134, 220, 221, 222, 228 Hierarchy (at the table) 87-91, 155 Hieros gamos 41-42, 45, 247, 282, 283, 359, 364 Holiness 51 Honor 267, 272-274 Hunger 58-62, 115, 169-177, 207, 209, 311, 349, 369 Idolatry 42, 105 Idols (food offered to) 95 Imitatio Christi 144 Imitatio Dei 115 Inclusion (into meals) 91-94, 118, 135 Institution narrative 99-102 Invitations 91-94, 157-167, 229-237

Israel 76, 148, 149, 153, 195, 214, 216, 228, 230, 236-238, 345, 346, 351, 352 Jacob 283-284, 289, 320 Jerusalem 42, 45, 53, 145, 154, 294, 295, 332, 351, 354, 358-370 Jesus, Historical 7-8 Joy 4, 42-43, 45, 48, 50, 53, 105, 122, 167, 268, 272, 277, 280-281 Judas 178, 249, 250, 284 Judgment 8 Justice 57, 88 Kingship / Kingdom passim, 57-58, 68, 77, 80, 82, 115, 123, 146, 148, 151, 155, 157, 182, 192, 194, 195, 230, 231-233, 247, 251, 252, 257, 277, 296, 305, 306, 351 Knocking (on door) 341-342 Lamb 343-349, 350-358, 364-370 Laodicea 325, 338 Last Supper 7, 82-109, 119, 135, 177185, 186, 248-254 Lazarus 167-177 Leviathan and Behemoth 9, 10, 24-25, 71-72 Life, after Death / eternal 17-18, 296, 297 Life, bread of 69 Lord’s Prayer 58, 210 Luxury 60 Macarism 122-130, 204-210 Manna 10, 13, 28, 29-30, 69-71, 309, 310, 315, 326, 333-338 Mark, Gospel of – Meals / Abundance 35-111 Martyr 103-104, 107, 152 Meals passim – Definition 14-15 – In the Apocalypse 325-328 – In John xy, 322-324 – In Mark xy – In Matthew 201-204 – In Luke 113-118 – Social 83-96 – Religious 83-96 Messiah / Messianic Figures 6, 11, 4445, 228

Index of Topics

495

Method 12-19 Midrash 299, 307, 317 Minor Agreements 63 Mission 161, 165, 166 Moses 75, 308, 309, 310, 320 Mother of Jesus 263-265 Motif History 12-13 Mourning 51, 53, 216-220 Mystery cults 126 Myth 20

Sermon on the Plain 118, 123-124 Shame 162, 163, 164 Shepherd 74-75, 77, 348 Slaves 90-91 Socio-Cultural Approach 13-14 Sociology of the Meal 85-86 Spirit, Holy 287, 291, 295 Stone, white 335-337 Sukkoth 294 Synagogue 47

Nazarite (vow) 95 Nero Redivivus 328 Newness 121-122

Table Fellowship passim, esp. 11, 19, 35-36, 83-96, 118-122, 145-155, 156, 157-167, 177-185, 185-196, 210-216, 248-254, 338-343, 370 Table service 136-145, 343 Table talk 116, 178, 185 Temple 294, 295, 334, 360-364, 365, 366 Testamentary discourse 178, 185-196, 261 Theoxenia 92 Therapeutae 75 Thirst 207, 209, 288, 290, 312, 349 Throne 186 Thyatira 325 Torah 50 Transfiguration 134 Tree of Life 10, 28-29, 326, 329-332, 362, 367, 371-375 Twelve 132, 318

Paradise 17, 21, 294 Parousia 97, 137, 139, 141, 144, 155, 182, 184, 185, 239, 371 Passover 82, 179, 180, 181, 182, 183, 184, 253, 260, 261, 302, 304 – Meal 97-98, 106 Patriarchs 146, 151-152, 214-215 Patron deity 92 Paul, eschatological meal in 33 Pergamum 325, 333 Peter 130, 136, 284, 320 Pharisees 38, 46, 47, 51, 78, 80, 81, 114, 119, 136, 145, 154, 157, 158, 176, 204, 216, 217, 219, 221, 229 Poor 57, 126-130, 167-177 Purification 264-265, 270-271 Rechabites 335 Redemption 107-108 Relecture 300 Rich 127-130 Righteousness 154, 204-210, 224, 235, 257, 352-353, 354 Rome 117 Qumran / DSS 4, 6, 23, 44, 75 Sabbath 38, 51, 155, 158, 301 Sadducees 221, 229 Samaritans 283, 284-293 – Woman 284-293 Satiation (Nutritional) 15 Satire 18 Seating order 87-91 Sermon on the Mount 204-210, 212

Underworld 171-172 Utopia 2, 54ff. – Definition 15-19 Victory (banquet) 3, 4, 8, 22, 347355357 Vigilance 244-246 Vindication 103-104, 107, 167-177, 208, 253, 327, 349, 369 Voice 280-281 Warrior, Divine 3, 23-25 Water (of Life) 28, 29, 286-287, 289, 290, 293-297, 326, 344, 348, 359, 362, 367, 371-375 Wealth 173, 176 Wedding

496

Index of Topics

– Feast 15, 25-26, 32, 45, 229-237, 237248, 263-274, 274-283, 350-358 – Religious metaphor 41-45 – Ritual 40-41 Social background 38-40 Wilderness wanderings 312

Wine 104-107, 120-122, 263-274 Wisdom (Lady) 43-44, 93, 126, 291, 310, 320 Zeus 89, 90 Zion 42, 226, 351, 352, 358-370