Flora of the Codex Cruz-Badianus [1st ed.] 9783030469580, 9783030469597

Citation preview

Arthur O. Tucker · Jules Janick

Flora of the Codex Cruz-Badianus

Flora of the Codex Cruz-Badianus

Arthur O. Tucker • Jules Janick

Flora of the Codex Cruz-Badianus

Arthur O. Tucker (deceased) Department of Agriculture and Natural Resources Delaware State University Dover, DE, USA

Jules Janick Department of Horticulture and Landscape Architecture Purdue University West Lafayette, IN, USA

ISBN 978-3-030-46958-0    ISBN 978-3-030-46959-7 (eBook) https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-46959-7 © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed. The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use. The publisher, the authors, and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the authors or the editors give a warranty, expressed or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been made. The publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. This Springer imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature Switzerland AG The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland

For Sharon L. Tucker and Patricia M. Ryan

Cover Image:  Three phytomorphs of the Codex Cruz-Badianus labeled (from left to right) as Temahuiztiliquauitl, Tlapalcacauatl, and Tecalamacoztl are identified as Castilleja integra A. Gray Orobanchaceae, Theobroma cacao L.  Malvaceae, and Ficus petiolaris Kunth, respectively.

vii

Emily Walcott Emmart Trueblood

Dedication

This present work honors a magnificent woman who remains relatively unknown and unsung despite her extraordinary achievements in historical botany. She will forever be famous for her book, The Badianus Manuscript: (Codex Barberini Latin 24l) Vatican Library, An Aztec Herbal of 1552, published by the Johns Hopkins University Press in 1940. This work contained a facsimile in color of an Aztec herbal, Libellus de Medicinalibus Indorum Herbis (A Little Book of Indian Medicinal Herbs) “composed” by Martin de la Cruz, a physician of the College of Santa Cruz in Taltelolco, Mexico, and translated into Latin by a colleague, Juan Badiano, a former student of the Colegio. Remarkably both Cruz and Bandiano were indigenous Nahuans, and this manuscript is the earliest surviving herbal on Aztec medicine from the New World. The Latin translation was discovered in 1929 in a Vatican library and came to the attention of Emily in 1931. She proved to be the right person at the right time. She completed an introduction to the codex in 1935 and a full treatment in 1938. It was a breathtaking piece of scholarship. She translated both the Latin and the Nahuatl names embedded in the illustration. It included an extensive historical background, and chapters on Aztec medicine and herb gardens. Most important were the critical notes and scholarly comments of each illustrated folio. She not only wrote the text but obtained critical financial support for publication in color from The American Pharmaceutical Association, the Smithsonian Institution, the nascent Herb Society of America, the Amateur Gardeners’ Club of Baltimore, the Garden Club of America, and a coterie of wealthy benefactors. Emily Walcott Emmart was born in Baltimore, Maryland, on August 8, 1898. Her mother, Hattie M. Frist Emmart (1869–1939), was a physician, and her father, William Wirt Emmart (1869–1949), was an architect. In 1922, Emily received a B.A. from Goucher College, Baltimore, and then enrolled in Johns Hopkins University, where she received an M.A. in 1924 and ultimately a Ph.D. in 1930 in Zoology. Her Ph.D. thesis involved a marine scud (shrimplike crustacean) and was entitled “Carinogammaus mucronatus (Say): Studies on its life history and ix

x

development including the effects of temperature upon the embryo.” The larvae for further studies on fruit flies were collected in the field from Cuernavaca and Colima, Mexico, which must have piqued her interest in Mexican history.

In 1949, Emily married Dr. Charles Kingsley Trueblood (1893–1974), then Dean of Instruction and later Professor of Psychology and Chairman of the Department of Psychology at American University in Washington, D.C. In 1967, she started work on an annotated version of the famous 1542 herbal of Leonhart Fuchs, but in 1980, because of ill health, she turned the project over to Dr. Frederick Meyer at the National Arboretum. This twovolume work was published posthumously in 1999. In 1973, she published on omixochitl, the Mexican tuberose (Polianthes tuberosa), and that year was an Honorary Research Fellow in Historical Ethnobotany, Botanical Museum of Harvard University. She died on November 2, 1984, at the age of 86. In the preface of the great work, The Badianus Manuscript, she mentioned that the most difficult part of her research was the identification of plants that often were referred to only by their Nahuatl name. This work, 80 years later, continues her effort and is devoted to her memory. Arthur O. Tucker Jules Janick Publications Emmart, E.W. 1935. Studies of the chromosomes of Anastrepha (Diptera: Trypetidae). I.  The chromosomes of the fruit-fly, Anastrepha ludens Loew. Proceedings of the Entomological Society of Washington 37:119–35. Emmart, E.W. 1935. Concerning the Badianus Manuscript, an Aztec herbal, “Codex Barberini, Latin 241” (Vatican Library). Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections, Vol. 94, No. 2. Emmart, E.W. 1935. An Aztec medical treatise, the Badianus Manuscript. Bulletin of the History of Medicine 3:483–506. Emmart, E.W. 1935. The Badianus Manuscript, an Aztec pharmacopoeia. Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciences 24:771–4. Emmart, E.W. 1940. The Badianus manuscript. (CODEX BARBERINI, LATIN 241) Vatican Library. An Aztec Herbal of 1552. Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins Press. Meyer F.G., Emmart, E.W., and J.L. Heller. 1999. The great herbal of Leonhart Fuchs: De historia stirpium commentari insignes, 1542. (Notable commentaries on the history of plants).Vol. 1. Commentary. Vol. 2. Facsimile. Stanford University Press, Stanford. Trueblood, E.W.E. 1973. "Omixochitl" the tuberose (Polianthes tuberosa). Economic Botany 278:157–73.

Preface

An illustrated Latin herbal entitled Libellus de Medicinalibus Indorum Herbis (A Little Book of Indian Medicinal Herbs) is one of the most intriguing manuscripts of 16th century New Spain. It was completed in 1552 at the Colegio de Santa Cruz, Tlatelolco, an institution formed in New Spain to train sons of the Aztec nobility to become priests. The author, Martin de la Cruz (Martinus in Latin), was an indigenous physician of the Colegio; the translator was Juan Badiano (Juannes Badianus in Latin), a former indigenous student who became a Latin instructor. Thus, the manuscript is generally referred to as the Codex Cruz-Badianus. The original manuscript written in Nahuatl by Martin de la Cruz is lost, but the Latin translation by Juan Badiano was sent to the Hapsburg Emperor Charles V (Carlos I of Spain) to underscore the progress of the school, in the hope of gaining increased royal support. It passed through various royal libraries, ending up in obscurity in the Vatican Library. Discovered in 1929 by a Columbia professor, it came to the attention of the Mayanist William Gates, an associate at Johns Hopkins University, and Emily Walcott Emmart, a recent graduate student of the same institution. Both independently translated the manuscript to English and attempted to identify the plants. In 1990, during a pastoral visit to Mexico, Pope John Paul II offered to return the manuscript to the people of Mexico. Libellus de Medicinalibus Indorum Herbis now resides in the library of the National Institute of Anthropology and History in Mexico City. The present volume, Flora of the Codex Cruz-Badianus, resulted from a long-­ time collaboration between Arthur O. Tucker and Jules Janick, co-authors of two books also published by Springer: Unraveling the Voynich Codex (2018) and Flora of the Voynich Codex: An Exploration of Aztec Plants (2019). We were intensely interested in The Codex Cruz-Badianus, which appeared to us as a precursor of the Voynich Codex. Both were herbals and both were authored by a faculty member in the Colegio de Santa Cruz in New Spain. In 2019, while recuperating from a stroke, Arthur informed me that he had finally identified most of the illustrations of the Codex Cruz-Badianus with varying degrees of certitude. I complimented him, and offered to help get his identifications published. He proposed that I be a coauthor, so I edited and formatted his preliminary xi

xii

Preface

identifications and drafted an introductory and concluding chapter in the spring of 2019. However, on August 5, 2019, Arthur passed away in hospital from an undiagnosed infection, 11 days after admittance. We were all stunned. I resolved to complete Flora of the Codex Cruz-Badianus, which has now been achieved. It is appropriate here to briefly summarize the life and career of Dr. Arthur O. Tucker. Arthur was born on June 22, 1945, in Allentown, Pennsylvania. He received his B.A. degree at Kutztown University in 1967, majoring in biology and with an emphasis in botany, and an M.S. (1970) and Ph.D. (1975) from Rutgers University. Leaf proteins, morphology, cytology, and morphology and cytology of Mentha were the subject of his theses. Arthur joined the staff at Delaware State University and rose to the rank of Research Professor. He founded and financed the Claude E. Phillips Herbarium and served as Co-Director. He was a prolific author and published widely on herbs, essential oils, and various floras, and authored or coauthored nine books, including the Encyclopedia of Herbs. In 2012, Arthur retired as Emeritus Professor but never stopped writing. He and his beloved wife of 48 years, Sheron, have three children and four grandchildren. He will be missed and never forgotten. This book is a final tribute to an indefatigable botanist. West Lafayette, IN, USA

Jules Janick

Arthur O. Tucker

Acknowledgements

Appreciation is extended to Anna L. Whipkey for her skills in formatting the figures. We acknowledge the Fundo de Cultura Economica, Instituto Mexicano del Seguro Social and the Johns Hopkins University Press as the source of figures. We appreciate the support provided by Amy Goldman and the Lillian Goldman Charitable Trust.

xiii

Contents

Dedication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .    v Preface. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .   xiii Acknowledgements. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .   xv 1 An Introduction to the Codex Cruz-Badianus ��������������������������������������    1 2 Phytomorph Identification of the Codex Cruz-Badianus����������������������   15 3 Context and Conclusions������������������������������������������������������������������������  285 Appendix ����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������  297 General Index ��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������  309 Botanical Index������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������  311

xv

Chapter 1

An Introduction to the Codex Cruz-Badianus

The Discovery In 1929, Charles Upson Clark (1875–1960), a history Professor at Columbia University, carrying out bibliographic research for the Smithsonian Institution on the early history of the Americas in the Vatican Library, came across a remarkable illustrated Latin manuscript from 1552 entitled Libellus de Medicinalibus Indorum Herbis (Little Book of Indian Medicinal Herbs). In the same year, Lynn Thorndike, Columbia Professor of Medieval Science and Alchemy, noted its existence in Cardinal Francesco Barberini’s catalogue of Vatican manuscripts, and Giuseppe Gabrielli (1872–1942), librarian at the Royal Academy of the Lincei, published a note on the Windsor copy. The 1552 manuscript, now generally referred to as the Codex Cruz-Badianus, was a revelation, spreading new light on botanical and medicinal knowledge of the indigenous peoples of Mexico known today as Nahuans or Aztecs. It was to have a major impact on the history of Aztec culture in sixteenth-­ century New Spain.

Origins The obsequious and self-deprecating comments on the title page of the manuscript, translated to English by Dr. Emily Walcott Emmart and published in 1940, provide information on the author and the origins of the work: A little Book of Indian medicinal herbs composed by a certain Indian, physician of the College of Santa Cruz, who has no theoretical learning, but is well taught by experience alone. In the year of our Lord Saviour 1552 © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 A. O. Tucker, J. Janick, Flora of the Codex Cruz-Badianus, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-46959-7_1

1

2

1  An Introduction to the Codex Cruz-Badianus For the most eminent Don Francisco de Mendoza, most excellent son of Don Antonio de Mendoza, illustrious first viceroy of this India, his unworthy servant, Martin de la Cruz, prays for the greatest health and prosperity. Since in you the graces and adornments of all excellences and the gifts of all good things, that are desired by anyone, shine forth, most distinguished Master, I really do not know what in you to praise especially. Indeed, I do not see by what praises I may extol your remarkable love, by what words I may express gratitude for your unsurpassable kindness. For I cannot adequately say in words how your father, a man at once most Christian and most pious, has been above all others my benefactor. For whatever I am, whatever I possess, and whatever renown I have, I owe to him. I can find nothing equal to, nothing worthy of that beneficence. I can give great thanks, indeed, to my Maecenas, but very little repayment. On that account, whatever I am, I offer, dedicate and consecrate myself to your service; and not only to him alone, but also to you, my most eminent Master, as a most supplicant token and testimony that best bears witness to my singular affection. Indeed I suspect that you ask earnestly for this little book of herbs and medicaments for no other reason than to commend us Indians, even though unworthy, to His Holy Caesarian Catholic Royal Majesty. Would that we Indians could make a book worthy in the King’s sight, for this is certainly most unworthy to come before the sight of such great majesty. But you will recollect that we poor unhappy Indians are inferior to all mortals, and for that reason our poverty and insignificance implanted in us by nature merit your indulgence. Now, accordingly, I beg that you take this little book, which by every right I ought to inscribe with your name most noble sir, from the hand of your humble servant, in the spirit in which it is offered, or what will not surprise me, that you cast it out where it deserves. Farewell. Tlatilulco, in the year of our Lord Saviour 1552. Your Excellency’s most devoted servant.

Martin de la Cruz was an indigenous physician on the staff of the Colegio de la Santa Cruz in Tlatelolco (present spelling of Tlatilulco), now a borough of Mexico City (Fig. 1.1). His name was undoubtedly provided during his adult baptism. In early records he is listed as Martin Momauhti (Silvermoon 2007:81). The colegio was established to train sons of the Nahua nobility to become priests. Martin de la Cruz was appointed physician for indigenous students at the colegio after the 1545

Fig. 1.1  Chapel and Convent of Tlatelolco, site of the Colegio de Santa Cruz. (Source, Bassler and Wright 2008)

Origins

3

epidemic of cocoliztli, a mysterious hemorrhagic fever characterized by high fever and bleeding, which devastated the indigenous populations. An associated bacterial pathogen has been identified as Salmonella enterica. The abilities of Martin de la Cruz as a physician were recognized by Viceroy Don Antonio Mendoza, who in 1550 granted him a license to practice medicine, and he was given the rare privilege of being allowed to ride a horse. The Little Book of Indian Medicinal Herbs was originally written in Nahuatl, but the illustrator is not identified. Emmart (1940:80) thought the likely illustrator was Martin de la Cruz, but Valdes Gutierrez et  al. (1992:152) identified at least two artists. The manuscript was translated into Latin by Juan Badiano, a faculty member and a former student from Xochimilco. He provided the following comments at the end of the manuscript: Juannes Badianus, the translator, to the fairminded reader, Greetings I beg again and again, most excellent reader, that you consider favorably the work I have put into this translation, such as it is, of this little book of herbs. For my part I would prefer to have my labor perish rather than to undergo your most exacting judgment. Furthermore be sure that I spent some spare hours on this edition, not to show off my own talent, which is almost nothing, but only because of the obedience which I vey rightly owe to the priest and superior of this Monastery of St. Jacob, the apostle and most excellent patron of the Spaniards, the very reverend Franciscan father, brother Jacob de Grado, who laid this task upon my shoulders. Farewell in Christ the Saviour. At Tlatilulco the College of the Holy Cross, on the holy day of Saint Mary Magdalene, in the year 1552 after the restitution of the world. End of the little book of herbs, which Joannes Badianus, an Indian by race, a native of Xochimilco, reader at the same college, translated into Latin. Glory be forever to Him by whose gift I translated the book you see, good friend reader.

The Manuscript The original manuscript is bound in velvet, 6 × 8 inches and 3/4 of an inch thick, with a label on the spine, Barb. Lat. (Barberiniano Latino) 241, indicating it was once part of the library of Cardinal Francesco Barberini. There are 126 pages, of which 8 are blank. It contained 185 paintings of plant images (phytomorphs) in color of New World plants with associated text organized into 13 chapters based on their ability to control particular human ailments. Martin de la Cruz dedicated the work to Francisco de Mendoza, son of the viceroy, Antonio de Mendoza. Each page has red margins that must have been created first. Plant images were first painted on the top of the page or in three cases (folios 38r, 38v, 39r) on the entire page. Rubricated Nahuatl names were added above each plant image, sometimes squeezed around the images when there was insufficient room. The rubricated title of the Aztec medicinal use was added below. A scribe must have then added

4

1  An Introduction to the Codex Cruz-Badianus

Badiano’s Latin translation of Cruz’s Nahuatl text in a different, more elaborated script. Occasionally the spelling of the plant above the image varies from the text. The paper of the manuscript has watermarks of the early sixteenth century, indicating that the Vatican manuscript is an authentic document. The Aztec medicinal uses written in brown ink under rubricated headings are usually found directly below the phytomorphs, with the exception of folios 38r, 38v, and 39r; these have 11, 7, and 10 phytomorphs whose medicinal uses are found on 2 pages after folio 39v. The text provides medical properties of the plants and methods of preparation; it often includes the name of other plants, precious stones, and parts of animals, which were often used in Aztec remedies. As might be expected from a manuscript produced in a Franciscan institution, the text and style contain European influences including one reference to Pliny, some reference to the humoral theory of medicine, and perhaps the doctrine of signatures (Hassig 1989). All students of the manuscript comment on the difficulty of precise identification of the plants. Our aim in the present work is to identify the plants from a botanical perspective based on morphology of the image and compare it with three previous attempts. We have relied on Gates (1939), Emmart (1940), and Clayton et al. (2009) for the translation of Nahuatl names. The phytomorph identifications were made by Arthur O. Tucker.

Provenance Libellus de Medicinalibus Indorum Herbis had prominent backers. The effusive laudatory dedication of Martin de la Cruz indicates it was commissioned by Don Francisco Mendoza, the son of the first viceroy of New Spain. Juan Badiano’s translation was made at the request of Friar Jacobo de Grado, Guardian and Director of the Covent of Tlatelolco and President of the Colegio de la Cruz. The gorgeous manuscript bound in velvet was brought to Spain in late 1552 in a sealed box as a gift to the king by Francisco de Mendoza, who was visiting the monarch while substituting for his father (Viesca and Aranda 1996). There were written instructions that the seals not be broken until the son’s verbal explanations were received. The traditional explanation for the gift was that it was a means for the viceroy to emphasize the progress of the school in the hopes of gaining increased royal support. It succeeded. The manuscript was well received by the 25-year-old Prince Philip; King Carlos I of Spain (also Emperor Carlos V of the Holy Roman Empire) was out of the country. In 1552, 800 pesos of gold was allotted annually to the colegio, and support for a new hospital for the Indians (Royal College of Naturals) was decreed. In 1552, Martin de la Cruz and two other indigenous physicians were granted licenses to practice and serve as examiner of indigenous physicians. In 1555, in the last document to mention Martin de la Cruz, the second viceroy, Don Luis de Velasco, awarded him a license and permission to carry a crossbow for protection in his duties of collecting herbs.

Provenance

5

Don Francisco’s visit to Spain also included other financial interests of the Mendoza family. The boxes containing the manuscript also contained the first shipment of ginger that had been introduced and cultivated in New Spain. A contract was arranged for the Mendoza family to import other drug crops from the New World. Clearly, the Codex Cruz-Badianus had served the purpose of the Mendoza family. The codex ended up in the library of Didacus Cortavila y Sanabria, apothecary to King Felipe IV (Fig. 1.2). In 1626, Cortavila presented the manuscript as a gift to Cardinal Francesco Barberino, nephew of Pope Urban VIII, who headed a diplomatic mission to Spain and was visiting Cortavila’s renowned garden. The codex

Fig. 1.2  First page of the Libellus de medicinalibus Indorum Herbis known as the Codex Cruz-­ Badianus. Note the handwritten inscription: ex libris didaci Cortavila which indicates the manuscript was once in the library of Didacus de Cortavilla et Senabria, apothecary to Felipe IV of Spain

6

1  An Introduction to the Codex Cruz-Badianus

became part of the cardinal’s extensive collection of manuscripts, and in 1902 it was catalogued in the Vatican library as MS Barberiniano Latino 241. In 1990, the Libellus de Medicinalibus Indorum Herbis was returned to Mexico by Pope John Paul II, and it now resides in the library of the National Institute of Anthropology and History of Mexico in Mexico City. At least two copies of the manuscript were made, one lost and the other ending up with George III of England, catalogued in the Windsor Castle library as RCIN 970335. This copy was made in 1627 for the paper museum of Cassiano dal Pozzo, who was under the employ of Barberini. The copy eventually passed on to the Accademia dei Lincei, founded in 1603 by Federico Cesi, who was instrumental in publishing the botanical works of Francisco Hernández. The copy passed on to Cassiano’s great nephew, Cosimo Antonio dal Pozzo, to Clement XI in 1703, and to his nephew Cardinal Alessandro Albani in 1714, who sold it to George III in 1762. The lost copy may have been made by Francesco Stelluti, a friend of Federico Cesi (Guerrini 2009). The Codex Cruz-Badianus is an extraordinary document. Written and translated into Latin by two indigenous faculty members of the Colegio de Santa Cruz in New Spain, the herbal can be considered a seminal work on Aztec medicine and culture, providing information on plants, animals, minerals, and ecology.

English and Spanish Translations and Facsimiles In 1931, William Edmond Gates (1863–1940) and Emily Walcott Emmart (1898–1984) (see Dedication) became aware of the discovery of the Libellus de Medicinalibus Indorum Herbis. Both were associated with Johns Hopkins University. Gates (Fig. 1.3), a self-financed Mayan linguist and collector of manuscripts, was a research associate; Emmart had received a PhD in zoology in 1930.

Fig. 1.3  William E. Gates ca. 1920, Mayanist scholar and collector. (Source: Bassler 2008)

English and Spanish Translations and Facsimiles

7

They independently initiated English translations of the Latin text and Nahuatl plant names and identified many of the plant images (phytomorphs). In her Preface, Emmart acknowledges that Gates lent her books from his private library, but there are no references to his translation or identifications. There may have been a rivalry. Gates was a difficult person, who feuded with Johns Hopkins in 1938 (Bassler and Wright 2008). A brief history by Bruce Byland of both works can be found in the introduction to the 2000 Dover edition of Gates’s work, entitled An Aztec Herbal: The Classic Codex of 1552. The translation by William Gates, entitled The de la Cruz-Badiano Aztec Herbal of 1552, appeared in 1939, originally published by the resurrected Maya Foundation, which Gates had founded in order to publish his writings. He worked from photographs of the manuscript and watercolor copies made in 1932 and 1933 by Marie Therese Vuilinemin, the niece of Eugene Tisserant, Pro-Prefetto of the Vatican Library. However, Gates did not have the resources to publish the work in color. Identifications are found in the Analytical Index to Plants named in Herbal, but the Nahuatl names are not always in alphabetical order. The translation by Emily Walcott Emmart, with the expansive title “The BADIANUS MANUSCRIPT (CODEX BABERINI, LATIN 241) Vatican Library An Aztec Herbal of 1552,” appeared in 1940, published by the Johns Hopkins Press. She was successful in gaining support to incorporate Vuilinemin’s watercolor copies in color. Her English translation is more graceful than Gates’s, and her scholarship was excellent despite quibbles by later workers. Her botanical expertise surpassed that of Gates, and her book has been considered the most important work on the manuscript. It includes an extensive introduction, a facsimile, and extensive translation comments. The most recent English analysis of the codex, entitled Flora: The Aztec Herbal, was published in 2009 by Royal Collection Enterprises Ltd. It was coauthored by Martin Clayton, Luigi Guerrini, and Alejandro de Ávila. Martin Clayton is an art historian and specialist in the drawings of Leonardo da Vinci; he is presently Deputy Curator of the Print Room at Windsor Castle. Luigi Guerrini is a historian of science, specializing in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. Alejandro de Ávila is an anthropologist, ethnobiologist, and founding director of the Jardín Etnobotánico in Oaxaca, Mexico. This work included illustrations from both the original Vatican version and the copy in the Royal Library in Windsor. All three versions (1939, 1940, and 2009) contain all the phytomorphs, but Gates slightly altered the sequence. There are two Spanish translations. One was published in 1952 by Francisco Guerra; it is based on Gates’s version but contains only a few plates. A more extensive Spanish edition was published by the Instituto Mexicano del Seguro Social in 1964, with a second edition in 1991. There are color differences in the various reproductions; the 1991 edition is considered closest to the original. These images based on the original manuscript are used in this volume. A number of works concentrating on the medicinal aspects of the manuscript are listed in Additional References at the end of this chapter.

8

1  An Introduction to the Codex Cruz-Badianus

The Codex Cruz-Badianus as a Herbal: Medical Uses The symptoms recognized by Aztec physicians encompassed a wide variety of disorders, and many were treated by herbal medicine. This is apparent in the Codex Cruz-Badianus, where the phytomorphs are grouped into 13 chapters treating ailments from the head downwards (Emmart 1940): 1. Of the treatment of the head, boils, dandruff or alopecia, scabies, falling hair, laceration of the head, or fractures (folio 6v-9v) 2. Of treatment of the eyes, heat blood-shot eyes, glaucoma, numbness of the eyebrow or rather of the eyelids, tumor of the eyebrow or rather of the eyelids, tumor of the eyes, induction of sleep, and prevention of drowsiness (folio 10r-14r) 3. Of purulence of the ears, or deafness, or rather obstruction (folio 14r-15r) 4. Of coryza, medicine to be installed into the nose, and blood herb (folio 15r-16v) 5. Of sparkling of the teeth or dentifrice, cure of swollen and abscessed gums, pain and decay of teeth, severe heat, tumor or suppuration of the throat, angina, medicine by which pain in the throat is soothed, that which brings forth dried­up saliva, that which cures bloody sputum, that which relieves coughing, and that which removes noisome and fetid breath, of hiccups (folio 17r-21v) 6. Of cooling the heat of swelling cheeks, of healing one who cannot open his mouth for the pain, of scabies of the face, scabies of the mouth, struma of the neck or scrofula, water under the skin, and weakness of the hands (folio 23r-26r) 7. Of oppression of the chest, pain in the heart, heat, pain in the side, medicine to kill worms and small animals which enter the stomach, antidote, swelling of the stomach, pain in the abdomen, dysentery or cholic, rumbling of the abdomen, coldness, and purgation (folio 26v-32r) 8. Of cure of the pubes, plant for groins, bladderwort to halicacabum, dysuria or difficult discharge of the urine, ailment of the fundament, podagra, pain of the knee, incipient contraction of the knee, remedy for what makes cracks in the soles of the feet, injury of the feet for fatigue, and trees and flowers for the lassitude of those administering the government and those holding public jobs (folio 32v-40r) 9. Of the remedy for back blood fever, leprosy, hemorrhoids, condyloma, excessive heat, injured body, lychen or mentagra, the recurrent disease, scabies, wounds received, disease of the joints, psora, pus already infected with worms, burned body, difficult digestion, cut veins swelling because of phlebotomy, and one struck by lightning (folio 40v-50v) Of the falling sickness or comitial sickness, remedy for fear or faintheartedness, mental stupor, for one afflicted by a whirlwind or a bad wind, warts, fetid odor of the infirm, odor of the armpits, phthiriasis, and phthiriasis of the head, one crossing a river or lake, traveler (folio 56r-56v) 10. Of the medicines for recent parturition, for menstruation, for washing the abdomen of a woman in bed, tubercles of the breast. Medicine to produce lactation (folio 60v-61v)

Identification of Phytomorphs

9

11. Of scabies or inflammation of children and when an infant is no longer willing to suck the breast because of some pain (folio 60v-61v) 12. Of certain signs of one who is going to die (folio 61v-63r)

Identification of Phytomorphs The 185 plant illustrations (phytomorphs) in the manuscript are in bright colors and beautifully stylized but sometimes botanically inaccurate. Many are difficult to identify. Some illustrations do not include inflorescences, and flowers and fruits are often crudely portrayed; root systems are presented symbolically (Fig. 1.4). In some cases, colors are used to identify soil type: patches of blue indicate moist soil. Plants grown near ant hills show pictures of ants (folios 13v1 and 28r). Nevertheless, some phytomorph identifications are obvious, including Cucurbita pepo (folio 59v2), Opuntia ficus-indica (folio 49v), Theobroma cacao (folio 38v2), (d) Philodendron mexicanum, (folio 18v1), and (e) Stenocereus thurberi (folio 17v) (Fig. 1.5). The Nahuatl names in red above the images are often compound, providing information on the description, ecology, and uses based on the Aztec classification. Four basic types were recognized: food plants (quilitl), medicinals (patili), ornamentals (yochitl), and economic plants. Medical plant names often relate to their medicinal uses. A number of different plants have the same name. The appropriate guidelines for identifying plant images (phytomorphs) were outlined by Tucker and Janick (2017) and bear repeating here: 1. For any identification of a plant, the strength of evidence depends on the qualifications of the identifier(s). 2. Identification of plants, just as with forensic identification of faces or fingerprints, requires pattern recognition. For botanical subjects, this requires

Fig. 1.4  Examples of symbolic features in the phytomorphs: (a) folio 13v1, presence of ants, pun on name “ill smelling medicinal coming out of ant hill”; (b) folio v4, presence of serpents, pun on name “serpent fruit”; (c) folio 61r1, presence of Aztec water symbol and blue color for watery ecological habitat; (d) folio 27v3, presence of Aztec stone symbol reflecting association with climatic or ecological conditions

10

1  An Introduction to the Codex Cruz-Badianus

Fig. 1.5  Readily identifiable plants of Codex Cruz-Badianus: (a) Theobroma cacao, folio 38v2; (b) Opuntia ficus-indica, folio 49v; (c) Cucurbita pepo, folio 59r2; (d) Philodendron mexicanum, folio 18v1; (e) Stenocereus thurberi, folio 17v

r­ ecognition of the appropriate plant family, then to genus, and eventually species. Amateurs of botanical identification often reverse this process and try to identify the species first and ignore the patterns of the plant family, usually leading to false identifications. 3. Any attempt at identification must use currently accepted scientific names and the appropriate vocabulary of terms pertinent to plant taxonomy. 4. Details of habitat or ecological association may provide evidence to support an identification of a phytomorph. 5. Associated names often provide supporting evidence for the identification of a phytomorph. 6. Because of inherent biological variability of plants and differing talents of the artist(s), no identification of a phytomorph can be considered absolute. Rather, degrees of accuracy must be stated, from high to low. Confidence is based upon high percentages of match with a list of features that agree or do not agree with the identification. 7. All previous attempts at identification from books and refereed publications must be presented and discussed as to accuracy. Similar representations of phytomorphs in other original sources should be cited to bolster the identification, along with any ethnobotanical uses or mythology.

References

11

8. Identifications of phytomorphs in a transcultural society such as sixteenth-­ century New Spain, pre- and postconquest, must consider as artistic methods of representation. 9. Pigments (even mineral pigments in European paintings) vary in stability, and the transient nature of vegetable-derived pigments in New World paintings means that the colors seen today may not be the same colors as originally applied. 10. The purpose and background of the portrayal must be considered. Is any mythology associated with it? Are certain diagnostic characteristics emphasized for identification? 11. Any identifications from restored materials should be not be considered as absolute because of past practices with little or no record of the degree of restoration. In the past, some restorations had more in common with forgery, employing identical or similar techniques, along with pigments and pigment binders, used by restorers with questionable ability, who sometimes even distressed the restoration to agree with the rest of the work. In each chapter, there were from 1 to 11 phytomorphs per page, each labeled with medicinal uses and method of preparation. One might expect that the Nahuatl name provided by Martin de la Cruz would make the modern identification straightforward, but in fact there is no recognized flora based on Nahuatl names. Putative identifications based on Nahuatl plant names summarized in an appendix in the Flora of the Voynich Codex (Tucker and Janick 2019) indicate substantial disagreement and many duplications. Furthermore, many of the identifications were not made by recognized systematic taxonomists and are questionable. In some cases, the same Nahuatl name is used for more than one plant. The identification of the 185 phytomorphs of the Codex Cruz-Badianus is presented in the following chapter.

References Bassler, T.T., and D.  Wright. 2008. The making of a collection: Mesoamerican manuscripts at Princeton University. Libraries and the Cultural Record 43 (1): 29–55. Bylund, B. 2000. Introduction. In An Aztec herbal: The classic codex of 1552, ed. W. Gates, iii– xiii. Mineola: Dover edition. Clayton, M., L. Guerrini, and A. de Ávila. 2009. Flora: The Aztec herbal. London: Royal Collection Enterprises, Ltd. de la Cruz, M., and J.  Badiano. 1964. Libellus de medicinalibus indorum herbis: manuscrito Azteca de 1552, segun traduccion Latina de Juan Badiano. In Version Espanola con estudios y comentarios por diversos autores. México: Instituto Mexicano del Seguro Social. ———. 1991. Libellus de medicinalibus indorum herbis. Mexico: Fondo de Cultura Económica. Emmart, E.W. 1940. The Badianus manuscript. (CODEX BARBERINI, LATIN 241) Vatican Library. An Aztec herbal of 1552. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Press. Gates, W. 1939. The de la Cruz-Badiano Aztec herbal of 1552. Baltimore: The Maya Society Publication No 22. ———. 2000. An Aztec herbal: The classic codex of 1552. Mineola: Dover Publications. [First published 1939. Maya Society, Baltimore].

12

1  An Introduction to the Codex Cruz-Badianus

Guerra, F. 1952. Libellus de medicinalibus indorum herbis: El manuscrito pictόrico mexicano-­ latino de Martin de la Cruz y Juan Badiano de 1552. Mexico: Editorial Vargas Rea y El Diario Español. Guerrini, L. 2009. The Accademia dei Lincei, the New World, the Libellus de Medinalibus Indorum Herbis. In Flora: The Aztec herbal, ed. M.  Clayton, L.  Guerrini, and A. de Ávila. London: Royal Collection Enterprises Ltd. Hassig, D. 1989. Transplanted medicine: Colonial Mexican herbals of the sixteenth century. RES: The Journal of Anthropology and Aesthetics. 17/18: 30–53. SilverMoon. 2007. The imperial college of Tlatelolco and the emergence of a new Nahua intellectual elite in New Spain (1500–1760). PhD Thesis, Duke University, Durham. Tucker, A.O., and J. Janick. 2017. Identification of plants in the 1584 murals of the casa del Deán, Puebla, Mexico. Notulae Botanicae Horti Agrobotanici Cluj-Napoca. 45 (1): 1–8. https://doi. org/10.15835/nbha45110692. ———. 2019. Flora of the Voynich codex: An exploration of Aztec plants. Cham: Springer Nature. Valdes Gutierrez, J., Y. Flores Olvera, and H. Ochoterena-Booth. 1992. La botanica en el Codice de la Cruz. In Estudios Actuales sobre el Libellus de Medicinalibus Indorum Herbais, ed. J.  Kumate, M.E.  Pineda, C.  Viesca, J.  Sanfillipo, I. de la Pena Paea, J.  Valdez Gutierrez, H. Flores Olvares, H. Ochoterena-Booth, and X. Lozoya. Mexico City: Secretaria de Salud. Viesca, C. 1995. Y Martín de la Cruz, autor del Códice de la Cruz Badiano, era un médico tlatelolca de carne y hueso. Estudio de Cultura Náhuatl 25: 479–498.

Additional References Abud Milina, I.F. 2015. Francisco de Mendoza y el Libellus de Medicinalibus Inodorum Herbis. Mexico: Illustración botánica y comercio cde espercas enel siglo XVI.  Thesis. Benemérita Universidad Autónoma du Puebla. Alcántara Rojas, B. 2008. Nepapan Xochitl, the power of flowers in the works of Sahagún. In Colors between two worlds: The Florentine Codex of Bernardino de Sahagún, ed. L.A.  Waldman, 106–132. Florence: Villa I Tatti. Altamirano, F. 1896. Historia natural aplicada de los antiguos mexicanos. Anales del Instituto Médico Nacional México 2: 261–272. Bárcena, A., A. Barrera, E. Ruiz, and L. Lorenzo. 1979. Interpretación etno-botánica del códice de la Cruz-Badiano. Anales de la Sociedad Mexicana de Historia de la Ciencia y de la Tecnologia 5: 35–48. Bye, R.A., and E. Linares. 2013a. Códice de la Cruz-Badiano: Medicine préhispánica. Primera parte. Arqueología Mexicana 50: 8–91. ———. 2013b. Códice de la Cruz-Badiano: Medicine préhispánica. Segunda parte. Arqueología Mexicana 51: 9–93. Comas, J., E. González, A. López Austin, G. Somolinos, and C. Viesca. 1995. El mestizaje cultural y la medicina novohispanica del siglo XVI. València: Universitat de València-C.S.I.C. de Ávila Blomberg, A. 2012. Yerba del coyote, veneno del perro: La evidencia lexica para identificar plantas en el Códice de la Cruz Badiano. Acta Botanica Mexicana 100: 489–526. Deno, R.A. 1941. Badianus manuscript describes native drugs of early Mexico. Journal of the American Pharmaceutical Association (Practical Pharmacy ed.) 2: 292–295. Dominguez, S.X.A. 1969. Algunos aspectos químicos y farmacológicos de sustancias aisladas de las plantas descritas en el Códice Badiano (Libellus de Medicinalibus Indorum Herbis). Revista de la Sociedad Química de México 13 (2): 85–89. Emmart, E.W. 1935. Concerning the Badianus Manuscript, an Aztec herbal, “Codex Barberini, Latin 241” (Vatican Library). Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections 94 (2): 14.

References

13

Gimmel, M. 2009. Herbal savvy and institutional ignorance: the Codex de la Cruz Badiano and its colonial context. Colorado Review of Hispanic Studies 7: 139–150. Guerrero, C.J., and F.B.  Dávila. 2004. La cirugía plastica y el Códice De la Cruz-Badiano. Medicina Universitaria 6 (22): 51–54. Hernández, F. 1942. Historia de las Plantas de Nueva España. Mexico: Instituto de Biología. Hernández, F., F. Celsi, B. Colonna, J. Deversini, J. Faber, V. Greuter, V. Mascardi, N.A. Recchi, and J. Terentius. 1651. Rerum medicatum Novae Hispaniae Thesarus, seu, Plantarum animalium mineralium Mexicanorum historia. Romae: Vitalis Mascardi. Kirk, S., and S. Rivett. 2014. Religious transformations in the early modern Americas. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press. Kumate, J. 1991. Retorno del Códice Cruz-Badiano a nuestro país. II. Libellibus Medicinalibus Inodorus Herbis. Origen y peripecias del manuscrito. Gaceta Médica de México 127: 106–109. Kumate, J., M.E. Pineda, C. Viesca, J. Sanfilippo, I. de la Peña Páez, J. Valdéz Gutiérrez, H. Flores Olvares, H.  Ochoterena-Booth, and Z.  Lozoya. 1992. Estudios actuales sobre el libellus de medicinalibus Indorum herbis. México: Secretaria de Salud. Lozoya Legorreta, X. 1991. Retorno del Códice Cruz-Badiano a nuestro país. IV. Otra lectura a la obra de Martín de la Cruz y Juan Badiano: Con la morada puesta en el future. Gaceta Médica de México 127: 112–115. Martínez, J.L. 1981. El México antiguo, selección y reordenación de la historia general de las cosas de Nueva España de fray Bernardino de Sahagún y de los informantes indígenas. Caracas: Biblioteca Ayacucho. Turner Rodríguez, G. 2007. El Códice de la Cruz-Badiano y su extensa familia herbaria. Revista Historias (México D.F.) 68: 109–122. Valverde, J.L. 1984. The Aztec herbal of 1552. Martin de la Cruz “Libellus de medicinalibus indorum herbis.” Context of the sources on Nahuatl materia medica. Veröffentlichunghen der Internationalen Gesellschaft für Geschichte der Pharmazie 53: 9–30. Viesca, C., and A. Aranda. 1996. Las alteraciones del sueño en el Libellus de medicinalibus indorum herbis. Estudios de Cultura Náhuatl 26: 145–161.

Chapter 2

Phytomorph Identification of the Codex Cruz-Badianus

The Codex Cruz-Badianus contains 185 phytomorphs separated into 13 chapters based on medical disorders, as explained in Chap. 1. Each image is labeled with its folio number followed by r (recto) or v (verso) and a number from 1 to 11 when there is more than one image per folio. Emmart (1940) reported only 184 illustrations, and we assume that folio 56v1 and 56v2 (two intertwined plants) were incorrectly listed as one illustration even though two Nahuatl names are attached. A letter from Eugene Tisserat to William Gates, dated July 26, 1933, listed charges for illustrations by his niece Marie-Thérèse Vuillemin for “185 flowers” (Gates 2000). A number of other folios (14v, 18v, 32r, 44r, 51v, 54r, 59r) contain superimposed images. The phytomorphs are those found in Emmart (1940), which were based on the Vuillemin illustrations. Of the 185 phytomorphs, 157 contain inflorescences or fruits generally essential for precise identification; 28 are vegetative. The roots tend to be stylized, but rhizomes are emphasized. Some of the phytomorphs have symbolic clues (see Fig. 1.3). All the individual phytomorphs are associated with Nahuatl names, but these are not definitive because many names are generic and refer to more than one species. The phytomorphs are discussed in sequence based on folio numbers derived from Clayton et al. (2009). The folio numbers are difficult to discern in Emmart (1940), who used plate numbers, and these are also provided for each folio with figures. Each identification is divided into seven subsections: Nahuatl name: the name printed in red above the phytomorph, followed by its translation by Emmart (1940) and Clayton et al. (2009); alternative spellings may be added Description: using appropriate botanical vocabulary Previous identifications: based on the literature, which is cited Putative identification: based primarily on morphology of the image, using appropriate botanical nomenclature Distribution: range and ecology Names: common names, usually English, Spanish, or Nahuatl Uses: medicinal, culinary, and other uses of these and related species © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 A. O. Tucker, J. Janick, Flora of the Codex Cruz-Badianus, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-46959-7_2

15

16

2  Phytomorph Identification of the Codex Cruz-Badianus

These are followed by a photograph of the figure of each of the 185 phytomorphs, coupled with a photograph, drawing, or herbarium sheet of the putative species. The figure captions provide the folio number and the putative botanical name and family. The reliability and accuracy of identification will be explained in the text. Species in doubt will be associated with a question mark (?). The nomenclature follows our interpretation of the cited revisions, and/or the Germplasm Resources Information Network (GRIN) (USDA, ARS 2015), and/or the collaboration of the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, and the Missouri Botanical Garden (Plant List 2013). The folio numbers are found in Cruz and Badiano (1964) and Clayton et al. (2009), and the plate numbers found in Emmart (1940) are included. Translation of Nahuatl names is provided by Emmart (1940) and Clayton (2009). In this work, the reliability and accuracy of each identification are as follows. Those phytomorphs in which the species cannot be accurately determined are identified as “generic name sp.” indicating the specific epithet is unknown. Species in doubt will be followed by a question mark (?). Where an identification is suggested or likely, sometimes the species will be followed by the abbreviation “cf.” meaning “compares favorably,” and a suggested species will be listed. The identification of the 185 phytomorphs by four sources (Tucker & Janick as presented in Chap. 2; Clayton et al. 2009; Emmart 1940; and Gates 1939) can be found in Table 1 of the Appendix arranged by folios and include the Nahuatl name. The nomenclature follows our interpretation of the cited revisions, and/or the Germplasm Resources Information Network (GRIN) (USDA, ARS 2015), and/or the collaboration of the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, and the Missouri Botanical Garden (Plant List 2013). The folio numbers are those found in Cruz and Badiano (1964) and Clayton et al. (2009).

Folio 7r

Folio 7r

17

Aztec medicinal use  Treatment of the head. The shrubs xiuhecapahtli, yztac ocoxochitl, and teamoxtli, and the precious stones tetlahuitl, yztactlalli, eztetl, and temamatlatzin, ground up together in cold water, stop heat in the head; when ground up in hot water, they stop coldness therein. Apply three times a day (morning, noon, and evening) and bind the neck and throat with the sinew of an eagle’s foot and neck. Those suffering from headache should eat onions in honey and should not sit in the sun, work, or enter the baths (Emmart 1940).

Folio 7r1 Nahuatl name  Xiuhhecapatli (xiuh  =  herbaceous plant; eca, ecatl  =  wind; patli = medicinal plant; thus, plant wind remedy [Emmart 1940]; herbaceous wind remedy [Clayton et al. 2009]). Alternate spellings: xiuehcapahtli, xiuhehcapahtli, xihuecapahtli, xiuhecapatl. Description  This phytomorph has alternate, simple, elliptic leaves with erect, golden yellow flowers or fruits (shaded orange in Emmart [1940] but not in Cruz and Badiano [1964]) that are terminal, single, and semi-orbicular, subtended by a calyx with acute lobes. The stem is blue. It appears to be perennial because the stems arise from a caudex or tuber. This is different from the phytomorph portrayed as xiuehcapahtli on fol. 37a1. Previous identification  This has been identified as Senna occidentalis (L.) Link (Cassia laevigata sensu auct., C. occidentalis L.) (de Ávila Blomberg 2012; Díaz 1976; Gates 2000; Guerra 1952; Reko 1947; Miranda and Valdés 1964; Valdés Gutiérrez et al. 1992) or Senna septemtrionalis (Viv.) H.S.Irwin & Barneby (Cassia laevigata Willd.) (Bye and Linares 2013; Linares and Bye 2013), both of the Fabaceae. Putative identification  Both species of Senna have compound leaves with a flower or fruit that differs from fol. 7r. A better match would be a species from the Solanaceae, but most of these have pendulous fruits and are not erect, and those that are erect fruit are clustered. An exception is a species allied to Solanum pseudocapsicum L. (S. capsicastrum Link ex Schauer) (Fig. 2.1), which has alternate, simple, elliptic leaves and erect golden yellow to orange-red berries subtended by calyces with acute lobes. This is an evergreen shrub, living up to 10 years, and 0.3–1 m tall, occasionally to 2 m. The glabrous form is most often in cultivation. Distribution  Solanum pseudocapsicum is found in forests, forest margins (seres), and waterways, is native from northern Mexico to southern South America, and is naturalized in Africa and Australasia. Names  Jerusalem cherry, winter cherry, Christmas cherry (English); coral de jardines, manzanita de amor (Spanish).

18

2  Phytomorph Identification of the Codex Cruz-Badianus

Uses  While not poisonous to humans, S. pseudocapsicum will produce gastric upset from the alkaloid solanocapsine, suggested by the synonym S. ipecacuanha Chodat (ipecac nightshade). This species also has antitumor and antiviral activity (Badami et al. 2003; Van Den Berghe et al. 1978).

Fig. 2.1  Solanum pseudocapsicum, Solanaceae: (a) folio 7r1; (b) fruit and leaves of S. pseudocapsicum. (Source: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Solanum_pseudocapsicum1.jpg KENPEI CC BY-SA 3.0)

Folio 7r2 Nahuatl name  Yztac ocoxochitl (yztac = white, oco, ocotl = pine; xochil = flower; thus, white pine flower [Emmart 1940; Clayton et al. 2009]). Description  This phytomorph has two types of leaves. The principal stems bear semi-orbicular, terminal, single, orange, and yellow flowers or fruits that are subtended by calyces with acute lobes with simple, opposite, elliptic leaves. The lateral shoots bear smaller yellow, single flowers or fruits subtended by calyces with acute lobes with simple, opposite, linear leaves. The stems arise from a basal caudex, possibly indicating a perennial plant, or perhaps a parasite. Previous identification  This has been identified as Didymaea sp. (Gates 2000) of the Rubiaceae, Didymaea mexicana Hook. f. [D. alsinoides (Standl.) L.O. Williams] (Clayton et al. 2009; Miranda and Valdés 1964; Reko 1947), a species with relatively small flowers and black fruit. The identification of this phytomorph as Pimenta dioica (L.) Merr. of the Myrtaceae, based upon non-botanical evidence by Abud Molina (2015), does not match the phytomorph.

Folio 7r

19

Putative identification  Didymaea mexicana does not match the phytomorph. The leaves and putative flower buds suggest the former Scrophulariaceae, i.e., Plantaginaceae or Orobanchaceae. The balloon-like buds of the hemiparasite Aureolaria greggii (S.  Watson) Pennell (Gerardia greggii S.  Watson) of the Orobanchaceae are yellow suffused with orange (Fig. 2.2). Opposite leaves are serrate but often appear entire when the serrations are curled underneath. The lateral branches do have narrower leaves but are not as dimorphic as the phytomorph suggests. Distribution  Native to Mexico. Names  Yellow false foxglove (English); cuanenepile (Spanish). Uses  Moerman (2009) lists Native American uses of Aureolaria spp. as antirheumatic, antidiarrheal, and emetic.

Fig. 2.2  Aureolaria greggii, Orobanchaceae: (a) folio 7r2; (b) shoot and flower of A. greggii. (Source: https://www.naturalista.mx/photos/3910965)

Folio 7r3 Nahuatl name  Teamoxtli (te = stone, amoxtli = paper plant; thus, a stone amoxtli [Emmart 1940]; stone moss [Clayton et al. 2009]).

20

2  Phytomorph Identification of the Codex Cruz-Badianus

Description  This phytomorph is apparently a bryophyte or moss that grows on stone but lacks any other distinguishing characteristics. Clayton et al. (2009) state: “Amoxtli or amamoxtli is an aquatic moss or floating weed…abundant in the lakes of Mexico…; the prefix te- here indicates ‘(growing on) stone’ distinguishing it from the aquatic amoxtli….” Previous identification  This phytomorph has not been previously identified beyond a Juncus sp. (Gates 2000) or a bryophyte (Clayton et  al. 2009; Guerra 1952). Putative identification  No putative identification can be rendered, although this moss is similar to the genus Mnium of the Mniaceae, a possible match to the phytomorph. Distribution  Mnium is cosmopolitan. The illustrated species, M. hornum Hedw. (Fig. 2.3b), the horn calcareous moss or carpet moss, ranges from Canada to South America, as well as Eurasia and Africa. This species is also frequently epipetric, like the phytomorph, but so few taxonomic characters are given in the phytomorph that it is impossible to consider anything beyond a possible genus. Names  A moss (English), un musgo (Spanish); see folio 8v2. Uses  Harris (2008) records uses of mosses by the Maya for fevers, for mouth sores, and in combination with other ingredients.

Fig. 2.3  Mnium hornum, Mniaceae: (a) folio 7r3; (b) shoots of M. hornum. (Source: https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=238935 Michael Becker, CC BY-SA 3.0)

Folio 7v

21

Folio 7v

Aztec medicinal use  Boils. Leaves of the herb tlatlanquaye and the root tlalhaueuetl, tlayapaloni, and chipahuacxihuitl, well ground with yolk of eggs without water, are to be applied daily, in the morning of course, and at evening too, to boils of the head, which have been carefully cleansed of the pus. When this has been done, the head is to be well covered. If only one part of the head festers, then it is to be washed with urine and the same medicine is to be applied (Emmart 1940).

Folio 7v1 Nahuatl names  Chipauacxihuitl (chipauac = light, graceful, bright; xihuitl = plant; clean-/light-colored herb; thus, earth tambourine [Emmart 1940]; clean-/light-colored herb [Clayton et al. 2009]). Alternate spelling: chipahuacxihuitl. Description  This phytomorph exhibits simple, cordate, alternate leaves arising from a large root or caudex. Fruit consists of terminal, solitary, and brown capsules in a spike. Roots are attached to a horizontal brown rectangle. Similarity is to the Dioscoreaceae. Previous identification  This has been previously identified as Dioscorea sp. (Emmart 1940) of the Dioscoreaceae, Dioscorea convolvulacea Cham. & Schltdl. (Miranda and Valdés 1964), or D. galeottiana Kunth (Bye and Linares 2013; Miranda and Valdés 1964; Valdés Gutiérrez et  al. 1992) or a Smilax sp. (Guerra 1952; Reko 1947) of the Smilacaceae.

22

2  Phytomorph Identification of the Codex Cruz-Badianus

Putative identification  Either species of Dioscorea could be illustrated as chipauacxihuitl, but D. galeottiana seems more similar in leaf shape to the phytomorph and is a probable match (Fig. 2.4). This is one of the species surviving at the preHispanic garden of Tetzcutzingo Hill Complex, Mexico (Pulido and Koch 1988). A Smilax sp. would have prickly stems and a forked root with red berries in a cyme. Distribution  Dioscorea galeottiana is native to southern Mexico. Names  A wild yam (English). Uses  Unknown.

Fig. 2.4  Dioscorea galeottiana, Dioscoreaceae: (a) folio 7v1; (b) herbarium sheet. (Source: https://plantidtools.fieldmuseum.org/pt/rrc/catalogue/393068 Field Museum CC-BY-NC); (c) foliage and flowers. (Source: https://www.inaturalist.org/photos/4729444 nihaib CC BY-NC-SA 4.0)

Folio 7v2 Nahuatl name  Tlayapaloni (tla = abundance, yapaloni, yapalli, yapaltic = black, black paint; thus, abundant black paint plant [Emmart 1940]; it habitually makes things black [Clayton et al. 2009]). Description  Leaves are simple, palmate, and lobed, apparently on a vine with stout roots. Fruit is red and apparently in a raceme or panicle. Roots are substantial. Previous identification  This has been previously identified as Cissus verticillata (L.) Nicolson & C.E. Jarvis (C. sicyoides L.) (Abud Molina 2015; Bye and Linares 2013; de Ávila Blomberg 2012; Díaz 1976; Guerra 1952; Miranda and Valdés 1964; Valdés Gutiérrez et  al. 1992) of the Vitaceae, or Bromeliaceae (Guerra 1952). Godínez Salazar (2017) suggested Ricinus communis L. of the Euphorbiaceae, but that is a small tree of the Old World with spiny fruits and thus ignored for consideration even though it was introduced to Mexico at an early period.

Folio 7v

23

Putative identification  The elliptic leaves and black fruit of C. verticillata do not match the phytomorph. A better match is the Vitaceae, i.e., Vitis tiliifolia Humb. & Bonpl. ex Willd., which has lobed palmate leaves and red fruits, a probable match to the phytomorph. Distribution  The Caribbean grape ranges from northern Mexico to western South America and the Caribbean. Names  Caribbean grape (English), bejuco de agua, uvilla cimarrona (Spanish). Uses  Not useful for eating except for making vinegar or providing a source of water in emergencies, the Caribbean grape is a reputed diuretic and used in venereal disease (Standley 1937).

Fig. 2.5  Vitis tiliifolia Vitaceae: (a) folio 7v2; (b) leaves and young fruits. (Source. http://tropical. theferns.info/image.php?id=Vitis+tiliifolia) Indiana Coronado CC BY-NC-ND 3.0: (c) mature fruit. (Source: http://www.backyardnature.net/mexnat/vitis.htm Useful Tropical Plants Database CC BY-NC-SA 3.0)

Folio 7v3 Nahuatl name  Tlalaueuetl (tlala, tlalli = earth, ueuetl = a sort of tambourine; thus, earth tambourine [Emmart 1940]; earth cypress [Clayton et  al. 2009]). Alternate spellings: tlalhahuehuetl, tlalhuaueuetl.

24

2  Phytomorph Identification of the Codex Cruz-Badianus

Description  The terminal spike is green with prominent pink anthers. The leaves are simple, elliptic, entire, opposite, or alternate. The stems and roots arise from a tuber or caudex, probably indicating a perennial species. Previous identification  This has been previously identified as an Acalypha sp. of the Euphorbiaceae (Emmart 1940; Miranda and Valdés 1964; Valdés Gutiérrez et al. 1992), e.g., Acalypha phleoides Cav., Acalypha indica L. (Godínez Salazar 2017), Agastache mexicana (Kunth) Lint & Epling [Cedronella mexicana (Kunth) Benth.] of the Lamiaceae (Bye and Linares 2013; Diaz 1976; Guerra 1952; Linares and Bye 2013; Miranda and Valdés 1964; Reko 1947; Valdés Gutiérrez et  al. 1992), or Verbena sp. (Guerra 1952) of the Verbenaceae. Putative identification  The prominent anthers of the phytomorph do not match an Agastache sp. but are more in common with an Acalypha sp., most probably A. phleoides (Fig.  2.6), a variable perennial species over its range. Acalypha indica is native to the Old World and does not match the phytomorph. Also, leaves of all the Acalypha spp. are alternate and mostly serrate, which does not agree closely with the phytomorph. Distribution  Acalypha phleoides is native from New Mexico, Arizona, and Texas to northern Mexico. Names  Shrubby copperleaf (English); duraznillo, hierba del cancer, hierba del pastor, hierba del tapón (Spanish). Uses  Acalypha phleoides is commonly used in Mexico for diarrhea, colic, peptic ulcers, wounds, and snake bite and is antispasmodic (Astudillo et al. 2004).

Fig. 2.6  Acalypha phleoides, Euphorbiaceae: (a) folio 7v3; (b) leaf and inflorescence. (Source: https://www.fireflyforest.com/flowers/3378/acalypha-phleoides-shrubby-copperleaf) Copyright © 2019 T. Beth Kinsey

Folio 8r

25

Folio 8r

Aztec medicinal use  Dandruff or alopecia. Wash a furfuraceous head diligently with hot lye. Then the sap of several ground Acetarium silvestre, well pressed out and strained, should be poured upon the furfuraceous (patients); when it has dried, let the bile of a dog, fox, mole, hawk, swallow, waterfowl, quail, and atzitzicuitl with the dregs or lees of Indian wine be smeared on the head of the furfuraceous (patients). Let a furfuraceous (patient) have as a drink warm Indian wine in honey that has not been heated. Before mid-day meal, he should take care not to sleep, and after mid-day meal not to go anywhere or walk or run about, or walk (Emmart 1940). Nahuatl name  Quauhtla xoxocoyolin (quauhtla  =  forest or woods, xoxocoyolin = to become acid; thus, wild acid plant [Emmart 1940]; wild plant of the forest [Clayton et al. 2009]). Description  This phytomorph has four pink to red petals on pinkish stems with simple, hirsute, deltoid leaves and distinct veins. Roots are white and tuberous. Previous identification  This phytomorph has been previously identified as a Begonia sp. (Guerra 1952) of the Begoniaceae, B. gracilis Kunth (Bye and Linares 2013; de Ávila Blomberg 2012; Valdés Gutiérrez et al. 1992), Oxalis sp. (Emmart 1940; Gates 2000), or Oxalis latifolia (Godínez Salazar 2017) of the Oxalidaceae. Putative identification  A Begonia sp. fits the phytomorph well, but B. gracilis does not have hirsute leaves, the stems are not pink, and the leaves are variable. Another species of Begonia widespread in Mexico, such as B. heracleifolia Schtdl. & Cham., might be a better choice to match the phytomorph (Fig. 2.7).

26

2  Phytomorph Identification of the Codex Cruz-Badianus

Distribution  Begonia heracleifolia is native from northern Mexico to Panama. Names  Star begonia (English). Uses  Begonia spp. are used in the West Indies for treating urinary problems, colds, fevers, diarrhea, and rheumatism (Ayensu 1981; Lans 2006), and B. heracleifolia is considered edible as a quelite north of Puebla, Mexico (Basurto-Peña et al. 2003).

Fig. 2.7  Begonia heracleifolia, Begoniaceae: (a) folio 8r; (b) leaves and flowers. (Source: https:// ceb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Begonia_heracleifolia#/media/File:Begonia_heracleifolia_f._nigricans_01.jpg Andrey Korzun CC BY-SA 3.0)

Folio 8v

Folio 8v

27

Nahuatl medicinal use  Scabies. The scabious head should be washed with urine; afterwards apply to the head the roots of huitzquilitl, teçompahtli, tequaumaytl, and tetzmixochitl, ground together with the bark of copalquahuitl and atoyaxocotl (Emmart 1940).

Folio 8v1 Nahuatl name  Teçonpahtli (tlallia = earth, pahtli = medicinal plant; thus, stone hair medicine [Emmart 1940]; remedy that grows on red, porous volcanic rock (Clayton et al. 2009]). Description  This phytomorph is characterized by simple, opposite, linear leaves. Stems arise from a woody caudex. Flowers and fruits are absent. Previous identification  This phytomorph has previously identified as Asclepias linaria Cav. (Bye and Linares 2013; Godínez Salazar 2017; Guerra 1952; Valdés Gutiérrez et al. 1992; Miranda and Valdés 1964) of the Apocynaceae. Putative identification  In the absence of flowers or fruit, Asclepias linaria is a good match. This is a perennial herb from a woody base (Fig. 2.8). This is one of the species surviving at the pre-Hispanic garden of Tetzcutzingo Hill Complex, Mexico (Hernández-Cruz et al. 2016). A Smilax sp. would have prickly stems and a forked root with red berries in a cyme. Distribution  Asclepias linaria is native to the Mojave and Sonoran deserts from Texas, Arizona, and California to southern Mexico. Names  Pineneedle milkweed (English); algodoncillo, mapipitza, romerillo, solimán, teperromero, tlalototl, venenillo (Spanish). Uses  Martínez (1969) discusses the medicinal uses of Asclepias linaria as a purgative but warns that it is dangerous internally.

Fig. 2.8  Asclepias linaria, Apocynaceae: (a) folio 8v1; (b) shoots and flowers. (Source: https:// de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asclepias_linaria#/media/File:Asclepias_linaria2.jpg, Michael Wolf CC BY-SA 3.0)

28

2  Phytomorph Identification of the Codex Cruz-Badianus

Folio 8v2 Nahuatl name  Huitzquilitl (huitz, uitztli = spiny, quilitl = edible herbs; thus, spiny edible plant or herb [Emmart 1940; Clayton et al. 2009]). Description  This phytomorph is somewhat amorphous but is obviously a thistle of subfamily Carduoideae of the Asteraceae. Leaves are simple, lobed, and apparently spiny. Inflorescences are campanulate and rosy. Roots are thin and white, possibly growing on damp soil (here painted blue). Previous identification  This phytomorph has previously identified as Cirsium sp. (Emmart 1940; Guerra 1952; Miranda and Valdés 1964) of the Asteraceae, C. ehrenbergii Sch. Bip. (Bye and Linares 2013; de Ávila Blomberg 2012; Linares and Bye 2013; Reko 1947; Valdés Gutiérrez et al. 1992; Zapeda and White 2008), or Cynara cardunculus L. subsp. cardunculus (Cynara scolymus L.) (Gates 2000) of the Asteraceae. Putative identification  Cynara cardunculus, artichoke of the Old World, does not match by its provenance or morphology and is ignored. Cirsium ehrenbergii is a good match to the phytomorph (Fig. 2.9). Distribution  Cirsium ehrenbergii is a native of northern and central Mexico. Names  Common names include cardo, cardo santo, mala mujer, and rosa de las nieves (Spanish). Uses  This thistle is used in folk medicine for vaginal flow, vaginal hemorrhage, cough, and chest pain and has been found to be antibacterial, hepatoprotective, and relaxing to the uterine smooth muscle (Fernández-Martínez et al. 2007, 2017).

Fig. 2.9  Cirsium ehrenbergii, Asteraceae: (a) folio 8v2; (b) shoots and flowers. (Source: https:// upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5d/Cirsium_ehrenbergii._Jalacingo._Ver.Mex. Axcan.JPG Soc.eco.gea CC BY-SA 4.0)

Folio 8v

29

Folio 8v3 Aztec name  Teguammayl (tequaam, tequani = savage beast; maytl, maitl = hand, arms/branches; thus savage hand or branches [Emmart 1940]; man-eater’s hand [Clayton et al. 2009]). Description  This phytomorph is somewhat amorphous but shows simple, ovate leaves with rounded bases and arcuate venation on a blue stem. Roots are white, stout tubers. Previous identification  This phytomorph has previously identified as Dioscorea sp. (Bye and Linares 2013; Emmart 1940; Guerra 1952; Valdés Gutiérrez et al. 1992) of the Dioscoreaceae, Marsdenia sp. (Gates 2000) of the Apocynaceae, Smilax sp. (Emmart 1940) of the Smilacaceae, Smilax moranensis M. Martens & Galeotti (Díaz 1976), S. spinosa Mill. (S. mexicana Griseb. ex Kunth) (Miranda and Valdés 1964; Reko 1947), or Vaccinium barbatum J.J. Sm. (Gates 2000) of the Ericaceae. Putative identification  Vaccinium barbatum is a name of uncertain application and is ignored. The distinct lack of thorns, tendrils, flowers, and forked roots suggests that this is not a species of Smilax, and the leaves do not match the suggested species either. A Dioscorea sp. might be a better choice, but because flowers, fruits, and other distinguishing characters are absent, it is impossible to determine a species (Fig. 2.10). Clayton et al. (2009) remark: “In various Mesoamerican languages, including vernacular Spanish, tequammaytl and similar names are still used for a number of unrelated species with palmately segmented leaves, e.g. tēkwāmātli in San Miguel Tecuiciapan for both Montanoa grandiflora DC and Bocconia arborea Wats. (Amith 2007), or mano de león in the Valley of Mexico for Senecio platanifolius Benth” (Calderón/Rzedowski 2001). Distribution  Unknown. Names  A wild yam (English). Uses  Unknown.

Fig. 2.10  Dioscorea sp., Dioscoreaceae (a) folio 9v3; (b) D. villosa (Millsbaugh, 1887). (Source: https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=mdp.39015022464104;view=1up;seq=369). See also Fig. 2.22

30

2  Phytomorph Identification of the Codex Cruz-Badianus

Folio 9r

Nahuatl medicinal use  Falling hair. Falling hair is checked by washing the head, and if the herb called xiuhhamolli is applied to it, ground, and cooked in the urine of a dog or a stag, with tree frogs and the small animals auatecolotl (Emmart 1940); herbaceous soap [Clayton et al. 2009]). Alternate spellings: xiuhhamolli. Description  Leaves are simple, elliptic with cuneate bases. White flowers are terminal, subtended by calyces with acute lobes. The base is a gray or blue woody caudex with rootlets. Previous identification  This phytomorph has been previously identified as an Ipomoea sp. (Bye and Linares 2013; Reko 1947; Miranda and Valdés 1964; Valdés Gutiérrez et al. 1992) of the Convolvulaceae or Ipomoea murucoides Roem (Tucker and Talbert 2013; Tucker and Janick 2016, 2019); Janick and Tucker 2018). Putative identification  The phytomorph matches an arborescent morning glory, and I. murucoides fits very well. Clayton et al. (2009) state: “The blue patch with small, white ovate glyphs at the base of the plant is the symbol for flowing water.” That may be true, but the fact is that the base of I. murucoides is a gray, woody caudex from which roots originate, which is nicely illustrated in the phytomorph (Fig. 2.11). Distribution  Ipomoea murucoides is native from northern Mexico to Guatemala. Names  Standley (1920–1926) records for I. murucoides: palo del muerto (Mexico, Oaxaca); micaquahuitl (Nahuatl); casahuate, cazazuate (Mexico, Oaxaca; from the Nahuatl cuau-zahuatl, “mangy tree”); arbol del muerto (Morelos, Mexico); casahuate prieto (Morelos); palo bobo (Morelos, Oaxaca, Queretaro); palo de ozote, ozote (Oaxaca); cazahuate bianco, arbol del venado.

Folio 9v

31

Uses  The seeds of Ipomoea tricolor Cav. (I. violacea auct.) (Witters 1975) and the related species Argyreia nervosa (Burm.f.) Bojer, a tropical wood rose, contain d-lysergic acid amide (LSA), similar to LSD (Borsutsky et al. 2002; Miller 1970). Species of Ipomoea are known for their resin glycosides and are used to counter several diseases (Pereda-Miranda et al. 2010; Batres et al. 2012; Meira et al. 2012). The ashes of the arborescent Ipomoea species, I. murucoides and I. arborescens (Humb. & Bonpl. ex Willd.) G. Don, are used to prepare soap and are also used in hair and skin care (Batres et al. 2012; Standley 1920–1926:1205). Medicinal uses in Mexico are recorded by Martínez (1969).

Fig. 2.11  Ipomoea murucoides, Convolvulaceae: (a) folio 9r; (b) I. murucoides (Hemsley 1879–1888, 5:t.61). (Source: http://tropical.theferns.info/image.php?id=Ipomoea+murucoides)

Folio 9v

32

2  Phytomorph Identification of the Codex Cruz-Badianus

Aztec medicinal use  Fracture of the head. Herbs that spring up in the summer, wet with dew, and ground up in the blood of a punctured vein and white of egg with emerald, pearl, crystal, and tlahcalhuatzin and little earthworms are to be smeared on the fractured head; when there is no blood found, burned frogs will serve (Emmart 1940). Nahuatl name  Xihuitl tonalcomochiua hahuachcho (xuhuitl  =  plant; tonalcomochiua  =  those which come up in summer; hahuachcho  =  herb or herb which grows in the dry season and gets covered with dew; thus, plant which comes up in summer [Emmart 1940; Clayton et al. 2009]). Description  Flowers are terminal, white with a pink picotee. Leaves are dimorphic; basal ones are larger, but both are simple, elliptic, and mostly opposite. The branched stem has unusual white protuberances opposite the leaves, perhaps droplets of water (as suggested by Clayton et al. 2009), tufts of white hairs, or persistent petioles; the exact placement at the nodes would indicate the latter two hypotheses, not the former. Habit appears spreading rather than upright. Root is a caudex. From the Nahuatl name, we know that this emerges and flowers in summer, collecting dew. Previous identification  This phytomorph has been previously identified as possibly a Mirabilis sp. (Bye and Linares 2013; Guerra 1952; Reko 1947) of the Nyctaginaceae, Mirabilis jalapa L. (Godínez Salazar 2017)), or Stevia salicifolia Cav. (Godínez Salazar 2017)) of the Asteraceae. Putative identification  This phytomorph does not have a tubular corolla, as found in many Mirabilis spp., and S. salicifolia does not match the phytomorph. The corolla of the phytomorph does, however, resemble M. laevis (Benth.) Curran var. crassifolia (Choisy) Spellenb. (Fig.  2.12), which has campanulate corollas from white to lavender-blue, including some white flowers streaked with pink. This is a perennial from a woody base. Leaves of the California plants, however, are cordate and not dimorphic; Mexican plants are fleshy and not as cordate. Flowering is from December to June, not strictly summer. Stems exhibit a “wishbone” branching pattern. Leaves are reduced at the apex. Persistent, gray petioles are present on older stems, which agrees with the phytomorph. Distribution  This variety of Mirabilis is native from California to northern Mexico. Names  California four o’clock, desert wishbone bush (English); yerba del empacho (Spanish). Uses  Martínez (1969) discusses the medicinal value of maravilla (Mirabilis jalapa L.) as a purgative.

Fig. 2.12  Mirabilis laevi, Nyctaginaceae: (a) folio 9v; (b) streaked flower. (Source: https://www. smmflowers.org/bloom/species/Mirabilis_laevis_crassifolia.htm, Santa Monica Park Service/ NPS) (c) Mirabilis laevis var. crassifolia from Mexico. (Source: https://www.lasecomujeres.org/ images/plants/Mirabilis_lc.JPG). © 2009 LasEcomujeres.org. (d) “Wishbone” branching of Mirabilis laevis var. crassifolia. (Source: https://www.smmflowers.org/bloom/species/Mirabilis_ laevis_crassifolia.htm) Santa Monica Park Service/NPS. (e) Leaves of Mirabilis laevis var. crassifolia, smaller ones at the apex. (Source: http://swbiodiversity.org/seinet/collections/individual/ index.php?occid=20526448 Arizona State University Vascular Plant Herbarium CC BY-NC 3.0)

34

2  Phytomorph Identification of the Codex Cruz-Badianus

Folio 10v

Aztec medical use  Heat. Into eyes very hot from sickness, let the ground root of this herb be instilled, while the face is to be wiped with the juice pressed from the herbs ocoxochitl, huacalxochitl, matlalxochitl, and tlacoyzquixochitl. The leaves of the mizquitl tree and xoxouhqui matlaxochitl ground in a woman’s milk or dew or limpid water help when instilled into slightly painful eyes (Emmart 1940).

Folio 10v1 Nahuatl name  Xaltomatl (xāl = sand; tomatl = tomato; thus, sand tomato [Emmart 1940; Clayton et al. 2009]). Description  This phytomorph has as terminal dark blue fruit in what appears to be a raceme or possibly a panicle. Leaves are mostly simple, opposite, elliptic, and smaller at the apex. Root is a caudex. Previous identification  This phytomorph has been previously identified as Jaltomata procumbens (Cav.) J.L.  Gentry (Saracha jaltomata Schltdl.) (Bye and Linares 2013; de Ávila Blomberg 2012; Díaz 1976; Emmart 1940; Estrada Lugo 1989; Gates 2000; Guerra 1952; Ocaranza 2011; Valdés Gutiérrez et al. 1992) of the Solanaceae or Physalis mollis Nutt. (Estrada Lugo 1989) of the Solanaceae.

Folio 10v

35

Fig. 2.13  Jaltomata procumbens, Solanaceae: (a) folio 10v1; (b) leaves and fruits. (Source: h t t p s : / / c o m m o n s . w i k i m e d i a . o rg / w i k i / F i l e : A J a l t o m a t a _ p r o c u m b e n s _ J a l t o m a t a _ rozes%C5%82ana_2018-09-02_01.jpg. Agnieszka Kwiecień CC BY-SA 4.0)

Fol. 10v2 Nahuatl name  Matlalxochitl (magtlal, matlalin, or matlalli = blue-green or blue; xochitl = flower; thus blue or green flower [Emmart 1940; Clayton et al. 2009]). Description  Flowers have three blue petals in a terminal inflorescence, with a yellow center. Leaves are distichous, simple, and elliptic, the upper leaves forming a spathe-like structure around the flower. Roots are ample, possibly tuberous. Previous identification(s)  This phytomorph has been previously identified as Commelina sp. (Emmart 1940; Guerra 1952) of the Commelinaceae; C. coelestis Willd. (Bye and Linares 2013; de Ávila Blomberg 2012; Díaz 1976; Miranda and Valdés 1964; Valdés Gutiérrez et al. 1992); C. erecta L. (Godínez Salazar 2017); C. pallida (Godínez Salazar 2017; Reko 1947); C. standleyi Steyerm. (Godínez Salazar 2017); or Tradescantia sp. (Gates 2000) of the Commelinaceae. Putative identification  Commelina coelestis, a perennial, tuberous species, matches very well (Fig. 2.14). This is one of the species surviving at the pre-Hispanic garden of Tetzcutzingo Hill Complex, Mexico (Pulido and Koch 1988). Distribution  Found from California to Central America. Names  Blue spiderwort (English). Uses  This has been found to be antidiarrheal (Zavala et al. 1998).

36

2  Phytomorph Identification of the Codex Cruz-Badianus

Fig. 2.14  Commelina coelestis, Commelinaceae: (a) folio 10v2; (b) flower and leaves. (Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commelina_tuberosa#/media/File:Commelina_tuberosa_JPG1.jpg. Jean-Pol Grandmont CC BY 3.0)

Folio 12r

Aztec medicinal use  Glaucoma. Pierce with a needle, a fleshy growth in the eye, loosen it out, and sprinkle the white of the eye with burned human excrement and salt, a little at a time. Then, the next day, apply to it sundried and ground roots of native acid herbs (Emmart 1940).

Folio 12r

37

Nahuatl name  Ohuaxocoyolin (ohua, ouatl = shoot, stem, or twig; oxocyoin = acid plants; thus, acid twig, but referred to in text as native bitter herbs [Emmart 1940]; maize-stalk acidic plant [Clayton et al. 2009]). Description  This phytomorph is identical in all aspects to folio 8r except for the addition of green sheaths at the nodes and spikes of green fruits. Previous identification  This phytomorph has been previously identified as a Begonia sp. (Emmart 1940; Miranda and Valdés 1964) or Begonia gracilis Kunth (Bye and Linares 2013; de Ávila Blomberg 2012; Reko 1947; Valdés Gutiérrez et al. 1992). Putative identification  As for folio 8r, Begonia heracleifolia Schtdl. & Cham. might be a better choice to match the phytomorph (Fig. 2.15). Distribution  Begonia heracleifolia is native from northern Mexico to Panama. Names  Xocoyolli, pesoxocoyolli (Nahuatl). Uses  Begonia spp. are used in the West Indies for treating urinary problems, colds, fevers, diarrhea, and rheumatism (Ayensu 1981; Lans 2006), and B. heracleifolia is considered edible as a quelite north of Puebla, Mexico (Basurto-Peña et al. 2003).

Fig. 2.15  Begonia heracleifolia; Begoniaceae; (a) folio 12r; (b) leaves and flowers. (Source: https://ceb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Begonia_heracleifolia#/media/File:Begonia_heracleifolia_f._nigricans_01.jpg Andrey Korzun CC BY-SA 3.0)

38

2  Phytomorph Identification of the Codex Cruz-Badianus

Folio 12v

Aztec medicinal uses  Ptosis and eversion of the eyelid. For eyelids becoming affected by numbness, that is, when the upper eyelid does not descend and the lower is not raised much and is not joined with the upper, the leaves of the herb malinalli rubbed on the eyelid are useful; besides, nitre, salt, and powder of the ground excrement sprinkled thereon (Emmart 1940). Nahuatl name  Malinalli (malinalli  =  12th day of the month [Emmart 1940]; twisted object [Clayton et  al. 2009]). Alternative spellings: malinali, malinalxochit. Description  This member of the Poaceae has golden yellow, spiciform panicles and what appears to be red anthers or pollen. Clumped linear foliage is supported by ample roots. Previous identification  This phytomorph has been previously identified as Elymus sp. (Emmart 1940) of the Poaceae or Muhlenbergia macroura (Kunth) Hitchc. (Epicampes macroura Benth.) (Bye and Linares 2013; de Ávila Blomberg 2012; Díaz 1976; Farfán and Elferink 2010; Gates 2000; Guerra 1952; Reko 1947; Miranda and Valdés 1964; Valdés Gutiérrez et al. 1992; Zepeda and White 2008) of the Poaceae. Putative identification  Muhlenbergia macroura fits the phytomorph well (Fig. 2.16). Distribution  Muhlenbergia macroura is found from northern Mexico to Guatemala. Names  Mexican broomroot, Mexican whisk (English). Uses  The roots are widely used for the construction of brooms and whisks (MejíaSaules 1993).

Folio 13r

39

Fig. 2.16  Muhlenbergia macroura, Poaceae: (a) folio 12r; (b) foliage and flowering panicles. (Source: https://www.inaturalist.org/photos/6236589. Chuck Sexton CC BY-NC 4.0)

Folio 13r

Folio 13r1 Aztec medicinal use  Swelling eyes. The stems of tequixquiçacatl, and the little stone, which is found either white or purple in the stomach of a swallow, when ground in the same bird’s blood, prevent and reduce swelling eyes and face flaming with heat (Emmart 1940). Nahuatl name  Tetzmitl (primary name) (Clayton et al. 2009). Alternate spelling: tezmeti, tetzmetl, tetetzmitic. Alternate name: tonallae. Description  Opposite, apparently succulent, simple, oblong leaves with terminal yellow inflorescences characterize this phytomorph. Roots are a caudex, indicating a perennial growth.

40

2  Phytomorph Identification of the Codex Cruz-Badianus

Previous identification(s)  The previous identification of this phytomorph is Sedum sp. (Gates 2000) of the Crassulaceae or Sedum dendroideum Moc. & Sessé ex DC. (Bye and Linares 2013; de Ávila Blomberg 2012; Díaz 1976; Emmart 1940; Estrada Lugo 1989; Guerra 1952; Reko 1947; Miranda and Valdés 1964; Valdés Gutiérrez et al. 1992). Putative identification  Sedum dendroideum fits rather well (Fig. 2.17). Distribution  Sedum dendroideum is native to northern Mexico. Names  Tree stonecrop (English); siempreviva amarilla (Spanish). Uses  De Melo et al. (2005) found antinociceptive and anti-inflammatory activity, substantiating its used in Brazilian medicine for the treatment of gastric and inflammatory disorders.

Fig. 2.17  Sedum dendroideum, Crassulaceae: (a) folio 13r1; (b) flowers and succulent shoots. (Source: https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D0%B0%D0%B9%D0%BB:Sedum_ dendroideum_I.jpg Rjcastillo CC BY-SA 3.0)

Folio 13r2 Nahuatl name  Tequixquiçacatl (tequixqui  =  called nitrum mexicanum by Hernandez; cacatl = grass; thus, nitre grass or couch grass [Emmart 1940]; soda grass [Clayton et al. 2009]). Alternate spelling: tequizquizacatl. Description  Few distinguishing characteristics of this phytomorph are visible beyond a possible species of Poaceae or Isoetaceae emanating from a caudex, indicating perennial growth. Previous identification  Previous identifications of this phytomorph are Sporolobus sp. (Guerra 1952; Miranda and Valdés 1964; Reko 1947) or Distichlis spicata (L.) Greene (Bye and Linares 2013; Díaz 1976; Emmart 1940; Guerra 1952; Valdés Gutiérrez et al. 1992).

Folio 13v

41

Putative identification  Since so few distinguishing characteristics are visible beyond the Nahuatl name, the perennial Distichlis spicata is about as good as any identification (Fig.  2.18). Linear leaves with swollen bases and no inflorescence also occur in the Isoetaceae, but no indication of an aquatic origin is given. Distribution  Distichlis spicata is native from Canada to Argentina. Names  Salt grass (English). Uses  Moerman (2009) discusses this species among Native American tribes as a dermatological aid, heart medicine, laxative, venereal aid, cold remedy, and dietary aid.

Fig. 2.18  Distichlis spicata, Poaceae: (a) folio 13r2; (b) foliage and spikes. (Source: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Distichlis_spicata_(5879864704).jpg Matt Lavin CC BY-SA 2.0)

Folio 13v

42

2  Phytomorph Identification of the Codex Cruz-Badianus

Nahuatl medicinal use  Loss or interruption of sleep. The herb tlahçolpahtli, which grows by ant hills, and cochizxihuitl with the bile of a swallow ground up and smeared on the forehead will bring back and attract interrupted sleep, while the body should be anointed with the liquor pressed from the leaves of the ground small herb huihuitzyocohixihuitl (Emmart 1940).

Folio 13v1 Nahuatl name  Azcapanyxhua tlahçolpahtli (azca, azcatl = ant hill; pan = place, hill; yxhua, ixhua = come out of; tlahzo = ill smelling; pahtli = medicine); thus illsmelling medicine that comes up out of ant hills [Emmart 1940]; rubbish-dump remedy that comes up around ant hills [Clayton et al. 2009]). Alternate spelling: azcanpan ixhua. Description  Leaves are simple, pinnately lobed, alternate, with white trumpetshaped flowers that have about eight small teeth at the apex, subtended by calyces with acute tips. A yellowish, erect fruit is shown but somewhat amorphous. Roots are stout but covered with red ants. Previous identification  Previous identifications of this phytomorph are Datura sp. (Emmart 1940) of the Solanaceae, Datura stramonium L. (D. inermis Juss. ex Jacq.) (Bye and Linares 2013; de Ávila Blomberg 2012; Díaz 1976; Godínez Salazar 2017; Guerra 1952; Reko 1947; Miranda and Valdés 1964; Valdés Gutiérrez et al. 1992), or D. wrightii Regel (D. meteloides auct.) (Díaz 1976; Miranda and Valdés 1964). Putative identification  The leaves and fruit are a better match for D. stramonium (Fig. 2.19), but this should have five teeth at the apex. This is one of the species surviving at the pre-Hispanic garden of Tetzcutzingo Hill Complex, Mexico (Hernández-Cruz et al. 2016; Pulido and Koch 1988). Also, D. wrightii, the sacred datura, is more often encountered as a ground vine, not upright as in the phytomorph, and it frequently shows purple in the flower. Neither species is listed as a myrmecophyte in Mexico (Díaz-Castellazo et al. 2004), but of the species of ants known to interact with plants in central Mexico, Forelius pruinosus (Roger 1863), tiny orange desert ant, bears some similarity because of the orange color, definitive mandibles, irregularly shaped mesosoma (thorax), and large metasoma (abdomen) with stripes. Distribution  Datura stramonium is native to Mexico. Forelius pruinosus is found in the southern United States, Mexico, Cuba, and northern South America. Names  Common thorn-apple. Jimson weed, devil’s snare (English); chamico, datura manzana, estramonio, flor del muerto, nacazcul, quibra-plato, tapate, tlapam tlápatl, toloache, toloatzin, xtoheú (Spanish/Nahuatl).

Folio 13v

43

Uses  Moerman (2009) discusses this among Native American tribes as a dermatological aid, hemorrhoid remedy, febrifuge, and poison. Singh and Singh (2013) review its worldwide use in antiasthmatic, antibacterial, antifungal, anti-inflammatory, larvicidal, antispasmodic, antioxidant, antinociceptive, anti-rheumatoid, and anti-ulcer activities. The medicinal value of the genus Datura is reviewed by Maheshwari et  al. (2013). Further information is provided by Preissel and Preissel (2002).

Fig. 2.19  Datura stramonium, Solanaceae: (a) folio 13v#1; (b) leaves and flowers. (Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Datura_stramonium#/media/File:Datura_stramonium_2_ (2005_07_07).jpg) CC BY-SA 3.0; (c) Forelius pruinosus. (Source: http://www.antwiki.org/wiki/ Forelius_pruinosus#mediaviewer/File:Forelius_pruinosus_casent0005320_profile_1.jpg) April Nobile CC BY-SA 3.0

44

2  Phytomorph Identification of the Codex Cruz-Badianus

Folio 13v2 Nahuatl name  Huihuitzyocochizxihuitl (huihuitz, uiuitzo  =  very spiny; cochiz, cochiztli = sleep; xihuitl = herb, plant; thus, very spiny sleep plant [Emmart 1940]; thorny sleep plant [Clayton et al. 2009]). Alternate spelling: huihuitzyoh cochizxihuit. Description  From the inflorescence composed of stamens and the long legume capsules of two to three seeds, this phytomorph is obviously tribe Mimoseae of subfamily Caesalpinioideae of the Fabaceae. The stems, arising from a caudex, are replete with thorns. Leaves are simple and elliptic. Previous identification  Previous identifications of this phytomorph are Mimosa sp. (Emmart 1940; Miranda and Valdés 1964; Valdés Gutiérrez et al. 1992) of the Fabaceae, M. aculeaticarpa Ortega (Godínez Salazar 2017), M. albida Humb. & Bonpl. ex Willd. (de Ávila Blomberg 2012; Díaz 1976; Guerra 1952; Reko 1947; Viesca and Aranda 1996), or M. ervendbergii A. Gray (Bye and Linares 2013). Putative identification  Mimosa aculeaticarpa (Fig.  2.20) and M. ervendbergii, with compound leaves composed of minute leaflets, obviously are wrong. Mimosa albida would seem to fit only if the phytomorph was painted from a dried specimen. The elliptic leaflets of M. albida shatter upon drying, and so they were apparently reassembled incorrectly. There are multiple varieties and it is naturalized around the world. Distribution  Mimosa albida is native from northern Mexico to Peru. Names  lotóm chíx (Chiapas, Mexico). Uses  Aqueous root extracts from Mimosa albida display antinociceptive activity (Rejón-Oranjtes et  al. 2013). Further information is provided by Preissel and Preissel (2002).

Fig. 2.20  Mimosa aculeaticarpa, Fabaceae: (a) folio 13v2; (b) flowering stem and leaves (Source: http://swbiodiversity.org/seinet/taxa/index.php?taxon=2683 Max Licher @ http:swbiodiversity. org CC BY-SA 3.0); (c) seeds. (Source: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Mimosa_aculeaticarpa_MHNT.BOT.2015.2.10.jpg CC BY-SA 3.0 Roger Culos)

Folio 13v

45

Folio 13v3 Nahuatl name  Cochizxihuitl (cochiz, cochiztli = sleep; xihuitl = herb, plant), thus sleep herb [Emmart 1940; Clayton et al. 2009]). Description  Pinnately lobed simple leaves with a terminal inflorescence that appears to be a raceme with yellow buds or fruits subtended by calyces with acute lobes. The root is a caudex, indicating a perennial. Previous identification  This phytomorph has been previously identified as Bocconia sp. (Miranda & Valdés 1964) of the Papaveraceae, Bocconia integrifolia Bonpl. (Díaz 1976; Guerra 1952; Reko 1947; Viesca and Aranda 1996), Casimiroa edulis La Llave & Lex. (Gates 2000) of the Rutaceae, Mentzelia hispida Willd. (Bye and Linares 2013) of the Loasaceae, or Russelia polyedra Zucc. (Valdés Gutiérrez et al. 1992) of the Plantaginaceae. Putative identification  The phytomorph does not match Casimiroa edulis, Mentzelia hispida, or Russelia polyedra. It does, however, match rather closely Bocconia integrifolia, a perennial with dentate leaves and tan-colored fruits (Fig.  2.21). Bocconia frutescens L. is very similar but with pinnatifid leaves and broad lobes (Standley 1920–1926). Distribution  Bocconia integrifolia is native from Mexico and the Caribbean to Peru. Names  Plume poppy (English). Uses  Martínez (1969) discusses the medicinal uses of the species of Bocconia in Mexico.

Fig. 2.21  Bocconia integrifolia, Papaveraceae: (a) folio 13v3; (b) flowering shoot. (Source: http:// www.sunshine-seeds.de/Bocconia-integrifolia-53956p.html?language=en)

46

2  Phytomorph Identification of the Codex Cruz-Badianus

Folio 14v

Aztec medicinal use  When instilled into the ears, the root of maçayelli, the seed of the herb xoxouhquipahtli, and some leaves of tlaquilin with a pinch of salt in hot water are very helpful. And the ground leaves of two shrubs are to be smeared beneath the ears. The shrubs are called tolouca and tlapahtli. The gems tetlahuitl, tlahcalhuatzin, eztetl, and xoxouhqui chalchiuitl, pulverized and instilled together with leaves of the tlatlanquaye tree ground in hot water, open obstructed ears (Emmart 1940).

Folio 14v1 Nahuatl name  Maçayelli (maça, maçatl = deer; yelli = liver; thus, deer [Emmart 1940; Clayton et al. 2009]). Description  Leaves are simple, oblanceolate, entire, with prominent arcuate venation, alternate. Fruit is whitish in an apparent raceme; almost every fruit has a line, perhaps indicating a division. The stem is unarmed, possibly a vine. Roots are tuberous. Previous identification  Previous identification of this phytomorph is a Smilax sp. (Bye and Linares 2013; de Ávila Blomberg 2012; Guerra 1952; Reko 1947; Valdés Gutiérrez et al. 1992) of the Smilacaceae. Putative identification  If this phytomorph is the Smilacaceae, it should be armed with spines, the fruits in a cyme, usually red to black, and the roots forked. A better match would be the Dioscoreaceae, and Dioscorea villosa L. fits well (Fig. 2.22), although other species of Dioscorea might be considered.

Folio 14v

47

Distribution  Dioscorea villosa is native from Canada to Texas. Names  Wild yam (English). Uses  Moerman (2009) discusses the use of D. villosa among the Meskwaki as an analgesic to ease the pain of childbirth and as a gynecological aid. Further medicinal uses are discussed by Millspaugh (1877).

Fig. 2.22  Dioscorea villosa, Dioscoreaceae: (a) folio 14v1; (b) shoot and tuber. (Source: Lizzie Harper, UK)

Folio 14v2 Nahuatl name  Xoxouhquipahtli (xoxouhqui = blue; pahtli = medicine; thus, blue medicine [Emmart 1940]; blue/green remedy [Clayton et al. 2009]). Description  Leaves are primarily simple, elliptic, entire in this phytomorph, seemingly opposite but mostly closely spaced alternate, with smaller secondary leaves of buds and apex. One shoot shows vine-like growth near the apex, with simple, undulate, and toothed leaves that are alternate. Flowers, flower buds, or fruits are solitary and terminal, somewhat urceolate, red-orange, subtended by smaller leaflets. Roots are stout. Previous identification  Previous identifications for this Nahuatl name are Caesalpinia crista L. (Valdés Gutiérrez et al. 1992) of the Fabaceae or C. pulcherrima (L.) Sw. (Bye and Linares 2013). Putative identification  Neither species of Caesalpinia matches the phytomorph. A better match would be a red-flowering Cestrum species, such as Cestrum fasciculatum (Schltdl.) Miers of the Solanaceae (Fig. 2.23). Growth is best described as an evergreen gangly shrub, partly vine-like. Fruits match more closely the phytomorph

48

2  Phytomorph Identification of the Codex Cruz-Badianus

in shape, turning red. The shoot with pinnately lobed leaves is a conundrum, as if this phytomorph was painted from a dried mixture that was reassembled incorrectly; i.e., the leaves match the Datura stramonium of folio 13#1. Distribution  Cestrum fasciculatum is native to southern Mexico. Names  Early jessamine, red cestrum (English); hierba del perro (Spanish). Uses  Many species of Cestrum are poisonous; Martínez (1969) discusses the medicinal value of Cestrum species in Mexico.

Fig. 2.23  Cestrum fasciculatum, Solanaceae: (a) folio 14v2; (b) flowering shoot. (Source: https:// en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cestrum_fasciculatum#/media/File:Cestrum_fasciculatum_3.jpg CC BY-SA 3.0 Stan Shebs)

Folio 14v3 Nahuatl name  Tlaquilin (taquilin = cured or frilled; thus, frilled flower [Emmart 1940], primary name [Clayton et al. 2009]). Description  Flowers are widely campanulate, single, terminal, red-orange, subtended by calyces with obtuse lobes. Leaves are simple, elliptic, entire, opposite with acute tips. Roots are tuberous. Previous identification  Previous identifications are Ipomoea stans Cav. (Bye and Linares 2013) of the Convolvulaceae or Mirabilis jalapa L. (de Ávila Blomberg 2012; Díaz 1976; Emmart 1940; Gates 2000; Guerra 1952; Miranda and Valdés 1964; Reko 1947; Valdés Gutiérrez et al. 1992) of the Nyctaginaceae. Putative identification  Neither species matches the phytomorph. The leaves of Ipomoea stans are serrate and alternate. The flowers of Mirabilis jalapa are narrowly tubular. A better match would be another species of Mirabilis, such as M. multiflora (Torr.) A. Gray (Fig. 2.24). Distribution  Distribution of M. multiflora is from Oklahoma and Utah to northern Mexico.

Folio 15v

49

Names  Colorado four o’clock (English). Uses  Moerman (2009) discusses the use of M. multiflora as a gynecological aid, antirheumatic, dermatological aid, and dietary aid among Native American tribes. Mirabilis multiflora has a proteinaceous antitumor agent (Ulubelen and Cole 1966).

Fig. 2.24  Mirabilis multiflora, Nyctaginaceae: (a) folio 14v3; (b) flowering plant. (Source: https:// cals.arizona.edu/yavapaiplants/imageviewer.php?genus=Mirabilis&species=multiflora&image num=1 Sue Smith @ http://cals.arizona.edu/yavapaiplants)

Folio 15v

Aztec medicinal use  Coryza. He who is troubled with dripping nose or coryza is to sniff the herbs atochietl and tzompilihuizxihuitl and help the coryza thus (Emmart 1940).

50

2  Phytomorph Identification of the Codex Cruz-Badianus

Folio 15v1 Nahuatl name  Tzonpilihuiz xihuitl (tzompilil, tzompiliyui = to have a head cold; huiz = thorny; xihuitl = herb or plant; thus, coryza, catarrh, thorny cold-in-the-head plant [Emmart 1940]; catarrh herb [Clayton et al. 2009]). Description  Flowers are yellow and orange, zygomorphic, subtended by calyces with obtuse lobes. Simple linear leaves are six or two with three lobes each. Roots are substantial. Previous identification  Previous identifications are Agastache mexicana (Kunth) Lint & Epling [Cedronella mexicana (Kunth) Benth.] (Guerra 1952; Reko 1947) of the Lamiaceae, Galium sp. (Emmart 1940) of the Rubiaceae, Galium mexicanum Kunth (Bye and Linares 2013), or Erythranthe rupestris (Greene) Nesom & Fraga (Mimulus rupestris Greene) (Díaz 1976; Miranda and Valdés 1964; Valdés Gutiérrez et al. 1992) of the Phrymaceae. Putative identification  Neither Agastache mexicana, Galium mexicanum, nor Erythranthe rupestris fits the phytomorph. The flower does fit the Phrymaceae, however, perhaps Diplacus aurantiacus (Curtis) Jeps. (Mimulus aurantiacus Curtis) (Fig. 2.25) if the four leaves of the buds of each node give the impression of six leaves per node. Flowers in this species range from white to red, most commonly a light orange, with linear leaves on a subshrub. Distribution  This is native from Oregon to Baja California Sur in Mexico. Names  Sticky monkeyflower (English). Uses  Moerman (2009) discusses the use of Mimulus species by Native American tribes. The Presidio of San Francisco, National Park Service (2015) reports: “The Coast Miwok placed the crushed leaves on sores and burns. The roots have been used to treat fever, dysentery, diarrhea, and to curtail hemorrhages. The Pomo have used a decoction made from Sticky Monkey Flower to treat sore, bloodshot eyes which affected many of the men and women who lived in smoky, poorly ventilated dwellings. The flowers commonly have been used to ornament Miwok wreaths and children’s hair.”

Fig. 2.25  Diplacus aurantiacus, Phrymaceae: (a) folio 15v1; (b) flowering shoot. (Source: https:// commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Mimulus_aurantiacus.jpg Takwish CC BY-SA 2.5)

Folio 15v

51

Folio 15v2 Nahuatl name  Atochietl (rabbit’s tobacco of damp places [Clayton et al. 2009]). Description  Leaves are simple, elliptic, opposite, with obtuse tips. Inflorescence is axillary, multiple, flowers probably a shade of purple. The base is a woody caudex. Previous identification  Previous identifications have included Clinopodium sp. (de Ávila Blomberg 2012) of the Lamiaceae, Cunila lythrifolia Benth. (Bye and Linares 2013; Valdés Gutiérrez et al. 1992) of the Lamiaceae, Hedeoma sp. (Miranda and Valdés 1964) of the Lamiaceae, Hedeoma acinoides Scheele or H. piperita Benth. (Díaz 1976), Lantana sp. (Emmart 1940) of the Verbenaceae, or Lippia alba (Mill.) N.E.Br. ex Britton & P. Wilson [L. geminata (Kunth) Spreng.] (Guerra 1952; Reko 1947) of the Verbenaceae. Putative identification  Neither Cunila lythrifolia, Hedeoma acinoides, nor H. piperita matches the phytomorph, but Lippia alba, a woody shrub, does show similarities (Fig. 2.26). Distribution  Lippia alba grows from Texas and the Caribbean to Argentina, naturalized around the world. Names  Bushy matgrass, bushy lippia (English); hierba negra, pitiona (Spanish). Uses  Because of its wide range, L. alba is very variable, including some forms high in estragole, giving them a tarragon-like scent (Tucker and Maciarello 1999); others are antifungal (Glamočlija et  al. 2011). Further medicinal uses are discussed by Mamun-Or-Rashid et al. (2013), including its use in folk medicine to treat gastric illnesses, diarrhea, fever, asthma, malaria, and inflammation and the use of the essential oil against viruses, bacteria, and fungi.

Fig. 2.26  Lippia alba, Verbenaceae: (a) folio 15v2; (b) flowering shoot. (Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lippia_alba#/media/File:Lippia_alba.jpg João Medeiros CC BY 2.0)

52

2  Phytomorph Identification of the Codex Cruz-Badianus

Folio 16r

Aztec medicinal use  Medicine to be instilled into the nose. The root of the herb yztacpahtli is to be bruised in a clear water, the juice poured into the nostrils drop by drop, for him who is suffering from headache (Emmart 1940). Nahuatl name  Yztacpahtli (yztac = white; pahtli = medicine; thus, white medicine [Emmart 1940; Clayton et al. 2009]). Description  From the whitish, rotund inflorescence composed of stamens and the long legume capsules of three seeds, this phytomorph is obviously tribe Mimoseae of subfamily Caesalpinioideae of the Fabaceae. The stems, arising from ample roots, are barren of thorns. Leaves are dimorphic: one simple, undulate, and toothed; the other pinnately compound. Roots are ample. Previous identification  The previous identification of this phytomorph is Fabaceae (Emmart 1940), a Mimosa sp. (Bye and Linares 2013; Guerra 1952) of the Fabaceae. Godínez Salazar (2017) proposed M. pudica L. or Desmanthus or Lysiloma of the Fabaceae, specifically L. acapulcensis (Kunth) Benth. Putative identification  Lysiloma acapulcensis and Mimosa pudica do not have a rotund, white inflorescence. Of the many species of Mimosa found in Mexico (Villaseñor 2016), it is difficult to narrow down to one species. A more convincing genus is Leucaena, especially with the whitish rotund inflorescence, i.e., Leucaena collinsii Benth (Fig. 2.27). However, no species in the Mimoseae have dimorphic leaves, and certainly no leaves that are pinnately compound. The pinnately lobed leaves are a conundrum, as if this phytomorph was painted from a dried mixture that was reassembled incorrectly: i.e., the leaves match Datura stramonium of folio 13v#1. Distribution  Leucaena collinsii is native from southern Mexico to Guatemala. Names  Collins leadtree (English); guaje (Nahuatl). Uses  Martinez (1969) mentions the use of Leucaena collinsii in Chiapas to expel worms. Zárate (1999) discusses this species further for edible seeds.

Folio 16v

53

Fig. 2.27  Leucaena collinsii, Fabaceae: (a) folio 16r; (b) leaves and inflorescence. (Source: https://www.ars.usda.gov/oc/images/photos/nov96/k7487-1); (c) pods. (Source: Hughes, C.E. 1998. Monograph of Leucaena (Leguminosae-Mimosoideae). Systematic Botany Monographs. 55:1–244)

Folio 16v

Aztec medicinal use  Blood herb. The juice of nettles, ground with salt in urine and milk, poured into the nostrils, stops the flow of blood from the nose (Emmart 1940).

54

2  Phytomorph Identification of the Codex Cruz-Badianus

Nahuatl name  Atzitzicaztli (a, atl = water; tzitzicaztle = nettle; thus, water nettle [Emmart 1940; Clayton et al. 2009]). Description  Leaves are simple, elliptic, opposite, entire, with obtuse tips. Inflorescence is axillary, apparently a raceme, flowers, or fruit, yellow and red. Stems, reddish at the bottom, are attached to a caudex. Previous identification  Previous identifications are Urera caracasana (Jacq.) Gaudich. ex Griseb., Urtica chamaedryoides Pursh (U. chichiaztli Sessé & Moc.), or U. urens L. (Bye and Linares 2013; de Ávila Blomberg 2012; Díaz 1976; Farfán and Elferink 2010; Guerra 1952; Miranda and Valdés 1964; Reko 1947; Valdés Gutiérrez et al. 1992) of the Urticaceae. Putative identification  With entire leaves and orange fruit, the phytomorph most closely matches Urera caracasana, a shrub (Fig. 2.28). Distribution  Urera caracasana is native from Mexico and the Caribbean to Brazil. Names  Giant stinging nettle (English); mal hombre, ortiguilla blanca (Spanish). Standley (1920–1926) records ortiga (Veracruz. Tabasco), mal hombre (Veracruz), quemador (Sinaloa), chichicazlillo (Oaxaca), chichicaxtli and mala mujer (Morelos, Sessé & Mociño), tachinole (Durango), chichicaste (Guatemala), and ortiga colorada (Porto Rico). Uses  Standley (1920–1926) records: “According to Reko, the Xahuatl name is ‘xio-patii’ (xiotl, syphilis; patli, remedy, medicine).” He states that the plant is still used by the Indians of the Sierra de Juarez as a remedy for syphilis. Sessé and Mociño state that the shrub was sometimes planted for hedges. Palmer reports that in Durango it is employed to cure the effects of poison ivy (Rhus toxicodendron and related species).

Fig. 2.28  Urera caracasana, Urticaceae: (a) folio 16v; (b) leaves and fruit. (Source: http://tropical.theferns.info/viewtropical.php?id=Urera+caracasana Photograph by O.M.  Montiel CC BY-NC-ND 3.0)

Folio 17v

55

Folio 17v

Aztec medicinal use  Pain of the teeth. Weak and decaying teeth are first to be punctured with the tooth of a corpse. Then the root of a tall shrub named teonochtli is to be crushed and burned with a stag’s horn, these precious stones yztacquetzalllitzatli and chichiltic tapachtli and a little of roughly ground flour are to be heated with salt. All these are to be wrapped in a cloth and pressed a few times on the teeth, especially on those that show damage from decay or the unpleasantness of pain. Finally, white incense and the kind of salve we call xochiocotzotl are to be burned on embers, and a thick wad of cotton is to be filled with the fumes and then be put frequently against the cheek, or rather is to be tied on, which is better (Emmart 1940). Nahuatl name  Teonochtli (teo, totl = god, sacred, divine; nochtli = fruit of cactus or nopal; thus, divine or sacred cactus [Emmart 1940; Clayton et al. 2009]). Description  The phytomorph is a cylindrical Cactaceae with roots. Few distinguishing characteristics are shown other than black areoles and reddish spines. Previous identification(s)  Previous identifications are a Cereus sp. (Emmart 1940), Hylocereus undatus (Haw.) Britton & Rose (Estrada Lugo 1989), Isolatocereus dumortieri (Scheidw.) Backeb. (Bye and Linares 2013), Pachycereus weberi (J. M. Coult.) Backeb. (Reko 1947) or Pachycereus sp. (Guerra 1952), or Stenocereus sp. (de Ávila Blomberg 2012; Valdés Gutiérrez et al. 1992; Zepeda and White 2008) [e.g., Stenocereus thurberi (Engelm.) Buxb], all of the Cactaceae. Putative identification  Few distinguishing characteristics are shown in this phytomorph, but some similarities to Stenocereus thurberi [Lemaireocereus thurberi (Engelm.) Britton & Rose] are apparent, i.e., black areoles and red-black spines (Fig. 2.29). Distribution  Stenocereus thurberi is native from Arizona to northern Mexico and Baja California Sur.

56

2  Phytomorph Identification of the Codex Cruz-Badianus

Names  Organ pipe cactus (English); mehuelé, órgano marismeña, pitahauya, pitahaya dulce, pitayo dulce (Spanish). Uses  The red fruit, often known as pitaya or pitahaya, is widely consumed (Standley 1920–1926), and the Nahuatl name also includes nōchtli, by itself applied to the fruit (tuna) of Opuntia ficus-indica (L.) Mill. or the plant bearing the fruit.

Fig. 2.29  Stenocereus thurberi, Cactaceae: (a) folio 17v; (b) columnar cactus stem. (Source: https:// commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Stenocereus_thurberi_thurberi_pm.jpg Peter A. Mansfeld CC BY 3.0)

Folio 18r

Folio 18r

57

Aztec medicinal use  Heat of the throat. The leaves of teamoxtli, tlahnextl, ground in water with the stem of the rush tolpatlactli, cool off heat in the throat; let the liquid of group copper and extatl be mixed with them: he should take this liquid only and should not swallow it but hold it in the mouth within the teeth (Emmart 1940).

Folio 18r1 Nahuatl name  Tlanextli xiuhtontli. (tlanextli = bright, that which shines or gives light; xiuh, xiuitl = plant; tontli = little; thus bright little plant [Emmart 1940]; little herb that shines [Clayton et  al. 2009]). Alternate spellings: tlahnextia, tlanexti, tlahnextli, tlanextia xiuhtontli, tlanextiyxiuh. Description  The phytomorph displays whitish flowers in an umbel surrounded by whitish bracts. Leaves appear to be palmately compound with linear lobes. Stems are stout, thicker at the base. Roots are stout. Previous identification  Previous identifications have included Eryngium sp. (Guerra 1952; Reko 1947; Valdés Gutiérrez et  al. 1992), Eryngium carlinae F. Delaroche (Bye and Linares 2013), or Polygala sp. (Bye and Linares 2013; Valdés Gutiérrez et al. 1992). Putative identification  Eryngium carlinae fits rather well, especially in view of its wide use in Mexican folk medicine (Fig. 2.30). Distribution  Eryngium carlinae is found from Mexico to Panama. Names  Hierba de sapo (Spanish), toad’s herb. Uses  This herb is hypolipidemic. In folk medicine, it has also been used to treat coughs, indigestion, diseases of the prostate, lipid disorders, and diabetes (NoriegaCisneros et al. 2012).

Fig. 2.30  Eryngium carlinae, Apiaceae: (a) folio 18r1; (b) inflorescence. (Source: https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eryngium_carlinae#/media/File:Eryngium_carlinae_-_07.jpg Angel Solis CC BY 3.0)

58

2  Phytomorph Identification of the Codex Cruz-Badianus

Folio 18r2 Nahuatl name  Teamoxtli (te, tetl = stone; amoxtli = a variety of plant; thus stone amoxtli [Emmart 1940]; a stone moss [Clayton et al. 2009]). Description  Obviously a clump of moss on a rock; few distinguishing characteristics are given other than that this may be a large moss. Previous identification(s)  This phytomorph has not been previously identified. Putative identification  Little can be deduced other than a genus similar to Polytrichum. Distribution  Polytrichum is cosmopolitan. Names  A moss (English), un musgo (Spanish); see folio 18v#2. Uses  Harris (2008) records uses of mosses by the Maya for fevers, for mouth sores, and in combination with other ingredients.

Fig. 2.31  Unknown moss; ?Polytrichum sp., Polytrichaceae: (a) folio 18r2; (b) Polytrichum commune. (Source: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Polytrichum_commune.jpeg) Kristian Peters CC BY-SA 3.0

Folio 18r3 Nahuatl name  Tolpatlactli (tol, tollin = rush or reed; patlactli = long; thus, tall rush [Emmart 1940]; wide rush (Clayton et al. 2009]). Description  This phytomorph shows flowers clustered in a brown spike with simple, linear, broad leaves and stout, branched roots.

Folio 18r

59

Previous identification(s)  Previous identifications have included a Cyperus sp. (Estrada Lugo 1989) of the Cyperaceae, a Typha sp. (Bye and Linares 2013; Miranda and Valdés 1964; Valdés Gutiérrez et al. 1992) of the Typhaceae, or Typha angustifolia L. (Emmart 1940; Reko 1947; Heyden 1983), or T. latifolia L. (de Ávila Blomberg 2012; Díaz 1976; Godínez Salazar 2017; Guerra 1952; Reko 1947; Zepeda and White 2008). Putative identification  Typha latifolia, especially with the Nahuatl name, fits the phytomorph best (Fig. 2.32). Distribution  Typha latifolia is native to Africa, Eurasia, and the New World, from Canada to Brazil. Names  Broadleaf cattail (English); espadaña común, masa de agua, piriope, totora, tule espidilla (Spanish). Uses  Moerman (2009) discusses the extensive uses of this plant among Native American tribes as a dermatological, kidney, pediatric, veterinary, orthopedic, and gastrointestinal aid.

Fig. 2.32  Typha latifolia, Typhaceae: (a) folio 18r3; (b) leaves and brown spike. (Source: https:// commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Typha_latifolia_-_inflorescence.jpg Hans Hillewaert CC BY-SA 3.0)

60

2  Phytomorph Identification of the Codex Cruz-Badianus

Folio 18v

Aztec medicinal use  Angina. The stalk of xaltomatl ground together with teamoxtli, white earth, the many-colored stones or pebbles, which are collected from brooks, and acamallotetl, with tips of the indigo roughly ground and the flowers huacalxochitl and tlacoyzquixochitl, the juice well pressed out, which he should then pour into the throat repeatedly, cures suppuration of the vault and throat (Emmart 1940).

Folio 18v1 Nahuatl name  Huacalxochitl (huacal, uacalli = a sort of basket; xochitl = flower; thus, basket flower [Emmart 1940]; huacal flower [Clayton et al. 2009]). Description  Obviously a member of the Araceae, the broad spathe is red on the inside, green on the outside; the spadix is whitish. The leaves are simple, undulated, toothed, and alternate. Roots are white and stout. Previous identification(s)  Previous identifications have included Anthurium cordatum (L.) Schott (Guerra 1952; Reko 1947) of the Araceae, Philodendron sp. (Valdés Gutiérrez et  al. 1992) of the Araceae, Philodendron mexicanum Engl. (Alcántara Rojas 2008; Bye and Linares 2013), Philodendron radiatum Schott var. pseudoradiatum (Matuda) Croat (de Ávila Blomberg 2012; Díaz 1976; Miranda and Valdés 1964), or Xanthosoma sagittifolium (L.) Schott (X. roseum Schott) (Gates 2000; Guerra 1952; Reko 1947). Putative identification  With a broad spathe that is red on the inside, this phytomorph matches most closely to Philodendron mexicanum (Fig. 2.33). The leaves are not lobed, but this species is very variable, from narrowly hastate to sagittate.

Folio 18v

61

Distribution  Philodendron mexicanum ranges from Mexico south through Central America and into Colombia and Ecuador. Names  Unknown. Uses  Unknown.

Fig. 2.33  Philodendron mexicanum, Araceae: (a) folio 18v1; (b) flower. (Source: http://www. aroid.org/genera/philodendron/images/287.php Photo: K. Upton [email protected]); (c) foliage. (Source: http://www.nisarga.co.in/plantation/philodendron-mexicanum)

Folio 18v2 Nahuatl name  Tepitoton teamoxtli (tepitoton = little; te, tetl = stone; amoxtli = a variety of plant; thus a small stone moss [Emmart 1940; Clayton et al. 2009]). Description  Obviously a clump of moss; few distinguishing characteristics are given other than that this may be a moss on stone. Previous identification  This phytomorph has not been previously identified. Putative identification  Little can be deduced other than a genus similar to Polytrichum. Distribution  Polytrichum is cosmopolitan. Names  A moss (English); un musgo (Spanish); see folio 18r#2. Uses  Harris (2008) records uses of mosses by the Maya for fevers, for mouth sores, and in combination with other ingredients.

62

2  Phytomorph Identification of the Codex Cruz-Badianus

Fig. 2.34  Unknown moss; ?Polytrichum sp., Polytrichaceae: (a) folio 18v2; (b) Polytrichum commune. (Source: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Polytrichum_commune.jpeg) Kristian Peters CC BY-SA 3.0

Folio 19r

Aztec medicinal use  Medicine by which pain in the throat is soothed. The juice of the little herb tlahnextli and teoyztaquilitl, which grows in stony places, ground in honey with purple earth and white earth, sooths sore throat, if the throat is touched gently with it on one finger introduced into the mouth (Emmart 1940). Nahuatl name  Teoyztaquilitl (teo  =  sacred; yzta  =  salt (or iztac  =  white); quilitl = edible plant; thus, sacred edible white or salt plant or herb [Emmart 1940; Clayton et al. 2009]). Description  This phytomorph has four orange-red petals with yellow stamens. Leaves are simple, linear, and forked. This grows on stones. Previous identification  The previous identification was a species of the Brassicaceae (Guerra 1952; Miranda and Valdés 1964; Reko 1947). Godínez Salazar (2017) did propose Bidens pilosa L. (B. odorata Cav.) of the Asteraceae or Erysimum capitatum (Douglas ex Hook.) Greene of the Brassicaceae.

Folio 19v

63

Putative identification  The color orange-red is extremely uncommon in the Brassicaceae, except for the wallflowers. One member of the Brassicaceae in Mexico that achieves orange-red color is Erysimum capitatum (Fig. 2.35). This species grows on rocky soil, but its leaves, though linear, are not forked. Distribution  Erysimum capitatum is native from Canada to Mexico. Names  Sanddune wallflower, western wallflower (English). Uses  Moerman (2009) lists its uses as a ceremonial medicine, emetic, toothache remedy, antirheumatic, respiratory aid, and gynecological aid among Native American tribes.

Fig. 2.35  Erysimum capitatum, Brassicaceae: (a) folio 19r; (b) flower. (Source: http://swbiodiversity.org/seinet/imagelib/imgdetails.php?imgid=250503 Patrick Alexander CC BY-SA)

Folio 19v

64

2  Phytomorph Identification of the Codex Cruz-Badianus

Aztec medicinal use  Medicine which brings forth dried-up saliva. The saliva will flow and excessive thirst be checked if herbs of Acetaria silvestris, an alectoria, crystalline in appearance, the size of an Indian or Spanish bean, which stone is found, on Pliny’s authority also, in the intestines of fowls, and an Indian kite and killed dove be ground in clear water. One who lacks saliva and is inordinately thirsty should swallow some of the liquid and some should only hold it in their mouth. On his head, however, is to be poured the juice of the ground herbs, namely, tetzminpohpatli, and the juice of the tepechian. Lest you make some mistake, the leaves are ground up, not the herbs themselves (Emmart 1940). Nahuatl name  Quauhtla xoxocoyalin (quauhtla = wild, wood; xoxocoyolin, xoccoyolini = that which is sour or acid; thus, wild acid herb [Emmart 1940], acid plant of the forest [Clayton et al. 2009]). Alternate spelling: cuauhtla xoxocoyolin. Description  Flowers are campanulate, red, subtended by calyces with acute lobes. Leaves are peltate and have four blunt lobes. Roots emanate from a bulb. Previous identification  Previous identifications have been Begonia sp. (Reko 1947) of the Begoniaceae, Oxalis sp. (Emmart 1940, Gates 2000) of the Oxalidaceae, Oxalis corniculata L. (de Ávila Blomberg 2012; Estrada Lugo 1989 in Picó and Nuez 2000a), O. hernandezii DC. (Valdés Gutiérrez et  al. 1992), or O. latifolia Kunth (Godínez Salazar 2017), or O. tetraphylla Cav. (Bye and Linares 2013; Miranda and Valdés 1964). Putative identification  This does not match Begonia sp., Oxalis hernandezii, or O. latifolia. Oxalis tetraphylla is the best fit (Fig. 2.36). Leaves vary from green to green marked with purple to all purple. Though the flowers are normally five-lobed, closed flowers appear campanulate and are pink. This is one of the species surviving at the pre-Hispanic garden of Tetzcutzingo Hill Complex, Mexico (Hernández-Cruz et al. 2016; Pulido and Koch 1988). Distribution  Oxalis tetraphylla is native to southern Mexico. Names  Four-leaf pink-sorrel (English); chirio, chirios, jocoyol (Spanish). Uses  Martínez (1969) discusses the use of Oxalis species in Yucatan for inflammations of the mouth. Though many species of Oxalis are edible, they have a bitter (“acid”) taste from high oxalic acid content and can produce kidney stones.

Folio 20r

65

Fig. 2.36  Oxalis tetraphylla, Oxalidaceae: (a) folio 19v, (b) flowers. (Source: https://commons. wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Oxalis_tetraphylla_Iron_Cross20170523_7785.jpg Bff CC BY-SA 4.0); (c) leaves. (Source: https://calphotos.berkeley.edu/cgi/img_query?enlarge=0000+0000+1112+0591) Zoya Akulova CC BY-NC 3.0)

Folio 20r

66

2  Phytomorph Identification of the Codex Cruz-Badianus

Aztec medicinal use  Medicine which cures bloody sputum. For those who spit blood, it is somewhat useful to drink a potion made from the stalk of tlacoxiloxochitl, our pepper, the stone teoxihuitl, and chichiltic tappachtli, a bone of a monkey, reddish stones which you find on the river bank, white incense, the leaves of the plant huitzcolohtli, and the root of another herb, the tip of which is purplish red, small (and) rounded, and the whites of two eggs. Next to make a potion, grind up one tlacoxiloxochitl root, the leaves of huitzcoloxochitl and the root of another herb called xiuhtontli, the stone teoxihuitl, and a bone of a monkey, burn pepper to ashes; grind into it also chichiltic tapachtli, together with the stone found in the river and that in water; and cook it all in water with the white incense; when this is done, he is to take one dish of the potion so made to drink before the mid-day meal. But for him who spits yellow phlegm, the herb malinalli, the pine, cypress, and the leaves of the herb hecapahtli are to be ground and cooked in water or liquid pressed from ashes, or, if it seems better, in bitter water, and he is to drink the potion; moreover, one should be well acquainted with the potion. This consumes the noxious humor (Emmart 1940).

Folio 20r1 Nahuatl name  Ezpahtli (ez, exgtli = blood; pahtli = medicine; thus, blood medicine or remedy [Emmart 1940; Clayton et al. 2009]). Alternate spelling: ezpatli. Description  Orange flowers of this phytomorph are single and terminal in elongated balloon-like buds subtended by calyces with obtuse lobes. Leaves are simple, opposite, elliptic. Stems are tan. Roots are ample. Previous identification  Previous identifications have been a Bouvardia sp. (Guerra 1952) of the Rubiaceae, Bouvardia ternifolia (Cav.) Schltdl. (Bye and Linares 2013; Godínez Salazar 2017), Croton draco Schltdl. (Estrada Lugo 1989; Reko 1947) of the Euphorbiaceae, C. gossypiifolius Vahl (C. sanguifluus Kunth) (Díaz 1976), Jatropha dioica Sessé [J. spathulata (Ortega) Mull. Arg.] (Godínez Salazar 2017; Estrada Lugo 1989) of the Euphorbiaceae, or Pterocarpus sp. (Estrada Lugo 1989) of the Fabaceae. Putative identification  None of the putative identifications match the phytomorph exactly, but Bouvardia ternifolia in bud comes closest (Fig. 2.37). This is one of the species surviving at the pre-Hispanic garden of Tetzcutzingo Hill Complex, Mexico (Hernández-Cruz et al. 2016; Pulido and Koch 1988). Distribution  Bouvardia ternifolia is native from Texas to southern Mexico. Names  Scarlet bouvardia (English); Standley (1920–1926) records trompetilla (Hidalgo, Mexico; Veracruz, Oaxaca); tlacoxochitl, tlacosuchil (Nahuatl, “trumpet flower”); mirto (Coahuila, Durango); mirto del campo (Durango); hierba del pasmo (Sinaloa); contrayerba (Mexico); doncellita (Oaxaca); hierba del indio (Sinaloa).

Folio 20r

67

Uses  Martínez (1969) discusses the medicinal value of this species in Mexico. Standley (1920–1926) says: “It is employed locally as a remedy for dysentery and hydrophobia and other affections. Dr. Reko states that the ancient Mexicans were accustomed to begin the treatment of a disease by bleeding, which was induced by provoking hemorrhage from the nose with powder of ‘cebadilla’ (Stenanthium frigidum); and to restrain excessive hemorrhage they used the powdered roots of the tlacoxochitl. The plant is described and figured by Hernandez. It is probably also the one mentioned by Sahagun under the name tlacoxochitl. The latter author says: ‘The flavor of the roots is both bitter and sweetish. They are good for heat and exhaustion of the heart. Ground with about 15 grains of maize and as much cacao, and mixed with water, they should be taken several times on an empty stomach or after meals.’”

Fig. 2.37  Bouvardia ternifolia, Fabaceae: (a) folio 20r1; (b) flowering stems. (Source: https:// www.inaturalist.org/observations/7133257 borja-molina CC BY-NC 4.0)

Folio 20r2 Nahuatl name  Huitzcolohtli (huitz, huitztli = spiny; colohtli, coloa = to twist or twine, to bend down; thus, spiny twisting or twining flower [Emmart 1940]; thorny curved [Clayton et al. 2009]). Alternate spelling: uuitzcolohtli. Description  Apparent fruits are red, terminal, and four to a cluster. Leaves are simple, undulate, toothed, alternate. Stems are prickly. Roots are stout. We fail to find the “quadripartite flowers and large dentate leaves” of Clayton et al. (2009). Previous identification  Previous identifications have included Berberis sp. (de Ávila Blomberg 2012) of the Berberidaceae or Condalia sp. of the Rhamnaceae or Solanum sp. of the Solanaceae (Guerra 1952; Reko 1947). Gates (2000) suggested Eryngium foetidum L. of the Apiaceae, whereas Godínez Salazar (2017) suggested Physalis philadelphica Lam. of the Solanaceae.

68

2  Phytomorph Identification of the Codex Cruz-Badianus

Putative identification  Eryngium foetidum is green throughout and ignored. Physalis philadelphica is also green and lacks spines, and the fruits do not match the phytomorph. To encompass all the characters of this phytomorph, the genus Solanum offers the best possibility. For example, Solanum tampicense Dunal (S. houstonii) fits many of the botanical characteristics (Fig. 2.38). It is a perennial that can be a vine, shrub, or tree with variably shaped leaves. Distribution  Solanum tampicense ranges from the Caribbean and Mexico to Guatemala. Names  Scrambling nightshade, aquatic soda apple, wetland nightshade (English); espina de manglar, salsi.

Fig. 2.38  Solanum tampicense, Solanaceae: (a) folio 20r2; (b) fruits and stems. (Source: http:// florida.plantatlas.usf.edu/photo.aspx?ID=11290 from Wunderlin et al. 2019)

Folio 20v

Folio 20v

69

Aztec medicinal use  For hiccups. One who has hiccups is to grind in water and cook the stalk of the herb cohuatli, the leaves of the herb mexixquilitl, the bark of a red pine, the fronds of the herb tlalanquaye, and grass; white honey is to be mixed into the well-cooked potion and it is to be drunk moderately. Moreover, white incense and xochiocotzotl are to be thrown on embers, with the fumes of which a wad of cotton is to be impregnated, to warm the chest. And the leaves of cypress and the herbs papaloquiltl and yyahhitl are to be ground in water, with the warmed juice of which the chest is to be smeared (Emmart 1940).

Folio 20v1 Nahuatl name  Papaloquilitl (pápalo, papalotl = butterfly; quilitl = edible plant; thus butterfly edible plant [Emmart 1940; Clayton et al. 2009]). Description  This phytomorph has simple alternate leaves with two lobes. Asterid flowers are white tufts subtended by calyces with acute lobes. Roots are substantial. Previous identification(s)  Previous identifications have included Porophyllum sp. (Valdés Gutiérrez et al. 1992) of the Asteraceae, P. coloratum (Kunth) DC. (P. seemannii Sch. Bip.) (Guerra 1952), P. punctatum (Mill.) S.F. Blake, P. ruderale (Jacq.) Cass. subsp. macrocephalum (DC.) R.R.  Johnson (P. macrocephalum DC.) (Bye and Linares 2013), or Porophyllum viridiflorum (Kunth) DC. (de Ávila Blomberg 2012; Gates 2000). Putative identification  The phytomorph bears most similarity to Porophyllum ruderale subsp. macrocephalum (Fig.  2.39), although P. punctatum also is very similar. Distribution  This subspecies is found from Texas to Bolivia and Peru. Names  Hierba del venado, yerba porosa (Spanish). Uses  This is widely used as an edible herb with cilantro and cucumber-like notes, but cilantro haters have called it “buzzard’s breath” (Tucker and DeBaggio 2009). All the Porophyllum species have a similar odor, and Martínez (1969) discusses their medicinal uses in Mexico.

70

2  Phytomorph Identification of the Codex Cruz-Badianus

Fig. 2.39  Porophyllum ruderale subsp. macrocephalum, Asteraceae: (a) folio 20v1, (b) herbarium sheet. (Source: http://swbiodiversity.org/seinet/collections/individual/index.php?occid=4142474 CC BY 3.0 Rights Holder: Deaver Herbarium)

Folio 20v2 Nahuatl name  Mexixquilitl (derived from mexixin and quilitl  =  edible herb (Emmart 1940); mexixin edible herb [Clayton et al. 2009]). Description  This phytomorph shows alternate, compound leaves. Yellow flowers are in a raceme; roots are substantial. Previous identification  Lepidium sativum L. (Guerra 1952), L. sordidum A.Gray (L. granulare Rose) (de Ávila Blomberg 2012; Díaz 1976; Miranda and Valdés 1964; Valdés Gutiérrez et  al. 1992), or L. virginicum L. (Bye and Linares 2013; Gates 2000). Putative identification  This phytomorph seems to be a Lepidium species, probably L. virginicum (Fig. 2.40). This is one of the species surviving at pre-Hispanic garden of Tetzcutzingo Hill Complex, Mexico (Pulido and Koch, 1988). Lepidium sativum is a Eurasian introduction and not considered. Distribution  Lepidium virginicum is native from Canada to the Caribbean and Panama. Names  Peppergrass, Virginia cress (English); coclearia del país, comida de pajarito, cresón, escobilla lentejilla, lepídio, mancuerno (Spanish). Uses  Moerman (2009) discusses the uses of L. virginicum among Native American tribes as a dermatological aid, pulmonary aid, veterinary aid, and tuberculosis remedy. Martínez (1969) discusses the uses of Lepidium spp. in Mexico.

Folio 21r

71

Fig. 2.40  Lepidium virginicum, Brassicaceae: (a) folio 20v2; (b) flowering shoots. (Source: https://plants.usda.gov/core/profile?symbol=LEVI3, Britton, N.L., and A. Brown. 1913. Illustrated flora of the northern United States, Canada and the British Possessions. Charles Scribner and Sons, New York. Vol. 2:165)

Folio 21r

72

2  Phytomorph Identification of the Codex Cruz-Badianus

Aztec medicinal use  For cough. One troubled with a cough is to drink frequently the juice of the root tlacoxiloxochitl peeled and ground in water, with part of which, mixed with honey, the throat is to be smeared. But if he spits blood, he is to take this same drink before the mid-day meal. And it would be somewhat useful if he would merely nibble the same root in honey and chew it. The root of the herb called tzopelicacococ ground in tepid water is also useful to one who has a cough. He is to drink the juice or nibble on the root (Emmart 1940).

Folio 21r1 Nahuatl name  Tlacoxiloxochitl (tlaco, tlacotl = stalk; xilo, xilotl = ear of corn still milky; xochitl  =  flower; thus, stalky corn silk flower [Emmart 1940]; shrubby maize-ear flower [Clayton et al. 2009]). Description  Leaves of this phytomorph are compound and alternate on a red stem. Flowers are staminate, subtended by calyces without lobes. Fruits are capsules. Roots are substantial. Previous identification  Previous identification was Calliandra grandiflora (L’Her.) Benth. [C. houstoniana (Mill.) Standl. var. anomala (Kunth) Barneby, C. anomala (Kunth) J.F.Macbr.,] (Bye and Linares 2013; de Ávila Blomberg 2012; Díaz 1976; Emmart 1940; Farfán and Elferink 2010; Gates 2000; Guerra 1952; Miranda and Valdés 1964; Valdés Gutiérrez et al. 1992) of the Fabaceae. Putative identification  Calliandra grandiflora fits the phytomorph rather well. This is one of the species surviving at pre-Hispanic garden of Tetzcutzingo Hill Complex, Mexico (Hernández-Cruz et al. 2016; Pulido and Koch 1988). Distribution  This is native from northern Mexico to Honduras. Names  Standley (1920–1926) lists these names: cabeza de angel (Mexico), cabellos de angel (Guanajuato, Costa Rica, Guatemala, Honduras), pambetano (Morelos, Valley of Mexico, Veracruz), cabellitos de angel (Morelos), cabellitos de una vara (Morelos, Ramirez), hierba del angel or lele (various localities, Ramirez), tepachera or timbrillo (Valley of Mexico), tepexiloxochitl or tepejiloxochitl (mountain + corn silk + flower), texoxochitl or tlacoxiloxochitl (rod or bush + corn silk-flower), tlamacazatzotl or tzonxochitl or xiloxochitl or xiloxochicuahuitl (the shrub) (Nahuatl), canela or hierba de canela (Oaxaca), coquito (Oaxaca), carboncillo (Costa Rica), cabellito (Sinaloa). Uses  Standley (1920–1926) relates: “The plant is sometimes used for tanning. The root is used to retard fermentation in a drink, ‘tepache,’ made from pulque and coarse sugar. The plant is said to contain a glucoside, calliandrine. In domestic medicine it is used for fevers, especially malaria, although experiments have indicated that its reputation for this purpose is not justified. The plant is treated at length

Folio 21r

73

by Hernandez in a chapter entitled “De Tlacoxiloxochitl flore Barbato,” which is accompanied by three good figures. His account is as follows: “Tlacoxiloxochitl, which some call Tcntzonxochitl [=beard-flower], some Tlai(h)azcatacotl [=priestbush], and others Tepexiloxochitl or Tlalxilochtl [=dwarf hair-flower], is a shrub with leaves like mesquite. The flowers are like long red hair, and they come from round reddish berries. The root is fibrous, yellow outside, and red within when it is cut. The stalks are red and the pods yellow. It grows in level or mountainous places and sometimes along streams. The root bark is dry and astringent and somewhat glutinous; its nature is hot, in the third order, and its flavor sharp. The flowers, crushed, mixed with water, and used as drops, are a wonderful remedy for diseases of the eye, for they correct inflammation and remove morbid growths, and heal ulcers. If the decoction or infusion of the juice is drunk, it stops diarrhoea and dysentery, stimulates the appetite, and relieves indigestion. There be those who say also that it soothes the chest, relieves the belly, removes the bile by vomiting, and is also a remedy for coughs.”

Fig. 2.41  Calliandra grandiflora, Fabaceae: (a) folio 21v1; (b) flower. (Source: https://www. maxpixel.net/Flower-Powder-Puff-Plant-Calliandra-Grandiflora-93990 CC0 Public Domain)

Folio 21v2 Nahuatl name  Tzopelicacococ (tzopelica  =  agreeable, sweet; cococ  =  pungent; thus agreeably pungent (plant) [Emmart 1940]; sweetness-spicy [Clayton et al. 2009]). Description  Opposite leaves of this phytomorph are simple and elliptic. Stem is tan. Roots arise from a base. No flowers are obvious.

74

2  Phytomorph Identification of the Codex Cruz-Badianus

Previous identification  Previous identification was Phyla dulcis (Trevir.) Moldenke (Lippia dulcis Trevir., Phyla scaberrima auct. pl.) (Emmart 1940; Guerra 1952; Miranda and Valdés 1964; Reko 1947) of the Verbenaceae. Putative identification  Since no flowers are present in the phytomorph, identification must come from a translation of the Nahuatl name, sweetness-spicy, and Phyla dulcis agrees (Fig. 2.42). Distribution  Native from Mexico to Colombia. Names  Aztec sweetherb, honeyherb (English); Standley (1920–1926) relates hierba dulce (Tamaulipas, Veracruz), neuctixihuitl (Nahuatl, Ramirez; “honeyherb”), hierba buena (Oaxaca), orozuz (Cuba, El Salvador, Costa Rica, Nicaragua), orozul (Nicaragua), salvia santa or corronchocho (El Salvador). Uses  Standley (1920–1926) relates: “Tea made from the plant is a common remedy for colic and colds.” Martínez (1969) gives uses of this herb in Mexico. Though called a sweet herb, the 53% camphor alludes to its use as potential abortifacient, and it should not be consumed (Tucker and DeBaggio 2009).

Fig. 2.42  Phyla dulcis, Verbenaceae: (a) folio 21r2; (b) flowering shoot. (Source: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Lippia_dulcis.jpg Surething CC BY-SA 3.0)

Folio 21v

75

Folio 21v

Aztec medicinal use  Medicine which removes noisome and fetid breath. The root and leaves of the herb called tlatanquaye, red earth, white earth, and the herbs temamatlatzin and tlanextia xiuhtontli, both ground and cooked in water with honey, checks foul breath. The juice well strained is to be drunk moderately before meals (Emmart 1940). Nahuatl name  Tlatlanquaye (tlatlanquaye  =  that which has knees or joints like knees; thus, jointed stem [Emmart 1940]; possessor of several knees [Clayton et al. 2009]). Alternate spelling: tlatlancuaya. Description  This phytomorph has opposite, simple elliptic leaves on a red stem. Flowers are red racemes. Roots are substantial, epipetric. Previous identification  Previous identifications have included Iresine sp. (Miranda and Valdés 1964; Valdés Gutiérrez et  al. 1992) of the Amaranthaceae, I. calea (Ibantz) Standl. (Bye and Linares 2013; de Ávila Blomberg 2012; Díaz 1976; Emmart 1940; Estrada Lugo 1989; Godínez Salazar 2017; Guerra 1952), I. diffusa Humb. & Bonpl. ex Willd. (I. celosioides L.) (Díaz 1976), or Peperomia galioides Kunth (de Ávila Blomberg 2012; Díaz 1976; Linares and Bye 2013; Miranda and Valdés 1964; Valdés Gutiérrez et al. 1992) of the Piperaceae.

76

2  Phytomorph Identification of the Codex Cruz-Badianus

Putative identification  From the leaves alone, Iresine is the better genus to match the phytomorph, rather than Peperomia, but neither species of Iresine has a red raceme or red stem. However, the young stems and inflorescences of Iresine rzedowskii Zumaya, Flores Olv. & Borsch are pink (Fig. 2.43). Zumaya et al. (2013) relate: “Iresine rzedowskii has been extensively collected but in herbaria has been often misidentified as other species such as I. angustifolia Euphr., I. discolor, I. grandis, I. interrupta Benth., and I. nigra Uline & W. L. Bray. The long scandent to climbing habit of I. rzedowskii bears some similarity to I. interrupta, I. ajuscana, I. hebanthoides Suess., and I. palmeri (S.  Wats.) Standl. The latter two species, however, are true climbers with the upper part of stems often winding around other plants.” Distribution  Iresine rzedowskii is a dioecious perennial shrub found in Chihuahua along the Sierra Madre Occidental through the mountains of central Mexico and south to the northwestern part of the state of Oaxaca (Zumaya et al. 2013). Names  Kurikua (Michoacán), hierba del Arlomo (Jalisco). Uses  Because of the previous misidentification of this species, the use is unknown. However, Martínez (1969) gives the medicinal use of I. calea in Mexico.

Fig. 2.43  Iresine rzedowskii, Amaranthaceae: (a) folio 21v; (b) habit; (c) old stem with suberose cortex; (d) staminate synflorescence; (e) pistillate synflorescence. (Source: Zumaya et al. 2013)

Folio 22v

77

Folio 22v

Aztec medicinal use  For swelling cheek. Swelling cheek is helped if a drink is taken in water consisting of ground tememetla leaves, the pith of texiyotl, and white earth, the juice of which is a little bitter, and of a certain gummy shrub with viscous drops, which we call nothezli. The root of the herb tlatlaçptoc ground in tepid water is very helpful to him who cannot open his mouth; if he drinks of this juice, he vomits immediately, after it has been taken, and by the removal of the phlegm the mouth opens up (Emmart 1940).

Folio 22v1 Nahuatl name  Texiyotl (te, tetl = stone; xiyotl = scurf, mange; thus, stone, scurf or stonemange, [Emmart 1940]; stone rash [Clayton et al. 2009]). Alternate spellings: texyotl, texiutl. Description  Leaves are opposite, simple, spatulate, apparently succulent. Inflorescence is single, terminal, pinkish, possibly a raceme or panicle with tiny flowers. Stems are upright, treelike. Roots are substantial, growing on rocky substrate. Previous identification  Previous identifications included Sedum sp. (Gates 2000) of the Crassulaceae, Sedum bourgaei Hemsl. (Guerra 1952; Reko 1947), S. dendroideum Moc. & Sessé ex DC. (Díaz 1976; Emmart 1940; Estrada Lugo 1989), or S. dendroideum subsp. parviflorum R.T. Clausen [S. praealtum DC. subsp. parvifo-

78

2  Phytomorph Identification of the Codex Cruz-Badianus

lium (R.T. Clausen) R.T. Clausen] (Bye and Linares 2013; Valdés Gutiérrez et al., 1, or S. oxypetalum Kunth (Díaz 1976; Miranda and Valdés 1964), Putative identification  Sedum oxypetalum matches most closely the phytomorph in terms of leaf width and flower color; it also forms a small, upright shrub (Fig. 2.44). Distribution  Sedum oxypetalum is native to Mexico. Names  Dwarf tree stonecrop (English); siempreviva (Spanish). Uses  Sedum oxypetalum is antifungal, besides being used in folk medicine for burns, skin infections, mouth infections, and eye infections (topic, oral, and eyewash) (Navarro García et al. 2003).

Fig. 2.44  Sedum oxypetalum, Crassulaceae: (a) folio 22v1; (b) flowering shoot. (Source: https:// www.inaturalist.org/observations/16734671. Idlegrraphics CC BY-NC-SA 4.0)

Folio 22v2 Nahuatl name  Tememetla (te, tetl = stone; memetla = gizzard or metate = stone used to grind corn or cacao; thus, stone gizzard [Emmart 1940]; gizzard [Clayton et al. 2009]). Alternate spelling: tememetlatl.

Folio 22v

79

Description  Leaves are distichous, blue-green, simple, obovate, and acute-tipped, possibly succulent. Red flowers are in a raceme, subtended by calyces with acute tips. Roots are substantial. Previous identification  Previous identifications include Echeveria sp. (Emmart 1940; Estrada Lugo 1989) of the Crassulaceae, E. fulgens Lem. (de Ávila Blomberg 2012; Estrada Lugo 1989; Guerra 1952; Reko 1947), E. gibbiflora DC. (Bye and Linares 2013; Díaz 1976; Valdés Gutiérrez et al. 1992), or Sedum sp. (Gates 2000) of the Crassulaceae. Putative identification  Echeveria gibbiflora seems to have most in common with the phytomorph, but almost any closely related species of Echeveria might have been used (Fig. 2.45). Distribution  Echeveria gibbiflora is native from southern Mexico to Guatemala. Names  Oreja de burro (Spanish). Uses  Used in traditional Mexican medicine as a vaginal postcoital rinse without side effects, it has been confirmed for its antifertility effects (Cordero-Martínez et al. 2016).

Fig. 2.45  Echeveria gibbiflora, Crassulaceae: (a) folio 22v2; (b) flowers and leaves. (Source: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Echeveria_gibbiflora_001.JPG H. Zell CC BY-SA 3.0)

80

2  Phytomorph Identification of the Codex Cruz-Badianus

Folio 24r

Aztec medicinal use  For scabies of the face or lentigo. A scabious face will be cured if it is washed with the juice of tlalquequetzal and aquahuitl and ehcapahtli ground in water of sour taste with excrement of doves (Emmart 1940). Nahuatl name  Tlalquequetzal (tlal, tlalli  =  earth, field; quequetzal, quequetzalli = plumes; thus, earth plume [Emmart 1940]; earth plume headdress [Clayton et al. 2009]). Description  Leaves of this phytomorph are finely compound; flowers are pale yellow or whitish, varying from a cyme to an umbel; roots are substantial, possibly epipetric. Previous identification  Achillea millefolium L. (Bye and Linares 2013; de Ávila Blomberg 2012; Díaz 1976; Emmart 1940; Estrada Lugo 1989; Farfán and Elferink 2010; Gates 2000; Guerra 1952; Reko 1947; Valdés Gutiérrez et al. 1992) of the Asteraceae; Adiantum sp. (Estrada Lugo 1989) of the Adiantaceae; and Adiantum trapeziforme? (Ocaranza 2011), or Pleopeltis macrocarpa (Polypodium lanceolatum) (Díaz 1976; Estrada Lugo 1989), of the Polypodiaceae. Putative identification  Because flowers are shown, the ferns are immediately ruled out. Achillea millefolium matches the best (Fig. 2.46). Distribution  Circumboreal; in the New World, ranges from Canada to Honduras. Names  Milfoil, yarrow (English); mil en rama, plumajillo (Spanish).

Folio 24v

81

Uses  Moerman (2009) discusses the wide application of this species as medicine among Native American tribes of North America. Martínez (1969) discusses its use in Mexico. The medicinal application of the genus is discussed by Saeidnia et al. (2011).

Fig. 2.46  Achillea millefolium, Asteraceae. (a) folio 24r; (b) flowers and foliage. (Source: https:// commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Achillea_millefiolium_k1.JPG. Benjamin Zwittnig)

Folio 24v

82

2  Phytomorph Identification of the Codex Cruz-Badianus

Aztec medicinal use  For scabies of the mouth. Scabies of the lips is well removed by an application of the medicament which is prepared from the tlalmizquitl root; from a few viscous drops or tears, inspissated the thickness of gum; and from the leaves of ehcapahtli, the seed of nettles, and the ground fronds of tetezhuatic (Emmart 1940). Nahuatl name  Tlalmizquitl (tlal, tlalli = earth, field; quequetzal = mesquite; thus, earth mesquite [Emmart 1940; Clayton et al. 2009]). Description  The phytomorph has many tiny simple, elliptic leaves, mostly opposite; some pinnately compound leaves are shown. Flowers are terminal and blue with yellow in a raceme, each zygomorphic flower subtended by a calyx with acute lobes. Roots are substantial. Previous identification  Previous identifications were a Dalea sp. (Miranda and Valdés 1964; Valdés Gutiérrez et al. 1992) of the Fabaceae, Dalea foliolosa (Aiton) Barneby (Bye and Linares 2013), Hoffmannseggia glauca (Ortega) Eifert (H. densiflora Benth.) (Guerra 1952; Reko 1947) of the Fabaceae, or a Prosopis sp. (Estrada Lugo 1989) of the Fabaceae. Gates (2000) suggested Pithecellobium circinale (L.) Benth. (Mimosa circinalis L.), but this is a species of the Caribbean and ignored. Putative identification  Of the previously suggested species, Dalea foliolosa matches the phytomorph most closely (Fig. 2.47). This is one of the species surviving at the pre-Hispanic garden of Tetzcutzingo Hill Complex, Mexico (Pulido and Koch 1988). Distribution  Native from Mexico to Honduras. Names  Prairie clover (English); almaraduz (Spanish). Uses  This is traditionally boiled to prepare aqueous infusions against type 2 diabetes mellitus or is locally administered to treat contusions and abrasions. The essential oils exhibit significant in vitro antioxidant, anti-α-glucosidase, and antibacterial capacities (Villa-Ruano et al. 2017).

Fig. 2.47  Dalea foliolosa, Fabaceae: (a) folio 24v; (b) foliage and flowers. (Source: https://calphotos.berkeley.edu/cgi/img_query?enlarge=0000+0000+0216+2364. ©2016 Wynn Anderson CC BY-NC-SA 3.0)

Folio 25r

83

Folio 25r

Aztec medicinal use  For struma or scrofula. One who has struma gets relief from the malady if you put on his neck a plaster of the herbs, which grow in a pleasure garden or in a thicket or in a burned thicket of reeds, tolouaxihuitl, tonatiuhyxiuh, of the root of tecpatl, the leaves of a bramblebush; grind them with the stone, which may be found in the intestine of a swallow, and with its blood (Emmart 1940).

Folio 25r1 Nahuatl name  Tlahchinolpan yxuaxihuitl (tlachinol, tlachinolli  =  burned; pan = upon; yzua, isuz = to grow; xiuitl = plant; thus, plant growing upon burned place [Emmart 1940], herb that comes up in burned land [Clayton et al. 2009]). Description  Leaves are linear. Basal sheaths are orange to brown. Roots are substantial. Previous identification  A previous identification is limited to the Cyperaceae (Miranda and Valdés 1964) or Poaceae (Reko 1947; Guerra 1952). Putative identification  With basal brownish sheaths, this is most probably a species of Cyperaceae (Fig. 2.48). The current status of Mexican Cyperaceae has been recently summarized by González-Elizondo et  al. (2018). Many species of the

84

2  Phytomorph Identification of the Codex Cruz-Badianus

Cyperaceae are important colonizers after a fire, such as some Carex species (Fire Effects Information System 2018). Distribution  Unknown. Names  Unknown. Uses  Unknown.

Fig. 2.48  Juncaceae species? (a) folio 25r#1; (b) Juncus roemerianus? (Source: http://sernecportal.org/portal/collections/individual/index.php?occid=6003326&clid=0). Institute for Botanical Exploration CC BY-NC 3.0

Folio 25r2 Nahuatl name  Tolohua xihuitl (toloua, tolohua = Datura sp.; xihuitl = plant; thus, Datura plant; herb that lowers its head [Clayton et al. 2009]). Alternate spelling: tolouazihuitl. Description  Leaves are simple, pinnately lobed, alternate with white trumpetshaped flowers that have about ten teeth at the apex, subtended by calyces with obtuse tips. Roots are stout. Previous identification  Previous identifications are a Datura/Brugmansia sp. (de Ávila Blomberg 2012; Emmart 1940; Furst 1995; Reko 1947) of the Solanaceae, D. inoxia Mill. (Valdés Gutiérrez et al., 1992), D. stramonium L. (Bye and Linares 2013; Díaz 1976; Godínez Salazar 2017; Miranda and Valdés 1964; Valdés Gutiérrez et al. 1992), or D. wrightii Regel (D. meteloides auct.) (Díaz 1976; E. Putative identification  The flowers are a better match for D. inoxia, which has ten teeth in the corolla, whereas D. stramonium only has five teeth. Also, D. wrightii, the sacred datura, is more often encountered as a ground vine, not upright as in the phytomorph and frequently shows purple in the flower. Distribution  Datura inoxia is native from Texas to Paraguay.

Folio 25v

85

Names  Angel’s trumpet, downy thorn-apple (English); cacaito, toloache (Spanish). Uses  The medicinal value of the genus Datura is reviewed by Maheshwari et al. (2013). Further information is provided by Preissel and Preissel (2002).

Fig. 2.49  Datura inoxia, Solanaceae: (a) folio 25r2; (b) flowers and foliage. (Source: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Sacred_Datura_(Datura_inoxia)_(11710359934).jpg Bernard DUPONT CC BY-SA 2.0)

Folio 25v

86

2  Phytomorph Identification of the Codex Cruz-Badianus

Aztec medicinal use  For glands or spongy swellings. Glands are to be cut with a lancet or razor, and when they are cut, all the sanies [a thin blood-tinged seropurulent discharge from ulcers or infected wounds] is to be carefully removed; and a plaster is to be put on the cut place. And it is to consist of the leaves of the small herb tonatiuhyxiuh, which springs up in the summer, and tolohua ground in yolk of egg. For water under the skin. Water under the skin comes out through cutting and all the purulent matter is to be removed; when this has been done, the leaves of brambles and tzonpilihuizpahtli are to be ground and cooked in water with white incense, to which is to be added Indian wine. For the medicine thus prepared, let it be put repeatedly on the festering part, which also is to be covered (Emmart 1940). Nahuatl names  Tonatiuhyxiuc ahhuachcho (tonatiuh  =  sun god; y  =  possessive his; xiuh, xiuitl = plant; ahhuachcho, ahuacho = dew; thus, Tonatiuh’s (sun god’s) dew plant [Emmart 1940]; the sun’s dewy herb [Clayton et al. 2009]). Description  Alternate, simple, elliptic, entire leaves with acute tips show some red. Red flowers have three red, long, exserted stigmas (or stamens?) in an apparent raceme. Fruits are purple-green. Stems and leaves are presumably covered with droplets of water, probably exhibiting guttation. Roots are substantial, epipetric. Previous identification  A previous identification has been a Malvaviscus sp. or Abutilon sp. (Guerra 1952; Reko 1947) of the Malvaceae. Godínez Salazar (2017) postulated Sida rhombifolia L. of the Malvaceae. Putative identification  Sida rhombifolia does not fit the phytomorph. This may be Malvaviscus arboreus Cav., a woody perennial shrub (Fig. 2.50). This is one of the species surviving at the pre-Hispanic garden of Tetzcutzingo Hill Complex, Mexico (Hernández-Cruz et al. 2016; Pulido and Koch 1988). Distribution  Malvaviscus arboreus is native from Mexico and the Caribbean to Colombia. Names  Wax mallow (English); Standley (1920–1926) relates monacillo (Veracruz, Colima, Jalisco, Durango, Mexico, Oaxaca), manzanita or manzanito (fruit; Colima, Guatemala), mazapan (Mexico), civil (Veracruz, Tabasco), amapola (Costa Rica), clavel encarnado or estrella de Panama (Guatemala), quesillo (Nicaragua), manzanita quesillo (El Salvador). Uses  The Mexican folk use is to treat respiratory problems such as flu, cough, or fever and also dysentery, diarrhea, stomach pain, and burns (Acosta de la Luz et al. 2013; Yeasmin et al. 2014).

Folio 26r

87

Fig. 2.50  Malvaviscus arboreus, Malvaceae: (a) folio 25v; (b) flowering stem. (Source: https:// commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Hibiscus_from_Venezuela.jpg The Photographer CC BY-SA 3.0), (c) fruit of var. drummondii. (Source: https://www.wildflower.org/gallery/result.php?id_ image=12281). Joseph A. Marcus, Lady Bird Johnson Wildflower Center

Folio 26r

Aztec medicinal use  For weakness of the hands. The pollen or seed of xoxouhcapahtli, the leaves of quetzalxoxouhqui, and the herb yztauhyattl, ground in water and cooked, heal the weakness of the hands. He is to put his hands into this liquid repeatedly and keep them there for a long time. Afterwards he should approach an ant hill near which he is to toss a scrap of meat or bread so that they will gather and patiently allow his weak hands to be bitten by the pincers of their mouths. Then he is to dip his hands frequently in the above-mentioned liquid and afterwards cover with a cloth (Emmart 1940).

88

2  Phytomorph Identification of the Codex Cruz-Badianus

Nahuatl name  Quetzalxoxouh capahtli/quetzalxoxouhqui (quitzal, quetzalli = precious; xoxouhqui = green or blue; thus, precious blue/green [Emmart 1940; Clayton et al. 2009]). Description  Leaves are simple, elliptic, mostly opposite, with acute tips. White to pink fruits are either a raceme with subtending linear bracts and acute tips or aggregate fruits subtended by linear calyces and acute tips. Roots are ample, epipetric. Previous identification  Previous identifications have included Monnina sp., cf. M. salicifolia Ruiz & Pav. of the Polygalaceae, or Turbina corymbosa (L.) Raf. [Ipomoea burmanni Choisy; I. sidaefolia (Kunth) Sweet; Rivea corymbosa (L.) Hallierf.] (Díaz 1976; Guerra 1952; Reko 1947; Valdés Gutiérrez et al.1992) of the Convolvulaceae. Putative identification  Neither of the suggested species matches the phytomorph. An attempt to locate a plant with white to pink aggregate fruits and simple leaves in Mexico has been futile. The closest to the phytomorph is a species of Symphoricarpos; for example, S. microphyllus Kunth of the Symphoricarpos spp. stand out in the landscape because their leaves are often blue-green, not just green (Fig. 2.51). Distribution  Symphoricarpos microphyllus is native from Mexico to Guatemala. Names  Perlilla, perlitas (Spanish). Uses  The uses of Symphoricarpos spp. by Native American tribes in North America are discussed by Moerman (2009).

Fig. 2.51  Symphoricarpos microphyllus, Caprifoliaceae: (a) folio 26r; (b) botanical print. (Source: Hooker 1857: t. 4975)

Folio 27r

89

Folio 27r

Aztec medicinal use  For oppression of the chest. When the chest is oppressed and constricted somewise by a certain fullness, the root tlatlacotic is to be washed in warm water and then ground. He who is suffering this pain is to take moderate drinks of the juice. For by this portion, he will spit out by vomiting what constricts him (Emmart 1940). Nahuatl name  Tlatlacotic (tlah = having many; tlacotl = branches or stems; thus, having many branches or stems [Emmart 1940; Clayton et al. 2009]). Description  The asterid inflorescence is yellow and red with an orange center. Leaves are subalternate to subopposite, simple, elliptic, and acute. Roots are ample. Previous identification  Previous identifications have been Baccharis brachylaenoides DC. var. ligustrina (DC.) Maguire & Wurdack (Baccharis saligna Mart. ex Baker) (Reko 1947; Guerra 1952), Bidens sp. (Miranda and Valdés 1964) of the Asteraceae, Bidens pilosa L. (B. odorata Cav.) (Bye and Linares 2013), Brosimum alicastrum Sw. (Martínez 1949) of the Moraceae, Scabiosa fruticulosa C.Sm. ex DC. (Emmart 1940) of the Caprifoliaceae, or Zinnia sp. (Valdés Gutiérrez et  al. 1992) of the Asteraceae. Putative identification  Baccharis brachylaenoides var. ligustrina is not illustrated because this taxon is native of Venezuela and Brazil. Brosimum alicastrum is a dioecious tree and does not match the phytomorph. Scabiosa fruticulosa is an unresolved name, of uncertain application, and also not illustrated. Bidens pilosa has different leaves from the phytomorph. A Zinnia sp. is an intriguing possibility, especially Zinnia haageana Regel. Usually composites have the darker portion, which contains the UV portion of the spectrum and thus is a pollen guide for pollinating insects, towards the inside, not outside, as in the phytomorph (Fig. 2.52).

90

2  Phytomorph Identification of the Codex Cruz-Badianus

Distribution  Zinnia haageana is native to Mexico but widely cultivated. Names  Mexican zinnia (English); panochit (Spanish). Uses  Moerman (2009) discusses the use of the genus Zinnia among Native American tribes.

Fig. 2.52  Zinnia haageana, Asteraceae: (a) folio 27r; (b) flowers and foliage. (Source: https:// commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:%27Aztec_Red_Bicolor%27_zinnia_IMG_9330.jpg S.G.S. CC BY-SA 4.0)

Folio 27v

Aztec medicinal use  For pain in the chest. The herbs tetlahuitol and teoyztzaquilitl which grow on a rock, with the stone tlahcalhuatztzin, purple earth, and white earth ground in water, ease pain in the chest. A lion’s skin is to be burned also. The

Folio 27v

91

juice however is to be drunk, and the chest is to be anointed with the liquid pressed from the herb tzitzicton, tlatlaolton, and ayauhtli, the seed, or the cones of the cypress, ytzcuinpahtli, with huacalxochitl and papaloquilitl (Emmart 1940).

Folio 27v1 Nahuatl name  Tlatlaolton (tla = abundance; tlaol, tlaolli = corn grains; thus, many little corn grains [Emmart 1940], insignificant little maize kernels [Clayton et al. 2009]). Description  Leaves are alternate, linear. Asterid flowers are white tufts subtended by calyces with acute lobes. Roots are ample. Previous identification  Previous identifications are Porophyllum sp. (Emmart 1940; Guerra 1952; Reko 1947; Valdés Gutiérrez et al., 1992) of the Asteraceae, P. coloratum (Kunth) DC. (P. seemannii Sch. Bip.) (Bye and Linares 2013; Reko 1947), or P. viridiflorum (Kunth) DC. (Godínez Salazar 2017). Putative identification  Porophyllum coloratum matches the phytomorph rather well (Fig. 2.53). Distribution  Porophyllum coloratum is native to Mexico. Names  Hierba del venado (Spanish). Uses  Porophyllum coloratum is sadly confused in the current herb trade with P. ruderale subsp. macrocephalum, papaloquelite, but all the Porophyllum species have a similar odor of cilantro and cucumber. Martínez (1969) discusses the medicinal use of this species in Mexico as an antimalarial.

Fig. 2.53  Porophyllum coloratum, Asteraceae: (a) folio 27v1; (b) foliage and flower. (Source: https://fairdinkumseeds.com/products-page/ethnobotanical-or-medicinal-plants/ papalo-porophyllum-coloratum-seeds/)

92

2  Phytomorph Identification of the Codex Cruz-Badianus

Folio 27v2 Nahuatl name  Tzitzicton (meaning obscure, possibly related to tzicoa = to glue or stick; thus, little tzitzic [Emmart 1940], unimportant little chewing gums [Clayton et al. 2009]). Description  The asterid inflorescence is very similar to folio 27r, yellow and red with an orange center. Leaves are subalternate to subopposite, simple, elliptic, and acute. Roots are ample. Previous identification  Previous identifications have included Asclepias [notha W.D.Stevens?] (de Ávila Blomberg 2012) of the Apocynaceae, Asteraceae (Emmart 1940), or Gymnosperma glutinosum (Spreng.) Less. [unresolved name] (Selloa glutinosa Spreng.) (Bye and Linares 2013; Guerra 1952; Linares and Bye 2013; Reko 1947; Valdés Gutiérrez et al. 1992) of the Asteraceae. Putative identification  Asclepias notha is immediately ruled out for this asterid inflorescence. Gymnosperma glutinosum also does not match the phytomorph. The overwhelming similarity of this to folio 27r suggests the genus Zinnia, possibly a variant of Z. haageana Regel (Fig. 2.54). Distribution  Zinnia haageana is native to Mexico but widely cultivated. Names  Mexican zinnia (English); panochit (Spanish). Uses  Moerman (2009) discusses the use of the genus Zinnia among Native American tribes.

Fig. 2.54  Zinnia haageana (variant), Asteraceae: (a) folio 27v2; (b) flowers and foliage. (Source: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:%27Aztec_Red_Bicolor%27_zinnia_IMG_9330.jpg S.G.S. CC BY-SA 4.0)

Folio 27v

93

Folio 27v3 Nahuatl name  Ytzcuinpahtli (ytzcuin, itzcuintli = dog; pahtli = medicine; thus, dog medicine or remedy [Emmart 1940; Clayton et al. 2009]). Additional spellings  Zcuinpatli, itzcuinpahtli. Description  Purple fruits (or flowers?) are in a terminal raceme. Mostly opposite, simple, elliptic leaves have obtuse tips. Roots are substantial, epipetric. Previous identification  Previous identifications were Anticlea frigida (Schltdl. & Cham.) Zomlefer & Judd [Stenanthium frigidum (Schltdl. & Cham.) Kunth, Veratrum frigidum Schltdl. & Cham.]? (Reko 1947) of the Melianthaceae, Phytolacca icosandra L. (Bye and Linares 2013) of the Phytolaccaceae, Plumbago pulchella Boiss. (Díaz 1976; Miranda and Valdés 1964; Ortiz de Montellano 1975) of the Plumbaginaceae, Roldana ehrenbergiana (Klatt) H.Rob. & Brettell (Senecio canicidus Sessé & Moc.) (Altamirano 1896; Díaz 1976; Estrada Lugo 1989; Guerra 1952; Ramírez and Alcocer 1902; Siméon 2010) of the Asteraceae, Schoenocaulon officinale (Schltdl. & Cham.) A. Gray (Sabadilla officinarum Brandt & Ratzeb., Veratrum officinale Schltdl. & Cham., V. sabadilla Retz.) (Díaz 1976; Reko 1947) of the Melianthaceae, or Solanum sp.? (de Ávila Blomberg 2012) of the Solanaceae. Putative identification  None of the species previously identified match the phytomorph. Today, hierba del perro (dog herb) is Cestrum fasciculatum (Schltdl.) Miers, but this species has orange-red flowers and lavender fruits. However, another Cestrum species might be a match to this phytomorph, e.g., C. diurnum L. This evergreen shrub has black-purple fruits and simple elliptic leaves with acute to obtuse tips, and while the leaves are alternate, on crowded stems, they appear subopposite. Distribution  Cestrum diurnum is native to Mexico and the Caribbean. Names  Parqui (Spanish), pipiloxóchitl (Nahuatl), Juan de noche (Yucatan), galán de día (Cuba). Uses  Martínez (1969) discusses the medicinal uses of Cestrum species in Mexico.

Fig. 2.55  Cestrum diurnum, Solanaceae: (a) folio 27v3; (b) flowers and foliage. (Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cestrum_diurnum#/media/File:Cestrum_diurnum.jpg Tauʻolunga CC BY-SA 3.0)

94

2  Phytomorph Identification of the Codex Cruz-Badianus

Folio 28r

Aztec medicinal use  For pain in the heart. If one has pain in the heart, the herb nonochton, which grows near ant hills, gold, amber, teoxihuitl, chichiltic tapathtli, and tetlahuitl with the burned heart of a stag, are to be ground in water. The juice is to be drunk (Emmart 1940). Nahuatl name  Nonochton azcapa’yxua (nonoc, nonoca  =  noctli, nopal, cactus pad; ton = little; axca, axcatl = ant; pan = hill; yxua = shoot tip come up; thus, little nopals which come up out of ant hills [Emmart 1940]; insignificant little cacti that come up around ant hills [Clayton et al. 2009]). Alternate spelling: azcapan ixhua. Description  Flowers are solitary, terminal with five red petals alternating with five acute-tipped sepals. Leaves are simple, mostly alternate, elliptic, acute-tipped. Roots are tuberous, surrounded by red ants. No spines are visible. Previous identification  Previous identifications have included Nopalxochia sp. or the Cactaceae or Pereskiopsis sp. of the Cactaceae (Guerra 1952; Reko 1947), Gomphrena serrata (L.) (G. decembens Jacq.) (Godínez Salazar 2017), or Portulaca pilosa (de Ávila Blomberg 2012; Díaz 1976) of the Portulacaceae. Putative identification  The name would indicate a cactus, and neither Gomphrena serrata nor Portulaca pilosa match the phytomorph. A Nopalxochia species cannot be found that matches the phytomorph, but some Pereskiopsis species show some match, e.g., Pereskiopsis rotundifolia (DC.) Britton & Rose [P. chapistle (F.A.C. Weber) Britton & Rose] sensu lato. The red ant might be the little fire ant, Wasmannia auropunctata (Roger 1863), native from Mexico to Argentina but now a widespread pest.

Folio 28v

95

Distribution  Pereskiopsis rotundifolia is native to Mexico. Names  Chapistle, chapíxtle, chepistle (Spanish); tzompahuitztli (Nahuatl). Uses  Arias et al. (2012) mention its use in Mexico to treat canker sores of the mouth.

Fig. 2.56  Pereskiopsis rotundifolia, Cactaceae: (a) folio 28r; (b) leafy branches and a flower of Pereskiopsis species (Britton and Rose 1919, pl. 3). (Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/71/Pereskia0.jpg); (c) little fire ant, Wasmannia auropunctata. (Source: https:// www.mcbhawaii.marines.mil/Photos/igphoto/2000956036/ Hawaii Department of Agriculture, public domain)

Folio 28v

96

2  Phytomorph Identification of the Codex Cruz-Badianus

Aztec medicinal use  For heat in the heart. For heat in the heart, the juice made of tlacacamohtli, a white pearl, a crystal, a very green emerald, a beryl and the xiuhtomolli stone, with acamallotetl and ground ears of corn is useful if drunk in water (Emmart 1940). Nahuatl name  Tlacacamohtli (tlaca, tlacatl = noble; camohtli, camotli = camote, potato; thus, noble tuber [Emmart 1940], man tuber [Clayton et al. 2009]). Description  Simple leaves are mostly alternate, ovate, acute-tipped. Red-orange flowers are campanulate with at least five acute tips, subtended by calyces with acute lobes. Roots are tuberous. Previous identification  Previous identifications have been Ipomoea sp. (de Ávila Blomberg 2012; Emmart 1940; Miranda and Valdés 1964; Valdés Gutiérrez et al. 1992) of the Convolvulaceae, Ipomoea batatas (L.) Lam. (Convolvulus batatas L.) (Bye and Linares 2013; Godínez Salazar 2017), I. purga (Wender.) Hayne, or Operculina pteripes (G.  Don) O’Donell [O. alatipes (Hook.f.) House] (Guerra 1952; Reko 1947) of the Convolvulaceae. Putative identification  The best match to the phytomorph is Operculina pteripes. The flowers of this species frequently show acute tips, and the color is orange, although the leaves are distinctly cordate. Distribution  This grows from Mexico to Colombia. Names  Trompillo (Spanish). Uses  Martínez (1969) discusses the medicinal uses of Operculina spp. in Mexico.

Fig. 2.57  Operculina pteripes, Convolvulaceae: (a) folio 28v; (b) botanical print of leaf and flower (Hooker, 1862: t. 5330). (Source: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Operculina_ pteripes_(Ipomoea_alatipes)_Bot._Mag._88.5330.jpg); (c) Flower of Operculina pteripes showing occasional acute tips of petals. (Source: http://www.mobot.org/MOBOT/research/Edge/jan06/ jan06pick.shtml) Missouri Botanical Garden, All Rights Reserved

Folio 29r

97

Folio 29r

Aztec medicinal use  For pain in the side. The application of the herbs called tolohuaxihuitl and nexehuac, ground in water and applied, takes away pain in the side (Emmart 1940).

Folio 29r1 Nahuatl name  Tolohua xihuitl (tolohua = Datura sp.; xihuitl = plant; thus, Datura plant [Emmart 1940], herb that lowers its head [Clayton et al. 2009]). Description  Leaves are simple, pinnately lobed, alternate with white trumpetshaped flowers with subtended calyces with acute tips. Fruit is spiny with red seeds. Roots are ample. Putative identification  The flowers are a good match for D. inoxia. Distribution  Datura inoxia is native from Texas to Paraguay. Names  Angel’s trumpet, downy thorn-apple (English); cacaito, toloache (Spanish). Uses  The medicinal value of the genus Datura is reviewed by Maheshwari et al. (2013). Further information is provided by Preissel and Preissel (2002).

98

2  Phytomorph Identification of the Codex Cruz-Badianus

Fig. 2.58  Datura inoxia, Solanaceae: (a) folio 29r1; (b) flowers and foliage. (Source: https://fr. wikipedia.org/wiki/Datura_innoxia#/media/File:Sacred_Datura_(Datura_inoxia)_ (11710359934).jpg. Bernard DUPONT CC BY-SA 2.0); (c) spiny fruit. (Source: https://commons. wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Sacred_Datura_(Datura_inoxia)_fruit_(11710285385).jpg. Bernard DUPONT CC BY-SA 2.0)

Fol. 29r2 Nahuatl name  Nexehuac (nexeua = to sleep; thus, sleep-inducing plant [Emmart 1940]; it has turned ashen [Clayton et al. 2009]). Description  Leaves are simple, pinnately lobed, alternate with white trumpetshaped flowers that seem to have no apparent lobes, subtended by calyces with obtuse tips. Fruit is smooth. Roots are ample. Previous identification  Previous identifications have been Datura sp. (Furst 1995; Miranda and Valdés 1964) of the Solanaceae and Datura ceratocaula Ortega (Bye and Linares 2013; de Ávila Blomberg 2012; Díaz 1976; Emmart 1940; Guerra 1952; Reko 1947; Symon and Haegi 1991; Valdés Gutiérrez et al. 1992), or Gates (2000) suggested D. stramonium L. Putative identification  Datura ceratocaula, distinguished by its smooth, pendulous fruits, is the best match to the phytomorph. It is also uniquely semi-aquatic. Distribution  Datura ceratocaula is native to Mexico. Names  Torna-loca (Spanish). Uses  The medicinal value of the genus Datura is reviewed by Maheshwari et al. (2013). Datura ceratocaula is a noted narcotic in Mexico with at least 36 alkaloids (Berkov 2003). Further information is provided by Preissel and Preissel (2002), who relay this quote of the alkaloids of this species traveling up the food chain (translated from German of Reko (1949): “A species of wild duck lives in the lagoons and swamps near Mazatlan (Mexico). Their meat is said to be poisonous at

Folio 29v

99

certain times and eating these ducks has often produced strange symptoms of having been drugged or poisoned. For a long time it was believed that this was somehow connected with the sexual maturity of these animals. Then it was discovered that it was a daturnine poisoning. These ducks like to eat the leaves and seeds of the toloachi (Datura sp.) and in autumn their flesh contains a percentage of daturnine which is very dangerous for people.”

Fig. 2.59  Datura ceratocaula, Solanaceae: (a) folio 29r2; (b) botanical print (Descourtilz 1821–1829: vol.3, t.175). (Source: http://plantillustrations.org/illustration.php?id_illustration= 90584)

Folio 29v

100

2  Phytomorph Identification of the Codex Cruz-Badianus

Aztec medicinal use  For small animals which descend into the human abdomen. He who swallows small animals, grind up Indian beans for him and afterwards put them in his mouth; when this has been done, let him enter a bath made very hot. And as soon as he feels the heat thoroughly, he is to take bitter water, but now swallow it. God willing, he will thus eliminate the small animal whether through the mouth by vomiting or though his anus by the discharge of the abdomen; or it will die within. When it is ejected or dead, grind the leaves of the herb tlatlanquaye in the very best Indian wine and drink the juice (Emmart 1940). Nahuatl name  Ayecocimatl (primary name [Emmart 1940; Clayton et al. 2009]). Alternate spelling: ayecohtli, ayacote, ayecot, ayocotli, aiecotli. Description  Leaves are dimorphic, one compound, palmately lobed, with elliptic leaflets, and the other simple, elliptic, acute-tipped. Flowers are red, cordate. Fruits are apparently capsules. Roots are ample. Previous identification(s)  A previous identification has been Phaseolus coccineus L. (Phaseolus multiflorus Willd.) (Bye and Linares 2013; de Ávila Blomberg 2012; Díaz 1976; Emmart 1940; Estrada Lugo 1989; Godínez Salazar 2017; Guerra 1952; Miranda and Valdés 1964; Reko 1947; Valdés Gutiérrez et  al. 1992; Zepeda and White 2008) of the Fabaceae. Putative identification  Phaseolus coccineus is a good match for the phytomorph. This is one of the species surviving at the pre-Hispanic garden of Tetzcutzingo Hill Complex, Mexico (Hernández-Cruz et al. 2016; Pulido and Koch 1988). Distribution  Phaseolus coccineus is native from Mexico to Nicaragua. Names  Cubá, judía encarnada, judía pinta, pilay (Spanish). Uses  The nutritional value of this foodstuff is explored by Carledrón et al. (1992).

Fig. 2.60  Phaseolus coccineus, Fabaceae: (a) folio 29v; (b) botanical print (Thomé 1886–1934: vol. 3, pl. 454). (Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f7/Illustration_ Phaseolus_coccineus0.jpg)

Folio 30r

101

Folio 30r

Aztec medicinal use  Medicinehag kills worms. The herbs tzonpiliuizxihuitl and ahhuachcho tonatiuhyxiuh are to be ground with incense and cooked. The wellcooked juice is to be cleared and then drunk, to kill the worms. Antidote. Against a poison, a potion should be taken, made up of tonatiuhyxiuh leaf and root, and teoyztaquitl, xoxouhquiytztli, tonatiuhyxiuh ahhuachcho roots ground together in water, with which are to be ground up a green pearl, or sardonyx and a xiuhtomoll (Emmart 1940).

Folio 30r1 Nahuatl name  Teoyztaquilitl (teo  =  sacred; yzta  =  salt (or iztac  =  white); quilitl = edible plant; thus, sacred salt or white edible herb [Emmart 1940; Clayton et al. 2009]). See folio 19r, except one of four flowers in this phytomorph is illustrated with five red petals instead of four, and all flowers show green sepals. Description  This phytomorph has four to five red petals with a yellow center, probably reflecting stamens. Leaves are simple, linear, and forked. This grows on stones. Previous identification  The previous identification was a species of the Brassicaceae (Guerra 1952; Miranda and Valdés 1964; Reko 1947). Godínez Salazar (2017) did propose Bidens pilosa L. (B. odorata Cav.) of the Asteraceae or Erysimum capitatum (Douglas ex Hook.) Greene of the Brassicaceae. Putative identification  The red petal color is extremely uncommon in the Brassicaceae except for the wallflowers. One member of the Brassicaceae in Mexico that achieves orange-red color is Erysimum capitatum. This species grows on rocky soil, but its leaves, while linear, are not forked.

102

2  Phytomorph Identification of the Codex Cruz-Badianus

Distribution  Erysimum capitatum is native from Canada to Mexico. Names  Sanddune wallflower, western wallflower (English). Uses  Moerman (2009) lists its uses as a ceremonial medicine, emetic, toothache remedy, antirheumatic, respiratory aid, and gynecological aid among Native American tribes.

Fig. 2.61  Erysimum capitatum, Brassicaceae: (a) folio 30r1; (b) flower. (Source: http://swbiodiversity.org/seinet/imagelib/imgdetails.php?imgid=250503. Patrick Alexander CC BY-SA 3.0)

Folio 30r2 Nahuatl name  Tonatiuh yxiuh pepetlaca (tonatiuh = the sun; yxiuh = plant; pepetlaca = bright shining; thus, the sun’s shining plant [Emmart 1940]; the sun’s herb that shimmers [Clayton et al. 2009]). Description  At first glance, the leaves are dimorphic, with four yellow radial leaves and green palmately trilobed leaves, but the yellow leaves actually seem to be four yellow flowers. Roots are ample. Previous identification  Previous identifications have been Brassicaceae (Guerra 1952), Malvaceae (Guerra 1952; Reko 1947), Marsilea mollis B.L.Rob. & Fernald (Bye and Linares 2013) of the Marsileaceae, Oxalis tetraphylla Cav. (Valdés Gutiérrez et  al. 1992) of the Oxalidaceae, Sida rhombifolia L. (Godínez Salazar 2017) of the Malvaceae, or Wissadula amplissima R.E.Fr. (Godínez Salazar 2017) of the Malvaceae. Putative identification  The best guess is that this phytomorph represents the yellow flowers and trilobed leaves of Oxalis frutescens L. Distribution  Oxalis frutescens is native from the south central and southwest United States to South America, with four subspecies (Lourteig 1975). Names  Shrubby woodsorrel (English).

Folio 30v

103

Uses  Martínez (1969) discusses the use of Oxalis species in Yucatan for inflammations of the mouth. Also, though many species of Oxalis are edible, they have a bitter (“acid”) taste from high oxalic acid content, which can produce kidney stones.

Fig. 2.62  Oxalis frutescens, Oxalidaceae: (a) folio 30r2; (b) flower and foliage. (Source: https:// commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Oxalis_frutescens#/media/File:Oxalis_frutescens_ (25258436615).jpg Dick Culbert CC BY 2.0)

Folio 30v

Aztec medicinal use  Swelling of the stomach. Against swelling of the abdomen or stomach, it is good to make a drink from the leaves of xiuhtotli and of tlatlanquaye and of the root copaliyac xiuhtoitli, ground up with the (stone) alectorium in the

104

2  Phytomorph Identification of the Codex Cruz-Badianus

choicest Indian wine. He is to take internally through his anus for the purgation of his bowels a portion of cococxihuitli root, Indian pepper, salt, nitre, and the (stone) alectorium ground together. Pain in abdomen. Roots of the herb ohuaxocoyolin and the (stone) alectorium are to be ground in water; the potion made from them is to be taken into the intestine through the anus; but a drink is to be taken of the ground root of the herb huihuitzomallotic (Emmart 1940). Nahuatl name  Copaliyac xiuhtontli (copal, capalli = copal, iyac = ill-smelling; xiuh, xiutl  =  plant; tontoli  =  little; thus, little ill-smelling copal plant [Emmart 1940]; insignificant little herb that stinks like copal [Clayton et al. 2009]). Description  Flowers appear to be the Asteraceae with the yellow and orange asterid inflorescence subtended by a calyx with obtuse lobes. Leaves are small, linear, subopposite. Roots are ample. Previous identification  Previous identifications were Dyssodia papposa (Vent.) Hitchc. (Bye and Linares 2013) of the Asteraceae, a Tagetes sp. (de Ávila Blomberg 2012; Emmart 1940; Guerra 1952; Valdés Gutiérrez et al. 1992) of the Asteraceae, T. erecta L. (Godínez Salazar 2017), or T. patula L. (T. lunulata Ortega) (Godínez Salazar 2017). Putative identification  Dyssodia papposa is a good match to the phytomorph. This is one of the species surviving at the pre-Hispanic garden of Tetzcutzingo Hill Complex, Mexico (Hernández-Cruz et al. 2016; Pulido and Koch 1988). Distribution  Dyssodia papposa is native from Vermont to Guatemala. Names  Fetid marigold, stinking marigold (English). Uses  Moerman (2009) discusses the uses of D. papposa among tribes of Native Americans as a febrifuge, analgesic, antihemorrhagic, reproductive aid, dermatological aid, and gastrointestinal aid.

Fig. 2.63  Dyssodia papposa, Asteraceae: (a) folio 30v; (b) flowers and foliage. (Source: http:// swbiodiversity.org/seinet/imagelib/imgdetails.php?imgid=250218. Patrick Alexander CC BY-SA 3.0)

Folio 31r

105

Folio 31r

Aztec medicinal uses  Dysentery. Against dysentery, the leaves of the herb tlacoamatl, the leaves of xaxocotl, almond laurel, bark of almond, of oak, quetzaylin, ylin, capulxihuitl and the (stone) alectorium with horn of a stag burned to ashes, with olli and with corn, ground in warm water are useful. For the juice is to be taken into the body through the anus by means of a clyster of nitre (Emmart 1940). Nahuatl name  Xaxocotl (xa, xal = sand; xocotl = sour fruits; thus sand sour fruit [Emmart 1940; Clayton et al. 2009]). Alternate spelling: xalxocotl. Description  Yellow fruits have a red blush and are terminal and ovoid, with acutelobed calyces attached. Leaves are simple, alternate, elliptic, with acute tips. Roots are ample. Previous identification  The previous identification of this phytomorph was Psidium guajava L. (P. pomiferum L.) (Bye and Linares 2013; de Ávila Blomberg 2012; Emmart 1940; Gates 2000; Miranda and Valdés 1964; Valdés Gutiérrez et al. 1992) of the Myrtaceae. Putative identification  Psidium guajava is a good match to the phytomorph. Distribution  Psidium guajava is a tree native from Mexico and the Caribbean to Argentina and Paraguay. Names  Guava (English); guayaba, guayabo (Spanish). Uses  Guava leaves have been used in traditional medicine for diabetes mellitus, cardiovascular diseases, cancer, and parasitic infections. Phenolic compounds have been credited with regulating blood glucose levels (Díaz-de-Cerio et al. 2017).

106

2  Phytomorph Identification of the Codex Cruz-Badianus

Fig. 2.64  Psidium guajava, Myrtaceae: (a) folio 31r; (b) flowers and fruits. (Source: https://www. gardensonline.com.au/Uploads/Plant/1895/psidium-guajava-new-fruitMain.jpg)

Folio 31v

Aztec medicinal use  Rumbling of the abdomen. For one whose bowels are murmuring because of diarrhea, make a potion, or let him take it with an ear clyster, of the leaves of the herb tlatlanquaye; the bark of quetzalaylin; the leaves of yztac ocoxochitl; the tree tlanextia quahuitl ground in bitter tasting water with ashes; a little honey, salt, pepper, and (stone) alectorium; and finally piçietl (Emmart 1940).

Folio 31v

107

Folio 31v1 Nahuatl name  Eloçacatl (elo, elotl = ear of maize; çacatl = herb plant or straw; thus, grain or maize, grass plant or straw [Emmart 1940], tender-ear-of-maize grass [Clayton et al. 2009]). Alternate spelling: elozacatl. Description  The phytomorph shows linear leaves and stem sheaths typical of the Equisetaceae, and no flowers are indicated. Roots are ample. Previous identification(s)  Previous identifications have included a Cynodon sp.? (Guerra 1952; Reko 1947) of the Poaceae, Cynodon dactylon (L.) Pers. [Capriola dactylon (L.) Kuntze] (Miranda and Valdés 1964), Equisetum myriochaetum Schltdl. & Cham. (Bye and Linares 2013) of the Equisetaceae, or Rumex sp. (Valdés Gutiérrez et al. 1992) of the Polygonaceae. Putative identification  Because Cynodon dactylon is probably native to Asia and does not match the phytomorph, it is promptly discarded. Equisetum myriochaetum does match the phytomorph very well. Distribution  Equisetum myriochaetum is native from Mexico to Peru (GallardoPérez et al. 2006). Names  Mexican giant horsetail (English); cola de caballo (Spanish). Uses  Equisetum myriochaetum is used in traditional Mexican folk medicine to treat kidney diseases and type 2 diabetes mellitus; current tests show that it is not genotoxic (Gallardo-Pérez et al. 2006; Ordaz Téllez et al. 2007).

Fig. 2.65  Equisetum myriochaetum, Equisetaceae: (a) folio 31v; (b) stems and foliage. (Source: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Equisetum_myriochaetum_RBGE.jpg alexlomas CC BY 2.0) Folio 31v2

108

2  Phytomorph Identification of the Codex Cruz-Badianus

Nahuatl name  Tlahnextia xiuhtontli (tlanextli = bright, that which shines or gives light; xiuh, xiutl = plant; tontli = little; thus, bright little plant [Emmart 1940]; little herb that shines [Clayton et al. 2009]). Additional spellings: tlanextia, tlahnextli, tlanextia xiuhtont, tlanextiyxiuh. Description  Flowers, flower buds, or fruits are pale yellow, subtended by calyces with at least two linear lobes. Leaves are simple, ovate, and both alternate and opposite (an impossible arrangement). Roots are ample. Previous identification  Previous identifications are Eryngium sp. (Guerra 1952; Reko 1947; Valdés Gutiérrez et  al. 1992) of the Apiaceae, Eryngium carlinae F. Delaroche (Bye and Linares 2013), or Polygala sp. (Bye and Linares 2013; Valdés Gutiérrez et al. 1992) of the Polygalaceae. Putative identification  The phytomorph does not match an Eryngium species, but some species of Polygala do match, such as P. appressipilis S.F. Blake. Although this is normally a lilac-flowered species, a notable feature of species of Polygala is that blue-flowered species fade to a cream color when dried; that is, color is not definitive in dried specimens. Distribution  Polygala appressipilis is native to Mexico. Names  A milkwort (English); poligala (Spanish). Uses  Martínez (1969) discusses the use of P. scoparia Kunth, xochipitzáhuac, in Mexico as an emetic, expectorant, and bitter tonic, which agrees with the use stated on folio 31v, but this species does not match the phytomorph.

Fig. 2.66  Polygala appressipilis, Polygalaceae: (a) folio 31v2; (b) herbarium sheet. (Source: http://www.madrean.org/symbflora/collections/individual/index.php?occid=1962544. Arizona State University)

Folio 32r

109

Folio 32r

Aztec medicinal use  Coldness of the abdomen. Chill of the abdomen is driven out by taking a potion made from the roots of the herbs copaliyac, xiuhtontli, tlanextxiuhtontli, chichicxihuitl, and quauhtla huitzquilitl ground together, with Indian wine added. Purging the abdomen. When the abdomen is purulent, you will drive out the pus if before mid-day meal the patient drinks in hot water a potion of the ground root of the herb called uelicpahtli. Yet, the bed or place where the sick man lies is to be perfumed with the odor of incense so that the noxious air will be expelled (Emmart 1940).

Folio 32r1 Nahuatl name  Quauhtla huitzquilit (quauhtla = wild; huitz, uitztli = spine, thorn; quilitl  =  edible plant or vegetable; thus, wild spiny edible plant [Emmart 1940]; thorny edible herb of the forest [Clayton et al. 2009]). Description  This phytomorph is somewhat amorphous but is obviously a thistle of subfamily Carduoideae of the Asteraceae. Leaves are simple, lobed, and apparently spiny. Flower heads are campanulate and rosy. Previous identification  Included are a Cirsium sp. (de Ávila Blomberg 2012; Emmart 1940; Guerra 1952; Miranda and Valdés 1964; Reko 1947) of the Asteraceae or C. ehrenbergii Sch. Bip. (Bye and Linares 2013; Valdés Gutiérrez et al. 1992).

110

2  Phytomorph Identification of the Codex Cruz-Badianus

Putative identification  Cirsium ehrenbergii is a good match (see folio 8v#2), but another species of Cirsium cannot be ruled out, such as C. mexicanum DC., which grows in fields, forests, forest seres, and forest gaps (Pruski and Robinson 2012). Distribution  Cirsium mexicanum is native to the Caribbean and from Mexico to Nicaragua. Names  Mexican thistle (English); cardo santo, cardo santo macho (Spanish). Uses  Cirsium mexicanum is used in the treatment of respiratory diseases, hepatitis, diarrhea, dysentery, and stomachache. Leaves and flowers are consumed as herbal tea, and they are also mixed and applied to legs and arms to relieve muscular contractions and cramps (Cáceres 1996; Grijalva Pineda 2006; Martínez 1969).

Fig. 2.67  Cirsium mexicanum, Asteraceae: (a) folio 32r1; (b) herbarium sheet. (Source: https:// botanydb.colorado.edu/collections/individual/index.php?occid=136418 University of Colorado Museum of Natural History Herbarium Vascular Plant Collection CC BY-NC 3.0)

Fol. 32r2 Nahuatl name  Uelicpahtli (uelic = savory; pahtli = medicine; thus, savory medicine [Emmart 1940], delicious remedy [Clayton et  al. 2009]). Alternate spelling: huelicpahtli. Description  Simple leaves are mostly alternate, ovate, acute-tipped. Red-orange flowers are campanulate, subtended by calyces with acute lobes. Roots are tuberous. Previous identification  Ipomoea sp. (Emmart 1940; Guerra 1952) of the Convolvulaceae, Ipomoea purga (Bye and Linares 2013; Godínez Salazar 2017; Miranda and Valdés 1964; Valdés Gutiérrez et al. 1992), or Operculina sp. (Guerra 1952; Reko 1947) of the Convolvulaceae.

Folio 33r

111

Putative identification  The best match to the phytomorph is Operculina pteripes. The flowers of this species frequently show acute tips, and the color is orange, although the leaves are distinctly cordate. See folio 28v. Distribution  This grows from Mexico to Colombia. Names  Trompillo (Spanish). Uses  Martínez (1969) discusses the medicinal uses of Operculina spp. in Mexico.

Fig. 2.68  Operculina pteripes, Convolvulaceae: (a) folio 32r2; (b) botanical print of leaf and flower (Hooker 1862: t. 5330). (Source: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Operculina_ pteripes_(Ipomoea_alatipes)_Bot._Mag._88.5330.jpg)

Folio 33r

112

2  Phytomorph Identification of the Codex Cruz-Badianus

Aztec medicinal use  Cure of the pubes. When this part feels pain, it is to be anointed with a juice which you are to press out and make from the bark and leaves of the macpalxochitl tree, the briars, the herbs tolohuaxihuitl and xiuhtontli, Indian knife, flint, the fruit which we call tetzapotl, and the texoxoctli stone, all ground in the blood of a swallow, a little lizard, and a mouse. But remember to heat this juice. And if the swelling or pain is vehemently burning, you should not hesitate to cut this part, clean the cut part, and anoint it with a liquid made of the roots of the herb tlalhuaxin ground in the yolk of an egg (Emmart 1940).

Folio 33r1 Nahuatl name  Tetzapotl (te, tlalli  =  stone; zapotl  =  sapote; thus, stone sapote [Emmart 1940; Clayton et al. 2009]). Description  Opposite yellow leaves are simple and elliptic, with obtuse tips and a prominent midvein. No flowers or fruits are visible. Roots are ample. Previous identification  Annona squamosa L. (Guerra 1952; Reko 1947) of the Annonaceae; Manilkara zapota (L.) P.Royen [Achras sapota L., Calocarpum mammosum (L.) Pierre, Lucuma mammosa (L.) C.F.Gaertn.] (Emmart 1940; Reko 1947) of the Sapotaceae; or Pouteria sapota (Jacq.) H.E.Moore & Stearn (Linares and Bye 2013; Valdés Gutiérrez et al. 1992) of the Annonaceae. Putative identification  With this amorphous phytomorph, it is difficult to identify it other than that the yellowed leaves suggest a dried specimen. The term tzapotl was used to refer to sweet fruits and translates as “stone sapote.” This would suggest Pouteria sapota as a possibility. Distribution  Pouteria sapota is native from Mexico to Nicaragua. Names  Mamey sapote, marmalade plum (English); mamey, mamey colorado, sapote, zapote, zapote mamey (Spanish). Uses  Traditional medicine recognizes that the seed kernel oil has been used as a skin ointment and may have beneficial effects on an eye sedative (Morton 1987).

Folio 33r

113

Fig. 2.69  Pouteria sapota, Annonaceae: (a) folio 33r1; (b) fruit, foliage, and stem. (Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pouteria_sapota#/media/File:Pouteria_sapota_02_fruit_on_branch. jpg. Daniel Di Palma CC BY-SA 4.0)

Folio 33r2 Nahuatl name  Tlalhuaxin (tlal, lalli  =  earth, thus, earth huaxin [Emmart 1940; Clayton et al. 2009]). Alternate spelling: tlalhoatin or tlalhhoaxin. Description  Fruits are orange, curved capsules with black seeds, apparently arising from globular, orange inflorescences. Spines are not visible. Leaves are pinnately compound. Roots are ample. Previous identification  Previous identifications were a Leucaena esculenta (DC.) Benth. (Gates 2000) of the Fabaceae, Mimosa sp. (Guerra 1952; Reko 1947; Valdés Gutiérrez et al. 1992) of the Fabaceae, or Mimosa aculeaticarpa Ortega [Mimosa aculeaticarpa var. biuncifera (Benth.) Barneby] (Linares and Bye 2013; Godínez Salazar 2017). Putative identification  Mimosa aculeaticarpa is a good match because the branches are frequently reddish, but the phytomorph lacks further characteristics to allow for definite identification, and Leucaena esculenta cannot be ruled out. Mimosa aculeaticarpa is one of the species surviving at the pre-Hispanic garden of Tetzcutzingo Hill Complex, Mexico (Hernández-Cruz et al. 2016; Pulido and Koch 1988). Distribution  Mimosa aculeaticarpa is native from Texas and Arizona to southern Mexico. Leucaena esculenta is native to southern Mexico. Names  Catclaw mimosa, wait-a-bit, wait-a-minute bush (English); espino, uña de gato (Spanish). Uses  Mimosa species have been used in the treatment of sterility, irregular menstruation, fever, muscle aches, and kidney pains and as antiparasitic or healing agents, etc. The chemistry of M. aculeaticarpa is explored by Cabrera Miranda (2006). Leucaena esculenta is used for food.

114

2  Phytomorph Identification of the Codex Cruz-Badianus

Fig. 2.70  Mimosa aculeaticarpa, Fabaceae: (a) folio 33r2; (b) pods and leaves. (Source: https:// wnmu.edu/academic/nspages/gilaflora/m_aculeaticarpa4_small.jpg. Western New Mexico University Department of Natural Sciences and the Dale A. Zimmerman Herbarium)

Folio 33v

Aztec medicinal use  Argemon or herb of the groin. The herbs xiuhtontli tlanenpopoloua and those that spring up in a pleasure garden that has been burned at some time, the fruit tetzapotl, the briar, teamolxtli, the swallow, all ground with the blood of a swallow and a mouse and applied, allay pain of the groin and reduce swellings (Emmart 1940).

Folio 33v

115

Nahuatl name  Tlanenpopoloua xiuhtontli (nenpopolou, nempopoloa = to waste; xiuh = plant; tontli = little; thus, little waste plant [Emmart 1940]; little herb that squanders its fortune [Clayton et al. 2009]). Alternate spellings: xiuhtontli tlanenpopolou, tlanempopolo hua xiuhtontli. Description  Flower buds are terminal, solitary, yellow, and red, subtended by calyces with obtuse lobes. Leaves are simple, opposite, elliptic, acute-tipped. Roots are ample. Previous identification  Previous identifications were an Argemone sp. (Miranda and Valdés 1964) of the Papaveraceae, Argemone mexicana L. (Guerra 1952; Reko 1947), Asclepias sp. (Linares and Bye 2013; Valdés Gutiérrez et al. 1992) of the Apocynaceae, Asclepias linaria Cav (Godínez Salazar 2017), or Asclepias oenotheroides Schltdl. & Cham. (A. longicornu Benth.) (Reko 1947). Putative identification  Neither species matches the phytomorph. The phytomorph bears many of the characteristics of the Gentianaceae, where yellow from carotenoids is an unusual color rather than blue from anthocyanins (Fukuchi-Mizutani et al. 2003; Zhu et al. 2002). However, Schultesia guianensis (Aubl.) Malme, with cream to pale yellow flowers, does bear some similarity. Distribution  Schultesia guianensis is native from Mexico to Brazil. Names  Mata zombando (Brazilian Portuguese). Uses  This plant is poisonous to livestock (Hubinger Tokarina et  al. 2002). The alkaloids have been investigated by Nóbrega et al. (1988).

Fig. 2.71  Schultesia guianensis, Gentianaceae: (a) folio 33v; (b) foliage and flowers. (Source: http://www.plantsoftheworldonline.org/taxon/urn:lsid:ipni.org:names:331944-2. Kew Science Plants of the World online CC BY 3.0)

116

2  Phytomorph Identification of the Codex Cruz-Badianus

Folio 34r

Aztec medicinal use  Bladderwort or Halicacabus. When the urinary meatus is closed up, to open it the stalk of the herbs mamaztla and cohuanenepilli, tlatlauhqui, amoxtli, the very white blossom of yolloxochitl, and the tail of the animal tlahquatl are to be ground in bitter-tasting water, with which is to be mixed the well-known chian seed, which is also to be macerated in the same. The abdomen is to be washed with the juice, infused with a clyster, of the stalk of the herb ahuaxoçoyolin ground in hot water. If this medicine does no good, it is necessary that the pith of a very slender palm made up with a little piece of cotton and smeared with honey and the root of the ground herb huihuitzmallotic be taken and very cautiously put into the well of virility; thus, the stoppage of the urine will be opened (Emmart 1940).

Folio 34r1 Nahuatl name  Huihuitzmallotic (huitztli = thorn; mallotic = having; thus, bearing needles or spines [Emmart 1940]; full of needles [Clayton et al. 2009]). Description  Yellow flowers are single, terminal, with 2–4 exserted stamens. Simple elliptic leaves are subopposite with subacute tips. Roots are ample. Previous identification  Mentzelia hispida Willld. (Abud Molina 2015; Díaz 1976; Guerra 1952; Godínez Salazar 2017; Reko 1947; Linares and Bye 2013; Valdés Gutiérrez et al. 1992) of the Loasaceae. Putative identification  Mentzelia hispida fits the phytomorph well. Distribution  Mentzelia hispida is native from Mexico to Guatemala.

Folio 34r

117

Names  Pega ropa, zazalic, zazale, pegajoso, pegajosa, pega ropa amarilla, sasele y zazálic, zazal, and pega-pega (Spanish). Uses  Martínez (1969) discusses the use of this plant in traditional medicine in Mexico as a purgative and antisyphilitic.

Fig. 2.72  Mentzelia hispida, Loasaceae: (a) folio 34r1; (b) flower. (Source: https://commons. wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Mentzelia_incisa,_the_Streambank_Blazingstar._(9372919029).jpg Dick Culbert CC BY 2.0)

Folio 34r2 Nahuatl name  Couanenepilli (cohu, coatl, cohuatl = serpent; nenepilli = tongue; thus, serpent tongue [Emmart 1940; Clayton et al. 2009]). Description  Red flowers with eight petals have a yellow center and appear to be of the Asteraceae. Palmately compound leaves are opposite, three leaflets ovate, acutetipped. Stem is brown. Roots are red, ample but not tuberous. Previous identification  Boerhavia coccinea Mill. (B. caribaea Jacq.) (Miranda and Valdés 1964) of the Nyctaginaceae, Dahlia sp. (Emmart 1940) of the Asteraceae, Dahlia coccinea Cav. (Godínez and Salazar 2017; Linares and Bye 2013; Valdés Gutiérrez et al. 1992), Dorstenia contrajerva L. (Miranda and Valdés 1964) of the Moraceae, Passiflora jorullensis Kunth (de Ávila Blomberg 2012; Guerra 1952; Reko 1947) of the Passifloraceae, or Potentilla candicans Willd. ex Schltdl. (Miranda and Valdés 1964) of the Rosaceae. Putative identification  None of the putative species match the phytomorph, except possibly Dahlia coccinea, confirmed by Sorenson (1970). However, roots of the phytomorph are red and not tuberous, but D. coccinea as the wild is characterized by “fascicled, fleshy roots” (Safford 1919, under the synonym D. popenovii Saff.). This is one of the species surviving at the pre-Hispanic garden of Tetzcutzingo Hill Complex, Mexico (Hernández-Cruz et al. 2016; Pulido and Koch 1988).

118

2  Phytomorph Identification of the Codex Cruz-Badianus

Distribution  Dahlia coccinea is native from Mexico to Guatemala. Names  Red dahlia (English). Uses  Whitley (1985) records multiple uses of D. coccinea from historical sources in Mexico.

Fig. 2.73  Dahlia coccinea, Asteraceae: (a) folio 34r#2; (b) flowers and foliage. (Source: https:// commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Dahlia_coccinea_(Compositae)_plant.JPG. Magnus Manske CC BY-SA 3.0)

Folio 34v

Aztec medicinal use  Difficulty of urine. Against dysuria a liquor made of the blossoms of tetzmixochitl, tlacoyzquixochitl, yolloxochitl, eloxochitl, and ocoxochitl, the

Folio 34v

119

root of mamaxtla, reddish earth and eztetl, and whitish earth, drunk in water, has some effect. And you are to apply to the stomach on the outside a stone, which was found in a river, and in which there seem to be large pearls (Emmart 1940).

Fol. 34v1 Nahuatl name  Mamaxtla (= quill [Emmart 1940], loincloths [Clayton et al. 2009]). Description  Flowers are terminal, small. Leaves are simple, ovate, acute-tipped. Stems are branched. Roots are ample. Previous identification  Previous identifications are an Iresine sp. (Emmart 1940; Estrada Lugo 1989), Iresine calea (Ibantz) Standl. (Guerra 1952; Linares and Bye 2013; Reko 1947) of the Amaranthaceae, Rumex sp. (de Ávila Blomberg 2012; Miranda and Valdés 1964; Valdés Gutiérrez et al. 1992) of the Polygonaceae, Rumex mexicanus Meisn. (Díaz 1976), or R. obtusifolius L. of the Old World (Godínez Salazar 2017). Putative identification  Iresine calea is a good match to the phytomorph. This is one of the species surviving at the pre-Hispanic garden of Tetzcutzingo Hill Complex, Mexico (Pulido and Koch 1988). Distribution  Iresine calea is native from Mexico to Costa Rica. Names  Standley (1920–1926) remarks: tepozan (Tamaulipas); amargosillo (Michoacan, Guerrero); pie de paolma (Valley of Mexico); tlatlancuaya, hierba del tabardillo, hierba de la calentura (Puebla); mosquitero (El Salvador). Uses  Standley (1920–1926) relates: “Reputed to have diuretic and diaphoretic properties; decoction of the plant used in Puebla in the treatment of fevers.”

Fig. 2.74  Iresine calea, Amaranthaceae: (a) 34v1; (b) Iresine calea. (Source: https://calphotos. berkeley.edu/cgi/img_query?enlarge=0000+0000+1015+2764). ©2015 Wynn Anderson CC BY-NC-SA 3.0)

120

2  Phytomorph Identification of the Codex Cruz-Badianus

Folio 34v2 Nahuatl name  lacoyzquixochitl (tlaco, tlacotl  =  stem, yzqui, izquitl  =  popcorn, xochitl = flower, thus popcorn stemmed flower [Emmart 1940]; shrubby popcorn flower [Clayton et al. 2009]). Alternate spelling: tlacoizquixochitl. Description  Yellow flowers are single, terminal, edged in orange, subtended by calyces with obtuse lobes. Simple leaves are alternate, elliptic, acute-tipped. Stems are branched. Roots are ample. From the Nahuatl name, this is a shrub. Previous identification  Previous identifications were Bourreria huanita (Lex.) Hemsl. [B. formosa (A. DC.) Hemsl.] (Guerra 1952; Reko 1947; Valdés Gutiérrez et al. 1992) of the Boraginaceae, Cordia alba (Jacq.) Roem. & Schult. (C. dentata Poir.) (Reko 1947; Valdés Gutiérrez et al. 1992) of the Boraginaceae, C. elaeagnoides A. DC. (Linares and Bye 2013), or Mentzelia hispida Willd. (Godínez Salazar 2017) of the Loasaceae. Name aside, none of the inflorescences of the suggested species match the phytomorph. By leaves alone, the suggested species of Cordia do not match the phytomorph. C. alba is a shrub to small tree with white or yellow flowers; C. elaeagnoides is a tree with white flowers; B. huanita is a tree with white flowers. This phytomorph is identical to folio 34r1 except for the absence of exserted stamens. Putative identification  A suggested species that is a better fit to the phytomorph is Bourreria sonorae S. Watson (Campos-Ríos 2005). Distribution  Bourreria sonorae is a shrub to small tree native to Mexico. Names  Sonoran strongbark (English); chocolatillo, lengua de gato (Spanish). Uses  Standley (1920–1926) remarks: “The fruit is said to be edible and to have a flavor suggesting that of hawthorn (Crataegus) fruit.”

Fig. 2.75  Bourreria sonorae, Boraginaceae: (a) folio 34v2; (b) flower and foliage. (Source: http:// sernecportal.org/portal/imagelib/imgdetails.php?imgid=2427565. Sue Carnahan, SERNEC)

Folio 35r

121

Folio 35r

Aztec medicinal use  Ailment of the fundament. Ailment of the anus is remedied by grinding together in hot water the herbs yztauhyatl, tonatiuhyxiuh, coyoxihuitl tlatztalehualtic, and yztacocoxochitl, and the leaves of the herb tepechien; that part which feels the pain is to be washed with this medicine, or it is to be applied even when thickened to the consistency of mud (Emmart 1940). Nahuatl name  Coyoxihuitl tlatztalehualtic (coyo, coyolli, or cuyulli = little bell; xihuitl = herb or plant; thus, rose-colored bell plant [Emmart 1940]; pink coyote herb [Clayton et al. 2009]). Description  Terminal red flowers are zygomorphic with exserted yellow stamens, calyx lobes with acute tips, obviously Lamiaceae. Simple leaves are crenate, opposite to alternate. Roots are substantial. Previous identification  Loeselia mexicana (Lam.) Brand [L. coccinea (Cav.) G.Don] (Godínez Salazar 2017; Guerra 1952; Reko 1947) of the Polemoniaceae, Polanisia sp. (de Ávila Blomberg 2012) of the Cleomaceae, Salvia sp. (Miranda and Valdés 1964; Valdés Gutiérrez et al. 1992) of the Lamiaceae, or Salvia microphylla Kunth (Linares and Bye 2013). Putative identification  The flowers of Salvia microphylla match the phytomorph most closely. This is one of the species surviving at the pre-Hispanic garden of Tetzcutzingo Hill Complex, Mexico (Pulido and Koch 1988). Distribution  Salvia microphylla is native to Mexico. Names  Baby sage, Graham’s sage, blackcurrant sage (English). Uses: The medicinal uses of Salvia spp. in Mexico are discussed by Martínez (1969).

122

2  Phytomorph Identification of the Codex Cruz-Badianus

Fig. 2.76  Salvia microphylla, Lamiaceae: (a) folio 35r; (b) flower and foliage. (Source: https:// en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salvia_microphylla#/media/File:Salvia_microphylla_neurepia.jpg. First Light CC BY 3.0)

Folio 35v

Aztec medicinal use  Podagra. A gouty person can be cured; thus, the shrub pitzintecouhxochitl and the foliage of cypress and laurel are to be thrown on an ant hill, so that they may be urinated on by the ants or to be sprinkled with urine.

Folio 35v

123

Besides, the leaves of the shrub quappoquitl; the leaves and bark of ayauhquahuitl; the leaves of quetzalmizquitl, tlalquequetzal, and tepechian; the flowers of any herb; a white or purple stone; the herb called ytzcuinpahtli; pine; and shell of the sea snail are to be ground in the blood of a hare, a little fox, rabbit, a little snake, hecacohuatl, and a lizard; and also a pearl, an emerald, and eztetl are to be ground in water. If the foot is bothered with much heat, it is to be moistened with cold juice; if, on the other hand, the foot is extremely cold, it is to be warmed. Moreover, to the above-mentioned things, you shall add a yellow sperewort, a little fox’s flesh, and excrement, which you will burn together (Emmart 1940).

Folio 35v1 Nahuatl name  Piltzintecouhxochitl chiyaua (piltzintecouh, piltzintl  =  noble; teco = lord; xochitl = flower; chiyaua = oily; thus, noble, lordly oil flower [Emmart 1940]; greasy flower of the child lord [Clayton et al. 2009]). Description  No flowers are obvious. Elliptic leaves are opposite to alternate, acute-tipped, arising from a perennial base. Roots are ample. Previous identification  Bonellia macrocarpa (Cav.) B.Ståhl & Källersjö subsp. macrocarpa (Jacquinia aurantiaca W.T.Aiton) (Guerra 1952) of the Primulaceae, Lantana camara L. (de Ávila Blomberg 2012; Díaz 1976; Linares and Bye 2013; Miranda and Valdés 1964; Valdés Gutiérrez et  al. 1992) of the Verbenaceae, or Zinnia pauciflora Phil. (Díaz 1976) of the Asteraceae. Putative identification  Without flowers, identification is nearly impossible. Piltzintecuhtli was the Aztec god of the rising sun; the word means “young prince.” He was also a god of the sun, healing, and visions. The Nahuatl name implies a hallucinatory plant with medicinal applications, perhaps Heimia salicifolia (Kunth) Link of the Lythraceae. Distribution  Heimia salicifolia is native from New Mexico and Texas, south to Brazil. Names  Standley (1920–1926) relates: hauchinal, hauchinol, hauchinoli, hachinal/ huauchinal, hanchinol, hanchinoli, hanchinal (Oaxaca, Morelos, Mexico, and elsewhere); jarilla (Oaxaca); sinicuiche, sinieuilche, sinicuil (Nuevo Leon, Jalisco); escobilla del no (Tamaulipas); quiebra yugo, quiebra arado (Argentina, Uruguay). Uses  Standley (1920–1926) remarks: “The plant is much used locally in medicine, emetic, antisyphilitic, hemostatic, febrifuge, diuretic, laxative, vulnerary, sudorific, tonic and astringent properties being ascribed to it. It is employed most commonly for syphilitic affections” and “If the juice or a decoction of the plant is taken internally it is said to produce a mild and pleasant intoxication, during which all objects seen appear to be yellow. Palmer reports that in Tamaulipas a decoction of the plant is employed as a wash to relieve the effects of poison ivy (Rhus toxicodendron).” Further medicinal uses in Mexico are listed by Martínez (1969).

124

2  Phytomorph Identification of the Codex Cruz-Badianus

Fig. 2.77  Heimia salicifolia, Lythraceae: (a) folio 35v1; (b) flower and foliage. (Source: https:// en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heimia_salicifolia#/media/File:Heimia_salicifolia_flowers_by_Jules_ Jardinier.jpg. Jules Jardinier CC BY-SA 3.0)

Folio 35v2 Nahuatl name  Quappoquietl (quappo, quapopol  =  rough-headed; quietl, quilitl = edible herb or vegetable; thus, rough-headed edible herb or vegetable [Emmart 1940]; woody smoking cane [Clayton et al. 2009]). Description  No flowers are visible. Alternate leaves are linear and pinnately compound on tan stems. Roots are ample. Previous identification  Nicotiana sp. (Gates 2000) of the Solanaceae or Schkuhria sp. (Guerra 1952) of the Asteraceae. Clayton et al. (2009) relate: “The Spanish form poquietes referred to the reeds stuffed with tobacco that were smoked in Mexico in the sixteenth century. The plant represented under this name is probably a Phragmites sp. or Chusquea sp., and the linear leaves and straw-colored stems drawn in the codex are consistent with that identification. Archaeological samples of Phragmites reeds filled with tobacco for smoking are documented in the southwestern USA, where they have been adopted as a Mesoamerican innovation (Adams 1990).” Putative identification: Without flowers, identification is nearly impossible, but Schkuhria pinnata (Lam.) Kuntze ex Thell. matches the phytomorph. This is one of the species surviving at the pre-Hispanic garden of Tetzcutzingo Hill Complex, Mexico (Hernández-Cruz et al. 2016; Pulido and Koch 1988). Distribution  Schkuhria pinnata is native from the southwestern United States to South America but has become naturalized almost worldwide. Names  Dwarf marigold, curious weed (English). Uses  Martínez (1969) discusses the medicinal value in Mexico of the related species S. virgata (La Llave) DC., escobilla.

Folio 36r

125

Fig. 2.78  Schkuhria pinnata (Pectis pinnata), Asteraceae: (a) folio 35v2; (b) botanical plate, Lamarck 1792: t. 31. (Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Schkuhria_pinnata#/media/ File:Schkuhria_pinnata.jpg. Public domain)

Folio 36r

Aztec medicinal use  Pain of the knee. When the knees hurt, anoint them with the juice of the herbs coyoxihuitl, tepechian, and xoxouhcapahtli, ground in a swallow’s blood with teamoxtli (Emmart 1940),

126

2  Phytomorph Identification of the Codex Cruz-Badianus

Nahuatl name  Xoxouhcapahtli (xoxouhca, xoxouhqui = blue; pahtli = medicine; thus, blue medicine [Emmart 1940]; blue/green remedy [Clayton et al. 2009]). Description  Racemes are terminal, dark green. Leaves are mostly opposite, simple, ovate, entire, acute-tipped. Roots are ample. Previous identification  Caesalpinia crista L. (Díaz 1976; Estrada Lugo 1989) of the Fabaceae, Hyptis sp. (Miranda and Valdés 1964) of the Lamiaceae, Lepidium sp. (Valdés Gutiérrez et al. 1992) of the Brassicaceae, Lepidium virginicum L. (Linares and Bye 2013), Salvia polystachya Cav. (Godínez Salazar 2017) of the Lamiaceae, or Turbina corymbosa (L.) Raf. [Ipomoea burmanni Choisy; I. sidaefolia (Kunth) Sweet; Rivea corymbosa (L.) Hallierf.] (Guerra 1952) of the Convolvulaceae. Putative identification  None of the suggested species match the phytomorph. However, Mesosphaerum pectinatum (L.) Kuntze [Hyptis pectinata (L.) Poit.] of the Lamiaceae does match the phytomorph. Distribution  Mesosphaerum pectinatum is native from Mexico and the Caribbean to South America. Names  Xolte’xnuk (Quecha). Uses  Mesosphaerum pectinatum is used medicinally in many areas of the tropics. It is considered to be antiasthmatic, antibacterial, aphrodisiac, blood purifier, cytotoxic, emollient, and hemostatic (Basílo et  al. 2006; De Fillips et  al. 2004; Martínez 1969).

Fig. 2.79  Mesosphaerum pectinatum, Lamiaceae: (a) folio 36r; (b) leaves and flowers. (Source: https://war.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hyptis_pectinata#/media/File:Starr_001025-8001_Hyptis_pectinata.jpg. Forest Starr & Kim Starr CC BY 3.0)

Folio 36v

127

Folio 36v

Aztec medicinal use  Incipient contraction of the knee. As soon as the knees begin to  contract, anoint them with the juice of the herbs xiuhtontli or tzitzicton and yamanquitexochitl, ground in the blood of a hawk…. Remedy for what makes cracks in the soles of the feet. The cure for cracks in the soles of the feet is an ointment compounded of the herb tolohuaxihuitl, the blood of a rooster, resin, and the resinous liquid which we call hoxil, all of which must be heated (Emmart 1940).

Folio 36v1 Nahuatl name  Texochitl yamanqui (te, tetl  =  stone; xochitl  =  flower; yamanqui = delicate; thus, delicate stone flower [Emmart 1940]; soft stone flower [Clayton et al. 2009]). Alternate spelling: yamanquitexochitl. Description  No flowers are visible. What appear to be leaves are secund. Branching is dichotomous, and roots are epipetric. Previous identification  Previous identifications are a Selaginella sp. (Guerra 1952; Reko 1947) of the Selaginellaceae or Selaginella lepidophylla (Hook. & Grev.) Spring (Díaz 1976; Valdés Gutiérrez et al. 1992). Putative identification  The phytomorph is definitely not a Selaginella sp. by branching. This matches very well with fertile fronds of Schizaea poeppigiana J. W. Sturm. In Martius, a species which is unique in that it is epipetric (Mickel and Smith 2004). Fertile fronds of dimorphic ferns typically emerge green and tender but soon become brown and woody as the spores mature. The green phytomorph thus provides an indication for best time of harvest.

128

2  Phytomorph Identification of the Codex Cruz-Badianus

Distribution  Schizaea poeppigiana is native from Mexico and the Caribbean to Brazil. Names  Helecho rizado (Spanish). Uses  Unknown.

Fig. 2.80  Schizaea poeppigiana, Schizaeaceae: (a) folio 36v1; (b) herbarium sheet. (Source: http://www.madrean.org/symbflora/collections/individual/index.php?occid=19364348. University of South Florida Herbarium CC BY 3.0)

Folio 36v2 Nahuatl name  Tzitzicton (word obscure, freely translated as little gum plant [Emmart 1940]; insignificant little chewing gums [Clayton et al. 2009]). Description  Flowers are red (calyces? buds?) and yellow (incorrectly green in Emmart 1940) in terminal globular clusters. Leaves are simple and linear, entire, sometimes illustrated as tripalmately compound. Roots are ample. Previous identification  Asclepias linaria Cav. (Clayton et  al. 2009)) of the Apocynaceae, A. [notha?] W.D.Stephens (de Ávila Blomberg 2012), or Gymnosperma glutinosum (Spreng.) Less. [unresolved name] (Selloa glutinosa Spreng.) (Bye and Linares 2013; Guerra 1952; Linares and Bye 2013; Reko 1947; Valdés Gutiérrez et al. 1992) of the Asteraceae. Putative identification  None of the putative identifications match the phytomorph. This phytomorph is also different from the tzitzicton of folio 27v#2. However, the terminal red and yellow flowers on a plant with linear leaves match Asclepias curassavica L. of the Apocynaceae. Distribution  Asclepias curassavica is native from northern Mexico to southern South America.

Folio 37r.

129

Names  Bastard ipecacuanha, scarlet milkweed (English); algodoncillo, corcalito, flor de sangre, yuquillo (Spanish); ponchilhuits (Nahuatl). Uses  “The roots were used as a cheaper alternative to ipecacuanha as an emetic. It also used as purgative, haemostatic in bleeding wounds and haemorrhoids, for treatment of gonorrhoea, inflamed spleen, pneumonia, mastitis, warts, cancer, caries, fever and pyoderma. Asclepias curassavica is used in China to disperse fever (clears heat), improve blood circulation and to control bleeding. Entire plant is dried and decocted as a cardiac tonic, for tonsillitis, pneumonia, bronchitis, urethritis and external and internal bleeding” (Al-Snafi 2015). Martínez (1969) outlines its use in traditional medicine in Mexico.

Fig. 2.81  Asclepias curassavica, Apocynaceae: (a) folio 36v2; (b) flowers and foliage. (Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asclepias_curassavica#/media/File:Asclepias_curassavica-Thekkady-2016-12-03-001.jpg. Jeevan Jose CC BY-SA 4.0)

Folio 37r.

130

2  Phytomorph Identification of the Codex Cruz-Badianus

Aztec medicinal use  Injury of the feet. For injured feet, grind together these herbs: tlalhecapahtli, coyoxiutl, yztauhyatl, tepechian, achilli, xiuehcapahtli, quauhyyauhtli, quetzalxoxouhcapahtli, and tzotzotlani; the flowers of cacauaxochitl, and also piltzintecouhxochitl; the foliage of hecapahtli and ytzcuinpahtli, the stones tlahcalhuatzin, eztetl, and tetlahuitl; and pale-colored earth. After you have ground these things together, divide the mixture. Put some in a little tub over embers or a fire to heat it in water; and when the liquid has become hot, put the feet into the tub. And some part of it is to be inspissated by fire and is to be applied to the feet; and so that it will not run off, the feet are to be wrapped in a cloth. The next day, our unguent xochiocotzotl and white incense are to thrown on a fire so that the feet may become healthy from the odor and heat. Besides the seed of the herb called xexihuitl is to be ground, and when it has been pulverized in hot water, it is to be put on the feet. Lastly, apply the herb tolohuaxiutl and briars ground in hot water (Emmart 1940).

Folio 37r1 Nahuatl name  Xiuehcapahtli (xiuh  =  herbaceous plant; eca, ecatl  =  wind; pahtli  =  medicinal plant; thus, herbaceous wind remedy [Emmart 1940; Clayton et  al. 2009]). Additional spelling: xiuhhecapatli, xiuhehcapahtl, xihuecapahtli, xiuhecapatli. Description  No flowers or fruits are shown. Simple leaves are elliptic, entire, acute-tipped, and subopposite. Roots are ample. The name and vegetation are the same as folio 7r1. Previous identification  Senna occidentalis (L.) Link (Cassia laevigata sensu auct., C. occidentalis L.) of the Fabaceae (de Ávila Blomberg 2012; Díaz 1976; Godínez Salazar 2017; Guerra 1952; Reko 1947; Miranda and Valdés 1964; Valdés Gutiérrez et al. 1992) or S. septemtrionalis (Viv.) H.S. Irwin & Barneby (C. laevigata Willd.) (Bye and Linares 2013; Linares and Bye 2013). Putative identification  Neither species of Senna matches the phytomorph. Solanum pseudocapsicum L. might match but cannot be confirmed without flowers or fruits. Distribution  Solanum pseudocapsicum is found in forests, forest margins (seres), and waterways, is native from northern Mexico to southern South America, and is naturalized in Africa and Australasia. Names  Jerusalem cherry, winter cherry, Christmas cherry (English); coral de jardines, manzanita de amor (Spanish). Uses  Though not poisonous to humans, S. pseudocapsicum will produce gastric upset from the alkaloid solanocapsine, suggested by the synonym S. ipecacuanha Chodat (ipecac nightshade).

Folio 37r

131

Fig. 2.82 ?Solanum pseudocapsicum, Solanaceae (a) folio 37r1; (b) fruit and leaves of S. pseudocapsicum. (Source: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Solanum_pseudocapsicum1.jpg KNPEI CC BY-SA 3.0)

Folio 37r2 Nahuatl name  Achilli (a, atl  =  water; chilli; thus, water chilli [Emmart 1940]; water pepper [Clayton et al. 2009]). Additional spelling: achilto. Description  Inflorescences are terminal pale pink spikes. Simple leaves are elliptic, opposite, entire, acute-tipped, with a sheath clasping the stem. Roots are ample. Previous identification  Euphorbia hypericifolia L. (Estrada Lugo 1989) of the Euphorbiaceae, Persicaria sp. (Emmart 1940) of the Polygonaceae, Persicaria hydropiper (L.) Delarbe (Polygonum hydropiper L.) (de Ávila Blomberg 2012; Guerra 1952; Reko 1947), Persicaria hydropiperoides (Michx.) Small (Polygonum hydropiperoides Michx.) (Díaz 1976; Linares and Bye 2013 Miranda and Valdés 1964; Valdés Gutiérrez et  al. 1992), or Persicaria punctata (Elliott) Small (Polygonum acre Lam.) (Díaz 1976; Estrada Lugo 1989). Putative identification  Persicaria hydropiper is Eurasian and not considered. Persicaria hydropiperoides matches the phytomorph most closely. Distribution  Persicaria hydropiperoides is native from Alaska to Paraguay. Names  False water pepper, mild water pepper, swamp smartweed (English). Uses  Moerman (2009) confuses this with the Eurasian P. hydropiper but lists its use with Indian tribes of North America as a dermatological aid, pediatric aid, gastrointestinal aid, kidney aid, analgesic, and poison.

132

2  Phytomorph Identification of the Codex Cruz-Badianus

Fig. 2.83  Persicaria hydropiperoides, Polygonaceae: (a) folio 37r2; (b) Foliage and fruit. (Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Persicaria_hydropiperoides#/media/File:Persicaria_hydropiperoides_FWS-1.jpg. US Fish and Wildlife Service, public domain)

Folio 37v

Folio 37v

133

Aztec medicinal use  Herb for lassitude. The weary are refreshed, if their feet are washed with some chosen liquid and with ahuiyacxiuitl or tlatlanquaye, tlatlaolton, ytzcuinpahtli, xiuehcapahtli, and yztauhyatl, the flower of the huitzihtzilxochitl, and the stones tetlahuitl and eztetl, which are to be ground in hot water (Emmart 1940). Nahuatl name  Huitzihtzilxochitl (huitzihtzil, huitzitzilin  =  humming bird; xochitl = flower; thus, humming bird flower [Emmart 1940; Clayton et al. 2009]). Description  Pink flowers are terminal and zygomorphic with yellow exserted stamens, subtended by calyces with acute lobes, obviously Lamiaceae. Leaves are simple, dentate, and opposite. Roots are ample and epipetric. Previous identification  Previous identifications were Loeselia mexicana (Lam.) Brand (L. coccinea [Cav.] G.Don) (Emmart 1940; Guerra 1952; Reko 1947) of the Polemoniaceae, Salvia sp. (Linares and Bye 2013; Miranda and Valdés 1964; Valdés Gutiérrez et  al. 1992) of the Lamiaceae, or Salvia gesneriiflora Lindl. & Paxton (Díaz 1976). Putative identification  This phytomorph is essentially identical to folio 35r, which was identified as Salvia microphylla Kunth., a much better match to the phytomorph. Distribution  Salvia microphylla is native to Mexico. Names  Baby sage, Grahams’ sage, blackcurrant sage (English). Uses  The medicinal uses of Salvia spp. in Mexico are discussed by Martínez (1969).

Fig. 2.84  Salvia microphylla, Lamiaceae: (a) folio 37v; (b) flower and foliage. (Source: https:// en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salvia_microphylla#/media/File:Salvia_microphylla_neurepia.jpg First Light CC BY 3.0)

134

2  Phytomorph Identification of the Codex Cruz-Badianus

Folio 38r

Folio 38r1 Nahuatl name  Totonquixochitl (totonqui = burning, fever; xochitl = flower; thus, fever flower [Emmart 1940], hot/fever flower [Clayton et al. 2009]).

Folio 38r

135

Description  Reddish funnelform flowers, yellow at the base, are single and axillary, subtended by calyces with acute lobes. Opposite leaves are simple, entire, elliptic, and acute-tipped. Roots are ample. Previous identification  Previous identifications for this name were Cordia sebestena L. (Valdés Gutiérrez et al. 1992) of the Cordiaceae, Distimake tuberosus (L.) Simões & Staples (Ipomoea tuberosa L.) (Guerra 1952) of the Convolvulaceae, Ipomoea sp. (Emmart 1940; Reko 1947; Valdés Gutiérrez et  al. 1992) of the Convolvulaceae, Ipomoea conzattii Greenm. [Exogonium conzattii (Greenm.) House] (Díaz 1976; Miranda and Valdés 1964), Erythranthe cardinalis (Douglas ex Benth.) Spach (Mimulus cardinalis Douglas ex Benth.) (Reko 1947; Valdés Gutiérrez et  al. 1992) of the Phrymaceae, Penstemon roseus (Cerv. ex Sweet) G.  Don (Linares and Bye 2013) of the Plantaginaceae, or Ruellia sp. (de Ávila Blomberg 2012) of the Acanthaceae. Putative identification  None of the suggested species fit the phytomorph. Although a Ruellia sp. might approach the phytomorph, none have truly funnelform and reddish flowers with elliptic leaves. However, forms of Calibrachoa parviflora (Lam.) D’Arcy (Petunia parviflora Juss.) do approach the phytomorph, and the color is variable. Distribution  Calibrachoa parviflora is native from New Mexico and Texas to Uruguay. Names  Seaside petunia, wild petunia (English). Uses  Unknown.

Fig. 2.85  Calibrachoa parviflora, Solanaceae: (a) folio 38r1 (b) flower. (Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calibrachoa#/media/File:Calibrachoa_flower_red.jpg. Matthew Field CC BY 2.5)

136

2  Phytomorph Identification of the Codex Cruz-Badianus

Folio 38r2 Nahuatl name  Piltzintecouhxochitl (piltzintecouh, piltzintl = noble; teco = lord; xochitl = flower; thus, noble lord flower, noble flower [Emmart 1940]; flower of the child lord [Clayton et al. 2009]). Description  Flowers are in a terminal cyme, funnelform, from yellow to red to blue. Fruits are reddish in axillary racemes. Opposite leaves are simple and crenate. Roots are ample. Previous identification  Previous identifications were Bonellia macrocarpa (Cav.) B.Ståhl & Källersjö subsp. macrocarpa (Jacquinia aurantiaca W.T.Aiton (Guerra 1952) of the Primulaceae, Lantana camara L. (de Ávila Blomberg 2012; Díaz 1976; Godínez Salazar 2017; Linares and Bye 2013; Miranda and Valdés 1964; Valdés Gutiérrez et al. 1992) of the Verbenaceae, or Zinnia pauciflora Phil. (Díaz 1976) of the Asteraceae. Putative identification  The best match to the phytomorph is Lantana camara of the Verbenaceae. This is one of the species surviving at the pre-Hispanic garden of Tetzcutzingo Hill Complex, Mexico (Hernández-Cruz et al. 2016). Distribution  Lantana camara is native from the Caribbean and Mexico to Colombia. Names  Common lantana, wild sage (English); Standley (1920–1926) remarks: “hierba de Cristo (Tamaulipas); cinco negritos (Veracruz, El Salvador, Guatemala, Nicaragua); tres colores (Michoacan, Guerrero); zapotillo (Oaxaca, Seler); una de gato (Morelos); palabra de mujer (Sinaloa, Veracruz); orozuz del pais (Veracruz); alfombrilla hediouda (Michoacan, Ramirez); flor de San Cayetano (Veracruz, Puebla, Tjrbina); xo-hexnuc (Yucatan, Maya); siete colores (Jalisco); peonia negra (Tamaulipas); mora (Colima; fruit); matizadilla (Oaxaca, Jalisco); confituria (Sonora, Sinaloa); alantana, lampana, lantana (Veracruz, etc.); sonora roja, sonora, confite negro, confite, zarzamora (Sinaloa); corronchocho (Guatemala); sorrito (Colombia); cariaquillo, poley cimarron (Porto Rico); comida de paloma (Guatemala, Honduras); filigrana (Cuba); venturosa colorada (Venezuela); San Rafaelito (Panama); santo negrito, cinco coloraditos (El Salvador).” Uses  Standley (1920–1926) records: “The fruit is sweet and edible but not very palatable. A decoction of the leaves is sometimes employed as a remedy for rheumatism and as a tonic for the stomach. In Sinaloa the plant is a favorite remedy for snake bites, a strong decoction of the leaves being taken internally and a poultice of crushed leaves applied to the wound.” Martínez (1969) records additional uses in traditional medicine in Mexico.

Folio 38r

137

Fig. 2.86  Lantana cámara, Verbenaceae: (a) folio 38r#2; (b) fruit. (Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/ wiki/Lantana_camara#/media/File:Lantana_camara_05_ies.jpg) Frank Vincentz CC BY-SA 3.0); (c) flower. (Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lantana_camara#/media/File:LantanaFlowerLeaves. jpg) Alvesgaspar CC BY-SA 3.0

Folio 38r3 Nahuatl name  Cozcanantzi (cozca, cozvcatl = jewel, precious stone; nantzi = goddess of procreation; thus, jewel of the Goddess Tonantzin, jeweled mother [Emmart 1940], revered mother of the jewel [Clayton et al. 2009]). Description  Urceolate terminal flowers are yellow and red with exserted stamens, subtended by reddish bracts with acute tips. Simple leaves are entire and elliptic. Roots are ample. Previous identification  Previous identifications were Ipomoea bracteata Cav. (Exogonium bracteatum var. pubescens [Rob. & Greenm.] House) (Emmart 1940; Guerra 1952; Linares and Bye 2013; Reko 1947) of the Convolvulaceae, or Quamoclit bracteata (Cav.) Roberty (Exogonium bracteatum (Cav.) Choisy) (Valdés Gutiérrez et al. 1992) of the Convolvulaceae. Putative identification  Ipomoea bracteata, which matches the phytomorph. Distribution  Ipomoea bracteata is native to Mexico. Names  Jicama, candelaria, bejuco blanco, camote blanco, catispa, chile pato (Spanish). Uses  The common name, jicama, alludes to the edible, long, tuberous rots. In traditional medicine in Mexico, the flowers are used against coughs and in uterus problems, while the leaves are used as a paste to treat burns. It is rich in alkaloids, steroids, saponins, and triterpenes (Sánchez-Arreola et al. 2002).

138

2  Phytomorph Identification of the Codex Cruz-Badianus

Fig. 2.87  Ipomoea bracteata, Convolvulaceae: (a) folio 38r3; (b) flower. (Source: https://calphotos.berkeley.edu/cgi/img_query?enlarge=0000+0000+0115+0490. Wynn Anderson CC BY-NC-SA 3.0)

Folio 38r4 Nahuatl name  Tepaquiltixiuhtontli (tepaquilti  =  agreeable; xiuh, xiutl  =  plant; tontli  =  little; thus, agreeable little plant [Emmart 1940]; insignificant little herb making people happy [Clayton et al. 2009]. Description  Reddish flowers have six to eight petals with three golden exserted stamens. Alternate leaves are simple, entire, and elliptic. Roots are ample. Previous identification  Previous identifications were Malvaceae (Emmart 1940), Hibiscus sp. (Reko 1947; Valdés Gutiérrez et al. 1992) of the Malvaceae, Ipomoea cristulata Hallier f. (Linares and Bye 2013) of the Convolvulaceae, or Pavonia schiedeana Steud. (Malache rosea Kuntze) (Guerra 1952) of the Malvaceae. Putative identification  The pink form of Pavonia schiedeana fits the phytomorph most closely. Distribution  Pavonia schiedeana is native from the Caribbean and Mexico to South America. Names  Mozote (Guatemala). Uses  Pavonia schiedeana has been used against fever and diabetes in traditional Mexican medicine (Bork et al. 1997; Román Ramos et al. 1992).

Folio 38r

139

Fig. 2.88  Pavonia schiedeana, Malvaceae: (a) folio 38r4; (b) flowering shoot. (Source: http:// v3.boldsystems.org/pics/MHPAC/BioBot05038-BB020193%2B1218661510.JPG. Daniel H. Janzen CC BY-NC-SA 3.0)

Folio 38r5 Nahuatl name  Mocuepanixochitl (mocepa = turning; xochitl = flower; thus, waving or turning flower [Emmart 1940]; flower that habitually turns [Clayton et al. 2009]). Description  Reddish terminal and axillary funnelform flowers showing some yellow are subtended by calyces with acute tips. Alternate to opposite leaves are ovate and entire. Roots are very thick. Previous identification  Previous identifications were Convolvulaceae (Linares and Bye 2013) or Penstemon sp. (Guerra 1952; Reko 1947) of the Plantaginaceae. Putative identification  Matching ovate leaves with red flowers rules out most of the Convolvulaceae. Most of the genus Penstemon are zygomorphic, but the flowers of P. hartwegii Bent. approach the phytomorph, and the ovate leaves are entire. Distribution  Penstemon hartwegii is native to southern Mexico. Names  A beardtongue (English). Uses  Unknown.

140

2  Phytomorph Identification of the Codex Cruz-Badianus

Fig. 2.89  Penstemon hartwegii, Plantaginaceae: (a) folio 38r5; (b) flowers. (Source: https:// en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Penstemon_hartwegii#/media/File:Plantaginaceae_-_Penstemon_hartwegii.jpg.Hectonichus CC BY-SA 3.0)

Folio 38r6 Nahuatl name  Tonalxochitl (tonal, tonalli  =  heat or glow of sun, sunshine; xochitl = flower; thus, sunshine flower [Emmart 1940], sun warmth flower, flower of the dry warm season [Clayton et al. 2009]). Description  Flowers are typical inflorescences of the Asteraceae with variegated petals. Alternate to opposite leaves are elliptic, entire, acute-tipped, sessile to petiolated. Roots are ample. Previous identification  Previous identifications were Amphilophium crucigerum (L.) L.G. Lohmann (Pithecoctenium echinatum [Jacq.] Baill.) (Díaz 1976; Estrada Lugo 1989; Reko 1947) of the Bignoniaceae, Bletia coccinea Lex. (Estrada Lugo 1989; Ocaranza 2011; Ossenbach 2009) of the Orchidaceae, Hibiscus mutabilis L. (Reko 1947) of the Malvaceae, Mirabilis sp. (Reko 1947) of the Nyctaginaceae, or Prost. Putative identification  None of the suggested species match the phytomorph, and H. mutabilis is native to China and eastern Asia. A much better match would be a striped selection of Zinnia elegans Jacq. of the Asteraceae. Although documentation of Aztec influence is lacking, with thousands of years of selection by the Nahua, it is more likely that these striped forms were selected in Mexico and only became popular in Europe and the United States after their introduction into the horticultural trade. Distribution  Zinnia elegans is native to Mexico. Names  Common zinnia, elegant zinnia, garden zinnia, youth-and-old-age (English). Uses  Zinnia elegans is antifungal (Hafiza et al. 2002).

Folio 38r

141

Fig. 2.90  Zinnia elegans, Asteraceae: (a) folio 38r6; (b) flowers. (Source: https://davesgarden. com/guides/pf/go/48922/)

Folio 38r7 Nahuatl name  Totonquixochitl (tononqui = burning, fever; xochitl = flower; thus, fever flower [Emmart 1940]; hot, fever flower [Clayton et al. 2009]). Description  Red flowers are apparently zygomorphic, with three or four exserted stamens, and subtended by calyces with obtuse lobes. Simple, entire, elliptic leaves are alternate with prominent veins. Roots are ample. Previous identification  This has the same name as folio 38r1 but is a different species. Previous identifications for this name were Cordia sebestena L. (Valdés Gutiérrez et al. 1992) of the Cordiaceae, Distimake tuberosus (L.) Simões & Staples (Ipomoea tuberosa L.) (Guerra 1952) of the Convolvulaceae, Ipomoea sp. (Emmart 1940; Reko 1947; Valdés Gutiérrez et  al. 1992) of the Convolvulaceae, Ipomoea conzattii Greenm. [Exogonium conzattii (Greenm.) House] (Díaz 1976; Miranda and Valdés 1964), Erythranthe cardinalis (Douglas ex Benth.) Spach (Mimulus cardinalis Douglas ex Benth.) (Reko 1947; Valdés Gutiérrez et  al. 1992) of the Phrymaceae, Penstemon roseus (Cerv. ex Sweet) G. Don (Linares and Bye 2013) or of the Plantaginaceae, or Ruellia sp. (de Ávila Blomberg 2012) of the Acanthaceae. Putative identification  Erythranthe cardinalis matches the phytomorph most closely. Distribution  Erythranthe cardinalis is native from Oregon to Mexico. Names  Cardinal monkeyflower, scarlet monkeyflower (English). Uses  Moerman (2009) cites this as a pediatric aid among the Karok.

142

2  Phytomorph Identification of the Codex Cruz-Badianus

Fig. 2.91  Erythranthe cardinalis, Phrymaceae: (a) folio 38r7; (b) flower. (Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Erythranthe_cardinalis#/media/File:Mimulus_cardinalis_flower_2003-03-12.jpg. BioTrek CC BY-SA 2.5)

Folio 38r8 Nahuatl name  Cecentlahcol (cecen = each; tlahcol, tlacotl = stem; thus each stem or freely, single stem [Emmart 1940]; half by half, half apiece [Clayton et al. 2009]). Description  Red and yellow, funnelform terminal flowers are subtended by calyces with acute lobes. The simple leaves are broad, ovate, entire, and basal, pale green, tipped in yellow. Previous identification  The previous identification was Echeveria sp. (Linares and Bye 2013; Valdés Gutiérrez et  al. 1992) of the Crassulaceae or Vernonia sp. (Guerra 1952; Miranda and Valdés 1964; Reko 1947) of the Asteraceae. Putative identification  Because the flowers are not of the Asteraceae, and because of the basal leaves, Vernonia is ruled out. The very variable Echeveria elegans rose, however, approaches the phytomorph. Distribution  Echeveria elegans is native to Mexico. Names  Mexican snowball, Mexican gem, pearl echeveria, white Mexican rose (English). Uses  Unknown, but the phytochemicals of E. elegans are characterized by Nair et al. (2016).

Folio 38r

143

Fig. 2.92  Echeveria elegans, Crassulaceae: (a) folio 38r8; (b) flowers; (c) foliage. (Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Echeveria_elegans#/media/File:Flowering_Echeveria_Elegans.jpg Mqmay3. CC BY-SA 4.0)

Folio 38r9 Nahuatl name  Xiuhpahtli (xiuh, xiuitl = plant; pahtli = medicine; thus, plant medicine [Emmart 1940]; herbaceous remedy [Clayton et al. 2009]). Description  Red flowers have three petals with a spotted yellow center, subtended by a calyx with linear lobes. Leaves are simple, entire, broad-linear. Roots are ample. Previous identification  Previous identifications were Tigridia sp. (Guerra 1952) of the Iridaceae or Tigridia pavonia (L.f.) Redouté (Linares and Bye 2013; Miranda and Valdés 1964; Reko 1947; Valdés Gutiérrez et al. 1992). Putative identification  Tigridia pavonia fits the phytomorph. Distribution  Tigridia pavonia is native from Mexico to Honduras. Names  Mexican shellflower, peacock flower, tiger flower (English); cacomite, flor de tigre, hierba de la Trinidad, oceloxóchítl, trinitaria, xahbiqui (Spanish). Uses  Martínez (1969) lists its use in traditional Mexican medicine.

144

2  Phytomorph Identification of the Codex Cruz-Badianus

Fig. 2.93  Tigridia pavonia, Iridaceae: (a) folio 38r9; (b) flowers. (Source: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Tigridia_pavonia#/media/File:Tigridia_pavonia.jpg. Y5005 CC BY-SA 3.0)

Folio 38r10 Nahuatl name  Metztliyçacauh (metztllli  =  moon; çacauh, çacatl  =  grass; thus, moon grass [Emmart 1940]; the moon’s grass [Clayton et al. 2009]). Description  Three flowers in a cyme, tinged red or pink, are terminal, each with four or five petals, subtended by a calyx with acute lobes; the inflorescence or flowers are subtended by green bracts. Leaves are simple, entire, broad-linear. Roots are ample. Previous identification  Previous identifications were Polianthes tuberosa L. (Linares and Bye 2013) of the Asparagaceae or Sprekelia formosissima (L.) Herb. (Guerra 1952; Miranda and Valdés 1964; Reko 1947) of the Amaryllidaceae. Putative identification  None of the previous identifications match the phytomorph. Perhaps Nothoscordum bivalve (L.) Britton of the Amaryllidaceae would be a better fit. Distribution  Nothoscordum bivalve is found from Ohio to Uruguay. Names  Crow poison, false garlic (English). Uses  Hernández-Marín et al. (2018) report on the antimicrobial, antioxidant, cytoprotective toxicity, cytotoxicity, and anticoagulant activity of this species.

Folio 38r

145

Fig. 2.94  Nothoscordum bivalve, Amaryllidaceae: (a) folio 38r10; (b) flowers. (Source: https:// www.fireflyforest.com/flowers/3453/nothoscordum-bivalve-crowpoison/. T. Beth Kinsey)

Folio 38r11 Nahuatl name  Huetzcanixochitl (huetzcni = pleasing or smiling; xochitl = flower; thus, pleasing flower [Emmart 1940]; flower that habitually laughs [Clayton et al. 2009]). Description  The flower is a pink uniscape with five petals and exserted stamens, subtended by a calyx with acute lobes. Leaves are broad-linear. Roots are ample. Previous identification  Previous identifications were Zephyranthes sp. (Guerra 1952; Miranda and Valdés 1964; Reko 1947) of the Amaryllidaceae, Z. brevipes (Baker ex Donn. Sm.) Standl. (Valdés Gutiérrez et  al. 1992), or Z. fosteri Traub (Linares and Bye 2013). Putative identification  Both species of suggested Zephyranthes spp. are pink, but the reflexed nature of Z. brevipes petals also suggests this species could be a match to the phytomorph. Z. fosteri is the likely identification. Distribution  Zephyranthes fosteri is native from Mexico to Guatemala. Names  Flor de Mayo (Spanish). Uses  Pesticide (Pérez Escandón et al. 2003).

146

2  Phytomorph Identification of the Codex Cruz-Badianus

Fig. 2.95  Zephyranthes fosteri, Amaryllidaceae: (a) folio 38r11; (b) herbarium sheet. (Source: https://herbariovaa.org/collections/individual/index.php?occid=244 (c) flowers of Z. fosteri https:// botanyphoto.botanicalgarden.ubc.ca/2008/05/zephyranthes_fosteri/ UBC Botanical Garden CC BY-SA 4.0)

Folio 38v

147

Folio 38v

Folio 38v1 Nahuatl name  Temahuiztiliquauitl (te  =  greatly; mahuiztilia  =  to honor; quauitl  =  tree; thus, greatly honored tree [Emmart 1940]; people-honoring tree [Clayton et al. 2009]). Description  No flowers are visible. Simple, entire, sessile, elliptic leaves are colored red, yellow, and green, attached to a green-brown stem. Roots are ample. Previous identification  A previous identification was Melastomataceae (Guerra 1952; Reko 1947).

148

2  Phytomorph Identification of the Codex Cruz-Badianus

Putative identification  A similar plant with the same name but with multicolored flowers appears on folio 39r6. Melastomataceae does not match the phytomorph. Rather, a member of the Orobanchaceae, e.g., Castilleja integra A. Gray, is suggested. Castilleja is a hemiparasite sometimes associated with trees, which may explain the name. Distribution  Castilleja integra is found from Colorado to Mexico. Names  A paintbrush (English). Uses  Unknown.

Fig. 2.96  Castilleja integra, Orobanchaceae: (a) folio38v1; (b) flower and foliage. (Source: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Castillejaintegra.JPG. NPS public domain)

Folio 38v2 Nahuatl name  Tlapalcacauatl (tlapal, tlapalli, or tlapallo  =  colored; cacauatl = cacao; thus, colored cacao [Emmart 1940]; red cacao [Clayton et al. 2009]). Alternate spellings: tlapalcacahuatl, tlapalcacahoatl. Description  Tree with four rough, yellowish to red, ovoid fruits (pods). This is the earliest illustration of cacao. Previous identification  Theobroma cacao L. (de Ávila Blomberg 2012; Díaz 1976; Emmart 1940; Furst 1995; Gates 2000; Guerra 1952; Linares and Bye 2013; Miranda and Valdés 1964; Reko 1947; Valdés Gutiérrez et al. 1992) of the Malvaceae. Putative identification  The red-fruited cultivars of Theobroma cacao, part of the Criollo group of the species, match the phytomorph.

Folio 38v

149

Distribution  Theobroma cacao ranges from Mexico to Peru. Names  Cacao, cocoa (English); árbol del cacao, cacaotero, calabacillo (Spanish). Uses  The primary health benefits from cocoa seem to be in the antioxidant ability (Rusconi and Conti 2010).

Fig. 2.97  Theobroma cacao, Malvaceae: (a) folio 38v2; (b) red cacao. (Source: https://commons. wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Theobroma_cacao_(red_pods_-_Haiti).jpg. Nick Hobgood CC BY-SA 3.0); (c) yellow to red cacao pods. (Source: https://pixabay.com/photos/cocoa-pods-chocolatepods-fresh-1424219/. myfriendkarla CC0)

Folio 38v3 Nahuatl name  Texcalamacoztli (texcal, texcalli  =  rocky elevation, cliff; ama, amatl  =  paper; coztli  =  yellow; thus, cliff yellow paper [Emmart 1940]; yellow paper tree or the boulders [Clayton et al. 2009]). The root symbol represents stone. Description  No flowers are visible. Leaves are tinged with red, ovate with cordate bases, simple, dentate, petiolated from a brown stem. Roots are ample, yellow, epipetric. Previous identification(s)  Previous identifications were Ficus sp. (Valdés Gutiérrez et al. 1992) of the Moraceae, Ficus cotinifolia Kunth (Linares and Bye 2013) or F. nymphaeifolia Mill. (Ramírez and Alcocer 1902), F. petiolaris Kunth

150

2  Phytomorph Identification of the Codex Cruz-Badianus

(F. jaliscana S.Watson) (de Ávila Blomberg 2012; Farfán and Elferink 2010; Guerra 1952; Reko 1947), or Populus sp. (Emmart 1940) of the Salicaceae. Putative identification  Ficus petiolaris fits the phytomorph and name most closely. Distribution  Ficus petiolaris is native to Mexico. Names  Rock fig (English); Standley (1920–1926) remarks: “Tepeamatl or tepeamate (Guerrero; the former the Nahuatl term, meaning ‘hill-fig’); tescalama, tescalnmate, or texcalamate (Morelos, Durango, Guanajuato, etc.; in Nahuatl, tcxcalamatl, meaning ‘lava-fig’); palo chilamate (Oaxaca from the Nahuatl, chilamatl); higuera (Durango, Sinaloa); palo Marfa, higuerón (Sinaloa, Mexico); higuerote, texcalama lechosa (Sinaloa); amate (Oaxaca); amacostic (Morelos); amate amarillo (Morelos, Guerrero).” Uses  Standley (1920–1926) relates: “This species is discussed by Hernandez 1 in a chapter entitled ‘De Amacoztic, seu Papyro lutea, seu Tepematl, Sycomoro Saxatili Mexicana.’ His remarks are as follows: ‘The Amacoztic, which some call Texcalamatl, or rock-paper, and others Tepeamatl, is a large tree which has the leaves broad, almost round, thick and purplish like ivy, and nearly heart-shaped; the bark is on one side yellow inclining to green, and on the other red: it has the fruits on the same trunks, which are smooth like that of a fig tree; the fruit resembles small figs; it is purple and full of small red seeds; the tree is fastened to the rocks, and is a wonderful thing. The leaves have no perceptible odor or flavor; their temperament is moist and cold. The decoction of the roots allays the thirst of those who suffer from fever, alleviates pains of the chest, is purgative and vomitive, and it is prepared by boiling three ounces of the roots with three pounds of water until the half is consumed; its milk cures sores of the lips and chronic ulcers. The tree grows in mountainous and rough places about Chietla, embracing the rocks, as I have said, and as the name itself indicates. There is another kind that has the same name and temperament, which, they say, serves only for furnishing straight, smooth poles.’ Hernandez also gives two easily recognizable figures of the plant (p. 82, 409). Dr. Fernando Altamirano, quoted by Urbina, describes the gum or rubber obtained from this (and probably also from other) species of Ficus as follows: ‘The commercial Texcalama appears as rounded masses of variable dimensions. This substance is elastic and adhesive and very ductile, gray in color, and capable of being formed into membranes as delicate as soap bubbles, being in this state white and transparent; exposed to the air it hardens and assumes a yellow tint, for which reason it should be kept in vessels full of water. In boiling water it softens and becomes more sticky. Its density is greater than that of water; its odor is urine-like, and it has scarcely any taste. In its analysis I found 15 per cent of caoutchouc, 55 per cent of a resin soluble in alcohol, and 5 per cent of a resin soluble in ether. This gum is used by surgeons and others in Mexico for treating broken bones, hernia, etc.”

Folio 38v

151

Fig. 2.98  Ficus petiolaris, Moraceae: (a) folio 38v3; (b) foliage. (Source: https://calphotos.berkeley.edu/cgi/img_query?enlarge=0000+0000+0612+1339. Zoya Akulova CC BY-NC 3.0)

Folio 38v4 Nahuatl name  Couaxocotl (coua, cohuiatl, or coatl = serpent; xocotl = sour fruit; thus, serpent fruit [Emmart 1940]; snake tart fruit [Clayton et al. 2009]. The two serpents climbing the fruit symbolize the name of the plant. Description  Orange fruits are terminal, hemispherical, subtended by calyces with acute lobes, seemingly being eaten by snakes. Simple leaves are elliptic, entire, sessile, obtuse-tipped, alternate, or opposite from a brown stem. Red roots are ample, epipetric. Note the rock symbol. Previous identification  Previous identifications were Crataegus sp.? (Guerra 1952; Miranda and Valdés 1964; Reko 1947) of the Rosaceae, Manilkara zapota (L.) P.Royen [Achras sapota L., Calocarpum mammosum (L.) Pierre, Lucuma mammosa (L.) C.F.Gaertn.] (Guerra 1952) of the Sapotaceae, Physalis sp.? (de Ávila Blomberg 2012) of the Solanaceae, or Rauvolfia tetraphylla L. (R. heterophylla Willd. ex Roem. & Schult.) (Valdés Gutiérrez et al. 1992) of the Apocynaceae. Putative identification  None of the previous identifications fit the phytomorph. Why not Physalis???? A conundrum is why two snakes are shown eating this fruit. Snakes, like cats, are animals that are totally carnivorous. However, small snakes eat insects, and Mexico is home to many myrmecophytes. Bunchosia lindeniana A.Juss. of the Malpighiaceae is associated with at least five species of ants (Díaz-Castelazo et al. 2004) and fits the phytomorph with red to orange fruits. The snakes, distinguished by upturned snouts and distinctive patterns and colors, are most likely hook-nosed snakes, the western hook-nosed snake [Gyalopion canum (Cope 1860)]

152

2  Phytomorph Identification of the Codex Cruz-Badianus

on the right and the desert hook-nosed snake [Gyalopion quadrangulare (Günther 1893)] on the left. Both are noted to eat scorpions, spiders, and insects (Hardy 1976). Distribution  Bunchosia lindeniana is native from Mexico to Honduras. Gyalopion canum is found from western Texas to southeastern Arizona and into northern and central Mexico. Gyalopion quadrangulare is found from southern Arizona into Sonora and Sinaloa, Mexico. Names  Standley (1920–1926) remarks: hueso de tigre (Veracruz); sipché (Yucatán, Maya); cabra hedionda (Santo Domingo). Uses  Unknown.

Fig. 2.99  Bunchosia lindeniana, Malpighiaceae: (a) folio 38v4; (b) herbarium sheet. (Source: http://serv.biokic.asu.edu/imglib/seinet/ASU/ASU0025/ASU0025911.jpg. Arizona State University Vascular Plant Herbarium CC BY-NC 4.0); (c) snake: Gyalopion canum. (Source: https://www. inaturalist.org/taxa/29985-Gyalopion-canum. J.N. Stuart CC BY-NC-ND 2.0); (d) snake: Gyalopion quadrangulare. (Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gyalopion#/media/File:Thornscrub_Hooknosed_Snake_(Gyalopion_quadrangulare).jpg). Andrew DuBois CC BY-SA 4.0)

Folio 38v

153

Fol. 38v5 Nahuatl name  Yztacquauitl (ystavc  =  white; quauil  =  tree; thus, white tree [Emmart 1940; Clayton et al. 2009]). Description  No flowers are visible. Fruits are capsules with three or four seeds. Leaves are compound, once-pinnate, alternate from a tan stem. Roots are ample, epipetric. Note the root, rock symbol. Previous identification  Previous identifications were Acacia [coulteri A.Gray] (de Ávila Blomberg 2012) of the Fabaceae, Eysenhardtia polystachya (Ortega) Sarg. (Linares and Bye 2013) of the Fabaceae, Vachellia pennatula (Schltdl. & Cham.) Seigler & Ebinger (Acacia pennatula [Schltdl. & Cham.] Benth.) (Godínez Salazar 2017), or Fabaceae (Emmart 1940); Guerra 1952; Miranda and Valdés 1964). Putative identification  Without further distinguishing characteristics, it is difficult to determine the species. However, Eysenhardtia polystachya, with once-pinnate leaves, would be a better match to the phytomorph. This is one of the species surviving at the pre-Hispanic garden of Tetzcutzingo Hill Complex, Mexico (HernándezCruz et al. 2016; Pulido and Koch 1988). Distribution  Eysenhardtia polystachya is native to Mexico. Names  Kidneywood (English); palo azul, palo dulce, palo santo (Spanish). Uses  This species has been shown to delay rheumatoid arthritis and show antinociceptive activity (Pablo-Pérez et al. 2018). It also has antiurolithiatic activity (Perez Gutierrez et al. 2000).

Fig. 2.100  Eysenhardtia polystachya, Fabaceae: (a) folio 38v5; (b) foliage and fruits. (Source: https://calphotos.berkeley.edu/cgi/img_query?enlarge=0000+0000+0314+1331. 2014 Wynn Anderson, CC BY-NC-SA 3.0)

154

2  Phytomorph Identification of the Codex Cruz-Badianus

Folio 38v6 Nahuatl name  Teoezquauitl (teo, teotl = god; ez, eztli = blood; quauitl = tree; thus, sacred blood tree (Emmart 1940; Clayton et al. 2009]). Description  This resembles folio 38v4 but without the snakes. Orange fruits are terminal, hemispherical, subtended by calyces with acute lobes. Simple leaves are elliptic, entire, sessile, obtuse-tipped, alternate, or opposite from a brown stem. Red roots are ample, epipetric. Note the root, rock symbol. Previous identification  Previous identifications were Croton [draco Schltdl. & Cham.] sp. (de Ávila Blomberg 2012; Miranda and Valdés 1964) of the Euphorbiaceae, Manilkara zapota (L.) P.Royen [Achras sapota L., Calocarpum mammosum (L.) Pierre, Lucuma mammosa (L.) C.F.Gaertn.] (Miranda and Valdés 1964) of the Sapotaceae, Mammea americana L. (Emmart 1940; Guerra 1952) of the Caryophyllaceae, or Rauvolfia sp. (Valdés Gutiérrez et al. 1992) of the Apocynaceae. Putative identification  None of the previous identifications match the phytomorph. Like folio 38v4, the Malpighiaceae is suggested. Bunchosia montana A.Juss. is another common species and matches the phytomorph. Distribution  Bunchosia montana is native to Mexico. Names  Arbol de la vida (Spanish). Uses  Unknown.

Fig. 2.101  Bunchosia montana, Malpighiaceae: (a) folio 38v6; (b) herbarium sheet. (Source: https://serv.biokic.asu.edu/imglib/seinet/ASU/ASU0025/ASU0025915.jpg. Arizona State University Vascular Plant Herbarium CC BY-NC 4.0)

Folio 38v

155

Folio 38v7 Nahuatl name  Huitzquauitl (huitz, uitztili = spine; quauitl = tree; thus, spiny tree [Emmart 1940; Clayton et al. 2009]). Additional spelling: huitzquahuitl. Description  No flowers are visible. Simple leaves are elliptic, entire, acute-tipped, petiolated, arising from stems with ridged bark; spines are indicated by the name. Roots are ample, epipetric. Note the root, rock symbol. Previous identification  Caesalpinia crista L. (Gates 2000) of the Fabaceae, Condalia hookeri M.C.Jonst. (C. obovata Hook.) (Guerra 1952; Reko 1947) of the Rhamnaceae, Haematoxylum brasiletto H.Karst. (de Ávila Blomberg 2012; Díaz 1976; Emmart 1940; Farfán and Elferink 2010; Valdés Gutiérrez et al. 1992; Viesca and Aranda 1996) of the Fabaceae, or H. campechianum L. (Linares and Bye 2013). Putative identification  The compound leaves of Haematoxylon spp. do not match the phytomorph; the simple leaves of Condalia hookeri are closer to the phytomorph but do not match exactly. Distribution  Condalia hookeri is native from Texas to Mexico. Names  Brasil (Tamaulipas, Texas); capulín (Nuevo Leon); capul negro (Spanish, Texas). Uses  Standley (1920–1926) remarks: “The wood yields a blue dye. The fruit, like that of other species, is edible and is said to make good jelly.”

Fig. 2.102  Condalia hookeri, Rhamnaceae: (a) folio 38v7; (b) foliage. (Source: https://www. inaturalist.org/photos/1326771. johnwilliams CC BY-NC 4.0)

156

Folio 39r

2  Phytomorph Identification of the Codex Cruz-Badianus

Folio 39r

157

Folio 39r1 Nahuatl name  Tlahcuilolquauitl (tlahcuilol, tlacuilolli  =  painted or painting; quauitl  = tree; thus, painted tree [Emmart 1940]; written tree/wood [Clayton et al. 2009]). Description  No flowers or fruits are visible. Alternate leaves are compound with two palmate lobes and stout petioles, or perhaps simple leaves, obcordate with retuse tip. Bark is striated and shaggy or spiny. Roots are ample, topping a tuber. Previous identification  Fabaceae (Guerra 1952; Reko 1947): Dalbergia sp. (de Ávila Blomberg 2012; Miranda and Valdés 1964; Valdés Gutiérrez et al. 1992) or D. brownei (Jacq.) Urb. (D. amerimnum Benth.) (Díaz 1976), or Haematoxylon brasiletto H.Karst (Linares and Bye 2013). Putative identification  The previous identifications do not fit the phytomorph. A better match to the phytomorph is a species of Bauhinia, Fabaceae, such as B. pauletia Pers. (B. longiflora Rose), a species bearing short, stout spines in addition to palmately bilobed leaves. Distribution  Bauhinia pauletia is native from Mexico to Colombia and Venezuela. Names  Railroad-fence (English); araña-gato (Puerto Rico). Standley (1920–1926) reports: “The following names are reported for Mexican species whose identification is uncertain: Timbe (Jalisco); hierba de la vaca (Durango); papalocuahuite (San Luis Potosi).” Uses  This species is unique in being bat-pollinated (Heithaus et  al. 1974). Standley (1920–1926) relates: “There are many species of the genus in the East Indies, some of which are cultivated in tropical America because of their very showy flowers. Some of the Old World representatives yield a gum which, however, is of little importance, and the bark of certain species is used for tanning. Others have bark which furnishes dyes or from which rope is made, some are said to be employed as fish poisons, and some have edible flowers and seeds. Vermifuge properties are ascribed to certain species, and others are employed as remedies for liver affections.”

158

2  Phytomorph Identification of the Codex Cruz-Badianus

Fig. 2.103  Bauhinia pauletia, Fabaceae: (a) folio 39r1; (b) herbarium sheet. (Source: https://serv. biokic.asu.edu/imglib/neotrop/F_Botany/V0090/V0090249F_1538496738_web.jpg. Field Museum of Natural History CC BY-NC 3.0)

Folio 39r2 Nahuatl name  Tomazq’tl/tomazquitl (toma, tomatl  =  tomato; zquitl, izquitl  =  a native plant; thus, tomato shrub, strawberry tree [Emmart 1940]; tomato popcorn [Clayton et al. 2009]). Description  Reddish fruits are in a terminal raceme. Simple elliptic, entire leaves with acute tips and short petioles are reddish, alternate. Stem is reddish, subtended by a moss (or lichen). Roots are ample. Previous identification  Previous identifications were Arbutus sp. (de Ávila Blomberg 2012; Emmart 1940) of the Ericaceae, Arctostaphylos sp. (Guerra 1952; Reko 1947) of the Ericaceae, Arctostaphylos pungens Kunth (Díaz 1976; Linares and Bye 2013; Miranda and Valdés 1964; Valdés Gutiérrez et al. 1992), Solanum americanum (Godínez Salazar 2017) of the Solanaceae, or S. nigrum of the Old World (Godínez Salazar 2017). Putative identification  Arctostaphylos pungens somewhat matches the phytomorph, but the leaves are reddish only when young, and the plant is a small tree that typically grows in a rocky area. The species of Solanum are black-fruited. A better fit would be a species allied to Arbutus xalapensis Kunth, e.g., A. mollis Kunth in

Folio 39r

159

H.B.K. (Socorro González-Elizondo et al. 2012), a low shrub with reddish fruits in an elongated raceme that grows at 2500 to 3400 meters; it sometimes shows reddish leaves at higher elevations. Distribution  Arbutus mollis is native to Mexico. Names  Madrono, manzanita (Spanish). Uses  Standley (1920–1926) reports: “The wood of this and other species is useful for various purposes.”

Fig. 2.104  Arbutus mollis, Ericaceae: (a) folio 39r2; (b) leaves and fruit. (Source: Socorro González-Elizondo et al. 2012)

Folio 39r3 Nahuatl name  Tlanextiquauitl (tlanexti = bright; quauitl = tree; thus, bright tree [Emmart 1940; Clayton et al. 2009]). Alternate spelling: tlanextia quahuitl. Description  No flowers or fruits are visible. Simple elliptic leaves with a short petiole are opposite and alternate, acute-tipped, entire, on a brown stem subtended by moss (or lichen?). Roots are ample, reddish. Previous identification  Previous identifications were Iridaceae or Amaryllidaceae (Valdés Gutiérrez et al. 1992). Putative identification  There are some similarities to the previous phytomorph, Arbutus mollis, but the leaves are green and roots are reddish in the phytomorph. Manzanitas of the genera Arbutus and Arctostaphylos, of the Ericaceae, such as Arctostaphylos pungens, have red bark and wood and might be a good match to the phytomorph and name.

160

2  Phytomorph Identification of the Codex Cruz-Badianus

Distribution  Arctostaphylos pungens is native from the north-central and southwestern United States to Mexico. Names  Standley (1920–1926) reports: manzanita (California); manzanilla (Durango, Sinaloa, Guanajuato); pinguica (Guanajuato, Morelos, Durango, Hidalgo, Jalisco); palo de pinguica (San Luis Potosi, Hidalgo, Sinaloa, Guanajuato, Oaxaca); manzana, tnu-ndido (Oaxaca); gayuba del pals (Hidalgo); tepezquite, tepeizquitl, tepesquisuchil (Nahuatl, from tepe-izqui-xochitl = mountain + toasted maize + flower); pinquiqua (Tarascan); leño Colorado (Sonora, San Luis Potosi, Hidalgo). Uses  Standley (1920–1926) remarks: “The fruit is often eaten by people, and it is a favorite food of bear. It is often sold in the markets. Both the fruit and leaves are reputed to have astringent and diuretic properties, and they are employed as a remedy for dropsy, bronchitis, venereal diseases, and other affections.”

Fig. 2.105  Arctostaphylos pungens, Ericaceae: (a) folio 39r3; (b) stem and foliage. (Source: https://www.laspilitas.com/images/grid24_12/2601/s/images/plants/74/Arctostaphylos_pungens-8.jpg. Las Pilitas Nursery, Santa Margarita, CA)

Folio 39r4 Nahuatl name  Xococquauitl (xococ, xocotl = sour; quauitl = tree; thus, sour tree [Emmart 1940; Clayton et al. 2009]).

Folio 39r

161

Description  Fruits are terminal racemes, colored reddish, pale blue, and yellow to orange. Simple, lanceolate leaves are opposite and alternate with arcuate venation, entire. The name implies a tree with sour leaves or fruit, probably of the Melastomataceae. Roots are ample and tuberous. Previous identification  Conostegia xalapensis (Bonpl.) D. Don ex DC. (Emmart 1940; Guerra 1952; Reko 1947; Linares and Bye 2013; Miranda and Valdés 1964; Valdés Gutiérrez et  al. 1992) of the Melastomataceae, Leandra sp. of the Melastomataceae, or Miconia sp. of the Melastomataceae (de Ávila Blomberg 2012). Putative identification  The phytomorph is definitely a member of the Melastomataceae and Conostegia xalapensis might match the phytomorph except for the uniform dark, blue-black fruits. For a raceme with different shades of pale blue fruits, Miconia albicans (Sw.) Triana might be a better fit. Distribution  Miconia albicans is native from southern Mexico to the Caribbean and Bolivia and Brazil. Names  Mortiño (Spanish); canela de velho (Portuguese). Uses  Miconia albicans contains antioxidants (Pieroni et al. 2011) and is a possible anticarcinogen (Serpeloni et  al. 2008). It also has peripheral analgesic activity (Lemos Vasconcelos et al. 2003).

Fig. 2.106  Miconia albicans, Melastomataceae: (a) folio 39r4; (b) fruit and leaves. (Source: https://www.inaturalist.org/photos/29438182. douglas-u-oliveira CC BY-NC 4.0)

162

2  Phytomorph Identification of the Codex Cruz-Badianus

Folio 39r5 Nahuatl name  Tepapaquiltiquauitl (tepapaquiltiani  =  pleasant, agreeable; quauitl  =  tree; thus, pleasant tree [Emmart 1940]; tree making people happy [Clayton et al. 2009]). Alternative spelling: tepapaquiltiquhauitl. Description  No flowers or fruits are visible. Opposite or alternate simple, entire, sessile leaves are elliptic, with obtuse to subacute tips, green or pale green with reddish tints. The name implies a tree. Roots are ample. Previous identification  Previous identifications were Hibiscus sp. (Guerra 1952; Reko 1947; Valdés Gutiérrez et  al. 1992) of the Malvaceae, Ipomoea cristulata Hallier f. (Linares and Bye 2013) of the Convolvulaceae, or Pavonia schiedeana Steud. (Malache rosea Kuntze) (Guerra 1952) of the Malvaceae. Putative identification  Again, with no reproductive structures, identification is virtually impossible. However, it does show some similarity to two other phytomorphs on this folio, tomazquitl and tlanexti quauitl. A manzanita or madrone arborescent species that has reddish sessile leaves with obtuse to subacute tip might be sought, i.e., a species allied to Arctostaphylos pajaroensis (J.E.Adams ex McMinn) J.E. Adams of the Ericaceae. Distribution  Arctostaphylos pajaroensis is almost extinct in the wild but is endemic to California. Names  Pajaro manzanita (English). Uses  Unknown.

Fig. 2.107  Arctostaphylos pajaroensis, Ericaceae: (a) folio 39r5; (b) foliage. (Source: https:// commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Arctostaphylos_pajaroensis_kz3.jpg. Krzysztof Ziarnek CC BY-SA 4.0)

Folio 39r

163

Folio 39r6 Nahuatl name  Temahuiztiliquauitl (te  =  greatly; mahuiztilia  =  to honor; quauitl  =  tree; thus, greatly honored tree [Emmart 1940]; people-honoring tree [Clayton et al. 2009]). Description  Flowers or fruits are pendulous with acute-tipped bracts and multicolored, reddish, yellow, and pale blue. Alternate to subopposite leaves are simple, elliptic, entire, sessile, and acute-tipped, reddish at the base. Roots are ample. Previous identification  Previous identification was the Melastomataceae (Guerra 1952; Reko 1947). Putative identification  Arcuate venation is not indicated, so Melastomataceae is probably ruled out. Most probably this is Justicia brandegeeana Wassh. & L. B. Sm. of the Acanthaceae. Distribution  Justicia brandegeeana is native to Mexico. Names  False hop, Mexican shrimp plant, shrimpbush, shrimp plant (English); camaroncillo, cola de camarón (Spanish). Uses  Ornamental.

Fig. 2.108  Justicia brandegeeana, Acanthaceae: (a) folio 39r6; (b) flower. (Source: https:// en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Justicia_brandegeeana#/media/File:Justicia_brandegeeana_bokeh.jpg. Rror CC BY-SA 3.0)

164

2  Phytomorph Identification of the Codex Cruz-Badianus

Folio 39r7 Nahuatl name  Quauhhuitzihtzilxochitl (quauhm, quauhtla  =  wild or among the woods; huitzihtzil, uitzitzilin = hummingbird; xochitl = flower; thus, wild hummingbird flower [Emmart 1940]; hummingbird flower of the forest [Clayton et al. 2009]). Description  Terminal red corollas with blue interiors are tubular with three exserted stamens, three flowers per inflorescence. Subtending bracts are green with acute lobes. Sessile, simple leaves are heavily veined, cupped, elliptic, entire, with acute tips. Base of stem is coated with moss. Roots are red, ample, and tuberous. Previous identification  Cestrum sp. (Miranda and Valdés 1964) or Loeselia sp. (Guerra 1952) of the Solanaceae or Loeselia mexicana (Lam.) Brand [L. coccinea (Cav.) G. Don] (Díaz 1976; Godínez Salazar 2017; Linares and Bye 2013; Reko 1947; Valdés Gutiérrez et al. 1992) of the Polemoniaceae. Putative identification  None of the previous identifications match the phytomorph. Apparently (from the name), this is pollinated by hummingbirds and grows in forests. Cuphea schumannii Koehne of the Lythraceae matches the phytomorph and is planted to attract hummingbirds. Distribution  Cuphea schumannii is native to southern Mexico. Names  Orange cigar plant (English). Uses  Ornamental, hummingbird attractant; the seeds are rich in fatty acids, especially capric acid (Graham and Kleiman 1992).

Fig. 2.109  Cuphea schumannii, Lythraceae: (a) folio 39r7; (b) flowers and leaves. (Source: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Cuphea_schumannii_0zz.jpg. David Stang CC BY-SA 4.0)

Folio 39r

165

Folio 39r8 Nahuatl name  Eloxochitl (elo, elotl = ear of green maize; xochitl = flower; thus, maize flower [Emmart 1940]; tender-ear-of-maize flower [Clayton et al. 2009]). Description  Yellow flowers are campanulate, with five to seven thin petals subtended by a calyx with two acute lobes. Simple, alternate, entire leaves are sagittate, acute-tipped. Stem is stout, woody, mossy at base. Roots are ample, tuberous (or woody basal caudex?). Previous identification(s)  Previous identifications were Asteraceae (Emmart 1940), Magnolia sp. (de Ávila Blomberg 2012) of the Magnoliaceae, M. macrophylla Michx. var. dealbata (Zucc.) DL Johnson (M. dealbata Zucc.) (Díaz 1976; Estrada Lugo 1989; Gates 2000; Linares and Bye 2013), or M. schiedeana Schltl. (Alcántara Rojas 2008; Guerra 1952; Miranda and Valdés 1964; Reko 1947; Zepeda and White 2008). Putative identification  The combination of a sagittate leaf with a magnoliaceous flower can only match Magnolia macrophylla var. dealbata. Distribution  Magnolia macrophylla var. dealbata is native to cloud forests in Mexico. Names  Cloudforest magnolia (English); Standley (1920–1926) reports: elosuehil (Oaxaca; from the Nahuatl, elotl, a green ear of corn with husk, and xochitl, flower). Uses  Unknown.

Fig. 2.110  Magnolia macrophylla var. Dealbata, Magnoliaceae: (a) folio 39r8; (b) flower and foliage. (Source: https://www.flickr.com/photos/jim-sf/6105916460/. James Gaither CC BY-NC-ND 2.0)

166

2  Phytomorph Identification of the Codex Cruz-Badianus

Folio 39r9 Nahuatl name  Yzquixochitl (yzqui, izqyutl = popcorn; xochit = flower; thus popcorn flower [Emmart 1940; Clayton et al. 2009]). Description  White flowers with a picotee red edge are terminal with three petals shown, subtended by a calyx with acute lobes. Simple leaves are entire and elliptic with a short petiole and acute tips. Roots are red and ample, tuberous (or basal woody caudex?). Previous identification  Previous identifications were of Bourreria sp. (Miranda and Valdés 1964) or Bourreria huanita (Lex.) Hemsl. [B. formosa (A. DC.) Hemsl.] (de Ávila Blomberg 2012; Farfán and Elferink 2010; Emmart 1940; Guerra 1952; Linares and Bye 2013; Valdés Gutiérrez et al. 1992) of the Boraginaceae. Putative identification  Bourreria huanita fits the phytomorph. Distribution  This is native to Mexico, Guatemala, and El Salvador. Names  Standley (1920–1926) reports: quisjoche (Costa Rica, cultivated); esquinsuche, liston (El Salvador). Uses  Standley (1920–1926) remarks: “In El Salvador the dried flowers are added to the fermented beverage known as ‘agua dulce,’ which is prepared from crude sugar.”

Fig. 2.111  Bourreria huanita, Boraginaceae: (a) folio 39r9; (b) flowering shoot. (Source: https:// www.flickr.com/photos/8993413@N03/2629832667. Cyril Nelson, public domain)

Folio 39r

167

Folio 39r10 Nahuatl name  Quetzalylin (quetza, quetzalli = precious; ylin = alder; thus, precious ylin [Emmart 1940]; precious alder [Clayton et al. 2009]). Alternate spelling: quetzalytzlin, quetzalilin. Description  No flowers or fruits are visible. Simple leaves are elliptic and entire, with a short petiole and acute tips. Stem has green moss at the base. Roots are red, ample, tuberous (or basal woody caudex?). Previous identification(s)  Previous identifications were Alnus sp. (de Ávila Blomberg 2012; Guerra 1952; Reko 1947;Valdés Gutiérrez et  al. 1992) of the Betulaceae, Alnus acuminata Kunth subsp. arguta (Schltdl.) Furlow (Alnus arguta (Schltdl.) Spach) (Miranda and Valdés 1964), or Alnus jorullensis Kunth (A. firmifolia Fernald) (Linares and Bye 2013). Putative identification  Alnus jorullensis is a better match to the phytomorph and name. This is one of the species surviving at the pre-Hispanic garden of Tetzcutzingo Hill Complex, Mexico (Hernández-Cruz et al. 2016; Pulido and Koch 1988). Distribution  This is an evergreen or semi-evergreen native to Mexico and Guatemala, growing along streams. Names  Evergreen alder, Mexican alder, Mount Jorullo alder (English); aliso, cerezo, chaquiro (Spanish). Uses  Nieto and Rodriguez (n.d.) remark: “The wood is moderately resistant to bending and compression. It has excellent workability and good finish and is used for furniture, drawers, cabinets, doors, windows, pencils, toothpicks, and matches. Because it has a high volume in relation to a low weight, the wood is used in the wood-shaving board industry. Traditionally, it has been used as firewood and charcoal. It can be used potentially as the core of lath boards, for casting molds, and as round arches for concrete; in light boxes for packing and molded products not exposed to excessive wear and tear; and for tri-ply veneer. If treated it could be used for large stakes, posts, and pilings. It is used in construction for structural elements only subjected to small loads. The bark is used as a source of tannins for tanning and of yellow and beige dyes. Yellow and green dyes are obtained from the leaves. Finally, the tree is useful in agroforestry” (Lamprecht 1990).

168

2  Phytomorph Identification of the Codex Cruz-Badianus

Fig. 2.112  Alnus jorullensis, Betulaceae: (a) folio 39r10; (b) herbarium sheet. (Source: http:// midwestherbaria.org/portal/collections/individual/index.php?occid=12902033. Field Museum CC BY-NC 3.0)

Folio 39v–40r Aztec medicinal uses.  Trees and shrubs for the fatigue of those administering the government and holding public office. The bark of the tree quetzalylin, of the flowers eloxochitl and yzquixochitl, and of the almond with its fruit, which is tlapalcacauatl; the flowers cacaloxochitl, huacalxochitl, tlilxochitl, meçaxochitl, and hueynacaztli; all good-smelling summer flowers; the leaves of the trees aylin, oyametl, octal, axocotl, hecapahtli, tlacoyzquixichitl, quauhyyauhtli, tomazquitl, auatl, tepeylin, ayauhquahuitl, and tepapaquiltiquahuitl; and flowering summer herbs with their stems, which you are to gather early in the morning, before the winds arise, are to be macerated in clear spring water, each by itself in a new pot or vessel, and this for one day and one night; then to them is to added huitzquahuitl, a wood of reddish sap, to stain them. Firstly, the blood of wild animals, namely, tlatlauhqui, oçelotl, cuetlachtli, mizli, ocotochitl, yztac oçelotl, and tlacooçelotl, is to be sought, so that the body may be anointed with it together with the above-mentioned juices. Secondly, precious stones, quetzalytztli, eztetl, tlahcalhuatsin, tetla-

Folio 41r

169

huitl, and white clay, and little pebbles which are encountered in the stomachs of the small birds huezocanauhtli, huactli, and apopohtli, should be thrown into the water, in which they should be left for one night so that their healthful juice may be drawn out, with which the body should be frequently washed. Thirdly, it should be saturated with both the brain and the bile of the animals tlatlauhqui, oçelotl, yztac oçelotl, cuelachtli, miztli, ocotochtli, and coyotl and then with the brain, bile, and crushed bladder of the yztacepatl. Indeed, these medicaments bestow the bodily strength of a gladiator, drive weariness far away, and, finally, drive out fear and fortify the human heart. In addition, a leading man or anyone else, who wishes to obtain this rebuilding of the body, should eat the flesh of a white rabbit or of a white fox whelp, either roasted or boiled (Emmart 1940).

Folio 41r

Aztec medicinal use  Remedy for black blood. Both the ground leaves and roots of the herbs quauhtla huitzquilitl and tlalanquaye are to be cooked in water, to which are added a pearl, a wolf’s liver, and our wine. He is to take the juice thus prepared as a drink. Before the mid-day meal, he shall drink another juice pressed from goodsmelling flowers of different kinds. He shall walk in a shady place, refrain from venery, and drink our wine moderately; in fact, he should not drink it except as medicine. He shall engage in the very cheerful pursuits, such as singing or playing music and beating the tympans which we use in public dancing (Emmart 1940).

170

2  Phytomorph Identification of the Codex Cruz-Badianus

Fol. 41r1 Nahuatl name  Huitzquilitl (quauhtla  =  wild; huitz, uitztli  =  spine, thorn; quilitl = edible plant; thus, wild spiny edible plant [Emmart 1940]; thorny edible herb [Clayton et al. 2009]). Description  This phytomorph is somewhat amorphous but is obviously a thistle of subfamily Carduoideae of the Asteraceae. Leaves are simple, lobed, and apparently spiny. Flower heads are campanulate and rosy. Previous identification  This phytomorph has previously identified as Cirsium sp. (Guerra 1952; Miranda and Valdés 1964) of the Asteraceae or C. ehrenbergii Sch. Bip. (Bye and Linares 2013; de Ávila Blomberg 2012; Linares and Bye 2013; Reko 1947; Valdés Gutiérrez et al. 1992; Zepeda and White 2008). Putative identification  This is obviously a Cirsium sp., and although it has the same name as folio 8v2, it is morphologically identical to the phytomorph in folio 32r1. Distribution  Cirsium mexicanum is native to the Caribbean and from Mexico to Nicaragua. Names  Mexican thistle (English); cardo santo, cardo santo macho (Spanish). Uses  Cirsium mexicanum is used in the treatment of respiratory diseases, hepatitis, diarrhea, dysentery, and stomachache. Leaves and flowers are consumed as herbal tea, and they are also mixed and applied to legs and arms to relieve muscular contractions and cramps (Cáceres 1996; Grijalva Pineda 2006; Martínez 1969).

Fig. 2.113  Cirsium mexicanum, Asteraceae: (a) folio 41r1; (b) herbarium sheet. (Source: https:// botanydb.colorado.edu/collections/individual/index.php?occid=136418. University of Colorado Museum of Natural History Herbarium Vascular Plant Collection CC BY-NC 3.0)

Folio 41r

171

Folio 41r2 Nahuatl name  Tlatlanquaye (tlatlanquaye = which has knees; thus, jointed stem [Emmart 1940]; possessor of several knees [Clayton et al. 2009]). Alternate spelling: tlatlancuaya. Description  Pink blooms are in terminal spikes. Simple leaves are elliptic, entire, acute-tipped and clustered with five to six leaves per node. Roots are ample and tuberous. Previous identification  Previous identifications were Iresine sp. (Miranda and Valdés 1964; Valdés Gutiérrez et al. 1992) of the Amaranthaceae, I. calea (Ibantz) Standl. (Bye and Linares 2013; de Ávila Blomberg 2012; Díaz 1976; Estrada Lugo 1989; Guerra 1952), I. diffusa Humb. & Bonpl. ex Willd. (I. celosioides L.) (Díaz 1976), Peperomia sp. (Emmart 1940) of the Piperaceae, or Peperomia galioides Kunth (de Ávila Blomberg 2012; Díaz 1976; Linares and Bye 2013; Miranda and Valdés 1964; Valdés Gutiérrez et al. 1992). Putative identification  This is obviously not an Iresine sp. as in folio 21v, and Peperomia galioides is a better match. Distribution  Peperomia galioides is native from Mexico and the Caribbean to Brazil. Names  Unknown. Uses  Three prenylated diphenols (grifolic acid, grifolin, and piperogalin) exhibit in vitro antileishmanial activity but are not effective in vivo (Fournet et al. 1996; Mahiou et al. 1996). The oil is antibacterial (De Feo et al. 2008).

Fig. 2.114  Peperomia galioides, Piperaceae: (a) folio 41r2; (b) flowers and foliage. (Source: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Peperomia_galioides.JPG. Qwertzy2 CC BY-SA 3.0)

172

2  Phytomorph Identification of the Codex Cruz-Badianus

Folio 41v

Folio 41v1 Nahuatl name  Centzonxochitl (centzon, centzontli = four hundred; xochitl = flower; thus, 400 flowers [Emmart 1940; Clayton et al. 2009]). Description  Flowers are terminal, white with red picotee with three petals. Leaves are linear, clustered at nodes of six to nine. Roots are ample and tuberous. Previous identification  Previous identifications were Galium sp. (de Ávila Blomberg 2012; Miranda and Valdés 1964) of the Rubiaceae, Galium trifidum L. (Linares and Bye 2013; Valdés Gutiérrez et  al. 1992), or Phlox sp.? (Guerra 1952) of the Polemoniaceae. Putative identification  Galium trifidum fits the phytomorph. Distribution  Galium trifidum is native to Asia and North America, from Alaska to California. Names  Small bedstraw, fragrant bedstraw (English). Uses  Moerman (2009) lists its medicinal uses among tribes of North America as a gastrointestinal aid, orthopedic aid, pediatric aid, urinary aid, dermatological aid, kidney aid, and love medicine.

Folio 41v

173

Fig. 2.115  Galium trifidum, Rubiaceae: (a) folio 41v1; (b) flowers and foliage. (Source: https:// upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f4/Galium_trifidum_2898.JPG. Jomegat CC BY-SA 3.0)

Folio 41v2 Nahuatl name  Ahquiztli (a, atl = water; quizatli = it (water) comes out; thus, water comes out [Emmart 1940; Clayton et al. 2009]). Description  Terminal flowers are in pink racemes. Simple leaves are elliptic, opposite to alternate, multicolored pink and green, acute-tipped. Roots are ample. Previous identification(s)  Previous identifications were Amaranthus sp. (Valdés Gutiérrez et al. 1992) of the Amaranthaceae, Amaranthus hybridus L. (Linares and Bye 2013), Anacardium sp. (Estrada Lugo 1989) of the Anacardiaceae, Rhus sp. (de Ávila Blomberg 2012; Emmart 1940) of the Anacardiaceae, Toxicodendron sp. (Guerra 1952) of the Anacardiaceae, or Toxicodendron radicans (L.) Kuntze (Rhus radicans L.) (Díaz 1976; Guerra 1952; Miranda and Valdés 1964). Putative identification  Neither Amaranthus hybridus nor Toxicodendron radicans fits the phytomorph. However, A. hypochondriacus L. does match. Distribution  Amaranthus hypochondriacus is native to Mexico but is now cultivated around the world. Names  Prince’s feather, Prince of Wales’s feather (English); alegria, bledo, huantli, quintonil (Spanish). Uses  Food.

174

2  Phytomorph Identification of the Codex Cruz-Badianus

Fig. 2.116  Amaranthus hypochondriacus, Anacardiaceae: (a) folio 41v2; (b) flowers and foliage. (Source: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Amaranthus_hypochondriacus_Prague_2011_ 3.jpg. Karelj CC BY-SA 3.0)

Folio 43r

Aztec medicinal uses  Hemorrhoids. Against hemorrhoids, firstly, the stalk of the herb colomecatl has a strong effect; when ground with honey in hot water, the juice, when drunk, draws off the bile. Secondly, the teohamatl herb, which grows on rocks, is to be stripped of the bark so that the milky juice in which it abounds will flow out.

Folio 43r

175

It is to be caught on cotton and sunned for a while, and drunk in moderation, so that the pale bile may be drawn out by it; a few days later, a medicine is to be prepared to clear the bowels. Further, a medicine is to be made of the bark of the herbs quauhyzquixochitl and y… with salt ground in hot water; for this draws out the purulence and drives it from a man’s abdomen. Before the mid-day meal, also he is to eat a weasel killed and well salted together with the heart of a dragon (Emmart 1940). Nahuatl name  Colomecatl (colo, coloa = to twine; mecatl = cord; thus, trailing cord [Emmart 1940]; scorpion/curved vine [Clayton et al. 2009]). Description  White terminal flowers are campanulate with five to six acute tips, subtended by calyces with acute lobes. Simple leaves are elliptic, pectinate-dentate, alternate, with cuneate to truncate bases. Roots are three long white tubers. Previous identification  Previous identifications were Gouania sp. (Gates 2000) of the Rhamnaceae, Ipomoea sp. (Emmart 1940; Guerra 1952; Godínez Salazar 2017; Linares and Bye 2013) of the Convolvulaceae, Milleria quinquefolia L. (Godínez Salazar 2017) of the Asteraceae, or Operculina sp. (Miranda and Valdés 1964; Valdés Gutiérrez et al. 1992) of the Convolvulaceae. Putative identification  Convolvulaceae is the probable family. Operculina pinnatifolia (Kunth) O’Donell (O. pectinata House) is a likely candidate. Distribution  Operculina pinnatifolia is native to Mexico. Names  Unknown. Uses  Unknown.

Fig. 2.117  Operculina pinnatifolia, Convolvulaceae: (a) folio 43r; (b) flower and foliage. (Source: http://swbiodiversity.org/seinet/collections/individual/index.php?occid=2141723. MABA CC BY-NC 3.0)

176

2  Phytomorph Identification of the Codex Cruz-Badianus

Folio 43v

Aztec medicinal use  Condyloma. The bark of the oak, the bark of huitzquahuitl, and the bark of capollaxipehuali and tlacoxilohxochitl are to be ground. With these is to be mixed tlapalachiyotl and the wax which in our tongue is called holli, the bile of a raven, the stalk of an almond, and the bark of texcalamatlchichic. A potion is to be made of salt, nitre, and ashes, which are to be heated, or rather boiled. A cloth is to be soaked with honey, with which the condyloma is to be touched and palpated (massaged). If this trouble arises in the buttocks, well-heated water is to be poured into the anus, and it is to be washed also with the juice of teoamatl bark, to which honey is added. This having been made, that part which is to be bothered by the condyloma is to be washed very often with the juice of yamanquipahtli. The herb tlalquequetzal is to be ground in hot water, and the juice drunk (Emmart 1940). Nahuatl name  Chichic texcalamatl (chichic  =  bitter sour; te, tetl  =  stone; amate = paper or fig; thus, bitter cliff paper [Emmart 1940]; bitter paper tree of the boulders [Clayton et al. 2009]). Alternate spelling: texcalamatlchichic. Description  No flowers or fruits are visible. Simple leaves are opposite, entire, elliptic, acute-tipped. Roots are ample and epipetric. Previous identification  Previous identifications were Ficus sp. (Valdés Gutiérrez et al. 1992) of the Moraceae, F. cotinifolia Kunth (Linares and Bye 2013), or F. petiolaris Kunth (F. jaliscana S. Watson) (de Ávila Blomberg 2012; Farfán and Elferink 2010; Guerra 1952; Reko 1947).

Folio 43v

177

Putative identification  With acute tips, Ficus petiolaris is a better fit to the phytomorph, and this species commonly grows in rocky areas, but it is not reddish; see folio 38v3. A better fit for the phytomorph might be F. pringlei S. Watson. Distribution  Ficus pringlei is native to Mexico. Names  Unknown. Uses  Unknown.

Fig. 2.118  Ficus pringlei, Moraceae: (a) folio 43v; (b) herbarium sheet. (Source: http://midwestherbaria.org/portal/collections/individual/index.php?occid=6496268. NYBG CC BY-NC 3.0)

178

2  Phytomorph Identification of the Codex Cruz-Badianus

Folio 44r

Aztec medicinal use  Excessive heat. A body sweltering with heat is cooled with the ground roots of huitzquiltl, xaltomatl, tlacacamohtli, and teoyztaquilitl; the stone of acamallotetl, eztetl, and tlahcalhuatzin; red earth; white earth; the stones which grow in the stomach of the rooster and nochtototl; and grain which are to be put into water. The juice is to be drunk, and the abdomen purged with a clyster. A potion, moreover, will consist of tzayanalquilitl roots, acacapacquilitl, tolpatlactli, and the shrubs etzmitl, yztauhyatlh, and huitzquilitl. Salt is to be added. The body is to be anointed with the sap expressed from acacapacquilitl, coyoxihuitl, tlalhecapahtli, tonatiuhyxiuh, yztacoxoxochitl, and centzonxochitl, all of which are plants. Likewise from the fronds of laurel, of the shrub tetzmitlo, and of the fruit tree xaxocotl, from the herb cohuaxoxocotl, and from pine needles. This medicine is to be divided: some is to be poured on the head; some, which is very thick, is to be used for anointing the body. But if the heat rises, the liver of huitzitzilin, the gall bladder of huexocanauhtli, the viscera of quail, the bladder of cocohtli, and the skin of peçotli are to be burned. And these and the things mentioned above are to be mixed (Emmart 1940).

Folio 44r1 Nahuatl name  Acacatzontli (a, atl  =  water; caca, cacatl  =  a variety of herb; tzontli = hair; thus, an aquatic grass hair/head [Emmart 1940; Clayton et al. 2009]. Description  No flowers and fruits are visible. Linear leaves arise from a tuft. Roots are ample on an emergent semi-aquatic. Blue color around roots suggests all are water plants.

Folio 44r

179

Previous identification  Previous identifications were Bromeliaceae (Miranda and Valdés 1964), Cyperaceae (Valdés Gutiérrez et  al. 1992), Juncaginaceae (Valdés Gutiérrez et  al. 1992), Phragmites australis (Cav.) Trin. ex Steud. (P. communis Trin.) (Guerra 1952) of the Poaceae, or Tillandsia chaetophylla Mez (Reko 1947) of the Bromeliaceae. Putative identification  To propose that an emergent semi-aquatic could be identified as an epiphytic bromeliad is preposterous! Thus, the identities of Bromeliaceae and Tillandsia chaetophylla are ignored. The blades of Phragmites australis are too wide to match the phytomorph. This is probably a sedge (Cyperaceae) or an arrowgrass (Juncaginaceae), although a rush (Juncaceae) cannot be ruled out. Most probably this is a species allied to Eleocharis densa (Benth.) of the Cyperaceae, as this genus is common in temporary wetlands of central Mexico (Lobato-de Magalhães and Martínez 2018). Distribution  Eleocharis densa is native from Mexico to Guatemala. Names  A spikerush, a spikesedge (English). Uses  Unknown.

Fig. 2.119  Eleocharis densa, Cyperaceae: (a) folio 44r1; (b) herbarium sheet. (Source: http:// swbiodiversity.org/seinet/collections/individual/index.php?occid=16208918 University of Michigan Herbarium CC BY-NC 3.0)

180

2  Phytomorph Identification of the Codex Cruz-Badianus

Folio 44r2 Nahuatl name  Acacapacquilitl (a, atl = water; caca, cacatl = a variety of herb; pac, pacca, pacqui = gay, agreeable; quilitl = edible plant; thus, agreeable edible water plant [Emmart 1940]; an aquatic edible herb that makes a slapping noise [Clayton et al. 2009]). Description  Terminal flowers or fruits are capitate, orange with branching below. Opposite leaves are sessile, elliptic, clasping. Stem is reddish. Roots are ample on an emergent semi-aquatic. Previous identification  Previous identifications were Asteraceae (Emmart 1940), Aganippea dentata DC. [unresolved name, possibly a species of Jaegeria] (Estrada Lugo 1989; Gate 2000; Guerra 1952) of the Asteraceae, Bidens laevis (L.) “Britton, Sterns & Poggenb.” (B. chrysanthemoides Michx.) (Díaz 1976; Miranda and Valdés 1964) of the Asteraceae, Jaegeria bellidiflora (Moc. & Sessé ex DC.) A.M. Torres & Beaman (Díaz 1976; Estrada Lugo 1989 in Picó and Nuez 2000a; Estrada Lugo 1989; Miranda and Valdés 1964; Reko 1947) of the Asteraceae, J. hirta (Lag.) Less. (Godínez Salazar 2017), or Jaegeria pedunculata Hook. & Arn. (Linares and Bye 2013; Valdés Gutiérrez et al. 1992). Putative identification  All of the suggested identifications have ray florets, which are distinctly missing from the phytomorph, although these species do inhabit muddy shores and shallow pools of Latin America. Another suggestion would be Cephalanthus occidentalis L. of the Rubiaceae. This grows in the wet zones of swamps and ponds and flowers with white flowers, followed by a capitate head of brown nutlets. However, the leaves are not clasping. Distribution  Cephalanthus occidentalis is native from Canada to Mexico. Names  Buttonbush, button-willow, honey-bells (English); Standley (1920–1926) records: jazmin (Michoacan, Guerrero); uvero (Spanish, Tabasco). Uses  Standley (1920–1926) remarks: “The bark is bitter, with tonic and laxative properties, and has been employed for periodic fevers. A poisonous principle, cephalanthin, which destroys the blood corpuscles and causes violent vomiting, convulsions, and paralysis, has been separated from it. The bark has been used also for palsy, coughs, and venereal and cutaneous diseases. The plant is said to yield a yellow dye.”

Folio 44r

181

Fig. 2.120  Cephalanthus occidentalis, Rubiaceae: (a) folio 44r2; (b) inflorescence and foliage. (Source: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Cephalanthus_occidentalis_A.jpg. Wouter Hagens CC BY-SA 3.0)

Fol. 44r3 Nahuatl name  Acatl (acatl = primary name meaning reed [Emmart 1940; Clayton et al. 2009]). Description  Obviously a member of the Poaceae; the terminal panicles are green. Leaves are alternate, linear, clasping. Roots are ample on an emergent semi-aquatic. Previous identification  Previous identifications were Phragmites australis (Cav.) Trin. ex Steud. (P. communis Trin.) of the Poaceae (de Ávila Blomberg 2012; Díaz 1976; Estrada Lugo 1989; Guerra 1952; Miranda and Valdés 1964; Reko 1947) or Quercus laurina Bonpl. (Q. barbinervis Benth.) or Quercus peduncularis Née (Q. tomentosa Willd.) or Quercus polymorpha Schltdl. & Cham. or Quercus rugosa Née (Díaz 1976) of the Fagaceae. Putative identification  The oaks (Quercus spp.) are ignored because they are trees with broad leaves and not Poaceae. Phragmites australis fits the phytomorph well. Distribution  Phragmites australis is found throughout temperate and tropical regions of the world; its nativity is unknown. Names  Common reed, ditch reed, giant reed (English); carricillo, carrizo común, piquaremu (Spanish). Uses  Moerman (2009) lists its uses among North American tribes for diarrhea, stomach troubles, emetic, pneumonia, and dermatological aid.

182

2  Phytomorph Identification of the Codex Cruz-Badianus

Fig. 2.121  Phragmites australis, Poaceae: (a) folio 44r3; (b) panicles and foliage. (Source: https://www.michigansthumb.com/news/article/Experts-outline-plans-to-attackphragmites-9196204.php. Battel, Brenda; Huron Daily Tribune, September 1, 2016)

Folio 44r4 Nahuatl name  Tzayanalquititl (tzayanal, tzayana = to cut or slash; quilitl = edible plant; thus, cut edible plant [Emmart 1940]; torn edible herb [Clayton et al. 2009]). Description  White terminal flowers are campanulate, subtended by a calyx with obtuse lobes. Simple leaves are deeply cleft, alternate, acute-tipped, sessile, clasping to the stem. Roots are ample on an emergent semi-aquatic. Previous identification  A previous identification was Rhodosciadium tuberosum Drude [unresolved name] (Deanea tuberosa J. M.Coult. & Rose) (de Ávila Blomberg 2012; Díaz 1976; Guerra 1952; Picó and Nuez 2000b; Miranda and Valdés 1964; Reko 1947) of the Apiaceae. Putative identification  The flowers and leaves of Rhodosciadium tuberosum do not match the phytomorph, and this is not aquatic. The flowers portrayed in this phytomorph are identical to the flowers portrayed for Datura species such as folio 29r. However, the only truly aquatic Datura species is D. ceratocaula Ortega. However, D. quercifolia Kunth has pinnately lobed leaves and grows on both wet and dry soils. The flower often begins white and then ages to purple. Distribution  Datura quercifolia is native from Kansas to Mexico.

Folio 44v

183

Names  Oak leaf datura (English). Uses  The lactones of this species act as immunomodulators (Bhat et al. 2005), and it is rich in alkaloids (Al-Yahya and Evans 1977).

Fig. 2.122  Datura quercifolia, Solanaceae: (a) folio 44r4; (b) flower and foliage. (Source: http:// swbiodiversity.org/seinet/collections/individual/index.php?occid=1002028. A.L.  Reina-Guerrero CC BY-NC 3.0)

Folio 44v

184

2  Phytomorph Identification of the Codex Cruz-Badianus

Aztec medicinal use  Remedy for injured body. The injured and roughly handled body is to be anointed with a plaster made of tlahçoteoçacatl, centzonxochitl, xiuhtontli, axocotl, tlayapaloni, and xiuhtontli, the moss of any tree, cones of the cypress, seed of nettles, and the ayauhquahuitl tree. One who has been roughly handled and beaten is to drink juice well prepared from the stalk of cohuanenepilli, tlanextiaxihuitl, and chicomacatl; flower of axocotl, and yzquixochitl, tetlahuitl, eztetl, and teamoxtli; liver of the aquatic bird huexocanauhtli; and a few leaves of tlahtlanquaye, which are to be ground in acid water (Emmart 1940).

Folio 44v1 Nahuatl name  Tlahçoteoçacayl (tlahçolteotl  =  goddess of carnal pleasure; cacatl  =  grass; thus, tlahçolteotl grass [Emmart 1940; Clayton et  al. 2009]). Alternate spellings: tlahcolteocacatl, tlazolteozacatl. Description  Terminal reddish flower has a cup and perianth on a scape with four exserted stamens, subtended by a calyx with obtuse lobes. Leaves are subopposite, sheathed around brown stem. Roots are ample. Previous identification  Amaryllidaceae (Valdés Gutiérrez et al. 1992), Iridaceae (Valdés Gutiérrez et al. 1992), Sobralia macrantha Lindl. (Guerra 1952; Miranda and Valdés 1964; Reko 1947) of the Orchidaceae, or Tigridia violacea Schiede ex Schltdl. (Valdés Gutiérrez et al. 1992) of the Iridaceae. Putative identification  Neither of the suggested species matches the phytomorph. However, Tigridia multiflora (Herb.) Ravenna shows similarities to the name and morphology of this phytomorph (Munguía-Lino et  al. 2017; Rodriguez and Systma 2006). Distribution  Tigridia multiflora is native to Mexico. Names  Unknown. Uses  Unknown.

Folio 44v

185

Fig. 2.123  Tigridia multiflora, Iridaceae: (a) folio 44v1; (b) flower. (Source: https://www.inaturalist.org/photos/33873367. © Noé Isaac Avalos Mojica CC BY-NC 4.0)

Folio 44v2 Nahuatl name  Tlayapalon, tlaiapaloni xiuhtontli in text (tla = abundance; yapoloni, yapaltic = black paint; xiuh, xiuitl = plant; ontli = little; thus, little black paint plant [Emmart 1940]; it habitually makes things black [Clayton et al. 2009]). Description  Green, globular terminal flowers are in a raceme. Simple leaves are mostly basal, elliptic, acute-tipped. Roots are ample. Previous identification  Previous identifications were Bromeliaceae (Guerra 1952), Cissus verticillata (L.) Nicolson & C.E.Jarvis (C. sicyoides L.) (Bye and Linares 2013; de Ávila Blomberg 2012; Díaz 1976; Guerra 1952; Miranda and Valdés 1964; Valdés Gutiérrez et al. 1992) of the Vitaceae, Plantago sp. (de Ávila Blomberg 2012; Miranda and Valdés 1964; Valdés Gutiérrez et  al. 1992) of the Plantaginaceae, or Plantago australis Lam. (Plantago australis Lam. subsp. hirtella (Kunth) Rahn) (Linares and Bye 2013). Putative identification  Plantago australis is a good match. This is one of the species surviving at the pre-Hispanic garden of Tetzcutzingo Hill Complex, Mexico (Pulido and Koch 1988). Distribution  This is native from Arizona and New Mexico to Argentina, Uruguay, and Paraguay. Names  Mexican plantain (English). Uses  “Plantago australis is a popular plant found to be widely spread in Latin America. In folk medicine, the seeds and leaves are used mainly for anti-inflammatory, wound healing, among others. The verbascoside, a phenolic glycoside, is an active chemical component described in this species of plant, which has antioxidant, anti-inflammatory and healing effects” (de Moura Sperottoa et al. 2018).

186

2  Phytomorph Identification of the Codex Cruz-Badianus

Fig. 2.124  Plantago australis, Plantaginaceae: (a) folio 44v2; (b) racemes and foliage. (Source: https://plantlust.com/plants/plantago-australis/images/19846/. Stan Shebs CC BY-SA 3.0)

Folio 44v3 Nahuatl name  Axocotl (a, atl = water; xocotl = sour fruit; thus, water sour fruit [Emmart 1940; Clayton et al. 2009]). Description  Flowers are white, terminal, urecolate, arranged in a spike. Simple leaves are opposite, elliptic, entire, acute-tipped. Roots are ample. Previous identification  Polygonaceae (Valdés Gutiérrez et al. 1992), Spondias sp. (Gates 2000), or Spondias purpurea L. (Díaz 1976; Guerra 1952; Miranda and Valdés 1964; Reko 1947) of the Anacardiaceae. Putative identification  Spondias purpurea does not match the phytomorph. The phytomorph bears many affinities with the Ericaceae, and the genus Comarostaphylis is similar, e.g., C. polifolia (Kunth) Succ. ex Klotzsch. Distribution  Comarostaphylis polifolia is native to Mexico. Names  Nariz de lobo, madroño negro (Spanish); Standley (1920–1926) records: madrono (Oaxaca, Sinaloa); madrono chino (Sinaloa); pingiieca, pingiiica (Morelos, Oaxaca); tnu-tque (Oaxaca). Uses  Respiratory illness, urological problems (Alonso-Castro et al. 2011).

Folio 44v

187

Fig. 2.125  Comarostaphylis polifolia, Ericaceae: (a) folio 44v3; (b) flowers and foliage. (Source: https://calphotos.berkeley.edu/cgi/img_query?enlarge=0000+0000+1116+1427. Wynn Anderson CC BY-NC-SA 3.0)

Folio 44v4 Nahuatl name  Chicomacatl (chico = milky latex or gum; macatl, mecatl = cord; thus, gum cord [Emmart 1940]; seven reeds [Clayton et al. 2009]). Description  The phytomorph shows a leafless yellow to brown parasite or epiphyte pendulous from a tree that has no flowers or fruits. Simple elliptic entire leaves of the tree have acute tips and ample roots, epipetric. Previous identification  Previous identifications were Arundo sp. (Gates 2000) of the Poaceae, Ficus sp. (Emmart 1940) of the Moraceae, Psittacanthus calyculatus (DC.) G.  Don (Díaz 1976; Miranda and Valdés 1964) of the Loranthaceae, Struthanthus interruptus (Klunth) G.Don [S. venetus (Kunth) Blume] (Guerra 1952; Reko 1947) of the Loranthaceae, or Tillandsia prodigiosa (Linares and Bye 2013; Valdés Gutiérrez et al. 1992) of the Bromeliaceae. Putative identification  None of the suggested identifications match the phytomorph. A better match would be a somewhat yellow to brown achlorophyllous species from the Santalaceae that is pendulous on broad-leaved plants, such as Phoradendron lanceolatum Engelm. ex A. Gray, which is coppery or orange-green when fresh, drying yellow-brown. The tree may be Quercus saltillensis Trel., a host species of oak for this mistletoe (Garcia Franco 2010; Kuijt 2003). Distribution  Phoradendron lanceolatum is native to Mexico. Names  Corrigüela, injerto (Spanish). Uses  Phoradendron spp. are used in Mexican traditional medicine for dermatological conditions, urological problems, and skin tumors (Alonso-Castro et al. 2011).

188

2  Phytomorph Identification of the Codex Cruz-Badianus

Fig. 2.126  Phoradendron lanceolatum, Santalaceae: (a) folio 44v4; (b) herbarium sheet. (Source: http://swbiodiversity.org/seinet/collections/individual/index.php?occid=2034436. ASU: Plants CC BY-NC 3.0)

Folio 45r

Folio 45r

189

Aztec medicinal use  For mentagra. For one troubled with this scaly disease, grind up native plums; cherry bark; the roots of the incense-giving tree quauhiyotl, of an apple tree, of the flower topozan and cacaloxochitl, and of an oak; the cones of cypress; the leaves of the herbs tlatlanquaye and auauhyayahual; the herbs tepechian, coyoxihuitl, and aquahuitl; and the cones and leaves of cedar. When these have been heated, he is to wash himself with them, and the scaly part is to be rubbed with this liquid. To these add resin and raw resin (wet resin), which we press out of burned pine, with which, together with all the things mentioned above, he is to be anointed (Emmart 1940). Nahuatl name  Aquahuitl (a, atl = water; quahuitl = tree; thus, water tree [Emmart 1940; Clayton et al. 2009]). Description  Pink terminal and lateral flowers are campanulate with two to three lobes, subtended by calyces with two to five obtuse lobes. Simple leaves are elliptic, entire, opposite, acute-tipped. Roots are ample, epipetric. Previous identification  Previous identifications were Astianthus viminalis (Kunth) Baill. (de Ávila Blomberg, 2012; Díaz 1976; Reko 1947 of the Bignoniaceae, Chilopsis linearis (Cav.) Sweet (Guerra 1952; Miranda and Valdés 1964; Valdés Gutiérrez et al. 1992) of the Bignoniaceae, or Tabebuia rosea (Bertol.) Bertero ex A.DC. (T. pentaphylla auct.) (Linares and Bye 2013) of the Bignoniaceae. Putative identification  Certainly, the leaves and flowers of Tabebuia rosea are the closest match to the phytomorph. Distribution  Tabebuia rosea is native from Mexico to Colombia and Ecuador. Names  Pink poui, rosy trumpet tree (English); Standley (1920–1926) records: maculiz, maculiz prieto (Tabasco); palo yugo (Michoacan, Guerrero); roble (San Luis Potosi, Guerrero); roble bianco (Oaxaca, San Luis Potosi, Cuba, Costa Rica, Porto Rico); palo de rosa (Tamaulipas, Oaxaca); maquile (Ramirez); macuil (Oaxaca); amapola (Sinaloa); roble Colorado (El Salvador); mano de león (Honduras); maculizo (Guatemala, Honduras); roble de yugo, palo bianco, lefio bianco (Cuba); maquiligua, maquilisguat (El Salvador). Uses  Standley (1920–1926) remarks under T. pentaphylla: “This is an important timber tree in some parts of Mexico and Central America, and furnishes wood of excellent quality for house building, cabinet work, wagons, oars, and other purposes. In Europe the wood has been employed as a substitute for boxwood in engraving. In Cuba the plant is considered an antidote for poisoning by manchineel [Hippomane mancinella), and it has been used in some regions (the decoction, taken internally) as a remedy for snake bites. The powdered bark and leaves were formerly used in the Antilles as a febrifuge. When in flower, Tabebuia pentaphylla is one of the most showy and most beautiful of American trees and an extensive stand of them is a sight long to be remembered. The blossoms exhibit great variation in color, ranging from nearly white to deep purple-pink. The color effect produced is strikingly like that seen in Japanese cherries.”

190

2  Phytomorph Identification of the Codex Cruz-Badianus

Fig. 2.127  Tabebuia rosea, Bignoniaceae: (a) folio 45r; (b) flowers and foliage. (Source: https:// commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Amapa_Rosa_(348680341).jpg. Dinesh Valke CC BY-SA 2.0)

Folio 45v

Folio 45v

191

Aztec medicinal use  Recurrent disease. One who falls again into a disease is to drink, before lunch, some of the sap, very like milk, which is to be pressed out of teohamatl, so that he will vomit. On the third or fourth day, he is to drink a potion of tonatiuhyxiuh stalk, of the stalk of tlatlanquaye and tlanextiyxiuh, ground in hot water. On the third day, he is also to drink a potion of cuecuetzpahtli stalk ground in native wine. Which potion he is to drink before he enters the bath; upon coming out of this, he is to be anointed with the juice of ground teohamatl bark. His abdomen is to be purged twice with a clyster, first with the juice of the ohuaxocoyolin root ground in hot water; and this is done before he takes any food. This juice drives away the pus thoroughly from the abdomen. The second time, after the lapse of a few days, he is to drink the juice made from the ground herb which has the power of inebriating, which we call piciyetl, salt, black native pepper, and pale-colored pepper (Emmart 1940). Nahuatl name  Cuecuetzpahtli (cuecuetz, cucuetzoa = to stir up, arouse, agitate; pahti = medicine; thus, agitating medicine [Emmart 1940]; mischievous/unabashed remedy [Clayton et al. 2009]). Additional spelling: cuencuetzpatli. Description  Terminal flowers and buds are orange at the tips, yellow at the base, actinomorphic, with three petals, obviously a determinate (cymose or centripetal) inflorescence, subtended by reflexed calyces with four obtuse lobes. Simple leaves are sessile, subopposite to alternate, elliptic, and acute-tipped with short petioles. Roots are ample. Previous identification  A previous identification was Clinopodium macrostemum (Moc. & Sessé ex Benth.) Kuntze [Calamintha macrostema (Moc. & Sessé ex Benth.) Benth., Mimulus sp. (Emmart 1940) of the Phrymaceae, Satureja macrostema (Moc. & Sessé ex Benth.) Briq.] (Díaz 1976; Guerra 1952; Linares and Bye 2013; Miranda and Valdés 1964; Reko 1947; Valdés Gutiérrez et al. 1992) of the Lamiaceae. Putative identification  The phytomorph is obviously not zygomorphic, i.e., not the Lamiaceae or the Phrymaceae. Clinopodium macrostemum is not colored orange and yellow and does not bear terminal flowers. The suite of characters of the phytomorph suggests the Onagraceae and matches the current cultivar Oenothera “Blood Orange,” a derivative of O. epilobiifolia Kunth. subsp. cuprea (Schltdl.) P.H. Raven & D.R. Parn. (Raven and Parnell 1970). Although this cultivar and species have a different array of the colors orange and yellow, they have the distinctive reflexed calyx of the phytomorph, along with the proper leaves. Distribution  Oenothera epilobiifolia subsp. cuprea is native from Mexico to Costa Rica and again in Colombia. Names  A sundrop (English). Uses  Evening primrose seed oil is high in gamma-linolenic acid (GLA), an antiinflammatory (Timoszuk et al. 2018).

192

2  Phytomorph Identification of the Codex Cruz-Badianus

Fig. 2.128  Oenothera epilobiifolia subsp. cuprea, Onagraceae: (a) folio 45v; (b) flowers and foliage. (Source: https://www.inaturalist.org/observations/16072889. Eugenio_Padilla CC BY-NC 4.0); (c) close up; note the reflex sepals. (Source: http://floracostaricensis.myspecies.info/file-colorboxed/19500. Eduardo Chacón-Madrigal CC BY 3.0)

Folio 46r

Folio 46r

193

Aztec medicinal use  Cure of scabies. The scabious person is first to be washed with urine on that part of the body which is bothered with scabies; then a plaster is to be applied to him, made of a sprig of the herbs tlaquilin, leaves of tlatlanquaye, of the quetzalylin tree, and the bark and leaves of aquahuitl ground in water (Emmart 1940). Nahuatl name  Ahhuiyac tlatlanquaye (ahhuiyac = fragrant; tlatlanquaye = jointed stem, that which has knees or joints like knees; thus, fragrant pepper? [Emmart 1940]; fragrant possessor of many knees [Clayton et al. 2009]). Description  White fruits are terminal, torpedo-shaped. Leaves are opposite, elliptic, entire, and acute-tipped. Roots are ample. Previous identification(s)  Previous identifications were of Lamiaceae or Verbenaceae (Valdés Gutiérrez et al. 1992), Capsicum annuum L. (Emmart 1940) of the Solanaceae, or Peperomia sp. (Guerra 1952; Miranda and Valdés 1964; Reko 1947) of the Piperaceae. Putative identification  Small white-fruited cultivars of C. annuum are known and match the phytomorph. Distribution  Capsicum annuum is native from Florida and the Caribbean to Colombia. Names  Sweet pepper, red capsicum (English); chile (Spanish). Uses  Food, high in vitamin C; Martínez (1969) recounts its use as a rubefacient in traditional Mexican medicine.

Fig. 2.129  Capsicum annuum, Solanaceae: (a) folio 46r; (b) flowers and foliage. (Source: https:// en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:White_small_chili_grown_in_Halady,Udupi_dist._India.jpg. Rayabhari CC BY-SA 3.0)

194

2  Phytomorph Identification of the Codex Cruz-Badianus

Folio 46v

Aztec medicinal use  Remedy for wound received. An inflicted wound is healed if you instill into it juice of the bark of the ylin tree, the root of the shrub tlalhahuehuitl, wax, and the yolk of an egg (Emmart 1940).

Folio 46v1 Nahuatl name  Ylin (ylin = alder [Emmart 1940; Clayton et al. 2009]). Description  No flowers or fruits are visible. Simple leaves are elliptic and entire, with a short petiole and acute tips. Stem has green moss at the base. Roots are red, ample, tuberous (or basal woody caudex?). Previous identification(s)  A previous identification was Alnus sp. (de Ávila Blomberg 2012) of the Betulaceae. Putative identification  Alnus jorullensis is a good match to the phytomorph and name; see folio 39r10. Distribution  This is an evergreen or semi-evergreen native to Mexico and Guatemala, growing along streams. Names  Evergreen alder, Mexican alder, Mount Jorullo alder (English); aliso, cerezo, chaquiro (Spanish).

Folio 46v

195

Uses  Nieto and Rodriguez (n.d.) remark: “The wood is moderately resistant to bending and compression. It has excellent workability and good finish and is used for furniture, drawers, cabinets, doors, windows, pencils, toothpicks, and matches. Because it has a high volume in relation to a low weight, the wood is used in the wood-shaving board industry. Traditionally, it has been used as firewood and charcoal. It can be used potentially as the core of lath boards, for casting molds, and as round arches for concrete; in light boxes for packing and molded products not exposed to excessive wear and tear; and for tri-ply veneer. If treated it could be used for large stakes, posts, and pilings. It is used in construction for structural elements only subjected to small loads. The bark is used as a source of tannins for tanning and of yellow and beige dyes. Yellow and green dyes are obtained from the leaves. Finally, the tree is useful in agroforestry” (Lamprecht 1990).

Fig. 2.130  Alnus jorullensis, Betulaceae: (a) folio 46v1; (b) herbarium sheet. (Source: http:// midwestherbaria.org/portal/collections/individual/index.php?occid=12902033. Field Museum CC BY-NC 3.0)

Folio 46v2 Nahuatl name  Tlalhuaueuetl (tlalha, tlalli = earth; a, atl = wáter; hueheutl, ahueheute = cypress; thus, earth or lowland cypress [Emmart 1940; Clayton et al. 2009]). Alternate spelling: tlalaueuetl, tlalhahuehuetl. Description  Pink terminal inflorescences are a raceme. Simple leaves are opposite and alternate, pinnately lobed, and acute-tipped. Roots are ample, possibly tuberous.

196

2  Phytomorph Identification of the Codex Cruz-Badianus

Previous identification(s)  Previous identifications were of Acalypha sp. (Miranda and Valdés 1964; Valdés Gutiérrez et  al. 1992) of the Euphorbiaceae, Agastache mexicana (Kunth) Lint & Epling [Cedronella mexicana (Kunth) Benth.] (Bye and Linares 2013; Diaz 1976; Godínez Salazar 2017; Guerra 1952; Linares and Bye 2013; Miranda and Valdés 1964; Reko 1947; Valdés Gutiérrez et al. 1992) of the Lamiaceae, or Verbena sp. (Guerra 1952) of the Verbenaceae. Putative identification  This phytomorph bears many similarities to Agastache mexicana. Distribution  Agastache mexicana is native to Mexico. Names  Mexican giant hyssop (English). Uses  Tucker and DeBaggio (2009) state: “Mexican giant hyssop is often identified as ‘mosquito plant,’ but we find no evidence, anecdotal or otherwise, that this plant repels mosquitoes. To further add to the confusion, many commercial sources of A. mexicana germinate, instead, to the French tarragon-scented A. foeniculum. The true Mexican giant hyssop is usually scented of mint (although much unreported chemical diversity undoubtedly exists in this species) and hardy only in Zones 9 and 10, although it can be grown as an annual elsewhere. The flowers are usually a pale rosy pink to near crimson; a rare white form has also been reported. Flowering spikes can reach up to one foot in favorable sites. Important Chemistry: The principal constituents of the foliar essential oil are 14–73% menthone and 14–75% pulegone, providing a peppermint-pennyroyal odor.”

Fig. 2.131  Agastache mexicana, Lamiaceae: (a) folio 46v2; (b) flowers and foliage. (Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agastache_mexicana#/media/File:Agastache_mexicana_ Prague_2014_2.jpg. Karelj CC BY-SA 1.0)

Folio 47r

197

Folio 47r

Aztec medicinal use  Disease of the joint. Against pain in the joints, prepare a plaster of cuauhtzitzicaztli, tetzitzicaztli, colotzitzicaztli, patlahuactzitzicaztli, and xiuhtlemaytl, and those herbs, and of the small serpents, the scorpion, and the millipede, which are to be ground in water and well-cooked. Besides, that part which has become stiff is to be pricked with a bone of an eagle or lion; then it is to be anointed with the above-mentioned plaster together with honey. But if the arthritic or jointpatient has moderate pain, there is no need to have any part pricked (Emmart 1940).

Folio 47r1 Nahuatl name  Quauhtzitzicaztli (quauh, cuauh = wood or wild; twitzicaztli = nettle; thus, wild nettle [Emmart 1940]; forest nettle (Clayton et al. 2009]). Additional spelling: cuauhtzitzicaztli. Description  Fruits or flowers are tripartite, globular, white with a pink picotee in a raceme, each flower or fruit subtended by a calyx with no lobes. Simple, campanulate leaves (entire and flat in the Emmart watercolors) are alternate, elliptic, and acute-tipped. Roots are ample, tuberous, or with a woody caudex. Previous identification  Urera baccifera (L.) Gaudich. ex Wedd. (de Ávila Blomberg 2012; Guerra 1952; Reko 1947) of the Urticaceae or Urera caracasana (Jacq.) Gaudich. ex Griseb. (Miranda and Valdés 1964).

198

2  Phytomorph Identification of the Codex Cruz-Badianus

Putative identification  This phytomorph is not of the Urticaceae, and the epithet “nettle” has been applied to a diverse number of plants outside this family (e.g., Lamium spp. of the Lamiaceae and Solanum spp. of the Solanaceae). Except for the fruits and leaves, this bears similarities to the portrayal of quetzalxoxouh capahtli in folio 26r. However, the characters point to the Euphorbiaceae, instead of either the Urticaceae or the Caprifoliaceae. A genus allied to Jatropha might match the phytomorph, e.g., Ditrysinia fruticosa (W. Bartram Govaerts & Frodin. (Sebastiania fruticosa (W. Bartram) Fern.; Sebastiania ligustrina (Michx.) Müll. Arg.). Distribution  Ditrysinia fruticosa is native to hardwood forests from North Carolina to Texas. Names  Gulf Sebastian-bush (English). Uses  Unknown.

Fig. 2.132  Ditrysinia fruticosa, Euphorbiaceae: (a) folio 47r1; (b) fruit and leaves. (Source: https://www.inaturalist.org/observations/21753114. ericpo1 CC BY-NC 4.0)

Folio 47r2 Nahuatl name  Tetzitzicaztli (te, tetl, = stone; tzigzicazgtli  =  nettle; thus, stone nettle [Emmart 1940; Clayton et al. 2009]).

Folio 47r

199

Description  White terminal flowers are relatively large, zygomorphic, tubular, with at least four petals, subtended by calyces with obtuse lobes. Simple leaves are pinnately lobed, alternate, and acute-tipped. Roots are ample, tuberous, or with a woody caudex. Previous identification  Previous identifications were Cnidoscolus sp. (Linares and Bye 2013; Miranda and Valdés 1964; Valdés Gutiérrez et  al. 1992) of the Euphorbiaceae, Cnidoscolus multilobus (Pax) I.M.Jonst. (de Ávila Blomberg 2012), or Jatropha sp.? (Guerra 1952; Reko 1947) of the Euphorbiaceae. Putative identification  The leaves of the genus Cnidoscolus are usually palmately lobed with small actinomorphic flowers and do not match the phytomorph. Actually, the phytomorph does not have characters of the Bignoniaceae. However, it is a bit of a conundrum. The flowers match exactly Amphilophium crucigerum (L.) L.G. Lohmann [Pithecoctenium crucigerum (L.) A.H. Gentry] of the Bignoniaceae, but the leaves appear to be that of a Datura sp. of the Solanaceae. Is this a mixture of two species from a dried sample, like the phytomorph in folio 16r, whose mixed leaves also match Datura stramonium of folio 13v1? Because of the confusion, we reluctantly identify as ?Cnidoscolus mulilobus (Pax) I.M. Johnst. Distribution  Mexico and Central America. Names  Mala mujer (Spanish). Uses  Cnidoscolus species are used in phytotherapic properties as analgesic, antiinflammatory, diuretic, antibiotic, and anticancer, among others (Wemmenson Goncalves Moura et al. 2019).

Fig. 2.133  Cnidoscolus multilobus, Euphorbiaceae: (a) folio 47r2; (b) flowers and foliage. (Source: https://calphotos.berkeley.edu/cgi/img_query?enlarge=0000+0000+0412+0977. Zoya Akulova CC BY-NC 3.0)

200

2  Phytomorph Identification of the Codex Cruz-Badianus

Folio 47r3 Nahuatl name  Patlahuactzitzicaztli (patlahuac = large; tzitzicaxztli = nettle; thus, large nettle [Emmart 1940]; wide/broad nettle [Clayton et al. 2009]). Description  Terminal flowers are zygomorphic with cupped lips arranged in a raceme or modified cyme, and exserted stamens, subtended by a calyx with acute lobes. Simple leaves are alternate, entire, elliptic, and acute-tipped. Roots are ample. Previous identification  Tournefortia hirsutissima L. (Reko 1947) of the Heliotropiaceae, T. suffruticosa L. [unresolved name] (Guerra 1952; Miranda and Valdés 1964), or Wigandia urens (Ruiz & Pav.) Kunth (W. caracasana Kunth) (de Ávila Blomberg 2012; Díaz 1976) of the Namaceae. Putative identification  None of the suggested species match the phytomorph. The flowers match the Lamiaceae or Orobanchaceae, not the former Boraginaceae, but leaves should be opposite. A match might be a species of bird-pollinated Salvia, such as S. penstemonoides Kunth & C. D. Bouché of the Lamiaceae (Wester 2007). Distribution  Salvia penstemonoides is native to Texas. Names  Big red sage (English). Uses  Unknown.

Fig. 2.134  Salvia penstemonoides, Lamiaceae: (a) folio 47r3; (b) foliage and flowers. (Source: https://www.wildflower.org/gallery/result.php?id_image=31951. Lady Bird Johnson Wildflower Center, Lee Page, unrestricted); (c) flowering stem. (Source: https://www.wildflower.org/gallery/ result.php?id_image=8888. Lady Bird Johnson Wildflower Center, unrestricted)

Folio 47r

201

Folio 47r4 Nahuatl name  Colotzitzicaztli (colo, coloa = scorpion; zitzicaztli = nettle; thus, curved or scorpion nettle [Emmart 1940; Clayton et al. 2009]). Description  Pink-gray picotee on white terminal (aggregate?) fruits (pink picotee on white in Emmart 1940) of five to six drupe-like globes subtended by calyces with acute lobes. Simple leaves are pinnately lobed (or dentate?), alternate, acute-tipped. Green stems appear to have whitish scales or hairs. Roots are ample. Previous identification  Cnidoscolus sp. (de Ávila Blomberg 2012; Linares and Bye 2013; Miranda and Valdés 1964; Valdés Gutiérrez et  al. 1992) of the Euphorbiaceae, Cnidoscolus urens (L.) Arthur (Jatropha urens (L.) (Díaz 1976; Estrada Lugo 1989), Eucnide lobata (Hook.) A. Gray [Mentzelia lobata (Hook.), Hemsl., Microsperma lobatum Hook.] (Estrada Lugo 1989) of the Loasaceae, Gronovia scandens L. (Estrada Lugo 1989) of the Loasaceae, Mentzelia sp. (Guerra 1952; Reko 1947) of the Loasaceae, or Urera sp. (Estrada Lugo 1989) of the Urticaceae. Putative identification  The previous suggestions are discarded because they have palmate leaves and the fruits do not match (flowers are doubtfully shown in the phytomorph, so color cannot be used). The epithet “nettle” has been applied to a disparate number of plants (e.g., Lamium spp. of the Lamiaceae and Solanum spp. of the Solanaceae), so the name is not necessarily a guide, although it implies curved hairs. A match to the phytomorph might be the Rosaceae, especially Rubus, such as R. urticifolius Poir. (R. trichomallus Schltdl.), which bears red to black fruit. Although leaves are palmately compound in fresh samples, they may have been illustrated in the phytomorph from fragmented dried samples, and this might also explain the portrayal of the fruits. This species, as the specific epithet implies, is coated with nettle-like hairs. Some other species of Rubus might be considered, such as R. adenotrichos Schltdl., which has stems covered with gland-tipped bristles, but these are red. Distribution  Rubus urticifolius is native from Mexico to Argentina, Brazil, and Paraguay. Names  Mora, mora silvestre (Spanish). Uses  The edible fruits of Rubus urticifolius are high in antioxidants (Argoti et al. 2011).

202

2  Phytomorph Identification of the Codex Cruz-Badianus

Fig. 2.135  Rubus urticifolius, Rosaceae: (a) folio 47r4; (b) fruits, flowers, and leaves. (Source: https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rubus_urticifolius#/media/File:Rubus_urticifolius,_a_Mora_ Sylvestre_(11348421353).jpg) Dick Culbert CC BY 2.0

Nahuatl name  Xiuhtlemaytl (xiuh, xiuitl = plant; tlemaytl, telmaitl = incense; thus, plant incense burner [Emmart 1940]; herbaceous incense burner [Clayton et al. 2009]). Description  No flowers or fruits are visible. Leaves are palmately compound with two linear lobes. Roots grow on gravel but are not shown. Previous identification  A previous identification was Asteraceae (Valdés Gutiérrez et al. 1992) or Pectis sp. (Guerra 1952; Miranda and Valdés 1964; Reko 1947) of the Asteraceae. Putative identification  This phytomorph is similar to the phytomorphs of folios 19r and 30r#1, but without flowers it is impossible to identify this to species. From North American origins, incense (“copal”) refers to resins from Bursera or Protium spp. of the Burseraceae, Hymenaea spp. of the Fabaceae, Jatropha spp. of the Euphorbiaceae, Pinus spp. of the Pinaceae, or Rhus spp. of the Anacardiaceae (Case et  al. 2003). Yet, none of these genera match this phytomorph. If this is a dwarf scented Pectis species that grows on gravel, P. angustifolia Torr. might be a guess, with its strong lemony scent. Distribution  Pectis angustifolia grows from Kansas to Colorado, south to Mexico. Names  Lemonscent (English); limoncillo (Spanish). Uses  Moerman (2009) lists its uses among tribes of North America for gastrointestinal and psychological aids and as a carminative; it is also a ceremonial plant.

Folio 47v

203

Fig. 2.136  Pectis angustifolia, Asteraceae: (a) folio 47r5; (b) flowers and foliage. (Source: https:// calphotos.berkeley.edu/cgi/img_query?enlarge=0000+0000+0617+1530. Wynn Anderson CC BY-NC-SA 3.0)

Folio 47v

204

2  Phytomorph Identification of the Codex Cruz-Badianus

Aztec medicinal use  For psora. When this roughness of the skin has hold of the body, the bark of the trees cherry, oak, cypress, tlanextiaquahuitl, and blackberry bush; the roots of the herbs tlayapaloni, tlalhaueuetl, and tolohaxihuitl; the leaves of the oak; the apple tree; and the herb tlatlanquaye are to be ground, put in water, and then well-cooked with incense and the yolk of an egg. And the part of the body having ulcers or pustules is to be washed in urine, and afterwards the prepared remedy is to be applied to it (Emmart 1940).

Folio 47v1 Nahuatl name  Elocapolin (elo = tender-ear-of-maize; capolin = cherry; thus, tender green corn-ear cherry [Emmart 1940]; tender-ear-of-maize cherry [Clayton et al. 2009]). Description  Fruits are terminal, globular, red to black berries. Simple leaves are alternate, elliptic, petiolated, and acute-tipped. Stems are pink. Roots are ample, tuberous, or with a woody caudex. Previous identification  Previous identifications were Ardisia sp. (Guerra 1952; Miranda and Valdés 1964) of the Primulaceae or Prunus serotina Ehrh. var. salicifolia (Kunth) Koehne [P. serotina Ehrh. subsp. capuli (Cav. ex Spreng.) McVaugh, P. capollin (Cav. ex Spreng.) Zucc., P. capuli Cav.] (Díaz 1976; Linares and Bye 2013; Reko 1947; Valdés Gutiérrez et al. 1992) of the Rosaceae. Putative identification  Prunus serotina var. salicifolia is a good match. Distribution  This cherry is native from Mexico to Guatemala. Names  Capullí, capulín (Spanish). Uses  Martínez (1969) lists its uses in traditional Mexican medicine. Standley (1920–1926) remarks: “The wood is of good quality and is much used for general carpentry and cabinet work. The large juicy fruit is highly esteemed, and for this reason the trees are sometimes planted about houses. In early times, at least, an intoxicating drink was made from the fruit. The juice or the fruits are sometimes mixed with cornmeal to make a kind of cake known as “capultamal” or “capoltamalli.” The bark, leaves, or seeds, when crushed in contact with water, develop hydrocyanic acid, and under proper conditions they may poison animals which eat them; the same is true of other members of the genus. The distilled water of the leaves is substituted in Mexico for cherry laurel water, and has the same antispasmodic properties. A decoction of the bark is employed for dysentery and is reputed also, without sufficient basis apparently, to have febrifuge properties. The bark of Prunus serotine Ehrh. of the United States, a closely similar species, is official in the U. S. Pharmacopoeia. It has tonic properties and the power of calming irritation and diminishing nervous excitability. It has been employed extensively for the hectic

Folio 47v

205

fever which accompanies scrofula and tuberculosis. The fruit of the same species has been much used for flavoring spirituous liquors and various nonintoxicating beverages. The fruit of Prunus capuli is mentioned by the earliest Spanish visitors to Mexico. Bernal Diaz del Castillo, in relating the hardships of the siege of Mexico in 1521, when the Spaniards and their allies were often in the direst straits for want of food, says, ‘Corn we had sufficiency of, but we wanted refreshments for the wounded. What preserved us was the plant called quilites, cherries while in season, and tunas or Indian figs.’ Sahagun treats of the tree under the name “capulín.” The juice of the leaves and young shoots, he states, was dropped into the eyes to heal inflammation, and the kernels of the seeds were roasted and eaten. Hernández also treats of the plant in a chapter, accompanied by a figure, entitled “De Capolin, seu Ceraso dulci indica.” ‘The fruits,’ he says, ‘are slightly acid and astringent, although when fully ripe they are sweet and lose a great part of their harshness; and by some persons they are considered in no wise inferior to our cherries. In nature they are hot, dry, and somewhat astringent. They are made into bread and wine in times of scarcity. They furnish a sad food, and one which is hurtful in a way to the heart; and they impart a black color to the teeth if they are eaten for a long time, but this can be removed easily with attention and dentifrices; and there are not lacking persons who prefer these to all the other spring fruits, even those of the Old World.’ The tree flowers in spring and bears fruit nearly all summer long. It thrives in temperate regions, such as Mexico, where these trees grow in the gardens and plains, cultivated or wild. The decoction of the bark, put in the sun for fifteen days, and drunk in a dose of a drachm, cures dysentery; and the powdered bark removes ulcers from the eyes, clears the vision, and relieves inflammation of the eyes: and it moistens the tongue if it be dry from burning fever, as does also the liquor or juice from the young shoots.”

Fig. 2.137  Prunus serotina var. salicifolia, Rosaceae: (a) folio 47v1; (b) fruit and foliage. (Source: http://www.treemail.hu/noveny_enciklopedia/prunus_capuli_mexiki_cseresznye?setlang=en Treemail Mail Order Nursery [email protected])

206

2  Phytomorph Identification of the Codex Cruz-Badianus

Folio 47v2 Nahuatl name  Tlatzcan (tlatzca = cypress; primary name [Emmart 1940; Clayton et al. 2009]). Alternate name: tlazcantic. Description  Cones are pink picotee on white, terminal. Leaves are apparently greatly reduced, acicular. Roots are ample, tuberous, or with a woody caudex. Accompanying this phytomorph are draping wisps of gray-green. Previous identification  Previous identifications Cupressus sp. (Gates 2000), Cupressus lusitanica Mill. var. benthamii (Endl.) Carrière [C. benthamii Engl., C. lindleyi Klotzsch ex Endl. subsp. benthamii (Endl.) Silba] [plus Tillandsia usneoides (L.) L. of the Bromeliaceae] (Altamirano 1896; de Ávila Blomberg 2012; Díaz 1976; Emmart 1940; Estrada Lugo 1989; Guerra 1952; Linares and Bye 2013; Miranda and Valdés 1964; Reko 1947; Siméon 2010; Valdés Gutiérrez et al. 1992) of the Cupressaceae, or Juniperus poblana (Martínez) R.P.Adams (Cupressus thurifera Kunth) (Estrada Lugo 1989) of the Cupressaceae. Putative identification  Cupressus lusitanica var. benthamii fits the phytomorph, draped with Tillandsia usneoides (L.) L., Spanish moss. Distribution  Cupressus lusitanica var. benthamii is native to southern Mexico. This is one of the species surviving at the pre-Hispanic garden of Tetzcutzingo Hill Complex, Mexico (Hernández-Cruz et al. 2016). Names  Bentham cypress (English); cedro blanco, ciprés, sabina (Spanish). Uses  Standley (1920–1926) remarks: “The wood is undoubtedly of importance for lumber, although no details concerning it are available. The bark is said to be used in medicine as an astringent.”

Fig. 2.138  Cupressus lusitanica var. benthamii, Cupressaceae: (a) folio 47v2; (b) cones and foliage. (Source: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Starr_061225-2938_Cupressus_lusitanica.jpg. Forest & Kim Starr CC BY 3.0)

Folio 47v

207

Folio 47v3 Nahuatl name  Ayuatl tepiton (ahuatl = oak; tepiton, tepitoton = little; thus, little oak [Emmart 1940]; insignificant little oak [Clayton et al. 2009]). Description  Flowers are pale yellow globes arranged in a circle on a gray circular background (more intense colors in Emmart 1940). Simple leaves are elliptic, petiolated, alternate, and acute-tipped. Stem has draping wisps of gray-green, red hairs at the base. Roots are ample, tuberous, or with a woody caudex. Previous identification  Previous identifications were Quercus sp. (Gates 2000; Miranda and Valdés 1964) of the Fagaceae or Rhamnus serrata Willd. Ex Schult. (Díaz 1976; Guerra 1952; Linares and Bye 2013; Reko 1947; Valdés Gutiérrez et al. 1992) of the Rhamnaceae. Putative identification  Rhamnus serrata is at first pilose but soon glabrate, so this does not fit the phytomorph well. The phytomorph appears to be a woody member of the Moraceae with unripe, swollen receptacles (discoid syncarps in gray) with sunken seeds (in yellow), i.e., probably Castilla elastica Sessé ex Cerv. The fruits are at first shades of green, later maturing to shades of yellow and orange. The gray wisps are probably Spanish moss (Tillandsia usneoides [L.] L. of the Bromeliaceae). Young parts are densely yellowish-pubescent; the main trunk is coated with tiny prickles, whereas the base of untapped wild trees is often coated with lianas. The “red hairs” on the phytomorph are probably infections by a perennial mistletoe such as Psittacanthus calyculatus (DC.) G. Don of the Loranthaceae with tubular yellow to orange flowers (Arce-Acosta et al. 2016; Vázquez-Collazo and Geils 2002). Distribution  Castilla elastica is native from Mexico to Ecuador and Colombia. Names  Mexican rubber tree, ule tree (English); árbol del ule, mastate blanco (Spanish). Uses  Standley (1920–1926) remarks: “This is one of the best-known trees of Mexico, being the principal source of commercial rubber in Mexico and Central America. The rubber is obtained from either wild or cultivated trees. The Castilla grows wild chiefly in the states of Chiapas, Tabasco, Yucatfin, and Veracruz, usually at altitudes of 700 meters or less. It is reported also from Campeche, Oaxaca. Guerrero, Michoacan, Colima, Jalisco, Hidalgo, Sinaloa, and Tamaulipas. Cultivation of the rubber tree was begun in the State of Chiapas about 50 years ago, but only in an experimental way, and it is only in recent years that cultivation has been carried on upon an extensive scale. The details of rubber production are so numerous that they can not [sic] be treated here…. Like other plants of the family Moraceae, the rubber tree has milky juice, and this is the source of the rubber. The juice is obtained by tapping the trees. It coagulates upon exposure to the air, but various substances are sometimes added to hasten coagulation. In British Honduras the pounded stems of morning-glory (Colonyction) are said to be used for this purpose. The early inhabitants of Mexico were well acquainted with the crude rubber, using it to make balls for games, for bottles, and for waterproofing coats, hats, shoes, and other objects. The wood is white and moderately heavy. The bark is beaten out by some of the

208

2  Phytomorph Identification of the Codex Cruz-Badianus

Indians of tropical America, and the fabric thus obtained is used for clothing and blankets. In Mexico the bark is said to have been one of the sources of paper. Hernández was probably the first to give an account of the Mexican rubber tree. He gives a fairly accurate figure, and the following account, in a chapter entitled ‘De Holquahuitl, seu Arbore Chilli’: ‘Holquahuitl is a tree of which there are two sorts. The one produces a large, smooth, yellow stem, full of soft pith; whitish flowers; very large leaves; and star-shaped disks, pale but becoming red, clinging to a stalk and crowded with fruits like Pontic nuts, which are covered with a whitish and yellow skin and have a bitter flavor. The other sort has leaves like Malus Medicus, but larger; the bark of both trees is bitter. The latter grows in Michoacan, where it is called tarantaquam. The first is called Mecatlani and yhulapae. The bark is warm in the third order and slightly lubricous; its infused decoction is good for dysentery. When cut it yields a gum, called Holli by the Indians, which is at first milky, but soon yellow, and finally black, if it is smeared on the bodies of those who gather it. It is so resilient that balls fashioned from it bounce like hand-balls, and it is useful for many other purposes. For it evokes the urine uncommonly, cleanses the womb, and corrects sterility.… Added to food it fattens, and compounded with those creatures which are called Axin, it is said to engender a certain agility to the body, and to soften the bones so that men are able to turn and twist this way and that, and to handle the body like contortionists; and it excites venery, it allays colics, applied as a plaster it relieves the bowels, appeases thirst, and, burnt, it dissipates ulcers. This is that noble gum with which the Indians once were wont to play the game called Bathei, wonderful to see, which, by the agency of Cortes, the people of Spain also were enabled to witness years ago. The leaves of the tree, dried and bruised, are said to destroy lions and other animals. According to Sahagún, ‘hoarseness is cured by rubbing the throat with ulli, drinking honey, and sniffing a few drops of honey up the nose. The gum is very medicinal and is used for almost all diseases. It is a remedy for the eyes, for abscesses, and for suppuration. It is taken with cacao. It is useful for the stomach and intestines, internal putrefaction, and constipation.’ The rubber was employed also for holding broken bones in place, and for similar purposes.”

Fig. 2.139  Castilla elastica, Moraceae: (a) folio 47v3; (b) foliage and fruit. (Source: https://biogeodb.stri.si.edu/bioinformatics/dfm/metas/view/10907. STRI Steven Paton CC BY-NC 3.0)

Folio 48r

209

Folio 48r

Aztec medicinal uses  For dyspepsia—that is, difficulty and illness of digestion. When anyone is constipated because of indigestion of the stomach, grind together for him the cones of cypress, laurel leaves, the stalk of the herb zacamatlalin, the root of cherry, and the ylin tree and the herb tonatiuhyxiuh, which shines like the gleam of gold. And when ground, they are to be well-cooked in acid water with honey; the juice when drunk helps marvelously to purge the abdomen (Emmart 1940).

Folio 48r1 Nahuatl name  Çacamatlalin (zaca or çaca [see çacatl] = grass; matalin = blue color; thus, blue grass (herb) [Emmart 1940]; grassy matalin [Clayton et al. 2009]). Alternate spellings: zacamatlalin, camatlali. Description  Flowers have three blue petals faded to white towards the center in a terminal inflorescence, yellow center. Leaves are simple, entire, and elliptic, forming a sheath around the stems. Roots are ample, white. Previous identification  Previous identifications were Commelina sp. (Clayton et al. 2009; Emmart 1940; Guerra 1952) of the Commelinaceae, C. coelestis Burm.f. (Linares and Bye 2013; Miranda and Valdés 1964), C. pallida Willd. (Godínez Salazar 2017), or Tradescantia sp. (de Ávila Blomberg 2012; Emmart 1940; Guerra 1952; Valdés Gutiérrez et al. 1992) of the Commelinaceae. Putative identification  This is very similar to folio 10v#2, which was identified as Commelina coelestis, but these flowers in the phytomorph fade with white whiskers

210

2  Phytomorph Identification of the Codex Cruz-Badianus

towards the center. A better match might be a species such as Tradescantia commelinoides Schult. & Schult.f. (Pellegrini 2017). Distribution  Tradescantia commelinoides is native from Mexico to Honduras. Names  A spiderwort (English). Uses  Ornamental, medicinal.

Fig. 2.140  Tradescantia commelinoides, Commelinaceae: (a) folio 48r1; (b) flowers and foliage. (Source: https://www.inaturalist.org/photos/1103013. María Dolores Reyes Morales CC BY-NC-ND 4.0)

Folio 48r2 Nahuatl name  Hecapatli (heca, ecatl = wind; pahtli = medicine; thus, wind, air medicine [Emmart 1940]; wind remedy [Clayton et al. 2009]). Alternate spellings: ehcapahtli, hecapahtli. Description  Three terminal actinomorphic red flowers of each of three shoots are subtended by calyces with acute lobes. Simple leaves are entire, elliptic, alternate and opposite, acute-tipped, with a short petiole. Roots are ample, tuberous. Previous identification  A previous identification was Senna occidentalis (L.) Link (Cassia laevigata sensu aucturum, C. occidentalis L.) (Guerra 1952; Miranda and Valdés 1964; Reko 1947) of the Fabaceae. Putative identification  Senna occidentalis has compound leaves and yellow flowers of the Fabaceae, totally unlike the phytomorph. This may be Phemeranthus aurantiacus (Engelm.) Kiger [Talinum angustissimum (A. Gray) Woot. & Standl., Talinum aurantiacum Engelm., Talinum aurantiacum var. angustissimum A. Gray, Talinum polygaloides Gill. ex Arn.] of the Montiaceae. This is probably not the same as the ecaptli of Hernandez et al. (1651:112).

Folio 48r

211

Distribution  Phemeranthus aurantiacus is native to Arizona, New Mexico, Texas, and Mexico. Names  Orange false flameflower (English). Uses  Kinsey (2019) remarks: “Although woody, the large, tuberous roots are edible if cooked. The roots were used as a food source by the Native Americans.”

Fig. 2.141  Phemeranthus aurantiacus, Montiaceae: (a) folio 48r2; (b) flowers and foliage. (Source: https://www.wildflower.org/gallery/result.php?id_image=15669. Lady Bird Johnson Wildflower Center, Campbell and Lynn Loughmiller, unrestricted use)

Folio 48v

212

2  Phytomorph Identification of the Codex Cruz-Badianus

Aztec medicinal use  When a bruised vein is already swelling. If on account of blood-letting, the vein becomes swollen, grind together in boiled water the shrubs tzihuaccopalli and tlacahecapahtli and tetzmitl, the root of the herb tlanenpohpoloa, the leaves of the herb coyoxihuitl with the yolk of an egg, into which is to be poured afterwards water fragrant with the odor of incense, and with this juice the cut vein is to be moistened (Emmart 1940).

Folio 48v1 Nahuatl name  Tzihuaccopalli (tzihuac, tzioactli = a species of tree which grows with its roots between rocks; copalli, copal = a tree which gives a resin called copal; thus, copal of the tzihuac [Emmart 1940]; tzihuac-like copal-tree [Clayton et al. 2009]). Description  Terminal red flower buds or fruits are in a raceme subtended by calyces with acute lobes. Three-pinnate compound leaves are alternate on a long petiole. Stem is brown. Roots are ample, possibly tuberous or with a basal caudex. Previous identification  Previous identifications were Bursera sp. (Clayton et al. 2009; de Ávila Blomberg 2012; Emmart 1940; Miranda and Valdés 1964; Reko 1947; Valdés Gutiérrez et al. 1992) of the Burseraceae, Bursera bipinnata (Moc. & Sessé ex DC.) Engl. [Elaphrium bipinnatum (Moc. & Sessé ex DC.) Schltdl.] (Godínez Salazar 2017; Linares and Bye 2013), Bursera morelensis Ramírez (Clayton et al. 2009), Senna occidentalis (L.) Link (Cassia occidentalis L.) of the Fabaceae, or Discocactus flagelliformis (L.) Barthlott [Aporocactus flagelliformis (L.) Lem., Nyctocereus serpentinus (Lag. & Rodr.) Britton & Rose] (Guerra 1952) of the Cactaceae. Putative identification  The phytomorph matches most closely to Bursera bipinnata. Distribution  Bursera bipinnata is native from Mexico to Honduras. Names  Standley (1920–1926) reports: jabcncillo (Chihuahua); copal chino, copal amargo (Michoacán); copal amargoso (Guerrero); incienso del pais, tetlate, tetlatfa (Morelos); tetlatian, tetlatin; copal amargo; palo copal (Sinaloa); cuajiote (Colorado). Uses  Standley (1920–1926) remarks: “The resin is employed in Sinaloa for treating wounds.”

Folio 48r

213

Fig. 2.142  Bursera bipinnata, Burseraceae: (a) folio 48v1; (b) fruits and foliage. (Source: https:// alchetron.com/Bursera-bipinnata#demo. Alchetron CC BY-SA 3.0)

Folio 48v2 Nahuatl name  Tlacoecapahtli (tlaco, tlacotl  =  stem; heca, eheca  =  wind; pahtli = medicine; thus, wind, air medicine [Emmart 1940]; shrubby wind remedy [Clayton et al. 2009]). Alternate spellings: tlacohecapahtli, tlacoecapatli. Description  Terminal yellowish buds and funnelform flowers subtended by calyces with subacute lobes are in a raceme. Simple leaves are entire, mostly sessile, alternate, elliptic, and tri-apical. Roots are ample. Previous identification  Previous identifications were Litsea glaucescens Kunth (Linares and Bye 2013) of the Lauraceae or Senna occidentalis (L.) Link (Cassia laevigata sensu aucorum, C. occidentalis L.) (Guerra 1952; Miranda and Valdés 1964; Reko 1947) of the Fabaceae. Putative identification  Senna occidentalis is excluded because it has compound leaves and the flowers do not match. Litsea glaucescens matches the phytomorph except for the distinctive three-cleft tips of the leaves and funnelform yellowish flowers in the phytomorph, and this should be a shrub from the name, not a tree.

214

2  Phytomorph Identification of the Codex Cruz-Badianus

The leaves of the phytomorph are unusual in that they are tri-apical, but this often represents the developmental stage in many leaves and can be influenced by the environment (Liu et  al. 2015). The phytomorph shows most similarity to the Primulaceae as currently defined, and Bonellia albiflora (Lundell) B.  Ståhl & Källersjö [Jacquinia aurantiaca W.T.  Aiton var. albiflora (Lundell) Lundell.] is a similar match (except for the tri-apical leaves). Distribution  Bonellia albiflora is native to Mexico and Guatemala. Names  Si’ik (Mayan). Uses  Bonellia albiflora is used in traditional Mayan medicine for chronic injuries of the mouth and is anticarcinogenic (Moo-Puc et al. 2013). Standley (1920–1926) says of the closely related B. macrocarpa (Cav.) B. Ståhl & Källersjö (Jacquinia aurantiaca W.T. Aiton) with orange flowers: “The flowers are said to be eaten by birds. Palmer reports that in Guerrero the powdered bark is mixed with salt and applied to sores upon animals. The crushed fruit is employed extensively in Mexico and Central America for poisoning fish. The tree is described and figured by Hernández as ‘hoitzxochitl,’ or ‘arbor lonchifolia.’ The bark, he states, was employed as a remedy for venereal diseases; a decoction of the seeds as a remedy for headache and toothache. He states that other names for the plant were ‘xochipaltic’, ‘neuhxochitl,’ and ‘hoatzinxochitl.’”

Fig. 2.143  Bonellia albiflora, Primulaceae: (a) folio 48v2; (b) herbarium sheet. (Source: https:// www.cicy.mx/sitios/flora%20digital/ficha_virtual.php?especie=2219. CICY [email protected])

Folio 49r

215

Folio 49r

Aztec medicinal uses  Remedy for pus already infested with worms. When you see that the suppuration is already wormy, grind together the leaves of quetzalmizquitl, cimatl, and tlalcacapol, and of briar bushes, the root, too, of tlaquilin, and the bark of xiloxochitl, and this in the very best native wine. And the juice is to be applied to the wormy part morning and evening. It is of some value also to apply a medicament of briars, oak bark, and the foliage of quetzalylin, tlalpahtli, quauhpahtli, and tlatlanquaye and the root of tlalhaueuetl, ground in water with the yolk of an egg. This treatment every day, twice morning and evening, until the purulent mass is dried up (Emmart 1940).

Folio 49r1 Nahuatl name  Quetzalmizquitl (quetzal = precious, plume; misquitl = a variety of tree with pinnate leaves; thus, precious misquitl [Emmart 1940; Clayton et al. 2009]). Description  Globular red inflorescences are terminal. Leaves are once-pinnate. Fruits are brown legumes with three seeds. Roots are ample, tuberous. Previous identification  Previous identifications were Mimosa sp. (Godínez Salazar 2017), Parkinsonia aculeata L. (Díaz 1976; Miranda and Valdés 1964) of the Fabaceae, Pithecellobium circinale (L.) Benth. (Mimosa circinalis (L.) (Gates 2000), Prosopis sp. (Estrada Lugo 1989) of the Fabaceae, Prosopis chilensis (Molina) Stuntz (de Ávila Blomberg 2012; Farfán and Elferink 2010; Guerra 1952;

216

2  Phytomorph Identification of the Codex Cruz-Badianus

Reko 1947), Prosopis laevigata (Humb. & Bonpl. ex Willd.) M.C. Johnst. (P. dulcis Kunth) (Linares and Bye 2013; Valdés Gutiérrez et al. 1992), or Prosopis pubescens Benth. (Estrada Lugo 1989). Putative identification  From the previous identifications, Prosopis laevigata has the best match to the phytomorph. Distribution  Prosopis laevigata is native from Texas to Argentina. Names  Smooth mesquite (English); mesquite (Spanish). Uses  Prosopis laevigata is used for human food, folk medicine, forage, fuel, and construction (Galinda-Almanza and Garcia Moya 1986).

Fig. 2.144  Prosopis laevigata, Fabaceae: (a) folio 49r1; (b) pods and foliage. (Source: https:// calphotos.berkeley.edu/cgi/img_query?enlarge=0000+0000+0314+1334. Wynn Anderson CC BY-NC-SA 3.0)

Folio 49r2 Nahuatl name  Tlalcacapol (tlal, tlalli = earth; cacapol, capol = cherry; thus, earth cherries [Emmart 1940; Clayton et al. 2009]). Description  This phytomorph is identical to folio 47v3 (i.e., with discoid syncarps in green-blue and yellow) except for the lack of Spanish moss and parasites, and this is epipetric with a brown stem. Previous identification  Previous identifications were Malpighia glabra L. (Guerra 1952; Miranda and Valdés 1964; Reko 1947) of the Malpighiaceae, Rhamnus sp. (de Ávila Blomberg 2012) of the Rhamnaceae, R. humboldtiana Willd. ex Schult. [Karwinskia humboldtiana (Schult.) Zucc.] (Guerra 1952; Linares and Bye 2013; Valdés Gutiérrez et al. 1992), or R. serrata Willd. ex Schult. (de Ávila Blomberg 2012; Díaz 1976).

Folio 49r

217

Putative identification  None of the suggested identifications match the phytomorph. If this is also the Moraceae, this may be the flowers of Brosimum alicastrum Sw. Perhaps one explanation for the Nahuatl name is that when the fruits of this species litter the forest floor, they look like cherry pits. Distribution  Brosimum alicastrum is native from Mexico to Peru. Names  Standley (1920–1926) records: ramón (Yucatan, Oaxaca); ox (Yucatan, Tabasco, Maya); ojite (Veracruz, Tamaulipas, Oaxaca; from the Nahuatl, oxitl); nazareno (Oaxaca); oxotzin (Veracruz); capomo (Tepic, Jalisco, Veracruz, Oaxaca); apomo (Sinaloa); juandiego (Oaxaca); ojoche (Nicaragua); maseco (Guatemala, Honduras). Uses  Standley (1920–1926) remarks: “The wood is said to be white, or sometimes grayish or tinged with flesh color, compact, hard, and line-grained; it is used in carpenter work. The tree is valued highly for forage, the branches being cut and fed to different kinds of stock, and the fallen leaves are eaten greedily by cattle. The tree is often planted for this purpose, and in some parts of Mexico it is a very important forage plant. The milky juice is reported to yield a kind of rubber, and is used as a calmant in asthma. It is reputed also to increase the flow of human milk, this probably a relic of the old medical theory of signatures. The seeds are said to be fattening for cattle, which are fond of them, and they are used also as human food. For the latter purpose they are boiled or roasted, and eaten alone or mixed with sugar, honey, or corn meal. They have a flavor resembling that of chestnuts and are very nutritious. The seeds are sometimes roasted and used as a substitute for coffee.”

Fig. 2.145  Brosimum alicastrum, Moraceae: (a) folio 49r2; (b) fruit and foliage. (Source: https:// commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Brosimum_alicastrum_MeridaMX _ GreenFruits.jpg. Janhendrix CC BY-SA 4.0)

218

2  Phytomorph Identification of the Codex Cruz-Badianus

Folio 49r3 Nahuatl name  Cimatl (primary name) (Emmart 1940; Clayton et al. 2009). Description  This phytomorph is a repeat of folio 29v, despite the different name. Previous identification  Previous identifications were Canavalia villosa Benth. (Estrada Lugo 1989) of the Fabaceae, Cochliasanthus caracalla (L.) Trew ex A. Delgado et al. (Phaseolus caracalla L.) (Estrada Lugo 1989) of the Fabaceae, Desmodium amplifolium (Kunth) DC. (Díaz 1976; Estrada Lugo 1989) of the Fabaceae, D. orbiculare Schltdl. (Díaz 1976), D. parviflorum (Dalzell) H.Oshahi (Díaz 1976), D. scoparium Wall. [unresolved name] (Estrada Lugo 1989), Macroptilium atropurpureum (DC.) Urb. (Phaseolus atropurpureus DC.) (Estrada Lugo 1989) of the Fabaceae, Phaseolus sp.) (Estrada Lugo 1989) of the Fabaceae, or Phaseolus coccineus L. (P. multiflorus Willd.) (Díaz 1976; Estrada Lugo 1989; Guerra 1952; Linares and Bye 2013; Miranda and Valdés 1964; Reko 1947). Putative identification  Desmodium parviflorum is Asian, while the application of D. scoparium is unresolved; both are not discussed here. Phaseolus coccineus would be the best match to the phytomorph. Distribution  Phaseolus coccineus is native from Mexico to Nicaragua. Names  Cubá, judía encarnada, judía pinta, pilay (Spanish). Uses  The nutritional value of this foodstuff is explored by Carledrón et al. (1992).

Fig. 2.146  Phaseolus coccineus, Fabaceae: (a) folio 49r3; (b) botanical print (Thomé 1886–1934: vol. 3, pl. 454). (Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f7/Illustration_ Phaseolus_coccineus0.jpg)

Folio 49v

219

Folio 49v

Aztec medicinal use  Burns of the body. A burned part of our body is helped with juice from nohpalli, teamoxtli, amoxtli, tetzmitl, hecapahtli, texiyotl and huitzquilitl, with which it is to be well anointed and rubbed with honey and yolk of egg (Emmart 1940).

Folio 49v Nahuatl name  Tlatoc nochtli (tlatoc, tlatoctli  =  planted; nochtli  =  nopal; thus, planted cactus [Emmart 1940; Clayton et al. 2009]). Description  Obviously a member of the Cactaceae, the flowers are yellow on top of pear-shaped red fruits with whitish glochids (two developmental stages that do not occur together). Pads of this opuntiad are green with whitish thorns at black nodes. Roots are ample and white. Previous identification  Previous identifications were Opuntia sp. (Valdés Gutiérrez et al. 1992) of the Cactaceae, Opuntia ficus-indica (L.) Mill. (de Ávila Blomberg 2012), O. microdasys (Lehm.) Pfeiff. (Guerra 1952; Miranda and Valdés 1964) or O. streptacantha Lem. (Godínez Salazar 2017; Zepeda and White 2008) or O. tomentosa Selm-Dyck (Linares and Bye 2013). Putative identification  The pear-shaped fruits of the phytomorph bear some resemblance to O. tomentosa, but this species is South American. Opuntia microdasys rarely flowers and fruits. Opuntia streptacantha bears globular fruits with brown glochids. Opuntia ficus-indica of Mexico is most likely.

220

2  Phytomorph Identification of the Codex Cruz-Badianus

Distribution  Opuntia ficus-indica is native to Mexico. Names  Barberry fig, Indian fig, mission cactus, mission prickly pear, smooth prickly pear, sweet prickly pear, tuna (English); chumba, chunbera, higuera, nopal de Castilla, nopal pelón, tune, tune de Castilla, tuna mansa (Spanish). Uses  Osuna-Martinez et al. (2014) remark: “Cactus (Opuntia ficus-indica) has been used in traditional folk medicine because of its role in treating a number of diseases and conditions, including diabetes, hypertension, hypercholesterolemia, rheumatic pain, gastric mucosa diseases and asthma, in many countries over the world. Nowadays, the cactus, fruits and cladodes, is the focus of many studies because they contain bioactive (phytochemical) compounds, well known for their health-related properties. It has been revealing a positive correlation between a diet rich in prickly pear cactus and a reduced risk of diseases associated with oxidative stress, such as diabetes, cancer, cardiovascular and neurodegenerative diseases. The Opuntia ficusindica exhibits diverse pharmacological actions through its antioxidant activity: protects cells against oxidative damage, acts as radical scavengers, reduces lipid peroxidation and increases GSH levels. So far, there is no report about the adverse/ toxic effects on humans.” Shetty et al. (2012) provide further medicinal insights.

Fig. 2.147  Opuntia ficus-indica, Cactaceae; (a) folio 49v; (b) fruits and foliage. (Source: https:// en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Indian_Fig_2_-_Opuntia_ficus-indica.jpg. © 2005 Luigi Rignanese CC BY-SA 3.0)

Folio 50r

221

Folio 50r

Aztec medicinal use  For lightning stroke. One who is touched by heaven or struck by lightning is to drink a well-mixed potion made from the leaves of trees, namely, ayauhquahuitl and tepapaquiltiquahuitl, and unusually green cypress, the shrub yztauhyatl, the herb quauhyyahtli and teamoxtli. Whenever the potion is to be given, it should be heated over the fire. Then the body should be rubbed with a plaster made of the herbs papaloquilitl, tlalhecapahtli, quauhyyauhtli, tlatlanquaye, huitzitzilxochitl and yztacocoxochitl, finally, containing all those herbs above which the lightning struck. A few days later he should drink water, in which white incense had been thrown. And the water is to be boiled well with white incense and with whitish incense, to which add fox bone burned to ashes. You will mix some Indian wine also with the above-mentioned ingredients. Besides, you shall instill a medicine into the nostrils, composed of white pearl, the root of tlahtlahcotic and of all small herbs growing in a pleasure garden which has at some time been burned. He shall be suffumigated with the good odor of white incense, of the wax which is called xochiocotzotl and of the herbs quauhyyauhtli thrown into embers (Emmart 1940).

Folio 50r1 Nahuatl name  Ayauhquahuitl (ayauh, ayauitl  =  mist, dripping; quahuitl  =  tree; thus, mist tree, a variety of pine [Emmart 1940]; fog tree [Clayton et  al. 2009]). Alternate spellings: ayacahuite, ayauhquauitl, aiauhquauitl.

222

2  Phytomorph Identification of the Codex Cruz-Badianus

Description  Brown terminal cones apparently indicate the Pinaceae. Leaves are linear, four to seven palmately compound. Roots are ample, tuberous, or with a woody caudex. Previous identification  Previous identifications were Pinus ayacahuite C. Ehrenb. ex Schltdl. (de Ávila Blomberg 2012; Díaz 1976; Emmart 1940; Estrada Lugo 1989; Guerra 1952; Linares and Bye 2013; Miranda and Valdés 1964; Reko 1947; Valdés Gutiérrez et al. 1992) of the Pinaceae or Juniperus poblana (Martínez) R. P. Adams (Cupressus thurifera Kunth, J. flaccida Schltdl. var. poblana Martínez) (Gates 2000) of the Cupressaceae. Putative identification  Pinus ayacahuite matches the phytomorph (Smith 1979), but this species is often used interchangeably with Pinus chiapensis (Martínez) Andresen (Del Castillo and Acosta 2002). Distribution  Pinus ayacahuite is native from Mexico to Honduras. Names  Mexican white pine, ayacahuite pine (English); Standley (1920–1926) lists: acanita (Coahuila); acalocahuite (Veracruz); ayacahuite (Valley of Mexico, Oaxaca, etc.); ocote bianco (Oaxaca); ayacahuite Colorado (Hidalgo); sacalacahuite (various localities in Mexico); pino real (Oaxaca); pino acahuiter or pino cahuite (Durango). Uses  Lumber and resin are the primary uses for these pines (Farjon and Styles 1997).

Fig. 2.148  Pinus ayacahuite, Pinaceae: (a) folio 50r1; (b) cone and foliage. (Source: https:// war.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paypay:Pinus_ayacahuite_cones_1.jpg. Silversyrpher CC BY 2.0)

Folio 50r

223

Folio 50r2 Nahuatl name  Quauhyyauhtli (quauh, quauhtla = wild wood; yyauhtli, iyaua = to incense or offer incense; thus, wild or wood incense [Emmart 1940]; forest/iyauhtli [Clayton et al. 2009]). Description  No flowers and fruits are visible. Simple leaves are shades of green, elliptic, entire, acute-tipped. Roots are ample, perhaps tuberous, or with a woody caudex. Previous identification  Previous identifications were Chrysactinia mexicana A.  Gray (Guerra 1952; Reko 1947) of Asteraceae or Tagetes lucida Cav. (Gates 2000; Linares and Bye 2013; Valdés Gutiérrez et al. 1992) of the Asteraceae. Putative identification  Tagetes lucida, because of use in incense (Case et  al. 2003), is about as good a match as any suggestion with no flowers or fruits. This is vegetative for most of its life cycle, flowering in late fall with shorter days. Distribution  Tagetes lucida is native from Mexico to Honduras. Names  Mexican mint marigold, Mexican tarragon, sweet marigold, sweet mace (English); anisillo, pericón, perriquillo (Spanish). Uses  Tucker and DeBaggio (2009) state: “Mexican tarragon, under the Nahuatl names yahutli [yauhtli] or tumutsli, is one of the ingredients in a mixture smoked by Huichal Indians in Mexico. In many parts of Latin America today, sweet marigold is used to brew a tea. Crude and semipurified extracts of T. lucida have been demonstrated to have an anticholinergic activity and may thus have usefulness as a remedy for several muscular problems. An aqueous leaf sample was also demonstrated to block spontaneous uterus contractability in rats in the laboratory, supporting its post-partum folk use in Mexico. Mexican tarragon is antifungal and antibacterial.”

Fig. 2.149  Tagetes lucida, Asteraceae: (a) folio 50r2; (b) flowers and foliage. (Source: https:// commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Tagetes_lucida_(tagete_luisante).JPG. Zubro CC BY-SA 3.0)

224

2  Phytomorph Identification of the Codex Cruz-Badianus

Folio 51v

Aztec medicinal use  Comitia l disease. For a recently developed epilepsy will prevail the stones found in the intestines of the hawk, of the small birds huactli and the rooster, the root quetzalatzonyatl, a stag’s horn, whitish incense, white incense, a hair of a corpse, the burned flesh of a mole shut up in a jar, which then are to be ground in hot water. The epileptic is to drink the liquor so that he will vomit, and before this it will not be useless for him to drink the juice of the shrub called tlahtlacotic, the root is to be ground up. Observe the time, when the epilepsy is about to come, for at that very moment the epileptic is to be set upright and his ribs and sides are to be pricked. When coming to himself. He should drink dog’s bile, and at the same time his head is to be moistened with a poultice made of the leaves of quetzalatzanyatl and tetzitzilin, and the herb or shrub acocohxihuitl, ground in water. He is to eat the brain of a fox and a weasel, cooked. He is then to be fumigated or perfumed with the good odor of a mouse nest burned on a bed of coals, of whitish incense and of feathers of the bird cozcaquauhtli (Emmart 1940).

Folio 51v1 Nahuatl name  Quetzalhatzonyatl (quetzal  =  green plume; a, atl  =  water; tzonhotl = terminal point, tip; thus, beautiful water plume tip [Emmart 1940]; plumelike atzonyatl [Clayton et al. 2009]).

Folio 51v

225

Description  Yellow flowers in a terminal raceme appear funnelform, subtended by calyces with subacute lobes. Simple leaves are entire, elliptic, alternate, petiolated, and acute-tipped. Roots are ample, tuberous. Previous identification  Barkleyanthus salicifolius (Kunth) H.Rob. & Brettell (de Ávila Blomberg 2012; Linares and Bye 2013) of the Asteraceae, Mirabilis longiflora L. (Gates 2000) of the Nyctaginaceae, or Senecio salignus DC. (Díaz 1976; Guerra 1952; Miranda and Valdés 1964; Reko 1947; Valdés Gutiérrez et al. 1992) of the Asteraceae. Putative identification  This phytomorph does not appear to an asterid or a member of the Nyctaginaceae, despite the name that incorporates atzonyatl. Except for the presence of possible tuberous roots and the absence of tri-apical leaves, this phytomorph bears many similarities to tlacoecapahtli (folio 48v2), which was identified as a member of the Primulaceae. This may be another similar species in the Primulaceae, Ardisia escallonioides Schltdl. & Cham. (Icacorea paniculata [Nutt.] Sudw.). Distribution  Ardisia escallonioides is native from Mexico to Guatemala and the Caribbean. Names  Marlberry, marble berry (English); Standley (1920–1926) records: huitumbio (Chiapas); morita (Oaxaca); xook num (Yucatan, Maya). Uses  González de Mejía and Ramírez-Mares (2011) remark: “Traditional medicinal uses attributed to Ardisia include alleviation of liver cancer, swelling, rheumatism, earache, cough, fever, diarrhea, broken bones, dysmenorrhea, respiratory tract infections, traumatic injuries, inflammation, pain, snake and insect bites, birth complications and to improve general blood circulation, among others. Ardisia species are rich in polyphenols, triterpenoid saponins, isocoumarins, quinones and alkylphenols.”

Fig. 2.150  Ardisia escallonioides, Primulaceae: (a) folio 51v1; (b) flowers and leaves. (Source: https://www.flickr.com/photos/treeworld/29304662166/in/photostream/. TreeWorld Wholesale CC BY 2.0)

226

2  Phytomorph Identification of the Codex Cruz-Badianus

Folio 51v2 Nahuatl name  Acocohtli (acocohxiutl in text) (a, atl  =  water; coco, cocotl, cocotli = gullet, esophagus; xihuitl = plant; thus, water gullet, plant [Emmart 1940]; primary name [Clayton et al. 2009]). Description  Terminal globular flower buds of pale blue are in a raceme, each flower subtended by calyces with obtuse lobes. Foliage once-pinnate, two to four per node, each node with a sheath. Roots are ample, white. Previous identification  Previous identifications were Arracacia atropurpurea (Lehm.) Benth. & Hook.f. ex Hemsl. (Gates 2000; Guerra 1952; Linares and Bye 2013; Miranda and Valdés 1964; Valdés Gutiérrez et al. 1992) of the Apiaceae or Dahlia sp. (Guerra 1952) of the Asteraceae. Putative identification  Arracacia atropurpurea is variable, from once- to twicepinnate. Flowers are purple and white, fruits green, maturing brown. Considering the variability and medicinal use of this species, it is a reasonable match. Distribution  Arracacia atropurpurea is native from Mexico to Panama. Names  Acocote (Nahuatl); cominos, cominos rústicos, hierba del oso (Spanish). Uses  This is used in traditional Mexican medicine along with the closely related Arracacia tolucensis (Kunth) Hemsl. var. multifida Hemsley (S.Wats.) Mathias & Constance as a carminitive and digestive aid (Figueroa et al. 2007; Martínez 1969).

Fig. 2.151  Arracacia atropurpurea, Apiaceae; (a) folio 51v2; (b) herbarium sheet. (Source: https://herbariovaa.org/collections/individual/index.php?occid=2444249. Arizona State University Vascular Plant Herbarium CC BY-NC 4.0)

Folio 51v

227

Folio 51v3 Nahuatl name  Tetzitzilin (making a stone-like ringing noise [Clayton et al. 2009]). Description  Fruit is elongated, paired, pale yellow. Simple leaves are lobed with a petiole, acute-tipped. Stem is a vine. Roots are ample, white. Previous identification  Previous identifications were Cucurbitaceae (Emmart 1940; Guerra 1952; Reko 1947), Cucurbita sp. (Miranda and Valdé 1964; Valdés Gutiérrez et  al. 1992) of the Cucurbitaceae, Echinopepon wrightii (A.Gray) S.  Watson [E. paniculatus (Cogn.) Dieterle] (Clayton et  al. 2009) of the Cucurbitaceae, or Microsechium palmatum (Ser.) Cogn. [M. guatemalense Hemsl., M. helleri (Peyr.) Cogn.] (Linares and Bye 2013) of the Cucurbitaceae. Putative identification  Echinopepon wrightii has prickly fruit and does not match the phytomorph. Microsechium palmatum is variable but does match well. Distribution  Microsechium palmatum is native from Mexico to Guatemala and Costa Rica. Names  Amole, amole de bejuco, camote amargo, chayote, chayotillo, chicamole, chichicamole, planta para jabón (Spanish). Uses  Martínez (1969) discusses Microsechium palmatum under its synonym of M. helleri (Peyr.) Cogn. as a purgative.

Fig. 2.152  Microsechium palmatum, Cucurbitaceae: (a) folio 51v3; (b) fruit and foliage. (Source: http://www.phytoimages.siu.edu/imgs/Cusman1/r/Cucurbitaceae_Microsechium_palmatum_78507.html. Copyright © 2013 by M. Costea with I. Garcia Ruiz (contact: [email protected]) [ref. DOL78507])

228

2  Phytomorph Identification of the Codex Cruz-Badianus

Folio 52r

Aztec medicinal use  How one who has been affected by a whirlwind or bad wind is to be treated. Let one who has been caught in a whirlwind drink the wholesome juice of the herb quauhyayaual, acxoyatl, branches of pine and laurel ground in water. The juice is to be boiled. Let him drink the decoction; for if drunk it drives out the bad air invading the inside. Secondly, he is to drink the juice of stones ground in water, a red crystal, a white pearl, whitish earth, and the leaves of the herb tlatlanquaye, which you are to boil together with incense. Anoint him with the carefully prepared liquid of the cones of cypress and cedar, and of the leaves of the quauhyyauhtli tree, as well as the leaves of the herbs xiuhecapahtli, crushed in water with incense (Emmart 1940).

Folio 52r1 Nahuatl name  Quauhyayhual (quauh, quauhtla  =  wild, woods; yayaual, yayaloa  =  to twist around, twining; thus, wild twining climber [Emmart 1940]; vinerings of the forest [Clayton et al. 2009]). Additional spelling: quauhyayual. Description  Terminal flower buds or fruits are deltoid and bluish, subtended by calyces with obtuse lobes. Simple leaves are dark green with prominent veins, lobed, alternate, acute-tipped, cuneate-based, with petioles. Stems are dark green. Roots are ample, tuberous. Previous identification(s)  Previous identifications were Solanaceae (Valdés Gutiérrez et al. 1992), Lycianthes sp. (Linares and Bye 2013) of the Solanaceae, or Smilax sp. (Guerra 1952; Reko 1947) of the Smilacaceae.

Folio 52r

229

Putative identification  Neither Lycianthes nor Smilax spp. have lobed leaves like the phytomorph. Though the name may indicate a vine, the phytomorph bears similarity to the Solanaceae, especially a species such as Solanum wendlandii Hook. f.. Distribution  Solanum wendlandii is a vine native from Mexico to Colombia. Names  Costa Rican nightshade, giant potato creeper, paradise flower, potato vine (English); necaxancuamekatl (Nahuatl). Uses  Smith-Oka (2012) recounts that this species is used in the Nahua community in Veracruz, Mexico, to treat a disease specific to women: “Another illness that is connected to women’s strength is necaxantle (pronounced: neh-cah-SHAN-tleh). Necaxantle—‘the weakening disease’—is a condition that women develop with improper rest after giving birth.”

Fig. 2.153  Solanum wendlandii, Solanaceae: (a) folio 52r1; (b) flower and leaves. (Source: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Costa_Rica_Nightshade_(Solanum_wendlandii)_at_ Kambalakonda_01.JPG Adityamadhav83 CC BY-SA 3.0)

Folio 52r2 Nahuatl name  Acxoyatl (primary name) (Emmart 1940; Clayton et al. 2009). Description  Brown cones have bracts longer than the scales. Leaves are twicepinnate, linear. Stem is orange and brown. Previous identifications  Abies religiosa (Kunth) Schltdl. & Cham. (Estrada Lugo 1989; Gates 2000; Linares and Bye 2013; Miranda and Valdés 1964; Valdés Gutiérrez et al. 1992) of the Pinaceae or Pseudotsuga sp. (de Ávila Blomberg 2012; Emmart 1940; Guerra 1952; Reko 1947) of the Pinaceae.

230

2  Phytomorph Identification of the Codex Cruz-Badianus

Putative identification  The phytomorph is clearly the Pinaceae, and with bracts longer than the scales, it is clearly the genus Pseudotsuga; the genus Abies does not have this feature. Mexico has two native species of Pseudotsuga, but P. menziesii (Mirb.) Franco is far more common. Distribution  Pseudotsuga menziesii is native from Canada to Mexico. Names  Douglas fir (English); Standley (1920–1926) records hallarin (Coahuila); abeto, pino de corcho (Hidalgo); pinabete, cahuite, or acahuite (Durango); pino real (New Mexico). Uses  Standley (1920–1926) relates: “This tree (known in the United States as Douglas-fir) is of the greatest commercial importance in the United States, especially on the Pacific coast, as well as in those portions of Mexico where it is abundant. It furnishes the largest saw timber of any of the North American trees, if not of any trees in the world. The wood is used for all kinds of construction purposes, especially those which require large timbers, such as shipbuilding. It is used also for railroad ties. Large quantities of the lumber are exported from the United States. The bark is sometimes employed for tanning leather. The smaller roots are very uniform in diameter for a length of 2 to 3 meters and have been a favorite material of the California Indians for the manufacture of baskets. It is said that in the same State a decoction of the green leaves has been used by both Indians and white people as a beverage in place of coffee; and a decoction of the spring buds has been employed as a remedy for venereal diseases.”

Fig. 2.154  Pseudotsuga menziesii, Pinaceae: (a) folio 52r2; (b) cones and foliage. (Source: https://plants.usda.gov/java/largeImage?imageID=psme_016_ahp.tif. Smithsonian Institution, Richard A. Howard Photograph Collection. fair use https://www.si.edu/termsofuse)

Folio 52v

231

Folio 52v

Aztec medicinal use  Warts. A warty person is healed, if you apply to the warts the leaves of wartwort crushed in water, so that the warts become softened and so may be lifted off. It will be helpful also to moisten the warts occasionally with water in which a human corpse has been washed (Emmart 1940). Nahuatl name  Tzotzocaxihuitl (tzotzoca = wart; xihuitl = plant; thus, wart plant or herb [Emmart 1940; Clayton et al. 2009]). Description  No flowers or fruits are visible. Simple elliptic leaves are sessile, acute-tipped, mostly opposite, and covered with lines of whitish dots. Roots are ample, possibly with a woody caudex. Previous identification  Acacia sp. (Gates 2000) of the Fabaceae or Euphorbia helioscopia L. (Guerra 1952; Reko 1947) of the Euphorbiaceae. Putative identification  Euphorbia helioscopia is Eurasian, not Mexican, and unlikely to have been purposely introduced to the New World in the sixteenth century, although it does occur as a seed contaminant. This species also lacks the wartlike dots of the phytomorph. To be used for the successful treatment of warts, a viral infection, an antiviral plant could be indicated. Alternatively, in a “Doctrine of Signatures” approach, a plant that has warty leaves may be shown. In the Mexican flora, leaf mites cause wart-like galls on willow leaves, especially Salix lasiolepis Benth., Salicaceae, and the phytomorph might match this. Galls are red on the adaxial surface of the leaf, white on the abaxial surface of the leaf (i.e., anthocyanin accumulation is influenced by light). Leaves raised in sunny situations have reddish galls, whereas those raised in shade have whitish galls.

232

2  Phytomorph Identification of the Codex Cruz-Badianus

Distribution  Salix lasiolepis is a shrub or small tree native from Washington to Mexico. Names  Arroyo willow (English); ahuejote (Spanish). Uses  Moerman (2009) lists the uses of arroyo willow among North American tribes as a cold remedy, antidiarrheal medicine, febrifuge, and panacea.

Fig. 2.155  Salix lasiolepis, Salicaceae: (a) folio 52v; (b) leaves with willow leaf gall caused by the mite Aculops tetanothrix (Nalepa 1889). Note that the galls on the adaxial surface are reddish, whereas those on the abaxial surface are whitish. (Source: http://www.agronomicabr.com.br/ agriporticus/detalhe.aspx?id=691. Agronômica)

Folio 53r

Folio 53r

233

Aztec medicinal use  Remedy for fear or faint-heartedness. A timid person should take for a drink a potion made of the herb tonatiuhyxiuh, which imitates the gleam of gold, the herb tlanextiaxihuitl and tetlahuitl, and whitish earth, which then are to be moistened in stream or river water, to which you add the flowers cacaloxochitl, cacauaxochitl, and tzacouhxochitl. Anoint him with an ointment which you should make of the blood of a fox, a fox whelp, the blood and excrement of the worm acuecueyalotl, laurel, and the excrement of a swallow triturated in water and sea-spume. But one who has been frightened by a lightning bolt or merely a flash of lightning is to be anointed with the sap of the tree that was struck, the crushed leaves, and all the herbs that grow not far from it. Further, the water with which the ointment is to be cleared should have an acrid taste (Emmart 1940).

Folio 53r1 Nahuatl name  Cacaloxochitl (cacaolo, cacalotl  =  raven; xochitl  =  flower; thus, raven flower [Emmart 1940], crow flower [Clayton et al. 2009]). Description  Pink terminal flowers are in a raceme with actinomorphic flowers shown on the side with three petals or with three zygomorphic petals, subtended by calyces with minimal lobes. Elliptic simple leaves are sessile, entire, alternate, acute-tipped. Stem is dark green. Roots are ample, probably with a woody caudex. Previous identifications  Previous identifications were Crotalaria cajanifolia Kunth (C. eriocarpa Benth.) (Estrada Lugo 1989) of the Fabaceae, Plumeria alba L. (Díaz 1976) of the Apocynaceae, Plumeria rubra L. (P. acutifolia Poir., P. bicolor Ruiz & Pav., P. mexicana Lodd., P. tricolor Ruiz & Pav.) (Alcántara Roja 2008; Comas et  al. 1995; de Ávila Blomberg 2012; Díaz 1976; Emmart 1940; Estrada Lugo 1989; Gates 2000; Guerra 1952; Linares and Bye 2013; Miranda and Valdés 1964; Reko 1947; Valdés Gutiérrez et  al. 1992; Zepeda and White 2008) of the Apocynaceae, or Tigridia pavonia (L.f.) DC. (Estrada Lugo 1989) of the Iridaceae. Putative identification  The yellow leguminous flowers of Crotalaria cajanifolia do not match the phytomorph. Tigridia pavonia also does not match the phytomorph. The best match is a Plumeria rubra flower shown in profile. Distribution  Plumeria rubra is native from Mexico to Panama. Names  Frangipani, pagoda tree, red paucipan, red jasmine, temple tree (English); Standley (1920–1926) records sabanicte, chacnicte, nicte (Yucatan, Maya); flor de mayo (Yucatan, Puebla, El Salvador); flor de la cruz (Guatemala, El Salvador); flor del toro (Nicaragua); caracacha colorada, caracucho, palo de cruz (Panama); Alexandria (Morelos, Central America); flor de sefiora (El Salvador); aleli (Porto Rico); lirio Colorado (Cuba); flor de ensarta (El Salvador). Uses  Standley (1920–1926) records: “The flowers are handsome and sweetscented. They are often strung with those of other colors to hang as festoons in churches.”

234

2  Phytomorph Identification of the Codex Cruz-Badianus

Fig. 2.156  Plumeria rubra, Apocynaceae: (a) folio 53r1; (b) flowers and foliage. (Source: https:// www.flickr.com/photos/45835639@N04/10887046255/Lalithamba) CC BY 2.0)

Folio 53r2 Nahuatl name  necouhxochit (necouh, necotli  =  honey, xochit  =  flower; thus, honey flower [Emmart 1940; Clayton et al. 2009]). Description  Except for the pink and white striped flower, this is identical to the previous phytomorph on folio 53r1. Previous identification  A previous identification was Plumeria rubra L. (P. acutifolia Poir., P. bicolor Ruiz & Pav., P. mexicana Lodd., P. tricolor Ruiz & Pav.) (de Ávila Blomberg 2012; Emmart 1940; Guerra 1952; Linares and Bye 2013; Valdés Gutiérrez et al. 1992) of the Apocynaceae. Putative identification  A striped cultivar of Plumeria rubra fits rather well. Distribution  Plumeria rubra is native from Mexico to Panama. Names  frangipani, pagoda tree, red paucipan, red jasmine, temple tree (English); Standley (1920–1926) records sabanicte, chacnicte, nicte (Yucatan, Maya); flor de mayo (Yucatan, Puebla, El Salvador); flor de la cruz (Guatemala, El Salvador); flor del toro (Nicaragua); caracacha colorada, caracucho, palo de cruz (Panama); Alexandria (Morelos, Central America); flor de sefiora (El Salvador); aleli (Porto Rico); lirio Colorado (Cuba); flor de ensarta (El Salvador). Uses  Standley (1920–1926) records: “The flowers are handsome and sweetscented. They are often strung with those of other colors to hang as festoons in churches.”

Folio 53v

235

Fig. 2.157  Plumeria rubra, Apocynaceae: (a) 53r2; (b) cultivar with striped flowers. (Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/86/Frangipani_flowers_%285114501552%29.jpg. Hafiz Issadeen CC BY 2.0)

Folio 53v

Aztec medicinal use  For mental stupor. He whose mind is in this condition should drink the juice of tlahtlacotic root crushed in warm water so that he will vomit. A few days later, both the bark and roots of the flowers yolloxochitl and cacauaxochitl are to be crushed in water; he is to drink the juice before lunch, so that the evil humor lodged in his breast may be rooted out. Finally, grind in water the stones of

236

2  Phytomorph Identification of the Codex Cruz-Badianus

the stomach of the birds xiuhquecholtototl and tlapaltototl and tetlahuitl, the precious stones tlahcaluatzin and extetl, and a pearl. Then divide the liquor; he is to drink part, and immediately you are to pour part over his head. When this has been done, he is to carry in his hands the stone found in the stomach of the huactli, likewise the gallbladder of a night owl, for by carrying these things and by drinking this potion, he will regain his intelligence and be restored to soundness of mind. His forehead, moreover, is to be anointed with the brain of a stag and the feathers of a dove, crushed and put in water, and human hair. On his neck, he shall carry the stone found in the stomach of the swallow (Emmart 1940).

Folio 53v1 Nahuatl name  Cacauaxochitl (cacaua, cacahuatl = cacao; xochitl = flower; thus, cacao flower [Emmart 1940; Clayton et al. 2009]). Additional spelling: cacahuaxoch. Description  Flowers are pink picotee on pale yellow with two exserted yellow stigmas subtended by calyces with minimal lobes. Simple elliptic leaves are entire, alternate and opposite, petiolated, and acute-tipped. Stem is dark brown. Roots are ample, possibly with a woody caudex. Previous identification  A previous identification was Quararibea funebris (La Llave) Vischer (Lexarza funebris La Llave; Myrodia funebris Benth.) (de Ávila Blomberg 2012; Díaz 1976; Gates 2000; Linares and Bye 2013; Miranda and Valdés 1964; Schultes 1957; Valdés Gutiérrez et al. 1992) of the Malvaceae. Emmart (1940) mentioned Theobroma angustifolium DC. of the Malvaceae, but this is Central American and the distinctive yellow flowers are epicaudal with reflexed calyx lobes, totally unlike the phytomorph. Putative identification  Quararibea funebris seems to fit the phytomorph. Distribution  Quararibea funebris is native from Mexico to Nicaragua. Names  Standley (1920–1926) records cacahuaxochitl, cacaoxochitl, flor de cacao, madre de cacao, rosa de cacao. Uses  Standley (1920–1926) relates: “In connection with the original description of the genus Lexarza, La Llave gives the following account of the tree: ‘The President of the Republic, Guadalupe Victoria, while on a military expedition to the southern region, between Oaxaca and Angelopolis, passing through Izucar and admiring the funereal majesty of Lexarza, had sent to me a branch with flowers and fruit, that a description might be drawn of it; afterward my colleague, Doctor Jose Ignacio Luna, sent a drawing of the tree, with accurate measurements, adding the information that to the splendid shelter formed by the lower branches of the tree, the primitive inhabitants were wont to come to mourn their dead. He stated also that flowers were added to the pozonque (a cold drink made of cacao) which they use at weddings and festivals, to give flavor to it, for which reason, perhaps, the tree is given the vernacular name of cacahoaxochitl, which may be rendered into Spanish as flor

Folio 53v

237

de cacao. According to the same authority, no other tree of the same sort is found at Izucar or elsewhere in the region, but Doctor Miguel Valentín, of Huamantla, no mean student of natural history, after reading the description of the tree, assured me that when he was making a journey through the Mixteca he observed trees similar to this.’ In Costa Rica the young shoots of some species (known as ‘garrocho’ and ‘molenillo’), which develop their branches, like cacao, in whorls of 5, are used to make ‘molenillos,’ the utensils with which chocolate is beaten to a froth.”

Fig. 2.158  Quararibea funebris, Malvaceae: (a) folio 53v1; (b) flower and leaves. (Source: https://www.flickr.com/photos/scottzona/18238004950. Scott Zona CC BY-NC 2.0)

Folio 53v2 Nahuatl name  Yolloxochitl (yollo, yollorl=  heart; xochitl  =  flower; thus, heart flower [Emmart 1940; Clayton et  al. 2009]). Additional spellings: iolloxochitl, yoloxochitl, yollochicuahuitl. Description  White flowers are campanulate, fading to pink at the bottom, with exserted yellow stigmas or stamens, subtended by calyces with minimal lobes. Simple leaves are elliptic, entire, sessile, opposite, acute-tipped. Stem is brown. Roots are ample, probably with a woody caudex. Previous identifications  Previous identifications were Magnolia mexicana DC. [Talauma mexicana (DC.) G.Don] (Alcántara Rojas 2008; de Ávila Blomberg 2012; del Pozo 1966; Díaz 1976; Emmart 1940; Estrada Lugo 1989; Farfán and Elferink 2010; Gates 2000; Guerra 1952; Linares and Bye 2013; Miranda and Valdés 1964; Ocaranza 2011; Valdés Gutiérrez et al. 1992; Zepeda and White 2008)

238

2  Phytomorph Identification of the Codex Cruz-Badianus

of the Magnoliaceae or M. virginiana L. [M. glauca (L.) L.] (Estrada Lugo 1989; Gates 2000). Putative identification  Magnolia mexicana seems to fit the phytomorph. Distribution  Magnolia mexicana is native from Mexico to Honduras. Names  Standley (1920–1926) records: flor de corazón (Oaxaca, Veracruz, Morelos); hualhua (Veracruz, Morelos); yoloxochitl (Nahuatl); hierba de las mataduras (Morelos, Mexico); laurel tulipán (Morelos); guielachi (Oaxaca, Zapotec). Uses  Standley (1920–1926) reports: “This is one of the best-known of Mexican trees. It was highly esteemed by the early inhabitants because of the sweet odor of the blossoms, a single flower being sufficient to perfume a whole house. The tree was cultivated in gardens, and the plant was valued also for its reputed medicinal properties, and it still finds use in domestic medicine. The bark is employed for fevers, and is said also to have an effect upon the heart similar to that of digitalis. A decoction of the flowers is administered for epilepsy, paralysis, and various heart affections, and as a tonic. The plant, upon analysis, is said to yield a glucoside which dissolves the blood corpuscles. The Nahuatl name, ‘yoloxochitl,’ signifies ‘heart-flower,’ an allusion to the shape of the unopened flower buds. Robelo gives ‘chipagua’ as one of the vernacular names—a derivative of the Nahuatl chipahuac, ‘the beautiful.’ The species has been reported from Mexico as Magnolia glauca, a name synonymous with M. virginiana L., which pertains to the sweet bay of the eastern and southern United States. It appears, also, that Talauma mexicana and Magnolia schiedeana have often been confused. The two species are much alike in leaf form and in the appearance of their flowers, but the fruits are very different. Talauma macrocarpa is mentioned by Acosta (1590) under the name ‘yolosuchil.’ It is illustrated and described by Hernandez under the name ‘yoloxochitl.’ The latter author discusses its medical properties, stating that ‘it is an excellent remedy for sterility,’ and remarks that the flowers were sometimes used to flavor chocolate.”

Fig. 2.159  Magnolia mexicana, Magnoliaceae: (a) folio 53v2; (b) flower and leaves. (Source: https://www.naturalista.mx/observations/8534666. Naturalista dianitarq CC BY-NC 4.0)

Folio 54r

239

Folio 54r

Aztec medicinal use  For the fetid odor of the infirm. This putridity is removed by anointing the body with the juice of the foliage of the herbs ayauhtonanyxiuh, papaloquilitl, and xiuhecapahtli crushed in water, together with the foliage of pine and of the flowers ocoxochitl, tonacaxochitl, and tohtoloctzin and with ears of grain (Emmart 1940).

Folio 54r1 Nahuatl name  Totoloctzin(tototl  =  bird; tzin  =  termination expressing respect, meaning obscure, perhaps tototoctzin = bird pant [Emmart 1940]; small/revered one that repeatedly bows its head [Clayton et al. 2009]). Additional spelling: tohtoloctzi. Description  The red aggregate fruit is terminal, ripening to black. Simple elliptic leaves are entire, opposite, petiolated, acute-tipped. Stems are red. Roots are ample, probably with a woody caudex. Previous identification  Previous identifications were Cayaponia racemosa (Mill.) Cogn. (Miranda and Valdés 1964) of the Cucurbitaceae or Rubus pumilus Focke [unresolved name] (Linares and Bye 2013; Valdés Gutiérrez et  al. 1992) of the Rosaceae.

240

2  Phytomorph Identification of the Codex Cruz-Badianus

Putative identification  The fruit of the Cucurbitaceae is a berry, not aggregate. The application of R. pumilus is uncertain, but the leaf does not agree with the phytomorph, although this is obviously Rosaceae and a Rubus species. Rubus adenotrichus Schltdl., usually with red bristly stems and red or black fruit, may match. This has three forms (Madrigal Redondo et al. 2017): wine red spine, wine white spine, and wine without spines. These have a semi-erect growth and decumbent stems (inclined to the ground) with lengths of up to 3 meters. Distribution  Rubus adenotrichus is a deciduous shrub native from Mexico to Colombia. Names  Tropical highland blackberry (English); mora (Spanish). Uses  The fruits of Rubus adenotrichus have abundant antioxidants (AcostaMontoya et al. 2010; Madrigal Redondo et al. 2017).

Fig. 2.160  Rubus adenotrichus, Rosaceae: (a) folio 54r1; (b) fruit and foliage. (Source: https:// www.researchgate.net/figure/Rubus-adenotrichus-fruits-and-flowers-From-Garcia-Saucedo-Pet-al-2016_fig 1_319460871)

Folio 54r2 Nahuatl name  Tonacaxochitl (tonaca, tonacayotl = food, fruit; xochitl = flower; thus, food flower [Emmart 1940], human-sustenance flower [Clayton et al. 2009]). Description  Terminal red flowers are zygomorphic and tubular with exserted stamens, subtended by calyces with minimal lobes. Simple foliage is elliptic, entire, petiolated, with acute tips. Roots are ample, possibly tuberous.

Folio 54r

241

Previous identifications  Previous identifications were Amphilophium buccinatorium (DC.) L.G.Lohmann (Distictis buccinatoria [DC.] A.H.Gentry; Phaedranthus exsertus [DC.] Miers) (Guerra 1952; Reko 1947; Zepeda and White 2008) of the Bignoniaceae or Amphilophium crucigerum (L.) L.G.Lohmann [Pithecoctenium echinatum (Jacq.) Baill.] (Miranda and Valdés 1964). Putative identification  Amphilophium buccinatorium is a good match to the phytomorph. Distribution  Amphilophium buccinatorium is native to Mexico. Names  Blood trumpet vine, blood-red trumpet-creeper, blood trumpet, cherere, Mexican blood flower, Mexican blood trumpet (English); Standley (1920–1926) records: trompetilla grande (Queretaro); clarin, hiedra bocina. Uses  Ornamental.

Fig. 2.161  Amphilophium buccinatorium, Bignoniaceae: (a) folio 54r2; (b) flowers and foliage. (Source: https://species.wikimedia.org/wiki/Amphilophium_buccinatorium#/media/File:Distictis _buccinatoria2431385580.jpg. Mark Pilbeam CC BY 2.0)

Folio 54r3 Nahuatl name  Ayauhtonan (Ayauh  =  goddess of the water; to  =  our; nan, nantli = mother; thus, our mother Ayauh’s plant [Emmart 1940], our-mother-of-thefog’s herb [Clayton et al. 2009]. Alternate spelling: ayauhtona, aiauhton. Description  Terminal white, campanulate, actinomorphic flowers are shaded with purple-gray towards the tips, with exserted stamens and minimal lobing, subtended with calyces with no lobing. Linear compound leaves are distributed along the stem, often angled to one side. Roots are ample, possibly tuberous.

242

2  Phytomorph Identification of the Codex Cruz-Badianus

Previous identifications  Previous identifications were Cuphea sp. (Emmart 1940; Guerra 1952; Miranda Valdés 1964) of the Lythraceae, C. aequipetala Cav. (Godínez Salazar 2017), C. jorullensis Kunth (Estrada Lugo 1989), Ipomopsis pinnata (Cav.) V.E.Grant (Linares and Bye 2013; Valdés Gutiérrez et al. 1992) of the Polemoniaceae, or Porophyllum coloratum (Kunth) DC. (P. seemannii Sch. Bip.) (Estrada Lugo 1989) of the Asteraceae. Putative identification  None of the suggested identifications match the phytomorph; Ipomopsis pinnata comes closest. A better fit would be a species of Polemonium of the Polemoniaceae, such as P. melindae Rzed. This has long been confused in the literature with P. pauciflorum S.  Watson, but this species has wider, longer, and lemon-colored corolla and wider calyx lobes. It grows at 2700–3200 meters in conifer forests (Rzedowski and Calderon de Rzedowski 1995). Distribution  Polemonium melindae is native to Mexico. Names  Few-flower Jacob’s ladder, sulfur trumpet Jacob’s ladder (English). Uses  Ornamental.

Fig. 2.162  Polemonium melindae, Polemoniaceae: (a) folio 54r3; (b) Illustration. (Source: Rzedowski and Calderon de Rzedowski 1995)

Folio 54v

243

Folio 54v

Aztec medicinal use  Odor of armpits or tragus. A rank and goatish-smelling person is to enter a carefully prepared bath, where he is to wash his armpits with great diligence. When he comes out, however, he is to be washed with the juice of the ground herb chiyauaxihuitl, of a human bone and dog’s body, and of all sweetsmelling flowers and herbs, whereby the goatish odor may be destroyed (Emmart 1940). Nahuatl name  Chiyauaxihuitl (chiyauac  =  greasy; xihuitl  =  plant, herb; thus, greasy plant or herb [Emmart 1940; Clayton et al. 2009]). Description  Lateral flowers are orange with a red picotee, four or five petals and exserted stamens, subtended by a calyx with no lobes. Simple leaves are elliptic, entire, alternate, petiolated, acute-tipped. Roots are ample, perhaps tuberous. Previous identifications  Previous identifications were Mirabilis sp. (Linares and Bye 2013; Valdés Gutiérrez et al. 1992) of the Nyctaginaceae, Tagetes sp. (Guerra 1952; Reko 1947) of the Asteraceae, or T. lunulata (Godínez Salazar 2017). Putative identification  None of the previously suggested identifications match the phytomorph. A better match might be from the Malvaceae, such as Sida acuta Burm.f. Distribution  Sida acuta is pantropical. Names  Standley (1920–1926) reports: malva colorada (Sinaloa); malva del platanillo (Veracruz); chichibé (Yucatan, Maya); escoba blanca (Porto Rico); escoba, escobo, escoba babosa, escobilla (Colombia); malva de caballo (Cuba); escobita dulce (Santa Domingo).

244

2  Phytomorph Identification of the Codex Cruz-Badianus

Uses  Standley (1920–1926) remarks: “The branches of this and other species of Sida are often used in Mexico for making rough brooms. In Yucatan the bark fiber is used for the manufacture of twine and hammocks. The plant is said to furnish good forage for horses and sheep. The leaves and young shoots rubbed in water give a lather which may be used for shaving, especially in the case of a tender and irritable skin. In India the roots are esteemed for their stomachic properties, and they are employed as a remedy for ague, dysentery, intermittent fevers, and snake bites.”

Fig. 2.163  Sida acuta, Malvaceae: (a) folio 54v; (b) flowers and foliage. (Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sida_acuta#/media/File:Sida_acuta_(Jangli-methi)_in_Hyderabad,_AP_W2_ IMG_0084.jpg. J.M. Garg CC BY-SA 4.0)

Folio 55v

Folio 55v

245

Aztec medicinal use  Phthiriasis of the head. A medicament made of the root of the shrub zohzoyatic crushed in water of acrid taste, the herbs yztauyatl, the fat or suet of a goose, the head of a mouse burned to ashes, and the straw taken from a swallow’s nest, which you are to crush also; this medicament you are to pour on the head (Emmart 1940). Nahuatl name  Zohzoyatic (derived from çohatl  =  palm [Emmart 1940]; full of palm leaves [Clayton et al. 2009]). Alternate spelling: çoçoyatic, zozoyatic. Description  Yellow flowers or flower buds are in a cyme on a scape, subtended by calyces with large, obtuse lobes. Leaves are basal, broad. Roots are ample, graywhite on a blue ellipse (white roots on a green ellipse in Emmart [1940]). Previous identifications  Previous identifications were Agave sp. (Emmart 1940; Valdés Gutiérrez et al. 1992) of the Asparagaceae, Anticlea sp. (Guerra 1952) of the Melianthaceae, Anticlea frigida (Schltdl. & Cham.) Zomlefer & Judd [Stenanthium frigidum (Schltdl. & Cham.) Kunth, Veratrum frigidum Schltdl. & Cham.] (Comas et al. 1995; Díaz 1976; Estrada Lugo 1989; Miranda and Valdés 1964; Ocaranza 2011; Zepeda and White 2008), Brahea sp. (Clayton et al. 2009) of the Arecaceae, Brahea dulcis (Kunth) Mart. (Gates 2000), Echeandia mexicana Cruden (Linares and Bye 2013) of the Asparagaceae, Schoenocaulon sp. (Estrada Lugo 1989) of the Melianthaceae, Schoenocaulon caricifolium (Schltdl.) A.Gray [S.coulteri (Baker) Kuntze] (de Ávila Blomberg 2012), Schoenocaulon officinale (Schltdl. & Cham.) A.Gray (Sabadilla officinarum Brandt & Ratzeb., Veratrum officinale Schltdl. & Cham., V. sabadilla Retz.) (Estrada Lugo 1989), Schoenocaulon pringlei Greenm. (Clayton et  al. 2009), Schoenocaulon rzedowskii Frame (Clayton et  al. 2009), Sessilanthera latifolia (Weath.) Molseed & Cruden (proposed by Amith [2007] in Clayton et al. 2009) of the Iridaceae, Yucca sp. (Emmart 1940) of the Asparagaceae, or Zigadenus sp. (Estrada Lugo 1989) of the Melianthaceae. Putative identification  None of the suggested species match the phytomorph. A member of the Bromeliaceae seems more appropriate, considering the name and morphological characteristics. Catopsis morreniana Mez. is a species that is usually epiphytic but can also be epipetric. Distribution  Catopsis morreniana is native from Mexico to Costa Rica. Names  A bromeliad (English). Uses  Unknown.

246

2  Phytomorph Identification of the Codex Cruz-Badianus

Fig. 2.164  Catopsis morreniana, Bromeliaceae: (a) folio 55v; (b) foliage and inflorescence. (Source: http://bromeliads.gardenwebs.net/Catopsis.morreniana.jpg)

Folio 56r

Aztec medicinal use  Help for one crossing a river or lake. Whoever wishes to cross a river or a lake in safety is to wet his chest with the liquid of the herbs yyauhtli and tepepapaloquilitl crushed in water. In his hand, moreover, he is to carry a beryl, both head and viscera of a sea snail, a sardonyx, and the eyes of a large fish enclosed in the mouth (Emmart 1940).

Folio 56r

247

Nahuatl name  Tepepapaloquilitl (tepe, tepetl = mountain; papalo, papalotl = butterfly; quilitl = edible herb; thus, mountain butterfly edible plant [Emmart 1940]; butterfly edible herb of the mountain [Clayton et al. 2009]). Description  White flowers or inflorescences are arranged in a spike, each subtended by scarcely lobed calyces. Leaves can be interpreted as obcordate or palmately compound or four leaves per node, blue-green, opposite, sessile, entire. Roots are ample, possibly tuberous. Previous identification  Previous identifications were Porophyllum sp. (de Ávila Blomberg 2012; Gates 2000; Miranda and Valdés 1964; Valdés Gutiérrez et  al. 1992) of the Asteraceae or Porophyllum punctatum (Mill.) S.F.Blake (Godínez Salazar 2017; Linares and Bye 2013). Putative identification  Certainly, this shares some similarities (name and morphology) with folio 20v1, Porophyllum ruderale subsp. macrocephalum. However, Porophyllum punctatum is probably a good match to the phytomorph in folio 56r. Distribution  Porophyllum punctatum is native from Mexico to Costa Rica. Names  Pipitzcaquilitl (Morelos, Nahuatl); x-pechuk’il (QuintanaRoo, Maya); eek’ puk che’,xpech’uk’il (Yucatan). Uses  Standley (1930) notes its use in an infusion to treat gonorrhea in Yucatan.

Fig. 2.165  Porophyllum punctatum, Asteraceae: (a) folio 56r; (b) foliage and flowers. (Source: https://www.inaturalist.org/observations/10601396. pioleon CC BY-NC 4.0)

248

2  Phytomorph Identification of the Codex Cruz-Badianus

Folio 56v

Aztec medicinal use  The traveler’s safeguard. The dried flowers mecaxochitl, tlilxochitl, and hueynacaztli, the bark of the trees copalcocotl and atoyaxocotl, leaves of the tree acocotl, white incense, and the wax xochiocotzotl and yolloxochitl are to be ground to powder; and when pulverized put them into the chalice of the well-known and very fragrant flower huacalxochitl, so that they may catch and inhale the very redolent odor of this flower. Finally, take the much praised flower yolloxochitl, hollow it out suitably, then put in the hole this health-bringing powder, and hang the little receptacle around the neck (Emmart 1940).

Folio 56v1 Nahuatl name  Mecaxochitl (meca, mecatl  =  rope; xochit  =  flower; thus, rope flower [Emmart 1940]; cord flower (Clayton et al. 2009]). Description  What appears to be tiny yellow flowers are in two to four spikes. Simple elliptic leaves are seemingly alternate, petiolated, acute-tipped. Roots are ample. Previous identifications  Previous identifications were Peperomia sp. (Guerra 1952; Miranda and Valdés 1964; Reko 1947) of the Piperaceae, Piper sp. (Emmart 1940; Estrada Lugo 1989) of the Piperaceae, Piper amalago L. (Comas et  al. 1995; de Ávila Blomberg 2012; Estrada Lugo 1989; Gates 2000), Piper umbellatum

Folio 56v

249

L. (P. cuernavacanum C. DC.) (Estrada Lugo 1989), or Vanilla planifolia Jacks. ex Andrews (V. fragrans Ames) (Díaz 1976; Estrada Lugo 1989; Linares and Bye 2013; Valdés Gutiérrez et al. 1992) of the Orchidaceae. Putative identification  The most promising identification is Piper umbellatum; multiple white spikes are present in P. umbellatum, but the leaves are broad and cordate. This is also a liana, supporting its growth on other plants. Nevertheless, the phytomorph seems to be a species from the Piperaceae, e.g., Peperomia humilis A.Dietr. Distribution  Peperomia humilis is native to Florida, the Caribbean, and Mexico south to Honduras. Names  Mouse tail, Polynesian peperomia, red-stemmed peperomia (English). Uses  Unknown.

Fig. 2.166  Peperomia humilis, Piperaceae: (a) folio 56v1; (b) foliage and spikes. (Source: https:// www.wildflower.org/gallery/result.php?id_image=64352. Lady Bird Johnson Wildflower Center; Alan Cressler, unrestricted)

Folio 56v2 Nahuatl name  Tlilxochitl (tlil, tlilli = black; xochito = flower; thus, black flower [Emmart 1940; Clayton et al. 2009]). Description  Black fruits are in threes, elongated, subtended by calyces with minimal lobes. Green, unripe fruits are in fours. Simple elliptic leaves are entire, petiolated, and acute-tipped. Roots are ample. Previous identifications  Previous identifications were Vanilla sp. (Emmart 1940) of the Orchidaceae, Vanilla mexicana Mill. (Epidendrum vanilla L.) (Estrada Lugo

250

2  Phytomorph Identification of the Codex Cruz-Badianus

1989; Gates 2000), or Vanilla planifolia Jacks. ex Andrews (V. fragrans Ames) (Comas et al. 1995; de Ávila Blomberg 2012; Díaz 1976; Dressler 1953; Estrada Lugo 1989; Farfán and Elferink 2010; Guerra 1952; Miranda and Valdés 1964; Ocaranza 2011; Ossenbach 2009; Reko 1947; Valdés Gutiérrez et al. 1992). Putative identification  Vanilla mexicana and V. planifolia are distinguishable by flower, leaf shape, and fruit shape, so the phytomorph bears more similarity to V. planifolia in mature fruit. Distribution  Vanilla planifolia is native from Mexico to Brazil. Names  Vanilla, Bourbon vanilla (English); vainilla (Spanish). Uses  Martínez (1969) covers the use of vanilla in traditional Mexican medicine as a stimulant.

Fig. 2.167  Vanilla planifolia, Orchidaceae: (a) folio 56v2; (b) flowers and leaves (Source: https:// en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vanilla_planifolia#/media/File:Vanilla_planifolia_(6998639597).jpg. Malcolm Manners CC BY 2.0); (c) pods. (Source: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/ Category:Vanilla_planifolia#/media/File:Starr-121108-1108-Vanilla_planifolia-green_seedpodsPali_o_Waipio-Maui_(25196769875).jpg. Forest and Kim Starr CC BY 3.0 US)

Folio 56v3 Nahuatl name  Hueynacatztli (huey, uei  =  large; nacaztli  =  ear; thus, large ear [Emmart 1940; Clayton et al. 2009]). Alternate spelling: hueinacaztli. Description  White flower bases with two or three green petals are terminal with what appears to be three to six greenish dots, perhaps indicating stamens, subtended by calyces with acute lobes. Leaves are absent. Roots are ample, possibly tuberous. Previous identifications  Previous identifications were Cymbopetalum penduliflorum (Dunal) Baill. (Comas et  al. 1995; de Ávila Blomberg 2012; Emmart 1940; Guerra 1952; Reko 1947) of the Annonaceae or Enterolobium cyclocarpum (Jacq.) Griseb. (Comas et al. 1995; Díaz 1976; Miranda and Valdés 1964) of the Fabaceae.

Folio 56v

251

Putative identification  The previous identifications do not match the phytomorph, and the phytomorph agrees with neither the Annonaceae nor Fabaceae. The onesided flowers bear some resemblance to the Goodeniaceae, perhaps? Scaevola plumieri (L.) Vahl, whose flowers are white to pinkish white to bluish white. Distribution  Scaevola plumieri is a pantropical seaside shrub, native in the New World from Florida and Texas to Brazil. Names  Inkberry, beachberry, gullfeed, half flower, waxy bush (English). Uses  This species is of unknown use in Mexico, but as a pantropical species: “The leaf is used in Senegal in poultices, lotions and decoctions to maturate inflammations, as an emmenagogue and diuretic, and to treat thickening of the cornea and for conjunctivitis. The leaf and other parts of the plant are prepared as a syrup for treating venereal diseases. A weak dose promotes sweating, a stronger use is purgative, and more still emetic. Leaves put into water are used in Ghana for washing fever patients” (Burkill 1994).

Fig. 2.168 ?Scaevola plumieri, Goodeniaceae: (a) folio 56v3; (b) flower and foliage. (Source: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Scaevola_plumieri_-_the_plant_(6867281569).jpg. Ton Rulkens CC BY-SA 2.0)

Folio 56v4 Nahuatl name  Copalxocotl (copal, copalli = copal; xocotl = sour fruit; thus, copal sour or tart fruit [Emmart 1940; Clayton et al. 2009]). Description  Yellow flower buds or fruits are globular, subtended by calyces with obtuse lobes. Foliage is absent. Roots are ample, possibly tuberous or with a woody caudex. Previous identifications  Previous identifications were Cyrtocarpa edulis (Brandegee) Standl. or C. procera Kunth (de Ávila Blomberg 2012; Díaz 1976;

252

2  Phytomorph Identification of the Codex Cruz-Badianus

Gates 2000; Guerra 1952; Linares and Bye 2013; Miranda and Valdés 1964; Valdés Gutiérrez et al. 1992) of the Anacardiaceae. Putative identification  Cyrtocarpa edulis is restricted to Baja California Sur in Mexico, whereas C. procera has a much wider distribution and is probably the phytomorph. Distribution  Cyrtocarpa procera is native to Mexico. Names  Standley (1920–1926) reports: copaljocote, copalcocote (Guerrero, Oaxaca, Jalisco, Morelos; from the Nahuatl copalxocotl); copal (Guerrero, Oaxaca); copalhi; maxocote (Oaxaca); popoaqua (Tarascan); chupandfa. Uses  Standley (1920–1926) remarks: “The wood is said to be soft and purplish, with a strong odor, and to be used for making trays, small images, and other articles. Goats are fond of the leaves. The fruit, which is much eaten, is yellow and the flesh resinous, with acid flavor. The fruits are said to be known at Jojutla (Morelos) as ‘berracos’ and ‘chupandias.’ The large seeds are eaten by pigs, and they have been used locally (taken internally) as a remedy for leprosy. The bark is employed as a substitute for soap. The tree is figured by Hernandez and described in a chapter entitled ‘De Copalxochotl, seu arbore Gummosa pruniformi.’ He gives the Tarascan name as ‘pompoqua,’ and reports that the plant was used in Michoacán for fevers, diarrhea, and dysentery.”

Fig. 2.169  Cyrtocarpa procera, Anacardiaceae: (a) folio 56v4; (b) foliage and fruit. (Source: https://species.wikimedia.org/wiki/Cyrtocarpa_procera#/media/File:Cyrtocarpa_procera_fruit_ at_the_2010_season.JPG. Mgomezcardenas CC BY-SA 4.0)

Folio 57v

253

Folio 57v

Aztec medicinal uses  Remedy for recent parturition. If a woman has difficulty in labor, in order to deliver and bring forth the fetus with little effort, she should drink a medicine of the bark of the quauhallahuac tree and the herb cihuapahtli crushed in water, and the stone eztetl, and the tail of the small animal named tlaquatzin. She should carry the herb tlanextia in her hand. Also the hairs and bone of an ape, the wing of an eagle, the tree quetzalauexotl, the skin of a stag, the bile of a rooster, the bile of a hare, and sun-dried onion are to be burned together; to which are to be added sat, the fruit called nochtli in our language, and octli. The above-mentioned things are to be heated, and she is to be anointed with the juice. She is to eat the cooked flesh of a fox, and an emerald and a very green pearl are to be bound to her shoulders. She may also drink a mixture of the excrement of a kite and goose and the tail of the tlaqualtzin, and the leaves of ciuapahtli are to be crushed, with the liquor of which the vulva is to be washed. Also grind the tail of the animal tlaquatzin in water and the herb ciuapahtli, with which juice, infused with a clyster, you wash or purge the abdomen (Emmart 1940).

Folio 57v1 Nahuatl name  Quauhalahuac (quauh, quauitl  =  tree; alahuac, alauac  =  soap; thus, soap tree [Emmart 1940]; slippery [plant] of the forest [Clayton et al. 2009]). Description  White campanulate flowers with a red picotee, subtended by calyces with acute lobes, are in a terminal raceme. Simple leaves are pinnately lobed, alternate or opposite with petioles and acute tips. Stem has green hairs or moss at the base. Roots are ample, possibly tuberous.

254

2  Phytomorph Identification of the Codex Cruz-Badianus

Previous identifications  Previous identifications were Bartlettina sordida (Less.) R.M.King & H.Rob. (Eupatorium sordidum Less.) (Guerra 1952; Reko 1947) of the Asteraceae, Heliocarpus sp. (de Ávila Blomberg 2012) of the Malvaceae, or Heliocarpus terebinthinaceus (DC.) Hochr. (Grewia terebinthinacea DC., Heliocarpus reticulatus Rose) (Díaz 1976; Linares and Bye 2013; Miranda and Valdés 1964; Valdés Gutiérrez et al. 1992). Putative identification  Neither the Asteraceae nor Malvaceae fit the phytomorph. Also, we know from the recipe that this is a tree with bark. The phytomorph has the appearance of a species of the Cordiaceae, i.e., Cordia dentata Poir. (C. alba). The leaves of this species vary from subentire to heavily dentate, often undulate. Distribution  Cordia dentata is native from Mexico to Colombia and the Caribbean. Names  Standley (1920–1926) reports under the name C. alba: zazamil (Oaxaca, Guerrero); Gulabere (Oaxaca); vavos; uvita mocosa (Colombia); varla blanca, ateje bianco, atejo amarillo, uva gomosa, capá blanca (Cuba); tigiiilote, tigiiilote negro, cebito (El Salvador); caujaro (Colombia); uvillo, uvero, goma (Panama). Uses  Standley (1920–1926) remarks under the name C. alba: “The wood is said to be hard and strong, yellow, with a specific gravity of about 0.78, and to be used in carpentry. The leaves and flowers are reported to have emollient properties and to be used for treating affections of the chest. A decoction of the flowers is sometimes employed for inducing perspiration. In El Salvador a French physician formerly prepared from the charcoal a preparation which was much used for treating affections of the stomach. The fruit is employed in Oaxaca for coagulating indigo. It is white, transparent, mucilaginous, and extremely sweet, and is often eaten. The viscid juice is used in El Salvador for fastening the wrappers of cigars.”

Fig. 2.170  Cordia dentata (C. alba), Cordiaceae: (a) folio 57v1; (b) flowers and foliage. (Source: http://tropical.theferns.info/image.php?id=Cordia+dentata#plantimages/1/1/11ed6b85b4a53e 7e70683a795ed456ab9afbdceb.jpg. Cirilo Nelson CC BY-NC-ND 3.0)

Folio 57v

255

Folio 57v2 Nahuatl name  Cihuapatli (cihua, ciuatl = woman; patli = medicine; thus, women medicine or remedy [Emmart 1940; Clayton et  al. 2009]). Alternate spelling: ciuapahtli. Description  Terminal yellow campanulate flowers with red picotee are in a raceme, subtended by calyces with obtuse lobes. Simple elliptic entire leaves are alternate, acute-tipped, and petiolated. Roots are ample, possibly tuberous. Previous identification  A previous identification was Montanoa tomentosa Cerv. (Eriocoma floribunda Kunth) (de Ávila Blomberg 2012; del Pozo 1966; Estrada Lugo 1989; Farfán and Elferink 2010; Gates 2000; Godínez Salazar 2017; Guerra 1952; Linares and Bye 2013; Miranda and Valdés 1964; Ortiz de Montellano 1975; Valdés Gutiérrez et al. 1992) of the Asteraceae. Putative identification  Despite the matches with the name, the flowers do not agree with the Asteraceae, the color and shape of the flowers are wrong for a species of Montanoa, and the phytomorph has different leaves. Some similarities to the Papaveraceae are apparent, such as Dendromecon rigida Beth. Distribution  Dendromecon rigida is a shrub to small tree native from California to Mexico. Names  Bush poppy, tree poppy (English). Uses  The seeds are used as food by the Kawaiisu Indians (Zigmond 1981).

Fig. 2.171  Dendromecon rigida, Papaveraceae: (a) folio 57v2; (b) flower and foliage. (Source: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Dendromecon_rigida#/media/File:Dendromecon_ rigida_(13960104304).jpg. By peganum from Henfield, England, CC BY-SA 2.0)

256

2  Phytomorph Identification of the Codex Cruz-Badianus

Folio 57v3 Nahuatl name  Quetzalahuexotl (quetza, quetzalli = beautiful or precious plume; auexotol = water willow; thus, precious plume or water willow [Emmart 1940]; precious water willow [Clayton et al. 2009]). Alternate spelling: quetzalauexotl. Description  Terminal pale yellow flowers are minute in a catkin. Simple entire leaves are alternate, acute-tipped, and petiolated. Roots are ample, white, on a blue surface. Previous identifications  Previous identifications were Salix sp. (Emmart 1940; Gates 2000; Guerra 1952; Miranda and Valdés 1964; Valdés Gutiérrez et al. 1992) of the Salicaceae, Salix lasiolepis Benth. (de Ávila Blomberg 2012; Díaz 1976; Estrada Lugo 1989; Reko 1947) or Salix paradoxa Kunth (Linares and Bye 2013). Putative identification  The Salicaceae matches the phytomorph, and both species of Salix are viable candidates; the distinction of these species is by ovary, not leaves. Distribution  Salix lasiolepis is a shrub or small tree native from Washington to Mexico. Salix paradoxa is a shrub or small tree native to Mexico. Names  Salix lasiolepis is known as arroyo willow (English) or ahuejote (Spanish); S. paradoxa is known as borreguito (Spanish). Uses  Moerman (2009) lists the uses of arroyo willow among North American tribes as a cold remedy, antidiarrheal medicine, febrifuge, and panacea. Martínez (1969) lists the uses of willows in traditional Mexican medicine.

Fig. 2.172  Salix lasiolepis, Salicaceae: (a) folio 57v3; (b) flowering shoot. (Source: https://en. wikipedia.org/wiki/Salix_lasiolepis#/media/File:Salix_lasiolepis(01).jpg. USDA, public domain)

Folio 58r

257

Folio 58r

Aztec medicinal use  Menstrual blood. The flow of blood is dried up and stayed by an ointment which you make of salt, the ash of a stag and of frogs, the white of egg, rabbit hairs, the roots of hahuiyacxihuitl and of willow, acorns, paper burned with a stag’s horn, the stone eztetl, purest gold, and ground iron. These then are to be strained in rain water, and the juice is to be poured into the part which is bleeding copiously. Kill also a lizard, cut off its head, eviscerate it and salt it, and hang it up in a cold place to dry; when it is dry, burn it. Anoint the women with that as in Indian wine and white honey (Emmart 1940).

Folio 58r Nahuatl name  Hahuiyacxihuitl (hahuiyac, auiyac = agreeable odor; xihuitl = plant, herb; thus, fragrant plant or herb [Emmart 1940; Clayton et al. 2009]). Description  Flowers and fruits are absent. Simple leaves are opposite, elliptic, entire, petiolated, and acute-tipped. Roots are ample, possibly tuberous. Previous identifications  Previous identifications were Alnus sp. (Miranda and Valdés 1964) of the Betulaceae, Lippia graveolens Kunth (L. berlandieri M.Martens & Galeotti) (Farfán and Elferink 2010; Guerra 1952; Reko 1947; Valdés Gutiérrez et al. 1992) of the Verbenaceae, or L. mexicana G.L.Nesom (Linares and Bye 2013). Putative identification  The phytomorph matches most closely L. mexicana, although, with no flowers or fruits, it is difficult to be sure.

258

2  Phytomorph Identification of the Codex Cruz-Badianus

Distribution  Lippia mexicana is native to Mexico (Nesom 1994). Names  Confused with L. umbellata Cav. and other species, the application of common names of the species is uncertain. Uses  Unknown because of the confusion of common names.

Fig. 2.173  Lippia mexicana, Verbenaceae: (a) folio 58r; (b) herbarium sheet. (Source: http:// sweetgum.nybg.org/images3/2188/043/02711786.jpg. Image courtesy of the C.  V. Starr Virtual Herbarium of the New York Botanical Garden)

Folio 58v

Folio 58v

259

Aztec medicinal use  Washing of the abdomen of a woman in childbirth. The abdomen of a woman near parturition is to be washed with the juice of the herbs xiuheloquilitl, tlacopopotl, centzonxochitl, and xiuhpahtli and of laurel, which you are to bruise in well water with the stones eztetl and tetlahuitl. The feet are also to be washed occasionally with this liquid. If the fetus is already close to delivery, also yztachuitzquahuitl, malinalli, a shite stone, white nitre, pine, palm, and extetl are to be crushed and well boiled in water (Emmart 1940).

Folio 58v1 Nahuatl name  Xiuheloquilitl (xiuh, xiuitl  =  green or plant; elo, elotl  =  tender, green ear of maize; quilitl = edible plant; thus, green, tender, edible plant [Emmart 1940], tender-ear-of-maize edible herb [Clayton et al. 2009]). Description  Flowers are terminal in a cyme, golden yellow, orange at the tips, with at least four petals. Simple leaves are opposite, elliptic, entire, petiolated, with acute tips, subtended by calyces with minimal lobing. Roots are ample, possibly tuberous. Previous identifications  Previous identifications were Bidens aurea (Aiton) Sherff [B. tetragona (Serv.) DC.] (Farfán and Elferink 2010; Guerra 1952; Reko 1947) of the Asteraceae, B. pilosa L. (Linares and Bye 2013), Galinsoga sp. (de Ávila Blomberg 2012) of the Asteraceae, or G. parviflora Cav. (Clayton et al. 2009). Putative identification  None of the suggested species really fit the phytomorph, although Asteraceae seems to be the probable family, i.e., a common Bidens sp. with a golden yellow flower and few large petaloid florets, accompanied by broad simple leaves. Bidens laevis (L.) Britton, Stearns & Poggenb. seems to match this. Distribution  Bidens laevis is native from Maine to California, south to South America in marshy areas, along creeks and pond edges. This is sometimes very similar to B. cernua L., perhaps extremes of one species. Names  Smooth beggartick, smooth bur marigold, larger bur marigold (English); girasol de agua (Spanish). Uses  Unknown.

260

2  Phytomorph Identification of the Codex Cruz-Badianus

Fig. 2.174  Bidens laevis, Asteraceae: (a) folio 58v1; (b) flowers and foliage. (Source: https:// commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Bidens_laevis_-_Bur_Marigold.jpg. Fritzflohrreynolds CC BY-SA 3.0)

Folio 58v2 Nahuatl name  Tlacopopotl (tlaco, tlacotl  =  stem; popotl  =  broom; thus, stem broom [Emmart, 1940], shrubby straw [Clayton et  al. 2009]). Alternate spelling: tepopotl. Description  Yellow terminal flowers in a raceme have a red picotee, subtended by calyces with minimal lobing. Foliage is linear, sometimes palmately compound, opposite. Roots are ample, possibly tuberous. Previous identifications  Previous identifications were Arundinella hispida (Willd.) Kuntze (Estrada Lugo 1989) of the Poaceae, Baccharis conferta Kunth (Clayton et al. 2009) of the Asteraceae, Baccharis multiflora Kunth (Estrada Lugo 1989), Bassia scoparia (L.) A. J. Scott (Chenopodium scoparia L.) (Gates 2000) of the Chenopodiaceae, Flaveria angustifolia Kunth (Farfán and Elferink 2010; Guerra 1952; Reko 1947) of the Asteraceae, Marina diffusa (Moric.) Barneby (Dalea diffusa Moric.) (Díaz 1976; Miranda and Valdés 1964) of the Fabaceae, or Schkuhria pinnata (Lam.) Kuntze ex Thell. (Linnares and Bye 2013) of the Asteraceae. Putative identification  This is apparently a species of Asteraceae with golden yellow flowers and linear leaves allied to Schkuhria pinnata. Schkuhria virgata (La Llave) DC. [S. pinnata var. virgata (La Llave) Heiser] matches the phytomorph most closely. Distribution  Schkuhria virgata is native to Mexico. Names  Escobilla (Spanish). Uses  Martínez (1969) discusses the medicinal value in Mexico of S. virgata.

Folio 59r

261

Fig. 2.175  Schkuhria virgata, Asteraceae: (a) folio 58v2; (b) herbarium sheet. (Source: http:// madrean.org/symbflora/collections/individual/index.php?occid=1962298. Arizona State University Vascular Plant Herbarium, CC BY-NC 3.0)

Folio 59r

262

2  Phytomorph Identification of the Codex Cruz-Badianus

Aztec medicinal use  And you shall put into the vulva the crushed herb ayonelhuatl, eagle’s excrement, acid herbs, the root quauhalahuac, and the stone extetl, to relieve her from pain (Emmart 1940).

Folio 59r1 Nahuatl name  Yztachuitzquahuitl (yztac = white; huit, utiztli = thorn, spine; quahuitl = tree; thus, white thorn or spiny tree [Emmart 1940; Clayton et al. 2009]). Description  No flowers or fruit are visible. Simple leaves are opposite, elliptic, entire, sessile, and acute-tipped. Stem is brown, striped. Roots are ample, perhaps with a woody caudex. Previous identifications  Previous identifications were Condalia hookeri M.C. Johnst. (C. obovata Hook.) (Guerra 1952) of the Rhamnaceae, or Haematoxylum campechianum L. (de Ávila Blomberg 2012; Linares and Bye 2013; Valdés Gutiérrez et al. 1992) or H. brasiletto (Miranda and Valdés 1964) of the Fabaceae. Putative identification  This matches the phytomorph of folio 38v7 (except for the epipetric indication of that phytomorph), which was determined to be Condalia hookeri. Without flowers or fruits, it is impossible to be sure, but the compound leaves of H. campechianum do not agree with the phytomorph. Distribution  Condalia hookeri is native from Texas to Mexico. Names  Brasil (Tamaulipas, Texas); capulín (Nuevo Leon); capul negro (Spanish, Texas). Uses  Standley (1920–1926) remarks: “The wood yields a blue dye. The fruit, like that of other species, is edible and is said to make good jelly.”

Fig. 2.176  Condalia hookeri, Rhamnaceae: (a) folio 59r1; (b) foliage. (Source: https://www. inaturalist.org/photos/1326771. johnwilliams CC BY-NC 4.0)

Folio 59r

263

Folio 59r2 Nahuatl name  Ayonelhuatl (ayho, ahotli  =  calabash, melon; nelhuayetl  =  root; thus, calabash root [Emmart 1940]; squash root [Clayton et al. 2009]). Description  Golden yellow flowers are lateral, funnelform, subtended by calyces with acute lobes. Fruit is a green pepo. Simple leaves are entire, cordate-based, acute-tipped, and petiolated. Roots are ample. Previous identifications  Previous identifications were Cucurbita sp. (de Ávila Blomberg 2012; Emmart 1940; Godínez Salazar 2017; Guerra 1952; Miranda and Valdés 1964; Reko 1947; Valdés Gutiérrez et  al. 1992) of the Cucurbitaceae or Cucurbita pepo L. (Linares and Bye 2013; Harry Paris 2019, personal communication). Putative identification  Cucurbita pepo is very variable in fruit shape and matches the phytomorph. Distribution  Cucurbita pepo is native from Missouri to Mexico. Names  Bitter bottle gourd, bush squash, marrow, pumpkin, squash (English); calabaza (Spanish). Uses  Moerman (2009) lists its uses among North American tribes as an anthelmintic, diuretic, urinary aid, kidney aid, pediatric aid, gynecological aid, gastrointestinal aid, dermatological aid, and ceremonial medicine.

Fig. 2.177  Cucurbita pepo, Cucurbitaceae: (a) folio 59r2; (b) flowers and foliage. (Source: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Cucurbita_pepo_001.JPG. H. Zell CC BY-SA 3.0); (c) fruit. (Source: https://www.flickr.com/photos/132399483@N05/28814722632. Local Food Initiative CC BY 2.0)

264

2  Phytomorph Identification of the Codex Cruz-Badianus

Folio 59v

Aztec medicinal use  Tubercles of the breast. The juice of crushed cedar leaves and cones, of the leaves and root of quauhyyauhtli, and of the herbs eloçacatl, the rush, poçchualizxiuhtontli, and totecyxiuh checks a growing tumor of the breasts, if the swelling breasts are smeared with it (Emmart 1940).

Folio 59v1 Nahuatl name  Pozahualizxiuhtontli (pocahuaiz, pocahualiztli = flatulence, swelling; xiuih, xiuitl = plant, herb; tontli = little; thus, little plant for swellings [Emmart 1940]; insignificant little herb for swellings [Clayton et al. 2009]). Additional spellings: poçahualizxiuhtontli. Description  White flowers with a red picotee in a four- to five-flowered raceme are campanulate with three to four petals, arising from lateral brown scapes. Simple leaves along a short stem are sessile and broadly linear, with a prominent midvein and obtuse tips. Roots are ample on a blue ellipse (moist soil?). Previous identifications  Previous identifications were Echeandia sp. (Valdés Gutiérrez et al. 1992) of the Asparagaceae or Hieracium sp. (Linares and Bye 2013) of the Asteraceae.

Folio 59v

265

Putative identification  Most Erigeron spp. native to Mexico have many relatively thin petals, unlike the phytomorph. Echeandia spp. have mostly narrow yellow flowers and relatively narrow basal leaves, but an exception is E. nana (Baker) Cruden (Anthericum nanum Baker) with six broad white petals. This is one of the species surviving at the pre-Hispanic garden of Tetzcutzingo Hill Complex, Mexico (Pulido-Salas and Hernández-Cruz 2017). Distribution  Echeandia nana is native to Mexico (López-Ferrari and Espejo Serna 1995). Names  A craglily (English). Uses  Unknown.

Fig. 2.178  Echeandia nana, Asparagaceae: (a) folio 59v1; (b) flower and foliage. (Source: https:// www.inaturalist.org/guide_taxa/664796. iNaturalist CC BY-NC)

Folio 59v2 Nahuatl name  Xomalin (primary name [Clayton et al. 2009]). Alternate spellings: tomali, tomalli. Description  A flower with five white petals and red picotee is on a scape, subtended by a calyx with acute lobes. Broad linear leaves are basal. Roots are ample on a blue ellipse (moist soil?). Previous identifications  Previous identifications were Cyperus sp. (Estrada Lugo 1989) of the Cyperaceae, Genista juncea Scop. [unresolved name] (Gates 2000) of the Fabaceae, Juncus sp. (Emmart 1940; Guerra 1952; Miranda and Valdés 1964;

266

2  Phytomorph Identification of the Codex Cruz-Badianus

Reko 1947) of the Juncaceae, or Macrochloa tenacissima (Loefl. ex L.) Kunth (Stipa tenacissima Loefl. ex L.) (Molina 1571 in Clayton et al. 2009) of the Poaceae. Putative identification  The phytomorph does not match the genera suggested. It does match some species of Rhynchospora, especially R. colorata (L.) H.Pfeiff. [Dichromena colorata (L.) Hitchc.]. Distribution  Rhynchospora colorata is native from Georgia to Venezuela and the Caribbean. Names  Starrush whitetop, white star sedge, white-topped sedge (English). Use  Unknown.

Fig. 2.179  Rhynchospora colorata, Cyperaceae: (a) folio 59v2; (b) flowers and foliage. (Source: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Rhynchospora_colorata#/media/ File:Rhynchospora_colorata_Cyperaceae.jpg. T. Voekler CC BY-SA 3.0)

Folio 59v3 Nahuatl name  Totecyxiuh (totec, totec = god of the goldsmiths; y = a possessive; xiuh, xiuitl = plant, herb; thus, herb of totec). Additional spelling: totec ixoxochiuh. Description  Campanulate pink flowers of three petals are in a scorpioid cyme, each flower subtended by a calyx with acute lobes. Simple leaves are entire, elliptic, alternate, sessile, acute-lobed. Roots are ample on a green ellipse.

Folio 59v3

267

Previous identifications  Previous identifications were Heliotropium sp. (de Ávila Blomberg 2012; Emmart 1940; Gates 2000; Guerra 1952; Miranda and Valdés 1964; Reko 1947; Valdés Gutiérrez et al. 1992) of the Heliotropiaceae, Heliotropium curassavicum L. (Estrada Lugo 1989), Nama undulata Kunth (Linares and Bye 2013) of the Namaceae, or Tournefortia sp. (Guerra 1952) of the Heliotropiaceae. Putative identification  This phytomorph shows similarities to the Heliotropiaceae, but perhaps of the taxa native to Mexico, only pale pink forms of H. curassavicum L. var. oculatum (A. Heller) I. M. Johnst. ex Tidestr. Distribution  Heliotropium curassavicum var. oculatum is native from Texas to California, south to Mexico. Names  Alkali heliotrope, seaside heliotrope (English). Uses  Moerman (2009) lists the uses of the species among North American tribes as an antidiarrheal, diuretic, dermatological aid, emetic, disease remedy, venereal aid, and throat aid.

Fig. 2.180  Heliotropium curassavicum, Heliotropiaceae: (a) folio 59v3; (b) flowers and foliage. (Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliotropium_curassavicum#/media/File:Heliotropium_ curassavicum_Cambria_CA_(cropped).jpg. Peter D. Tillman CC BY-SA 4.0)

268

2  Phytomorph Identification of the Codex Cruz-Badianus

Folio 60r

Aztec medicinal use  Medicine to produce lactation. When the milk flows with difficulty, the herb chichilticxiuhtontli, which recalls the salad herb by its smallness, tohmiyoxihuitl, and a crystal are to be crushed in octli and boiled. The potion is to be drunk frequently. Besides the herb memeyaxiuhtontli is to be crushed in octli, the juice of which the woman should also drink; she should enter a bath, where she is to drink another potion made of corn. Yet when she comes out, she is to take as a drink the sticky water of boiled corn (Emmart 1940).

Folio 60r1 Nahuatl name  Tohmiyoxihuitl (tohmiyo, tohmio = hairy; xiuitl = plant; thus, hairy plant [Emmart 1940]; hairy fleece [Clayton et al. 2009]). Description  Golden yellow flowers with orange at the base are campanulate with three to four petals in a cyme on a scape, each flower subtended by a calyx with obtuse lobes. Simple leaves along a short stem are sessile and broadly linear, with a prominent midvein and obtuse tips. Roots are ample on a blue ellipse (moist soil?). Previous identification  Previous determinations were Asteraceae subfamily Cichorioideae (Emmart 1940; Guerra 1952; Miranda and Valdés 1964; Reko 1947; Valdés Gutiérrez et al. 1992), Packera bellidifolia (Kunth) W.A.Weber & Á.Löve (Senecio vulneraria DC.) (Linares and Bye 2013) of the Asteraceae, or Thymus vulgaris L. (Gates 2000) of the Lamiaceae.

Folio 60r

269

Putative identification  Thymus vulgaris, a European species of later introduction, does not match the phytomorph and is not illustrated. Despite the milky sap of Asteraceae subfamily Cichorioideae, the phytomorph does not have characters of the Asteraceae, and the phytomorph is indicated as growing in moist soil, not a desert species such as Packera bellidifolia. The phytomorph is extremely similar in artistry to folio 59v1, which was determined as Echeandia nana of the Asparagaceae. This may be a related species, such as the very variable and widespread E. flavescens (Schult. & Schult.f) Cruden. Distribution  Echeandia flavescens is native from Texas and Arizona to Mexico, growing in Mexico at 1980 to 2500 meters in pastures, oak forests, and scrubland (López-Ferrari and Espejo Serna 1995). Names  Torrey’s craglily, amberlily (English); coyamol (Spanish). Uses  Moerman (2009) lists the use by the Ramah Navajo as a gynecological aid and veterinary aid.

Fig. 2.181  Echeandia flavescens, Asparagaceae: (a) folio 60r1; (b) flowers and foliage. (Source: http://swbiodiversity.org/seinet/taxa/index.php?taxon=2901 SEINet, Max Licher, CC BY-SA 3.0)

Folio 60r2 Nahuatl name  Memeyaxiuhtontl (memeya = milk; xiuih = plant; tontoli = little; thus, little milk plant [Emmart 1940]; herb [with sap] flowing abundantly [Clayton et al. 2009]). Description  Tiny inflorescences are axile. Simple leaves are green marked with reddish orange, sessile, entire, ovate, acute-tipped. Roots are ample on a blue ellipse (moist soil?). Previous identifications  Previous identifications were Euphorbia sp. (Guerra 1952) of the Euphorbiaceae, or E. hirta L. (Linares and Bye 2013), E. maculata L. (de Ávila Blomberg 2012; Díaz 1976; Guerra 1952; Miranda and Valdés 1964; Reko 1947; Valdés Gutiérrez et  al. 1992), or E. prostrata Aiton (Godínez Salazar 2017).

270

2  Phytomorph Identification of the Codex Cruz-Badianus

Putative identification  Euphorbia maculata matches the phytomorph most closely. Distribution  Euphorbia maculata is native from Canada to Mexico. Names  Milk purslane, spotted sandmat, spotted spurge (English); lechosilla (Spanish). Uses  Martínez (1969) lists its use in traditional Mexican medicine.

Fig. 2.182  Euphorbia maculata, Euphorbiaceae: (a) folio 60r2; (b) flowers and foliage. (Source: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Euphorbia_maculata_plant4_(16180834650).jpg. Harry Rose CC BY 2.0)

Folio 61r

Folio 61r

271

Aztec medicinal use  For inflammation of infants. Siriasis, which is an inflammation of infants, is cured if the body is anointed with a poultice made from the very well-known seed of michiuahtli, reddish incense maize, which are to be burned together, from the herb tlatlanquaye, from the leaves of huitzihtzilxochitl, from the root of tlalahueuetl and tlayhapaloni, and from the foliage of the laurel and the foliage of xiuhcapahtli, which are to be extracted in acid water. The child, moreover, is to drink medicine made of whitish earth, of whitish stones, which are collected from the bed of a river, the stone acamallotetl and coltotzkn, the shrub tlalmizquitl, and ears of corn, which are to be crushed in water (Emmart 1940).

Folio 61r1 Nahuatl name  Acamallotetl (aca, acatl  =  reed; mallo, mallot  =  captivity; tetl = stone; thus, water plant [Emmart 1940]; acamallotl stone [Clayton et al. 2009]). Description  Green fruits are globular, with three yellow dots. Simple leaves are opposite and alternate, entire, sessile, acute-tipped. Stem is pink and thick. Roots are ample, epipetric, and possibly in water. Previous identifications  Previous identifications were Pachira aquatica Aubl. [P. macrocarpa (Schltdl. & Cham.) Walp.] (Guerra 1952) of the Malvaceae or Pouteria campechiana (Kunth) Baehni [Lucuma salicifolia Kunth, Vitellaria sphaerocarpa (A. DC.) Radlk.] (Miranda and Valdés 1964) of the Sapotaceae. Putative identification  Neither of the previous identifications matches the phytomorph, although it has the characteristics of the Sapotaceae. A match might be Micropholis melinoniana Pierre. The fruit varies from greenish to yellow, orange, red, or purple. The inner bank is pink. Distribution  Micropholis melinoniana is native from Mexico to Brazil, often in wet montane forests. Names  White balata (English); barilla de agua, caimitillo, chupon Colorado (Spanish). Uses  Besides edible fruit and lumber, the latex forms a gum called balatas, a manufacturing precursor to gutta percha (Chevalier 1932).

272

2  Phytomorph Identification of the Codex Cruz-Badianus

Fig. 2.183  Micropholis melinoniana, Sapotaceae: (a) folio 61r1; (b) foliage and fruit. (Source: https://serv.biokic.asu.edu/imglib/neotrop/misc/201406/22304_1403291368_web.jpg. Neotropical Flora, Rolando Pérez CC BY-SA 3.0)

Folio 61r2 Nahuatl name  Coltotzin (colto, coltotl = a kind of medicinal plant; tzin = reverential suffix; thus, elegant plant medicine [Emmart 1940], little coltotl [Clayton et al. 2009]). Description  Flowers are terminal, dark gray with a blue halo. Simple leaves are tiny, opposite, entire, linear. Roots are ample, possibly tuberous or with a woody caudex. Previous identification  Previous identifications were Dalea sp. (Miranda and Valdés 1964; Valdés Gutiérrez et al. 1992) of the Fabaceae, Dalea exserta (Rydb.) Gentry (D. lagopus sensu auct.) (Díaz 1976; Reko 1947), D. leporina (Aiton) Bullock (Linares and Bye 2013), Gouania sp. (Gates 2000) of the Rhamnaceae, or Marina nutans (Cav.) Barneby (Dalea nutans (Cav.) Willd.) (Guerra 1952) of the Fabaceae. Putative identification  The phytomorph matches most closely to the violet flowers of Dalea exserta. Distribution  Dalea exserta is native from Arizona to Mexico. Names  Mexican prairie clover (English). Uses  Unknown, but Moerman (2009) discusses the many medicinal uses of Dalea spp. among North American tribes.

Folio 62r

273

Fig. 2.184  Dalea exserta, Fabaceae: (a) folio 61r2; (b) herbarium sheet. (Source: http://swbiodiversity.org/seinet/imagelib/imgdetails.php?imgid=467860. SEINet Creative Commons)

Folio 62r

Aztec medicinal use  The wise physician foretells from the very eyes and nostrils of the sick man whether he is going to die or live. And so according to his probable opinion, if the eyes still have the redness of blood, they are an indubitable indication of life, and if they are pale and bloodless, of uncertain recovery. The signs of death

274

2  Phytomorph Identification of the Codex Cruz-Badianus

are a certain color found in the middle of the eyes, the top of the head becoming cold or contracting into a certain depression, the eyes becoming black and have little sparkle, the nose becoming thin and pointed as it were like a rod, the jaws becoming rigid, the tongue cold, and the teeth disintegrating and covered with much tartar and no longer able to move and separate. The very gritting of the teeth and when a vein is lanced a flow of blood that is either pale or black are heralds of coming death and also the face becoming pale black and putting on and assuming now one expression, now another, and finally, if he, like parrots, rolls, pours out, and repeats unintelligible words in no order. But in a woman, one especial prognostic has been observed, namely, if her buttocks, calves, and sides feel pricked as it were by a very sharp thorn. Yet when we have despaired of and given up all hope of recovery, even then you can drop into the dying man’s eyes a medicine carefully made of the precious stones tlahcalhuatzin, extetl, a pearl and a white pearl, and whitish earth ground together in water. You shall anoint the breast with a liquid made of pine crushed in water, laurel, and the herb tonatiuhyxiuh, which you are to pluck in summer and save for this time. You are to prick the breast with a sharpened bone of a wolf, that of an eagle or of a white lion (puma?) of the lion (jaguar) whose skin is variegated, distinguished, and sprinkled with black color. On the buttocks, you shall suspend an eagle’s heart concealed and wrapped in a stagskin. Finally, you shall let him to drink a portion of precious stones, a white pearl, a very green pearl, an emerald, whitish earth, the moss of stones found in the forest, and tlahcalhuatzin, all of which you are to grind together. Likewise of the cones of the cypress, the leaves of laurel, the herbs tlanextiaxihuitl, tonatiuhyxiuh, which has an excellent golden gleam, the quetzalaylin tree, and the stones which you are to seek in the stomach of the birds: eagle, quail, swallow, rooster, diver, wryneck, quecholtototl, tlapaltototl, noctotyl, and dove, all of which you are to grind. But when the fatal necessity is close and we are near to dying, an abundant flow of blood pours over the heart with the passing of which unto all the members we finish our mortality (Emmart 1940). Nahuatl name  Quetzalylin (quetza, quetzalli  =  precious; ylin  =  name of a tree [Emmart 1940]; precious ylin [Clayton et al. 2009]). Alternate spelling: quetzalytzl. Description  This is very similar to folio 39r10 except this phytomorph is on a blue tuberous structure. Previous identification  A previous identification was Alnus sp. (Clayton et  al. 2009; Gates 2000). Putative identification  Alnus jorullensis is a better match to the phytomorph and name. This is one of the species surviving at the pre-Hispanic garden of Tetzcutzingo Hill Complex, Mexico (Hernández-Cruz et al. 2016; Pulido and Koch 1988).

Folio 62r

275

Distribution  This is an evergreen or semi-evergreen native to Mexico and Guatemala, growing along streams. Names  Evergreen alder, Mexican alder, Mount Jorullo alder (English); aliso, cerezo, chaquiro (Spanish). Uses  Nieto and Rodriguez (n.d.) remark: “The wood is moderately resistant to bending and compression. It has excellent workability and good finish and is used for furniture, drawers, cabinets, doors, windows, pencils, toothpicks, and matches. Because it has a high volume in relation to a low weight, the wood is used in the wood-shaving board industry. Traditionally, it has been used as firewood and charcoal. It can be used potentially as the core of lath boards, for casting molds, and as round arches for concrete; in light boxes for packing and molded products not exposed to excessive wear and tear; and for tri-ply veneer. If treated, it could be used for large stakes, posts, and pilings. It is used in construction for structural elements only subjected to small loads. The bark is used as a source of tannins for tanning and of yellow and beige dyes. Yellow and green dyes are obtained from the leaves. Finally, the tree is useful in agroforestry (Lamprecht 1990).”

Fig. 2.185  Alnus jorullensis, Betulaceae: (a) folio 62r; (b) herbarium sheet. (Source: http://midwestherbaria.org/portal/collections/individual/index.php?occid=12902033. Field Museum CC BY-NC 3.0)

276

2  Phytomorph Identification of the Codex Cruz-Badianus

References Abud Molina, I F. 2015. Francisco de Mendoza y el Libellus de Medicinalibus Inodorum Herbis. Illustración botánica y comercio de espercas en el siglo XVI. Thesis. Benemérita Universidad Autónoma du Puebla, Mexico. Acosta de la Luz, C.L.L., I.  Hechevarría Sosa, C.  Rodríguez Ferradá, M.M.  Rivera Amita, M.  Milanés Figueredo, S.  Solano Marqueti, and R.  Ramos Gálvez. 2013. Explotación de Malvaviscus arboreus Cav. con fines medicinales. Revista Cubana de Plantas Medicinales 18: 461–468. Acosta-Montoya, Ó., F.  Vaillant, S.  Cozzano, C.  Mertz, A.M.  Pérez, and M.V.  Castro. 2010. Phenolic content and antioxidant capacity of tropical highland blackberry (Rubus adenotrichus Schltdl.) during three edible maturity stages. Food Chemistry 119: 1497–1501. Adams, K.R. 1990. Prehistoric reedgrass (Phagmites) “cigarettes” with tobacco (Nicotiana) contents: A case study from red Bow cliff dwelling, Arizona. Journal of Ethnobiology 101 (2): 123–139. Alcántara Rojas, B. 2008. In Nepapan Xochitl: The power of flowers in the works of Sahagún. In Colors between two worlds: The Florentine codex of Bernardino de Sahagún, ed. L.A. Waldman, 106–132. Florence: Villa I Tatti. Alonso-Castro, A.J., M.L.  Villarreal, L.A.  Salazar-Olivo, M.  Gomez-Sanchez, F.  Dominguez, and A.  Garcia-Carranca. 2011. Mexican medicinal plants used for cancer treatment: Pharmacological, phytochemical and ethnobotanical studies. Journal of Ethnopharmacology 133: 945–972. Al-Snafi, A.E. 2015. Chemical constituents and pharmacological effects of Asclepias curassavica—A review. Asian Journal of Pharmaceutical Research 5: 83–87. Altamirano, F. 1896. Historia natural aplicada de los antiguos mexicanos. Anales del Instituto Médico Nacional México 2: 261–272. Al-Yahya, M.A.I., and W.C. Evans. 1977. The alkaloids of Datura quercifolia H.B.K. Quarterly Journal of Crude Drug Research 15: 131–132. Amith, J.D. 2007. Nahuatl Cultural Encyclopedia: Botany and Zoology, Balsas River, Guerrero. www.famsi.org/reports/03049. Arce-Acosta, I., H. Suzán-Aspiri, and O. García-Rubio. 2016. Biotic factors associated with the spatial distribution of the mistletoe Psittacanthus calyculatus in a tropical deciduous forest of Central Mexico. Botanical Sciences 94: 89–96. Argoti, J.C., S.  Salido, P.J.  Linares-Palomino, P.  Ramírez, B.  Insuasty, and J.  Altarejos. 2011. Antioxidant activity and free radical scavenging capacity of a selection of wild-growing Colombian plants. Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture 91: 2399–2406. Arias, S., S.  Gama, U.  Guzmán-Cruz, and B.  Vázquez-Benítez. 2012. Cactacea. In Flora del Valle de Tehuacán-Cuicatlán. Fascículo 95. Mexico City: Instituto de Biología, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México. Astudillo, A., E. Hong, R. Bye, and A. Navarrette. 2004. Antispasmodic activity of extracts and compounds of Acalypha phleoides Cav. Phytotherapy Research 18 (2): 102–106. Ayensu, E.S. 1981. Medicinal plants of the West Indies. Algonac: Reference Publications. Badami, S., S.A.M. Reddy, E.P. Kumar, P. Vijayan, and B. Suresh. 2003. Antitumor activity of total alkaloid fraction of Solanum pseudocapsicum leaves. Phytotherapy 17: 1001–1004. Basílo, I.J.D., M. de Fátima Agra, E.A.  Bocha, C.K.A.  Leal, and H.F.  Abrantes. 2006. Estudo Farmacobotânico Comparativo das Folhas de Hyptis pectinata (L.) Poit. e Hyptis suaveolens (L.) Poit. (Lamiaceae). Acta Farmacéutica Bonaerense 25: 518–525. Basurto-Peña, F., D.  Castro-Lara, and M.A.  Martínez-Alfaro. 2003. Edible begonias from the north of Puebla, Mexico. Economic Botany 57: 48–53. Batres, L.D.P., C.A.B. Alfaro, and J. Ghaemghami. 2012. Mesoamerica aesthetics: Horticultural plants in hair and skin care. Chronica Horticulturae 50(2): 12–5. Berkov, S. 2003. Alkaloids of Datura ceratocaula. Zeitschrift Naturforsch C J Bioscience 58 (7–8): 455–458.

References

277

Bhat, B.A., K.L.  Dhar, S.C.  Puri, M.A.  Qurishi, A.  Khajuria, A.  Gupta, and G.N.  Qazi. 2005. Isolation, characterization and biological evaluation of datura lactones as potential immunomodulators. Bioorganic and Medicinal Chemistry 13: 6672–6677. Bork, P.M., M.L. Schmitz, M. Kuhnt, C. Escher, and M. Heinrich. 1997. Sesquiterpene lactone containing Mexican Indian medicinal plants and pure sesquiterpene lactones as potent inhibitors of transcription factor NF-KB. FEBS Letters 402: 85–90. Borsutzky, M., T.  Passie, W.  Paetzold, H.M.  Emrich, and U.  Schneide. 2002. Hawaiianisch Holzrose: (Psycho-) Pharmakologische Wirkungen der Samen der Argyreia nervosa. Der Nervenarzt 73: 892–896. Britton, N.L., and J.N.  Rose. 1919. The Cactaceae: Descriptions and illustrations of the cactus family. Carnegie Institution of Washington, DC. Vol. 1. Burkill, H.M. 1994. The useful plants of west tropical Africa. Vol. 2. 2nd ed. Kew: Royal Botanic Gardens. Bye, R.A., and E.  Linares. 2013. Códice de la Cruz-Badiano: Medicine préhispánica. Primera parte. Arqueología Mexicana 50: 7–91. Cabrera Miranda, C. 2006. Estudio químico de las hojas y tallos de Mimosa aculeaticarpa var. biuncifera (Benth.) Barneby. Thesis. Universidad Autónoma del Estado del Hidalgo, Pachuca, de Soto, Hidalgo. Cáceres, A. 1996. Plantas de uso medicinal en Guatemala. Guatemala: Editorial Universitaria, Universidad de San Carlos de Guatemala. Calderón de Rzdeowski, G., and J. Rzedowski. 2001. Flora fanerogamica del Valle de Mexico. Michoacan: Patzcaro. Campos-Ríos, G. 2005. Revision del género Bourreria P.  Browne (Boraginaceae) en México. Polibotánica 19: 39–103. Carledrón, E., L.  Velásquez, and R.  Bressani. 1992. Estudio comparativo de la composición química y valor nutritivo del piloy (Phaseolus coccineus) y del frijol común (Phaseolus vulgaris). Archivos Latinoamericanos de Nutrición 42: 64–71. Case, R.J., A.O. Tucker, M.J. Maciarello, and K.A. Wheeler. 2003. Chemistry and ethnobotany of commercial incense copals, copal Blanco, copal oro, and copal negro, of North America. Economic Botany 57: 189–202. Chevalier, A. 1932. Les vrais et les faux Balatas (Fin). Revue de Botanique Appliquée et d'Agriculture Coloniale 129: 347–358. Clayton, M., L. Guerrini, and A. de Ávila. 2009. Flora: The Aztec herbal. London: Royal Collection Enterprises. Comas, J., E. González, A. Lόpez Austin, G. Somolinos, and C. Viesca. 1995. El mestizaje cultural y la medicina novohispanica del siglo XVI. València: Universitat de València-C.S.I.C. Cordero-Martínez, J., C.  Aguirre-Alvarado, J.G.  Guzmán-Soriano, C.E.  Sánchez-Arroyo, J.C. Flores-Alonso, and L. Rodríguez-Páez. 2016. Effects of aqueous crude extract of Echeveria gibbiflora on mouse sperm function. Systems Biology in Reproductive Medicine 62: 343–352. Cruz, M. de la. and J. Badiano. 1964. Libellus de medicinalibus indorum herbis: manuscrito Azteca de 1552, segun traduccion Latina de Juan Badiano. Version Espanola con estudios y comentarios por diversos autores. Instituto Mexicano del Seguro Social, México. de Ávila Blomberg, A. 2012. Yerba del coyote, veneno del perro: La evidencia lexica para identificar plantas en el Códice de la Cruz Badiano. Acta Botanica Mexica 100: 489–526. De Feo, V., A.  Juarez Belaunde, J.  Guerrero Sandoval, F.  Senatore, and C.  Formisano. 2008. Antibacterial activity and composition of the essential oil of Peperomia galioides HBK (Piperaceae) from Peru. Natural Product Communications 3: 933–936. De Filipps, R.A., S.L.  Maina, and J.  Crepin. 2004. Medicinal Plants of the Guianas (Guyana, Surinam, French Guiana). Smithsonian Museum. https://naturalhistory.si.edu/sites/default/ files/media/file/medicinalplantsmaster.pdf. Accessed 20 Nov 2019. De Melo, G.O., C.  Ddo Malvar, F.A.  Vanderlinde, P.A.  Pires, W.S.  Côrtes, P.  Germano Filho, M.F. Muzitano, C.R. Kaiser, and S.S. Costa. 2005. Phytochemical and pharmacological study of Sedum dendroideum leaf juice. Journal of Ethnopharmacology 102: 217–220. de Molina, A. 1571. Confessionario may ren la lengua astellana y mexiana. Mexico. Editorial Porrúa.

278

2  Phytomorph Identification of the Codex Cruz-Badianus

de Moura Sperottoa, N.D., L. Steffensa, R. Moisés Veríssimoa, J. Gustavo Henna, V. Flores Péresa, P. Viannab, J.A. Bogo Chiesb, A. Roehec, J. Saffia, and D.J. Mouraa. 2018. Wound healing and anti-inflammatory activities induced by a Plantago australis hydroethanolic extract standardized in verbascoside. Journal of Ethnopharmacology 225: 178–188. Del Castillo, R.F., and S.  Acosta. 2002. Ethnobotanical notes on Pinus strobus var. chiapensis. Anales del Instituto de Biología Serie Botánica 73: 319–327. del Pozo, E.C. 1966. Aztec pharmacology. Review of Pharmacology 6: 8–18. Descourtilz, M.E. 1821–1829. Flore médicale des Antilles. Paris. 8 vols., Paris. Díaz, J.L. 1976. Índice y sinonimia de las plantas medicinales de México. México: Instituto Mexicano para el Estudio de las Plantas. Díaz-Castelazo, C., V. Rico-Gray, P.S. Oliveira, and M. Cuautle. 2004. Extrafloral nectary-mediated ant-plant interactions in the coastal vegetation of Veracruz, Mexico: Richness, occurrence, seasonality, and ant foraging patterns. Ecoscience 11: 472–481. Díaz-de-Cerio, E., V.  Verardo, A.M.  Gómez-Caravaca, A.  Fernández-Gutiérrez, and A.  SeguraCarretero. 2017. Health effects of Psidium guajava L. leaves: An overview of the last decade. International Journal of Molecular Sciences 18: 897. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms18040897. Dressler, R. L. 1953. The Pre-Columbian cultivated plants of Mexico. Botanical Museum Leaflets 16:115–72. Emmart, E. W. 1940. The Badianus Manuscript (Codex Barberini, Latin 241). Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins Press. Estrada Lugo, E. 1989. El Códice Florentino: Su información etnobotánica. México: Colegio de Postgraduados, Institución de Enseñanza e Investigación en Ciencias Agricolas, Montecillo. Farfán, J.A.F., and J.G.R.  Elferink. 2010. Ethnobotany and Aztec sexuality. Muenchen: Lincom. Europa. Farjon, A., and B.T. Styles. 1997. Pinus (Pinaceae). Flora Neotropica Monograph 75: 1–291. Fernández-Martínez, E., R.  Díaz-Espinoza, M.A.  Villavicencio-Nieto, B.E.  Pérez-Escandón, N.  Pérez-Hernández, A.  Macías, M.I.  Ortíz, and H.A.  Ponce-Monterl. 2007. Preliminary phytochemical and biological study of Cirsium ehrenbergii. Proceedings of the Western Pharmacology Society 50: 162–164. Fernández-Martínez, E., M.  Jimenez-Santana, M.  Centeno-Alvarez, J.M.  Torres-Valencia, M. Shibayama, and R. Carino-Cortes. 2017. Hepatoprotective effects of nonpolar extracts from inflorescences of thistles Cirsium vulgare and Cirsium ehrenbergii on acute liver damage in rat. Pharmacognosy Magazine 13: S860–S867. https://doi.org/10.4103/pm.pm_260_17. Figueroa, M., I.  Rivero-Cruz, B.  Rivero-Cruz, R.  Bye, A.  Navarrete, and R.  Mata. 2007. Constituents, biological activities and quality control parameters of the crude extract and essential oil from Arracacia tolucensis var. multifida. Journal of Ethnopharmacology 113: 125–131. Fire Effects Information System (FEIS). 2018. Syntheses about fire ecology and fire regimes in the United States. https://www.feis-crs.org/feis/faces/index.xhtml. Accessed 6 Nov 2018. Fournet, A., M.E.  Ferreira, A.  Rojas de Arias, S.  Fuente, S.  Torres, A.  Inchausti, G.  Yaluff, H. Nakayama, V. Majiou, R. Hocquemiller, and A. Cavé. 1996. In vitro and in vivo leishmanicidal studies of Peperomia galioides (Piperaceae). Phytomedicine 3: 271–275. Fukuchi-Mizutani, M., H. Okuhara, Y. Fukui, M. Nakao, Y. Katsumoto, K. Yonekura-Sakakibara, T.  Kusumi, T.  Hase, and Y.  Tanaka. 2003. Biochemical and molecular characterization of a novel UDP-glucose: Anthocyanin 3’-O-glucosyltransferase, a key enzyme for blue anthocyanin biosynthesis, from gentian. Plant Physiology 132: 1652–1663. Furst, P. 1995. This little books of herbs: Psychoactive plants as therapeutic agents in the Badianus manuscript of 1552. In Ethnobotany: Evolution of the discipline, ed. R. Schultes and S. von Reis, 108–130. Portland: Dioscorides Press. Gallardo-Pérez, J.C., M. de Lourdes Esparza-Aguilar, and A. Gómez-Campos. 2006. Importancia etnobotánica de una planta vascularsin semilla en México: Equisetum. Polibotánica 21: 61–74. Garcia Franco, J.L. 2010. Identificación, incidencia y servidad del muérdago Phoradendron sobre Quercus spp. y Juniperus pps. en los cañones jamé u los libros de la Sierra de Arteaga Coahuila. Thesis, Universidad Autónomia Agraria Antonio Narro, Coahuila.

References

279

Gates, W. 1939. The de la Cruz-Badiano Aztec Herbal of 1552. Baltimore, MD: The Maya Society Publication No 22. Gates, W. 2000. An Aztec herbal. Mineola: Dover Publications. (First published 1939. Maya Society, Baltimore.) Glamočlija, J., M. Soković, V. Tešević, G.A. Linde, and N. Barros Colauto. 2011. Chemical characterization of Lippia alba essential oil: An alternative to control green mold. Brazilian Journal of Microbiology 42: 1537–1546. Godínez Salazar, D.A. 2017. Recursos vegetales culturalmente útilese en la region de La Piedad Michoacán 1860–1950. Thesis. El Colegio de Michoacán, Mexico. González de Mejía, E., and M.V. Ramírez-Mares. 2011. Ardisia: Health-promoting properties and toxicity of phytochemicals and extracts. Toxicology Mechanisms and Methods 21: 667–674. González-Elizondo, M.S., A.A.  Reznicek, and J.A.  Tena-Flores. 2018. Cyperaceae in Mexico: Diversity and distribution. Botanical Sciences 96: 305–331. Graham, S.A., and R. Kleiman. 1992. Composition of seed oils in some Latin American Cuphea (Lythraceae). Industrial Crops and Products 1: 31–34. Grijalva Pineda, A. 2006. Flora útil etnobotánica de Nicaragua. Managua: Marena. Guerra, F. 1952. Indice etimologico. In Libellus de medicinalibus Indorum herbis. El manuscrito pictórico mexicano-latino de Martín de la Cruz y Juan Badiano de 1552. Estudio. Texto y Versión, ed. M. de la Cruz, J. Badiano, and F. Guerra, 237–256. México: Editorial Vargas Rea y El Diario Español. Hafiza, M.A., B. Parveen, R. Ahmad, and K. Hamid. 2002. Phytochemical and antifungal screening of Medicago sativa and Zinnia elegans. Journal of Biological Sciences 2: 130–132. Hardy, L.M. 1976. Gyalopion, G. canum, G. quadrangularis. Catalogue of American Amphibians and Reptiles 182: 1–3. https://repositories.lib.utexas.edu/handle/2152/45109. Accessed 20 Nov 2019. Harris, E.S.J. 2008. Ethnobryology: Traditional uses and folk classification of bryophytes. Bryologist 111: 169–217. Heithaus, E.R., P.A. Opler, and H.G. Baker. 1974. Bat activity and pollination of Bauhinia pauletia: Plant-pollinator coevolution. Ecology 55: 412–419. Hemsley, W.B. 1879–1888. Biologia Centrali-Americana. Botany. Vol. 5. London: R. H. Porter. Hernandez, F., F. Celsi, F. Colonna, B. Deversini, J. Faber, J. Greuter, V. Mascardi, N.A. Recchi, and J. Terentius. 1651. Rerum medicatum Novae Hispaniae Thesarus, seu, Plantarum animalium mioneralium Mexicanorum historia. Romae: Vitalis Mascardi. Hernández-Cruz, M.J., S.D.  Koch-Olt, M.T.P.  Pulido-Salas, M.  Luna-Cavazos, and E.  GarcíaVillaneuva. 2016. Estudio florístico del cerro Metecatl, del complejo montañoso Tetzcutzingo, Texcoco, Estado de México, México. Botanical Sciences 94: 377–392. Hernández-Marín, D.A., F.  Guevara-Lara, C.  Rivas-Morales, J.A.  Verduzco-Martinez, S.A. Galindi-Rodriguez, and E. Sánchez-Garcia. 2018. Biological activity of Nothoscordum bivalve (L.) Britton and Parthenium incanum Kunth extracts. Indian Journal of Traditional Knowledge 17: 699–706. Heyden, D. 1983. Reeds and rushes: From survival to sovereigns. In Flora and fauna imagery in Precolumbian cultures: Iconography and function, ed. J.F.  Peterson, 93–112. Oxford: B.A.R. Press. Hooker, W.J. 1857. Curtis’s Botanical Magazine ser. 3, vol. 13. ———. 1862. Curtis’s Botanical Magazine ser. 3, vol. 18. Hubinger Tokarina, C., J.  Döbereiner, and P.  Vargas Peixoto. 2002. Poisonous plants affecting livestock in Brazil. Toxicon 40: 1635–1660. Janick, J., and A.O. Tucker. 2018. Unraveling the Voynich codex. Cham: Springer Nature. Kinsey, T.B. 2019. Southeastern Arizona wildflowers and plants: An identification guide to Sonoran Desert plants and Tucson wildflowers. https://www.fireflyforest.com/flowers/ (6 Feb. 2019). Kuijt, J. 2003. Monograph of Phoradendron (Viscaceae). Systematic Botany Monographs 66: 1–643. Lamarck. 1792. Sur une nouvelle espèce de Pecti. Journal d’Histoire Naturelle 2: 148–154.

280

2  Phytomorph Identification of the Codex Cruz-Badianus

Lamprecht, H. 1990. Silvicultura en los tropicos. Rossdorf: GTZ.  Deutsche Gesellschaft fur Technishe Zusammenarbeit. Lans, C.A. 2006. Ethnomedicines used in Trinidad and Tobago for urinary problems and diabetes mellitus. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine 2: 45. https://doi. org/10.1186/1746-4269-2-45. Vasconcelos, M.A., S. da Ferreira, M.L.  Andrade e Silva, R.  Cassio Sola Veneziani, and W.R. Cunha. 2003. Analgesic effects of crude extracts of Miconia albicans (Melastomataceae). Bollettino Chimico Farmaceutico 142: 333–335. Linares, E., and R. Bye. 2013. Códice de la Cruz-Badiano: Medicine préhispánica. Segunda parte. Arqueología Mexicana 51: 7–93. Liu, Y., X. Li, G. Chen, M. Li, M. Liu, and D. Liu. 2015. Epidermal micromorphology and mesophyll structure of Populus euphratica heteromorphic leaves at different development stages. PLoS One 10: e0137701. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0137701. Lobato-de Magalhães, T., and M.  Martínez. 2018. Temporary freshwater wetlands floristics in central Mexican highlands. Botanical Sciences 96: 138–156. López-Ferrari, A.R., and A. Espejo Serna. 1995. Anthericaceae. Flora de Veracruz 86: 1–20. Lourteig, A. 1975. Oxalidaceae Extra-Austroamericanae. I. Oxalis L. Sectio Thamnoxya Planchon. Phytologia 29: 449–471. Madrigal Redondo, G.L., R. Vargas Zúñiga, G. Carazo Berrocal, N. Ramírez Arguedas, L. Fonseca González, and J. Campos. 2017. Rubus adenotrichus fruit extracts phytochemical characterization and antioxidant power evaluation for dermocosmetic formulations. International Journal of Phytocosmetics and Natural Ingredients 4: 5. https://doi.org/10.15171/ijpni.2017.05. Maheshwari, N.O., A. Khan, and B.A. Chopade. 2013. Rediscovering the medicinal properties of Datura sp.: A review. Journal of Medicinal Plants Research 7: 2885–2897. Mahiou, V., F. Roblot, R. Hocquemiller, A. Cavé, A. Rojas De Arias, A. Inchausti, G. Yaluff, and A.  Fournet. 1996. New prenylated quinones from Peperomia galioides. Journal of Natural Products 59: 694–697. Mamun-Or-Rashid, A.N.M., M.K.  Sen, A.H.M.  Jamal, and S.  Nasrin. 2013. A comprehensive ethno-pharmacological review on Lippia alba M. International Journal of Biomedical Materials Research 1 (1): 14–20. Martínez, M. 1949. Catálogo de nombres vulgares y cientificos de plantas mexicanas. México: Fondo de Cultura Económico. ———. 1969. Las plantas medicinales de Mexico. Fifth ed. Mexico: Ediciones Botas. Meira, M., E. P. da Silva, J. M. David, and J. P. David. 2012. Review of the genus Ipomoea: traditional uses, chemistry and biological activities. Revista Brasileira de Farmacognosia 22:682–713. Mejía-Saules, T. 1993. Uso de Muhlenbergia macroura (Poaceae: Eragrostideae) en la región de Perote, Veracruz, México. Boletín de la Sociedad Botánica de México 53: 141–147. Mickel, J.T., and A.R.  Smith. 2004. The pteridophytes of Mexico. Bronx: New  York Botanical Garden. Miller, M.D. 1970. Isolation and identification of isolysergic acid amide and isolysergic acid amide as the principal ergoline alkaloids in Argyreia nervosa, a tropical wood rose. Journal of the Association of Official Analytical Chemists 53: 123–128. Miranda, F., and J. Valdés. 1964. Comentarios botánicos. In Libellus de medicinalibus indorum herbis manuscrito Azteca de 1552 segun traduccion Latina de Juan Badiano version Espanola con estudios y comentarios por diversos autores, 243–284. México: Instituto Mexicano del Seguro Social. Moerman, D.E. 2009. Native American medicinal plants: An ethnobotanical dictionary. Portland: Timber Press. Moo-Puc, R., J. Chale-Dzul, and E. Caamal-Fuentes. 2013. Bonellia albiflora: A Mayan medicinal plant that induces apoptosis in cancer cells. Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine. Morton https://doi.org/10.1155/2013/823453. Accessed 10 Feb 2019. Morton, J.F. 1987. Fruits of warm climates. Miami: Julia F. Morton.

References

281

Munguía-Lino, G., O.  Vargas-Ponce, and A.  Rodrígues. 2017. Tigridieae (Iridaceae) in North America: Floral diversity, flower preservation methods and keys for the identification of genera and species. Botanical Sciences 95: 473–502. Nair, S.K.P., K.  Ganesan, M.  Sinaga, N.  Letha, and S.B.  Gani. 2016. Preliminary phytochemical screening of different solvent extracts of leaves of Echeveria elegans rose, an endangered Mexican succulent herb. Journal of Global Biosciences 5: 3429–3432. National Park Service, U.S. Department of the Interior. 2015. Sticky monkey flower. https://www. nps.gov/prsf/learn/nature/sticky-monkey-flower.htm. Accessed 20 Nov 2019. Navarro García, V.M., A.  Gonzalez, M.  Fuentes, M.  Aviles, M.Y.  Rios, G.  Zepeda, and M.G. Rojas. 2003. Antifungal activities of nine traditional Mexican medicinal plants. Journal of Ethnopharmacology 87: 85–88. Nesom, G.L. 1994. A new species of Lippia (Verbenaceae) from south-Central Mexico, with comments on related and peripheral species. Phytologia 77: 309–317. Nieto, V.M., and J. Rodriguez. n.d. Alnus jorullensis Kunth in H.B.K. In Tropical tree seed manual. United States Department of Agriculture Forest Service, ed. A. Vozzo, 292–3. https://rngr.net/ publications/ttsm/species. Accessed 21 Jan 2019. Nóbrega, E.M., A.A. Craveiro, J.T. Welch, T. Nicholson, and J.A. Ziboeta. 1988. New alkaloid from Schultesia guianensis. Journal of Natural Products 51: 962–965. Noriega-Cisneros, R., O. Ortiz-Ávila, E. Esquivel-Gutiérrez, M. Clemente-Guerrero, S. ManzoAvalos, R.  Salgado-Garciglia, C.  Cortés-Rojo, I.  Boldogh, and A.  Saavedra-Molina. 2012. Hypolipidemic activity of Eryngium carlinae on streptozotocin-induced diabetic rats. Biochemistry Research International 2012: 603501. https://doi.org/10.1155/2012/603501. Ocaranza, F. 2011. Historia de la medicina en México. 2nd ed. México: Cien de Mexico, Cauhtémoc. Ordaz Téllez, M.G., H. Bárcenas Rodríguez, G. Quevedo Olivares, A. Nitxin Castañeda Sortibrán, A. Andrade Cetto, and R. Rodríguez-Arnaiz. 2007. A phytotherapeutic extract of Equisetum myriochaetum is not genotoxic either in the in vivo wing somatic test of Drosophila or in the in vitro human micronucleus test. Journal of Ethnopharmacology 111: 182–189. Ortiz de Montellano, B. 1975. Empirical Aztec medicine. Science 188: 215–220. Ossenbach, C. 2009. Orchids and orchidology in Central America. 500 years of history. Landesteriana 9: 1–268. Osuna-Martinez, U., J.  Reyes-Esparza, and L.  Rodriguez-Fragoso. 2014. Cactus (Opuntia ficus-indica): A review on its antioxidants properties and potential pharmacological use in chronic diseases. Natural Products Chemistry & Research. 2: 153. https://doi. org/10.4172/2329-6836.1000153. Pablo-Pérez, S.S., B. Parada-Cruz, O.C. Barbier, and M.E. Meléndez-Camargo. 2018. The ethanolic extract of Eysenhardtia polystachya (ort.) Sarg. Bark and its fractions delay the progression of rheumatoid arthritis and show antinociceptive activity in murine models. Iranian Journal of Pharmaceutical Research 17: 236–248. Pellegrini, M.O.O. 2017. Morphological phylogeny of Tradescantia L. (Commelinaceae) sheds light on a new infrageneric classification for the genus and novelties on the systematics of subtribe Tradescantiinae. PhytoKeys 89: 11–72. https://doi.org/10.3897/phytokeys.89.20388. Pereda-Miranda, R., D. Rosas-Ramírez, and J. Castañeda-Gómez. 2010. Resin glycosides from the morning glory family. Fortschritte der Chemie Organischer Naturstoffe 92: 77–153. Perez Gutierrez, R.M., R.S. Vargas, G.S. Perez, S.M. Zavala, and G.C. Perez. 2000. Antiurolithiatic activity of 7-hydroxy-2′,4′,5′-trimethoxyisoflavone and 7-hydroxy-4′-methoxyisoflavone from Eysenhardtia polystachya. Journal of Herbs, Spices and Medicinal Plants 7: 27–34. Pérez Escandón, B.E., M.A. Villaviencio Nieto, and A. Ramírez Aguirre. 2003. Lista de las plantas del estado de Hidalgo. Universidad Autónoma del Estado del Hidalgo. México: Centro de Investigaciones Biológicas. Picó, B., and F. Nuez. 2000a. Minor crops of Mesoamerica in early sources (I). Leafy vegetables. Genetic Resources and Crop Evolution 47: 527–540. Picó, B., and F. Nuez. 2000b. Minor crops of Mesoamerica in early sources (II). Herbs used as condiments. Genetic Resources and Crop Evolution 47: 541–52.

282

2  Phytomorph Identification of the Codex Cruz-Badianus

Pieroni, L.G., F.M. de Resende, V.F. Ximenes, and A.L. Dokkedal. 2011. Antioxidant activity and total phenols from the methanolic extract of Miconia albicans (Sw.) Triana leaves. Molecules 16: 9439–9450. Plant List. 2013. Version 1.1. http://www.the plantlist.org 1991. Libellus de medicinalibus indorum herbis. Mexico. Fondo de Cultura Economica. Preissel, U., and H.G. Preissel. 2002. Brugmansia and Datura: Angel’s trumpets and thorn apples. Buffalo: Firefly Books. Pruski, J.F., and H. Robinson. 2012. Flora Mesoamericana vol. 5, part 2: Asteraceae. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Pulido, M.T.P., and S.D.  Koch. 1988. Inventario florístico en el cerro Tetzcotzinco, Texcoco, Estado de México. Boletín de la Sociedad Botánica de México 48: 81–94. Pulido-Salas, M.T., and M.J. Hernández-Cruz. 2017. Tetzcutzingo Hill complex, Mexico: A surviving pre-Hispanic garden with an unusually diverse flora. Garden History 45: 105–108. Ramírez, J., and G.V.  Alcocer. 1902. Sinonimia vulgar y científica de las plantas mexicanas. Mexico: Oficina Tipográfica de la Secretaría de Fomento. Raven, P.H., and D.R.  Parnell. 1970. Two new species and some nomenclatural changes in Oenothera subg. Hartmannia (Onagraceae). Madrono 20: 246–249. Román Ramos, R., F.  Alcarcón-Aguilar, A.  Lara-Lemus, and J.L.  Flores-Saenz. 1992. Hypoglycemic effect of plants used in Mexico as antidiabetics. Archives of Medical Research 23: 59–64. Rejón-Oranjtes, J.C., D.P.  Suaréz, A.  Rejón-Rodríguez, S.H.  Hernández, O.E.  Liévano, R.L. Rodriguez, and M.P. de la Mora. 2013. Aqueous root extracts from Mimosa albida Humb. & Bonpl. Ex Willd display antinociceptive activity in mice. Journal of Ethnopharmacology 149: 522–526. Reko, B.P. 1947. Nombres bótanicos del manuscrito Badiano. Boletín de la Sociedad Botánica de Mexico 5: 23–43. Reko, V.A. 1949. Magische Gifte: Rausch- und Betäubungsmittel den neuen Welt. Stuttgart: Ferdinand Enke Verlag. Rodriguez, A., and K.J.  Systma. 2006. Phylogenetics of the “tiger-flower” group (Tigridieae: Iridaceae): Molecular and morphological evidence. Aliso 22: 412–422. Rusconi, M., and A. Conti. 2010. Theobroma cacao L., the food of the gods: A scientific approach beyond myths and claims. Pharmacological Research 61: 5–13. Rzedowski, J., and G. Calderon de Rzedowski. 1995. Notas sobre algunas Polemoniaceae mexicanas. Acta Botánica Mexicana 31: 55–61. https://doi.org/10.21829/abm31.1995.738. Saeidnia, S., A.R. Gohari, N. Mokhber-Dezfuli, and F. Kiuchi. 2011. A review on phytochemistry and medicinal properties of the genus Achillea. DARU Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciences 19: 173–186. Safford, W.R. 1919. Notes on the genus Dahlia, with descriptions of two new species from Guatemala. Journal of the Washington Academy of Sciences 9: 364–373. Sánchez-Arreola, E., R. Maiti, M. Vazquez-Torres, D. Cruz-Topete, and E. Quirarte-Flores. 2002. Preliminary study on pharmacognosy and phytochemistry of two Mexican medicinal plants, “Gordolobo” (Bocconia frutescens L. [Papavaceae]) and “Candelaria” (Ipomoea bracteata Cav. [Convolvulaceae]). Phyton 51: 107–111. Schultes, R.E. 1957. The genus Quararibea in Mexica and the use of its flowers as a spice for chocolate. Botanical Museum Leaflets, Harvard University 17(9): 247–264. Serpeloni, J.M., M.B. Reis, J. Rodrigues, L.C. Santos, W. Vilegas, E.A. Varanda, A.L. Dokkedal, and I.M.S. Cólus. 2008. In vivo assessment of DNA damage and protective effects of extracts from Miconia species using the comet assay and micronucleus test. Mutagenesis 23: 501–507. Siméon, R. 2010. Diccionario de la lengua Nahuatl o Mexicana. México: Siblo Veintiuno. Shetty, A.A., M.K.  Rana, and S.P.  Preeham. 2012. Cactus: A medicinal food. Journal of Food Science and Technology 49: 530–536. Singh, L.R., and O.M. Singh. 2013. Datura stramonium: An overview of its phytochemistry and pharmacognosy. Research Journal of Pharmacognosy and Phytochemistry 5: 143–148.

References

283

Smith, J. 1979. The Mexican White pine. Arnoldia 39: 278–285. Smith-Oka, V. 2012. An analysis of two indigenous reproductive health illnesses in a Nahua community in Veracruz, Mexico. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine 8: 33. http://www. ethnobiomed.com/content/8/1/33. Accessed 15 Feb. 2019. Socorro González-Elizondo, M., M. González-Elizondo, and S. Zamudio. 2012. Delimitación taxonómica de Arbutus mollis y A. occidentalis (Ericaceae). Acta Botanica Mexicana 101: 49–81. Sorenson, P.D. 1970. The Dahlia: An early history. Arnoldia 30: 121–138. Standley, P.C. 1920–1926. Trees and shrubs of Mexico. Contributions from the United States National Herbarium 23:1–1721. ———. 1930. Flora of Yucatan. Field Museum of Natural History Botanical Series, Publication 279, vol. 3 (no. 3): 157–491. Chicago: Field Museum of Natural History. ———. 1937. Flora of Costa Rica. Fieldiana 18 part 4. Symon, D.E. and L.A.R. Haegi. 1991. Datura (Solanaceae) is a new world genus. In: Solanaceae III, taxonomy, chemistry, evolution, eds. Hawkes J.G., R N. Lester, M. Nee, and N. Estrada-R, 197–210. Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, UK for the Linnaean Society of London. Thomé, O.W. 1886–1934. Flora von Deutschland, Österreich und der Schweiz in Wort und Bild für Schule und Haus. Gera-Untermhaus, Germany: F. E. Köhler. Timoszuk, M., K.  Bielawska, and E.  Skrzydlewska. 2018. Evening primrose (Oenothera biennis) biological activity dependent on chemical composition. Antioxidants 7: 108. https://doi. org/10.3390/antiox7080108. Tucker, A.O. and J. Janick. 2019. Flora of the Voynich Codex: An Exploration of Aztec Plants. Cham, Switzerland: Springer Nature. Tucker, A.O., and M.J. Maciarello. 1999. Volatile oil of the “licorice verbena” [Lippia alba (Mill.) N. E. Brown ex Britton and P. Wils. var. carterae Moldenke] from the North American herb trade. Journal of Essential Oil Research 11: 314–316. Tucker, A.O. and R.H. Talbert. 2013. A preliminary analysis of the botany, zoology, and mineralogy of the Voynich manuscript. HerbalGram 100:70-u85. Tucker, A.O., and T. DeBaggio. 2009. The encyclopedia of herbs: A comprehensive reference to herbs of flavor and fragrance. Portland: Timber Press. Tucker, A.O., and J.  Janick. 2016. Identification of phytomorphs in the Voynich codex. Horticultural Reviews 44: 1–64. Ulubelen, A., and J.R. Cole. 1966. Proteinaceous antitumor substances from plants II. Mirabilis multiflora. Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciences 55: 1368–1370. USDA, ARS (2015). National Genetics Resources Program. Germplasm resources information network- RIN [online database] National Germplasm Resources Laboratory, Beltsville, Maryland. http://www.ars-grin.gov/cgi-bin/npgs/huml/taxgenform.pl. Valdés Gutiérrez, J., H.  Flores Olivera, and H.  Ochoterena-Booth. 1992. La botánica en el Codice de la Cruz. In Estudios Actuales Sobre el Libellus de Medicinalibus Indorum Herbis, ed. J. Kumate, M.E. Pineda, C. Viesca, J. Sanfilippo, I. de la Peña Páez, J. Valdéz Gutiérrez, H. Flores Olivares, H. Ochoterena-Booth, and Z. Lozoya, 129–180. Secretaria de Salud: Mexico. Van Den Berghe, D.A., M. Ieven, F. Mertens, and A.J. Vlietinck. 1978. Screening of higher plants for biological activities. II. Antiviral activity. Lloydia 41: 463–471. Vázquez-Collazo, I., and B.W.  Geils. 2002. Psittacanthus in Mexico. In Mistletoes of north American conifers. Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS–GTR–98, ed. B.  Geils, J.  Cibrián Tovar, and B.  Moody, 9–17. Ogden: U.S.  Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station. Viesca C., and A. Aranda. 1996. Las alteraciones del sueño en el Libellus de medicinalibus indorum herbis. Estudios de Cultura Náhuatl 26:145–61. Villa-Ruano, N., Y.  Pacheco-Hernández, E.  Rubio-Rosas, J.A.  Zarate-Reyes, E.  Lozoya-Gloria, and R. Cruz-Duran. 2017. Chemical profile, nutraceutical and anti-phytobacterial properties of the essential oil from Dalea foliolosa (Fabaceae). Emirates Journal of Food and Agriculture 29: 724–738. https://doi.org/10.9755/ejfa.2017.v29.i9.99.

284

2  Phytomorph Identification of the Codex Cruz-Badianus

Villaseñor, J.L. 2016. Checklist of the native vascular plants of Mexico. Revista Mexicana de Biodiversidad 87: 559–902. Wemmensson, Goncalves Moura, et al. 2019. Ethnobotanic, phytochemical uses and ethnopharmacological profile of genus Cnidoscolus spp. (Euphorbiaceae): A comprehensive overview. Biomedicine & Pharmacotherapy 109: 1670–1679. Wester, P. 2007. Ornithophily in the genus Salvia L. (Lamiaceae). Thesis, Johannes GutenbergUniversität. Mainz. Whitley, G.R. 1985. The nutritional and medicinal value of Dahlia spp. Journal of Ethnopharmacology 14: 75–82. Witters, W. L. 1975. Extraction and identification of clavine and lysergic acid alkaloids from morning glories. Ohio Journal of Science 75(4):198–201. Wunderlin, R P., B.F. Hansen, A.R. Franck, and F.B. Essig. 2019. Atlas of florida plants (http://florida.plantatlas.usf.edu/). Institute for Systematic Botany, University of South Florida, Tampa. Yeasmin, Z., S. Tanvir, T. Sharmin, R. Bin Rashid, Md. Al Amin Sikder, and M.A. Rashid. 2014. Bioactivities of Malvaviscus arboreus var. drummondii and Phyllanthus reticulatus Poir. Dhaka University Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciences 13:143–147. Zárate, S. 1999. Ethnobotany and domestication process of Leucaena in Mexico. Journal of Ethnobiology 19: 1–23. Zavala, M.A., S.  Pérez, C.  Pérez, R.  Vargas, and R.M.  Pérez. 1998. Antidiarrhoeal activity of Waltheria americana, Commelina coelestis and Alternanthera repens. Journal of Ethnopharmacology 61: 41–47. Zepeda, G.C., and O.L.  White. 2008. Herbolaria ye pintura mural: Plantas medicinales en los murals del Convento del Divino Salvador de Malinalco, Estado de México. Polibotanica 25: 173–199. Zhu, C., S.  Yamamura, H.  Koiwa, M.  Nishihara, and G.  Sandmann. 2002. cDNA cloning and expression of carotenogenic genes during flower development in Gentiana lutea. Plant Molecular Biology 48: 277–285. Zigmond, M.L. 1981. Kawaiisu ethnobotany. Salt Lake City: University of Utah Press. Zumaya, S., H. Flores-Olvera, and T. Borsch. 2013. Two new Mexican endemic species of Iresine (Amaranthaceae). Systematic Botany 38: 434–443.

Chapter 3

Context and Conclusions

Historical Context Libellus de medicinalibus Indorum herbis (Codex Cruz-Badianus) of 1552 is surely one of the most amazing botanical documents of the sixteenth century. Its history is legendary. It was written in Nahuatl by Martin de la Cruz (Silvermoon 2007:209), an indigenous Nahua (Aztec) physician at the Colegio de Santa Cruz in Tlatelolco and translated to Latin by Juan Badiano, an indigenous faculty member and former student. The illustrated Latin volume was sent as a gift to King Carlos I of Spain and ended up in obscurity in the Vatican library until it was rediscovered in 1929 by Charles Upson Clark, professor of history at Columbia University. The Latin version was independently translated into English by William Gates and Emily Walcott Emmart, both associated with Johns Hopkins University. The Codex Cruz-Badianus never received the attention it deserved despite its importance in understanding Aztec medicine and botany and the history of the colonial period in New Spain. As Bruce Bylund (2000) points out: “Several facsimiles and a handful of analytical studies exist, but not nearly as many as would be expected to have come from the earliest complete medical texts in the New World.”

Difficulties of Botanical Identification The identification of the phytomorphs in the Codex Cruz-Badianus has long been in contention. Although the images are beautifully drawn in color, they are often botanically obscure. For example, 24 phytomorphs do not contain inflorescences or fruits, which makes them difficult to identify. In the preface to her 1940 treatise, Emily Walcott Emmart summed up the problem: “Decidedly the most difficult part of the preparation of the manuscript has been the identification of the plants, which are usually only referred to by their Aztec names.” Since all the plants must be © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 A. O. Tucker, J. Janick, Flora of the Codex Cruz-Badianus, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-46959-7_3

285

286

3  Context and Conclusions

indigenous to the New World, identification must be made by taxonomists familiar with these families, genera, and species. A surprising observation is that the Nahuatl names of plants can refer to more than one species. For example, huitzcolohtli / uuitzcolohtli / huitzcoloxochitl (various spellings in the text of folio 20r2) is probably a species of Solanum, but in Hernández et  al. (1651:222), both ocopiaztli and hoitzcolotli are species of Eryngium. Thus, morphology must be the principal means of identification of phytomorphs in the Codex Cruz-Badianus. The names suggested by morphology can be partially supported by the Nahuatl names provided by Martin de la Cruz above the images and the associated text and in a few cases by phytomorph symbols that provide ecological information. For example, aquatic plants are associated with blue color around the roots. Many phytomorphs have a salient botanical characteristic that leads to identifications. For example, the multicolored bracts of the arching, terminal spikes in folio 39r6 provide the key character for the identification of Justicia brandegeeana of the Acanthaceae. The reflexed sepals of the multicolored, actinomorphic flowers of the phytomorph on folio 45v1 provide a key botanical character for the identification of Oenothera epilobiifolia subsp. cuprea of the Onagraceae. However, the artist did not pay sufficient attention to alternate versus opposite leaves and frequently confused (or combined) the two. Leaves are also often indicated as being lobed in the phytomorph but match most closely with species that have dentate leaves. Several previous identifications have been shown to be misleading. Primarily, these have been done by non-systematic botanists who matched the Nahuatl names or the use in traditional Mexican medicine rather than the salient botanical characteristics of the phytomorphs. For example, the phytomorph in folio 36v is green with dichotomous branching and is a good match with the young, green fertile fronds of the fern Schizaea poeppigiana. The scales longer than the bracts are indicative of the genus Pseudotsuga in phytomorph in folio 52r2; no other genus of conifers in Mexico shares this character. The white terminal fruits of folio 46r are those of a cultivar of Capsicum annuum. In other cases, recent systematic papers have clarified the nomenclature of species, such as the Iresine rzedowskii of folio 21v. These new identifications now offer suggestions for further studies on their chemistry and/or physiological action. Previous studies have assumed without evidence that the application of the Nahuatl name today is identical with that of the sixteenth century. In spite of the many dialects of Nahuatl, past and present, it is often assumed the plant name of one ethnic group or dialect is identical with that of another ethnic group or dialect. We also must remember that the association of plant names with Nahuatl names by Alonso de Molina and others in sixteenth-century New Spain was pre-Linnaean and not done by professional botanists, so these identifications must remain only suggestions, at best. The Codex Cruz-Badianus also shows insect infestations as important for medicinal activity. For example, folio 52v apparently shows the wart-like willow leaf gall caused by the mite Aculops tetanothrix on the leaf of arroyo willow (Salix lasiolepis) in a “doctrine of signatures” approach to the treatment of warts (Hassig 1989).

Difficulties of Botanical Identification

287

Many of the paintings of the phytomorphs appear to have been done from fragmented dried specimens rather than from fresh specimens from the wild or botanical gardens. For example, the aggregate fruits of folio 47r4 match those of Rubus urticifolius, but the fruits are shown as single, terminal fruits, and the leaflets are shown as simple leaves. This should not be surprising because the curanderos/ curanderas of today primarily use dried herbs, not fresh ones. Marketplaces existed in every major city, but one of the principal marketplaces of sixteenth-century New Spain was across the street from the Colegio Imperial de Santa Cruz at Tlatelolco, the sister city of Tenochtitlan and not part of the Triple Alliance, although this great market declined during the sixteenth century, with the trade passing to Tenochtitlan. Anthony Pagden remarked on the letters of Cortés sent to the emperor: “A new Indian market at San Hipólito came into being in the 1540s. Cervantes de Salazar described it as a ‘square of such enormous size that it is wide enough for building a city’. It was flanked by a Franciscan monastery— containing the Colegio de Santiago de Tlatelolco—the residence of the Indian governor and an Indian prison. Cervantes de Salazar estimated that the number of Indians using this market amounted of twenty thousand or more” (Cortés 1986:507). At Tenochtitlan, Cortés noted in his second letter to the emperor in 1519: “There are streets of herbalists where all the medicines, herbs and roots found in the land are sold. There are shops like apothecaries, where they sell ready-made medicines as well as liquid ointments and plasters.” (Cortés 1986:103). Native amatl (amate) and maguey fiber papers used by Aztecs were available from paper vendors (amanamacac, amaoztomecatl) (Hirth 2016). Feldman (1978) provides a rather detailed map of a typical Mexican market, and Durand-Forest (1971) provides a map of the market at Tenochtitlan. The herb seller was the quilnamacac “a producer of herbs, a field worker, a plucker of herbs.” (Sahagún 1961:92). The apothecary, medicine collector was the pachichiuhqui (Molina 1571). The medicine dealer, apothecary, was the panamacac “He sells all things, medicines, herbs, wood, stones, milk, alum…on a reed mat” (Sahagún 1961:85–86). Hirth (2016:164) remarked: “Medicine was another retail product. The apothecary (panamacac) sold a wide variety of herbal and natural remedies. These included fourteen kinds of different herbs together with types of wood, stones, milk, and alum. While he may have collected some of these, it is more likely that he relied on a selection of forager-collectors to provision him with a number of natural remedies. Some of the concoctions sold were undoubtedly prepared by the apothecary himself since Sahagún (1961:86) indicates that he sold things cooked in pots like skunk excretion. In this regard the medicine seller was probably part retailer and part producer-seller.” The herb sellers themselves were supplied by a special class of Aztec merchants called the pochteca. This class, including both men and women and both nobility and commoners, often provided military and political aid to the nobility. The naualoztomeca of the pochteca were “disguised traders” who were multilingual and acted as spies. The pochteca were wealthy and extremely secretive. Book 9 of Sahagún’s Florentine Codex is devoted to these merchants. Their influence, and thus their trading routes, extended through the southeastern and southwestern

288

3  Context and Conclusions

United States, to Georgia and Utah, and as far south as the Andes in Peru (Berdan 1975, 1980, 1985, 1986, 1988; Nichols 2013; Oka and Kusimba 2008; Salomón 1978; Washburn et  al. 2014; White and Weinstein 2008). In summary, the long-­ distance travels of the pochteca imply that the herbs sold at the markets (and the knowledge of their uses) did not have to come from Mexico alone but rather from the extent of the trading routes of these merchants. Another surprising observation on the phytomorphs in the Codex Cruz-Badianus is the presence of “hybrid” phytomorphs that combine more than one species. A prime example is the phytomorph on folio 16r, which has pinnately compound leaves of a legume interspersed with the lobed, simple leaves of a nonlegume (i.e., Leucaena collinsii with leaves of Datura stramonium). Botanically, this is impossible in nature, but it provides further evidence for the use of dried, fragmented herbs from the marketplace, not fresh herbs from the wild or a botanic garden. Many of the species described were cultivated in the botanic gardens of the Nahua. Amazingly, many species identified herein still survive at the pre-Hispanic garden of Tetzcutzingo Hill Complex, Mexico (Hernández-Cruz et al. 2016; Pulido and Koch 1988; Pulido-Salas and Hernández-Cruz 2017). How to best interpret the roots of the phytomorph remains a mystery. Emmart (1940) probably provided the best discussion of this question (p. 37–41 pl. III). Schizaea poeppigiana in folio 36v1 is characterized by being epipetric, and it is shown growing on what can be interpreted as a rock. However, Ipomoea murucoides in folio 9r is characterized by a basal woody caudex, and despite the obvious roots emanating from the woody caudex, this has been interpreted by anthropologists as the Nahua symbol for water. Certainly some of these phytomorphs are transcultural: witness the “stone symbol” in the shape of a” little shield with wavy lines cutting diagonally across its face” (Emmart 1940), but many of the roots do not reflect this syncretic style. What is the botanical difference between mossy and nonmossy tubers versus ones with a black outline? The artist has mixed Nahua and European styles, and the botanical interpretation is difficult, if not impossible. Another mystery is the number of flowers and fruits shown as a red picotee on white. Are the red lines merely outlines of white flowers or fruits so that they do not blend into the background (e.g., folio 47r1)? If so, why are some white flowers or fruits drawn without the red edges (folio 47r2)?

Phytomorph Identification Comparisons The table shown in the Appendix compares the identifications of the phytomorphs in the Codex Cruz-Badianus made by Tucker in Chap. 2 of this volume with those of three other sources: Clayton et al. (2009), Emmart (1940), and Gates (1939). Of the 185 phytomorphs in the Codex Cruz-Badianus, Tucker identified 98.9% by family and by genus and 97.8% by species (Table 3.1). In comparison, Clayton et al. identified 69.7%, 62.6%, and 35.1%; Emmart identified 44.9%, 38.0%, and 17.8%; and Gates identified 47.0%, 45.9%, and 18.9%. The high number of identifications by Tucker is a valuable contribution to the Codex Cruz-Badianus literature.

Phytomorph Identification Comparisons

289

Table 3.1  Number of taxa identified by four sources from the 185 phytomorphs in the Codex Cruz-Badianus

Taxa Family Genera Species

Tucker and Janick (Chap. 2) No. % 183 98.9 183 98.9 181 97.8

Clayton et al. (2009) No % 129 69.7 114 62.6 65 35.1

Emmart (1940) No. % 84 44.9 72 38.0 33 17.8

Gates (1939, 2000) No. % 89 47.0 85 45.9 53 28.6

Families In Chap. 2 of this volume, Tucker identified 72 families, compared with 55 by Clayton et al., 34 by Emmart, and 38 by Gates (Table 3.2). Unique families from each source are identified in red. There were a total of 86 unique families from all sources. Of the 199 families identified in the four sources (72 + 55 + 34 + 38), 11 were unique to Tucker, 3 to Clayton et al., 1 to Emmart, and 2 to Gates. The high commonality of families indicates that a common pool of plants was known to Aztec herbalists. An inventory by Jose Luis Villaseñor (2016) lists 297 plant families in Mexico. Thus, the 72 families identified by Tucker represent 24.2% of the 297 plant families in Mexico, attesting to the great botanical knowledge of the Aztecs.

Genera Tucker (Chap. 2) identified 134 different genera, compared with 85 for Clayton et al., 59 for Emmart, and 61 for Gates (Table 3.3). Unique genera from each source are in red. There were a total of 194 unique genera from all sources. Of the 339 genera identified in the 4 sources (134 + 85 + 59 + 61), 60 were unique to Tucker, 15 were unique to Clayton, 4 were unique to Emmart, and 25 were unique to Gates. Figure 3.1 demonstrates the commonality of genera for the four sources, which is also summarized in Table  3.4. In these four sources, a total of 454 genera (183 + 114 + 72 + 85) were identified. The assumption was made that the congruity of the identifications is related to the likelihood that they were correct. Of these 454 generic identifications, 17 had the same identification by all four sources, 34 (8 + 25 + 1 + 0) were similarly identified by three sources, 51 (31 + 4 + 6 + 4 + 3 + 3) were similarly identified by two sources, and 182 (92 + 26 + 15 + 49) were identified by only one source. The unanimity of 17 phytomorph identifications confirms that the images have botanical credibility. The 17 common genera include Achillea, Cucurbita, Cupressus, Datura [3×], Ficus, Magnolia, Mirabilis, Opuntia, Oxalis, Phaseolus, Psidium, Salix, Sedum, and Theobroma, as shown in the Appendix with folios highlighted in yellow. The percentage commonality between the four sources derived from the Venn diagram in Fig. 3.1 is shown in Table 3.4. There was 44% (81/183) congruity between Tucker and Clayton et al., 26.8% (49/183) between Tucker and Emmart, and 15.8% (29/183) between Tucker and Gates. The commonality data suggests that the reliability of identification is Tucker > Clayton et al. > Emmart > Gates.

290

3  Context and Conclusions

Table 3.2  Families identified in the Codex Cruz-Badianus by four sources: Tucker and Janick (Chap. 2), Clayton et al. (2009), Emmart (1940), Gates (1939)a The 72 families identified by Tucker and Janick, Chap. 2 Acanthaceae, Amaranthaceae, Amaryllidaceae, Anacardiaceae, Apiaceae, Apocynaceae, Araceae, Asparagaceae, Asteraceae, Begoniaceae, Betulaceae, Bignoniaceae, Boraginaceae, Brassicaceae, Bromeliaceae, Burseraceae, Cactaceae, Caprifoliaceae, Commelinaceae, Convolvulaceae, Cordiaceae, Crassulaceae, Cucurbitaceae, Cupressaceae, Cyperaceae, Dioscoreaceae, Equisetaceae, Ericaceae, Euphorbiaceae, Fabaceae, Gentianaceae, Goodeniaceae, Heliotropiaceae, Iridaceae, Lamiaceae, Lythraceae, Magnoliaceae, Malpighiaceae, Malvaceae, Melastomataceae, Miniaceae, Montiaceae, Moraceae, Myrtaceae, Nyctaginaceae, Onagraceae, Orchidaceae, Orobanchaceae, Oxalidaceae, Papaveraceae, Phrymaceae, Pinaceae, Piperaceae, Plataginaceae, Poaceae, Polemoniaceae, Polygalaceae, Polygonaceae, Polytrichaceae, Primulaceae, Rhamnaceae, Rosaceae, Rubiaceae, Salicaceae, Santalaceae, Sapotaceae, Schizaeaceae, Solanaceae, Typhaceae, Urticaceae, Verbenaceae, Vitaceae The 55 families identified by Clayton et al. (2009) Acanthaceae, Amaranthaceae, Anacardiaceae, Annonaceae, Apiaceae, Apocynaceae, Asparagaceae, Asteraceae, Begoniaceae, Betulaceae, Bignoniaceae, Boraginaceae, Brassicaceae, Burseraceae, Cactaceae, Commelinaceae, Convolvulaceae, Crassulaceae, Cucurbitaceae, Cupressaceae, Dioscoreaceae, Ericaceae, Euphorbiaceae, Fabaceae, Heliotropiaceae, Iridaceae, Lamiaceae, Liliaceae, Magnoliaceae, Malpighiaceae, Malvaceae, Melanthiaceae, Melastomataceae, Moraceae, Myrtaceae, Nyctaginaceae, Orchidaceae, Oxalidaceae, Phrymaceae, Pinaceae, Piperaceae, Plataginaceae, Poaceae, Polemoniaceae, Polygalaceae, Rosaceae, Rubiaceae, Rutaceae, Sapotaceae, Selaginellaceae, Smilacaceae, Solanaceae, Typhaceae, Urticaceae, Verbenaceae The 34 families identified by Emmart (1940) Amaranthaceae, Anacardiaceae, Annonaceae, Apocynaceae, Araceae, Asparaginaceae, Asteraceae, Begoniaceae, Boraginaceae, Burseraceae, Cactaceae, Caesapinianceae, Calophylaceae, Convolvulaceae, Crassulaceae, Cucurbitaceae, Cupressaceae, Dioscoreaceae, Ericaceae, Euphorbiaceae, Fabaceae, Lamiaceae, Magnoliaceae, Malvaceae, Melastomataceae, Moraceae, Myrtaceae, Nyctaginaceae, Onagraceae, Orchidaceae, Oxalidaceae, Pinaceae, Piperaceae, Poaceae, Rosaceae, Rubiaceae, Salicaceae, Sapotaceae, Solanaceae, Typhaceae, Urticaceae, Verbenaceae The 38 families identified by Gates (1939) Anacardiaceae, Apiaceae, Apocynaceae, Araceae, Arecaceae, Asteraceae, Betulaceae, Boraginaceae, Brassicaceae, Cactaceae, Caryophyllaceae, Chenopodiaceae, Commelinaceae, Convolvulaceae, Crassulaceae, Cucurbitaceae, Cupressaceae, Euphorbiaceae, Fabaceae, Juncaceae, Lamiaceae, Magnoliaceae, Malvaceae, Moraceae, Myrtaceae, Nyctaginaceae, Orchidaceae, Oxalidaceae, Pinaceae, Piperaceae, Poaceae, Portulacaceae, Rhamnaceae, Rosaceace, Rutaceae, Solanaceae, Urticaceae, Verbenaceae Unique families in each source are shown in red

a

Credibility of Identifications There is substantial disparity of phytomorph identifications of the Codex Cruz-­ Badianus by the four sources. Many identifications do not even agree on the plant family. Of the authors involved, only Arthur O. Tucker was a professional botanical

Phytomorph Identification Comparisons

291

Table 3.3 Genera identified in the Codex Cruz-Badianus by four sources: Tucker and Janick (Chap. 2), Clayton et al. (2009), Emmart (1940), Gates (1939)a The 134 genera identified by Tucker and Janick, Chap. 2 Acalypha, Achillea, Agastache, Alnus, Amaranthus, Amphilophium, Arbutus, Arctostaphylos, Arracacia, Asclepias, Aureolaria, Bauhinia, Begonia, Bidens, Bocconia, Bonellia, Bourreria, Bouvardia, Brosimum, Bunchosia, Bursera, Calliandra, Callibrachoa, Capsicum, Castilla, Castilleja, Catopsis, Cephalanthus, Cestrum, Cirsium, Cnidoscolus, Comarostaphylis, Commelina, Condalia, Cordia, Cucurbita, Cuphea, Cupressus, Cyrtocarpa, Dahlia, Dalea, Datura, Dendromecon, Dioscorea, Diplacus, Distichlis, Ditrysinia, Dyssodia, Echeandia, Echeveria, Eleocharis, Equisetum, Eryngium, Erysimum, Erythranthe, Euphorbia, Eysenhardtia, Ficus, Galium, Heimia, Heliotropium, Ipomoea, Iresine, Jaltomata, Justicia, Lantana, Lepidium, Leucaena, Lippia, Magnolia, Malvaviscus, Mentzelia, Mesosphaerum, Miconia, Micropholis, Microsechium, Mimosa, Mirabilis, Mnium, Muhlenbergia, Nothoscordum, Oenothera, Operculina, Opuntia, Oxalis, Pavonia, Pectis, Penstemon, Peperomia, Pereskiopsis, Persicaria, Phaseolus, Phemeranthus, Philodendron, Phoradendron, Phragmites, Phyla, Pinus, Plantago, Plumeria, Polemonium, Polygala, Polytrichum, Porophyllum, Pouteria, Prosopis, Prunus, Pseudotsuga, Psidium, Quararibea, Rhynchospora, Rubus, Salix, Salvia, Scaevola, Schizaea, Schkuhria, Schultesia, Sedum, Sida, Solanum, Stenocereus, Symphoricarpos, Tagetes, Tabebuia, Theobroma, Tigridia, Tradescantia, Typha, Urera, Vanilla, Vitis, Zephyranthes, Zinnia The 85 genera identified by Clayton et al. (2009) Abies, Acacia, Acalypha, Achillea, Agastache, Alnus, Arbutus, Asclepias, Barkleyanthus, Begonia, Bourreria, Bursea, Calliandra, Cirsium, Cissus, Cnidoscolus, Commelina, Cordia, Cunila, Cupressus, Cymbopetalum, Cyrtocarpa, Dahlia, Dalea, Deanea, Didymaea, Distictlis, Echeandia, Echeveria, Eryngium, Euphorbia, Ficus, Galium, Haematoxylum, Heliocarpus, Hibiscus, Ipomoea, Ipomopsis, Iresine, Jaltomata, Lantana, Lepidium, Lippia, Loeselia, Magnolia, Manilkara, Mentzelia, Mimosa, Mimulus, Mirabilis, Muhlenbergia, Operculina, Opuntia, Oxalis, Penstemon, Peperomia, Persicaria, Phaseolus, Phragmites, Pinus, Plantago, Plumeria, Polygala, Porophyllum, Prosopis, Psidium, Quararibea, Quercus, Rubus, Ruellia, Rumex, Salix, Schoenocaulon, Sedum, Selaginella, Senna, Smilax, Tagetes, Theobroma, Tigridia, Toxicodendron (Rhus), Typha, Urera, Vanilla, Zinnia The 59 genera identified by Emmart (1940) Acalypha, Achillea, Arbutus, Begonia, Bourreria, Bursera, Calliandra, Cereus, Cirsium, Conostega, Cucurbita, Cupressus, Cymbopetalum, Dahlia, Datura, Dioscorea, Distichlis, Echeveria, Euphorbia, Exogonium (Ipomoea), Ficus, Galium, Haematoxylum, Heliotropium, Hibiscus, Ipomoea, Iresine, Lantana, Lippia, lpomoea, Magnolia, Mammea, Mimosa, Mimulus, Mirabilis, Opuntia, Oxalis, Pepperomia, Phaseolus, Pinus, Piper, Plumeria, Polygonium, Populus, Porophyllum, Pouteria, Prosopis, Pseudotsuga, Psidium, Rhus, Salix, Saracha, Sedum, Tagetes, Theobroma, Typha, Urera, Vanilla, Xanthosoma The 61 genera identify by Gates (1939) Abies, Acacia, Achillea, Aganippea, Alnus, Arracacia, Arundo, Bourreria, Brahea, Caesalpinia, Casimiroa, Cerasus, Chenopodium, Croton, Cucurbita, Cupressus, Cynara, Cyrtocarpa, Datura, Enterolobium, Epicampes, Epidendrum, Eryngium, Ficus, Genista, Gouania, Heliotropium, Ipomoea, Jatropha, Juncus, Lepidium, Leucaena, Magnolia, Mentha, Mimosa, Mirabilis, Montanoa, Nicotiana, Opuntia, Oxalis, Pedilanthus, Phaseolus, Piper, Pithecolobium, Plumeria, Porophyllum, Portulaca, Psidium, Salix, Salvia, Saponaria, Saracha, Sedum, Senna (Cassia), Spondias, Theobroma, Thymus, Tradescantia, Urtica, Vincetoxicum, Xanthosoma Unique genera in each source are shown in red

a

292

3  Context and Conclusions

Fig. 3.1  Venn diagram of the number of genera identified in 185 phytomorphs of the Codex Cruz-­ Badianus from four sources: Tucker and Janick (present volume), Clayton et al. (2009), Emmart (1940), and Gates (1939, 2000). ET Emmart/Tucker, ETC Emmart/Tucker/Clayton, GE Gates/ Emmart, GEC Gates/Emmart/Clayton, GET Gates/Emmart/Tucker, GETC Gates/Emmart/Tucker/ Clayton, GTC Gates/Tucker/Clayton Table 3.4  Generic commonality of phytomorph identifications in the Codex Cruz-Badianus between Tucker and Janick (current volume), Clayton et  al. (2009), Emmart (1940), and Gates (1939, 2000)a

Identification source Tucker and Janick (Chap. 2), n = 183 Clayton et al. (2009), n = 114 Emmart (1940), n = 72

Tucker No. % 81 49

71.2 68.1

Clayton et al. No. % 81 44.3 46

63.9

Emmart No. % 49 26.8 46 40.4

Gates No. 29 28 22

% 15.8 32.9 30.6

Tucker-Clayton: TC (31) + GTC (8) + ETC (25) + GETC (17) = 81 Tucker-Gates: GT (3) + GTC (8) + GET (1) + GETC (17) = 29 Tucker-Emmart: ET (6) + GET (1) + ETC (25) + GETC (17) = 49 Emmart-Gates: GE (4) + GEC (0) + GET (1) + GETC (17) = 22 a Derived from Fig. 3.1

taxonomist, lending authority to his identifications, even though many are speculative. Tucker’s identification should provide a benchmark for further research in this area. The precise identifications will require analysis and confirmation by individual authorities on New World plants.

The Codex Cruz-Badianus and the Voynich Codex

293

The Codex Cruz-Badianus and the Voynich Codex Our interest in the Codex Cruz-Badianus originated from our involvement in the Voynich Codex, which is written in a symbolic code (Janick and Tucker 2018; Tucker and Janick 2019). There are a number of striking similarities between these two codices: • Both codices are associated with the Colegio de Santa Cruz in Tlatelolco. The Code Cruz-Badianus is a 1552 product of the Colegio, and both the author (Martin de la Cruz) and the Latin translator (Juan Badiano) were staff members. Based on a name and initials embedded in the first botanical illustration of the Voynich Codex, we surmise that the author of the Voynich Codex was Gaspar de Torres, a Spaniard physician and lawyer born in Santo Domingo, who served as Master of Students of the Colegio de Santa Cruz from 1568 to 1572 (Janick and Tucker 2017, 2018). • Both codices have New World authors. The Codex Cruz-Badianus was written by Martin de la Cruz, an indigenous Nahua (Aztec). Gaspar de Torres, the presumed author of the Voynich Codex, was a Spaniard of Jewish heritage born in Santo Domingo. Juan Gerson, the artist of the Voynich Codex, was an indigenous artist (tlacuilo) educated at La Escuela de San Jose de los Naturales, established in 1526 by the Belgian Franciscan missionary Pieter Van Der Moere (Pedro de Gante) (1486–1572). He painted the famous ceiling decorations of the Franciscan church, Asunción de Nuestra Señora, in Tecamachalco. Like Martin de la Cruz, he was granted permission to ride a saddled horse and carry a sword and dagger (Azpeitia 1972). • Both manuscripts are herbals. The Codex Cruz-Badianus is entirely an herbal devoted to Aztec medicine. Although the Voynich Codex is a compendium of Aztec knowledge with information on astrology, astronomy, and cosmology, it is predominantly a herbal, with illustrations of 359 plants. Of the 232 pages, 147 (62.7%) contain plant images. The medical uses of the plants in the Voynich Codex cannot be determined because the manuscript still defies translation, but most of the plants identified have medical uses (Tucker and Janick 2019). • Both have a common pool of plants. All plants in the Codex Cruz-Badianus are Mesoamerican, and most are indigenous to Mexico. The 166 phytomorphs identified in the Voynich Codex by Tucker and Janick (2019) have been shown to be either indigenous to the New World or circumboreal, with one weedy species that is likely a contaminant of wheat introduced by the Spanish. • Families and genera are congruent. An analysis was made to discover the congruency between taxa identified by Tucker in the Codex Cruz-Badianus and in the Voynich Codex (Tucker and Janick 2019). The 183 phytomorphs identified by Tucker in the Codex Cruz-Badanus involved 72 unique families (Table  3.2), whereas the 166 phytomorphs identified in the Voynich Codex involved 63 unique families (Tucker and Janick 2019:vii–viii). There were 29 families in common (Fig. 3.2a). Tucker identified 134 genera in the Codex Cruz-Badianus and 145 in the Voynich Codex, of which 14 were in common (Fig.  3.2b): Amaranthus,

294

3  Context and Conclusions

Fig. 3.2  Venn diagram of the number of plant families (a) and genera (b) in the Codex Cruz-­ Badianus and Voynich Codex

Boconia, Capsicum, Dahlia, Dioscorea, Eshervia, Euphorbia, Ipomoea, Opuntia, Philodendron, Rubus, Salix, Salvia, and Schizaea. However, only Opuntia ficus indica was identified as the same species in both sources. These analyses indicate that the Codex Cruz-Badianus and the Voynich Codex are based  on the same pool of indigenous Mexican plants but that the species are either different or misidentified. We consider this supporting evidence that the Voynich Codex is a sixteenth-­century Mexican document, as is the Codex Cruz-Badianus.

Conclusions The identifications of the phytomorphs based on plant morphology by Dr. Arthur O. Tucker, a professional botanical taxonomist, are a benchmark in Codex Cruz-­ Badianus studies. Because many of the plants are difficult to identify, certification by authorities in each of the plant families and genera will be required, especially on the species level. As each phytomorph was labeled with a Nahuatl name by Martin de la Cruz, the indigenous physician-author of the Colegio de Santa Cruz in Tlatelolco, the identifications will be a valuable resource for interpreting these names and resolving duplications found in the literature.

References Azpeitia, R.C. 1972. Juan Gerson, Pinto indigena del siglo XVI  – symbolo del mestizage Tecamachalco Puebla. Mexico: Fondo Editorial de la Plastica Mexicana. Berdan, F.F. 1975. Trade, tribute, and market in the Aztec empire. Ph.D. Thesis. Austin: University of Texas, Department of Anthropology.

References

295

———. 1980. Aztec merchants and markets: Local-level economic activity in a non-industrial empire. Mexicon 2: 37–41. ———. 1985. Markets in the economy of Aztec Mexico. In Markets and marketing, Monographs in economic anthropology, ed. S.  Plattner, vol. 4, 339–367. Lanham: University Press of America. ———. 1986. Enterprise and empire in Aztec and early colonial Mexico. In Economic aspects of prehispanic highland Mexico. Research in economic anthropology, Supplement 2, ed. B.L. Isaac, 281–302. Greenwich: JAI Press. ———. 1988. Principles of regional and long-distance trade in the Aztec empire. In Smoke and mist: Mesoamerican studies in memory of Thelma D. Sullivan, ed. J.K. Josserand and K. Dakin, 639–656. Oxford: BAR International Series. Bylund, B. 2000. Introduction. In An Aztec herbal: The classic codex of 1552, ed. W. Gates, iii– xiii. Mineola: Dover Publications. Clayton, M., L. Guerrini, and A. de Ávila. 2009. Flora: The Aztec herbal. London: Royal Collection Enterprises. Cortés, H. 1986. Letters from Mexico. Trans. and ed. A. Pagden; introd. J. H. Elliott. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press. De Sahagun, B. 1963. Florentine codex. General history of the things of New Spain. Book 11—Earthly things. Trans. C.E.  Dibble and A.J.O Anderson. Salt Lake City: University of Utah Press. Durand-Forest, J. 1971. Cambios económicos y moneda entre los Aztecas. Estudio de la Cultura Náhuatl (México: UNAM Instituto de Investigaciones Históricas) 9: 105–124. Emmart, E.W. 1940. The Badianus manuscript. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Press. Feldman, L.H. 1978. Inside a Mexican market. In Mesoamerican communication routes and cultural contacts. New World Archeological Foundation, ed. T.A. Lee and C. Navarette, 219–222. Provo: Brigham Young University. Gates, W. 1939. An Aztec herbal. Baltimore: Maya Society, no. 23. (Unabridged republication 2000, Mineola: Dover Publications.) Gates, W. 2000. An Aztec herbal. The classic codex of 1552 (Mineola: Dover Publications. [First published 1939. Maya Society, Baltimore. Hassig, D. 1989. Transplanted medicine: Colonial Mexican herbals of the sixteenth century. RES: The Journal of Anthropology and Aesthetics 17/18 Spring/Autumn: 30–53. Hernández-Cruz, M., M.T. Pulido-Salas, S. Koch, and M. Luna-Cavazos. 2016. Estudio floristico del Cerro Metecatl del complejo Tezcutzingo. Botanical Sciences 94(2):1–16. Hernández, F., F. Celsi, F. Colonna, B. Deversini, J. Faber, J. Greuter, V. Mascardi, N.A. Recchi, and J. Terentius. 1651. Rerum medicatum Novae Hispaniae Thesarus, seu, Plantarum animalium mioneralium Mexicanorum historia. Rome: Vitalis Mascardi. Hirth, K.G. 2016. The Aztec economic world: Merchants and markets in ancient Mesoamerica. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. Janick, J., and A.O. Tucker. 2017. Were Juan Gerson the illustrator and Gaspar de Torres the author of the Voynich codex? Notulae Botanicae Horti Agrobotanici Cluj-Napoca 45 (2): 343–352. https://doi.org/10.15835/nbha45210693. ———. 2018. Unraveling the Voynich codex. Cham: Springer Nature. de Molina, A. 1571. Vocabulario en lengua mexicana y castellana. Mexico: Casa de Antonio de Spinosa. Nichols, D.L. 2013. Merchants and merchandise: The archaeology of Aztec commerce at Otumba, Mexico. In Merchants, markets, and exchange in the pre-Columbian world, ed. K.G. Hirth and J. Pillsbury, 49–63. Washington, D.C.: Dumbarton Oaks Research. Oka, R., and C.M. Kusimba. 2008. The archaeology of trading systems, part 1: Towards a new trade synthesis. Journal of Archaeological Research 16: 339–395. Pulido, M.T.P., and S.D.  Koch. 1988. Inventario florístico en el cerro Tetzcotzinco, Texcoco, Estado de México. Boletín de la Sociedad Botánica de México 48: 81–94. Pulido-Salas, M.T., and M.J. Hernández-Cruz. 2017. Tetzcutzingo Hill complex, Mexico: A surviving pre-Hispanic garden with an unusually diverse flora. Garden History 45: 105–108.

296

3  Context and Conclusions

Sahagún B. de. 1961. Florentine Codex. General history of the things of New Spain. Book 9 – The Merchants. Trans. C.E. Dibble and A.J.O. Anderson. Salt Lake City: University of Utah Press. ———. 1963. Florentine Codex. General history of the things of New Spain. Book 11 – Earthly Things. Trans. C.E. Dibble and A.J.O. Anderson. Salt Lake City: University of Utah Press. Salomón, F. 1978. Pochteca and mindalá: A comparison of long-distance traders in Ecuador and Mesoamerica. Journal of the Steward Anthropological Society 9: 231–246. Silvermoon. 2007. The imperial college of Tlatelolco and the emergence of a new Nahua intellectual elite in New Spain (1500–1760). Durham: Department of History, Duke University. ———. 2019. Flora of the Voynich codex: An exploration of Aztec plants. Cham: Springer Nature. Villaseñor, J.L. 2016. Checklist of the native vascular plants of Mexico. Revista Mexicana de Biodiversidad 87: 559–902. Washburn, D.K., W.N.  Washburn, P.A.  Shipkovaand, and M.A.  Pelleymounter. 2014. Chemical analysis of cacao residues in archaeological ceramics from North America: Considerations of contamination, sample size and systematic controls. Journal of Archaeological Science 50: 191–207. White, N.M., and R.A.  Weinstein. 2008. The Mexican connection and the far west of the U.S. Southeast. American Antiquity 73: 227–278.

Appendix

Identification of phytomorphs of the Codex Cruz-Badianus in Chap. 2 of this volume is compared with Clayton et  al. (2009), Emmart (1940), and Gates (1939, 2000). Identifications in red are ambiguous. Figure numbers in bold are unanimous generic identifications. Generic identification by each source was considered only if specifically mentioned as probable or tentative. Common names were not considered as positive identifications except in three cases (alder, pennyroyal, and sweet potato, where there is little ambiguity as to the correct genera, Alnus, Mentha, and Ipomoea, respectively). When more than one genus was listed, it was not considered identified. Tucker’s identifications in this volume rely mainly on morphology of the image and include extensive reference to previous workers in “previous identifications,” as does Clayton et al. (2009).

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 A. O. Tucker, J. Janick, Flora of the Codex Cruz-Badianus, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-46959-7

297

Yztac ocoxochitl

Teamoxtli

2

7r2

11

12

13

14

9r

9v

10v1

10v2

17

10

8v3

13r1

Ohuaxocoyolin

9

8v2

15

8

8v1

16

7

8r

12r

6

7v3

12v

Matlalxochitl

5

7v2

Tetzmitl

Malinalli

Xaltomatl

Xihuitl tonalcomochiua hahuachcho

Xiuhamolli

Tequammayl

Huitzquilitl

Teçonpahtli

Quauhtla xoxocoyolin

Tlalaucuetl

Tlayapaloni

Chipauacxihuitl

3

4

7r3

7v1

Sedum

Muhlenbergia

Begonia

Commelina

Jaltomata

Mirabillis

Ipomoea

Dioscorea

Cirsium

Asclepias

Begonia

Acalypha

Vitis

Dioscorea

Mnium

Aureolaria

dendroideum

macroura

heracleifolia

coelestis

procumbens

laevi

murucoides

ehrenbergii

linaria

heracleifolia

phleoides

tiliifolia

galeottiana

hornum

greggii

pseudocapsicum

Solanum

1

7r1

Xiuhhecapatli

Epithet

CCB Chap.2, Tucker and Janick (present volume) Fol. No. Fig. Nahua name Genus

Crassulaceae

Poaceae

Begoniaceae

Commelinaceae

Solonaceae

Nyctaginaceae

Convolvulaceae

Dioscoreaceae

Asteraceae

Apocynaceae

Begoniaceae

Euphorbiaceae

Vitaceae

Dioscoreaceae

Miniaceae

Orobanchaceae

Solanaceae

Family

Apocynaceae

Begoniaceae

Euphorbiaceae

Rutaceae

Rubiaceae

Fabaceae

Family

Sedum dendroideum

Muhlenbergia macroura

Begonia

Commelina coelestis

Jaltomata procumbens

Ipomoea

Dioscorea, Smilax

Crassulaceae

Poaceae

Begoniaceae

Commelinaceae

Solonaceae

Convolvulaceae

Cirsium ehrenbergii Asteraceae

Asclepias linaria

Begonia

Acalypha

Cissus verticillata

Dioscorea, Smilax

Aquatic moss

Didymaea alsinoides

Senna occidentalis

Identification

Clayton et al. (2009)

Begonia

Saracha jaltomata

Ipomoea murucoides

Smilax, Dioscorea

Acalypha

Dioscorea

Identification

Emmart (1940)

Begoniaceae

Solanaceae

Convolvulaceae

Fabaceae

Euphorbiaceae

Dioscoreaceae

Fabaceae

Family

Sedum

Epicampes macoura

Oxalis

Tradescantia

Saracha jaltomata

Saponaria americana

Vincetoxicum barbatum

Cynara scolymnus

Taxodium mucronatum, Cunila lythrifloia

Juncus

Senna (Cassia) occidentalis

Identification

Gates (1939, 2000) Family

Crassulaceae

Poaceae

Oxalidaceae

Commelinaceae

Solanaceae

Caryophyllaceae

Apocynaceae

Asteraceae

Juncaceae

Fabaceae

Atochietl

Yztacpahtli

25

26

15v1

15v2

Teoyztaquilitl

Quauhtla xoxocoyalin

29

30

31

32

33

34

35

36

37

17v

18r1

18r2

18r3

18v1

18v2

19r

19v

20r1

Ezpahtli

Tepitoton teamoxtli

Huacalxochitl

Tolpatlactli

Teamoxtli

Tlanextli xiuhtontli

Teonochtli

Atzitzicaztli

27

28

16r

16v

Tzonpilihuiz xihuitl

Xoxouhquipahtli

Tlaquilin

23

24

14v2

Maçayelli

Cochizxihuitl

Huihuitzyoco-­chizxihuitl

Azcapanyxhua tlahçolpahtli

14v3

21

22

13v3

20

13v2

14v1

19

13v1

Bouvardia

Oxalis

Erysimum

Polytricum

Philodendron

Typha

Moss

Eryngium

Stenocereus

Urera

Leucaena

Lippia

Diplacus

Mirabilis

Cestrum

Dioscorea

Bocconia

Mimosa

Datura

ternifolia

tetraphylla

capitatum

Sp.

mexicanum

latifolia

carlinae

thurberi

caracasana

collinsii

alba

aurantiacus

multiflora

fasciculatum

villisa

integrifolia

aculeaticarpa

stramonium

spicata

Distichlis

18

13r2

Tequixquiçacatl

Epithet

CCB Chap.2, Tucker and Janick (present volume) Fol. No. Fig. Nahua name Genus

Fabaceae

Oxalidaceae

Brassicaceae

Polytrichaceae

Araceae

Typhaceae

Apiaceae

Cactaceae

Urticaceae

Fabaceae

Verbenaceae

Phrymaceae

Nyctaginaceae

Solanaceae

Dioscoreaceae

Papaveraceae

Fabaceae

Solanaceae

Poaceae

Family

Oxalis tetraphylla

Moss

Xanthosoma, Philodendron

Typha

Moss

Oxalidaceae

Typhaceae

Apiaceae

Cactaceae

Pachycereus or Stenocereus Eryngium

Urticaceae

Fabaceae

Lamiaceae

Phrymaceae

Nyctaginaceae

Smilacaceae

Fabaceae

Solanaceae

Family

Urera caracasana

Cunila lythrifolia

Mimulus rupestris

Mirabilis jalapa

Smilax

Mimosa

Datura stramonium

Identification

Clayton et al. (2009)

Oxalis

Xanthosoma

Typha angustifolia

Cereus

Urera caracasana

Lantana

Galium

Mirabilis jalapa

Mimosa

Datura arborea

Distichlis spicata

Identification

Emmart (1940)

Oxalidaceae

Araceae

Typhaceae

Cactaceae

Urticaceae

Fabaceae

Verbenaceae

Rubiaceae

Nyctaginaceae

Fabaceae

Solanaceae

Poaceae

Family

Croton draco

Oxalis

Portulaca oleracea

Juncus

Xanthosoma roseum

Juncus

Opuntia

Urtica

Pennyroyal [Mentha]

Mirabilis jalapa

Casimiroa edulis

Pithecellobium dulce

Identification

Gates (1939, 2000)

Euphorbiaceae

Oxalidaceae

Portulacaceae

Juncaceae

Araceae

Juncaceae

Cactaceae

Urticaceae

Fabaceae

Lamiaceae

Nyctaginaceae

Rutaceae

Fabaceae

Poaceae

Family

39

40

41

20v1

20v2

21r1

53

54

55

27v2

27v3

50

25v

27v1

49

25r2

51

Tolohua xihuitl

48

25r1

52

Tlahchinolpan yxuaxihuitl

47

24v

26r

Tlalquequetzal

46

24r

27r

Tememetla

45

22v2

Ytzcuinpahtli

Tziztzicton

Tlatlaolton

Tlatlacotic

Quetzalxoxouh capahtli

Tonatiuhyxiuc ahhuachcho

Tlalmizquitl

Texiyotl

44

22v1

Tzopelicacococ

Tlatlanquaye

42

43

21r2

21v

Tlacoxiloxochitl

Mexixquilitl

Papaloquilitl

Cestrum

Zinnia

Porophyllum

Zinnia

Symphoricapos

Malvaviscus

Datura

Dalea

Achillea

Echeveria

Sedum

Iresine

Phyla

Calliandra

Lepidium

Porophyllum

diurnum

haageana (variant)

coloratum

haageana

microphyllus

arboreus

inoxia

foliolosa

millefolium

gibbiflora

oxypetalum

rzedowski

dulcis

grandiflora

verginicum

ruderale subsp. macrocephalum

tampicens

Solanum

38

20r2

Huitzcolohtli

Epithet

CCB Chap.2, Tucker and Janick (present volume) Fol. No. Fig. Nahua name Genus

Solanaceae

Asteraceae

Asteraceae

Asteraceae

Caprifoliaceae

Malvaceae

Solanaceae

Cyperaceae

Fabaceae

Asteraceae

Crassulaceae

Crassulaceae

Amaranthaceae

Verbenaceae

Fabaceae

Brassicaceae

Asteraceae

Solanaceae

Family

Porophyllum

Datura inoxia

Dalea

Achillea millefolium

Echeveria gibbiflora

Sedum oxypetalum

Iresine

Calliandra grandiflora

Lepidium sativum

Porophyllum

Identification

Clayton et al. (2009)

Asteraceae

Asteraceae

Solanaceae

Fabaceae

Asteraceae

Crassulaceae

Amaranthaceae

Fabaceae

Brassicaceae

Asteraceae

Family

Porophyllum

Datura

Achillea millefolium

Echeveria

Sedum dendroideum

Iresine calea

Lippia dulcis

Calliandra grandiflora

Identification

Emmart (1940)

Asteraceae

Asteraceae

Solanaceae

Asteraceae

Crassulaceae

Crassulaceae

Amaranthaceae

Verbenaceae

Fabaceae

Family

Family

Datura stramonium

Mimosa circinalis

Achillea millefolium

Sedum

Sedum

Solanaceae

Fabaceae

Asteraceae

Crassulaceae

Crassulaceae

Piperaceae

Fabaceae

Calliandra, Mimosa Pepper

Brassicaceae

Asteraceae

Apiaceae

Lepidium virginicum

Porophyllum viridiflorum

Eryngium foetidum

Identification

Gates (1939, 2000)

68

69

70

71

72

73

74

33r1

33r2

33v Altered

34r1

34r2

34v1

64

31r

32r2

63

30v

67

Xaxocotl

62

30r2

32r1

Copaliyac xiuhtontli

61

30r1

65

Ayecocimatl

60

29v

66

Nexehuac

59

29r2

31v1

Tolohua xihuitl

58

29r1

31v2

Tlacacamohtli

57

28v

Mamaxtla

Couanenepilli

Huihuitzmallotic

Tlanenpopoloua xiuhtontli

Tlalhuaxin

Tetzapotl

Uelicpahtli

Quauhtla huitzquilit

Tlahnextia xiuhtontli

Eloçacatl

Tonatiuh yxiuh pepetlaca

Teoyztaquilitl

Iresine

Dahlia

Mentzelia

Schultesia

Mimosa

Pouteria

Operculina

Cirsium

Polygala

Equisetum

Psidium

Dyssodia

Oxalis

Erysimum

Phaseolus

Datura

Datura

Operculina

calea

coccinea

hispida

guianensis

aculeaticarpa

sapota

pteripes

mexicanum

appressipilis

myriochaetum

guajava

papposa

frutescens

capitatum

coccineus

ceratocaula

inoxia

pteripes

rotundifolia

Pereskiopsis

56

28r

Nonochton azcapa’yxua

Epithet

CCB Chap.2, Tucker and Janick (present volume) Fol. No. Fig. Nahua name Genus

Amaranthaceae

Asteraceae

Fabaceae

Gentianaceae

Fabaceae

Sapotaceae

Convolvulaceae

Asteraceae

Polygalaceae

Equisetaceae

Myrtaceae

Asteraceae

Oxalidaceae

Brassicaceae

Fabaceae

Solanaceae

Solanaceae

Convolvulaceae

Cactaceae

Family

Rumex

Dahlia

Mentzelia hispida

Asclepias longicornu

Polygonaceae

Asteraceae

Fabaceae

Apocynaceae

Fabaceae

Sapotaceae

Sapote? Mimosa

Convolvulaceae

Asteraceae

Polygalaceae

Ipomoea purga

Cirsium

Polygala

Myrtaceae

Asteraceae

Psidium guajava

Oxalidaceae

Oxalis tetraphylla

Fabaceae

Solanaceae

Solanaceae

Convolvulaceae

Family

Tagetes sp., Mirabilis sp.

Phaseolus coccineus

Datura ceratocaula

Datura inoxia

Identification

Clayton et al. (2009)

Iresine

Dahlia

Pouteria sapota

Ipomoea

Cirsium

Psidium guajava

Tagetes

Phaseolus coccineus

Datura ceratocaula

Datura

Ipomoea batatas

Identification

Emmart (1940)

Amaranthaceae

Asteraceae

Fabaceae

Sapotaceae

Convolvulaceae

Asteraceae

Myrtaceae

Asteraceae

Fabaceae

Solanaceae

Solanaceae

Convolvulaceae

Family

Leucaena esculenta

Psidium pomiferum

Portulaca oleracea

Phaseolus multiflorus

Datura inermis

Datura stramonium

Sweet potato (Ipomoea batatas)

Identification

Gates (1939, 2000)

Fabaceae

Myrtaceae

Portulacaceae

Fabaceae

Solanaceae

Solanaceae

Convolvulaceae

Family

88

89

90

91

92

38r4

38r5

38r6

38r7

38r8

87

84

37v1

38r3

83

37r2

85

82

37r1

86

81

36v2

38r1

80

36v1

38r2

78

79

35v2

77

35v1

36r

76

35r

Cecentlahcol

Totonquixochitl

Tonalxochitl

Mocuepanixochitl

Tepaquiltixiuhtontli

Cozcanantzi

Piltzintecouhxochitl chiyaua

Totonquixochitl

Huitzihtzilxochitl

Achilli

Xiuehcapahtli

Tzitzicton

Texochitl yamanqui

Xoxouhcapahtli

Quappoquietl

Piltzintecouhxochitl chiyaua

Coyoxihuitl tlatztalehualtic

Echeveria

Erythranthe

Zinnia

Penstemon

Pavonia

Ipomoea

Lantana

Callibrachoa

Salvia

Persicaria

Solanum

Asclepias

Schizaea

Mesosphaerum

Schkuhria

Heimia

Salvia

elegans

cardinalis

elegans

hartwegii

schiedeana

bracteata

cámara

parviflora

microphylla

hydropiperoides

pseudocapsicum

curassavicas

poeppigiana

pectinatum

pinnata

salicifolia

microphylla

sonorae

Bourreria

75

34v2

Tlacoyzquixochitl

Epithet

CCB Chap.2, Tucker and Janick (present volume) Fol. No. Fig. Nahua name Genus

Crassulaceae

Phrymaceae

Asteraceae

Plataginaceae

Verbenaceae

Convolvulaceae

Verbenaceae

Solanaceae

Lamiaceae

Polygonaceae

Solanaceae

Apocynaceae

Schizaeaceae

Lamiaceae

Asteraceae

Lythraceae

Lamiaceae

Boraginaceae

Family

Ruellia

Zinnia

Penstemon

Ipomoea bracteata

Lantana camara

Ruellia

Persicaria hydropiperoides

Senna occidentalis

Asclepias

Selaginella lepidophylla

Cordia alba

Identification

Clayton et al. (2009)

Acanthaceae

Asteraceae

Plataginaceae

Malvaceae

Convolvulaceae

Verbenaceae

Acanthaceae

Polygonaceae

Fabaceae

Apocynaceae

Selaginellaceae

Boraginaceae

Family

Ipomoea subgenus Quamoclit

Hibiscus

Exogonium (Ipomoea) bracteatum

Ipomoea

Salvia coccinea

Polygonium subgenus

Identification

Emmart (1940)

Convolvulaceae

Malvaceae

Convolvulaceae

Convolvulaceae

Lamiaceae

Asparaginaceae

Family

Pedilanthus

Salvia chian

Senna (Cassia) occidentalis

Nicotiana

Amyris, Bomarea

Bourreria

Identification

Gates (1939, 2000) Family

Euphorbiaceae

Lamiaceae

Fabaceae

Solanaceae

Boraginaceae

94

95

38r10

38r11

106

107

108

109

110

111

112

113

39r4

39r5

39r6

39r7

39r8

39r9

39r10

41r1

103

39r1

104

102

38v7

105

101

38v6

39r2

100

38v5

39r3

98

99

38v3

38v4

Huitzquilitl

Quetzalylin

Yzquixochitl

Eloxochitl

Quauhhuitzihtzilxochitl

Temahuiztiliquauitl

Tepapaquiltiquauitl

Xococquauitl

Tlanextiquauitl

Tomazquitl

Tlahcuilolquauitl

Huitzquauitl

Teoezquauitl

Yztacquauitl

Couaxocotl

Texcalamacoztli

Temahuiztiliquauitl

Tlapalcacauatl

96

97

38v1

38v2

Huetzcanixochitl

Metztliyçacauh

Cirsium

Alnus

Bourreria

Magnolia

Cuphea

Justicia

Arctostaphylos

Miconia

Arctostaphylos

Arbutus

Bauhinia

Condalia

Bunchosia

Eysenhardtia

Bunchosia

Ficus

Theobroma

Castilleja

Zephyranthes

Nothoscordum

mexicanum

jorullensis

huanita

magnoliaceae

schumannii

brandegeeana

pajaroensis

albicans

pungen

mollis

pauletia

hookeri

montana

polystachya

lindeniana

petiolaris

cacao

integra

fosteri

bivalve

pavonia

Tigridia

93

38r9

Xiuhpahtli

Epithet

CCB Chap.2, Tucker and Janick (present volume) Fol. No. Fig. Nahua name Genus

Arbutus

Haematoxylum brasiletto

Haematoxylum brasiletto

Acacia coulteri

Manilkara zapota

Ficus petiolaris

Theobroma cacao

Tigridia

Identification

Clayton et al. (2009)

Asteraceae

Betulaceae

Boraginaceae

Magnoliaceae

Lythraceae

Acanthaceae

Ericaceae

Cirsium

Alnus

Bourreria huanita

Magnolia

Loeselia

Hibiscus

Melastomataceae Conostegia xalapensis, Miconia sp.

Ericaceae

Ericaceae

Fabaceae

Rhamnaceae

Malpighiaceae

Fabaceae

Malpighiaceae

Moraceae

Malvaceae

Orobanchaceae

Amaryllidaceae

Amaryllidaceae

Iridaceae

Family

Asteraceae

Betulaceae

Boraginaceae

Magnoliaceae

Polemoniaceae

Malvaceae

Melastomataceae

Ericaceae

Fabaceae

Malpighiaceae

Fabaceae

Fabaceae

Sapotaceae

Moraceae

Malvaceae

Liliaceae

Iridaceae

Family

Calophylaceae

Cirsium

Bourreria huanita

Conostega xalapensis

Arbutus

Asteraceae

Boraginaceae

Asteraceae

Melastomataceae

Ericaceae

Haematoxylum Fabaceae brasiletto

Mammea americana

Fabaceae/ Caesalpiniaceae

Salicaceae Sapotaceae

Populus

Malvaceae

Family

Zapote

Theobroma cacao

Identification

Emmart (1940)

Cynara scolymus

Magnolia aculbata

Caesalpinia crista

Jatropha

Ficus petiolaris

Theobroma cacao

Identification

Gates (1939, 2000)

Asteraceae

Magnoliaceae

Fabaceae

Euphorbiaceae

Moraceae

Malvaceae

Family

Ahquiztli

115

116

41v1

41v2

132

133

47r1

47r2

127

128

45r

45v

131

126

44v4

46v2

Ahhuiyac tlatlanquaye

125

44v3

129

124

44v2

130

123

44v1

46r

Aquahuitl

Cuecuetzpahtli

122

44r4

46v1

Chicomacatl

121

44r3

Acacatzontli

Tetzitzicaztli

Quauhtzitzicaztli

Tlalhuaueuetl

Ylin

Axocotl

Tlayapaloni

Tlahçoteoçacayl

Tzayanalquititl

Acatl

Acacapacquilitl

119

120

44r1

44r2

Colomecatl

Chichic texcalamatl

117

118

43r

43v

Centzonxochitl

Cnidoscolus

Ditrysinia

Agastache

Alnus

Capsicum

Oenothera

Tabebuia

Phoradendron

Comarostaphylis

Plantago

Tigridia

Datura

Phragmites

Cephalanthus

Eleocharis

Ficus

Operculina

Amaranthus

Galium

multilobus

fruticose

mexicana

jorulle

annuum

epilobiifolia subsp. cuprea

rose

lanceolatum

polifolia

australis

multiflora

quercifolia

australis

occidentalis

densa

pringle

pinnatifolia

hypochondriacus

trifidum

galioides

Peperomia

114

41r2

Tlatlanquaye

Epithet

CCB Chap.2, Tucker and Janick (present volume) Fol. No. Fig. Nahua name Genus

Euphorbiaceae

Euphorbiaceae

Lamiaceae

Betulaceae

Solanaceae

Onagraceae

Bignoniaceae

Santalaceae

Ericaceae

Plataginaceae

Iridaceae

Solanaceae

Poaceae

Rubiaceae

Cyperaceae

Moraceae

Convolvulaceae

Anacardiaceae

Rubiaceae

Piperaceae

Family

Agastache mexicana

Alnus

Plantago

Deanea tuberosa

Phragmites australis

Ficus petiolaris

Operculina

Toxicondendron (Rhus)

Galium

Peperomia galioides

Identification

Clayton et al. (2009)

Urticaceae

Lamiaceae

Betulaceae

Plataginaceae

Orchidaceae/ Iridaceae

Apiaceae

Poaceae

Asteraceae

Moraceae

Convolvulaceae

Anacardiaceae

Rubiaceae

Piperaceae

Family

Urtica Urtica

Wild nettle Stone nettle

Arundo

Spondias

Arundo donax

Aganippea dentata

Ficus petiolaris

Gouania

Urticaceae

Urticaceae

Poaceae

Anacardiaceae

Poaceae

Asteraceae

Moraceae

Rhamnaceae

Family Piperaceae

Identification Pepper

Gates (1939, 2000)

Low cypress

Onagraceae

Moraceae

Asteraceae

Moraceae

Anacardiaceae

Piperaceae

Family

Cypress

Mimulus

Ficus

Ficus petiolaris

Rhus

Peperomia

Identification

Emmart (1940)

Elocapolin

Tlatzcan

135

136

137

138

139

140

141

47r4

47r5

47v1

47v2

47v3

48r1

48r2

152

153

154

52r2

151

51v2

51v3

150

51v1

52r1

149

50r2

Tlatoc nochtli

147

148

146

49r3

49v

145

49r2

50r1

Cimatl

144

49r1

Tzihuaccopalli

Acxoyatl

Quauhyayhual

Tetzitzilin

Acocohtli (acocohxiutl)

Quetzalhatzonyatl

Quauhyyauhtli

Ayauhquahuitl

Tlalcacapol

Quetzalmizquitl

Tlacoecapahtli

142

143

48v1

48v2

Hecapatli

Cacamatlalin

Ayuatl tepiton

Xiuhtlemaytl

Colotzitzicaztli

Pseudotsuga

Solanum

Microsechium

Arracacia

Mirabilis longiflora

Tagetes

Pinus

Opuntia

Phaseolus

Brosimum

Prosopis

Bonellia

Bursera

Phemeranthus

Tradescantia

Castilla

Cupressus

Prunus

Pectis

Rubus

menziesii

wendlandii

palmatum

atropurpurea

escallonioides

lucida

ayacahuite

ficus indica

coccineus

alicastrum

laevigata

albiflora

bipinnata

aurantiacus

commelinoides

elastic

lusitanica var. benthamii

serotina var. salicifolia

angustifolia

urticifolius

penstemonoides

Salvia

134

47r3

Patlahuactzitzicaztli

Epithet

CCB Chap.2, Tucker and Janick (present volume) Fol. No. Fig. Nahua name Genus

Pinaceae

Solanaceae

Cucurbitaceae

Apiaceae

Primulaceae

Asteraceae

Pinaceae

Cactaceae

Fabaceae

Moraceae

Fabaceae

Primulaceae

Burseraceae

Montiaceae

Commelinaceae

Moraceae

Cupressaceae

Rosaceae

Asteraceae

Rosaceae

Lamiaceae

Family

Abies religiosa

Cucurbita

Barkleyanthus salicifolius

Tagetes lucida

Pinus ayacahuite

Opuntia

Phaseolus

Prosopis chilensis

Bursea

Commelina coelestis

Quercus

Cupressus lusitanica

Capolin

Cnidoscolus

Identification

Clayton et al. (2009)

Pinaceae

Cucurbitaceae

Asteraceae

Asteraceae

Pinaceae

Cactaceae

Fabaceae

Fabaceae

Burseraceae

Commelinaceae

Fagaceae

Cupressacea

Rosaceae

Euphorbiaceae

Family

Opuntia

Cactaceae

Cucurbitaceae

Pinaceae

Pseudots(t)uga Pinaceae

Pinus ayacahuite

Fabaceae

Abies religiosa

Arracacia atropurpurea

Mirabilis longiflora

Cupressus thurifera

Opuntia

Cerasus Phaseolus

Cherry, capolin Rosaceae

Cupressus fusa

Cerasus

Mimosa circinalis

Burseraceae

Cupressaceae

Rosaceae

Fabaceae

Prosopis chilensis

Bursera

Commelina, Tradescantia

Cupressus benthamii

Wild cherry

Urtica

Scorpion nettle

Identification

Gates (1939, 2000) Urtica

Family

Large nettle

Identification

Emmart (1940) Family

Pinaceae

Apiaceae

Nyctaginaceae

Cupressaceae

Cactaceae

Fabaceae

Rosaceae

Fabaceae

Cupressaceae

Rosaceae

Urticaceae

Urticaceae

161

162

163

54r2

54r3

54v

166

167

168

169

170

171

56v1

56v2

56v3

56v4

57v1

57v2

164

160

54r1

165

159

53v2

55v

Yolloxochitl

158

53v1

56r

Cacauaxochitl

157

53r2

Cihuapatli

Quauhalahuac

Copalxocotl

Hueynacatztli

Tlilxochitl

Mecaxochitl

Tepepapaloquilitl

Zohzoyatic

Chiyauaxihuitl

Ayauhtonan

Tonacaxochitl

Totoloctzin

Necouhxochit

Cacaloxochitl

156

53r1

Dendromecon

Cordia

Cyrtocarpa

Scaevola

Vanilla

Peperomia

Porophyllum

Catopsis

Sida

Polemonium

Amphilophium

Rubus

Magnolia

Quararibea

Plumeria

Plumeria

rigida

dentata (C. alba)

procera

plumeri

planifolia

humilis

punctatum

morreniana

acuta

melindae

buccinatorium

adenotrichus

mexicana

funebris

rubra

rubra

lasiolepis

Tzotzocaxihuitl

155

52v

Salix

Epithet

CCB Chap.2, Tucker and Janick (present volume) Fol. No. Fig. Nahua name Genus

Papaveraceae

Cordiaceae

Anacardiaceae

Goodeniaceae

Orchidaceae

Piperaceae

Asteraceae

Bromeliaceae

Malvaceae

Polemoniaceae

Bignoniaceae

Rosaceae

Magnoliaceae

Malvaceae

Apocynaceae

Apocynaceae

Salicaceae

Family

Melanthiaceae

Annonaceae

Orchidaceae

Asteraceae

Heliocarpus

Malvaceae

Cyrtocarpa procera Anacardiaceae

Cymbopetalum penduliflorum

Vanilla planifolia

Porophyllum

Schoenocaulon

Polemoniaceae Asteraceae

Ipomopsis pinnata

Bignoniaceae

Rosaceae

Magnoliaceae

Malvaceae

Apocynaceae

Apocynaceae

Family

Tagetes, Mirabilis

Distictis buccinatoria

Rubus pumilus

Magnolia mexicana

Quararibea funebris

Plumeria rubra

Plumeria rubra

Identification

Clayton et al. (2009)

Orchidaceae

Piperaceae

Magnoliaceae

Malvaceae

Apocynaceae

Apocynaceae

Family

Cymbopetalum Annonaceae penduliflorum

Vanilla

Piper

Agave or Yucca

Magnolia mexicana

Theobroma angustifolium

Plumeria acutifolia

Plumeria rubra

Identification

Emmart (1940)

Montanoa tomentosa

Slippery reed

Cyrtocarpa procera

Enterolobium cyclocarpum

Epidendrum vanilla

Piper amalago

Porophyllum

Brahea dulcis

Magnolia aculbata

Plumeria mexicana

Acacia

Identification

Gates (1939, 2000) Family

Asteraceae

Fabaceae

Orchidaceae

Piperaceae

Asteraceae

Arecaceae

Magnoliaceae

Apocynaceae

Fabaceae

183

184

185

61r1

61r2

62r

181

182

180

59v3

60r1

179

59v2

60r2

178

59v1

Quetzalylin

Coltotzin

Acamallotetl

Memeyaxiuhtontl

Tohmiyoxihuitl

Totecyxiuh

Xomalin

Pozahualizxiuhtontli

Yztachuitzquahuitl

Ayonelhuatl

Tlacopopotl

176

175

58v2

Xiuheloquilitl

Hahuiyacxihuitl

177

174

58v1

59r1

173

58r

Quetzalahuexotl

59r2

172

57v3

Alnus

Dalea

Micropholis

Euphorbia

Echeandia

Heliotropium

Rhychospora

Echeandia

Cucurbita

Condalia

Schkuhria

Bidens

Lippia

Salix

CCB Chap.2, Tucker and Janick (present volume) Fol. No. Fig. Nahua name Genus

jorullensis

excerta

melinoniana

maculata

flavescens

curassavicum

colorata

nana

pepo

hookeri

virgata

laevis

mexicana

lasiolepis

Epithet

Betulaceae

Fabaceae

Sapotaceae

Euphorbiaceae

Asparagaceae

Heliotropiaceae

Cyperaceae

Asparagaceae

Cucurbitaceae

Rhamnaceae

Asteraceae

Asteraceae

Verbenaceae

Salicaceae

Family

Alnus

Dalea

Euphorbia

Heliotropium, Tournefortia

Echeandia

Cucurbita

Lippia graveolins

Salix

Identification

Clayton et al. (2009)

Betulaceae

Fabaceae

Euphorbiaceae

Asteraceae

Heliotropiaceae

Asparagaceae

Cucurbitaceae

Verbenaceae

Verbenaceae

Family

Euphorbia

Heliotropium

Cucurbita

Salix

Identification

Emmart (1940)

Euphorbiaceae

Asteraceae

Boraginaceae

Cucurbitaceae

Verbenaceae

Family

Alder (Alnus)

Gouania

Thymus vulgaris

Heliotropium

Genista juncea

Cucurbita maxima

Chenopodium scoparia

Salix

Identification

Gates (1939, 2000) Family

Betulaceae

Rhamnaceae

Lamiaceae

Boraginaceae

Fabaceae

Cucurbitaceae

Chenopodiaceae

Verbenaceae

General Index

A Accademia dei Lincei, 6 Albani, Alessandro, 6 Altamirano, Fernando, 150 Ávila, Alejandro de, 7 Aztecs, 1, 285 herb sellers, 287 marketplaces, 287 B Badiano, Juan/Badianus, Juannes, xi, 3, 285, 286, 293 The Badianus Manuscipt, x–xi Barberini, Francesco, 3, 6 Byland, Bruce, 7, 285 C Carlos I, 4, 285 Carlos (Charles) V, 4 Cesi, Federico, 6 Clark, Charles Upson, 1, 285 Clayton, Martin, 4, 7 Clement XI, 6 Codex Cruz-Badianus, 5 authenticity, 4 discovery, 1 English and Spanish translations, 7–8 families, 289, 290 genera, 289–292 herbal, 7, 15–275 historical context, 285 identification of phytomorphs, 9–11, 15–275, 285–288

manuscript, 3–4 medicinal uses, 8, 9 origins, 1–3 provenance, 4–6 symbolic features, 9 translations and facsimiles, 6–7 Colegio de la Santa Cruz/College of the Holy Cross, xi, 2–4, 285, 293 Columbia University, 1, 285 Cortavila y Sanabria, Didacus (Diego), 5 Cruz, Martin (Martinus) de la, xi, 4, 5, 23, 285, 293, 294 D Dedication to Emily Walcott Emmart, viii–x E Emmart, Emily Walcott, viii–xi, 1, 3, 4, 6, 7, 285 F Felipe IV, 5 Franciscan institution, 4 G Gabrielli, Giuseppe, 1 Gates, William Edmond, xi, 4, 6, 7, 285 George III, 6 Germplasm Resources Information Network, 16 Gerson, Juan, 293

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 A. O. Tucker, J. Janick, Flora of the Codex Cruz-Badianus, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-46959-7

309

General Index

310 Grado, Friar Jacobo de, 3, 4 Guerra, Francisco, 7 Guerrini, Luigi, 7 H Hernández, Francisco, 6 Holy Caesarian Catholic Royal Majesty, 2 Hopkins, Johns, xi, 7

P Pope John Paul II, xi, 6 Pope Urban VIII, 5 Pozzo, Cosimo dal, Antonio, 6 Prince Philip, 4

I Instituto Mexicano del Seguro Social, 7

R Reliability of phytomorph identification, 16 Royal Academy of the Lincei, 1 Royal Collection Enterprises Ltd., 7 Royal College of Naturals, 4 Royal Library, 7

J Johns Hopkins Press, 7 Johns Hopkins University, x, 6, 285

S Smithsonian Institution, 1 Stelluti, Francesco, 6

K King Carlos I, 4, 285 King Felipe IV, 5

T Tetzcutzingo Hill Complex, 22, 27, 35, 42, 64, 66, 70, 72, 82, 86, 100, 104, 113, 117, 119, 121, 124, 136, 153, 167, 185, 206, 265, 274 Thorndike, Lynn, 1 Tisserant, Eugene, 7 Torres, Gaspar de, 293 Tucker, Arthur O., xi, 4, 293, 294

L Libellus de Medicinalibus Indorum Herbis/A Little Book of Indian Medicinal Herbs, xi, 1, 4 M Magdalene, Mary, 3 Maya Foundation, 7 Mendoza, Antonio de, 2, 3 Mendoza, Francisco de, 2, 4, 5 Momauhti, Martin, 2 Monasgtery of St. Jacob, 3 Molina, Alonso de, 65 Nahuans, 1, 285 National Institute of Anthropology and History of Mexico, 6

V Vatican Library, 1, 6, 7, 285 Velasco, Luis de, 4 Venn diagrams, 292, 294 Voynich codex, 293–294 Vuillemin, Marie-Therese, 7 W Walcott, Emily Walcott, viii–x, 1 Windsor Castle library, 6

Botanical Index

Species Acalypha phleoides (Euphorbiaceae), 24, 290, 291, 298 Achillea millefolium (Asteraceae), 80, 81, 290, 291, 300 Agastache mexicana (Lamiaceae), 24, 50, 196, 290, 291, 304 Alnus jorullensis (Betulaceae), 30, 167–168, 195, 275, 290, 291, 307 Amaranthus hypochondriacus (Anacardiaceae), 173–174, 290, 291, 304 Amphilophium buccinatorium (Bignoniaceae), 240–241, 290, 291, 306 Arbutus mollis (Ericaceae), 158–159, 290, 291, 303 Arctostaphylos pajaroensis (Ericaceae), 162, 290, 291, 303 Arctostaphylos pungens (Ericaceae), 159–160, 290, 291, 303 Ardisia escallonioides (Primulaceae), 224–225, 290, 291 Arracacia atropurpurea (Apiaceae), 226, 290, 291, 305 Asclepias curassavica (Apocynaceae), 129, 290, 291, 302 Asclepias linaria (Apocynaceae), 27, 290, 291, 298 Aureolaria greggii (Orobanchaceae), 19, 290, 291, 298 Bauhinia pauletia (Fabaceae), 157–158, 290, 291, 303 Begonia heracleifolia (Begoniaceae), 26, 37, 290, 291, 298 Bidens laevis (Asteraceae), 259–260, 290, 291, 307

Bocconia integrifolia (Papaveraceae), 45, 290, 291, 299 Bonellia albiflora (Primulaceae), 214, 290, 291, 315 Bourreria huanita (Boraginaceae), 166, 290, 291, 303 Bourreria sonorae (Boraginaceae), 120, 290, 291, 302 Bouvardia ternifolia (Fabaceae), 66–67, 290, 291, 299 Brosimum alicastrum (Moraceae), 89, 217, 290, 291, 305 Bunchosia lindeniana (Malpighiaceae), 151–152, 290, 291, 303 Bunchosia montana (Malpighiaceae), 154, 290, 291, 303 Bursera bipinnata (Burseraceae), 212–213, 290, 291, 305 Calibrachoa parviflora (Solanaceae), 134–135, 290, 291 Calliandra grandiflora (Fabaceae), 72–73, 290, 291, 300 Capsicum annuum (Solanaceae), 193, 286, 290, 291, 304 Castilla elastica (Moraceae), 208, 290, 291, 305 Castilleja integra (Orobanchaceae), 147–148, 290, 291, 303 Catopsis morreniana (Bromeliaceae), 245–246, 290, 291, 306 Cephalanthus occidentalis (Rubiaceae), 180–181, 304 Cestrum diurnum (Solanaceae), 93, 290, 291, 300 Cestrum fasciculatum (Solanaceae), 47–48, 290, 291, 299

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 A. O. Tucker, J. Janick, Flora of the Codex Cruz-Badianus, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-46959-7

311

312 Cirsium ehrenbergii (Asteraceae), 28, 110, 290, 291, 298 Cirsium mexicanum (Asteraceae), 110, 170, 290, 291, 301, 303 Cnidoscolus multilobus (Euphorbiaceae), 199, 290, 291, 304 Comarostaphylis polifolia (Ericaceae), 186–187, 290, 291, 304 Commelina coelestis (Commelinaceae), 35–36, 290, 291, 298, 305 Condalia hookeri (Rhamnaceae), 155, 262, 290, 291, 303, 307 Cordia dentata (C. alba) (Cordiaceae), 254, 290, 291, 306 Cucurbita pepo (Cucurbitaceae), 10, 263, 290, 291, 307 Cuphea schumannii (Lythraceae), 164, 290, 291, 303 Cupressus lusitanica var. benthamii (Cupressaceae), 206, 290, 291, 305 Cyrtocarpa procera (Anacardiaceae), 252, 290, 291, 306 Dahlia coccinea (Asteraceae), 117–118, 290, 291, 301 Dalea exserta (Fabaceae), 272–273, 290, 291 Dalea foliolosa (Fabaceae), 82, 290, 291, 300 Datura ceratocaula (Solanaceae), 98–99, 290, 291, 301 Datura inoxia (Solanaceae), 85, 98, 290, 291, 300, 301 Datura quercifolia (Solanaceae), 182–183, 290, 291 Datura stramonium (Solanaceae), 42–43, 288, 290, 291, 299 Dendromecon rigida (Papaveraceae), 255, 290, 291, 306 Dioscorea (Dioscoreaceae), 29, 290, 291, 298 Dioscorea galeottiana (Dioscoreaceae), 22, 290, 291, 298 Dioscorea villosa (Dioscoreaceae), 46–47, 290, 291, 299 Diplacus aurantiacus (Phrymaceae), 50, 290, 291, 299 Distichlis spicata (Poaceae), 40–41, 290, 291, 299 Ditrysinia fruticosa (Euphorbiaceae), 198, 290, 291, 304 Dyssodia papposa (Asteraceae), 104, 290, 291, 301 Echeandia flavescens (Asparagaceae), 268–269, 290, 291, 307 Echeandia nana (Asparagaceae), 264–265, 269, 290, 291, 307 Echeveria elegans (Crassulaceae), 142–143, 290, 291, 302

Botanical Index Echeveria gibbiflora (Crassulaceae), 79, 290, 291, 300 Eleocharis densa (Cyperaceae), 178–179, 290, 291, 304 Equisetum myriochaetum (Equisetaceae), 107, 290, 291, 301 Eryngium carlinae (Apiaceae), 57, 108, 290, 291, 299 Erysimum capitatum (Brassicaceae), 62–63, 101–102, 290, 291, 299, 301 Erythranthe cardinali (Phrymaceae), 141–142, 290, 291, 302 Euphorbia maculata (Euphorbiaceae), 269–270, 290, 291, 307 Eysenhardtia polystachya (Fabaceae), 153, 290, 291, 303 Ficus petiolari (Moraceae), 150–151, 290, 291, 303 Ficus pringlei (Moraceae), 176–177, 290, 291, 304 Galium trifidum (Rubiaceae), 173, 290, 291, 304 Heimia salicifolia (Lythraceae), 123–124, 290, 291, 302 Heliotropium curassavicum (Heliotropiaceae), 267, 290, 291, 307 Ipomoea bracteata (Convolvulaceae), 137–138, 290, 291, 302 Ipomoea murucoides (Convolvulaceae), 30, 31, 290, 291, 298 Iresine calea (Amaranthaceae), 119, 290, 291, 300, 301 Iresine rzedowskii (Amaranthaceae), 76, 286, 290, 291, 300 Jaltomata procumbens (Solanaceae), 34–35, 290, 291, 298 Justicia brandegeeana (Acanthaceae), 163, 286, 290, 291, 303 Lantana camara (Verbenaceae), 123, 136–137, 290, 291, 302 Lepidium virginicum (Brassicaceae), 70–71, 126, 290, 291, 300 Leucaena collinsii (Fabaceae), 52–53, 288, 290, 291, 299 Lippia alba (Verbenaceae), 51, 290, 291, 299 Lippia mexicana (Verbenaceae), 257–258, 290, 291, 307 Magnolia macrophylla var. Dealbata, (Magnoliaceae), 164–165, 290, 291 Magnolia mexicana (Magnoliaceae), 238, 290, 291, 306 Malvaviscus arboreus (Malvaceae), 86–87, 290, 291, 300 Mentzelia hispida (Loasaceae), 116–117, 120, 290, 291, 301

Botanical Index Mesosphaerum pectinatum (Lamiaceae), 126, 290, 291, 302 Miconia albicans (Melastomataceae), 161, 290, 291, 303 Micropholis melinoniana (Sapotaceae), 271–272, 290, 291, 307 Microsechium palmatum (Cucurbitaceae), 227, 290, 291, 305 Mimosa aculeaticarpa (Fabaceae), 44, 113–114, 290, 291, 301 Mirabilis laevi (Nyctaginaceae), 32–33, 290, 291 Mirabilis multiflora (Nyctaginaceae), 48–49, 290, 291, 299 Mnium hornum (Mniaceae), 20, 290, 291, 298 Muhlenbergia macroura (Poaceae), 38–39, 290, 291, 298 Nothoscordum bivalve (Amaryllidaceae), 144–145, 290, 291, 303 Oenothera epilobiifolia subsp. cuprea (Onagraceae), 191–192, 290, 291, 304 Operculina pinnatifolia (Convolvulaceae), 175, 290, 291, 304 Operculina pteripes (Convolvulaceae), 96, 111, 290, 291, 301 Opuntia ficus-indica (Cactaceae), 10, 219–220, 290, 291 Oxalis frutescens (Oxalidaceae), 102–103, 301 Oxalis tetraphylla (Oxalidaceae), 64–65, 290, 291, 301 Pavonia schiedeana (Malvaceae), 138–139, 290, 291, 302 Pectis angustifolia (Asteraceae), 202–203, 290, 291, 305 Penstemon hartwegii (Plantaginaceae), 139–140, 290, 291, 302 Peperomia galioides (Piperaceae), 171, 290, 291, 304 Peperomia humilis (Piperaceae), 248–249, 290, 291, 306 Pereskiopsis rotundifolia (Cactaceae), 94–95, 290, 291, 301 Persicaria hydropiperoides (Polygonaceae), 131–132, 290, 291, 302 Phaseolus coccineus (Fabaceae), 100–101, 218, 301, 305 Phemeranthus aurantiacus (Montiaceae), 210–211, 290, 291, 305 Philodendron mexicanum (Araceae), 10, 61, 290, 291, 299 Phoradendron lanceolatum (Santalaceae), 187–188, 290, 291, 304 Phragmites australis (Poaceae), 181–182, 290, 291, 304

313 Phyla dulcis (Verbenaceae), 74, 290, 291, 300 Pinus ayacahuite (Pinaceae), 221–222, 290, 291, 305 Plantago australis (Plantaginaceae), 185–186, 290, 291, 304 Plumeria rubra (Apocynaceae), 233–235, 290, 291, 306 Polemonium melindae (Polemoniaceae), 242, 290, 291, 306 Polygala appressipilis (Polygalaceae), 108, 290, 291, 301 Polytricum sp., (Polytrichaceae), 61–62, 290, 291, 299 Porophyllum coloratum (Asteraceae), 91, 290, 291, 300 Porophyllum punctatum (Asteraceae), 247, 290, 291, 306 Porophyllum ruderale subsp. macrocephalum (Asteraceae), 69–70, 290, 291, 300 Pouteria sapota (Annonaceae), 112–113, 290, 291, 301 Prosopis laevigata (Fabaceae), 216, 290, 291, 305 Prunus serotina var. salicifolia, (Rosaceae), 204–205, 290, 291, 305 Pseudotsuga menziesii (Pinaceae), 230, 290, 291, 305 Psidium guajava (Myrtaceae), 105–106, 290, 291, 301 Quararibea funebris (Malvaceae), 236–237, 290, 291, 306 Rhynchospora colorata (Cyperaceae), 265–266, 290, 291 Rubus adenotrichus (Rosaceae), 239–240, 290, 291, 306 Rubus urticifolius (Rosaceae), 201–202, 290, 291, 305 Salix lasiolepis (Salicaceae), 231–232, 256, 290, 291 Salvia microphylla (Lamiaceae), 121–122, 132–133, 290, 291, 302 Salvia penstemonoides (Lamiaceae), 200, 290, 291, 305 Scaevola plumieri (Goodeniaceae), 251, 290, 291, 306 Schizaea poeppigiana (Schizaeaceae), 127–128, 290, 291, 302 Schkuhria pinnata (Pectis pinnata) (Asteraceae), 124–125, 290, 291, 302 Schkuhria virgata (Asteraceae), 260–261, 290, 291, 307 Schultesia guianensis (Gentianaceae), 115, 290, 291, 301

314 Sedum dendroideum (Crassulaceae), 39–40, 290, 291, 298, 300 Sedum oxypetalum (Crassulaceae), 77–78, 290, 291, 300 Sida acuta (Malvaceae), 244, 290, 291, 306 Solanum pseudocapsicum (Solanaceae), 18, 130–131, 290, 291, 302 Solanum tampicense (Solanaceae), 68, 290, 291, 300 Solanum wendlandii (Solanaceae), 228–229, 290, 291, 305 Stenocereus thurberi (Cactaceae), 10, 55–56, 290, 291, 299 Symphoricarpos microphyllus (Caprifoliaceae), 88, 290, 291 Tabebuia rosea (Bignoniaceae), 189–190, 290, 291, 304 Tagetes lucida (Asteraceae), 223, 290, 291, 305 Theobroma cacao (Malvaceae), 10, 148–149, 290, 291, 303

Botanical Index Tigridia multiflora (Iridaceae), 184–185, 290, 291, 304 Tigridia pavonia (Iridaceae), 143–144, 290, 291, 303 Tradescantia commelinoides (Commelinaceae), 209–210, 290, 291, 305 Typha latifolia (Typhaceae), 59, 290, 291, 299 Urera caracasana (Urticaceae), 54, 197, 290, 291, 299 Vanilla planifolia (Orchidaceae), 250, 290, 291, 306 Vitis tiliifolia (Vitaceae), 23, 290, 291, 298 Zephyranthes fosteri (Amaryllidaceae), 145–146, 290, 291, 303 Zinnia elegans (Asteraceae), 140–141, 290, 291, 302 Zinnia haageana (Asteraceae), 89–90, 290, 291, 300 Zinnia haageana (variant) (Asteraceae), 92, 290, 291, 300

Botanical Index

Families Acanthaceae, 135, 141, 163, 286, 290, 302, 303 Amaranthaceae, 75, 76, 119, 171, 173, 290, 300, 301 Amaryllidaceae, 144–146, 159, 184, 290, 303 Anacardiaceae, 173–174, 186, 202, 252, 290, 304, 306 Annonaceae, 112–113, 251, 290, 301 Apiaceae, 57, 67, 108, 182, 226, 290, 299, 300, 305 Apocynaceae, 27, 29, 92, 115, 128, 129, 151, 154, 233–235, 290, 298, 301, 302, 306 Araceae, 60, 61, 290, 299 Asparagaceae, 144, 245, 264–265, 269, 290, 307 Asteraceae, 28, 32, 62, 69–70, 80, 81, 89–93, 101, 104, 110, 117–118, 123–125, 128, 136, 140–142, 165, 170, 175, 180, 202–203, 223, 225, 226, 242, 243, 247, 254, 255, 259–261, 264, 268, 269, 290, 291, 298, 300–303, 305–307 Begoniaceae, 25, 26, 37, 64, 290, 298 Betulaceae, 167–168, 194, 195, 257, 275, 290, 303, 307 Bignoniaceae, 140, 189–190, 199, 241, 290, 304, 306 Boraginaceae, 120, 166, 200, 290, 302, 303 Brassicaceae, 62–63, 70–71, 101–102, 126, 290, 291, 299–301 Bromeliaceae, 22, 179, 185, 187, 206, 207, 245–246, 290, 306 Burseraceae, 202, 212–213, 290, 305 Cactaceae, 55–56, 94–95, 212, 219–220, 290, 299, 301 Caprifoliaceae, 88, 89, 198, 290, 300 Commelinaceae, 35–36, 209–210, 290, 298, 305 Convolvulaceae, 30, 31, 48, 88, 96, 111, 137–138, 175, 290, 298, 301, 302, 304 Cordiaceae, 135, 141, 254, 290, 306 Crassulaceae, 40, 77–79, 142–143, 290, 291, 298, 300, 302 Cucurbitaceae, 227, 239, 240, 263, 290, 305, 307 Cupressaceae, 206, 222, 290, 305 Cyperaceae, 178–179, 265–266, 290, 304 Dioscoreaceae, 21, 22, 29, 46–47, 290, 298, 299 Equisetaceae, 107, 290, 301 Ericaceae, 29, 158–160, 162, 186–187, 290, 303, 304

315 Euphorbiaceae, 22, 24, 66, 131, 154, 196, 198, 199, 201, 202, 231, 269–270, 290, 291, 298, 304, 307 Fabaceae, 17, 44, 47, 52–53, 66–67, 72–73, 82, 100–101, 113–114, 126, 130, 153, 155, 157–158, 210, 212, 213, 215, 216, 218, 231, 233, 250, 251, 260, 262, 265, 272–273, 288, 290, 299–301, 303, 305 Gentianaceae, 115, 290, 301 Goodeniaceae, 251, 290, 306 Heliotropiaceae, 200, 267, 290, 307 Iridaceae, 143–144, 159, 184–185, 233, 245, 290, 291, 303, 304 Lamiaceae, 24, 50, 51, 121–122, 126, 132–133, 196, 200, 290, 291, 302, 304, 305 Loasaceae, 45, 116–117, 120, 201, 290, 301 Lythraceae, 123–124, 164, 242, 290, 291, 302, 303 Magnoliaceae, 165, 238, 290, 306 Malpighiaceae, 151–152, 154, 216, 290, 303 Malvaceae, 86–87, 102, 138–140, 148–149, 162, 236–237, 243, 244, 254, 290, 300, 302, 303, 306 Melastomataceae, 147, 148, 161, 163, 290, 303 Mniaceae, 20 Montiaceae, 210–211, 290, 305 Moraceae, 89, 117, 150–151, 176–177, 187, 207, 208, 217, 290, 303–305 Myrtaceae, 18, 105–106, 290, 301 Nyctaginaceae, 32–33, 48–49, 117, 140, 225, 243, 290, 298, 299, 305 Onagraceae, 191–192, 290, 304 Orchidaceae, 140, 184, 249, 250, 290, 306 Orobanchaceae, 19, 148, 200, 290, 298, 303 Oxalidaceae, 25, 64–65, 102–103, 290, 301 Papaveraceae, 45, 115, 255, 290, 299, 306 Phrymaceae, 50, 135, 141–142, 191, 290, 299, 302 Pinaceae, 202, 222, 229, 230, 290, 305 Piperaceae, 75, 171, 193, 248–249, 290, 304, 306 Plantaginaceae, 19, 45, 135, 139–141, 185–186, 290, 291, 302, 304 Poaceae, 38–41, 83, 107, 179, 181–182, 187, 260, 266, 290, 298, 299, 304 Polemoniaceae, 121, 131, 133, 164, 172, 242, 290, 306 Polygalaceae, 108, 290, 301 Polygonaceae, 107, 119, 131–132, 186, 290, 302 Polytrichaceae, 58, 62, 290, 299

316 Primulaceae, 123, 136, 204, 214, 224–225, 290, 305 Rhamnaceae, 155, 262, 290, 291, 303, 307 Rosaceae, 201–202, 204–205, 239–240, 290, 291, 305, 306 Rubiaceae, 18, 50, 66, 173, 180–181, 290, 291, 304 Salicaceae, 150, 231–232, 256, 290, 303, 306, 307 Santalaceae, 187–188, 290, 304 Sapotaceae, 112, 151, 154, 271–272, 290, 303, 307

Botanical Index Schizaeaceae, 128, 290, 302 Solanaceae, 17, 18, 34–35, 42–43, 47–48, 67, 68, 84, 85, 93, 98–99, 124, 131, 135, 151, 158, 164, 183, 193, 198, 199, 201, 228–229, 286, 288, 290, 298–302, 304, 305 Typhaceae, 59, 290, 299 Urticaceae, 54, 197, 198, 201, 290, 299, 304 Verbenaceae, 24, 51, 74, 123, 136–137, 193, 196, 257–258, 290, 299, 300, 302, 307 Vitaceae, 22, 23, 185, 290, 298

Botanical Index

Common names A beardtongue, 139 A bromeliad, 245 A craglily, 265 Alkali heliotrope, 267 Amberlily, 269 A milkwort, 107 A moss, 20, 58, 61 Angel’s trumpet, 85, 97 A paintbrush, 148 Aquatic soda apple, 68 Arroyo willow, 232, 256 A spiderwort, 210 A spikerush, 179 A spikesedge, 179 A sundrop, 191 A wild yam, 22, 29 Ayacahuite pine, 222 Aztec sweetherb, 74 Baby sage, 121, 133 Barberry fig, 220 Bastard ipecacuanha, 129 Beachberry, 251 Bentham cypress, 206 Big red sage, 200 Bitter bottle gourd, 263 Blackcurrant sage, 121, 133 Blood-red trumpet-creeper, 241 Blood trumpet, 241 Blood trumpet vine, 241 Blue spiderwort, 35 Bourbon vanilla, 250 Broadleaf cattail, 59 Bush poppy, 255 Bush squash, 263 Bushy lippia, 51 Bushy matgrass, 51 Buttonbush, 180 Button-willow, 180 Cacao, 149 Cardinal monkeyflower, 141 Caribbean grape, 23 Catclaw mimosa, 113 Cherere, 241 Christmas cherry, 17, 129, 130 Cloudforest magnolia, 165 Cocoa, 149 Collins leadtree, 52 Colorado four o’clock, 49 Common lantana, 136 Common reed, 181 Common thorn-apple, 42 Common zinnia, 140

317 Costa Rican nightshade, 229 Crow poison, 144 Curious weed, 124 Desert wishbone bush, 32 Devil’s snare, 42 Ditch reed, 181 Douglas fir, 230 Downy thorn-apple, 85, 97 Dwarf marigold, 124 Dwarf tree stonecrop, 78 Early jessamine, 48 Elegant zinnia, 140 Evergreen alder, 167, 194, 275 False garlic, 144 False hop, 163 False water pepper, 131 Fetid marigold, 104 Few-flower Jacob’s ladder, 242 Four-leaf pink-sorrel, 64 Fragrant bedstraw, 172 Frangipani, 233, 234 Garden zinnia, 140 Giant potato creeper, 229 Giant reed, 181 Giant stinging nettle, 54 Graham’s sage, 121, 133 Guava, 105 Gulf Sebastian-bush, 198 Gullfeed, 251 Half flower, 251 Honey-bells, 180 Honeyherb, 74 Indian fig, 220 Inkberry, 251 Jerusalem cherry, 17, 129, 130 Jimson weed, 42 Kidneywood, 153 Larger bur marigold, 259 Lemonscent, 202 Mala mujer, 199 Mamey sapote, 112 Mangy tree, 30 Marble berry, 225 Marlberry, 225 Marmalade plum, 112 Marrow, 263 Mexican alder, 167, 194, 275 Mexican blood flower, 241 Mexican blood trumpet, 241 Mexican broomroot, 38 Mexican gem, 142 Mexican giant horsetail, 107 Mexican giant hyssop, 196

318 Mexican mint marigold, 223 Mexican plantain, 185 Mexican prairie clover, 272 Mexican rubber tree, 207 Mexican shellflower, 143 Mexican shrimp plant, 163 Mexican snowball, 142 Mexican tarragon, 223 Mexican thistle, 110, 170 Mexican white pine, 222 Mexican zinnia, 90, 92 Mild water pepper, 131 Milfoil, 80 Milk purslane, 270 Mission cactus, 220 Mission prickly pear, 220 Mount Jorullo alder, 167, 194, 275 Mouse tail, 249 Oak leaf datura, 183 Orange cigar plant, 164 Orange false flameflower, 211 Organ pipe cactus, 56 Pagoda tree, 233, 234 Pajaro manzanita, 162 Paradise flower, 229 Peacock flower, 143 Pearl echeveria, 142 Peppergrass, 70 Pineneedle milkweed, 27 Pink poui, 189 Plume poppy, 45 Polynesian peperomia, 249 Potato vine, 229 Prairie clover, 82 Prince of Wales’s feather, 173 Prince’s feather, 173 Pumpkin, 263 Railroad-fence, 157 Red capsicum, 193 Red cestrum, 48 Red dahlia, 118 Red jasmine, 233, 234 Red paucipan, 233, 234 Red-stemmed peperomia, 249 Rock fig, 150 Rosy trumpet tree, 189 Salt grass, 41 Sanddune wallflower, 63, 102 Scarlet bouvardia, 66 Scarlet milkweed, 129 Scarlet monkeyflower, 141 Scrambling nightshade, 68 Seaside heliotrope, 267

Botanical Index Seaside petunia, 135 Shrimpbush, 163 Shrimp plant, 163 Shrubby copperleaf, 24 Shrubby woodsorrel, 102 Small bedstraw, 172 Smooth beggartick, 259 Smooth bur marigold, 259 Smooth mesquite, 216 Smooth prickly pear, 220 Sonoran strongbark, 120 Spotted sandmat, 270 Spotted spurge, 270 Squash, 263 Star begonia, 26 Starrush whitetop, 266 Sticky monkeyflower, 50 Stinking marigold, 104 Sulfur trumpet Jacob’s ladder, 242 Swamp smartweed, 131 Sweet mace, 223 Sweet marigold, 223 Sweet pepper, 193 Sweet prickly pear, 220 Temple tree, 233, 234 Tiger flower, 143 Toad’s herb, 57 Torrey’s craglily, 269 Tree poppy, 255 Tree stonecrop, 40 Tropical highland blackberry, 240 Tuna, 220 Ule tree, 207 Vanilla, 250 Virginia cress, 70 Wait-a-bit, 113 Wait-a-minute bush, 113 Wax mallow, 86 Waxy bush, 251 Western wallflower, 63, 102 Wetland nightshade, 68 White balata, 271 White Mexican rose, 142 White star sedge, 266 White-topped sedge, 266 Wild petunia, 135 Wild sage, 136 Wild yam, 47 Winter cherry, 17, 129, 130 Yarrow, 80 Yellow false foxglove, 19 Youth-and-old-age, 140

Botanical Index

Nahuatl Names A Acacapacquilitl, 178, 180, 304 Acacatzontli, 178, 304 Acamallotetl, 271, 307 Acatl, 181, 304 Achilli, 131, 302 Acocohtli, 226, 305 Aacxoyatl, 229, 305 Ahhuiyac tlatlanquaye, 193, 304 Ahquiztli, 173, 304 Aquahuitl, 189, 304 Atochietl, 49, 51, 299 Atzitzicaztli, 54, 299 Axocotl, 186, 304 Ayauhquahuitl, 168, 221, 305 Ayauhtonan, 241, 306 Ayecocimatl, 100, 301 Ayonelhuatl, 263, 307 Ayuatl tepiton, 207, 305 Azcapanyxhua tlahçolpahtli, 42, 299 C Cacaloxochitl, 168, 233, 306 Çacamatlalin, 209, 305 Cacauaxochitl, 235, 236, 306 Cecentlahcol, 142, 302 Centzonxochitl, 172, 178, 184, 259, 304 Chichic texcalamatl, 176, 304 Chicomacatl, 187, 304 Chipauacxihuitl, 21, 22, 298 Chiyauaxihuitl, 243, 306 Cihuapatli, 255, 306 Cimatl, 218, 305 Cochizxihuitl, 45, 299 Colomecatl, 175, 304 Colotzitzicaztli, 201, 305 Coltotzin, 272, 307 Copaliyac xiuhtontli, 104, 109, 301 copalxocotl, 251, 252, 306 Couanenepilli, 117, 301 Couaxocotl, 151, 303 Coyoxihuitl tlatztalehualtic, 121, 302 Cozcanantzi, 137, 302 Cuecuetzpahtli, 191, 304 E Eloçacatl, 107, 264, 301 Elocapolin, 204, 305 Eloxochitl, 165, 168, 303 Ezpahtli, 66, 299

319 H Hahuiyacxihuitl, 257, 307 Hecapatli, 210, 305 Huacalxochitl, 34, 60, 168, 248, 299 Huetzcanixochitl, 145, 303 Hueynacatztli, 250, 306 Huihuitzmallotic, 116, 301 Huihuitzyocochizxihuitl, 44 Huitzcolohtli, 67, 286, 300 Huitzihtzilxochitl, 133, 271, 302 Huitzquauitl, 155, 303 Huitzquilitl, 28, 170, 178, 298 L Lacoyzquixochitl, 120 M Maçayelli, 46, 299 Malinalli, 38, 66, 298 Mamaxtla, 119, 301 Matlalxochitl, 34, 35, 298 Mecaxochitl, 248, 306 Memeyaxiuhtontl, 269, 307 Metztliyçacauh, 144, 303 Mexixquilitl, 69, 70, 300 Mocuepanixochitl, 139, 302 N Necouhxochit, 234, 306 Nexehuac, 98, 301 Nonochton azcapa’yxua, 94, 301 O Ohuaxocoyolin, 37, 104, 191, 298 P Papaloquilitl, 69, 91, 221, 239, 300 Patlahuactzitzicaztli, 197, 200, 305 Piltzintecouhxochitl, 136, 302 Piltzintecouhxochitl chiyaua, 123, 302 Pozahualizxiuhtontli, 264, 307 Q Quappoquietl, 124, 302 Quauhalahuac, 253, 306 Quauhhuitzihtzilxochitl, 164, 303 Quauhtla huitzquilit, 109, 169, 301 Quauhtla xoxocoyalin, 64, 299 Quauhtla xoxocoyolin, 25, 298

Botanical Index

320 Quauhtzitzicaztli, 197, 304 Quauhyayhual, 228, 305 Quauhyyauhtli, 223, 228, 264, 305 Quetzalahuexotl, 256, 307 Quetzalhatzonyatl, 224, 305 Quetzalmizquitl, 215, 305 Quetzalxoxouh capahtli / quetzalxoxouhqui, 88, 198, 300 Quetzalylin, 167, 274, 303, 307 S Scabies, 27 Symphoricarpos microphyllus, 88 T Teamoxtli, 19, 58, 184, 219, 298 Teçonpahtli, 27, 298 Teguammayl, 29 Temahuiztiliquauitl, 147, 163, 303 Tememetla, 77, 78, 300 Teoezquauitl, 154, 303 Teonochtli, 55, 299 Teoyztaquilitl, 62, 101, 299, 301 Tepapaquiltiquauitl, 162, 303 Tepaquiltixiuhtontli, 138, 302 Tepepapaloquilitl, 247, 306 Tepitoton teamoxtli, 61, 299 Tequixquiçacatl, 40, 299 Tetzapotl, 112, 114, 301 Tetzitzicaztli, 198, 304 Tetzitzilin, 227, 305 Tetzmitl, 39, 212, 219, 298 Texcalamacoztli, 149, 303 Texiyotl, 77, 300 Texochitl yamanqui, 127, 302 Tlacacamohtli, 96, 178, 301 Tlacoecapahtli, 213, 225, 305 Tlacopopotl, 260, 307 Tlacoxiloxochitl, 66, 72, 73, 300 Tlacoyzquixochitl, 34, 60, 120, 302 Tlahchinolpan yxuaxihuitl, 83, 300 Tlahçoteoçacayl, 184, 304 Tlahcuilolquauitl, 157, 303 Tlahnextia xiuhtontli, 108, 301 Tlalaueuetl, 23, 195 Tlalcacapol, 216, 305 Tlalhuaueuetl, 195, 304 Tlalhuaxin, 113, 301

Tlalmizquitl, 82, 271, 300 Tlalquequetzal, 80, 123, 176, 300 Tlanenpopoloua xiuhtontli, 115, 301 Tlanextiquauitl, 159, 303 Tlanextli xiuhtontli, 57, 299 Tlapalcacauatl, 148, 168, 303 Tlaquilin, 48, 193, 215, 299 Tlatlacotic, 89, 300 Tlatlanquaye, 75, 171, 189, 193, 214, 215, 300 Tlatlaolton, 91, 133, 300 Tlatoc nochtli, 219, 305 Tlatzcan, 206, 305 Tlayapalon, 185, 298 Tlayapaloni, 22 Tlilxochitl, 249, 306 Tohmiyoxihuitl, 268, 307 Tolohua xihuitl, 84, 97, 300, 301 Tolpatlactli, 58, 178, 299 Tomazq’tl/tomazquitl, 158 Tonacaxochitl, 240, 306 Tonalxochitl, 140, 302 Tonatiuhyxiuc ahhuachcho, 86, 300 Tonatiuh yxiuh pepetlaca, 102, 301 Totecyxiuh, 266, 307 Totoloctzin, 239, 306 Totonquixochitl, 134, 141, 302 Tzayanalquititl, 182, 304 Tzihuaccopalli, 212, 305 Tzitzicton, 92, 128, 302 Tzonpilihuiz xihuitl, 50, 299 Tzopelicacococ, 72, 73, 300 Tzotzocaxihuitl, 231, 306 U Uelicpahtli, 110, 301 X Xaltomatl, 34, 60, 178, 298 Xaxocotl, 105, 178, 301 Xihuitl tonalcomochiua hahuachcho, 32, 298 Xiuehcapahtli, 130, 133, 302 Xiuheloquilitl, 259, 307 Xiuhhecapatli, 17, 130, 298 Xiuhpahtli, 143, 259, 303 Xiuhtlemaytl, 197, 202, 305 Xococquauitl, 160, 303 Xomalin, 265, 307 Xoxouhcapahtli, 126, 302 Xoxouhquipahtli, 47, 299

Botanical Index Y Ylin, 194, 209, 304 Yolloxochitl, 237, 248, 306 Ytzcuinpahtli, 93, 123, 130, 133, 300 Yzquixochitl, 166, 184, 302 Yztac ocoxochitl, 17, 18, 106, 298 yztachuitzquahuitl, 262, 307

321 Yztacpahtli, 52, 299 Yztacquauitl, 153, 303 Z Zohzoyatic, 245, 306