First Peoples of Canada: Masterworks from the Canadian Museum of Civilization 9781442616769

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First Peoples of Canada Masterworks from the Canadian Museum of Civilization

First Peoples Jean-Luc Pilon and Nicholette Prince with a foreword by Douglas Cardinal contributions by Ian Dyck, Andrea Laforet, and Eldon Yellowhorn

of Canada

Masterworks from the Canadian Museum of Civilization

CA N A D I A N M U S E U M O F C I V I L I Z AT I O N AND

U N I V E R S I T Y O F TO R O N TO PR E S S TORONTO

BUFFALO

LO N D O N

© Canadian Museum of Civilization 2013 Published by University of Toronto Press Toronto Buffalo London www.utppublishing.com in collaboration with Canadian Museum of Civilization Gatineau, Quebec www.civilization.ca Printed in Canada University of Toronto Press acknowledges the financial assistance to its publishing program of the Canada Council for the Arts and the Ontario Arts Council.

Library and Archives Canada Cataloguing in Publication Pilon, Jean-Luc, author First peoples of Canada : masterworks from the Canadian Museum of Civilization / Jean-Luc Pilon & Nicholette Prince; with a foreword by Douglas Cardinal; contributions by Ian Dyck, Andrea Laforet and Eldon Yellowhorn. Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 978-1-4426-2612-6 (pbk.) 1. Native arts – Canada – Exhibitions.  2. Indian arts – Canada – Exhibitions.  3. Native peoples – Material culture – Canada – Exhibitions.  4. Indians of North America – Material culture – Canada – Exhibitions.  5. Native peoples – Canada – Antiquities

University of Toronto Press acknowledges the financial support of the Government of Canada through the Canada Book Fund for its publishing activities.

– Exhibitions.  6. Indians of North America – Canada – Antiquities – Exhibitions.  I. Prince, Nicholette L. (Nicholette Leonee), 1964–, author  II. Dyck, Ian G., author  III. Laforet, Andrea Lynne, 1948–, author  IV. Yellowhorn, Eldon, 1956–, author  V. Cardinal, Douglas, writer of foreword  VI. Canadian Museum of Civilization  VII. Title. E78.C2P55 2013

971.004’97074

C2013-905892-3

Photo details reproduced: ii–iii, see page 119; vi–vii, see pages 142–3; viii, see page 94; 4, see page 66; 7, see page 126; 14, see page 157; 17, see page 90; 19, see page 102; 20, see page 59; 30–1, see pages 104–5; 162–3, see pages 64–5. Photo on page 8, “Public entrance of the Canadian Museum of Civilization, Gatineau,” by Wladyslaw Sojka, FreeArt Licence Photo on page 13 by Marie-Louise Deruaz, IMG2010-0064-0012Dm, Canadian Museum of Civilization. Book design: Counterpunch Inc. / Linda Gustafson Display type: FF Profile by Martin Wenzel Body type: Classic Grotesque by Rod McDonald

Contents

Foreword / 1 Douglas Cardinal Introduction / 5 Jean-Luc Pilon and Nicholette Prince A Bastion of Our Past: A Short History of the Canadian Museum of Civilization / 9 Jean-Luc Pilon, Nicholette Prince, and Ian Dyck The Canadian Museum of Civilization’s Collection of First Peoples’ Artifacts and Art / 15 Andrea Laforet First Nations of Canada / 21 Eldon Yellowhorn Language Families / 22 Culture Areas / 23 First Nations of Modern Canada / 29 First Peoples of Canada: Masterworks from the Canadian Museum of Civilization / 31 Index / 165

vii i

Foreword Douglas Cardinal

During the last ice age, most of what we now know

to their environment more than they took. They

as Canada was covered by ice and glaciers. A land

regarded the rivers, lakes, plains, and forests as

bridge connected what are now Alaska and Siberia

their garden, which they had to nourish and protect.

and over this bridge our ancestors migrated into

They viewed themselves as guardians of Mother

North America. When the ice age ended and the

Earth, respecting and nurturing all living things

glaciers receded, the lakes, rivers, plains, and vast

around them.

forests emerged with new life and the people who migrated flourished. The people understood that their new environment

As their numbers increased, the people made efforts to keep their population in balance with their resources. They continually moved their

was fragile. At times, almost without warning, large

communities to different sites so that the land could

volumes of arctic air could cause great fluctuations

heal, renew, and grow with new abundance. They

in temperature. To survive, the people had to develop

knew that if they stayed too long in one space, the

a deep understanding of the rhythms of their natural

surrounding resources would be depleted. The

environment. It was imperative that they thoroughly

people were much more than just hunters and

understand each variety of tree, plant, and herb and

gatherers. Their concept of agriculture was to

the natural medicines that were derived from them.

nurture all the indigenous species that served

Every species of bird, beast, fish, and insect had to

them as “life-givers” and they understood fully

be acknowledged and studied.

that their lives depended on the very environment

The people also knew that to survive and thrive they had to adapt. They developed a symbiotic

around them. The people also realized that they were affected

relationship with their environment and made every

by the heavenly bodies that they could see. The

effort to be in harmony with the surrounding life.

women’s rhythms followed the cycles of the moon;

Honour, gratitude, and deep respect were given to

the seasons followed the cycles of the sun. The

all things living as well as their habitats. The people

people harvested the plants, animals, birds, and fish

nurtured and harvested various species of trees,

according to the position of the constellations. Not

plants, and herbs to provide food, clothing, and

only did they feel connected to the land, they also

shelter. They took great care when hunting animals

felt connected to the entire universe. They under-

to ensure that there was always a natural abun-

stood their surroundings as being imbued with great

dance. The people felt it was essential to give back

energy, believing that all energy in the universe was

1

connected and whatever they did affected every-

symbiotic relationships with this land. The spiritual

thing around them.

ceremonies celebrated life, the people’s connection

The people viewed themselves and the life around

Since the creator was generous, one had to be

also spiritual beings. The rocks and rivers, trees and

generous with everyone. As the creator loved all of

plants, and all the animals of the land contained

creation and life, the people did too and provided

great life forces: powerful, interconnected spirits.

that same love to their families, clans, communities,

Through their connection, all of the elements in

and neighbours. The people developed themselves

the natural environment affected one another. The

as spiritual beings, communicating with and being

people saw themselves as related to every being

guided by their ancestors, as well as by the forces

in the environment. By fostering this symbiotic

of nature around them. They would communicate

relationship with their environment, the people

with plants and herbs, which would heal and aid

learned to communicate with all life, developing

them on their inner journey to seek the power within

a culture based on harmony, balance, love, and

themselves.

respect. By creating societies that followed these prin-

This power was sought not to control others, but to develop a spiritual inner strength. The people

ciples, people were free to express themselves in

used this power to help and heal others, as well as to

many ways. The symbol of governance was a circle,

help and heal themselves. They felt that one’s quest

where all people were considered equal and each

in life was to develop individual inner strength and

person was respected. All decisions were made by

to use their power responsibly. Since we, as humans,

consensus. No person had authority over another.

are the most powerful beings on the land, we must

The only authority was the creator, and the creator’s

use our power to benefit all life around us. If we are

lessons were all around them, illustrated in natural

irresponsible with our power, we can destroy life; our

law. Status in a community was measured not by

selfish acts will not only affect our environment, but

how much you possessed or how much wealth you

also destroy its legacy for future generations. The

accumulated, but by how much you shared and gave

elders from communities all across the continent

to others. The more you had to give, the more status

have numerous stories to reinforce this teaching.

you had in the community. The languages of the people evolved from their

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with the creator, and all of the creator’s handiwork.

them as more than just physical beings; they were

After contact with immigrant cultures, all but a small segment of the indigenous people of North

America were extinguished. Their languages,

Architect Douglas Cardinal is famous for his work’s

cultures, and vast knowledge were almost entirely

flowing and smooth style, which is strongly influ-

destroyed. Fortunately, the survivors retained and

enced by his Métis and Blackfoot heritage as well as

preserved their knowledge and believe that it should

European expressionism. Among Cardinal’s many

be shared with dominant cultures, particularly as

renowned creations is the Canadian Museum of

they have seen and felt the destruction and pollution

Civilization in Gatineau, Quebec.

of their ancestral lands. The people believe that they have a great contribution to offer in the understanding and appreciation that we can live in harmony, both with each other and with the land we share. They firmly believe that this contribution is necessary not only for their survival, but for the survival of all people who come to this land. I am proud to contribute these opening words to this book, First Peoples of Canada: Masterworks from the Canadian Museum of Civilization. The journey of Canada’s First Peoples from ancient times to our era has been difficult and tragic, creative and inspiring, and the journey continues. What has been essential is the strength and resilience of our diverse cultural traditions, together with our physical and spiritual relationship with the land. The objects pictured and described in this book are distinct to the First Peoples of Canada, but they are also part of the common heritage of all humanity. We can take pleasure in their beauty and ingenuity, and we can learn from them – from what they reveal about the times and places of their creation, as well as the lives and sensibilities of their creators.

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4

Introduction Jean-Luc Pilon and Nicholette Prince

Over the summer of 2007, the Canadian Museum

considered treasures for their aesthetic qualities,

of Civilization hosted a spectacular exhibition,

the skills and raw materials used in manufacturing

Treasures from China, developed in partnership with

them, or their symbolic value. This wide range of

the National Museum of China. This exhibition had

“treasures” – a word that evokes a narrow range of

been years in planning and saw, for the first time,

characteristics – prompted the suggestion that this

many priceless artifacts leave China to be exhibited

unique collection ought to be referred to as compris-

only in Canada and only at the Canadian Museum

ing “masterworks,” a broader notion that combines

of Civilization. Part of the agreement to allow this

the values embodied by the exhibition.

exhibition to take place was that a reciprocal

The Canadian Museum of Civilization is the

exhibition showcasing treasures of the First Peoples

steward of ethnographic and archaeological collec-

of Canada would be prepared by the Canadian

tions it has inherited or acquired over more than

Museum of Civilization and shown in China’s capital.

150 years. These holdings are stronger in certain

This show would coincide with the opening of the

areas than others. While efforts were made to select

Olympic Games in Beijing. As such, on August 3,

items from all regions of Canada for the First Peoples

2008, just days before the Olympic flame entered

of Canada exhibition, some areas are naturally

the Bird’s Nest stadium, First Peoples of Canada:

better represented. Nonetheless, the exhibition was

Masterworks from the Canadian Museum of Civiliza-

organized so that visitors not only viewed beautiful

tion was welcomed at the Art Museum of the

objects, but also learned about the geography of this

Imperial City, located against the outer wall of the

vast land. They also acquired a better understanding

Forbidden City, just metres from Tiananmen Square.

of the lifestyles of Canada’s original inhabitants both

Thousands of people viewed these priceless objects

today and in the past.

until the exhibition closed on October 8, 2008.

In 2009, the Landesmuseum in Hannover,

The collection of 150 or so artifacts was drawn

Germany, hosted the exhibition between April 24 and

from the ethnographic and archaeological collec-

August 2. The next venue was the National Museum

tions of the Canadian Museum of Civilization. For

of Ethnology in Osaka, Japan, from September 9 to

the exhibition Nicholette Prince, curator of Plateau

December 8, 2009. The exhibition’s final destination

Ethnology, and Jean-Luc Pilon, curator of Ontario

was Mexico City, Mexico, where it was on display

Archaeology, sought out pieces which could be

at the Museo Nacional de las Culturas between

5

October 6, 2010, and January 31, 2011. The Canadian Embassy in Mexico City wished to see

property of the Canadian Museum of Civilization,

this exhibition as Canada’s gift to Mexico in

unless otherwise noted. Key information is provided

commemoration of that country’s bicentennial.

for each item in the catalogue:

In exchange, Mexico arranged for the creation of a unique exhibition, Maya: Secrets of their Ancient World, which was shown at the Royal Ontario Museum in Toronto and at the Canadian Museum of Civilization in Gatineau. Each hosting venue produced a catalogue to accompany the First Peoples exhibition. As

Ŋ The ethnographic group or archaeological culture the object is from, and the geographic location Ŋ The approximate date the object was made. If a date is not available, the approximate age of the object is provided Ŋ Materials used to create the object Ŋ Its measurements (provided in centimetres):

such, Chinese, German, Japanese, and Spanish

length (L), width (W), height (H), depth (D),

readers are able to access additional informa-

diameter (Dia) and/or thickness (T)

tion pertaining to the wonderful collection of Canadian First Peoples artifacts that were part of the exhibition. With the publication of this volume, English speakers can now join in the appreciation of these spectacular expressions of First Peoples creativity and ingenuity. It is anticipated that readers will gain some understanding of the diversity of Aboriginal people in Canada, as seen in the objects they made in the past and which they continue to create. Our hope is that this book will spread insight into the importance of Aboriginal people and their history in the creation of the Canadian heritage and identity.

6

All images and artifacts in the collection are the

Ŋ Catalogue number Ŋ Photographer.

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8

A Bastion of Our Past: A Short History of the Canadian Museum of Civilization Jean-Luc Pilon, Nicholette Prince, and Ian Dyck

The Canadian Museum of Civilization holds an unsur-

Aboriginal collections is a story of perseverance and

passed collection of artifacts relating to the history

determination – of personalities, economics, values,

of the Aboriginal peoples of Canada. This unique

and politics. It is complex, with intricate links to

gathering of archaeological and ethnographic items

political and economic processes. Today’s collection

allows all visitors to the museum to appreciate

stands as a memorial to the vision of a surprisingly

the diversity and richness of Canada’s Aboriginal

small handful of individuals who clearly understood

peoples as well as the many contributions they have

the importance of their work for future genera-

made to the Canadian identity. This collection has

tions. Thanks to their dogged determination, today’s

been growing for more than 150 years and continues

museum visitors can gaze upon beautifully crafted

to have important and valuable elements added

clothing from the Arctic, exquisitely beaded moc-

to it through the ongoing research activities of its

casins from the Prairies, extraordinary carvings from

scholars.

coastal British Columbia, and intricately decorated

The museum had a humble beginning when, in

ceramic containers from the Lower Great Lakes.

the mid-1800s, a few archaeological items were

Without their work, countless pages of history would

placed on the mantelpiece of William Logan, the

have been destroyed by rising glass and steel tow-

director of Canada’s first provincial museum. Since

ers, paved over for shopping centre parking lots, or

then, hundreds of thousands of archaeological and

quite simply left to lie unrecognized only centimetres

ethnographic pieces have been collected. These now

below our feet.

constitute the core of the precious artifacts housed

In 2006, A World Inside: A 150-Year History of the

in the curatorial building of the Canadian Museum

Canadian Museum of Civilization was published to

of Civilization, in the shadow of Canada’s Parliament

mark the museum’s sesquicentennial anniversary.

buildings on the shores of the Ottawa River. This

That book, written by Christy Vodden and Ian Dyck,

collection includes objects relating to the Aboriginal

serves as the basis for this essay, which will briefly

peoples of Canada, as well as other ethnic groups

touch on some of the major defining moments of the

who have contributed to building Canada and our

museum’s development to give those who view First

modern multicultural identity.

Peoples of Canada a better appreciation of the very

The history of the Canadian Museum of Civilization, and the development of its irreplaceable

existence of the featured pieces and the singular opportunity that this collection represents.

9

The Canadian Museum of Civilization evolved in a

member responsible for caring for the museum. This

number of stages. During the early years of the

position was created just in time for him to oversee

museum’s development, collections came together

the move of the GSC, including its museum, from

without a clear direction or specific mandate. With

Montreal to Ottawa in 1881. By then, the geological,

time, however, museum scholars attempted to

natural history, and human history collections had

guide the growth of the collection and assemble

grown to the point that 2,000 boxes and barrels were

expertise relating to the acquired materials. During

required to transport them to their new home.

the twentieth century, the research activities of

Official responsibilities took GSC geologists into

specialists were central to the institution’s activities.

some of the farthest reaches of the young dominion.

Eventually, as the mandate of the museum broad-

Fortunately, a few of these individuals were also

ened, its core function shifted to an ever-greater

quite interested in anthropology and proved to be

focus on public presentation – through program-

highly proficient in that field: they recorded place

ming and exhibitions – of the increasingly signifi-

names and stories and documented rapidly chang-

cant and refined collection.

ing ways of life. George Dawson, the GSC’s third director, was such a person, equally proficient in

Initial Collection Gathering

geological and anthropological explorations. With a career that lasted from 1875 until 1901, he has been

The collections that are now central to the existence of the Canadian Museum of Civilization can be

referred to as the “Father of Canadian Anthropology.” In 1907, the Act to create a Department of Mines

traced back to 1852 when William Logan, director of

established that collecting anthropological material

the Geological Survey of Canada (GSC), proposed to

would henceforth be a sanctioned component of the

the Governor General of the Province of Canada the

activities of the GSC, rather than being carried out

creation of a provincial museum. (In pre-Confedera-

on an ad hoc basis. Just a year earlier, perhaps in

tion days, Canada was much smaller than it is today

anticipation of this new mandate, palaeontologist

and was considered a “province” of the British

Henri-Marc Ami took charge of the archaeological

Empire.) This idea was approved by the Legislative

and ethnological collections. The next step was

Assembly of the Province of Canada in 1856. While

preparing for another move, which took place in 1910,

the new museum’s main purpose was to display

to the newly constructed Victoria Memorial Museum

rocks and minerals, attention was also paid to

Building on Metcalfe Street in Ottawa.

how humans used these materials. The museum’s important link with geologists would continue for

The Development of Research Expertise

nearly a century. The GSC museum’s first exhibition of Aboriginal material was organized in the early 1860s by Thomas

Division, headed by Edward Sapir. Over the next

Weston, a museum assistant. It comprised only a

decades, the staff expanded in spite of difficulties

single display case and included casts of ceramic

imposed by such overwhelming events as the First

pipes and ceramic pot fragments from the Niagara

World War, Great Depression, and Second World

Falls area. It wasn’t until 1877, when palaeontologist Joseph Whiteaves was hired, that there was a permanent staff

10

In that same year, the GSC created the Anthropology

War. Extraordinary individuals – including Marius Barbeau, Diamond Jenness, William Wintemberg, Frederick Waugh, Harlan Smith, and Douglas

Leechman, among others – carried out significant

museum was finally given the green light to plan its

work, setting new standards that are still held up as

new home across the Ottawa River from Parliament

examples to new scholars entering the various fields

Hill, in Parc Laurier in Gatineau, Quebec (known as

of anthropology.

Hull at the time). By this time, the museum was

Research, as opposed to simply gathering objects,

known as the National Museum of Man. It com-

played a critical role in the museum’s development. In

prised several specialized divisions – archaeology,

addition to its scholarly contributions, high-quality

ethnology, history, and folk culture – which were

research allowed public programming and exhibitions

scattered across the City of Ottawa and which would

to present new and exciting information to a public

be brought together in the new building under the

hungry for an understanding of the many facets of

guidance of the director, William E. Taylor.

Canada’s history. In spite of great difficulties, new

The visionary George F. MacDonald oversaw

museum attendance records were continually set

construction of the new facilities, designed by

throughout the first half of the twentieth century.

Douglas Cardinal and eventually renamed the

While wars and economic crises affected budgets

Canadian Museum of Civilization. The museum was

and policies, the museum’s core functions could

officially opened by the Governor General of Canada,

not be stopped, although they were severely tested.

the Right Honorable Jeanne Sauvé, on June 29, 1989,

Various strategies were used to bridge trying times,

to great acclaim for its unique architecture and its

such as shifting the emphasis from field research to

groundbreaking exhibitions.

laboratory analysis and publication.

Yet the largest permanent exhibition space in the

The end of the Second World War led to some

new museum, the First Peoples Hall, would require

significant changes for the museum. By 1950, the

more time and planning before its full potential was

administrative bond that had joined geology and

realized. This was accomplished in 2003, under the

anthropology was severed; the Geological Survey of

direction of the President and Chief Executive

Canada remained with the Department of Resources

Officer, Victor Rabinovitch.

and Development while the Victoria Memorial Museum (as it was known at that time) became

The Museum and First Peoples

part of the National Parks Branch. When it opened in 1989, the Canadian Museum of

The Museum Becomes a Window on a Wonderful Collection

Civilization had plans to build a permanent exhibition on Canada’s First Peoples. The initial plans called for an exuberant display of objects from the

The museum building, fraught with problems ever

various cultural groups from coast to coast to coast.

since its construction in 1910, was widely acknowl-

However, in 1992, political and social responses

edged as inadequate for the growing institution. In

to the proposed 500th anniversary celebration of

1956, the museum was divided into the Natural

Christopher Columbus’ “discovery” of North America

History Branch and the Human History Branch,

prompted the museum to reconsider its approach to

foretelling reorganizations that would preoccupy

presenting a purely ethnographic exhibition.

senior managers over the next decades. More than one new building plan was announced and then shelved during this time, but in 1982 the

Representatives from First Nations, Inuit, and Métis communities – both urban and rural – came together in a large advisory committee to discuss the potential

11

for this new exhibition. Research staff from the

Pacific Northwest. The other, an exhibition entitled

departments of archaeology and ethnology then

From Time Immemorial, spotlights the archaeological

worked with community representatives to develop

and ethnographic materials of the Tsimshian people

a comprehensive exhibition.

of the Skeena River and Pacific coast.

Through years of meetings and discussions about

The museum also hosts temporary and travelling

many facets of Aboriginal people’s lives, histories,

exhibitions devoted to indigenous people and their

and societies, certain truths about Aboriginal people

art from both within Canada and abroad. Some

emerged. These truths became the guiding prin-

of these exhibitions are developed in-house: the

ciples that shaped the exhibition:

museum is home to one of the largest and finest collections of contemporary Canadian Aboriginal

We are diverse. We have an ancient and ongoing relationship with the land. We are people of the present. We contribute.

art in the world and has created numerous groundbreaking exhibitions. Other exhibitions are borrowed from other institutions. In addition, the Museum of Civilization has developed relations with many Aboriginal communities and individuals throughout Canada. The museum has also

These were seen as the four pillars of truth, messages that would be imparted to visitors to

chapters in modern treaties. Since 1993, the museum

First Peoples Hall as they learned about Canada’s

has welcomed a group of interns each year to

Aboriginal people. In addition, whenever possible,

participate in the Aboriginal Training Program in

Aboriginal peoples’ stories would be told in their own

Museum Practices. Research staff are involved in field

voices. It was essential that Aboriginal people be able

research among diverse communities and continue to

to identify with the exhibitions, see themselves, and

develop exhibitions and publish articles and books.

be pleased about their presence in this national

Numerous individuals and researchers access the

institution. The committee felt the hall should

museum’s great repository of artifacts, contemporary

celebrate the legacy of Canada’s indigenous popula-

Aboriginal art, and audiovisual, photographic, and

tions and their ongoing presence as part of the

text archives each year, both in person and online.

dynamic fabric of contemporary Canadian society. Through this consultation process, many stories

The Canadian Museum of Civilization, as the national human history museum of Canada, started

about Aboriginal people emerged, and some of those

with ethnographic and archaeological collections

stories are now presented in the First Peoples Hall.

and these remain core to the identity and activities

Visitors to the exhibition are treated to a cornucopia

of the museum. Today the relationships with and

of magnificent objects and detailed information on

information provided by Aboriginal peoples are – and

many aspects of Aboriginal people’s lives in Canada,

will continue to be – central to the exhibitions and

from historical, pre-contact, and present-day periods.

publications, as can be seen in the First Peoples Hall.

Today, there are two other permanent exhibition spaces devoted to the Aboriginal peoples of Canada at the museum. One is the Grand Hall, which includes seven magnificent house fronts, totem poles, and displays featuring cultural groups of the

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been involved in negotiating culture and heritage

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14

The Canadian Museum of Civilization’s Collection of First Peoples’ Artifacts and Art Andrea Laforet

The Canadian Museum of Civilization had its begin-

industrial development all made traditional

nings in the mid-1800s, at a time when the geographic

Aboriginal cultural practices extremely difficult to

boundaries of Canada were expanding east, west, and

sustain. Languages were threatened, to the point

north, and the character of the land and the peoples

of extinction. Children returning from residential

who inhabited it for many centuries were being

schools found themselves unfamiliar with their

explored by settlers who had come from Europe. The first collections representing Aboriginal people

parents’ and grandparents’ way of life and found it difficult to re-establish themselves in their home

were established through the work of the Geological

communities. Christianity replaced traditional

Survey of Canada. Other early collections were made

religious belief and practice in many regions and

by government officials, missionaries, and others

homes. The need for hunting and gathering skills

working in areas far from the capital city, Ottawa.

was in decline, and people turned to developing

After the first Anthropology Division was established

basketry, moccasins, snowshoes, and model tools to

in 1910 the museum followed a systematic program

sell to settlers and tourists. Many people, finding life

of documenting First Nations cultural heritage,

on the land no longer possible, moved to the cities.

working with members of Aboriginal communities to

Alcoholism, accidents, and diseases such as tubercu-

record community and lineage histories, narratives,

losis took a serious toll in Aboriginal communities in

and songs, and collecting and documenting objects.

all regions of Canada.

The twenty years between 1910 and 1930, when the onset of the Great Depression brought many

However, this was not the end of the story. The last half of the twentieth century and the beginning

research initiatives to a temporary halt, were a time

years of the twenty-first have seen a steadily growing

of gathering, collecting, and preserving materials

affirmation by Aboriginal peoples in Canada of the

that represented ways of life and thought that were

vitality of their cultures and cultural perspectives.

rapidly changing.

This has been accompanied by a growing interest

The settlement of the land by Europeans, the introduction of systems of education that isolated

by Aboriginal people in museum collections and affirmation of the need to re-establish contact with

children from their families and traditional methods

materials from the past through the repatriation

of teaching, the introduction of Christianity, and

of objects and human remains to communities,

the establishment of systems of land tenure and

enhanced physical and intellectual access to

15

museum collections, and direct involvement in the interpretation of Aboriginal culture through museum

exhibitions relating to Aboriginal society. Curators

exhibitions. These issues were central to the delib-

always travel to the Aboriginal communities con-

erations and recommendations of the Task Force

cerned, and often establish committees of both

on Museums and First Peoples, sponsored by the

curators and Aboriginal people to develop the topic

Canadian Museums Association and the Assembly

of the exhibit, the storyline, and the selection of

of First Nations, which met between 1990 and 1992.

artifacts, and to consider issues of interpretation

By the last decade of the twentieth century it had

and design. It can be a long process. A temporary

become apparent that the museum’s collections had

exhibition normally requires four years to develop,

not only a national significance but also a continuing

from the inception of the project to the opening of

local importance for Aboriginal people living in both

the exhibit; the First Peoples Hall was twelve years

rural and urban areas.

in development.

Throughout the twentieth century the museum

The planning for First Peoples Hall began in 1992,

developed and supported research programs in

with a committee consisting of the curators of

ethnology, archaeology, and contemporary Inuit

ethnology and archaeology, plus twelve Aboriginal

and First Nations art. Through these programs, the

cultural specialists from across Canada. In 1993,

Canadian Museum of Civilization has continued to

in response to a growing interest in repatriation,

build the collections of objects, narrative, song, and

particularly of sacred materials, the Canadian

contextual information, and has brought curators

Museum of Civilization established the Sacred

into long-term working relationships with members

Materials Project. This project provides funds for

of Aboriginal communities. In the 1980s the museum

representatives of two or three First Nations to visit

began to expand its relationship with Aboriginal

the museum each year. During their visit, they have

communities, drawing Aboriginal people more and

the opportunity to view the collections associated

more systematically into discussions relating to

with their history, identify sacred objects and items

the collections, exhibitions, and the exchange of

that require special ritual care, meet with collections

information that enhanced programs in both the

managers to discuss the care of the objects, perform

museum and Aboriginal communities. Collaboration

ritual care by burning tobacco or sweet grass or

between museum curators and Aboriginal cultural

offering corn, and discuss repatriation. The Sacred

specialists began in the 1980s with the development

Materials Project also provides funds for ritual

of the Grand Hall exhibit in the museum’s new

specialists from a Six Nations community not far

building, which opened in 1989. It continued with

from Ottawa to visit each spring and fall to provide

specialized exhibitions, such as Threads of the Land:

ritual care for sacred masks in the collection.

Clothing Traditions from Three Indigenous Cultures;

Also in 1993, the museum inaugurated the

Isumavut: The Artistic Expression of Nine Cape Dorset

Aboriginal Training Program in Museum Practices,

Women; and Legends of Our Times: Native Ranching

which offers a stipend and eight months of training

and Rodeo Life on the Plains and Plateau, all devel-

to four interns chosen each year through a competi-

oped in the 1990s. The opening of First Peoples Hall

tive process. Interns follow a program designed to

in 2003 represented the culmination of years of

provide both general knowledge and specialized

research and collaboration.

experience of museum work. Since 1993, more than

That collaboration has become an established

16

component of the museum’s development of

100 interns have participated in the program and

now work in various areas of cultural endeavours and at all levels of government. Over the past fifteen years the program has developed from being administered on an ad hoc basis to being a wellestablished training opportunity. Every collaborative exhibit, every discussion of sacred materials, and every sojourn by an intern in the Aboriginal Training Program has provided a context for the sharing of information between the museum and communities. Digitization of photographs and contextual information has made it much easier to provide communities and interested individuals with full records of the museum’s collections. Many records are available online and can be accessed for personal and community objectives without involving museum staff. However, direct meetings and discussions between curators, collections managers, and Aboriginal people often result in specific collaborations that produce work of lasting benefit. Over the past ten years members of Aboriginal communities and museum curators have pooled their intellectual and financial resources to develop specific projects in cultural preservation and education. These include a project to record Blackfoot cultural protocols, projects initiated in the Dene community of Trout Lake to re-establish spruce root basketry and the weaving of babiche bags, and a project on the history and contemporary practice of Coast Salish weaving. The ongoing work of forging connections between Aboriginal communities and the Canadian Museum of Civilization collection is supported by policies such as the Human Remains Policy (1991), which outlines how human remains are studied at the museum as well as the conditions under which they may be repatriated, and the Repatriation Policy (2001), which describes the circumstances and mechanisms for the repatriation of museum collections. It is facilitated by formal loan agreements and memoranda of understanding between

17

the museum and Aboriginal cultural institutions.

during which Canada has been inhabited. Research

It was brought into Canadian law through the

conducted by both Aboriginal and non-Aboriginal

repatriation clauses included in the Nisga’a Final

scholars forms the basis for publications and

Agreement (2000) and the Labrador Inuit Final

exhibitions on aspects of Aboriginal contemporary

Agreement (2004).

life, history, and art that bring new knowledge to

The museum’s relationship with Aboriginal communities continues formally in requests for

As members of contemporary Aboriginal societies

repatriation, as they arise on a case-by-case basis,

work with the collection, identifying connections

through discussions about sacred materials, and

between objects and particular families and sharing

through the treaty and self-government negotia-

contextual information, the collection becomes a

tions initiated by the Government of Canada and

repository of current knowledge. As narratives and

which now implicate more than eighty First Nations

songs are heard through recordings made long ago,

across the country. These connections are evident

the contributors are connected with their lineal

in more informal ways as well: the many visits each

or intellectual descendants and their knowledge

year by Aboriginal people to the collections, the

is brought once again into the sphere of current

ongoing conversations between curators and

Aboriginal experience. Objects which left the stream

Aboriginal colleagues across Canada, and the

of active life a century ago preserve knowledge of

day-to-day responses to requests for information

the practices and experience of generations past

about specific objects, from photographs of a

while providing a resource for developing contempo-

great-grandparent to tapes of songs recorded in

rary Aboriginal life.

the 1920s to be played at a contemporary feast. The Canadian Museum of Civilization’s collection

The Canadian Museum of Civilization collection is a public record, created by both Aboriginal and

is the only national collection relating to Aboriginal

non-Aboriginal people, sometimes working together,

history and cultures. It includes artifacts created

sometimes independently. Its development and

more than 25,000 years ago and art expressing

preservation are dedicated to the principle that in

contemporary Aboriginal life. The collection contains

every generation the present and future are enriched

works of outstanding beauty, artistry, and craftsman-

by the ideas, work, and knowledge of those who

ship; it contains objects that are entirely secular and

have gone before. For First Peoples of Canada the

mundane and others that are suffused with such

museum has furnished a rich array of objects

religious and spiritual meaning that they should not

showing the themes that inspired both this exhibi-

be shown or handled by people other than special-

tion and the museum’s First Peoples Hall: the

ists. Perhaps even more important, the collection is

enduring connection of Aboriginal people with the

a comprehensive display of Aboriginal knowledge

land, their long and continuing contribution to life

and achievement. The objects, narratives, songs, and

in Canada, their diversity, and their vibrant presence

other records of experience assembled over the past

in the contemporary world.

century and a half form a monument of Aboriginal contributions to a global history of ideas. The collection is a source of valuable information about Aboriginal history and the many Aboriginal cultures that have developed over the centuries

18

people in Canada and around the world.

19

20

First Nations of Canada Eldon Yellowhorn

The following discussion attempts to clarify the

policy initiatives, including the Indian Act in 1876.

definitions, categories, and phrases that apply to the

It was basically an administrative document, but it

cultural complexity of First Nations evident today in

gave meaning to “Indians and lands reserved for

Canada. Aborigine is itself a noun derived from the

Indians.” For a time, the legal definition of Indian

Latin phrase ab origine, which means “from the

included Inuit but excluded many Indians – such as

beginning.” In Canada, the phrase Aboriginal people

those whose fathers were non-Indians but who were

refers to the Indians, Inuit, and Métis. Of course,

brought up in First Nation communities – thereby

such labels necessarily generalize about these

creating the category of non-status Indians. First

people and imply sameness where there is none.

Nations is the preferred term today, as this implies

If the term Aboriginal people seems ambiguous, phrases such as Native people or Indigenous people are no better at illustrating diverse cultures. Native

many separate, formerly sovereign entities. However, this term has no legal recognition. Inuit and Métis are two distinct Aboriginal peoples

typically denotes a condition of birth. People are

who are formally recognized by the Canadian

native to the culture, city, or nation of their birth;

government. Inuit, the people resident in the arctic

therefore anyone born in Canada is native Canadian.

regions, are related to people who occupy the

International discussions and protocol agreements

circumpolar lands from Greenland, Alaska, and

typically use the phrase Indigenous people. These

Siberia. Métis people emerged with the fur trade and,

terms are all vulnerable to the criticism that generic

from the beginning, their identity has been clouded

phrases invariably ignore diversity for the sake of

with tension and controversy. Neither Indian nor

convenience. The common term Indian continues to cause

white, they nonetheless look to both as their progenitors. Identity may transcend biology, but it

confusion, especially in modern Canada. Not only is

is complicated by culture. Thus, not every person

this term historically inappropriate, but it refers only

of mixed-race ancestry can claim Métis heritage.

to those individuals and groups recognized as

Although legal definitions may determine the

“Indians” under the Indian Act. Since the birth of Canada, successive governments have acknowledged a fiduciary relationship with Aboriginal people. Their perception of this responsibility led to various

beneficiaries of government services, they hold limited value for determining culture and identity. While identity is internally constructed, culture is manifested in ways that lends itself to

21

anthropological scrutiny. The categories employed in

Mississauga, and Algonquin are all variants of

this context were devised to organize the material

Ojibwa; dialects of Cree are spoken from northern

and intellectual cultures of Aboriginal people, hence

Quebec to northern Alberta; and closely related to

they attempt to sort many disparate groups accord-

Cree is the language of the Innu in Quebec and

ing to traits they hold in common. Among these

Labrador. Mi’kmaq and Maliseet, spoken along the

taxonomies are culture areas, which organize groups

Atlantic Coast, are also Algonquian languages. The

primarily by material culture traits, and language

Beothuk may have spoken an Algonquian language

families, which place related languages in one

as well, although their early demise left too little

category. Language families are analytical tools and

information to be certain of this.

not distinct languages, although some contain only

Northern Athapaskan languages include Gwich’in,

a single language.

Hare, Dogrib, Han, Tutchone, Chipewyan, Slavey,

Language Families

(Chilcotin), and Sarcee.

Linguistic differences give some idea of cultural

two major dialects: Dakota, spoken by the Dakota,

diversity. The exact number of Aboriginal languages

and Nakota, spoken by the Assiniboine and the

spoken in Canada before Europeans arrived on the

Stoney.

Beaver, Kaska, Sekani, Tahltan, Carrier, Tsilhqot’in There is one Siouan language in Canada, with

eastern shores is unknown. Some disappeared shortly after contact, without ever being recorded. Others exist in a wide range of dialects, which

spoken today include Mohawk, Cayuga, Oneida,

confuses attempts at linguistic classification;

Onondaga, Seneca, and Tuscarora. All are endan-

distinguishing between two closely related lan-

gered languages.

guages and two dialects of the same language is

Salishan languages are spoken along the West

a somewhat subjective task, complicated by the

Coast, and the adjacent Plateau. Coastal languages

passage of time and loss of traditional knowledge

include Nuxalk, Comox, Sechelt, Squamish, Halko-

of the language. Approximately fifty-three distinct

melem, and Straits, while those in the Plateau

Aboriginal languages survive in Canada today. These

consist of Stl’atl’imx (Lillooet), Nlaka’pamux (Thomp-

can be classified into eleven language families, with

son), Secwepemc (Shuswap), and Okanagan.

differences between them as great as those between

Tsimshian languages also appear on the West

English and Arabic. They range from large families

Coast. Nisga’a and Gitksan speak distinct dialects of

containing many separate languages to language

one Tsimshian language. Coastal Tsimshian and the

isolates with no close relatives. Linguistic diversity is

Southern Tsimshian are the other two dialects.

greatest in the West, with six families occurring just

Four Wakashan languages are also spoken on the

in British Columbia. The eleven language families

West Coast. The northern groups are the Haisla,

are listed below, roughly in order of size.

Heiltsuk, and Kwakwaka’wakw. The southern

Algonquian is the largest and most widespread language family in Canada, with languages spoken

22

The original Iroquoian languages in Canada, such as Huron, are now extinct. Iroquoian languages

Wakashans are the Nuu-chah-nulth people. Most Tlingit speakers live along the extreme

from the Atlantic Ocean to the Rocky Mountains.

northwest coast of America. Some linguists consider

Algonquian can be divided into three broad groups

the Tlingit language to be distantly related to

of related languages: Saulteaux, Odawa, Nipissing,

Athapaskan, but this remains speculative.

Haida is a linguistic isolate spoken on Haida Gwaii, with no demonstrated ties to any other language. The small Kutenai (or Kootenay) language group is also an isolated language with no close relatives. All Canadian Inuit speak dialects of a single

Woodlands, Plains, Plateau, and Northwest Coast culture areas fall within Canada. Culture areas are somewhat artificial divisions, imposed for descriptive and analytical convenience. They cannot be regarded as devices that can

language, known as Inuktitut. It is related to

elucidate such fluid concepts as Native identity. For

Eskimo-Aleut languages spoken in Alaska and

example, Cree from the Plains and Subarctic speak

Siberia. Inuktitut is one of the most robust native

similar languages but their cultures reflect distinct

languages in Canada.

environmental influences, while the First Nations

Michif is the language of the Métis. It blends elements of French with Algonquian grammar. As with legal definitions, language families

of Canada’s Atlantic coast – a region that includes Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, Prince Edward Island, the Gaspé peninsula and north shore of the St.

attempt to account for cultural diversity by research-

Lawrence in Quebec, the island of Newfoundland,

ing the threads that bind cultures to each other.

and southern coastal Labrador – shared numerous

Classification into language families does with

cultural traits, despite considerable environmental

speech what culture areas attempt with geography,

differences from north to south. In addition, cultures

as described below. They are convenient groupings,

changed over time, for example, as Aboriginal

but they still fall short as guides for elucidating

people assimilated into Euro-Canadian society

the nature of identity. No one self-identifies as

by adopting its material culture. The Métis are a

Wakashan or Algonquian; these categories are

distinct people who emerged as a result of the

merely linguistic conventions.

blending of cultural elements between European and Aboriginal peoples.

Culture Areas The Arctic Culture areas are broad geographic regions within which cultures tend to be similar. Such similarity

The treeline defines the Arctic’s southern limit.

stems primarily from the fact that most occupants

Throughout its lengthy winters the Arctic fulfils

of an area based their economies on the same

its popular image of a windswept, snow-covered,

essential resources, such as bison on the Plains and

harsh, and barren land. Temperatures drop to such

salmon on the Northwest Coast, as well as from

extremes that even a breeze will sustain a wind chill

the cultural borrowing that took place between

factor capable of freezing exposed flesh in minutes.

adjacent groups. Such concepts, however, mask

For nine months or more each year the seas and

considerable internal variability and ignore broad

lakes are frozen solid. Darkness reigns for weeks in

ties of trade and religion that linked Aboriginal

midwinter, yielding only briefly to twilight at midday.

peoples across the country.

During the short summer life and colour returns

Six culture areas are discernible in Canada. The first is the Arctic, that tundra land of Canada’s far

to the landscape. Temperatures, while not hot by southern standards, are pleasant, though freezing

north. Second is the Subarctic that sweeps across

conditions and snow flurries can occur at almost any

the vast land of the boreal forest and covers most of

time. The days are long and generally sunny, with a

Canada. Only the northern portions of the Eastern

period near midsummer when persistent sunlight

23

dismisses the night. Despite the presence of snow

also lives in open water, was hunted from Igloolik

and ice everywhere, the land is a cold desert that

and Baffin Island to Labrador. Walruses provided

receives very little precipitation.

meat and blubber, ivory from their tusks, and tough

The Arctic is the homeland of the Inuit people. Their language is classified in a family termed

hides that could be used for various purposes including covering boats. While large whales were hunted

Eskimo-Aleut, named for its two major branches.

in the east and west, most Canadian Inuit pursued

The Aleuts, on the Aleutian Islands of Alaska, are a

the narwhal and beluga, using harpoons, kayaks,

distinct people, while the Eskimo branch stretches

and umiaks.

from Siberia across Arctic Canada to Greenland.

On land, caribou, hunted with a bow and arrow

In Canada, the word Inuit (meaning “people”; the

or speared from kayaks as the animals swam across

singular is Inuk) has now almost totally replaced

lakes and rivers, was by far the most important

Eskimo. Wherever they live, the Inuit speak a single

source of meat. From this mammal the Inuit got

language (Inuktitut), although a number of dialects

hides for warm winter clothing, sinew for thread,

are known. Distinct regional expressions of Inuit

and antler for tools. To a lesser extent the Inuit

culture have been recognized throughout the Arctic.

hunted musk oxen and polar bears. They also hunted

These reflect marked differences in local resources

birds such as waterfowl and ptarmigans. Fishing was

and communication networks. Among these regional

the other major part of the economy for most Inuit

groups are the Copper Inuit who occupied the region

groups. Fish could be speared from the ice edge or

on either side of Coronation Gulf, the Caribou Inuit

a rock over the water.

who lived inland west of Hudson Bay, the Labrador

Inuit people negotiated successfully for the

Inuit who lived along the coast of Labrador, and the

creation of the territory of Nunavut, which came

Inuvialuit who lived in the Western Canadian Arctic. Throughout the Arctic the Inuit and their predeces-

into existence in 1999. Inuit in northern Quebec refer to their homeland as Nunavik. In the Northwest

sors survived on whatever resources were available.

Territories, the Inuvialuit were among the first

Their economy was based on some combination of

Aboriginal people to reach a final settlement agree-

hunting land and sea mammals and fishing, with

ment on a land claim. Many Inuit artists from the

plant foods comprising only a small portion of their

community of Cape Dorset have attained interna-

diet. Caribou and seals were their essential resourc-

tional recognition for their artwork.

es, providing a steady, if somewhat monotonous, diet. Communities had to be mobile in order to

The Subarctic

access the food sources and resources to survive. The sea provided the most important resources

west interior of Alaska and British Columbia to the

sea ice in winter, and larger bearded seals. The

eastern edge of Newfoundland. This broad territory

Greenland, or harp, seals which inhabit open water

is home to a diverse group of people and cultures

were only available to the eastern Inuit. Seals pro-

and can be divided into two slightly smaller areas:

vided food for humans and dogs, oil to heat their

Western Subarctic and Eastern Subarctic.

homes and cook their food, and hides which could

24

The Subarctic region stretches from the far north-

such as small ringed seals, which live under the

The northern boreal forest and forest-tundra

be made into boots, summer clothing, tents, har-

transition of the Western Subarctic stretches from

poon lines, and dog harnesses. The walrus, which

interior Alaska to Hudson Bay. In the north it is

Arctic Ocean GREENLAND (Denmark)

Atlantic Ocean

Hudson Bay

Pacific Ocean

Vancouver

Montréal OTTAWA

Toronto

UNITED S TATES OF AMERIC A 0

Northwest Coast

Subarctic

Arctic

Plateau

Plains

Eastern Woodlands

bounded by the treeline, though some Subarctic

200

400 km

Mountains they hunted mountain goats and sheep.

native groups made seasonal forays following cari-

From the pelts of these animals they made their

bou out onto the barren lands. In the south the terri-

clothing and from different body parts they made

tory grades into the Plains and Plateau. Lakes, rivers,

many implements, such as bone awls and horn

and muskeg cover much of its surface. Winters are

bowls and ladles. More than twenty Athapaskan

long and piercingly cold with deep accumulations

languages are spoken in the Subarctic, including

of snow, but the forest provides shelter. Summers

Chipewyan, Yellowknife, Sekani, Beaver, Slavey, Hare,

are short and pleasantly hot, but plagued by swarms

Dogrib, and Sahtu Dene.

of biting insects. Historically, the mobile cultures

Most groups travelled by water during the sum-

of this region relied on country foods and moved

mer, in canoes covered with spruce bark or birch

frequently to intercept and trap their meals.

bark. In some areas moose hides were used to cover

The Athapaskan people, or Dene, hunted cari-

the canoe frame. Lacking good navigable rivers, the

bou and moose in their northern homelands. Near

Chipewyan of northern Saskatchewan and north-

the Plains they stalked bison, and in the Rocky

ern Manitoba travelled on foot but carried small

25

lightweight canoes to use on the rivers and lakes of

The economy of the Beothuk differed in that

the Barrenlands. In winter, snowshoes were essential.

they practised their livelihood – fishing, collecting

Because these groups travelled often, their housing

shellfish, and hunting both land and sea mammals –

was simple and lightweight. For example, summer

along the coast. Men paddled their bark canoes into

shelters might be simple lean-tos.

the surf to harpoon seals and even the occasional

Like that of the Western Subarctic, the landscape

small whale. They spent autumn and winter in the

of the Eastern Subarctic has a myriad of lakes,

interior, where they hunted caribou. Dried meat,

streams, and rivers in a seemingly endless boreal

dried salmon, pieces of seal fat on the skin, and

forest. These were the lands that provided the

long strings of dried lobster tails were some of their

wealth of furs for the Hudson’s Bay Company and

traditional foods.

the French traders in the pays d’en haut (the Upper Country). The quality of the furs harvested here was

Eastern Woodlands

the best on the continent. The main groups inhabiting the region were the

The people who lived along the Atlantic Coast of

Naskapi and Montagnais of the interior and eastern

the Eastern Woodlands shared many traits with

portion of Quebec and Labrador, the Cree, whose ter-

their neighbours in the Eastern Subarctic, includ-

ritory extended from the centre of Québec westward

ing speaking variations of Algonquian languages.

into northern Manitoba and Saskatchewan, and the

Traditional Mi’kmaq (this spelling has almost totally

Ojibwa of the Upper Great Lakes region; these groups

replaced the earlier Micmac) territory included

all spoke Algonquian languages. In addition, the

the Gaspé peninsula of Quebec, as well as New

Beothuk lived on the island of Newfoundland. Their

Brunswick, Nova Scotia, and Prince Edward

extinction is a tragic chapter in the history of uneasy

Island. Following initial contact with Europeans,

encounters between the races.

they expanded their territory to include southern

With significant regional variations, the local

are the neighbouring Maliseet (or Malecite) along

were based on the exploitation of seasonally available

the St. John River of western New Brunswick and

resources, which included very important fish stocks,

extending just into Quebec. Today many use the

migratory waterfowl, and both moose and caribou. In

term Wolastoqiyik to refer to their people. Although

winter, they would leave the coast and travel inland to

all these groups were similar, the Mi’kmaq were

the more protected forests. Small game (such as hare,

more of a coastal people while the Maliseet placed

porcupine, and muskrat), while not often heralded

greater emphasis on hunting in the forests and fish-

as a great resource, nonetheless played critical roles

ing in rivers.

during the difficult period at the end of winter and

26

Newfoundland. Closely related to the Mi’kmaq

economies of groups living in the Eastern Subarctic

Algonquian is a linguistic category while Algonquin

the beginning of spring when little else was available.

refers to those groups with their traditional lands

In the northern reaches of the Eastern Subarctic, at

centred on the Ottawa Valley and at places such as

the transition with the treeless tundra, vast numbers

Maniwaki, Quebec. The Algonquins lived in small

of caribou afforded unique opportunities. As a result

and mobile independent bands. They built camps in

there developed a kind of transhumance where hunt-

locations where the land provided excellent fish-

ing groups travelled great distances to intercept and

ing and plentiful wild plant foods such as berries

exploit the seasonally migrating herds.

and wild rice. The boreal forests offered fewer plant

resources, but more of the country foods preferred

provided the main food source for people living

by hunters.

there. In fact, the first people on the Plains even

Further inland, the lower Great Lakes/St.

hunted horses until this animal population disap-

Lawrence Valley was occupied at contact by several

peared in the late Pleistocene. When horses were

peoples who shared a distinct way of life and spoke

reintroduced to the Plains in the mid-eighteenth

Iroquoian languages. Again, the terms Iroquois

century, they transformed the cultures resident

and Iroquoian are distinct. The former is usually

there.

restricted to the groups that allied as the League of the Iroquois: the Seneca, Cayuga, Onondaga,

During the mid-eighteenth century, most Plains dwellers spoke Algonquian languages. The

Oneida, Mohawk, and Tuscarora. Although the

main political entity was the powerful Blackfoot

homeland of the league was in New York State,

Confederacy, composed of the Siksika, Kainai (or

today all six groups have communities in Ontario

Blood), and Piikani (or Peigan). By that time, the

and Quebec. The term Iroquoian refers to the entire

confederacy had adopted the Sarcee, an Athapaskan

language family. People speaking related Iroquoian

tribe that had moved south from the boreal for-

languages include the Huron and the now-extinct

est. Around the same time, other tribes such as

Petun, Neutral, and St. Lawrence Iroquoians who

Assiniboine, Cree, and Ojibwa moved onto the Plains.

occupied the land east from the Great Lakes toward

The western Ojibwa, known as Saulteaux or Bungi,

the Atlantic. All the peoples speaking Iroquoian lan-

moved there even later, searching for new sources

guages shared a common cultural pattern, differing

of animal pelts. The Plains Cree, along with their

only in minor aspects, which can also be referred to

Assiniboine allies, established themselves as middle-

by the general term Iroquoian.

men between the trading posts on Hudson Bay

Corn, beans, and squash, grown in fields near

and the western tribes. Many other Siouan groups

their villages, comprised their staple diet. Hunting

– including the Nakota, Yankton, Lakota, Teton, and

(particularly for deer), fishing, and gathering wild

Mandan/Hidatsa – also lived throughout the Plains,

plant foods also contributed to the diet. Iroquoian

although they were mostly based in the northern

villages consisted of many longhouses, which were

United States portion of that vast grassland.

made of bark covering a wooden frame. Each long-

Tribes were organized in semi-autonomous bands

house gave shelter to several families. The villages

that periodically became larger or smaller, depend-

were generally surrounded by palisades for defence.

ing on seasonal activities. Integration of the bands

Iroquoian groups preferred to locate their villages

was most fully developed among the Blackfoot and

where the soil was good, with a creek or stream for

weakest among the mixed communities of Plains

fresh water nearby, but away from any navigable

Cree, Plains Ojibwa, and Assiniboine.

rivers to avoid being surprised by canoes bearing enemy warriors.

The Plateau

The Plains

The Plateau, which stretches south past the international boundary, is surrounded by the Rocky

Located at the heart of the continent, the Plains

Mountains on the east, the Coast Mountains on

are an open country with grasses as the dominant

the west, and the boreal forest to the north. In

vegetation. Since the last ice age, large mammals

this area live the Interior Salish, Ktunaxa (Kutenai),

27

and Tsilhqot’in people, plus some Carrier bands

villages near the open ocean and moved to win-

along the northern frontier. Four Interior Salish

ter villages in sheltered bays and coves when the

languages, Stl’atl’imx (Lillooet), Nlaka’pamux

weather turned cold.

(Thompson), Okanagan, and Secwepemc (Shuswap),

This culture area is linguistically diverse with

are spoken. Along the eastern edge of the Plateau

five language families represented. In the north

live the Ktunaxa (Kutenai), whose language is a

are the Haida, Tsimshian, and Tlingit languages.

linguistic isolate.

Wakashan languages include the Haisla, Heiltsuk,

Most of the people of the Plateau traditionally intercepted huge runs of salmon annually as the fish

Kwakwaka’wakw, and Nuu-chah-nulth. Coast Salish is spoken by the Nuxalk people of Bella Coola, but

returned to their spawning streams. Salmon was the

most Coast Salish–speaking groups reside in the

most important food resource throughout much of

southern coast of British Columbia. They include

the Plateau. Vast quantities were caught and dried

Comox, Sechelt, Squamish, and Musqueam. The

for future consumption. Plateau groups that did not

Cowichan and Nanaimo people of Vancouver Island

have access to salmon rivers relied on country foods

speak the Salishan language Halkomelem. Inland

such as deer. People followed the seasons for hunt-

along the Fraser River live the Sto:lo people.

ing, fishing, and gathering a wide range of foods. Some people of this culture area lived in permanent

The Métis

villages and caught fish in nearby waters while others practised mobile traditions to procure their food.

From the union of European men and Aboriginal

Cultures along the western edges resembled their

women emerged a new people, the Métis (from a

neighbours on the coast, while those on the eastern

French word meaning “mixed”). The Métis have a

side exhibited Plains influences.

distinct history and, unlike all other First Peoples of Canada, are not as strongly linked to a geographic

The Northwest Coast

culture area. As French coureurs de bois in the fur trade moved westward, they established stable

Coastal rainforests stretch from northern California

unions, particularly with Cree and Ojibwa women.

to southeast Alaska. Between the coast and the

Marriages were à la façon du pays (“in the custom

Coast Mountains the rainy, foggy climate supports

of the country”) as opposed to traditional European

lush forests of cedar, hemlock, spruce, and fir. The

marriages. Without formal ceremony, they centred

Northwest Coast culture area follows the major riv-

more on economics than romance. Kinship ties from

ers, such as the Nass, the Skeena, and the Fraser far

such marriages forged alliances that facilitated

inland. The coastal lifestyle persisted among groups

trade. Native wives made good interpreters dur-

that lacked direct access to the coast.

ing trade negotiations and were admired for their

Their traditional culture made extensive use of cedar and salmon. They supplemented their sea-

28

domestic skills, such as making moccasins and snowshoes or drying meat and dressing furs. Their

food with plant foods produced using aquaculture

male children often took up the fur trade and the

techniques. They made huge dugout cedar canoes

voyageurs became increasingly of mixed heritage.

to transport people and goods. They are well known

The anglophone branches originated with the

for their artistic achievements. First Nations on

English and Scottish employees of the Hudson’s

the Northwest Coast traditionally lived in summer

Bay Company. Unlike the French coureurs de bois

and voyageurs, who spent their lives among their

persuaded to return to Canada and lead the Métis

Aboriginal kin, Hudson’s Bay Company men usually

when their second rebellion erupted in 1885. Like

returned to Britain, and most of their progeny were

the first rebellion, the second ended in failure when

absorbed into their mother’s family.

Métis forces succumbed to the greater power of

By the mid-eighteenth century a large “mixed-

the Canadian troops. Louis Riel was captured, tried,

blood” population began settling around the Great

and hanged for leading the rebellion. His execution

Lakes. French and Scottish fathers and Cree and

effectively brought the dream of the Métis Nation

Ojibwa mothers moved their families into permanent

to an end. However, a new generation of Métis are

settlements. Early in the nineteenth century non-

re-imagining their identity within modern Canada.

Native settlers from the east brought new pressures

They are no longer content to be described as the

to Métis life, causing many to move to the eastern

forgotten Aboriginal people.

Plains, where they coalesced to form a distinctive Métis culture and proclaimed a “New Nation.”

First Nations of Modern Canada

Emergent Métis culture incorporated a collage of attributes from the two parent races to create a dis-

Today Aboriginal people face many new challenges

tinct society. Many Métis spoke French and English,

associated with modern life. Many are leaving their

plus Cree or Ojibwa from their mother’s side. In time

reserves and remote communities and settling in

an emergent language, known as Michif, grew from

urban Canada. Often leaving behind their traditional

the combination of French nouns and Cree verbs

cultures and languages, they adapt to their new

and syntax, with Ojibwa words being incorporated in

environment by adopting traits of modern times

the eastern portion of its distribution.

that they feel will lead to a better quality of life.

The Métis expressed their distinct identity in a

Institutions such as Aboriginal community centres

variety of clothing styles, mixing elements of their

play a vital role in helping make city life less confus-

European and Aboriginal heritage. Men commonly

ing for Aboriginal people.

wore a long hooded coat known as a capote, with a

National organizations such as the Assembly of

brightly coloured sash or belt, trousers, and moc-

First Nations advocate for Aboriginal peoples’ rights,

casins. Women wore European dresses, with a dark

such as advising different groups who are struggling

shawl or blanket covering the head and shoulders,

with legal issues regarding their lands and natural

and moccasins.

resources. Land claims have led to complex discus-

By the middle of the nineteenth century a new

sions and agreements with government and the

generation of Métis were facing challenges to their

government has many policies dedicated to adminis-

lifestyle. Louis Riel, a young man from the Red River

tering the daily affairs of local communities.

Settlement in what is today Manitoba, stepped into the fray to defend Métis interests when the new government of Canada claimed their lands. His

Further Reading

political activity included creating a provisional government to lead the Métis Nation. In 1871, the

Alan D. McMillan and Eldon Yellowhorn. (2004). First

first Métis rebellion brought war to the centre of

Peoples in Canada. Douglas and McIntyre, Vancouver,

their community. They failed in their fight, and Louis

British Columbia.

Riel then lived in exile for over a decade. He was

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First Peoples of Canada Masterworks from the Canadian Museum of Civilization

Stone mask (facing page) This fine “blind” stone mask is one of a pair. Its mate, a mask with open eyes, now resides at the Musée de l’Homme in Paris. The sighted mask fits inside this one; they were probably used to represent a transformation during a dance. Although stone carving has ancient roots on the Northwest Coast, it is rare to find masks carved of stone. Tsimshian, Northwest Coast Before 1879 Probably basalt, with traces of blue, black, and red paint W: 22.5 H: 24 D: 18.2 CMC VII-C-329 Photo: Marie-Louise Deruaz

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Quillwork chair seat

Bandolier bag (facing page)

The Mi’kmaq of Nova Scotia were one of the first Aboriginal

These large decorative bags were made for men and worn

groups to have continuous interaction with European settlers

slung over one shoulder with the bag resting on the opposite

in what is now Canada. One of the changes to the Mi’kmaq

hip. Some speculate that the bag’s form developed from

economy was the development of “tourist art” – items made

ammunition bags worn by English riflemen. They vary

to appeal to the newcomers’ aesthetic. This chair seat is an

somewhat in size and decorative motif, but all are covered

exceptional example of such goods. While its form was new,

with copious amounts of beadwork embroidery. They were

the materials come from the natural environment and the

produced and worn from about 1850 to 1950, though some

techniques used in production are traditional to the Mi’kmaq.

people make them today as part of traditional attire.

Mi’kmaq, Eastern Maritimes ca. 1860 Birchbark, porcupine quill, unidentified root L: 32.5 W: 40.5 CMC III-F-267 Photo: Marie-Louise Deruaz

Anishnaabe (Ojibwa), probably Bois Forte Reservation, Minnesota Nineteenth century Cotton, wool, glass beads, thread L: 59.8 W: 46 CMC III-G-53 Photo: Steven Darby

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Beaded vest

Hunting hat (facing page)

Aboriginal people had access to European merchandise

Hats or visors such as this belong to the

and materials since the time of contact, which on the Great

Aboriginal people of the Bering Straits region.

Plains occurred over several generations starting in the

Hunters made and wore them to ensure success

mid-eighteenth century. The vest’s cut and design show the

in attracting and killing their prey. This one may

unmistakable Euro-Canadian influence, but it’s decorated with

have been used by someone intent on hunting

the colour and exuberance found on traditional garments.

walrus, a dangerous undertaking.

Ktunaxa, Plateau ca. 1890–1910 Leather, glass beads, fibre, metal H: 53 W: 33.5 CMC II-A-3 Photo: Harry Foster

Alaskan Eskimo, Alaska 19th century Unidentified wood, walrus ivory H: 22.8 W: 21 L: 33.5 CMC IV-E-92 Photo: Harry Foster

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Charms/pendants The Beothuk of Newfoundland were so fond of powdered red ochre that they used this bright red pigment to embellish many objects of daily life, including these pendants or charms. The Beothuk were one of the first Aboriginal groups encountered by Europeans on Canada’s East Coast and it is believed that their prolific use of red ochre earned them the label “Red Men.” Beothuk, Newfoundland 18th century Caribou bone, red ochre L: 10 max. W: 2.5 max. CMC VIII-A: 102, 107, 108, 96 Photo: Doug Millar

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Amulet/figurine According to Iroquoian peoples, in some remote past a woman fell from the Sky World and tumbled towards an endless ocean. Sky Woman settled on the back of a turtle that had been prepared by animals in the sea. There she grew the life-giving plants that she had brought with her, such as the Three Sisters of corn, beans, and squash. The image of the turtle is thus a powerful reminder of the very creation of the world. Unknown culture, Ottawa Valley Date unknown Soapstone L: 7.6 W: 4.4 CMC VIII-F: 19841 Photo: Doug Millar

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Fluted projectile point The spear points made by the first inhabitants of what is today Canada are distinctive and rare. Only a handful of sites with such artifacts have been found and studied. Clovis culture, New Brunswick 10,000–11,000 years old Jasper L: 1.5 W: 0.5 CMC VIII-D:58 Photo: Marie-Louise Deruaz

Curved knife Along the back or top edge of this large curved knife is a series of crimps. These have been compared to the scales on the back of the “Mishipishu,” a mythical creature said to inhabit swift water. Probably Huron-Wendat, northern Lake Ontario ca. 1400–1650 Native copper L: 33 W: 6.25 CMC VIII-F:8595 Photo: Marie-Louise Deruaz

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Among the Plains peoples, courage and generosity were two of the best characteristics to have. Rather than consisting of bloody battles, warfare among the Plains groups was sometimes limited to “counting coup,” which involved warriors undertaking acts of courage by sneaking into enemy camps and stealing or damaging property,

Warrior’s shirt (facing page)

Man’s leggings

Niisitapiikwan (Blackfoot Confederacy), Plains Before 1841 Tanned unsmoked animal hide (perhaps elk), unidentified fibre, porcupine quill, ochre H: approx. 91.5 CMC V-B-345 a Photo: Doug Millar

Niisitapiikwan (Blackfoot Confederacy), Plains Before 1841 Animal hide, porcupine quill, pigment H: 131 W: 68 CMC V-B-345 b, c Photo: Doug Millar

thereby bringing shame to their foe. This warrior’s shirt and leggings are highly decorated, which speaks to the importance placed on his role.

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Calumet pipe and stem This pipe dates to the first half of the nineteenth century and is typical of the three-part flat stem type made by the Sioux (Lakota) people. The pipe bowl is carved of catlinite stone and inlaid with lead, which helps strengthen the brittle stone. Sioux (Nakota/Yankton), Plains Before 1843 Catlinite, lead, unidentified wood, porcupine quill, fabric, horsehair, bird skin L (stem): 89 L (bowl): 16 CMC V-E-290 a, b Photo: Doug Millar

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Moccasins Moccasins with beaded soles were a status symbol denoting wealth and high standing. The wearer did not walk but rather rode his horse everywhere, thus minimizing the wear to the soles. Western Sioux (Lakota/Teton), Plains 19th century Unidentified animal hide, glass beads L: 29.5 W: 12.5 H: 9.5 CMC V-E-250 a, b Photo: Doug Millar

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Child’s moccasins One might assume the cross in the design is a Christian symbol but this may not be true in this instance. Geometric patterns were commonly used among Plains people and this symbol may reference the four directions. Siksika (Blackfoot), Gleichen, Alberta Before 1928 Tanned, unsmoked skin, glass beads, cotton, wool, sinew L: 20.5 W: 8 H: 6 CMC V-B-120 f, g Photo: Doug Millar

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Moccasins These moccasins were made as part of a complete outfit that was worn at powwows across Canada and the United States. Nehiyaw (Plains Cree), Saskatchewan ca. 1964–74 Animal hide, glass beads, cotton thread L: 28.1 W: 12.5 H: 9.5 CMC V-A-425 a, b Photo: Doug Millar

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Child’s moccasins Made by Margaret Clarke Nakota/Yanktonai (Sioux), Pipestone Reserve, Manitoba ca. 1970 Unidentified animal hide, glass beads, cotton (thread?), cardboard L: 12 W: 5.5 H: 4.5 CMC V-E-244 a, b Photo: Doug Millar

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Ceremonial dance moccasins (right and facing page) A rare example of Ktunaxa moccasins. The Ktunaxa people live in the Rocky Mountains and in traditional times they crossed the mountains to hunt bison each year. Although this brought them into contact with Plains groups, they maintained a distinctive decorative style. Ktunaxa, Plateau Early 19th century? Unidentified animal hide, cotton thread, porcupine quill, glass beads, unidentified feather, wool, sinew, metal L: 28 W: 10 H: 10 CMC II-A-4 a, b Photo: Doug Millar

Moccasins The beaded design on these women’s moccasins appears to be a copy of earlier Sioux designs created with porcupine-quill embroidery. Sioux, Plains Date unknown Unidentified animal hide, glass beads L: 27.3 W: 10.3 H: 7.2 CMC V-E-470 a, b Photo: Doug Millar

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Parfleche bag When hung from a saddle, this bag’s fringes would sway with the rhythm of the horse. Called “parfleche” bags, these rawhide envelopes were used to hold everything from foodstuffs to personal items. A decorative bag such as this one may have been used for important personal objects. Ktunaxa, Plateau Late 19th or early 20th century Bison or cow rawhide, deer hide, pigment H: 26.5 W: 33 CMC II-A-58 Photo: Marie-Louise Deruaz

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Woman’s bag Flat bags like this one are based on traditional corn-husk bags that were woven and used by women to carry everything from personal items to foodstuffs. Pictorial designs were especially popular among the Plateau peoples of the transmontane region of British Columbia and Alberta. Okanagan, Plateau Late 19th century? Canvas, wool?, velvet, cotton?, beads, linen thread H: 34 W: 30 CMC II-B-14 Photo: Doug Millar

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Side-fold dress (facing page)

Woman’s leggings

This dress was made from one large tanned hide,

Leggings were worn for various reasons: modesty,

probably elk, which was folded and stitched down

warmth, beauty, and to protect the wearer’s legs

one side and over one shoulder. Such dresses are

from sharp vegetation growing close to the ground.

rare in museum collections and this one is an exceptional example. Nehiyaw (Plains Cree) or Métis?, Plains ca. 1840 Animal hide, porcupine quill, sinew, beads, vegetable fibre H: 128 W: 80 CMC V-A-439 Photo: Harry Foster

Oceti Sakowin or Hinono'eino (possibly Sioux or Arapaho), Plains ca. 1870s Tanned, unidentified animal hide, sinew, glass beads H: 40 W: 22 CMC V-E-258 a, b Photo: Doug Millar

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Bison vertebra with arrowhead (above) The angle and placement of the arrowhead in the bison vertebra suggests that the hunter must have been on horseback when he shot the bison. Unknown culture, Wood Mountain, south central Saskatchewan 18th or 19th century Bone, iron L: 28 W: 10.8 CMC X-B:1 Photo: Doug Millar

Pestle

Drum (facing page)

This pestle was probably used to pound dried bison

A wide variety of drums were used on the Plains;

meat into a meal to which berries and rendered bison

some were large and played by several individuals

fat were added to create pemmican. This high-energy,

positioned around the drum. This is an example

lightweight food was of critical importance in the

of a handheld drum, played by an individual.

fur trade that followed the establishment of trading networks with Europeans as it provided sustenance to canoe crews so they did not need to hunt for food. Unknown culture, Alberta Date unknown Metamorphic stone H: 20 W: 10 CMC X-C: 123 Photo: Doug Millar

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Niisitapiikwan (possibly Blackfoot Confederacy), Plains ca. 1870–1930 Unidentified animal hide, wood, metal, pigment Dia: 47 CMC V-B-333 Photo: Doug Millar

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Shoulder bag Métis, Red River style, Plains Late 19th century? Deer skin, leather, rabbit fur?, glass beads, porcupine quill, wool, fibre, cotton fabric Bag: L: 27 W: 14.5 Strap: L: 87 W: 6.5 CMC V-X-29 Photo: Doug Millar

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Knife and sheath Knives like this one were introduced as trade items during the fur trade. The porcupine-quill embroidery was prepared on a loom, then attached to the sheath. Métis, Red River style, Plains ca. 1830 Metal, bone, brass, animal skin, porcupine quill, glass beads Knife: L: 35.6 W: 10 CMC V-Z-4 a, b Photo: Doug Millar

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Cuffs

Quiver and arrows (facing page)

Decorative cuffs such as these were worn while riding a horse,

This fine quiver – one of the oldest in the

normally in a pageant or parade.

Canadian Museum of Civilization – was collected by the Earl of Caledon, who came

Tsuu T’ina, Plains 20th century Cotton, glass beads, unidentified tanned animal hide L: 26 W: 20.5 CMC V-D-213 a, b Photo: R. Taylor

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to Canada in 1841 as Captain of Coldstream Guards and returned to Ireland in 1842. Niisitapiikwan (possibly Blackfoot Confederacy), Plains Before 1841 Buckskin, porcupine quill L: 108 W: 24 CMC V-X-296 a-r Photo: Doug Millar

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Boy’s shirt (facing page)

Saddle

According to its maker, this small boy’s shirt contains 80,000

When riding, Plains men used a type of pad saddle, which

beads! The work involved in completely covering this shirt

was light and comfortable. A highly decorated saddle such

with tiny glass beads is as much a testimony to the love for

as this one would have formed part of horse regalia used on

the child as to the pleasure and pride accorded such work.

special occasions.

Tsuu T’ina, Plains 20th century Cotton canvas, glass beads, unidentified animal hide W (including sleeves): 92 H (excluding fringe): 35 CMC V-X-68 Photo: Harry Foster

Anishnaabe (Ojibwa style), Portage La Prairie, Manitoba Late 19th or early 20th century Deer? hide, horsehair, silk, wool, glass beads L: 59 W: 30 CMC V-E-148 Photo: Doug Millar

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Horse harness or headstall (left) The Red River Métis are a cultural group that arose out of alliances between fur trade employees and their Aboriginal wives. As the Métis populations grew, these mixed race people developed their own culture based on the bison hunt and continued involvement in fur trade activities. Métis women became renowned for their magnificent sewing and embroidery skills, as evidenced in this headstall that demonstrates several porcupine quillwork techniques used in the nineteenth century. Métis, Red River style, Plains 19th century Porcupine quills, tanned smoked skin L: 35.5 W: 34.6 CMC V-Z-9 Photo: Doug Millar

Whip (right) Sioux (Lakota/Nakota), Plains 19th century Animal skin, horsehair, horn, metal, bird quill, fabric L: 83 W: 4.4 CMC V-E-239 Photo: Doug Millar

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Horse dance stick This dance stick has a horse head carved at the top and decorated with feathers, and a single hoof carved at the bottom. Made by Dennis Fox Mandan/Hidatsa, Plains 1996 Wood, turkey feather, horsehair, beads, ermine skin, brass (button?), wool, feathers L: 68 H: 65 CMC V-H-23 Photo: Harry Foster

Pipe bowl

Flute (facing page)

This pipe bowl is carved from a

Music played an important role in social

single piece of catlinite, a stone

and ceremonial life. Flutes and whistles

named after the famed American

were associated primarily with ceremonial

artist George Catlin.

practices and would not be played for entertainment.

Sioux style, Plains 19th or 20th century Catlinite L: 13.2 W: 1.6 H: 7.2 CMC V-E-321 Photo: Doug Millar

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Oceti Sakowin (Sioux) or Anishnaabe (Plains Ojibwa), Plains ca. 1860 Unidentified wood L: 64.6 CMC V-X-476 a, b Photo: Doug Millar

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Pendant This item may have been a pendant. Its snake-like shape evokes the “Mishipishu,” a mythical creature that is said to inhabit swift water or rapids. This powerful being was thought to cause great hardship to those who refused to respect it.

Spear point or knife Late Archaic, Lake Superior 3,000–4,000 years old Native copper L: 13.5 W: 2.85 CMC DiJa-1:44 Photo: Marie-Louise Deruaz

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Late Archaic, Lake Superior 3,000–4,000 years old Native copper L: 10.85 W: 1.8 CMC DiJa-1:48 Photo: Doug Millar

Spear point or knife Laurentian Archaic, Ottawa Valley 6,100 years old Native copper L: 17.75 W: 31.5 CMC BkGg-11:1049 Photo: Marie-Louise Deruaz

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Socketed adze Laurentian Archaic, middle Ottawa Valley 6,100 years old Native copper L: 8.85 W: 4.3 CMC BkGg-11:1113 Photo: Doug Millar

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Knife Laurentian Archaic, Ottawa Valley 6,100 years old Native copper L: 9.75 W: 1.5 CMC BkGg-11:1053 Photo: Doug Millar

Pipe bowl Many North American Aboriginal peoples refer to the land mass on which they live as “Turtle Island.” This ancient designation, represented on this pipe bowl, likely comes from traditional Aboriginal peoples’ explanations of the creation of the world on the back of a giant turtle. Unknown culture, Georgian Bay, Lake Huron Date unknown Soapstone L: 4.3 W: 2.5 CMC VIII-F:8529 Photo: Doug Millar

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Bracelet (facing page)

Pop-eyed birdstone

Late Archaic, Lake Superior 3,000–4,000 years old Native copper Dia: 6 W: 1.5 CMC DiJa-1:34 Photo: Marie-Louise Deruaz

The purpose of this type of artifact, which has been compared to a bird with greatly exaggerated eyes, is unknown. One suggestion is that such pieces were used as counterweights for throwing boards used to propel spears, thus adding greater velocity and power. However, this item would require a significant investment of time and energy unlikely for such a functional use and may represent a mythical being. Meadowood culture, western Lake Ontario 2,500 years old Slate L: 11.15 W: 4.1 CMC VIII-F:8318 Photo: Doug Millar

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Canoe North American Aboriginal groups maintained extensive trade and communication networks on a continental scale. Because much of the Canadian landscape is dissected by rivers, lakes, and streams, they often travelled by water. Birchbark canoes, such as this example, are light and fast and could be easily made and repaired. Made by Arthur Smith Algonquin, Maniwaki, Québec 1977 Wood, birchbark, spruce root, pitch (spruce gum, charcoal) L: 356 W: 81.2 CMC III-L-306a Photo: Doug Millar

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Cooking pot (facing page)

Gorget

This pot was found intact in a small rock shelter, a rare find

This gorget has been made from a marine shell obtained through trade

in Canada. It is decorated with distinctive circular punctates,

either from the Gulf of Mexico or from the mid-Atlantic seaboard of the

probably made by impressing the cut end of a bird bone into the

United States. The carving may evoke a creation story shared by many

damp clay prior to the firing process.

Aboriginal peoples of North America or it may represent a clan, or a network of related families who identified themselves through this animal.

St. Lawrence Iroquoian, middle Ottawa Valley ca. 1550 Ceramic Dia: 18.5 H: 19 CMC VIII-E:14 Photo: Marie-Louise Deruaz

Neutral culture, Lake Ontario ca. 1400–1650 Busycon sp. shell L: 15 W: 15 CMC VIII-F:14129 Photo: Doug Millar 77

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Cooking pot (facing page)

Cooking pot

The exterior and interior of this small ceramic pot bear

Middle Iroquoian culture, western Lake Ontario ca. 1200–1400 Ceramic Dia: 17 H: 21 CMC VIII-F:15580 Photo: Doug Millar

impressions of some kind of woven textile or basketry. This style of pot is the oldest type of pottery found in Canada south of the Arctic. Point Peninsula culture, middle Ottawa Valley 2,500 years old Ceramic Dia: 20 H: 20 CMC CaGi-1:1 Photo: Marie-Louise Deruaz

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Large cooking or storage container

Cooking/storage pot (facing page)

Ceramic containers were often used to prepare stews and soups

The three lugs or handle-like additions placed below the rim

for large numbers of people. They represent functional needs as

of this ceramic container are quite delicate and were probably

well as important social occasions.

not intended to be used to suspend the pot. Rather, they were likely decorative, although they could have served as anchors for

Glen Meyer culture, southern Lake Huron ca. 1000–1300 Ceramic Dia: 30 H: 45 CMC VIII-F:29977 Photo: Doug Millar

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securing a skin lid over the opening of the vessel. Western Basin tradition, western Lake Erie ca. 1500–1650 Ceramic Dia: 20 H: 37 CMC AdHo-1:141 Photo: Marie-Louise Deruaz

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Pot Modern-day Iroquoian potters are inspired by archaeological designs to create beautiful containers such as this. Made by Elda Smith Mohawk (Kanien’kehaka), Southern Ontario 1973 Ceramic Dia: 18.3 H: 27.3 CMC III-I-1374 Photo: Doug Millar 82

Birchbark basket Basket making is an ancient art but, unlike ceramic vessels, basketry does not survive well. Baskets, such as this recent example, were lightweight containers that were less likely than ceramic pots to break during transportation or in the cold. Algonquin, Eastern Woodlands ca. 1913 Birchbark, spruce root, leather L: 17.8 W: 12.2 H: 14.7 CMC III-L-191 Photo: Doug Millar

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Water drum with drumstick (right) The Iroquois developed an extensive repertoire of songs and dances to be performed at social gatherings for enjoyment and, ultimately, to connect with each another. Mohawk (Kanien’kehaka), Southwestern Ontario Late 19th or early 20th century Wood, ferrous metal, unidentified skin Dia: 12 H: 9 CMC III-I-144a b Photo: Doug Millar

Basket with lid (facing page) Huron-Wendat, Eastern Woodlands ca. 1911 Ash wood, sweetgrass Dia: 21.3 H: 11.2 CMC III-H-44 Photo: Doug Millar

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War club Iroquoian?, Central Great Lakes ca. 1600–1800 Wood, copper?, lead, feathers, skin L: 74 W: 10.3 CMC III-X-342 Photo: Doug Millar

War club

War club (facing page)

This war club was made to be used in a

The Iroquois were recognized as skilled statesmen and

ceremonial dance.

fearsome warriors. By the nineteenth century, use of guns replaced most hand-to-hand combat. War clubs, such as

Ojibwa, Upper Great Lakes Date unknown Wood L: 52 W: 3 Dia (ball): 8.5 CMC III-G-818 Photo: Doug Millar

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this, continued to be made for ceremonial purposes. Iroquoian?, Upper Great Lakes ca. 1700–1800 Wood L: 60 W: 7.1 Dia (ball): 7.2 CMC III-X-340 Photo: Doug Millar

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Calumet pipe (above) Smoking pipes were elaborately decorated with a range of recurring motifs which reflect a body of symbolic attitudes towards smoking. The human or animal faces that often adorn these pipes look directly into the smoker’s eyes, as if to convey an important message. Ojibwa, Upper Great Lakes ca. 1750–1850 Wood L (overall): 81 H (bowl): 11.5 CMC III-G-884a, b Photo: Doug Millar

Pipe Neutral, Southern Ontario ca. 1500–1650 Limestone L: 13.5 W: 7 CMC VIII-F:8550 Photo: Doug Millar

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Pipe (above) St. Lawrence Iroquoian, St. Lawrence River Valley ca. 1500–1550 Ceramic L: 14.4 H: 7.1 CMC VIII-F:12005 Photo: Doug Millar

Pipe Neutral, Southern Ontario ca. 1500–1650 Limestone L: 13.5 W: 7 CMC VIII-F:8550 Photo: Doug Millar

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Man’s frock coat The materials and painted designs of this coat reference its Aboriginal heritage, but the cut and fit is European. Huron-Wendat, Eastern Woodlands 19th century? Unidentified animal hide, pigment H: 131 W: 69 CMC III-H-418 Photo: Doug Millar

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Cane Made of one single piece of lightweight wood, this cane is ornately carved with floral, animal, and human figures and geometric designs. The floral design twists about the cane with snake and frog motifs. The carved figure of a man wearing a frock coat and crown is followed by carved clasping hands. The handle of the cane is perfectly circular. Mohawk (Kanien’kehaka), Eastern Woodlands ca. 1810 Wood L: 86 Dia (handle): 9.5 CMC III-I-725 Photo: Doug Millar

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Moccasins (above)

Mittens (facing page)

It looks like the embroidery on these moccasins was done

People of the Eastern Woodlands region of Canada used

with silk or cotton floss. However, the Huron-Wendat were

black tanned hide to emphasize the colours of the embroidery

clever in their use of natural materials; the embroidery was

yarns. The use of moose hair for embroidery was especially

actually made with porcupine quill and moose hair.

popular in the mid- to late-nineteenth century.

Huron-Wendat, Eastern Woodlands 19th century Unidentified animal hide, porcupine quills, moose hair L: 23 W: 10 H: 17 CMC III-H-433 a, b Photo: Doug Millar

Huron-Wendat, Eastern Woodlands 19th century? Tanned, black-dyed skin, moose hair L: 23 W: 13 CMC III-H-408 a, b Photo: Doug Millar

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Wall hanging: “Untitled”

Woman’s coat (facing page)

Contemporary Inuit artists often gain inspiration from stories

Coats were traditionally embellished with designs created using

of past events, epics, or mythology tied to their world view. The

contrasting colours of fur. After glass beads were introduced to

specific story depicted in this wall hanging was not recorded but

the Inuit in the late eighteenth century, some groups, such as

there is evidence of high drama as hunters confront animals.

the Iglulingmiut in the Central Arctic, quickly mastered beadwork embroidery. Seamstresses invented their own designs and colour

Made by Victoria Mamnguqsualuk Inuit, Arctic No date Wool, cotton embroidery thread H: 139.7 W: 173 CMC IV-C-5355 Photo: Marie-Louise Deruaz

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schemes. Wonderfully elaborate, these beadwork panels were sometimes removed and reattached to new coats. Inuit, Central Arctic ca. 1907–9 Caribou hide, sinew, cotton thread, mother-of-pearl buttons, brass buttons, glass beads, wool, porcelain H: 160 W: 74 CMC IV-C-709 Photo: Doug Millar

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Men’s boots (above) The different qualities of animal hides – for example, water-resistant sealskin, insulating caribou hide, and frostresistant wolverine hair – were considered when piecing together a garment. Inuit, Arctic Before 1910 Sealskin, caribou H: 47 W: 31 CMC IV-C-714 a, b Photo: Doug Millar

Women’s stocking boots (left) In winter, Inuit women wore two sets of stockings: one set with fur against the skin, and outer boots such as these, with fur on the outside. Copper Inuit, Central Arctic Before 1916 Caribou fur, leggings of dark brown fur H: approx. 122 W: 42 CMC IV-D-771 a, b Photo: Doug Millar

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Child’s coat for kayaking With an ingenious design to keep a kayaker dry in the freezing arctic waters, these gut-skin jackets were sewn using a unique watertight seam developed by the Inuit. Labrador Inuit, Eastern Arctic ca. 1880–89 Seal intestines, sinew, sealskin H: 54 W: 60 CMC IV-B-1105 Photo: Doug Millar

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Needle case (above) A seamstress required not only skill to make garments but also specific tools. Needles were precious and thus carefully protected. Labrador Inuit, Eastern Arctic Collected 1893–94 Ivory, sinew (a) L: 4 W: 1.5 (b) L: 5.4 W: 1.5 (c) L: 5 W: 1.5 CMC IV-B-137 a-c Photo: Doug Millar

Sewing needle (left) Dorset culture, Central Arctic 2,500 years old Bone L: 5 W: 0.25 CMC NiHf-4:821 Photo: Doug Millar

Needle case (lower left) Thule culture, Eastern Arctic ca. 1000–1600 Walrus ivory L: 9.5 W: 3.5 CMC TkAu-1:2 Photo: Doug Millar

98

Man’s summer shirt Gwich’in men wore these distinctive long shirts with a pointed hem over full-length leggings. Possibly Gwich’in, Western Subarctic ca. 1870 Caribou hide, porcupine quill, elaeagnus seeds, sinew, cotton, red ochre H (overall): 121 H (fringe): 21.5 W: 135 CMC VI-Z-10 Photo: Doug Millar

99

Women’s dance parka This decorative parka, which would have been worn during public dances, demonstrates the ability of a seamstress to piece together various furs to create an aesthetically pleasing design. The dangling strips of fur are added to increase the movement of the dance. Made by Ida Kuneyuna Inuvialuit, Western Arctic Collected 2003 Ground squirrel fur, green fabric, caribou fur, wolverine hair H: 92 W: 60 CMC IV-D-3351 Photo: Doug Millar

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In the North, travel on ice and snow is unavoidable and the reflection of the sun can easily cause “snow blindness.” The narrow slits in snow goggles provide essential vision but limit the amount of reflected light that reaches the eyes.

Snow goggles (above) Inuit, Central Arctic Before 1907 Wood, fibre, wool W: 12 H: 8 T: 2.3 CMC IV-C-3083 Photo: Doug Millar

Snow goggles (right) Thule culture, High Arctic ca. 1000–1600 Walrus ivory L: 11.5 H: 4.2 CMC IX-C-2846 Photo: Doug Millar

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Gauntlets

Man’s mittens

The development of this type of embroidery, or “tufting,” is attributed

In an environment where the cold can be severe enough to cause a

to a Métis woman named Binface Laferte, who was influenced by

person physical damage, it’s imperative not to lose one’s mittens. The

punchwork embroidery seen on liturgical cloths in church.

cord connecting this pair would be strung through the wearer’s coat sleeves so the mittens could be taken off without risk of losing them.

Made by Bella Bonnetrouge Slavey, Fort Providence, Northwest Territories 1957 Moose hide, red and green moose hair, purple taffeta (lining) L: 38 W: 24 CMC VI-N-33 a, b Photo: Doug Millar

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Slavey, Western Subarctic Possibly made 1970s Caribou hide, beaver skin, porcupine quill, fabric L: 27.6 W: 17.9 CMC VI-N-244, 1-2 Photo: Doug Millar

Boots Traditional designs and styles continue today although, in the twentieth century, fur has increasingly been replaced with wool fabric. Hare, Western Subarctic ca. 1992 Wool, fur, embroidery thread (probably cotton), animal skin, yarn (probably synthetic) L: 22.5 W: 9.9 H: 26.3 CMC VI-L-34 a-d Photo: Doug Millar

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Child’s snowshoes In the forests of the Subarctic, the snow is deep and soft. Without snowshoes, which distribute the wearer’s weight over a larger surface, travel is virtually impossible. Different regions had different styles and shapes to suit local snow conditions. Ilnu (Naskapi), Eastern Subarctic ca. 1950 Birch wood, animal hide (babiche), wool yarn L: 45 W: 30.1 CMC III-B-601 a, b Photo: Doug Millar

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Rifle case It is important for a hunter to protect his rifle from the elements and dirt while hunting on the land. Dene people continue to make these decorated rifle cases, signifying the importance of hunting in their culture. Kaska Dena, Western Subarctic Before 1915 Tanned moose skin, wool fabric, glass beads, porcupine quill, sinew, cotton thread L: 123 W: 20.5 CMC VI-H-12 Photo: Doug Millar

Birchbark basket (facing page) Slavey, Western Subarctic Before 1924 Birchbark, spruce root L: 19 W: 19.5 H: 20 CMC VI-N-53 Photo: Doug Millar

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Model kayak Lightweight and durable, enclosed-hull watercraft allowed hunters to travel on the frigid waters of the Arctic Ocean in order to hunt the sea mammals which can be found there. Caribou Inuit, Central Arctic 1968 Caribou hide, caribou bone, wood, sinew L: 357.5 H: 23.3 W: 17.5 CMC IV-C-3650 a, d Photo: Canadian Museum of Civilization

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Snow knife Until fairly recently, snow was the main building material at certain times of the winter in parts of the Arctic. It was used to create igloos, dwellings that were carefully and skilfully built. Snow knives were used to cut blocks out of hard, compacted snow and to trim the blocks so they fit together. Inside the igloo, a slow-burning soapstone lamp provided surprisingly sufficient heat. Inuit, Central Arctic 20th century Caribou bone L: 30 W: 3.2 CMC IV-C-3256 Photo: Doug Millar

Snow knife (front and back) Thule culture, Eastern Arctic ca. 1000–1600 Whalebone L: 37 W: 5.7 CMC TkAu-1: 37 Photo: Doug Millar

110

Lamp A wick, made of a roll of moss or some other absorbent plant fibre, would be placed along the straight edge of the lamp, and seal oil would be held in the concavity behind it. Small lumps of fat would be placed in the concavity in order to keep the flame supplied with oil.

Caribou Inuit, Central Arctic 19th or early 20th century Soapstone L: 49 W: 23.5 CMC IX-C-10252 Photo: Doug Millar

Line buckle Dorset culture, Arctic 1,000–2,500 years old Walrus ivory L: 4.8 W: 1.7 CMC RbJr-7:2 Photo: Doug Millar

111

Harpoon head Inuit, Central Arctic Before 1913 Bone, iron L: 14.3 W: 3.6 CMC IV-C-1305 Photo: Doug Millar

Harpoon head Inuit, Central Arctic Before 1913 Iron, copper L: 5.5 W: 1.6 CMC IV-C-1074 Photo: Doug Millar

Harpoon head with human face Middle Dorset culture, Central Arctic 1,500–2,000 years old Antler or ivory L: 8.35 W: 1.9 CMC NhHd-1: 2658 Photo: Doug Millar

112

Projectile point The earliest inhabitants of the Canadian Arctic were excellent stone workers. This projectile point tipped a hunter’s arrow. The careful patterning of flake scars suggests that its maker was intent on creating not simply a functional item but also a visually pleasing object. Independence I culture, High Arctic 4,000–5,000 years old? Chert L: 5 W: 1.9 CMC RbJu-1:1083 Photo: Doug Millar

Fish lure Thule culture, Central Arctic ca. 1150–1450 Caribou antler, walrus ivory or bone? L: 8.2 H: 1.8 W: 1.5 CMC NaPi-2-42-8 Photo: Doug Millar

113

Double-headed drag-line handle Both ends of this drag-line handle are decorated with the head of a bird. Thule culture, Central Arctic ca. 1150–1450 Bone or ivory L: 7.8 W: 1.45 CMC NaPi-2-27-8 Photo: Doug Millar

114

Toggle or handle The ends of this toggle, which was attached to the end of a line for pulling a heavy weight such as a dead seal, are carved into the head of a walrus and a polar bear. Middle Dorset culture, Eastern Arctic 1,500–2,000 years old Walrus ivory L: 5 W: 0.8 H: 1.1 CMC PeHa-1: 1641 Photo: Doug Millar

115

Carving of a polar bear This small carving of a polar bear appearing to float or fly may have been worn as an amulet to represent a “spirit helper” that assisted the hunter. The lines may represent the skeleton, the enduring part of the animal, much like its soul. Dorset culture, Eastern Arctic 1,000–2,500 years old Walrus ivory L: 6.5 W: 1.25 CMC KfDr-1:2 Photo: Doug Millar

116

Carving of a falcon This carving was probably worn as a pendant. The falcon, like the polar bear, is a great hunter of Arctic regions. This bird may have represented a “spirit helper” for a hunter. Dorset culture, Eastern Arctic 1,000–2,500 years old Walrus ivory L: 2.7 W: 1.5 CMC QiLd-1: 2052 Photo: Doug Millar

Carving of a polar bear’s head Dorset culture, Eastern Arctic ca. 1000 Ivory L: 2.1 W: 1.3 CMC IX-B: 106 Photo: Doug Millar

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Comb made from a harpoon head Combs are frequently found in Thule culture archaeological sites and are often elaborately decorated. This particular example consists of a comb on a base that is identical to a harpoon head used for hunting seals. Thule culture, Western Arctic ca. 1350 Caribou antler L: 11.3 W: 4.1 CMC NjRc-1: 592 Photo: Doug Millar

118

Bow drill Both sides of this bow drill have been decorated with hunting scenes. It shows kayaks, skin tents, and hunters armed with bows and

Thule culture, Eastern Arctic ca. 1000–1600 Walrus ivory L: 40 W: 2.3 CMC PgHq-1:1 Photo: Doug Millar

arrows taking aim at caribou.

Arrow Dene, Western Subarctic Late 19th or early 20th century Wood, sinew, unidentified feather, copper L: 77 W: 2 CMC VI-Z-172 Photo: Doug Millar 119

120

Shaman’s belt The maker of this belt based this replica on one he saw worn by a shaman. Inuit, Central Arctic ca. 1959–60 Sealskin, bone? L: 100.3 W: 9.1 CMC IV-C-3204 Photo: Doug Millar

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Chilkat blanket This type of weaving is often described as “Chilkat,” a region in present-day Yukon Territory. However, it is a weaving style that developed among several northern groups and was highly valued. Only very high-ranking chiefs owned such blankets or robes. Tlingit, Northwest Coast 19th century Wool fibre, cedar bark, animal skin L: 87.5 W: 176 CMC VII-X-1537 Photo: Marie-Louise Deruaz

122

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Grease dish in the shape of a seal Collected in 1900, this dish was made to hold salmon or seal grease, which was used as a condiment for dried salmon or halibut. Haida, Northwest Coast 19th century Cedar wood L: 40 W: 25 H: 17.5 CMC VII-B-1484 Photo: Doug Millar

124

Bowl Harold George from Opetchesaht carved this bowl in the shape of a raven with a hawk image on its tail. Made by Harold George Nuu-chah-nulth, Northwest Coast 1973 Red cedar, abalone L: 32.4 W: 9.7 H: 9.8 CMC VII-F-711 Photo: Doug Millar

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Spoon Haida, Northwest Coast ca. 1900 Mountain goat horn, mountain sheep horn L: 30.5 CMC VII-B-1511 Photo: Doug Millar

126

Spoon Nisga’a, Northwest Coast Before 1879 Mountain goat horn L: 25 W: 6.9 CMC VII-C-50 Photo: Doug Millar

These spoons were made by cutting and steaming mountain goat horns, then forming them in moulds. Handles were often carved with clan crests and could be inlaid with metal or shell. The material and shape gave rise to an exceptional art form, resembling totem poles in miniature.

Spoon Haida, Northwest Coast Collected 1889 Mountain goat horn, brass L: 29.6 W: 6.4 CMC VII-B-1007 Photo: Doug Millar

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Spoon Haida, Northwest Coast Late 19th, early 20th century Mountain sheep horn, mountain goat horn L: 30.5 W: 6.7 CMC VII-B-73 Photo: Doug Millar

128

The introduction of new materials from Europe gave West Coast artists the opportunity to create new items. Silver spoons such as these did not become popular but silver jewellery incised with clan crests is popular today as an artistic commodity.

Spoon

Spoon

Tlingit, Northwest Coast Late 19th, early 20th century Silver L: 11.9 W: 2.5 CMC VII-A-355 Photo: Doug Millar

Tlingit, Northwest Coast Late 19th, early 20th century Silver L: 13.5 W: 2.3 CMC VII-A-356 Photo: Doug Millar

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Bentwood chest with lid A richly carved box such as this served to store a chief’s regalia and would have been prominently displayed in the house. Clan symbols, such as the beaver on this chest, appear on all sorts of personal and communal objects. The beaver is carved in high relief and painted; only the front of the chest is carved. Nisga’a or Gitksan?, Northwest Coast 19th century? Wood, paint L: 142 W: 58 H: 59.5 CMC VII-C-1183 a, b Photo: Doug Millar 1 30

Frontlet In this frontlet for the Eagle clan, the design of two eagles and eight other bird faces represents the crest of the wearer’s family. Abalone, highly valued by West Coast peoples, accentuates the eyes, teeth, and joints. Attributed to Nisga’a, Northwest Coast Late 19th or early 20th century Wood, abalone shell, paint L: 17.8 W: 15.2 CMC VII-C-1811 Photo: Doug Millar

131

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Painted box with lid The sides of this box were created from one plank of cedar, which was kerfed and steamed then pegged together with the bottom piece.

Frontlet (facing page)

Carrier, Northwest Coast 1974 Red cedar, paint W: 38.8 H: 37.7 CMC VII-C-1865 a, b Photo: Doug Millar

A complete headdress included a frontlet, headband, and a train of ermine skins hanging down the back. Eagle down feathers would be placed in amongst the sea lion whiskers so that when the chief danced, he would sprinkle the feathers about him, signifying peace. Tlingit, Northwest Coast 19th century Wood, abalone, sea lion whiskers, flicker feathers, wool, cotton, unidentified bone, swan down W: 28 H: 42 D:11 CMC VII-A-299 Photo: Doug Millar 133

Hat

Gambling equipment (facing page)

To create these valuable hats, women wove the

Feasts provided the Tsimshian people an opportunity for social

spruce root, and men painted the design.

gatherings with other villages. One of the favourite pastimes at such events was playing stick games and gambling. These games

Haida, Northwest Coast 1899 Spruce root, paint Dia (base): 41 CMC VII-B-291 Photo: Doug Millar

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sometimes lasted for days as one village pitted its best players against those from a competing village. Tsimshian, Northwest Coast Before 1919 Skin, copper, maple, paint Bag: L: 62 W: 19 Sticks: L: 12 CMC VII-C-140 Photo: Doug Millar

135

Dance mask This elaborately decorated painted mask with copper and fur (only the skin is intact today) attachments was made for a secret society dance. Haida, Northwest Coast Before 1884 Wood, copper, leather H: 24.1 W: 20.3 CMC VII-B-1554 Photo: Marie-Louise Deruaz

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Mask This mask of a young woman has unusual scale-like details around the edge, which may represent an underwater figure. The abalone labret in the lip signifies a high-ranking woman. Haida, Northwest Coast ca. 1860 Wood, abalone, paint H: 20.8 W: 17.3 CMC VII-B-928 a, b Photo: Marie-Louise Deruaz

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Raven rattle High-ranking chiefs held “raven” rattles such as this when they danced, clutching them in the hand as if upside down, with the raven at the bottom and the human figure at the top. Tsimshian, Northwest Coast Before 1899 Maple, spruce? root, wool fibre L: 29 W: 9.5 H: 7.5 CMC VII-C-341 Photo: Doug Millar

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139

Rattle This rattle is constructed of two pieces of maple. One side (pictured here) has a marten figure carved in low relief and painted with black, red, and blue. On the other side appears an animal figure painted in black, red, and blue. Gitksan, Northwest Coast Mid-19th century Maple, spruce? root, paint L (excluding handle): 12 W: 22.9 CMC VII-C-1150 Photo: Doug Millar

140

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142

Whale headdress The use of copper and the placement of the chief’s face between the whale’s eyes signify the importance of the person for whom the headdress was made. Nisga’a, Northwest Coast 19th century Wood, copper, leather, paint Headpiece: L: 32 W: 24 H: 29 Leather tail: L: 40 W: 29 CMC VII-C-328 Photo: Doug Millar

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Knife Probably originally from Russia, this knife represents the maritime trade that began in the eighteenth century between West Coast peoples and Russian traders. Tlingit, Northwest Coast 18th or early 19th century Steel, brass, leather, ochre L: 47 CMC VII-A-259 Photo: Doug Millar

144

Club Carvings found on archaeological sites that depict figures combining human and animal forms demonstrate the extensive time-depth of West Coast design aesthetics. Middle Pacific Stage, British Columbia 2,000 years old Whalebone L: 45 W: 10 CMC GbTo-31: 522 Photo: Doug Millar

145

Bird-effigy sculpture This large stone carving depicts a sitting eagle, its closed beak curving downwards. Its wings are flat against the body, with designs (including eye form) incised in low relief. Its legs, also in low relief, are curved against the lower front of the body. This specimen was collected from the family of Chief Menesk, Head Chief of the Eagle Clan of the Upper Nass River Valley. Nisga’a, British Columbia Date unknown Sandstone H: 64 W: 28 T: 25 CMC VII-C: 1481 Photo: Doug Millar

146

Stone sculpture This anthropomorphic stone sculpture shows a crouching human-like being with skeletal features. It may have been used in ceremonies to encourage salmon runs in the Skeena River. Tsimshian?, British Columbia ca. 500–1800 Metamorphic stone L: 25 W: 15 CMC XII-B: 1877 Photo: Doug Millar

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Raven-headed club Carved as a bird’s head, the larger part of this piece has an incised eye, and a line to the end delineates the bird’s beak. Traces of yellow pigment remain in the eye on one side. Tsimshian, British Columbia Date unknown Metamorphic stone L: 25.1 H: 5.8 T: 6 CMC VII-C-2289 Photo: Doug Millar

148

Pile driver Pile drivers were important in constructing fish weirs and traps. The endless quantities of migrating fish in the coastal waters and spawning rivers of British Columbia were the basis for the accumulation of substantial food surpluses and were therefore critical to the development of the elaborate social networks that characterized the region’s Aboriginal societies. Unknown culture, British Columbia Date unknown; pre-contact Metamorphic stone L: 35.3 W: 22.7 CMC XII-B: 1836 Photo: Doug Millar 149

Bark shredder Implements such as this one were used to remove a pliable bark that could be woven into clothing. The ends of this shredder are shaped into the head and tail of a bird-like creature. Middle Pacific Stage, British Columbia 2,000 years old Schist L: 22 W: 14 CMC GbTo-18: 297 Photo: Doug Millar

150

Maul Mauls were used to pound dry fish and animal meat. The handle is shaped into the head of an animal, possibly a bear with a flattened nose, two well-defined ears, and a clearly delineated neck. Tsimshian?, British Columbia ca. 1000–1700 Metamorphic stone L: 19 W: 8 CMC GbTo-23: 1784 Photo: Doug Millar

151

Frog effigy bowl The frog is an important crest of the Eagle moiety among the Haida. The frog image is often identified by its broad, thick-lipped mouth. Unknown culture, British Columbia Possibly 19th century or later L: 25 Dia: 20 CMC XII-B: 317 Photo: Doug Millar

152

Spear thrower (atlatl) weight Stone weights are believed to have been attached to throwing boards used to propel spears or darts: the added weight provided greater thrust and power. Throwing boards have been used in the Americas for thousands of years. Small weights like this one, carved in the form of a small animal, might also have served as a charm to increase the hunter’s luck. Unknown culture, British Columbia 1,700–2,000 years old Soapstone L: 7.1 W: 3.3 CMC XII-B: 1749 Photo: Doug Millar 153

154

Spindle whorl (front and back) Amongst the Coast Salish people, spindle whorls are some of the most elegantly decorated everyday objects, signifying the importance of their weaving traditions. Coast Salish, Fraser River Mouth, British Columbia Probably pre-contact Unidentified black stone Dia: 9 CMC XII-B: 1689 Photo: Doug Millar

155

D-adze A steel axe head has been incorporated into a traditional adze design. This type of adze is clutched in the hand and used for finishing a large carving such as a totem pole, canoe, or plank for a house. Nuu-chah-nulth, Northwest Coast Before 1914 Iron, wood L: 20.3 H: 11.4 CMC VII-F-377 Photo: Doug Millar

156

Amulet This may have been a shaman’s charm. It depicts a killer whale with faces and a human figure carved into the body and dorsal fin. Tlingit, Northwest Coast ca. 1900 Unidentified antler L: 7 CMC VII-A-276 Photo: Doug Millar

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Basketry Exposed to the elements, organic materials rarely survive beyond a few years, making this basketry fragment a valuable example of the early origins of a West Coast weaving tradition. Middle Pacific Stage, British Columbia 2,000 years old Cedar bark H: 16.5 W: 20.5 CMC GbTo-33: C-699 Photo: Doug Millar

158

Halibut hook The shank of this hook has been carved as a sea lion swallowing a fish. Coast Tsimshian, Northwest Coast 1915 Bone, wood, fibre, cedar bark L (shaft): 26 L (shank): 8 L (rope): 55 CMC VII-C-697 Photo: Doug Millar

159

160

Tobacco mortar (facing page)

Whaling float

Haida people chewed their own native tobacco (now extinct)

Even purely utilitarian items, such as this float used for

mixed with lime. This mortar was used for such mixing.

hunting whales, were made aesthetically pleasing.

Haida, Northwest Coast Before 1884 Tusk (walrus?) ivory L: 9 W: 4.7 CMC VII-B-1001 Photo: Doug Millar

Nuu-chah-nulth, Northwest Coast Before 1893 Harbour seal, pigment L: 102 W: 52 CMC VII-F-326 Photo: Doug Millar

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Index

abalone, 125, 131, 132–3, 137

bowl, 125, 152

adze, 70, 155

box, 133

Alaskan Eskimo, 36

bracelet, 72–3

Algonquin, 74, 83

brass, 59, 66, 94–5, 127, 144

amulet, 40, 157. See also figurine Anishnaabe (Ojibwa), 34, 63, 66

cane, 91

antler, 112, 113, 118, 157

canoe, 74–5

Arapaho, 55

Carrier, 133

arrow, 60–1, 119

carving. See amulet; figurine

arrowhead, 56. See also spear point

catlinite, 44, 66 cedar: bark, 122–3, 158, 159; wood: 124, 125, 133

bag, 34–5, 52, 53, 58

ceramic, 76–7, 78–9, 80–1, 82, 89

bark shredder, 150

chair seat, 34

basalt, 32–3

charms. See amulet; pendant

basket, 83, 84–5, 106–7, 158

chest, 130

beadwork, 34–5, 36 , 45, 46–7, 48, 49, 50–1, 53, 54–5, 58, 59, 60, 62–3, 66, 94–5, 106

clothing. See specific items Clovis culture, 41

belt, 120–1

club, 86–7, 145, 148

Beothuk, 39

coat, 90, 94–5, 97, 100

birchbark, 34, 74–5, 83, 106–7

comb, 118

birdstone, 73

copper, 41, 68, 69, 70, 71, 72–3, 86, 112, 119, 134–5, 136,

Blackfoot. See Niisitapiikwan (Blackfoot Confederacy); Siksika (Blackfoot) blanket, 122–3

143 Cree, 48, 55 cuffs, 60

bone, 38–9, 56, 59, 98, 108, 110, 112, 113, 114, 120–1, 132–3, 145, 159 boots, 96, 103

dance stick, 66 Dene, 106, 119

bow drill, 119

165

Dorset culture, 98, 111, 116, 117; Middle Dorset culture: 112, 115 dress, 54–5 drum, 56–7, 85

iron, 56, 112, 156 Iroquoian, 86; Middle Iroquoian culture: 79; St. Lawrence Iroquoian: 77, 89 ivory, 36–7, 98, 101, 111, 112, 113, 114, 115, 116, 117, 119, 160–1

Eskimo, 36 jasper, 41 figurine, 73, 116, 117, 146, 147. See also amulet

jewellery, 38–9, 68, 72–3

float, whaling, 161 flute, 66–7

Kanien’kehaka, 82, 85, 91

footwear. See boots; moccasins; snowshoes

Kaska Dena, 106

frontlet, 131, 132–3

kayak, 108–9 knife, 41, 59, 68, 69, 71, 110, 144

gambling equipment, 134–5

Ktunaxa, 36, 50, 52

gauntlets, 102 Gitksan, 130, 140

lamp, 111

Glen Myer culture, 80

Late Archaic, 68, 73

gorget, 77

Laurentian Archaic, 69, 70, 71

grease dish, 124

lead, 44, 86

Gwich’in, 99

leggings, 43, 55 limestone, 88, 89

Haida, 124, 126, 127, 128, 134, 136, 137, 161

line buckle, 111

handle, 114, 115

lure, 113

Hare, 103 harness, 64–5

Mandan/Hidatsa, 66

harpoon head, 112

maple, 134–5, 138–9, 140–1

hat, 36–7, 134

mask, 32–3, 136, 137

headdress, 142–3

maul, 151

headstall, 64–5

Meadowood culture, 73

Hinono’eino, 55

metamorphic stone, 70, 73, 147, 148, 149, 151.

hook, 159

See also soapstone

horn, 126, 127, 128

Métis, 55, 58, 59, 65

Huron-Wendat, 41, 85, 90, 92

Middle Pacific Stage, 145, 150, 158 Mi’kmaq, 34

Ilnu (Naskapi), 104 Independence I culture, 113

moccasins, 45, 46–7, 48, 49, 50–1, 92

Inuit, 94, 96, 101, 110, 112, 121; Caribou Inuit: 108,

Mohawk (Kanien’kehaka), 82, 85, 91

111; Copper Inuit: 96; Labrador Inuit: 97, 98 Inuvialuit, 100

166

mittens, 92–3, 102

mortar, 160–1 musical instruments. See drum; flute; rattle

Nakota/Yanktonai (Sioux), 44, 49, 65

snow knife, 110

needle, 98; case: 98

snowshoes, 104–5

Nehiyaw (Plains Cree), 48, 55

soapstone, 40, 71, 111, 153. See also metamorphic

Neutral, 77, 88, 89 Niisitapiikwan (Blackfoot Confederacy), 43, 56, 60

stone spear point, 41, 68, 69, 113. See also knife spear thrower (atlatl) weight, 153

Nisga’a, 127, 130, 131, 143, 146

spindle whorl, 154–5

Nuu-chah-nulth, 125, 156, 161

spoon, 126, 127, 128, 129 spruce root, 74–5, 83, 106–7, 134, 138–9, 140–1

Oceti Sakowin, 55, 66 ochre, 38–9, 42–3, 99, 144

Thule culture, 98, 101, 110, 113, 114, 118, 119

Ojibwa, 34, 63, 66, 86, 88

Tlingit, 122, 129, 133, 144, 157

Okanagan, 53

toggle, 115 Tsimshian, 32, 134, 138, 147, 148, 151, 159

parka. See coat

Tsuu T’ina, 60, 63

pendant, 38–9, 68 pestle, 56

vest, 36

pile driver, 149 pipe, 44, 88, 89; pipe bowl: 66, 71

wall hanging, 94

Point Peninsula culture, 79

war club. See club

pot, 76–7, 78–79, 80–1, 82

weaving, 122–3

projectile point. See spear point

Western Basin Tradition, 80 whalebone, 110, 145

quill, porcupine, 34, 42–3, 44, 50–1, 54–5, 58, 59,

whip, 65

60–1, 64–5, 92, 99, 106 rattle, 138–9, 140–1 rifle case, 106 saddle, 63 Salish, 155 sandstone, 146 sculpture. See figurine sheath, 59 shirt, 42–3, 62–3, 99 Siksika (Blackfoot), 46 silver, 129 Sioux, 44, 45, 49, 50, 55, 65, 66 Slavey, 102, 106 snow goggles, 101

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