Excavations at Chester. Medieval and Post-medieval Development Within the Northern and Eastern Suburbs to C. 1900 1789698804, 9781789698800, 9781789698817

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Excavations at Chester. Medieval and Post-Medieval Development within the Northern and Eastern Suburbs to c. 1900 Leigh Dodd

Excavations at Chester. Medieval and Post-Medieval Development within the Northern and Eastern Suburbs to c. 1900 Leigh Dodd

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Contents

List of Figures����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� iv List of Tables���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������v Acknowledgements������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� vi Chapter 1: Introduction�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������1 Summary����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������1 The sites�����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������2 Chapter 2: Tower Wharf and Taylor’s Boatyard 2007–2016 (Sites 1 and 2)������������������������������������������������������������������4 Introduction����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������4 Results ��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������4 Natural deposits and features�����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������5 Roman: c. late 1st to late 2nd centuries AD (Period 1)������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������6 Road������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������6 Pits��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������7 Well�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������7 Circular shaft or well��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������8 Possible building���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������8 Boundary ditches��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������8 Medieval: c. 12th to mid-15th centuries (Period 2)�����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������8 Late medieval to early post-medieval: c. mid-15th to mid-17th centuries (Period 3)�������������������������������������������������8 Inhumation burials�����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������8 Civil War ditch�����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������11 Post-medieval: c. mid-17th to late 18th centuries (Period 4)����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������12 Disuse and filling of the Civil War ditch����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������12 Agricultural soils and boundary ditch������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������12 Industrial: late 18th to 19th centuries (Period 5)������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������13 Tower Wharf �������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������13 Summary of cartographic evidence�����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������13 Archaeological evidence������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������13 Warehouse building (B1)�����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������13 Cottage buildings (B2) and road�����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������13 Building (B3)��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������14 Building (B4) �������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������14 Wharf surface and other features around the North Basin�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������17 Canal cottages (B5)���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������18 Crane base (B6)����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������18 Taylor’s Boatyard������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������18 Summary of cartographic evidence�����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������18 Archaeological evidence������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������18 Boat shed (B7)�����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������18 Building (B8) north of boat shed (B7)��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������18 Shed building (B9)����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������19 Building 10 (B10)�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������19 The finds���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������20 Roman pottery����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������20 Medieval pottery������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������20 Post-medieval pottery���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������20 Pottery from the Civil War ditch [21/2100] (Periods 3–4)���������������������������������������������������������������������������������20 Catalogue of illustrated pottery from the Civil War ditch (Figure 21)�������������������������������������������������������������21 Pottery from the boundary ditch [2006]���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������23 Clay tobacco pipes����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������23 i

Medieval and post-medieval metal finds��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������24 Catalogue of illustrated metal finds (Figure 22)��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������24 Chapter 3: Sites off Trafford Street, Newtown 2015–2018 (Sites 3–6)�������������������������������������������������������������������������26 Introduction��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������26 Results: Former Newtown Bakery (Site 3)�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������26 Results: Oakbase House (Site 4)������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������27 Results: Land off Trafford Street (Site 5)���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������28 Results: Northgate Fire Station (Site 6)�����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������28 Chapter 4: Witter Place, Seller Street 2002 (Site 7)����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������30 Introduction��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������30 Results������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������30 Natural deposits �������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������30 Roman: c. early to mid-2nd century AD (Period 1)���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������30 Medieval to early post-medieval: c. 12th to mid-16th centuries (Period 2)����������������������������������������������������������������31 Post-medieval: c. mid- to late 17th century (Period 3)���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������31 Civil War ditch�����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������33 Disuse and filling of the Civil War ditch����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������33 Late post-medieval: 18th to early 19th century (Period 4)��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������33 The tannery complex�����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������35 The building (B1)������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������35 The pits����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������35 Boundary ditches �����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������39 Agricultural features������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������39 The 19th century terraced housing B2, B3 and B4, and mill (B5) (Period 5)���������������������������������������������������������������39 The finds��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������41 Roman pottery����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������41 Medieval pottery������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������42 Post-medieval pottery���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������42 Clay moulds���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������43 Clay tobacco pipe������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������44 Glass����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������44 Leather�����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������45 Metal finds�����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������45 Animal bone by Naomi Sykes���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������46 Environmental remains by Denise Druce�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������54 Chapter 5: City Road 2007–2008 and 2018 (Sites 8 and 9)�����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������59 Introduction��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������59 Results: 20 City Road (Site 8)�����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������59 Natural deposits��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������59 Roman: c. late 1st to late 2nd centuries AD (Period 1)����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������59 Linear gully and pits������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������59 Post-medieval: 18th century (Period 2)�����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������60 Tanning pits���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������60 Post-medieval: Later 18th to 19th century (Periods 3–7)�����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������61 Garden features and deposits (Periods 3–4)���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������61 Russell Street terraces (B1) (Period 5)�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������61 The 1874 theatre building (B2) (Period 6)�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������62 The 1882 theatre building (B3) and Russell Street brick terraces (B4) (Period 7)������������������������������������������������62 The finds���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������63 Roman pottery����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������63 Medieval pottery������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������64 Post-medieval pottery���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������64 Clay tobacco pipes����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������64 Glass����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������64 Animal remains���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������64 Environmental remains�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������65 ii

Results: City House (Site 9)��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������66 Mid-19th century cottages (B5) (Period 1)�����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������66 Methodist chapel (B6) (Period 2)����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������66 The finds���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������67 Post-medieval finds��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������67 Chapter 6: Discussion���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������68 Tower Wharf and Taylor’s Boatyard (Sites 1 and 2)��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������68 Trafford Street, Newtown (Sites 3 – 6)������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������69 Witter Place, Seller Street (Site 7)��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������69 City Road (Sites 8 and 9)������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������70 Bibliography�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������71

iii

List of Figures Figure 1 Location of the sites investigated�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������1 Figure 2 Graphical conventions used in this volume��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������3 Figure 3 Location of the Tower Wharf (Site 1) and Taylor’s Boatyard (Site 2) areas of investigation�����������������������������5 Figure 4 Tower Wharf (Site 1): plan of the Period 1 Roman features (Areas 1 and 2)��������������������������������������������������������6 Figure 5 Tower Wharf (Site 1): plan of the Period 1 Roman features (Area 3)��������������������������������������������������������������������7 Figure 6 Tower Wharf (Site 1): plan of the Period 3 features (Area 2)����������������������������������������������������������������������������������9 Figure 7 Tower Wharf (Site 1): section of the Period 3 Civil War ditch (Area 2)�����������������������������������������������������������������9 Figure 8 Tower Wharf (Site 1): plan of Period 3 and Period 4 features (Areas 3 and 4)���������������������������������������������������10 Figure 9 Tower Wharf (Site 1): section of the Period 3 Civil War ditch (Area 3)���������������������������������������������������������������10 Figure 10 Tower Wharf (Site 1): section view of Period 3 Civil War ditch in Area 3, view to west��������������������������������11 Figure 11 Tower Wharf (Site 1): view of excavated Period 3 Civil War ditch in Area 3, view to west���������������������������11 Figure 12 Tower Wharf (Site 1): plan of Period 5 features (Areas 3 and 4)������������������������������������������������������������������������14 Figure 13 Tower Wharf (Site 1): view of Period 5 warehouse building B1 in area 3, view to east����������������������������������15 Figure 14 Tower Wharf (Site 1): view of Period 5 road and adjacent cottages B2 in area 3, view to west��������������������15 Figure 15 Tower Wharf (Site 1): view of Period 5 cottage buildings B2 in area 3, view to south�����������������������������������16 Figure 16 Tower Wharf (Site 1): view of Period 5 building B3 in area 4, view to west�����������������������������������������������������16 Figure 17 Tower Wharf (Site 1): view of Period 5 wharf surface in area 4, view to south�����������������������������������������������17 Figure 18 Tower Wharf (Site 1): view of wear to Period 5 wharf surface in area 4, view to west����������������������������������17 Figure 19 Taylor’s Boatyard (Site 2): plan of Period 5 features (Area 6)�����������������������������������������������������������������������������19 Figure 20 Taylor’s Boatyard (Site 2): view of boat shed building B7 in Area 6, view to north����������������������������������������20 Figure 21 Tower Wharf (Site 1): post-medieval pottery forms 1–11 ����������������������������������������������������������������������������������22 Figure 22 Tower Wharf (Site 1): post-medieval metal finds 1–3������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������25 Figure 23 Location of the Trafford Street, Newtown (Sites 3–6) areas of investigation��������������������������������������������������26 Figure 24 Trafford Street, Newtown (Sites 3–6): plan of features and borehole investigations�������������������������������������29 Figure 25 Location of the Witter Place, Seller Street (Site 7) and the nearby City Road (Sites 8 and 9) areas of investigation��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������31 Figure 26 Witter Place, Seller Street (Site 7): view of the site during excavation, view to northeast���������������������������32 Figure 27 Witter Place, Seller Street (Site 7): plan of Period 1 and Period 3 features������������������������������������������������������32 Figure 28 Witter Place, Seller Street (Site 7): sections of Period 3 Civil War ditch�����������������������������������������������������������33 Figure 29 Witter Place, Seller Street (Site 7): view of Period 3 Civil War ditch fills during excavation, view to north���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������34 Figure 30 Witter Place, Seller Street (Site 7): view during excavation of slots into the fills of the Period 3 Civil War ditch, view to west�����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������34 Figure 31 Witter Place, Seller Street (Site 7): view during further excavation into the fills of the Period 3 Civil War ditch, view to west�����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������35 Figure 32 Witter Place, Seller Street (Site 7): plan of Period 4 features�����������������������������������������������������������������������������36 Figure 33 Witter Place, Seller Street (Site 7): view of Period 4 tannery building B1, view to north�����������������������������37 Figure 34 Witter Place, Seller Street (Site 7): view of Period 4 circular stone-lined pit [474] with later floor, view to north�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������37 Figure 35 Witter Place, Seller Street (Site 7): view of Period 4 circular stone-lined pit [474] following partial excavation of later floor revealing the earlier clay floor beneath, view to east���������������������������������������������������������38 Figure 36 Witter Place, Seller Street (Site 7): view of Period 4 D-shaped stone-lined pit [609], view to south�����������38 Figure 37 Witter Place, Seller Street (Site 7): plan of Period 5 features�����������������������������������������������������������������������������40 Figure 38 Witter Place, Seller Street (Site 7): view of Period 5 remains of Seller Street terrace B3, view to northwest�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������41 Figure 39 Witter Place, Seller Street (Site 7): post-medieval pottery forms 1–13������������������������������������������������������������44 Figure 40 Witter Place, Seller Street (Site 7): post-medieval metal finds 1–2�������������������������������������������������������������������46 Figure 41 Witter Place, Seller Street (Site 7): relative % frequencies of the main taxa according to NISP and MNI��47 Figure 42 20 City Road (Site 8): plan of Period 1 and Period 2 features������������������������������������������������������������������������������60 Figure 43 20 City Road (Site 8): plan of Periods 3–5 features�����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������62 Figure 44 20 City Road (Site 8): plan of Periods 6–7 features�����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������63 Figure 45 20 City Road (Site 8): relative % frequencies of the main taxa according to NISP and MNI��������������������������65 Figure 46 City House (Site 9): plan of Period 1 and Period 2 features��������������������������������������������������������������������������������67 iv

List of Tables Table 1 Gazetteer of sites investigated��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������2 Table 2 Tower Wharf (Site 1): pottery from the Civil War ditch early fills (Periods 3–4)������������������������������������������������21 Table 3 Tower Wharf (Site 1): pottery from the Civil War ditch later fills (Period 4)������������������������������������������������������22 Table 4 Tower Wharf (Site 1): clay pipes from the Civil War ditch (Periods 3–4) and boundary ditch fills (Period 4)��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������23 Table 5 Tower Wharf (Site 1): metal finds and coins (Periods 3–4)�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������24 Table 6 Witter Place, Seller Street (Site 7): summary of tanning pits and troughs (Period 4)���������������������������������������39 Table 7 Witter Place, Seller Street (Site 7): pottery from the Civil War ditch feature (Period 3)�����������������������������������42 Table 8 Witter Place, Seller Street (Site 7): pottery from the pit and ditch features (Period 4)�������������������������������������43 Table 9 Witter Place, Seller Street (Site7): clay tobacco pipe from the Civil War ditch (Period 3) and pit and ditch features (Period 4)������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������45 Table 10 Witter Place, Seller Street (Site 7): glass from the Civil War ditch (Period 3) and pit and ditch features (Period 4)����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������45 Table 11 Witter Place, Seller Street (Site 7): summary of the plant remains present in periods 1, 3 and 4�����������������56 Table 12 20 City Road (Site 8): summary of tanning pits (Period 2)������������������������������������������������������������������������������������61

v

Acknowledgements Particular thanks are due to Mark Leah, Development Management Archaeologist and Team Leader, Cheshire Archaeology Planning Advisory Service, Chester West and Chester Council, for his invaluable assistance with the formulation of this volume overall. Particular credit must go also to Mike Morris who, in his role as Chester City Archaeologist over many years, did so much to establish and reinforce the current approach to archaeology in Chester, with its emphasis on preservation in situ. The projects summarised and discussed here involved several archaeological contracting organisations, their staff and volunteers both past and present, without whom this volume could not have been completed. These include: Bluestone Archaeology; Earthworks Archaeological Services; Gifford and Partners; L-P Archaeology; SLR Global Environmental Solutions; the former University of Manchester Archaeology Unit and Wardell Armstrong Archaeology. These are all acknowledged here along with their respective clients, developers and other organisations who funded the individual projects. Thanks are due to the specialists for their input into the wider site reports, including Denise Druce (environmental remains for Witter Place) and Naomi Sykes (animal remains for Witter place and 20 City Road) and to Vanessa Clarke for information regarding the excavations at Witter Place. The reports written and work undertaken by these individuals has by necessity been brought up-to-date following the subsequent examination of the project archives, unpublished ‘grey literature’ reports and other hitherto unpublished material to which they relate. Any omissions, inconsistencies or errors in editing lie, however, with the author of this current volume. Publication of this volume was funded by the Archaeological Planning Advisory Service, a shared service between Cheshire West and Chester Council and Cheshire East Council, which sits within Total Environment.

vi

Chapter 1

Introduction and City Road. The investigations were carried out by a number of archaeological contractors in response to planning applications associated with the considerable urban redevelopment of these areas of Chester during the first two decades of the current millennium.

Summary The archaeological excavations and investigations summarised in this volume were all situated within the historic suburbs to the north and east of the medieval and later City of Chester (Figure 1). The sites investigated within the northern suburbs were clustered around Chester’s canal basin at Tower Wharf and at Trafford Street in the Newtown area, whilst those to the east lay north of Foregate Street and The Bars at Seller Street

Fortunately, owing to the implementation of new planning guidance from 1990 onwards (Planning Policy Guidance Note 16 in 1990, Planning Policy Statement 5 from 2010, and the National Planning

Figure 1 Location of the sites investigated

1

Excavations at Chester. Medieval and Post-Medieval Development Policy Framework from 2012 and revised in 2018), an outcome of this widespread urban redevelopment has been the completion of numerous developer-funded archaeological interventions; from watching briefs to field evaluation and, in certain instances, open-area excavations. Unfortunately, however, the resulting information has often remained confined to the pages of numerous unpublished ‘grey literature’ reports. Two notable exceptions being the recently published results from a post-medieval stone quarry located at Gorse Stacks, to the north of the City (Cuttler et al. 2012), and a 19th-century tannery excavated at Boughton, within Chester’s eastern suburbs (Powell et al. 2018). The overall lack of publication, especially accessible publication, regarding the excavated archaeology of Chester’s post-medieval and industrial past to c.1900 has been highlighted recently by Nevell (2018).

at Chester. Although outside of the main scope of this volume, where evidence for activity during the Roman period was encountered within the sites investigated this has been summarised briefly. The sites To the north of the City the sites investigated (Figure 1, Table 1) were located at Tower Wharf and Taylor’s Boatyard (2007–2016) and at Trafford Street, Newtown (2015–2018). The sites at Tower Wharf and Taylor’s Boatyard were investigated piecemeal over more than a decade and by several archaeological contracting organisations. The results from these sites, effectively six areas of investigation, have been amalgamated here into a single chapter (Chapter 2). Similarly, the four sites investigated around the Trafford Street area of Newtown have been amalgamated into a single chapter (Chapter 3).

This current volume attempts, therefore, to bring together the results of the sites investigated within a single, and importantly, readily accessible volume. Taken together, the results presented here demonstrate the lack of any substantial development at the sites investigated throughout the medieval and early postmedieval periods. Evidence for Chester’s involvement during the Civil War of the mid-17th century and its impact upon the landscape was encountered at two of the sites. However, it is the subsequent urban expansion during the early industrial age that is without doubt the common theme of the sites summarised here. There is, therefore, a bias towards the archaeology of the period from c. 1750 to c. 1900, during which time the canal network, and later, the railway network, arrived

The sites investigated to the east of the City (Figure 1, Table 1) were located at Witter Place, Seller Street (Chapter 4) and at City Road. The two sites at City Road have been amalgamated into a single chapter (Chapter 5). The archives from all of these sites have either been deposited at the Grosvenor Museum, Chester, or are currently being prepared for deposition. An attempt has been made throughout this volume to standardise, where possible, the terminology and conventions adopted by the various archaeological

Table 1 Gazetteer of sites investigated Site Site number

Year/s

Type of investigations/s Evaluation trenches, area excavations, watching briefs

Chapter 2

1

Tower Wharf, Raymond Street

2007–16

2

Taylor’s Boatyard, Upper Cambrian Road

2013

2

3

Newtown Bakery, Trafford Street, Newtown

Evaluation trenches, strip and map record, watching brief

2015

Evaluation trenches and limited area excavation

3

4

Oakbase House, Trafford Street, Newtown 2017

Evaluation trenching

3

5

Land off Trafford Street, Newtown

2018

Evaluation trenching

3

6

Northgate Fire Station, Newtown

2018

Evaluation trenching

3

7

Witter Place, Seller Street

2002

Evaluation trenches, strip and map record, limited area excavation

4

8

20 City Road

2007–8

Evaluation trenches and limited area excavation

5

9

City House, City Road

2013 and 2018

Evaluation trenches and limited area excavation

5

2

Introduction

contracting organisations within their unpublished ‘grey literature’ reports that form the basis of the sites summarised here. Throughout, it has been necessary to limit the number of context numbers referred to within the text in order to avoid duplication and confusion. Similarly, not all context numbers have been included on the accompanying figures. Reports on finds, animal

remains, environmental remains and other specialist fields have been limited to those that are particularly pertinent to the interpretation and, where appropriate, dating of the sites investigated. Graphical conventions used throughout this volume are summarised below (Figure 2).

Figure 2 Graphical conventions used in this volume

3

Chapter 2

Tower Wharf and Taylor’s Boatyard 2007–2016 (Sites 1 and 2) trenching of the Tower Wharf and Taylor’s Boatyard areas was undertaken subsequently (summarised in Towle 2007) (not illustrated) and, additionally, building recording was undertaken on two ranges of industrialera buildings within Taylor’s Boatyard prior to their demolition (Towle 2013). The preliminary investigations indicated that the archaeological remains within the wider proposed development area consisted of evidence for Roman occupation, a probable Civil War era fortification (in the form of a large ditch), and the remains of early industrial buildings associated with the development of the canal. The remains were not distributed evenly across the entire development site; some areas having been disturbed previously by 20thcentury development, whilst elsewhere the survival of archaeological remains was widespread but not deeply stratified.

Introduction Archaeological investigations were undertaken ahead of redevelopment at six sites located within the wider areas of Tower Wharf, Raymond Street, and Taylor’s Boatyard, Upper Cambrian Road, between 2007 and 2016. The sites lie on either side of the Shropshire Union Canal – Tower Wharf on the eastern side (centred on NGR: SJ 4007 6678) and Taylor’s Boatyard on the western side (centred on NGR: SJ 3992 6687) – to the northwest of Chester’s city centre (Figure 1). Originally intended as part of the Ellesmere Canal, this stretch of the Shropshire Union Canal, known as the Wirral Line was built in the 1790s. The southern end of this canal linked with the earlier Chester Canal, built in the 1770s, with the River Mersey, a factor which established Chester as an important canal port. Tower Wharf, at the canal’s southern end, was central to that process, with its own basin and associated buildings. A boat building yard was established on the opposite bank of the canal (becoming the premises of J Taylor in 1917). No longer of use, the basin, or North Basin, was backfilled during the 1950s (Cook and Gardner 2003).

In response to the proposed mixed-use redevelopment of the wider Tower Wharf and Taylor’s Boatyard area, a series of archaeological excavations and investigations was carried out between 2007 and 2016 at six locations (referred to here as Areas 1–6) (Figure 3). The first two excavations, carried out simultaneously between November 2007 and May 2008, consisted of two areas (Areas 1 and 2) located towards the southeast corner of the wider Tower Wharf area. The third area of excavation (Area 3) was located along the south side of the North Basin, and the fourth (Area 4) along the north and east sides of the North Basin; these were carried out in April and May 2009, and September and October 2009, respectively. A combined programme of archaeological strip, map, record and watching brief was carried out on land to the rear of Telford’s Warehouse (Area 5), located towards the southwest corner of the wider Tower Wharf area, between January and February 2016. Archaeological investigations to the west of the Shropshire Union Canal consisted of a combined programme of archaeological strip, map, record, further evaluation trenching and watching brief carried out in August 2013 at the north end of Taylor’s Boatyard (Area 6).

Immediately prior to the archaeological investigations, the western edge of the Tower Wharf area was still associated with the canal, consisting of the canal towpath and the refurbished, and re-opened, North Basin. To the east of the basin was an area of raised waste ground that had previously been occupied by a large telecommunications building. To the south of this waste ground was an unnamed east–west aligned road and, to the south of this, an office building and associated car parking areas. The northern third of Taylor’s Boatyard contained a 19th-century building, latterly used as a garage, that was recorded prior to demolition and ahead of the redevelopment of this area. Lying to the south and beyond the area to be redeveloped, the remaining area of Taylor’s Boatyard contains several buildings relating to the current working boatyard. The wider development area had been subject to both desk-based assessment (UMAU 2003) and limited archaeological excavation (Cook and Gardner 2003), the latter undertaken during restoration work to the North Basin, during which time the remains of five wooden barges, disposed of by sinking into the basin during the 1940s, were encountered. Evaluation

Results The results of the principal archaeology encountered in each of the individual excavations within the wider area of Tower Wharf (Site 1) and Taylor’s Boatyard (Site 2) are combined here into a single narrative based on unpublished grey literature reports produced for Areas 4

Tower Wharf and Taylor’s Boatyard 2007–2016 (Sites 1 and 2)

Figure 3 Location of the Tower Wharf (Site 1) and Taylor’s Boatyard (Site 2) areas of investigation

1 and 2 (Towle 2013), Area 5 (Timmins 2016), and Area 6 (Dodd 2016), along with hitherto unreported results from both Area 3 and Area 4.

east to west, and allowing for later truncation in places, the boulder clay was encountered in areas 1 and 3 at approximately 16.0m and 11.0m AOD respectively, and at approximately 10.0m AOD in Area 6.

Context numbers have been kept to an absolute minimum within the following descriptive account, in an attempt to avoid the confusion that would otherwise arise from the duplicated numbers issued by the various contractors across six areas of excavation. Buildings have been allocated an individual building number (shown as B1, B2 and so on).

Several irregular east–west aligned linear features were identified in the surface of the natural clay in Area 1 and towards the north end of Area 4 (not illustrated). These were investigated by hand excavation and proved to be stratigraphically earlier than any other features encountered, and were interpreted as natural geological features – specifically water-cut gullies predating human occupation of the area. A layer of natural alluvium was encountered towards the north end of Area 4 overlying both the boulder clay and filling one such natural feature.

Natural deposits and features The underlying solid geology consisting of red sandstone bedrock was encountered in areas 1, 2 and 3. Natural drift deposits overlying the bedrock consisted of pink-red boulder clay with sandy inclusions. Reflecting the natural slope of the topography from

There was no evidence for prehistoric occupation within any of the areas excavated. 5

Excavations at Chester. Medieval and Post-Medieval Development

Figure 4 Tower Wharf (Site 1): plan of the Period 1 Roman features (Areas 1 and 2)

east–west aligned linear depression in the surface of the natural boulder clay. This depression has been interpreted as a natural gully or hollow way, and the pebbles as metalling for a road or track. Within Area 2 the southern edge of this metalling was defined by a linear ditch [2060=2082] measuring up to 1.9m wide and 0.8m deep. The metalling was encountered extending into Area 3, as context (44), with linear ditches defining both the north and south edges; contexts [51] and [46] respectively. These ditches measured between 0.3m and 0.5m wide and survived to a depth of 0.1m. In Area 2 the road survived for a maximum width of 2.2m owing to significant truncation along the northern edge by a later (Period 3) ditch. In spite of similar later disturbance in Area 3, the road was shown to measure 7.0m wide in

Roman: c. late 1st to late 2nd centuries AD (Period 1) Features and deposits dating to the Roman period were encountered at the level of the natural boulder clay in areas 1, 2 and 3 only (Figures 4 and 5). As the Roman archaeology from these areas falls outside the scope of this volume it is reported here in summary and considered as a single period of activity dating primarily to between the late 1st century and late 2nd century AD. Road In Area 2, a discontinuous spread of compacted pebbles and small cobbles (2050) was encountered within an 6

Tower Wharf and Taylor’s Boatyard 2007–2016 (Sites 1 and 2)

Figure 5 Tower Wharf (Site 1): plan of the Period 1 Roman features (Area 3)

its entirety. Between the two areas of excavation, the road metalling and, in places, the associated road-side ditches, was traced for a distance of approximately 70m.

Well In Area 1 a well was encountered. This was a substantial cut feature [2323] measuring 2.4m by 2.6m at the surface of the natural clay into which it was cut. The corners of the cut were rounded and the sides were almost vertical, penetrating through the boulder clay into the sandstone bedrock below, at which point the sides narrowed to a ledge measuring 1.5m by 1.5m. The shaft narrowed again from this point to 1.12m by 1.12m and descended vertically to the maximum handexcavated depth of 3.0m below the surface. Shallow foot holes were noted in the side of the shaft in the lower section to aid access/egress during its construction and use. Located within the corners of the ledge were four circular rock-cut postholes, each 0.35m in diameter and excavated to a depth of 0.22m below the level of

The remaining Roman period features were confined to areas 1 and 2 only. Pits In Area 1 a scattered group of four pits was encountered, and in Area 2 a further nine pits were encountered in a linear group extending east–west along the south edge of the Roman road ditch, some of these pits were intercut. The function of these pits was unclear, most were roughly circular in plan 2.0m–4.0m in diameter and less than 1.0m deep. Ceramics from the fills to these pits were dated to the late 1st to late 2nd century AD. 7

Excavations at Chester. Medieval and Post-Medieval Development the ledge. These were probably cut to carry a timber superstructure, and perhaps to retain a timber lining to the upper part of the well. Unfortunately, no artefacts were recovered from the initial fill (2324) of the well. The fill was investigated by auger for a further 2.1m beyond that reached by hand-excavation, but auguring was not possible beyond this point.

Two hammered coins, consisting of one Short Cross penny of late 13th-century date and one Long Cross penny of early 14th-century date, together with a third cut penny (undated), were recovered from level of the alluvial deposit (2004) encountered towards the north end of Area 4. It is likely that the wider area was under cultivation during this period and these coins, as casual losses, along with a handful of pottery sherds, had become incorporated into this material through agricultural activity.

Circular shaft or well Of note in Area 2 was a circular, rock-cut shaft [2022] measuring 1.0m in diameter and cut to a depth of 1.2m. This circular shaft may have been an abandoned attempt to excavate a well as no other function was considered likely (Towle 2013, 18).

A further hammered coin, worn and of broad 13th- to 15th-century date, was recovered from a Period 4 ditch in Area 3. Late medieval to early post-medieval: c. mid-15th to mid-17th centuries (Period 3)

Possible building Post-dating the pits in Area 2 were features interpreted as a building. The principal features consisted of a cut terraced platform [2200] measuring 3.2m by 3.8m and up to 0.34m deep. Within the terraced cut were shallow deposits of compacted clay and charcoal-rich spreads. These were interpreted as floor surfaces or trample created during construction and occupation of the postulated building. A north–south linear cut [2168] measuring 3.0m long, 0.2m wide and 0.04m deep, was located within the terrace, close to the eastern limit. This feature was interpreted as a probable sill beam slot inserted into the floor surface. Adjacent to the east side of the terraced building was a linear gully [2121] measuring 3.2m long, 0.2m wide and 0.05m deep. This was parallel to the terrace edge and sill beam slot, and may be interpreted as an eaves-drip gully designed to keep water away from the building. The northern, southern and western limits of the building were truncated by later intrusions.

Three human burials were encountered in Area 2 (Figure 6). Successful carbon-14 dating of one of these placed it, and by association, the other two, into the early post-medieval period (Towle 2013: Appendix E). The burials were an unexpected feature of the Tower Wharf excavations, since none were identified during the evaluation trenching, and there are no known Christian-era burial grounds in the vicinity. The most significant feature of the excavations in Area 2 and Area 3 was a monumental linear cut feature interpreted as a defensive ditch forming part of Chester’s Civil War defences of 1643 (Figures 6–11). This feature generally followed the route of the Period 1 Roman road, although its construction removed much of that feature. Inhumation burials Skeleton (2040) was a crouched inhumation with lower legs folded beneath its thighs, lying on its left side, within an east–west grave cut [2041]. The skull and upper vertebrae were located beneath the torso, having been completely detached prior to burial. Preservation of the skeleton was good, in marked contrast to the other two inhumations. Skeleton (2040) was that of a tall male adult, aged 18–22. Carbon-14 dating of the remains was successful, with a calibrated date of AD 1460–1640 (SUERC-19772: at 95.4% probability).

Boundary ditches The final features of note included an east–west aligned ditch [2111] measuring over 20m in length, 1.07m wide and 0.38m deep. Post-dating the earlier terraced building in Area 2, this ditch was interpreted as a boundary running parallel to the Roman road and ditch located 5m to the north. A second ditch [2005] was encountered close to the southern limit of Area 2, 3.8m to the south of, and parallel to, ditch [2111]. This ditch was 0.5m wide and 0.1m deep and was traced for 13m. The two ditches were considered to be broadly contemporary, perhaps forming part of a field system or property boundary.

Within grave cut [2102], located 25m to the southeast of skeleton (2040), were the poorly preserved fragmentary remains of an extended inhumation, skeleton (2188). The skeleton was laid on its back with the head to the north and the arms by its side, knees slightly bent and turned to the west. The skeleton was sufficiently complete to demonstrate that it was a fully articulated adult at deposition, but survived only as a compact stain with no bone surviving for analysis.

Medieval: c. 12th to mid-15th centuries (Period 2) There was no evidence for post-Roman, Saxon or early medieval occupation within any of the excavated areas. 8

Tower Wharf and Taylor’s Boatyard 2007–2016 (Sites 1 and 2)

Figure 6 Tower Wharf (Site 1): plan of the Period 3 features (Area 2)

Figure 7 Tower Wharf (Site 1): section of the Period 3 Civil War ditch (Area 2)

9

Excavations at Chester. Medieval and Post-Medieval Development

Figure 8 Tower Wharf (Site 1): plan of Period 3 and Period 4 features (Areas 3 and 4)

Figure 9 Tower Wharf (Site 1): section of the Period 3 Civil War ditch (Area 3)

10

Tower Wharf and Taylor’s Boatyard 2007–2016 (Sites 1 and 2)

Figure 10 Tower Wharf (Site 1): section view of Period 3 Civil War ditch in Area 3, view to west

Skeleton (2175), contained within north–south aligned grave cut [2174], was located 5m to the northwest of skeleton (2040). These remains consisted of a limited assemblage of bone (fragments of skull, ribs, right scapular and humerus, and the left femur) with stains indicative of the presence of further bones which were not present on lifting. The distribution of the bones and stains suggested that the skeleton had been buried in an extended position on its back. Civil War ditch In Area 2 the Civil War ditch cut [2100], aligned east– west, extended across and beyond the limits of the excavation area. Here, the ditch measured over 47m long, up to 4.8m wide and was cut to a depth of 1.9m into the sandstone bedrock. In Area 2, the full profile of the ditch was partially obscured by later truncation, but the surviving evidence was that of a broad, V-shaped, flatbottomed ditch. Discontinuous, narrow, rock-cut gullies were located along the northern and southern edges of the base of the ditch. These varied between 0.1m and 0.4m wide and up to 0.3m deep. The function of these gullies remains uncertain, but localised drainage sumps is perhaps one possibility. Random patches of cobbles encountered at the base of the ditch are more likely to have derived from erosion of the Period 1 Roman road surface into the open ditch rather than serving as an unnecessary surfacing within such a rock-cut feature.

Figure 11 Tower Wharf (Site 1): view of excavated Period 3 Civil War ditch in Area 3, view to west

11

Excavations at Chester. Medieval and Post-Medieval Development In Area 3 the ditch cut, recorded as [21], again extended east–west across and beyond the limits of the excavation area. Here, the ditch measured over 28m long, up to 7.6m wide and up to 2.9m deep having been excavated through the boulder clay and down into the sandstone bedrock. The profile of the ditch was similar to that encountered in Area 2. The discontinuous, narrow, rock-cut gullies were again encountered along the northern and southern edges of the base of the ditch, along with random patches of cobbles.

implying that the ditch was not finally backfilled until well into the 18th century. This deliberate backfilling and levelling of the ditch may, therefore, be considered as preparatory work prior to the construction of the adjacent canal and basin complex during the subsequent principal period of activity (Period 5). The clay used to backfill the ditch may have derived from such canal excavations, but it can be considered more likely to have been the material from the associated earth bank to the Civil War defensive ditch itself.

Post-medieval: c. mid-17th to late 18th centuries (Period 4)

Samples taken from the fill sequence within the Civil War ditch proved to contain no organic material.

This period witnessed the filling of the disused Civil War ditch of the preceding period. Additionally, a field boundary ditch and widespread agricultural soils were encountered in those areas not significantly affected by the later development of the wider area.

Agricultural soils and boundary ditch In Area 4, north of the Period 4 Civil War ditch and north of the area disturbed by the later canal basin and associated buildings and surfaces (Period 5), a widespread agricultural soil consisting of brown sand (2003) was encountered, this overlay the natural alluvial deposit (2004). Pottery, clay tobacco pipes and metal finds (cloth seals and coins in particular) recovered from (2003) were dated to between the mid17th century and the early to mid-18th century.

Disuse and filling of the Civil War ditch The primary fill within ditch [21=2100] generally consisted of dark brown clay-silt (2031) in Area 2, and (22/23) in Area 3, followed by subsequent deposits of grey-brown silt-clay, such as (2028) in Area 2, (20) and (18/19) in Area 3, along with clay (42) that had slumped into the ditch from the sides of the cut. These secondary deposits formed a distinct line showing a hiatus in the disuse of the ditch as the initial slumping and silting stabilised to form a relatively consistent concave profile to the partially filled ditch. Pottery recovered from the primary fills in Area 3 was generally of 17th-century date, whilst that from the secondary deposits was of 17th- to early 18th century date. Parallels for several of the vessels were present in Civil War and post-Civil War assemblages from both Chester (Axworthy Rutter 1987) and Beeston Castle, Cheshire (Noake 1993). Other finds from the primary fill (22) in Area 3 included a number of lead shot and a possible musket rest in the form of a Y-shaped iron object.

Close to the north edge of the Area 4 excavation, and aligned east–west, was a linear ditch [2006] (see Figure 8). This feature extended for a distance greater than 55m across and beyond the limits of the excavation area and measured 2m wide, with a broad shallow profile and depth of up to 0.2m, and was cut into the underlying soil (2004). The grey-brown silt fill (2005/2104) to this ditch produced pottery and clay tobacco pipes spanning the period from the mid-17th century through to the early/ mid-18th century, along with lead shot munitions, and three lead cloth seals; one dated to the 1650s and bearing the arms of the Commonwealth period (1649– 60). Additional evaluation trenches excavated in Area 6 at Taylor’s Boatyard during 2013 revealed a further widespread agricultural soil sealing the natural clay geology. Pottery and clay tobacco pipes dating to between the mid-17th century and mid-18th century were recovered from this soil also.

Palaeoenvironmental analysis of a sample from fill (2031), in Area 2, identified the presence of small quantities of burnt botanical remains, specifically cereal grains (wheat and rye) and weeds (knapweed, goosefoot and hemp nettle). These species suggest the adjacent land use was mixed arable and pasture/ meadow (Schmidl et al. 2008: 6).

Evidence for a significant change in land use was encountered in Area 6 in the form of a distinct charcoal and coal-flecked black soil measuring up to 0.2m thick. This overlay the agricultural soil and was, in turn, sealed beneath a thin layer of yellow-orange clay containing friable fragments of brick and soft lumps of heat-reddened clay. These deposits were interpreted as possible evidence for brick manufacturing, probably in the form of clamp firings, within this general area, if not within the site itself, during the 18th century.

Following the formation of the secondary fills, a clear phase of deliberate backfilling to the ditch was indicated by substantial clay-rich deposits recorded in sections excavated in both Area 2 and Area 3. In Area 2 this clay was represented principally by deposits (2038) and (2027), and in Area 3 by deposit (17). Sherds of white salt-glazed stoneware and creamware were present in the small assemblage of pottery recovered from (17), 12

Tower Wharf and Taylor’s Boatyard 2007–2016 (Sites 1 and 2)

Indeed, this particular plot of land is recorded as ‘Brick Banks’ in the 1847 tithe survey.

ditch that had disturbed the otherwise firm ground beneath. Extending northwards from this building were two parallel walls set 9.5m apart, these had originally formed a loading bay channel that passed beneath the warehouse building from the North Basin; following the abandonment of the building and later alterations to the basin, the channel was backfilled with clay and cinders.

Industrial: late 18th to 19th centuries (Period 5) The principal archaeological features of this period consisted primarily of structural remains relating to the Wirral Line of the Shropshire Union Canal. This line extended Chester’s existing canal network (constructed in the 1770s but which had fallen into disuse by 1790) northwards to the Mersey at what was to become Ellesmere Port. Work on the canal began in 1793 and was completed in 1797 (Hadfield 1966: 166–172).

The brick foundations to a small extension to the northwest corner of B1 were encountered; this extension measured 5.5m by 4.5m. Cartographic evidence implies that this extension to B1 was constructed at some point between 1872 and 1892.

Tower Wharf

The brick foundations to a small extension to the north-east corner of B1 were encountered; this extension measured 5.0m wide east–west but had largely been destroyed. Extending eastwards from this extension were the brick foundations to a probable boundary wall; this survived for a maximum length of 5.3m. Cartographic evidence implies that the northeast extension to B1 was constructed at some point between prior to 1872 and the boundary wall at some point between 1872 and 1898. There was evidence that the boundary wall had subsided into the soft fills to the earlier Civil War ditch beneath.

Summary of cartographic evidence The original wharfage at the Chester end of the canal was at Tower Wharf and Telford’s Warehouse. Later the North Basin was constructed along with a four-storey warehouse, cottages, and offices, all of which appear on Wood’s map of Chester 1833. A property labelled as ‘Clive Cottage’ with its associated yard, possibly the canal manager’s dwelling, had been built to the east of the North Basin by 1847 when they appear on the tithe map.

No floor surfaces survived within B1 and its extensions. An area of cobblestone surfacing lay to the west of B1 and the north-west extension, measuring at least 10.5m by 1.5m.

By 1872 the cottages and other buildings had been expanded and Clive Cottage had an associated private garden. Also by this time a range of sheds had been built next to the canal between the basin and the offices and cranes had been installed. By 1898 the range of buildings east of the basin had been demolished and replaced with a range of stables by 1923.

Cottage buildings (B2) and road To the east of building B1 lay the brick foundations to a range of four small cottages measuring up to 15.0m by 5.0m fronting onto a road (Figures 14 and 15). The presence of an internal brick foundation demonstrated that the westernmost cottage was subdivided into two unequally sized rooms. Deposits of clay and cinders formed levelling dumps within these rooms but no floor surfaces survived.

The four storey warehouse and cottages north of the basin were demolished by 1959, the remaining cottages, the stables, and Clive Cottage were demolished by 1968 (UMAU 2003: 9). Archaeological evidence The archaeological remains encountered within the area of Tower Wharf consisted mostly of brick foundations to buildings, together with floor and other surfaces, surrounding the North Basin of the canal in Area 3 and Area 4 (Figure 12), with an outlying crane base encountered in Area 5 (located on Figure 3).

The central pair of cottages contained back-to-back fireplaces, one with a hearth of sandstone and the other of brick. Internal floor surfaces of red tiles survived in both cottages set upon levelling deposits of cinder and yellow sand. The easternmost cottage was only partially exposed. This contained the remains of a floor surface consisting of bricks set upon a deposit of orange sand.

Warehouse building (B1) South of the North Basin, evidence for the warehouse building (B1) was provided by brick foundations rectangular in plan and measuring 22.5m by 9.0m (Figure 13). The foundations were five bricks wide to compensate for the soft fills to the earlier Civil War

The range of cottages (B2) fronted onto a road surface aligned east–west. This road measured up to 5.0m wide and was traced for 10.0m and was constructed from grey cobblestones. A central, narrow drainage 13

Excavations at Chester. Medieval and Post-Medieval Development

Figure 12 Tower Wharf (Site 1): plan of Period 5 features (Areas 3 and 4)

channel, constructed from grey bricks, ran along the centre of the road. None of the yard areas indicated on cartographic sources and located to the rear of the cottages were exposed during the excavation of Area 3.

this contained a hearth formed from a single slab of yellow sandstone. Deposits of clay and cinders formed levelling dumps within these rooms but no floor surfaces survived.

Building (B3)

Building (B4)

In Area 4, to the east of the North Basin, evidence for a building (B3) aligned east–west, was provided by brick foundations (Figure 16). These foundations measured 7.0m by 4.0m and included internal foundations subdivided the building into a range of at least three rooms. The central room contained brickwork to a fireplace located along the north wall of the building,

To the north of Building 3, an east–west aligned brick wall foundation, measuring 9.0m long, formed the remains to Building 4. Located to the south of this brick wall was an L-shaped arrangement of thin red sandstone slabs set on edge to form a large trough, or pit, measuring at least 6.0m by 2.0m. Contained within this trough was a deposit of dark brown soil. 14

Tower Wharf and Taylor’s Boatyard 2007–2016 (Sites 1 and 2)

Figure 13 Tower Wharf (Site 1): view of Period 5 warehouse building B1 in area 3, view to east

Figure 14 Tower Wharf (Site 1): view of Period 5 road and adjacent cottages B2 in area 3, view to west

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Excavations at Chester. Medieval and Post-Medieval Development

Figure 15 Tower Wharf (Site 1): view of Period 5 cottage buildings B2 in area 3, view to south

Figure 16 Tower Wharf (Site 1): view of Period 5 building B3 in area 4, view to west

16

Tower Wharf and Taylor’s Boatyard 2007–2016 (Sites 1 and 2)

Figure 17 Tower Wharf (Site 1): view of Period 5 wharf surface in area 4, view to south

This building, or structural arrangement, appears on mapping alongside Clive Cottage by 1872; no evidence for Clive Cottage itself was encountered within Area 3. Wharf surface and other features around the North Basin An extensive surface, constructed from grey cobblestones, lay along the east side of the North Basin in Area 4 (Figure 17). This surface covered an area measuring 45.0m by 10.0m and appeared to be contemporary with the buildings located in this area. No features of significance were associated with this surface, although it exhibited evidence of wear, in the form of wheel ruts, and patched repairs. A particularly heavily rutted area was located to the north of Building 3 implying that the passage of wheeled traffic in this area of the wharf was substantial (Figure 18). To the east of the North Basin, amongst the otherwise apparently isolated posthole and small pit features encountered, were two particular groups that may have formed small timber structures, or garden features, perhaps associated with Clive Cottage and its gardens towards the end of the 19th century. Pit group 1 consisted of eight small circular pits arranged in a circular pattern around a central, larger, pit. The group had a diameter of approximately 3.0m.

Figure 18 Tower Wharf (Site 1): view of wear to Period 5 wharf surface in area 4, view to west

17

Excavations at Chester. Medieval and Post-Medieval Development To the north of pit group 1 lay a further group of seven small circular pits (pit group 2), apparently randomly spaced, together with a larger, rectangular pit.

narrow gauge railway extended northwards from this particular shed. Most of the buildings within the northern part of the boatyard had been demolished by 1959. However, the shed with the railway line had been extended westwards and further small buildings erected. In the 1980s this group of buildings was later amalgamated into a larger structure which was in use as a garage. Prior to its demolition in 2007 this complex was subject to building recording (Towle 2013: 70–79).

The management of ground water was facilitated by a brick-lined drain located to the north of Building 2, and at least two brick-lined and capped drains located to the north of Building 4. All of these drain would have discharged into the North Basin. Canal cottages (B5) Located on the west side of the North Basin were the remains of a range of buildings (B5). These remains consisted of brick foundations measuring 8.0m by 3.0m and probably represented at least two dwellings, the northern one having evidence for internal subdivision. No internal floor surfaces survived but the remains of a brick path was encountered running alongside the east edge of the building.

Archaeological evidence In Area 6, overlaying the Period 4 burnt clay layer, was a widespread deposit of redeposited natural clay measuring up to 0.4m thick. This clay was interpreted as material derived from the cutting of the adjacent canal and basin during the 1790s (Dodd 2016: 12). Building foundations in trenches cut into this material and relating to the boat-building yard of the 1870s were encountered across the area (Figure 19).

Crane base (B6) In Area 5, close to the east bank of the Shropshire Union Canal, the base to a crane (Building 6) was encountered (location marked on Figure 3). This consisted of a platform, constructed from blocks of red sandstone, extending over an area measuring 3.9m by 4.2m, with a cast iron mount at its centre. A groove surrounding the mount probably facilitated the movement of wheels, rollers or an outer casing of the rotating mechanism (Timmins 2016: 12). The crane platform was surrounded by cobblestones, which were edged with a kerb.

Boat shed (B7) Remains associated with this large open-sided building (B7) dominated the east half of the Area 6 excavations (Figure 20). The remains comprised the bases of large, brick-built piers each measuring 1.7m by 1.7m, set into the natural clay and located at the northwest and southwest corners of the building, along with the bases of smaller piers located midway along the west, north, and south sides of the building; each measuring 1.0m by 1.1m. Internal features comprised a narrow north– south aligned brick-line and capped culvert drain with an east–west spur located midway along, together with a trench containing remnants of a ceramic drain pipe located along the west side of the building. Building 7 measured 27.0m long and in excess of 7.5m wide. Building 7 is depicted on the 1872 mapping.

Taylor’s Boatyard Summary of cartographic evidence Located on the west bank of the Ellesmere Canal, the boat-building yard, now known as Taylor’s Boatyard, was established by 1872 and was taken over by J Taylor, a local boat builder, in 1917 (Carrington 1994: 114). Prior to the establishment of the yard, cartographic evidence (Gresty’s map of Chester 1870) shows a building labelled as a ‘Powder Magazine’ situated towards the north end of this area alongside the canal.

Building (B8) north of boat shed (B7) The remains of the west half of Building 8 were encountered close to the canal bank and north of the boat shed (B7). These remains consisted of a 4.4m length of lime-mortared brick foundations aligned north– south, with stubs of east–west wall returns located at both the north end and probable centre, subdividing the internal area of the building; both returns and the south end of Building 8 had been heavily truncated. No features were encountered that could assist with the interpretation of this building, though it probably served as a shed or workshop. Building 8 is depicted on 1872 mapping as a rectangular building extending westwards but by the time of the publication of 1898 mapping this building has been reduced in size to a small, square structure. No physical evidence for

By 1872 the northern part of the boatyard complex – the focus of the archaeological investigations – contained a boat repairing shed, a travelling crane and, north of the boat repairing shed, a further smaller building. By 1898 the western half of the smaller building had been demolished and four new shed buildings had been constructed. A long range was extended northwards from one of these sheds by 1908 and a 1924 dated canal company plan of northern part of Taylor’s Boatyard (reproduced in UMAU 2003: Figure 9) shows that a 18

Tower Wharf and Taylor’s Boatyard 2007–2016 (Sites 1 and 2)

Figure 19 Taylor’s Boatyard (Site 2): plan of Period 5 features (Area 6)

the western extension was encountered during the excavation.

would probably have supported a timber superstructure above the level of the surrounding ground. Building 9 appears on mapping of the site by 1898 and extends over the area previously occupied by the west end of Building 8.

Shed building (B9) Located to the north of Building 7, and to the west of Building 8, a series of three east–west aligned dwarf sleeper walls represented the remains of Building 9. These walls each measured 0.34m wide and survived for lengths of between 2.8m and 1.5m, the building measuring 7.4m in length. These dwarf sleeper walls

Building 10 (B10) The brick foundations to the north-west corner of Building 10 were encountered towards the south-west corner of Area 6. These remains comprised a north– 19

Excavations at Chester. Medieval and Post-Medieval Development oxidised fabrics, primarily from the Holt workshops, and traded wares from Dorset and the Midlands (Blackburnished ware, Severn Valley ware, and mortaria from Mancetter-Hartshill). The assemblage was generally fragmentary with less than half of the sherds being identified to form. Those forms that were identified included flagons, jars, dishes/bowls, lids, mortaria and amphorae. The assemblage was dated to the late 1st to mid-/late 2nd century (Towle 2013: Appendix A). Medieval pottery A total of nine sherds of medieval pottery, weighing 368g, were recovered from the Tower Wharf excavations. The pottery was entirely residual, either incorporated into the underlying natural deposits through agricultural activity in Area 4, or else residual in later features and deposits in areas 2 and 3. The pottery consisted of sherds from jugs and jars in local red/grey fabrics and pink/white fabrics; the former found in Chester from the mid-13th century, and the latter comparable to products probably produced in the Ewloe area of Flintshire between the 14th and 16th centuries (Edwards 2008: 188). Two sherds of imported pottery were recovered, both from France, consisting of a sherd from a green-glazed jug in Saintonge ware and a sherd from a Beauvais green-glazed dish with combed decoration, the latter dating to the late 15th to early 16th century (Hurst et al. 1986: 106).

Figure 20 Taylor’s Boatyard (Site 2): view of boat shed building B7 in Area 6, view to north

south aligned brick footing measuring over 7.3m, with an eastern return at the north end traced for 3.0m. A further 4.5m length of brick foundation was traced northwards from, and abutting the north edge of, the building was clearly a later addition. Building 10 first appears on the 1898 mapping of the site. By the publication of the 1908 O.S. map, a long linear extension running northwards from this building has been constructed. Recording undertaken prior to the demolition of the buildings occupying the Taylor’s Boatyard site demonstrated that Building 10 had been subsumed within a larger complex of late twentiethcentury workshops and office buildings (Towel 2013: 72).

Post-medieval pottery In total, the Tower Wharf excavations (areas 1 –5) produced 507 sherds, weighing 15,015g, of postmedieval pottery. An additional 35 sherds, weighing 776g, of post-medieval pottery were recovered from the Taylor’s Boatyard excavations (Area 6). The assemblage as a whole was very fragmentary with most of the vessels represented by a single sherd only. The pottery was spread across a number of features and deposits, although the majority was recovered from the Civil War ditch and boundary ditch features assigned to periods 3 and 4; the pottery from these features forms the basis of the following report. Pottery ware names that are in common use within Chester and across the north-west and west midlands and have been adopted here (see Edwards 2008: 187–242).

The finds Roman pottery A total of 930 sherds of Roman pottery, weighing 21, 445g, were recovered from the Tower Wharf excavations. Pottery was recovered primarily from the group of Period 1 features in areas 1 and 2, and the Roadside ditch in Area 3; the remaining sherds were recovered residually from later features and deposits across the areas of excavation.

Pottery from the Civil War ditch [21/2100] (Periods 3–4) A total of 164 sherds, weighing 6864g, of post-medieval pottery came from the stratigraphically earliest fills of this ditch (contexts 2019, 2031, 2049 in Area 2, and contexts 18, 22, 23 in Area 3) (Table 2). Of these 74

The pottery consisted of imported samian ware and amphorae, locally produced coarsewares in reduced and 20

Tower Wharf and Taylor’s Boatyard 2007–2016 (Sites 1 and 2)

Table 2 Tower Wharf (Site 1): pottery from the Civil War ditch early fills (Periods 3–4) Area

Area 2

Context Ware/Quant. Blackware

2019 No.

2031 Wt. 184

No.

2049

Wt.

22

1200

Buff-bodied ware

1

12

Creamware

1

Brown stoneware

3

Cistercian ware

Midland Purple

2

178

2

Mottled ware

Pearlware

Tin-glazed ware

No. 24

1

12

2

2

9

110

18 Wt.

1046

1

Yellow ware

Total

4

196

2

32

42

1553

3

22 Wt. 258

19

16 98

11

196

Unglazed redware White stoneware

No.

1

2

North Devon

Slipware

Area 3

38

sherds (3105g) were recovered from Area 2 and 90 sherds (3759g) from Area 3. A further 116 sherds, weighing 3555g, were recovered from the final fill deposits (contexts 2011, 2023 in Area 2, and context 17 in Area 3) (Table 3).

1356

No.

188

1

1

2

19

79

545

Wt.

34

2218

3

18

3

236

1

128

13

365

3

133

1 4

12

23

3

65

No.

Wt.

6

23

6

23

3

62

28

3191

range of forms and decorative techniques employed on these vessels compares closely with those from the Civil War and post-Civil War deposits from Beeston Castle (Cheshire) (Noake 1993: figures 136 and 144). The remaining vessels were limited to a handful of sherds of general mid-17th century to early 18th century date. The latest material consisted of very small quantities of refined white-bodied wares (white salt-glazed stoneware, creamware and pearlware) of the mid- to late 18th century. However, these sherds were considered to have been misallocated or otherwise intrusive (Towle 2013: Appendix A).

The lowermost fills of the ditch consisted of the primary silting of soil into the ditch along with cobblestones that probably derived from the Roman road surface through which the feature had cut. A small collection of sherds of brown stoneware, including those from a bottle or cup of Frechen (German) origin and dating to the 17th century, were recovered from this layer. This pottery may be considered contemporary with the construction and initial use of the ditch.

The later deposits within the ditch produced a similar range of wares and forms, and therefore of a generally similar date, to those encountered within the stratigraphically earlier deposits. Blackware was again the most dominant ware (56.8% by sherd count) followed, again, by the slipwares (11.2% by sherd count). The presence of sherds of white salt-glazed stoneware (c. 1720+) and creamware (c. 1740+) within these deposits, however, implies that the ditch was not finally filled until a century after its creation.

The most abundant pottery recovered from the subsequent deposits consisted of blackware (52.4% by sherd count). Vessel forms consisted of large storage jars, bowls/dishes and finer-bodied cups; fine-bodied cups were also present in Cistercian-type ware of the 16th century or early 17th century. The profiles of some of the jars and bowls compares closely with vessels from the Civil War and post-Civil War deposits from both Chester (Axworthy Rutter 1987: figures 5 –6) and Beeston Castle (Cheshire) (Noake 1993: figures 130–132). The second most abundant were the slipware vessels (23.8% by sherd count). Vessel forms consisted of dishes/bowls with trailed or combed decoration, cups and a probable chamber pot. Again, the general

Catalogue of illustrated pottery from the Civil War ditch (Figure 21) 1. 21

Blackware jar. Civil War ditch. Area 3, fill (22) (cf. Noake 1993: figure 130; nos. 1, 10 and 11).

Excavations at Chester. Medieval and Post-Medieval Development Table 3 Tower Wharf (Site 1): pottery from the Civil War ditch later fills (Period 4) Area

Area 2

Context

Area 3

2011

2023

17

Ware/Quant.

No.

Wt.

No.

Wt.

No.

Wt.

Blackware

17

846

30

1496

19

427

Brown stoneware

1

10

Buff-bodied ware

1

24

Cistercian ware

4

31

Creamware

2

26

Midland Purple

4

160

Mottled ware

5

50

1

10

Slipware

5

84

6

46

2

30

2

6

4

76

2

38

1

3

2

59

Tin-glazed ware Unglazed redware

2

60

White stoneware Yellow ware

1

8

2

28

3

37

Total

32

1082

44

1627

40

846

Figure 21 Tower Wharf (Site 1): post-medieval pottery forms 1–11

22

Tower Wharf and Taylor’s Boatyard 2007–2016 (Sites 1 and 2)

2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11.

Blackware jar. Civil War ditch. Area 3, fill (22) (cf. Noake 1993: figure 130; no. 3). Blackware jar with horizontal strap handles. Civil War ditch. Area 3, fill (22) (cf. Noake 1993: figure 131; no. 15). Blackware jar with internal lid seating. Civil War ditch. Area 3, fill (22). Blackware jar or chamber pot. Civil War ditch. Area 3, fill (22). (cf. Edwards 2008: illustration 5.5.20; no. 87). Blackware dish. Civil War ditch. Area 3, fill (22) (cf. Axworthy Rutter 1987: figure 6; no. 19). Blackware dish. Civil War ditch. Area 3, fill (22) (cf. Noake 1993: figure 132; no. 39). Blackware dish with handle. Civil War ditch. Area 3, fill (22) (cf. Noake 1993: figure 132; no. 41). Slipware dish with trailed decoration. Civil War ditch. Area 3, fill (22) (cf. Noake 1993: figure 136; no. 99). Slipware chamber pot, or large cup, with combed decoration. Civil War ditch. Area 3, fill (22) (cf. Noake 1993: figure 144; no. 231). Mottled ware bowl. Civil War ditch. Area 3, fill (22) (cf. Edwards 2008: illustration 5.5.22; no. 110).

bodied cups in Cistercian-type ware (13.6% by sherd count). Blackware dominated the assemblage (33.3% by sherd count), followed by slipware (21.2% by sherd count). Vessels included jars, bowls and finer-bodied cups in the former ware category, and both thrown and press-moulded dishes, along with cups, in the latter. Other wares included Midland Purple ware (a jar), yellow ware (jars and bowls), mottled ware (mugs and a cup), brown stoneware (a cup or bottle; possibly Frechen), white salt-glazed stoneware (cups, a plate and a jug) and Chinese porcelain (a tea bowl and a small slop bowl). The assemblage spans the 16th/early 17th century through to the mid-18th century, although the greater majority probably falls within the mid-17th to early 18th century date range. Clay tobacco pipes In total, the Tower Wharf excavations (areas 1 –5) produced a total of 260 fragments of pipe (40 bowls and 220 stem fragments). An additional 70 fragments of pipe (seven bowls and 63 stem fragments) were recovered from the Taylor’s Boatyard excavations (Area 6). As with the post-medieval pottery, the pipe was spread across a number of features and deposits, although the majority was recovered from the Civil War ditch and boundary ditch features assigned to periods 3 and 4; the pipe from these features forms the basis of the following report (Table 4).

Pottery from the boundary ditch [2006] A total of 66 sherds, weighing 1482g, of post-medieval pottery came from the fills (2005/2104) of the ditch in Area 4. The assemblage was very fragmentary.

The pipes from the Civil War ditch account for 13.5% of the total Tower Wharf area assemblage. Seven of the ten bowls recovered from the Civil War ditch are old enough to be considered as possible candidates for Civil

The earliest pottery from this feature consisted of sherds from a small collection of three or four round-

Table 4 Tower Wharf (Site 1): clay pipes from the Civil War ditch (Periods 3–4) and boundary ditch fills (Period 4) Feature

Period

No. stems

No. Date and comments bowls

Civil War ditch [21/2100]

3–4

25

10

Boundary ditch [2006]

4

157

17

1 x heel bowl, rim bottered but not milled, Chester: 1610–40 (Area 2) 1 x bowl stamped AL = Alexander Lanckton, Chester: 1630–50 (Area 2) 1 x bowl fragment of c. 1680–1730 (Area 2) 2 x bowl fragments from a pipe of c. 1700–30 (Area 2) 1x heel bowl, rim bottered and part milled, c. 1610-40 (Area 3) 1x heel bowl, rim bottered and part milled rim c. 1610-40 (Area 3) 1x spur bowl, rim bottered and part milled rim c. 1640-60 (Area 3) 1x spur bowl, rim bottered and part milled rim c. 1640-60 (Area 3) 1x bulbous spur bowl, rim bottered and part milled rim c. 1640-70 (Area 3)

1 x heel bowl, tailed heel, rim not milled, c. 1650-70 1 x heel bowl, rim milled, c. 1650-70 1 x heel bowl, rim burnished and milled. RG in circular frame with dotted border on heel and RG on bowl, Nantwich: c. 1650-80 1 x heel bowl, rim milled. Stamped AL in circular frame with decorative motifs above and below initials. Chester c. 1630–50 7 x spur bowls (all milled), c. 1640-60/80 5 x small heel bowls, c. 1710-20 1 x spur bowl c. 1710-20

23

Excavations at Chester. Medieval and Post-Medieval Development War activity. One bowl may possibly be a little too early for a Civil war deposit, whilst the remainder are later in date (spanning the late 17th century to the early 18th century).

Medieval and post-medieval metal finds A total of 35 metal objects were recovered from stratified contexts during the excavation of areas 3 and 4. These objects are summarised below according to their functional category, along with details of the feature from which they were recovered (Table 5). Items of intrinsic interest are illustrated and catalogued further.

The single AL-stamped bowl from the Civil War ditch can be dated to c. 1630–50/60 and can be attributed to Alexander Lanckton, who is recorded as a Chester pipemaker in 1657 (Rutter and Davey 1980: 246). This pipe would fit well with a Civil War date for this feature.

Catalogue of illustrated metal finds (Figure 22) 1.

Bowl with slightly out-turned rim, copper-alloy. Civil War ditch. Area 3, fill (17). 2. Trough for cage bird, inverted bell-like profile at top with triple line decoration to the curve, pewter. Civil War ditch. Area 3, fill (22). These D-sectioned vessels, slightly flaring from the base, were for holding water, green plants or seeds for cage birds. Plainer, undecorated versions, such as this, are dated to the 17th century (cf. Egan 2005: figure 124; no. 617). 3. Y-shaped object, iron. Possibly a musket rest. Similar items were recovered from post-Civil War deposits at Beeston Castle, Cheshire (cf. Courtney 1993: figure 98, nos. 117–118).

The pipe assemblage from the boundary ditch accounts for 66.9% of the total Tower Wharf area assemblage. Eleven of the bowls recovered from this feature span the period between c. 1630–70/80, whilst the remaining six date to the early 18th century (c. 1710–20). A further AL-stamped bowl was recovered from the boundary ditch. Again, this can be attributed to Chester pipemaker Alexander Lanckton and can be dated to c. 1630–50/60. The RG-stamped bowl is similar to examples from Chester on pipes of c. 1650–80 (cf. Rutter and Davey 1980: 127), although it has been suggested that similar RG-stamped bowls are those of an unidentified maker from the Nantwich area of Cheshire (Higgins 2008: 261).

Table 5 Tower Wharf (Site 1): metal finds and coins (Periods 3–4) Feature/Area

Category

Civil War ditch (Area 3)

Household 2

Civil War ditch (Area 3)

Weaponry 14

Civil War ditch (Area 3)

Coin

Boundary ditch (Area 4)

Household 2

Boundary ditch (Area 4)

Weaponry 2

Agricultural soils (Area 4)

Household 1

1 x Cauldron/skillet leg: medieval–17th-century (Copper alloy)

Coins

1 x Hammered silver penny: 1/4 clipped (worn/illegible: c. 1279–1489) 1x Hammered silver penny: Richard I, short cross, 1189-1199, London mint 1 x Hammered silver penny: Edward I, long cross (Class X) 1302-10, London mint 1 x Hammered silver penny: Charles 1st (c. 1625-49) (very worn and pierced) 1 x Copper farthing: Charles 1st (c. 1625-49) (a little over 1/2 surviving, very worn) 1 x Copper half-penny: William III, c. 1695-1701 issue (very worn)

Boundary ditch (Area 4)

Agricultural soils (Area 4) Agricultural soils (Area 4) Agricultural soils (Area 4)

Textile related

Dress accessory

No. of Description finds

1 3

1

Weaponry 2

Beneath wharf surface east Coin of North Basin (Area 4)

6

1

1 x Bowl fragment (Copper alloy) 1 x Cage bird feeding trough (Pewter)

1 x Arrowhead (Iron) 1 x Y-shaped possible musket rest (iron) 12 x Shot (lead)

1 x Hammered silver penny: long-cross (worn/illegible: c. 1279–1489) 1 x Cloth seal: Commonwealth arms, dated 165(?) (lead) 1 x Cloth seal: London arms (lead) 1 x Cloth seal (lead) 1 x Domed stud/tack (Copper alloy) 1 x Small spoon: 18th-century (Copper alloy) 2 x Shot (lead)

1 x Shoe buckle: 18th-century (Copper alloy) 2 x Shot (lead)

1 x Copper penny: George III, 1806, 4th issue Soho mint

24

Tower Wharf and Taylor’s Boatyard 2007–2016 (Sites 1 and 2)

Figure 22 Tower Wharf (Site 1): post-medieval metal finds 1–3

25

Chapter 3

Sites off Trafford Street, Newtown 2015–2018 (Sites 3–6) These four sites lay within an area that, based on cartographic sources and desk-based archaeological and historical assessment (Peters 2015; Baldwin 2018; Mercer 2018), was predominantly agricultural land from at least the Roman period and seemingly remained utilised as such throughout the medieval period and much of the post-medieval period. Urban expansion into this area began in the 1830s with the laying out of a regular pattern of streets, including Trafford Street, and the construction of terraces properties along these. Indeed, some of the earliest terraces to be constructed were those along Trafford Street. By the third quarter of the 19th century this expansion, including the construction of the Northgate railway station, its yards and sidings, had reached a hiatus; the congestion of terraced properties clearly indicated on the first edition Ordnance Survey town plan of Chester published in 1874. Much of the Newtown area remained unaltered until the 1960s when clearance of some of the terraced properties, including those along the west side of Trafford Street, took place. These were replaced piecemeal with small industrial and commercial buildings, including a bakery and a timber yard, and an ambulance station. The area formerly occupied by the Northgate Station and sidings was replaced with a leisure centre and fire station during the 1980s.

Introduction Archaeological investigations were undertaken ahead of redevelopment at four sites west of Trafford Street, and north of St. Anne Street, within the Newtown area of Chester’s northern suburbs. The first of these sites, the former Newtown Bakery site (centred on NGR: SJ 4067 6698), was subject to both evaluation trenching and limited area excavation during 2015. The second site, at Oakbase House (centred on NGR: SJ 4060 6701), was located to the northwest of the bakery site and was subject to evaluation trenching during 2017. The third site (centred on NGR: SJ 4069 6694) lay immediately to the south of the bakery site and was subject to evaluation trenching during 2018. The fourth and final site consisted of the evaluation trenching of land occupied by Chester’s Northgate fire station (centred on NGR: SJ 4064 6693), immediately to the west of the Trafford Street sites, during 2018 (Figures 1 and 23).

Results: Former Bakery (Site 3)

Figure 23 Location of the Trafford Street, Newtown (Sites 3–6) areas of investigation

26

Newtown

Archaeological evaluation of this site consisted of the excavation of four linear trenches, a fifth trench was opened to form a small strip and map sample area of excavation (Figure 24). The investigations took place between June and August of 2015. Prior to the investigations the site consisted of an area of landscaped rubble waste ground following the demolition of the former bakery. The following results summarise those in an unpublished grey literature report (Churchill 2015).

Sites off Trafford Street, Newtown 2015–2018 (Sites 3–6)

No significant archaeology pre-dating the 19th century was encountered at this site.

continuations of walls (405), (404) and (403) encountered in Trench 4. Wall (531) formed the partition between numbers 56 and 57 Trafford Street.

Trench1 contained no archaeology, with natural geology present just below the ground surface.

Little of the internal features and floors to the 19thcentury properties had survived later intrusion. A floor layer of red brick (533) was encountered to the north of wall (530) laid upon a deposit of sand. A short stretch of sandstone wall (543) was interpreted as a possible wall dividing the front room of number 57 to its rear. Thin brick walls (544) and (539) were encountered at the south-eastern limits of 56 and 57 Trafford Street, parallel to the dividing walls (531) and (536). The narrow space enclosed by these walls may have served as a pantry or buttery area. Similar to brick flooring (533), the remains of a brick floor (546) survived between wall (544) and (531). A further brick floor (551) lay between wall (539) and (536).

In Trench 2 dumped deposits of grey clay with yellowbrown sand, fragments of sandstone, coal and charcoal, interpreted as possibly quarry backfill and dated to the post-medieval period, were encountered extending to a thickness in excess of 2.6m. A sandstone wall foundation (206), aligned northwest–southeast and measuring 0.36m wide, was constructed into the dumped deposits. This wall was interpreted as part of the boundary wall to the rear of the terraced properties (building group B1) fronting onto Trafford Street. To the northeast of wall (206) were the remains of brick outhouses, including brick flooring (208) and (209), separated by a partition wall (207). These were formerly the outhouses belonging to number 54 Trafford Street.

The original yard surface, constructed from grey bricks (512), was encountered within the plot for number 56 Trafford Street. The disturbed remains of a possible brick outbuilding (522) was encountered also. A brick wall (523) dividing the yard space between number 57 and 58 Trafford Street was recorded.

Trench 3 contained further dumped deposits, including similar material to that encountered in Trench 1. Trench 4, located close to the Trafford Street frontage to the site, four sandstone wall foundations, (402), (403), (404) and (405), spaced evenly at 3.6m apart, and each aligned northeast–southwest, were encountered. These were interpreted as the dividing walls between the 19th-century terraced properties (B1) fronting onto Trafford Street, in particular numbers 55 to 59. Variations in build quality were noted, with walls (402) and (403) being coarser than walls (404) and (405). Each wall had an integral ‘buttress’ extending to the southeast. Two brick lined ash pits (426) and (429), each probably constructed to serve a fireplace above, were constructed in the angle between walls (404) and (405) and their respective buttresses; this would suggest that the buttresses were, in reality, the side walls to the fireplaces serving the four properties.

In addition to the archaeological trenching undertaken at this site, a total of four boreholes were cored for geotechnical purposes (Figure 24). The results of these demonstrated that deposits of made ground up to 14.7m thick (borehole BH04) and 15.45m thick (BH01) existed the central and northern and southern areas of the site respectively. Boreholes located towards the east side (BH02) and northwest corner (BH03) of the site recorded shallower depths of made ground between 0.7m and 4.0m thick respectively. The made ground consisted of a mixture of clay-sands with fragments of brick, sandstone, ash and clinker, glass and ceramics. The results of boreholes BH01 and BH04 chimed with that of evaluation trenches 2 and 3 and confirmed the presence of a deep and extensive intrusion, perhaps a quarry or cutting of seemingly late post-medieval date, within this area.

As a result of the evidence for the 19th-century terraced properties (B1) encountered within trenches 2 and 4, a small open area was excavated immediately to the southwest of Trench 4. This trench, Trench 5, contained further structural remains relating to the terraced properties.

Results: Oakbase House (Site 4) Archaeological evaluation of the site consisted of the excavation of three linear trenches (Figure 24). The investigations took place between May and June of 2017. The trenches were excavated within relatively undisturbed areas of the site following the demolition of a former office building known as Oakbase House. The following results summarise those in an unpublished grey literature report (Horsley 2017).

Sandstone wall (505) formed a continuation of the boundary wall encountered as (206) in Trench 2, whilst wall (529), located 3.2m to the northeast of wall (505) and aligned parallel to it, represented the rear wall to the terraced properties themselves. Internal partition walls to the properties were represented by wall foundations (530), (531) and (536). These extended eastwards from wall (529) and formed

No significant archaeology pre-dating the 19th century was encountered at this site. 27

Excavations at Chester. Medieval and Post-Medieval Development Trench1 contained no significant archaeology, with modern debris measuring 1.45m thick sealing a layer of possible 19th-century levelling measuring 0.35m thick. The natural clay geology was encountered at a depth of 1.8m below the ground surface.

of building group (B1) encountered to the north at the Newton bakery site: Site 3), in particular numbers 71 to 74 and 91, along with similar remains associated with the southeast corner to property number 86 of Prince’s Court (part of building group B2). Wall (21) formed a corner to a cellar beneath number 71 Trafford Street. The ceiling to this cellar had been vaulted with sandstone masonry and the floor was of brick. Other structural features included drains and a brick-lined culvert (23).

In Trench 2, located towards the northwest corner of the site, deposits of modern debris, measuring up to 0.3m thick, sealed layers of ash and gravel above a layer of crushed red sandstone. These layers were interpreted as levelling material deposited during the 19th-century development of the site. Three timber railway sleepers had been set into this material. The sleepers were each aligned northeast–southwest indicative of a previous railway track aligned northwest–southeast.

A borehole excavated towards the north edge of this site (not illustrated) demonstrated that deposits of made ground up to 20m thick existed at this location. Results: Northgate Fire Station (Site 6)

Trench 3 contained no archaeological remains.

Archaeological evaluation of the site consisted of the excavation of nine trenches (Figure 24). The investigations took place during October of 2018. The trenches were excavated within open areas of the site surrounding the fire station buildings. The following results summarise those in an unpublished grey literature report (Baldwin and Luke 2019).

Results: Land off Trafford Street (Site 5) Archaeological evaluation of the site consisted of the excavation of two linear trenches (Figure 24). The investigations took place during August of 2018. The site consisted of an area of rubble waste ground following the demolition of commercial buildings. The following results summarise those in an unpublished grey literature report (Matthews 2018a).

Roman archaeology, in the form of curvilinear gully features and deposits, was encountered at this site in Trench 5. These features were interpreted as indicative of agricultural activity, perhaps animal enclosures, and were dated by pottery to between the late 1st century and early 2nd century.

No significant archaeology pre-dating the 19th century was encountered at this site. The principal archaeological features encountered in Trench 1 consisted of the brick and sandstone wall foundations to the boundary wall (06) and outbuildings (07, 08, 09, 10, 11, 13, 14 and 15) located to the rear of properties that once formed the 19th-century northern terrace to Prince’s Court (building group B2), a small court of 13 properties that extended westwards from Trafford Street. The remains were those of numbers 77 and 78 in particular; the numbering system adopted continuing that for Trafford Street and its surrounding warren of courts and back-alleys. Towards the west end of the trench were further foundations, including (03) and (04), associated with two properties that once formed part of Edward’s Court (numbers 68 and 69 to building group B3), a small group of properties lying to the north and rear of Prince’s Court and separated by boundary wall (06). Wall (19), located towards the east end of the trench, was interpreted by the excavators as being a boundary wall separating Prince’s Court to the properties fronting onto Trafford Street.

The remaining archaeology encountered at this site consisted of deposits dated by finds of pottery to the 18th- to early 19th century, and a single industrial feature of late 19th century date. In Trench 1 the partial remains of a large, and probably cylindrical, boiler were encountered. These consisted of riveted iron plates and the impression of further rivets within an underlying layer of concrete. The boiler was probably associated with a small industrial complex recorded on the 1899 Ordnance Survey map and may have powered railway-related activities within the Northgate Station goods yard complex. Trenches 2 and 3 did not contain any significant archaeology. Trenches 4, 6, 7, 8 and 9 all contained layers of soil, extending to thicknesses between 0.3m and 3.0m. This was interpreted as landfill material, perhaps deposited during the 18th century, prior to the area being developed during the 19th century. The slope of the deposits implying a depression within the underlying natural topography extending from west to east.

Trench 2 contained further brick and sandstone foundations, including (24, 27, 28 and 30). These consisted of the remains to boundary walls and outbuildings to the yards of properties that once fronted onto Trafford Street (a continuation, therefore, 28

Sites off Trafford Street, Newtown 2015–2018 (Sites 3–6)

Figure 24 Trafford Street, Newtown (Sites 3–6): plan of features and borehole investigations

29

Chapter 4

Witter Place, Seller Street 2002 (Site 7) name ‘Witter Place’) had subsumed many part of the yards to the properties along Seller Street. Demolition of the remaining terraced properties subsequently took place and, during the 1990s, the Witter factory itself was demolished.

Introduction Archaeological excavations were undertaken ahead redevelopment at Witter Place during 2002. The site occupies a parcel of land east of Seller Street and south of the Shropshire Union Canal (centred on NGR: SJ 4110 6656). The site is located with Chester’s eastern suburbs and to the north of Foregate Street, a major Roman and medieval route into Chester (Figures 1 and 25).

A total of seven trenches were excavated during the 2001 archaeological evaluation of the site (not illustrated). Those trenches located within the northern portion of the site demonstrated that much of the archaeological sequence had been disturbed by 20th-century activity, although a series of deposits and features representing late post-medieval domestic and industrial activity was present. The trenches excavated within the southern portion of the site contained a well-preserved sequence of domestic and industrial activity dating from the medieval to post-medieval period which in turn had superseded deposits and features dating to the Roman period (Gifford and Partners 2001: 1).

Prior to evaluation trenching in August 2001 (Gifford and Partners 2001), no investigations had taken place within the site and its archaeological potential was unknown. Alexander Lavaux’s 1745 map of Chester shows that the area of the site lay to the rear of medieval burgage plots fronting onto Foregate Street. The land to the rear of these properties consisted largely of gardens with agricultural land beyond separated by prominent boundaries running both parallel to, and perpendicular to, Foregate Street. Significantly, however, no significant structures are shown within the site, though there are further field boundaries unusually aligned northwest–southeast. This pattern persisted until later in the 18th century when two buildings are depicted on Samuel Weston’s map of 1789; one south of centre and the other close to the southeast boundary of the site. By 1809, and the publication of John Neele’s map of Chester, a row of terraced buildings, labelled as ‘Thomas Buildings’ (on later maps as ‘Thomas’s Buildings’), had been constructed towards the northeast corner of the site. The two earlier buildings persisted along with the garden and field plots previously depicted. Wood’s 1833 map of Chester depicts a generally similar layout for much of the site, but by this point a row of terraced buildings had been constructed along the west side stretching northwards from Foregate Street, these formed the properties erected in the late 1820s along the newly formed Seller Street. The land now enclosed between the properties along Seller Street and those of Thomas Buildings remained largely as previously depicted, and the two buildings shown on Weston’s map remained along with an east–west aligned boundary that had persistently separated the site into two roughly equal areas since, at least, the publication of Lavaux’s map of 1745. By the time of the publication of the first edition Ordnance Survey map of 1874, the central area of the site had been infilled with yards and industrial buildings and a flour mill extended northwards to the bank of the adjacent canal. Subsequently, the central area of the site became increasingly congested with buildings until, between the 1960s and 1970s, the Witter factory (from which the site later derived the

In response to the proposed redevelopment of the site, and in order to mitigate the effects of the development upon the archaeology identified during the evaluation, a combined programme of archaeological strip, map, record and targeted excavation was carried out by Earthworks Archaeological Services throughout August and September of 2002 (Figures 25 and 26). Results A summary of the principal archaeological structures, features and deposits encountered within the targeted area of excavation, located towards the centre of the site, forms the basis of the following descriptive account. This area measured 22m by 24m, with an additional spur trench, measuring 7.0m by 11m, extending the area further southwards. Natural deposits The natural drift deposit of pink-brown boulder clay (717) was encountered within the targeted area of excavation at a general level of 19.6m AOD. There was no evidence for prehistoric occupation within the excavated area. Roman: c. early to mid-2nd century AD (Period 1) A single gully feature [659], containing sherds of Roman pottery dated to the 2nd century AD, was encountered at the level of the natural geology within the southwest 30

Witter Place, Seller Street 2002 (Site 7)

Figure 25 Location of the Witter Place, Seller Street (Site 7) and the nearby City Road (Sites 8 and 9) areas of investigation

corner of the targeted area of excavation (see Figure 27). This feature was aligned northwest–southeast and was traced for a distance of 3.6m, extending beyond the limits of the excavation. Broad and shallow at its uppermost level, gully [659] measured up to 2.2m wide, before narrowing to a blunted V-shaped lower profile, and measured up to 0.5m deep. A deposit of greybrown clay (660), containing the occasional fragment of red sandstone and a small assemblage of abraded Roman pottery (samian ware, oxidised wares and blackburnished ware) of early to mid-2nd century date, formed a secondary fill to this feature, whilst a shallow deposit of grey clay (686) was contained within its base.

Medieval to early post-medieval: c. 12th to mid-16th centuries (Period 2) There was no evidence for post-Roman, Saxon, early medieval or early post-medieval occupation within the targeted area of excavation. Post-medieval: c. mid- to late 17th century (Period 3) The most significant feature encountered within the targeted area of excavation was a monumental linear cut feature interpreted as a defensive ditch forming part of Chester’s Civil War defences of 1643 (Figure 27). 31

Excavations at Chester. Medieval and Post-Medieval Development

Figure 26 Witter Place, Seller Street (Site 7): view of the site during excavation, view to northeast

Figure 27 Witter Place, Seller Street (Site 7): plan of Period 1 and Period 3 features

32

Witter Place, Seller Street 2002 (Site 7)

encountered. The stratigraphically earliest deposits encountered consisted of dark brown silt-clays (799) and (812), overlain by deposits of orange-brown clay (811) and (889), followed by further bulk deposits and lenses of grey and brown silt-clays (800, 810, 813, 816 and 818) (Figures 28–31). Ceramic finds recovered from these deposits were dated to the period between the late 17th century and the mid-18th century. These upper deposits had, however, been cut into by a series of later pit and ditch features (Period 4) and had clearly been extensively disturbed.

Civil War ditch Aligned northwest–southeast, and traced across the centre of the targeted area of excavation for a distance of 14m, the Civil War ditch cut [788] measured between 6.0m and 8.0m wide and was excavated into the natural clay to depths greater than 1.5m and 1.7m. The full profile of the ditch was not revealed, but the evidence encountered during excavation was that of a broad, V-shaped, feature with proportions generally similar to those encountered during the subsequent excavations at Tower Wharf (this volume) and Milton Street (Dodd 2017: 122). Consequently, as at Milton Street, ditch [788] may have been cut to a depth of 2.0m or, as at Tower Wharf, perhaps as deep as 3.0m.

Late post-medieval: 18th to early 19th century (Period 4) The principal archaeological features of this period consisted primarily of elements relating to a postulated tannery complex – pits and a building – mostly located within the southern half of the targeted area of excavation (Figure 32). The location of the building closely matches that of the larger of two buildings depicted on Weston’s map of 1789. Several of the pits encountered had been cut into the fills of the Civil War ditch (Period 3). Later in this period, a boundary ditch was cut which generally followed the line of the Civil War ditch, this was re-cut at least once and persisted as a mapped feature until at least the 1830s. To the north of these ditches was a series of narrow linear features, probably relating to agricultural activity.

A sequence of deposits encountered to the south of ditch [788], within the trench extension, consisted mostly of orange-brown clays and dark brown soils (910, 925, 926 and 927) may have derived from the cutting of the ditch and perhaps formed the associated earth bank of the defences. Finds from these deposits included sherds dated to the mid-17th century along with a few residual sherds of medieval pottery. Disuse and filling of the Civil War ditch The base of ditch [788] was not reached during the excavations and, consequently, the primary fill was not

Figure 28 Witter Place, Seller Street (Site 7): sections of Period 3 Civil War ditch

33

Excavations at Chester. Medieval and Post-Medieval Development

Figure 29 Witter Place, Seller Street (Site 7): view of Period 3 Civil War ditch fills during excavation, view to north

Figure 30 Witter Place, Seller Street (Site 7): view during excavation of slots into the fills of the Period 3 Civil War ditch, view to west

34

Witter Place, Seller Street 2002 (Site 7)

Figure 31 Witter Place, Seller Street (Site 7): view during further excavation into the fills of the Period 3 Civil War ditch, view to west

it may have functioned as a workshop, store, stables, or else served all of these possibilities. No predecessor to building (B1) was encountered, although one contemporary with the earliest pits assigned to this period may have existed elsewhere within, or close by, the site.

The tannery complex The building (B1) Building (B1) was constructed following the deposition of the Period 3 deposits located to the south of the Civil War ditch. The building is not shown on Lavaux’s map of 1745, but a building is depicted in this location on Weston’s map of 1789 and construction may, therefore, have taken place around the middle of the 18th century. Weston’s map shows also a second, smaller, building located towards the southeast corner of the site. This lay outside of the targeted area of excavation.

The pits The recorded pits, including probable tanning pits, were generally clustered in groups to the north and northwest of the building (B1). The pits were not all open at the same time. The stratigraphically earliest pits, or those producing the earliest datable finds from within their subsequent backfills, were [611], [773], [776], [789], [856/888], [863] and [880]. These pits were dated to between the early to mid-18th century, with pit [776] replacing pit [773]. These pits represented activity within this area of the site during the early stage of Period 4 although they are not associated with any known building. Several of these, and later pits, were excavated into the uppermost fills to the Civil War ditch of the preceding period (Period 3).

Building (B1) was aligned north–south and the remains exposed covered an area measuring 14.5m by 5.0m (Figures 32 and 33). The east side of the building had been truncated by later activity and the south end was not encountered within the excavated area. The footings to the building consisted of blocks of red sandstone with narrower footings separating the building into several small bays, each with a cobbled floor surface. No sandstone or brick upper courses to the walls were encountered and a timber-framed, rather than masonry or brick, superstructure may have been the case. Similarly, no evidence for the building’s roof was encountered. The building did not exhibit characteristics of a domestic dwelling, no hearths or other such domestic features were encountered, and

D-shaped pit [609] occupied the space previously occupied by pits [611] and [880], probably during the middle of the 18th century, whilst pit [474], located a short distance to the south, was probably of a similar date. The two square pits, [829] and [831], both of 35

Excavations at Chester. Medieval and Post-Medieval Development

Figure 32 Witter Place, Seller Street (Site 7): plan of Period 4 features

36

Witter Place, Seller Street 2002 (Site 7)

which may have served as water tanks, were located at the north end of building (B1) and were probably contemporary with its construction and development from around the middle of the 18th century. These pits were constructed within the area previously occupied by pits [773], [776] and [856/888]. Pits [479], [634] and [696] were generally undated but otherwise assigned to this period. Nine of the pits were cut directly into the surrounding ground, seemingly without any form of lining. Pit [856/888] was wattle lined, whilst pits [474], [609], [829] and [831] were all stone-lined. The south wall to pit [829] and the north wall and part of the west wall to pit [831] had all been robbed away. Pit [474] originally utilised the underlying natural clay as a floor surface, but this was later replaced with one constructed from stone and brick laid in a random fashion over a layer of soil and rubble (Figures 34 and 35). D-shaped pit [609] had a floor of stone slabs, comparatively neatly laid (Figure 36). Further pits may have existed to the west of building (B1); perhaps arranged in a linear manner similar to those encountered at the tannery complex excavated at The Green, Northampton (Shaw 1996: 73). Excavation did not, however, extend beyond the general footprint of the postulated Witter Place tannery building and the

Figure 33 Witter Place, Seller Street (Site 7): view of Period 4 tannery building B1, view to north

Figure 34 Witter Place, Seller Street (Site 7): view of Period 4 circular stone-lined pit [474] with later floor, view to north

37

Excavations at Chester. Medieval and Post-Medieval Development

Figure 35 Witter Place, Seller Street (Site 7): view of Period 4 circular stone-lined pit [474] following partial excavation of later floor revealing the earlier clay floor beneath, view to east

Figure 36 Witter Place, Seller Street (Site 7): view of Period 4 D-shaped stone-lined pit [609], view to south

38

Witter Place, Seller Street 2002 (Site 7)

Table 6 Witter Place, Seller Street (Site 7): summary of tanning pits and troughs (Period 4) Pit

Dimensions

474

Diameter 3.7m

1.1m

Circular: stone-lined, later stone and brick flagged base

473, 475, 615, 624, 625, 658

609

2.3m x 3.3m

1.1m

D-shaped: stone-lined, stone flagged base

412, 455, 610, 616, 626, 718, 778

Diameter 2.1m

1.2m

479

611

634

696

773

776

789

829

831

Diameter 2.0m Diameter 4.5m

Diameter 2.3m

Diameter 1.6m 1.3m x 2.2m

1.8m x 2.3m

>3.5m x 3.5m

>4.0m x 5.0m

856/888 Diameter 4.0m 863

880

Trough 793

Diameter 3.5m

Diameter 3.5m 1.2m x 2.5m

859/860 >1.2m x 2.0m

Depth Construction method

0.6m

1.1m

0.5m

0.4m

0.6m

1.1m

1.0m

1.0m

1.0m

1.4m 0.4m

0.6m

Fill deposits

Circular: ground-cut

Rounded: ground-cut Circular: ground-cut

428, 434, 458 612, 641

628, 631, 644

Circular: ground-cut

695, 702

Circular: ground-cut

774

Ovoid: ground-cut

777

Ovoid: ground-cut

Square: stone-lined, stone-flagged base Square: stone-lined

Rounded: wattle-lined

789B 757

839 809

Rounded: ground-cut

841

Rounded: ground-cut

653, 654

Brick/stone-lined, stone flagged base

Brick-lined

782, 783, 784 823

full extent of the tannery complex was not established therefore.

stone rubble (802) and dumped deposits of cattle horn cores (838).

Other features seemingly associated with the tanning complex consisted of two troughs, [793] and [859/860]. Trough [793] lay at the northwest corner of the building, whilst trough [859/860] lay immediately to the west of pit [609].

Ditch [866/869] had been re-cut on a similar alignment at least once, the re-cut ditch [174/700/707] measuring 1.7m wide and 0.6m deep. The fills to this ditch consisted of grey and brown silt-clays (155/701/706). Agricultural features

The dimensions, construction characteristics and deposits contained within the pits and troughs are summarised in Table 6.

The area to the north of the boundary ditches remained largely open during this period and was probably under agricultural use, as indicated by a group of north– south aligned trenches or gullies [482: A–R] that may have served as furrows or planting beds. At least 18 of these closely-spaced narrow and shallow gullies were recorded, mostly extending northwards beyond the area of excavation. The average width of each gully was around 0.4m, the deepest measured 0.2m. Material contained within these features consisted of brown clay (454: A–R). The gullies were cut into a widespread layer of grey-brown clay, measuring up to 0.3m thick, overlying the natural clay geology.

All of the pits had been deliberately backfilled, the uppermost fills consisting mostly of material unrelated to their use. However, samples taken from deposits within pits [474], [479], [609], [634], [696] and trough [793] produced environmental remains including cattle horn cores, animal bones, animal hairs and fats, leather, wood and lime. Combined, this evidence supports the interpretation that several of the pits and, by association, building (B1) served the tanning industry. Boundary ditches

The 19th century terraced housing B2, B3 and B4, and mill (B5) (Period 5)

Ditch [866/869] was aligned northwest–southeast and traced across the centre of the targeted area of excavation. This ditch measured between 2.0m and 2.5m wide and up to 1.3m deep. The ditch contained fills of grey and brown silt-clays (757), (772) and, in places,

Extensive remains of the terraced housing constructed during the 19th century were uncovered and mapped across the site (Figure 37). Surrounded by these houses, the tannery building erected during the preceding 39

Excavations at Chester. Medieval and Post-Medieval Development

Figure 37 Witter Place, Seller Street (Site 7): plan of Period 5 features

40

Witter Place, Seller Street 2002 (Site 7)

Figure 38 Witter Place, Seller Street (Site 7): view of Period 5 remains of Seller Street terrace B3, view to northwest

period (Period 4) remained as a mapped structure until at least the 1830s but was itself demolished prior to the 1874 Ordnance Survey map.

properties may have been cellared also but this was not proven owing to the limited nature of excavation. The rear yards varied in layout, reflecting modification during the lifetime of the structures. Most contained the foundations to small outbuildings. The remains of the buildings located towards the south end of the site were somewhat less uniform in their layout, perhaps reflecting properties other than housing including at least one public house (the Druid’s Arms).

Urban development of the site began early in the 19th century with the construction of Thomas’s Buildings. The yards to the southernmost houses constructed on the west side of these properties (building group B2) were identified towards the northeast corner of the site.

Towards the southeast corner of the site, the remains of terraced properties (building group B4) formerly located on the west side of Ring O’ Bells Entry were recorded. These remains consisted of brick foundations and, where they survived, rear yard and interior floor surfaces of grey brick and tiles.

Running along the west side of the site were the remains of the terraced houses and backyards fronting onto the east side of Seller Street (building group B3) constructed during the 1830s (Figure 38). With foundations generally consisting of brick with lime mortar bonding, some of these houses included stone-built foundations that perhaps included reused materials. Where present, interior surfaces consisted of red ceramic tiles or red or grey bricks. The layout of the properties towards the north end of the site showed uniformity in their general layout. Where physical evidence survived, each property was shown to generally consist of two ground-floor rooms, front and back, with the rear rooms containing brick-built fireplaces. The front rooms contained fireplaces also but only in one or two instances did evidence for these survive. The properties that were located on the west edge of the targeted area of excavation were shown to be cellared. Access to the cellars was provided by a flight of stone steps, and the floor of the cellars were laid with brick. Other

Further 19th-century structural features were identified within the site including the brick foundations to the south end of the Albion flour mill building (B5), various boundary walls and a brick-lined well. Once established, this general layout of houses, mill and other properties remained largely unchanged throughout the remaining decades of the 19th century. The finds Roman pottery A small assemblage consisting of 17 sherds of Roman pottery, weighing 633g, was recovered from the Witter 41

Excavations at Chester. Medieval and Post-Medieval Development Place excavations. The Roman pottery was recovered from the fill (660) to the Period 1 gully feature [659] located within the targeted area of excavation.

Fill (799) was the stratigraphically earliest context to produce any of the pottery recovered from this feature. This consisted of a single sherd from a blackware jar. The later fills produced small quantities of blackware, slipware and buff-bodied ware, along with refined white-bodied wares consisting of white salt-glazed stoneware and creamware. Vessel forms consisted of jars, bowls, jugs and dishes. The pottery from this feature spanned the period from the late 17th century through to the mid-18th century and reflects the long transition between the cutting of the ditch during Period 3 and the final episodes of backfilling during Period 4.

The assemblage consisted of imported Samian ware and amphorae, regionally produced coarsewares, in reduced and oxidised fabrics probably from the Wilderspool workshops, and traded wares from Dorset (Black-burnished ware). The assemblage was generally fragmentary although the sherds were identified to form. The Samian forms identified were the dish 18/31 and the flanged bowl Curle 11. Coarseware forms consisted of jars, a flagon and a bowl. A single sherd from a Spanish Dressel 20 amphorae was recovered also. The assemblage was dated to the early to mid-2nd century.

In addition to the pottery from the ditch, a handful of sherds from blackware jars, yellow ware and slipware cups of 17th-century date were recovered from layers (925), (926) and (927). These layers predated the construction of building (B1) during Period 4.

Medieval pottery Six sherds of medieval pottery, weighing 531g, were recovered from the Witter Place excavations. The pottery was entirely residual, incorporated into the Period 3 deposits (910) and (927) encountered to the south of the Civil War ditch.

Table 7 Witter Place, Seller Street (Site 7): pottery from the Civil War ditch feature (Period 3) Feature Ware/Quant.

The pottery consisted of sherds from jugs and a bowl in local red/grey sandy fabrics and pink/white fabrics; the former found in Chester from the mid-13th century, and the latter comparable to products probably produced in the Ewloe area of Flintshire between the 14th and 16th centuries (Edwards 2008: 188).

Blackware

Buff-bodied ware

Creamware

No.

Wt.

23

3677

4

16

1

34

Slipware

8

297

Total

38

4048

White stoneware

Post-medieval pottery

Ditch [788]

2

24

Pottery from the pits and other features (Period 4)

Pottery from the principal Period 3 and Period 4 features totalled 401 sherds, weighing 32,394g. The pottery was spread across a number of features, with 9.5% by count (12.5% by weight) recovered from the late fills to the Period 3 Civil War ditch. Pottery from the Period 4 pits totalled 37.7% by count (38.6% by weight), whilst the boundary ditch features assigned to the later part of this period accounted for 52.8% by count (48.9% by weight).

Seven of the pit features assigned to Period 4 produced an overall assemblage totalling 151 sherds, weighing 12,497g, of post-medieval pottery (Table 8). The wares recovered from the pits encompassed a limited range typical of the area. At the coarser end of this range were the black-glazed wares, slipwares (including both thrown and press-moulded vessels), tinglazed wares, mottled wares, slip-coated buff-bodied wares, brown stonewares, yellow wares and unglazed redwares. The finer wares included refined white saltglazed stonewares, creamwares and refined redwares, all wares typical of the Staffordshire Potteries during the middle of the 18th century. Two sherds of 18thcentury Chinese export porcelain were recovered also. Wares produced towards the end of the 18th century and into the 19th century consisted of porcelain and pearlwares. The pearlwares included a punch bowl of c. 1770–1790 inscribed on the interior with ‘Brandy & Wine’, along with a handful of blue transfer-printed examples of c. 1800–1840, that were recovered from the

The assemblage was not particularly impressive as a whole and was very fragmentary with most of the vessels represented by a single sherd only. No significant groups were recorded and the pottery was generally comprised of material of a domestic nature, disposed into features to which it did not have any direct functional association. Pottery from the Civil War ditch [788] (Period 3) A total of 38 sherds, weighing 4048g, of post-medieval pottery came from the fills of this ditch (contexts 799, 800, 813, 816 and 818) (Table 7). 42

Witter Place, Seller Street 2002 (Site 7)

Table 8 Witter Place, Seller Street (Site 7): pottery from the pit and ditch features (Period 4) Feature

Pit [474]

Pit [609]

Ware/Quant.

No. Wt. No.

Brown stoneware

16 1487

Blackware

Buff-bodied ware

14 4385 25

Chinese por. Creamware

Mottled ware Pearlware

Porcelain

18 511 4

54

Slipware

2

87

Transfer printed

9

215

Refined redware

Tin-glazed ware

Unglazed red

White stoneware Yellow ware Total

1

130

Wt.

3374

2

47

7

28

4

6

1

1

2

1

Pit [611]

Pit [773]

Pit [776]

Pit [856/888]

No. Wt. No. Wt. No. Wt. No. Wt. 4

3

872

172

1

12

1

333

1

18

Ditch [174/700/707]

No. Wt. No. 6

3

96

37

2

6

23

19

7

1

1

116

20

20

1

7

3393

3

137

20

390

5

147

57

74

5

7

1044 1

12

6

uppermost backfill deposits within pit [474] and from ditches [174/700/707] and [866/869]. The vessel forms consisted principally of jars, dishes, bowls, bottles, plates, cups, mugs and tea pots.

375 10

174

198

No.

Wt.

60

7892

7

117

9

102

1

7

5

16

2

53

644

7

340

23

1533

1

20

2

24

1

4

16

19

Ditch [866/869]

13

8

18

Wt.

203 24

2

67

64 6869 49 3689

Pit [863]

14 334 86

12

732 47

5435

1

35

126 10,414

painted in blue on the interior of the base. Ditch [174/700/707], fill (155/701/706). Period 4. Clay moulds A small collection of clay mould material, amounting to 22 fragments, was recovered from Period 3 layer (927); dated by pottery to the 17th century. Fragments were identified from each of the two main components of the moulds: an inner ‘core’ and outer ‘cope’, which was probably made in two halves and luted together. Mould fragments for the casting of both bronze cauldrons and skillets were identified amongst the assemblage (Blaylock 2005). The evidence from the moulds suggests that the cauldrons produced were probably of globular form with a sharp break in profile to an out-turned rim. The surface would have been ornamented with parallel horizontal moulding wires, a common feature of cauldrons and skillets of mid-14th to 17th century date.

Catalogue of illustrated post-medieval pottery (Figure 39) 1. Blackware jar. Civil War ditch [788], fill (816). Period 3/4. 2. Blackware jar. Civil War ditch [788], fill (818). Period 3/4. 3. Blackware dish or bowl. Civil War ditch [788], fill (813). Period 3/4. 4. Blackware bowl. Civil War ditch [788], fill (818). Period 3/4. 5. Slipware dish. Civil War ditch [788], fill (816). Period 3/4. 6. Blackware jar. Pit [609], fill (616). Period 4. 7. Blackware bowl. Pit [609], fill (616). Period 4. 8. Blackware jar. Pit [611], fill (612). Period 4. 9. Blackware dish or bowl. Pit [863], fill (841). Period 4. 10. Blackware jar. Ditch [866/869], fill (802). Period 4. 11. Slipware cup. Ditch [866/869], fill (802). Period 4. 12. Slipware dish. Ditch [866/869], fill (838). Period 4. 13. Pearlware, pedestal foot from a punch bowl with the intended contents of brandy and wine

Similar cauldron mould fragments were recovered during the evaluation trenching of the Witter Place site (Gifford and Partners 2001), but, as during the subsequent excavations, no features associated with the manufacture of such vessels were encountered. However, although small, the assemblage is significant for identification of this industry in Chester, which was previously known archaeologically from stray finds, such as a single piece of mould from Crook 43

Excavations at Chester. Medieval and Post-Medieval Development

Figure 39 Witter Place, Seller Street (Site 7): post-medieval pottery forms 1–13

Street (Gifford and Partners 2001; Wilthew 1983) or fragments from a mould for a mortar from Hunter’s Walk (Heyworth 1987).

pit [609], was stamped with a hand or glove symbol and the initials RR. This mark, of an unknown maker, has been recorded in Chester previously (Rutter and Davey 1980: 129, no. 107). The latest pipe, dated to c. 1810–40, was recovered from a stratigraphically late fill capping pit [474].

Clay tobacco pipe The principal features produced a total of 53 fragments of pipe (17 bowls and 36 stem fragments). As with the post-medieval pottery, the clay pipe was spread across several features, including the Period 3 Civil War ditch and the pit and boundary ditch features assigned to Period 4 (Table 9).

The pipes recovered from the later Period 4 boundary ditch features consisted entirely of residual examples spanning the period between the mid-17th century and the early 18th century. These pipes may have been disturbed from the backfill deposits within the Period 3 Civil War ditch, and possibly the earlier Period 4 pits, into which these features cut and are thus considered residual.

The single pipe bowl from the Civil War ditch (period 3), was recovered from one of the stratigraphically latest fills to this feature, context (818). This pipe was dated to the period c. 1680–1720.

Glass

The pipes recovered from the Period 4 pits consisted of spur bowls, mostly of Chester types, spanning the period from c. 1660/80 to c. 1710/50. One bowl, from

The principal features produced a total of 13 sherds of bottle glass and four sherds of window glazing. As with the post-medieval pottery and clay tobacco pipes, the 44

Witter Place, Seller Street 2002 (Site 7)

Table 9 Witter Place, Seller Street (Site7): clay tobacco pipe from the Civil War ditch (Period 3) and pit and ditch features (Period 4) Feature

Period No. No. Date and comments stems bowls

Civil War ditch 3 [788] Pit [474]

4 4

20

Pit [611]

4

3

Ditch [174/700/707]

4

3

Pit [609]

Pit [776]

4

Ditch [866/869] 4

1

1 x heel bowl, c. 1680–1720

1

1 x spur bowl with leaf-moulding to seams, c. 1810–40

1

1 x spur bowl, c. 1710-40

5

1 x heel bowl, rim bottered, not milled, c. 1630–50 1 x spur bowl, milled, c. 1660–80 1 x spur bowl, milled, c. 1680–1700 1 x heel bowl, c. 1690–1720 1 x spur bowl, c, 1710–20

7

2

10

1 x spur bowl, milled, marked with a hand/glove and initialled RR, Chester type c. 1660–80 1 x spur bowl, milled, Chester type c. 1660–80 1 x spur bowl, milled and burnished, Chester type c. 1680–90 1 x spur bowl, c. 1710 2 x spur bowls, c. 1750–90 1 x damaged bowl, c. 1710+

1 x spur bowl, milled, Chester type c. 1660–80 1 x spur bowl, milled, Chester type c.1680–90

glass was spread across several features, including the Period 3 Civil War ditch and the pit and boundary ditch features assigned to Period 4 (Table 10).

Leather from (625), a fill from the Period 4 tanning pit [474], included primary waste, secondary waste, animal hair, a strap, a crescentic panel, a complete working boot of Derby style and other shoe parts; apparently resulting from the disposal of rubbish from the local area including domestic material.

The assemblage was generally unremarkable, consisting of sherds from green glass beverage bottles. These were principally wine bottles of onion, mallet and cylindrical forms, along with a square bottle of the type usually associated with gin, spanning the period between the late 17th century and the early 19th century.

The waste leather comprised primary waste, edges and other discarded unusable areas of hide, and secondary waste, off-cuts produced when cutting out and trimming pattern pieces during the manufacture of leather goods. The large size of some of the pieces of primary waste was notable suggesting that hides were trimmed on site prior to sale

Leather Shoe parts of 16th-century date were recovered from the fill (799) to the Civil War Ditch (Period 3). A vamp from a shoe fastening with a buckle and strap was found, along with a shoe insole. A shoe vamp of late 17th/early 18th century style was recovered from an unstratified, but pre-tanning period, deposit.

Metal finds A handful of stratified objects of metal were recovered from the principal features described above. These are

Table 10 Witter Place, Seller Street (Site 7): glass from the Civil War ditch (Period 3) and pit and ditch features (Period 4) Feature

Period

Civil War ditch [788]

3

Pit [609]

4

Pit [856/888]

4

Pit [474]

Pit [773]

Ditch [174/700/707]

Onion bottle

Mallet bottle 1

4

4 4

1

1 1

Cylindrical bottle

Square bottle

1

1

1

6

45

Glazing

4

Excavations at Chester. Medieval and Post-Medieval Development medieval/early modern period (periods 3 and 4). The significant size of this assemblage, one of the largest to have been recovered from outside of the City Walls to date, and the information its study has provided warrants the full descriptive account contained within these pages. The material consists primarily of cattle horn-cores, along with butchered dog and horse bones and is undoubtedly industrial in nature. As well as providing insights into the workings of the tanning, tawying and horn-working trades, the assemblage offers information about the types of cattle, horses and dogs present in post-medieval/early modern England. Detailed analyses of the dog remains, including isotope analysis, have provided a rare insight into human-dog relationships during this period. Most of the Witter Place assemblage is derived from the postulated tanning pits, with 58% of the material (3805 fragments) coming from a small number of contexts. The assemblage was collected primarily by hand, and smaller species (e.g. birds and fish), smaller skeletal elements and, in particular, the remains of juvenile animals will almost certainly be under-represented. The assemblage was recorded using Serjeantson’s (1996) ‘zones’ system. These data produced the basic NISP (Number of Identified Specimens) and MNE (Minimum Number of Elements) counts. The MNI (Minimum Number Individuals) was calculated from the most common element according to the MNE, by taking sides into consideration (Figure 41).

Figure 40 Witter Place, Seller Street (Site 7): post-medieval metal finds 1–2

catalogued individually below. The majority of other objects were recovered unstratified through metaldetection of excavated spoil and are not included here. 1. Handle from a scale-tang knife with three iron rivets, a short length of the iron blade remaining. Broadly post-medieval in date. From fill (772) to ditch [866/869], Period 4. 2. Iron rowel-spur with horizontal straight sides of flattened D-section, deepest at junction behind the downward bent rowel box and tapering towards the terminals. One terminal survives formed as two rings (damaged). Traces of tin plating survive on inner face of one side. Although of a common form, this small spur shares close similarities in style to an example recovered from a post-Civil War context at Beeston Castle, Cheshire, and dated to the late 17th- or early 18th century (Ellis 1993: figure 114; no. 18). From fill (838) to ditch [866/869], Period 4. 3. Hammered silver threepence; Elizabeth I second coinage 1561–1582 (North 1975: 111); very worn and pierced through. From fill (816) to Civil War ditch [788], Period 3/4 (not illustrated)

Considering the assemblage’s size, its composition and taxonomic diversity are very restricted, being dominated by the remains of cattle, dog and horse that, together with the ‘large mammal’ (i.e. cattle and horse) specimens, account for 93% of the identifiable material. Other domestic animals are present only in small quantities. Caprines are represented by 126 specimens (1.9% of the assemblage), all of which appear to be sheep rather than goat. Cat bones account for 1.2% of the assemblage (79 specimens) with pig remains making up 0.8% of the material (56 specimens). A small number of wild mammals are represented including hare (Lepus sp.) and rabbit (Oryctolagus cuniculus), with single specimens of fallow deer, (Dama dama), (a metacarpal), red deer (Cervus elaphus) (antler fragment) and one further unidentified antler fragment. Birds are present in low frequencies, with 22 specimens identified as domestic fowl, eight as goose, three corvid bones and a single fragment belonging to a pigeon (Columba sp).

Animal bone by Naomi Sykes

Overall, the assemblage’s preservation is excellent. The surface condition of nearly all the material is good, with butchery marks, burning and gnawing being clearly observable where present. Very few of the bones displayed any evidence for burning (0.1%).

Introduction The excavations at Witter Place produced a large animal bone assemblage (6,581 specimens) dating to the post46

Witter Place, Seller Street 2002 (Site 7)

Figure 41 Witter Place, Seller Street (Site 7): relative % frequencies of the main taxa according to NISP and MNI

Butchery marks were overwhelmingly more abundant on the remains of dogs. Rates of dog gnawing are low but, where present, they are most common on equid remains. The low frequency of gnawing combined with the good condition of the material suggests that remains were buried rapidly, so avoiding surface erosion and scavenging. This is potentially indicative of the increasingly organised disposal practices of 18th and 19th-century England (Thomas 2009: 21; Strasser 2000).

also. The horns from Witter Place appear to derive predominantly from adult and older individuals. This is a different picture than that presented by the dental and epiphyseal data. It would seem that these different age patterns reflect different supply mechanisms for specific body parts: horn-cores, presumably attached to skins, coming from old animals whereas juvenile animals were sent as complete carcasses. Horn-core morphology was also used to reconstruct the sex profile of the assemblage. The assemblage contains a large number of females along with a number of possible castrates. There is also a smaller, but significant, number of males, with almost all of the ‘long-horns’ sexed as males. It is probable that for longhorn cattle this system of sexing creates an artificial sex profile increasing the number of males.

Cattle Regardless of quantification technique cattle are the best represented taxon, accounting for just under 60% of the main domesticate assemblage in terms of NISP and 90% by MNI. The discrepancy between the two figures can be explained by the fact that the cattle assemblage is composed overwhelmingly of horn-cores, with 3,518 individual horn-core fragments recovered in total so boosting the MNI value relative to the NISP count. The abundance of horn-cores is interesting not only because it demonstrates a clear pattern of skeletal selection, horn-cores presumably being imported, but also because horn-cores are useful elements for informing on cattle demographics and animal ‘type’.

Few post-cranial bones presented any evidence of butchery marks, with the majority recorded on horncores. The majority of horn-cores were still attached to a fragment of frontal bone, and a small number of horncores had their tips sawn off, with only one transversely cut through. Forty-three crania presented depressions and fractures to the frontal lobe, consistent with being poleaxed.

Only six cattle mandibles and isolated teeth provided ageing data for the Witter Place cattle. Although the sample size is limited, they indicate the presence of young animals, with no adult (at least 3-6 years of age) wear stages recorded. Epiphyseal fusion data also indicates the presence of a large number of calves within the post-cranial material. Not only were young animals present but foetal and neonatal remains were recovered

Rates of pathology are low in the cattle assemblage, perhaps due to the limited number of post-cranial elements. The only pathological post-cranial element was a metacarpal with the joint disorder of osteochondrosis on the proximal facet. Sixteen horn-cores had depressions resembling the ‘thumb prints’ that have been observed on sheep horn-cores, which Albarella (1995) has suggested are caused by 47

Excavations at Chester. Medieval and Post-Medieval Development the resorption of calcium in response to malnutrition and milking stress. It is possible that the depressions in the Witter Place horn-cores have a similar aetiology. A second type of horn-core deformation noted on 14 specimens, consisted of a ‘ring of depression’ running around all, or part of, the basal circumference. Five horn-cores presented extreme deformation, suggesting that a portion of the horn had been removed during the life of the individual. The distal ends had straight edges, but had undergone significant remodelling of the bone after, perhaps resulting from polling.

Butchery was recorded on a large number of the dog bones, the highest density of all taxa. Interestingly, all these marks appear to have been produced with a knife, with no chop marks recorded. The location of the majority of these marks is consistent with those produced from skinning. The greatest density was recorded on the skull and mandible, possibly reflecting the difficulty in removing the skin in these areas. Another area of concentration was on the humerus and the femoral head suggestive of disarticulation. Rates of pathology were high in the dog assemblage. The aetiology of these were categorised into age relate, trauma, infection and congenital abnormality. The majority of related pathologies were articular extension (55.5%). Traumas included seven healed fractures, most of which had healed without misalignment, however, one skull showed a partially healed fracture to the left nasal and maxilla causing asymmetry. Congenital abnormalities were centred on the skull and mandible, particularly the absence of the third molar and crowding of the dental arcade. One skull presented unusual patterns of wear to the upper canines, suggesting heavy abrasion between the upper and low canines. Unfortunately, no mandible was associated with the skull to confirm this. Many individuals presented multiple pathologies. One example presented age related pathologies of articular extension proximally to both scapulae, humeri, and radii, along with exostoses to multiple vertebrae. Bone proliferation was also recorded latero-proximally on the humerus at the site of the muscle attachment, as was the congenital absence of the lower third molar. The most pathological specimen amongst the skulls analysed isotopically demonstrated a series of partially healed fractures with associated periostitis, as well as tooth loss and tooth breakage; the right canine was broken in life down to the gum level.

Dogs Dogs were the second best represented taxon in the Witter Place assemblage, their remains dominating several contexts, in particular context (155/701/706) the fill of the late Period 4 ditch [174/700/707]. Overall, a minimum number of 41 individuals are present and the material was exceptionally well preserved. However, there was a clear under-representation of foot bones. Only one sacrum was recovered, along with a limited number of vertebrae. It is possible that this underrepresentation reflects a recovery bias, a suggestion perhaps supported by the limited number of teeth. Most individuals attained an age of at least 9-10 months old. However, fusion data have the disadvantage that they contribute little to information on skeletally mature animals. Tooth wear, however, can reflect an animal’s age but with dogs this has been notoriously difficult because, unlike herbivores, the potential variety in a dog’s diet will affect the rate of wear. In addition, the morphological variation in the species can also impinge on the level of dental attrition. In general terms, the dental and epiphyseal fusion data suggest a possible preference for young adult dogs. Due to the excellent preservation, shoulder heights were calculated for 283 specimens using the factors of Harcourt (1974). They indicate a broad range within the material, with shoulder heights ranging from less than 30cm to over 80cm. When compared with contemporary sites, Witter Place appears to have a far greater prevalence of larger dogs. Analysis of the radius shape and estimated shoulder height as well as dimensions of the skull were conducted to examine the variety of morphotypes present in the assemblage. Comparison with animals of known breed indicates that many are comparable with modern working dogs such as German Shepherds and Collies, with a limited number of smaller types. There were a number of considerably large specimens whose conformation is similar to some modern wolves. Comparison with modern reference material indicates that these radii are more robust than a St Bernard specimen and longer in length than that of an Irish wolfhound.

Data from the strontium analysis of tooth enamel samples demonstrated that four of the specimens have ratios consistent with the geology of Chester (87Sr/86Sr), whilst one reflected the geology typically derived from Devonian or older rocks, the closest source within north-west and central Wales. Interestingly, this individual was also an outlier according to the carbon and nitrogen isotope results. By contrast, all four specimens that exhibited the ‘local’ Sr values related closely together in terms of their carbon and nitrogen ratios. On the basis of these results it seems that the carbon and nitrogen data provide some indication of the environmental range from which the dogs represented in the Witter Place assemblage were being drawn. The majority, based on the Sr evidence, would appear to represent the local signature for Chester. However, one outlier in particular exhibited exceptionally high nitrogen and carbon values, potentially suggestive of a marine diet. It could be that Witter Place drew 48

Witter Place, Seller Street 2002 (Site 7)

some animals from coastal areas; however, it is equally possible that this one individual had a particularly privileged diet, perhaps a well-fed pet.

the Witter Place material, the smallest being under 11 hands (about the size of a modern Shetland pony) and the largest at 18 hands (comparable with some Shire horses). The majority of horses fall between 13.2 and 16 hands, so a mixture of ponies (14.2 horses) are represented. The effect of breed upon the shape of skeletal elements within horses has been little studied, but using the morphology of the tibia, the Witter Place specimens are of a shape comparable with some Arab specimens. A number of specimens from Witter Place cluster halfway between modern Arab and Shire specimens, a similar conformation to workingtype horses similar to a Welsh Cob.

Horse Equids (mammals of the horse family or Equidae) are represented consistently across all the contexts from Witter Place. In no case do their remains dominate any context but, when the data are considered by date, the frequency of equid remains appears to increase steadily from the 18th to 19th century. All of the specimens were visually identified as horse; however, metrical analysis raises the possibility of a single donkey (Equus assinus) metacarpal (from pit [880]) within the material. While it is probable that the specimen from Witter Place comes from a small horse, the possibility that donkey, mules and hinnies are present within the material must be considered. All parts of the skeleton were represented, although as expected, the distribution of anatomical elements is uneven. A large number of long bones were recovered, with the scapula being the most common body element. This is somewhat unusual as the scapula has often been noted for its poor preservation and recovery within archaeological assemblages (see Brain 1967; Albarella et al. 1997: 31). There was an underrepresentation of equid phalanges, which may reflect a possible recovery bias.

Rates of pathologies were limited on horse remains, with only five occurrences recorded. Three of these were joint disorders, with two occurrences of proximal exostosis, and a second phalanx with osteochondrosis on the proximal facet. Two ossified hematomas, one metacarpal (from a dump of cattle horn-cores sealing pit [831]) and one radius were also recorded. It seems likely that the majority of the ‘large mammal’ vertebrae were also from horses. Cases of ankylosing spondylitis were recorded in lumbar vertebrae. Moreover, evidence for exostosis was noted on four thoracic vertebrae, two lumbar vertebrae and a further three lumbar vertebrae. Sheep/Goat

Both dental and epiphyseal fusion data indicates the vast majority of the remains were from very old individuals, the vast majority of individuals in excess of 20 years. A single foetal horse femur (from trough [859/860]) was recovered.

Caprine remains are present in low quantities. Attempts were made to separate sheep and goat remains, however, this could only be achieved on two metacarpals and one horn-core. These were all identified as sheep, therefore, due to the limited size all caprines will be considered together in this section.

Butchery marks were recorded on 3.15% of horse remains. The chop, cut and shaving marks reflect the process of skinning and disarticulation of the carcass. Marks associated with disarticulation were concentrated on the proximal and distal end of the long bones. The pelvis and femur demonstrated heavy butchery marks consistent with the removal of the leg from the body by chopping through the articulation. It appears that a similar butchery style was used for separating the femur and tibia, and humerus and radius, with a large number of these showing chop marks to the proximal and distal end. A number of shaving marks recorded on the distal tibia suggest that the carcasses are likely to have been skinned.

The frequency of sheep/goat body has an uneven representation. Most elements are present, although there was an absence of the atlas and axis, along with a greater representation of forelimb bones within the assemblage. Only a single sheep horn-core was recovered. An insufficient amount of mandibles were recovered to provide any insightful analysis of age profile. Epiphyseal fusion data indicates that all individuals had attained an age of 12 months, after which survival rates progressively dropped, with just over 50% surviving to 3-4 years of age. Ascertaining the sex of post-cranial caprine remains is notoriously difficult as the taxon exhibits little sexual dimorphism (e.g. Davis 2000) and, given the small sample size, it was not possible to comment on the structure of the Witter Place assemblage. However, the Witter Place sheep appear to be of similar size to those from other sites in the region.

Like the cattle and dog material, the large dataset allows for an impression of the overall skeletal conformation of the horses from Witter Place to be gained. It was possible to calculate the wither heights for 96 specimens, which show a considerable range in the material, with an average height consistent with many contemporary sites in England. The data suggests many different types and sizes of horses are present in

Pathologies were recorded on three specimens (2.32%). A mandible presented an oral pathology of resorption of 49

Excavations at Chester. Medieval and Post-Medieval Development the alveolar margin resulting from periodontal disease. One femur showed swelling and periostosis on the distal end, and the only horn-core (from pit [474]) had a ‘thumb print’ deformation which has been associated with resorption of calcium in response to malnutrition and milking stress (Albarella 1995).

Discussion Without doubt, the bulk of the Witter Place assemblage is industrial in nature. The predominance of cattle horn-cores is precisely the kind of selectivity indicative of craft specialization (Albarella 2003: 75). Abundance of equid remains and the presence of dogs also points to a non-domestic function, these animals seldom being recovered in large quantities from areas of habitation. Determining exactly what kind of industry, craft or trade was responsible for accumulating these remains is, however, a more complex issue: whilst most of the non-zooarchaeological evidence points to tanning, the cattle remains could equally reflect industrial butchery or horn-working. Tawying could explain the high representation of dog remains, whereas the equid assemblage may represent a knacker’s deposit.

Pig A number of pig remains were recovered from Witter Place. The most numerous element is the mandible, with a number of long bones also recovered. Recovery rates may reflect a taphonomic bias to unfused elements, as both dental and epiphyseal fusion indicates the majority of these individuals were young at the point of slaughter. A foetal pig humerus was recovered from context (926), a Period 3 deposit. A single pathology was present on a mandible which showed signs of periodontal disease.

Taking each possibility in turn, professional butchery can be ruled out on a number of grounds. First on the conspicuous absence of any elements, other than horncores, that might be regarded as ‘primary butchery waste’: normally we would expect to find foot bones in abundance as these ‘low utility’ elements are usually the first to be stripped from the carcass by the butcher. Second, and probably most significant, is the presence of butchered equid and dog remains. Although historical accounts point to the consumption of both of these taxa in Chester during a besiegement in the Civil War (Elliot 1791: 74), there has long been a cultural taboo against their consumption (Simoons 1994). In Britain the taboo against horse flesh has been in existence since the 8th century when Pope Gregory III forbade Christians to eat it (Simoons 1994: 187; Poole 2013). With such culturally ingrained aversions, it seems highly unlikely that professional butchers would operate in the same space where dog and horse carcasses were being reduced.

Cat Cat bones were recovered from a total of twentyfour contexts, although significant concentrations of remains were recovered from context (772), the fill of ditch [866/869]. Unsurprisingly for a hand-collected assemblage, the smallest skeletal elements are poorly represented. A mandible, femur and radius had fine cut marks present upon them. A humerus had a small degree of exostosis. Other mammalian species A small number of other species were present in smaller quantities, but not of any less interest. Two species of deer were recorded: a fragment of red deer (Cervus elaphus) antler, a fallow deer (Dama dama) metacarpal. A small number of lagomorph remains were also identified. These included a rabbit scapula, humerus, pelvis and femur, possibly all from the same individual, and a humerus and a femur from another two specimens. Two hare humeri were recovered also.

The high frequency of dog and horse bones also challenges the interpretation of Witter Place as a horn workshop; however, this possibility cannot be disregarded so quickly. Documentary evidence suggests that horn working continued in Britain up to the end of the Victorian period as the material was adapted to the large-scale production of buttons, cutlery handles and combs (Simmonds 1858, 196). In many respects the Witter Place assemblage does display traits indicative of a horner’s assemblage: not only is it dominated by cattle horn-cores but it also contains specimens whose tips have been sawn off, a practice known to have been undertaken to facilitate the removal of the sheath from the core by accelerating decomposition of the bond between them. The incidence of sawn tips is, perhaps, lower than might be expected of a horner’s workshop. It is possible that, rather than being sawn, a process of soaking was used to remove most of the sheaths. MacGregor (1991, 364) states that soaking is a prerequisite for successful horn working. Yeomans (2008,

Birds A small number of bird remains were recovered from both domestic and wild species. The most abundant were the remains of domestic fowl (Gallus gallus), which were spread over a number of contexts. A chicken tarsometatarsal was recovered with a spur scar and is thus likely to have come from an adolescent cockerel (Sadler 1991). The material was highly fragmented with measurements only available from a single tarsometatarsal. Eight fragments of domestic goose (Anser anser domesticus) constitute the remainder of the domestic material. Three raven bones and one pigeon bone (all from separate contexts) were also recovered. 50

Witter Place, Seller Street 2002 (Site 7)

137-8) has stated that assemblages from horners can be separated from tanners and other leather working waste through the presence of horn-cores cut into multiple sections, again done to accelerate the decomposition of the internal bond. This, however, seems contradictory to the historical (MacGregor 1985, 66; MacGregor 1991) and ethnographical literature (Wenham 1964; Prumell 1978) which suggests that maximising the size of the horn plate after ‘breaking’ was the primary concern.

and leather off-cuts) in post-medieval Bruges (Ervynck et al. 2003): both are dominated by cattle horn-cores and show a dearth of post-cranial elements. Scarcity of post-cranial elements is interesting because many British tanning assemblages contain large numbers of foot bones (Serjeantson 1989: 136–37). It seems possible that decisions about which elements were left attached to the skin depended upon the mechanisms by which tanners obtained their skins. If, for instance, skins were acquired locally, perhaps from animals brought into a town for slaughter, head and foot elements might have been retained, with the tanner or butcher redistributing horns to the horn-worker. Where the transport of skins was over a longer distance, however, it would make sense to remove as much unnecessary weight and bulk from the hides as possible. Certainly Albarella (2003: 80-81) has argued convincingly that the over-representation of goat horn-cores relative to post-cranial elements reflects the importation of goat skins from the continent. This begs the question: if it was desirable to reduce the bulk of the skin, why were the horns left attached? Serjeantson (1989: 139-40) has proffered an explanation, citing Schmid’s (1974: 10) suggestion that it was so that the tanner could assess the age of the animal – horns show increasing numbers of rings with age. This potential zooarchaeological evidence for long distance importation of skins fits neatly with the historical evidence for Chester’s leather industry. Port books record that large numbers of skins were imported to Chester from Ireland and, to a lesser extent, from Wales, Scotland and the continent (Armour 1956: 36; Clarkson 1960; Woodward 1967: 69–70).

Whilst there is some compelling evidence that hornworking was undertaken at Witter Place, considerable quantities of horn sheath were found still attached to horn-cores of all sizes, but particularly the short-horn specimens. On balance, this would seem to suggest that many sheaths were simply discarded, perhaps considered to be of little value. This could reflect the decline in importance of horn as a raw material. For although horn-working did continue into the 19thcentury, large scale glass production was widespread at this time, and could be manufactured at a low cost into windows, vessels and other objects that had once been made in horn. Whilst the suggestion that Witter Place assemblage represent horners’ waste cannot be dismissed entirely, on the basis of the criteria presented by Albarella (2003) the assemblage appears closest to a tannery deposit, which is perhaps unsurprising given Chester’s pedigree as a centre of leather production: Chester is home to the earliest post-Roman tannery in the country – the late Saxon site 26-42 Lower Bridge Street (Mason 1985; Shaw 1996) – and post-medieval tanning structures complete with cattle horn-core assemblages have been identified (but not yet published) in several other areas in the city; for instance at Bridge St, 148 Foregate Street, on the east side of Seller Street (McNeil and Newman 2006: 158) and at City Road. Based upon surviving taxation records, Armour (1956: 34–5) identified Foregate Street and Bakers Lane as the centre of tanning within Chester. This is supported by cartographic evidence, with both the 1870 and 1890 Ordnance Survey map depicting a large tannery on Foregate Street, only 260m east of Witter Place, with the position of fifty-six pits defined. Interestingly, the exploitation of animal carcasses on the Foregate Street site appears to continue long after, with the site identified as the location of an abattoir in the 1950s OS map. Recent excavations at Boughton, 400m east of Witter Place, revealed a tannery complex, including timber-lined pits (Powell et al. 2018), demonstrating that this particular industry was not confined solely to Chester’s inner suburbs.

Throughout the medieval and post-medieval periods legislation dictated that the light leather industry was kept separate from the ‘heavy’ leather industry, which handled the skins of cattle and horses and processed them through ‘vegetable’ tanning (see for instance Serjeantson 1989; Cherry 1991; Shaw 1996). As has been shown by several researchers (e.g. Serjeantson 1989; Shaw 1996; Sykes 2013), these laws were often flouted and this seems to have been the case at Witter Place. Historical records provide less information regarding the role of horses in Chester’s leather industry and it is here where zooarchaeology can help to highlight their treatment. The animal bone data go some way to explain why horse skins might have been overlooked by post-medieval authors: quite simply they were a minor element of the heavy leather trade. Estimates based on the Witter Place assemblage suggest that horse skins accounted for just 3% of the hides processed. Unlike cattle skins, which arrived pre-stripped, skeletal representation data suggest that horses were brought to the site complete. After removal of the skin, the carcasses appear to have been roughly butchered and then, given the frequency of canine gnawing marks, used as food for dogs. Similar interpretations have been

There are additional factors to recommend the interpretation of the assemblage as tanning waste. In particular, the Witter Place assemblage shares traits with material from an undisputed tannery (identified on the basis of structural remains, leather working tools 51

Excavations at Chester. Medieval and Post-Medieval Development suggested for other similarly dated sites (Thomas 2005; Thomas and Locock 2000; Wilson and Edwards 1993).

in 1878, although efforts to improve the variety were made in the 18th and 19th century by a number of agriculturalists, particularly in Chester (Trow-Smith 1959: 177). These ‘improvements’ included accelerating maturity, refinement of the heavy bone and diversifying the colour of the hide; however, they also resulted in a marked loss of milk production, reducing the popularity and exploitation of the breed (Trow-Smith 1959: 86).

Because industrial waste is highly selective, and in the case of the Witter Place material apparently contains the remains of animals imported from some distance, it is debatable whether the data can, or should, be examined in terms of local rural economy. The material does, however, provide an excellent opportunity to consider animal husbandry in broad terms and consider issues of livestock development. For the post-medieval/ early modern period this is particularly important since the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries represent the time when animal ‘improvement’ became key to the negotiation of individual status, regional identity and even British nationalism (Ritvo 1987).

In line with the documentary evidence, which suggests that post-medieval cattle were raised primarily for meat and milk (Davis and Beckett 1999: 14), the age and sex structure indicated by the cattle horn-cores from Witter Place indicate a large number of mature cows. The presence of juvenile cattle in the Witter Place assemblage may indicate the culling of young cattle to release milk for human consumption. Evidence for a dairying economy may also be provided by some of the horn-cores that demonstrate ‘thumbprints’, a condition that in sheep has been linked to milking stress (Albarella 1995). It seems possible that the five deliberately polled cattle horn-cores may also be linked to dairying: modern dairy herds are habitually dehorned to prevent the goring of other cattle; moreover, cattle without horns require less trough space and can be housed in greater numbers (Farley 1918: 3; Clark et al. 1971: 4; Grandin 2010: 93). Whilst modern agricultural manuals do not recommend the removal of the developed horn in adult cattle due to the risk of postoperative bleeding and infection (Gillespie and Flanders 2010: 303; Clark et al. 1971: 5), in some cases this procedure is carried out using dehorning clippers or saws (Grandin 2010: 93-95; Clark et al. 1971: 5-7). Due to the extensive bone remodelling of the Witter Place specimens, determining how the horn was removed is not possible; however, the straight edges suggest that a tool, such as a saw, may have been used.

Horn-core morphology and metrics certainly indicate that several different ‘types’ (small-, short-, mediumand long-horn) of cattle are present in the Witter Place assemblage. Whilst ‘medium-horns’ predominate across the site, there are a few contexts where small/shorthorns are found in high frequencies (e.g. pit [609], ditch [866/869]) and others that are characterized by the presence of ‘long-horns’ (notably ditch [866/869]). The Witter Place assemblage certainly contains more ‘longhorns’ (OC >360mm) and ‘small-horns’ (OC 2.1m

0.3m

Rounded: ground-cut

(122) (127)

C [185]

Diameter 1.85m

1.12m

Rounded: ground-cut

(186)

B [184]

D [181] [193] [194]

E [214] F [203]

Diameter 4.0m Diameter 6.0m

Diameter > 0.4m Diameter 1.1m

Diameter >2.0m Diameter 4.0m

1.1m

1.58m 0.7m 0.7m 1.1m 1.4m

Rounded: ground-cut Rounded: ground-cut Rounded: ground-cut Rounded: ground-cut Rounded: ground-cut Rounded: ground-cut

pits located along the west side of the site were cut through a layer of grey-brown silt-clay (124) containing cattle horn-cores, other animal bones, charcoal and fragments of bark; this layer was dated to the 18th- and 19th centuries. Other pits were shown to be sealed by layer (124) indicating some phasing to the pits.

(124) (158) (182) (195) (197) (189)

(183) (196) (217)

(190) (192) (198) (200)

A further pit [253] lay towards the centre of the site. This pit measured 3.8m in diameter and 0.34m deep. The fill consisted of green clay-silt (109), leading this feature to be interpreted as a probable cess-pit. The lack of animal bone or horn core material separated these pits from the tanning pits of the preceding period.

The groups of postulated tanning pits extended beyond the site boundaries to the north and west. There was no evidence for tanning activity elsewhere within the area of the site.

A linear feature [187] with a rounded terminus, was identified towards the southwest corner of the site. This feature measured over 2.5m in length and exhibited a U-shaped profile and depth of 0.35m. Feature [187] was filled with grey silt (188) and was interpreted as an agricultural ditch.

Post-medieval: Later 18th to 19th century (Periods 3–7) Following the abandonment of the period 2 pits, cartographic evidence indicates that the site was partially in use as ornamental or kitchen gardens.

These features are shown on Figure 43.

Garden features and deposits (Periods 3–4)

Historic cartographic sources indicated that two phases of terraced buildings occupied the eastern edge of the site, along the line of Russell Street. The earliest development, of c. 1789 (Period 5), consisted of a short line of terraced properties along what was to become Russell Street. The remains to these buildings consisted of an L-shaped complex backing onto gardens.

Russell Street terraces (B1) (Period 5)

A small stretch of sandstone wall (108), aligned east– west, measuring 4.0m long and 0.4m wide, survived as a single course. This wall may have formed part of a garden structure. In the western part of the site, a circular sandstonelined well (179), with an external diameter of 1.8m and an internal diameter of 1.0m, was cut [219] into the underlying natural clay. The full depth of this feature was not established.

The remains of building (B1) consisted of three sandstone walls (240, 241 and 244) encountered within the northwest area of the site (Figure 43). The regularsized blocks of sandstone used in these walls were bonded with a light grey-yellow mortar. Walls (240) and (241) were aligned east–west and wall (244), of similar materials and construction, extended northwards from wall (241). A short length of wall (244) linked (240) with (241). A rough brick floor was encountered to the west of wall (244). These structural elements appear to have been amalgamated into the later brick terraces forming building (B4) (Period 7).

To the south of the well were two sandstone plinths, (117) and (118). These plinths were of rough construction and considered to represent the base, or bases, to a garden feature, such as a pergola. Cut into layer (124) was a small, circular, pit [223]. This pit measured 0.64m in diameter and up to 0.17m deep. The fill consisted of green clay-loam (126), leading this feature to be interpreted as a probable cess-pit.

61

Excavations at Chester. Medieval and Post-Medieval Development

Figure 43 20 City Road (Site 8): plan of Periods 3–5 features

have belonged to the timber theatre building or else belonged to a second structure.

The 1874 theatre building (B2) (Period 6) Owing to the construction of a later theatre building (Period 7), only limited evidence for the period 6 theatre building (B2) remained in situ (Figure 44).

The 1882 theatre building (B3) and Russell Street brick terraces (B4) (Period 7)

Running east–west across the area of excavation was a large sandstone wall (160) which measured 10.3m long. The wall had between two and three courses of sandstone blocks surviving. These blocks varied in size and were roughly cut and finished. At its western end, the wall curved gently towards the southeast for approximately 2.0m before it was truncated by modern intrusions. Wall (160) was interpreted as the foundation to The Prince of Wales Theatre, a timber-built building constructed around 1874. To the west of wall (160) was a patch of sandstone rubble (135) indicating that the wall had extended further.

A second phase of theatre activity, relating to the construction in 1882 of a large brick-built theatre building (B3), The Royalty theatre, was identified during the excavation (Figure 44). A substantial amount of this theatre remained in situ, albeit truncated by later demolition and activity during the 21st century. The second phase of terracing (B4) (Period 7) was built around the time of the construction of the Royalty Theatre. These terraces replaced, and perhaps amalgamated, the earlier line of terraces along the Russell Street frontage. Walls (111) and (151) formed the extents of the 1882 theatre building (B3). These were constructed from red brick, the lowest three courses to which were stepped to form wider foundations. A series of regularly-spaced arches were included as part of the foundations. The wall circuit for the theatre building survived almost

Two further sandstone walls, (167) and (173), were identified to the north of wall (160), both were aligned north–south. These were of rough construction and were interpreted as contemporary with wall (106), although there function was uncertain; they may 62

City Road 2007–2008 and 2018 (Sites 8 and 9)

complete, with only the southwestern section missing owing to truncation during demolition.

pavement of Russell Street. A return wall marked the southern edge of the terrace. The outer walls, (229) and (235) of the terrace were 0.30m wide and were constructed from red brick in English bond coursing with white, grainy mortar. Within the area defined by the outer walls were various internal dividing walls; these were narrower at 0.22m wide. All of the walls were keyed into each other confirming that they were of contemporary construction. The subdivisions indicated that this terrace was formed from nine houses. Two areas of brown tile flooring were encountered in the southwestern area of the terrace.

Within the main area of the theatre building, enclosed by (111) and (115), a further wall circuit (138), constructed from red brick, remained intact. This area of the theatre would have been occupied by the stage and, as such, this structural element was interpreted as a support for the stage; supported in this way, access would have been available to the space below the stage. Towards the northern boundary of the site, two further walls were encountered: walls (149) and (154). These walls were aligned north–south and coincided with what would have been the stage entry area of the theatre.

The finds Roman pottery

The partial remains of the brick foundations to a later terrace of housing (B4) were encountered along the eastern edge of the site. These remains measured were aligned north–south and extended to an area 32m long by 10m wide, with the eastern edge butting the

A total of 28 sherds, weighing 300g, was recovered from the 20 City road excavations. Pottery from gully [204] consisted of locally manufactured reduced and oxidised coarseware fabrics (Holt and Cheshire Plain wares). The

Figure 44 20 City Road (Site 8): plan of Periods 6–7 features

63

Excavations at Chester. Medieval and Post-Medieval Development sherds were undiagnostic and, therefore, were dated broadly to the late 1st or 2nd centuries.

material, considered to be intrusive, whilst later pit [193] produced several sherds from a Jackfield (a fine blackware) vessel dated to c. 1740–80.

Medieval pottery

Pit B [184] produced a mixture of 17th-, 18th- and early 19th-centruy material.

Two sherds of pottery were recovered from a general soil layer (110). These consisted of a spout from a jug in a local, sandy fabric, of 13th-century date, and a sherd from the body of a vessel in a pink/white fabric typical of Ewloe, Flintshire products of the late 14th and 16th centuries (Edwards 2008: 188).

In general terms, the post-medieval pottery assemblage was very fragmentary with a high level of residuality detected in most contexts. The manufacturing waste has been discounted as non-local, its significance therefore greatly reduced.

Post-medieval pottery

Clay tobacco pipes

A total of 467 sherds, weighing 19,316 g, of postmedieval pottery was recovered from 20 City Road. Analysis of this pottery (Garner 2008) demonstrated that the bulk of this (66% by count and 52% by weight) derived from two general layers (107) and (153), both of which were classified as modern demolition layers, indicating, therefore, that much material was probably derived from disturbed contexts across the site.

A total of nine pipe bowls and 44 fragments of clay pipe stems were recovered during the excavations. The pipe was summarised (Statter 2008), with 5 of the bowls – dated to the 19th century – deriving from a modern demolition layer (107). Period 2 pit [194] produced three bowls dating to c. 1660–90, 1720–40, and 1740–70. The assemblage was relatively uninformative, the date range reflecting that of the pottery (above).

Interestingly, however, material from layer (153) was dominated by waste products associated with the manufacture of pottery, including saggar fragments (vessels used to hold finer vessels during the firing process) covered in salt-glaze and kiln spacers or stilts; which would have been used to separate pottery vessels during the firing process. The largest component was, however, biscuit-fired fine-bodied white earthenware sherds, which, once glazed, would have ended up as creamwares or pearlwares. Some sherds had been engine-lathe turned and others coated with red, blue and brown bands of slip decoration typical of the ‘industrial’ or ‘mocha’ slipwares manufactured in North Staffordshire and elsewhere during the late 18th and 19th century. All of the decorated sherds were derived from bowls. A smaller group of sherds were decorated with underglaze transfer-printed designs. Partially surviving makers stamps were encountered, but these were too incomplete to be certain of the manufacturer/s represented.

Glass A total of 138 fragments of glass was recorded from the excavations (Willmott n.d.). All of the glass was relatively late in date and consisted primarily of wine and other beverage bottles of late 18th-century and 19th-century date. Unfortunately, the assemblage was considered a relatively uninformative one. The majority derived from demolition layers and was, therefore, contextually insecure. Animal remains The following summarises the animal bone recovered from the 20 City Road site (Sykes et al n.d.), the full details of which can be found in Jones and Poole (2009: Appendix 2). Most of the assemblage from 20 City Road derived from the postulated tanning pits (Period 2), in particular pit [184] which produced 75% of the total material, pit [203] (10%) and pit 181 (5%). The taxonomic diversity was very restricted, being dominated by the remains of cattle and horse, accounting for 97% of the material. Other domestic animals were present only in small quantities. These consisted of sheep, dog and pig. The basic NISP (Number of Identified Specimens) and the MNI (Minimum Number Individuals) of the principal taxa are summarised in Figure 45.

The pottery from (153) could be seen as an important indicator of pottery manufacture near to the site in the early 19th century. However, there is no documentary evidence for pottery manufacture in Chester at this date and it is therefore more likely that the material represents a dump of imported rubbish brought into Chester from a pottery manufacturing area such as Stoke-on-Trent or Leeds; possibly ballast from a boat moored on the adjacent canal (pers. comm., Julie Edwards).

The assemblage was composed almost entirely of industrial waste; some domestic material was indicated but this was a minor component. The assemblage was refuse from the ‘heavy’ (cattle and horse) leather

The stratigraphically earliest of two of the inter-cutting Period 2 pits, Pit D [181], produced sherds of late 17thor early 18th-centruy pottery, along with some modern 64

City Road 2007–2008 and 2018 (Sites 8 and 9)

Figure 45 20 City Road (Site 8): relative % frequencies of the main taxa according to NISP and MNI

trade, with little evidence for the processing of ‘light’ (calf, foal, sheep, goat, dog) leather. However, it is possible that the 20 City Road site was a dumping ground rather than a tannery itself, where structural evidence, leather off-cuts and tools of the trade would be expected also. The possibility that waste from other industrial activities – butchery and horn-working – was represented amongst the assemblage can be discounted due to the lack of primary butchery waste (notably foot bones) and the absence of sawn horn-cores. The assemblage did not indicate the knackering of horses, but as horn-cores and horse remains are often found in association on tanning sites, it is likely that knackering was integrated with the heavy leather trade rather than being a separate enterprise.

Although the bird assemblage was small, it contained one bone belonging to a turkey. Other interesting finds included the metacarpal from a donkey and a single fallow deer bone. Both the fallow deer and turkey were animals of the social elite and all three taxa are exotic, naturalized species. Their presence adds an extra dimension to the assemblage, highlighting that social information can be gleaned even from single bones. Environmental remains Plant remains Plant macrofossils were recorded in samples taken from the fills to the Period 2 tanning pits B [184], D [181] and F [203]. The following summarises a report by Gray (2008) in Jones and Poole (2009: Appendix 2).

The variety of cattle-horn cores within the assemblage indicated that many different populations of animals from a wide range of sources are represented in Chester. The fact that only cattle horn-cores, and no other skeletal elements, were represented in the assemblage suggests that skins may have been imported from considerable distances, perhaps as far as Ireland. This would also explain the abundance of horn-cores demonstrating nail or nail-holes – it has been suggested that the horn sheaths, a useful source of ageing information for the tanner, were nailed to the core so that they did not detach during transport.

Pit B [184] contained seeds of dock (Rumex acetosa/ crispus/obtusifolius), common nettle and elder. Other seeds included those of fruits such as blackberry/ raspberry (Rubus fruticosus/idaeus) and plants of waste/ disturbed ground and scrub/hedgerows such as wild strawberry/cinquefoil (Potentilla/Fragaria sp.) and wild cabbage/mustard (Brassica/Sinapis sp.). Barley/wheat (Hordeum/Triticum sp.) grains were present also. The plant macrofossil assemblage from pit D [181] contained abundant stem/leaf fragments and seeds from elderberry (Sambucus nigra L.), common nettle (Urtica dioica L.) and marsh woundwort (Stachys cf. palustris), along with occasional hemlock (Conium maculatum L.) seeds. Stones plum/sloe (Prunus sp.) were

The equine remains indicated that horses were worked long and hard, their carcasses exploited after death when they were skinned and the body parts sold on to other people and professions. Dog gnawing was exhibited on the horse bones. 65

Excavations at Chester. Medieval and Post-Medieval Development present also. Fragments of oak and elder wood were identified.

activity in or around the site. It is, therefore, possible the pits were backfilled with waste from tanning. The presence of lime seems to indicate the need to mitigate the putrid conditions.

Pit F [203] was dominated by indeterminate stem/ leaf fragments and contained identifiable fragments of waterlogged wood. These included birch (Betula sp.), alder (Alnus glutinosa) and ash (Fraximus excelsior L.). The most frequent taxa was hemlock followed by common nettles, spearleaved/common orache and celery-leaved crowfoot. A sloe/blackthorn and rose (Rosa sp.) thorn were also recovered. Charred bread/ club/rivet wheat were recovered also. Other taxa were domestic pea (Pisum sativum L.), hedge bedstraw (Galium cf. mollugo) seed, rye (Secale cereale L.) grains and barley (Hordeum sp.). Oak and pine (Pinus sp.) charcoal was also recovered.

Results: City House (Site 9) Excavation at City House was restricted to the stripping of an area, measuring 20m by 30m, located at the south end of the wider site. No Roman, post-Roman, Saxon or medieval period activity was encountered during the excavations. All archaeology identified was of 19th-century date. Where encountered, natural deposits consisted of boulder clay encountered at depths of 0.65m and 0.95m below current ground level.

The plant macrofossils from these pits were indicative that the area was damp, manured/cess-like and that at some stage at least one pit held water. Large fragments of bark were not present in abundant enough quantities to be clear botanical evidence of tanning.

The building numbering sequence continues from that adopted for the 20 City Road site (Site 8) above. Mid-19th century cottages (B5) (Period 1)

Insect remains

The partial remains of two cottages (B5), part of a row of four first recorded on the tithe survey of 1848, were encountered towards the southeast corner of the excavation area (Figure 46). These remains post-dated an earlier agricultural soil (131), from which a few sherds of pottery and clay tobacco pipe were recovered dating to the late 18th and 19th century.

Samples were analysed from Period 2 tanning pits D [184] and F [203]. The following summarises a report by Tetlow (n.d.) in Jones and Poole (2009: Appendix 2). The insect remains were well preserved but restricted to two individuals to two species precluding meaningful interpretation. Pit F [203] produced a single sclera from the Scarabaeidae (dung beetle) family, Aphodius spp. The species could not be determined. Taxa from this family are associated with fresh dung from a variety of species, particularly ungulates, but also humans and other mammals such as badgers.

The cottage remains consisted of a group of sandstone wall foundations with mortar bonding. Wall (167), aligned north–south, was shown to correlate with the end wall of the westernmost property on the tithe map. Immediately east of this wall was a large block of sandstone set perpendicular to (167), this appeared to be part of an internal wall to this property.

Pit D [184] were, again, restricted to a single elytra in this case the fragment was distinguishable to species level and was from the histerid, Paralister puperascens, a species associated with none species-specific dung, stable manure and other foul, rotting organic material.

Approximately 3.6m to the east of wall (167) were two parallel walls (183) and (185), both aligned east–west; wall (183) represented the rear wall of the cottages. No floor surfaces associated with these cottages were encountered.

The lack of insects in the samples preclude the drawing of any firm conclusions about the nature of industrial activity at the 20 City Road site.

A small stretch of brick and sandstone walling (190), located to the north of wall (183), was probably associated with the garden or yard area to the rear of the cottages.

Environmental overview The plant and faunal remains from the postulated tanning pits seem to indicate that the area was damp and that putrid conditions, such as those found in tanning pits, were present. Fragments of oak bark were not present in abundant enough quantities to be clear botanical evidence of tanning. The abundance of seeds from species common in or around nutrientrich ground supports the possibility of tanning as an

Methodist chapel (B6) (Period 2) Three outer walls to the Welsh Methodist chapel (B6), constructed in 1872, were encountered, all were of mortared red brick. The northern exterior wall (101), aligned northwest–southeast, measured 0.7m wide and incorporated supporting inverted arches of brickwork 66

City Road 2007–2008 and 2018 (Sites 8 and 9)

Figure 46 City House (Site 9): plan of Period 1 and Period 2 features

and external buttresses of varying widths. The eastern external wall (165) measured 0.59m wide, and the southern wall (120) 0.37m wide. The latter wall also incorporated inverted arch supports.

The finds Post-medieval finds A total of 141 sherds of post-medieval pottery were recovered during the excavation, and a subsequent watching brief, undertaken at the City house site.

A vast extent of the interior walls of the Methodist chapel were encountered (Figure 46). These reflected alterations over the lifetime of the chapel and included a spinal wall with pillar bases and walls to a probable basement.

Few sherds were of particular note. Sherds of pearlware, including two sherds from a blue transfer printed dish decorated with the ‘Asiatic Pheasants’ design, were recovered from the agricultural layer (131). This layer pre-dated the Period 1 cottage buildings (B5).

The foundations to an external addition to the chapel building was encountered. Located against the eastern wall of the chapel, walls (173), (174) and (189) were shown to relate to a small extension recorded on the 1899 Ordnance Survey map. This extension removed the westernmost cottage of the preceding period (Period 1).

Clay tobacco pipes amounted to two fragments of stem, again from agricultural layer (131).

67

Chapter 6

Discussion topography for many decades after its abandonment. Finally infilled, largely through the re-deposition of the clay that had formed the associated defensive bank back into the partially silted ditch, the line of this outwork remained preserved as a field boundary as the surrounding land was brought back into more profitable and peaceable use. A small assemblage of musket balls and other items relating to the Civil War activity were recovered from the ditch, along with a small assemblage of later 17th-century ceramics comparable to those from Civil War and post-Civil War contexts excavated at Abbey Green, Chester and Beeston Castle, Cheshire.

Tower Wharf and Taylor’s Boatyard (Sites 1 and 2) Although outside of this volume, the Roman archaeology encountered at Tower Wharf demonstrated the presence of a road running parallel to the north wall of the legionary fortress of Deva. Assuming that this road connected with the axial road leading north of the fortress, it would appear to connect this route with the shore of the Dee to the west, perhaps providing access to waterfront facilities. Occupation alongside this road was evident in the form of ditches, pits and wells, along with a possible building. These results add further detail to the layout, density and character of the extramural settlement to the north of the fortress, for which there is significant and growing published data (see Mason 2012, Ward 2012 and Dodd 2020).

The presence of a small cluster of burials, one of which was dated to the period c. AD 1460–1640, was another surprising discovery at Tower Wharf. The terminal end of this date range coincides closely with the Civil War activity otherwise encountered and which perhaps provides a potential historical context. However, this particular burial, crouched and with the head removed, perhaps brings into possibility a criminal buried in waste ground outside the City, or the victim of murder (Towle 2013: 120).

Medieval activity within the wider area of these sites was confined solely to a scatter of artefacts within agricultural soils, or otherwise recovered as residual finds from demonstrably later features. The presence of the massive ditch, assigned to the Civil War period, was unexpected prior to the excavations. Whilst fortifications from this period have been documented elsewhere and projected into the general area, they were thought to be discrete cannon emplacements, or batteries, from the second phase of the siege (Ward 1987: 10). The continuous east–west aligned ditch is a distinctive and different addition to the pattern of fortifications previously noted for this area. The ditch ran parallel to the City Walls and towards the Dee to the west. The ditch may have served as a continuation of the earlier Royalist outworks constructed in 1643 covering the area between the western outworks and the Dee. The ditch does not, however, readily correspond to the previously documented Civil War fortifications (Ward 1987: 4–13). However, these lines have long been based around William Cowper’s map and Account of the Siege of Chester in the Year 1645, published in 1764 (Cheshire Record Office DCC/26), over one hundred years after the event and the exact line of the outworks are, therefore, largely conjectural. The archaeological discoveries at Tower Wharf, along with those at Witter Place (this volume) and Milton Street to the east of the City (Dodd 2017), are now beginning to bring into doubt the previously accepted plan of these extensive fortifications and it is becoming clear that the scale and impact of the Civil War fortifications upon the suburbs was physically significant. At Tower Wharf, and no doubt elsewhere, the massive ditch remained a brutal scar within the

Features of 18th-century date consisted of a boundary ditch and widespread soils indicative of agricultural activity, along with deposits suggesting that bricks were being manufactured within the open fields to the north of the City. From the late 18th-century, the principal activity within these sites was, undoubtedly, that related to Chester’s canal network. The archaeological remains of ten buildings were recorded on both sides of the Wirral line of the Shropshire Union Canal. These remains consisted primarily of brick foundations, in varying states of preservation and completeness, to a warehouse, several cottages, a boat-building shed and smaller sheds all serving the canal and its basin. The base to an outlying crane was recorded to the south of the principal areas of excavation on the east bank of the canal. Although depicted on contemporary cartographic sources, no further remains of cranes were encountered elsewhere within the excavated areas. The extensive remains of a cobblestone wharf surface was encountered along the east side of the North Basin that, in places, showed considerable wear caused by traffic to and from the basin. From the 1870s, urban expansion had begun to gather pace to the north of Tower Wharf, and by the end of the 19th century the surrounding area had been 68

Discussion

subsumed by a network of terraced properties along the streets leading off Garden Lane. A similar fate befell the once agricultural land to the west of Taylor’s Boatyard. Although subject to alterations and additions throughout the 19th century, the general layout of the complex of buildings around Tower Wharf and Taylor’s Boatyard persisted well into the 20th century.

occurred between the surveying of the 1847 tithe map of Chester (St. Oswald parish) and the 1875 Ordnance Survey map. The area of open ground in question was later occupied by the goods yards and sidings east of Northgate Station (opened in 1875). Remains relating to this period included railway sleepers encountered at the Oakbase House site (Site 4) and the remains of a boiler at the Northgate Fire Station site (Site 6).

Trafford Street, Newtown (Sites 3 – 6)

None of these sites produced any significant finds assemblages, though this may have been in part owing to the limit nature of the archaeological investigations undertaken.

The investigations west of Trafford Street, Newtown, were limited in scope and consisted almost exclusively of linear evaluation trenches, augmented with one small area of open excavation. Confined to the very west side of the Fire Station site (Site 6), the earliest features encountered consisted of gullies, probably agricultural in nature, dated by finds of pottery to the early Roman period (late 1st- to early 2nd century). In no way extensive nor particularly significant, these features nevertheless add to the corpus of Roman occupation so far recorded within the extramural settlement to north of the legionary fortress.

Witter Place, Seller Street (Site 7) Roman activity at this site was limited to a modestly sized ditch that probably served as a property boundary or else was related to agricultural activity. Such features now appear to be relatively abundant within the extramural settlement to the east of the Roman legionary fortress of Deva during the 2nd century (Dodd 2020). The layer of soil cut by features assigned to Period 4 may represent further agricultural activity at the site over the subsequent post-Roman and medieval periods, but this was not otherwise represented by artefacts or recognisable features within the excavated area.

The principal remains recorded at Trafford Street related directly to the foundations of worker’s housing characteristic of the extensive urbanisation of this area and the establishment of the Newtown suburb from the 1830s.

As at Tower Wharf (Site 1), the first significant evidence for post-Roman land use was a massive ditch assigned to the Civil War period (Period 3). Again, this was rather unexpected prior to the excavations. The fortifications from this period, constructed and improved between 1643 and 1644 have been documented as lying to the north of the general area. Here, these were believed to consist of two redoubts or mounts (projecting, angular earthworks), the ‘Cock Pit Mount’ and the ‘Justing Croft Mount’, each separated by an east–west aligned linear stretch of defensive bank and ditch. These Royalist outworks east of the City Walls were eventually lost to Parliamentary forces during September of 1645. (Ward 1987: 9–11). Though of similar width to that recorded at Tower Wharf, the full depth of the ditch encountered at Witter Place was not recorded; a similar overall depth can, however, be confidently assumed based on the shared width and profile. Trending on a northwest to southeast alignment, the ditch seems to have been preserved in later, similarly aligned, field boundaries recorded on Lavaux’s 1745 map of Chester. As at Tower Wharf, ceramics from the ditch generally spanned the period from the second half of the 17th century through to the middle of the 18th century. Environmental samples imply that the locality was wet, rough ground during this and during that of the subsequent period (Period 4).

Rather unexpectedly, the results from trenches and boreholes excavated at Site 3 and Site 5 demonstrated the presence of what was seemingly an extensive and deeply cut feature, or features, lying to the west of Trafford Street and extending along a northeast to southwest trajectory. Material encountered within the boreholes, two of which extended to depths of 14.7m and 15.4m, included ceramics and other materials indicative of a particularly late date for the backfilling of this feature. Historic mapping of the mid-18th century, such as Alexander Lavaux’s map of Chester 1745, records stone quarries to the north of the City within the Gorse Stacks area east of Upper Northgate Street, one of which was confirmed recently through archaeological excavation (Cuttler et al. 2012). Lavaux’s map shows no such quarries within the agricultural land that was later to become part of the Newtown area, and later maps of the area are similarly devoid of any such quarries or, indeed, any other extensive intrusion. An area of open ground shown on the first edition Ordnance Survey map of 1874 is outlined by the irregular lines of the boundary walls to the gardens and yards to the rear of terraces constructed along Trafford Street to the east and St. Anne Street to the south. The irregular boundaries can be considered unusual in a landscape of terraces and streets otherwise characterised by regular arrowstraight boundaries, perhaps these betray the edge of a backfilled quarry or other cutting that has otherwise gone unrecorded. This episode of quarrying must have

From the late 18th century onwards, the archaeological record generally reflects that depicted on cartographic 69

Excavations at Chester. Medieval and Post-Medieval Development sources. Significantly, however, the north–south aligned building located towards the centre of the site (recorded on Weston’s 1789 map, and subsequent maps until at least the 1830s) can now be shown to have been associated with a group of pit features that, through the extensive study of the faunal and environmental evidence, can be related firmly to the tanning industry. The pits, generally circular and seemingly evolving over time from earth-cut to stone-lined, lay outside of the associated stone building. At Boughton, some 300m east of Witter Place, the pits relating to the 19th-century tannery complex excavated there were square or rectangular, lined with timber, and seemingly located within the footprint of a wider building (Powell et al. 2018). Whilst such variations in pits were recorded across the broader post-medieval lifespan of a single tannery complex excavated at The Green, Northampton (Shaw 1996), and both timber-lined and brick-lined pits were found at, for example, the 18th- to 19th-century tanneries in Bermondsey (Clarke 2013), it is clear that the character and idiosyncrasies of the tanneries located within Chester’s eastern suburbs remain open to further study. The intention to preserve as much of the archaeology in situ at Witter Place undoubtedly placed limitations on the establishment of the full plan of the building, yard, pits and other structures to this particular tannery.

City Road (Sites 8 and 9) In many ways, the site at 20 City Road reflects a similar sequence of development over 2000 years as that recorded for Witter Place. Roman activity was limited to a probable agricultural ditch, along with two small pits, that again can perhaps be considered typical of the character of the archaeology within Roman Chester’s eastern extramural settlement. No post-Roman activity was recorded within this site until the advent of several pits that, through the study of faunal remains, appear to have been related to the wider post-medieval tanning industry. No remains of an associated building were encountered, and the information relating to this particular tannery complex remains, at present, limited. Once again, the site was released from its industrial past as urban expansion began; firstly during the later decades of the 18th century, with the erection of a short row of terraced cottages, followed later by a further row of terraces built during the 19th century. In addition to the terraced housing two theatres were built, with the Prince of Wales Theatre being replaced a few years later by the Royalty Theatre. The theatres reflect the expansion of recreational and entertainment needs for those inhabiting Chester’s suburbs in the period c. 1850–1899 following the urban and industrial expansion, including the establishment of the nearby leadworks and the arrival of the railway network, east of the City during the preceding period of c. 1800–1850 (Nevell 2018: 108, 112).

Studied in great detail, the animal bone assemblage from this particular site has resulted in the first substantial programme of isotope analysis for post-medieval/early modern dogs which, when combined with the metrical and palaeopathological data, has provided new insights into the life of individual animals. The results will form an important foundation upon which other studies can build.

To the south, at the City House site, once agricultural land was again given over, at least in part to begin with, to terraced housing during the first half of the 19th century. Here, however, a Welsh Methodist chapel was subsequently erected in 1872 and by the end of the 19th century a later extension to that chapel had removed part of the earlier terraces. This chapel playing its role in providing the spiritual needs of one group of Victorian Chester’s inhabitants.

The demise of the tannery at Witter Place occurred as Chester’s eastern suburbs expanded. Once predominantly agricultural, the land to the rear of the medieval burgage plots to the north of Foregate Street was systematically subsumed during the 19th century beneath rows of newly constructed terraced housing. Localised industry did, however, persist in the form of a flour mill located along the bank of the adjacent Shropshire Union Canal.

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Excavations at Chester: Medieval and post-medieval development within the northern and eastern suburbs to c. 1900 brings together for the first time the results from archaeological investigations carried out within the suburbs to the north and east of the medieval and later City of Chester between 2002 and 2018. At sites investigated to both the north and east of the City, significant stretches of the defensive ditch cut during the Civil War of the 17th century were excavated. The results bring into question the accepted lines of these massive defensive outworks. To the northwest of the City, the findings demonstrate that the land remained agricultural until late in the 18th century and was not truly developed until the arrival of the canal network. To the north of the City, development of terraced housing had begun by the 1830s, shortly before the arrival of the railway network, in the area that would become the suburb of Newtown. To the east of the City, and north of the major route of Foregate Street, evidence for industry in the form of tanneries was uncovered on land that had otherwise been predominately agricultural. This area too witnessed an explosion in terraced housing from the beginning of the 19th century, and the remains of buildings relating to both entertainment and worship were also encountered. Leigh Dodd has worked in the commercial sector of archaeology since the early 1990s. During this time he has excavated a wide range of sites including many of the Roman and post-medieval periods, several of which have been published in regional and international journals. Additionally, he is the author of a companion volume on Roman Chester in the Archaeopress Roman Archaeology series. He is a Member of the Chartered Institute for Archaeologists.

Archaeopress Archaeology www.archaeopress.com