Excavations at Cerro Tilcajete: A Monte Albán II Administrative Center in the Valley of Oaxaca 9780915703661, 9781951519841

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PREHISTORY AND HUMAN ECOLOGY OF THE VALLEY OF OAXACA Kent V. Flannery and Joyce Marcus General Editors Volume 1 Volume 2 Volume 3 Volume 4 Volume 5

Volume 6

Volume 7

Volume 8 Volume 9 Volume 10

Volume 11 Volume 12 Volume 13 Volume 14

The Use of Land and Water Resources in the Past and Present Valley of Oaxaca, Mexico, by Anne v.T. Kirkby. Memoirs of the Museum of Anthropology, University of Michigan, No.5. 1973. Sociopolitical Aspects of Canal Irrigation in the Valley of Oaxaca, by Susan H. Lees. Memoirs of the Museum of Anthropology, University of Michigan, No.6. 1973. Formative Mesoamerican Exchange Networks with Special Reference to the Valley of Oaxaca, by Jane W. Pires-Ferreira. Memoirs of the Museum of Anthropology, University of Michigan, No.7. 1975. Fabrica San Jose and Middle Formative Society in the Valley of Oaxaca, by Robert D. Drennan. Memoirs of the Museum of Anthropology, University of Michigan, No.8. 1976. Part 1. The Vegetational History of the Oaxaca Valley, by C. Earle Smith, Jr. Part 2. Zapotec Plant Knowledge: Classification, Uses and Communication, by Ellen Messer. Memoirs of the Museum of Anthropology, University of Michigan, No. 10. 1978. Excavations at Santo Domingo Tomaltepec: Evolution of a Formative Community in the Valley of Oaxaca, Mexico, by Michael E. Whalen. Memoirs of the Museum of Anthropology, University of Michigan, No. 12.1981. Monte Alban's Hinterland, Part 1: The Prehispanic Settlement Patterns of the Central and Southern Parts of the Valley of Oaxaca, Mexico, by Richard E. Blanton, Stephen Kowalewski, Gary Feinman, and Jill Appel. Memoirs of the Museum of Anthropology, University of Michigan, No. 15. 1982. Chipped Stone Tools in Formative Oaxaca, Mexico: Their Procurement, Production and Use, by William J. Parry. Memoirs of the Museum of Anthropology, University of Michigan, No. 20. 1987. Agricultural Intensification and Prehistoric Health in the Valley of Oaxaca, Mexico, by Denise C. Hodges. Memoirs of the Museum of Anthropology, University of Michigan, No. 22. 1989. Early Formative Pottery of the Valley of Oaxaca, by Kent V. Flannery and Joyce Marcus, with ceramic analysis by William O. Payne. Memoirs of the Museum of Anthropology, University of Michigan, No. 27. 1994. Women's Ritual in Formative Oaxaca: Figurine-Making, Divination, Death and the Ancestors, by Joyce Marcus. Memoirs of the Museum of Anthropology, University of Michigan, No. 33. 1998. The Sola Valley and the Monte Alban State: A Study ofZapotec Imperial Expansion, by Andrew K. Balkansky. Memoirs of the Museum of Anthropology, University of Michigan, No. 36. 2002. Excavations at San Jose Mogotel: The Household Archaeology, by Kent V. Flannery and Joyce Marcus. Memoirs of the Museum of Anthropology, University of Michigan, No. 40. 2005. Excavations at Cerro Tilcajete: A Monte Alban II Administrative Center in the Valley of Oaxaca, by Christina Elson. Memoirs of the Museum of Anthropology, University of Michigan, No. 42. 2007.

Related Volumes Flannery, Kent V. 1986 Guila Naquitz: Archaic Foraging and Early Agriculture in Oaxaca, Mexico. New York: Academic Press. Flannery, Kent v., and Joyce Marcus 2003 The Cloud People: Divergent Evolution of the Zapotec and Mixtec Civilizations. Clinton Corners, NY: Percheron Press. Marcus, Joyce, and Kent V. Flannery 1996 Zapotec Civilization: How Urban Society Evolved in Mexico's Oaxaca Valley. London: Thames and Hudson.

Frontispiece. Monte Alban, as viewed from the west side of Cerro Tilcajete's Plaza II.

Museum of Anthropology, University of Michigan Memoirs, Number 42

PREHISTORY AND HUMAN ECOLOGY OF THE VALLEY OF OAXACA Kent V. Flannery and Joyce Marcus General Editors Volume 14

Excavations at Cerro Tilcajete A Monte Alban II Administrative Center in the Valley of Oaxaca

by Christina Elson

Ann Arbor, Michigan 2007

©2007 by the Regents of the University of Michigan The Museum of Anthropology All rights reserved Printed in the United States of America ISBN 978-0-915703-66-l (paper) ISBN 978-1-951519-84-1 (ebook) Cover design by Katherine Clahassey The University of Michigan Museum of Anthropology currently publishes two monograph series: Anthropological Papers and Memoirs, as well as an electronic series in CD-ROM form. For a complete catalog, write to Museum of Anthropology Publications, 4009 Museums Building, Ann Arbor, Ml 48109-1079, or see www.lsa.umich.edu/umma/

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Elson, Christina M., 1969Excavations at Cerro Tilcajete : a Monte Alban II administrative center in the Valley of Oaxaca/ by Christina Elson. p. cm. -- (Prehistory and human ecology of the Valley of Oaxaca ; v. 14) (Memoirs ; no. 42) Includes bibliographical references. ISBN978-0-915703-66-1 (alk. paper) 1. Cerro Tilcajete Site (Mexico) 2. Monte Alban Site (Mexico) 3 . Zapotec Indians--Kings and rulers. 4. Zapotec Indians--Politics and government. 5. Zapotec Indians--Antiquities. 6. Elite (Social sci­ ences)--Mexico--Oaxaca Valley. 7. Power (Social sciences)--Mexico--Oaxaca Valley. 8. Excavations (Archaeology)--Mexico--Oaxaca Valley. 9. Social archaeology--Mexico--Oaxaca Valley. 10. Oaxaca Valley (Mexico)--Antiquities. 11. Oaxaca Valley (Mexico)--Social life and customs. I. University of Michigan. Museum of Anthropology. II. Title. III. Series. F1219.8.Z37E57 2007 972' .7401--dc22 2007025257

The paper used in this publication meets the requirements of the ANSI Standard Z39.48-1984 (Permanence of Paper)

Contents LIST OF TABLES,

vii

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS,

viii

INTRODUCTION TO VOLUME ACKNOWLEDGMENTS,

CHAPTER

1.

CHAPTER

2.

CHAPTER

3.

14, X

xv

AN INTRODUCTION TO ELITES AT SECONDARY CENTERS IN THE ZAPOTEC STATE,

An Overview of Cerro Tilcajete and the Early Zapotec State, 2 Anthropological Approaches to Defining Zapotec Elites, 5 Zapotec Elites As Members of Socioeconomic Groups, 5 Zapotec Elites as Administrators, 6 Zapotec Elites, Power Sharing, and Conflict, 7 Summary, 8 ELITE BEHAVIOR IN THE EARLY ZAPOTEC STATE, 9 Zapotec Polities in the Sixteenth Century, 9 Zapotec Nobles, 10 Zapotec Policy-Makers, 11 Zapotec Priests, 13 Zapotec Warriors, 13 Zapotec Merchants, 14 Summary, 14 THE OAXACA VALLEY IN MONTE ALBAN II (100 B.C.-A.D. 200), 15 Archaeological Indicators of Elite Behavior, 15 The Regional Picture, 16 The Settlement Hierarchy, 16 I-Shaped Bal1courts, 20 Pottery Production Network, 21 Monte Alban, 22 The North Platform Governmental Palace, 22 The Main Plaza, 22 The Mound of the Carved Stone, 23 The Northeast Zone, 28 Zone East of Building P, 28 The EI Pitahayo Mounds, 28 Mounds and Terraces on the North Slope, 31 Summary, 31 San Jose Mogote, 32 Dainzti,33 Regions Outside the Valley, 33 The Cuicatlan Canada, 33 Ejutla,35 Summary, 35

v

1

CHAPTER 4.

CHAPTER 5.

CHAPTER 6. ApPENDIX A. ApPENDIX B. ApPENDIX C. ApPENDIX D.

CERRO TILCAJETE DURING MONTE ALBAN II (100 B.C.-A.D. 200),37 The Surface Data, 37 Site Layout and Occupational History, 37 Surface Ceramics as Possible Clues to Status, 45 Other Materials from the Surface, 47 Summary, 47 Excavation Data, 47 Temples and Civic-Ceremonial Buildings, 47 Structure 2, 47 MoundE,49 Residential Excavations, 51 Structure 1, 51 Structure 3, 51 Structure 4, 56 Pottery Types Believed to Reflect Status, 61 Ceramic Types and Forms Found in Residences, 65 Ceramic Types and Forms Found in Middens, 66 Subsistence Activities, 66 Household Ritual, 75 Figurines and Urns, 75 Incense Burners, 76 Mortuary Ritual, 78 Obsidian, 78 Shell, 79 Summary, 79 CERRO TILCAJETE AND THE DECLINE OF THE ZAPOTEC STATE, 81 Monte Alban, 81 The Oaxaca Valley in the Classic Period, 83 The Chronology of the Late Classic and Epic1assic, 83 Jalieza,84 Cerro Tilcajete, 86 The Adoratory and Mound F at Cerro Tilcajete, 86 The North Mound Complex, 88 Structure 5 Ceramics, 92 Summary, 92 CONCLUSIONS, 95 CERAMIC TERMS, ANALYSIS, AND ILLUSTRATIONS, 99 HUMAN REMAINS FROM SURFACE COLLECTIONS AND FEATURES IN STRUCTURES AT CERRO TILCAJETE, by William Duncan, 119 THE SHELL ASSEMBLAGE FROM CERRO TILCAJETE, by Gary M. Feinman and Linda M. Nicholas, 121 RESUMEN EN CASTELLANO, by Christina Elson, 125

BIBLIOGRAPHY, 131

vi

Tables 3.1.

Settlement hierarchy and population ranges for Late Monte Alban I and Monte Alban II sites in the Valle Orande-Ocotlan, 18

4.1. 4.2a. 4.2b. 4.2c. 4.3. 4.4. 4.S. 4.6. 4.7. 4.8. 4.9. 4.10. 4.11. 4.12. 4.13. 4.14.

Mound and plaza dimensions at Cerro Tilcajete, 40 Surface data from Cerro Tilcajete by collection unit: units l30-148, 41 Surface data from Cerro Tilcajete by collection unit: units 149-166,42 Surface data from Cerro Tilcajete by collection unit: units 167-176,43 Surface data by collection unit (non-vessels), 44 Surface ceramic categories by zone at Cerro Ti1cajete, 45 Ceramics coded in Test Pit 1, Mound E, Cerro Ti1cajete, 51 Offerings with Structure 4 burials at Cerro Ti1cajete, 59 Ceramics in residential structures by paste, diagnostic form, and type, 66 Ceramics in residential structures, by vessel form, 67 Minimum number of vessels in Feature 1, Structure 3, Cerro Ti1cajete, 71 Minimum number of vessels in Feature 6, Structure 4, Cerro Ti1cajete, 73 Minimum number of vessels in Feature 2, Structure 4, Cerro Tilcajete, 74 Ceramics by weight and number in Feature 2, Structure 4, Cerro Tilcajete, 75 Figurines and urns in residential excavations at Cerro Ti1cajete, 77 Obsidian in Structures 1-4, Cerro Tilcajete, 78

S.1.

Paste and weight of sherds in Feature 2, Mound E, Cerro Ti1cajete, 92 Diagnostic rim and bowl base sherds in Feature 2, Mound E (by type), 93

S.2.

AI. A2.

A3. A4. AS. A6.

C 1. C2. C3. C4. CS.

Data on 0.12 motifs and rim forms from residential structures at Cerro Tilcajete, 108 Diagnostic elements of 0.29 vessels in residential structures, 109 Diagnostic aspects of orange-paste ceramics, 111 All cream-paste rim forms coded in Structures 1, 3, and 4, 115 Motifs on C.l1 and C.12 vessels, 115 The frequency of cream-paste types of all decorated cream vessels coded, 115 Shell found in surface collection units at Cerro Ti1cajete, 122 Shell in excavations by excavation area and genus, 123 Shell in excavations by excavation area and ornament class, 123 Shell in excavations at Cerro Ti1cajete by object and genus, 123 Shell in excavations at Cerro TiIcajete by ornament type and genus, 124

vii

Illustrations Frontispiece. Monte Alban, as viewed from the west side of Cerro Tilcajete's Plaza II.

1.1. 1.2. 1.3.

Central Mexico, showing location of Oaxaca Valley, Sola de Vega, and Cuicatlan Canada, 2 The Oaxaca Valley, showing classes of agricultural land and places mentioned in text, 3 Photo of Cerro Tilcajete as viewed from an adjoining hilltop to the south, 5

2.1. 2.2.

Formative Period gray-paste ceramic bottle depicting Cociyo, 10 Plan of Yagul's ceremonial core, 12

3.1. 3.2. 3.3. 3.4. 3.5. 3.6. 3.7. 3.8. 3.9. 3.10. 3.11. 3.12. 3.13. 3.14.

Plan of Cerro Tilcajete showing residential terraces and mound groups, 17 The Monte Alban II settlement hierarchy in the Oaxaca Valley, 19 The I-shaped ballcourt at Monte Alban, 20 Cream-paste bowl with bulbous supports found in Tomb 77 at Monte Alban, 21 Orange-paste bowl with red-painted designs; found at Cerro Tilcajete, 21 Plan of Monte Alban's ceremonial core, 24 A detailed view of buildings on the North Platform at Monte Alban, 25 Three ceramic statues from Tomb 113, a Monte Alban II tomb at Monte Alban, 26 An urn, showing a noble lord, from the antechamber of Tomb 104 at Monte Alban, 27 Plan of the El Pitahayo mound group at Monte Alban, 29 Plan of Tombs 77 and 78 in the EI Pitahayo mound group at Monte Alban, 29 Plan of Tombs 95 and 96 in the EI Pitahayo mound group at Monte Alban, 30 Map of San Jose Mogote, 32 Map of Dainzu's ceremonial core, 34

4.1.

Topographic map of a section of the Ocotlan subregion showing the relationship between the subregional capitals, 38 Plan of Cerro Tilcajete showing the location of surface collections, 39 Map showing the frequency of cream-paste ceramics across the surface of Cerro Tilcajete, 46 Plan of Structure 2, Mound B, a two-room temple, 48 Profile of the east wall of Mound B, supporting Structure 2, a two-room temple, 49 Profile of the west wall of Mound B, supporting Structure 2, a two-room temple, 50 Plan of the Monte Alban II phase structures on Mound E, 50 Plan of Structure 1, Mound A, a residential palace, 52 Plan of the south wall of Structure 1,53 Photo of the south wall of Structure 1, showing plastered adobe pedestal, 53 Photo of the southeast comer of Structure 1, showing plastered adobe, 54 Modeled gray-paste ceramic ornament showing a deceased individual, 54 Plan of Structure 3, Area C, a residential palace, 55 North profile of Structure 3, Area C, 56 West profile of Structure 3, Area C, 57 West profile of Feature 1, Structure 3, 57 Plan of Feature 1, Structure 3, Area C, 57 Plan of Structure 4, a lower-status residence, 58

4.2. 4.3. 4.4. 4.5. 4.6. 4.7. 4.8. 4.9. 4.10. 4.11. 4.12. 4.13. 4.14. 4.15. 4.16. 4.17. 4.18.

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4.19. Photo of Burial 2, Structure 4, 59 4.20. Gray-paste turkey figurine, Burial 1, Structure 4,60 4.21. Orange-paste figurine of a person with an elaborate headdress, 60 4.22. Orange-paste figure of a man with an elaborate headdress and walking stick, 61 4.23. Photo of Burial 4, Structure 4, 62 4.24. Gray-paste figure, Burial 4, Structure 4, 62 4.25. Cafe-paste bowl with a pinched ovate rim and incised step-fret motif, 63 4.26. Photo of Feature 2, Structure 4, a storage room, 63 4.27. Photo of Feature 4, a hearth in Structure 4,64 4.28. Fragments from stuccoed and painted vessels, 65 4.29. Rim forms of vases with lids recovered at Cerro Tilcajete, 67 4.30a. Rim forms of serving bowls recovered at Cerro Tilcajete, 68 4.30b.Rim forms of serving vessels recovered at Cerro Tilcajete, 69 4.31. Rim forms of cooking/storage wares recovered at Cerro Tilcajete, 70 4.32. Examples of figurines found in residential excavations at Cerro Tilcajete, 76 4.33. Incense burner fragments from Cerro Tilcajete, 77 5.1. 5.2. 5.3. 5.4.

The Tomb 105 residence at Monte Alban, 82 The Oaxaca Valley showing major Classic and Epiclassic sites, 84 Photo of the Early Classic lalieza site, 85 Photo looking west along the ridge line supporting the ceremonial core of the Late ClassicEpiclassic lalieza site, 86 5.5. Schematic plan of the post A.D. 500 layout of Plaza I, 87 5.6. The Plaza I adoratory platform associated with Mound H, Plaza I's eastern mound, 87 5.7. A bifacially flaked chert knife found on the adoratory, Plaza 1,88 5.8. Photo of Structure 5, Mound E, a civic-ceremonial structure, 89 5.9. Plan of Structure 5, Mound E, a civic-ceremonial structure, 90 5.10. Plan of the looted Monte Alban IIIb-IV tomb in Mound F, Plaza I, 91 5.11. Stylized G.35 vessel forms found in Feature 2, Mound E, 94 AI. A2. A3. A4. A5. A6. A7. A8. A9. AIO. All. A12. A13. A 14. A15.

Examples of G.12 bowl base decoration found on vessels at Cerro Tilcajete, 101 Examples of G.12 rim forms and rim decoration, 102 Examples of G.2l bowl base decoration found on vessels at Cerro Tilcajete, 102 G.12 bowl base motifs, 103 G.12 rim motifs, 104 Examples ofG.15, G.16, G.25, and G.26 rim forms and vessel decoration, 105 Examples ofG.34 jars from Cerro Tilcajete, 106 Examples of G.29 rim and base forms and vessel decoration, 107 Examples of A.9 rim form and vessel decoration from Cerro Tilcajete, 110 Examples of A.ll rim form and vessel decoration from Cerro Tilcajete, 111 K.17 vessels with incised motifs, 112 Motifs found on C.ll, C.12, and K.17 vessels, 113 Photo ofC.7 and C.Il sherds found at Cerro Tilcajete, 114 Examples of C. 7 and C.ll rim form and vessel decoration, 116 Examples of C.I2 and C.20 rim form and vessel decoration, 117

ix

An Introduction to Volume 14 of the Series by Kent V. Flannery and Joyce Marcus

This volume-the fourteenth in our series of monographs on the prehistory and human ecology of the Valley of Oaxaca-deals with Cerro Ti1cajete, a secondary administrative center below Monte Alban, the capital of the prehispanic Zapotec state. To put Christina Elson's excavations at this secondary center into perspective, let us review what we have recently learned about Monte Alban and its relationships with other sites in the Valley of Oaxaca. To be sure, our knowledge of Monte Alban's relations with areas outside the Valley of Oaxaca has also expanded during the last decade, and interested readers will want to consult those contributions as well (e.g., Balkansky 1998,2002; Feinman and Nicholas 1990, 1993; Spencer 1998, 2006; Spencer and Redmond 1997, 2001a). The Valley of Oaxaca has been the scene of extensive archaeological fieldwork throughout the twentieth century and into the twenty-first. Impressive early excavations were conducted at the city of Monte Alban, situated on the top of a mountain 400 meters above the valley ftoor(e.g., Caso 1932, 1933, 1935, 1938, 1942; Bernal 1946, 1949; Acosta 1958-1959,1965, 1974). The excavation team of Alfonso Caso, Ignacio Bernal, and Jorge Acosta worked there throughout the 1930s and 1940s, expanding on the pioneering work of Leopoldo Batres (1902) at the beginning of the twentieth century. These excavations laid the foundation for all the work that has followed. We owe a major debt to Caso, Bernal, and Acosta (1967) because their deep stratigraphic excavations established a well-defined ceramic chronology of five periods-Monte Alban I, II, IlIa, I1Ib/IV, and V - which allowed subsequent generations of archaeologists to focus on questions of social and political change. Three of the major questions were-How did Monte Alban gain control over the Valley of Oaxaca? When did each part of the Valley of Oaxaca come under the sway of the capital? Did Monte Alban establish new centers, or take over extant centers, to administer the various regions of the valley? Current evidence suggests that Monte Alban was founded mainly by the former inhabitants of San Jose Mogote and its satellite communities in the northern (Etla) subvalley (Marcus and Flannery 1996). It is no surprise, therefore, that when it came time for Monte Alban to establish a regional administrative center for the Etla subvalley during Monte Alban II, it chose to put that center atop the earlier site of San Jose Mogote (Flannery and Marcus 1983: 111-13; Marcus 1999; Marcus and Flannery 2004). Comparable Period II centers are known from other subvalleys, but until recently their history was not known in the detail of San Jose Mogote. The Oaxaca Settlement Pattern Project (Blanton et al. 1982; Kowalewski et al. 1989) identified San Martin Tilcajete in the southern (Zimatlan-Ocotlan) subvalley as the second largest pre-Monte Alban site in the valley (San Jose Mogote being the largest). In 1993, Charles Spencer and Elsa Redmond began intensive surface pickup and mapping at three related archaeological sites near San Martin Tilcajete- SMT-l1a, SMT-ll b, and SMT-23. In subsequent

x

seasons, Spencer and Redmond excavated extensively at two of these three sites, SMT-lla ("EI Mogote") and SMT-llb ("EI Palenque") (Spencer and Redmond 2001b, 2003, 2004a, 2004b, 2004c, 2005, 2006). Christina Elson took on the task of excavating the third site, SMT-23 or "Cerro Ti1cajete" (Elson 2003). Spencer and Redmond's excavations indicated that the EI Mogote site (SMT-lla) had not participated in the founding of Monte Alban, but instead had behaved like a political rival. Instead of losing population during Early Monte Alban I (= Period la), as San Jose Mogote had, EI Mogote doubled its size to 52.8 hectares, and created a ceremonial plaza oriented 25° east of true north, providing a defiant contrast to the true north-south orientation of Monte Alban's main plaza. At the end of Period la, EI Mogote's main plaza was abandoned in a conflagration, almost certainly the result of a raid by Monte Alban (see Beckmann et al. 2002; Redmond and Spencer 2006; Spencer in press a, in press b; Spencer and Redmond 2001b, 2003, 2004a-c, 2005,2006). Spencer and Redmond's research has further documented the Ti1cajete polity's resistance to Monte Alban's attempt to take over its region. During Late Monte Alban I (= Period Ic), EI Mogote's population moved uphill to a more defensible location at the EI Palenque site (SMTlIb) and built a new ceremonial plaza with the same orientation as EI Mogote's. It also added defensive walls. Throughout Period Ie, Monte Alban seems to have denied EI Palenque full access to the luxury pottery and imported obsidian that it made available to other communities that were its allies. The rivalry between Monte Alban and the Ti1cajete polity continued for centuries until a final attack by Monte Alban, during the first century B.C., left the palace and major temples at El Palenque destroyed by fire (Spencer 1999, 2003; Spencer and Redmond 2001b). This time, Ti1cajete did not recover. Victorious Monte Alban then turned to a mountain overlooking the burned EI Palenque site and created an administrative center for the Ocotlan region. This new Monte Alban II mountaintop administrative center, Cerro Ti1cajete (SMT-23), is the subject of this Memoir. Elson excavated there for three seasons (1999-2001) and showed that, in contrast to San Jose Mogote (Marcus and Flannery 1996), Cerro Ti1cajete was a newly created regional center rather than a reoccupied earlier site. One goal of Elson's excavations was to document the nature of Cerro Ti1cajete's ties to Monte Alban, especially the links between the elite families at the capital and those at Cerro Ti1cajete. By Period II, the site of Monte Alban had become the capital of a fully developed state and had begun to solidify its core region, investing in the administration of the area within one to two days' travel of the capital (Marcus 1992; Spencer 1998). Elson's work moves us away from our usual top-down, capital-centric Monte Alban focus, and in so doing, gives us new insights into secondary administrative centers in a pristine state. For more than 100 years, archaeologists have speculated about Monte Alban's impact on the rest of its valley (Bernal 1967, 1989; Bernal and Oliveros 1988; Marcus and Flannery 1996; Marcus 1983:113-15; Paddock 1966, 1983), and with this study some of their questions are answered. We can now see that Monte Alban brought different subvalleys under its control gradually, using a variety of strategies. We believe that the future excavation of second-tier centers in other parts of the valley would continue to open up new avenues for understanding first-generation states. xi

Bibliography Acosta, Jorge R. 1958-59 Exploraciones arqueol6gicas en Monte Alban, XVIII temporada. Revista Mexicana de Estudios Antropol6gicos 15:7-50. 1965 Preclassic and classic architecture of Oaxaca. In Handbook oj Middle American Indians, vol. 3, edited by Robert Wauchope and Gordon R. Willey, pp. 814-36. Austin: University of Texas Press. 1974 Informe de la XIV temporada de exploraciones en la zona arqueol6gica de Monte Alban, 19451946. Cultura y Sociedad 1(2):69-82. Balkansky, Andrew K. 1998 Urbanism and early state formation in the Huamelulpan Valley of southern Mexico. Latin American Antiquity 9:37-67. 2002 The Sola Valley and the Monte Alban State: A study oJZapotec Imperial Expansion. Memoirs, no. 36. Museum of Anthropology, University of Michigan. Ann Arbor. Batres, Leopoldo 1902 Exploraciones en Monte Alban. Mexico: Inspecci6n y Conservaci6n de la Republica Mexicana, Calle Gante. Beckmann, Jennifer, Charles S. Spencer, and Elsa M. Redmond 2002 Early State Development at San Mart{n Tilcajete. New York: American Museum of Natural

History. http://anthro.amnh.org. Bernal, Ignacio 1946 La ceramica preclasica de Monte Alban. Master's thesis, Escuela Nacional de Antropologfa e Historia, Mexico. 1949 La ceramica de Monte Alban IlIa. Doctoral dissertation, Universidad Nacional Aut6noma de Mexico, Mexico. 1967 Excavaciones en Dainzu. Boletfn del Instituto Nacional de Antropologfa e Historia 27, pp. 7-13. Mexico. 1989 Official Guide. Oaxaca Valley. Instituto Nacional de Antropologfa e Historia. Mexico: Salvat. Bernal, Ignacio, and Arturo Oliveros 1988 Excavaciones Arqueol6gicas en Dainzu, Oaxaca. Mexico: Instituto Nacional de Antropologfa e Historia. Blanton, Richard E., Stephen A. Kowalewski, Gary M. Feinman, and Jill Appel 1982 Monte Alban's Hinterland, Part I: Prehispanic Settlement Patterns oJthe Central and Southern Parts oJthe Valley oJOaxaca, Mexico. Memoirs, no. 15. Museum of Anthropology, University of Michigan. Ann Arbor. Caso, Alfonso 1932 Las exploraciones en Monte Alban, temporada 1931-1932. Instituto Panamericano de Geograffa e Historia, Publicaci6n 7. Mexico. 1933 Las tumbas de Monte Alban. Anales del Museo Nacional de Arqueologfa, Historia y Etnograffa, Torno VIII, pp. 641-47. Mexico. 1935 Las exploraciones en Monte Alban, temporada 1934-1935. Instituto Panamericano de Geograffa e Historia, Publicaci6n 18. Mexico. 1938 Las exploraciones en Oaxaca, quinta y sexta temporadas, 1936-1937. Instituto Panamericano de Geograffa e Historia, Publicaci6n 34. Mexico. 1942 Resumen del informe de las exploraciones en Oaxaca, durante La 7a y la 8a temporadas 19371938 y 1938-1939. Vigesimoseptimo Congreso Internacional de Americanistas, Actas de la Primera Sesi6n, Celebrada en La Ciudad de Mexico en 1939, tomo 2, pp. 159-87. Mexico: Secretaria de Educaci6n PUblica, Instituto Nacional de Antropo!ogfa e Historia.

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Caso, Alfonso, Ignacio Bernal, and Jorge R. Acosta 1967 La Ceramica de Monte Alban. Memorias del Instituto Nacional de Antropologia e Historia, no. 13. Mexico, D.E Elson, Christina M. 2003 Cerro Tilcajete: un centro secundario del estado zapoteco temprano (100 a.e.-200 d.C.). Arqueologla 31 :5-24. Feinman, Gary M., and Linda M. Nicholas 1990 At the margins of the Monte Alban state: settlement patterns in the Ejutla Valley, Oaxaca, Mexico. Latin American Antiquity 1:216-46. 1993 Shell ornament production in Ejutla: implications for highland-coastal interaction in ancient Oaxaca. Ancient Mesoamerica 4:103-19. Flannery, Kent V., and Joyce Marcus 1983 San Jose Mogote in Monte Alban II: a secondary administrative center. In The Cloud People: Divergent Evolution of the Zapotec and Mixtec Civilizations, edited by Kent V. Flannery and Joyce Marcus, pp. 111-13. New York: Academic Press. Kowalewski, Stephen A., Gary M. Feinman, Laura Finsten, Richard E. Blanton, and Linda M. Nicholas 1989 Monte Alban s Hinterland, Part II: Prehispanic Settlement Patterns in Tlacolula, Etla, and Ocotlan, the Valley of Oaxaca. Memoirs, no. 23. Museum of Anthropology, University of Michigan. Ann Arbor. Marcus, Joyce 1983 Monte Alban II in the Macuilxochitl area. In The Cloud People: Divergent Evolution of the Zapotec and Mixtec Civilizations, edited by Kent V. Flannery and Joyce Marcus, pp. 113-15. New York: Academic Press. 1992 Dynamic cycles of Mesoamerican states. National Geographic Research and Exploration 8:392-411. 1999 Early architecture in the Valley of Oaxaca: 1350 B.C.-A.D. 500. In Mesoamerican Architecture as a Cultural Symbol, edited by Jeff Karl Kowalski, pp. 58-75. Oxford: Oxford University 'Press. Marcus, Joyce, and Kent V. Flannery 1996 Zapotec Civilization: How Urban Society Evolved in Mexicos Oaxaca Valley. New York and London: Thames and Hudson. 2004 The coevolution of ritual and society: new 14C dates from ancient Mexico. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 101:18257-61. Paddock,John 1966 Ancient Oaxaca. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press. 1983 Monte Alban II in the Yagul-Caballito Blanco area. In The Cloud People: Divergent Evolution of the Zapotec and Mixtec Civilizations, edited by Kent V. Flannery and Joyce Marcus, pp. 11517. New York: Academic Press. Redmond, Elsa M., and Charles S. Spencer 2006 From raiding to conquest: warfare strategies and early state development in Oaxaca, Mexico. In The Archaeology of Warfare: Prehistories of Raiding and Conquest, edited by Elizabeth N. Arkush and Mark W. Allen, pp. 336-93. Gainesville: University of Florida Press. Spencer, Charles S. 1998 A mathematical model of primary state formation. Cultural Dynamics 10:5-20. 1999 Palatial digs. Natural History 108(2):94-95. 2003 War and early state formation in Oaxaca, Mexico. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 100(20):11185-87.

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2006 Modeling (and measuring) expansionism and resistance: state fonnation in ancient Oaxaca, Mexico. In History and Mathematics: Historical Dynamics and Development of Complex Societies, edited by Peter Turchin, Leonid Grinin, Andrey Korotayev, and Victor C. de Munck, pp. 170-92. Moscow: Russian State University for the Humanities. in press a Territorial expansion and primary state formation in Oaxaca, Mexico. In Latin American Indigenous Warfare and Ritual Violence, edited by Richard Chacon and Ruben Mendoza. Tucson: University of Arizona Press. in press b Testing the morphogenesist model of primary state fonnation: the Zapotec case. In Macroevolution in Human Prehistory, edited by Anna Prentiss, Ian Kuijt, and James C. Chatters. Salt Lake City: University of Utah Press. Spencer, Charles S., and Elsa M. Redmond 1997 Archaeology of the Canada de Cuicatldn, Oaxaca. American Museum of Natural History, Anthropological Papers 80. New York. 2001a The chronology of conquest: implications of new radiocarbon analyses from the Canada de Cuicathin, Oaxaca. Latin American Antiquity 12: 182-202. 2001 b Multilevel selection and political evolution in the Valley of Oaxaca, 500-100 B.C. Journal of Anthropological Archaeology 20:195-229. 2003 Militarism, resistance, and early state development in Oaxaca, Mexico. Social Evolution and History 2(1):25-70. 2004a Conquest warfare, strategies of resistance, and the rise of the Zapotec early state. In The Early State: Its Alternatives and Analogues, edited by Leonid E. Grinin, Robert L. Carneiro, Dmitri M. Bondarenko, Nikolai N. Kradin, and Andrey V. Korotayev, pp. 220-61. Moscow: Uchitel Publishing House. 2004b Primary state formation in Mesoamerica. Annual Review of Anthropology 33: 173-99. 2004c A Late Monte Alban I phase (300-100 B.c.) palace in the Valley of Oaxaca. Latin American Antiquity 15:441-55. 2005 Institutional development in Late Fonnative Oaxaca: the view from San Martin Tilcajete. In New Perspectives on Formative Mesoamerican Cultures, edited by Terry G. Powis, pp. 171-82. British Archaeological Reports, International Series 1377. Oxford, UK: Archaeopress. 2006 Resistance strategies and early state formation in Oaxaca, Mexico. In Intermediate Elites in Precolumbian States and Empires, edited by Christina Elson and R. Alan Covey, pp. 21-43. Tucson: University of Arizona Press.

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Acknowledgments My excavations at Ceno Tilcajete began in 1999. Several years earlier, in 1994, Charles Spencer and Elsa Redmond had mapped the site and made intensive surface collections. I am indebted to them not only for encouraging me to work at Ceno Ti1cajete, but also for graciously providing me with their site map and surface collections to analyze. In all, I excavated for three seasons and conducted two seasons of analysis. Although the analysis continues, this Memoir seeks to provide the most important results of my research thus far, in terms of the site's chronology, architecture, and material remains. The National Science Foundation, the Foundation for the Advancement of Mesoamerican Research, Inc., the University of Michigan, and the American Museum of Natural History funded the project. In Oaxaca, I thank the National Institute of Anthropology, its director Eduardo L6pez Calzada, and its representatives Marcus Winter and Cira Martinez L6pez for assistance. At Ceno Tilcajete, Luca Casparis and Michelle Crossier expertly directed some excavation units. Many skilled workmen from the municipality of San Martin Ti1cajete climbed more than 100 m to the site each day and worked carefully to uncover the structures and features. Since completing work at Ceno Ti1cajete, Luca Casparis and I have gone on to work at Jalieza, the successor to the Tilcajete site. In Luca I am lucky to have a great co-director with whom I can plan to work for the many years it will take to sort out the long-term processes affecting Ocothin after 100 B.C. Heartfelt acknowledgments must go to the many people who helped me get to, and get through, graduate school. I consider myself lucky to have had a series of committed professors, including Gabriela Urufiuela, Patricia Plunket, William Parry, Gregory Johnson, Jeffrey Parsons, Robert Whallon, John O'Shea, Conrad Kottak, and David Frye. Graduate school was made less of an ordeal by studying with an amazing cohort made up of Kamyar Abdi, Alan Covey, Patrick Livingood, and Jason Sherman. Alan Covey worked with me at Ceno Ti1cajete, helped me code thousands of sherds, and listened patiently and supportively to a million little complaints all while completing his own dissertation work in Peru. Alan and I defended our dissertations on the same day and I am as proud of his work and accomplishments as he is of mine. While being a young academic can be hard, having four truly outstanding advisors-Charles Spencer, Elsa Redmond, Kent Flannery, and Joyce Marcus-who time and time again offered enthusiastic support and encouragement made the work more worthwhile. The realm of moral support belongs to my family-James, Sue, Elizabeth, and Scott Elson - who think archaeology and archaeologists are pretty odd but are firm believers in doing what one likes. Finally, I want to thank my husband Kevin, who has kept me grounded and my priorities in order while somehow managing to get me to focus all my efforts on writing this monograph.

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Chapter 1

An Introduction to Elites at Secondary Centers in the Zapotec State

Just over 2000 years ago, the first states formed in Mexico. One of those polities, the Zapotec state, emerged in the modern state of Oaxaca and was centered in the Valley of Oaxaca (Figs. 1.1-1.2). The valley, almost completely enclosed by mountain ranges, has roughly 1400 km2 of bottom land, and its three subregions form a distinctive Y-shape. The valley sits at an elevation of about 1500 m above sea level (masl) and receives 600-800 mm of rain a year, creating a generally warm, almost frost-free climate with little seasonal variation. Because of Oaxaca's marked topographical variation, however, small nearby valleys can have elevations of 500 masl and hot, tropical climates, or elevations of over 2000 masl and cold, mountainous climates (Kowalewski et al. 1989:8). The Zapotec capital, Monte Alban, was founded circa 500 B.C. Archaeologists still debate whether state-level society emerged during the Middle Formative or Early Monte Alban I period (500300 B.C.) or not until the Late Formative or Late Monte Alban I period (300-100 B.c.), when the first palace and two-room state temple appeared. Notwithstanding this debate, it is increasingly clear that the process of state formation in Oaxaca fits general patterns noted worldwide regarding the dynamics of state formation and expansion (e.g., Marcus 1998; Spencer 1998). These dynamics include (1) the use of warfare and coercion, and (2) the fact that early in their territorial expansion, states may campaign against weaker polities located farther from the core if there are polities nearby initially able to withstand aggression (Flannery and Marcus 2003; Marcus 1992a; see also Carneiro 1970,1981; Covey 2006; Fash 1991; Flannery 1999; Hodge 1996; Scullard 1980; Spencer 1998). During its early expansion, Monte Alban conquered and incorporated the ethnically and geographically distinct Cuicatlan

Canada at roughly 300 B.C., but was not able to defeat a rival polity, EI Palenque (SMT-l1b), located at Tilcajete within the Valley of Oaxaca, until circa 100 B.C. (Redmond 1983; Spencer 1982; Spencer and Redmond 1997, 2001a, 2001b, 2004). More research needs to be done in the eastern or Tlacolula subregion to examine when it was brought under Monte Alban's control, but it is likely that it also occurred by 100 B.C. (Marcus 1983a). These recent data suggest that the valley was not unified into one overarching political system until some 200 to 400 years after Monte Alban was initially founded. The present study presents detailed information on excavations at Cerro Ti1cajete (SMT-23), a secondary administrative center founded in Ocotian after its incorporation into the Monte Alban state circa 100 B.C. Cerro Ti1cajete was founded at the onset of Monte Alban II (100 B.C.-A.D. 200). Research at Cerro Ti1cajete, in conjunction with work at Monte Alban and the valley'S other subregional centers, allows for the creation of a more nuanced picture of Monte Alban II. Given that Zapotec state formation was at least initially somewhat ad hoc, we should consider whether or not its political expansion was regular or standardized. If, as Marcus (1992a) has suggested, after an initial period of outward growth, states tend to invest in more intensive administrative strategies for the core region near the capital, then they may also invest in standardizing their administrative structure. One goal of this monograph is to show that during Monte Alban II we find not only territorial growth, but also growth in the hierarchical organization of the state. Initially, Monte Alban's governmental policies probably were opportunistic and developed out of interactions between the capital and compliant and non-compliant subregional populations. During Monte Alban II, we see an attempt by Monte Alban's rulers, as evidenced in

1

2

Excavations at Cerro Tilcajete

Gulf of Mexico

Cuicatltm 'Canada

Oaxac~l

State of Oaxaca

Valley - .

N