Event Studies: Theory and Management for Planned Events (Events Management) [5 ed.] 1032448636, 9781032448633

Citation preview

Event Studies

Fully updated and revised in its fifth edition, Event Studies remains the most comprehensive book devoted to developing knowledge and theory about event management and event tourism, focusing on the study of events, the event experience, and the meanings associated with them. International in scope and embellished with useful figures and tables throughout, the authors carefully examine current forces, trends, and issues, including impacts of the pandemic. All the major types of planned events are profiled, with emphasis on their forms, functions, experiential dimensions, meanings, and values. This book’s framework encompasses antecedents, planning and design, outcomes and impacts, and the various patterns and processes that influence the events sector, including policy. New and expanded topics in the fifth edition include: Content has been substantially reorganised to give much more attention to establishing theoretical foundations and advocating principles for the core management functions. l New content on gender studies, human rights, crisis management and resilience, sustainability, and events as agents of change. l Expert opinion boxes cover major issues: educational philosophy; technology and its impacts; human rights and mega-events; virtual events and agile management; trends in corporate events; happiness and well-being; event portfolios management; civic dramaturgy; event design; trends in communications, including new media; dynamic crowd m ­ anagement; overtourism; and event-sector recovery. l Additional chapters on design, policy, management fundamentals, planning and operations, event tourism, and the inter-related management challenges of risk, security, health and safety, and environment. l

This insightful volume will be an invaluable resource for all undergraduate students of events studies throughout their degree programmes. Donald Getz is a Professor Emeritus at the University of Calgary, Canada. He works as a management consultant and also holds guest positions at several universities. In addition to event studies, his areas of expertise include wine and food tourism, evaluation and impact assessment, consumer research, and special interest travel. Professor Getz co-founded and was Editor-in-Chief of Event Management: An International Journal. He edits a book series on event management. Stephen J. Page is an Associate Dean (Research) and Professor of Business and Management at Hertfordshire Business School, University of Hertfordshire, UK. He holds an Honorary Doctorate from the University of West London and is an Honorary Professor at Cardiff Metropolitan University and the University of Plymouth. He has worked as a tourism consultant with different organisations, including the United Nations World Tourism Organization, OECD, VisitScotland, Scottish Enterprise, Highlands and Islands Enterprise, Harrah’s Casinos, and Sky Tower, Auckland, New Zealand, among many other clients. He is the author and editor of 43 books on tourism, leisure, and events and is the Editor of the leading tourism journal, Tourism Management.

Events Management Edited by Glenn Bowdin, Leeds Metropolitan University, UK Donald Getz, University of Calgary, Canada Conrad Lashley, Nottingham Trent University, UK

Human Resource Management for Events, 2nd Edition Managing the Event Workforce Lynn Van der Wagen and Lauren White Marketing Destinations and Venues for Conferences, Conventions and Business Events, 2nd Edition Tony Rogers and Rob Davidson Event Studies, 4th Edition Donald Getz and Stephen J. Page Risk Management for Events, 2nd Edition Julia Rutherford Silvers and William O’Toole Events Feasibility and Development, 2nd Edition From Strategy to Operations William O’Toole Conferences and Conventions, 4th Edition A Global Industry Tony Rogers and Peter Wynn-Moylan Events Management, 4th Edition Glenn A J Bowdin, Johnny Allen, Rob Harris, Leo Jago, William O’Toole and Ian McDonnell Event Studies, 5th Edition Theory and Management for Planned Events Donald Getz and Stephen J. Page

For more information about this series, please visit: www.routledge.com/EventsManagement/book-series/EM

Event Studies Theory and Management for Planned Events Fifth Edition

Donald Getz and Stephen J. Page

Cover: Illuminate Adelaide – Light Cycles by Moment Factory, photographer: Tyr Liang – Xplorer Studio Fifth edition published 2024 by Routledge 4 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon, OX14 4RN and by Routledge 605 Third Avenue, New York, NY 10158 Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business © 2024 Donald Getz and Stephen J. Page The right of Donald Getz and Stephen J. Page to be identified as authors of this work has been asserted in accordance with sections 77 and 78 of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988. All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilised in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers. Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are used only for identification and explanation without intent to infringe. First edition published by Butterworth-Heinemann 2007 Fourth edition published by Routledge 2019 British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Names: Getz, Donald, 1949- author. | Page, Stephen, 1963-, author. Title: Event studies: theory and management for planned events / Donald Getz and Stephen J. Page. Description: Fifth edition. | Abingdon, Oxon; New York, NY: Routledge, 2024. | Series: Events management series | Includes bibliographical references and index. | Summary: “Fully updated and revised in its fifth edition, Event Studies remains the most comprehensive book devoted to developing knowledge and theory about event management and event tourism, focusing on the study of events, the event experience and meanings associated with them. This insightful volume will be an invaluable resource for all undergraduate students of events studies throughout their degree programmes”—Provided by publisher. Identifiers: LCCN 2023034084 (print) | LCCN 2023034085 (ebook) | ISBN 9781032448633 (hardback) | ISBN 9781032448640 (paperback) | ISBN 9781003374251 (ebook) Subjects: LCSH: Special events—Planning. | Special events—Research. | Special events—Management. Classification: LCC GT3405 .G48 2024 (print) | LCC GT3405 (ebook) | DDC 394.2—dc23/eng/20230720 LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2023034084 LC ebook record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2023034085 ISBN: 978-1-032-44863-3 (hbk) ISBN: 978-1-032-44864-0 (pbk) ISBN: 978-1-003-37425-1 (ebk) DOI: 10.4324/9781003374251 Typeset in Iowan Old Style by codeMantra Access the Support Material: www.routledge.com/9781032448640

Contents

List of Figures x List of Plates xii List of Profiles xiii List of Tables xiv List of Expert Opinions xvi Preface to the Fifth Edition xvii Acknowledgementsxviii   1 Introduction and Overview of Event Studies Global Issues for 2023 and Beyond The Nature and Scope of Event Studies A Framework for Understanding and Creating Knowledge about Planned Events Expert Opinion: By Professor Joe Jeff Goldblatt – Embracing the Ubuntu Philosophy for a New Age of Dignity, Respect, and Welfare for More Sustainable Event Education Profile: TransRockies Inc. and Gravel Royale

  2 Forces, Trends, and Issues Affecting Events Propelling and Constraining Forces Expert Opinion: By Dr. Matt Frew – Future Events: Darq Dreamscapes and the Synthetic Self Growth-Related Issues Facing the Events Sector

  3 The Nature and Classification of Planned Events Definitions of Event and Planned Events Time Is of the Essence Typologies of Events by Form and Function Expert Opinion: By Dr. Adam Talbot – Human Rights and Sport Mega-Events Scale, Frequency, Duration, and Periodicity The Specialness of Events

1 3 5 13

17 19

23 24 33 40

44 45 48 52 58 62 65

vi

Contents

  4 Event Experiences and Meanings How People Describe Their Experiences Theoretical Dimensions of Human Experience Models of the Event Experience Virtual Event Experiences Expert Opinion: By Valentina Gorchakova and Ekaterina Berdysheva – Agility of Business Events: Case Study of SHIFT Business Festival Meanings Attached to Events and Event Experiences

  5 Celebration Events and Experiences

68 69 70 79 83 84 87

96

Festivals97 Profile: Illuminate Adelaide, by Steve Brown 103 Carnivals and Mardi Gras 105 Heritage Commemorations 107 Parades and Processions 108 Religious Events and Pilgrimage 108 Arts and Entertainment 109

  6 Business, Sport, and Other Event Experiences Business and Trade Events (MICE) Expert Opinion: By Professor Dr. Ulrich Wünsch – Corporate Events Educational and Scientific Events Political and State Events Sport and Recreational Events Events at the Margin Experiences of Different Stakeholders

  7 Public Policy and Events The Evolution of Policy Analysis for Events Policy Considerations Specific to Events Justifying Public Sector Involvement Profile: Scotland and Edinburgh Major Policy Domains and Event-Related Goals

  8 Event Management Fundamentals Defining Management and Management Theory Unique Aspects of Event Management Organising and Coordination Inter-Organisation and Stakeholder Relations Profile: Lusofonia Festival – Macao, SAR, China, By Ubaldino Sequeira Couto Oganisational Ecology and Event Populations Profile: Research on Values and Event Policy in the Sunshine Coast, Australia The Learning Organisation and Knowledge Management Evaluating the Event Organisation

114 114 120 124 124 125 127 128

136 137 140 144 147 152

159 160 163 167 177 181 185 192 194 195

Contents

  9 Directing, Leadership, and Human Resources for Events

197

Leadership198 Decision-Making and Accountability 203 Human Resource Management 206 Expert Opinion: By Professor Tommy Andersson – Happiness Research and Event Tourism 210 Professionalisation, Professionalism, Education, and Careers 215

10 Event Planning and Operations Planning Theory Planning For and Within Events Expert Opinion: By Vassilios Ziakas – Event Portfolio Management in Focus Project Planning and Management Logic and Theory-of-Change Models Strategic and Business Planning Site Planning, Operations, and Logistics Why Events Succeed or Fail

11 Event Design: Theory and Principles What is Design? Expert Opinion: By Dr. Steve Brown – Event Design Sensory Stimulation and Mapping Dramaturgy and Design Expert Opinion: By Vassilios Ziakas – Events Civic Dramaturgy Designing Event Settings Theming and Programming Service Design and Quality

12 Antecedents, Event Marketing, and Communications

221 222 225 226 232 236 239 240 242

245 246 249 250 257 257 261 267 270

276

Antecedents277 Motivation and Motives for Attending Different Types of Events 283 Barriers and Constraints 286 Consumer Decision-Making 289 Marketing Fundamentals 293 Communications Fundamentals 295 Expert Opinion: By Professor Barbara Mazza – Trends in Event Communications 296

13 Risk, Health, and Environmental Management for Events

304

Terminology305 Threats and Risks Facing Events 307 Risk Management Process 309 Risk Management Strategies 311 Health and Safety Management 312 Security313 Crowd Management and Control 315 Expert Opinion: By William J. O’toole – The Australian Safe and Healthy Crowded Places Handbook 316

vii

viii

Contents Crisis Management and Resilience Profile: The October 2022 Halloween Disaster in Seoul, Korea Environmental Management and Sustainability

14 Event Outcome Evaluation and Impact Assessment

319 320 321

331

Terminology332 Theory for Evaluation and Impact Assessment 334 Professional Practice 336 A Complete Evaluation and IA System 337 The Subjects and Objects of Evaluation and IA 338 Impact Assessment Theory and Process 341 The Forces-Pressure-State-Impact-Response Model 342 Social Outcomes and IA 342 Cultural Outcomes and IA 347 Built Environment Outcomes and IA 348 Ecological Impact Assessment 350 Economic Impact Assessment 352 Comprehensive Benefit and Cost Evaluation 354

15 Event Tourism Destination Management and Event Tourism Potential Roles of Events in Tourism Development and Marketing Events as Attractions; Attractiveness Development of Event Tourism Expert Opinion: By Michael Duignan – A Short Essay on Overtourism and Japan’s Mega Event Involvement and the Event Travel Career Trajectory (ETCT) Economic Impact Assessment for Event Tourism Education and Careers in Event Tourism

16 Foundation Disciplines and Closely Related Fields for Event Studies

358 359 360 361 365 367 373 376 378

380

Cultural Anthropology 381 Sociology382 Philosophy386 Religious Studies 387 Psychology388 Economics391 Political Science 392 Law393 History394 Human Geography 395 Future Studies 396 Leisure Studies 397 Sport Studies and Sport Management 399 Visitor Studies 400 Hospitality Studies 400 Gender Studies 402 Health Studies 404

Contents

17 Research and Knowledge Creation for Event Studies Sources of Knowledge Philosophy and Knowledge Review of Review Articles Expert Opinion: By Dr. Sandra Goh – Event Sector Recovery in New Zealand Research Agenda and Major Challenges Future Perspectives

407 408 409 412 420 422 430

References433 Index485

ix

Figures

  1.1   1.2   1.3   2.1   3.1   3.2   4.1   4.2   7.1   8.1   8.2   8.3   8.4   8.5   9.1   9.2 10.1 11.1 11.2 11.3 11.4 11.5 12.1 12.2 12.3 13.1 13.2

Event Studies, Event Management, and Event Tourism Key Drivers of Growth in Event Education A Framework for Understanding and Creating Knowledge About Planned Events Propelling and Constraining Forces Typology of Planned Events by Form Convergence of Forms and Functions Dimensions of the Event Experience A Model of the Planned Event Experience Strategic Intervention Choices for Governments The Five Knowledge Domains in EMBOK Open-System Model of Event Management Major Stakeholder Types and Roles in Festival Networks Density Dependence: How Event Populations Might Grow and Decline Hypothetical Institutionalisation Process for Events What Effective Event Leaders Do A Hierarchical Model for Evaluating the Effectiveness of Training and Other Interventions Intended to Foster Change Theory-of-Change Process The Evolution of Design Thinking, Applied to Events Sample Sensory Map for an Event Design Concept for Food and Wine Events The Analytic Lens of Civic Dramaturgy Sample IP Graph Conceptual Model of Antecedents and the Decision-Making Process Generic and Event-Specific Motivators and Motives Constraints on Event Participation and Attendance Risk Management Process Three Domains of Event Health and Safety Management

7 9 11 24 45 54 70 80 142 163 177 179 188 191 199 215 238 247 254 257 259 273 278 284 287 310 312

Figures

13.3 14.1 15.1 15.2 15.3 17.1

Model of the Safe and Healthy Crowded Places Handbook, showing the three dimensions of domains, processes, and time 317 A Complete Evaluation and IA Process 337 The Roles of Events in Tourism and Destination Management & Marketing360 The Event Travel Career Trajectory 375 The Economic Contribution of Event Tourism 377 Sources for Creating Knowledge and Doing Research in Event Studies 408

xi

Plates

  1.1   1.2   2.1   3.1   4.1   5.1

Professor Joe Jeff Goldblatt Start of the First Running of TransRockies’ Gravel Royale Woman with Wearable Computing Solheim Cup at Gleneagles, Scotland, 2019 SHIFT 2020 Fair: Artificial Intelligence Session Illuminate Adelaide’s’ City Lights, “I LOVE ADELAIDE”, Installation by Jacques Rival   6.1 A Brand Experience Festival in Germany: Emotional Sales Pitches to Customers   7.1 Edinburgh Fringe Festival: Crowd and Performers on the Royal Mile   8.1 Lusofonia Festival at Night   8.2 Lusofonia Festival, Artistic Performance   9.1 Happy Gravel Royale Racers Take on the Mountain 10.1 Gravel Royale Campsite 11.1 Professors Tommy Andersson (right) and Donald Getz, Conducting Hands-on Research of Food and Wine Tourism in Italy 11.2 The Authentic Big Blue Event on the Greek Island of Amorgos 13.1 Edinburgh International Festival. The Illumination of Edinburgh Castle 14.1 Finale, Royal Edinburgh Military Tattoo 15.1 Tourists Go Home Graffiti Has Become a Familiar Message in Many Destinations, This One Found on a Trash Bin in Venice 16.1 Illuminate Adelaide’s City Lights, “THE POOL”, Installation by Jen Lewin 17.1 Ed Sheeran’s Mathematics Tour in Eden Park, Auckland, New Zealand, February 10, 2023. The Singer-Songwriter Performed to a Packed Stadium of Audience Without Masks

17 20 38 57 85 105 124 150 182 182 212 241 253 260 324 350 369 389

420

Profiles

  1.1   5.1   7.1   8.1   8.2 13.1

TransRockies Inc. and Gravel Royale Illuminate Adelaide, by Steve Brown Scotland and Edinburgh Lusofonia Festival – Macao, SAR, China Research on Values and Event Policy in the Sunshine Coast, Australia The October 2022 Halloween Disaster in Seoul, Korea

19 103 147 181 192 320

Tables

  1.1   2.1   2.2   2.3   2.4   2.5   2.6   2.7   3.1   3.2   4.1

Global Issues and Implications for Events 3 Population and Demographics: Forces, Trends, and Issues 25 Politics and Law: Forces, Trends, and Issues 27 Human-Rights Issues and Implications for Events 28 Economics: Forces, Trends, and Issues 30 Environment: Forces, Trends, and Issues 31 Society and Culture: Forces, Trends, and Issues 32 Technology: Forces, Trends, and Issues 33 Planned Versus Unplanned Events 48 Scale: Small Versus Large Events 63 Factors Associated with Effective and Rewarding Customer and Tourist Experiences 92   6.1 The Experiences of Different Stakeholders 129   7.1 Levels of Policy Creation for Events, with Major Evaluation Questions 141   7.2 Economic Policy and Events 153   7.3 Cultural Policy and Events 154   7.4 Social Policy and Events 155   8.1 Delimiting Management Theory for Events and Event Tourism 161   8.2 Management Functions, with Additional and Special Considerations for Event Management and Event Tourism 164   8.3 Key Concepts in Organisational Ecology with Implications for Event Populations 186  9.1 Decision-Making Tools, with Event-Specific Applications 204   9.2 Fundamentals of HR Management with Applications to Events 207   9.3 Sample Event Management Careers and Related Professional Associations218 10.1 Planning for Events and Their Organisations 230 10.2 Project Phases and Event-Specific Considerations 235 10.3 Project Planning and Management Toolkit 237

Tables

11.1 Programme Elements of Style and Sample Associated Activities 13.1 Threats and Risks Facing Events 13.2 Planned Events to Reinforce Multiple Sustainability Policies and Actions 14.1 The Subjects and Objects of Evaluation and IA 14.2 Forces and Pressures, Possible Impacts, and Possible Responses 15.1 Event Tourism Market Segments 15.2 Sample Careers in Event Tourism 16.1 Cultural Anthropology 16.2 Sociology 16.3 Philosophy 16.4 Religious Studies 16.5 Psychology 16.6 Environmental Psychology 16.7 Social Psychology 16.8 Economics 16.9 Political Science 16.10 Law 16.11 History 16.12 Human Geography 16.13 Future Studies 16.14 Contributions of Leisure Studies to Event Studies 16.15 Sport Management and Sport Studies 16.16 Visitor Studies 16.17 Hospitality Management and Hospitality Studies 16.18 Gender Studies 16.19 Health Studies 17.1 List of Review Articles Specific to Event Studies 17.2 Event Experiences and Meanings 17.3 Antecedents and Choices 17.4 Outcomes and the Impacted 17.5 Management, Planning, Design, and Operations 17.6 Patterns and Processes

269 308 327 339 343 372 378 381 383 386 387 388 390 390 392 393 394 395 396 397 398 399 400 401 403 405 413 424 425 426 428 429

xv

Expert Opinions

  1.1

  2.1   3.1   4.1   6.1   9.1 10.1 11.1 11.2 12.1 13.1 15.1 17.1

Professor Joe Jeff Goldblatt: Embracing the Ubuntu Philosophy for a New Age of Dignity, Respect, and Welfare for More Sustainable Event Education 17 Dr. Matt Frew: Future Events: Darq Dreamscapes and the Synthetic Self 33 Dr. Adam Talbot: Human Rights and Sport Mega-Events 58 Valentina Gorchakova and Ekaterina Berdysheva: Agility of Business Events: Case Study of SHIFT Business Festival 84 Professor Dr. Ulrich Wünsch: Corporate Events 120 Professor Tommy Andersson: Happiness Research and Event Tourism 210 Dr. Vassilios Ziakas: Event Portfolio Management in Focus 226 Dr. Steve Brown: Event Design 249 Dr. Vassilios Ziakas: Events Civic Dramaturgy 257 Professor Barbara Mazza: Trends in Event Communications 296 William J. O’toole: The Australian Safe and Healthy Crowded Places Handbook 316 Dr. Michael Duignan: A Short Essay on Overtourism and Japan’s Mega Event 367 Dr. Sandra Goh: Event Sector Recovery in New Zealand 420

Preface to the Fifth Edition

This fifth edition of Event Studies brings substantial revisions and a re-organisation. Some ­material has been reduced or removed, and a considerable amount of new material added. One new theme is quite evident, that being crisis management, recovery, and resilience – topics of global importance as a result of the pandemic and other contemporary crises that impact event studies. This book starts with a review of global forces, trends, and issues, reflecting the United Nations’ sustainability goals. More, and shorter chapters should give greater flexibility to instructors. Not all instructors will want students to read the entire book, and students will have an easier time reading each chapter, with its own learning objectives and study guide. Management content has been expanded, with Chapters 7 through 15 covering the fundamentals of event management and event tourism, making this book more versatile. These chapters introduce theories, principles, and some methods but do not substitute for the how-to detail in other, specialised textbooks. Research Notes, which were abstracts of published articles, have been replaced by updated citations through early 2023. In several places, there are chronological lists of pertinent sources right in the text. Also, see the final chapter for a review of review articles. Expert Opinions have been kept and updated, and these also include valuable references. At the end of each chapter is a Further Reading section where pertinent books are recommended. Profiles are a new feature. The intent is to provide an example of different types of events and to illustrate major themes, with photos where possible. These are not case studies, but several of them refer to published research articles or book chapters, and others to lengthy case studies from this book: V. Ziakas and D. Getz (Eds.) (2023), Cases in Event Management and Event Tourism, Goodfellow Publishers. Those contributed cases come with Teaching Notes, and that book’s companion website provides instructors with exam questions and answers. The first six chapters provide an overview of Event Studies, including forces and trends, classifications, discussion of experiences and meanings, and profiles of event types and associated experiences. The middle section is oriented towards professional practice. The third section is again academic in nature, with a chapter summarising foundation disciplines and closely related fields, followed by the concluding chapter on research and knowledge creation. The final chapter contains an updated summary of reviews and research agenda, as well as a short commentary on future perspectives.

Acknowledgements

Professor Getz has researched and written this fifth edition, but thanks are expressed to Professor Stephen Page for contributions to editions three and four, many of which have been retained. The following have made a direct contribution to this fifth edition, and we are especially thankful for their help. Aaron McConnell

Steve Brown

Adam Talbot

Tommy Andersson

Barbara Mazza

Ubaldino Couto

Joe Jeff Goldblatt

Ulrich Wünsch

Matt Frew

Valentina Gorchakova and Ekaterina Berdysheva

Michael Duignan

Vassilios Ziakas

Sandra Goh

William O’Toole

A number of organisations and bodies have provided the authors with permission to reproduce material in the book, and we wish to express our thanks to them: Figure 8.3 was adapted from Getz, D., Andersson, T., & Larson, M. (2007). Festival stakeholder roles: Concepts and case studies. Event Management, 10 (2/3), 103–122. With the permission of Cognizant Communication Corporation. Table 13.2 is from Getz, D. (2017). The sustainability of eventful cities: Concepts, challenges, and principles. Event Management, 21 (5), 575–591. With the permission of Cognizant Communication Corporation. Photographs kindly provided by: TransRockies Inc. and John Gibson Pictures

Acknowledgements Festivals Edinburgh, thanks to James McVeigh Illuminate Adelaide Joe Jeff Goldblatt Ulrich Wünsch Donald Getz (with Tommy Andersson) Sandra Goh VisitScotland

xix

Chapter

1

Introduction and Overview of Event Studies LEARNING OBJECTIVES

Upon completion of this chapter, students should know the following: l l

l

Global issues, with implications for events. The definition and characteristics of Event Studies as an academic field, and specifically its core phenomenon. Three major discourses within Event Studies: the discipline based or classical, event tourism, and event management.

l

A framework for understanding and creating knowledge for planned events.

l

Why students and academics study planned events.

l

The community of practice related to Event Studies.

l

The evolution of Event Studies and related education, with consideration of the experience and digital economies.

l

The meaning and importance of Critical Event Studies.

l

How meanings are assigned to events and event experiences.

Introduction The world is full of bad news, but planned events offer relief and hope. Events carry good news in the form of celebration, creativity, and commemoration of the best humanity has to offer. Events offer entertainment and diversion, fun and frolic, but also learning and DOI: 10.4324/9781003374251-1

2

Introduction and Overview of Event Studies exchanges, human and community development, and memorable and rewarding experiences. Every professional in the world of producing and managing planned events seeks to offer the best of art, sport, commerce, and entertainment through continuous improvement and sustainable practices. But we cannot ignore the bad news. This fifth edition of Event Studies has been prepared in a time of crisis and ongoing recovery, with sustainability and resilience being elevated to absolute priorities for the entire events sector. When the global Covid-19 pandemic took hold in early 2020, no one was prepared for the ensuing worst-case scenario. All over the world travel came to a halt, and events were cancelled indefinitely or postponed to dates that later became unviable. Uncertainty prevailed. Venues were shut down, and event organisations and companies either failed outright or entered into a crisis mode. The term superspreader event entered the vernacular, while virtual and hybrid events took on new importance. Many jobs were lost, and volunteer positions entered a hiatus. We all speculated on what this would mean for future employment opportunities and event viability. Impacts and responses to the pandemic did vary from country to country and city to city, but uniformly it was an unprecedented disaster in economic and social terms. By late 2022, the events sector was rebounding. Travel, albeit experiencing recovery pains such as delays and cancellations, had been strongly renewed. Events were held, and demand was strong. It appeared that things were returning to normal – but of necessity, a new normal, one in which structural changes were occurring and everyone was forced to focus on resilience. As we entered 2023, Covid-19 and its new variants were still active, but the pandemic was not completely over. The World Health Organisation declared the global emergency to be ended, but experts warned of rebounds and of possibly worse viral plagues in the future. In January of 2023, the World Tourism Organisation claimed Tourism Set to Return to Pre-Pandemic Levels in Some Regions in 2023, namely, Europe and the Middle East (source: https://www.unwto. org/news/tourism-set-to-return-to-pre-pandemic-levels-in-some-regions-in-2023) following a stronger-than-expected rebound in the previous year. Continued geopolitical and economic uncertainty was constraining the resilience of tourism on a global level. Asia and the Pacific regions were the slowest to recover pre-pandemic flows. Much research will be required to determine the full effects of the pandemic, both good and bad, and this is a new theme incorporated in the fifth edition. It fits with established themes, including strategy, portfolio management, sustainability, and impact assessment, but requires increased emphasis on risk and crisis management, and agility and resilience. The global pandemic was not the only major problem facing travel, leisure, events, and hospitality in the 2020–2023 period. Although economic revival has been a dominant policy goal, the pandemic interrupted supply chains, leading to inflation and fears of food shortages and a global recession. The Russian invasion of Ukraine raised serious questions about the stability of the world order, throwing Europe and NATO into defensive mode, with the added problem of accommodating millions of refugees from a neighbouring country. This has been in addition to ongoing mass migration from impoverished, war-torn, and politically unstable regions, the latest example (as of June 2023) being war-torn Sudan. Climate change has been wreaking havoc on many parts of the globe through severe storms, heat waves, and resulting fires, flooding, or water shortages – all tastes of what is to come with increasing severity. Carbon reduction has become a basic policy for many, yet dependence on fossil fuels is being perpetuated by governments seeking to lower disruptive energy prices, and because of the lack of alternatives.

Introduction and Overview of Event Studies Event-related disasters were also a regrettable theme in 2022, especially in October. Oct. 2022: Indonesian soccer fans were crushed during a chaotic run for the exits, leaving at least 125 people dead, after police used teargas. Oct. 2022: Over 150 young people were killed in the Seoul, Korea Halloween disaster. It has been attributed to uncontrolled crowd size, inadequate police presence, and the difficulty of emergency vehicles had in accessing the site. This was an unplanned event, for the most part, but from a risk planning and management perspective every event must take heed of the lessons to be learned (see Chapter 13 for details). So bad was the period 2020–2022 that some commentators were using the term polycrisis to describe cascading disruptions, while the Collins Dictionary word-of-the-year was permacrisis, describing a new world order in which there is no short-term relief from serious problems and pressures.

Global Issues for 2023 and Beyond The United Nations Foundation posted five global issues (https://unfoundation.org/blog/ post/5-global-issues-to-watch-in-2023/), and these should be understood in concert with the UN’s seventeen sustainability goals (https://sdgs.un.org/goals). As of mid-2022, The Sustainable Development Goals Report 2022 concluded that multiple, interlinked crises threatened attainment of the goals and that urgent action was needed to rescue the plan and show meaningful progress before 2030. Table 1.1 combines these global themes and applies them to Event Studies. Table 1.1  Global Issues and Implications for Events Global Issues

Implications for Events (actions are applicable to multiple issues)

Climate Change: continued dependence on fossil fuels; urgent need for carbon reduction and clean, sustainable energy; increased impacts of severe weather and sea-level rise threaten millions

– the events sector must commit to implementation of the UN sustainable development goals – use full-circle waste reduction and life-cycle accounting to achieve sustainability goals – develop comprehensive environmental standards and evaluation measures for events and event venues – continuously reduce carbon and environmental footprints

Poverty: extreme contrast between rich and poor countries and individuals is entrenched

– many events, and event tourism in general, are exclusionary in terms of their unaffordability for many people – events should raise money for poverty reduction – many events are wasteful of food and encourage over-consumption – use local produce and manage the supply chain to promote sustainable practices and healthy eating

Food: famine and hunger are recurrent; food security is not assured for all; need for more sustainable agriculture and aquaculture

(continued)

3

4

Introduction and Overview of Event Studies Table 1.1  Continued Global Issues

Implications for Events (actions are applicable to multiple issues)

Health: unhealthy eating and drinking are endemic in some countries; lingering effects of the pandemic and the threat of future diseases; need for clean water and adequate sanitation

– be leaders in combatting disease and unhealthy lifestyles – favour participation-for-all over spectator events – focus on the well-being of staff, volunteers, and participants – permanent and event-specific health policies are needed for the event sector, aimed at prevention – the events sector must learn how to react and recover, become more resilient in the face of “permacrisis” – continual improvements are required to make events more inclusive, safe, and healthy for all – how can the events sector overcome inequality, contribute to social justice, and ensure equitable accessibility related to disparities in income, discrimination and violation of human rights? – take a proactive stance on these issues – require green and sustainable events and event venues – create and manage a balanced portfolio of events for all ages and segments – challenge claims of businesses and events becoming “carbon-neutral”, as in many cases it is nothing more than greenwashing – those promoting and bidding on major events that attract large numbers of tourists must re-think their claims of being sustainable; huge costs leading to longterm debt, white-elephant venues with little feasible after-use, and mass tourism are not sustainable – use events as demonstration projects; foster events with environmental themes – evaluate the social marketing effectiveness of environmental messages at events – integrate event policy with planning, land use, and all environmental management systems – supply chain controls are needed to enforce sustainability

Human Rights: persecution and denial of basic rights; gender inequality; lack of educational opportunities; mass migration and the mixed treatment of refugees; underemployment Living Environments: need for safe, healthy cities and resilient, sustainable infrastructure; innovation required as cities grow larger, more diverse, and congested

Ecology: serious threats to biodiversity are mounting; diminishing forests and especially old-growth; increasing desertification, water and air pollution, and erosion

(continued)

Introduction and Overview of Event Studies Table 1.1  Continued Global Issues

Implications for Events (actions are applicable to multiple issues)

Peace: war, forced migration, and aggression mean that peace is not assured; mechanisms of international cooperation are threatened

– events and tourism must foster international goodwill and cooperation – bringing people together peacefully and safely is a top priority for the entire events sector

Democracy is under threat in many countries, non-existent in others; there is a need for inclusive, accountable institutions and civil society

– event organisers and stakeholders have the potential to demonstrate inclusiveness, accountability, and the benefits of a vibrant civil society (i.e., the voluntary sector)

The Nature and Scope of Event Studies Event Studies is the academic field devoted to creating knowledge and theory about planned events, including their management and their roles in tourism and other development strategies (see Figure 1.1). The scope of Event Studies spans small-group celebrations and community festivals, commemorations, sports, business meetings and exhibitions, academic and scientific gatherings, religious pilgrimages and sacred rites, entertainment, and political or governmental events. Of necessity, it must also encompass many unplanned events and events at the margin. An academic field of knowledge requires a unique core phenomenon as the principal focus for academic inquiry, this being all events and related experiences, and the meanings attached to both. We use the term planned events deliberately, even though we are interested in other forms of mass assembly and social gatherings. The reason is that the term event, on its own, has many other uses, such as news events and weather events. Event Studies draws from a large number of foundation disciplines and closely related professional fields, and the interconnections between these areas of study. This fosters interdisciplinary theory focused on planned events to better understand why they exist, and how we can manage them better to derive positive outcomes, as well as minimise undesirable and unforeseen consequences. Event Studies is defined by its holistic approach towards events as a phenomenon, including all the issues surrounding planned events, in addition to their management, design, and production. Events have policy implications that cannot be ignored, and those are not the sole domain of event producers and managers. This begins to illustrate why the study of planned events is both a fascinating and essential feature of post-modern societies – so much so that it is impossible to imagine modern societies without a full range of events, event facilities, and managed portfolios of events by cities, tourism agencies, and private corporations.

The Experience Economy and Planned Events We live in an age when the experiences offered by planned events are in high demand, witness the rebound of events all over the world in 2022–2023 following an almost complete absence of two years. Events have been legitimised as essential ingredients of modern life, especially in

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Introduction and Overview of Event Studies cities, as instruments of numerous public policy fields, and as tools in corporate and tourism marketing. They are therefore expected and necessary platforms for a wide range of desired experiences. Pine and Gilmore’s (1999) book The Experience Economy advanced the notion that we have evolved beyond the service economy. They argued that businesses need to create experiences that are memorable – embodying entertainment, education, aesthetics, immersion, and escapism. Many subsequent authors have applied and expanded these principles within the events sector (e.g., Darvishmotevali et al., 2023; Page and Connell, 2010; Smit and Melissen, 2018; Sundbo and Sørensen, 2013). Events should be designed to allow participants and audiences to engage in discrete ways ranging from absorption to immersion. Such experiences must accommodate different modes of participation, from passive to very active forms of involvement. They also need to engage all of our senses.

The Digital Economy and Planned Events The experience economy continues to grow and evolve in concert with the digital economy, facilitating more pop-up events and immersive experiences involving augmented reality. Online communities can form their own events, and social media influencers shape expectations. Consumers in the experience economy hopefully become loyal to particular brands, and even more important, become ambassadors or influencers for the brand. That is good for retailing, but not the more profound transformations we want to facilitate through planned events. As will be discussed, transformative experiences relate to personal growth, spirituality, well-being, and health. Applied to the group or community level, we talk about events as agents of systemic change. The digital economy is more than e-commerce and virtual events, and it refers to the networking of the world through technology, facilitating all kinds of exchanges. This has also been called a revolution in terms of IC – information and communications. Applied to the events sector, the benefits of going digital are many. The importance of being online with a great website is well established, including having universal booking opportunities (i.e., being able to purchase tickets and travel packages for events from anywhere), but there are other opportunities for events and e-commerce. These include merchandise sales, fundraising through virtual events, engaging potential customers, and maintaining loyal customers through inter-connectivity of all stakeholders. As content providers, events can package their experiences (e.g., entertainment), knowledge base (how to do things), and problem-solving through consulting. New career opportunities are emerging, including designers of virtual and hybrid experiences and content creators. Another feature of the digital economy is the rise of user-generated content and the co-creation of experiences, including events that are organised by and for online communities of interest. Hassan (2022), writing in the book Technology Application in Tourism Fairs, Festivals and Events in Asia, advised on how technology is revolutionising event planning and experiences. He asserted (p. vi) that “...hyper technology enables event festival organizers to plan high-quality events and services while also adding value to the consumer experience in a variety of ways, including genuine information, ease of event booking, updated knowledge, and other aspects”.

Education for, and the Evolution of Event Studies In the first edition of this book, a pyramid-shaped model was presented. Event Studies was at the pinnacle, resting on a foundation of degree and diploma programmes for the burgeoning

Introduction and Overview of Event Studies field of event management. The growth of educational programmes was attributed primarily to the many career opportunities in the events sector. The principal argument was that Event Studies as a field could not exist without this foundation, and that it mostly relied on teachers and researchers within the event management field. This is no longer the complete picture, as Event Studies can now stand on its own, not merely as a supplement to more career and business-oriented education. In the new framework (see Figure 1.1), Event Studies is all-encompassing and interdisciplinary. It is not necessarily dependent upon closely related applied fields and professional activities. Event Studies draws upon traditional and emerging disciplines and fields, and in return informs and expands their content and theories. Similar to the arguments put forward by Tribe (2004, 2006) regarding tourism studies, we are working within a field of study. One’s perspective on events, whether academic or practical, will determine which disciplines, contributing fields, methods, and theories one draws upon. An interest in the impacts of mega events on housing, for example, could draw upon sociology, urban planning, and political science. An interest in the nature of festival sustainability will use ecology, management theory, social psychology, and other sources. To create event-related knowledge, the contributions of theory and methodologies from multiple disciplines are required. Where a number of disciplines are drawn upon, we can say that the new field of study is multidisciplinary in nature. With time, the interactions might establish a field of knowledge with its own theories and methodologies, and this can be said to be interdisciplinary in nature. Seraphin (2021) has gone even farther, arguing for a postdisciplinary perspective in Event Studies in which disciplinary boundaries are ignored and researchers become

EVENT STUDIES EVENTS in CLOSELY RELATED FIELDS: The study of events within other applied fields, including hospitality, leisure, sports, arts, theatre, and cultural studies

An interdisciplinary field that studies all planned events, and meanings attached to events and their experience (encompassing event management and event tourism)

EVENT MANAGEMENT

An applied, professional field devoted to understanding and improving the management of planned events

EVENT TOURISM An applied field devoted to understanding and improving tourism through events

Figure 1.1  Event Studies, Event Management, and Event Tourism

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Introduction and Overview of Event Studies eclectic in their methodologies. At this stage in its evolution, we can say that Event Studies is now contributing back to the foundation disciplines and other professional and academic fields with new understandings and theories in development, some of which are highlighted throughout this book. Dredge et al. (2014) advocated a diverse core curriculum for tourism, hospitality, and events. Also drawing upon Tribe (2014) and Barnett (1990), we present six basic requirements for advanced education related to events: 1 A deep understanding of some knowledge claims (this brings ontology into the picture, that is, what we collectively claim to know about planned events). 2 A radical critique of knowledge claims (do not take all claims as given, but challenge them; see the discussion of Critical Event Studies). 3 Competence to develop critique in the company of others (being able to engage in various discourses, such as the meaning and importance of events). 4 Self-direction and independent inquiry (knowing where you want to go and how to get there with regard to learning and professionalism; developing a lifelong learning capability). 5 Self-reflection (intellectuals and professionals always think carefully about what they are doing, why they are doing it, and potential outcomes; do we have enough information or theory? What can we learn from evaluation?). 6 Open dialogue and cooperation (being part of a free, professional community, and a responsible citizen). In considering the divergent directions taken by liberal education versus vocational training, Dredge et al. (2014) argued that each teaching institution should engage in a dynamic process of curriculum design that results in differences, thereby facilitating innovation. Those teaching Event Studies, or applied event tourism and event management, should not only combine some elements of training with more theoretical and philosophical subjects but also develop the student’s capability for lifelong learning. Starting with some basic skills and simple concepts, educational programmes can add more complex knowledge and expert practices as appropriate and for competitive advantage. The professional event manager or event tourism planner has to have more than skills. Professionals must have a broad base of knowledge, together with the ability to reflect upon how it will shape both specific managerial or business decisions and the wider implications of events in society and the environment. They also have to possess a well-developed sense of ethics and professional responsibility, which should be based on a solid foundation that includes philosophy and comparative cultural studies. Tourism education can be traced back as far as the 1930s, with substantial growth in the 1980s. Event Studies has more recent origins, and some of the drivers of growth are shown in Figure 1.2. Two distinct and potentially complementary approaches to events-related research and education developed in tandem, with increasing interdependence: l

l

An interdisciplinary approach, which was based upon the theoretical and intellectual basis of higher education, with a philosophical approach underpinned by traditional disciplines and new subject areas (we call it Event Studies). The professional bodies approach, which is based on competencies and skills, with factual knowledge and problem-solving at the heart of the curriculum (both Event Management and Event Tourism).

Introduction and Overview of Event Studies

Global growth in events as a form of consumpon by visitors and residents

Increasing instrumentalism of events whereby they are considered appropriate means for realising many public-sector and corporate goals

Professionalising the field by industry and professional bodies; Government standards and regulaons

Student demand; Many new academic programmes in Event Management

Figure 1.2  Key Drivers of Growth in Event Education The review of literature contained in the last chapter of this book demonstrates how the field has grown and diversified, and that is also evident in the many references contained in this book. As Formica (1998) observed, there were few articles related to events management or event tourism published in the 1970s – he found only four in the Annals of Tourism Research and the Journal of Travel Research (JTR). Events were not yet considered to be attractions within the tourism system of Gunn’s landmark book, Tourism Planning (1979). In the 1960s and 1970s, the events sector was not recognised as an area of separate study within leisure, tourism, or recreation, all of which were rapidly growing in the academic community and in professional practice. Accordingly, one of the landmarks in the development of Event Studies was the establishment in 1993 of the research journal Festival Management and Event Tourism – now named Event Management – by Donald Getz and Bruce Wicks. Prior to its founding, the published literature on events was small and contained mostly within foundation disciplines or the closely related fields of tourism and leisure studies. There are now several journals devoted to events, including International Journal of Festival and Event Management, Journal of Convention and Event Tourism, Journal of Festive Studies, and in part the Journal of Policy Research in Tourism, Leisure and Events. Several others have, over the years, ceased operations. As demonstrated by citations throughout this book, many other research journals have published large numbers of relevant papers. The review of review articles in the final chapter reveals growth in numbers, diversity, and sophistication, as well as gaps and emerging themes. The Routledge four-volume collection of key studies in the field, Event Tourism (Connell and Page, 2010), is significant because this compendium traced the evolution of Event Studies back to the 1920s with Allix’s (1922) publication on fairs. One might also argue that the professional field of event management pre-dates the academic study of this phenomenon, as the first convention and visitors bureau (CVB) was established in the USA in Detroit in 1896 (Ford and Peeper, 2007). Interestingly, as Ford and Peeper found, there were also examples, pre-dating Detroit, of attracting meetings and convention business to towns and cities, facilitated by the

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Introduction and Overview of Event Studies spread of the railroad in the USA. Therefore, the academic study of the professional events sector has taken several hundreds of years to reach fruition, and if sporting events such as the Olympiad are included, then their management and organisation – as opposed to their philosophical rationale – can be dated back to early civilisations. In 1990, a landmark year in the event management literature, Goldblatt’s book Special Events: The Art and Science of Celebration was published, followed by Festivals, Special Events and Tourism (Getz, 1991) and a year later, Hallmark Tourist Events by C. M. Hall (1992). In the early 1990s, academics were clearly leading the way, as at that time there were few if any degree programmes, and few courses available anywhere that featured event management or event tourism. In the USA, George Washington University pioneered event management education, leading Hawkins and Goldblatt (1995), in a journal article, to address the need for event management education. Interestingly, their article also asked how events should be treated within a tourism curriculum. The mid- to late-1990s were the take-off years for the academic institutionalisation of event management, and with it a more legitimised advancement of scholarship on event tourism and Event Studies. There is also no doubt that leisure, tourism, and hospitality provided a large part of the foundation, having adapted discipline-based theory and methodology, supporting event-specific courses, and spinning off event management degree programmes. The literature on events has now grown beyond anyone’s capability of reading it all, with a number of distinct specialisations having emerged. In very practical terms, this probably defines maturity, or at least the path towards maturity in the field. The longstanding divisions based on types of events remain (i.e., separating sports events, business events, and festivals). The Olympics will always attract its own scholarship, while world fairs and other mega events retain their allure for researchers and authors – many examples are cited throughout this book.

Community of Practice for Event Professionals Brown and Stokes (2021) considered event management to be a domain which connects professionals to a community of practice. They framed this position within the idea that there is an evolving events industry, and that event management is a professional and academic discipline that has emerged from related fields such as tourism, leisure, marketing, and hospitality. Key elements of a community of practice were observed in their qualitative research in the UK, namely, distinct modes of working, shared values and practices, and shared identity. Academic degree programmes, professional bodies, efficient modes of information dissemination, and standards imposed by the government, professional bodies, or industry associations can certainly help to foster a sense of community. This is likely to be realised more quickly in a nation like the UK where there is a high density of institutions teaching Event Studies and management, and well-connected professional groups such as the AEME (Association for Events Management Education (https://www.aeme.org)). Similarly, the CAUTHE (Council for Australasian Tourism and Hospitality Education (CAUTHE.org)) represents institutions and professionals in tourism, hospitality, and events sectors. In North America, there are many state and provincial associations devoted to events, and the International Festivals and Events Association (IFEA.com) provides an umbrella organisation. Events and professionals also have the option of joining more tightly defined associations such as Meetings Professionals International (mpi.org). See Table 9.3 for others, including their certification or diploma programmes.

Introduction and Overview of Event Studies

The Need for Greater Internationalisation and Cross-cultural Studies The English language dominates when it comes to publications related to Event Studies, event management, and event tourism. However, Richards et al. (2022) concluded that a considerable amount of pertinent knowledge was being created and published in other languages, resulting in a missing body of knowledge. The emphases are different from country to country, and the hosting of mega events has influenced both the number of papers and the focus of research interests. The researchers examined event management journal articles in eight non-English languages (not including Chinese) and analysed them according to the framework used in this book (i.e., Figure 1.3). Their conclusion was that most of the articles dealt with outcomes and impacts, plus patterns and processes. This finding can be compared with the results of a study of English-language publications on event management (Yeung and Thomas, 2021) wherein patterns and processes were most important over the entire period of 2009–2019, and antecedents and decision-making relatively more important. All over the world, scholars are publishing in English-language journals for both prestige and out of necessity, as academics are typically compelled to seek the highest-ranked journals in their fields. Richards et al. (2022) discussed a number of remedies, but it seems likely this bias in the literature will continue for some time. What we have done in this book, where feasible, is to highlight publications that pertain to non-English-speaking countries, a practice that reveals a very large amount of event-related research being done in, or concerning Asia.

PERSONAL ANTECEDENTS & DECISION-MAKING

KNOWLEDGE CREATION

PLANNING DESIGN MANAGEMENT MARKETING

TEMPORAL PROCESSES

CORE

Planned events Experience Meanings

POLICY PATTERNS AND PROCESSES

OUTCOMES EVALUATION AND IMPACT ASSESSMENT

SPATIAL PATTERNS

Figure 1.3  A Framework for Understanding and Creating Knowledge About Planned Events

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Introduction and Overview of Event Studies The widening geographical scope of Event Studies is also reflected in a number of books, including Tourism Events in Asia: Marketing and Development, edited by Hassan and Sharma (2018), and Sharma et al. (2022), Festival and Event Tourism: Building Resilience and Promoting Sustainability.

Critical Event Studies Critical studies involves those who question established paradigms, in other words, the existing practices and concepts used within a discipline or subject (Robertson et al, 2018). A more reflective approach to understanding society, and the issues it examines, is sought. Traditionally, these ideas have evolved from political ideologies such as Marxism, and more recently the work of Habermas (1973, 1975) as a proponent of critical social theory. For Event Studies, this means that critical social scientists approach the phenomenon of events from a very different standpoint, often focusing on power and inequalities. Critical Event Studies have been expanding rapidly. Spracklen and Lamond (2016), in their edited book Critical Event Studies, argued that events are very much a neo-liberal form of commodified experience. Those authors considered protests as events, with activism as a form of leisure activity. They viewed protests as being part of a counter-hegemonic struggle, meaning they are a challenge to the status quo, in political terms. Lamond and Pratt’s (2016) edited collection of research approaches in events provides numerous illustrations of the methodologies and application of Critical Event Studies from different disciplines such as qualitative methods (Dowse, 2016), cultural studies (Ying-Chih, 2016), disability studies (Misener et al., 2016), and ethnography (Dashper, 2016). Other studies such as Finkel et al. (2019b) on accessibility, inclusion, and diversity in events also expand the domain of Critical Event Studies, especially their focus on gender, sexualities, ethnicities, age, class, religion, and the relationship with non-mainstream, non-majority communities. Jepson and Clarke edited the book Power, Construction and Meaning in Festivals (2018) with the purpose of taking a critical look at the links between festivals and authenticity, cultural consumption, and local communities. Accessibility, Inclusion, and Diversity in Critical Event Studies, a book edited by Finkel, Sharp, and Sweeney (2019b), provided several important insights. First, accessibility is more than a physical design consideration (i.e., catering for a range of disabilities), and it also applies to real or perceived class and cultural barriers. Inclusion, to critical theorists, can only be assured through interventions and a redistributive agenda. In other words, how can events be relevant to everyone on an equal basis? Diversity refers to how individuals, communities, and often self-defined segments of the population (e.g., by gender, age, ethnicity, etc.) are represented in positions of power and engaged in event planning. The book Marginalisation and Events (Walters and Jepson, 2019) considered what it means to be marginalised, starting with the notion that actually calling people marginal is a reflection of bias on the part of those in power. The book examined a number of categories, including those who experienced exclusion or disenfranchisement on the basis of demography (e.g., age, marriage status), religion, gender or sexuality, race or ethnicity, socioeconomic status (e.g., income, employment) disability, refugee or migrant status, or geographic location. The Routledge Critical Event Studies Research Series started with the book Gendered Violence at International Festivals (Platt and Finkel, 2020) wherein the notions of liminality and communitas are examined as they pertain to power and gender. We return to those issues in the section on Gender Studies in Chapter 16. An important point to emphasise is that all editions of this book have argued for positive change, such as advocating adoption of sustainability principles, viewing events as agents of

Introduction and Overview of Event Studies change, exposing the many problems and limitations of event-impact methods, and condemning many false or unproven claims about benefits, while costs are too often ignored or downplayed. In this fifth edition, increased attention is given to sustainability, including advocacy of adoption and implementation of the UN’s sustainability goals. A new section on Gender Studies has been included, greater attention given to internationalism and cultural issues, and a more complete coverage of critical issues facing the planet and how events can play a positive role. Overall, the authors have consistently pursued a very challenging goal, to build a complete understanding of the planned events sector. Students and researchers should always be critical, including making a critical assessment of all claims made by those seeking to advance their own economic, political, and philosophical positions.

Event Studies and Its Influence on Other Disciplines and Fields As Event Studies matures, its influence has grown in other fields and areas of professional practice. This can be attributed to several factors. First, with their focus being the delivery of experiences, event producers have often led the way in making the experience economy real to the general population through a wide range of programming within many event types. The same can be said more recently for the digital economy, with the pandemic making virtual and hybrid events popular. Events demonstrate how a wide range of public policies and corporate strategies are being implemented, and highlight both positive and negative impacts. This has attracted a great deal of attention (not always favourable!) and generated research and publications in very diverse journals – as illustrated throughout this book. Advances in research methods, theories pertaining to experiences, and practical insights on how people interact at live events will continue to stimulate ideas in other fields. This is in addition to the longstanding attention several foundation disciplines have given to rituals, festivity, and the carnivalesque.

A Framework for Understanding and Creating Knowledge about Planned Events A three-part core is depicted in Figure 1.3, consisting of: 1 The study of all planned events, other live mass assemblies, social events, and to a certain extent virtual events. 2 The experience of events, by attendees and all other stakeholders. 3 Meanings attached to events and to event experiences.

The Core Phenomenon A field of study requires a distinct core phenomenon. Phenomenon means a state or process known through the senses, in other words, something that can be experienced. We are studying a universal phenomenon that has importance around the world, in every culture and society. Incidentally, the alternative, more popular definition of phenomenon, is that of a remarkable occurrence, which can be a synonym for a special event! This definition of the core of Event Studies broadens the field considerably and imposes a substantial theoretical and philosophical component. What do all planned events have in common that justifies their own field of study? They have the following characteristics:

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Introduction and Overview of Event Studies l

Timelessness: events are inherent in all societies and integral to civilisation.

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Global importance in terms of public policy, industry, and corporate strategy.

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Recent and rapidly expanding professional practice of event management and also event tourism and event policy careers; business opportunities abound. Recognition that events are fundamental to the experience economy, indeed are essential to the evolving nature of leisure and culture. A high level of student demand, leading to a proliferation of event management programmes globally, many with specialisations, which in turn fosters further academic research and publication to advance knowledge in the field.

The essence of the planned event is that it has purpose, goals, and design. It will be managed and marketed. The design, including setting and management systems, cannot guarantee specific experiences and cannot cover all the possible experiences and meanings attached to the event, but it does facilitate some experiences and exclude others. Its intended meaning will be communicated to targeted audiences. There are many styles of planned events, produced for many purposes, but in every case, there is intent to create, or at least shape, the individual and collective experiences of the audience or participants. New forms are always being created, and this is of considerable interest. Multiple perspectives on experiences and meaning have to be included in the planning and design of events. There are paying customers or invited guests at planned events, but we also need to recognise and study the experiences of organisers, staff, sponsors and other facilitators (i.e., those providing resources and support), regulators (e.g., city officials), co-producers (i.e., those external stakeholders who share in event production), participants (e.g., artists and athletes), exhibitors, and suppliers. A further dimension is the pivotal role of volunteers, as numerous events cannot exist without them. Consequently, this raises a number of fundamental questions about the experience and meaning of events: l l

What motivates all these stakeholders, and what different experiences do they have? How do all these stakeholders react to the designed experience, or at least to the setting and programme of events?

To address these questions, we need to examine a number of key concepts around the experience and meaning of events associated with the study of semiotics.

Semiotics and the meaning of ‘meanings’ Do all events and event experiences have hidden or profound meanings? Not necessarily, because an experience can be purely hedonistic, which means it gives pleasure without significance or symbolic meaning. In fact, many people would describe such experiences as “fun” or diversions. However, many events are significant in social, cultural, economic, and environmental terms because they generate benefits that are valued, or generate negative and unwanted impacts. Event experiences may also have symbolic meaning for participants, host communities, and entire nations. Semiotics is the study of signs and symbols, and therefore of how meaning is conveyed and interpreted. The symbols can be language, icons (e.g., symbols like a logo or brand), or objects, including people. Meaning can also be conveyed through actions, and institutions also hold meanings. The very idea of leisure holds meanings for individuals and groups that are in part socially and culturally determined (Page and Connell, 2010). To some, leisure has negative

Introduction and Overview of Event Studies connotations and is to be avoided, and to others, it is their reason for being. Therefore, understanding events as part of societal attitudes towards leisure and entertainment, fun and hedonism, is only a partial understanding. Wider studies of the social psychology of events as a leisure experience or business phenomenon are required in order to fully appreciate the individualised nature of meaning and what events convey to individuals and groups. Symbolic meaning refers to mediated experiences where an object, sign, word, or action means something else, or conveys ideas and feelings beyond itself (Levy, 1959). For example, the event is not merely interpreted as entertainment, but it is understood by some or all of the audience that it may be an expression of nationalism, or community identity. Mediation occurs in a number of ways, through direct social exchanges (i.e., interaction at live events), the media (including the roles of influencers, propaganda, and misinformation), and marketing. To help simplify and create recognisable signs and symbols, marketing as a profession uses the concept of branding, which is about communicating with intended customers using a name, logo, symbol, or word to simplify and create awareness, or to attract an audience and a perception of quality or value in the intended experience or event. Therefore, in an event setting, how symbols are used will affect how they are perceived and interpreted. Sometimes organisers will be completely unaware of the symbolic meanings attached to their events and actions. But some events deliberately seek to convey meaning, which is the essence of theming. Cities and destinations use events to convey positive images and meanings, so the event itself becomes a symbol, and branding is applied to create the value or quality message. This is the essence of hallmark events. Sponsors at events believe that the goodwill generated by the event will attach itself to their brands, and the brand itself is a symbol of quality or value. To illustrate these principles, a study by Wooten and Norman (2008a) reported that visitors to a coastal shrimp festival placed more importance on the coastal location (the event setting) than the shrimp (the theme) when explaining their satisfaction. People attending or participating in an event can attach their own meanings to the experiences. Event Studies is concerned about how meanings are attached to planned events by individuals, groups, and society. For example, is the event perceived to be a shared cultural experience, or personally self-fulfilling – even transformative? Each stakeholder in the process wants, expects, and receives potentially different experiences and attaches potentially different meanings to the event. One major point to remember is that every event experience will be unique to the individual because experiences are internal psychological states.

Antecedents, Motivations, and Decision-Making Antecedents include all those factors shaping individual and collective needs or demands for events, and how choices and decisions are made. Theory from a variety of disciplines is useful, particularly from psychology, and in turn that theory has been adopted by consumer-behaviour researchers (Hall and Page, 2014; Page and Connell, 2010). In Chapter 12, a framework is provided for organising the discussion, starting with the personal dimension. That chapter also covers marketing and communications.

Planning, Design, Management, and Marketing Planned events happen by conscious human design, created by organisations with many stakeholders, and with specific goals. This is the event management domain, focusing as it does on mobilising resources, transforming processes, management systems, and professionalism.

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Introduction and Overview of Event Studies Yet as events are means towards an end (e.g., profit, celebration, branding, political benefits, and place marketing), we always must carefully assess goals and take a multi-stakeholder approach, meaning we need to be cognisant of the wider range of objectives and needs associated with a specific event. Chapter 10 covers planning (and operations), both for and within events, and Chapter 11 covers design. This also leads us into the realm of event tourism (­Chapter 15) wherein events have specific roles to play in attracting tourists, fostering a positive destination image, and acting as animators and catalysts within a specific location, region, or country.

Outcomes: Evaluation and Impact Assessment By outcome we mean the impacts events have on people, the environment, the economy, and society. Later we discuss systems theory and the differences between outputs and outcomes, but in either case, they must be subject to evaluation and impact assessment. In Chapter 14, the subjects and objects of evaluation and impact assessment are fully examined, with the objects being social, cultural, ecological, economic, and built-environment outcomes, and the subjects being the people, organisations, or things that are affected by events and event tourism. Theory and methods of evaluation and impact assessment are summarised, with important conclusions drawn for practitioners and stakeholders concerning the pitfalls and limitations.

Patterns and Processes The theme patterns and processes represent the broader environmental influences and the dynamic aspects of our Event Studies system, namely, temporal processes; geographical (spatial) patterns; policy; and creating knowledge. Chapter 16 looks at the three disciplines of history, human geography, and future studies. Together they help us answer questions like, “Where do events come from, and how do they evolve over time? How are they distributed in time and space, and why? What cultural and political, technological and economic forces shape events?” Policy is a theme running throughout the book, with specific consideration in Chapter 7, wherein planning and policymaking are linked. Policy is a force that reacts to and shapes the planned event system. Creating knowledge about events is the remaining theme of importance. It is discussed in Chapter 17, which also provides a research agenda for advancing Event Studies.

A Theory of Planned Events? It is unlikely that a single, grand theory can be advanced to cover all important aspects of planned events, but a set of interrelated theories that deal with the key elements is within reach. These constructs, assembled in an interdisciplinary fashion from available theories adapted to events, provide substantial explanatory power regarding all the important elements of the framework. This is how many areas of leisure and tourism studies have developed through time, and Event Studies seem to be following a similar pathway to harnessing interdisciplinarity. We need an integrative theory that accomplishes the following: l

Explains the roles and importance of planned events in human society and culture (this covers antecedents and meanings, spatial and temporal patterns), addressing a key challenge of how event spaces are transformed through a temporary activity that redefines how people view and enjoy everyday spaces.

Introduction and Overview of Event Studies l

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Provides deep insight into the evolution of events, including indications of how various forms of events and their functions are developing (this covers policy, strategy, and environmental forces). Explains how event experiences are influenced, and how meanings – at the levels of personal, group, and society – are attached to event experiences (this covers the core phenomenon and also planning, management and design, antecedents, and consequences). Suggests ways in which the outcomes of planned events can be predicted and controlled, as in the establishment of cause-and-effect relationships (this covers planning, policy, and outcomes).

E X P E R T O P I N I O N 1 . 1 :   By Professor Joe Jeff Goldblatt Embracing the Ubuntu Philosophy for a New Age of Dignity, Respect, and Welfare for More Sustainable Event Education The many contributions of Professor Goldblatt to the development of professionalism and education in event management are recognised around the world. He is the author of many widely used textbooks, including the classic, Special Events: The Art and Science of Celebration (1990) with many subsequent editions. Professor Joe Goldblatt is an Emeritus Professor of Planned Events at Queen Margaret University in Edinburgh, Scotland (Plate 1.1). To learn about his additional views visit www.joegoldblatt.scot

Plate 1.1  Professor Joe Jeff Goldblatt Photo Credit: Professor Goldblatt

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Introduction and Overview of Event Studies During my nearly 50 years in the classroom, I discovered that the best learning outcomes for both students and their teachers are those that have been overlooked because some believed they were immeasurable. We now live in a world where we appear through algorithms to measure almost everything from our behaviour to our geographical movements to our geopolitical beliefs and much more. However, how often do we measure how well we are able to move from separation to reconciliation? From raw emotional disagreement to a reasonable agreement? I was once asked what is the best possible outcome from a planned event. When ­Professor Getz and I began to evaluate event outcomes in the 1990s, event managers and their stakeholders focused upon measuring the impacts of sponsorship and the greater economic impact within local communities from event tourism. Therefore, when I was asked about the greatest impact of a planned event, I answered that I believed it was for the stakeholders who had conceived, planned, and delivered the event’s dream to have become stronger as a team through their increased mutual respect for one another. Too often, economic, social, cultural, and more recently environmental success is achieved; however, event teams fail to achieve internal political success and as the group becomes more contentious you may find that achieving consensus and a common commitment to the same goals, objectives, and strategies is more difficult than any time in recent history. This is why I believe that the political outcome of a planned event is the most important. If the team planning the event could establish as their first goal to embrace with every decision the Ubuntu philosophy of the late Nelson Mandela, I am confident that all events would have superior outcomes. Ubuntu is derived from the word Munto which means a person – a human being. The Ubuntu philosophy requires that every member of the event team values the dignity, safety, and welfare of the individual over all other considerations. It is a holistic perspective that requires that your event team outcomes are managed for the good of all and not just for the few. Therefore, the next time you assemble your event team, ask them how they may work together to evaluate their success through embracing the Ubuntu. Only through this commitment to dignity, safety, and welfare and effective post hoc evaluation, will you be able to move from difficult dissension to resilient reconciliation and achieve the sustainable outcomes that your event stakeholders must produce in order for all society to deliver the event dream for the good of all.

Event Management and Event Studies Interrelationships Against this background of the growth of event education and research, the philosophy embodied in this book is unambiguous: teaching event management requires a blend of management fundamentals and the academic study of planned events. In this approach, specialisations are taught after the fundamentals have been acquired, although we realise there will probably be continuing demand by students and professional bodies for a quick introduction to specialised career paths. Another argument presented here is that event management is generic, and the knowledge can be applied to all types of events.

Introduction and Overview of Event Studies Traditionally, the specialisations within events education have been aligned with professional bodies, including those devoted to meetings and conventions, exhibitions, fairs, festivals, and sports (see Table 9.3). We argue that this is now very antiquated thinking, and it will not survive the trend to combine forms and functions, nor the rapid growth in event-related career paths that now include policy and analysis positions, private enterprise, new forms of live and virtual events, and the amazing possibilities opened up by global communications and social media for the co-creation of experiences. In the experience economy, increasingly diverse market segments (i.e., social worlds or communities of interest) are generating their own events and event travel careers. Specialisation also occurs by the type of employer, namely, venues and corporations, government departments, and non-profit associations, all of which have unique perspectives on the roles of events. With generic event management as the foundation, all these possible specialisations and many more are available. In Chapter 9, major career paths in event management are illustrated, with sample job titles and pertinent professional associations. Many countries have their own national-level associations, and there are many certifications offered by educational institutions as well. In C ­ hapter 15, career paths more related to event tourism are similarly profiled.

PROFILE 1.1 TransRockies Inc. and Gravel Royale As a private company producing and managing events, TransRockies Inc., based in Calgary, Canada, runs events in both the United States and Canada. They specialise in challenging cycling and running events, for which they have a considerable amount of experience and a strong reputation. Like many companies and events, they were hard hit by the pandemic, with all events being cancelled, followed by a lengthy period of uncertainty regarding when they could resume and under what conditions. During this two-year period, the company, under the leadership of CEO Aaron McConnell, designed and eventually implemented a new event called Gravel Royale (https://www.transrockiesgravelroyale.com). The sport has been described as follows (source: racing.trekbites.com): Road races take place almost exclusively on pavement, while gravel races almost exclusively do not. But from this easy physical distinction, unique personality traits emerge. Road racing is old, storied, rigid, precise. Gravel racing is young, burgeoning, lax, loose. While the former builds singular legends out of marginal gains, the latter builds community out of collective experience. The inaugural Gravel Royale was scheduled for August of 2021, but it was cancelled on short notice due to re-instated Covid-19 restrictions. The first running was therefore rescheduled for August 2022. Registration progress during Covid-19 was strong, reaching a field size of nearly 300 riders. However, as uncertainty remained about Covid and travel restrictions, participants were allowed to transfer their registration to 2023. Ultimately 180 riders rolled up to the start line in 2022 with a number of registrants either transferring their entry to 2023 or simply not showing up. For 2023, organisers were forecasting slightly lower numbers than in 2022. TransRockies is currently considering options to adjust the format of the event to make it more attractive for future editions (Plate 1.2). A full case study of TransRockies and how they managed and innovated throughout the pandemic is contained in the following book: McConnell, A., & Getz, D., Chapter 1 in,

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Plate 1.2  Start of the First Running of TransRockies’ Gravel Royale Photo Credit: TransRockies/John Gibson Pictures

Ziakas, V., & Getz, D. (eds.) (2023). Case Studies in Event Management and Tourism. Oxford: Goodfellow Publisher. TransRockies (https://www.transrockies.com) has previously been the subject of a number of research papers and book chapters:

References Getz, D., & McConnell, A. (2011). Serious sport tourism and event travel careers. Journal of Sport Management, 25 (4), 326–338. Getz, D. (2013). Event Tourism: Concepts, International Case Studies, and Research. New York: Cognizant. (see: pp. 16–17; 71–72; 226–233). Getz, D., & McConnell, A. (2014). Comparing trail runners and mountain bikers: Motivation, involvement, portfolios, and event-tourist careers. Journal of Convention and Event Tourism, 15 (1), 69–100. McConnell, A., & Getz, D. (2021). Case study of TransRockies Inc. In V. Ziakas, V. Antchak, & D. Getz (eds.), Crisis Management and Recovery for Events, pp. 186–192. Oxford: Goodfellow Publishers. Students and practitioners can learn a great deal from these sources and can follow progress on the company website. For the purposes of discussion and debate, this material addresses a number of issues: – How private, for-profit events and their organisations differ from public and not-for-profit organisations and events, with particular reference to branding, funding, stakeholder management, innovation, and leadership.

Introduction and Overview of Event Studies – The nature of running and cycling events, with profiles of attendees; how these up-market, challenging events appeal to highly involved, higher-income adults. – Crisis management and resilience; how the company’s portfolio of owned and managed events provides a measure of protection against fluctuations in the marketplace and sudden interruptions like the pandemic. – The nature of iconic, destination events that bring tourists to rural and remote areas. – Innovation, within a profit-making context, leading to the creation of a new event: its planning, design, and implementation; marketing with the help of key sponsors.

STUDY GUIDE

In this first chapter, the student should gain understanding of how and why Event Studies is defined and justified as a field of academic inquiry. Consideration has been given to why anyone should study planned events, including the obvious relationship to event management and event tourism professional education, but also the importance of events within many other disciplines, fields of enquiry, and policy domains. Readers should reflect on the ways in which events and event professionals can contribute in a positive way to the many problems facing the world, as well as the potentially negative impacts associated with events and event tourism. Study the framework for understanding and creating knowledge about planned events, as this has been used for structuring the book. Each of the components is considered in one or more chapters. Be comfortable explaining the three major subdivisions of Event Studies and how they interrelate: disciplinary perspectives (including the classical social and cultural perspective rooted in sociology and anthropology), event management, and event tourism. The last two are applied, leading to distinct career paths, whereas the disciplinary perspective is much more theoretical and philosophical in nature. All three have policy implications for governments concerned with events and their impacts. They are also called discourses, as each has its own traditions in the literature in terms of epistemology (underlying theory and methodology) and ontology (bodies of knowledge). Start to consider the major challenges and issues facing event management and event tourism, as well as the big policy issues for governments at all levels. There are many specific points made throughout the book. Be able to answer, in full sentences and paragraphs, the study questions – all are potential exam questions based on this chapter. Fuller answers will be possible after finishing the book. STUDY QUESTIONS l

Why are events important in the context of global problems and issues?

l

What are the roles of planned events, and the priorities, in solving major problems?

l

l l

Define Event Studies as an academic field and explain why it has emerged as an important subject matter related to professional praxis. How do events reflect, and fit into both the experience and digital economies? Why are you interested in an events-related education or career? Consider how the field has evolved and the wide range of opportunities it presents.

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Introduction and Overview of Event Studies l l

l

l

l

Define a community of practice and explain what it personally means to you. Explain the purposes and value of Critical Event Studies, with examples of the kinds of problems and issues critical theorists explore. What is the core phenomenon of Event Studies, and whose experiences are we interested in? How are meanings given to events and event experiences? What meanings do you attach to your personal event experiences? Explain each component of the framework for understanding and creating knowledge about planned events. As you continue reading, be able to illustrate each component with specific examples (this will require material from the rest of the book, both research and real-life examples). FURTHER READING

At the end of each chapter is a short list of books recommended for additional reading. These are often relevant in more than one chapter. Websites, where applicable, are included within the text, but keep in mind they can and do change in terms of addresses and contents. Finkel, R., Sharp, B., & Sweeney, M. (eds.) (2019). Accessibility, Inclusion, and Diversity in Critical Event Studies. London: Routledge. Getz, D. (ed.) (2021). Dictionary of Event Studies, Event Management and Event Tourism. Oxford: Goodfellow Publishers. Lee, S., & Goldblatt, J. J. (2020). Special Events: The Brave New World for Bolder and Better Live Events (8th ed.). New York: Wiley. Massis, M., Vecco, M., & Lin, Y. (eds.) (2021). Digital Transformation in the Cultural and Creative Industries. London: Routledge. Page, S., & Connell, J. (2014). Routledge Handbook of Events. London: Routledge.

Chapter

2

Forces, Trends, and Issues Affecting Events

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

Upon completion of this chapter, students should know the following: l l

l

The underlying forces propelling and constraining growth and trends in the events sector: population and demographics; politics and law; economy; environment; society and culture; and technology. How the global pandemic impacted the events sector, and resulting possible structural changes.

l

Major trends in the events sector, linked to underlying forces.

l

Important issues facing the events sector, including those related to continued growth.

Introduction What explains the rapid growth and expansion of planned events in the modern world? From World War Two onwards, forces that have propelled the growth of the events sector, along with leisure and travel in general, have been predominant. The pandemic of 2020–2022 was very disruptive, causing a temporary retreat, and focused attention on a greater need for sustainability, resilience, and a new normal for managers. It remains to be seen if structural changes result, such as education and employment patterns, shifts in preferences and economic demand, or levels of support from the public and private sectors. Researchers are looking for answers, and practitioners are adapting to changing conditions.

DOI: 10.4324/9781003374251-2

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Forces, Trends, and Issues Affecting Events Until the pandemic hit in 2020, it was logical to expect growth to continue, but that assumption can no longer be supported. There might very well be limits to growth globally, or in particular countries and cities, owing to established and new constraining factors. This raises the question of capacity to absorb events and tourism and is related to the growing concerns surrounding over-tourism.

Propelling and Constraining Forces If we understand the underlying forces, document the trends, and discuss the issues that arise, then we will be better able to plan for the future. Our starting point is a detailed examination of the propelling and constraining forces, as illustrated in Figure 2.1. The forces shaping observable trends, such as the long-term growth of the events sector, can either be propelling or constraining, and sometimes both! Population growth, for example, leads to increasing demand for services of all kinds, including events, but if it is accompanied by poverty or social dysfunction then it can have a negative impact by increasing inequalities or tearing communities apart. The structure of populations is also critical, leading to our examination of demographics. Digging even deeper, there are underlying factors shaping population and demographics, such as cultural norms, economic conditions, and laws. The following major forces are considered: population, including demographics; politics and law, the economy, environment, society and culture (including values), and technology. Powerful forces are usually interrelated, and they are often compounding – meaning they interact and make things worse or better. Take, for example, the combination of a large, young population, increased disposal incomes, access to the Metaverse, and – in some countries, not all – the result is substantial growth in demand for live music concerts. And there is always tension between those forces propelling growth and those constraining it, as in the case of technology both enabling event-consumer choices while simultaneously enabling virtual events as a potential alternative.

CONSTRAINING FORCES Environmental (climate change)

PROPELLING FORCES

Social (attitudes, preferences)

Globalisation (trade; incomes)

Political (war, terrorism) Economic (recession, costs) Health and Safety (disease; fear; regulations)

Resource abundance (energy) Technology (communications; air travel) Demographics (population growth, migration, urbanisation) Competition (destinations; corporations)

THE PANDEMIC IS A MAJOR DISRUPTION: STRUCTURAL CHANGES MIGHT ENSUE

Figure 2.1  Propelling and Constraining Forces

Forces, Trends, and Issues Affecting Events

Population and Demographics The world’s population was projected to reach eight billion persons by the end of 2022, growing to almost nine billion by the year 2050. However, the rate of population growth has slowed because of notable declines in birth rates, especially in the more economically developed countries (source: United Nations – https://population.un.org/dataportal/home). Population growth is not uniform, with Africa and Asia accounting for the highest increases, and numerous countries – particularly Japan and Europe – projected to decline owing to ageing. Some countries, like Canada and the USA, rely on substantial immigration to sustain their population and ensure they have an adequate supply of workers because their home-born population is rapidly ageing. In 2023, India overtook China as the world’s most populous country, while China has begun a slow decline. A great deal of uncertainty exists regarding the impact of the Russian invasion of Ukraine on migration, fertility, poverty, and global food supply and costs, so trends are subject to unpredictable externalities. See Table 2.1 for details. Continued global population growth has given rise to pressure on all the planet’s resources, especially when combined with other factors such as disease, war, and climate change, which in turn lead to mass migration. Large-scale migration, or diaspora, and the resulting changes in social life and culture, directly affect the events sector. Many once-homogeneous societies are now multicultural, and the mix is changing. This often imposes serious strains on the fabric of society, but also potentially enriches life. Forced migration, caused by war, poverty, or natural disasters, imposes great stress on both the migrants and their hosts – often unwilling hosts, as evidenced by the efforts made to keep migrants and refugees out of certain countries. Table 2.1  Population and Demographics: Forces, Trends, and Issues Global Forces, Trends and Issues

Event-Specific Trends and Issues

– continued global population growth is focused in several regions; overall, growth is slowing – continued urbanisation; the rise of megaconurbations

– rising demand for events of all kinds – growth in variety, scale, and impacts of events – events have become important for social, cultural, urban, and rural identity – how can events relieve urban stresses for all segments?

– in many developed countries there are ageing populations, and resulting policies to increase immigration – other generational changes (marriage and birth rates falling)

– events needed for children, the aged – events need to facilitate the integration of immigrants and refugees – intergenerational shifts in preferences; demand and behaviour must be taken into account

– mass migration: owing to war, famine, poverty, natural disasters, climate change – results in pressures on destination countries and related political tension

– many events reflect changes arising from a global cultural diaspora (e.g., ethnic and multicultural) – the need for events to foster social integration, tolerance, equality, and inclusion

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Forces, Trends, and Issues Affecting Events Most of the world’s population, especially migrants, live in cities that are getting larger and more complex. Half or more of the migrants are women, many are children on their own, and most migrants are in their childbearing years. These facts pose an enormous strain on both the migrants and the hosts, and the growth of high-density mega cities adds to the tensions and stresses. Cities can be hotbeds of innovation through the creative mixes of people, as well as sinkholes of poverty, corruption, and violence. Urban life is a source of many stressors on the environment and on human health. In many places, rural areas continue to depopulate, while in others the divisions between rural and urban life have blurred because of lifestyle migrants, tourism, and second homes. Events that bring people together and provide identity for persons, groups, and places have taken on much greater significance.

Ageing and intergenerational challenges Intergenerational differences, and the process of changing values and preferences over time, have not been studied sufficiently in the context of events. Particularly relevant is the contribution to the quality of life (Jepson and Stadler, 2017), and the new methodologies being developed to understand emotion, memory creation, and the resulting psycho-social effects of event attendance (Stadler, Jepson and Wood, 2018; Wood and Kenyon, 2018). We have to borrow extensively from psychology, leisure, and tourism to provide these insights, but there is no doubt that younger generations are going to have to deal with many more serious challenges, compared with the post-war baby boomers, as well as having many different opportunities provided by technology and networking. Changes related to ageing have been described as the Third Age by Laslett (1989) in terms of a new stage of later life where one derives personal fulfilment from the activities one pursues. Blaikie (1999) expanded the concept of the Third Age, seeing it as a period of independent living in later life preceding a life of dependency. One of the key challenges and opportunities for people in the third age is embracing new technology and its rapid adoption, which is now influencing habits and preferences in social life, work, and leisure. Another generational issue of importance is the continuing decline in exercise and outdoor activity and the resulting contribution towards unhealthy lifestyles, with predictions of obesity epidemics in many developed countries (Bleich et al., 2008). For all world regions, the potential support ratio is expected to decline. This means that while the population continues to age, the proportion of working-age persons (i.e., 25–64) is also shrinking, owing to declining birth rates. This presents the economy of many countries with a serious financial challenge and has led many governments to encourage more immigration. The proportion of women in the workforce has risen in many countries, and this fact correlates with both higher levels of education and declining rates of marriage and childbirth. While health and average life expectancy has risen around the planet, the pandemic served to remind everyone of vulnerabilities in the prevention and treatment of diseases.

Politics and Law There are ongoing factors such as conflicts, terrorism, disease, or civic unrest that impact events and tourism, affecting the perception and stability of environments in which to host events. It is easy to cancel conventions, competitions, and festivals, and governments seeking to restore order or prevent unrest will often see public gatherings as a threat. But whatever the

Forces, Trends, and Issues Affecting Events Table 2.2  Politics and Law: Forces, Trends, and Issues Global Forces, Trends, and Issues

Event-Specific Trends and Issues

– Human rights (disparities and abuses abound)

See Table 2.3

– Instability resulting in protests, riots, war, terrorism

– events in many countries, regions, and cities are impractical or forbidden; citizens often engage in protests and rioting when conditions become intolerable – it is important to offer peaceful, safe events as an antidote to common stressors; there have been far too many incidents of violence and crowd disasters at events – the legitimation of events for many public policy goals is a major growth factor – increased regulation of events and professionals has encouraged professionalisation and higher education, as well as the need for lifelong learning – education and training, the certification of event professionals, and relevant standards must be updated frequently – there is a constant danger of events being exploited for reasons of propaganda and ideology

– Policies affecting travel, culture, leisure, and events

– International cooperation versus divisiveness

– an increasing number of dangerous or high-risk zones for tourists and residents threatens the events sector – events must be forces for inclusion, equality, and peace

source of disruption, be it political or a new global pandemic, the effects are usually regionalised. Long-term trends show that global tourism growth has always rebounded. Table 2.2 provides the summary. Always relevant are the many policies and regulations enacted by governments affecting travel, culture, leisure, and events, and these vary from country to country. Pro-travel policies have given a major boost to leisure, consumerism, tourism, and event development. On the other hand, pressure to deal with climate change results in carbon taxes and, potentially, other measures that could increasingly act to slow growth or impose specific barriers to travel and events. Increasing regulation and professionalism in the events sector also means that advanced education is becoming more and more essential, and inevitably professionals and companies will have to be licensed in order for events to get approvals and insurance. The education, lifelong learning, and ever-more detailed training of event professionals is necessary both for health and safety reasons and to ensure that companies and governments realise their goals.

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Pandemic-related regulations Governments were forced to act to help prevent the spread of Covid-19 and its variants, resulting in a host of laws and regulations that directly impacted the events sector. It remains to be seen if permanent structural changes will result. These are the main areas of government action related to the pandemic: l

l

l

l

Ownership and control of venues, including public open spaces, enabled closures that precluded events. Declaration of a health emergency, thereby granting exceptional powers such as the obligatory wearing of masks and social distancing; outright banning of mass gatherings (or limiting attendance); requiring inoculations in order to participate; and information and services made available at events. Financial response: increases or decreases in funding to venues and events; targeted funding (e.g., to subsidise payrolls and keep jobs); post-cancellation funding to bring events back in order to market cities and destinations. Planning for recovery (e.g., announcing scheduled re-opening of venues and events; creating new events; collaboration to produce pandemic-response guidelines).

Human rights In many countries, human-rights violations remain a serious concern, and in almost every country there remain issues to resolve, with identifiable roles for the event sector to make a positive contribution. Table 2.3 summarises these, drawing on current news reports and the work of the United Nations (https://humansrightsworld.com/human-rights/current-human-rights-issues/). Table 2.3  Human-Rights Issues and Implications for Events Category

Issues

Implications for Events (These Are Not Mutually Exclusive)

Women

– violence against women, both domestically and at events – the right to work is not always assured – equal pay and advancement are often restricted

– events must have policies and protective measures to prevent assaults and harassment – certain counter-culture attitudes and behaviours as they relate to events must be negated – develop policies to hire, recruit as volunteers, train, and advance women in event organisations

Children

– child labour and related exploitation are frequent – pornography, trafficking, and child prostitution are serious concerns – right to education is not assured

– design safe events for children and families – provide child-friendly venues – campaign and fund-raise against abuses

(continued)

Forces, Trends, and Issues Affecting Events Table 2.3  Continued Category

Issues

Implications for Events (These Are Not Mutually Exclusive)

Gender and Sexual Minorities

– legal prohibitions against homosexuality, same-sex marriage, and gender change are common – attacks on women’s rights (e.g., abortion) are serious threats – lack of housing and special care; inhuman treatment/abuse; financial exploitation; employment opportunities

– facilitate inclusivity (e.g., Pride events) – advocate for equal rights – use events to demonstrate support

– resulting in segregation, discrimination in housing and employment, inhumane treatment, and financial exploitation such as debt, slavery, or forced migration

– policies and outreach to foster inclusion and equal rights – develop multicultural events – advocate for equality

The Elderly

People with Disabilities

Racism

– target events for the elderly – special services provided for all special needs – price discounts, where appropriate – proactive hiring and volunteering – comply with and exceed – lack of care and poor physical accessibility employment opportunities; standards need for physical and – proactive hiring and training economic accessibility to services and housing, as well as education/training

Read this section in conjunction with expert opinion 3.1 by Adam Talbot who discusses human rights and sport mega-events.

Selected References: Events and Human Rights Brittain, I., Biscaia, R., & Gérard, S. (2020). Ableism as a regulator of social practice and disabled peoples’ self-determination to participate in sport and physical activity. Leisure Studies, 39 (2), 209–224. Quinn, B., Colombo, A., Lindström, K., McGillivray, D., & Smith, A. (2021). Festivals, public space, and cultural inclusion: Public policy insights. Journal of Sustainable Tourism, 29 (11– 12), 1875–1893. Finkel, R., & Dashper, K. (2020, 2d ed.). Accessibility, diversity and inclusion in events. In Page, S. and Connell, J. (eds.), The Routledge Handbook of Events (pp. 475–490). Abingdon: Routledge. Finkel, R., Sharp, B., & Sweeney, M. (Eds.) (2019). Accessibility, Inclusion, and Diversity in Critical Event Studies. Abingdon: Routledge.

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Forces, Trends, and Issues Affecting Events Ammaturo, F. (2022). Pride events in the periphery between hyper-localisation and hypercontextualisation: A comparison between Italy and the UK. Journal of Policy Research in Tourism, Leisure and Events, 1–16. Almathami, R., Khoo-Lattimore, C., & Yang, E. C. L. (2022). Exploring the challenges for women working in the event and festival sector in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. Tourism Recreation Research, 47 (1), 47–61.

Economics We know that economic recessions affect demand for many events, and while this is a periodic constraining phenomenon, it has not slowed the long-term growth in travel or planned events. Globalisation is a major propelling factor. Despite being defined in many ways, globalisation is in general a collection of forces resulting in greater integration of economies and cultures. Global communications, transportation advances, capital flows, migration, and freer trade are major contributing factors. The world is shrinking in real and perceived terms as people and their lives seem to draw closer. This has been described as time–space compression (Warf, 2008), as transport and communications have made the world a much easier place in which to communicate and travel. We are all interconnected, and global events, even the broadcasts, and webcasts of minor events, reinforce these perceptions (see Table 2.4). Globalisation has many potential consequences for planned events. Communications make it possible to reach out to everyone, and instant communications encourage people to meet virtually and in person. The democratisation of tourism makes it possible for increasingly large numbers of people to attend festivals and events. But there is a concomitant tendency for standardisation (e.g., global parties produced for tourism) and an emphasis on spectacle, both of which threaten local control and authenticity. The mass movement of people, both migration and business tourism, encourages the spread of ideas. Diaspora leads to a desire to retain or reinvent root cultures through festivals and events. Table 2.4  Economics: Forces, Trends, and Issues Global Forces, Trends, and Issues

Event-Specific Trends and Issues

– experience economy and the digital economy are propelling commerce and leisure/travel – wealth and disparity rising together; enduring poverty in many regions – globalisation continues to fuel trade – localisation occurs in opposition to global forces; authenticity is favoured, but fragile – economic cycles (e.g., financial crises/ recessions as a periodic threat) – humanitarian crises requiring aid are multiplying in number and scale

– virtual and hybrid events have become mainstream – there is more potential for augmenting experiences through technology – continued use of events as experience marketing by corporations, and resulting co-branding and commodification as threats to cultural authenticity – events must overcome the exclusion of the disadvantaged and dispossessed – events have the potential to restore and sustain local as opposed to global culture and sub-cultures – elitism (owing to politics, pricing) still drives mega-events; the costs are too high, and impacts are often mostly negative

Forces, Trends, and Issues Affecting Events Globalisation is accepted by many as good, or at least inevitable, and is rejected and countered by others. Invariably, anti-globalisation protestors show up at international political meetings, concerned about the tendency for wealth to concentrate in rich countries and the obvious failure of international efforts to eliminate poverty. The term glocalisation has been coined to describe a process in which the local culture is preserved within global systems, giving rise to the deliberate creation of events as preservers of traditions.

Environment The response to environmental disasters is usually short-lived compared to the permanent problems generated by climate change. Food security is also a resulting problem with huge implications for the world. Nations have been slow to implement carbon reduction plans, and the Russian invasion of Ukraine highlighted the fact that the world is still greatly dependent on fossil fuels and the export of grains (see Table 2.5).

Table 2.5  Environment: Forces, Trends, and Issues Global Forces, Trends, and Issues

Event-Specific Trends and Issues

– climate change will impact severely some – climate change is a growing crisis events and event destinations (e.g., (carbon reduction and demands reduction in snow cover; extremely high for renewable energy are one temperatures; rising ocean levels) consequence; coastal areas are – greening and sustainability are accepted especially vulnerable) throughout the events sector, but there is – denial of climate change, and political an urgent need for events to become more indifference or outright opposition to sustainable in terms of carbon reduction, use world climate accords, pose a serious of renewable energy, conservation of water, threat protection of habitat and ecological processes – plan events as agents of environmental change (i.e., social marketing) – the Covid pandemic caused millions of deaths and wreaked havoc on the world’s economy; it is also an indicator of rising risks from disease at the global level

– increasing weather-related disasters (flood, drought, fire, and hurricanes) – earthquakes and other environmental disasters have displaced millions – water and food security are not assured for many regions; climate change is worsening the situation – unhealthy consumption is a problem in high-income countries

– disruption of decades of growth – a high cost paid by cancelled and delayed events – event and business failures – possible structural changes to the events sector in terms of event population size and composition, funding, regulations, and resilience – the event sector must prepare for future disruptions, become more resilient, foster safe and healthy assemblies – events and event tourism are directly impacted by all disasters; what is their role in recovery? in fundraising for those in need? – over-consumption and waste are serious issues – can events be models of healthy eating/drinking? foster local food production and affordable, healthy food supplies

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Society and Culture Values are constantly shifting, and this is reflected in consumer patterns and political upheavals. Some of this is predictable, based on changing demographics (e.g., what does generation ‘next’ want?), and migration creating more pluralistic nations. Ideally, these shifts will result in an integrated, healthier, and creative society. But we can also expect major public and political reactions to racial and religious mixing, to economic downturns, to food or water shortages, and to environmental problems. How these forces will translate into political and economic action is more difficult to predict, and can be specific to countries and cities. One global challenge to peace and prosperity is increasing forced migration (i.e., refugees from conflict, poverty, environmental catastrophes, or disease) and the widening gap between rich and poor countries (and also between the wealthy class and all others, even within developed nations). These forces will influence many aspects of politics, society, and economics. See Table 2.6.

Technology Technological changes are at the forefront of thinking about the future (see Table 2.7, and the Expert Opinion by Matt Frew). Some particularly relevant forecasts relate to the impact technology is having on jobs, with many entire categories set to disappear owing to artificial intelligence (AI) and be replaced by others that are either nascent or not yet invented. The age of specialisation is leading to many more careers in which mastery of information technology is a prerequisite. Advances in technology also bring new opportunities for cultural exchanges and development. Technological advances, for example, in terms of health, safety, food and water supplies, and carbon storage, offer significant opportunities for planned events. Wearable technology, as one example, is making physiological monitoring of audience biometrics a practical form of consumer feedback and a means to monitor audience health and safety. The Expert Opinion by Matt Frew is, to say the least, provocative, mixing as it does a dose of futurism with a summary of technological developments and an unfiltered look into the world of DARQ. Readers are advised to read it slowly, in order to absorb the many implications.

Table 2.6  Society and Culture: Forces, Trends, and Issues Global Forces, Trends, and Issues Event-Specific Trends and Issues – values in many places are in conflict (e.g., regarding women’s rights, migration, religion, and LGBTQ+) – multiculturalism and cultural diversity are now the norm in many countries, arising from immigration and refugee movements – exclusion, inequality, discrimination, and overt human-rights abuses remain a problem in many regions

– can the sector prove that events solve problems and make things better? – the greening of events will continue to be a priority – sustainable event populations and portfolios are important goals, becoming more important as numbers and scale increase – desire and demand for rewarding experiences drives leisure and travel, generating large-scale event tourism – diversity in event forms and cultural functions keeps expanding – social integration is a policy objective favouring the creation of new events aimed at systemic change – events are leaders in voluntarism (i.e., civil society)

Forces, Trends, and Issues Affecting Events Table 2.7  Technology: Forces, Trends, and Issues – the Internet and related technology, plus social media, are making it possible for events to go virtual and hybrid, communicate more effectively, and augment experiences – AI remains a threat to many jobs and is changing the nature of education and work for others – technological advances are shaping education, training, creativity, production

– virtual and hybrid events came to the fore during the pandemic; they will have a permanent place in the events sector – understanding virtual versus live event experiences is an issue: how to make virtual events immersive, engaging, and memorable? where is the value added? – augmented reality can be used to enhance live event experiences – global communications encourage sponsorship of events by global brands – events require the ability to react immediately, in real time, to complaints, problems, and incidents, and to disseminate information efficiently to all stakeholders

– social media facilitates online communities and their own travel and event creation

– events need an active presence on social media platforms and within specific online communities – monitor values and trends to stay relevant

– online terrorism and crime have become serious problems

– cyber security is essential for all organisations; political and mega-events are obvious targets

E X P E R T O P I N I O N 2 . 1 :   By Dr. Matt Frew Future Events: Darq Dreamscapes and the Synthetic Self Dr. Matt Frew, Ph.D., is a Senior Lecturer in Enterprise and Transformational Technology, School of Business and Creative Industries, University of West of Scotland. Over the last few years, the events industry has undergone a seismic change. Of course many will point to the global Covid-19 pandemic, how it decimated live events and compelled the events industries to embrace technological innovation and pivot to cloudbased events and digitised experiences. However, the pandemic merely accentuates and accelerates the symbiotic relationship events have long had with technological innovation. This is evident from the Great Exhibition of 1851 (Hall, 2006), Nazi TV propaganda of the 1936 Berlin Olympics, the multi-mediated and socially networked 2014 World Cup (Watt, 2014), to today’s hyper-digitised mega-events (Lee Ludvigsen and Petersen-­ Wagner, 2022). More importantly, in placing events under a global gaze, the pandemic reveals how events, and every other industry, find themselves challenged and changed by this age of acceleration (Freidman, 2016). Today, the speed, scale, and scope of transformational technologies reflect a transhuman discourse that is radically revolutionising, not only events, but also the structuring relations of life, society, and the self.

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Forces, Trends, and Issues Affecting Events From a Future Studies perspective, transhumanism critiques the integration of science and technology to enhance the human condition and so move beyond its physical, biological, and intellectual limits (Kreowski, 2017). We are living in unprecedented ­techno-cultural times (Dijck, 2013). Technology is not only a marker of the development of events it informs and shapes what it means to be human. Glance across the ubiquity, immediacy, and mobility of technological touchpoints and the claim that “to be human is to be transhuman” (Silva, 2014) is, increasingly, difficult to deny. Consider for a moment the last century and the impact of innovations such as the telegraph, silent then talking pictures, radio, and the masses mesmerised by the magic box of early TV through to the birth of personal computing and the Internet. Now, consider the past decade and think of the technological transitions we have witnessed. The explosion of the web, democratisation of digital, mobility and sophistication of smart technologies, and omnipresent social media are driven by global user-generated content, all of which are lifestyle givens. However, we also see an array of technologies moving from the margins to the mainstream. For example, a maturing Internet of Things (IoT), robotics, holographics, haptics, brain-to-computer interface (BCI) to wearables of old school Google Glass, RayBan Stories, the rumoured augmented reality of Apple Glass to Mojo contact lenses where ‘invisible computing’ endows the wearer with ‘everyday superpowers’ (Stein, 2020). Then there are DARQ technologies or distributed ledger systems, AI, virtual, augmented, mixed to extended reality, and quantum computing. DARQ collectively represents those transformational technologies that are central to our transition to a fourth industrial revolution (4iR), which are revolutionising how we work, learn, and live. Therefore, and using DARQ as an umbrella term for all the above, this age of acceleration and 4iR is marked by a tsunami of transformational DARQ technologies where: From the moment of waking, technologies become engrained, embodied and networked, binding and bridging our physical life with one that is digital…an E-volution if you will, and events find themselves at the forefront of the dynamic and underlying politic of this phenomenon. (Frew, 2014, 102) We are clearly well beyond social media cultures of convergence (Flinn and Frew, 2014) or those ‘Zoom culture’ and hybrid events spawned by the pandemic. Transformational DARQ technologies represent a paradigm shift moment for the events industries. Events showcase our transhuman E-volution where, the integrated power and potential of DARQ technologies, digitally disrupt desire, break the bonds of physics, frustrations with our embodied state and, increasingly, challenge the structuring relations of time, space, and subjectivity. Most importantly, DARQ technologies provide the building blocks for the Metaverse or, what I prefer to refer to as current ‘intimations of the Metaverse’ and a future ‘accelerated Metaverse’. However, while a buzzword of the Silicon Valley technorati, associated with Neil Stephenson’s SnowCrash (1992), linked to Facebook’s rebranding to Meta, source of media hype and usual ridicule rollercoaster, the Metaverse is highly controversial. Moreover, events play a central role in this controversy. Events showcase the Metaverse in action, or more, events provide ideal illustrations of developing, intimations of the Metaverse. Now, in platforms such as Fortnite, Roblox,

Forces, Trends, and Issues Affecting Events Horizon Venues, Sandbox, and Horizon Worlds we see digitally immersive, 3D, virtual reality (VR) concerts and events with the likes of John Legend, Snoopdog, Foo Fighters, and Justin Bieber (Speakman, 2021). In these intimations of the Metaverse, the world can access and engage in an immersive experience from the comfort of their living room. Artists can draw massive audiences as seen with Travis Scott’s concert, which attracted 12 million fans. Others, such as Ariana Grande, are doing full tours while festivals like Decentraland’s Metaverse Music Festival are emerging to capitalise on this growing trend and desire for “larger and more immersive events in the future” (BBC, 2020). Then you have Abba Voyage where motion-captured avatars of Abba “see the lines between digital and reality blurred” (Smith, 2022). Here, Abba is recreated as younger versions of themselves and, as digital ABBAtars, plays with a ten-piece band to a live audience every night. However, these intimations of the Metaverse events have accentuated the frustration and controversy around the concept of the Metaverse and the DARQ technologies that underpin it. First, and well before Stephenson’s Snow Crash, the underpinning features of the Metaverse are well rehearsed in Future Studies, futurists, and throughout popular science fiction. Second, the association with Meta. Sure Mark Zuckerberg promoted a vision, and given his billion-dollar investment in VR Oculus Rift, then Quest and VR platforms such as Horizon Worlds are understandable. However, the Metaverse is not Meta. Meta merely got there early and staked a claim, which set off the mass media roller coaster and so clouded the debate. Third, events themselves tend to confuse and conflate the Metaverse with specific technologies such as VR, motion capture, CGI, volumetric video, or holographics. While these technologies are central to making these early ‘products’ or intimations of the Metaverse they are only part of the ever-developing DARQ technologies that will drive and underpin an accelerated Metaverse. Finally, all this then fuels the definitional debate of “what actually is the Metaverse?” A key issue in looking to define the Metaverse is the assumption that it can be defined, fixed, or fully finished. Rather than go over convoluted debates (see Park and Kim (2022) and Ball (2022)), acknowledging the difficulties with defining the Metaverse and reluctantly conceptualises it as a “massively scaled and interoperable network of real time rendered 3D virtual worlds which can be experienced synchronously and persistently”. Here Ball is pointing to the shift of a 2D web, which we look at, into a future iteration of a 3D web, that is live, lives with us in ‘real time’, works across other technologies and platforms and so is ever present. Therefore, this future vision of an accelerated Metaverse, being dynamic, rhizomatic and so can never be fully realised, points us to time when: We will not so much as go into the Metaverse as embody it. It will be woven in and through the fabric of our life, surrounding and saturating us…Endlessly evolving ecosystems of interconnectivity where our physical, technological and biological being and worlds will, increasingly, blur. (Frew, 2022) Most importantly, while events illustrate intimations of the Metaverse, they also highlight the trajectory of transformational DARQ technologies. Events are the perfect playground for an accelerated Metaverse where we can realise DARQ dreamscapes.

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Forces, Trends, and Issues Affecting Events Think for a moment where we are at with current intimations of the Metaverse. How these events are off-world spectaculars that are designed to, increasingly, deliver deep immersive experiences. The ‘end game’ has always been the search for ‘presence’; that feeling of actually being there. This highlights the strategic development and drive of DARQ technologies, which will take us from current ‘intimations’ into an accelerated Metaverse where you will feel “truly present … share unbounded spaces … not just moments with your friends online, but entire experiences and adventures” (Zuckerberg, cited in Dredge, 2014). Interestingly, these are comments and a vision for the Metaverse from 2014. Today, with the development and integrated power of DARQ technologies, events in an accelerated Metaverse take us to extended reality experiences or XREvents. In DARQ dreamscapes, the XREvent replicates experience and emotion and saturates senses so intensely that a “warm embrace; the view, sounds, breeze, and smells of the beach” (Schybergson, 2014) become possible. More interestingly, in DARQ dreamscapes, XREvents bring our transhuman discourse into critical relief. Time, space, and subjectivity are blurred, re-written if not erased. Our conception of ‘reality’ is challenged as our material, digital, and biological worlds fuse. With XREvents you can go anywhere, anyplace, anytime; live and relive past memories; be young, old, or assume a new self, a new performativity, and be whoever you want to be. Given what we have already witnessed, DARQ dreamscapes and XREvents point to a possible or probable future rather than a preposterous one. Again, while such XREvents may seem anathema to event practitioners who privilege the physical ‘live’ event and the notion of the ‘real’, these DARQ dreamscapes will not go away. Just think, “if you’re feeling bored and want to take an hour-long holiday…visit Carnival in Rio? Stressed? Go spend some time on a beach in the Maldives” (Schmidt and Cohen, 2013, 24). The ease and immediacy to ‘place shift’, and engage in new modes of experience and socialisation are highly attractive. Again, think of the depth of learning experience from visiting the Pyramids of Giza, ancient Rome, or the Moon landing. Relive, and be upfront, at a Beatles gig, Woodstock, Live Aid or adopt a new performative persona and take a walk on the festive or sexual wild side. Such DARQ dreamscapes filled with XREvents all have a magnetic appeal. Moreover, and unlike the ‘real’ events, tourism and sport, with DARQ dreamscapes issues of gentrification, capacity, inclusivity, physical disability, and age not to mention climate change, mass carbon footprints, and sustainability are overcome, eliminated or reduced (Kaku, 2012; Novaes, 2020). Most importantly, in DARQ dreamscapes, new modes of social interaction, engagement, and experience bring new modes of commerce and consumption. Nevertheless, this does not mean that an accelerating Metaverse and the DARQ dreamscapes are unproblematic. Technology has never been neutral for, while we shape technology, technology always shapes us (Dijck, 2013; Frew, 2014). Many have raised concerns about escapism, exploitation, and the possible dystopian nightmare that this accelerating techno-­culture may produce (Gumbel, 2014). After all, if DARQ dreamscapes and XREvents promise unbridled freedom, experience, and even the ability to recreate self, relive, and reboot life itself, why would we ever leave? Moreover, when you do leave, are you faced with a ‘reality’, life and self that is fundamentally disappointing, being ever reminded of that new, younger, adventurous performative self of the dreamscape?

Forces, Trends, and Issues Affecting Events Undoubtedly, many will shake their heads and dismiss such notions as folly. Again, appeals will be made for the old discourse of the material ‘live’ events where we can get a truly human event experience. Others will go further claiming, or hoping, the ‘Metaverse is dead’ (Naughton, 2023) and how DARQ dreamscapes and XREvents will never replace, or be as authentic as, lived, embodied reality. This debate, if not dying, deflects and distracts from the fact that DARQ dreamscapes already exist and the transformational DARQ technologies upon which they are built will not stop. Sure the term ‘Metaverse’ may be supplanted but the E-volution of the transhuman discourse, drive, and demand for DARQ dreamscapes will continue to accelerate. This is illustrated by ABBA Voyage Producer Svana Gisla who, when asked at a recent DCMS committee about future developments for events and the ABBAtars, responded: With technology becoming faster Benny and Bjorn could be sitting in a chair like this one, connected to their avatars, talking about last night’s football results to the audience…That will come!’ (Gisla, 2022) In highlighting how the real Benny and Bjorn can inhabit and interact through their ABBAtar, Gisla raises the controversial stakes of an accelerating Metaverse and DARQ dreamscapes by pointing to the rise of synthetic humans. Synthetic humans are virtual creations that, unlike the cartoon avatars most are familiar with and we see in current intimations of the Metaverse, are indistinguishable from the ‘real’ you; they are a ‘synthetic self’. Essentially, the synthetic is a deepfake clone and, most controversially, powered by AI, it can emote thousands of responses, learn and so engage and interact for deeper, more personal experiences. Moreover, the synthetic self is not science fiction but very ‘real’ and now. We see them with Ziva Dynamics’ Emma, Soul Machines’ creation of Will-i-am or, more interestingly, Jack Nichlaus’ ‘Digital Jack’. With ‘Digital Jack’ we get a glimpse of the future. With Digital Jack they have recreated Nichlaus at the height of his powers where the AI learns the skills, experience, and knowledge. Even the human, emotional traits are synthetically captured as ‘Digital Jack’ is trained to “respond by looking a little bit more empathetic. You know, so these are some of the ways in which we are, you know, using Jack’s digital brain to bring him to life in, in real time” (Cross, cited in Green, 2022). Now, by cloning Nicklaus and moving him from “the 2D world of the internet to the 3D world of the Metaverse”, they produce a new “customer experience…[where]...with ‘Digital Jack’ (Nicklaus)...millions of people can get to feel like they have something of a personal experience”. Even Nicklaus recognises legacy, as much as the commercial, of his synthetic self: I think it’s kind of unique. You’d like to go back and show people what you did, when you did it and what you might say today. I think it’s something that, from a company standpoint, it’d be used for decades. (Nicklaus, J., 2022) Such is the power of underpinning AI that some argue that the proliferation of these synthetics are “forcing us towards an important and unsettling realisation: our historical belief that video and audio are reliable records of reality is no longer tenable” (Ajder et al., 2019).

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Forces, Trends, and Issues Affecting Events Nevertheless, an accelerated Metaverse of DARQ dreamscapes where you connect and engage in XREvent experiences through your synthetic clone, echoes with eminent futurists and their tendency to reference movie culture for illustration. Whether Star Trek, Total Recall, Minority Report, The Matrix, Transcendence, Ready Player One to Free Guy, they all point to DARQ dreamscapes and how we are turning “popular science fiction concepts into science facts” (Schmidt and Cohen, 2013, 5). Moreover, it raises a critical counterpoint to those who insist on a universal notion of the ‘real’, essentialist, or embodied ‘self’ (Kaku, 2012; Kurzweil, 2008). More interestingly, when companies such as Ziva Dynamics and Soul Machines can not only create synthetic humans but bring others back from the dead through ‘synthetic resurrection’ (Adjer et al., 2019), we take DARQ dreamscapes to a new level of controversy. Regardless, DARQ dreamscapes, XREvents, and the synthetic self will play a central role in our unfolding transhuman evolution. Just like past technologies these DARQ technologies “will greatly affect how citizens and states behave” (Schmidt and Cohen, 2013, 31). Therefore, it is understandable that the DARQ dreamscapes of XREvents will become cultural battlegrounds where the moral, embodied, and socio-political tensions of the day, as much as notions of the ‘real’ and the ‘self’, will be fought out. DARQ dreamscapes, future XREvents, and the rise of the synthetic self reflect a dissolution of the structuring relations of time, space, and subjectivity. To dismiss such ideas as ‘fantastical’ would, ironically, be correct for the ‘real’ is very much up for grabs and the future is, indeed, now (Plate 2.1).

Plate 2.1  Woman with Wearable Computing Photo Credit: Adobe Standard Licence

Forces, Trends, and Issues Affecting Events

References and Readings Ajder, H., Patrini, G., Cavalli, F., & Cullen, L. (2019). The state of deepfakes: Landscape. threats, and impact. Deeptrace. Available from: https://regmedia.co.uk/2019/10/08/ deepfake_report.pdf Ball, M. (2022). The Metaverse: What it is, where to find it, and who will build it. Available from: https://www.matthewball.vc/all/themetaverse. [Accessed 9/01/2023]. Ball, M. (2022). The Metaverse and How It Will Revolutionize Everything. New York: W. W. Norton & Co.BBC (2020). Fortnite’s Travis Scott virtual concert watched by millions. Available from: https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/technology-52410647. [Accessed 9/01/2023]. Booch, G. (2014). The human and ethical aspects of big data. IEEE Software, 31 (1), 20–22. Dijck, J. V. (2013). The Culture of Connectivity: A Critical History of Social Media. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Dredge, S. (2014). Facebook closes its $2bn Oculus Rift acquisition. What next? The Guardian. Available from: https://t.ly/Ke_m [Accessed 23/08/2014]. Flinn, J., & Frew, M. (2014). Glastonbury: Managing the mystification of festivity. Leisure Studies, 33 (4), 418–433. Freidman, T. L. (2016). Thank You for Being Late: An Optimist’s Guide to Thriving in the Age of Accelerations. New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux. Frew, M. (2014). Events and media spectacle. In R. Finkel, M. McGillivray, G. McPherson, & P. Robinson (Eds.), Research Themes for Events (pp. 101–117). London: CABI. Frew, M. (2022). The metaverse and synthetic humans: DARQ futures? Available from: https://rb.gy/zjwxm [Accessed: 23/08/2022]. Green, A. (2022). How AI is helping birth digital humans that look and sound just like us. MIT Review. Available from: https://t.ly/eGmr [Accessed 17/11/2022]. Gisla (2022). https://committees.parliament.uk/oralevidence/11610/html/ Green, A. (2022). How AI is helping birth digital humans that look and sound just like us. MIT Review, available from: https://t.ly/eGmr [Accessed 17/11/2022] Gumbel, A. (2014). Oculus Rift hands-on: Why the latest version is a watershed moment for gaming. The Guardian. Available from: https://t.ly/Y9b2 [Accessed 25/09/2014]. Hall, C. M. (2006). Urban entrepreneurship, corporate interests and sports mega‐events: The thin policies of competitiveness within the hard outcomes of neoliberalism. The Sociological Review, 54 (2), 59–70. Kaku, M. (2012). Physics of the Future: The Inventions That Will Transform Our Lives. London: Penguin Books. Kipper, G., & Rampolla, J. (2013). Augmented Reality: An Emerging Technologies Guide to AR. Waltham: Elsevier. Kreowski, H. J. (2017). Transhumanism and Nanotechnology—Will Old Myths Come True? Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute Proceedings, 1 (3), 243. Kurzweil, R. (2008). The Singularity Is Near: When Humans Transcend Biology. London: Duckworth Overlook. Ludvigsen, J. A., & Petersen-Wagner, R. (2022). From television to YouTube: Digitalised sport mega-events in the platform society. Leisure Studies, 1–18. Nicklaus, J. (2022). Soul Machine’s Digital Jack interviews Jack Nicklaus. YouTube. Available from: https://youtube/52yWltec08g [Accessed 20/02/2023].

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Forces, Trends, and Issues Affecting Events Naughton, J. (2023). A moment’s silence, please, please for the death of Mark Zukerberg’s Metaverse. The Guardian. Available from: https://rb.gy/es19v [Accessed 13/05/2023]. Novaes, P. R. (2020). Favelas and gentrification: Reflections on the impacts of urban restructuring on the city of Rio de Janeiro. The Legacy of Mega Events: Urban Transformations and Citizenship in Rio de Janeiro, pp. 131–148. Park, S. M., & Kim, Y. G. (2022). A Metaverse: Taxonomy, components, applications, and open challenges. Ieee Access, 10, 4209–4251. Schmidt, E., & Cohen, J. (2013). The New Digital Age: Reshaping the Future of People, Nations and Business. London: John Murry. Schybergson, O. (2014). The generation raised on touchscreens will forever alter tech design. Wired. Available from: https://t.ly/6_-p [Accessed 30/06/2014]. Silva, J. (2014). To be human is to be transhuman. YouTube. Available from: https:// youtube/FN57u7-x75w [Accessed 25/03/2014]. Smith, R. (2022). What is Abba Voyage? How hologram concert works in specially built arena. The Mirror. Available from: https://t.ly/UxXq [Accessed 17/05/2022]. Solis, B. (2013). What’s The Future of Business: Changing the Way Businesses Create Experiences. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons. Speakman, K. (2021). Justin Bieber to stage virtual concert. Forbes. Available from: https://shorturl.at/bgOZ4 [Accessed 17/11/2021]. Stein, S. (2020). A single contact lens could give your entire life a head-up display. CNET. Available from: https://t.ly/nudy [Accessed 15/03/2021]. Stephenson, N. (1992). Snow Crash. London: Penguin. Suarez-Villa, L. (2009). Technocapitalism: A Critical Perspective on Technological Innovation and Corporatism. Philadelphia: Temple University Press. Watt, J. (2014). Brazil 2014: World Cup where politics and social media invaded the pitch. The Guardian. Available from: https://t.ly/mZ2w [Accessed 15/09/2014].

Growth-Related Issues Facing the Events Sector The continued growth and expansion of events around the world have been commented upon frequently, although it is impossible to quantify on a global scale. Indeed, in most countries, there are no statistics on festival/event numbers and growth trends. Post-pandemic recovery might very well see the resumption of growth in tourism and events, but that remains an open question. What is certain is that continuous growth is controversial, as it runs counter to principles of sustainability, and this applies to growth in the number, size, and impacts of events individually and collectively. It particularly applies to event tourism, where consumption of fossil fuels is high, and mass tourism threatens sensitive environments as well as residents’ affordability and lifestyles. An examination of these issues is important to the future of the events sector.

Size and Costs Escalating costs for many services, goods, workers, and venues mean that events are increasingly unaffordable for many, raising a serious exclusion issue. The high cost of bidding and hosting international events is an impediment to all but a few cities and countries. Many issues are raised by mega-events in particular, not the least of which are the opportunity costs associated

Forces, Trends, and Issues Affecting Events with such a vast commitment of resources (see McGillivray and Turner, 2017), particularly when governments are under pressure to reign in debt and concentrate on essential services. Large-scale events, or gigantism, generate and usually depend on mass tourism, thereby exerting unacceptable pressures on society and the environment in terms of debt legacy, white-­ elephant facilities, and over-tourism. Wilson and Millar (2023) provide an example, and advice, on ensuring the after-use of legacy facilities, however, there have been far too many instances of over-building and subsequent under-use of Olympic and other mega-event constructions.

Festivalisation and Commodification So pervasive are festivals and events as instruments of public policy that some authors have described the process as festivalisation. There are several connotations, however, that need to be explored. According to Richards (2007), this term appears to have arrived through translation from the writing of two Germans, Häussermann and Siebel (1993), who argued that cities competing for cultural consumers create or support festivals for different target markets, and consequently the cities become festivalised (in German the term used was Festivalisierung). Richards (2007, 282) stated that it refers to the use of flagship festivals and large cultural events in place marketing, with implications for urban culture and liveability. Long et al. (2004, 8) referred to festivalisation in urban policy as being an aspect of aesthetics, like streetscaping and urban development schemes. Smith (2014, 2015) explored the festivalisation of public spaces, which can lead to limited use by residents. There appears to be a general negativity associated with the term as if it was an undesirable process, or at least that it carries risks. In this way, it connects to the terms commodification and commoditisation, which are frequently employed in a derogatory sense to describe the process of festivals losing their cultural authenticity when exploited for tourism or other commercial purposes. This line of criticism specific to festivals seems to have started with ethnographic studies by Greenwood (1972, 1989). To Richards (2007), festivalisation implied commodification and removal of control from local to national and global levels of power.

Over-tourism As more fully discussed in Chapter 15, too much of a good thing generates problems, even in the world of tourism where most cities and destinations have relentlessly pursued growth. Barcelona, once hailed as the prime model of a city benefitting from a mega event, has since seen major protests by residents against too many tourists and resulting high costs, lack of housing related to the phenomenon of private rentals, and crowding.

Spectacle Versus Engagement The spectacle exists within the realm of the visual as something viewed, but it is larger than life, colourful, exciting, and novel, otherwise, we would perceive it to be ordinary and unremarkable. We are easily seduced by the spectacle, otherwise, people would get bored with fireworks and lasers, parades, shows, and outlandish costumes. It is a substantial part of entertainment in general, and event programming in particular. Gotham (2005a) examined spectacle in the context of urban festivals in New Orleans, using Debord’s (1983) theory of the spectacle and the writings of Henri Lefebvre (e.g., The Production of Space, 1991) to examine conflicting meanings assigned to the celebrations. Different stakeholders employed festivals to attract tourists, empower communities, or sow dissent. Viewed as a spectacle, in the tradition of Debord, a

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Forces, Trends, and Issues Affecting Events festival is merely one manifestation of everything becoming a commodity as opposed to festivals or carnivals as participatory experiences. Andrews (2006) examined the Disneyization (or Disneyfication) of the National Basketball League and the creation of a spectacle to revitalise the audiences using Debord as a theoretical frame of reference. According to the anthropologist MacAloon (1984), a festival is a joyous celebration of unity, cooperation, accomplishment, and excellence, while a spectacle is a display of imagery evoking a diffuse sense of wonderment and awe. In that sense, the so-called WOW reaction to event settings and programming are closely related. Regarding the Olympic Games, MacAloon (1984, 242) argued that of all the genres of cultural performance, spectacle, and games appeared first, followed by festival and ritual. Spectacles are not only things to be seen but also possess symbolic codes. Spectacles must be grand, dramatic, or huge. There is no spectacle without actors and audience, or performers and spectators. Spectators must be excited by the spectacle, or otherwise emotionally moved. MacAloon argued that festival and spectacle are in opposition, but share one feature – they both employ a variety of cultural performances. In this way, the Olympics embodies a ritual organised around the classic rites of passage (i.e., opening and closing ceremonies) which introduce liminality, intensification (i.e., victory and medal awards), closure, and reaggregation. MacAloon concluded (1984, 268) by saying that spectacle has destructive effects on rituals, festivals, and games.

Live Versus Virtual Events What people usually mean by virtual event is really a form of online and remote communications. This includes teleconferences and online streaming of sports or entertainment. There has been a fear for many years that people will stay at home or in their offices rather than attend meetings, conventions, exhibitions, or any entertainment offering. Sadd (2014) argued that the transformational power of technology will impact the design of events, and that blended technology fusing the virtual and the real is the way forward, but she also maintained that gatherings of people still need interaction for the co-creation of experiences. We discuss the virtual event experience in Chapter 4 and the design of virtual events in Chapter 11. Recall Matt Frew’s assessment of how virtuality and the Metaverse are NOW, not the future.

Security, Sustainability, and Resilience Underlying forces continue to generate growth and diversity in the events sector, accompanied by larger and more dangerous threats. These are constraining forces, or limiting factors, that will apply in different places to different degrees. We consider disasters, crises, and security issues in Chapter 13, alongside environmental management, resilience, and health issues. Environmental sustainability is a broad concept, and various threads of this discourse run throughout this book: green operations; ecological footprint and carbon emissions; the future of event tourism; institutionalisation; economic viability; managerial competence; population ecology and portfolio management; and costs and legacies. Bringing them all together to formulate a clear and integrated measure of sustainability is challenging, so it is probably wise to think of sustainable tourism and events as a process of continuous striving for improvement.

Energy Not so long ago it was important to talk about peak oil, meaning we would soon run out with disastrous consequences. That proved to be as inconsequential as the projected computer-based

Forces, Trends, and Issues Affecting Events disaster associated with the new millennium. What has replaced those concerns is accelerating global warming and the urgent need to replace fossil fuels with clean, sustainable energy. Growth demands more and more energy, and unless and until we find a global solution, events and tourism will be vulnerable to rising costs for all energy, and possible restrictions owing to the need to cut harmful emissions. STUDY GUIDE

Students, policymakers, and event practitioners should step back from time to time to consider the underlying forces that are shaping our world and the events sector in particular. This chapter provides a guide to the propelling and constraining forces, which can be discussed in the context of current policy and planning, or future scenarios. For each of the major forces, be prepared to discuss the related trends shaping events, and the issues or challenges we all face. Find additional sources and prepare a local or national-level brief on how one or more of the forces, trends, or issues are impacting an event or events in general. United Nations material is a good starting point (websites of relevance are provided in the text). See the UN World Tourism Organisation for data on trends and how the pandemic affected travel, and check out their approach to sustainable tourism (https://www.unwto.org/sustainable-development). STUDY QUESTIONS l l

l

l

Explain the major forces propelling growth in the tourism and events sectors. Which of the constraining forces do you think is most likely to impact events in your area, and why? In which generation, or demographic cohort, are you? How do your age and generational perspective affect your views on the nature and importance of events, and on current trends? Are you optimistic or pessimistic about the future? Why? Growth leads to many problems and challenges. Which ones are most important to the events sector? FURTHER READING

Finkel, R., Sharp, B., & Sweeney, M. (Eds.) (2019). Accessibility, Inclusion, and Diversity in Critical Event Studies. Abingdon: Routledge. Walters, T., & Jepson, A. (Eds.) (2019). Marginalisation and Events. London: Routledge. Wrathall, G., & Sterioupolus, E. (2022). Reimagining and Reshaping Events: Theoretical and Practical Perspectives. Oxford: Goodfellow Publishers. Ziakas, V., Antchak, V., & Getz, D. (2021). Crisis Management and Recovery for Events: Impacts and Strategies. Oxford: Goodfellow.

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3

The Nature and Classification of Planned Events LEARNING OBJECTIVES

Upon completion of this chapter, students should know the following: l

Definitions and classifications of events based on both form and function.

l

The nature of unplanned and planned events, with reference to setting, scale, and duration.

l

Differences between live events and virtual events.

l

Meanings attached to time, and how they make events special.

l

The critical importance of place and setting.

l

How size, length, frequency, and periodicity of events are important variables.

l

How and why event forms and functions converge, and how this creates the power to meet multiple goals.

Introduction The world of events is diverse and exciting, with almost unlimited scope for variety in form, function, and experiences. Form is what events look like – their tangible shape, setting, programme of activities, and opportunities for experiences, such as the obvious differences between an outdoor music festival and an indoor convention or exhibition. The comprehensive event typology illustrated in Figure 3.1 is largely based on their form. When we associate specific forms, settings, and programming with event types like festivals, conventions, or sports competitions, we are really creating social constructs that are based on tradition and societal expectations. Function refers to their purpose and the roles they play in business or DOI: 10.4324/9781003374251-3

The Nature and Classification of Planned Events

CULTURAL CELEBRATIONS

BUSINESS AND TRADE

ARTS & ENTERTAINMENT

SPORT AND RECREATION

POLITICAL & STATE

FESTIVALS, HERITAGE COMMEMORATIONS

MEETINGS, CONVENTIONS

SCHEDULED CONCERTS, SHOWS, THEATRE

LEAGUE PLAY, CHAMPIONSHIPS

SUMMITS

CARNIVALS, MARDI GRAS

FAIRS, EXHIBITIONS ART EXHIBITS

ONE-OFF MEETS, TOURS

RELIGIOUS RITES

MARKETS

PILGRIMAGE

CORPORATE EVENTS

PARADES

EDUCATIONAL, SCIENTIFIC CONGRESSES

PRIVATE FUNCTIONS

RITES OF PASSAGE

ROYAL SPECTACLES PARTIES VIP VISITS

INSTALLATIONS & TEMPORARY ART

FUN EVENTS

AWARD CEREMONIES

SPORT FESTIVALS

REUNIONS MILITARY (TATTOOS)

POLITICAL CONGRESSES

WEDDINGS

Figure 3.1  Typology of Planned Events by Form public service. Terms like hallmark, mega, or iconic refer to the function of events (e.g., for image making and place marketing). The meanings we assign to events, and the importance they have always held in our personal and collective lives, make them fundamental components of culture, business, and lifestyles. This chapter commences with a discussion of basic definitions of the terms event and planned event, including differences between them, and the question of scale – small versus large events. The inherent temporal and spatial dimensions of events are discussed, as this is fundamental to understanding much of the related theory.

Definitions of Event and Planned Events Common dictionary definitions of event stress three characteristics: l

An occurrence at a given place and time.

l

A special set of circumstances.

l

A noteworthy occurrence.

Events, by definition, have a beginning and an end. They are temporal phenomena (i.e., they are time-limited), and with planned events, the programme or schedule is generally planned in detail and publicised in advance. The idea of an endless event is a contradiction in terms but could refer to how the content of an event enters the digital metaverse for re-cycling or enjoyment at any time. Those ideas will be discussed more fully. Planned events are also usually confined to particular places, although the space involved might be a specific facility or a very large open space. The term meta-event has been used to describe events held in a number of

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The Nature and Classification of Planned Events locations simultaneously, or at different times but linked by theme. An asynchronous event is one that is not restricted by place or time, and therefore probably exists only in the metaverse (i.e., an integrated, digital world). When you search for an event on the Internet, you will encounter its use in many other fields, for example, in finance where they examine events that disrupt the markets or change a business.

Uniqueness No matter how hard one tries, it is literally impossible to replicate an event. By definition they only occur once, creating a unique experience for the audience or participants. Although planned events might be similar in form, some aspects of the setting, people, and programme will ensure that the event is always tangibly or experientially different. The expectations, moods, and attitudes of guests and participants will always be new, so their experiences will differ regardless of the programme and setting. This uniqueness of events makes them attractive, even compelling, so cultivating a once-in-a-lifetime image for an event is often the marketer’s goal. However, these goals have also become very commonplace in other areas of consumer behaviour, as businesses and organisations seek to create unique selling propositions.

Planned Events Planned events are live, social events created to achieve specific outcomes, including those related to business, the economy, culture, society, and the environment. Event planning involves the design and implementation of themes, settings, consumables, services, and programmes that suggest, facilitate, or constrain experiences for participants, guests, spectators, and other stakeholders. Every event experience is personal and unique, arising from the interactions of the setting, programme, and people. The names, or labels we place on events, such as festivals, conferences, fairs, or sports are really social constructs because when we use these terms most people have an idea of what they mean. To the individual, these labelled events look and feel different with regard to their purpose, programmes, and meanings. Planned events dominate our thinking, and the content of this book, because they are a source of employment and many desired social, cultural, and economic benefits.

Live Versus Virtual Events The events we focus on in this book are live, social events. They are for people in groups, and not merely events in our own, personal lives such as our birthday or the day we discover our creative self. A birthday party, however, is a live social event, and so is a gathering of likeminded artists to create an installation or temporary art. The degree of planning and organisation can be highly variable, with some events being difficult to label. People have a need to be together to socialise, celebrate and do business. Online or teleconferenced events have their place, but they are not in general viewed as replacements for live events – they are complementary. During the pandemic, numerous virtual events were created, and some will endure, but in most cases, they were not intended to continue when live events resumed, except to promote or augment the live social experience. In this book, we talk about virtual events in several places, but while they are not the core of Event Studies they are becoming essential components of event marketing, communications, and fundraising.

The Nature and Classification of Planned Events

No Such Thing as Events! Having made the case for events as discrete phenomena with temporal and spatial dimensions, it is worth noting that in a Buddhist interpretation, everything is interdependent and all events arise from previous events. Accordingly, in a more general philosophical context, events might not actually exist. This line of argument posits that events cannot be separated completely from their context, from the flow of what is happening in the world and in our daily lives. What we call a planned event is in reality an integral part of many people’s lives and many stakeholders’ actions, with various environmental forces acting upon us. Events, therefore, are merely the perceived intersection (in time and/or places) of different people and the consequences of various flows of activity. This makes perfect sense philosophically, and certainly, event managers and policymakers must be experts at assessing environmental forces and managing stakeholder relationships, but for pragmatic reasons, it does not affect our perception that planned events exist, and that Event Studies is a vital subject. One need only refer to common language (i.e., the vernacular) to know that discrete events are central to most people’s understanding of the world and their own lives. We measure time and remember events, even if it is arguably an illusion, and therefore we need events to mark important occasions and define periods of activity.

Why Study Unplanned Events? Sometimes the differences between planned and unplanned events are invisible or ambiguous. The organisers might remain anonymous, they might even be influencers rather than leaders. Online communities of interest can self-organise travel and events. Collective action inspired and facilitated by social media networking is a growing force in society. We also have to consider spontaneous demonstrations, protests, and even riots as events. One’s perspective on such occurrences can range from disgust and calls for repression, to exaltation and claims of democracy at work. Another category of unplanned event is illustrated by the Halloween disaster in Seoul, Korea in October 2020 (see Chapter 13) which can be called a predictable mass assembly, being a celebration tied to an important date. The experiences and impacts of unplanned events can be identical to the planned events we usually study, and they can inform event producers and managers on other important matters such as security and crowd behaviour. To critical theorists, and anyone interested in social movements, the unplanned event might be more revealing of power relationships, values and attitudes, and emerging social-cultural forces (Table 3.1).

Event-History Analysis This method within social science focuses on socially significant events in the lives of people, such as various rites of passage. But in this context, events could also be episodes, such as education and unemployment, jobs, and relationships, as part of one’s life cycle. Rapoport et al. (1975) in Leisure and the Family, building on the classic studies of family life and leisure of Rowntree and Lavers (1951), identified the notion of a family life cycle model and the interrelationship between stages in the life cycle, work, and leisure. This has an important bearing on the stages in an individual’s and family’s life where events will have specific meaning. Rapoport et al. (1975) identified four stages: “Youth, Young Adulthood, Establishment and Later Years”, although we also should include childhood in these stages. The period of establishment, which is the largest

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The Nature and Classification of Planned Events Table 3.1  Planned Versus Unplanned Events

Purpose

Programme

Control

Accountability

Planned Events (The Realm of Professional Event Designers and Managers)

Unplanned Events (The Realm of Spontaneity and Unpredictability)

Goals or outcomes are specified by producers of the event and are influenced by key stakeholders. Planned and scheduled, usually in detail; designers seek to create experiences for guests, participants, and spectators. Controls are imposed by managers and other formal stakeholders, including governments.

Purpose is self-defined; the intentions of participants might be unclear, diverse, or even contradictory.

Producers and managers are formally held accountable.

No organisation or legal entity is accountable overall; individuals can be held accountable for their actions (or inactions), under the law.

Spontaneous activities; or, once set in motion by agents, actions become rather unpredictable. No management systems are in place, only a degree of normal civic control; sometimes a police or emergency-services response is required.

in the family life cycle, is where the majority of life-history events occur (marriage, childbirth and child-rearing, maintaining friendships, and work careers). The concept of life stages helps to explain how people engage with events and the type of events they will consume in their work and leisure time, including the increasing blurring of work and leisure. This has an important bearing on the interest in attending events during the establishment stage of the family life cycle when people become engaged with others in various communities of interest (e.g., as event volunteers) or through serious leisure pursuits.

Time Is of the Essence Time is not a simple concept, and we use expressions of time in many ways – some of which are highly relevant to Event Studies. First, time is often conceptualised as being cyclical, as with the annual calendar. Seasonal changes are important in terms of climate, food production, and the very rhythms of work and social life, and this helps explain the evolution of many rituals and festivals. We tend to mark the passage of time with annual holidays and celebrations, and we look forward to them coming around next year. For time to be available for participation in events, we need to understand the evolution of the modern working week and the rise of the weekend as a leisure setting. As Page and Connell (2010) illustrated, the five-day working week that has dominated industrial society is now changing, with more blurring of work and leisure. This is reflected in the reduction in working time from six days to five and a half, then to a five-day working week. In some societies, working on a Saturday is still a routine activity, but the notion of work time and leisure time has very important impacts on when events are scheduled and who will attend. During the pandemic, many people started to work from home, raising new expectations regarding work–home balance, and leading to less emphasis on in-person work and more on virtual interactions.

The Nature and Classification of Planned Events We also need to look at the biological time and the individual and family life cycle. The maturing of one’s body and mind marks the passage of a life, relative to others going through the same life-stage changes. These various stages are marked by events we celebrate. Events mark life’s changes (rites de passage, like birthdays and anniversaries), triumphs (graduation and other formal ceremonies), fun and joy (festivals, leisure pursuits, and family reunions), and even temporary pains (goodbyes and funerals). Time and its use in contemporary society therefore have a very significant bearing on the nature and study of events.

Social and Cultural Constructs of Time As will be seen later, the conceptualisation of the liminal/liminoid zone for the planned event experience is a social construct and will vary from culture to culture. In most Western societies the meanings and values attached to escapism, free time, leisure pursuits, having a good time (hedonism), and being entertained, reflect the growth of the public and private consumption of leisure time (Page and Connell 2010). Grappi and Montanari (2011) observed that there was a clear link between eventgoers’ emotions, hedonism, and social identity that affected their patronage and the time devoted to events. For Wood and Kenyon (2018), this was reflected in the shared emotional memory of event participants. Events as leisure pursuits can be traced back through history. What is new is the way in which our post-modern lives and the globalised nature of leisure consumption have impacted upon the production and enjoyment of so many planned events. Planned events in the modern world are not only accepted but also expected. The construction of time through capitalist society has led to the social and cultural construction of time outside of work and the perceived need for annual holidays, numerous special days for commemorations, and time for ourselves where we attend, or plan our own social events. Historical analysis reveals ways by which governments have enacted legislation to create leisure time and to create the conditions in which events as experiences can be enjoyed by more people. This process has democratised event participation as a mass form of consumption. This is especially the case in time–space compression (see Warf, 2008), making attending global and mega-events more accessible. This reflects the abundance of leisure choices that digitally connected societies now take for granted, and where events allow people to be co-present in a specific time and place.

Time as a commodity Time is precious in our society, therefore it has become a commodity with high value. We gladly pay for quality time with our friends and families, and this often involves event experiences. We will sacrifice money to have more free time. We hate having our time wasted. We all know that we cannot buy time, but we can certainly lose time. These values and attitudes are all shaped by our culture, and perhaps it would be healthier if our cultural perceptions of time changed. How we use, perceive, and value time are important considerations in Event Studies. Events are temporal phenomena, with start and end points, yet the event experience is not limited to one time and place where an event is held. Clawson and Knetsch (1966) conceptualised recreational travel as a multiphase experience, consisting of the five dimensions of anticipation, travel-to, on-site experiences, travel back home, and recollection. Anticipation and recollection can be just as important as the experience itself. In this way, the packaging of events, a key to effective event tourism development and marketing, should be much more focused on the overall experience than on the technical aspects of travel, accommodation, and purchasing event tickets.

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The Nature and Classification of Planned Events The value of time varies a great deal among people, at various stages in their lives, and among cultures. Time is money and people want value for their investment of time, but how does this apply to planned events? A short, intense event experience can be just what is needed, but people are also willing to give up large blocks of time to travel and participate in events. Can we measure the value of events by reference to the amount of time people invest in them? The answer is yes. It is likely that people value time differently, or at least their access to leisure time, and therefore identical event experiences can be much more satisfying to some, even a waste of time to others. This illustrates an important role for research in positive psychology (see Filep and Pearce, 2013) with its focus on how individuals and groups can make their normal life more fulfilling through experiences such as events. In Faster: The Acceleration of Just About Everything, Gleick (2000) argued that everybody now expects that everything can and should be done immediately, giving rise to time pressures in our 24-hour society. Cornish (2004) contextualised this arguing that the pace of change had accelerated to the point that we now live in an age of ‘hyperchange’. Cornish argued that this hyperchange combines with the range of super trends which affect society, such as technological progress, deculturation, the loss of local culture through globalisation, environmental decline and deterioration, increased mobility, and economic progress leading to increased prosperity. We need to think of planned events as a respite from this rapidity, a way to escape these time pressures and if not to slow down, at least to savour the moment. This is reflected in Falassi’s (1987) phrase ‘time out of time’ to describe rituals and festivals. The value of time in the event setting may therefore be escapism from the routines and rigours of everyday life in much the same way that the annual holiday has been evaluated by researchers for many years. This is why understanding the social psychology of event participants has such an important role to play in revealing how events fit into our complex modern-day lives and the meanings we attach to them.

A Time and a Place Planned events occupy and temporarily transform spaces (or venues), and for the duration of the event one’s experience of that place is altered. In turn, many events are intrinsically linked to their setting and community. Hence, place and culture combine within a set time frame to produce a temporary experience that is bound by place, with patterns and flows of mobility. Culture varies geographically, so the influence of place and culture on events is reinforcing. Cross-cultural comparisons are necessary to fully appreciate the differences in how events are created, valued, managed, and experienced. In turn, events influence the places and cultures in which they occur, especially when mega-events are imposed on a culture that has not experienced such investment and media attention. Attachment to places, and place identity, can be influenced by planned events (Brennan-Horley et al., 2007; De Bres and Davis, 2001). Place identity and the branding of places via events have become a major area of research interest, with Richards (2017) pointing to their role in place-making (i.e., how organisations create an external image of the place to attract visitors, investors, and to meet other societal goals such as re-imaging negative connotations with a place). In the case of mega-events, architectural features such as stadia have been used to create a spectacle or attraction. Govers and Go (2016) identified the importance of authenticity and uniqueness in the place-making process by using events to ensure acceptance by the community, highlighting the significance of a grassroots or community approach. This was a theme expanded upon by Duffy and Mair (2017) in their analysis of the event encounter to

The Nature and Classification of Planned Events understand the importance of conviviality and social relations in community building by using small events and festivals. In the case of Expo events, Hereźniak and Florek (2018) found that citizen involvement enhanced the sense of community after the event. Every nation and community needs celebrations, and events that generate pride and a sense of belonging, and which build development capacity through volunteering, capital investments, and improved marketing. Hallmark events give identity and a positive image to their host community, while venues and resorts can also have their own hallmark events. The exploitation of festivals in place marketing is a worry to many observers fearing commodification, loss of cultural authenticity, and over-production of events. Some events achieve iconic status so they can occur anywhere and still be successful, but they always require specific venues or spaces and leave some kind of tangible legacy in terms of urban renewal, tourism and transport infrastructure, and social and environmental change. Embedded events: Fiedler et al. (2023) used this term synonymously with community, homegrown, and grassroots festivals that are often found in rural (or regional) locations, use local infrastructure, involve the community in a bottom-up manner, and are volunteer driven. Those authors said such events are important in driving economic, social, and environmental development. Relate this idea to hallmark events, place attachment, and placelessness.

Placelessness More and more event experiences are virtual, meaning they are not dependent on a venue or place. Some virtual events simulate an experience that is linked to a specific place or area, but the users are virtual participants who might be very remote from each other and from, for example, a simulated running course. Creators of these virtual experiences can, by design, facilitate user interactions, being the social component, and this might have the desired effect of linking users to each other. Linking users to a venue or place is more difficult, but there are possibilities with the use of augmented-reality technology. There is another dimension to placelessness, being the notion that the event could be held anywhere, it is not place dependent. Foley et al. (2012) argued that many events are now decontextualised in time and space, meaning they are inherently portable and capable of being held at different places. The Formula 1 Grand Prix is one such event. A sport tournament or convention shown on television, or online, might not give viewers any sense of where it is being held or the uniqueness of that place. An event might be so similar to many others that it makes no difference where it is held, at least in terms of the experiences facilitated. Events that are place dependent, on the other hand, cannot be separated from their venue or area, either in terms of the event’s specifications or because it has become a hallmark event co-branded with the place. A related topic is the difference between place and space, with spaces being a geographical concept and, in contrast, places having symbolic meaning.

Events as product developers This is an emerging prospect for event managers and their stakeholders. During the pandemic, many events tried various ways to raise money, including online fundraising campaigns and virtual events. In effect, they were selling products, whether it was merchandise, participation, interaction with others, pre-booking, or simply charitable giving to a worthwhile cause. But consider the possibilities when an event is conceptualised as a creator of permanent products for sale, or permanent services available online. A starting point is to view the programme of

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The Nature and Classification of Planned Events entertainment as a podcast or video for delivery at any time, globally. Add to that the prospect of providing educational, training, and consulting services to those who see the event as a model, or as embodying something they want to learn. While we view live events as being onetime only, and not subject to replication in terms of the experience, components of most events can be made permanently available.

Typologies of Events by Form and Function Form The classification, or typology, illustrated in Figure 3.1 is based primarily on the form of the event, that is, what it looks like and how it is programmed. But any event can fulfil multiple functions, facilitate similar experiences, and have many meanings attached. Form derives from the combination of various programme elements of style that make events different. There are typical or defining characteristics associated with each, and these can be described as their hallmarks. For example, the hallmark of a sport event is an athletic competition, a conference in its various interactive learning mechanisms, and a festival in its celebration manifested in theme, symbolism, and emotional stimulation. Form is therefore a primary concern of event planners and designers or at least their usual starting point. The basic and generally accepted forms of meetings, sport events, fairs, and festivals can be taught, although in each culture there are going to be differences in their style and meaning. Historically, form has shaped professionalisation and led to the establishment of many professional associations around each specific event form. In this tradition, meeting professionals have become the most organised globally, community festivals and arts festival producers have separate associations, and sport event managers attend their own conferences. Form is equally applicable to unplanned events. Every event has some form that leads us to call it a celebration, protest, riot, or party. What exactly are the cues or hallmarks? First, the way people behave, because people assembling for protests obviously behave differently to those getting together to celebrate. A casual meeting of friends or workmates looks and feels quite different from a spontaneous crowd celebrating the home team’s victory. Second, we can ask the people involved what they are doing and why they got together, and this should easily reveal whether the event is spontaneous or planned. That, of course, leads us to consider experience and meanings. Activity itself does not always reveal purpose or meaning. For example, if a celebrating crowd spontaneously breaks into song and dance, we cannot call that programmed. But it is an activity virtually identical to what happens in many designed event programmes.

Function Form and function are usually combined, as discussed below, but the reason for this separate typology is to emphasise that when an event is held to perform a function it does not necessarily matter what form or type it is. Furthermore, some event functions do not have to be planned, such as spontaneous demonstrations, protests, and celebrations or parties. If one wants to attract media coverage for publicity or propaganda, there are many ways to accomplish it, such as by fabricating a publicity stunt involving celebrities or giveaways. Media events are defined by their emphasis on generating media coverage, especially when the event itself does not lend itself to spectating, but in fact, any event can be designed to maximise favourable media attention and related messages or images. Within the realm of tourism, place marketing,

The Nature and Classification of Planned Events and economic development we can use a number of terms, including mega, hallmark, iconic, signature, or major. Groups defined by sub-culture, online communities, gender, or politics can hold identity-building and re-affirming events that look like parades, parties, demonstrations, or exhibitions, but the function is paramount, not the form.

Convergence of Forms and Functions Forms and functions of planned events often overlap, and there has been a natural tendency for them to converge. For example, the Olympics were originally a celebration of amateur and youth sport, but they have evolved to incorporate professionalism, commercialism, and culture. Each Olympic Games is mandated by the International Olympic Committee to include an arts festival. Host cities then piggyback conventions, exhibitions, and many other functions before, during, and after, all designed to leverage the event for other benefits. Television and the internet turn the whole thing into entertainment and spectacle, packaged in such a way as to maximise advertising revenue and publicity for major sponsors. A good example of convergence is the annual Kentucky Derby Festival in Louisville, Kentucky. What was once a simple horse race (it is iconic in the world of thoroughbred racing) is now something much more. Their website describes the event’s mission as to directly contribute “... to the aesthetic, cultural, educational, charitable and economic development of the area”. Over 70 events are scheduled, a mix of sport, musical entertainment, spectacle, and parades (https://discover. kdf.org/what-is-the-kentucky-derby-festival/). Four thousand volunteers make it happen. The Derby Festival is one of many community festivals across North America that celebrate the community itself. Their appeal is wide, and so their programme is diverse. They defy classification as a single-form event, so convergence is one of their hallmarks. Convergence is a powerful argument for a generic approach to event management education. Professionals will have to be increasingly flexible and inventive, not restricted to just being meeting planners or exhibition designers, or festival coordinators. Also, working for venues means engaging with a diverse range of events. The other important aspects of convergence relate to their meanings and impacts. When conceived as instruments of policy and strategy, events can achieve wider appeal and greater impact by combining elements of style and form. To achieve greater economic benefits, larger and more diverse events are becoming the norm. To generate positive images, more television and internet coverage is required, reaching fractured target audiences. A conceptual model of convergence is presented in Figure 3.2, illustrating how a range of functions (i.e., achieving desired goals and meanings) can be combined in a single event that consists of multiple forms. Community festivals tend to reflect this model, as do large sport events like Kentucky Derby that have become long-duration festivals. A similar model, incorporating exchange theory, was presented in the fourth edition of this book and is also fully discussed by Getz in the book The Future of Events and Festivals (Yeoman et al., 2014).

An Experiential Typology? Function and form do not predetermine personal experiences, mainly because people create their own experiences within event settings, and will assign meanings to event experiences that can be loosely related to the event’s purpose and programme. Great experiences can be obtained without planned events, but event designers want people to have a great experience at their events. To date, most event designers have had to operate in accordance with established societal norms for event production – such as how to produce an effective meeting, how to programme an arts festival, or how to run a tournament. Many events are created pro-forma,

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The Nature and Classification of Planned Events

Personal Development:

Economic Goals: -tourism

-health; mastery

-regional/city development

-iden ty; learning

-trade

-hedonism; novelty

-marke ng

-engagement; memorable experiences

Symbolic Meanings:

Social Value:

-place and cultural iden ty -branding -rituals; pilgrimage -poli cs; propaganda

-celebra on

CONVERGENCE Events that maximise the power of combining mul ple forms and func ons

-social capital -community development -causes/charity

Figure 3.2  Convergence of Forms and Functions meaning they must follow specifications. Alternatively, the designer has to work according to instinct, within a creative mentality, and rely on both subtle and overt feedback to determine if the event experience was both pleasant and experienced as intended. We cannot easily develop a standard typology of events based primarily on experience, because so many possible experiences can be had at events. Both festivals and sports events can facilitate joy, celebration, excitement, self-fulfilment, or aesthetic appreciation. While their form and functions might be completely different, at the experiential level (and to some extent at the level of their meanings) they can be quite similar. One example was developed by du Cros and Jolliffe (2014, 46), with their five categories of events bringing meaning and related experiential dimensions to the fore: inspirational (to build creative capital); affirming (for encouraging events that link to cultural identity); pleasurable (offering tourism, leisure, and recreational experiences); enriching (they facilitate personal growth), and celebratory events that can celebrate issues such as cultural diversity. A phenomenological research methodology offers considerable scope for a better understanding of event experiences because it focuses on the individual’s state of mind while at an event. A full range of possible personal and social experiences tied to events is likely not possible, but certainly, the most memorable experiences people talk about can be identified – as long as we keep in mind the limitations of language and how people express themselves. For example, the section on experiences, and in particular the cognitive, affective, and behavioural (conative) dimensions of experiences, expands upon this theme, as do the sections on social worlds, involvement, and benefits.

Hallmark Events Dictionaries define a hallmark as a typical characteristic or feature of something or someone, or a sign or symbol of quality. The first usage has already been mentioned, that of describing the

The Nature and Classification of Planned Events hallmarks of different forms of events. When it comes to ascribing quality to events, it becomes a little confusing, because various organisations like IFEA give awards in many categories, and adjectives like superb, the best ever, or incomparable, can be used by commentators and participants. The term hallmark event was first applied to tourism by Ritchie and Beliveau (1974) in their analysis of the impacts of the Quebec Winter Carnival. Later, J. R. B. Ritchie (1984, 2) defined them as: Major one-time or recurring events of limited duration, developed primarily to enhance the awareness, appeal and profitability of a tourism destination in the short and/or long term. Such events rely for their success on uniqueness, status, or timely significance to create interest and attract attention. Ritchie identified a number of different types of hallmark events: world’s fairs and expositions, unique carnivals and festivals, major sporting events, significant cultural and religious events, historical milestones, classical commercial and agricultural events, and major political personage events. C. M. Hall (1989) expanded the debate on hallmark events, focusing on the issue of scale, defining them as events designed to attract national and international attention to a destination. However, as Hall also argued, confining the term hallmark to large-scale events overlooks the community festivals and local celebrations which can be described as hallmarks, given their regional and local significance. Hall preferred to use the term mega-events to describe major events such as world’s fairs and the Olympic Games, as they are targeted at the international tourism market. One might also consider a hallmark event as being authentically embedded in a particular place or culture. These are recurring events that have become so closely associated with their host community or destination that the event is an important part of its image and branding. These events provide, and feed off, place identity. Rio de Janeiro and New Orleans have their Mardi Gras, Calgary has its Stampede, and Edinburgh its Tattoo, all permanent institutions in their cities, full of tradition and generating competitive advantages from a tourism perspective. For our purposes, the following broad definition is offered: Hallmark events are those that possess such significance, in terms of tradition, attractiveness, quality, or publicity, that the event provides the host venue, community, or destination with a competitive advantage. Over time, the event and destination images become inextricably linked. Hallmark events are, by definition, permanent institutions in their communities or societies. If cities or resorts want to design a hallmark event, they need to meet multiple criteria and should keep in mind the power of convergence of forms and functions. Hallmark events usually attract tourists, generate positive images, and are co-branded with the destination. Such events also have to be acceptable to the host community, preferably becoming traditional and institutionalised. The institutionalisation of an event was demonstrated by Lavenda (1980) in the political analysis of the Carnival of Caracas, Venezuela, where the old carnival was transformed into a highly organised, European mass event. As Lavenda (1980) illustrated, the wild, rowdy behaviour and attitude of a barbaric event were pilloried in the media to justify the creation of the civilising model based on the carnivals in Venice, Paris, and Rome to create a directed and institutionalised event - in which around 30% of the population became involved. To be a permanent institution (see Chapter 8) requires the demonstration of benefits to the residents, including the way the media portrays the negative and positive elements. Finally, hallmark events

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The Nature and Classification of Planned Events have to be planned with long-term sustainability in mind. That requires ­taking a t­ riple-bottom-line approach to their intended outcomes, the involvement of residents at all stages, and concern for how impacts are evaluated in a multi-stakeholder manner. A full discussion of the meanings and planning process for hallmark events was published by Getz et al. (2012).

Iconic Events An icon is a graphic representation of something, in other words, a symbol. To become iconic means an object or event is famous or influential, and this can also apply to brands. In popular terms, anything that is particularly newsworthy, or becomes mythic or legendary, can be considered iconic. This is a quality that marketers desire when they create brand legends. It should be noted that these features of objects, brands, or events will vary from culture to culture. We can say that Mardi Gras stands for Rio de Janeiro or New Orleans, it is the city’s iconic event. An event that symbolises something of potentially global significance can be called iconic, such as the FIFA World Cup or the Olympics, because they are loaded with symbolic meaning. Many people want to attend such events because of what they represent, not where they are. And what they represent (i.e., their meanings) is, of course, of great interest in Event Studies. Hallmark events are also iconic, whereas not all iconic events will become hallmarks of their venues or host communities. Recalling the profile of TransRockies Inc. in Chapter 1, it can be said that their challenging events are iconic within special-interest groups.

Premier or prestige events These events are defined within specific categories so that the World Cup is football’s premier event. Leagues can be called premier, relative to inferior leagues. All sports and special interests tend to have premier events, being the top of the class, with the most prestige. While some are located in permanent places or venues, many of them move around. Some, like the Boston Marathon, combine elements of iconic and hallmark status, given the media coverage and attention which the prestigious event brings to the location or nation. The bidding process to host these premier events has now become a highly competitive marketplace. The photo of the 2019 Solheim Cup at Gleneagles, Scotland (Plate 3.1) illustrates a major sporting event won through bidding. In the golfing world, where Scotland places a lot of marketing emphasis, this event is considered to be the premier women’s international team competition.

Mega-Events The term mega normally refers to the largest and most significant of events. It can also refer to the maximum size that can be accommodated within an area or venue, to the high cost, or to the exceptional media coverage or impacts accompanying the event. It is a relative term, and therefore often vague in its implications. The Olympics, World’s Fairs, and World Cup are typically referred to as mega-events. The definition and implications of mega-events were examined in the AIEST (1987) conference proceedings in which Marris (1987) said that mega-events should exceed one million visitors and be must-see in nature, while Vanhove and Witt (1987) added that they should be able to attract worldwide publicity. But even a small music festival can have mega impacts on a small town in terms of tourists, economic benefits, or disruption. The term can also refer to media coverage and impacts on the image, as in “The convention attracted worldwide publicity and put the city on the tourist map”. Therefore, we suggest this definition:

The Nature and Classification of Planned Events

Plate 3.1  Solheim Cup at Gleneagles, Scotland, 2019 Photo Credit: Courtesy of VisitScotland and Jeff Holmes

Mega events, by way of their size or significance, are those that yield extraordinarily high levels of tourism, media coverage, prestige or economic impact for the host community, venue or organization. The benefit of this definition is that it allows for mega-events to be situated within the context of a particular venue or organisation, rather than using a specific quantitative measure. Müller (2017) outlined six paradoxes (i.e., contradictions) associated with mega-events. They can be summed up as the apparent differences between what the Olympics promise, or its proponents claim, and what actually transpires – at least in the minds of critics. These same issues can be applied to other mega and major events, especially the ones that require bids and expensive infrastructure. They tend to explicitly promote internationalism but are owned by large, international organisations and funded by large corporations with global brands. Increasingly sustainability goals are set by event owners, but violated by hosts who cannot afford the implementation or simply run out of time. In some cases, host nations deliberately engage in counter-ethical and unsustainable practices. Winners of bids, as discussed later in this book, are often losers in financial terms, with debts passed on to the next generation; disadvantaged groups are especially penalised by such practices as clearing slum areas and ridding the streets of the homeless. Almost all such events are aimed at spectators, but most citizens of host nations can be excluded because of high costs and impossible-to-get tickets. Even the supposed uniqueness (i.e., a once-in-a-lifetime) nature of large-scale events is questionable, as the same models of competition, spectacle, and ceremony are repeated over and over. In the end, some people love them while others hate them. In addition, drawing parallels with Ashworth and Page’s (2011) assessment of urban tourism, a further paradox also exists. Large events need cities as central locations and spaces capable

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The Nature and Classification of Planned Events of accommodating large audiences, but cities do not need mega-events, and many have voted against bidding on them. Duignan, Parent, and McGillivray (2023) posited the global-local paradox and offered advice on how global priorities, such as those of the IOC, could be accommodated by host communities wishing to express their values and priorities. They focused on residents and small businesses, both of which are often displaced when mega-event redevelopments are mandated.

Olympic and mega-event studies People are fascinated by mega-events, those that by definition are the largest or most publicised. And so too are researchers, who continue to examine the Olympics, world’s fairs, and major international sport tournaments from every conceivable angle. For example, social science publishers have developed entire lists of books focused on the Olympics. A number of universities have established Olympic research centres in cooperation with the International Olympic Committee, and there are always new articles and books coming out on the Olympics, largely because every winter and Summer Olympic Games generate a flurry of interest in host countries. See, for example, Toohey and Veal (2007), who took a social science perspective on the Olympic Games. In expert opinion 3.1 Dr. Talbot examines mega-events from the ­perspective of human rights.

E X P E R T O P I N I O N 3 . 1 :   By Dr. Adam Talbot Human Rights and Sport Mega-Events Dr. Talbot is a Lecturer – Events Management, the School of Business and Creative Industries, University of the West of Scotland We can think about human rights and sport mega-events on a spectrum, from those human rights impacts that are direct consequences of the event and its management to those which are practically unrelated to the event itself. For the former, we could include evictions to clear space for venue construction at Rio 2016 (Talbot and Carter, 2018) or increased militarisation of public space for security purposes having a detrimental impact on homeless youth in Vancouver prior to the 2010 Games (Kennelly, 2015). For the latter, we could consider the Uyghur genocide at the 2022 Beijing Winter Olympics (Boykoff, 2022) or the criminalisation of LGBT people at the Qatar 2022 World Cup. Event-related violations represent a concrete problem for event organisers. These are cases where the organisation of the event is in some way infringing on human rights, most often of the host community, but also at times the rights of performers and others involved in the event. In these cases, there is a clear need to rectify the failures in planning and execution that have resulted in violations of human rights. Conversely, non-event-related violations present a PR problem for event organisers. There is a need to effectively distinguish between the event and the violations of human rights, demonstrating the lack of connection between the two. This becomes challenging with mega-events that involve significant support from the state, which is often involved in non-event-related violations of human rights. This is a somewhat false dichotomy, as attributing cause to the event is often highly complex and there are many examples that sit in a grey area between the two ends of this spectrum, such as evictions that are

The Nature and Classification of Planned Events not due to specific event needs but occur in a climate of real estate speculation engendered by the event (Talbot and Carter, 2018), or the criminalisation of LGBT groups which serve as part of the national identity projected through an event (Wolfe, 2016). There is now a significant body of literature across a range of sport mega-events all around the world demonstrating how these apparent celebrations come to a violation of human rights in the host location. These range from evictions and gentrification (Talbot and Carter, 2018; Watt, 2013) to the repression of dissent through the militarisation of security services (Boyle and Haggerty, 2009; Kennelly, 2015). Ultimately, these violations almost exclusively stem from the scale of construction associated with megaevents – not only venues but also new transport networks and urban beautification projects. Such enhancements to the urban environment are often explicit objectives of events, seeking to show the best possible face to the world and improve the lives of residents. One key reason such lofty aspirations often fail though is the scale of transformation within such a short period of time. Mega-event hosts are under intense pressure to undertake these wide-ranging transformations between winning the bid and hosting the event, often a period of six to seven years (although this has expanded to around a decade in recent cases for the Summer Olympic Games). This limited timescale creates a state of exception, a state of indeterminacy between democracy and absolutism, wherein democratic rules and norms are upended to ensure the event will be a success. As Boykoff (2013, 11) puts it, “the Olympics become an alibi for forging spaces of political-economic exception where authoritarian tendencies can more freely express themselves”. In other words, in the years leading up to the Olympic Games, the normal rules of democracy and human rights are suspended in service of the spectacle. In the context of mega-events like the Olympic Games, there is a vacuum of responsibility for human rights. As a hugely complex event involving a vast array of stakeholders engaged in different spaces, ambiguity over responsibility for human rights reigns. Who is responsible for safeguarding human rights in a host city? The organising committee? The International Olympic Committee? The host government? The lack of clarity creates a situation where each can pass responsibility to the other, meaning often nobody takes responsibility for stopping violations of human rights. While the IOC’s recent human rights strategy does suggest taking ‘moral responsibility’ for human rights violations in host cities, it stops short of admitting legal responsibility, which would enable victims to force the IOC to take responsibility and provide legal remedy (Talbot, 2023). As Diane Shelton (2015, 17) notes, “unless a duty is somehow enforced, it risks being seen as a voluntary obligation that can be fulfilled or ignored at will”. This is the current situation with violations of human rights linked to mega-sport events. While these event-related violations of human rights continue to be a concern, the association of human rights violations which are not directly caused by the event with sport mega-events has grown exponentially in recent years, leading to the coining of a new word: sportswashing. This term, used to refer to deflecting attention away from violations of human rights using the mass appeal of sport (Skey, 2022), may have emerged recently but history is littered with examples. From gladiatorial combat in Ancient Rome, through the 1936 Olympics in Nazi Germany, sport has long been used by political actors to deflect attention away from negative issues. Initially coined by

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The Nature and Classification of Planned Events Azerbaijani activists protesting about the 2015 European Games in Baku, the term is increasingly applied to sport mega-events, especially those that take place in autocratic countries. Perhaps the most prominent example of this is the Qatar 2022 World Cup. While sport mega-events have long been considered an effective tool to improve hosts’ soft power, the heavy criticism the event attracted stimulated discussions about whether soft disempowerment could also occur through such events (Brannagan and Giulianotti, 2018). In particular, the issue of labour rights violations associated with the Kafala system, whereby migrant workers were unable to leave the country without permission from their employer or change employer when in Qatar, attracted heavy criticism. Thousands of migrant workers died under the system and their plight was heavily covered by Western media organisations, based on data from human rights watchdogs like Amnesty International. While FIFA claims credit for changes to the Kafala system in 2017 and 2020, changes welcomed by the International Trade Union Confederation, it remains to be seen if reforms will be reversed after the international spotlight moves on. However, the event itself was accompanied by a chorus of criticism in Western media, leading to Qataris and others to suggest Western media was unwilling to allow space for different cultures. While there is a well-established trend that mega-events in the Global South are covered more critically (Manzenreiter, 2010), the concept of human rights is, by its very nature, universal. That said, we should ensure that criticisms of human rights issues at mega-events are applied fairly. As Daniela Heerdt (2020) points out, the next two hosts of the Summer Olympic Games, France, and the USA have not ratified all UN-agreed human rights conventions and both have been accused of violating human rights in recent years. But that does not excuse Qatar. Detailed and nuanced accounting of the human rights violations in mega-event contexts is needed – and sweeping generalisations like sportswashing are often unhelpful to that end.

References Boykoff, J. (2013). Celebration Capitalism and the Olympic Games. London: Routledge. Boykoff, J. (2022). Framing the games: US media coverage of the Beijing 2022 winter Olympics. Communication & Sport. https://doi.org/10.1177/21674795221122938 Boyle, P., & Haggerty, K. (2009). Spectacular security: Mega-events and the security complex. International Political Sociology, 3 (3), 257–274. Brannagan, P. M., & Giulianotti, R. (2018). The soft power-soft disempowerment nexus: The case of Qatar. International Affairs, 94 (5), 1139–1157. Heerdt, D. (2020). A rights-holder view on human rights provisions in olympic bidding and hosting regulations. AJIL Unbound, 114, 356–361. Kennelly, J. (2015). ‘You’re making our city look bad’: Olympic security, neoliberal urbanization, and homeless youth. Ethnography, 16 (1), 3–24. Manzenreiter, W. (2010). The Beijing games in the western imagination of China: The weak power of soft power. Journal of Sport and Social Issues, 34 (1), 29–48. Shelton, D. (2015). Remedies in International Human Rights Law (3rd edn). Oxford: Oxford University Press. Skey, M. (2022). Sportswashing: Media headline or analytic concept? International Review for the Sociology of Sport. https://doi.org/10.1177/10126902221136086

The Nature and Classification of Planned Events Talbot, A. (2023). Human rights at the Olympic Games: Policy, protest, progress? Event Management. https://doi.org/10.3727/152599522X16419948391212 Talbot, A., & Carter, T. F. (2018). Human rights abuses at the Rio 2016 Olympics: ­Activism and the media. Leisure Studies, 37 (1), 77–88. Watt, P. (2013). ‘It’s not for us’: Regeneration, the 2012 Olympics and the gentrification of East London. City, 17 (1), 99–118. Wolfe, S. D. (2016). A silver medal project: The partial success of Russia’s soft power in Sochi 2014. Annals of Leisure Research, 19 (4), 481–496.

Media Events While any event can attract media attention, we use the term media event for those created primarily for broadcast or online audiences. An example is that of music award shows that relate to the power of television and the internet to reach global audiences (Reid, 2006). Examples also include surfing events that need to be heavily edited and packaged to make for good viewing, and eco-challenges in remote places over long, arduous courses. However, any event can be packaged for the media, and that might be an essential part of its sponsorship appeal or necessary for receiving subsidies from tourism and government agencies.

Publicity stunts Any event designed to garner publicity falls into the media-event category, but it is usually associated with politicians and movie stars. Publicity agents should be experts at contriving events or situations that appeal to the media, or to crowds so that they become news. But to the degree that they are obvious in their intent, or manipulative, they can easily backfire. Boorstin (1961) coined the term pseudo-event to describe staged or counterfeit events such as publicity stunts.

Cause-Related Events These are established to raise money, generate awareness of an issue, or in general promote a cause. These functions make them part of social marketing. While any form of event could perform this function, common types of fund-raisers are gala dinners, concerts, entertainment shows, endurance events (in which donors support participants financially), sponsored sport events (e.g., the UK’s annual fun run Race for Life, which has 300 local races to raise money for Cancer Research UK), as well as celebrity sports and auctions. Events related to PRIDE are in a similar category, not to raise money necessarily, but to foster pride in identity, become mainstream and reinforce community bonds.

Corporate Events Any event produced by or for a corporation fits this category, with common types being product launches, meetings, grand openings, and publicity stunts. An alternative meaning is a trend for large sport events in particular, like the Super Bowl, to become so tied to corporate sponsors and related hospitality that they become corporatised. A further shift in the events world has been the emphasis on experiential marketing to develop brands and sustain relationships with customers and other corporate stakeholders. The term live marketing has crept into the

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The Nature and Classification of Planned Events language to describe the use of events for these purposes. A related concept is the brand land, or the creation of venues devoted to brand experiences, and of course, these corporate monuments have to be animated with events. Ulrich Wünsch gives an expert opinion on corporate events in Chapter 6.

Spectator, Participant, and Interactive Events These are descriptive terms that can be applied to many types of planned events. They relate directly to the engagement level and experiences of guests. Interactive events embody person– setting or person–person interactivity. Interactivity is thought to foster a higher level of involvement or engagement, making it a crucial element in experience design. To spectate means to view, so that at spectator events customers (such as at a football match) are inherently passive. The boundaries can overlap, however, as fans often get quite animated during games, and fan zones are routinely built for both viewing (on screens, remotely) and partying. They tend to be brand lands, owned by sponsors. Participant events are events that are held for people to be involved, and without them, there really is no live event. Participants are more than customers or guests, they are the reason the event is held, and in some cases, the event is created merely by the presence of people who decide to do something (this can also be called a flash mob). Meetings and conventions do not exist without delegates, there are no marathons without runners, and dance festivals need dancers. Exhibitions also require participants, namely, the exhibitors. Such events provide targeted benefits (i.e., they are customised experiences) can be viewed as subcultural manifestations, and are highly sought after by competitive tourist destinations that can either create them or bid on them. For example, Coghlan and Filo (2013) examined participants’ experiences and motivation at charity/sport events and the role of adventure philanthropy in such participation. Andersson, Armbrecht, and Lundberg (2019) classified participation events on the basis of the degree of co-creation, interaction, and activeness. Participants were examined with regard to involvement, serious leisure, social worlds, and event-travel careers. The concept of an event portfolio was discussed, drawing from literature on consumer constellations. This theory has been empirically studied on amateur athletes (Getz and McConnell, 2014; Andersson and Getz, 2020), revealing the propensity of the highly involved to form their own portfolios of events, either specialised by type (e.g., they stick to distance running), or diverse across many events that offer similar benefits such as challenge and self-development.

Scale, Frequency, Duration, and Periodicity The size of events is an obvious variable, reflected in the term mega-event and generally implicit in contrasting terms like private function and party (i.e., small). Most attention gets focused on large events, which are also typically long in duration, whereas the innumerable small and brief events that occur every day are hardly noticed by anyone other than the participants. Sport events are held frequently, with rather predictable duration, whereas mega-events are occasional and tightly scheduled. We take it for granted there will be sport events of many kinds every day for our viewing pleasure. Periodicity refers to the cycle, such as the Olympics and World Cups every four years (they are infrequent), while most festivals recur annually. Some special events are occasional, with no

The Nature and Classification of Planned Events real schedule (e.g., VIP visits, publicity stunts, and coronations). A so-called one-time event is usually a recurring event that moves, such as the Olympics responding to bids, but there are planned events – like coronations, weddings, funerals, and anniversaries – that are intentionally never repeated, at least not in the same context. One-off events should, by definition, occur only once.

Small Versus Large Events The vast majority of planned events are small and occur in the private or corporate spheres as meetings. But most attention focuses on the larger events that are open to large numbers or the general public, covered by the media, and generate substantial impacts. There is a continuum of planned events along the dimension of scale, and the extremes can also be associated with impacts and policy implications (see Table 3.2).

Table 3.2  Scale: Small Versus Large Events Small Events

Large Events

Form and Function

– tend to be single-form events (e.g., a meeting, competition, private function) – less likely to be planned with tourists or media in mind

– tend to combine elements of style, such as sports converging with festivals, meetings added to exhibitions, or community festivals combining multiple events of all kinds – more likely to be planned to generate major economic and place marketing benefits

The Event Experience

– mostly in the private and corporate spheres of interest – the experience might be private, or shared with an affinity group

Impacts

– collectively they are significant (e.g., weddings, meetings, parties, most sport meets) – individual, small events seldom attract media attention

– mostly in the public sphere of interest – crowd dynamics can dominate – the event can affect entire communities through media coverage and shared attitudes – each large event has substantial impacts (e.g., festivals, major sport events, fairs, and exhibitions) – the event itself is of interest to the media or created primarily as a media event

Media Coverage

Policy Implications

– policies related to venues, and to events in general (e.g., health standards, green operations, permits required)

– policy decisions required for specific events (e.g., the decision to bid; infrastructure investments; feasibility studies, and impact assessments commissioned)

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Frequency and Periodicity Does it matter how often an event is produced? In sports, teams play many games during a season, and concerts or shows are also regularly held. What if a fan or patron goes to many of these events? They can become routine for participants, producers, and some of the audience. But we need to remember that every event is still somewhat unique. In fact, many people love sports because the action is infinitely variable and the outcome always unpredictable making them an authentic experience when compared with other forms of entertainment like TV and the movies. When sports get corrupted, however, authenticity disappears. No actors, musicians, or performers can exactly reproduce their efforts from one show to the next, consequently, the audience can return with some expectation of differences. Even frequently attended events can be special to the audience, depending on their expectations, mood, and interpersonal experiences. The timing (or periodicity) can also make the event special, as in the case of winter festivals occurring around the festive period. We are just as interested in scheduled, routine theatre and sports as we are in festivals held only every ten years, as well as what makes the timing special. Periodicity is a key issue, ­however, as one-time events are usually bid on, are expected to meet very specific objectives (such as attracting tourists or generating profit), and might never be seen in the host area again. ­Hallmark events, by definition, should be annual and permanent, as they are co-branded with the destination or community. It can also be said that many so-called unplanned events occur frequently and regularly, as demonstrated by crowds assembling near major sporting events, in public spaces where street performers are regular attractions, and around holidays. The October 2022 disaster in Seoul, Korea, was one of those events tied to a regular calendar event - Halloween. The difference is that these regularly occurring events are not formally organised or advertised.

Activity or Event? Events contain many activities, but activities are not, by strict definition, events. Activity is defined in various dictionaries as the state of being active, energetic action or movement, liveliness, or a specified pursuit in which a person partakes. A leisure or recreation activity is one that is pursued for its own, intrinsic rewards, and a business activity is pursued for its value-creating benefits or out of administrative necessity. Activities within planned events are mostly related to the theme, such as performances at a concert, matches in a competitive sport event, or presentations during a conference. Individual participants and guests at events engage in their own activities, often unscripted and personal (e.g., talking, eating, bodily functions, singing along, cheering, viewing, and contemplating) and these also contribute to the overall event experience. Activities at events are influenced by interactions among the setting, programme, and other people. Even so, the boundaries between activity and event are not absolute. From the individual’s perspective, engaging in a mountain climb, or any other adventure pursuit might be a planned, personal event with a purpose, design (lots of preparations including a route to the summit), tight schedule, specific setting, and often done in the company of others. In this sense, the activity of mountain climbing embodies specific events for the participants, but they are highly personal and not open to the public. Many people presumably reflect on their lives and careers as a series of events, and among them will be planned rites de passage such as anniversaries. This relates to the previously discussed idea of life histories.

The Nature and Classification of Planned Events

Length or Duration How long can a single event be? Remembering our earlier discussion about the fact that all events are really part of a continuum of experiences for individuals and a congruence of multi-stakeholder activity, this question of event length is somewhat pointless. If we call it an event, then for all practical purposes it is a social construct with meanings. We frequently see lengthy events. The Cultural Capitals movement, which has been spreading globally, is usually a year-long event (see Richards and Palmer, 2010) with multiple events packaged within. In one sense, very long events of this kind are promotions, including the common Year of.... promotions, but they are certainly designed to be perceived as a single, noteworthy event. Duration becomes an important factor in cost and revenue calculations. An annual event held on only one day presents few opportunities for those in the tourism and hospitality business, although it might become a hallmark for the venue or area, with attendant publicity and branding value. On the other hand, a one-time world’s fair (an Expo), spread over six months, offers a great opportunity for packaged tours and individual pleasure trips, augmented by meetings and exhibitions. Repeat visitation by residents of the immediate area can be a source of revenue, as multi-visit passes are likely to prove popular. As a general guide, an event spread over ten days, encompassing two weekends, yields ample opportunity for tourism promotion and maximising ticket sales and other revenue. Unplanned events are often tied to planned events, as is the case of protests and demonstrations associated with international meetings. Flash mobs have to be short in duration, as they usually intrude on private spaces and interrupt the regular flow of people and traffic. Celebratory assemblies, such as when a home team wins something important, will have a relatively short duration and frequently will augment a formal, planned parade or award ceremony.

The Specialness of Events Special means something that is distinct or exceptional, unusual, or unique. But what is special about any event is a subjective interpretation by either the producer or the guest. Jago and Shaw (1999) asked adults to describe important attributes of special events and discovered that the number of attendees, international attention given to the event, perceived improvement to image and pride in the host region, and an exciting experience were the main factors explaining perceived specialness. A list of factors that can contribute to any event’s specialness should start with its uniqueness (Getz, 2005) but includes these other major elements of style: high quality, hospitality, flexibility, tangibility, affordability, convenience, symbolism, festive spirit, theming, tradition, and authenticity. Meeting multiple goals and appealing to different stakeholders and audiences adds to specialness, as in the previously discussed concept of convergence of forms and functions. Therefore, a special event can be defined in two ways: 1 A special event is a one-time or infrequently occurring event outside the normal programme or activities of the sponsoring or organising body. 2 To the customer or guest, a special event is an opportunity for an experience outside the normal range of choices or beyond everyday experience. Another perspective on specialness is that of events aimed at special-interest groups, such as those representing serious leisure. Furthermore, events can be targeted to meet special needs and can include special effects. In short, the term is not very useful, except in a specific context.

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Is There An Events Industry? An industry, in conventional terms, means a sector of the economy that produces the same goods or services, such as the automobile industry. This definition is problematic for events because of their diversity of forms and purposes, and the fact that producers and suppliers might feel they are part of a tourism industry, an exhibition industry, or a cultural industry. Those in the arts seldom think of themselves as being part of an industry, because the word carries connotations of production for economic purposes, rather than art for the sake of art. Agencies charged with developing and promoting tourism often include events in their definition of industry, especially in the estimation of economic benefits, but that does not mean the event organisations agree or cooperate. Festivals and commemorations, art exhibitions, and musical performances or concerts are more inclined to associate with culture. As Page and Connell (2010) demonstrated, a notable transformation in a post-modern society is the shift from tangible elements of culture, such as the built heritage, museums, and monuments, to more intangible leisure resources such as image, identity, lifestyle, narratives of the city, creativity, and the media. All of these elements enhance the consumer’s experience of culture and its consumption in event experiences. For elaboration, see the book The Arts and Events by du Cros and Jolliffe (2014). There are also wider political explanations of why people use the term industry, typically when they want to legitimise their activities and gain governmental support. It is also common to talk about the service industry or industries, of which events are clearly a part, and increasingly to view events as being an integral part of the experience economy and creative industries. STUDY GUIDE

It is important to distinguish between events (and related terminology) by referring to their forms, functions, and experiences. A typology based on event form was presented, and the main categories were discussed. These types of events are actually social constructs that emerged through tradition and common expectations of what, for example, a festival or convention consists of. By referring to their functions, a number of terms were identified – such as iconic, hallmark, and mega – that can actually describe many types of events. It was argued that events cannot easily be classified by reference to experiences, because multiple experiences are possible within any event form. The convergence model should be examined in light of events that you know or that are in your area. What are they called, what is their theme and purpose as expressed by producers, and what meanings are attached by you and other stakeholders, such as the host community? Break down the activities or programme components to determine the extent of convergence versus a narrowly defined event by reference to form. Is it also a tourist attraction? Does it generate community support or opposition? Consider the variables of periodicity, duration, and frequency and how they relate to types of events, including the one-off and regularly scheduled sport or entertainment events - try to find examples that match these variables. Also, think about what makes events special, and link this idea to hallmarks, elements of style, and especially to uniqueness. Compare small and large events along a continuum, rather than being a dichotomy, again with examples that exemplify the differences. STUDY QUESTIONS l l

Define: event and planned event; form and function; activity. How important is uniqueness in the definition of ‘event’? (Hint: refer to the temporal dimension, then place.)

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Should professional event managers or event tourism practitioners be concerned with unplanned events? Why? What are the temporal and spatial dimensions of events? Does length, frequency, size, and periodicity matter to the event manager? To guests? To the community? Explain how form, function, and experience can be used to classify events (i.e., typologies), and discuss the problems associated with each approach. Give examples. What are the major benefits claimed by major and mega-events? The potential costs? What is the connection between events and human rights? Give examples of specific human rights violations that have been associated with events, especially mega-events. Why are the planned events in the typology used in this chapter referred to as ‘social constructs’? Make an argument for treating the events sector as an industry. Will the differences between event types and functions become less important because of convergence? Discuss factors leading to convergence. In your opinion, what makes an event special? Mention your previous experiences. FURTHER READING

Boykoff, J. (2013). Celebration Capitalism and the Olympic Games. London: Routledge. Chatziefstathiou, D., Garcia, B., & Seguin, B. (eds.) (2021). Routledge Handbook of the Olympic and Paralympic Games. London: Routledge. Du Cros, H., & Jolliffe, L. (2014). The Arts and Events. Abingdon: Routledge. Falassi, A. (ed.) (1987). Time Out of Time: Essays on the Festival. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press. Weed, M. (2008). Olympic Tourism. Oxford: Butterworth-Heinemann.

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Event Experiences and Meanings

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

Upon completion of this chapter, students should know the following: l l

The cognitive, affective, and conative dimensions of event experiences. The concepts of liminality and the liminoid in the context of cultural anthropology and as applied to event experiences, with specific reference to rites and rituals.

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The meaning of communitas and its importance in event experiences.

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The meanings of authenticity and its importance in event experiences.

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Theoretical underpinnings of event experience models.

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Leisure theory applied to event experiences.

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Differences between live and virtual experiences.

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How and why meanings are attached to events and to event experiences: personal; social; economic; corporate; and cultural.

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What makes events rewarding and memorable?

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The meaning of co-creation of event experiences and how it is facilitated.

Introduction This chapter explores the core phenomenon of Event Studies. As illustrated in Figure 1.3, we have to examine three elements: all planned events, the experience of events, and meanings attached to the events and the experiences. We are including all social assemblies as events, but using the term planned events to distinguish this field from others in which the term event is also used. DOI: 10.4324/9781003374251-4

Event Experiences and Meanings Our starting point is a discussion of how people actually describe their experiences, noting different connotations, and how the word experience can be used as both a noun and a verb. We then turn to theory on experience, drawing from psychology, anthropology, and social psychology through the lens of leisure theory. A model of the planned event experience is provided and others discussed. The notion of liminal and liminoid experiences and the creation of special places and times are central to the model. Meanings attached to events and event experiences are then examined from the perspectives of individuals, society, culture, economy, and the corporate world.

How People Describe Their Experiences In normal conversation, people might use the term experience in several ways, either as a noun or a verb. In each of the immediately following examples, experience is used as a noun. These statements illustrate key points, so a little commentary is attached to each. Note the use of the psychological terms cognitive, affective, and conative which are defined in greater detail in the ensuing section. I had an intellectually stimulating experience at the meeting. This statement describes the experience both in terms of cognition (i.e., learning) and affect (attitude, or emotion). The marathon was a challenging and exhausting experience, but I was exhilarated by my success! The runner describes her/his experience in terms of. l

Physicality (exhausting), which is the conative or behavioural dimension of experience.

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Feelings about it (exhilaration is an emotional state).

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Challenging, in this context, can relate either to the physical experience (they had to push themselves extra hard to complete the race) or to a post-event assessment of meaning, in which case the runners might be saying they felt a sense of accomplishment or mastery in the achievement of personal goals.

I am a person with lots of event experience. (i.e., I have been to many events and learned a lot about them; there has been an accumulation of knowledge or skill). The experience of attending my first World’s Fair was a highlight of my life; I will never forget it! The person is talking about being at the event, involving direct observation and a stream of consciousness; there is also profound, transforming meaning attached; it was memorable. We also use to experience (the verb) in different ways. Here are event-related examples: As an event manager, I have experienced many near disasters. This is a simple statement about something that happened, not a value judgement, emotional reaction, or inference of meaning. It was something they lived through. I want to experience the excitement of a live music concert! This use of the verb is loaded with emotion or feelings, and it refers to the knowing and feeling that comes only through direct participation, or being there.

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Event Experiences and Meanings You have to get experienced in many tasks at real events before you can become a competent manager. This means undergoing a change, an accumulation of transformative experiences, and ­becoming more knowledgeable and skilled. How people describe event experiences as they occur, and talk about them afterwards, is of considerable interest to event researchers and producers. It is certainly possible that events satisfy those in attendance at one level, but at the same time fail to achieve the organisers’ intended experiences (such as learning, cultural appreciation, social integration, and increased brand identity). It is also quite possible that events are determined to be successful in terms of desired outcomes (e.g., money earned, attendance, and brand recognition), but the experiences of guests are unsatisfactory. For this reason, it is useful to briefly examine how psychology and other disciplines have contributed to the way we conceptualise experience as a key element of Event Studies.

Theoretical Dimensions of Human Experience Psychology The wider contributions of psychology to Event Studies are discussed in Chapter 16 where we look at different foundation disciplines. In this chapter, we focus on the psychology of experience, a subject addressed by Benckendorff and Pearce (2012) within an overview of the psychology of events. Our basic frame consists of the cognitive, affective, and conative aspects of event experiences, or in other words, what people are thinking, feeling, and doing (see Figure 4.1). Cognitive psychology brings together a theory on memory, experience, and judgement, or how we think about, and make sense of stimuli from our environment.

COGNITIVE

CONATIVE

AFFECTIVE

To Know

To Act

To Feel

Stimuli and Perception

Activities; Participation

Engagement; Arousal

Learning, Understanding

Control; Self Efficacy

Emotions, Flow; Optimal or Peak Experiences

Memory

Contributing; Volunteering

Aesthetic appreciation

Growth; Self Development

Figure 4.1  Dimensions of the Event Experience

Communitas (sharing and belonging)

Event Experiences and Meanings

Perception Perception is the process of acquiring, interpreting, selecting, and organising sensory information. As we gain experience, we develop frames of reference for incorporating and understanding new stimuli and learning how to learn. These can be called mental models (or maps, or constructs), and in this way, all experience is somewhat transforming. As we mature, we move from passive receivers of stimuli to active searchers, both to learn more and to experience different things. One starting point is that of sensory perception. Bentley (1924) focused on stimuli (i.e., things that stimulate the experience) and receptors (i.e., our senses that receive and help formulate experience). He pointed to the sensational elements of the human experience and the body’s ability to receive messages through five senses: vision, hearing, taste, smell, and touch. A study by Toraldo (2013) highlighted the paucity of research on sensory issues and events, particularly the impact on experience and hedonism. He indicated that many sensory differences between humans are socially and culturally conditioned, and understanding these sensory issues in events hinges upon one key concept – anticipation. The event experience is dependent upon the expectation and anticipation of the experience and whether it is met. This has given rise to the expectancy-­confirmation theory to explain satisfaction. As Jantzen (2013) argued, in any theorising about the experience we need to recognise the importance of reversal from one state of mind (e.g., relaxation) to another (e.g., excitement), and how our senses may arouse our emotions to a particular state.

Memory We need to consider how past experiences of events often affect the propensity to return. Indeed, quite a few researchers have attempted to model the links between outcomes (i.e., future intentions, word-of-mouth recommendations, and loyalty through repeat visits) and causal factors such as perceived event quality, price, involvement, engagement, activities, meanings attached, and what was remembered. Kim and Jang (2016) observed that past event experiences were a key to returning to events, focussing on the methodologies used to understand memory retrieval of events. Their study outlined the two principal ways that memory is researched: l

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The semantic memory, where the context of the memory is based on the knowledge we have accumulated during our lifetime, affected by the experiences we have had over a life. The episodic memory, which is a more autobiographical accumulation of events (e.g., the times and places along with contextual information and more in-depth, detailed past experiences).

The episodic memory has been the focus of most event research studies of memory, with key concepts of communitas, desire, and belonging examined in these past experiences. However, memory alone cannot be the sole focus for understanding the event experience, as there is a growing recognition that anticipation and expectations must be understood. Recent developments in psychology, neuroscience, and chemistry, according to Beard and Russ (2017), have illustrated how event experiences can be made more compelling. They point to the importance of chemicals that drive the cognitive elements (serotonin, oxytocin, dopamine, and endorphin). Stimulating these can be a means by which positive emotions are created (although there are also concerns that over-stimulation on a regular basis can lead to addictive behaviours). As Beard and Russ (2017) demonstrated, understanding event experiences needs to relate to the way an event is constructed:

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Socially (i.e., the interaction with other people).

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Psychologically (i.e., how this affects the self).

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Emotionally (i.e., our feelings).

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Cognitively (i.e., how it affects our mind).

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Environmentally (i.e., the importance of place).

Personality Ego is a basic psychological concept, especially in Freudian theory, comprising that part of our personality that encompasses conscious awareness. It helps us make sense of the world, including separating reality from imagination. Our main interest is with personal identity, that is, who we think we are. As a loner, you might not connect with many people, but as a joiner, you likely belong to a number of social worlds and engage heavily in social networking. How we identify ourselves, say as a member of a particular sport or interest group, reflects our ego. We can seek and confirm identity through social arrangements, and that very much includes social events. Self-concept means the beliefs held about our self, including who we think we are in relation to how others view us, and how we would like to be viewed. When we drive a certain kind of car, we want it to reflect our self-concept or the image we have of ourselves as being sporty or eco-conscious. This also applies to being a sports fan, a runner, an artist, or any other form of leisure that generates an interest in planned events. Marketers know how to aim their products and services at people holding specific self-concepts, and clearly, these also relate to social world involvement. Funk (2008) employed self-concept in his approach to studying consumer behaviour for sports and events, namely, as an integral part of the “psychological continuum model” (see also Baker et al., 2020; Funk and James, 2001, 2006). Awareness, attraction, attachment, or allegiance are the progressive steps open to consumers and participants. Self-concept connects specifically to identifying with a sport, event, or team. Ego involvement is another closely related psychological construct much used in leisure research, and it is an integral part of developing theory on serious leisure and the event travel career trajectory (see Chapter 15). One does not get highly involved with a brand, leisure pursuit, event, sport, or social world unless it reflects our self-construct. Personality traits: Psychologists speak of the big five personality characteristics or factors that are believed to “differentiate individuals in a somewhat permanent way and across most if not all situations” (Mannell and Kleiber, 1997, 156). Personality, as it affects leisure, has been scrutinised, but little has been done to connect personality to event-related behaviour. Here is a brief summary. Extroversion: This factor includes traits such as assertiveness, gregariousness, and excitement seeking, leading to the label high-energy people. Extroverted people often pursue sports and take risks. Introverts, by contrast, have a low threshold of arousal and do not need as much stimulation. They are more likely to play computer fantasy games. Studies have found that travel preferences and styles correlate with extroversion or introversion (Nickerson and Ellis, 1991; Plog, 1972). Extroverts are also sensation seekers who are more likely to participate in adventurous, intense activities, and want greater variety (Zuckerman, 1979). Agreeableness: Traits associated with this factor include trust, straightforwardness, and altruism, contrasted with hostility, indifference, and self-centredness. Agreeable people seek social settings and are more likely to volunteer. Self-indulgence and escape are more associated with low levels of agreeableness.

Event Experiences and Meanings Conscientiousness: Order, dutifulness, achievement striving, self-discipline, and deliberation are associated with this characteristic of personality. Managers might want staff who are high on this factor, as it is typically manifested in reliability, responsibility, and being organised. Stebbins (1992) thought that conscientiousness was associated with a strong goal orientation and ‘serious leisure’. However, being high on this factor might also result in lower levels of spontaneity and higher compulsiveness. If one is low on this factor, impulsiveness and seeking immediate gratification are likely to result. Neuroticism: A general tendency to experience distress is associated with neuroticism. Anxiety, hostility, depression, and self-consciousness are likely to accompany this factor. Dislike of playful leisure experiences might result from being neurotic. People with this trait might get less pleasure and enjoyment from both individual and social experiences by reason of discounting the positive aspects of their own lives. Openness to experience: This is associated with aesthetic sensitivity, the need for variety, unconventional values, flexibility of thought, cultural interest, and educational aptitude. Such people are likely to seek out sensory stimulation. Personality traits have been studied in leisure, although some researchers have concluded that personality has more of an influence on the extent of participation than on the choice of sport or activity (Mannell and Kleiber, 1997, 163). There is yet no research evidence to show the connection to planned events, but readers will see the possibilities for examining event-related behaviour and experiences in the context of the following personality dimensions: l

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Locus of control: How important is it to perceive that you are in control or have the freedom to choose? Does this define your perception of what is leisure or enjoyable work? Attentional style: How do you typically process or deal with environmental and social stimuli? Can you easily get into the ‘flow’ of deep involvement in an activity or mental process? Type A behaviour: Some people are driven to compete and succeed and are always worried about getting things done; they feel they are running out of time and so they get impatient with others. How can they relax? How do you get them to pay attention? Playfulness: Are you a playful person, curious, creative, and joyful? Can males and females be playful together, or are there social constraints? The Autotelic personality: These people “are able to find intrinsic interest and enjoyment in almost everything he or she does” (Mannell and Kleiber, 1997, 174). Shyness: Shy people may feel a lack of control over their lives and have low social competence, therefore, have a more difficult time finding satisfying experiences.

Leung and Law (2010) reviewed the literature on how personality theory has been applied to tourism and hospitality, and much of this relates to Event Studies. They concluded that four main areas of application were related to consumer behaviour, human resource management, leisure, and education. Most researchers had examined one or more of the seven dimensions of personality, grouped as follows: l l

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Personality traits, most commonly the big five. Biological factors that influence or are influenced by personality (extroverts and introverts, with extroverts being sensation seekers; can include compulsions or impulsive behaviour). Factors within the mind that influence behaviour, which includes needs and motivation.

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The cognitive domain: understanding of perceptions, thoughts, feelings, and desires (­underlying stable motives and other conscious experiences from an individual’s point of view; includes locus of control and self-image). The social and cultural domain: the public aspects of personality and relationships (i.e., from social psychology). The adjustment domain: related to mental health and how people cope; self-efficacy and ­pathological behaviour are included. Brand personality (how brand values connect to self-constructs and involvement).

Applications of personality theory to planned events are less common. It is relevant to ­volunteer and employee selection and behaviour because of stress, varying motives and relationships, and conscientiousness. Event marketers will want to understand personality as it relates to information searching and buying behaviour, event and destination choice, and this encompasses psychographic segmentation such as that employed in ego involvement scales. Other useful applications relate to perceptions of event quality, learning preferences at conferences or taking risks (as in many sports). Spirituality is increasingly considered a motivator for travel and event participation, as is creativity. Personalities of leadership have been studied, but not for events. The personality of event brands related to consumer self-concept should be examined.

Needs and wants According to Maslow (1954, 1968), needs are both physiological (what we need to exist and be safe) and socially learned (what we feel we need in order to belong and be happy). The following four were said to be deficit needs, and people instinctively seek to meet them. In times of stress regression can occur, but Maslow believed people normally move from the lower to the higher-order needs in a developmental process: l

Physiological: survival needs, including water, food, and shelter.

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Safety and security needs: stability, order, protection, and structure.

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Love and belonging needs: social needs, a wish for affection and to show affection, and a sense of community. Esteem needs: hierarchical, with the lower order consisting of respect for others, status, and recognition; higher order including self-respect, competence, independence, achievement, and mastery.

Others have argued that there are additional needs, and that the hierarchical nature of Maslow’s theory is unsupportable. However controversial, Maslow’s hierarchy of needs has been influential, and is referenced again in our discussion of motivation. Needs get translated into wants, and some of these become economic demands for goods, services, and experiences. Needs can therefor activate behaviour (Mannell and Kleiber, 1997), and this also gives rise to ­expectation-confirmation theory.

Self-actualisation and peak experiences Maslow’s hierarchy is often shown as a pyramid with ‘self-actualisation’ at the top. Maslow believed that certain people, only 2% of the population, could be called ‘self-actualised’, and they have many more ‘peak experiences’ than others. A ‘peak experience’ is available to all, and self-actualisation is ‘growth motivation’, or a process of seeking. Peak experiences were described

Event Experiences and Meanings by Maslow as sudden feelings of intense happiness and well-being. They are non-religious, ­quasi-mystical, or mystical in nature, and possibly accompanied by awareness of ‘ultimate truth’ and the unity of all things. Also, accompanying peak experiences is a heightened sense of control over the body and emotions, and a wider sense of awareness. The experience fills the individual with wonder and awe. Maslow also described peak experiences as self-validating, self-justifying moments with their own intrinsic value. They are never negative, unpleasant, or evil. They result in being disoriented in time and space, and this very much sounds like the liminal/liminoid zone of Turner, as well as Csikszentimihalyi’s ‘flow’. These experiences are said to be accompanied by a loss of fear, anxiety, doubts, and inhibitions. While these concepts have appeal and can be applied to event experience design, critics argue that anybody, whether good or evil, could have peak experiences. Furthermore, it can be argued that, despite Maslow’s beliefs, his views on self-actualisation and peak experiences have no moral basis. In other words, self-actualising people are not superior in any way. Others find these notions to be unscientific and untestable, even though they have some intuitive appeal. Benefits are what people believe they will obtain from consumption or participation, and these are generally expressed in terms related to need fulfilment. For example, of all the benefits provided by leisure services and sport, improved health is at, or near the top of the lists made by proponents of sport and sport events. No doubt exercise is important, but there are many ways to exercise without sport participation. Wants and Needs. People want many things or experiences, but that is not the same as needing them. Only the individual can decide when a want becomes a need, although society often makes judgements as to what is a basic need, and governments implement this through their social welfare and health policies. If governments create or subsidise events, it can be considered to reflect an ideology that considers social and cultural gatherings as a need, or business events as contributing to the public good. Also consider that potential substitution comes into play, because many needs and wants can be met through different means. We do not need to go to a particular event unless it is forced on us (that being an extrinsic motivator). However, peer pressure might make us believe we need to go.

Social Psychology and Leisure Experience Social psychology is the study of the behaviour and experience of people in social settings, which obviously applies to the world of events. In addition, our social relationships and the social contexts of our lives shape values, attitudes, interests, motivation, and what we pay attention to. This combination, or inter-disciplinary branch of social and behavioural science, has had a great influence on leisure theory and therefore on our understanding of leisure experiences. Social Cognition: Bandura (1977, 1986) provided a framework for understanding, predicting, and seeking to change human behaviour, individually or collectively. The theory states that behaviour is a result of the interaction of personal factors, behaviour, and the environment. Social factors influence our beliefs and cognitive competencies. The environment modifies human behaviour, and in turn, people seek to change it. The same set of stimuli might result in different behaviour because people construe the situation differently. Self-efficacy is one of the key personal factors involved in Bandura’s theory. It refers to a person’s belief in their ability to perform a given behaviour successfully, which is different from a person’s actual competency. Self-efficacy influences motivation and leisure behaviour. We

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Event Experiences and Meanings are more likely to engage in activities that we think will produce desired outcomes, and this depends in part on our assessment of how well we can do the activity. Self-efficacy also affects how people respond to failure. In contrast, a person with high efficacy will attribute failure to external factors, whereas a person with low self-efficacy will attribute failure to low ability. People with high self-efficacy are generally of the opinion that they are in control of their own lives, while those with low self-efficacy see their lives as being shaped by others, or by destiny. There are implications for education and training. Self-efficacy increases through mastery or success and diminishes with failure. It can also be increased through example, by learning from others (especially peers and respected persons) how to accomplish a task. Positive encouragement is also important. ‘Social cognition’ is how we interpret, analyse, remember, and use information about the social world. Baron and Byrne (2000, 80) said that we employ schema which are “mental frameworks centring around a specific theme that help us to organize social information”. ‘Social role schemas’ apply to our expectations for the behaviour of ourselves or others in social situations, such as how lecturers act at a conference, how the master of ceremonies behaves at a gala dinner, or what a group of performers does at a concert. Schemas act as filters, saving us time and energy when we size up a social situation, and they are obviously based in part on experience and on cultural conventions. They have perseverance, generally lasting a long time. But they can also result in misconceptions and inappropriate behaviour if the cues we expect are not present, or are misleading. They can have the effect of self-fulfilling prophecy in that they can cause us to behave in ways that confirm them. We tend to notice only the cues consistent with our mental schemas, causing us to act in ways that confirm their validity. Theory of planned behaviour: Originating with the work of Ajzen (1985, 1991), this very influential theory posits that behaviour is driven by behavioural intentions (e.g., “I fully intend to go to that concert”). Intentions are a function of the person’s (a) attitudes towards the behaviour, (b) subjective norms, and (c) perceived behavioural control. The theory states that a person’s intention to do something is the most immediate determinant of behaviour. Attitude towards the behaviour is defined as the person’s feelings about the behaviour (positive or negative), and this stems from beliefs concerning the possible consequences of the behaviour and the desirability of those impacts (e.g., “I think rock concerts are cool places to meet and be with friends, and that is top priority for me”.). ‘Subjective norms’ are the individual’s perception of what others will think, such as if one’s peers will approve of the behaviour (e.g., “All my friends think the X concert is going to be the best, and I want to be accepted by them”.). ‘Perceived behavioural control’ refers to feelings of choice (including having skills, resources, and the opportunity to do something). As in leisure constraint theory (see Chapter 12) people who perceive they do not have the skills, resources, or opportunities are unlikely to form strong intentions to go to events. The theory of planned behaviour applies only to uncoerced, rational behaviour, but not all event attendance or participation will meet those criteria. Extrinsic motives also apply to many events, such as work and social obligations. Irrationality might enter into the decision to attend events when, for example, people are in very strange circumstances (such as foreign cultures) or suffering from altered mental states due to such factors as alcohol, drugs, stress, or illness. Self-determination Theory (see Deci and Ryan, 1985, 2000) is concerned with human motivation, specifically the development and functioning of personality within social situations. Within leisure, this approach asks if people really engage in actions with a full sense of choice. The social environment can either assist or hinder a person’s striving for growth, development, and

Event Experiences and Meanings a coherent sense of self through the satisfaction of basic human needs. When needs are unmet, or thwarted, people can suffer in terms of general well-being and psychological health. Expectation-confirmation theory: Oliver (1977, 1980) reasoned that consumer satisfaction is determined by the interactions of expectations and perceived performance, mediated through positive or negative disconfirmation between expectations and perceived performance. In other words, if the guest expects a high level of service, but perceives it to be poor, it will lead to dissatisfaction. A dissatisfied customer is unlikely to be loyal or to say good things about the service providers. This theory lies at the heart of SERVQUAL and other approaches to defining and measuring satisfaction, which have their origins in consumer behaviour research within marketing (Baron et al., 2014). Many researchers, however, believe that it is more practical and just as valid to measure ‘post-hoc satisfaction’, without a pre-measurement of expectations. Getz et al. (2001) used the post-hoc satisfaction approach in evaluating a surfing event. One convincing argument is that many people show up at events without clear expectations of service or product quality, but they can always determine afterwards if they are satisfied or not. On the other hand, the more experienced the consumer, the more likely they are to hold firm expectations. Leisure Experiences: The nature and scope of leisure studies are reviewed in Chapter 16, including exactly what constitutes leisure and how it is different from work or extrinsically motivated behaviour. What is important here is the way in which we examine event experiences as leisure - even though many events are not intended to be fun. Experience is a fundamental concept in leisure (Mannell and Kleiber, 1997). Those social psychologists argued that we have to examine experience through the interplay of internal psychological dispositions (e.g., perceptions, feelings, emotions, beliefs, attitudes, needs, and personality characteristics) and situational influences that are part of an individual’s social environment (e.g., other people, group norms, human artefacts, and media). As Kleiber (1999) argued, leisure can provide a basis for self-expression and potentially improve the human condition, particularly where the needs and barriers are addressed, and so it is potentially enabling for individuals. Optimal experiences are states of high psychological involvement or absorption in activities or settings. Maslow’s (1968) notion of the ‘peak experience’ (“moments of highest happiness and fulfilment”) and Csikszentmihalyi’s (1975) ‘flow’ (“the best moments of people’s lives”) occur “when a person’s body or mind is stretched to its limits in a voluntary effort to accomplish something difficult and worthwhile” (Csikszentmihalyi, 1990, 3). Mannell and Kleiber (1997) discussed leisure experiences using the concept of ‘immediate conscious experience’ (or stream of consciousness) which, to understand it, requires the monitoring of real-time behaviour. To be genuine leisure, the experience should be accompanied by a sense of freedom, competence, and control. For this reason, we need to understand the immediate conscious experience at events based on: l l

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Anatomy of the experience (i.e., what happened to you? discuss intensity and duration). Moods, emotions, feelings (i.e., self-evaluation of the experience), intensity, relaxation, arousal, and activation (bored/excited, energetic/tired, active/passive, and alert/drowsy). Involvement (i.e., perceived duration; narrow focus of attention; ego-loss). Cognitive components (i.e., ideas, beliefs, thoughts, images/imagination, and meanings attached).

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Anthropology and Experience Theory; Communitas Victor Turner’s works on pilgrimage (1979; Turner and Turner 1978) defined liminality and communitas (1974), drawing from van Gennep (1909), have had a tremendous influence on tourism and Event Studies, including direct incorporation into models of the planned event experience. Whereas liminal experiences are associated with ritual and the ‘sacred’, liminoid experiences are part of the ‘profane’ everyday life, including festivity and carnivalesque, revelry, and role inversions. Liminality and communitas can occur independently of rites of passage, according to Turner, thereby making a clear connection to festivals and carnivals. ‘Communitas’ is Latin for people helping people, or people coming together for the good of the community. Turner stressed unstructured togetherness and a feeling of equality. Communitas can be spontaneous, erupting through joy and celebration, or a more permanent structuring of society – something akin to civil society. Turner (1969, 132) distinguished between three forms of communitas: l

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Normative communitas: communitas organised into a permanent social system.

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Ideological communitas: which can be applied to many utopian social models.

Of these three forms, the existential occurs at events and is desired by many people who attend events. An interesting element of the ability of events to achieve this was reviewed by Stevens and Shin (2014) in terms of the geographical space within public event settings and the meaning derived from these. The degree to which event space is organised and the interaction of people within such spaces affect the encounters and engagement with the event which in turn affects the ability to achieve communitas. People want and need to come together in harmony, and this is reflected in Turner’s (2012) Communitas: The Art of Collective Joy. This leads us to a key question: Can events therefore be a springboard or building block to a higher level of societal communitas? Communitas is a goal of festivals and other cultural celebrations, as bringing people together as equals to share joyful experiences can have the effect of strengthening social bonds and developing a sense of community among members of a group or residents of a place. But it is not confined to culture or festivals, it can be an outcome of any type of social gathering either through conscious programming or as a side-effect.

Event Tourism Experiences Ooi (2005, 53) identified six approaches to identifying and studying tourism experiences. The first derives from cognitive psychology and relates to leisure theory. Preconceived ideas, expectations, and perceptions affect how tourists consume, evaluate, and experience tourism ‘products’. The second approach reflects a great deal of tourism literature, all based on the assumption that travel generates positive experiences. The idea is that tourism is a means to an end, resulting in learning, happiness, and nice memories. In the third approach (again from leisure studies) researchers concentrate on the state of mind and the depth of engagement, or ‘flow’ and ‘optimal experiences’. The fourth approach is ‘phenomenological’, as proposed by Li (2000) to describe the immediacy of personal touristic experiences through rich, reflexive, and intimate data. In the fifth approach, Urry’s (1990, 1995, 2002) concept of the ‘tourist gaze’ is employed, focussing on how travellers notice differences from their own environment and daily life. But because the visitor lacks local knowledge, their experience is a reflection of their own background. In the sixth approach, the theatrical analogy is used, as by Pine and Gilmore in The Experience Economy (1999), arguing that ‘engaging experiences’ depend on the degree to which tourists interact with the product.

Event Experiences and Meanings Ooi (2005, 54) also suggested that tourist experiences are enriched or shaped by ‘mediators’, including guides, DMOs, and the information available. This helps to catch the attention of travellers and even to manage their experiences. Ooi argued that (2005, 55): “Tourism mediators craft tourism experiences by controlling and directing tourists’ attention”. People can only pay attention to one thing at a time, and we are easily overwhelmed by too much information or too many stimuli. When attention shifts, our experience is altered. Individuals are both drawn to different stimuli and react differently to the same stimuli.

Co-Creating Event Experiences One of the main developments emanating from marketing research on the experience economy is the interest in co-creation, as part of the service-dominant logic paradigm (Vargo and Lusch, 2004, 2006, 2008). As Van Winkle and Bueddefeld (2016) argued, it focuses on how satisfying event experiences are constructed based on the concept of value. Holbrook (1999) identified eight experiential types of value: spirituality; ethics; aesthetics; efficiency; excellence; status; esteem; and play. These can be viewed as benefits of attendance and/or participation in events, the values co-created with event organisers, staff, and other participants/guests, or as motivators. Rihova (2013) examined six practices of co-creation observed at music festivals, reflecting the anthropological and leisure perspectives on experiences, namely, connecting; communing; bonding; belonging; amiability; and detaching. These ideas tend to reaffirm Verleye’s (2015) argument, based on social exchange theory, that people put more effort into the activity they undertake because of the return they expect to receive. Azara, Pappas, and Michopoulou (2022), introducing a special issue of event management on co-creation, suggested that it had to be considered alongside codestruction. Various stakeholders acting together, including the audience, are capable of destroying authenticity and local value through the process of commodification.

Guaranteed and Safe Experiences How do we explain the popularity of theme parks and entertainment events, including many cultural productions? One answer is that they provide guaranteed and safe experiences. Their predictability, combined with perceived personal security, assures customers they will get what they expect, even though their expectations are limited in terms of cultural authenticity. In contrast, travel, and many event experiences, are somewhat unpredictable, with plenty of risks. If people are willing to sacrifice spontaneity, cultural authenticity, and surprise for the safe and mundane, that is a valid, reasoned choice. The more highly involved traveller, and the many novelty seekers of the world, will certainly continue to seek out special experiences.

Models of the Event Experience Our conceptual model (see Figure 4.2) is based largely on the social and anthropological literature pertaining to rituals and communitas. It is not intended as a design model, but general design implications can be drawn. At the core of this model is a distinct experiential zone called liminal/liminoid. It is a zone that must be delineated in both spatial and temporal terms. This is a special place because of programming and how it is designed, all in preparation for the guests, viewers, or participants. Designers can make it special through decor, entertainment, activity, and sensory stimulations of all kinds, and they should use Falassi’s (1987) ‘valorisation’ concept

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Event Experiences and Meanings ANTECEDENTS Needs, motives expectations

EVENT EXPERIENCES: THE LIMINAL / LIMINOID ZONE Time out of time; a special place

REVERSION Feeling of loss, renewal, transformation

Cognitive, conative, & affective dimensions of SEPARATION experience modified by level of involvement & Valorisation engagement and entry statements

Changing needs, motives, expectations; Development of event careers (involvement, serious leisure)

Figure 4.2  A Model of the Planned Event Experience to make event-goers aware that they are entering a space/time that has been set aside for their special purposes. Similar concepts can be applied to a virtual event, but they will be lacking in the realm of human touch and interaction. Meaning is conveyed through opening ceremonies, symbolism such as banners or logos, and the theme. Some event experiences can be called sacred (religious, spiritual) and others profane (fun, escapist). However, it should always be a ‘time out of time’, to use Falassi’s terminology – that is, it should be perceived to be outside the normal, beyond routine, and unique. To the extent possible, all those involved with the event should experience the belonging and sharing that defines ‘communitas’. It is easy to think of a special place as an event venue, like an arena, theatre, or convention centre. But it can also be a temporary event space, or a whole community. The question of scale is important because as we move from a small venue to a large public space to an entire community, we have a much more complex and difficult job of design and programming, and a different type of experience. Nevertheless, many communities manage to make themselves festive throughout, or at least at important entrances and meeting places, during the time of special events. Before we get to an event, there is preparation and anticipation. Most people go to an event having some expectations of the experience to be obtained, or at least some foreknowledge that an event is about to be experienced in a certain way. Much research has been conducted on motivation to attend events, especially festivals, and it mostly confirms the ‘seeking–escaping theory’ of Iso-Ahola (1980, 1983) suggesting that people are both getting away from personal and inter-personal stressors while at the same time looking for beneficial, rewarding experiences. Therefore, they will clearly anticipate that an event is going to be out of the ordinary. You could stumble upon an event and be surprised, but even so, there will be a sense of having left somewhere and arrived at some special place. Even where expectations are completely absent (i.e., the event-goer never gave it any thought at all) there still has to be an entrance, in both physical and perceptual terms, that marks a transition from ordinary to extraordinary. For online events, this entrance is mechanistic to begin (e.g., signing into a Zoom meeting), but should be followed by a welcome and orientation. Csikszentmihalyi’s (1975, 1990) ‘theory of flow’ fits into this model. It suggests that people seek ‘optimal arousal’, leading to ‘flow experiences’ which can be characterised by deep involvement,

Event Experiences and Meanings intense concentration, lack of self-consciousness, and transcendence of self. These are intrinsically rewarding experiences. To the extent that designers can facilitate flow, event-goers can be expected to report exhilaration from fantasising, or total immersion in music or activity, a sense of accomplishment (e.g., through athletic achievement, mastery of a skill, or intellectual stimulation) or transformation through an intense emotional or spiritual process. How to foster a high level of involvement is the real challenge, and events that provide only spectacle or entertainment will find this illusive. Liminality is not strictly dependent upon the type of event or venue. This space/time exists in the minds of the attendees and participants, not within the programme or venue itself. It can therefore be entered through the pathways of fantasy (the focus of many theme parties), a willing suspension of disbelief in order to play a role (as in carnival), engagement in new ideas and processes (such as discourse, clinical learning, and team projects), participation with others (a celebration) or any kind of higher-than-usual level of involvement. In the case of flash mobs and other events at the fringe, it is the participants who, according to some unwritten script or external prodding, largely make their own experiences. They are temporarily using (or liberating) space for their purposes, perhaps making a social or political statement in doing so, but quickly returning it to the ordinary. Reversion to normal life should be accompanied by a sense of change, going from the special to the ordinary. There might be a feeling of accomplishment, renewal, transformation, relief, or loss. It is important to feel something at the end, otherwise, what was special or memorable about the experience? It may be possible to feel a sense of loss at the end of conferences, not necessarily because the stimulating programme is over, but because of separation from friends and colleagues. This is the loss of communitas, and it leads to the desire to attend future events. Anyone who is highly involved or emotionally moved by events will experience this loss. It gives meaning to the event, and to our ordinary lives. To the extent that people enjoy events, or at least derive some benefits from attending, they might very well develop an event career. Similar to a ‘travel career’ (Pearce and Lee, 2005), we learn from events and perhaps desire more of the same (becoming a loyal festival-goer), or we crave the uniqueness, even surprises that come from many different types of events (becoming a cultural event tourist), or we want an ever-increasing challenge (being the amateur, competitive athlete). In fact, nostalgia has a clear role to play, as demonstrated by Fairley and Gammon (2006). O’Dell (2005, 133) argued that we must not over-emphasise the disjuncture from ordinary life when we consider liminal or liminoid experiences. His point was that touristic and event experiences can only be special or exceptional when considered in light of one’s ordinary life and experiences. He said: “To a large extent people learn the ropes of ‘experiencing’ through their daily consumption patterns. We also need to develop competencies for experiencing, and this is embodied in the concepts of serious leisure, specialization, and self efficacy”. A related and somewhat expanded model was developed by Richards (2019, 86) based on De Geus, Richards, and Toepoel (2016). This model emphasises that experiences are the result of interactions between event-goers and their physical and social environment (i.e., the event setting), modified by the level of engagement and/or involvement. A variety of experiences can occur, as outcomes, anywhere in the visitor journey - which is represented by the five travel phases of Clawson and Knetsch (1966). A number of conditions are specified, including personal characteristics. It was also noted that their model is similar to those of Falk and Dierking (2011) and Cutler and Carmichael (2010).

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Event Experiences and Meanings Jafari’s (1987) anthropologically based model of the travel experience should also be mentioned in this context. That model depicted six integrated components: Corporation, Emancipation, Animation, Repatriation, Incorporation, and Omission. Travellers (these could be event tourists) were said to move from the ordinary to the non-ordinary and then back again, accompanied by a feeling of freedom (called ‘emancipation’). ‘Animation’ refers to the travel itself, a form of longer-term mobility marked by leaving home for a substantial period of time (at least beyond one’s daily routine) to one or more destinations. The tourist could seek immersion in the destination or simply be a viewer or spectator. ‘Incorporation’ refers to how the tourism experience affects the person when back home, being potentially transformed by travel experiences.

Event Experience Scale (EES) A number of methods can be employed to investigate and quantify event experiences, starting with phenomenological approaches in which the guest or participant is asked to describe what they are doing, thinking, and feeling while actually on-site. This method unfortunately distracts respondents and might very well modify their experience in unpredictable ways. Nevertheless, it has the potential to reveal a great deal about interrelated experiential dimensions. For example, the simple act of eating or drinking at an event is likely to be a social occasion, possibly marked by a heated debate, with entertainment in the background (i.e., at the same time a cognitive, affective, and conative experience). Leisure and event researchers can take advantage of technology to explore experience while it happens. Wearing monitors, research subjects can reveal changes in blood pressure, heart rate, or other indicators of how they are reacting to stimuli or coping with stressors. For survey research (self-completion or interview), De Geus, Richards and Toepoel (2016) developed an 18-indicator Likert scale. The first three dimensions of this scale reflect psychological theory as previously discussed, while the fourth – experiencing novelty – emerged from the research that led to scale development. The 18 indicators raise a number of questions related to what exactly leads to (for example) excitement or learning. The social factor cannot be ignored, as social interaction is a primary motivator for attending events. Elsewhere in this book, we discuss generic and event-specific motivators, and these have to be taken into account when studying event experiences. While feelings of belonging and sharing (i.e., communitas) are likely to dominate certain events where sub-cultures and communities of interest meet, we need to understand what it is about the event that leads to dominant or peak experiences. Coetzee et al. (2019) tested the scale at a sport event and linked results to future intentions. Results suggested that affective and physical engagement were important in creating memorable experiences, and this led to increased participation, support, and commitment towards the event. Coetzee and Pourfakhimi (2020) confirmed the presence of the four basic dimensions of the EES for different types of events in different contexts and found that excitement was the most powerful predictor of behavioural intentions. Biaett and Richards (2020) applied the scale to seven cultural events in different countries, as well as examining antecedents and outcomes, finding the cognitive dimension to be strongest. This finding probably reflects the differences between cultural events and other types where activity is more important.

Event Experiences and Meanings

Virtual Event Experiences As virtuality has increased dramatically, especially for meetings, and as a result of the pandemic for other types of events, questions arise about how satisfying they are to participants, and the nature of the virtual experience. Wreford et al. (2019), through an experiment, learned that VR does provide emotional gratifications. However, they concluded that in its current form, VR does not provide the same social and sensory gratifications as live events. Richards (2022) drew on work by the Atlas Events Group in testing the EES in a range of contexts internationally. It was concluded that there are significant differences between physical and virtual event experiences. Regarding respondents’ perceived experience of virtual events during the pandemic, Richards found that the level of satisfaction was lower than for live events. He suggested that hybrid events could offer a better experience than those which were exclusively digital in nature. Yung et al. (2022) developed a typology of virtual events with implications for tourism, hospitality, and events. Their model is a cube with three dimensions: the reality-virtuality continuum (from completely synthetic interactions, such as gaming, to live social events), location (from live and social to isolated and completely linked by technology), and social presence on a qualitative continuum of low to high, meaning the degree to which participants feel they are together, as opposed to telepresence where users feel they are actually in the virtual environment. Social presence is critical when engagement and interaction are desired (as in a conference), otherwise, participants become mere spectators who can easily tune out the proceedings. Yung et al. (2022), and other commentators, have made a case for expanding virtual events as a way to reduce carbon emissions and achieve other sustainability goals such as improving accessibility for people who cannot easily travel or cannot afford it. To do so requires greater accessibility through equitable provision of the necessary technology, and efforts to improve virtual experiences. Efforts to enhance virtual experiences include the following: l

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Facilitated interaction/networking: chat rooms specifically for remote attendees; speed meetings for face-to-face contacts between remote attendees. Emotional stimulation: guests attend a wedding or other event remotely, but experience the emotions of live attendees. Immersive activities: requiring participants to demonstrate they are paying attention by having them give specific inputs and evaluative feedback; online tests as part of training; submission of sketches or outlines for group consideration (and possibly voting); Q and A at regular intervals. Hybrids: virtual cooking lessons and tastings that provide tangible products, sent to consumers in advance of the lessons; can be combined with destination virtual tours (e.g., a specific winery, wine region, kitchen in a chateau, etc.); after-attendance rewards (gifts, coupons, etc.). Value-adding for virtual participants: e.g., meet the professor, artist, or musician (not available to live attendees); novelty, such as online animations (virtual characters) during events, and the use of avatars for online dating/partying. Surprise: programming or benefits only for digital audiences.

Brown (2021) discussed the development and design of virtual events, with attention to the issues of facilitating immersion and interactions. Technical equipment needed for virtual and hybrid events was detailed. Brown and Drakeley (2023) provided a case study, with teaching notes, on virtual event design.

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Event Experiences and Meanings

E X P E R T O P I N I O N 4 . 1 :   By Valentina Gorchakova and Ekaterina Berdysheva Agility of Business Events: Case Study of SHIFT Business Festival Valentina Gorchakova, PhD, is an experienced academic and marketing professional. Valentina is currently a Senior Lecturer and Programme leader of an online Business and Management BSc programme at the University of Derby, UK. Ekaterina Berdysheva, MSc, is a finance and project management professional. Ekaterina was in charge of international development at SHIFT Business Festival in 2020 and is currently working as events coordinator at Visual Components, a leading developer of 3D simulation software from Finland. SHIFT Business Festival is an annual two-day networking event that combines speaker line-up, workshops, round-table discussions, and expo-like business visibility opportunities. It was founded in 2015 in Turku, Western Finland. The programme has covered global mega-trends and the specifics of the regional business environment. A distinct feature of SHIFT has been its unusual venues, including a medieval castle, a former prison, and an old shipyard. The number of participants has been rising gradually, from around 1,000 people in its first year to 3,000 visitors from more than 40 countries in 2019. As the Covid-19 pandemic was unfolding in 2020 and many events were cancelled, the SHIFT team demonstrated agility by choosing the event design and format that would allow the festival to go ahead under the existing uncertainty of lockdowns and government restrictions. The festival took place on a virtual platform as an online event on 27–28 October 2020. Organisational agility can be viewed as a dynamic capability, i.e., the capacity to sense opportunities and threats and solve problems under changing circumstances (Van Oosterhout et al., 2006; Winby and Worley, 2014) and it is often associated with the speed in responding to changes (Gong and Janssen, 2012). Agility encompasses such processes and activities as marketing, design, organisation, management, and people (Aitken et al., 2002); it can also be seen as an integrated set of behaviours (Hallanbeck, 2016). Agility requires adaptability to emerging circumstances, recognising challenging situations as opportunities for growth and innovation – from the adoption of new technologies to new business models or formats (Doz and Kosonen, 2008). As events are experiential products with both ‘personal’ and ‘social’ dimensions, their marketing can be a demanding, challenging, and a highly creative task (Gorchakova, 2020). Marketing agility requires ‘sensemaking’, i.e. the ability to respond to changing, and sometimes unexpected developments in the marketplace (Kalaignanam et al., 2021; Moi and Cabiddu, 2022) and ‘iteration’ – a continuous adjustment of marketing efforts to meet the changing requirements and needs of the consumers (Hughes and Rajesh, 2021). Agility is also closely associated with collaborative and integrated working environments and continuous innovation (Moi and Cabiddu, 2021a, 2021b). SHIFT festival organisers made changes to the format of the event, initially opting for a hybrid event format that would combine features of online and on-site events. The timeframe of the event was extended from a two-day event to a two-month series of events that started with a kick-off in August on the original dates of the

Event Experiences and Meanings festival, continuing with bi-weekly expert webinars delivered by the festival’s partners, and culminating in the main event in October. The webinars allowed attendees more time to familiarise themselves with the new online format, as well as the themes of the event. The capacity to sense opportunities and pursue innovative solutions in programming demonstrates an agile approach to event management of the festival. To maintain the traditional SHIFT atmosphere where people can walk around and “bump into each other”, a 3D virtual platform was chosen as an event ‘venue’. Event participants could join the event as avatars and could move around the 3D festival between locations, talking with other attendees via voice or text chat. To facilitate networking for participants, a business-to-business ‘matchmaking’ tool was introduced. These decisions showed agile marketing whereby event organisers were making adjustments to meet participants’ expectations and needs. The main event took place on the virtual platform VirBELA (see Plate 4.1). Presenters delivered their keynotes as avatars or joined a live broadcast from a studio in Turku. About 20 showcased their products and services in the VirBELA expo hall through customised virtual booths of four different sizes. There were a number of challenges that the team had to address in the run-up to the event. Just three weeks before the main hybrid event, the restrictions for live events in Finland were tightened and it became impossible to organise the on-site part of the festival that was originally planned. Following the action plans that had been developed for different scenarios and contingencies, the festival was moved to a fully online, rather than hybrid, mode. All changes were communicated to the participants promptly. Those who got on-site tickets joined the fully virtual event in 2020 and got complimentary passes to the next year’s festival.

Plate 4.1  SHIFT 2020 Fair: Artificial Intelligence Session Photo Credit: Image provided by Valentina Gorchakova

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Event Experiences and Meanings Another challenge emerged from the technological side. Less than a month before the event it transpired that the live stream was not possible to be brought directly into the platform due to compatibility issues of the camera stream and the browsers. This was resolved by the production team by using a video mixer on a separate computer that ‘tricked’ the VirBELA platform into believing this was the webcam. On the programming side, getting all the speakers to submit their materials on time and in formats compatible with the software was another task for the event organisers. Presenters joining live from a studio in Finland had a different technological set-up. It required significant efforts from the production team to mitigate and resolve all the concerns that were new due to the online format, as they were emerging. The way in which SHIFT organisers were addressing continuous challenges while considering the overall event experience for the participants demonstrated their commitment to the shared purpose (Winby and Worley, 2014) and ‘visionary management’ (Malaska and Holstius, 1999). Organising an event in a complex and highly uncertain context of the global pandemic required agility, commitment, and dedication of all members of the team. The festival and networking events were attended by over 1,000 visitors from more than ten different countries in two days, with more than 300 business meetings having taken place. The VR format managed to engage attendees, who stayed at the event platform for a longer time as compared to face-to-face webinars and were able to meet more people. Participants appreciated the uniqueness of the experience, such as shaking hands and speaking in groups, as well as the opportunity to move between different event locations, the ability to virtually dance with the avatar at a beach after-party to streamed live music, or to virtually do a boat trip with other attendees. It was important for the organisers to keep the event running and relevant and to maintain the values and spirit of the festival. The team demonstrated agility across all areas of event management, from event design to team management, expanding the network of stakeholders and embracing innovation in uncertain and challenging times. Despite the changes that had to be introduced, the SHIFT festival managed to maintain continuity with the previous iterations. There is a potential for future research to explore various ways that agility can manifest itself in specific areas of event management, as well as investigate best practices such as new technologies implementation, event operations, event marketing, and event leadership.

References Aitken, J., Christopher, M., & Towill, D. (2002). Understanding, implementing and exploiting agility and leanness. International Journal of Logistics: Research & Applications, 5 (1), 59–74. Doz, Y. L., & Kosonen, M. (2008). Fast Strategy: How Strategic Agility Will Help You Stay Ahead of the Game. Harlow: Pearson Education. Gong, Y., & Janssen, M. (2012). From policy implementation to business process management: Principles for creating flexibility and agility. Government Information Quarterly, 29 (Suppl. 1), S61–S71.

Event Experiences and Meanings Gorchakova, V. (2020). Creative marketing. In V. Antchak & O. Ramsbottom (eds.), The Fundamentals of Event Design, pp. 153–176. Abingdon: Routledge Hallenbeck, G. (2016). Learning Agility: Unlock the Lessons of Experience. Greensboro NC: Center for Creative Leadership. Hughes, N., & Rajesh, C. C. (2021). Commentary: Trajectories and twists: Perspectives on marketing agility from emerging markets. Journal of Marketing, 85 (1), 59–63. Kalaignanam, K., Tuli, K. R., Kushwaha, T., Lee, L., & Gal, D. (2021). Marketing agility: The concept, antecedents, and a research agenda. Journal of Marketing, 85 (1), 35–58. Malaska, P., & Holstius, K. (1999). Visionary management. Foresight, 1 (4), 353–361. Moi, L., & Cabiddu, F. (2021a). Leading digital transformation through an agile marketing capability: The case of Spotahome. Journal of Management and Governance, 25 (4), 1145–1177. Moi, L., & Cabiddu, F. (2021b). An agile marketing capability maturity framework. Tourism Management, 86, 104347. Moi, L., & Cabiddu, F. (2022). Navigating a global pandemic crisis through marketing agility: Evidence from Italian B2B firms. The Journal of Business & Industrial Marketing. [Online] 37 (10), 2022–2035. Van Oosterhout, M., Waarts, E., van Heck, E., & van Hillegersberg, J. (2006). Business agility: Need, readiness and alignment with IT-strategies. In K. C. Desouza (ed.), Agile Information Systems: Conceptualization, Construction And Management, pp. 52–69. Newton, MA: Butterworth Heinemann. Winby, S., & Worley, C. G. (2014). Management processes for agility, speed, and innovation. Organizational Dynamics, 43 (3), 225–234.

Meanings Attached to Events and Event Experiences An important point has already been made: the purpose, meanings, and intended experience designed by event producers might not correspond with the purpose of visitors, the experiences they have and remember, and the meanings they attach to the event and their experiences. Therefore, when it comes to evaluating experiences, measuring perceived quality and satisfaction, or questioning engagement and future intentions, it has to be kept in mind that these are different from assigning meaning. The whole point of taking a family to a festival, for example, might be to have quality time together. The personal meaning is therefore linked to the motivation, but the same family might assign meaning to the festival as a reflection of cultural authenticity and take pride in their community for being the host. When we explore value, we encounter the concept of utility (the value people put on it because of benefits obtained, or because it offers them choices), versus value assigned because it preserves traditions or has value for others or the community in general. Utility relates to personal meanings, the others are meanings given to events based on assessments of value for others. Event experiences can mean as little to us as fleeting entertainment (not important and not memorable), or they can be profoundly transforming. To a community or society, events can have simple commercial meaning, as part of the entertainment industry, or they can be significant economic and place marketing value creators. From a cultural perspective, events can be reinforcing or threatening. From an economic and tourism point of view, events are products to sell, and they must generate tangible as well as image benefits. And to corporations that sponsor or produce events, they have importance in terms of marketing, branding and corporate responsibility.

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Event Experiences and Meanings Meanings attached to planned events are at once anticipatory (as in, “We are going to the festival to celebrate our heritage”.), evolving (e.g., “The event itself was responsible for changing everyone’s attitudes toward the arts”.), and reflective (such as, “Looking back, it was clearly an event with great economic and political importance”.). Historians, and critical researchers, help to attach meanings to events. So do political ideologies and the interactions of all the stakeholders involved. Meanings that are political and societal might not impress the individual, who is, after all, able to formulate personal interpretations and meanings for any event. But, if events have little or no meaning of importance to people, they will not attend. If events lack social, cultural, and economic meaning, who will support them?

Personal Meanings The meanings that individuals attach to event experiences are personal constructs, which can be defined as a level of cognitive significance that represents how we understand the world around us. In effect, we construct reality in our minds to explain experiences. Personal construct theory posits that people attribute meanings to their experiences, and each person therefore has different experiences. Kelly (1955) theorised that a person’s experiences consist of “a set of personally construed events” that are not necessarily valid. That is, we might not get it right – they are subjective and subject to change. Based on our experiences we can anticipate and predict future experiences, which of course influences what we expect from a planned event. Epting and Neimeyer (1984, 2) argued that these personal constructs “serve not only as interpretation of past events but as hypotheses about events yet to be encountered”. Botterill and Crompton (1996) used personal construct theory to examine leisure/tourist experiences and concluded that emotional states are integral to ‘optimal experiences’ as defined by interviewees. At one level, we can say that personal meanings relate directly to personal needs, the motives expressed for attending events, and the anticipated benefits to be obtained through the planned event experience. Ask yourself how you give meaning to your life through work, leisure, and family. Where do events fit into that meaning system? The rites of passage that mark our lives are bound to be memorable, and full of personal meaning, helping to define who we are. But most of them, like birthdays, anniversaries, weddings, and graduations, are also social occasions, with substantial meaning to families and wider social networks. Experience marketers have also realised that they must engage consumers in events that hold meaning for them. Diller et al. (2006, 3) in Making Meaning argued that companies seeking competitive advantages have to provide meaning to consumers through the products and services being offered. This is similar to the concept of services as value creators. The personal benefits and meanings can be quite varied, from communitas and self-­esteem to personal development and transformation. Improved health and learning are often important. People might not be able to articulate the meanings they assign to event experiences. They might not think of meanings at all. You could ask them what benefits they expected and derived from the experience, and that comes close. They can be asked to respond to a list of statements or adjectives about the event to see if they found it memorable, transforming, or meaningful in terms of the above-mentioned dimensions. People want to give meaning to their experiences and to their lives in general, but expressing those meanings requires deep thought and a good vocabulary! This is a real challenge for researchers and theorists.

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Social Meanings These are meanings given to events by social groups, communities, and society as a whole. Individuals are not only affected by these meanings but are also able to make their own interpretations of events. Event types or forms, as previously discussed, are to a large extent social constructs, with collectively assigned and generally recognised meanings. Abrahams (1987) noted that the way we frame or attach meaning to experiences is embedded in social and cultural order. Our most popular religious holidays and civic celebrations have generally accepted meanings. For many people, the sacred might have given way to the profane for holidays like Christmas, nevertheless, society as a whole recognises the social and personal benefits of these holidays, despite some differences in meanings attached to them. Forms of events, like festivals and sport competitions, are expected to conform to widely held expectations regarding where and when they are held, who attends, accepted and expected behaviours, and even their programmic elements. Going beyond the norms, as innovative event designers do, risks alienating or at least mystifying elements of the potential audience. If the changes are accepted, perhaps over a long period of time, then they are added to the social constructs we hold. We can call this process the making of tradition, or the establishment of social norms and conformity.

Social and political constructs Many cities and countries have used mega events to gain legitimacy and prestige, draw attention to their accomplishments, foster trade and tourism, or help open their countries to global influences. This is much more than place marketing – it is more like national identity-building. Whitson and Macintosh (1996, 279) argued that countries and cities compete for mega-sport events to demonstrate their strengths and modernity. Julie Russell (2004) examined the political meanings attached to the National Eisteddfod of Wales, which has a tradition dating back to 1176. She found that this annual competition of music and poetry is simultaneously an arena for performing arts, a forum for preserving the Welsh language, a tourist attraction, a trade fair, and a platform for political acts of Welsh significance. Derrett (2004, 48) discussed how communities share their culture through festivals and events, and how the interdependencies of residents, place, and visitors help establish a valued sense of community and place. The environments are inclusive, and safe and embody communally agreed-upon values and aspirations.

Cultural Meanings Quinn (2000, 264) concluded that: If at the heart of every festival are a place and a place-based community actively reproducing its shared values and belief systems, there is an important sense in which these cultural meanings are intentionally produced to be read by the outside world. A related challenge stems from the fact that meanings are easily and often contested, based on different values and belief systems within the same community. So, while the festival is a text on culture, it is often an ambiguous one.

Sport as cultural expression “Games and sports, like religious rituals and festivals, can be interpreted as reflections of broader social relationships and cultural ideals” (Mitler et al., 2004, 348). To Geertz (1993) they were models

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Event Experiences and Meanings of culture depicting key values and ideals, such as fair play or friendly competition. Sport can also have more sinister or controversial significance, reflecting or encouraging aggression and dominance of one group over another, or territoriality and cultural imperialism. Many people see elements of a national culture in their sports, and in the emphasis they place on sports. We should be asking, does policy regarding sport reflect or shape culture?

Authentic experiences There has been a great deal of debate about what an authentic experience or event really is, and if it is even desired or understood by tourists or event-goers. We are speaking here of cultural authenticity, which is really the cultural meaning attached to an event. Boorstin’s famous (1961) description of ‘pseudo events’ was really a commentary on mass tourism, as he believed that culture was being commoditised and that many events were created to cater to tourists’ expectations. This belief contrasts with those of MacCannell (1973) and others, who believed that people sought out authentic cultural experiences because they lived shallow or uninteresting lives. Cohen (1979) argued that different types of tourists require different experiences, which hold different meanings, all of which are mediated by culture. He distinguished two major streams – those searching for authenticity (or on a spiritual quest) called ‘modern pilgrimage’, and those seeking pleasure. Wang (1999) identified four types of approaches to authenticity. ‘Object-related authenticity’ pertains to the true nature of the event as a cultural expression. In this context, event producers have to ensure that their performances, design features, and other programmic elements are genuine reflections of the culture being displayed. But who is to judge this? ‘Constructive authenticity’ is projected onto the event in terms of images, expectations, preferences, and beliefs, meaning it is a social construction rather than an inherent attribute. Visitors might be fooled, and they might not care if the event is not a true cultural expression. Event producers have considerable scope for entertaining people, but should they be concerned about the meanings attached by visitors? Does the event producer have an obligation (moral, or in terms of marketing) to ensure that the event is not misperceived? To Wang, ‘existential authenticity’ occurs because whatever the nature of the event (authentic in cultural terms, or not), event consumers might have their own, meaningful experiences which they interpret as being authentic. The theory is that authentic experiences enable the discovery of one’s true self. This presents a real challenge for the event producers, as they must acknowledge that their programme is (merely?) a setting or background for desired, highly individualised experiences. In a variation, Timothy and Boyd (2006) discussed ‘relative authenticity’, saying that authenticity is a subjective notion varying from person to person, depending on our social conditioning. Meaning is not derived from the event, in this interpretation, but from the interaction of event and visitor-created meanings. Brooks and Soulard (2022) said existential authenticity “...can be understood as individual performances as part of the wider social performances of authentication because individuals regroup themselves with others into communities that shares the same belief about an experience they perceive as authentic”. In this way, authenticity is a collective endeavour. ‘Postmodern authenticity’, said Wang, involves the justification of the contrived or imitation. Therefore, according to Rickly (2022), it is associated with cynicism. This involves the justification of staged authenticity as a substitute for the real thing for the purpose of either protecting something sensitive, such as a community or tradition, or enhancing visitor experiences. Fantasy, simulations, and various uses of technology might add to perceived authenticity and enjoyment.

Event Experiences and Meanings Rickly’s (2022) comprehensive review of the concept from a tourism perspective covered recent theoretical additions to the authenticity literature. A phenomenological approach has attracted some researchers to attempt to extend the existential approach. More relevant to Event Studies is the performative approach which has particular relevance to studies of audience participation and storytelling. Lastly, Rickly (2022) discussed a small and recent approach called ‘psychoanalytic’ which incorporates consideration of self-identity and alienation. In this view, authenticity is a fantasy that cannot be realised, but nevertheless motivates people. Brooks and Soulard (2022) spoke of ‘cool authentication’. It is “typically an explicit, formal, or official act that declares something to be authentic” and that fact makes it open to controversy and possibly the need for negotiation. “Hot authentication, on the other hand, is informal, collective and iterative”. In this light, the researchers studied the Burning Man Festival during the pandemic when it had been officially cancelled but many people showed up anyway. He, Ma, and Zhang (2023) reviewed the literature on authenticity, concentrating on tourism, event, and brand authenticity. Their research specifically examined the perceived authenticity of event brands, with regard to consistency, uniqueness, and integrity. Their findings suggest that perceptions affect travel intentions, with event image being a mediating factor. The conclusion we are left with is that authenticity is a theoretically difficult concept. Our position is that when it comes to determining what is authentic or not, only the cultural groups being represented, or doing the performance, are qualified to judge. Within cultures there often rages a debate about whether modern performances are authentic and justifiable, which also raises the issue of power and how it can be used to put a label on an object or event as being authentic or inauthentic. From the consumer’s perspective, perceived authenticity and a positive image can be important in motivating travel to events.

Contested culture, stakeholders, and legitimacy Will all stakeholders in a community agree on core values and what is to be celebrated? In fact, culture and its representations are often contested. To examine this issue, Crespi-­Vallbona and Richards (2007) interviewed many stakeholders in Catalonia, finding that there were common issues surrounding festivals in that region. Cultural identity was the strongest and most common theme, reflecting this region’s long struggle to establish a national identity. This was a binding factor, even though differences in meanings were evident. Nevertheless, the researchers observed a tension between the local and global perspectives on events, and there was concern for preserving cultural integrity when events were also expected to serve political, economic, and social goals. They observed that “...stakeholders tend to differ more in the meanings attached to concepts such as identity, with policy makers exhibiting a greater emphasis on economic and political issues, whereas cultural producers are more concerned with social aspects of identity” (Crespi-Vallbona and Richards, 2007, 103).

Economic Meanings To a large extent, the economic meanings attached to events relate to event tourism and the roles of attraction, catalyst, animator, image-maker, and place marketer (see Chapter 15). These meanings are shaped by politicians and industry, rather than the general public or travellers themselves. Many events are also considered to be part of the entertainment or culture industries, or perhaps the creative industries, and these represent economic meanings. Although many events are within the realm of arts and culture, they do have to be managed

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Event Experiences and Meanings as businesses. This introduces a tension between the values of arts/culture on the one hand and the potential for hard-nosed management or commercialisation on the other. Ideally, the economic and arts/cultural meanings can be brought into balance. Sports as big business is a recurring theme. For example, Rozin (2000) described Indianapolis as a ‘classic case’ of how sports can generate a civic turnaround. Sports Business Market Research Inc. (2000, 167) observed that in the 1980s and 1990s American cities “put heavy emphasis on sports, entertainment and tourism as a source of revenue for the cities”. Gratton and Kokolakakis (1997) believed that in the UK sports events had become the main platform for economic regeneration in many cities. Within the corporate world, it is now fashionable to think of a brand in terms of relationships, with ‘live communications’ or ‘event experiences’ building and sustaining these relationships between company and customer. In this context, planned events are brand-building tools, and the experiences have to be evaluated in terms of how they meet corporate marketing aims. There is a growing competition to attract and engage customers this way, so events will tend to have a short life cycle. Something new will always be needed. When companies practice corporate responsibility, their participation in events takes on new meanings. To the extent that corporations show commitment to the community and the environment out of altruism or necessity, events can be expressions of that commitment. Contemporary consumers and lobby groups expect companies to behave responsibly, and that should lead to something of a reversal in the trend towards viewing participation in events as just marketing.

Enduring Meaning Ryan’s (2014) concept of ‘enduring meaning’ is related to a number of variables, such as the level of interest or commitment a person or community has in an event. The meaning one attaches to an event or event experience might not last, and might not be considered important. Moscardo (2010) summarised the literature on effective and rewarding customer and tourist experiences, and this body of knowledge is easily adaptable to event design and understanding of meanings (see Table 4.1). Her discussion is in the context of the importance of storytelling and themes for tourist experiences. Stories are one form of thematic interpretation. Compare Moscardo’s factors to the list of features that help make events special, to the elements of style, and discussions of ego involvement and serious leisure. Also, consider which of these reflect generic versus targeted benefits. A number of event-specific references have been added by the authors. Table 4.1  Factors Associated with Effective and Rewarding Customer and Tourist Experiences Factors

References Specific to Events (or Highly Applicable)

Theme: strong, clear, and consistent, supported by design and ‘servicescape’

Themed events: Janiskee (1990); Goldblatt (2011); Targeting through theming: Getz (2005); Developing the theme: Van der Wagen (2008); Getz et al. (2001) on service mapping/servicescapes; Bruwer and Kelley (2015); O’Dell (2005) on experiencescapes (continued)

Event Experiences and Meanings Table 4.1  Continued Factors

References Specific to Events (or Highly Applicable)

Story or narrative: allows customers to play a desirable role or create their own stories to tell others

John Deighton (1992) on narratives in performance; Cruikshank (1997) on a storytelling festival; Mossberg (2008), on storytelling in hospitality; Moscardo (2010) Boorstin (1961); Greenwood (1972, 1989); Perceived authenticity: access to real MacCannell (1973); Buck (1977); Papson objects, places, and people (i.e., objective (1981); Cohen (1988); Getz (1998b); Sofield authenticity); genuine interactions with and Li (1998); Wang (1999); Robinson others in the setting; and opportunities for et al. (2004); Xie (2003, 2004); Picard and activities that reflect one’s true self (i.e., Robinson (2006); McCartney and Osti existential authenticity) (2007); Gilmore and Pine (2007); Knox (2008); Matheson (2008); Robinson and Clifford (2012); Brida et al. (2013); Park, Choi, and Lee (2019); Rickly (2022); He, Ma and Zhang (2023) Interactive, participatory, and engaging: Hilliard 2006, on meeting planning; Harvey customers as co-creators of the experience et al. 1998, on exhibits; Ralston et al. (2007); Pine and Gilmore (1999) – on co-creation: Bjorner and Berg (2012); Woratschek et al. (2017); Azara et al. (2022); Pernecky (2023) Uniqueness: rarity, novelty, and surprise – On surprise: Schechner (1988); Pine and Gilmore (1999); Pettersson and Getz (2009) – On uniqueness: Nicholson and Pearce (2001); Ralston et al. (2007); Getz (2005); Foster and Robinson (2010) Easy to access: easy to get to, move around On accessibility: Severt et al. (2007); for and understand (i.e. legibility) disabled: Darcy and Harris (2003); on legibility and site design: Getz (2005) Multisensory Harvey et al. 1998, discovered they could more than double the time visitors spent at exhibits by making them interactive and multisensory; Toraldo (2013); Duffy and Mair (2018) Emotive Botterill and Crompton (1996): emotional states are integral to ‘optimal experiences’; Russell and Lanius (1984): the same stimulus can generate widely different affective appraisals of settings; Matheson (2008); Nelson (2009); Huang et al. (2012) on mood; Sharma and Nayak (2018); Stadler et al. (2018); Wood and Kenyon (2018) Opportunities to be social Fairley (2003) and Fairley and Gammon (2006), on nostalgia and shared experiences of sport fans; Coghlan and Filo (2013) on connectedness (continued)

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Event Experiences and Meanings Table 4.1  Continued Factors

References Specific to Events (or Highly Applicable)

Personal relevance: making connections to personal history; can be personalised; total immersion in the setting

– mindfulness at events: Van Winkle and Backman (2009) – immersion and psychological flow: Harvey et al. (1998); O’Grady (2013) – Berridge (2012a) on experiencing events

Learning opportunities

– learning at conferences: Hilliard (2006); Lee and Back (2009) – evaluation of an event’s educational goals: Gitelson et al. (1995) – visitor desire for interpretation: Xie (2004) – at museums: Packer and Ballantyne (2005).

Source: Adapted and expanded from Moscardo (2010).

STUDY GUIDE

Readers should go through the first section of this chapter, preferably in a group discussion, and consider how they experience events of different kinds, and in general how they use the term experience. This exercise serves as an introduction to more theoretical views on the nature and meaning of human experience, especially leisure and event experiences. Read the theory in conjunction with the profiles of foundation disciplines and closely related fields in the later chapters of this book. Consider meanings in conjunction with stakeholders and stakeholder management, and how each stakeholder might experience events in different ways. There are many design implications arising from our discussions of experience – they will be relevant again in the design chapter. STUDY QUESTIONS l

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What are the behavioural (conative), emotional (affective), and mental (cognitive) dimensions of experience? Why are corporations so interested in event experiences, within the context of the experience economy? Consider various corporate events, as well as sponsorship at events, and how they attempt to make meaning. Needs and wants, what’s the difference? Do people need events? Describe the model of event experiences; specifically, define ‘liminal’ and ‘liminoid’ in this context, drawing on anthropological theory. How do the concepts of ‘optimal arousal’ and ‘flow’ relate to the planned event experience? How would you explain self-actualisation and peak experiences? Any examples from your own experiences? Expectation-Confirmation Theory has implications for programme and service quality evaluation. How? In what ways can event experiences be ‘memorable’ and ‘transforming’?

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Use the concepts of ‘personal construct’ and ‘social construct’ to explain various meanings attached to events. Communitas is a concept central to social event experiences. Define it, and give examples of how it might be facilitated. What is meant by ‘cultural authenticity’ and why is it important in Event Studies? FURTHER READING

Diller, S., Shedroff, N., & Rhea, D. (2006). Making Meaning. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson. Gilmore, J., & Pine, J. (2007). Authenticity: What Consumers Really Want. Boston, MA: Harvard Business School Press. Chodor, B. (2020). Transitioning to Virtual and Hybrid Events: How to Create, Adapt, and Market an Engaging Online Experience. New York: John Wiley & Sons.

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Celebration Events and Experiences

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

For each major type of event, be able to explain the following: l

The meaning, and various expressions of celebration.

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Different connotations associated with each event type.

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How they are studied in the foundation disciplines and within Event Studies.

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Experiences associated with each type: festivals, carnivals, commemorations, parades, and other forms of cultural celebration.

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Hallmarks of each type, these being their main delimiting characteristics or elements of style.

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Issues for planners, managers, and policymakers.

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Why celebrations can be controversial and their meanings contested.

Introduction Our purpose in this chapter and the next is to profile each type, including examples, by highlighting their essential characteristics. This refers to both the experiences associated with each type, and their hallmark elements of style. Virtual event experiences have already been discussed, as have foundation theories and generic models. In this chapter, we focus on the very broad category of cultural celebrations, with Chapter 6 concluding the profiling of major event types by examining business-related events, sports, and several other types. Chapter 6 also includes a section on the experiences of different types of stakeholders, as these are important for designers, programmers, and those who provide hospitality. DOI: 10.4324/9781003374251-5

Celebration Events and Experiences Celebration has several connotations: l

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A joyful occasion; special festivities to mark some happy event; a joyous diversion; to observe a day or event with ceremonies of respect, festivity, or rejoicing (such as Thanksgiving celebrations). Solemnisation (the public performance of a sacrament or solemn ceremony with all appropriate rituals, such as to celebrate mass or a marriage).

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To extol, praise, or acclaim.

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To make widely known.

Synonyms for to celebrate include: to commemorate, honour, or distinguish. Cultural celebrations are solemn or joyous events that have meaning to large populations and to sub-cultures. They are separated from entertainment by the cultural values being expressed, although the boundaries are not rigid. They are also often contested with regard to values and meanings. Consisting of festivals, carnivals, heritage commemorations, parades, and religious rites and rituals, the study of cultural celebrations draws heavily from cultural anthropology. This is one of the oldest and best-established approaches to Event Studies, focusing on the roles and meanings of festivity and celebration in, and across, cultures. The event’s theme suggests what is to be celebrated, although in many cases it is the community itself that is the object of celebrations. In all cultural events, we should be concerned with the concepts of communitas and authenticity, and what they mean in experiential terms. Cultural tourism experiences in general are all about seeking knowledge, learning, experiencing understanding something new and appreciating some aspects of culture – both the traveller’s and that of the destination. The cultural tourist or cultural event-goer wants to engage emotionally and cognitively with places, people, and dimensions of lifestyle, including tangible things like historic sites, cultural performances, food and beverages, or meeting local people, and with intangible aspects including the symbolism of art and architecture. Simply sightseeing, or passively enjoying entertainment or spectacle, does not necessarily constitute a cultural experience, although it depends on how the individual perceives it. Celebrations and commemorations in general foster belonging and sharing among a family, social group, community, or nation. Values come to the fore, and a clear sense of place is usually present.

Festivals Although it does not do justice to the richness and diversity of meanings attached to festival, we propose the following simple definition:

Festivals are themed, public celebrations.

To elaborate, consider Falassi’s definition. In Time Out of Time: Essays on the Festival (1987, 2), the sociologist suggested that festivals were a social phenomenon found in virtually all human cultures, and that in modern English the term has several meanings: l l

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A sacred or profane time of celebration, marked by special observances. The annual celebration of a notable person or event, or (of) the harvest of an important product. A cultural event consisting of a series of performances of works in the fine arts, often devoted to a single artist or genre.

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A fair.

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Generic gaiety, conviviality, and cheerfulness.

Falassi (1987, 2) argued that in the social sciences, festival means: ...a periodically recurrent, social occasion in which, through a multiplicity of forms and a series of coordinated events, participate directly or indirectly and to various degrees, all members of a whole community, united by ethnic, linguistic, religious, historical bonds, and sharing a world-view. Both the social function and the symbolic meaning of the festival are closely related to a series of overt values that the community recognizes as essential to its ideology and worldview, to its social identity, its historical continuity, and to its physical survival, which is ultimately what festivals celebrate. The term festival is much overused, and often misused. Some so-called festivals are nothing more than commercial promotions or parties. Indeed, festivity is often used in the same way as “having a good time”. Many community festivals are celebrations of the host community in all its diversity. Jepson and Clarke (2014, 3) proposed the following definition for community festivals: Themed and inclusive community event or series of events which have been created as the result of an inclusive community planning process to celebrate the particular way of life of people and groups in the local community with emphasis on particular space and time. Festivals should not be simply a public entertainment programme, or a special time for fun and activities – the forms of celebration and the meanings should be clearly communicated. Many articles on festivals have been assembled on the Routledge Handbook of Festivals (2019), and in the introduction, Mair emphasised “…festivals hold multifaceted roles in society, spanning economic development, tourism benefits, social outcomes and others” and they are therefore deserving of continued and serious research efforts. The handbook explored these key themes: definitions and roles; sustainability; management; marketing; strategic uses; experiences; types; cultural perspectives; and futures. The reason sociologists and anthropologists have spent so much effort studying festivals is that they reveal much about culture and the functioning of societies. Turner (1982) recognised that people have a need to set aside times and places for celebration where they are co-present. Eagleton (1981), Hughes (1999), and Ravenscroft and Mateucci (2002) thought festivals and carnivals provide a socially sanctioned forum for unleashing social tensions that would otherwise prove destructive. Ekman (1999), Farber (1983), and Geertz (1993) saw festivals as socially sustaining devices through which people express identities, connect with their place, and communicate with the outside world. Manning (1983, 4) argued that festivals and parades provide a rich ‘text’, the reading of which provides much knowledge about local culture and community life. His view on celebration was that it is a performance entailing the “dramatic presentation of cultural symbols”. Celebration is also ‘public, with no social exclusion’ and is therefore participatory entertainment. The festival experience has been studied in depth. Falassi (1987, 3) noted: At festival times, people do something they normally do not; they abstain from something they normally do; they carry to the extreme behaviours that are usually regulated by measure; they invert patterns of daily social life. Reversal, intensification, trespassing, and abstinence are the four cardinal points of festive behaviour.

Celebration Events and Experiences This description demonstrates a relationship between carnival and festival, but as we examine later, carnival has other dimensions. The two forms are sometimes indistinguishable. The building blocks of festivals can all be considered ritual acts, or rites since they happen within an exceptional frame of time and space, and their meaning is considered to go beyond their literal and specific aspects. Falassi (1987, 4) expressed it this way: The framing ritual that opens the festival is one of valorization (which for religious events has been called sacralization) that modifies the usual and daily function and meaning of time and space. To serve as the theatre of the festive events an area is reclaimed, cleared, delimited, blessed, adorned, forbidden to normal activities. Similarly, daily time is modified by a gradual or sudden interruption that introduces ‘time out of time’, a special temporal dimension devoted to special activities. Geographical research on festivals has viewed them as contested spaces where symbolic practices (a parade, for example) are used to consolidate or resist prevailing norms and values. An example is Sydney’s Mardi Gras parade, which reveals “the different ways bodies, emotions, sexuality and spatiality become entwined within the annual rhythms of this mega-event” (Waitt and Stapel, 2011, 197). As Hall and Page (2012) argued, “this [contestation] is especially the case in geographical settings where events characterise the out-of-home forms of leisure (as opposed to the in-home forms except for where they are televised and consumed within the home). What characterises the event and its significance is the way it transforms everyday living and also serves as a means to reinterpret and represent locality and identity”. In the case of festivals, Waterman (1998, 56) succinctly conveyed these points, arguing that: ...A conventional approach to festivals in human geography in which the arts festival was little more than a transient cultural event with a measurable impact on the landscape, environment and economy might simply have been mapped or modelled . . . But festivals are cultural artefacts which are not simply bought and consumed but which are also accorded meaning through their active incorporation into people’s lives . . . They epitomise the representation of contemporary accumulation through spectacle. Waterman (1998) highlighted the significant role of place in the spectacle of events and their meaning (Olds and Ley 1988), building on the work of Jackson (1988) who described the ­Notting Hill Carnival in London as a vehicle for expression of underlying political tensions. In contrast, Richards (1996) argued that in the 1970s, festivals were recognised as being catalysts for arts development at the local level. Quinn (2006, 291) concluded that in Ireland, festivals over the previous 35 years expanded venue infrastructure, advanced community animation, developed local resources, expanded business in arts and related areas, and developed tourist audiences. Festivalisation, discussed earlier, is a term used in reference to the strategic employment of festivals in place marketing and tourism promotion, as in the festivalisation of many historic cities (see, for example, Richards, 2007). Not all observers see this as a positive process. Robinson et al. (2004) discussed how festivals, supposedly reflecting local and ethnic culture, have become part of cultural tourism. However, many are ‘placeless’ and created just for tourism, giving rise to questions about authenticity and appropriateness. The social meanings of festivals in contemporary economic and cultural life are therefore deserving of more attention. This discourse has been gaining momentum, as indicated in the books Festivals, Tourism and Social Change (Picard and Robinson, 2006) and Festival Places: Revitalising Rural Australia (Gibson and Connell, 2011). In the Handbook of Festivals (Mair, 2019), there is a section devoted to the strategic use of festivals and others to experiences and cultural perspectives on festivals.

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Celebration Events and Experiences More and more so-called festivals are really entertainment productions, so much so that we argue that many young people only know festivals as outdoor music concerts. The behaviour of attendees is more like carnival, with revelry being the object. There are still festival-like elements to the experience, however, as generators of communitas. As well, many festivals have been created for their instrumentalist values, such that they are no longer authentic reflections of community or culture, but of policy and strategy. O’Sullivan et al. (2009) observed that in Wales local/community events are driven by socio-cultural and also economic purposes when it comes to government involvement. The vast majority are local, and oriented towards residents. Economic impact assessments are the dominant form of evaluation, so there is an evident mismatch between the stated purpose and the impacts measured.

Festival Types Festivals come in many styles, meaning distinctive ways of doing things. Combinations of setting, programming, theming, and management make each festival production unique in some ways, although popular ones often try to replicate their core features while also innovating and responding to demand. The British Arts Festivals Association provided a typology: music, dance, visual, theatre, film, comedy, and street arts. It is possible to subdivide these themes. Note that they are categorised by artistic content, not by function (are they tourism-oriented, for example, or completely devoted to fostering an art form?), setting (indoor theatre versus outdoors, free or ticketed), or programme (e.g., competitive versus invitational). Other popular festival types pertain to science, food and beverages, literature, and arts for children and the family. Festivals with heritage and religious themes are widespread. Community festivals are very popular (see Jepson and Clarke, 2014, for examples), combining many elements of celebration, entertainment, spectacle, and sports, often becoming hallmark events and tourist attractions. Referring to a festival’s explicit theme is therefore not always the best indicator of its meaning. A search of the Internet will also reveal unusual festivals, such as Dubai’s Shopping Festival, again raising the question of what is being celebrated – consumerism?

Music festivals It can be difficult to separate a music festival from a concert, concert series, or other forms of entertainment. Do the events have a theme that incorporates cultural celebration, or is the experience merely entertaining? Many events that call themselves a festival do not meet all the criteria, but remain very popular and embody some of the same elements of style and facilitate similar experiences. It also has to be noted that there is a very wide range of musical genres, settings (indoor and out), and formats (e.g., ticked, free, and open) that differentiate music events. Older consumers might prefer classical music in a theatre, younger consumers a weekend of tenting, outdoor concerts, and revelry. All this means that design and marketing implications are considerable. Pegg and Patterson (2010) examined visitor motivations and experiences sought at music festivals. They found that visitors’ love of country music was the primary reason for attending the festival. However, the overall results indicated that it was the variety of activities and festival atmosphere that were considered by visitors as being the most important aspects of their participation. The atmosphere was repeatedly mentioned as a reoccurring theme, and, in particular, they stressed the casual, relaxed, family friendly atmosphere. Visitors also commented on the welcoming feelings that they received from people who were living locally. This reflects a sense that the event attracted people with a desire to have a safe and enjoyable time together.

Celebration Events and Experiences Further insights are provided by Ballantyne et al. (2014) in their analysis of the music festival experience. In contrast to the Tamworth (Australia) festival mentioned above by Pegg and Patterson (2010), consider this radically different experience described by an anonymous blogger who attended a drugs-infested concert: Take how many times you have been offered drugs and multiply that times 1,000 and that’s how many times you will be offered drugs a day at. . . . People walking around with backpacks shouting ‘coke, x, molly, nugs, doses!’ and every other drug you can think of. I walked by a table where people were selling nitrus in balloons. What I learned throughout this was that the people who are carrying around all of these drugs were there to screw you over and take your money. There is a system with the . . . drug world its either bring your own or make friends with hippies because they have the best stuff. We were exchanging food and beer for getting smoked up and acid.

Pop music festivals Stone (2008) identified the origins of the modern era of outdoor pop music festivals, beginning in the USA in the 1960s with Monterey (1967) and Woodstock (1969), and discussed the underlying political issues. In Britain, the earliest were the 1968–1970 Isle of Wight festivals and Glastonbury (1970). The numbers were growing each year in the UK, but the pandemic might have changed that trend. Stone defined pop music festivals as recurring performance events with two or more live performances over one or more days, and packaged as a coherent whole. Some are indoors, and some are even free. ‘Pop’ covers all popular musical genres. They can be competitive (e.g., battle of the bands), for-profit or for charities, single or multi-venue. The programme might include traditional festive elements like comedy and theatre, dance, and merchandising. Summer is the dominant festival season, and success often depends upon good weather. Stone asserts that the audience has been growing and widening, it’s not just young people or ageing hippies. And they are increasingly expensive entertainment options. Those who identify with sub-cultures and counter-cultures are unhappy with the increasing cost, commercialism, professionalism, and regulations imposed by governments. Stone (2008, 223) argued that: “Uniquely, many festivals serve as adult playgrounds, representing marginal, liminal zones devoted to hedonism and largely uninhibited play and fun”. People are also motivated to attend by the need for identity-building and affirmation, linked to the accumulation of ‘popular culture capital’. In other words, it’s the thing to do. Stone (2008) listed recent trends in the form and themes of pop music festivals (also see Jones, 2015 on their historical evolution since the 1960s). Their growth is a reflection of cultural diversity, targeted live communications, and the power of social media to attract audiences. The identified categories include those with religious themes, and locations that are urban or in holiday destinations. Stone described others with these terms: premium, secret, teen’s, deliberately constrained, boutique, women’s, green, family, dual-location, economy, political, no-camping, and virtual festivals.

UK music festivals – scale and impact In 2013, UK Music produced the report Music Tourism: Contribution to the UK Economy, in which it outlined the impact of the music tourism industry on the UK. Music festivals played a major role in this industry, where: l l

Music tourism contributed £ 2.2 billion to the UK economy in 2012. £1.3 billion was spent by music tourists, of which £ 6.5 million was from overseas tourists visiting the UK.

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41% of the market for music tourism was based around live events. Music visitors attended a diversity of music venues such as arenas, festivals, and live performances in parks and stadia; London alone had 349 live music venues.

In its update in 2022, UK Music emphasised the hard impact of the pandemic: 22.09.2022: UK Music, the collective voice of the UK music industry, publishes its This Is Music 2022 annual report today, which reveals how the sector began to recover from the initial impact of the pandemic. Unveiling the report, UK Music Chief Executive Jamie Njoku-Goodwin said the economic findings showed why the Government should act to support the music industry, which still faces a “major threat from strong economic headwinds”. The key findings in This Is Music – based on data collated from across the music industry in 2021 – include: l

l

l

UK music industry’s contribution to the UK economy in 2021 was £4 billion – up 26% on the £3.1 billion figure for 2020, but still down 31% on the pre-Covid all-time high of £5.8 billion in 2019 Employment in the music industry rose to 145,000 jobs in 2021 – up 14% on the 128,000 jobs in 2020, but still down 26% on the pre-Covid record of 197,000 jobs in 2019 Exports in the sector rose in 2021 to £2.5 billion – up 10% on the £2.3 billion figure in 2020, but still down 15% on the £2.9 billion in 2019.

In 2021, live venues spent a significant amount of the year closed, or operating at limited capacity, and this was a global phenomenon that extended well into 2022. Employment in the UK sector fell by 35% compared to 2019. (Source: https://www.ukmusic.org/news/uk-musicurges-government-to-protect-music-industry-from-economic-storm-as-new-report-revealssectors-fragile-recovery/)

Counter-cultures Goffman (1959, 33) said counter-cultures are “...transgressive, avant-guard movements, embracing... change and experimentation....” To a certain extent, this applies to many music festivals aimed at a younger population (and those who grew up with them). Wright (2021) wrote about counterculture and music festivals. He argued that modernisation has resulted in standardisation of culture, making it more and more difficult to actually find and belong to a counterculture. Globalization and social networks are establishing a world in which larger numbers of individuals can be part of a range of (alternative) cultures. Unlike the past, fully immersing oneself into a counterculture today is difficult. What is more likely to develop are opportunities for people to pick and choose cultural experiences. Using market research and big data (i.e., huge data sets often obtained from social-network platforms and various apps) corporations attempt to co-op identifiable sub and counter-cultures into good consumers. Counterculture movements tend to become mainstream. Wright described the steps: 1: counterculture movement; 2: increased social exposure; 3: capital commodity (i.e., commercial interests exploit the movement); 4: wider audience engagement; and finally, 5: mainstream standardised cultural commodity. Duffy and Mair (2018, 25) argued that “Festivals are fundamentally about encounter in its broadest sense; these are events and periods of time in which people meet and interact”. Those produced by

Celebration Events and Experiences governments and not-for-profits are often free, easy to access, and intended to be inclusive. In the modern world, however, “...tensions can arise because of perceived or real fears about crime, violence and terrorism; racial intolerance; uncertainty; and insecurity, such that some groups feel uncomfortable and excluded from public space”. Flinn and Frew (2014) explored the interconnections between the experiential dimension of Glastonbury music festival, mystical and fantasy narratives, and the political contestation of festivity, focusing on the narratives created through multi- and social media. Their analysis was underpinned by the theoretical developments around experience and the experience economy.

PROFILE 5.1 Illuminate Adelaide, by Steve Brown Steve Brown is a practitioner academic who has combined professional practice as an event designer with academic research, primarily in the fields of event design and audience behaviour. As well as designing and successfully managing a broad range of events across Australia, he was responsible for the development of the event design and management programs at Flinders University in Adelaide, Australia. He was a board member of the Adelaide Fringe (https://adelaidefringe.com. au), 1978–1982, a staff member of, or consultant for the Adelaide Festival (https:// www.adelaidefestival.com.au) from 1975 to 2019 and a board member 2012–15, a consultant for Womadelaide (https://www.womadelaide.com.au) from 1991 to 2018, and a committee member of the South Australia Events Steering Committee 1994–95. Adelaide, the capital city of South Australia, is the fifth most populated city in Australia (1.4 million) and has had an international reputation for festivals and the arts beginning in the 1960s when the Adelaide Festival of Arts was established and then the establishment of the Adelaide Fringe and, over time, a broad range of other festivals and events including sports, horse, and latterly, motor racing. Adelaide has a Mediterranean climate and is blessed with mild weather most of the year, and perfect event and festival conditions through the month of October (Spring, 12C min., 22C max., six rain days), the hotter summer months (17C min., 29C max., two rain days), to April (Autumn, 13C min., 23C max., six rain days). This climate, combined with the simple, square mile layout of the city centre on one level surrounded on each side by broad areas of park lands, makes it the ideal festival and event city, something recognised in its vehicle number plate slogan ‘The Festival State’. The introduction of Daylight Saving in 1971 ensures that evenings are in twilight conditions well past 8 pm, also contributing to the festival ‘vibe’ of the city. Given the predilection for school and business holidays to be taken over the summer months, there is a conglomeration of large-scale outdoor events that are staged in the month of March each year including the Festival, Fringe, WOMADelaide, and the Adelaide Cup horse race – all contributing to the month being labelled (positively) as ‘Mad March’ in Adelaide. While the summer months – and especially March – provided viable tourist attractions and ensured there were high occupancy rates in the city and inner suburb

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accommodation and significant economic returns for the events and festivals staged, the winter months remained of concern. In 1994, the then Minister for Tourism, the Hon. Jane Lomax-Smith (now the current Lord Mayor), established a tourism roundtable and the Event Steering Committee specifically to find ways of developing events and festivals over the less well-patronised winter months. While indoor conferences were actively pursued for and by the recently developed (1987) Adelaide Convention Centre (https://www.adelaidecc.com.au), there was an opportunity for a more broadly based winter events calendar. The Adelaide Cabaret Festival was established in 2001 and continues to grow but is somewhat restricted by the number of suitable and available indoor venues. What event could be indoor and outdoor, work in the winter months, attract a broad cross-section of the population and attract audiences large enough to rival those of Mad March? Enter Illuminate Adelaide onto the South Australian event calendar. (https://www.illuminateadelaide.com) This curated event was designed to capture future technologies, develop a new, innovative performance language through the commission of new work, was interactive and accessible to a broad audience, was unique to South Australia and on a scale to equal Adelaide’s summer festival-heavy ‘Mad March’ – all while being commercially viable. Conceived in 2019 by Co-Founders and Creative Directors, Rachael Azzopardi and Lee Cumberlidge, the event was successful in attracting initial government support and finally launched in 2021 – right in the middle of a global pandemic. The inaugural event in 2021 had many challenges, with a seven-day lockdown falling right in the middle of the festival. All indoor events were cancelled (35,000 tickets) and density requirements at outdoor events were severely reduced. The design was modified at the free outdoor events and viewing times (how long between each performance, and how long the audience stayed in one place) were monitored and distancing was achieved, but the focus remained on the audience experience. Regardless of the practical limitations, the experience was paramount, so new and creative ways of working within restrictions to deliver the experiences became the new normal. Rapid transition from revised concept to delivery was achieved in an environment where creatives and staff were working remotely or in restricted numbers and where travel restrictions meant less personnel travelling. Rather than a limitation, this led to creative teams that were leaner and more agile. Moment Factory, as one example, used the restrictions to develop a test case of how to work creatively from a distance. The research and scholarship into events and festivals have been successful in convincing many in the industry that while the foundation of any successful event is strong event management, it is well-researched and effectively applied event design that is the critical factor in the success and sustainability of an event. There was some trepidation that due to the impact of the global pandemic, there may have been a return to the previous event management predominant paradigm. While audience density, social distancing, flow rate requirements, testing regimes, PPE, hygiene facilities, and learning to pivot in response to a rapidly changing legislative environment certainly fall within that management paradigm, it was encouraging to find – even in a time of lockdowns and cancellations – that design was still a major consideration for many events, including Illuminate Adelaide.

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Plate 5.1  Illuminate Adelaide’s’ City Lights, “I LOVE ADELAIDE”, Installation by Jacques Rival Photo Credit: Tyr Liang & Xplorer Studio

Illuminate Adelaide now is one of South Australia’s and one of Australia’s largest major winter events, with over 400 artists, more than a million attendances, and almost $45 million generated in economic activity (2022). By putting their audience first, regardless of the practical and management challenges that confronted them, Illuminate Adelaide successfully designed and staged an event that captured and engaged their audience in a meaningful way. In less complex times, the festival continues to grow and develop to meet each of its objectives – creative and commercial – and that is the promise of an event design approach.

Sources Australian Bureau of Statistics, 2021–22 Financial Year, Regional Population, Accessed 17 May 2023 at: https://www.abs.gov.au/statistics/people/population/ regional-population/latest-release Australian Government Bureau of Meteorology, Climate Statistics for Australian locations, Summary statistics Adelaide, Accessed 17 May 2023 at: http://www.bom.gov. au/climate/averages/tables/cw_023090.shtml

Carnivals and Mardi Gras Carnival is a celebration preceding Lent and is associated with feasting, costumes, parades, and revelry. Mardi Gras (translated as Fat Tuesday) is the last day of the carnival season. People go to carnivals and Mardi Gras events for fun, play, and revelry (even debauchery), enhanced or

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Celebration Events and Experiences manifested through role reversal in masquerading, parades, and costume balls. People love to dress up (or down, witness Zombie parades and PRIDE costumes), have a party, and suspend the social norms and even laws that govern everyday life. Turner (1974) and other anthropologists and sociologists have paid considerable attention to carnivals, often distinguishing between the sacred elements of traditional, religiously grounded festivals, and the profane side of carnivals. Carnival remains a popular subject for academic researchers, including books by Riggio (2004) on carnivals in Trinidad, and by Harris (2003) on folk theology and performance associated with carnivals. Nurse (2004) reported on the Trinidad Carnival from the points of view of tourism and the cultural industry. To some, the carnival is a sanctioned form of mild civil disobedience, to others it is something to forbid or repress. Ritual, festivity, revelry, and ecstasy perform a variety of roles, some say as safety valves, and might actually counter depression and lead to social health. In Europe, carnival remains a strong tradition in many countries, especially where Roman Catholic populations are large, and the Federation of European Carnival Cities (https://carnivalcities. net/) is the related professional association. According to FECC, there are at least nine types of European carnival, among them the Samba or Caribbean form that is popular in the New World, including Rio de Janeiro. Carnivals have a very long history. They can have distinctive styles but tend to feature masquerade or costume balls, parades, theatrical productions, feasting, and partying. From the Carnival of Venice website (www.carnivalofvenice.com) comes this reminder: The Carnival in Venice is no ‘goof ’, no ‘consumerist ceremony’ as some people complain, but sincere, wonderful heartfelt tradition that goes back in time almost a millennium, and despite its age, still shows its vitality to whom participates to it in person or in spirit. Carnival in Venice is believed to have become official in 1296, lasted six weeks or longer, and built on an already established tradition of mask wearing. By the 18th Century it was a famous event embodying balls, spectacles, masks and theatre. (For the detailed programme visit the official website www.carnevale.venezia.it) Carnival in Venice has been innovating, as evidenced in this 2023 website proclamation: Carnival is over in Venice but it continues in the Metaverse: enjoy it with us thanks to the new exclusive offer on the purchase of official wearables. You can customise your avatar on Ready Player Me and Roblox: just choose Arlecchino’s and Colombina’s digital skins or impress everyone with Colombina’s and Original Sign’s digital masks. Whatever you decide, take your mark of uniqueness into the Metaverse. In cold climates, winter carnivals are flourishing, such as Quebec’s Winter Carnival, which has become the city’s hallmark event. Midsumma Carnival in Melbourne, Australia, is an example of the numerous gay and lesbian Mardi Gras or carnivals held around the world, many of which have become major tourist attractions (Pitts, 1999). As the following quote from the Midsumma website explains: Carnival transforms Treasury Gardens into the queerest park in Australia. Carnival is wearing her brand new Treasury frock so come and tell her she’s beautiful and experience a spectacular hub of queer games, hot music, bump-your-booty dancing and sporting prowess as we celebrate the closing of Midsumma. (www.midsumma.org.au) According to Ehrenreich (2006), ‘collective ecstasy’, a part of carnival and akin to dancing in the streets, has been a part of human civilisation from the very beginning. There is an age-old

Celebration Events and Experiences conflict between control exerted by social hierarchies and the desire for freedom of expression and behaviour. Religion and politics conspire to suppress natural tendencies. Ehrenreich pointed to the carnivalisation of sports and said that protest movements constantly reinvent the carnival. Turner’s notion of communitas in The Ritual Process (1969) and Durkheim’s (1912) notion of ‘collective effervescence’ are related concepts. To Bakhtin (1993), the carnival was something people create for themselves (i.e., it is a liberating force) in contrast to the spectacles that those in power prefer. Debord (1983), in Society of the Spectacle, argued that spectacle is associated with power and control, while carnival or festivity fosters inclusiveness. Gotham (2005a), in a review of urban spectacles associated with carnivals, highlighted the conflict and struggles over the meaning of such celebrations, while Addo’s (2009) anthropological review examined the way in which spectacle had become ritualised by festival practices. Laing and Frost (2014) examined how “traditional events and the identities they support are increasingly being challenged and rituals may be lost”. Reacting against the homogenising effects of globalisation, many communities and events are recreating or inventing rituals, sometimes borrowing from others, in the pursuit of uniqueness and authenticity. Mardi Gras in New Orleans was one of the events examined in this context, and that event has been studied by many authors. For example, Gotham (2005a, 2005b) argued that this event demonstrates the forces of both globalisation (manifested in commodification) as it is an international tourist attraction, and localisation (wherein residents and groups create new traditions and reinforce a sense of place). Godet (2020, 2) commented on festivity and carnival in the context of the Covid pandemic. “As we write, communities around the world are finding new ways of celebrating together without large physical gatherings, creating fresh forms of festive social interactions”. Articles in a 2020 issue of the online journal Festivity dealt with a number of related topics, including the fact that festivity can be both unifying and divisive, and therefore politicised. Godet also emphasised that the study of the carnival as an event form is different from the “carnivalesque which has been used to characterize all sorts of collective activities that use symbolic inversion for expressive purposes and in which the negation of the established order provides a temporary opening for alternative, hybrid identifications to flourish”. Some authors have pointed to carnivalesque behaviour at sporting events and other assemblies, including at protests, giving rise to the term ‘protestival’ (see Lamond and Spracklen, 2015). Developing this theme, Godet said (p. 9) that carnival “...enables people to viscerally feel that they belong to a distinct social and political entity and may thus become a vehicle whereby citizens find voice against the state or race- and class-based social divisions. If not outright subversion, then, carnival offers the possibility of creating a space for renegotiating and even resisting hegemony”.

Heritage Commemorations These are memorial services, specific ceremonies or broader events (even festivals) designed to honour the memory of someone or something. Most commonly they are marked in the context of national days, birthdays of kings and queens, battles, or wars. Remembrance Days or Veterans Days fall into this category. Programmes must include something symbolic and interpretive about the events or persons being remembered. Frost and Laing (2013), in the book Commemorative Events: Memories, Identities, Conflicts, emphasised that they are all about remembering and are held on the anniversaries of significant past events, either annually or after significant time periods. Such events provide a fascinating insight into how societies see themselves, their heritage, and their identity. These events, however, carry a high propensity for controversy, as

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Celebration Events and Experiences memory and identity are highly subjective. As well, stakeholders often hold different views on what should be commemorated, and why. Heritage is open to interpretation, often being a politically charged term. It means more than historic and implies a value judgement as to what is important. McCarthy (2012) examined the 1916 Easter Rising in Dublin (also see Grayson and McGarry, 2016) – which sparked off a series of events culminating in 1922 with the creation of the Irish Free State – and traces the historiography (being the study of how history is researched and written) of the celebration of the event that challenged the British government while it was fighting the Great War. Frost et al. (2008) considered the contested meanings associated with many commemorations, as multiple stakeholders ensure that they often become political in nature.

Parades and Processions The expression “everyone loves a parade” seems to be a universal and age-old truth. Parades are usually an organised, celebratory procession of people, and the most popular ones are mobile spectacles of entertainment and celebration. As a planned event, parades and other processions are unique in that the entertainment, or other objects of the spectator’s gaze, go past the audience in a dynamic progression. City streets are often the stage, and reclaiming them from vehicular traffic is part of the pleasure of viewing parades. They can be events all on their own, or part of broader festivals and sport celebrations. The experience should be one of joy and wonder (especially for children), merriment, socialising on a big scale, and an appreciation of the arts, skills, symbols, and heritage objects on display. There are a number of important variations, including flotillas (of boats), cavalcades (of horses), religious processions (often with objects of reverence), and military marches including weapons of warfare. Some parades consist of just people, but frequent elements include floats, marching bands, entertainment units (like dancers or flag-wavers), and important people (the parade marshal, beauty queens). From a sociological perspective, Tomlinson (1986) found small-town parades to be full of imagery and symbolism reflecting community values like purity, beauty, humour, religion, and politics. Parades are performances for both residents and outsiders. Other examples of scholarship related to parades include the book Macy’s Thanksgiving Day Parade by Grippo (2004) and Darian-Smith’s (2011) history of agricultural shows and festivals in rural Australia and their inclusion of parades. Pojani (2014) examined the use of public space in Tirana, the capital of Albania, through different political transformations and how events and processions link to urban design, power, and ideology. In contrast, Olson (2017) undertook a content analysis of the 780 pride events held in the USA and Canada that celebrate sexual diversity.

Religious Events and Pilgrimage Festivals and other celebrations often include religious ceremonies, but primarily religious events embody solemn rites and rituals, and are considered to be sacred within the context of specific religions. Some, like Mexico’s Day of the Dead, have become national holidays (literally, holy days). The Japanese matsuri is a type of religious event, generally community-based, produced by volunteers and celebrating a variety of religious or spiritual themes. Saint Patrick’s Day, celebrating the Feast of Saint Patrick, is a religious celebration that has become a major celebration throughout the Irish diaspora. The event has a long history (Cronin and Adair, 2004), with the annual New York City St. Patrick’s Day Parade dating back to 1762.

Celebration Events and Experiences Pilgrimage is a journey for religious or spiritual purposes. It reinforces collective religious and cultural values and generally focuses on places and events of significance. Shackley (2001, 102) called pilgrimages ‘linear events’, in which the journey might be as important as the destination in terms of visitor motivations and experiences. Pilgrimage is a quest, a journey, and the experience of a sacred place. For many, it is a duty. Shinde, K. (2010) noted that pilgrimage sites are repositories of religious culture and traditions. For example, at the Holi festival in India, there is a hierarchy of spaces devoted to rites and rituals, patronage relationships, and public gatherings. The entire pilgrimage can be conceptualised as a special event in a person’s life, a rite of passage, and a transforming experience, but there are often well-defined events associated with religious pilgrimages. The largest events are the Hajj in Mecca, attracting millions of visitors annually (the Saudi Arabian government imposes limits), and Kumbha Mela (mela means sacred-site festival) in India which is held four times every 12 years and is said to attract over 28 million pilgrims in 2001 (Singh, 2006, 228). The term secular pilgrimage (Collins-Kreiner, 2010) applies to journeys for non-religious purposes to places and events that hold special meaning to individuals and groups, such as a sport fan’s visit to a particular arena or a hall of fame. Celebrity and fame often motivate such trips. The term is also sometimes used metaphorically, as in a person’s mental or emotional pilgrimage, and this refers to a process of seeking and evolving. Spiritual enlightenment is another possible motivator and benefit, related to personal development (Cusack and Digance 2009).

Religious and Spiritual Experiences Sacred and spiritual experiences are not necessarily the same. Sacred generally refers to established religious dogma (e.g., the Holy Scriptures are sacred; communion is a sacred rite). Spiritual experiences could be non-religious in nature, consisting of feelings of transcendence (e.g., “I felt completely removed from, even raised above, the worries of daily life”) or self-discovery (“I was on a different plain of existence where I felt connected to every thing and every one”). Timothy and Olsen (2006, 271) argued that there are significant differences between being religious and being spiritual. Spiritual refers to personal belief, a search for meaning in one’s life, and so any tourist could have a spiritual experience in a sacred place or alongside religious pilgrims. Rapture, ecstasy, transcendence, and revelation are terms used in conjunction with intense religious or spiritual experiences. Reisinger (2006) saw possibilities for spiritual experiences being incorporated into, or modifying, many common forms of tourism, from nature tours to attending farm shows and harvest festivals, food, and wine tastings to spa visits. While often associated with visits to sacred places, spiritual experiences are also realised through meditation, exploring, and performing rituals. In this sense, the search for meaning in life can propel, almost invisibly, many leisure and travel activities. Singh (2006, 232) argued that Hindu pilgrims “enjoy sacred journeys as an earthly adventure from one place to another that entails the combined effects of a spiritual quest and physical hardship”. The key elements that make religious quests and experiences different from other spiritual or emotionally uplifting experiences are participation in specified rituals or ceremonies that have deep meaning to the devoted and faithful. The place itself is crucial, but unlike a secular event venue, the meaning of sacred places is permanent, traditional, and sanctioned by official religious bodies.

Arts and Entertainment Almost any activity, sport, artistic display, or event can be viewed as entertainment. Many forms of popular culture fit into this category (generally defined as pertaining to everyday life)

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Celebration Events and Experiences including music concerts, award ceremonies, theatre, art exhibitions, and dance shows. The activities that are frequently part and parcel of cultural celebrations can certainly be viewed as entertaining, but the underlying purpose is different. It has to be emphasised that entertainment is usually passive, something one experiences for pleasure without the need to think about its cultural/historic significance or the values being expressed. In that sense, entertainment is largely in the realm of hedonistic consumption, not cultural celebration. This explains why entertainment is usually thought of as a business, part of a huge industry, and often exists outside government policy for the arts and culture. Theatre is a very broad category of planned events, encompassing drama, music, and other performances that are usually scripted and in a staged environment. Principles of theatre are regularly applied throughout the events world. We will examine theatre studies and types of theatre and performance later, but it is necessary here to distinguish between the major forms of art. A review of popular culture, tourism, and events was conducted by Lexhagen, Ziakas, and Lundberg (2022). Their conceptual model covered both ‘expressive culture practices’ and ‘media-induced fan travel’ that lead to heritage-related attractions or destinations and to events. The model named film and screen, literature, music, fashion, video games, sport, and recreation. One of the topics explored is fandom, with a number of research questions raised pertaining to how being a fan (of sports, movies, or just about anything) both generates travel motivation and new events, contributes to destination image and place marketing, and is closely linked with social worlds and online communities of interest.

Performing Arts By definition, almost all performances are planned events. There can be spontaneous performances by individuals and groups, such as singing and chanting, but we would normally not call these events entertainment. Performing arts traditionally involve musicians, singers, dancers, or actors, in front of audiences. In what is often called high culture, there is symphony, ballet, opera, and traditional theatre for plays. In popular culture, we can add every form of musical concert (from jazz to new age, pop to hip-hop), dance (modern, tap, and jazz), and alternative performances such as busking and illusion (magic), and the relationship with events was highlighted earlier in relation to pop music events. Film and television involve entertainment based on indirect (not in-person) performances. Fashion could be considered part performance (the fashion show) and part visual art (see the case studies in Williams, Laing, and Frost, 2014). Other criteria for classifying arts events include: l

Professional versus amateur artists.

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Competitive versus festive.

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Mixed or single genre (e.g., just jazz, or many music types).

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Single or multicultural.

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Paid or free performances.

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Regularly scheduled, periodic, or one-time.

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Temporary (i.e., visual art created with a limited life expectancy, or a one-time-only performance) versus permanent.

Festivals and music concerts provide many people with their only performing arts experiences. DiMaggio and Mukhtar (2004) in reviewing the evidence for declining arts participation in the USA referred to increased competition with home forms of entertainment as a plausible reason.

Celebration Events and Experiences

Literature Literature consists of the printed word, including books, magazines, and even web logs (blogs). We only call this art if it is meant to entertain or is written in a style (like poetry) that results in aesthetic appreciation. Festivals and other planned events that feature poetry or written works are common, and these can include readings that are in fact performances. Storytelling festivals are a variation, and in this context, Walle (1994) studied a Cowboy Poetry Gathering. Hoppen, Brown, and Fyall (2014) have evaluated literary tourism as a part of destination competitiveness, and it is common for events to be the first and foremost method of implementing this form of tourist attractiveness or branding.

Visual Arts Painting, sculpture, and handicraft are the most common visual arts, and touring or one-time shows or exhibitions of visual arts are planned events. For example, Berryman (2013) traced the evolution of the public blockbuster exhibition in 1970s Australia as a national event. Installation art is a cross between an exhibition and a special event. Architecture is a visual art, and other media like computer games and the Internet have become popular for visual artistic expression. Any of these art forms can be the theme of planned events. In a contingent valuation study in Singapore, Chang and Mahadevan (2014) found that a long-running performing arts festival was a well-established event, whereas visual arts festivals seem to be more of a fad. Jain (2016), however, has traced the growth of large arts events in South Asia. AI has the potential to revolutionise, or threaten traditional visual arts, given the rise of online AI creative sites that allow users to describe what they want to see produced or to modify existing pictures. What is at stake is the traditional form of art exhibitions held in galleries – will it be replaced by virtual exhibitions?

Touring Entertainment: Circuses, Carnivals, and Other Shows Before the age of mass travel, entertainment had to come to the consumer in the form of travelling shows. Although these forms of art and entertainment reflect a bygone age, they remain popular and continue to evolve. Perhaps the oldest form is the circus (for history, see Simon, 2014), which was popular in the ancient Roman Empire (including activities that are no longer acceptable) and which has more recently given rise to animal-free entertainment like Cirque du Soleil. In a classic study, Easto and Truzzi (1973) examined the nature of “carnivals” in the USA, “as an entertainment with side shows, rides, games and refreshments, usually operated by a commercial enterprise”. Easto and Truzzi tracked the historiography of related research, citing reviews dating to 1881 and 1932, which clearly differentiated carnivals from circuses. Aesthetic judgement concerns art and beauty but is value laden and relative. What one person finds attractive, another might describe as boring or disgusting. An aesthetic experience, however, is one in which we find something to be pleasing to our senses. It can be the aesthetic appreciation of paintings, food, fashion, or music. Hence, it is intensely personal, which leads to the expression “you can’t please everyone”. Designers take note: aesthetic experiences are valued, and they motivate a great deal of travel and consumption, but you cannot guarantee satisfaction. For most appreciators of fine art, food, music, or whatever, it is the exploration and sense of discovery that matters most. Limited research has been reported on art exhibitions (see du Cros and Jolliffe, 2014, for a review). Axelsen and Arcodia (2004) argued they should be viewed in the context of special

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Celebration Events and Experiences event motivation and experience. A review of the literature suggested that people attend art galleries for reasons of learning, social interaction, status, and novelty. Youthful, hard-working consumers, brought up on music videos and computer entertainment, seem to have a very limited attention span, and are constantly seeking stimulation. Smith (2006, 224) concluded that many leisure tourists are not interested in culture, but want playful, event-fantastical experiences. Contrived, simulated, and even obviously fake settings can provide this. Interactivity is desired but in a technological sense. Fascination with celebrities is part of this new experiential realm. The industry has responded (in the spirit of the experience economy) with theming, overtly catering to hedonism, celebrity endorsements, and what has been called shoppertainment. Award ceremonies: Many are purely media events, designed primarily for television and/or online consumption. Others offer features of festivals, such as selecting the people’s favourite food or wine, and sport events (medal ceremonies). The hallmark of these events is competition and/ or recognition of excellence. Private events (functions): Every life is marked by rites de passage, varying enormously across cultures, and these are all a form of planned event. From the industry perspective, they are often termed functions when held in venues that cater to individual and small-group clients. From weddings to birthday celebrations, bar/bat mitzvahs to funerals, holiday theme parties to church socials, they might require professionals or be entirely arranged by the participants. The experience is both personal and social, with multiple meanings possible. Most can be considered celebrations in which a theme and emotional stimulation are essential. Quite a few practitioner-oriented books have been devoted to the planning and design of weddings, parties, and other private functions. Weddings are such a universally important event that they have become big business and the subject of serious study (e.g., the book Cinderella Dreams: The Allure of the Lavish Wedding, by Otnes and Pleck, 2003). Shone and Parry (2004) in their book Successful Event Management provided details of the UK wedding ‘industry’. Planned reunions are held frequently for the military, schools, churches, and affinity groups, giving rise to reunion tourism and special promotions by destinations that have seen large out-migration and want to bring expatriates home for a visit. There is also a venue, hotel, and restaurant management literature that examines the case of banquets, parties, and other events held in formal settings. Holiday celebrations: The calendar is marked by many holidays, both legally established and informal, and while they vary from country to country there are some that have become widely popular. New Year’s celebrations are marked the world over, with many associated special events becoming major tourist attractions – examples include the Times Square party and entertainment extravaganza in New York and Hogmanay in Edinburgh. Christmas markets are a common feature in Europe, and Easter in many countries is a time for religious processions and other rituals. Halloween has become widely celebrated with informal trick-or-treating, private costume parties, and in some places mass revelry. STUDY GUIDE

In examining each of the main forms of planned celebrations, from festivals to private functions, we also introduced some important facts and theories about the nature of event experiences and their multiple meanings. Discussion of unplanned events reveals how the forms and experiences can be the same, as well as being similar with regard to important management

Celebration Events and Experiences issues such as security and safety. The virtual event experience can be contrasted with any of these live-event experiences. This chapter and the next therefore provide a basis for planning and designing events. Read the Profile by Steve Brown carefully, looking for pandemic-related agile management (also covered previously in the SHIFT case), the reasons for creating a new festival, the nature of installation art, and the design elements being emphasised. Consider your own experiences at different types of events. How do they match with the points made in this chapter? How are technology and social-media networking influencing choices and experiences? What does celebration mean in the age of AI? STUDY QUESTIONS l

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Describe the essential differences between each major type of planned and unplanned celebration, including fundamental differences in experiences and programmed elements of style associated with them. What are the differences between festivals and carnivals? What does carnivalesque mean? What are commemorations sometimes controversial? are all events potentially divisive, as well as fostering communitas? Explain. In what ways are parades and processions texts for sociologists to read? Consider the term ‘festivalisation’ and what it means for cities, with implications for cultural authenticity. FURTHER READING

Derrett, R. (2016). The Complete Guide to Creating Enduring Festivals. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley. Frost, W., & Laing, J. (2013). Commemorative Events: Memory, Identities, Conflict. Abingdon: Routledge. Gold, J., & Gold, M. (2020). Festival Cities: Culture, Planning and Urban Life. London: Routledge. Jepson, A., & Clarke, A. (eds.) (2014). Exploring Community Festivals and Events. Abingdon: Routledge. Laing, J., & Frost, W. (eds.) (2014). Rituals and Traditional Events in the Modern World. Abingdon: Routledge. Mair, J. (ed.) (2019). The Routledge Handbook of Festivals. London: Routledge; ButterworthHeinemann.

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Business, Sport, and Other Event Experiences

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

For each major type of event, be able to explain the following: l

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Different experiences associated with each event type: business events; educational and scientific; political and state; and sport and recreational. The significance and experiences associated with events at the margin, such as flash mobs, protests, demonstrations, and riots. The ways in which experiences and meanings differ for stakeholders. Hallmarks of each event type, these being their main delimiting characteristics or elements of style.

Business and Trade Events (MICE) According to Spiller (2002), the modern convention industry grew in concert with industrialisation and trade in the late nineteenth century and throughout the twentieth. A parallel movement was the growth of trade, professional, and affinity associations of all kinds. The first convention bureau in the USA was established in 1896 in Detroit, and at that time hotels were the main suppliers of venues. You will often see this large sector of planned events referred to as the MICE industry, or meetings, incentives, conventions (including conferences and congresses), and exhibitions. The fundamental purpose of this category of events is to promote, market, or directly engage in commerce, or otherwise meet corporate objectives. Farmers’ markets, fairs, and exhibitions DOI: 10.4324/9781003374251-6

Business, Sport, and Other Event Experiences (trade and consumer shows) are clearly based on marketing and selling. World’s fairs, or expos, represent national place marketing and foster international trade and tourism. Meetings and conventions are mostly related to the affairs of associations and corporations and might involve learning, morale building, and making policies. Individual companies produce or sponsor many types of events for both internal purposes (e.g., training) and with an external orientation (e.g., grand openings, exhibits, and sales at festivals). Incentive refers to the widespread practice of rewarding employees through travel or other perks. There are specialist companies that organise incentive tours, often including parties and, if some form of excuse is really needed (say, for income-tax purposes), packaging formal meetings or lectures with the more hedonistic components. The entire incentive experience might be viewed as a special event for the participants and designers. We should not overlook the fact that corporate and other private events may also possess ­cultural significance (e.g., a ginseng fair in Korea became a major annual festival), or be of political interest (e.g., countries competing for attention and reputation at world’s fairs). Many business and trade events are closely associated with hotels, resorts, and convention and ­exhibition centres, and are thereby important elements in the tourism and hospitality ­industries, with a variety of stakeholders (Jin et al., 2012). When events are developed and marketed as tourist attractions or destination image-makers, they enter the realm of place marketing. Mair (2012) reviewed 144 articles from the business-event literature for the period 2000 to 2009, the vast majority of which were published in the Journal of Convention and Event ­Tourism. Major themes include the meeting planner, technology, economic impact assessments, venue selection, evaluation of satisfaction, the role of destination image on attendance, and the decision-making processes of attendees.

Meetings, Conventions, Conferences, and Congresses Several related terms have to be defined, drawing from the Dictionary of Event Studies, Event ­Management and Event Tourism (Getz, 2021): Meetings: Meetings are generally small and often routinely scheduled events involving face-­toface assembly. Virtual meetings occurring online became part of the new normal during the pandemic and will likely remain popular given the readily available technology to link home and business devices. To meet with does not necessarily imply an event, it can refer to two people getting together. Meeting Professionals International (MPI) (https://www.mpi.org/) distinguishes between association, corporate, scientific, and incentive meetings. Conventions are held by formal organisations, such as professional associations and political parties, and typically involve discussion, debate, and election of officers. A convener is an ­official charged with the responsibility of scheduling and organising the event, but professional ­planners are likely to be involved. Some conventions are open to all members, whereas for others delegates are chosen or elected to attend, in which case they have been delegated to vote on certain matters. A conference can be held on any subject, bringing people together for discussion, interaction, and education. The academic world is full of conferences where researchers present papers on the conference theme, and there are several held each year concerning event management and event tourism. The root word, confer, means to meet for purposes of deliberation or consultation. It can also be used for ceremonies where degrees or awards are conferred upon deserving people. The term Congress is typically employed only for international assemblies, as in World

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Business, Sport, and Other Event Experiences Congress on a specific theme. Sometimes this designation appears to be used to boost the image of a rather ordinary conference. Association versus corporate events: Meeting planners and tourist organisations generally distinguish between events held by and for associations or corporations, as they involve different participation criteria, marketing, and logistics. Associations usually open their conferences to all members and often invite others to attend – especially as speakers. The annual conference of a professional association, for example, IFEA (International Festivals and Events Association) has many elements that can be considered educational, entertaining, celebratory, and legalistic. The corporate segment is different in a number of ways. Companies hosting large numbers of meetings and conventions are likely to employ their own event managers or meeting planners, although large associations also do this. Corporate events are also likely to be more diverse than those initiated by associations, including training, hospitality, product launches, motivational assemblies, retreats, publicity events, grand openings, and team-building exercises. There is a strong tendency for corporate clients to repeatedly use the same venues, and strong links have been forged between corporations and specific hotel and resort chains for this purpose.

Pandemic impacts and trends The pandemic was disastrous for the MICE sector, and while the recovery was swift, it was not uniform or smooth. Observers believe structural changes are emerging, of which the permanence of virtual and hybrid events is one. Online observers point to a number of other trends that are worth noting (sources: https://www.eventindustrynews.com/news/meetings-events-industry-trends-andpredictions-for-2023,  https://meetings.skift.com/event-statistics/,  https://www.cvent.com/ en/blog/events/event-trends). Meeting planners are more aware of the rising costs and real or perceived barriers to travel. That makes them more focused on delivering timely, personalised, transformational experiences, facilitating travel (with contingencies in place), and choosing authentic, inclusive destinations. The so-called weaponisation of travel applies increasingly to events, being the choices people make (with related advocacy) to shun venues and destinations that are not democratic and openly inclusive. Even though in–house and online meetings multiplied greatly during the pandemic, and because of new work-home arrangements that will continue to be necessary, demand for venues rose so quickly in 2022, accompanied by workforce withdrawals, that competition became intense for good locations and venues. The greening of events continues to be an important trend, especially as sustainability practices can ease costs for suppliers and attendees. Wellness of the workforce was coming to the fore during and after the pandemic, and this affects both the event (ensuring it is safe, healthy, and relaxing) and organisational culture. Combining work and business has always been a choice for event-goers, but now companies are recognising that it adds to motivation and wellness (unfortunately, some are calling this bleisure).

Motivation and experiences Oppermann and Chon (1997) discussed the decision process, constraints, and both ­extrinsic and intrinsic motivations for convention attendance by members of associations. They observed both push and pull factors and noted that many people were annual attendees.

Business, Sport, and Other Event Experiences Van Riper et al. (2013) focused on one of the key motives for conference attendance, that being social networking. Much choice exists, so intervening opportunities, locational factors, and destination image play a role. Davidson (2003) discussed the benefits to destinations and convention-goers in adding pleasure to their business trips. A convention might represent a rare or once-in-a-lifetime opportunity to visit an attractive area. Spouses and other family members often want to come along. Event marketers need to know more about how to attract and satisfy their clientele, while in Event Studies we want to know if these experiences are categorically different from those at other events. An interesting perspective to engage the audience at conferences is the use of drama – described by Nelson (2009) as dramaturgy. The purpose is to enhance the experience by using creative and emotional cues that introduce a dramatic element to the experience. Rittichainuwat et al. (2001) determined that attendees at a hospitality educator/researcher conference were motivated primarily by self-enhancement, business and association activities, and sightseeing. The work of Severt et al. (2007) revealed that different types of conferences and meetings will be associated with different motivators and experiential dimensions. They studied the motivations, satisfaction, and behavioural intentions of a group of small business owners and managers attending a regional conference with an exhibition, produced by a national trade association. Their most important motivations for attending, in order, were: education; educational information at exhibits; reasonable travel time to the event; networking opportunities; and business activities. Four of these five are clearly experiential in nature, while accessibility is a facilitating/constraining factor. Attendees were very satisfied with the educational component, ranking it highest. Those most satisfied with education were the most satisfied overall, and the most likely to both return and tell others to attend the conference. The Centre for Exhibition Research (CEIR, 2003) confirmed that face-to-face interaction is vital in marketing, and this will ensure the continuance of live events despite the impact of social media on networking with people virtually. Indeed, it appears that although business events are the first to be cancelled in times of trouble (terrorism, pandemics, and natural disasters), they bounce back very quickly and continue to grow in number. This remains true in 2023.

Exhibitions (Trade and Consumer Shows) Morrow’s (1997) The Art of the Show (produced for the International Association for Exposition Management – IAEM) highlighted the core purpose of trade and consumer shows, as they “provide a time sensitive, temporary marketing environment where the buyer comes to the seller”. Consumer shows are open to the public, often with an admission fee, and popular themes are linked to automobiles, sports, health, travel and recreation, pets, electronics, gardening, arts and crafts, or other hobbies. The producer, usually a private company, moves the show from place to place so that it is often periodically held in a given community. Venue owners might also produce their own. Manufacturers test new products at shows, retailers try to sell, and the consumer is searching for both ideas and entertainment. Gottlieb et al. (2013) evaluated consumer behaviour at such events and concluded that entertainment, product/industry research, and the facilitation of purchase decision-making processes and problem resolution are the key objectives for consumer attendees. Research by Rittichainuwat and Mair (2012) isolated two clusters at travel shows, the first being shoppers whose major motivation is purchasing, and the second called ‘total visitors’, whose motivation combines information searching and learning about trends.

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Business, Sport, and Other Event Experiences Trade shows are usually for invitees only, based on specific business needs or industry-association membership. Manufacturers or suppliers exhibiting at these events are trying to sell their products and services, or at least trying to inform potential customers. Common types are industrial, scientific, engineering, or health care. Many include educational presentations or seminars. Frequently they are attached to association conventions, such as when suppliers to the events industry exhibit at professional association meetings. International trade fairs are a special class. Typically, they are at the large end and are targeted at a global or multi-country audience; they are, therefore, usually held in cities with major airports and exhibition halls. The Center for Exhibition Industry Research (www.ceir.org) exists to provide data to the industry. According to CEIR, “Attendees rate exhibitions as the number one most useful source of information with which to make a buying decision”. Professionals attend trade shows to learn about new products and meet face-to-face with suppliers. Often competitive products can be evaluated side by side, which helps explain why people go to consumer shows where many manufacturers exhibit side by side. The entertainment and social aspects of shows must not be underestimated – attendees should have fun while learning. Exhibitions have a seasonal rhythm, with the lowest month (in North America) for show-starts being December and the peak two months being (almost equally) October and March. Summer (July and August) constitutes the second low season. Part of the growth in venues is attributable to the shortfall of space during the two peak exhibition seasons. See Frost and Laing (2017) for a detailed review of exhibitions and trade fairs. CEIR documented the effects of the pandemic, citing cancellations of over 90%, but with a strong recovery trend in 2022. They expected 2023 to be a challenging year for the ­exhibition industry, mostly related to economic worries about a recession but predicted a full recovery in 2024. The money spent on exhibitions rises and falls with key economic performance indicators.

Fairs This is another word with multiple, and often confusing, meanings. Dictionaries recognise the following: l

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A gathering held at a specified time and place for the buying and selling of goods (i.e., a market). An exhibition (e.g., of farm products or manufactured goods, usually accompanied by v­ arious competitions and entertainments, as in a state fair); exhibitors may be in ­competition for prizes. An exhibition intended to inform people about a product or business opportunity. An event, usually for the benefit of a charity or public institution, includes entertainment and the sale of goods (also called a bazaar).

The term festival is sometimes used as a synonym of fair, but fairs have a long tradition of their own, such as periodic exhibitions and markets. Waters (1939) traced the history of fairs from the earliest days of human barter and trade. Although North Americans associate the word market with a place to do shopping, fairs were originally occasional markets. Every society had to have fairs, where goods were sold and traded at specific times, and usually in specific places that became markets or fairgrounds. The Latin word feriae, meaning holy day (which evolved into the holiday), is the origin of the English word fair. They were often scheduled on church-sanctioned holy days. Although fairs were often associated with religious celebrations, and now usually contain entertainment and amusements, fairs have more to do with

Business, Sport, and Other Event Experiences productivity and business than with themed public celebrations. Indeed, Abrahams (1987) argued that fairs and festivals are like mirror images. But he also suggested that in modern, urban society they have become almost synonymous because the old ways of production, as celebrated in fairs, have faded. The IAFE (International Association of Fairs and Expositions) website (www.fairsandexpos.com) provides some history. Most traditional fairs in North America are the numerous county and state fairs which are held annually on the same site, most of which continue to reflect rural and agricultural themes (see, for example, Rasmussen’s 2015 study of the Iowa State Fair). Some are called exhibitions or expositions, reflecting their educational orientation. Most fairs are operated by independent boards or agricultural societies, though many have close links with the host municipality. Typical elements of agricultural fairs and exhibitions include agricultural demonstrations and contests, sales and trade shows (farm machinery, etc.), amusements of all kinds, eating and drinking, parades, and a variety of entertainment. Education is also a vital programme element, with close ties to 4H clubs as an example. This type of fair is often called a show in the UK, Australia, and New Zealand. The lines between types of shows, fairs, and markets are sometimes hard to distinguish. For example, Morgner (2014) examined the development of art fairs as a kind of trade show to sell and distribute art.

World’s fairs World’s fair has a very specific meaning, derived from an international agreement in 1928 and regulated by the Bureau International des Expositions (BIE) in Paris (https:// www.­bie-paris.org/). BIE sets the policies for bidding on and holding world’s fairs, which are often called Expos. Their nominal purpose has always been educational, with particular attention paid to technological progress, but some authors have described them as glorified trade fairs (­Benedict, 1983). Findling and Pelle (2008) provided a comprehensive review of 100 countries and the world’s fairs held since 1851 in their Encyclopedia of World’s Fairs and Expositions. A detailed analysis of Vancouver’s World Fair was completed by Olds and Ley (1988), and De Groote (2005) traced the evolution of world’s fairs, focusing on the 1992 Expo in Seville, Spain. There is a large body of literature on world’s fairs, reflecting both their significance in economic and social terms and their popularity among Expo lovers. Competition to host them was once fierce, as cities and countries saw them as an opportunity to attract attention and tourists, typically in concert with urban renewal or other development schemes. Many think of Expos in the same light as other mega events, that they are exercises in branding for nations and so-called world cities. World’s fairs are almost always accompanied by controversy, owing to their large costs and environmental and social impacts. Governments have shamelessly used them (and other mega events) for their own purposes, leading Hall (1992) to call them political tools. Most of them have generated a permanent built legacy (especially symbols like the Eiffel Tower) through planned urban renewal or development, while heavy tourism promotion has not always succeeded in generating sufficient attendance. Nostalgia for world’s fairs is rampant, judging by websites devoted to their images and trading in memorabilia. Some, like Montreal’s Expo ’67, achieved iconic status – it will always be remembered as a nation-defining event for Canada – and one that left Montrealers with decades of debt. Some of the relevant research: motivations and images held by foreign tourists at the Shanghai Expo (Kim S., et al., 2012); local residents’ perceptions of impacts (Yang et al., 2010); Hereźniak and Florek (2018) on citizen involvement and place branding in Expo cities; effects

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Business, Sport, and Other Event Experiences on a city’s image (Xue et al., 2012); carbon emissions and sustainability (Gallo et al., 2020), and world’s fairs and national branding (Gębarowski, 2022; Tudor, 2022).

Motivation and experiences According to Mair (2013), conferences and exhibitions continue to play a major role in the world of business and trade, despite the rise of social media and technology-enabled communication for facilitating virtual meetings of customers and clients. A study by Jung (2005) on exhibition attendee perceptions of service quality gave some insight into desired experiences, namely, the importance assigned to the number of exhibitors, the quality of goods and services exhibited, and the seminars, conferences, and other events that were part of it. These are all product-quality items that reflect the learning and marketing content of the event.

Corporate Events Any event produced by or for a corporation falls into this large category, but the term corporate event is generally associated with a range of events aimed at the public or for business-to-business purposes – that is, for external audiences (see Mishra et al., 1997). Internal events will more appropriately be termed meetings, although the boundaries can be blurred. Saget (2006, 13) suggested that the essence of corporate events is relationship marketing. Saget distinguished between event managers and event marketers. Event marketers have to ask what messages they are trying to convey to their customers. Are they trying to get the audience to buy something? How will the event impact on sales? There is also an evolving debate about the wider motives for corporate event sponsorship, as Seguin et al. (2010) highlighted in terms of corporate social responsibility. This is also a theme Babiak and Wolfe (2006) examined in relation to the Super Bowl and more generic themes (Babiak and Wolfe, 2009). More recent analysis has also focused on the theme of corporate social responsibility and sport as a tool for development in less developed countries (e.g., see Levermore, 2010) as well as more generic overviews (e.g., Slack and Thurston, 2014). Further discussion of corporate events is provided by Ulrich Wünsch in Expert Opinion 6.1.

E X P E R T O P I N I O N 6 . 1 :   By Professor Dr. Ulrich Wünsch Corporate Events Professor Dr. Ulrich Wünsch is a former President and professor at SRH University of Popular Arts (University of Applied Science) in Berlin, Germany. He is both a practitioner and academic (in the field of media and communication science, media aesthetics, and audience research), specialising in corporate events and scenography. See also: Wünsch U. (2008). Facets of Contemporary Event Communication – Theory and Practice for Event Success. Bad Honnef, Germany: K. H. Bock. Before starting: This text (and its author) considers corporate events from the angle of “business”, understood as a cultural practice of the last more or less 200 years arising from a “British-American” lineage of philosophical and economical thinking and doing, coming out of the “enlightment” and of a protestant British reasoning lifestyle. It acknowledges

Business, Sport, and Other Event Experiences that there are different ways of the cultural practice of “doing business events” in ­countries beyond, yet in a global cooperation (how tight or loose it may be in its supply chains) the dominant paradigm is one of efficiency, effectiveness, and profit combined with a set of generic aesthetics coined by a century of advertising (this being now transformed by social media and the emergence of various styles and a mix of styles, which anyway is a sign of “modernity”). This text will very briefly touch upon some aspects of a special form of corporate activity: the event. These undertakings of companies in order to reach out to the public (being understood as consumers, clients, employees, or other stakeholders of the event’s cause and company) within a sphere of face-to-face encounters are often labelled as live communication or experiential communication. The expression draws the line between two-dimensional mass communications, also defined as a communication of ‘one-to-many’, and the so-called real-time and real-space engagement as a form of ‘some-to-some’ or group communication. With digitisation reaching into more and more ways of conducting business, and with the global Covid-19 pandemic, “hybrid” (a mix between online and offline) or online events became more prominent or even dominant as people were not encountering each other face-to-face. Those formats of corporate events are here to stay, even though a “zoom-fatigue” arose, even though initial trust needed in doing business is being built by personal face-toface meetings, even though hybrid events are more costly than pure online or offline events. Corporate events arose with the dawn of industrialisation (around the 1820s) before mass media were the main channels of communication. In the late nineteenth century, innovative entrepreneurs such as Heinz (USA, Ketchup), Michelin (France, tyres for cars), and Lingner (Germany, hygiene products) employed various innovative forms and formats (such as product characters in festivities, product shows on a pier, political demonstrations and more) to interest their consumers. In the 1920s, Mr. Procter and Mr. Gamble realised that the initial and first personal contact with a product (the so-called ‘Moment of Truth’ on the store shelf and while its first usage) was a very crucial point within the marketing cycle. Experiences stemming from intimate encounters (with products or by relation to trusted others) were then, and are today, the key to purchasing decisions. The experience economy, a term coined in the late 1980s, concentrates on this finding in highlighting that in a saturated market, something beyond price is needed to trigger the action to desire an object and pay for it. Corporate events come in many formats, all reaching back to the original live communication activities of humankind: ritualistic festivity and staged entertainment. Today exhibitions, conferences, product launches, promotion undertakings, incentives, plus more and ever newly developed formats such as ambush or guerrilla marketing events, such as digital formats and social media interlinkage of, with, or for events are being employed to reach out to external or internal target groups of the company or product. To provide realistic figures on the monetary size, the turnover of and within the events industry is “tricky”. Definitions of formats and segments vary, and selection and methods for gathering relevant data are not very accurate. A globally accepted (and maybe upheld by the UN by its Statistics Division under its Department

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Business, Sport, and Other Event Experiences of Economic and Social Affairs) definition of the content and scope of the events industry is still not available. An example of market research statistics is given by AMR (Allied Market Research) provides these definitions and figures: size of the whole events industry was $1,135.4 billion in 2019 and is supposed to rise to $1,552.9 billion. This includes concerts, festivals, sports, exhibitions and conferences, corporate events and seminars, and other not defined formats. Corporate events with 27.7% of the whole held the major share – including exhibitors and conferences, events which more often are held by and for corporations, the share rises by about another 13%. VMR (Verified Market Research), another company commercially providing data, concludes that the global events market size in 2020 was $886.99, growing to $2,194.40 billion in 2028. Statista, another market research source, provides data on e-Services, using event ticket sales in the field of sport events to show a revenue of $27.04 billion in 2023 worldwide, whereas music-event ticket sales will amount to $27.08 billion in revenue. With China being the second largest economy, AMR shows that the Asian event market in 2018 was valued at $273.8 billion with corporate events holding a share of 58.56%. Whether the event industry is an industry in its own right, or part of the marketing & communication industry or the tourism industry is of a more academic or statistical value. The fact that companies started around the year 2000 to develop and brand their own events being staged in public on common ground (e.g., Red Bull with its various sports formats, or Guinness Brewery with Saint Patrick’s Day, as well as in-house events such as an Apple developers conference and a Google Bootcamp) seems to point out that a ‘special’ field or branch closely connected with media and entertainment is emerging. Events are being employed in corporate attention management to provide special or extraordinary experiences. Experiences as such are the product of the ongoing activity called ‘living’ and produce only unfocused attention within the organic system “man”. Thus, the design process, understood as focus management, sits at the beginning and at the forefront of event production, not the organisation of events. For academic Event Studies, this means that beyond the basic economic and project management research mainly undertaken so far, social sciences/humanities are valid. To produce economically successful events, one has to understand human beings and employ findings from sociology, aesthetics, religious studies, psychology, biology, and more. With the establishment of the digital society, new forms of the entwinement of the ‘real’ and the ‘virtual’ arise in 3-D-world, taking on formats beyond our momentary imagination (just think how quickly the smartphone changed our lives and created interaction with a non-physical realm). The ability of human beings to be immersed (the attention, brain, and the self are focused on a world in a dream, a movie, a book, a computer game) will lead to combinations of events in worlds only dreamt of by science fiction writers so far (“Second Life” or “Metaverse” were only a clumsy beginning). Events will continue to evolve, and corporations are at the forefront of the technicalities of this field of evolution whereas the multiple crises of the climate and the economic and social cover the other main field of this evolution of events.

Business, Sport, and Other Event Experiences To illustrate a corporate event, the example of the activities and concept of Bayer’s (global chemical and pharmaceutical industry corporation stemming from Germany) corporate jubilee is briefly described. Though it was executed a while ago, the format, challenges, topics, and structure are valid and “telling”. The 150th anniversary of Bayer occurred in 2013. In 2011, the communication department started to plan. In 2012 the operations to produce a year-long, global event were under way. The first and main target group was the company’s 100,000 employees, followed by the general public and special interest groups such as politicians the media, and consumers of products and services of Bayer. The claim ‘Science for a Better Life’ had to be portrayed as mandatory. It was clear that the events were not a single solution. Integrated communication was the goal and the cross-fertilisation of media and messages that arose formed one event’s core idea produced in various forms and distributed via various media. Germany as the mother market plus 100 daughter companies worldwide had to be integrated into the event year. Activities such as 30,000 employees forming the world’s largest living Bayer cross (the official company logo) on the lawn of a stadium at the headquarters in Leverkusen were planned. A  41-metre-long Bayer ‘blimp’ (small cargo airship) travelled around the globe in 2013, stopping in London, New York, Toronto, Tokyo, and Mexico City to name just a few destinations. Interested employees created a new Bayer song, which was played at all jubilee events in 2013. A big cultural show, with paintings from Bayer’s art collection, spanning 150 years, was curated and on display at Berlin’s main municipal museum for three months. A new corporate film was shot; science research activities for youngsters were funded and integrated into a special completion of ideas; a science symposium was held. Social sponsoring and donations for local projects and communities were integral parts of the concept. Festivals for employees were held globally on 29 June, Bayer’s founding day; the then German Chancellor (Angela Merkel) showed up for the main event. On Celebration Day, a festive jubilee menu was served to Bayer employees around the globe, starting in New Zealand. In Germany alone, 3,000 litres of tomato soup and 1.5 tonnes of couscous salad were served. The goal, to reach out to the public and put Bayer on the map worldwide, was successfully reached via 16 million PR and TV contacts, which Bayer did not have to pay for – online visits at a special anniversary website not included. All this was steered by a core team of three leading event creators and planners/managers in Leverkusen, Germany, plus an array of consultants and external agencies, artists, and workers. Bayer’s CEO was satisfied, even though the amount of money put into the event was noteworthy. Yet the results – employer loyalty and public awareness – were convincing. Further case studies might be discovered in special interest magazines on the event or experiential marketing. With climate change and the Anthropocene having established themselves as driving forces in the shaping of our next steps, corporate events in the future will have to adhere to sustainability or “green” standards. Rulebooks, manuals, and international standards on the execution of events already exist as the Sustainable Development Goals of the UN describe the playing field. New formats might arise from a reduction in travel, in buildings made of concrete, in consumption, and other changes we truly cannot forecast; yet it can be assumed that events will always be around to orientate men and women in the social fabric of their lives (Plate 6.1).

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Plate 6.1  A Brand Experience Festival in Germany: Emotional Sales Pitches to Customers Photo Credit: Ulrich Wünsch

Educational and Scientific Events Often considered as a subset of business and trade events, these are nevertheless different because of their emphasis on creating and exchanging knowledge for the sake of knowledge. Academic and professional symposia, and conferences on specific themes, are the main components of this category of planned event, although numerous small, private meetings are also held for these purposes. Education, including participative styles as well as demonstrative training, is the hallmark experience of these events. But that is no reason why they should not also be social and fun events. It is obvious that most people attending scientific and academic conferences are searching for knowledge, and some cities such as Glasgow, Scotland, have deliberately targeted these events as key sectors in event and conference strategies. Such events also have wider appeal in an increasingly globalised academic community in terms of networking and socialising with old friends and colleagues. This is likely to be an age-related variable.

Political and State Events Any event produced for or by governments and political parties falls into this category. Such events always seem to be in the news, including the following examples: l

The G8 summit of leading industrialised nations.

l

Royal coronations, weddings (see Laing and Frost, 2017).

l

Papal tours and related religious festivals.

Business, Sport, and Other Event Experiences l

VIP visits (e.g., heads of state).

l

Inauguration of the American President.

l

Investiture of a prince.

l

Political party conventions.

Most political and state events are security challenges. When leaders assemble or governments meet, or when a VIP tours, the media pay close attention – and so do people who want to protest or disrupt. For an example, see: Gulliver, R. E., Banks, R., Fielding, K. S., & Louis, W. R. (2023). The criminalisation of climate change protest. Contention, 11 (1), 24–54.

Sport and Recreational Events By definition, sport events are the actual games or meetings during which sport activity occurs. There are many sport event formats (see, for example, Solomon, 2002), and one classification includes: l

Professional or amateur.

l

Indoor or outdoor (and other differences in their need for special venues).

l

Regularly scheduled (league play, plus play-offs or championships) or one-time (exhibition or friendly matches).

l

Local, regional, national, or international in scope.

l

For participants, spectators, or both.

l

Sport festivals (a celebration of sport, often for youth, involving many sports).

l

Single sport, or multi-sport events like the Olympics and Masters Games.

l

Touring teams.

This is an enormous field, given the huge number of sport events occurring around the world all the time, not to mention the increasing diversity of sports and forms of sport events. The influence of the media has been profound, creating a whole category of media-oriented events that probably would not otherwise exist. Graham et al.’s (1995) The Ultimate Guide to Sport Event Management and Marketing noted there were literally millions of jobs in sports in the USA, including a growing number specific to the production, management, and marketing of events. These authors argued (1995, 8) that sport events and other special events share commonalities, including their service orientation, the incorporation of celebration and drama, media coverage, and similarities in organising and operations. Motivations of customers and travellers might also be similar, especially with regard to the ritual of attendance and related traditions. Traditional sport events like the Olympics always incorporate ceremonies and festivals, and it has now become commonplace to build a programme of special events around a sport meet to create a festival or special event with heightened appeal.

Sport Versus Recreation Recreational events are generally produced by parks and recreation agencies, non-profit organisations, and affinity groups (like churches, schools, and clubs) for non-competitive reasons and are often playful in nature. Such events might be informal in their production and

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Business, Sport, and Other Event Experiences management, and they may even be self-organised by groups. If only individuals are involved, we will have to call it activity and not an event. Examples of recreational events are really ­unlimited in number and scope, from card games to pick up football, from dance and exercise classes to impromptu concerts.

Competitive Sport/Recreation Event Experiences (for Athletes) Although competitive sports superficially involve games played by persons or teams with the intent of winning, that in itself does not constitute the entire experience or meaning. Many people compete for very personal reasons, such as to gain fitness and mastery, while others compete for social reasons – to be part of a group and to enjoy a social event. Bouchet et al. (2004) reviewed the literature on sport tourist experiences and concluded there are four theoretical streams evident. From a behavioural theory perspective, group activities and interactions are the focus. For example, Green and Chalip (1998) found that strong subcultural meanings were attached by participants to a women’s sport event. From cognitive psychology comes attention to needs, motives, values, and risk-taking. A third approach combines the psychological and behavioural roles of travellers, and the fourth is the experiential model. Bouchet et al. (2004) advanced their own approach to analysing the sport tourist experience, encompassing considerations of self-worth (perceived risk, optimal stimulation, variety, and novelty-seeking), spatial variables, or the place (including ­functional components and a post-modernist view of how visitors create their own experiences and living space), and interpersonal variables (new relationships and communitas). What particularly distinguishes competitive sport experiences from any other event experiences is the structure (venues, rules, and team versus single play), all of which are specific to each sport. Either this structure appeals to a person or it does not, and the diversity of sport gives rise to an almost infinite variety of experiential possibilities. Some are less combative than others, some require brute strength, and others demand finesse and artistry. Sport is both highly personal (what the athlete accomplishes on their own) and social (the team, the community of athletes, and the whole event organisation).

The Sport Spectator and Sport-Fan Experience Sport spectating and participation, along with passive and active sport tourism, is a major global phenomenon that gives rise to numerous small and large events. Gibson (1998, 2006) found in her research that the ‘active sport tourist’ was mostly a male with a college education and higher income. This segment, she concluded, will likely continue to travel for participation in their favourite sports well into retirement. See the TransRockies profile in Chapter 1, with its references, for confirmation and elaboration. There are participation sports wherein males and females are more balanced in number. Youth sports are popular with entire families, generating many overnight visits for tournaments. It is reasonable to suggest, however, that most sport events take place near home and are largely unrecorded in tourism statistics. Attending a sport event can be motivated by a desire for entertainment and spectacle (i.e., simple diversion), the desire for emotional stimulation, or having a social outing. Being a sport spectator is a role we can all play, and most spectators know that it is generally more interesting (certainly more emotionally exciting) to be at a live event as opposed to watching on a TV or a small phone. Being a sport fan, however, is something quite a bit more engaging. Wann (1995) and Wann et al. (1999) developed a ‘sport-fan motivation scale’ that covers both intrinsic and extrinsic

Business, Sport, and Other Event Experiences motivation. It consists of eight common reasons for watching sport, and these can also be conceptualised as desired experiences: escape, eustress (i.e., stress evoked by emotions or events, here considered to be positive stimulation), aesthetics (appreciation of the beauty of sports), self-esteem, group affiliation, family, entertainment, and economics (e.g., betting). Chen (2006) provided a review of the literature on sport fans, in a paper devoted to a phenomenological study of event sport fans’ behaviour, experiences, and values. Chen concluded that most studies suggest that personally relevant values (from needs and the benefits sought), and ‘identifications’ (such as social identity) most explain why fans become highly involved and committed to teams (see also Bristow and Sebastion, 2001; Madrigal, 1995; Wann and Branscombe, 1993). Chen’s (2006) study determined that personal balance and socialisation were the essential parts of the experiences being sought, and these were obtained through volunteering, being at events, travelling with other fans and the team, pilgrimages to places with special meanings, and non-related social and touristic activities in destinations. In a more contemporary article, Spracklen (2022) studied the links among sport fans as part of a fandom community.

Events at the Margin There is also a category of events that are at the margins of what we mean by planned events. The purpose is to show that definitional boundaries are often blurred, and that planning is a matter of degree. Each event certainly creates a novel experience, and some are completely self-created experiences without the benefit of planners or designers (although some would argue that is often a good thing!).

Flash Mobs These events are somewhat spontaneous and anti-establishment, even anarchist in their origins or intent. Walker (2013) produced a historical, cultural, and philosophical analysis of the flash mob as a performance event, and Molnár (2014) traced its expansion as a feature of youth culture globally. Grant (2016) examined its use as a form of guerrilla marketing in entertainment. The flash mob depends upon personal communications devices to a large extent, which explains why it is largely a recent phenomenon and why it has expanded through social media networking. Attendees assemble in response to a message to be somewhere at a specific time, to do something strange or outrageous. They have a purpose, a place, and a short time duration, but no real programme – only activity. They are usually frivolous, but some do try to make a point. An individual, or a group, has to initiate the flash mob, but there is no real organisation or responsibility for it. If something goes terribly wrong, who gets the blame? The assertion that some flash mobbers are trying to reinvent public spaces is interesting and fits into the general pattern of carnivalesque behaviour and dancing in the street. This is also something like the valorisation process noted by Falassi, which is used to turn settings into the temporary festival and event spaces, only the goal of flash mobbers is presumably to show that the space belongs to the people. Or perhaps the purpose is to demonstrate that any space can be made festive or act as a performance setting. But how can you have a liberating, non-conforming event if at the same time, it becomes mainstream? It will be interesting to observe how these, and similar self-organised and spontaneous events evolve. In their most contemporary manifestations, they appear to be more about protest and

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Business, Sport, and Other Event Experiences demonstration, as acts of collective response to incidents like bank failures (e.g., USA in 2023) or police crack-downs (Hong Kong, frequently). Because the protest communities are often pre-networked, it can be argued that spontaneity is minimal.

Protest! Demonstrate! Riot! It seems that not a political or economic summit goes by without protests or riots, and often they appear to have been orchestrated. In fact, they are often semi-planned events and certain websites (perhaps forbidden to general searches) provide advice on how to organise a demonstration or riot. While the rationale that people have a right to peacefully assemble is fine in most democratic nations, it is not a universally shared value. Furthermore, there is always the risk that those seeking disruption and violence will sabotage those with peaceful intent. Marches and demonstrations have a long social history (see Rojek, 2013), accompanying every war, union–company conflict, and political movement. Currently, a favourite rallying cry is anti-globalisation, which appears to attract many diverse interest groups (see Body-Gendrot, 2016). For an overview, see this book: Ortiz, I., Burke, S., Berrada, M., & Saenz Cortés, H. (2022). World Protests: A Study of Key Protest Issues in the 21st Century. Cham, Switzerland: Palgrave Macmillan. https://library.fes.de/pdf-files/bueros/usa/19020.pdf

Recreational Rioting This term recreational rioting seems to have emerged in the news media, reporting on events in Northern Ireland in 2010. It suggests that rioting, for some, is fun – or at least accepted in their culture as a legitimate outlet for pent-up emotions and a substitute for activities they have no access to. It is generally associated with segments of societies who believe they are oppressed. The phenomenon of children throwing stones or using real weapons is newsworthy, and therefore can be encouraged or orchestrated by movements. Whether the provision of other leisure and event opportunities would put an end to recreational rioting, or whether or not this is an appropriate term at all, is an open question. It is a disturbing phenomenon, right alongside the occasional destructive behaviour of sports fans and other assemblies that turn violent or lead to disasters.

Experiences of Different Stakeholders Table 6.1 lists many of the principal event stakeholders, from guests and customers to the media and general public, each of which can have quite different experiences from the same event. A short discussion of each category ensues. The event experience is always at least partially dependent upon the expectations and attitudes of those involved and on one’s willingness to enter into the spirit of the occasion. As well, different stakeholders will be directly or indirectly affected and dependent on their roles. Accordingly, we need more understanding of the expectations people bring to events, and how they describe their experiences. Most of the experiences shown in this table are, of course, attainable by many of the stakeholders in many event settings. What Table 6.1 sets out to list are those attributes that could be different or special, for each stakeholder – not their full range of potential experiences.

Business, Sport, and Other Event Experiences Table 6.1  The Experiences of Different Stakeholders Groups Having Event Experiences

Subcategories

Unique or Especially Important Experiential Dimensions

Paying customers (ticketed, seating)

Sport spectators Concert audience

– Escaping, being entertained; spectacle – At sports, there can be a degree of fandom communitas and occasional violence

Paying customers

Exhibition and conference attendees Festival tourists

Guests

Persons invited to a private event The public at free events Guests of sponsors

Participants

Athletes at competitions Performers in art competitions

Virtual audiences

Remote TV viewers, radio listeners, virtual/hybrid event participants

Performers

The entertainers at events Buskers, street performers Professional athletes Owners, directors, senior managers Directors Politicians Celebrities The Olympic ‘family’ Investors

Belonging and sharing Authentic cultural experience Emotionally involved and loyal fans (also nostalgia) Socialising and communitas Learning, and seeking selfactualisation Socialising, networking Being part of a community or family Subcultural identity Self-indulgence/hedonism Being treated as honoured guests, VIPs Challenge and mastery Communitas and subcultural expression A virtual entertainment experience shaped by the media; levels of engagement among virtual audiences can vary greatly and need to be facilitated Professional competence, mastery of self-esteem Ancillary enjoyment of the event Might be similar to staff and volunteers Being responsive and reflective Doing their duty Protocol shapes their experience as ‘performers’ Being treated with honour and respect Gaining self-esteem Ancillary enjoyment of the event Professional conduct and responsibility define their involvement They might also be viewed as part of the ‘cast’

Producers and organisers Very Important People (invited VIPs)

Officials

Referees, timekeepers, and stewards

(continued)

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Business, Sport, and Other Event Experiences Table 6.1  Continued Groups Having Event Experiences

Subcategories

Regulators

Police, fire, health inspectors, etc.

Sponsors and grant givers

Suppliers and vendors Volunteers

Paid staff

The media

The public

Protesters, Demonstrators

Unique or Especially Important Experiential Dimensions

Professional conduct and responsibility define their involvement With their own hospitality Business success, networking component Providers of hospitality to their Or as VIPs own guests (the event is still the attraction) Or the same as VIPs External suppliers Contractual relationships define their Or on-site vendors involvement Ancillary enjoyment of the event The ‘cast’ (part of the experience for Board members (may be others) workers or VIPs at the Enjoyment of the event event) Unpaid workers at the event Communitas among volunteers Self-fulfilment Paid workers at the event Paid employment defines their Security staff, after hours experience Ancillary enjoyment of the event might be possible Might want a VIP experience Official (as sponsors) Unofficial media Professional competence in presenting ‘news’ Indirectly experiences the The public’s experience can range event (overspill effects or from ‘psychic benefits’ to being vicarious experiences) inconvenienced or harmed Organised demonstrators Rioters, or those engaging in civil disobedience

Being part of a group with a purpose is a form of communitas, but it is in opposition to others There is an element of risk, which might be stimulating, resulting in heightened emotions and unlawful actions

Paying Customers Many events charge admission and attract paying customers who will expect delivery of the promised product/experience, to a high standard. They are entitled to complain if they do not get their perceived consumer benefit. Marketers might be content with determining satisfaction levels, as that is the simplest measure of effectiveness in a commercial context. Fans might have other experiences on their mind, including loyalty, communitas, and nostalgia. Cultural tourists might stress belonging and sharing, an authentic cultural experience and learning. Satisfaction levels therefore do not provide much insight into the event experience. Deeper inquiry can reveal how memorable the event was, its meaning to the customer (especially in terms of personal and social constructs), and whether or not the customer had a transforming experience in any way. These phenomenological measures could be potentially valuable for improving the event.

Business, Sport, and Other Event Experiences

Guests Guests are usually invited to a function, but the term embodies wider connotations, as in hostguest relations, or the adage “Treat every customer as a valued guest”. Hospitality is a key element in service quality. Guests expect to be greeted and honoured by their hosts. While guests at private parties know they were invited, which shapes their expectations about hospitality and possibly about service levels, making paying customers feel like guests is a real challenge. The guest experience will inevitably include a strong social component because they are part of an invited or favoured group. Communitas is often presupposed in this context, with all guests having an existing affiliation, but it also might have to be facilitated when strangers are in the mix. The use of esoteric rituals and symbols known only to ‘insiders’ is one form of bonding that designers can use, and in this context refer to our discussion elsewhere of social worlds.

Participants This category consists of the athletes in sports or recreational events, dancers in dance festivals, musicians in music competitions, and to a degree the delegates attending conventions – depending on how engaged and active they become. The event is all about their experiences, and it does not exist without their participation. They are likely to feel that the event is for their benefit, and its organisers should respect their needs and wishes. Participants also might feel a personal responsibility for the success of the event, but that is contingent on factors such as who owns or sponsors it. Understanding participants’ experiences requires knowledge of their motives, expectations, activities, emotions, and cognitive processes in the specific context of the event. The full range of planned event experiences can apply, but participants are typically looking for mastery through meeting challenges, learning opportunities, and subcultural identity or communitas. For additional insights refer to our discussions of social worlds, serious leisure, and the highly involved.

Virtual Audiences Presumably, most virtual experiences of planned events, especially TV coverage of sports and concerts, award ceremonies, and spectacles, would be described as entertainment. A key question for researchers is whether or not media experiences can be the same as live experiences in terms of emotional engagement and cognition. Can they be as memorable or transforming? With the rise of virtual and hybrid events, media theorists will have to distinguish between the participant, as discussed elsewhere, and the emotionally detached viewer.

Performers This group consists of paid entertainers or athletes, all part of the show that customers want to experience. We must view them in a different light from performers in participation events because they have quite different motives. Gaining a sense of professional accomplishment has to be important because if their experience is bad it can negatively impact on the overall event quality and customer satisfaction. Producers generally know how to treat professionals with dignity and respect, and to look after their tangible and emotional needs. If the opportunity arises, some performers can also get to enjoy other parts of the event. Special attention will always be given to performers who are the attraction, which is the case in touring concerts, as they are often in the celebrity and VIP categories who require (and make demands in contracts!) hospitality at a very high level, along with security, media attention, and fan adulation.

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Producers, Directors, and Senior Managers Sometimes the producers/organisers are also involved, working alongside other volunteers, but for most events, they are completely detached from the experiences they are seeking to create. They can be representatives of funding agencies, governing bodies, sponsors, and other officials of government regulators, and they might want to be put in the VIP category. They need to be conscious of what their events are accomplishing, and potential negative impacts or disasters. In legal terms, they might be held responsible. Separate categories are the directors and senior managers who have an immediate impact on the event production and are obviously responsible in some way for the experiences of attendees, staff, volunteers, and others, but they might remain relatively quiet and invisible during the ongoing event programme. They all need to be responsive to feedback and especially reflective on what they are responsible for in terms of potential negative impacts.

VIPs Whether they are politicians, royalty, or celebrities, being a Very Important Person by definition means that event organisers will be giving them special treatment, honour, respect, and a lot of security, with protocol often determining what can and cannot be done. Their experience cannot possibly be the same as other guests or customers, and indeed they might become part of the spectacle, temporarily becoming performers. Despite these considerations, it might be possible to segregate VIPs enough that they can enjoy part of the event. Performers as VIPS are in a different category.

Officials and Security Professional conduct and specific responsibilities govern the event experiences of referees, stewards, timekeepers, and other officials. They might be almost invisible, or play an important and highly visible role in the event. Their experiences will perhaps include off-duty enjoyment of part of the event, otherwise, their main concerns are purely technical. The experience of security personnel is restricted by their need for vigilance.

Regulators This category of stakeholders (e.g., building and health inspectors) attends not only events to supervise and ensure compliance but also has to be made comfortable, kept safe, and has their basic technical and human needs looked after. Professional conduct defines their roles, but might they not take a little time to actually enjoy the event? Perhaps some of them deserve to have VIP status.

Sponsors and Donors Unless they see themselves as regulators, the most important of these stakeholders should be given VIP treatment at events. Corporate sponsors often want specific hospitality services for themselves and their guests, even to the point of having private and exclusive areas and mini-events. Business has to be done, and that is an experience realm that does not have to be divorced from having fun. In addition to enjoying the event, which might be of secondary importance, facilitators also have a vested interest in its success, and might therefore play the role of supervisors or evaluators. Some might want status as producers or owners. Needless to say, their overall, multidimensional experience has to be made more than just satisfactory.

Business, Sport, and Other Event Experiences

Suppliers and Vendors Often these contracted service and goods providers are brought into the event as sponsors as well, giving them a vested interest in its success. They might also find time to enjoy the event. Yet they have specific, professional functions to complete which have to be supervised and evaluated by event management. Health and safety will always be top priorities for suppliers and vendors.

Volunteers To the extent that they interact with other people at the event, they are both helping to create, and share in, the experiences. Volunteers have a unique perspective on the overall experience and how others are enjoying the event, and they have become a specific field of research within events (see Stebbins and Graham, 2004 for an overview), especially in the public/notfor-profit sectors. Volunteers have to be satisfied with several criteria, or they will not continue to volunteer. Johnston et al. (2000) found that sport involvement led directly to volunteering at sport events, which suggests that participants want an experience related to that sport, such as contact with its stars. Saleh and Wood (1998) found some unique motives held by volunteers at a multicultural festival, namely, sharing their culture and maintaining cultural links. Elstad (1997) studied student volunteers at the Winter Olympic Games in Lillehammer, Norway, and determined that satisfaction with their experience related most strongly to expanding personal networks, being part of the event atmosphere, and achieving job-related competence. In another study, Elstad (2003) found that the top reasons for event volunteers to quit were workload, lack of appreciation, and poor organisation, all of which suggest experiential implications. Ralston, Lumsdon, and Downward (2005) reviewed the literature on event volunteers, covering motivation, profiles, satisfaction studies, and theory. The reasons why people volunteered clearly pertained to the experiences they sought, including excitement, uniqueness (the chance of a lifetime), meeting interesting people, and being part of a team. Meanings attached to the experience included supporting sport, doing something useful for the community, helping the city, region, and country, and using their skills. A review of the event-volunteer phenomenon by Schlenker, Edwards, and Wearing (2014) noted the episodic nature of event volunteering related to their timing and frequency, and this also has major implications for the use of paid staff. In Chapter 10, our discussion of volunteers is continued under Human Resource Management.

Paid Staff Hanlon and Jago (2012) reviewed the nature of human resource needs in event management, observing the pulsating nature of events (Hanlon and Cuskelly, 2002) and the unusual demands this places on human resources. There might be quite different experiences for staff (and this applies to many volunteers as well) depending on their level of involvement through the entire planning and de-commissioning cycle. Most paid staff will be able to have some direct experience of the event, if only when off-duty, but some, like overnight security, will not. All paid staff have specific duties, so they have to be supervised and evaluated, with event enjoyment being an ancillary goal, and (ideally) secondary to the experience of professional accomplishment. There can be overlap, of course, between the roles and experiences of volunteers, paid staff,

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The Media Some media people attending events will be official sponsors, in which case they require technical support and VIP status. But there are also likely to be unofficial media whose access to the event might be restricted. Conflicts could occur between the two groups of media, between media and VIPs or performers, and between media and organisers/staff. Media relations has become a major task at events, and cannot be left to chance. If people have a bad personal or professional experience, the event’s image could consequently take a negative hit. In addition to the media and event experience, Dayan (1994) examined the televising and live broadcasting of historic events such as the Olympic Games. These were described as festive television or media events. Such events are therefore viewed not as routine but as cultural performances and are exceptionally planned events with the power to reach global audiences.

The Public at Large There might be spillover effects from events, such as noise, light, traffic, smells, crowds, and bad behaviour, all of which can cause bad feelings among neighbours and the wider community. The media likes to focus on all these issues. The public at large, even those not attending and not interested, can nevertheless gain ‘psychic benefits’ from their vicarious experience of events, such as increased community pride and perceptions of economic and other impacts. Our discussion of resident perceptions and attitudes, particularly on non-utility values, elaborates on these points. See the profile of Sunshine Coast Research in Chapter 8.

Protesters and Demonstrators They might be part of an organised group, for example, the protests and demonstrations that always seem to accompany international summits and political events, and these groups are often accommodated in particular places where they can be visible for media coverage. Their experience relates to being part of a group with a purpose, being a form of communitas. But because they are in opposition to the main event, or have an unpopular cause (in the minds of the organisers), there will be tension, and sometimes this degenerates into violence and open rioting. To some, the risk element can be an attraction and a stimulus. STUDY GUIDE

This chapter covers business events (MICE), educational and scientific, political and state, sport, and recreational events from the perspectives of their form, function, and experiences. They should be contrasted on these variables with the celebratory events described in the previous chapter. In addition, we looked at events at the margin, being unplanned or semiplanned, yet related to planned events by reference to experiences, impacts, and management issues like safety and security. Consider how this category is evolving in response to the growth of social media and virtual reality, and the related phenomenon (in terms of technology) of citizens as news reporters. The section on stakeholder experiences should lead to a discussion of planning, design, evaluation, and impact assessment, as each stakeholder category should be treated separately. Event producers and staff cannot be narrowly focused on one segment without risking the creation of problems with the others. In particular, students should reflect

Business, Sport, and Other Event Experiences on their own event experiences as they interact with (and are possibly interdependent with) other stakeholders. STUDY QUESTIONS l

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Describe and compare the essential differences between each major type of planned event, including any fundamental differences in experiences and programmed elements of style associated with them: business and trade events; educational and scientific; political and state; sport and recreational; unplanned, or events at the margin. Discuss planning and design implications related to each event stakeholder category, with reference to why they should be considered, their roles, and their experiences. In addition to the stakeholder categories described in this chapter, how would you examine differences in their experiences related to demographic variables (e.g., age, gender, family status) or their cultural affiliations? FURTHER READING

Arcodia, C. (ed.) (2023). Routledge Handbook of Business Events. London: Routledge. Coombs, D. S., & Osborne, A. C. (eds.) (2022). Routledge Handbook of Sport Fans and Fandom. London: Routledge. Holmes, K., Lockstone-Binney, L., Smith, K., & Shipway, R. (eds.) (2021). The Routledge Handbook of Volunteering in Events, Sport and Tourism. London: Routledge. Hoye, R., Cuskelly, G., Auld, C., Kappelides, P., & Misener, K. (2020). Sport Volunteering. London: Routledge. Hoye, R., Misener, K., Naraine, M., & Ordway, C. (2022). Sport Management Principles and Applications (6th ed.). London: Routledge. Mair, J. (2013). Conferences and Conventions: A Research Perspective. Abingdon: Routledge. Rogers, T., & Wynn-Moylan, P. (2022). Conferences and Conventions: A Global Industry (4th ed.). London: Routledge. Smith, K., Lockstone-Binney, L., Holmes, K., & Baum, T. (2014). Event Volunteering: International Perspectives on the Event Volunteering Experience. London: Routledge.

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LEARNING OBJECTIVES

Upon completion of this chapter students should know: l

The nature and implications of public policy for events.

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How policy is affected by ideology and politics.

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The meanings of governance.

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The difference between legitimation and legitimacy.

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The meaning of social licence.

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How events fit into various public policy fields.

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Justifications for public sector intervention in, and support for, planned events.

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The meaning and creation of public good through events.

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Policy and intervention options for governments, including direct provision or subsidies.

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Policy responses to the global pandemic as they affected events.

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Suggested policy goals, along with possible initiatives and performance measures for the various policy domains: economic, social, environmental, and cultural.

Introduction This chapter commences with a discussion of policy analysis as it applies to Event Studies. We examine the nature of public policy, including its links with power, politics, and ideology. The meaning of policy domains and regimes is discussed, as well as governance and legitimacy. In the DOI: 10.4324/9781003374251-7

Public Policy and Events second section, we present policy considerations specific to events, followed by a section on justifications for public intervention in the event sector, including the concepts of public goods, market failure, and efficiency. Then each major policy domain related to planned events receives a more detailed examination, covering economic policy (development, tourism), social (leisure, sport, health, and well-being), cultural (arts), and the environment. Finally, the chapter concludes with a look at the policymaking process as applicable to the event sector.

The Evolution of Policy Analysis for Events According to Foley et al. (2011), policy analysis in events research has been very limited. It started with a focus on event management and has evolved to encompass the many themes of Event Studies. Within that transition, policy analysis has focused on a range of issues, including macro-level contextualisation, policy dimensions, and the impacts of events. The object of such analysis is to gain an understanding of how public policy affects the events sector, and this has certainly come to the fore with the pandemic and ensuing governmental interventions. It is also of critical importance when considering ongoing funding of events, bidding and hosting mega-events, and the integration of event-related policies in other important policy fields such as health, economic and social development, and cultural and environmental policy. In theoretical terms, Hall (2014) argued that the political analysis of events reflects the wider concern of politics, which is about power and who gets what, where, and how. This is a fundamental concern within welfare studies. In this respect, politics and the analysis of power should be a central concern in Event Studies as power shapes public policies and influences the ways in which events are developed and staged, and beneficiaries and losers emerge. This is not deemed to be a popular pastime for researchers, as it often involves critiquing the very bodies funding and hosting events and research. As the field matured, and with prodding from critical theorists, it has now been recognised there are many reasons for greater transparency and accountability in event research, policy, and practice.

Public Policy and Power Public policy consists of a goal-directed process by governments and their agencies, manifested in laws, regulations, decisions (both actions and inaction), and intentions of governments regarding specific problems or general areas of public concern. Policy can be viewed in terms of power, because political parties, special interest groups and their professional lobbyists, constantly seek to influence policy. Political scientists and other researchers can study inequities in who has power, and what interests are actually taken into account when event policy is established. Policies of government are often based on ideology, arising from party-political manifestos. However, determining what is a government’s policy in many cases has to be deduced from what they do, or avoid doing, and this might simply reflect the dominant values of society at the time. It might also be difficult to discern the rationality behind government actions, and indeed it often appears in many jurisdictions that there is no coherent policy on events. A policy domain is a broad area of government responsibility or interest, such as culture, the economy, the environment, or health, which usually encompasses a variety of departments, agencies, laws, regulations, and programmes. Planned events cross a number of policy domains, often involving two or three levels of government, so it will be necessary to develop liaison between agencies on event-related issues, and to develop integrating policies.

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Public Policy and Events Hall and Rusher (2004) noted that the policy dimensions related to events include the political nature of the policymaking process, public participation, sources of power, exercise of choice by policymakers in a complex environment, and perceptions of the effectiveness of policy. To study event policy therefore requires knowledge of the various institutions involved, and how they interact and make policy. These include the legislators (elected or otherwise), government agencies (such as culture, tourism, sport, and economic development), the courts, law enforcement, public–private partnerships, quasi-governmental organisation, regulators, and other organisations with power, such as trade unions and political parties. Increasingly cities, regions, and countries are creating event-specific agencies or companies to bid on, facilitate or produce events. Unfortunately, public policy gets confusing and perhaps becomes counter-productive, when governments delegate authority to so-called independent agencies. This can result in secrecy, lack of accountability, and decisions made without regard to public needs or preferences. Each policy field or domain will involve a different network of stakeholders, yet tourism, culture, sports, events, and other networks of agencies and interests overlap considerably. Finding one’s way through these networks can be a challenge. Within them, who has power and how is it used? Intra- and inter-governmental conflicts, or lack of integration, also influence event-related policy. National governments typically promote tourism, but often it is local governments who have to provide the infrastructure – it is their voters who feel the immediate impacts and often the long-term legacy of debt and overbuilt facilities. Sport and events might appear to be perfect partners, but each interest group probably wants something different and might fight over resources. The concept of policy regimes is of direct relevance, especially when it comes to very big issues like hosting mega-events. Richards, de Brito, and Wilks (2013, 227) noted that “More recent studies of events have also underlined the importance of policy regimes to provide the ‘political will’ necessary to derive lasting benefits from events”. A regime could be defined by alliances, networks, and power brokers. Often there are elite groups in society that have the ability to make things happen because of their collective power. The use of celebrities is a common tactic (even calling them ‘ambassadors’) to influence decision-makers.

Ideology Political parties take different approaches to event funding or regulation, and in general to culture, economic development, or leisure and sport, based on ideologies. Ideology is rooted in philosophies, values, and even religious beliefs. Seldom do political parties engage in ideologically based debate over policies towards planned events, but it does happen around specific issues and events – especially for spending on mega-events or event venues, and sometimes regarding the funding of festivals and sports. In terms of ideological differences, observers can look for the following indicators of substantial differences between party positions, and then assess how they will affect the events sector: l

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A general belief in government intervention, which leads to many programmes of funding as well as to many regulations – versus a general belief in free enterprise, the marketplace, and individual rather than collective responsibility. Policies that result in governments taking a proactive lead, versus a problem-solving approach (e.g., formulating pro-event policy, versus merely reacting to issues).

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A belief that culture, sport, and leisure are matters of health and public welfare, versus the view that they are best left to individual consumption decisions. A belief that tourism is business and best left to the industry, rather than being a social, environmental, or cultural issue. Responsiveness to special interest groups (which reveals power bases).

Governance Dredge and Whitford (2011) discussed governance as a form of public–private policymaking involving discourse and action among stakeholders towards the achievement of common goals. As such, this relates to stakeholder theory and value co-creation networks, to event portfolios seeking synergies, and to the engagement of all parties and voices in evaluation and impact assessment. While private companies and for-profit entrepreneurs are used to an environment in which decisions are made internally, with the company’s goals first and foremost, those organisations in the public and not-for-profit sectors are often inclined towards inclusiveness. For the purposes of evaluating or planning inclusive governance, Whitford et al. (2014) developed a set of indicators covering several important considerations. They recommended indicators of transparency, rule of law, responsiveness, equitable involvement, structures and processes, and accountability. A related issue, also applicable to policymaking and stakeholder management in general, is that of legitimacy. Those in power have one kind, while residents and other stakeholder groups might dispute the right of politicians or public agencies to make decisions such as bidding on, funding, and hosting events.

Legitimation and Legitimacy; Social Licence The legitimation of events as policy tools and instruments of strategy is now global, but individual events and specific actions of companies or governments are often contested. One of the reasons for widespread adoption of more inclusive governance models is a lack of trust in governments and corporations. The notion of a legitimacy crisis was raised by Habermas (1975), and it applies wherever and whenever the public or key stakeholders question decisions and demand transparency and accountability. Larson, Getz, and Pastras (2015, 170) argued that festival legitimacy is built and sustained within the culture of a local community, and a festival comes to be regarded as an institution in terms of widespread and permanent legitimacy. The source of this legitimacy can lie in moral authority, commercial success, legal status, and/or strategy. In many ways, this is the same as achieving a social licence. The concept of social licence is sometimes raised in the context of events, especially major projects related to mega-events. At one level it refers to companies or proponents of events seeking public support, above and beyond what is legally required. This is sometimes abused, as in attempting to convince the public it will be good for them by emphasising purported benefits and ignoring or downplaying the costs and negative impacts. On the other side of the coin, certain advocacy groups and narrowly defined lobbies have used the social licence idea to oppose and sometimes block projects, by claiming to speak for the public. The fact is, there is no real social licence, it is an idea related to public participation and meaningful participation in planning and decision-making. It is a reflection of power in politics. If events are considered a public good, on par with – or an element in – social, leisure, health, sport, and culture policy, then there should be a planning process in place to ensure adequate provision, including these elements:

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Needs assessment; issues identification; multi-stakeholder input.

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Developing a portfolio of events to meet specific needs in specific places.

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Setting standards of provision and accessibility.

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Funding and facilitation programmes tied to public agencies and venues.

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Organisational development to ensure implementation; community capacity-building.

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Research, monitoring, and impact evaluation.

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Review and policy refinement.

It seems likely that most authorities will not develop such an integrated events policy, but within closely related policy domains, the same planning approach can be applied: l

Issues (why are we interested in events? justification for intervention).

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Purpose and goals (what we want to accomplish with events – the desired outcomes).

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Research, consultations, and the planning process.

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Evaluation and accountability (e.g., performance measures, monitoring, and feedback).

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Implementation: laws and regulations; event development or bidding agencies; event funding programmes.

Policy Considerations Specific to Events Hall and Page (2006, 335) identified a number of policy-related considerations that should be applied to the events sector. The first is the policy environment, consisting of all those factors that shape policy. The basic form of government (is it democratic?), the distribution of power, and how society is structured are determinants of the policy environment, as are the values of political parties (i.e., ideology) reflected in the emphasis on a free market versus interventionism. Institutional arrangements are critical, such as the existence of an event development agency or an events office within a city where policy for events can be concentrated and made transparent. This convenience has to be viewed against the many voices to be heard, and not all of them are effective in lobbying. Such a situation introduces the notion of a policy arena in which special interest groups engage in lobbying, institutions interact, individuals and groups achieve influence, and leadership might or might not be effective. The notion of a political market square is pertinent, as the various stakeholders have varying degrees of power and influence, form alliances or collaborate, negotiate, and seek to influence policy. The openness of this process should be a matter of concern to everyone. In most places, the policy arena for events is fractured, consisting of the often-competing voices of sport, arts, heritage, culture, and tourism, and further subdivided by professional associations representing specific types of events. Policies and programmes are formulated for specific purposes, then must be evaluated in terms of their impact, effectiveness, and efficiency. The policy should be continuously reviewed and improved with full stakeholder input. Finally, there is the important matter of accountability – how are officials and others held accountable for their policies and actions? In Table 7.1, three levels of government are considered, with typical event-related policies for each (recognising that they can overlap) and typical evaluation questions. In many countries, it is local government that takes most initiatives, setting up event departments, bidding agencies, or development corporations. In the book Event Portfolio Management (Antchak, Ziakas, and

Public Policy and Events Table 7.1  Levels of Policy Creation for Events, with Major Evaluation Questions Level of Government

Typical Event-Related Policies

Major Evaluation Questions

National

– bidding on, and funding major international events – providing security for major international events – funding of national-level sport organisations and major cultural institutions – regulating imports (e.g., equipment for events; sponsors’ materials) – special visas for athletes, performers, officials

– how are events contributing to the nation’s economic, social, cultural, and environmental goals? – what is the best strategy? – specifically, are mega-events worth the investment?

Regional (State, Province)

– depending on the size of the country, national governments might function as regional or even local facilitators and regulators of events – provision of major facilities/ venues – assistance/funding programmes

– similar to national-level, plus: – what infrastructure and facilities are needed to achieve our event-related goals? – are the various forms of assistance achieving the desired outcomes? – what problems and negative impacts have been created?

Local (municipal)

– direct funding of organisations and their events – assistance to the events sector in general (e.g., convening associations, research, and scheduling) – strategy: event-specific plans – event development organisations/units for active portfolio creation and management – bidding on events; funds required – ownership of facilities (sport, culture, convention/exhibition, festival places, parks) – services provided to events (e.g., co-ordination, transport, database management, and hosts) – regulation of events (permits required, restrictions by location, time, and noise; health inspection; building permits)

– is our population of events healthy? – do we effectively manage a portfolio of events to achieve multiple goals? – how do we respond to stakeholder questions and demands? – are all events adequately evaluated? – are our regulations effective? – what is the best way to coordinate and network events? – have we adequate information to support complete IA and evaluation of the events sector?

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ROLES AND STRATEGIC CHOICES PRODUCE YOUR OWN EVENTS? TAKE EQUITY? SPONSOR? ASSIST?

FINANCIAL SUPPORT

MATERIAL SUPPORT

MARKETING SUPPORT

ADVICE AND COORDINATION; NETWORKING; MORAL SUPPORT

Figure 7.1  Strategic Intervention Choices for Governments Getz, 2019) are examples from New Zealand, Australia, England, and Scotland, and a comparison of 23 cities, internationally, as to their events-related goals and strategies. Getz and Frisby (1991) developed a framework for local government policymaking in the events sector. The logic also applies to other agencies, such as tourism, with their interconnection with events. Figure 7.1 gives an overview of the strategic choices. The basic premise is that some level of policy intervention in the events sector is desired and practical. First, several optional roles have to be considered: l l

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Direct provision: governmental agencies produce and own events. Equity approach: do not produce, but invest in events (in this case equity means the capital invested). Sponsorship: act like corporations and make sponsorship deals for specific benefits (such as place branding, image-making, and social marketing). Facilitate: through various policy initiatives, facilitate event creation or operations.

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Financial: grants, loans, lines of credit, debt relief, subsidies (e.g., for use of police, traffic services, venues), tax relief, awards, and prizes. Technical: professional advice; training; research and information; office space. Marketing: overall or event-specific promotions; inclusion in government materials, and websites. Regulatory: fast-tracking; release from onerous obligations. Infrastructure: provision and improvement of necessary services (roads, water) and public venues (e.g., theatres, arenas, parks, and plazas).

Regulating the Events Sector Event producers have to satisfy and manage relationships with numerous regulatory agencies and their officials. A majority of these are at the local level, but sometimes multi-level approvals are needed from the following:

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Health and safety: hazardous materials, fireworks and lasers, food and beverage preparation and storage standards, electricity, and waste disposal Building inspection: standards, inspection of new construction, or allowable temporary structures Land use: where events can be held, where venues can be built, size limits, and site planning requirements Noise control: noise levels and dispersion, hours of operation Labour: minimum wages, age restrictions, work hours, certification of professionals and trades people, and health and safety

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Environmental: emission standards (smoke, pollutants), recycling, and wastes

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Consumer protection: price controls, guarantees, refunds

Top-Down Versus Bottom-Up Policymaking for events can range from a top-down approach, led by government or specific agencies, to a bottom-up approach, arising from community needs assessments and the input of many stakeholders. Event tourism policy tends to be top-down (as in Australia, as demonstrated by Whitford, 2004a, 2004b), mainly because it is seen as legitimate economic development but also because so much bidding on events is opportunistic. When developing a policy open to stakeholder input, a number of collaborative, consensus-building approaches can be used. For example, Hall and Rusher (2004, 225) gave an example of effective community involvement in events policy.

Research, Evaluation, and Public Policy What do we need to formulate and effectively administer events-related policy? Both practitioners and academics have a role to play, not only the policymakers themselves. To analyse policy or strategy, one should examine the following: l

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Intention, or expressed purpose (is it economic/development-oriented, or community/ culture-oriented; see the goals and performance criteria). Contents (responsibilities of the agencies involved, types of events covered, applicability in different settings). Implementation (programmes and schedules, funds allocated, regulations, evaluation, and accountability). Results (multiple, independent evaluations of intended and unintended outcomes and feedback and revisions).

Public Discourse and Policy We cannot expect rational and sustainable decision-making until, and unless, there is a full, open, and honest public discourse on events and their costs and impacts. Such a discourse is also essential for the institutionalisation of a new paradigm, such as sustainable events or a

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Public Policy and Events triple-bottom-line approach. What gets covered in the press, and the issues talked about by residents, constitute important elements in the public discourse. Researchers and practitioners have a moral responsibility to engage politicians and the public, in large part by offering evidence and informed opinions about the impacts of events.

Justifying Public Sector Involvement At election time, most governments try to justify their policies. They also put forward clearly different policy platforms, based on ideology (or the need for positioning). Many voters are swayed by specific proposals or measures, while others are impressed more by values and policies that suggest the general direction a government will take. Veal (2011) observed that the critical approach to sociological research and theory has raised many public policy questions. For example, who is being served by public expenditure on festivals? Probably the most obvious public policy that relates to planned events is funding, so what is the case for public funding of events? Practice varies widely, with money coming from a variety of public agencies, all aimed at different outcomes. Increasing scrutiny of policy, or of government inaction, leads to many questions being raised in the media and at the community level. The main lines of justification for public funding or other forms of intervention (like regulations, direct production of events, or marketing) start with ideology – namely, what is a public good? After that, market failure or market inadequacies are often cited, and achieving greater efficiency is also used as justification. When we address possible responses to outcomes and the question of “what is an event worth” in Chapter 14, we will be reflecting upon this discussion of policy justification.

Creating Public Good The key to this powerful argument is to demonstrate important benefits from events that accrue to society as a whole – or to the economy (which should ideally benefit us all) and to the environment (everyone should support a healthier, safer, more sustainable environment). It should also be made clear by policymakers that the benefits from events can only be achieved through support and investment in events, or at least that the benefits of events are equal to those from other investment opportunities. When backed by research, expert testimony, and public opinion surveys showing support for events, the public good argument cannot easily be refuted. To make the public good argument valid and convincing, the following criteria have to be met: l l

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Events fit into accepted policy domains (culture, health, and economics). Public benefits are substantial (it’s worth our while to get involved) and inclusive (everyone gains), and they can be demonstrated or proved. There are rules and accountability for money spent and other actions taken.

Social Equity The social equity principle is really a part of the public good justification. In the context of planned events, it can be stated this way: where events provide a public good (i.e., benefits accrue to society as a whole), it is justifiable for governments to intervene by way of subsidies (to events or participants) or direct provision of events, in order to ensure that everyone has

Public Policy and Events the means to attend or otherwise benefit from events. Social equity literally means that access to a public good or service, and to the benefits of public investment, is based on principles of fairness, justice, and need. This is not the same as equality, wherein everyone gets exactly the same thing. For example, equal access to events or the benefits of events would mean that everyone gets the same, but that principle is not widely held to be feasible or desirable. Equity is a serious issue for the events sector, particularly because many governments value events in the context of culture, social integration, leisure, and health. If left to the free market, it is probable that many people will not be able to participate in some events because of high costs, inaccessibility, or lack of knowledge about opportunities. While the equity principle justifies subsidies and direct provision, the value of events to society can and should be measured. Over-development of economic impact assessment has left us weak in demonstrating social and cultural value. Sometimes government action related to events directly violates the equity principle, for example in the arts sector when heavily subsidised institutions and events (such as symphony, ballet, opera, and theatre) still charge high ticket prices, making it impossible for the poor to attend. One solution is to maintain high nominal prices (the rich hardly notice it) but to ensure that low-cost tickets are available to those in need. Another is to proactively take art and events to the people through free-to-enter concerts and festivals.

Failure or Inadequacies of the Marketplace This economic justification for public involvement rests on the premise (or ideological belief) that economic development in general is best left in the hands of the private sector, but in some cases, the free market does not provide sufficient incentive or reward to stimulate entrepreneurial activity or to generate public goods and services. Accordingly, giving money to tourism marketing organisations, participating in joint ventures with the private sector, or providing tax incentives or subsidies to investors (including events), can all be justified as a necessary means to achieve public policy aims. This argument is sometimes extended to providing assistance for the not-for-profit sector. For example, organisations produce many festivals and other events in an inherently risky environment, so they deserve assistance as long as the public good can be demonstrated. Burgan and Mules (2001) and Mules and Dwyer (2006) argued that fewer sporting venues would be built, and fewer events would occur without public support because market forces would not support them. Yet many of the direct benefits accrue to the hospitality and travel industry, so why should the public sector intervene? The supply of events would eventually reach equilibrium with demand (i.e., what consumers are willing to pay) only if a completely free market existed. At that equilibrium point, there would theoretically exist the number and types of events that were demanded by paying customers. But a relatively free market really only exists for certain types of events, namely, those produced by for-profit corporations for companies or consumers that are looking for specific entertainment, learning, or marketing opportunities that can only be met by these types of events (perhaps weddings or private parties). But most event entrepreneurs have to compete with subsidised events and event venues in the public or non-profit domains, which distorts the marketplace. The law of the commons: Culture, public lands and facilities, scenery, and other natural resources exploited for tourism and events can be considered common assets. Their benefits should accrue to everyone, and they need to be protected. This is the stewardship principle in sustainability theory and politics. Only government policy and action can protect common assets. If common assets are used for tourism or events without regulation, by whoever takes the

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Return on Investment (ROI) and Economic Efficiency To private investors, ROI is their measure of value. In other words, for every dollar invested, what are their profits or earnings? In the private sector, the ROI will constitute profit, some or all of which could be re-invested in the growth of the event or expansion of the business. Tourism agencies investing in events often equate economic impact with ROI, focusing on the number of dedicated event tourists attracted (who would not otherwise visit the destination) and what they spent. Strictly speaking, this is one impact, and it does not necessarily equal a benefit to everyone. Governments and public agencies can also make money. Numerous studies have shown that governments at all levels realise substantial tax gains from tourism in general, and event tourism in particular. Events stimulate consumption of goods and services that are heavily taxed. Purely on a profit basis, public sector investment is thereby justified. However, there has to be proven feasibility, accountability, and professional management in place. The public sector in many countries has engaged in downsizing and outsourcing to save the taxpayer money. Really this is a way of saying that the services need to be provided, but the private sector can do it more efficiently. Some cities have developed festivals and events, then put them out to tender. Publicly funded facilities are sometimes managed for profit by private companies that use events to generate both tourism and private profits. Efficiency is also gained when events with surplus capacity are marketed to tourists, and when events are held in public facilities and spaces that both have surplus capacity and need additional revenue. In these cases, spending a little on events can realise important benefits for residents.

Intangible Benefits: Psychic and Existence Values Psychic benefits accrue to people when they value something more than its related costs, as was calculated in the landmark event impact study by Burns et al. (1986). Those researchers determined that the Adelaide Grand Prix imposed costs and problems on the resident population, but a large majority still thought the event was desirable and should be held again. In other words, it had a psychic value for them which was at least equal to the monetary value of all those personal and community-felt costs. Only an economist would make such a claim! Consumer surplus: An event (or other experience) can be worth more than people have to pay for it, generating a consumer surplus. This is a value that governments and service organisations can create deliberately by providing free events or subsidising segments such as the elderly or disadvantaged. To economists, the value that consumers assign to a purchase or experience can be measured by their willingness to pay. Their utility value (i.e., benefits gained from the event) might be higher than the cost, or the value of the resources consumed to produce the event. This approach to valuation is difficult, given that people are possibly unable or unwilling to talk about hypotheticals like “what would you pay if…?” In many cases (seeing as it is a hypothetical research exercise), people will say they will not pay anything for a currently free good or service, or they will not pay more than it currently costs, because they do not want to see fees or taxes go up. That is very rational behaviour.

Public Policy and Events Armbrecht (2014), Andersson and Lundberg (2013) and Andersson and Armbrecht (2014) detailed the theory behind contingent valuation and its application to determining various use and non-use values attributable to events. Research clearly reveals that people value events even if they do not attend them, as events provide real leisure choices, preserve traditions, and enrich communities in different ways. Bequest value pertains to the roles events can play in preserving traditions (to be passed on to future generations) but might also relate to the value of certain events for youth (the next generation). Option value clearly stems from the choices events provide, and most people would agree that communities without events would be very boring. Existence value covers the range of possible social, economic cultural, and environmental benefits that events can bring to communities. However, just because people recognise these values does not necessarily mean they are happy to see governments, lavish money on them or to have their taxes raised to support them – that is a subject for public discourse and political decision-making (see the Sunshine Coast Research profiled in Chapter 8).

Counter-Arguments Counter-arguments are also heard. Money given to special interest groups often attracts opposition, especially from groups that do not get similar treatment. Sometimes there are strong cultural or political forces opposing government spending on projects that are claimed to be elitist (e.g., performing arts that are subsidised, yet too expensive for most people to buy tickets), harmful (risky sports, and especially sports featuring animals), perverse (LGBTQ+ are often attacked) or narrow (i.e., the benefits accrue only to private companies). A lack of involvement with tourism or events might occur because attention is turned elsewhere, as in the pandemic. And because governments are faced with virtually unlimited spending opportunities, and limits on resources, they have to constantly prioritise. It is certainly reasonable for policymakers and political parties to say they have more important priorities than planned events, but that is not very convincing when policy already exists for directly related domains like sport, the arts, tourism, and economic development.

PROFILE 7.1 Scotland and Edinburgh Many scholars and practitioners have pointed to Scotland and Edinburgh as exemplars of policy, planning, and management of the events sector, as well as events tourism. This profile examines how the national, city, and festival organisations work together, the issues they face, and their strategy. It should be noted that what was once known as Events Scotland is now a unit of Visit Scotland (https://visitscotland.com/), along with Business Events Scotland (https://businessevents.visitscotland.com/).

Strategic Planning Scotland: The Perfect Stage was first published in 2008, reviewed and updated to cover the period 2015–2025, and in 2023 was again under review through public, industry, and government consultations. “It looks to use and develop Scotland’s assets to deliver a portfolio of events that provide world leading authentic experiences for Scotland’s residents and visitors” (source: www.visitscotland.org).

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Public Policy and Events This statement is from Visit Scotland (2015, 8): Wide consultation has informed the development of this strategy. Input has been drawn from across the industry, from industry representative groups including the Scottish Events and Festivals Association (SEFA), the National Outdoor Events Association (Scotland) (NOEA Scotland) and the Edinburgh Festivals Forum to the organisers of individual events of all types and sizes, from visitor attractions to suppliers and from national sports associations and governing bodies to destination management organisations. The strategy explicitly aims to develop and manage a full portfolio of events, with the following characteristics: – an annual core of events unique to Scotland, embedded in Scottish culture, plus business events. – high-profile recurring and one-off events including mega-events to complement the core portfolio. – impact and legacy delivered on an ongoing basis through education, entertainment, and event experiences – both for residents and for visitors. The most significant mega-event held since the plan was instituted was the Glasgow Commonwealth Games of 2014. Post-event, many research articles have been published pertaining to a wide variety of issues (a phenomenon associated with all one-time mega-events) such as the following examples pertaining to impacts on the city itself, both image and infrastructure (new facilities), volunteerism and health, and sustainability.

References Cantillon, Z. (2022). Urban Reimaging, heritage and the making of a world-class city: The Commonwealth walkway as mega-event legacy project. Heritage & Society, 15 (3), 259–276. South, J., Woodall, J., Southby, K., Jones, R., Yates, G., Kinsella, K., & May, E. (2022). Volunteerism, social context and health impacts: A qualitative study of Glasgow Commonwealth Games event volunteers. Cities & Health, 6 (4), 671–683. James, L. (2022). Sustainability Commonwealth Games: The Commonwealth Games’: Green aspirations: Fact or fiction? Engineering & Technology, 17 (7), 20–24.

Current Issues Scotland’s cultural identity and heritage have been recognised as strong differentiating factors, alongside friendliness, natural beauty, heritage and architecture, sports, and festivals. Effort has been substantial in promoting the image of the nation as an events destination, but in 2023 a number of serious issues were threatening its competitiveness. In addition to the negative effects of the pandemic, which especially harmed festivals and cultural institutions through cancellations and postponements, Scotland was experiencing high costs, supply chain difficulties, rising wages, new restrictions on alcohol marketing, and new environmental regulations, all of which impacted on the tourism and events sectors. International competitiveness was under threat, with other destinations investing heavily in events and related infrastructure. The current

Public Policy and Events strategy for the period 2021–2024 includes the following: (source: https://www.gov. scot/publications/national-events-strategy-review-consultation/) Purpose: To deliver a strategic and coordinated approach to supporting the rebuilding of the visitor economy in a responsible way, to ensure that tourism thrives. Vision: Scotland is a leader in 21st century tourism with a thriving, responsible visitor economy. Mission: Through strategic leadership and industry partnerships, encourage a responsible approach to re-building and growing the value of tourism highlighting the benefits of tourism and events across Scotland in delivering the very best for our visitors, our businesses, our people, our communities and our environment. A number of actions are being discussed: – Building a responsible destination brand. – Investing in Scotland’s tourism and events communities. – Facilitating collaboration and embracing change in support of a fairer, more responsible, and inclusive visitor economy. – Action plan for visitor management. – Agritourism strategy. – Destination climate action plan. – Tourism development framework. Other issues being addressed include: – Equality, inclusion, and diversity, including poverty, age, race, disability, sexual orientation, socio-economics, the islands (remoteness); well-being and mental health. – Partnership and Collaboration: with communities; technology and infrastructure; educational institutions. – Best practice, Innovation, and Continuous Improvement: fair work and workforce development; skills; voluntarism; environmental and financial sustainability. – Best practice in measurement (see the EventImpacts website and toolkit at: https://www.eventimpacts.com/). This website contains a tool for estimating an event’s direct economic impact and a number of case studies and reports of value to anyone looking at event impacts. – Excellent Event Experience: inclusiveness; audience and community engagement; variety. – Delivering a Shared Ambition: role of the strategy. – Promotion and Profile: reputation and brand; promotion through events; the role of mega-events.

Edinburgh: Festival City Edinburgh is frequently cited as an example of a festival city, with its brand and tourism sector being closely associated with a portfolio of successful annual events. In the book Event Portfolio Management (Antchak, Ziakas, and Getz, 2019), there is a detailed

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Plate 7.1  Edinburgh Fringe Festival: Crowd and Performers on the Royal Mile Photo Credit: Edinburgh Festival Fringe - Daniel Clarke, Festivals Edinburgh

examination of the collaboration and networking that goes into the city’s events, alongside national-level planning and support from Scotland’s various ministries. The book Event Impact Assessment (Getz, 2019a) presents highlights from a succession of impact studies that Festivals Edinburgh has placed online. The website https://www.edinburghfestivalcity.com/ provides a huge amount of useful information for exploring the festivals as well as the organisations behind them, and in particular the organisation Festivals Edinburgh. See Plate 7.1 for a photo of the Edinburgh Fringe Festival. According to Antchak, Ziakas, and Getz (2019), the success of Edinburgh illustrates several important points for event portfolio creation, management, and strategy all of which can be called a festival ecosystem: l

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Portfolio management is being implemented at three levels: nation, city, and festival programming. Eleven major Edinburgh festivals have a formal organisation and can be considered a managed portfolio. Common goals and integrated action with regard to vision, policy, strategy, and funding. Collaboration among key stakeholders is both formal and informal; networking procedures are well established.

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Strategic planning and research have facilitated innovation and competitiveness. Synergies are fostered with regard to achieving desired benefits in the fields of branding, communications, financing, venues, and the engagement of residents.

According to Visit Scotland’s 2015 visitor survey (cited in BOP Consulting, 2018, 8), “Edinburgh’s Festivals each year deliver over 3,000 events, reaching audiences of more than 4.5 million and creating the equivalent of approximately 6,000 full time jobs. 32% of the 14 million+ annual visitors to Scotland are motivated by the nation’s cultural and heritage offer, in which the Festivals play a defining role”. The Festivals Forum was established in 2007 following the first of several reports called Thundering Hooves. It exists to facilitate collaboration, particularly between major funders and events and venues. Festivals Edinburgh is the formal, staffed association of the 11 major, permanent festivals. Leadership is shared. As well, the City of Edinburgh and the Scottish Government work closely together with the association. The festival ecosystem works at the national, city, and event levels, encompassing the Scottish event. portfolio, of which the city’s event portfolio. Common goals and vision, and the integration of policy and plans, are inherent benefits of this ecosystem approach – including dedicated funding programmes. Also important have been a series of research reports and strategy-related documents that seek to foster innovation, competitiveness, and relevance to residents. Synergies are evident in branding, communications, financing, venues, and the engagement of residents. The additional tourism orientation of the portfolio is accepted by the festivals and is vitally important to the city and nation. Festivals Edinburgh’s mission statement: ‘To be the world’s leading festival city by supporting the collective cultural and financial health of Edinburgh’s Festivals’. (source: https://www.edinburghfestivalcity.com/about) The Thundering Hooves analysis and resulting strategy for Edinburgh festivals came about through collaboration by the Scottish Government, EventScotland, Scottish Enterprise, Creative Scotland, and the City of Edinburgh Council. The first report was in 2006 and the second was in 2015. The 2006 Thundering Hooves led directly to the establishment of the Festivals Forum, an action intended to maintain the city’s global competitive advantage related to its festivals. The reports can be found at: (https:// www.edinburghfestivalcity.com/about/documents/196-thundering-hooves). From the 2006 report: This study was commissioned by the Scottish Arts Council in partnership with Festivals Edinburgh (formerly, the Association of Edinburgh Festivals), the City of Edinburgh Council (CEC), the Scottish Executive, EventScotland and Scottish Enterprise Edinburgh and Lothian. Its purpose is to examine the competitive position of the eleven festivals belonging to Festivals Edinburgh....

Pandemic Impacts Cancellations during the pandemic resulted in huge financial losses for the city and nation, although funds were provided to help cultural organisations survive the loss

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Public Policy and Events of revenue. The break from business-as-usual did force many in the city and festivals network to rethink assumptions and commit to innovation. A study by Ali-Knight et al. (2023) suggested the pandemic resulted in “...more innovative festival delivery models and a different imagining of the festival space”. The authors proposed a new model of risk management focused on ‘Respond, Resilience and Reimagine’.

References and Readings Ali-Knight, J., Kerr, G., Stewart, H., & Holmes, K. (2023). Festival hiatus, resilience and innovation during COVID-19: Learnings from the Edinburgh Festivals. International Journal of Event and Festival Management, 14 (2), 170–188. Antchak, V., Ziakas, V., & Getz, D. (2019). Event Portfolio Management: Theory and Methods for Event Management and Tourism. Oxford: Goodfellow Publishers. BOP Consulting (2016). Edinburgh Festivals 2015 Impact Study Final Report. Prepared for Festivals Edinburgh. BOP Consulting (2018). Edinburgh Festivals the Network Effect: The Role of the Edinburgh Festivals in the National Culture and Events Sectors. Prepared for Festivals Edinburgh. BOP Consulting and Festivals and Events International (2015). Edinburgh Festivals: Thundering Hooves 2.0. A Ten Year Strategy to Sustain the Success of Edinburgh’s Festivals. Carlsen, J., Ali-Knight, J., & Robertson, M. (2007). Access—a research agenda for Edinburgh festivals. Event Management, 11 (1–2), 3–11. Ellis, A. (2006). Thundering Hooves: Maintaining the Global Competitive Edge of Edinburgh’s Festivals. London: AEA Consultants. Getz, D. (2019a). Event Impact Assessment, p. 213. Oxford: Goodfellow Publishers. Richards, G., & Leal Londoño, M. D. P. (2022). Festival cities and tourism: Challenges and prospects. Journal of Policy Research in Tourism, Leisure and Events, 14 (3), 219–228. Robertson, M., & Wardrop, K. M. (2012). Events and the destination dynamic: Edinburgh festivals, entrepreneurship and strategic marketing. In (eds) Yeoman, I., Robertson, M., Ali-Kight, J., Drummond, S. and McMahon-Beattie, U., Festivals and Events Management: An International Arts and Culture Perspective, pp. 115–129. Oxford: Elsevier Butterworth-Heinemann. Visit Scotland. (2015). Scotland the perfect stage: Scotland’s events strategy 2015– 2025. Available from http://www.eventscotland.org/assets/show/4658

Major Policy Domains and Event-Related Goals In this section, major policy domains are discussed with regard to implications for the events sector. In particular, we provide sets of goals that are relevant and desirable in order to be comprehensive and foster sustainability. These goals are again important when the discussion turns to evaluation and impact assessment. Accompanying tables (starting with 7.2) list important goals, related policy initiatives for the various levels of government, and key performance indicators (KPIs). Note that Initiatives and KPIs do not necessarily align with one particular goal, a more integrative approach is always recommended.

Public Policy and Events Table 7.2  Economic Policy and Events Important Goals

Related Policy Initiatives

KPIs

– Foster event tourism – Use events in place marketing (e.g., image enhancement; place branding) – Leverage events for general economic development – Use events to maximise venue efficiency – Foster trade and international cooperation

– Establish an event tourism policy domain; bid on major events; comarket destinations with the private sector – Develop an event portfolio strategy for the community or destination; ensure balance and diversification through funding – Integrate event policy with venue investment and operations; financially support major venues (e.g., public–private partnerships) – Integrate event policy with place marketing and other economic development initiatives

– Measure event tourism benefits (e.g., yield relative to the spending of other tourists; occupancy rates; backward linkages demonstrated) – Profits or surplus revenue generated for venues, organisations – Tourism growth (yield being more important than volume) – Demonstrable legacy benefits (long-term monitoring required) – Evaluation of image enhancement and reputation (long-term, compared to other destinations) – Business-to-business relationships established (national and international)

Economic Policy and Events Economic policy has dominated when it comes to event tourism and the roles events play in development and place marketing, to the extent that in many jurisdictions support for events has been contingent upon attracting tourists or generating favourable publicity for the city or region. This economic bias has undoubtedly benefitted some organisations and events at the expense of others and has given rise to its own vocabulary with terms such as hallmark, destination, and major event becoming prevalent. Sport events and business events have gained substantially from public sector investment in arenas, stadia, convention and exhibition centres, and the bidding and marketing necessary to fill them. Arts and cultural events benefit from investment in theatres and festival places. Increasingly, such investment decisions made by governments are influenced by consideration of multiple-use so that sport, entertainment, and community uses can be maximised. Many of the points made in Table 7.2  are discussed more fully in Chapter 15.

Cultural Policy and Events Cultural policy relates mostly to festivals and the arts, but there is no reason why all planned events cannot facilitate cultural experiences and meet other cultural development goals (see Table 7.3). For example, conventions often include local cultural performances or heritage-related tours, and at the most basic level, all assemblies can feature local food and beverages.

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Public Policy and Events Table 7.3  Cultural Policy and Events Important Goals

Related Policy Initiatives

KPIs

– Foster arts and cultural development through investment in events – Leverage events for general and traditional/ indigenous cultural development – Use events to maximise venue efficiency – Foster sustainable cultural event tourism

– Integrate events in cultural policy and arts development strategies – Develop specific event funding programmes – Develop cultural themes and programming for all events

– Assess the overall effectiveness of arts and cultural development in the community: measures of accessibility, use, appreciation, growth – Develop and employ specific measures of cultural event success and benefits to particular segments related to inclusiveness, equity, and justice – Resident support and participation in events; acceptance of themes and programming – Financial feasibility and performance of venues – The effectiveness of events as attractions to cultural precincts

A number of studies have examined the aims or mandates of festivals and events. A survey of Irish festivals (Goh, 2003) asked organisers to indicate and prioritise their aims, revealing that the top goal was to promote artistic excellence. This was followed very closely by increasing tourism and area promotion (both place marketing goals). Other aims (in descending order) were to showcase local heritage or arts, boost the local economy and celebration, and encourage social inclusion and education. Development in the arts and cultural domains has to encompass increased awareness of what is available, and its benefits to the community, audience-building through direct involvement of people in the arts, generating revenue (such as by facilitating corporate sponsorship and targeting grants), fostering traditional or indigenous talent and expression, and even providing free entertainment for the public. Radbourne (2002) observed that the most common argument for government involvement is that “arts and cultural activity enrich a society and that all people have the right of access and participation”. Because public benefits are generated (although these are frequently in dispute), and because the private sector will not provide the necessary supply (this being a failure of the marketplace), direct government action is needed. Basically, this is the social equity argument – that many people cannot afford access to the arts without government intervention. Claims have been growing that the arts and cultural activity in general make for an attractive living and working environment, stimulating innovation and competitive advantage (e.g., Florida, 2002 and the ‘creative economy’). All events can provide cultural experiences through appropriate theming and programming. There is no reason why business and political events cannot provide cultural experiences for visitors, such as through authentic entertainment, meaningful host–guest interactions, interpretation, and additional pre- or post-cultural opportunities.

Public Policy and Events Table 7.4  Social Policy and Events Important Goals

Related Policy Initiatives

KPIs

Foster social integration and community development through a programme of public events

Integrate events with urban renewal, social and community development policy

Combat social problems at and surrounding events (hooliganism, substance abuse, sexual harassment, crime)

Integrate events with health and wellness policy

Assess the overall effectiveness of social policy; develop and employ specific measures of event success and its benefits

Leverage events for urban renewal Use events to enhance health and wellness

Integrate events with policy for sport, parks, and recreation Provide resources for combating social problems associated with events Formulate policy regarding the use of public spaces for events, both formal and informal

– support and participation by target segments of the population – health and crime indicators – measures of equity: accessibility and use of venues and events, participation rates in sports and other leisure activities – values: measure use and non-use valuation of events

Social Policy and Events Social policy covers a wide range of issues, as indicated in this section (see Table 7.4). Needs vary a great deal, but there are commonalities that should be addressed in every jurisdiction. Foster social integration: In many communities, including small towns and city neighbourhoods, events can be catalysts for community development. Their organisation and revenue-making potential can foster self-sufficiency and pride in accomplishment. Community identity and pride can be heightened through sharing with outsiders. Integration of diverse or conflicted social groups should be a specific aim, to be realised through planning and decision-making, all the way through social interaction and interpretation at events. Public services and resources provided to events (e.g., police, fire, traffic control, transport, physical infrastructure) are often viewed as expenses to be recovered but should be provided within the context of social and cultural policy. In many cases, direct provision of events, and subsidies for using public services, are warranted. Who should have access to public spaces and venues? Many governments licence all events and ban or shut down informal gatherings, but does this policy always serve social goals? It can certainly be argued that in a free society, people have the right to assemble and hold spontaneous events, although this has to be balanced by responsible behaviour. Combat social problems: What constitutes anti-social behaviour versus permissible civil disobedience? Preventing and reacting to social problems at or surrounding events is a matter of social policy. It is not just a security issue but should integrate public awareness and education, event management including crowd controls, venue design, and public transport. Leverage events for urban renewal: Mega-events in particular are viewed as opportunities for large-scale redevelopment or urban renewal projects. Cities create tangible legacies in terms of

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Public Policy and Events monuments and landmarks, culture and entertainment precincts, fresh design and aesthetics, and hopefully renewed residential value. History has demonstrated that these benefits must be planned in advance, not left to chance, and that events can be both a powerful planning and renewal tool and an agent for destruction and inequality. Mules (1993) pointed out the roles of events in urban renewal strategies, a theme which has since been expanded to include urban economic and social revitalisation and repositioning from a branding perspective (e.g., Duignan, 2013). Pugh and Wood (2004) examined multiple reasons for event support in London, including place marketing, pride, and economic development. Cultural development is also a well-explored theme, particularly in the context of cities of culture (Richards, 2007; Richards and Palmer, 2010). Use events to enhance health and wellness: Events can be used as social marketing tools (requiring education and thematic interpretation) and to provide activities for encouraging healthy lifestyles. There will be direct tie-ins to sport, parks, and recreation. Examples include food and beverage festivals with nutritional themes, sport competitions stressing safe play, and edutainment events in parks. Health concerns and regulations have to be applied across the spectrum of events and event venues, so why not make them proactive to encourage health and wellness? Community resilience: Derrett (2008, 107) produced a model to show how festivals can develop community resilience, defined as the “future capacity of that community to meet challenges that might beset them”. The key elements in the process are participation (collaboration, engagement from multiple stakeholders), governance (leadership, learning), and the nature and context of the event. The aims are to foster social/cultural well-being, environmental sustainability, and economic prosperity. In effect, events are a catalyst in this complex process of community and economic development, in a triple-bottom-line approach. All this should be viewed in the context of development of a sense of place and community. Social marketing: Many uses of events as policy instruments can be considered as social marketing, designed to change attitudes and behaviour of the public – for the better. The focus is on populations, not individuals, and positive results can be very difficult to prove. Probably the best-known examples are from the health policy domain, particularly stop-smoking campaigns. When events are intended to change attitudes and behaviour, new research methods and measures will be required. Lefebvre (2011) outlined a social marketing approach focused on audiences. The four rings of the model have audiences in the middle, and it is essential to specify what are the benefits to the target audience. Benefits should tap into deep motivations. The social context must be understood, both with regard to current attitudes and desired behaviours, and both determinants and consequences of attitudes and behaviour. Methods of branding and positioning should be used to communicate the ideal, in terms that the target audience find appealing. It has to mean something positive to them, such as health, pride, happiness, and well-being. The full marketing mix can then be employed, including economic and non-economic aspects of price (such as the cost of social problems in a community).

Environmental Policy and Events Environmental management is covered in Chapter 13, including a discussion of sustainability and ecological processes. The 17 Sustainable Development Goals of the United Nations (https:// sdgs.un.org/goals) have been incorporated into Table 1.1. See also Table 13.2 where the full range of possible environmental actions related to events at the city or destination level are outlined.

Public Policy and Events The precautionary principle comes up whenever sustainability is discussed, but it is controversial. Some people believe that if we can anticipate that an event might cause negative impacts, we should not produce it. This is an extreme view, as it can be misused to preclude just about any activity or development. In the same way, the principle of no irreversible change is open to considerable misuse as a way to prevent desired and necessary action. The fact is that almost any development results in irreversible changes. Finally, we have to remember economic externalities. A logical response to the externality problem is to require that polluters pay for their actions, and that anyone causing public costs should be held accountable. If this principle gets applied uniformly it will mean that no event organiser will be able to ignore costs and impacts that extend beyond the event. However, this principle can also be abused. Consider that events often result in traffic congestion, albeit temporarily, and some people not attending the event might lose time and money as a consequence. Should they be compensated by the event organisers? What about people impacted by event-caused noise? Certainly, it is important to consider all these costs and benefits in the feasibility study and in post-event evaluations, but it is also important to realise that society is almost always paying some price for economic activity – we tolerate congestion and noise as a normal consequence of living in cities and fostering economic growth. The same argument applies to any event that provides a public good – we should be willing to collectively tolerate some degree of inconvenience or amenity loss in pursuit of social and cultural growth. To what extent we tolerate them, and how we deal with externalities, is a matter of debate and public decision-making. Economic tools exist for influencing the marketplace and fostering sustainable development. Price mechanisms generally work well, either using high prices to discourage consumption or subsidised prices to encourage it. If society believes that attending cultural festivals is a form of sustainable development, but participation in off-road motorcycle races is not, price manipulation can be made through differential taxation, subsidies, or other means. Still more effective, of course, is direct prevention of undesirable events through licensing or other regulatory devices. Visitors should be made aware of green operations and sustainability principles applied to the event they are attending, and they could also be informed of how to extend these actions to their home and work settings as a social marketing strategy. Events with explicit environmental themes have been growing in number, including global movements like Earth Day and interest-specific themes like bird watching. STUDY GUIDE

It is important for all event stakeholders to understand the policy environment in which they operate, and in studying the contents of this chapter it should be remembered that events are heavily regulated, often produced, subsidised, or fostered by governments, generally expected to meet diverse policy goals, and are routinely subjected to intense public scrutiny within a political environment. The nature of public policy was discussed at the beginning of this chapter, leading to an exploration of how public involvement in the events sector can be justified. Specifically, this included the public good argument and equity principle, which are linked to ideology, and, borrowing from economics, the failure of the marketplace justification. Additional justification is related to efficiency, as in getting the most out of public infrastructure and venues, and the intangible or psychic benefits that accrue to people even if they do not attend events. Increasingly events, and especially funding decisions and bidding on mega-events are highly political in nature. When answering the study questions keep in mind the potential for controversy, scrutiny (via impact assessments and external evaluations), and how power gets used in the political arena.

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Explain how governmental intervention in the event sector can be justified, including the public good and equity arguments, market failure, and efficiency. What are the main options for governments, at different levels, when intervening in the events sector? Discuss economic, social, cultural, and environmental policy domains as they pertain to planned events. Give examples of major possible goals, related policy initiatives, and performance measures. What factors are important in shaping the policymaking process for events? Include ideology and institutional arrangements. What does governance mean in the context of collaboration for the co-creation of value? How is this related to legitimacy? Compare the research from Sunshine Coast (from Chapter 8) with the Scotland and Edinburgh profile to help you answer this question: “What kinds of research should inform public policymaking for events”? In the environmental domain, should the precautionary principle be applied? How? (Hint: see also the discussion of sustainability in Chapter 13). FURTHER READING

Case, R. (2013). Events and the Environment. London: Routledge. Cudny, W. (ed.) (2020). Urban Events, Place Branding and Promotion, Place Event Marketing. London: Routledge. Smith, A. (2016). Events in the City: Using Public Spaces as Event Venues. London: Routledge. Veal, A. (2010). Leisure, Sport and Tourism: Politics, Policy and Planning (3rd ed.). Wallingford: CABI. Wise, N., & Harris, J. (2019). Events, Places and Societies. London: Routledge.

Chapter

8

Event Management Fundamentals

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

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The scope and nature of management and management theory.

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Unique aspects of event management, including the EMBOK and MBECS versions of core management functions. The elements of Organising and Coordination, including the open-system model and its implications for ownership and governance; and inter-organisational behaviour, including organisational structure, coordination, stakeholder management, and institutionalisation.

Introduction This chapter commences with a discussion of the nature of management and how event management is unique. Generic management functions are detailed, the first of which is covered in this chapter, being Organising and Coordination. This function includes ownership and governance, structure, organisational culture, stakeholder management, and institutionalism. An open systems model is illustrated and discussed, with relevance to the entire management system of events. Ensuing chapters cover the remaining management functions, as follows: Chapter 9 covers Directing, defined broadly to include leadership, decision-making, organisational culture, and policy, with its second major part examining human resource management, event-related education, and careers. Separate chapters are then provided for the functions of planning and DOI: 10.4324/9781003374251-8

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Event Management Fundamentals operations (Chapter 10), and design (Chapter 11). In Chapter 12, the interrelated topics of antecedents, marketing, and communications are discussed. Chapter 13 combines risk, safety, security, health, and environmental management. Chapter 14 combines evaluation and impact assessment, then Chapter 15 deals with event tourism. This sequence is repeated in Table 8.2.

Defining Management and Management Theory The most basic definitions of management in dictionaries refer to the act or art of managing, which implies it is not necessarily a scientific process – it involves judgement and creativity. The Latin root is manus, meaning hand, and we often see this reflected in expressions like “hands-on management”. People, places, events, destinations, governments, armies, and even informal organisations are managed, the minimum being decisions on how resources are used to achieve goals. There are different emphases when it comes to business management as opposed to, say, managing a problem or policy. The people in charge, making key decisions, are also referred to as the management. Let’s explore the terminology in more detail. To manage means being in charge, or controlling something. A connotation often heard is this: to manage is to get by, succeed, or accomplish something – a usage that can include the expression “They managed to get the event delivered on time”. This usage might imply luck, or “flying by the seat of your pants”, neither of which is taught in management schools. The adverb managing is similar, requiring context to determine if the person or group in question is just getting by, or is really competent. Managing can certainly be used in a neutral sense, merely describing a process. As a noun, management usually refers to the direction and control of the organisation (or event), but we also use the term to describe, collectively, the people in charge. In its adjectival form, managed refers to what is being controlled or directed, such as the event’s resources. Professional management is universal, and not just taught in management or business schools. All applied fields of study and all areas of professional practice incorporate management fundamentals, with differing degrees of emphasis. Four spheres of management that are applicable to events (profit, not-for-profit, public sector events, and the management of destinations) are covered in this book. Describing management theory is problematic, as it is open to interpretation as to scope and contents. Kessler (2013, xxv), the editor of the Encyclopedia of Management Theory, stated that management, as it is commonly defined in the context of organisations, embodies the management functions of: …Orientation and direction, coordination and control, authority and responsibility, planning and design, and administration and implementation…It should therefore be of little surprise that there are countless “theories” (loosely defined as well as loosely connected) of management. As a reference, the Encyclopedia of Management Theory (edited by Eric H. Kessler, SAGE Publications, 2013), with about 280 cross-referenced entries, can be somewhat overwhelming. Yet it does not fully answer a critical question: what are ALL the theories that can inform event management? That is largely because economics was excluded, and marketing was barely mentioned. Many management theories are also rooted in sociology and other disciplines, but they are absent from the Encyclopedia. Kessler posed 18 questions that he believed delimited management theory, and Table 8.1 summarises and adapts them to guide event management and event tourism. Together they constitute a very big picture of professional practice and an ambitious research agenda that should be

Event Management Fundamentals read in conjunction with Chapter 16. We try to answer most of these questions in the chapters of this book, but Further Readings are going to be needed for readers to address all of them. Also, read these questions in conjunction with the research agenda in the concluding chapter.

Table 8.1  Delimiting Management Theory for Events and Event Tourism Questions

Questions

– What is the nature and scope of event management and event tourism as applied management fields?

– How do you manage event staff and volunteers, within public, and not-for-profit organisations and within private companies? – How is destination management different (related to event tourism)?

– How do you manage the many diverse stakeholders engaged in events and event tourism planning and development? – How do you learn about, and manage the motivations of staff, volunteers, attendees, event tourists, and other event stakeholders?

– How do you manage interpersonal interactions both within and external to events (i.e., internal and external stakeholders)?

– How should events be organised? What is the influence of ownership? What types of governance are appropriate? – How do you manage event organisations with regard to their structure, culture, and learning/knowledge systems? Who are legitimate event stakeholders, and how should inter-organisational relationships be managed for success and sustainability? – What strategies work best for assuring sustainable resources for events and event portfolios? – What forms of capital are essential and how are they best managed? – Are not-for-profit events better able to survive crises than others? How should the price be set and demand managed? – What are the costs and benefits (economic impacts) of events and tourism?

– How do you manage group composition, development, and teamwork? – What are the best ways to manage the interactions and work of staff, volunteers, and other participants in the event planning and production process? – How should event and tourism organisations manage environmental contingencies, to become more resilient and sustainable? – What cultural, historical, and geographical differences influence the demand for, production, management, and experience of planned events? – How can portfolios of events be managed to achieve diverse goals? – How and why do events become permanent institutions?

– How do events become innovative, and contribute to societal and economic innovation? – Why are there so many instances of irrational event tourism planning, such as bidding on megaevents? – Is professional qualification a guarantee of ethical behaviour? – To what extent are distributional or equity issues considered in impact forecasting and assessment? – Related to nature and ecological processes, how can events and event tourism be managed sustainably? – Can events and tourism be positive forces in achieving sustainable cities and nations? (continued)

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Event Management Fundamentals Table 8.1  Continued Questions

Questions

– What is the nature of professionalism in event management and tourism? – How are event management and event tourism careers evolving? – How are principle-agent issues to be managed in public, private, and not-for-profit events? – Should event management education be standardised or diverse? – Can standards be set for research, consulting, and evaluation? – Is experiential learning the best mode of education for event and tourism management? – What are the event-related jobs and careers of the future? – What are the key differences between private and social entrepreneurship in terms of event production and management? – What forms of collaboration and management work best to obtain desired synergistic benefits from event portfolios in terms of public good, self-sufficiency, growth, or sustainability?

– What are the best methods for evaluating event service and programme quality? – What are the state-of-the-art uses of technology in event logistics and production? – Who should provide the information and market intelligence needed by the events sector? What exactly is needed?

– How do you manage technology, knowledge, and innovation? – What forms and uses of knowledge are critical to successful events? – Whose responsibility is it to ensure that events are managed professionally, and can adapt? – How should communications through social media and with special interest groups be managed?

– How do you manage learning, adaptation, and change? – Which events are exemplars for benchmarking? – Can volunteer-run events become learning organisations? – What are the roles of professional associations, educators, government, and other stakeholders in advancing knowledge and adapting to changing environmental conditions?

– Are there certain styles of leadership, or leadership tasks that are unique to types of planned events or event tourism? – How can educators prepare the leaders of tomorrow?

– How are event-related goals and impacts changing? – How can comprehensive evaluation and impact assessment systems, with standardised methods and measures, be institutionalised in the events sector? – In what ways can events and tourism be conceived and managed as agents of systemic change? – How do we measure and manage social and cultural impacts? – What are the best sources of market intelligence?

Event Management Fundamentals

Unique Aspects of Event Management There are two event-specific sources, EMBOK and MBECS, as guides to specific event management functions. EMBOK, the Event Management Body of Knowledge was created by Julia Silvers, Glen Bowdin, William O’Toole, and Kathy Nelson in 2006 to codify the skills and knowledge required by professional event managers. The EMBOK model illustrated in Figure 8.1 is in the public domain. There are five main knowledge domains in EMBOK: administration; design; marketing; operations, and risk. Each of these has subdivisions. Much of the knowledge base is generic, however, the managerial and problem-solving skills needed by event professionals are stressed. It tells academics what a full degree programme in event management should cover, but the means of acquiring all the pertinent skills and knowledge has to include on-the-job experience. With the emphasis on organising, managing, people interaction, and operational issues, many event management curricula are underpinned by substantive placement elements (i.e., hands-on experience) and industry involvement in the delivery and production of content. EMBOK also has implications for licensing and cross-border job mobility. Figure 8.1 shows the five main knowledge domains, with sub-categories. A second EMBOK model on the website (https://embok.org/) specifies core values: creativity; strategic (thinking, acting); continuous improvement; ethics; integration; and processes (assess; select; monitor; communicate; document). Finally, the phases of initiation, planning, implementation, event, and closure are modifiers affecting required knowledge and skills. Standards prepared for the meetings industry have been developed, called Meeting and Business Events Competency Standards (MBECS), and they have been reviewed by Cecil et al. (2013). Professional standards of this kind provide the basis for curriculum design and continuous learning. They do not (like EMBOK and other body-of-knowledge systems) actually provide the

EMBOK KNOWLEDGE DOMAINS DESIGN Catering Content Entertainment Environment Producon Programme Theme

ADMINISTRATION Financial Human Resources Informaon Procurement Stakeholders Systems Time

MARKETING Markeng plan Materials Merchandise Promoon Public Relaons Sales Sponsorship

RISK Compliance Emergency Health & Safety Insurance Legal & Ethics Decision Analysis Security

OPERATIONS A endees Communicaons Infrastructure Logiscs Parcipants Site Technical

Figure 8.1  The Five Knowledge Domains in EMBOK Source: EMBOK and associate diagrams are in the public domain, courtesy of the original authors: Julia Silvers, Glenn Bowdin, William O’Toole, and Kathy Nelson (2006)

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Event Management Fundamentals knowledge or skills, as that role falls to educators, books and other available resources, on-thejob training, and other real-life experiences. The MBECS standards were developed to show the broad range of knowledge and abilities required of those who work in the meeting industry. They do not describe the competencies of one occupation, rather all of the competencies required of professionals in the field of meeting management at all levels of responsibility. (source: https://www.mpi.org) MBECS includes 12 management functions, all of which are discussed in this book. Table 8.2 draws on EMBOK, MBECS, and various interpretations of generic management functions, emphasising additional and special considerations within the professional practice of event management and event tourism. This figure is also a guide to where the management functions are covered in this book. Event Tourism is considered to be a special case, related to the unique challenges of destination management.

Table 8.2  Management Functions, with Additional and Special Considerations for Event Management and Event Tourism Functions and Sub-Functions by Chapter

Additional and Special Considerations for Event Management and Event Tourism

Organising and Co-Ordinating (Part 2 of this chapter)

– events in the public, private and not-for-profit sectors are substantially different; Boards of Directors often consist of all volunteers; private sector organisations might require private investors – one-time events require a completely different governance from periodic events – many events become permanent institutions – internal and external stakeholders are often cocreators of the event and of guest experiences – financial problems account for numerous failures in the event sector; securing committed funding sources is crucial – dependency on ticket sales (the gate) is a highrisk strategy for events – events should seek to make a profit or surplus revenue, but many rely on fundraising through other means – many events are expected to be tourist attractions and make a positive contribution to the economy

– Ownership and governance – Organisational structure – Resource acquisition and allocation – Institutionalisation – Authority, responsibilities, teamwork – Administration – Inter-organisational relations – Stakeholder management

Leadership (Chapter 9, Part 1) – Leadership; achieving unity of purpose – Decision-making; democratic or top-down?

– one-time events usually must follow inflexible specifications (i.e., events won through bidding) – event founders often determine leadership styles and organisational culture, resulting in eventual clashes; leadership styles are highly variable within the events sector (continued)

Event Management Fundamentals Table 8.2  Continued Functions and Sub-Functions by Chapter

Additional and Special Considerations for Event Management and Event Tourism

– Supervision; task assignment; internal communications – Policy; rules and regulations – Organisational Culture – The Learning Organisation; knowledge management and information systems

– for resilience, managers must create an adaptable, learning organisation – supervision and communications can be complicated in multi-venue events, mega-events, and lengthy events – volunteers play a critical role in most events, with special challenges for recruitment, training, rewarding, disciplining – pulsating events cannot retain a large, permanent staff – professionalism and adherence to standards is not uniform across the global events sector – the well-being of event staff and volunteers is a critical management challenge, considering motivations, working conditions, career potential

Human Resource Management (Chapter 9, Part 2) – HR management: Staff and volunteers – Wellness and satisfaction – Professionalism; ethics – Performance appraisal rewards and discipline – Education and careers in event management Planning (Chapter 10, Part 2) – Project planning and management – Strategic: vision; forecasting – Business – Portfolios – Social responsibility Operations (Chapter 10, Part 2) – – – –

Logistics Communications Phase-in and out (wrap-up) Technology

Design Chapter 11: Design theory and principles – Settings – Sensory stimulation

– many periodic events still follow project planning methods, going almost dormant between productions – the planning period for one-time events is often many years in length – event dates are announced well in advance and are not easily changed – the event sector is generally committed to environmental and social responsibility and sustainability – event producers and managers must plan for a wide range of goals, including becoming agents of change (in a triple-bottom-line sense) – resilience planning has become necessary – increasingly events are elements in strategic portfolios to meet multiple goals (in both corporate and public sectors) – everything must be operational before guests arrive; correcting problems or adding features during events is problematic – some events attempt to replicate all logistics and design features periodically, while others must start from scratch – many different settings and venues are utilised by events; standardisation is not possible for all of them – the main design goal is to facilitate desired experiences while restricting others (continued)

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Event Management Fundamentals Table 8.2  Continued Functions and Sub-Functions by Chapter

Additional and Special Considerations for Event Management and Event Tourism

– the event programme is more important to guest satisfaction than service quality, but dissatisfiers can impede future involvement or recommendations – special design challenges apply to virtual and hybrid events, specifically regarding the user experience and lack of social interaction Marketing (Chapter 12, with – a sound understanding of guest/visitor antecedents) motivation is essential within experience marketing – Antecedents, including – ‘customers’ can mean the public in general; motivation many stakeholders must be engaged; retaining – Decision-making, including loyal customers is crucial for periodic events barriers and constraints – events are frequently purposed with social – Market research and planning marketing goals – Evaluation of quality – experiences and meanings assigned to events – Communications and New Media and event experiences shape future intentions, including loyalty Risk, security, health, and – mass assemblies are particularly vulnerable to environmental management a wide range of accidents, attacks, and health (Chapter 13) issues – events must face many challenges arising from – Risk management guest/visitor behaviour, including substance – Security: site; online abuse, sexual harassment/crimes, and dangerous – Health and safety crowding – Crisis management and resilience – the greening of events is a high priority for – Environment: greening and all producers and the managers of venues; sustainability sustainability standards are well established – events held in natural environments face more difficult challenges in being green and sustainable Controlling – many political and technical obstacles must be Chapter 14: Outcomes evaluation faced to account for all event outcomes and impact assessment – measuring experience and service quality is problematic – Evaluation theory and – a narrow focus on goal attainment is likely to professionalism miss negative and unexpected impacts – Subjects and objects of – knowledge can only be acquired through evaluation and IA research and evaluation, yet many events do not – Impact Assessment: social, have an adequate system in place cultural, economic, environmental – some events are prevented from a full accounting of costs by political decisions and deliberate misinformation – mega-events pose unique challenges, especially related to legacy – Experiences (theming and programming; co-creation) – Services; guest relations – Virtual events

(continued)

Event Management Fundamentals Table 8.2  Continued Functions and Sub-Functions by Chapter

Additional and Special Considerations for Event Management and Event Tourism

Event tourism (Chapter 15) – Destination management – The roles of events – Event portfolios – Markets for event tourism – Legacies and economic impacts – Careers

– the size and number of events can lead to overtourism and environmental degradation – resistance to mega-events has become especially strong – commodification and loss of authenticity are major concerns – event portfolios for tourism might impact events intended to implement policies from other fields

Organising and Coordination This section covers the first of the major management functions, combining ownership, governance and mandate, organisational structure, financial management, authority and administration, inter-organisational relationships (including stakeholders), organisational ecology, and the interrelated elements of organisational evolution and the institutionalisation process. Essentially, this is where most events begin – within larger organisations or organisations set up specifically to produce one or more events. Informal events do exist, usually by way of spontaneous, unplanned happenings. It will be rare to find a planned event that does not start with, or evolve quickly into a formal organisation.

Ownership, Governance, and Mandate It is possible to produce events informally, with no owners and no structure – just volunteers getting it done. But most planned events are formally structured, meaning they have legal owners, governance is firmly established, and a mandate is provided by their owners or founders. In other words, they have purpose, managers, goals, and limits. We begin with several definitions. Ownership: Except for unplanned events, there will always be a legal form of ownership according to the laws of particular countries. Owners hold responsibility for the actions of organisations, including their financing and governance, and may be held responsible for any debts that occur or harm done. Private ownership may involve several forms, including fee-simple – owned by one person or copreneurs (i.e., a couple or family) – multiple shareholders, or publicly traded on a stock exchange. Ownership in the private sector can be sold, and investors can be attracted. Both private and not-for-profit organisations can go bankrupt. As described below, we usually consider events as being in the public, not-for-profit or private sectors. Not-for-profits are often classified legally as institutions and may also have charitable status for tax purposes. That means no person makes a profit, but employees can be paid. Ownership can also refer to the perception of control, such as a group or community feeling ownership of their events. This is often desired by managers, particularly because it aids in recruiting volunteers and sponsors, and is necessary when events are conceived as agents of change.

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Event Management Fundamentals Governance: Put simply, governance is how owners manage and control an organisation, including the establishment of boards of directors, executive officers, lines of authority, policies, and procedures. It also refers to the governance of a nation, whether democratic with free elections, or not, and is often used to describe how events work with stakeholders or the community. A broader interpretation can be applied to communities, governmental jurisdictions, or partnerships in which any or all of the following principles or norms are adhered to: accountability, transparency, inclusiveness, and responsiveness. These values are typically only found in democratic societies. Dredge and Whitford (2011) viewed governance as a form of public/ private policymaking that requires stakeholders to get together for discussion and action to achieve common goals. This approach embodies the notion of collaboration and the process of consensus-building. Stakeholder management, discussed later, is an essential element in this kind of governance. In for-profit companies, there are owners and employees, so the question of who runs the business is generally clear. Owners and senior managers have defined responsibilities, and although they may consult and work with staff and volunteers, in the end, they must make decisions and be held accountable. In governmental agencies, there can be a confusing and stifling bureaucracy to navigate when it comes to obtaining resources and making decisions. Politics intervene frequently, making rational planning more difficult. Within not-for-profit organisations the relationships between boards of directors and professional staff have to be sorted. Who sits on the board is a major issue, especially in relation to involving key stakeholders and getting necessary professional advice such as legal and accounting. In all-volunteer events, governance and coordination present special challenges, and the organisations can be faced with dissenting opinions within, or takeover attempts by organised interest groups within or external. Mandate: The organisation’s mandate is authorisation (or a requirement) to produce or assist events. This might be implicit in the name, such as when an organisation calls itself the festival of something, or in a unit established within an agency, such as Event Marketing Group, but ideally, it should be spelled out in detail as to the exact nature of the tasks, resources provided, and limits set on their operations. Within a private company this is less important, as the underlying mandate (usually) is to make a profit, and the owners and investors can decide how – that being their business model for creating value. There are three common ownership types found in the events world, although public–private partnerships are also popular, and they might require special legal incorporation. 1 not-for-profit: this large sector includes clubs, charities, institutions, and event-specific organisations like festival societies 2 government agencies (such as parks and recreation, sport, arts and culture, tourism, and economic development) that produce, market or otherwise facilitate events 3 private, for-profit companies that produce and/or manage events Andersson and Getz (2009) systematically compared festivals in four countries in terms of their ownership, governance, structure, and content. They concluded that although the festivals offered a similar product and had similar mandates, they differed considerably in terms of revenue sources, cost structure, use of volunteers, corporate sponsorship, and decision-making. These differences are potentially important to destinations that view festivals as attractions and use them in place marketing. There has been little research published on the relative advantages or problems associated with these ownership types, or the business models they follow to provide their products and services as a way to co-create value. One important question to be addressed is whether or not these three structures or models of ownership are substitutable.

Event Management Fundamentals For example, in some countries, local authorities are the dominant producers of festivals and other events. Legal and cultural constraints exist, especially in societies without a strong volunteering or entrepreneurial tradition.

The public sector Governments do not have to obey the laws of the marketplace, they can create, facilitate and subsidise events for a multitude of reasons and not worry about profits or break-event points – except when it comes to explaining their actions to voters. Our discussion of public goods, equity, and the failure of the marketplace, provide justifications. Since many events are produced by, or subcontracted by government departments and agencies, some attention to public administration is required in Event Studies. If the event functions as a programme within a governmental agency, then it is clearly an instrument of policy. Under some circumstances, the event could be managed as an enterprise, either to make money or break even, in which case it has to operate like a business. This often means that a stand-alone event organisation or division of a public sector body is created to handle the event activity, with clear legal parameters of what it can do, and a remit for event development and management. Examples are event development corporations, bidding units, and some public-private partnerships.

The not-for-profit sector Not-for-profit is a more accurate term than non-profit to describe them, because they can make surplus revenue (and should aim to!) but must use it to sustain and improve the organisation and their events. Grant writing, fundraising, governance issues (especially with volunteer boards), service provision, needs assessments, volunteer recruitment and management, and programme evaluation are topics of particular interest in this sector, as well as not-for-profit marketing. Social entrepreneurship is a common motivator, the idea being that service clubs and charities should fill gaps in public sector services. This pertains mostly to the needs of disadvantaged groups or fostering community development.

The private, for-profit sector Growth in the events sector has led to the creation of numerous event production and management companies, as well as companies that exist to produce or supply services to planned events. They are profit-making businesses. When events are viewed as business propositions it means that the owners/producers have to follow sound management principles and be focussed on the long-term viability, resilience, and sustainability of the event. In other words, professional event management is required.

Organisational structure and coordination Many planned events are stand-alone organisations, while others are produced or managed within a larger organisation. This makes a huge difference with regard to governance and structure. Similarly, one-time events are quite different from permanent organisations. This entire area of organisational structure and coordination (both internal and external) has largely been untouched by event researchers, although plenty of advice is available through professional associations and books written by experts. It links closely to other topics covered in this book, including decision-making and planning.

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Event Management Fundamentals A number of typical structures are illustrated and discussed in Getz (2005), including single and multi-organisational structures. Festivals are often produced by clubs, internally, and by stand-alone not-for-profit societies, but it is also common to find different organisations cooperating to produce events. As well, sport events are frequently produced through formal links between governing bodies and local organising committees.

Virtual organisations Many live events are produced by independent collaborators who come together only, or mainly, for the event. Most virtual events are produced by existing organisations, but the possibility exists for virtual organisations that have no permanent legal structure, governance, or location. They are made possible by digital technology and can range from a simple collaboration such as sharing information, to the full simulation of an office with its own data processing, meetings, and leadership. This type of virtual organisation makes sense when people are working from home, expertise is required from multiple, independent sources, or events are divided in time and space (i.e., meta-events or asynchronous events). Mostly this approach will be project based and follow project planning and management processes.

Resource Acquisition and Allocation It goes without saying that events cannot be produced without a wide range of resources, including knowledge, people (their skills and competencies), money, equipment, supporters, and venues. Resources, by definition, are tangible and intangible things with the potential to be used. They can be used as investments to make something happen, or used and discarded – which violates the principles of sustainability. They can be squandered through poor decision-making, and their use is frequently controversial. Consider the spaces and venues used by events, these are often contested by different interest groups, as are the monetary contributions of government in the building of venues and funding of events or event bidding. Once they are secured, how resources are allocated and controlled by their owners and managers to produce events becomes the most important question. This is more than an efficiency issue (such as getting the most for one’s resources), it is also ethical in nature. For example, how much should owners take from a company as personal income, how much should managers get paid, and should the event reinvest in its community? The Resource Based Theory of the Firm suggests that organisations should possess rare and valuable resources that give them sustainable competitive advantages by protecting against resource imitation, transfer, mobility, or substitution (Barney, 1991; Penrose, 1959). In other words, an event should ideally possess its own committed set of resources that cannot be taken from it, and which make it unique. Resource Dependency Theory is also relevant. Event organisations should be thought of as open systems, as they are almost always dependent upon externally provided resources, including grants, sponsorship, and sales. Dependency on one source or a few, however, can be risky (see the later discussion on organisational ecology). Also, if the same resources are relied upon by more than one event (e.g., one agency providing artistic support or one corporate sponsor working with multiple events or other types of organisations), they might find that those resources are moved elsewhere or withdrawn – this is a vulnerability. Success, in this context, is defined as maximising the organisation’s power (Pfeffer, 1981; Pfeffer and Salancik, 1978), which can come from reducing dependency – or making others dependent on them.

Event Management Fundamentals Firms lacking essential resources will seek relationships that provide them, possibly resulting in dependency. Event failures might therefore arise from a poor fit with the environment, as in the case where a festival is not able to attract interest and support from its host community because of cultural differences, a lack of key contacts, or internal management deficiencies. According to Donaldson (1996), ‘fit’ stems from how an organisation adapts to accommodate environmental contingencies. Additional considerations relate to the scarcity of resources (what are the alternative sources?), the nature of the event’s operational environment (competition or symbiotic relationships among resource users?), certainty versus fluctuations in resource availability (e.g., is long-term support guaranteed?), and variability in resource needs (are the same resources needed every year?). The global pandemic made it clear to many organisations that they were over-dependent on one or a few resources. Many events experimented with alternative revenue-generating actions, such as holding virtual events, and others were forced to suspend all expenditures. Building resilience has therefore become essential. To deal with these resource issues a number of strategies are available. Events can attempt to secure resources from many sources, store resources for hard times (a reserve fund), or switch to new resource suppliers. They can try to reduce their need (e.g., cost reductions), influence the resource providers through lobbying, or decide to work with, or compete against, other organisations seeking resources. This theory has been used, together with stakeholder theory, by Getz et al. (2007) to help explain both failure and the institutionalisation of events. Other ecological and institutional theories of organisations also view the organisation or firm in terms of its internal dynamics, environmental interdependencies, and competing interests. Andersson and Getz (2007) examined the financial position of a tourism-oriented street festival in Sweden within the context of resource dependency and stakeholder management theory. Using data from a five-year period, they revealed how costs associated with the strongest stakeholders (i.e., those with the greatest bargaining power) greatly increased relative to costs associated with weak stakeholders. The festival was also more able to increase its revenues from weak stakeholders than from those in strong bargaining positions. The knowledge-based theory of the firm suggests that organisations that possess, learn, and retain valuable knowledge and capabilities, embedding them in their culture, management systems, and stakeholder networks, can sustain competitive advantages and achieve superior performance (Barney, 1991; Grant, 1996). Information systems are necessary. Applied to events, managers should develop unique and inimitable knowledge or capabilities and make certain they are both retained and constantly developed. Consider, for example, the synergies to be gained through blending creative/artistic and business/management knowledge. Some events are blessed with a foundation of unique skills, expertise, or creative excellence. This knowledge (both the how-to kind, and the accumulated-wisdom kind) provides a competitive advantage and can help assure resilience. Fostering innovation and maintaining authentic traditions are also vital in this context. Becoming self-sufficient on the basis of knowledge is equivalent to holding core competencies and requires being a learning organisation. A similar concept is that of achieving competitive advantage through differentiation. Re-consider the TransRockies case in this context. A comparative advantage means that some events or event organisations have been endowed with better resources or appeal. This advantage could be in terms of support from their communities, which is a stakeholder issue, or in terms of their location. It could consist of tradition or authenticity. Competitive advantages accrue from wise management of whatever you possess, such as by providing target segments with services they are willing to pay for and doing it

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Event Management Fundamentals better than competitors. Adapting Porter’s (1980) classic model of competitive forces, many events are revealed to be in a relatively weak position. An event has to first assess its competitive environment as to threats. Competition is always likely to increase, and events are often substitutable by other events or other forms of entertainment. Both buyers (companies and customers) can go elsewhere unless there are few events or event-producing firms available. So how should events compete? Porter’s strategies for achieving and sustaining competitive advantage include a focus on costs (keeping costs low, and passing savings on to the customers), focusing on specific target markets, or on differentiation (being unique within the events sector). Competing on price is possible for events, even if their costs are high, when subsidies and sponsorship support are available to compensate. Competing through differentiation makes a lot of sense, but unfortunately, numerous events exist for rather general purposes (providing only generic benefits) and many producers find it difficult to precisely target the market. In Event Studies, little attention has been given to competitiveness among events or event companies, particularly how this manifests itself geographically where different regions host events that compete and split market shares. Research on this important topic has to connect with stakeholder, institutional, and population ecology theory, as well as with marketing and positioning strategy. Little research has been conducted on events as businesses, or from a business and management perspective, so their comparative financial operations are little understood. Perhaps this is because so many events are in the public domain and not subject to normal business management principles, or because not-for-profit event organisations somehow believe they do not have to operate like a business. The basic facts, however, are that all events have to secure, manage and account for their resources, and that financial problems are one of the main causes of business and event failure.

Event business models Business model refers to how organisations are set up to generate value for the owners and stakeholders, including the basic ways of securing resources (or making money) and creating all its products and services. There will be a basic distinction between events created to provide service (e.g., social change, community development) and those created to make a profit. The business model of an event will determine what resources are needed, and how resources are to be acquired to create the value being sought. If profit is the goal, budgeting and revenue generation will likely be quite different from events focussed on creating social or cultural value. Privately owned events have to be much more focussed on delivering goods and services that are in demand – that is, what customers will pay for. Applying service-dominant logic, all events are receiving and providing services in the process of value creation, leading managers to ask questions such as: who benefits from our events? how are we benefitting those who provide our resources and consuming our events? How value is defined and measured becomes a central issue. Perić et al. (2019) developed a model for a business plan for events within the scope of sport tourism. Key resources were identified, including core competency as inputs to value capture (through various revenue sources) and key processes (including design, marketing, and HR), all related to the event’s value propositions. Of importance in this last category are communication of experience, the product, service quality, customer orientation, and safety. Little research exists on events as business ventures, so our knowledge of microeconomics in the events sector is limited. The key question has to be: how effective are events at generating

Event Management Fundamentals revenues and profits? Wanhill (2006) is one of only a few researchers to have examined event finances in any detail. A related issue is the fact that so many events are produced in the public (governmental) sector and by not-for-profit societies. To some extent, they are isolated from market forces or the normal laws of supply and demand. Government subsidies can support events, for the public good, that could not survive on their own. Not-for-profit organisations can sometimes continue to produce events even when in chronic debt because stakeholders, including sponsors, trust them to deliver value.

Financial Management This management function covers both revenue acquisition and its disbursement, with suitable controls and rational budgeting. It should be clear from previous sections that the sources of revenue pursued by events will reflect their ownership, mandate, and business model. The following are the most common, and their mix and importance vary greatly by ownership type.

Sales Revenue: Numerous events rely heavily on ticket sales, creating a serious resource dependency problem. The budget might predict revenue from sales (this could include merchandise, food, and beverages) and if targets are not reached, overspending and debt might be the result. To prevent losses, some concert promoters will cancel in advance of the date if sales do not match projections, with the result being disgruntled customers. Fees paid by participants is a typical source of revenue for participation sports, but it is almost always augmented by sponsorship. Securing major sponsors might be necessary before the event can be planned or confirmed, because – like ticket sales – generating adequate revenue from participants cannot always be assured. Free-to-enter events might very well have to excel at merchandise sales (including food and beverages) to generate adequate revenue. During the pandemic, many events got creative in generating revenue through virtual events, or the pre-sale (through registration fees) of events to be held in the future. Renting space to merchants and vendors, and providing access to customer databases can be another source, although privacy laws must be upheld.



Grants and Fundraising: During the pandemic, many venues and event organisations were sustained through special grants, although this was not a uniform practice across countries and regions. The culture sector in particular is often dependent upon direct government financial support, including ownership of venues and taking equity in events. Fundraising events are a staple in the not-for-profit sector, and event organisers should be good at this. Partnering with sports and corporations can be effective, making it part of the event’s sponsorship campaigns.



Sponsorship: Sponsorship has received considerable attention from practitioners and researchers, undoubtedly as a reflection of its global importance in the events sector. It can best be defined in economic and marketing terms as an exchange relationship involving payments made to events by external organisations (these can and do include public agencies) or persons, for specific benefits provided by the events. Cash is almost always preferred, but contra in the form of goods and services provided free or at a discount can be beneficial.

Advice on event sponsorship can be found in Skinner and Rukavina (2003) and Getz (2005). The International Events Group (IEG) specialises in seminars and publications on event sponsorship, including a legal guide to sponsorship. Most event associations have publications and hold seminars on sponsorship. Catherwood and van Kirk (1992) commented on the growth of corporate sponsorship after the commercial success of the Los Angeles Olympic Games. Crompton (1995) reviewed reasons for sponsorship growth and examined criteria used by

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Event Management Fundamentals corporations when deciding on what events to sponsor. Weppler and McCarville (1995) conducted research on how corporate decisions on event sponsorship were actually made. Wicks (1995) and Mount and Niro (1995) examined event sponsorship in small communities. In this environment, decisions are often made on the basis of community goodwill and civic duty. There are numerous issues and risks associated with corporate sponsorship. Events have to worry about goal displacement, with the interests of commercial sponsors possibly taking over. Dependency on one or a few sponsors is potentially a problem. Sponsors face risks from ambush marketers and a loss of goodwill if the event goes wrong for them. Indeed, it is a form of co-branding that impacts both parties. Research on the effectiveness of event sponsorship has been conducted by Kerstetter and Gitelson (1995) and Coughlan and Mules (2002), examining sponsorship recall among event patrons, revealing that it is not easy to obtain memorable results. The mainstream marketing literature has many more studies on effectiveness, benefits, and risks – mostly from the sponsors’ points of view. Increasing attention is being given to how sponsors evaluate the effectiveness of their investments in events. Sponsorship research has numerous perspectives, including stakeholder management, strategic planning, organisational culture and its evolution, risk management, financial controls, marketing and communications, legal issues, and branding. For example, Drengner et al. (2011) researched event-brand congruence, and Andersson et al. (2013) assessed strategies for events to acquire sponsorship revenue. There remains a need for research aimed at improving our understanding of the multidimensional effects of sponsorship in the events world. Maestas (2009) considered return on investment (ROI), return on objectives, media exposure analysis, and market value analysis as methods in use. Koronios et al. (2022) in their research on sport-event sponsorship emphasised the prediction of actual purchase behaviour, being an outcome most sponsors will value. Ballouli et al. (2018) examined the effectiveness of activation through ancillary events to leverage mega-events for sponsors. The term activation is used when referring to how sponsors leverage their relationship with events, generally within more integrated campaigns that corporations would call experiential marketing. If events provide satisfying, transforming, and memorable experiences the goodwill should be transferred to the sponsors – if the sponsors are effective in their activation. What does this include? Employing social media to connect directly with event customers is essential, hopefully resulting in happy event guests becoming brand ambassadors for both the event and the sponsors. This can be combined with the use of online influencers. Budgeting: Raj and Rashid in their book Events Management (2022) explained the principles, including accounting, auditing, financial statements, and the regulatory environment. It is impossible to run a business or sustain an event without compliance, and therefore employing a professional accountant or a consulting firm to do accounts and audits is necessary. Every manager will be involved in budgeting, but there are several other financial management reports to understand. The balance sheet specifies the organisation’s assets (fixed assets are property, machinery, and equipment; current assets are mostly in the form of cash) and liabilities (i.e., debt), and indicates the current health of the organisation. Usually, this will be produced at the end of every financial year. It will also indicate capital employed in private businesses, being invested by owners and shareholders. Managers should also be able to interpret a number of ratios pertaining to the current position and overall financial health of the organisation. While businesses tend to focus on ROI as the bottom line, many events will be more interested in ratios such as return on experience (ROE).

Event Management Fundamentals Think of the budget as the event’s financial plan. As with all plans, it plots a future course of action to attain goals, and it should therefore be flexible enough to accommodate desired and necessary changes - which is also why most budgets contain contingency or reserve funds. The event budget becomes fixed at a certain point (keeping a reserve or contingency fund available) with line items specified. For events, the typical revenue items were discussed above, and expenditure items are commonly as follows: l l

Rentals (venues; equipment). Capital expenditure (equipment or land/venue purchases; the largest item for mega-events requiring new infrastructure).

l

Entertainment (artists; providing VIP services).

l

Staffing (wages; costs associated with volunteers).

l

Supplies (including merchandise, food, and beverages).

l

Insurance.

l

Debt repayment.

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Cash withdrawals by owners/investors.

Events free-to-enter are common, meaning there is no possibility of ticket revenue. Does this mean they are more or less likely to suffer financial losses? That is unknown, but free-to-use events do create a huge consumer surplus and must either be subsidised by some agency or have alternative revenue sources. Lines of credit with lending institutions will help solve cash flow problems because expenditures almost always precede revenues. Cash flow problems are one of the leading causes of failure for small businesses and can become severe for events. All kinds of tactics can be employed to obtain cash up front, such as registration fees for participants, online merchandise sales, subscriptions to some kind of benefit system (e.g., priority ticket purchases, and discounts), or straight-forward donorship. There are several possible starting points in budgeting, the most prudent being to get assurances of how much money and other resources will be available to produce the event. This can be the same as zero-based budgeting, meaning you get ALL your revenue streams established before even talking about how to spend. Events within the corporate and public sectors often have a funding commitment well in advance, as they exist within departments that sanction events. Event managers therefore know what they can spend, and presumably, there is oversight to ensure the budgeted costs do not exceed the given resources. It sounds neat and simple until one realises that costs tend to increase or be unpredictable in other ways, and there is still a need to ensure that any resulting liabilities will be covered by somebody. This is the underwriting problem all events will face – who is responsible for the debt? For mega-events, often it is the national government that must assume all liabilities. Passing liabilities on to others is, of course, a staple strategy within risk management. The opposite launching point is to start with a list of desired expenditures, being the programme, entertainment, capital investments, and so on, then determine if the event can generate enough resources to cover the anticipated costs. This will work if the revenue streams are found, otherwise, it can be fatal because it leads to money being committed well in advance of revenue generation. The costs become unavoidable, while the revenue streams are targets for sales and sponsorship, or grants and loans. The classic example is to pay for entertainers well in advance and to hope that ticket sales will be sufficient to at least break even. Needless to say, many event bankruptcies have resulted from this approach. The basic principle to follow is this: do not make expenditures unless there is assured matching revenue. This principle will

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Event Management Fundamentals no doubt be violated many times in the event world but with serious risks. Event managers can hope that any liabilities will be covered by someone else, that revenue projections will all be met, or that costs can be reduced. Hope is not a plan. Pricing: Any of the standard service-pricing strategies can be employed. If budgets are set according to a break-even strategy (e.g., “We do not need or want to make a profit, we aim to make our event experience as affordable as possible”) it is laudable socially, but financially very risky for reasons discussed above. More prudent is cost-plus pricing where projected revenue from sales (tickets and merchandise) exceeds projected costs by a certain amount or percentage. It is less risky but requires really sound forecasts and spending discipline. Making a profit is necessary for private businesses, which is often to generate the desired ROI for investors and owners. The special case of free-admission events has to be examined. Benefits accrue to attendees (the consumer surplus), but they often have to pay for travel and give up time that could be used to earn income. This is why economists estimate the value of their travel and time, and can use that estimate to determine the worth of the event. However, it should always be remembered that some agency, corporation, or institution is paying for free-to-enter events, OR revenue must be generated in other ways, such as merchandise sales. Revenue (or yield) management: McMahon-Beattie and Yeoman (2004) discussed revenue management for events. Similar to yield management, as practiced by hotels and airlines, this financial management approach is suitable for events with a fixed and perishable capacity (i.e., only so many tickets to sell, but if unsold the capacity is wasted) and predictable demand fluctuations (by day, week, or hour). Using historical data on demand fluctuations to make forecasts, revenue managers adjust prices or make special offers to entice customers in what would otherwise be low-demand periods. This can affect programming and staffing as well. Season tickets, multi-entry passes, discounts for seniors or other groups, and various other pricing and promotion tactics have to be integrated with revenue management. Controls and accountability: This is definitely a neglected area of research. Raj (2004) examined the human, or behavioural, aspects of financial management for events. This approach covers not only professionalism but also internal relationships and morale. It was stressed that budgeting is not just financial planning, it is also designed to influence human behaviour and goal-setting.

Authority, Responsibility, and Administration Who can make decisions, chains of command (or delegation of responsibilities) – including the functions of managers and teams, units and sub-units – all stem from the basic governance structures. Private companies might have a simple structure with one or several owners holding all authority, and thereby accepting all responsibility for outcomes, but they can also have elaborate structures including boards of directors, departments with managers, and well-defined duties and responsibilities for every staff position. Events in the public sector might find they have to report to higher-level agencies or senior civil servants. Volunteer-run events can apply principles of bottom-up or democratic decision-making, including semi-independent work teams, but over time might find they are professionalising and getting more bureaucratic in nature. Administration: This term is often used synonymously with management, but for our purposes, it will be defined as the essential support services needed within every organisation. Note that EMBOK takes a broader view of administration, including a number of other management

Event Management Fundamentals functions like human relations and financing. Generically, administration covers the following: secretarial services; book-keeping and accounting; information storage and processing; internal scheduling (meetings and appointments) and communications; reception and customer service; filing; documentation (manuals, policies, rules, and procedures); procurement and management of supplies; computing and technical support; research; invoicing, billing; maintaining social media accounts; organising virtual meetings; office furniture; and maybe even water and coffee.

Inter-Organisation and Stakeholder Relations No event exists without support, and no organisation can avoid the influence of many stakeholders, both internal and external. Hence the critical importance of stakeholder theory and management. We start by presenting an open systems model of the event and its organisation which illustrates vital internal and external processes and relationships. Open Systems Model: Figure 8.2 (derived from Getz and Frisby, 1988) follows from open systems theory wherein the basic premise is that organisations are always interdependent. Resources are inputs to the event. Its outcomes can be resources for others and will have a ripple effect through the external environment. The general environment takes us back to global forces and trends which have to be considered through environmental and future scanning. Of more immediate concern is the community context, which includes most event stakeholders and the origin of most inputs (i.e., information, support, and resources). The internal environment is the organisation that produces the event, and all its management systems. In this conceptualisation, the event is a transforming process intended to achieve desired outcomes. There can also be unintended outcomes, and externalities – like pollution – that are not normally accounted for by the event organisers. Multiple stakeholders will evaluate the event and its organisation, and this process is labelled external evaluation. The internal evaluation

GENERAL ENVIRONMENT Global forces impacting on events, event organisations, and event tourism COMMUNITY CONTEXT

Local forces and conditions (competition; stakeholders; resource availability)

Inputs

resources, information, policies/law

INTERNAL ENVIRONMENT The organisation and its management systems THE EVENT

Theme, setting, programme services, experiences

Outputs

Measureable, short-term, desired (e.g., -attendance, -revenue, -satisfaction)

Internal Evaluation External Evaluation of Outputs, Outcomes/Impacts (by stakeholders)

Figure 8.2  Open-System Model of Event Management Source: Adapted and Expanded from Getz and Frisby (1998)

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Event Management Fundamentals process is the task of managers or owners who have to determine if they are meeting their goals (i.e., their effectiveness) and how efficiently they are obtaining and utilising resources. Evaluation and feedback should influence future decision-making through strategic planning. Open-system diagnostics involves using this model to identify problems and to improve both efficiency and effectiveness. Effectiveness means the degree to which goals are obtained or the organisation fulfils its mandate. Use of the model helps in identifying how the mandate and goals are externally driven by various stakeholders and environmental forces, and how transforming processes are directed towards achieving those goals. Evaluation systems have to be directed towards identifying goal attainment, although the goal-free evaluation approach sometimes has benefits (see Chapter 14). Efficiency refers to how well resources are used to generate the desired outcomes. The model, when detailed for a given organisation, can suggest ways to improve the flow and use of resources, cut costs (such as heavy administration costs), and evaluate outcomes achieved in terms of resources required (i.e., measures of costs and benefits). An event’s intended outputs, being the things it generates through the transforming process, might include attendance, revenue, or customer satisfaction. Outputs are therefore short-term and measurable, whereas we use outcomes synonymously with impacts, stressing that impacts are often perceived or felt in a subjective way. Stakeholder and network theory: Stakeholder theory (Donaldson and Preston, 1995; Freeman, 1984; Jawahar and McLaughlin, 2001; Mitchell et al., 1997) has been thoroughly examined for application to events and tourism by van Niekerk and Getz (2019) in the book Event Stakeholders. The theory helps explain the origins, operation, and evolution of events, and provides direction to owners and managers on how to manage their internal and external stakeholder relationships (Izzo et al., 2012; Cavicchi and Santini, 2014). Stakeholders are those persons or groups who can influence the organisation, or are influenced by it. Core stakeholder attributes, according to Mitchell et al. (1997, 865–867), are: l l

‘Power’: “The ability of a party that it has or can gain access to impose its will in the relationship”. ‘Legitimacy’: “A generalized perception or assumption that the actions of an entity are desirable, proper, or appropriate within some socially constructed system of norms, values, beliefs, and definitions”.

l

‘Urgency’: “The degree to which stakeholder claims call for immediate attention”.

l

‘Stakeholder salience’: a function of possessing the other three stakeholder attributes

There is also a moral (or normative) aspect to stakeholder theory, which argues that managers should work with all those affected by the organisation, as in the case of events working with their community and special interest groups (Ziakas and Costa, 2010b), regardless of their power to influence the organisation. Using the analogy of a political market square, Larson and Wikstrom (2001) and Larson (2002) examined several Swedish events. Stakeholders played ‘power games’ and negotiated from varying positions of power. They formed alliances to realise their goals for the event and the organisation producing it. Critical roles identified among the stakeholders included those of ‘gatekeeping’ (deciding who gets in), negotiation, coalition-building, trust- or legitimacybuilding, and identity-building for the event in general. Larson (2009) later analysed event networks and concluded that they resulted in three different categories of Political Market Squares, which she labelled the ‘jungle’, the ‘park’, and the ‘garden’; these represented tumultuous (i.e., jungle), dynamic, and institutionalised event networks. The institutionalised network (i.e., the park) was prescribed for stable event organisations and closely related to

Event Management Fundamentals event portfolio planning. Larson called for more research on understanding tumultuous and dynamic event networks. Network theory is closely related to stakeholder theory. Social networks are often important for entrepreneurs, especially when obtaining the resources and support required to start an event. Social capital in this sense means the network of people and organisations you can rely on to help you. Organisational networks obviously involve all the stakeholders, but there is an emphasis in network theory on centrality as an attribute, their degree of connectedness, and bridging organisations. Ziakas and Costa (2010b) employed network analysis to examine the inter-organisational patterns that shape a host community’s capacity to capitalise on its event portfolio. This method allows for the identification of linkages, both strong and weak, central organisations, and the nature of interactions. These researchers believe that analysis of inter-institutional networks can suggest a community’s capacity for building and managing an event portfolio, and can be used as a strategic tool. Stakeholder management: Getz et al. (2007) described and classified external festival stakeholders based on case studies from Sweden and Calgary, Canada. Figure 8.3 shows the resulting conceptualisation. The various categories are not mutually exclusive, and indeed the research

Figure 8.3  Major Stakeholder Types and Roles in Festival Networks Source: Adapted from Getz et al. (2007). Reprinted with permission of Cognizant Communication Corporation

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Event Management Fundamentals showed clearly that some stakeholders have multiple roles. For example, the city government is often simultaneously a facilitator (giving grants and other resources), co-producer (sharing staff and venues), owner/controller (placing officials on the event’s board of directors), and regulator, which can make its event-related policies confusing or contradictory. Suppliers and venues are often brought into the festival organisation as sponsors, and this is generally recognised as being a good strategy for reducing dependency and costs. Allies and collaborators might include marketing partnerships with tourism or the collaborative work of professional and affinity groups. How these stakeholders wield power and negotiate the goals and strategies of the event can be referred to as a political market square. Van Niekerk and Getz (2019) explained stakeholder theory in detail and gave examples of its applications to event management and event tourism. In their model called “A blended strategy matrix for stakeholder management”, they drew upon the seminal work of Savage et al. (1991) and others to emphasise the desirability of fostering relationships with potential collaborators, as well as identifying and developing appropriate strategies for those external agencies with the power to threaten events. Wallace and Michopoulou (2019) found that practitioners did not understand or use stakeholder theory and available models, and on the basis of focus groups recommended returning to the basic formulation of Freeman: that is, stakeholders defined as those who either affect or are affected by the organisation. In their ‘stakeholder sandwich’, the researchers proposed self-mapping by persons on the basis of a specific place and event. Legitimacy was considered to be inherent in the definition of stakeholder, and qualitative descriptors such as primary and secondary were deemed to be vague. Stakeholders with multiple roles, especially local government, would be able to elucidate their roles with greater nuance. A further refinement was to distinguish between stakeholders generating or experiencing quantitative outputs, and those generating or experiencing qualitative outcomes. It must be cautioned that practitioners seldom refer to theories or models that academics develop, which in no way detracts from the importance or utility of models. What practitioners usually want are shortcut solutions to problems and immediate results. Much of the stakeholder-related theory and models for events advanced by Getz originated in a very simple form of research: sitting down with practitioners and asking them to name the people and organisations they work with, then elaborating on relationships and how they are managed. This can lead to a mapping exercise, developing a simple sketch, and with prompts can be extended to encompass all those affected or impacted by an event. Collaboration theory relates to how various stakeholders get together in partnerships, alliances, or other joint efforts (see Jamal and Getz, 1995; Wood and Gray, 1991). In true collaborations, each partner gives up some degree of control to work with others in achieving common goals. For example, when events form associations, which can be called alliances, they generally do not give up any independence. Events can partner with other events or with tourist organisations for joint marketing, again without giving up any real power. But if events agree to work closely with each other, perhaps sharing offices, staff, and resources, this collaboration entails a loss of some degree of independence and poses some risks that must be balanced against the gains. Collaboration is a feature of portfolio management, although it might occur because of top-down control or influence such as funding. Most often, collaborations work in policy domains such as tourism and culture, or for major projects. Long (2000), for example, studied the co-operation between tourism and the arts

Event Management Fundamentals developed for the UK Year of Visual Arts. These were contractual and short-lived, as opposed to more permanent federations. Long concluded that lessons from this and other examples of collaboration and partnership can be applied to relationships with sponsors, reconciling goals, achieving economic efficiencies, or dealing with political interests. Stokes (2004) examined inter-organisational relations of public sector events organisations in Australia, where all states have event development companies or departments. She identified the relationships and knowledge used in event strategies and identified the importance of shared knowledge as an incentive for participating in networks. Stakeholders included community representatives, public sector managers such as events and tourism agencies, corporate leaders, events managers, and tourism industry suppliers. Key elements in these sociospatial knowledge networks are activity spaces, place inventories, and information nodes. A corporate orientation among stakeholders mostly applied at the state level, where the emphasis was on tourism development – such as bidding for major events. There was more of a community orientation at the regional level. For staging major events, formal alliances, and collaborations were created – but not for strategy in general.

PROFILE 8.1 Lusofonia Festival – Macao, SAR, China By Ubaldino Sequeira Couto Reprinted from: Mathilda Van Niekerk and Donald Getz (2019). Event Stakeholders: Theory and methods for event management and tourism. Oxford: Goodfellow Publishers. Courtesy of Ubaldino Couto and Goodfellow Publishers. Ubaldino Couto is affiliated with the School of Hospitality Management, Macao Institute for Tourism Studies (www.iftm.edu.mo). The Lusofonia Festival celebrates the diaspora of Portuguese-speaking communities in Macao, China. It has been celebrated for over 20 years and it was organised by the government to commemorate and recognise the contribution of the Portuguese-speaking communities to Macao’s economic and social developments. Following the transfer of sovereignty from Portugal to China in 1999, many from the Portuguese-speaking communities chose to continue to live in Macao and continued playing an important role in Macao’s society. These communities are Angola, Brazil, Cape Verde, Guinea-Bissau, collectively Goa, Daman and Diu, Mozambique, São Tomé and Príncipe, East Timor, Portugal, and Macao. Over the course of three days, the festival attracts approximately 30,000 visitors made up of local citizens and tourists. Essentially a cultural festival, the Lusofonia Festival is reminiscent of Portuguese ‘festa’ events, which are outdoor fairs incorporating food, music, dance, and games. Indeed, the major highlight of the Lusofonia Festival is the remarkable booths each representing a Portuguese-speaking community in Macao. These booths introduce to visitors their unique photographs, arts and crafts, costumes, literature, food, and wine, most of which are influenced by the Portuguese culture reflecting subtle and significant aspects of the Lusophone empire. (See Plates 8.1 and 8.2.)

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Plate 8.1  Lusofonia Festival at Night Photo Credit: Photo by Ubaldino Couto

Plate 8.2  Lusofonia Festival, Artistic Performance Photo Credit: Photo by Ubaldino Couto

Event Management Fundamentals The Portuguese-speaking community is an important component of the success of the Lusofonia Festival. It plays various roles as stakeholders but most significantly, the role of both hosts and participants. This case study explores the benefits of engaging the diaspora community that represents different stakeholder groups and sheds light on their role in ensuring the success of the Lusofonia Festival. The observations made in this case study were collected in a wider study by the author exploring the role of diaspora festivals in Macao.

Stakeholders as an Integral Component in the Festival The diaspora community as a stakeholder group must not be alienated but is an integral component of the festival organisation. The objective of the festival is to commemorate and recognise the contribution of the Portuguese-speaking communities in Macao. It is important that these groups are visibly involved throughout the festival assuming different roles. In addition, the direction bestowed upon Macao by Beijing is to adopt a ‘One Centre, One Platform’ economic strategy within the ­Guangdong-Hong Kong-Macao Greater Bay Area and China’s Belt and Road Initiative. ‘One Centre’ refers to the creation of Macao as a World Centre of Tourism and Leisure whereas ‘One Platform’ refers to the economic and cultural platform between China and Portuguese-speaking countries. Not only does the festival fulfil the objective of recognising the Portuguese-speaking communities politically, but it also reiterates their continued contribution to Macao and even at a national level. Unlike other cultural celebrations and festivals in Macao, the Lusofonia Festival extends beyond a Portuguese theme, but the cultural elements from Portuguese and Portuguese-speaking are diversified, rich, and profound. These are manifested in arts and cultural objects but the involvement of the people from these cultures enrich the authentic experience of festival participants and a realistic Portuguese presence within the society. Although there are a number of Portuguese architectures scattered throughout Macao – a number of these were enlisted as a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 2005 – the Portuguese elements in the city are increasingly diminishing. This is in part due to the population characteristics of Macao: first, there was a huge increase of immigrants in the last 20 years following Macao’s unprecedented economic boom due to the liberalisation of the gaming legislations; second, the majority of the population is ethnically Chinese, diluting the once rich Portuguese and mixed communities in Macao. To put this in a clearer perspective, the population of Macao in 2016 was 650,000, of whom just 40% of the population was born in Macao, and about 1.8% of the total population was ethnically Portuguese or mixed. The Lusofonia Festival contextualise the Portuguese heritage in Macao by offering visitors – local citizens and tourists alike – a close encounter with the Portuguese-speaking communities to experience and learn about their cultures.

Stakeholders Must Find Aesthetic Value in the Festival Unlike in a commercial environment where profitability is a primary concern and stakeholder needs are more apparent, the expectations of the diaspora communities in the Lusofonia Festival are subtle and often less obvious. In order to engage the diaspora communities as they are integral to the success of the festival, it is crucial to ensure

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Event Management Fundamentals their needs and expectations are fulfilled. To the majority of the Portuguese-speaking communities, there are two aesthetic qualities of the Lusofonia Festival essential to the festival spirit. The diaspora communities need to feel they belong to the Lusofonia Festival not only as facilitators – as actors in a diaspora festival – but be part of it. They look for a good time to enjoy with family and friends, to rekindle with old friends, and to meet new acquaintances over food and drinks. For example, many would meet people at the Brazil booth over a glass of caipirinha, a very popular Brazilian cocktail. As the Portuguese-speaking countries all share some common cultural traits, for example, in food, many would meet and discuss recipes and special ingredients added to feijoada, a traditional Portuguese dish of meat stew with beans, to reflect their country’s unique flavour. The diaspora community needs to own the festival in order to be truly part of it. This is evident in their commitment to the festival. For instance, some would spend more than subsidised in order to provide a richer experience to visitors. It was also observed that the majority of the booths representing the countries were decorated by hand, in some cases, the setup took days to complete. To ensure the designs reflect an authentic aspect of the culture, members of the diaspora communities personally decorated the booths, often in the evenings after their own full-time work. The other aesthetic value that the diaspora communities find at the Lusofonia Festival is an opportunity to liminal experience. The work environment – and life – is very different from either of the home cultures. The Lusofonia Festival is reminiscent of Portuguese outdoor festivals, a nostalgic sentiment many in the communities long for. Additionally, the festive atmosphere and physical settings of the festival also remove the barrier that otherwise exists between members of the Portuguese-speaking communities and the general population. Cultural differences, such as language, as well as background like education and employment, almost naturally separate these groups. For instance, the local-born, younger generations of the diaspora communities opt for education in the Portuguese School whereas the majority of the population attends Chinese- or English-medium schools. In fact, postcolonial issues often create barriers between members of the Portuguese-speaking communities; the Lusofonia Festival offers a platform for mutual understanding and respect, as well as an opportunity to learn more about each other. This would have been otherwise impossible in usual work, school, or social settings.

Stakeholders Engage Only in Supportive Environments Stakeholders’ engagement is more profound in a supportive environment. The Lusofonia Festival is an inclusive event; it welcomes and caters to all types of festivalgoers. Although Portuguese is the predominant language used in the festival, Chinese and English announcements and notices supplement the main commentaries in Portuguese. The majority of the diaspora communities speak Portuguese, Chinese, and English which ensures most of the festival visitors are addressed. The festival programme also subtly influences the mix of visitors; for instance, children’s activities like pony riding, face painting, body tattoos, and kid games are scheduled in the early afternoon, and live bands in the evenings to attract families and adult crowds, respectively. In addition, many activities available at the festival encourage participation, for example, sandbag

Event Management Fundamentals races, foosball tournaments, and dances welcome all to join. Parades at the Lusofonia Festival makeup of local and international dance troupes from the Portuguese-speaking communities also instil a festive and inclusive atmosphere – such as by physically ‘dragging’ onlookers into the parade. The physical environment in which the Lusofonia Festival also plays a huge role in engaging stakeholders. The event is held in one of the Portuguese neighbourhoods in Macao, with traditional Portuguese houses and buildings, a church and quaint, quiet gardens, along cobblestone roads and pavements. The decorations at the festival as well as booths and crowds instil a festive and joyous mood. Members of the Portuguese-speaking communities are attached to the surroundings and feel like hosts welcoming others to their ‘home’. It is usual for festivalgoers from the diaspora communities to introduce and actively engage with visitors at the Lusofonia Festival, assuming the role of the host even though they are not staff. Diaspora communities as a stakeholder group such as in the case of the Lusofonia Festival in Macao are more involved under certain circumstances, namely, stakeholders are integral to the festival, stakeholders find value in the festival and stakeholders are engaged in a supportive environment. Although these observations may not apply to other festive events and celebrations, it is prudent that policymakers encourage the continuity of diaspora festivals by providing adequate support, particularly when the organisers and those involved are commonly disadvantaged due to their minority status and access to resources. Diaspora communities, and by extension, ethnic minority groups within a society are essential to the economic and social development of a place; these events are not merely another item to enrich the destination’s tourism portfolio.

Oganisational Ecology and Event Populations This interrelated group of theory fragments (Hannan et al. 2007), looks at whole populations of organisations within their environment. While most management theory teaches that sound practice and adaptive strategies can ensure success, ecological models suggest that organisations are also likely to succeed or fail in response to environmental factors. The dynamics of populations of festivals and events must be considered, as well as the efforts of individual event organisations. Seminal works in organisational ecology include: Hannan and Freeman (1977, 1984); Carroll (1984); Hannan and Carroll (1992); and Baum (1992). The ecological theory seeks to explain the rates of birth, growth, and mortality of a population of organisations in any given environment. Several principles are emphasised. First, diversity is a property of aggregates of organisations, not of specific organisations. Second, organisations often have difficulty changing fast enough to adapt to uncertain environmental conditions. Third, organisations arise and disappear regularly, like the birth and death of animals. In nature, a population is defined by its genetic species, as in the human population, but not so in organisational ecology. Baum and Oliver (1996) describe the concept of a population as follows: A set of organizations engaged in similar activities and with similar patterns of resource utilization constitutes a population. Populations form as a result of processes that isolate or segregate one set of organizations from another, including technological incompatibilities and institutional actions such as government regulations.

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Event Management Fundamentals In other words, we should not assume that all festivals, or all periodic sport events, are alike and constitute a discrete population. They might have quite different activities (or services offered) and resource dependencies. The vast diversity of festival forms and styles (e.g., performing and visual arts, humour, spectacle, rituals, and commemorations), variations arising from ownership (i.e., profit, non-profit, and public), and differences attributable to size and location all make it very difficult to view them as a single species. There are two perspectives on events that make them resemble a single population, for both public policy and tourism industry strategy. This is because the variations among festivals are not as important when considering what festivals can do for policy and strategy, from social marketing to place marketing. As instruments of policy, events are fit into portfolios (Getz, 2005; Ziakas, 2013) that must meet specified goals and account for their resources, especially if public money has been provided to them. Within a whole population of events in a given area, it might not matter if single events fail, or change in some dramatic way, but within a managed portfolio it might cause a serious problem. Within ecological theory, individual organisms (i.e., events) share space and resources with other organisational populations, and the dynamics of this community affect all its members. For example, festivals might have to share venues and grants with other cultural institutions and tourist attractions. Communities are those species sharing the same ecosystem, which can be defined as a city or nation. The ecosystem analogy could take on a number of interesting dimensions when applied to festivals or events. Many interactions with their environment can be analysed, not the least of which must be stakeholder relationships, marketing, ownership, and decision-making. A basic step is to measure and keep track of vital statistics, that is, the demographics of the population. These data are seldom available, mainly because no agency keeps track of new events (call them births), deaths, failures, growth rates, and the overall health of the population. Unless there are policies and goals, the overall population and its health do not even become issues in most areas (Table 8.3). Table 8.3  Key Concepts in Organisational Ecology with Implications for Event Populations Key Concepts in Organisational Ecology

Implications for Event Populations

Structural inertia: a major reason for failure is the inability to adapt to changing conditions

– Reliable and predictable events that occupy a strong niche are likely to be more successful, especially in terms of obtaining committed stakeholders and funding. – Continuous effort must be made to monitor environmental forces and plan for adaptation. Be agile – Many small, volunteer-driven events are challenged when it comes to both competing against others and collaborating at the level of portfolios and populations. – Event networks should be explicitly fostered. – Not-for-profit events have some advantages relative to for-profit events when it comes to perceived legitimacy in meeting community needs

Competition versus cooperation: Especially in the notfor-profit sector, co-operation is a better strategy for sustainability and resilience

(continued)

Event Management Fundamentals Table 8.3  Continued Key Concepts in Organisational Ecology

Implications for Event Populations

– Well-established events must guard against complacency when it comes to their uniqueness and appeal, and against an overly conservative organisational culture. – Events should strive for financial self-sufficiency Niche theory: survival can depend – Research is needed on the nature of niches on finding a niche that ensures the that enduring events hold within competitive continuance of resources environments. – Specialist events rely on a narrow range or limited number of sources and must be efficient in exploiting them. – Generalist events avoid over-dependency by exploiting a wide range of resources and are less vulnerable to rapidly changing environmental conditions Resource partitioning: a few large – Large, hallmark events can make it difficult for organisations within a population small and new events to find and keep adequate tend to consume all the resources resources, making networking and collaboration available essential. – Large cities and wealthy economies offer more scope for specialisation Density dependence: a U-shaped – Legitimation refers to the acceptance of events as curve results from the interaction a normal and proper form of organisation; around of density (the number of the world, events are considered to be legitimate organisations) and limiting factors instruments of corporate and governmental See Figure 8.4 strategy, however, as the number of events increases, the number of new starts is likely to decrease and the number of failures increases, owing to resource competition. – Event populations are also likely to meet growth limits for other reasons, including competition from other leisure sectors; a corollary is that the injection of more resources (say by governments or sponsors) might result in a growth spurt Age dependence: there is a greater risk of failure when an organisation is either new or very old

Relational density and network theory: embeddedness in institutional theory refers to the number of links an organisation has with other institutions; higher levels should result in greater stability

– This theory thread argues for formal event networks and portfolio management in which linkages, sharing, and collaboration are maximised

Density dependence is illustrated in Figure 8.4 as a possible explanation of why event populations might rise and fall in number, reflecting start-ups and terminations. The idea that there are limits on numbers might be extended to types and sizes, given the other organisational ecology variables (especially the idea of finding a niche).

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Event Management Fundamentals Maximum population (density) of events is reached (given existing resources)

Legitimation of events increases

Growing number of new events and total number of events

Decreasing number of new events

Critical limits are reached

Some events might fail or shut down

A new cycle of growth might begin when conditions become more favourable

Figure 8.4  Density Dependence: How Event Populations Might Grow and Decline Source: Adapted from Hannan and Freeman (1977) and Butler (1980)

What Is a Resilient and Healthy Population of Events? The coming and going of festivals and events are often ignored, especially in countries where a free market is assumed. Many players are at work in this sector – from diverse government agencies and not-for-profits to corporate sponsors and for-profit event companies. However, as a result of the global pandemic, it has to be asked if the event populations in countries and cities were resilient (i.e., how many failed or survived?) and what exactly is a healthy, resilient population of events? The same questions must be asked of managed portfolios. A population has to be able to sustain itself, given available resources. This might result in growth or decline as necessary, or as judged to be appropriate. In times of resource scarcity, or shocks such as the pandemic, adjustments to population size will have to be made consciously or through natural selection (i.e., the weak will be allowed to perish). A directed or coordinated open system of organisations has to be able to adjust to its environment – or if possible, influence external forces in such a way as to sustain equilibrium, that is, the level of resource consumption that will keep it healthy. This might require planned adjustments to population size or a reduction in resource consumption by all members. Festivals and other event-producing organisations are typically not able to achieve population equilibrium because they are not coordinated, nor is their sector directed by any agency. Owing to the special nature of festivals as manifestations of fundamental social, cultural, and economic needs, and as instruments of policy and strategy, the health of festival populations requires additional and essentially goal-dependent considerations. Other periodic events, mainly sports in terms of numbers, can be given similar treatment insofar as they implement event tourism policy and strategy or sport development and human health. There have been only a few studies of event populations. Jaeger and Mykletun (2009) developed a festivalscape map in Finnmark, Norway. Andersson, Getz, and Mykletun (2013) studied three Norwegian counties, finding the growth of festivals correlated with growth in the national gross domestic product; the density dependency theory was confirmed. The International Festivals and Events Association (IFEA) (http://www.ifea.com/p/ industryawards/worldfestivalandeventcityaward) annually awards ‘festival city’ status and its

Event Management Fundamentals evaluative criteria suggest what it takes to sustain a healthy and resilient population of events. Their main criteria are: l

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Community overview: population; venues available and their capacity; infrastructure and parking availability; tourist numbers attributed to events. Community festivals and events: numbers, types, and dates; budgets; sponsorship support; volunteer numbers and hours worked; attendance; target markets and numbers achieved; awards received; and professionals with certification. City/governmental support of festivals and events: policies and support programmes; direct funding given; city roles and process in approval of events; and coordination. Participation by city/politicians in events; regulations affecting events; and training provided. Non-governmental community support of festivals and events: volunteer involvement in the event sector; total sponsorship provided; media support; support from DMO, Chamber of Commerce, and other organisations; incentives to events from venues; access to local suppliers; and direct industry involvement in the events sector. Leveraging ‘community capital’ created by festivals and events, such as branding; tourism marketing; corporate recruiting; media coverage and public relations; enhancing exposure to the arts; encouraging social integration or celebration; better use of facilities or parks; and long-term legacies of events. Extra credit for actions such as: skills development; availability of certificate or degree programmes in event management; sharing among festivals; and efforts to recruit new events to the city.

Criteria for Evaluation of Event Populations This type of evaluation should be the responsibility of event development agencies and event portfolio managers. Without a firm inventory and analysis of the entire event population, decisions on portfolio balance and diversification, bidding, funding, marketing, and new event creation will be impeded. l l

Numbers of events: start-up and termination data; growth trends; and seasonality. Types: is there variety, balance, or diversification? targeted to different segments?; managed portfolios within different policy domains?

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Inclusiveness: affordability; accessibility; awareness levels – by all groups.

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Sustainability: green standards implemented; and certification required.

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Viability and resilience: funding continuity; committed sponsors.

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Community support: demand trends; local action groups; not-for-profit involvement; engagement with schools and other institutions.

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Organisations involved, including the private sector, levels of government, and not-for-profits.

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Venues for all types; priorities for expansion/modernisation.

Evolution and Institutionalisation Organisations have to be created, as in the establishment of a legal corporation or not-forprofit society, or they evolve from informal organisations. For example, many professionally managed festivals and events have evolved from club-produced events. Once established, there can be an evolution towards greater formality, emergence of leadership, and increasing

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Event Management Fundamentals professionalisation. This trend is reflected in the hiring of professional staff and some degree of bureaucratisation, including formal committee systems and strategic planning (Katz, 1981). Frisby and Getz (1989) modelled this hypothetical evolution for festivals, noting that at each evolutionary stage, there was a risk of having to return to the previous stage owing to failure, or loss of resources. They also suggested that in cities, with larger populations and presumably more resources to draw on, festivals were more likely to professionalise. Richards and Ryan (2004) adapted the Frisby and Getz (1989) model by suggesting three axes: (1) ‘informal/grassroots resource base’; (2) ‘organizational age’; and (3) ‘organized public and private sector involvement’. They argued (p. 96) that “being a grassroots event does not preclude the adoption of a formal or professional approach to event organisation”. Professionalism, they said, can be externally imposed on an event organisation. Schein’s (1985) conceptualisation of the evolution of organisational culture, argued that various crises are likely to occur as the organisation evolves, linked to leadership changes and value conflicts, particularly as sub-cultures emerge. Richards and Ryan (2004) agreed that various crises will accompany event maturation. In their case study, the issues or crises stemmed from the need to achieve financial stability, addressing the festival’s cultural orientation and significance, gender issues, the increasing roles of media and sponsors, the representations of groups and regions, and tensions between competitive and performative orientations. Why do some events, like the Calgary Stampede (profiled in Getz, 1993b, 1997, 2005), become permanent institutions in their communities? Can all events aspire to this status, and should they? One meaning of the word institution is that of “constraints or rules that induce stability in human interaction” (Voss, 2001). These arise because societies face recurrent problems, so when we call an organisation an institution, we are saying that it exists to deal with a fundamental – or at least important – social need (including cultural and economic needs). Since not all people can be directly involved in creating institutions, a set of actors, or stakeholders, has to decide on – or establish through repeated interactions or interdependencies – the rules or the organisations to deal with major social problems. Stability in these institutions has direct benefit to the stakeholders, or society as a whole, and should ideally generate increased efficiency in resource use. The study of institutions is very well established. Selznick (1957) distinguished between institutions as tools to accomplish specific tasks and institutions to which people formed commitments. Emile Durkheim (as reported in Traugott, 1978) argued that sociological analysis should discover the causes, mechanisms, and effects of institutions on societal life. Essentially, institutions regularise social life and may foster co-operation and increase efficiency. Applicable to many festivals, it can also be said that institutions are like public goods in that all members of society may benefit from them, whether or not they contribute to their establishment and upkeep. Coleman (1988, 1990) believed that institutions are part of what is often called social capital. An anthropological perspective (Sahlins, 1976) suggests that cultural institutions mainly serve symbolic purposes. Another way of looking at institutions is through the lens of evolutionary game theory. A central focus of the original study of institutions is the evolving relationship between an organisation and its environment, which of course includes all its stakeholder interactions. ‘New institutionalism’, according to Heimer (2001), is an outcome of organisational sociology. It focuses on the process (symbolic reasons are emphasised) by which a practice or structure is diffused, becomes a prerequisite for legitimacy (among key stakeholders), is taken for granted, and is expected.

Event Management Fundamentals

TYPE 1: New events and events produced informally; internal goal orientation; weak external network

TYPE 2: Formal event organization; internal and external goal orientation; strong external stakeholder network

TYPE 3: The event as an institution: committed stakeholders; permanence is taken for granted

Figure 8.5  Hypothetical Institutionalisation Process for Events Source: Adapted from Getz and Andersson (2008)

By definition, therefore, an event that becomes an institution exists with a specific mandate or purpose, is permanent, and fulfils an important social role or solves social problems. A community cannot do without its institutions, and when threatened they will receive strong support; if they disappear, others will have to be created to carry on their functions. Very few events fit these criteria, yet recent research involving a survey of festivals in Sweden suggests that many festival managers actually believe their event to be an institution (Getz and Andersson, 2008). Figure 8.5 suggests the process by which an event (as a permanent organisation) might evolve, or strategically plan to become a permanent institution in its community. The key process is transitioning from an internal to an external orientation, as many events – especially in their early years – are very focussed on their internal processes and internal stakeholders. Relationships with external stakeholders will probably increase in number and complexity over time, and the most important of them can be brought into legal or moral ownership (through share offerings or board directorships) or other forms of long-term partnership, including sponsorship. It appears that increasing dependency on committed stakeholders is a large part of becoming an institution. In other words, independence might have to be sacrificed for sustainability. The Stampede reflects this evolution, with the City of Calgary owning the land, having a permanent representative on the Stampede Board, and assisting the Stampede in its ongoing development plans. During the pandemic, a large federal government grant kept it going, and a loan guarantee from the city enabled the Stampede Board to secure lower-interest loans to help pay off accumulated debt. Regarding the organisation as an institution, Scott (2001) suggested that it is a social structure with a great deal of resilience, it provides meaning to social life, connotes stability, and is taken for granted. Others believe an institution has to exist for a specific purpose, which is to achieve important societal goals or solve crucial societal problems.

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Event Management Fundamentals The following criteria appear to be important factors: l

An event that is an institution solves important social problems or meets important community goals.

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Society or the community cannot be without it – failure is unthinkable.

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Permanence is taken for granted.

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Support is assured – sponsors and agencies will always give it money or other types of support.

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It is highly visible – everyone knows about it – and the event has a strong, positive brand.

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It is an expert in managing its stakeholder relationships.

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Key stakeholders have been internalised.

Whether or not is a worthwhile strategy to pursue, achieving institutional status – at least in the minds of key stakeholders – offers considerable benefits within the context of organisational ecology and theory on competitive advantages. One might argue, however, that it is not something that can be attained by design, it has to be earned or bestowed upon the organisation.

PROFILE 8.2 Research on Values and Event Policy in the Sunshine Coast, Australia Researchers employed the use/non-use methodology pioneered in Sweden by Andersson and Lundberg (2013) and Andersson and Armbrecht (2014), with the aim of valuing the entire population of events within the Sunshine Coast local authority. Getz et al. (2013) drew a number of conclusions that can help advance this line of research to aid policymaking and strategy for events development (source: Getz, D., Gration, D., Raciti, M., Sie, L. and Frost, D. (2013b). Final Report: Sunshine Coast Event Portfolios Valuation Research.) See also: Andersson et al., 2017; Gration et al., 2016, for details of the theory, research, and conclusions as published in research journals. The overall purpose of the Sunshine Coast research was to pilot an innovative approach to determine the value of portfolios of planned events in a community or destination, with implications for policy and strategy making. Both resident and tourist input was obtained. Use and non-use values were examined, attempting to create both an economic valuation in monetary amounts and a social perception of the worth of events. Researchers at both The University of Queensland and The University of the Sunshine Coast collaborated in conducting a pilot survey followed by a large-scale online survey of residents and tourists in 2013. Useable responses to the major online survey were obtained from 1,085 residents and 384 non-residents. The major conclusions are as follows: 1 Residents of the Sunshine Coast greatly value their planned events, with substantial direct use value accruing from attendance, active participation (e.g., as athletes and artists), and volunteering. 2 Residents gave strong recognition to the economic, personal, and social values of planned events, regardless of whether they used them or not.

Event Management Fundamentals 3 Non-use values recognised by residents included ‘option value’ (i.e., having more to choose from); bequest value (i.e., valued traditions; creating a legacy for future generations; more for youth to do), and existence value (i.e., events are good for the community in multiple ways). 4 Residents largely believed that planned events were not causing significant social or environmental problems. 5 From a policy perspective, planned events represented a major field in which both economic gain and general public good are being created, with even greater potential to grow. 6 Residents especially supported festivals and cultural celebrations; a range of events and event venues were also supported. 7 There was only limited support among residents to accept tax increases to pay for new events or venues. Conclusion? A full justification for new capital expenditures and ongoing support should always be provided to residents. Implications for policy and strategy: 1 Development of a portfolio of planned events and venues should: (a) Maximise the joint value of events and venues for both residents and tourists. (b) Incorporate an events awareness and community benefits communication strategy. (c) Provide a range of celebrations, entertainment, participation, and spectator sports that meet contemporary and anticipate emerging needs. (d) Facilitate direct involvement of residents as organisers, volunteers, athletes, and artists. (e) Develop at least one event into international, hallmark-event status. (f) Provide ongoing evidence of the benefits events and venues bring to residents. 2 A managed portfolio of events for Sunshine Coast should stress balance by types and sizes, and all-year opportunities for celebration and participation. Regarding research, it was deemed to be highly desirable to combine regular event visitor surveys with specific questions concerning willingness to pay, perceptions of the overall attractiveness of events in the destination, and ideas for improvements; questions on relationships with residents and the environment would also be useful, in order to identify potential problems. Periodic surveys of residents are important in order to ask questions similar to those included in the Sunshine Coast research: willingness to pay; different kinds of engagement with events; events attended; preferences for venues and events; and perceptions of positive and negative impacts. Local authorities, and publicly subsidised events, need to demonstrate the creation of public goods (that is, benefits that are realised and appreciated by everyone, or at least by all taxpayers). It is important to be able to show levels of public support and to identify and deal with issues raised. Care should be taken to obtain input from specific segments of the population that might be excluded through typical survey methods, including seniors, youth, and economically disadvantaged groups.

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Event Management Fundamentals The health (or sustainability) of an event population can be measured, in part, by residents’ impact perceptions and their changing levels of support for policies and strategies. For tourists, direct measures of demand and expenditure are useful for evaluating overall portfolio health.

References Andersson, T., & Armbrecht, J. (2014). Use-value of music event experiences: A ‘Triple Ex’ model explaining direct and indirect use-value of events. Scandinavian Journal of Hospitality and Tourism, 14 (3), 255–274. Andersson, T. D., Getz, D., Gration, D., & Raciti, M. M. (2017). Event portfolios: Asset value, risk and returns. International Journal of Event and Festival Management, 8 (3), 226–243. Andersson, T., & Lundberg, E. (2013). Commensurability and sustainability: Triple impact assessments of a tourism event. Tourism Management, 37, 99–109. Gration, D., Raciti, M., Getz, D., & Andersson, T. (2016). Resident valuation of planned events: An event portfolio pilot study. Event Management, 20 (4), 607–622.

The Learning Organisation and Knowledge Management How do organisations learn and retain memory? Senge (1990, 3) said, the learning organisation is one in which “people continuously expand their capacity to create the results they truly desire, where new and expansive patterns of thinking are nurtured, where collective aspiration is set free, and where people are continually learning to learn together” (also see Senge et al., 1994). In part, this is a reflection of organisational culture, and in part, it can be facilitated through constant research, evaluation, and reflection. The open-system model is a good starting point for structuring the learning process. Benchmarking against other organisations and specific events is another way by which managers learn. To a degree, studying other events is both inevitable and good, but it can and does result in copying and standardisation. Proper benchmarking looks at the ways successful organisations do things, in other words, their processes or best practices. Getz (1998a) studied the searching and sharing practices of festival organisers and classified them as being “inward or outward-looking organisations”. Searching was either formal or informal in nature, and varied a lot in terms of space (local through international), substance (comparisons with similar festivals versus all events), and theoretical (education) versus experiential (learning through visits and conversations).

Knowledge Management Raphaela Stadler’s book Knowledge Management in Event Organisations (2021) discusses all the relevant theories and methods. Some basic terms: Data: raw numbers or other forms of facts, on their own lacking meaning. Information: meaning and utility arise from purpose, analysis, and sense-making. “Knowledge consists of experience, values, expert insights and contextualizes information that is being put into practice by human beings” (p.3). In managing knowledge for the event or organisation, it is necessary to distinguish between tacit knowledge (being internalised, individual, relational, and context-specific – including skills) and explicit knowledge (being words and numbers that can easily be communicated). One of the

Event Management Fundamentals challenges facing event managers is to take advantage of what people know and learn when they might be engaged temporarily (as volunteers or short-term staff) and from one event to another. Documents are easy to produce, but tapping into real experiences and hidden sources of knowledge is difficult. Stadler defined knowledge management this way (p. 10): The effective use of organisational systems, processes and practices which allow both explicit and tacit knowledge to be created, identified, acquired, utilised, shared and stored, in order for the organisation to produce a successful event experience and to sustain a competitive advantage over time. Summarising an entire body of knowledge about knowledge management is difficult, but for the purposes of this book, it is useful to present Stadler’s (p. 173) recommendations for event managers. Organisational learning, in her model, is conceptualised as occurring in three interdependent stages, as follows: Pre-event: create a learning culture and suitable organisational structure, with adequate resources and training (this requires a comprehensive and permanent evaluation and impact assessment process). During: create rituals around knowledge sharing, retention, and discussion; focus on learning by doing; foster collaboration and empower workers; allocate times to be reflective (the importance of documentation has to be stressed, such as incident reports, customer surveys, participant and passive observation, videos). After: capture both explicit and tacit knowledge, in part by sharing stories (of success, failures, incidents); retain knowledge workers (knowledge transfer between one-time events has to be facilitated by governing bodies, bidding or funding agencies).

Evaluating the Event Organisation Evaluating the organisation as a whole, including its structure, systems, and stakeholder relationships is a complex task, although it is often reduced to a simple question of profit versus loss, ROI, or the financial ability to continue operations. Taking a long-term perspective on resilience and sustainability further complicates the matter. There is an applicable model called The Event Compass. It was explained in the fourth edition of this book and deserves a summary here. The Event Compass was created to provide an overview of events and their organisations for evaluation and planning purposes. Evaluation of the organisation can either be comprehensive or focus on priority areas. Where goals are set within each functional area, a measure of goal attainment is made through normal evaluation and impact assessment methods. Goal attainment across the functional areas can be compared, revealing strengths and weaknesses. For example, it might be determined that the organisation is succeeding financially, and meeting its revenue-generating goals, but is weak in terms of creating benefits for the community. In this way, a triple-bottom-line approach can be taken. It is also desirable to practice the philosophy of continuous improvement, setting ever-higher goals and more stringent measures of attainment and overall organisational success. STUDY GUIDE

This chapter introduced the nature of management in generic terms and then identified unique aspects of event management. Core management functions were explained, with EMBOK and

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Event Management Fundamentals MBECS illustrating applications to the events professions. It will be useful to consult the websites of professional and industry associations to learn more about their training and certification programmes, their conventions, codes of conduct, and career opportunities. Study the questions posed concerning the nature of event management and event tourism management. These are answered in the book in different places, but not fully. As a research or essay topic, pick one of the questions for further exploration, including a scan of both the event literature and mainstream management. One of the most important theoretical contributions is stakeholder theory, as no event exists without the collaboration of many internal and external stakeholders. As well, networking among organisations is of increasing importance, especially in light of the pandemic and the need for building greater resilience at the level of individual events and managed portfolios. Examine a local event, or one of interest, as to its networks and how they are managed. Prepare a simple stakeholder map and think about how each relationship can be managed. STUDY QUESTIONS l

Define event management with reference to each of the EMBOK domains.

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Of the various management functions, which one are you most interested in? Explain why it can be an attractive area of professional practice and the challenges it poses. In an open-system model, there are two main streams of evaluation and feedback. Describe them, and suggest how they might result in conflict. Compare and contrast the three main types of event organisations in terms of governance and their business models. Be sure to include a discussion of the value being created for the organisation and its constituencies. Why is the revenue side of an event budget often vulnerable to many uncertainties? What implications does that fact have for the budget planning process and implementation of the event? Consider the population of events in your city or area. Can you describe it (or a sub-sector or portfolio) in terms of an ecosystem? How would you define and measure its health? Can you identify an event that can be called an institution? What are the defining characteristics that make it an institution? Describe how the learning organisation depends on knowledge creation and management. FURTHER READING

Cornwell, T. (2020) Sponsorship in Marketing Effective Partnerships in Sports, Arts and Events (2nd ed.). London: Routledge. Lundberg, E., Armbrecht, J., Andersson, T., & Getz, D. (eds.) (2017). The Value of Events. London: Routledge. Raj, R., & Rashid, T. (2022). Events Management: Principles and Practice (4th ed.). Oxford: Goodfellow. Stadler, R. (2021). Knowledge Management in Event Organisations. Oxford: Goodfellow.

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Directing, Leadership, and Human Resources for Events LEARNING OBJECTIVES

Upon completion of this chapter, students should know the following: l

The meaning and components of the directing function.

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The meaning and importance of leadership.

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Different leadership styles and their relevance to events.

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The roles of founders and their influence on organisational culture.

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Why both private and social entrepreneurship are important, and the related concept of intrapreneurship. Differences between democratic versus top-down decision-making and the exercise of power. Methods of supervision in hierarchical and flat organisations, including task assignment and internal communication.

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The functions of internal policy, rules, and regulations.

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Special HR challenges for event management.

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The meaning of professionalism and professionalisation in the events sector.

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Experiential learning and its significance in events education.

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The changing nature of work and careers.

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Sample careers in event management.

DOI: 10.4324/9781003374251-9

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Directing, Leadership, and Human Resources for Events

Introduction The directing function covers a number of inter-related topics, starting with leadership. Who gives purpose to the organisation, how decisions are made, supervision, and the exercise of power are central questions. These all relate back to the organisation’s ownership and mandate, and how it is structured – hierarchical versus flat being major considerations. We also consider organisational culture, which often stems from founders and the original mandate. The learning organisation and knowledge management have previously been introduced. The second major section covers human resource management, starting with a discussion of unique considerations for events, and leading to an overview of education and careers in event management.

Leadership The who and how of directing an organisation or event generally starts with ownership and mandate, as discussed in the previous chapter. In a small, private business, the owner or owners provide direction and leadership. The same happens when one person sets up an event organisation, being the founder, and for a length of time directs its evolution. Over time, and with professionalisation, a formal structure is established, and (typically) Boards of Directors take over. They and their senior staff, the CEO, provide leadership and direct operations. In the public sector, events are usually within departments and agencies, so leadership might be complicated and bureaucratic. Whatever the context, an event or organisation without competent, dedicated leadership will sooner or later experience trouble.

Leadership Styles and Roles The various schools of theory on leadership have been identified by Dulewicz and Higgs (2005), namely: 1 The trait school: what personality traits are exhibited by people we recognise as leaders in the event management field? 2 The behavioural school: what do leaders do that makes them effective? 3 The contingency school: are good leaders flexible and adaptable? 4 The visionary school: who has a long-term vision for the event? for our profession? how is innovation fostered? 5 The emotional intelligence school; are good leaders empathetic? team players? 6 The competency school: what is the knowledge base, how is it best taught, and what skills are necessary? Abson (2017) asked: “What do effective leaders do in the world of festivals and events?” She suggested that effective event leaders perform certain tasks, as adapted for Figure 9.1. Abson also cautioned, …That event managers believe that it is not the technical skills (such as financial planning, event design) that ensure successful event delivery but rather that it is the soft skills and the human resource that drive successful events.…in order to be successful leaders, they also need to work in teams, motivate and empower others, and develop team members.

Directing, Leadership, and Human Resources for Events Set a vision (for the event; for volunteers and staff; for the public and target markets)

Be decisive when necessary

Think and act strategically; plan; evaluate; revise

Facilitate, reward, discipline

Enable teams to do their jobs

Motivate and coach workers; demonstrate empathy

Demonstrate flexibility; adapt to the changing environment

Figure 9.1  What Effective Event Leaders Do Source: Adapted from Abson (2017)

Senge (1990) argued that leadership is not about one’s position or role – it is not the same as being a boss. Leaders and managers can be two quite different things, although a good manager who is passionate about excellence can also be a leader. Leading literally means to step ahead or move forward (presumably with followers), and Senge equates this with creativity and vision. Leaders have a purpose and are passionate about their work. They care for people. Senge’s perspective on leadership reinforces the view of events as agents of change. He pointed to the importance of community-level leadership, and therefore event managers should look to their broader roles in helping to shape the future of society. In the vast literature on leadership, you will find many models, but one that is frequently cited is called full-range leadership. Avolio (2010) suggested that the most effective leaders need a repertoire of styles, and the laissez-fairs style (i.e., doing nothing while expecting results) is not an option. Servant leadership reflects the philosophy that leaders, whether they be owners or managers, have a responsibility to do good for everyone in the organisation, and those affected by it. They are servants, stewards of resources, facilitators of well-being, and creators of positive change. In other words, it is an ideal. Power in this ideal is not exerted in a top-down fashion, but democratic. Bottom-up decision-making is put into practice. This style seems most appropriate in the public and not-for-profit sectors where event-producing organisations exist as agents of change, or as providers of specific messages and services to target segments and communities. Autocratic Leadership is centred on the boss, who holds all authority and responsibility. Leaders make decisions on their own without consulting subordinates. We can see this in small and family owned businesses, where it is necessary, and it goes with the hands-on, be-my-own boss attitude of many entrepreneurs. Charismatic Leadership: People follow them because of their personality or attractiveness, or perhaps because of their message. This style involves a transformation of followers’ values and

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Directing, Leadership, and Human Resources for Events beliefs. Leaders do not have to be charismatic, but in many circumstances, it helps in attracting followers. Democratic Leadership: In this leadership style, subordinates are involved in making decisions. In some societies consensus building is essential – no matter how long it takes. This style can be merged with the principles of value co-creation within stakeholder networks. It is compatible with servant leadership. Transactional Leadership: Focusing on the lower-order needs identified by Maslow, this style of leadership promotes compliance and the status quo. Performance standards will be specified and evaluated, and workers will be rewarded or punished according to their performance. Transformational Leadership: Unlike other leadership styles, transformational leadership is all about initiating change in organisations, groups, oneself, and others. Transformational leaders motivate others to do more than they originally intended, and often even more than they thought possible. They set more challenging expectations and typically achieve higher performance. Transformational leaders empower followers. Little research has been conducted on leadership styles in event management. One study, by Megheirkouni (2018), was able to link transformational behaviour to rational decision-making in large-scale sport events. Leigh, Lamont, and Cairncross (2013) found that Australian managers lacked the resources to outsource volunteer training, so they relied on transactional and transformational leadership styles. Senge (1990) specified three leadership roles necessary for creation of a learning organisation: being the leader as designer (i.e., creating a common vision with shared values and purpose; designing policies, strategies, and structures; creating the learning processes aimed at fostering continuous improvement); as teacher or coach; and as steward (similar to the servant leader). These can be framed within transformational leadership theory. Leadership is the pivotal role of managers (Mintzberg, 1994) and boards of directors. Of course, in many small organisations and informal events, everyone chips in as needed, in which case leadership is somewhat of a collective process. Leadership in events requires the setting of a vision, developing strategies and goals, and inspiring everyone to work together towards those goals. Oakley and Krug (1991) believed that creative leaders not only empower their workers but also take responsibility for all the decisions made by workers; they focus on goals and results, and are both current and future-oriented. Group leadership, where no one dominates and all decisions are taken democratically, is an alternative approach, but difficult to implement – especially in projects where rapid decision-making is necessary. Events typically require both artistic and management leadership. An over-emphasis on business might stifle artistic innovation, whereas an over-emphasis on creativity might compromise the event’s financial viability. Leadership ability is essential for owners and founders of events, but leadership skills come to the fore and have to be learned, as workers become supervisors and progress to become managers. Technical skills and hands-on operations have to give way to people skills such as motivating and problem-solving. At the highest management levels, conceptual knowledge (theory) is needed, as well as the ability to formulate visions, goals, and strategies, alongside research and evaluation skills. Power and leadership go together. Owners of companies and events typically have the legal power to compel obedience, just as in the military. Boards of directors can use legal power to enforce their policies. Managers often have ‘legitimate’ power (Mintzberg, 1983) by virtue of their position to direct or coerce the actions of subordinates. Other sources of power identified by

Directing, Leadership, and Human Resources for Events Mintzberg include ‘reward power’ (the ability to bestow or withhold tangible and intangible rewards), ‘expert power’ (people follow because of superior knowledge or ability), ‘information power’ (obtained through control of vital information) and ‘referent power’ (stemming from loyalty and admiration). Power and knowledge are inseparable, according to Stadler (2013), drawing from the theories of Foucault (1969, 1982). With regard to community festivals, Clarke and Jepson (2011) looked at how a steering committee exercised power in restricting knowledge within the community. Their exercise of power resulted in the community not being able to feel ownership of the festival.

Entrepreneurs (Social and Private) and Intrapreneurs How are events initiated? Somebody or some organisation has to take the initiative, and this leadership can continue well into the lifespan of the event and its organisation. The term entrepreneur is not easy to define, and there are two major schools of thought about entrepreneurship: that it is a personality trait held by rather unique persons, or that it is one or more actions that can be observed and measured. Furthermore, entrepreneurship can apply to personal business ventures or to social situations. The personality trait theory suggests that entrepreneurs are born, not made. Some people are compelled (or have an inborn propensity) to create businesses or events, seek out opportunities that others ignore (especially in terms of finding a niche in the marketplace), pull together resources (often through personal networking), take personal risks and (but not necessarily) create personal wealth. Innovation or creativity is often thought to be inherent in entrepreneurs, and this is certainly evident among those who establish festivals and other events. Being one’s own boss, or wanting to take a hands-on approach to work, is also a personality trait clearly associated with people who start up new businesses or events. Entrepreneurs are not discouraged by failures and often bounce back from a failure to try again. Serial entrepreneurs keep starting new ventures in a rather restless fashion, which leads some observers to think of them as socially dysfunctional or psychologically disturbed. If the motivations driving entrepreneurs are mostly personal, or connected to family values and goals, they are clearly within the realm of business and microeconomics. But there is little doubt that social entrepreneurs are very active in the arts, leading to establishment of many notfor-profit festivals and events. A social entrepreneur might also work within governmental or not-for-profit organisations to create profit (or profitable events) to be used for social projects. Cause-related events can be created this way. New venture creation is the starting point for discussing entrepreneurship as an observable activity. Starting up an event could be motivated by the desire for profit, or social good. Risks are inherent in this process, especially when it comes to acquiring and spending one’s own, and other people’s money. Reputations are also at stake. The entrepreneur’s personal network can be vital at this start-up stage, and in the subsequent years when vital support and resources have to be sustained through effective stakeholder management.

Intrapreneurship Within organisations intrapreneurship can be a valuable process, but it usually has to be fostered. Can a whole organisation, or a group within, really behave as if they were private entrepreneurs? The object would be to encourage innovation, hopefully leading to higher profits or

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Directing, Leadership, and Human Resources for Events other forms of corporate effectiveness. In this context, it is possible to establish new events, or bid on them, within a government or tourist agency. Another application would be within an event production company that wants to stay ahead of the competition, or within a large corporation that sponsors or produces its own events. Often it is necessary to set up specific intrapreneurial units to achieve these corporate goals, and such units need leadership. By nature, persons attracted to government and corporate employment might be lacking in those entrepreneurial traits necessary for innovation. Or at least they might lack experience in new venture creation. In such cases, there is a serious risk of creating a culture clash.

Organisational Culture and Founders Culture in general is based on shared beliefs, values, practices, or attitudes, and it is a concept of importance to companies and other organisations. Schein (1985) defined organisational culture as: A pattern of shared basic assumptions that the group learned as it solved its problems of external adaptation and internal integration, that has worked well enough to be considered valid and, therefore, to be taught to new members as the correct way you perceive, think, and feel in relation to those problems. In a strong, resilient culture, everyone works together towards common goals because they share the vision and underlying values of the organisation. This is where event founders have the greatest influence, in establishing the core values, but this unity of purpose can fade with time. In other organisations, recruitment, indoctrination, and compulsory conformity to norms ensure that values are preserved, but at the cost of individual choice and expression. In both situations, if everyone thinks the same way – called groupthink – there is a serious risk that innovation will be stifled. According to Schein, an observer can assess organisational culture by first identifying superficial but ‘tangible attributes’ such as facilities, rewards, dress, and interactions. The ‘professed culture’ of an organisation is reflected in its mission statements, codes of conduct, public statements, and the expressed values and attitudes of members. At the third and deepest level are an organisation’s “tacit or unseen assumptions”. They can be unspoken rules, guiding behaviour and decisions in a taken-for-granted manner. The researcher might have to spend a lot of time within an organisation to come to any conclusion about its deepest cultural values. That also applies to staff and volunteers in some settings. There is no doubt that organisations evolve in terms of their culture, and this affects other management functions in profound ways. Getz (1993a) observed that festival organisations exhibited life-cycle dynamics, and that festival founders did shape their culture. Several festivals in Calgary were seen to have experienced cultural crises, such as changes in strategic direction, which occurred when founders were replaced by newcomers. It can be gradual, or suddenly provoking a crisis. O’Toole and Mikolaitis (2002) emphasised the importance of understanding culture when producing corporate events. Such events have to ‘fit’ in terms of company values, goals, politics, and style. But despite the importance of culture within mainstream management theory and practice, there have been few event-related studies published that are informed by this concept. One example (Stadler, Reid, and Fullager, 2013) explored organisational culture and ­knowledge management in the Queensland Music Festival.

Directing, Leadership, and Human Resources for Events

Decision-Making and Accountability Decision-making styles and structures will follow from ownership, mandate, culture, and leadership, with the most basic distinctions existing between top-down and autocratic on the one hand, and bottom-up, democratic on the other. Both are found within the events sector, with not-for-profits typically being more democratic because of their greater dependence on volunteers as workers and leaders. Within any organisation, a number of pertinent issues have to be resolved, as discussed below. Who can make decisions, and under what circumstances? This is an easy question to answer for small, private businesses – the owners! It is more complex in larger organisations, pulsating events, and events with multiple organisations collaborating to plan and produce it. Without explicit rules, decision-making could either result in conflict, or nothing gets done. In teamwork, the right to make certain decisions is delegated to the team collectively, not the team leader (see Professor Goldblatt’s Expert Opinion in Chapter 1). Related questions include how decisions are communicated, and who else should be consulted before making them. This is also an important element in establishing governance and organisational structure. What decisions have to be made? More sophisticated organisations will have a decisions inventory, whereas, in the events world, it is more likely that the task inventory will be the guiding feature. Every task has to be assigned, leading to the need for related decisions. How should decision-making be informed and supported? Research, evaluation, impact assessment, and stakeholder input are all intended to inform decisions, as in the learning organisation. These are functions to be assigned to individuals or teams, and in some cases outsourced to consultants. How is accountability assured? When decisions are made, someone or a team is to be held accountable, and this should be made explicit in rules and procedures, or policy manuals. Ultimately senior leadership takes responsibility, and those people want to know that they will not be surprised, embarrassed, or stymied by lower-order decision-making. This is related to the principle of distributed authority wherein the rights (or obligations) to make decisions are delegated to persons and teams. If all decisions have to be made by one person, such as an owner, then there is no delegation. Teamwork to produce an event can be made easier and more efficient if teams have delegated authority to get certain tasks accomplished. Is everyone, and are all teams, unified in purpose and direction? This is an essential task for leaders, that is, achieving unity of purpose and action, and is made easier if the organisation has a learning, democratic, and committed culture. Decision-making tools: A range of tools exist for decision-makers (see Table 9.1) starting with research, evaluation, and impact assessment as discussed elsewhere in this book. Many online sources are available, such as the decision matrix (https://asq.org/quality-resources/­decisionmatrix) which is a tool for evaluating and prioritising a range of options. Supervision usually refers to staffing, with managers having responsibility for those serving in particular teams, departments, or units. From a structural perspective, it relates to the degree of flatness. In a flat organisation teams or front-line workers are empowered to make certain decisions without close supervision. There is no middle management required, and the top managers or CEO can communicate directly with front-line workers. Task assignments are also easier in a flat organisation, especially when teams are able to deliver programmes or services without worrying about detailed job descriptions or close supervision from above. Note that task analysis is important for budgeting, scheduling, and HR needs assessment. Internal communications are better facilitated within flat as opposed to hierarchical organisations, especially within

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Directing, Leadership, and Human Resources for Events Table 9.1  Decision-Making Tools, with Event-Specific Applications Tools

Details

Decision matrix: a tool for prioritising options

1: list the options (brainstorm, or as identified from research; consult stakeholders); that might require voting or other forms of consensus building 2: determine criteria for selecting among options (same process as above) 3: weight the criteria (e.g., numerically, 1–10, or qualitatively, such as most to least important) 4: evaluate each option against the criteria; list in order of priority Decision Tree: – In its simplest form, the a visual tool for evaluating decision tree asks for a yes the possible solutions to a or no answer to any option problem; assesses causerelated to solving a problem effect relationships or any possible answer to a question; each step can be quantified, if desirable (algorithms are available) according to the probability of success or occurrence; risks versus rewards can be addressed

Pareto analysis

– measures the value created, or goals attained, for various possible strategies or actions; determine the one, or the combination, that delivers the maximum possible value (and is feasible) – there is an assumption that most benefit, or most harm, often comes from 20% of causes or efforts

Applications to Events – Options for venue selection include five facilities: ABCDE – Important criteria: cost; location; size; availability; ambience – Weighting of criteria: if cost is most important give it ten or “highest” Note: in some cases, cost might be the only criterion, so a matrix is not needed – assess the relative advantages of two or more pricing strategies by estimating the revenue generated – determine the most desirable venue by answering a set of questions for each option (e.g., does it have the capacity? Is it certified for sustainability? Is it fully accessible?) – events can include many possible programmic elements, but which combination will best meet your goals? if possible, estimate costs versus benefits and weigh the options quantitatively or by means of a chart showing the relationship between actions and results (continued)

Directing, Leadership, and Human Resources for Events Table 9.1  Continued Tools

Details

Applications to Events

Root-cause analysis; Fishbone charts

– looking forward, a fishbone diagram (or Ishikawa diagram) specifies the inputs and process of achieving a goal or causing an impact – looking back, the same logic applies to identifying the cause of problems or impacts

– useful in designing a site by examining categories of hazards that might lead to accidents – used in identifying the types of actions needed to achieve a desired level of attendance (e.g., under the headings: marketing; programme; price, etc.) – use a root-cause diagram to identify the most likely causes of financial failure, accidents, or other negative impacts

SWOT (Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities, Threats)

The above tools can also be used to generate a SWOT chart, showing strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats – either for the entire organisation, as part of strategic planning, or for a particular issue

– do a competitive SWOT to compare one event or organisation with another; this can incorporate benchmarking which aims to identify the reasons for success or failure (usually you want to benchmark against excellent organisations/ events, not failures, but both can be beneficial)

teams. The more managers there are, the more formal the communication process becomes, as each supervisor wants to be informed quickly and fully, then up-the-ladder the information has to flow. Policy, Rules, and Regulations: Bureaucratic and hierarchical organisations require detailed policies, rules, and regulations to govern and supervise employees. The policy manual will probably grow in size and complexity as the organisation grows and matures, and also in line with its scale. The entire set of policies, rules, and regulations can be transferred from one mega-event to the next, with suitable adaptations. For small, flat event organisations, less is undoubtedly better, with teams deciding how to operate on their own. Nevertheless, policies are an essential part of governance, even if they are implicit rather than written in stone. When events are won through bidding, notably sports, the producers are usually presented with a set of detailed specifications that will govern much of the planning and operations. If they do not fit the event producer’s way of doing things, negotiation will be required.

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Human Resource Management In this section, we start by examining the basic HR management tasks and a number of unique considerations for events, with Table 9.2 summarising this discussion. The HR planning ­process is outlined, followed by a number of topics of particular importance, including ­motivation, both staff and volunteers, well-being, and satisfaction. We then look at careers in event management, commencing with the nature of professionalism, including ethics, and how event management is being professionalised. The final sub-section examines careers, with examples, and the changing nature of work and careers. Lynn Van der Wagen (2006: preface) in the book Human Resource Management for Events: Managing the Event Workforce, emphasised that: “There is no more challenging environment for human resource management than the event business”. She showed how the challenges stem from a combination of the importance people assign to events, the nature of project planning and management, the numerous stakeholders to consider, and the risks associated with every aspect of event production. It also must be emphasised that numerous events have very unique challenges arising from reliance on volunteers. The event workforce, as discussed by Parent and Ruetsch (2021) in the context of sport events, consists of the following: l

Employees: paid, either full-time or part-time; all year or part.

l

Consultants: paid for special expertise, short or long-term, part or full-time.

l

Contractors: paid for special services, such as supplies.

l

l

Secondees: short or long-term workforce members paid by their originating employer; they are on loan to the organisers. Volunteers: short- or long-term, unpaid; the organisation might be completely managed by volunteers; rewards or perks for volunteers can sometimes be important, but recognition of effort and skill is essential.

Pulsating event organisations are quite different from government agencies or private companies in that they exist solely to produce a periodic event and do not employ any full-time staff, or maintain only a minimum number to keep the organisation intact. Near to the time of the event they have to build the workforce, both paid and volunteers, and then dismiss most of them. Workers need to know in advance how this works, and the work conditions, or serious problems will arise. Pulsating organisations can have problems with recruitment, as many workers will not be available next time around, and with training during a very short period of time. It remains to be seen how the pandemic changed this situation in any way, with the problem being that many workers might have left the profession.

HR Planning Process Getz (2005) and van der Wagen (2006) both provided detailed HR planning models. Van der Wagen’s approach starts with the event’s purpose and strategic plan, and integrates HR within project planning and across all the functional areas – from accreditation to workforce planning. Key steps include: an HR strategic plan; work breakdown structure; assessment of labour needs, forecast versus supply assessment (considering paid staff, volunteers, and contractors); risk assessment; HR operational plan and budget; recruitment and selection; training; staffing logistics; performance management; recognition and reward system; and post-event evaluation.

Directing, Leadership, and Human Resources for Events Table 9.2  Fundamentals of HR Management with Applications to Events HR Management Functions

Unique Considerations in the Event Sector

Needs assessment, task analysis, and job descriptions

– pulsating events require a quick, large build-up near to when the event occurs; volunteers and part-time employees are relied upon – permanent event organisations need all-year staffing – task analysis is covered in Project Planning – job descriptions for employees will be categorically different from those of volunteers; employees require details on work conditions, pay, hours, and obligations – applicants and ongoing employees or volunteers have to be matched to teams, venues, or tasks – word of mouth recruiting through existing staff and volunteers; drawing on links with sponsors, co-producers, suppliers, allies – many positions in events are highly sensitive, requiring specific skill sets and a high degree of professionalism – ideally, event staff are professionals with the appropriate skill set, attitudes, and commitment to the organisation, but orienting new staff and volunteers, including indoctrination to the organisation’s values and policies, in a short period of time, will be difficult – event careers often entail moving from one event to another, or among different types of organisation and events; basic knowledge and skills should be transferable, but on-the-job training is likely necessary; coaching newcomers is important, and is different from supervision – not all workers will be used to, or comfortable with teamwork and minimal supervision; this needs to be discussed at the recruitment and training stages – it is difficult to discipline volunteers, but there have to be standards and ethics applied, evaluations performed, and sometimes rewards/punishment, even termination; paid staff expect this; evaluation and reward/discipline might occur at the team level – event careers are difficult, rewards are often less than in the private sector, and work challenges can result in dissatisfaction, injury, poor health, or stress; worker well-being has become a priority – preparing and selecting workers for promotion or leadership roles falls on owners and senior managers, but the types of evaluation employed can be critical, for example, all-round evaluation within teams; keeping the best workers is difficult in pulsating organisations, as is passing on knowledge

Recruiting: advertising; interviewing; background checks; motivation and incentives

Orientation and indoctrination; engagement

Training, coaching, and career development

Supervision; teamwork

Performance evaluation; rewards and discipline

Pay and benefits; well-being

Retention; succession

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Directing, Leadership, and Human Resources for Events Hanlon and Stewart (2006) conducted a study of staffing for a major sport event organisation, raising the question of what strategies are best. A mix of full-time, outsourced, seasonal, and volunteer personnel might be involved. A complex structural arrangement can exist, numbers fluctuate, and everyone is on a defined-term contract. Temporary work teams are one solution. Hanlon and Stewart made a number of recommendations for strategy, documentation, and practice. Legal and ethical issues will inevitably arise for events, including laws applying to who can be hired, on what basis applicants can be rejected (certain questions or security checks might not be permitted) or employees terminated. Another common issue is the reality and appearance of discrimination, especially on boards of directors, and the desirability of having staff and volunteers reflect the social and cultural mix of the community.

Motivation and Reward Several theoretical approaches can be applied to the task of recruiting and motivating event workers. Herzberg’s two-factor theory: It is sometimes called the “motivator-hygiene theory”. Herzberg’s workplace studies (1966) caused him to conclude that ‘hygiene factors’ like salary, security, and other benefits, do not motivate people but can cause dissatisfaction. What motivates people to work (or work better) are challenges, recognition, and responsibility. One adaptation of this theory is its use to explain customer or guest satisfaction. In this context, hygiene factors like inadequate toilets, parking problems, or long waits, cause dissatisfaction but do not motivate people to attend events or lead to perceptions of overall quality. McGregor’s Theory X and Theory Y: Managers who believe (consciously or instinctively) in ‘Theory X’ think that workers are inherently lazy, so structure and discipline (or the threat of punishment) are needed to motivate them. This is in accord with Skinner’s (1938) “behavioural modification” approach, requiring reward and discipline, linking to transactional leadership as discussed previously. McGregor (1960) determined that at higher levels of Maslow’s hierarchy, praise, respect, recognition, empowerment and a sense of belonging are far more powerful motivators than money. Accordingly, in ‘Theory Y’ a manager tries to remove barriers to creativity and self-fulfilment, provide a comfortable work environment, and treat employees or volunteers with a great deal of respect. Transformational leadership is in line with this thinking. Vroom’s expectancy theory (Vroom, 1964) states that workers have a variety of goals (particularly to avoid pain and experience pleasure) and that they can be motivated if they believe that there is a positive correlation between efforts and performance, that favourable performance will result in an outcome, that the outcome’s value to the employee can be determined, and that the desire to satisfy the need is strong enough to make the effort worthwhile. It is sometimes called “expectancy-valence theory”, where ‘valence’ refers to the emotional orientations people hold with respect to outcomes.

Volunteers No one would challenge the idea that volunteers have been, and will remain absolutely critical in the production of all types of planned events. Even for-profit and corporate events often rely on unpaid workers, although there might be extrinsic motivators in play as well – such as peer pressure or fear of recrimination. Studying event volunteers has been a major theme, with primary topics being volunteer motivation, recruitment and training, managing the volunteer effort, and integrating volunteers with paid staff. Volunteering is not uniformly valued

Directing, Leadership, and Human Resources for Events and practiced around the world, being in part a reflection of cultural norms, political systems, economic conditions, and living standards. Generic information is available from many countries on who volunteers, why, and for what (see, for example: Imagine Canada; https://www. imaginecanada.ca/en). In the UK, see Volunteering Matters (https://volunteeringmatters.org. uk/about-us/). Volunteer management for events requires specialised knowledge within HR, as well as event-specific strategies and practices, reflecting both the size and nature of the event. A lot of research has been conducted on the Olympics, but those findings are not necessarily applicable to small events or other types. Specific to events, a growing body of research evidence exists on volunteer motivation, satisfaction, commitment, and experience. Studies include those by: Williams and Harrison (1988); Ryan and Bates (1995); Williams et al. (1995); Elstad (1997, 2003, 2009); Farrell et al. (1998); Green and Chalip (1998, 2004); Saleh and Wood (1998); Johnston et al. (2000); Coyne and Coyne (2001); Strigas and Newton-Jackson (2003); Leigh et al. (2013); Ralston et al. (2005); Monga (2006); Bendle and Patterson (2008); Lockstone and Baum (2009); Bang, Alexandris and Ross (2009); Bang, Won and Kim (2009); Fairley et al. (2013); Neufeind et al. (2013); Gallarza et al. (2013); Allen and Bartle (2014); Treuren (2014); Bachman et al. (2016); Blackman et al. (2017); Dickson et al. (2017); Holmes et al. (2018); Jiang et al. (2018); Mahadevan (2018a); Smith et al. (2019); Cain et al. (2021); S ­ isson (2021); Liang et al. (2022); Power and Nedvetskaya (2022); Dickson and Darcy (2022); Liu and Jia (2022), Diop et al. (2022), and Lachance et al. (2022). An extensive review of the research literature on event volunteering was published by Smith, Lockstone-Binney and Holmes, K. (2019). Their review identified the main themes, such as volunteer motivation, experience, future intentions, and volunteer legacy. They pointed to a rather narrow focus on certain event types and common methodologies and called for the lens of more critical theory, attention to the volunteering legacy, and contributions to communities. Underlying motivation to volunteer for events can include generic motivations like doing good (altruism), looking for social and career benefits (networking), and challenges. Volunteers particularly enjoy the belonging and sharing, or communitas that can occur through their event experiences. Volunteering can also be one manifestation of serious leisure, and it is clear that some people volunteer at many events. Those who have a great experience at an event are likely to become motivated to volunteer at others. Involvement in a sport leads to volunteering at sport events of the same type. The prestige of an event makes a big difference, with community pride being an important factor. Monga (2006) concluded that multiple motivations apply to event volunteers, but that affiliation reasons, or attachment to the event’s theme or activity, are strongest. Indoctrination, training, and supervision all have to be directed towards service quality and the participation of all staff, volunteers, and suppliers in the facilitation of designed experiences. A serious question to be asked is the degree to which satisfactory staff/volunteer/supplier experiences contribute to guest and other stakeholder experiences. This is much more than a service quality issue, as it gets to the heart of how experiences are shaped.

Well-being and Sustainable HR The pandemic brought staff and volunteer well-being to the fore, firstly as a health issue to prevent the spread of disease – then with regard to the impacts on jobs, wages, working conditions, and related stress. A larger issue concerns structural changes in employment and working conditions that might affect the events sector, making existing conditions worse.

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Directing, Leadership, and Human Resources for Events Problems with HR management in the events sector have long been recognised. As Baum (2006) observed, “Factors such as low pay, unpredictable working times, as well as long and difficult hours have been recognized as key issues in the events industry leading to high levels of employee turnover, which are not sustainable”. Stadler, Walters, and Jepson (2022) discussed sustainable HRM and its relationship with stress, mental health, burnout, and the general well-being of employees and volunteers. Unique ­conditions within the events sector have to be considered, including the pulsating nature of many events, temporary employment, a heterogeneous workforce, uncertainty about the future, long hours, and difficult working conditions. While there is no consensus on what exactly sustainable human resource management is, the underlying principles include a ­long-term perspective on outcomes and processes to achieve not only financial success but also a focus on human and social needs. Research by Stadler et al. (2022) identified major themes that should be considered to ensure well-being. The first was “open and inclusive communication and relationships” as opposed to management that appears to not care. Theme two was the need for flexible working, taking into account workload and conditions that can cause stress or ill health. Third was “empathetic long-term support and growth”, including openness about future prospects and commitment to the long-term care of employees. These themes argue for more collaborative and open management styles.

Satisfaction and happiness Muskat and Mair (2021, 37) explored the links between job satisfaction and unique aspects of event organisations, including the pulsating nature of most planned events and the nature of the work itself. It is often temporary, fast-paced, and short in duration, meaning “...it can be very difficult for event organisations to attract and retain high performing permanent and casual staff, as well as volunteers for this fast-paced work environment”. An additional complication is the use of teamwork and the fact that many teams are heterogeneous in terms of demographics, values, experience levels, and skills. All these factors shape motivation and influence job satisfaction and retention. Managers must consider how unpaid volunteers are different from paid staff, both casual (part-time) and permanent. Over time, high stress levels might very well alter ­satisfaction and require different forms of motivation and reward.

E X P E R T O P I N I O N 9 . 1 :   By Professor Tommy Andersson Happiness Research and Event Tourism Tommy D. Andersson, PhD, is professor emeritus in Tourism and Hospitality ­Management at the Center for Tourism in the School of Business, Economics, and Law at Gothenburg University, Sweden, where he has worked since 2001. His main research interests are event management, managerial economics of the hospitality industry, ­subjective well-being, and food tourism. His publications are mainly in the areas of Event Management, Food Tourism, and recently, Happiness and Event Participation. Happiness research has an unusual history. It was a central issue for Ancient Greek philosophers more than 2,400 years ago. Aristippus of Cyrene, who lived in the fourth century BC, proposed that you become happy by enjoying as much fun, good food and drink as possible with a minimum of effort. This is today known as hedonic happiness.

Directing, Leadership, and Human Resources for Events Aristotle, who also lived in the fourth century BC opposed this view of happiness and claimed that you become happy when you develop yourself to achieve your true potential even if this may require effort from you. Your true self is called daemon in Greek and this type of happiness is therefore known as eudaemonic happiness. Happiness remained an exclusive issue for philosophers and religious thinkers for more than two millennia but about 50 years ago a branch of psychology, known as ­positive psychology, took an empirical interest in this area of research. One reason for this renewed interest was a very ingenious measure of happiness suggested by Diener (1984) and called subjective well-being (SWB). This measure leaves it to the respondent to define happiness as well as to assess how happy they are by answering one simple question: “Taking all into consideration, how happy are you with your life?” and answers are given as a number between 0 (extremely unhappy) and 10 (extremely happy). Thus, there are good reasons to call this measure SWB and arguably happiness is very subjective. Only the respondent can assess both what happiness means to them and how happy they are. Based on the SWB question, a lot of empirical research has been undertaken. First by positive psychologists but later followed by researchers from many academic disciplines. Among the important results from psychological research is a categorisation of three causes of happiness (Lyubomirsky et al., 2005). The largest share is explained by the “set-point” which depends on stable factors such as your inherited personality which is a base for your happiness throughout your life. This explains about 50% of the variation in happiness. Another stable factor explaining 10% is called the “circumstantial” factor and depends e.g., on the society you live in and your family. The remaining 40% depends on “intentional activities” which you undertake to make life happy such as attending a music event or taking a tourist trip. Positive psychologists are called positive since they place less emphasis on how to treat mentally ill people and more emphasis on finding out how ordinary people can live better lives. Therefore, happiness is a central issue and some of the frequently cited ways to become happy are:

Physical exercising: Fox (1999) surveyed research results in this area and found that exercise improves mental well-being through improved mood and self-perception.



Command of material resources: Income and wealth have been debated and e ­ mpirical data suggest that there is “decreasing marginal utility” i.e., if you are poor, this will affect your ­happiness negatively but if you are very rich you are not ­necessarily more happy than “normally” wealthy people are (Diener and ­Biswas-­Diener, 2002).



Goal achievement: If you have goals in life, that you make significant progress towards ­achieving, is a factor closely related to Aristotle’s ideas of eudaimonea. Studies have indicated that p ­ ersonal goal achievement is one of the highest motivators to participate in competitions and promote happiness (Maxcy, Wicker, and Prinz, 2019).



Social relations and friendship (relatedness): The importance of warm, trusting, and supportive interpersonal relationships for well-being has been underlined within positive psychology. To have friends who one can rely on generates eudaemonic happiness (Argyle, 2013; Myers, 2003).

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Directing, Leadership, and Human Resources for Events Another finding from psychological research is the dynamics of happiness as described by the homeostatic model (Cummins, 1998), also known as the “hedonic treadmill” model, which describes how you tend to get back to your “set-point” value as time goes by. People who have won a lot of money in a lottery are very happy, but after a few months, they tend to be back at their “set-point” level of happiness. The same applies to people who have had serious accidents and risk spending the rest of their lives in a wheelchair. They are very unhappy after the accident but after a few months, they are back at their set-point value. By attending intentional activities such as events, you will increase your happiness for some time but then get back to your set-point until you enjoy the next positive intentional activity. An active life will most of the time give you more happiness than your basic set-point level of happiness. But just like a treadmill, you need to continue your active life or fall back to your set-point level of happiness. Events provide opportunities to make participants happier in several ways, which also has been confirmed by empirical studies. Participation in sport events, such as long-­ distance running, stimulates physical exercise, goal achievement, and to some extent also social relations (see Plate 9.1). A study of participants in a half-marathon race in Sweden showed that participants, on average, are not only happier than the country average but also that happiness increases with the number of races they have participated in throughout their running career (Lundberg and Andersson, 2022). Another study of an endurance race in Spain found the same results (Almeida-Santana, Moreno-Gil, and Andersson, 2022).

Plate 9.1  Happy Gravel Royale Racers Take on the Mountain Photo Credit: TransRockies/John Gibson Pictures

Directing, Leadership, and Human Resources for Events Tourism events fit well as examples of intentional activities pursued to increase the level of happiness, and this area of empirical studies is expected to develop rapidly. So far, most studies have been performed on participants at sports events, but it would be interesting to know more about what effects different types of events, such as music events, carnivals, and festivals have on the happiness of the participants.

Literature Almeida-Santana, A., Moreno-Gil, S., & Andersson, T. D. (2022). Does bestial make you a happy human? The impact on happiness from participation in an obstacle running event. International Journal of Event and Festival Management, 13 (4), 369–386. Argyle, M. (2013). The Psychology of Happiness. London: Routledge. Cummins, R. A. (1998). The second approximation to an international standard for life satisfaction. Social Indicators Research, 43 (3), 307–334. Diener, E. (1984). Subjective well-being. Psychological Bulletin, 95 (3), 542. Diener, E., & Biswas-Diener, R. (2002). Will money increase subjective well-being? Social Indicators Research, 57, 119–169. Fox, K. R. (1999). The influence of physical activity on mental well-being. Public Health Nutrition, 2 (3a), 411–418. Lundberg, E., & Andersson, T. D. (2022). Subjective well-being (SWB) of sport event participants: Causes and effects. Event Management, 26 (1), 41–57. Lyubomirsky, S., Sheldon, K. M., & Schkade, D. (2005). Pursuing happiness: The architecture of sustainable change. Review of General Psychology, 9 (2), 111. Maxcy, J., Wicker, P., & Prinz, J. (2019). Happiness as a reward for torture: Is participation in a long-distance triathlon a rational choice? Journal of Sports Economics, 20 (2), 177–197. Myers, J. (2003). Exercise and cardiovascular health. Circulation, 107 (1), e2–e5.

HR Evaluation Getz (2018, 103) provided goals and sample Key Performance Indicators (KPIs) to be used in HR evaluation for events. The first, and probably most important, is to meet ISO standards. ISO 30414:2018 is entitled Human Resource Management – Guidelines For Internal And External Human Capital Reporting, and covers the following: l

Compliance and ethics.

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Costs.

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Diversity.

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Leadership.

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Organisational culture.

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Productivity.

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Recruitment, mobility, and turnover.

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Skills and capabilities.

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Succession planning.

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Workforce availability.

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Organisational health, safety, and well-being.

A separate standard exists (ISO 30415:2021) for Diversity and Inclusion. Other recommended goals and KPIs by Getz (2018, 135–156) are given for each of the stages and major elements in the HR management process: planning and management; organisational design; recruitment and training; wrap-up. Some of these KPIs are: l

A satisfied, committed workforce; satisfy staff and volunteer needs (i.e., well-being).

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Reduced turnover; high levels of commitment and retention.

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Fill all positions with competent workers; reduce related costs.

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Conduct annual self-evaluations and supervisor reports on all workers; measure satisfaction, complaints, goals, and suggestions of workers; provide continuous feedback on i­ncidents, ethical issues, problems; worker evaluations of management and systems; visitor evaluation of workers and services; stakeholder evaluations of workers and management. Incident reports filed and evaluated; reduced number and severity of incidents involving workers; immediate attention given to workplace hazards and problems.

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Support provided to workers.

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Testing of training effectiveness.

Three important forms of evaluation are considered in this section: training effectiveness; worker performance; and worker well-being and satisfaction.

Evaluating the effectiveness of training and other change-oriented processes The Kirkpatrick and Kirkpatrick (2007) model has been widely used and modified, with ­Figure 9.2 being an adaptation to event management. The original model was hierarchical and focused on HR training effectiveness. However, it can be applied more widely to other evaluation problems. The base of the pyramid consists of the need to secure positive reactions to the experience (in their case, to a training programme or module). This is equivalent to asking guests how satisfied they are, or if they enjoyed the event. A higher level consists of finding out exactly what was learned (assuming knowledge and/or skill development were the goal) and if attitudes changed. It is clear this logic can be applied to theory-of-change models and social marketing efforts. The third level of evaluation focuses on how gained knowledge or skills have been applied to the job in the form of new behaviours. This will be difficult to measure in many cases, but in the case of an event, it could be determined through various forms of group discussion, supervisor feedback, and self-reporting by staff and volunteers. The pinnacle of the model is the most challenging, being the effectiveness of training (or any other intervention) on positive results for the organisation, such as return on investment (ROI). Event evaluators are more likely to consider the return on objectives or experience (ROO, ROE).

Evaluating performance, satisfaction, and well-being Performance means different things in different settings. In the events world, it is often a ­matter of being adept in helping guests or customers to have the best possible experience, while in private companies it can mean maximising sales. That is why evaluating performance starts with mandate and goals, links with job descriptions and task analysis, and must support the overall culture and values of the organisation. Common techniques for evaluating staff and volunteers include teamwork and quality circles and 360-degree evaluations, plus a range of

Directing, Leadership, and Human Resources for Events

EVIDENCE OF OVERALL GOAL ATTAINMENT -improved organisational performance -enduring changes to systems EVIDENCE OF NEW BEHAVIOURS IN PRACTICE -workers apply what they learned -target audiences change their behaviour EVIDENCE OF LEARNING OR CHANGED ATTITUDES

-TRAINING

-tests reveal the extent of learning and/or attitude change

-SOCIAL MARKETING

-satisfaction, enjoyment, complaints, suggestions

INITIAL REACTIONS TO THE EXPERIENCE

-EVENTS AS AGENTS OF CHANGE Figure 9.2  A Hierarchical Model for Evaluating the Effectiveness of Training and Other Interventions Intended to Foster Change Source: Adapted and expanded from Kirkpatrick and Kirkpatrick (2007)

rating scales (see Getz, 2018, 142–144). Rating scales can be based on management by objectives (e.g., performance does not meet objectives or expectations related to personal or organisational goals), comparative performance (including within teams), overall team ­performance (with or without internal team self-assessments), competency tests, and behaviour m ­ onitoring, including self-reporting. One might assume that if workers stay on their jobs, and if volunteers return, they are s­ atisfied. That is not necessarily so. With increasing attention to worker wellness and commitment, formal evaluation will be more necessary. Self-reporting should be encouraged, along with complaints and suggestions. Observation or surveys might work better if objective, third-party evaluators ask the questions. Managers will have to develop indicators of stress, potentially unsafe or unhealthy working conditions. Proactive measures to foster health and wellness should be instigated, such as relaxation times and training, comfort zones, rewards and incentives, and access to mental and physical health experts.

Professionalisation, Professionalism, Education, and Careers Professionalism refers to the ways in which people perform their duties or operate their ­businesses and events, while professionalisation describes the process by which event management, for example, gets recognised as a legitimate profession. Both are closely associated with

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Directing, Leadership, and Human Resources for Events university degrees, with most higher-education institutions claiming to prepare graduates for professional life and leadership positions, but it is not the determining factor. We expect both full-time, paid event professionals and unpaid volunteers to behave professionally, acting in accordance with a set of ethical standards, and being fully competent to do their jobs. We do not necessarily expect event management and related careers to be accepted as a profession on par with licensed doctors, lawyers, or engineers. Back in the early days, Getz and Wicks (1994) argued that event management can aspire to quasi-professional status on par with recreation and leisure managers, but the typical absence of government licensing prevented full professional status. However, the licensing of event professionals might come, at least in certain countries. Professionalism remains an important topic. Bladen and Kennell (2014) considered the necessary pedagogy, while Brown (2014) and Jiang and Schmader (2014) examined the case for professionalism from the perspective of practitioners. As professionalism increases, there will be a need for more focused research on what constitutes professionalism for events and t­ ourism, and on the related career issues for practitioners. Ethics is a first and major consideration.

Ethics (Codes of Conduct) All professional associations, and most industry associations, have adopted codes of conduct or ethical standards which members are expected to meet. In traditional professions, such as medicine or law, enforcement is strict and self-regulated by governing bodies. This is not the same as government-imposed standards for professional practice but is definitely linked. Several examples can be cited. The International Live Events Association (formerly ISES) has adopted the International Live Events Association (ILEA) Principles of Professional Conduct and Ethics. (https://ileahub.com/Meet-ILEA/Professional-Conduct-Ethics) They require adherence to industry standards of ethics and performance, adherence to the law, protection of the public, truthful and accurate dealings through contracts, maintaining insurance, commitment to learning and growth, and fully cooperating with everyone to provide the highest level of service. Meeting Professionals International (MPI) has its principles of professionalism (https://www.mpi.org/docs/) which also stresses maintaining professional integrity, using professional business practices, and includes respecting diversity. International Festivals and Event Association (IFEA) (https://files.ifea.com/) adds the obligation for members to improve the public’s understanding of the roles played by festivals and events in communities and society, maintaining the integrity and competence of professionals, and embracing the highest standards of human resource training and management. It is fair to say that there is no one set of rules, standards, or laws guiding the profession, and there might never be such unity. Those aspiring to professional careers related to events and tourism will have to decide which professional association to join (or more than one) and how they, personally should behave as professionals within those communities of practice.

Education and Careers in Event Management There has always been a pedagogical debate on the best ways to prepare students for future careers, and it has been particularly relevant within event management. The trend towards experiential learning has been documented (Sealy, 2018), and no doubt this reflects three considerations: the belief that people learn better by doing; student preferences (especially if they can get paid as interns), and feedback from employers as to what they expect from graduates.

Directing, Leadership, and Human Resources for Events In light of what Hagel (2018) and others have said about the future of work, there can be little doubt that the shift from lecturing and skills training to experiential learning (such as designing, producing, and evaluating real events) will help prepare future professionals for sustainable ‘creator’, ‘composer’ and ‘coach’ careers. However, this must not occur without equal attention given to theory, problem-solving, and management competency. Couto (2023) summarised the benefits of experiential learning in event management courses, saying hands-on projects allow students to follow the entire four-stage process described by Kolb (1984). It should be accompanied by feedback and tactics suited to different student learning styles. Industry involvement is ideal.

Selected Readings Pertaining to Experiential Learning in Event Management Canberg, A. S. (2009). Event management: An experiential learning approach. SCHOLE: A ­Journal of Leisure Studies and Recreation Education, 24 (1), 131–136. Couto, U. (2023). Challenges of organizing course live events during the Covid-19 pandemic. Event Management, 27, 51–68. Sangpikul, A. (2022). Experiential learning in a two-event project in Thailand. Event ­Management, 26 (3), 679–684. Walters, T. (2021). Delivering employable event studies graduates: Student perspectives on the benefits of experiential learning. Event Management, 25 (5), 521–533.

Careers Baum et al. (2009) were the first to cover research on HR issues in the events sector, while Jago and Mair (2009) discussed career theory applied to major events, referring to McCabe’s (2008) identification of a career pattern called ‘butterflying’. This term is applicable to convention and exhibition professionals, and they noted the difficulties associated with pulsating event organisations and one-time events. Many event professionals, out of preference and necessity, do not stay long in one job, and full-time traditional careers are in short supply. One consequence is the rotating of key staff between major events, and a career pattern that is described as episodic (or butterflying) – moving from one major event to another, in sequence. In this way, expertise from the Olympics, for example, gets transferred to the next one. Another trend is for private firms to provide staff to multiple events, or to produce many events professionally, for profit. Stone et al. (2017) explored the career preferences and expectations of event management students. Despite the fact that the careers they aspired to would not match those of other professionals in monetary terms, and the workloads could be heavier, students were still willing to choose a career in events. Also, see Barron and Ali-Knight (2017) on the career motivations and expectations of event and festival graduates.

The changing nature of work and careers Even before the pandemic, many commentators were pointing out that the very nature of work is changing quickly, and not all jobs or careers will survive. Everyone is familiar with the so-called gig economy, and to a certain extent, it applies to the events sector where workers, both volunteers and professionals, flit from one event to the next - either out of necessity or to experience new challenges and get ahead. According to the Education Design Lab (www.eddesignlab. org) several major forces are evident. The first is ‘job hopping’, meaning that life-long careers are a thing of the past and workers will have to be prepared to move frequently. Most good jobs

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Directing, Leadership, and Human Resources for Events will require university degrees, and even with a degree many existing job types will be replaced by machines and AI. There are two basic personal skills that will always be important: adaptability (i.e., agility, the capacity to change, such as working in new ways or for a new purpose, as required by one’s environment) and creativity. Both of these capacities will be crucial for the event professionals of the future. Management guru Hagel noted in the August 21, 2018, Harvard Business Review (online), that the nature of work will likely undergo a profound transformation because of AI, eliminating many jobs. But there will be an enduring need for workers who exercise the human capabilities of curiosity, imagination, creativity, and emotional and social intelligence. Pertinent to events, Hagel suggested three categories of professional career that should endure: the ‘creators’ of innovative products and services, ‘coaches’ that help others learn and can give advice when needed, and ‘composers’ of unique experiences. What they all require is a passion for their work. Table 9.3 describes a number of career paths within event management, specifying related professional associations and their certifications. This is not intended to be an exhaustive list, nor does it claim a future perspective on how careers might evolve. Following Hagel (2018), students and teachers might want to project how the terms creator, composer, and coach might get translated into actual jobs and career paths in the age of AI (e.g., Creators of live and virtual events within the metaverse? Composers of experiences within a world where people can be immersed in virtuality? Coaches on how to get the most out of event experiences?).

Table 9.3  Sample Event Management Careers and Related Professional Associations Event Types and Settings Festivals – Public, private, and not-for-profit sectors – Social and private entrepreneurship

Sample Job Titles

– Producer (overall responsibility for the festival) – Designer (artistic programme; stage; venue; decor) – Manager (general, or any of the functional areas) – Coordinator or Portfolio Manager (usually at the city level) Meetings and Conventions – Meeting planner – Private consulting – Event coordinator companies (at a convention or exhibition – Corporations facility) – Associations – Government agencies – Venues with meeting services and facilities

Related Professional Associations and Certifications – IFEA: Certified Festival and Event Executive (CFEE) https://www. ifea.com/p/education/ cfeecertification – ILEA: Certified Special Events Professional (CSEP) https://ileahub. com/CSEP – Events Industry Council: Certified Meeting Professional (CMP) https://eventscouncil. org/CMP/About-CMP – MPI: Certificates https:// www.mpi.org/education/ certificate-programs (continued)

Directing, Leadership, and Human Resources for Events Table 9.3  Continued Event Types and Settings

Sample Job Titles

Exhibitions (trade and consumer shows) – Companies producing and – Exhibition designing exhibitions producer – Employees of exhibition venues – Exhibition designer

Sports – Employees of professional teams – Employees of amateur leagues – Private company producing events – Employees of venues Corporate events – Employees of a corporation – Private consultant

Venues – Employee of facilities/event venues

Related Professional Associations and Certifications – International Association of Exhibitions and Events (IAEE): Certified in Exhibition Management (CEM) https://www.iaee. com/cem/

– Sport event manager – Sport coordinator – Sport tourism strategist

Sports Events and Tourism Association: Sports Tourism Strategist (STT) https://learn.sportseta.org/

– Public relations manager – Event producer

Event Academy https://eventacademy.com/ course/corporate-eventsand-conferences/

– Facility manager – Event coordinator

International Association of Venue Managers (IAVM): Certified Venue Executive (CVE) and Certified Venue Professional (CVP) https://iavm.org/careerlearning/certifications/

– Fair producer – Division managers

International Association of Fairs and Expositions (IAFE): Institute of Fair Management Graduate; Certified Fair Executive (CFE) https://iafeinstitute.com/

Fairs – Employee of a fair

STUDY GUIDE

In this second chapter devoted to management, leadership has been highlighted. As most professionals will at some time assume, and will often aspire to leadership positions, it is important to consider all the possible styles, tasks, and responsibilities associated with being a leader. Founders are in a unique position, raising the issue of succession and possible cultural conflicts. Gaining access to event leaders will be important, either as formal mentors, on-the-job inspirations, or lecturers. If possible, document an event oganisation with regard to its governance and decision-making, especially if a crisis was survived. This will reveal a great deal about

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Directing, Leadership, and Human Resources for Events organisational strengths and resilience. Human resource management will become important for all managers, making it crucial to study theories and practical approaches to motivation, teamwork, performance evaluation, and wellness. As an exercise, consult an AI chat site as to future careers. Have fun. STUDY QUESTIONS l

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Describe leadership styles, and take a position on which one or combinations you believe to be most appropriate in the context of an event. What are the most challenging aspects of leadership and human resource management faced by events?

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Why are event founders important in the context of organisational culture?

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Define power and explain its role in ownership, leadership, and decision-making.

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What are the most useful decision-making tools for event managers?

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What does entrepreneurship mean, and of what relevance is social entrepreneurship to events? Are you happy? What do happiness and well-being mean for HR management in events? What does professionalism mean to you? Discuss your career aspirations, and be sure to include ethical considerations. Describe experiential learning and its benefits from the point of view of event management students. Have you had such an experience? If so, evaluate it. How would you evaluate the work performance of event volunteers? in training effectiveness? FURTHER READING

Abson, E. (2021). Event Leadership. Oxford: Goodfellow Publishers. Allen, J., Harris, R., Jago, L., Tantrai, A., Jonson, P., & D’Arcy, E. (2022). Festival and Special Event Management. New York: John Wiley & Sons. Bladen, C., Kennell, J., Abson, E., & Wilde, N. (2022). Events Management: An Introduction. London: Taylor & Francis. Van Der Wagen, L., & White, L. (2015). Human Resource Management for the Event Industry (2nd ed.). London: Routledge.

Chapter

10

Event Planning and Operations

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

Upon completion of this chapter, students should know the following: l

The nature of planning studies and planning theory.

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Project planning and management in theory, its methods, and essential tools.

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How to conduct and use a feasibility study.

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Main approaches to strategic planning.

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Development and use of the theory-of-change models.

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Portfolio planning for events.

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Elements and uses of the business plan.

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Site planning principles for events.

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Key concepts for event operations and logistics.

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Reasons why events succeed or fail.

Introduction Planning studies is considered first, introducing some basic planning theory. Planning is not merely a linear process of setting goals and determining how to achieve them, there are philosophical and ideological dimensions that should always be considered. It is important to distinguish between planning FOR events and planning WITHIN events. Who plans event

DOI: 10.4324/9781003374251-10

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Event Planning and Operations portfolios for cities and countries? Where does the funding come from? What are the roles of public-sector agencies in creating and marketing events? These issues were considered in the policy chapter. There are many planning functions within events to be discussed, from strategic through to logistics, with project planning being of great importance – especially to one-time events and events that go through pulsating planning processes.

Planning Theory Usually, planning is thought of contextually, so that one can specialise (and find degree programmes in) urban and regional planning, environmental or social planning, business or financial planning, etc. Planning Studies, however, focusses on the nature and scope of planning as a process, including theory on how planning follows from ideology, the purposes and impacts of planning, what factors should be considered in different planning applications, and philosophical questions such as who is involved or excluded (i.e., the exercise of power). Many definitions of planning can be found, but several fundamental aspects of planning can be stated with certainty. Planning is a future-oriented process. Normally this is reflected in how persons and organisations set goals and put in place actions to attain them. The process may be made explicit or can be inferred by reference to what people and organisations say and do. We all make plans, sometimes grand and concrete, such as retirement planning through savings and investments, and sometimes minor and undocumented such as planning a dinner party. Planning cannot be static, it must adapt. While master plans or blueprints are often developed, either at strategic or operational levels (e.g., the event’s strategic plan, site plan, and specifications for a sport or programme) these must always be reviewed and refined through a continuous process of monitoring, evaluation, and feedback. In some cases, plans have to be modified during an event, reacting to problems or opportunities. A cyclical planning process makes more sense than a linear model, and this even applies to project planning because lessons from one project must be applied to subsequent projects. See Expert Opinion 4.1 on the related concept of agile management. Planning is always political in nature. Ideology sets in motion public-sector planning and organisational culture guides how groups, managers, or programmes compete for influence or resources (i.e., planning must consider internal and external stakeholders). All policies and plans are constrained by resources, and there are usually (some would say always) competing claims on resources. If one strategy or programme is funded, others are ruled out. Planning is not a theoretical process undertaken in isolation, it is often focused on conflicts and problems in society or within organisations. This is reflected in problem-solving, research, evaluation, and decision-making processes. The standard planning process is cyclical and comprises the following steps: 1 Setting a vision. 2 Setting goals and objectives to be achieved. 3 Formulating strategies to achieve goals and objectives. 3 Creating the means to achieve strategies (i.e., action planning). 4 Implementation, including controls and monitoring of all steps. 5 Evaluation and feedback. 6 Revisions: rethinking the vision, setting new goals, etc.

Event Planning and Operations When planning is based on advocacy or desired change, the outcomes are ideologically based and therefore the planners’ vision is the best starting point. Vision(ing): Planning can occur on a purely technical level, such as planning for a sport event by reference to specifications set by sport federations, or planning for a new arena or festival park according to design standards. They are still future-oriented exercises and rational processes. Within strategic planning, as discussed later, visioning is a key component. We can look forward to an ideal state of affairs (e.g., the perfect event) or we can envision problems and try to avoid them (e.g., we have to be better next year at managing crowd experiences). This can lead to two distinct types of goals and strategies, but they can be combined. Underpinning a vision statement will be values, beliefs, attitudes, ideology, or a mix of these foundations. Planning must take them into account. If left unarticulated, later problems will emerge in the form of political conflict.

General Approaches to Planning Muddling through and incrementalism are alternative approaches to managing organisations and events, although few professionals would admit to being muddlers, as it implies a lack of planning, or flying by the seat of one’s pants. Instead, incrementalism is a preferred term. Incrementalism means gradualism, or taking small steps forward. In planning, it usually refers to a conscious decision to make progress slowly, in measured steps, especially when uncertainty or complexity is high. It does not attempt to be comprehensive but attacks problems and policy issues with precision instruments rather than broad strategies. It is also closely connected to the notion of a political market square in which decisions are made through bargaining and the exercise of power among all the stakeholders, rather than by professional planners or technocrats. Collaborative or consensus-building processes are similarly intended to involve all parties and points of view but with an emphasis on formal issue identification and conflict resolution. It is arguable, however, whether rational planning or incrementalism is more democratic or effective. Other variables must be considered, especially the degree of inclusivity in who is consulted or otherwise involved in the planning process. Because there are usually competing interests in public-sector policy formation and planning, an open democracy will extend the invitation and provide the means for very wide input. Within an organisation, however, the owners or senior decision-makers might make all decisions and then inform staff (or volunteers), thereby explicitly rejecting internal democracy (this can also be thought of as the military or top-down approach). Advocacy is another theoretical approach to planning, policy, and decision-making that can have relevance to the events sector. Advocacy is based on the premise that disadvantaged and marginalised groups in society are normally left out of planning and policymaking, and therefore their interests must be represented by others. This idea gives rise to citizen involvement or ­community-based planning or participant evaluation. Needs-based planning responds to perceived and expressed needs in the community, or within the constituencies served by an organisation. Many events produced by not-for-profit organisations are explicitly serving identified needs, although there is always a question of who makes such a decision, and on what evidence. Governments at all levels are mandated to meet the needs of their citizens, giving rise to many policy fields that incorporate or generate planned events. Bottom-up planning is community-based, although the community can be defined in terms of groups rather than places. It should be inclusive, involving outreach to segments that otherwise might not have a voice. Collaboration is a hallmark of this approach. It will also involve needs assessments, advocacy, and the empowerment of communities to make their own decisions.

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Event Planning and Operations As a consequence, it often runs up against bureaucracies and might be opposed on ideological grounds. In many places, this is done indirectly, and incompletely, through the actions of notfor-profit organisations who claim to meet public needs and fill gaps in government services. Two other major issues will arise in the bottom-up approach. Where do the resources come from to meet stakeholder demands? And, are all residents and groups equally consulted and served? Demand-based planning is categorically different. For-profit companies respond to existing or anticipated demand, that being what customers are willing to pay for. To policy planners, that presents the problem of market failure, because many people lack the financial means to obtain essential services or a desired level of services. Governments mostly provide services that are not provided by the private sector, although there can be parallel and even overlapping systems in place (such as both private and public hospitals, both free and for-profit events). Something for Everyone is a feature of community festivals, where the widest possible participation is desired, but it does not necessarily meet the needs of disadvantaged groups, and it could be open to bias. In a stakeholder-based or community development approach, facilities and services – and possibly events – would be planned according to democratic means, from the ground up. Targeting High-Value Segments: This is a staple of event tourism strategies, especially within the context of a strategic, portfolio approach to bidding on and creating events for tourism and economic benefits. This leads to our later discussions of impact assessments and the difficulty of proving that events achieve certain benefits, or that benefits outweigh costs. The easiest case to prove is that of tourism attractiveness, as event tourists can generally be identified and their economic impacts estimated fairly accurately. Unfortunately, not all costs are considered in many impact studies. Maximising Participation: One goal, borrowed from leisure, sports, and the arts that does make perfect sense for events planning, is that of achieving increases in public participation through the vehicle of providing and hosting events. If there are more participatory events that create leisure, sport, and artistic opportunities, then we should see increased participation leading to other benefits. Less certain is the often-made claim, called the demonstration effect or inspiration effect, that hosting spectator and mega-events will generate increased participation among spectators. Future Scenarios and Modelling: An aspect of Futurism is scenario-making for one of two generic purposes: (a) anticipate what is likely to happen and prepare for it (avoid/prevent or try to make it happen) and (b) model an ideal future state, leading to a vision and goals for planning. For events, a future scenario in which live events decline, or event tourism disappears altogether, might be viewed by many as undesirable and therefore to be avoided. For event and other policy-field planners, modelling a future with an ideally balanced, diversified, and sustainable portfolio will provide direction. That is more or less the same as viewing events as agents of change.

Rational Versus Irrational Planning Although planning by nature should be a rational process, it is clear that decisions in g ­ overnment, business, and the events sector are often made in an irrational manner (e.g., see A ­ rmstrong, 1985; Bramwell, 1997; Butler and Grigg, 1987). Rational planning is generally defined as being future-oriented, involving a vision, the setting of goals, consideration of alternative courses of action and their potential consequences, the formulation and implementation of strategies and actions to realise goals, and continuous evaluation and feedback in order to

Event Planning and Operations improve the system. It is a cyclical process, continuously evolving and hopefully learning from past mistakes. To be rational means to behave logically, and logic is based on analysis, consideration of consequences, and a clearly reasoned course of action (sometimes referred to as sound judgement). However, we all behave irrationally at some times, being guided by instinct or emotions rather than reason or logic. Then there is the readily apparent problem that one person’s definition of logic or reason does not always conform to others. Finally, there is a school of thought that rational planning, as defined above, is neither possible, because of ideology and politics, nor desirable, because adherence to a master plan precludes flexibility and minimises longer-term adaptability. Bramwell (1997) concluded that for mega-events there was little evidence of a rigorous application of the full planning cycle as advocated in planning texts. Laybourn (2004) explored the theory of decision-making and applied it to the events sector. She found that the generic literature supports the contention that decision-makers are not naturally rational. They tend to use simplifying shortcuts called heuristics. In particular, potential negative impacts are commonly underestimated, which has serious implications for risk assessment and management at events. When people stand to gain from a decision, they tend to be more cautious than when they stand to take a loss. Everyone notices when something goes wrong, whereas competency and success might be ignored. Current decisions are strongly influenced by previous decisions, especially when a lot of money has been invested, leading to entrapment. There is a natural tendency to want to recover sunk costs (i.e., money already spent) and maximise return on investments made. This can help explain why risky decisions are made, and the frequent pursuit of losing courses of action, despite obvious and compelling arguments to the contrary. It helps explain an addiction to gambling. There are always costs of withdrawal to consider, but perhaps more important is the desire of decision-makers to not lose face. Laybourn also emphasised that decision-making is affected by personality, perceptions, emotions and moods, social factors, experience, the cost of information, time constraints, and gender. There are many constraints on perfect knowledge and perfect judgement, so people should be trained in effective decision-making. One has to ask, is bidding on and hosting a mega event a rational course of action? Who exactly wants it, and why? Who pays the price?

Planning For and Within Events A significant aspect of modern planned events is their elevation from the private, community, and institutional domains to formal incorporation into numerous public policy domains. Events of all kinds are being supported, created, and bid on, to meet diverse, strategic goals of society. Sharples et al. (2014, vii) in their book Strategic Event Creation stated: Changes in the wider environment have triggered a new normal for event creation. Heightened attendee expectations, a keener focus upon the return required by funders and wider stakeholders, and, of course, an ever more competitive event marketplace. Couple these with CSR, social media, globalisation and technology and the reasons event creation is now a strategic and multilayered responsibility are clear. This has several important implications related to leadership, culture, and management. For example, those who plan and produce events are often dealing with a single client but are held accountable to a very wide group of stakeholders. This fact also applies to many events produced for corporations and nonprofit societies.

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Event Planning and Operations While in many countries local and regional/state governments and their agencies have been at the forefront, national-level policies and strategies related to events cannot be ignored. Khodr (2012) scrutinised political reasons for Qatar’s event strategy, concluding that explanatory factors include economic sustainability and diversification, tourism, and social development strategies. These factors can be viewed in the light of globalisation and modernisation trends. Houlihan et al. (2015) identify reasons why countries host major sport events, including a desire for increased legitimacy and positive image; boosting sport participation and competitiveness; being a catalyst for urban economic regeneration; economic modernisation; allowing for diplomatic initiatives connected to international relations; nation and city identity-­building and branding; and fostering social integration. Researchers have examined various policy domains that lead to the strategic creation, subsidising, or facilitation of planned events and their venues. Chapter 7 discussed policy options for governments and major policy domains that lead to the funding, development, and marketing of events. Strategic tourism roles have been well explored (e.g., Stokes, 2008). Swart (2005) argued for strategic planning of sport event tourism in South Africa. Presenza and Sheehan (2013) commented on the strategic value of a portfolio of sport events in destination development. Resources utilised by events are often aggressively sought by groups with many legitimate and appealing claims about their cultural, social, economic, or environmental benefits. Therefore, the allocation of public resources (including subsidies) to events generally requires organisers and producers to explicitly justify their public benefits. O’Toole’s Events Sector Maturity Model is relevant (2011, 2021). This evolutionary process is marked by increasing professionalism, but also more rules and regulations from the ­government – potentially stifling innovation. Standards are set for health, safety, and professional conduct. In this light, the pandemic highlighted the fragility of mega-events and opened new opportunities for creativity and fostering agile event organisations.

Event Portfolio Planning The expert opinion by Vassilios Ziakas provides a summary and reference list on this important topic. Note that portfolio planning is also covered in Chapter 15 in the context of event tourism, and that discussion covers the concepts of diversification, balance, and synergies. These topics relate very closely to legacy and leveraging.

E X P E R T O P I N I O N 1 0 . 1 :   By Dr. Vassilios Ziakas Vassilios Ziakas, PhD, is co-editor in chief of the book series Events Management ­Theory and Methods by Goodfellow Publishers. His research cuts across sport and leisure ­policy with emphasis on strategic planning, community development and sustainability.

Event Portfolio Management in Focus The phenomenon of event portfolio is an under-researched topic in Event Studies. Despite several calls over the last two decades (Chalip, 2004; Getz, 2005; Ziakas, 2019) for the resonance of capitalising on portfolios rather than individual events, there is scant academic attention on understanding this complex phenomenon. The reasons are many and explained in detail in my latest book (Ziakas, 2022), but it seems that the

Event Planning and Operations most important aspects are the fragmentation of Event Studies (e.g., in festivals/cultural, sport, and business events) and the tradition of studying individual events. In fact, the very subject has been structured in a piecemeal fashion influenced by the parent disciplines (tourism studies, sport management, cultural studies), which gave shape to specialised subfields (MICE, sport events, festivals). A common denominator across all event subfields is the ‘singular’ focus on major events and their legacies, which obviously constrains comprehensive takes on an array of events, exploring their interrelationships and potential synergies. In contrast, practitioners have been more open-minded as we can see many city-wide event programmes or regional portfolios across the world such as Auckland, Edinburgh, Gold Coast, Sunshine Coast, Gothenburg, Manchester, Wales (Antchak et al., 2019) that seek out to make up ‘eventful’ cities (Richards and Palmer, 2010). The integrative staging of periodic and/or one-off events synergised together as a system in a host community’s annual calendar creates a permanent structure – the event portfolio – with the ability to bestow benefits from one event to another, thereby engendering constant benefits that their whole is higher than the sum of individual events’ benefits. This way a portfolio becomes an ongoing and highly versatile policy tool that makes the pursuit of individual events and legacy pointless. To better understand event portfolios, it is important to distinguish between organic and strategically formalised portfolios. Organic ones existed long before the conceptualisation and academic study of event portfolios started, and they comprise annual calendar programmes that concentrate an array of events more or less coherently. They provided contexts for early studies such as Fort Stockton (Ziakas, 2010), Gainesville (Gibson et al., 2012), Termoli (Presenza and Sheehan, 2013), Barcelona (Richards, 2015), London-Ontario (Clark and Misener, 2015), Portimão (Pereira et al., 2015), Auckland (Antchak, 2017), Berlin (Viol et al., 2018), Madeira (Almeida et al., 2019), Cook Islands (Dickson et al., 2018), and De Moines (Singh and Olson, 2021). Strategic formalised portfolios constitute deliberate structures that derive from the evolution and maturation of organic portfolios like the cases of Edinburgh, Gold Coast, Sunshine Coast, Manchester, and Gothenburg. Recently, Liang et al. (2021) describe how Shanghai’s sporting event portfolio has evolved into a formalised one. Likewise, Sobral et al. (2022) explore the utility of including regular sport team events (those played by professional sport teams in a sport league) in the development of a portfolio strategy in an Australian region. These studies demonstrate that the move from organic forms to more formalised portfolio structures is a complex process imbued with constraints that takes time to be completed. Also, the study of event portfolios is highly complex and will take time to be fully developed. There is clearly a great deal of learning to be done regarding event portfolios and their management in the future. This warrants (and requires) the development of a transdisciplinary field on portfolio management converging festival, tourism, sport, and other allied disciplines to the study of events. Portfolio management for events entails a new logic and mindset looking for synthesis and synergy moving past long-established fragmentation and divisions. We are just in the beginning. Along with emerging studies, there are now three books (Antchak et al., 2019; Ziakas, 2014; Ziakas et al., 2021) that set up firm foundations for developing knowledge on event portfolios and their management.

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References Almeida, A., Teixeira, S. J., & Franco, M. (2019). Uncovering the factors impacting visitor’s satisfaction: Evidence from a portfolio of events. International Journal of Event and Festival Management, 10 (3), 217–247. Antchak, V. (2017). Portfolio of major events in Auckland: Characteristics, perspectives and issues. Journal of Policy Research in Tourism, Leisure and Events, 9 (3), 280–297. Antchak, V., Ziakas, V., & Getz, D. (2019). Event Portfolio Management: Theory and Practice for Event Management and Tourism. Oxford: Goodfellow. Chalip, L. (2004). Beyond impact: A general model for sport event leverage. In B. W. Ritchie & D. Adair (eds), Sport Tourism: Interrelationships, Impacts and Issues, pp. 226–252. Clevedon: Channel View. Clark, R., & Misener, L. (2015). Understanding urban development through a sport events portfolio: A case study of London, Ontario. Journal of Sport Management, 29 (1), 11–26. Dickson, G., Milne, S., & Werner, K. (2018). Collaborative capacity to develop an events portfolio within a small island development state: The Cook Islands. Journal of Policy Research in Tourism, Leisure and Events, 10 (1), 69–89. Getz, D. (2005). Event Management and Event Tourism (2nd ed.). New York: Cognizant. Gibson, H. J., Kaplanidou, K., & Kang, S. J. (2012). Small-scale event sport tourism: A case study in sustainable tourism. Sport Management Review, 15 (2), 160–170. Liang, X., Chen, S., Liu, D., Boardley, I., & Shen, L. (2021). Strategic thinking and planning behind the development of a sporting event portfolio: The case of Shanghai. Sport Management Review, 25 (4), 679–699. Pereira, E., Mascarenhas, M., Flores, A., & Pires, G. (2015). Nautical small-scale sports events portfolio: A strategic leveraging approach. European Sport Management Quarterly, 15 (1), 27–47. Presenza, A., & Sheehan, L. (2013). Planning tourism through sporting events. International Journal of Event and Festival Management, 4 (2), 125–139. Richards, G. (2015). Events in the network society: The role of pulsar and iterative events. Event Management, 19 (4), 553–566. Richards, G., & Palmer, R. (2010). Eventful Cities: Cultural Management and Urban Revitalisation. Oxford: Elsevier Butterworth-Heinemann. Singh, S., & Olson, E. D. (2021). Response and recovery through event portfolio management. In V. Ziakas, V. Antchak, & D. Getz (eds), Crisis Management and Recovery for Events: Impacts and Strategies, pp. 167–185. Oxford: Goodfellow. Sobral, V., Fairley, S., & O’Brien, D. (2022). The utility of including regular sport team events in event portfolios. Journal of Sport Management, 37 (1), 15–26. Viol, M., Todd, L., Theodoraki, E., & Anastasiadou, C. (2018). The role of iconic-historic commemorative events in event tourism: Insights from the 20th and 25th anniversaries of the fall of the Berlin Wall. Tourism Management, 69, 246–262. Ziakas, V. (2010). Understanding an event portfolio: The uncovering of interrelationships, synergies, and leveraging opportunities. Journal of Policy Research in Tourism, Leisure and Events, 2 (2), 144–164. Ziakas, V. (2014). Planning and leveraging event portfolios: Towards a holistic theory. Journal of Hospitality Marketing and Management, 23 (3), 327–356.

Event Planning and Operations Ziakas, V. (2019). Embracing the event portfolio paradigm in academic discourse and scholarship. Journal of Policy Research in Tourism, Leisure and Events, 11 (sup1), s27–s33. Ziakas, V. (2022). Strategic Event Leveraging: Models, Practices and Prospects. Wallingford: CABI. Ziakas, V., Antchak, V., & Getz, D. (eds.) (2021). Crisis Management and Recovery for Events: Impacts and Strategies. Oxford: Goodfellow.

Balanced Portfolios: Researchers Bodin and Taks (2022) concluded that multisectoral event portfolios are needed to meet community engagement goals and benefits for residents. ­ A ­number of authors have noted that resident interests and perceptions of impacts do not always coincide with those of event proponents and providers, making a narrow emphasis on sport events and bidding on mega-events controversial or counterproductive. Balance, in this sense, refers both to satisfying multiple interests and to the alliance between objectives and outcomes. In Table 10.1, we compare planning for the event organisation, which we assume to be permanent, and for the event itself. Sometimes they are the same thing. We have added a column that indicates typical planning-related documents.

Goals, Objectives, Indicators, and Methods Goals: Plans can either follow a general strategy, which can retain as much flexibility as possible, or follow set goals that can be achieved. Goals are expressed in general terms, such as “to maximise profit” or “reduce carbon emissions”. They should be achievable with effort, and in the spirit of continuous improvement constantly revised to encourage higher levels of achievement, productivity, or sustainability. SMART objectives are Specific, Measurable, Attainable, Realistic, And Time-bound. Some goals do not lend themselves to this level of objective-setting, but where possible the setting of SMART objectives facilitates evaluation and impact assessment. Time-bound means a schedule or completion date is set in advance. For events, post-event evaluation and impact assessment generally require SMART objectives. The question then becomes, what measures should we use? Metrics: Any number of metrics can be used to measure effectiveness (such as goal attainment) and efficiency. Many objectives lend themselves to quantitative metrics, including monetary and numerical, while others cannot be measured directly and require surrogate measures. Surrogates: Anything intangible, such as well-being or social capital, can still be evaluated and impacts assessed through the establishment of surrogate measures. These are mutually agreedupon indicators of the phenomenon or quality. For example, one usual indicator of many intangibles is satisfaction. It is assumed that if people are satisfied, say with their experience or their job, then programmes and services are working as intended, or of high quality. That kind of assumption has to be verified through evaluation. Key performance indicators (KPIs): measures deemed to be most important as indicators of how well workers are performing, or how well services and programmes are being delivered. Key impact indicators (KIIs): measures deemed to be most important in evaluating the effectiveness of goal attainment, and the effects of development, services, and programmes.

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Event Planning and Operations Table 10.1  Planning for Events and Their Organisations Planning for the Event Organisation

Planning the Event Itself

Documents Typically Produced

Strategy: encompassing mandate, vision, and goals for the organisation (these might include production of one or multiple events; it might be temporary or permanent and nonprofit, public or private in ownership) – Resilience planning

Strategy: A one-time event might be won through bidding, in which case its purpose and form are largely pre-defined. Local organising bodies will usually be required, but the strategies needed by event planners will be confined to the production of the event, not to governing bodies

Strategic plan (mandate, vision, goals, short and/ or long-term strategies; evaluation and control systems) Business plan (funding and resource allocation to be stressed; value creation specified for all stakeholders) Logic and theory-ofchange models

Project planning: each event requires a project plan and management system, although sharing will be possible. Experience can lead to routines that apply to all the organisation’s events or to the improvement of its one periodic event. The feasibility of creating events is a prime consideration Site planning: Overarching considerations include: location (considering accessibility, services, costs, aesthetics, appropriateness); venues (own or rent?; one venue or a rotation?); nature of the event (sales/ exhibition, open-air concert; reserved theatre seating; linear-nodal; arena or stadium) – sharing venues/sites within networks/portfolios will simplify be the planning and decisionmaking

Project planning: The owners/organisers will establish a project planning and a project management team (possibly overlapping). other plans might be subsumed by these (e.g., site, construction, logistics)

Feasibility study: (is it affordable, technically feasible, or desirable?) Schedule: Critical Path Costing and budget Task assignments (HR needs and tasks)

Most events require a detailed site plan, sometimes for a new site, often for an existing venue; periodic revisions are likely needed; events using existing venues usually have to conform to the venue’s capacity and management systems

Site plan: the plan might be as simple as a seating plan for a small meeting to a customised l­andscapearchitectural plan for a new festival site

(continued)

Event Planning and Operations Table 10.1  Continued Planning for the Event Organisation

Planning the Event Itself

Documents Typically Produced

Operations Planning and Logistics: This concerns the production of the event, including preparation, delivery, and wrap-up; routines can be established for multiple and periodic events

– information, signage, and legibility of the venue/site – supply chain (procurement) management – specifications (conduct of sports, venue/site preparations; services to be provided) – food and beverage provision – comfort and rest zones – access, egress, on-site flow – queuing – scheduling – communications – services for customers, VIPs staff, volunteers, officials, and media) – guest-staff encounters – staff and volunteer training – professional security, medical, fire, and health services available as needed – inspections and enforcement – response to incidents and complaints – implementation of RRR (reduce, re-use, recycle) – education of staff, volunteers, guests, and others on policies and goals

– specifications for the programme – schedule – site plan

Health, safety, and security: adhering to standards and regulations

Environment and sustainability: adhering to standards and regulations; committing to sustainability goals and green practices; establishing social and environmental responsibility codes of practice Marketing planning: creating and marketing the organisation’s brand; protecting its image and reputation; conducting market research

– target marketing, based on segmentation – communications mix and budget (paid ads, public relations, social media, website, on-site communications, and feedback) – social marketing

– risk assessments and analysis – contingency plans (including evacuation and emergency response) – incident reports

– impact assessments – sustainability reports

– marketing plan and budget – outreach plan (for social marketing, sustainability, community development, and inclusion)

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Event Planning and Operations Methods: Having set goals and objectives, then determined the measures or indicators to be used in evaluation and IA, and the remaining task is to determine what methods are necessary and appropriate to obtain the data. This entails consideration of proof and evidence. These topics are all covered in the chapter on evaluation and impact assessment.

Project Planning and Management Project planning and management functions encompass vital skill sets for all events – even those produced by permanent organisations that also do strategic planning. The basic nature of events is that they are defined by time (a limited duration) and their schedule is announced and usually fixed well in advance. This necessitates getting all the planning and preparations done according to an often tight schedule. According to O’Toole (2021), many event projects fail or overrun their budget and schedule, and often this is due to poor planning or control systems.

Feasibility Studies Feasibility studies should ideally precede, or at least accompany, project planning. In a rational planning process, we do not commit to an event until we know it is affordable, desirable, environmentally sound, marketable, and manageable. All too often, however, events are bid on and planned without full feasibility studies or cost-and-benefit forecasts. Far too little attention is given to feasibility within the context of portfolios and populations of events. While a single event can be assessed as to costs and impacts, its effects on other events are harder to evaluate. Long-term feasibility and sustainability of all events present quite different issues from single-event feasibility. Mega-event feasibility is a distinct application given the long-term planning, high production costs, capital investments in infrastructure, and potential for negative and unexpected impacts. Uncertainty increases as a consequence, making accurate forecasts of demand, costs, and external influences extremely difficult. The pandemic demonstrated how unpredictable events and worst-case occurrences can disrupt the best-laid plans. Questions to address in event feasibility studies: – Is it technically feasible? (e.g., the desired experiences can be facilitated; approvals can be secured and regulations met; specifications can be met, such as for sport events); venues or spaces are suitable and available). – Is it affordable? (e.g., funds will be committed; demand and sales have been forecast to be adequate; costs are known and can be controlled; potential debt will be underwritten). – Is it desirable? (e.g., community and political support is assured; opportunity costs have been examined and the event is judged to be worthwhile; it fits the community and its event portfolio). O’Toole (2011) explained the specific tools employed in project planning, including project scoping, work breakdown, and task analysis, costing, risk analysis, and scheduling and controlling with critical paths. Management of time is critical, and often time pressures lead to modifications or political actions to get the job done. A full life-cycle approach is recommended, including how to wind up the event and deal with the legacy.

Knowledge Areas As detailed by Salama (2021) in the book Event Project Management, the knowledge areas for project planning and management are to be aligned with the overall event management

Event Planning and Operations strategy, especially relating to stakeholders and sustainability. They overlap with MBECS and EMBOK for the simple reason that so many events are one-time only (i.e., they are projects) and many others, although periodic, go through annual cycles that require gearing up quickly and terminating efficiently, much like projects. All events and projects are time-limited, making scheduling and related resource allocations critical. It is also wise to consider how project planning and management principles and methods can be applied to even the best-established events, especially when it comes to scheduling and prevention of budget and scope creep. These creeps often occur because of extenuating circumstances (i.e., they cannot be controlled, like the weather) but also arise from inattention to details or political interference. Salama’s (2018) model of sustainable project management is also highly relevant. The main dimensions are sustainability, adaptive leadership, life-cycle assessment, adopting advanced technology, managing innovation, assurances and control, and maturity. Some elaboration is necessary for each of these. Sustainability: Events and other projects, especially those of large scale, have cumulative and long-term impacts. Goals have to be set for each event project that reflect and implement societal goals for the environment, economy, culture, and community. Major events, particularly those that are bid on competitively, are usually subjected to feasibility studies and detailed cost-benefit evaluation, but all planned events should be evaluated in these ways within a ­sector-wide or portfolio structure. Adaptive Leadership: Leaders of projects require cultural and emotional skills to balance technical skills, in order to deal effectively and fairly with the workforce – a challenge that is heightened in the event sector where dependency on volunteers is common, and professionals often move from one event project to another, or work on multiple events. Corporate social responsibility in this context means that all members of the team, all leaders and workers, adhere to sustainability principles. In this context, viewing events as agents of change is a complementary principle. Life-Cycle Assessment: Salama (2021, 13) advocated “benefit realization management” to ensure that event managers work with stakeholders in the setting and achievement of goals, with goals being defined as benefits. This approach must cover all phases, from concept development to either decommissioning (i.e., complete wind up) or mothballing (i.e., many events hold over key staff, equipment, venues, and especially knowledge until the next cycle begins). During all phases, there must be evaluation criteria (i.e., key performance and impact indicators) to ensure compliance with the budget and schedule, as well as effectiveness in goal attainment. Adopting Advanced Technologies: Advances in technology continue to influence event planning and management. These include information communications (ICT), big data analysis, machine learning (or AI), the IoT, block-change technology for supply chain management, and real-time monitoring and analysis. Events can analyse customer movements, behaviour, and feedback in real time, making risk assessment and crowd management much more efficient, and improving programming for enhanced experiences. Managing Innovation: The key innovation challenges and concepts are discussed in various parts of this book. Eco-innovation refers to both the greening of events and the assessment of their contribution to climate change, leading to progress in achieving carbon neutrality or reduction, and encouraging positive changes in attitudes and practices within society. Elsewhere, the section on sustainable event cities is highly relevant (see Table 13.2). Stemming from the global pandemic, the entire event sector, in concert with numerous stakeholders, must re-think financial resilience. That challenge will often require so-called lean start-ups and events, being those with tight budgets and well-crafted programmes to attain desired benefits.

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Event Planning and Operations Fostering agile management and leadership is a closely related challenge, as events cannot expect to forever operate in stable environments. This means more than being flexible, it requires a mindset by leaders, stakeholders, and even customers that expects and accepts change – as long as it furthers goal attainment and enhances or maintains event experience quality. Agile management was a necessity when the pandemic hit, as explained in Expert Opinion 4.1 and Profiles 1.1 and 5.1. Assurance and Control: Essential controls are sometimes neglected in event planning and operations, resulting in cost overruns and inadequate revenue generation, or failures in service delivery and safety. One major result of the pandemic was the realisation that health regulations and precautions are absolute necessities that will not go away, along with risk management related to safety and security systems. Maturity: Salama (2021, 14) put it this way: “Maturity refers to an efficient and effective system that fosters continuous improvement through agility, lean effective knowledge management and sustainable innovation”. Repeated disasters, terrorist and criminal attacks, and the recent pandemic all have influenced event producers and stakeholders, leading to adoption of the planning and management principles and systems described above.

Phases of an Event Project A typical project has four or five distinct phases, depending on how one combines the ­necessary actions. A one-time event is definitely planned in a linear fashion, while periodic events require cyclical planning. However, within a portfolio each one-time event must support and inform the entire portfolio, requiring careful evaluation of outcomes and lessons learned. In Table 10.2, four broad phases are presented, with elaboration on event-specific ­ considerations (both ­one-time and periodic). A section covering the project toolkit follows, but details are to be found in the books cited above. 1 Initiation Events have a purpose and goals, even if they are implicit. Private companies do not need to specify they are attempting to make a profit, and government agencies are assumed to be acting in the public’s interest. But this does not obviate needs assessments or demand and marketing research, feasibility studies, development of a business plan with a sound budget, statements of the benefits to be achieved, or how success will be measured. 2 Commitment In project terminology, a project charter is agreed to by the key stakeholders, and in the events world that generally means wide consultations. When events are conceived as agents of change, full stakeholder input is a necessity, whereas the primary stakeholders for a p ­ rivate company are likely to be more tightly defined. Adoption of Corporate Social Responsibility principles by private companies is recommended, and this will encourage wider input. Salama (2021, 40) provided a template for a project charter, consisting of statements on the need, event description, anticipated benefits, timeframe, estimated total cost, relationship to other projects, and critical issues. This is a kind of business plan, and its formulation and composition will be dictated by governance. That is, differences will occur between the private, public, and not-for-profit sectors. The charter might also resemble a strategic plan, or a resolution adopted by a City Council, but the key point is that an appropriate authority sanctions the event project. This can follow a top-down process (e.g., the Council wants its staff to produce a festival) or bottom-up (e.g., a community group wants money for a celebration).

Event Planning and Operations Table 10.2  Project Phases and Event-Specific Considerations Phases

Event-Specific Considerations

Initiation and commitment A cyclical process requiring needs/demand assessment, stakeholder input, feasibility study, scoping, go-no-go decision points, general planning and budgeting, timeline. – The project charter specifies goals, objectives, KPIs – Project Plan follows from the charter; the schedule and budget outlined

Concept development: either topdown or bottom-up when it comes to governance and stakeholder input; – consider the event to be an agent of change; – work within an event portfolio to maximise synergies; – for established events, consider necessary and desirable revisions for resilience and improvements – detailed planning will often result in modifications to the charter, budget, timeline, etc. – while periodic events generally follow an annual schedule, it might be wise to hold off scheduling a one-time event until detailed planning and budgeting are complete (although this is not possible for many events that are won through bidding - thereby increasing various risks) One-time events require systems to detect and fix problems /threats before or as they occur; the longer the event duration the greater the possibility to improve quality and guest satisfaction; whereas for periodic events this is a task for evaluation and feedback leading to future changes

Detailed planning – work breakdown and task analysis – programming – site/venue plan – risk assessment and plan – staffing – communications and marketing plan

Implementation: event operations and controls – process evaluation and problem-solving as the project unfolds – data collection (e.g., visitor surveys / other feedback) Wrap-up and evaluation – termination of one-time event projects; feedback for change and improvement of periodic events; reporting and accountability to stakeholders

– while one-time events must be closed in terms of accountability and reporting, staffing, and budgeting, periodic events aim for improvements during the next iteration

Scoping means determining the desired outcomes and the work required to complete the project. Scoping will include a timeline and costings, incorporating some degree of flexibility. Scope Creep is the process of expanding work and/or expenses within a project. It can happen in the absence of tight monitoring and controls, because of political pressure, or other external influences including unpredictable forces like the pandemic. 3 Detailed planning: At some point, the planning and design teams, plus any construction managers, must give way to the managers producing the event. The transition can be important, which often means the event’s senior managers participate in all the feasibility and planning. For smaller events, those people actually do it all. The detailed plan covers venues, programmes, schedules, and tasks. Costing has to be completed, then a budget is formulated.

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Event Planning and Operations 4 Implementation: The event is the project we are interested in, but venue constructions are done in advance, which is often the case for mega-events, and are also projects that have to be planned and managed. 5 Wrap-up: No project is complete without pre-planning its termination and the wrapping up of human resources, final accounting, site clean-up or transition to a planned afteruse, knowledge transfer, and other tasks to ensure all goals and commitments have been attained. A small event using a built venue generally has little to worry about, whereas mega-events with planned, long-term legacies will require a long wrap-up period with a number of professions involved and perhaps the establishment of a permanent organisation.

The project planning and management toolkit Table 10.3 draws from several sources: (https://www.projex.com/pmp-pmbok-common-­toolstechniques/); Salama (2021); O’Toole (2021), to examine the specific tools employed in project planning, including project scoping, benefits/goal specification, setting parameters, feasibility, work breakdown, and task analysis, costing, risk analysis, and scheduling, and controlling with critical paths. Scheduling, and possible responses to running out of time: The basic nature of events is that they are defined by time, and their dates are usually fixed well in advance. This necessitates getting all the planning and preparations done according to an often tight schedule. Management of time is critical, and often time pressures lead to modifications, or political interference to get the job done. If it becomes clear that the event cannot be produced on time or on budget, according to the initial specifications, a number of actions can be taken: l l

l

l

Re-scheduling (seldom popular; the larger the event, the more costly this becomes). Cancellation (with no intended re-scheduling; will suppliers and performers have to be refunded or compensated? Customers reimbursed?). Programme reduction (eliminate costly, difficult elements; quality reductions). These will lead to expectation-disconfirmation issues, depending on pre-marketing. Capital spending reductions (which can have a ripple effect on programming and the overall experience).

These strategies can have an impact on demand, and on the ability of the event to generate revenue, necessitating a parallel budget review. Quality reductions are probably the easiest to implement, such as reducing the number of hours of operation or providing fewer on-site services, with a resulting reduction in paid staff or rentals. Managers will have to evaluate the impact on customer experience and satisfaction.

Logic and Theory-of-Change Models Weiss (1972) is generally credited with the creation of these models. Advice on the ­construction and use of logic and theory-of-change models is provided by Getz (2018, 2019a). The ­models require the identification of intended or desired outputs and outcomes, with logic models being more short-term in their orientation and generally appropriate for routine or technical evaluation. TOC models are designed when events or event portfolios are conceived as agents of change. Within an existing event organisation, the TOC model can be used for specific programmes or possible modifications of the event’s mandate or location – anything requiring

Event Planning and Operations Table 10.3  Project Planning and Management Toolkit Project Planning and Management Tools

Details

– key players and roles specified; specify authority links, contractual and communications links Work Breakdown Structure (WBS) – determine main programme elements, sequencing, venues, and necessary staff and volunteers for each; follow either a programme model (i.e., tasks needed for each programme or activity), venue model (tasks at each venue), or committee model (e.g., committees in charge of competitive sport, children’s activities, entertainment, etc.) Task Responsibility Matrix (TRM) – detailed task analysis for teams and individuals (who does what, when, and with what resources; specify accountability) PERT (project evaluation and review technique) – each task is plotted in sequence, together with estimated time duration; Network Diagrams and Critical Path arrows link tasks, nodes are milestones; determine the critical path – work backwards from the event start date (which must be met!); indicate the fastest-possible path from start to completion; slack time can be added to allow for deviation from the schedule – diagrams can be simple flow charts, with stages indicated in sequence, or very elaborate, computerised charts showing actions in sequence, how much time is required for each, and critical completion dates to get the event produced on time; costs can also be added to the actions; the critical path is the shortest possible completion time, indicating all necessary actions along the path Organisation Structure

Gantt Charts

– the simplest method of blocking out timelines for each task, committee or team; employ bar graphs

major changes directed at outcomes that can be defined as systemic change. Along the way, shorter-term output goals have to be set and evaluation measures/indicators agreed upon. The logic here is simple. If you want to change some aspect of a system, you probably have to be patient and make progress in small steps. This will work better for portfolios, wherein individual events are expected to make different contributions.

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Event Planning and Operations INTENDED OUTCOMES

Set key impact indicators

or impacts on systems

SHORT-TERM, MEASUREABLE OUTPUTS

CAUSAL PATHWAYS (Necessary actions to achieve goals)

EXTERNAL FACTORS:

Economic and social conditions Other actors seeking change

ASSUMPTIONS e.g., The need exists & events can make a positive contribution PRECONDITIONS: Stakeholder support; resources

Figure 10.1  Theory-of-Change Process Source: Adapted from Weiss (1972)

Figure 10.1 outlines a theory-of-change process. The starting point is to agree upon the ­outcomes desired, then set goals and KIIs. There is another side to using TOC models, the idea being that stakeholder collaboration in itself is a major goal. If the intent is to foster social integration and create social capital, what better way than to bring key groups together to plan an event or event portfolio strategy, complete with evaluation indicators and methods? Causal pathways: These are the actions required to achieve outputs and outcomes, with the expectation that doing A will lead to B and ultimately will produce desired result C. This is probably the most difficult part of the process because, for events, applicable causal t­heory is minimal. We know that producing and/or marketing events as tourist attractions will potentially generate economic benefits, but there is no way to predict with certainty that an event or portfolio of events will both attract tourists and change the local economy for the b ­ etter. E ­ xperience is a great teacher, but it does not constitute a theory. If the planners, working together, cannot come up with a relevant and trusted theory, then uncertainty has to be accepted, and risks assessed. What this means is that in most circumstances the TOC model, whenever events are conceived as agents of change, the entire TOC process becomes an experiment that can help build theory. These models are used infrequently, but one example is from Festivals Edinburgh (BOP ­Consulting, 2018) which developed twin logic models for examining the wider impacts of Edinburgh’s festivals on Scotland. These employed an ‘inputs-activities-outputs-­outcomes-­ ­ impact’ path, with the inputs consisting of funding from all sources, resources from partners, ­stakeholders, and staff, and creativity from Scottish and International talent. The measurable outputs for E ­ dinburgh festivals were defined in quantitative terms: events produced; audiences reached; jobs created in the wider economy; Scottish performers, artists, and speakers receiving profiles and platforms; and networking activities. Outcomes (which we equate with impacts) were defined as follows: Edinburgh recognised globally as the world’s leading festival city; Scotland’s creative talent gains profile and opportunity; the festivals facilitate and support sectorial development, and formal and informal education and training opportunities. Finally,

Event Planning and Operations impacts included increased confidence and pride, enrichment of the cultural ecosystem, and gains for Scottish artists and companies. Related to the terminology used, starting with the open-systems model, outcomes and impacts can be the same long-term results or systemic changes.

Events for Development; Advocacy There are now many proponents for utilising events as agents of change, or as some phrase it, for development. This approach links to event leveraging and legacy, advocacy through events, and social movements. Schulenkorf et al. (2022) gave the example of Street Soccer USA which has the mission of using sport to help people in poverty. The goal is to foster positive life changes. Those authors elaborated upon appropriate conceptual foundations, including sportfor development, (Lyras and Welty Peachey, 2011), Intergroup Contact Theory (Allport, 1954), and social capital (Putnam, 1995, 2000). The basic idea in sport development is to incorporate ­community-wide participation into major sport events with the aim of encouraging participation and knowledge transfer. Allport’s idea was to reduce inter-group bias (e.g., during collaborations) by meeting four key conditions, including assurances of equal status, common goals, inter-group cooperation, and support of authorities, law, or custom. Pertaining to events and other projects, refer to the Political Market Square and Social Capital for elaboration. The discussion of leveraging and legacy is pertinent.

Strategic and Business Planning Although there is no real evidence to support the claim that strategic planning results in better events or more sustainable organisations, it seems inconceivable that event producers would not want to have a vision, set goals and make strategies for the long term. One-time events also need goals and a plan, and if the planning period is measured in years, it will have strategic elements built in. What separates strategic planning from project planning, in theory, is first of all the principle of adaptability. An event project usually has a fixed goal, an event with a specified form and function, its timing, and programme as givens. But periodic events and their organisations have to adapt to changes in their environment – their goals are changeable, and the events evolve. Being a learning organisation improves adaptability. Strong external stakeholder relationships help to ensure permanence and necessary inputs. The mandate or mission of the organisation needs to be periodically reviewed, then the vision, leading to a re-assessment of goals and strategies. Strategy is the second main difference, in the sense that a project has a single outcome (the event) whereas strategy to implement goals or fulfil a mandate can evolve and be multidimensional. A strategy is defined as an integrated set of policies, programmes, and actions intended to fulfil the organisation’s mandate, realise its vision and achieve its goals. In contrast to rationally planned strategies, emergent strategy happens as a consequence of the many decisions taken or untaken and is often only perceived in hindsight. For example, a manager might say “It was not until years later that I could identify our strategy-in-practice as one of accommodating and integrating key stakeholders, bringing them in as partners. It just seemed the right way to develop”. Research is fundamental to the process of strategic planning, including environmental and future scanning (i.e., of forces and trends), situation analysis (i.e., where we are, our current situation), stakeholder input and issues identification, and market and consumer research (including strengths, weaknesses opportunities, and threats relative to competitors). Specific outputs in the process typically include a vision statement, goals, strategies, action, or implementation plan (actions, costs, schedule, and responsibilities defined), and a marketing/communications plan.

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The Business Plan How to prepare and use a business plan for events was outlined in Getz (2005), while ­Tassiopoulos (2011) explored detailed business planning for new ventures. Unfortunately, the business plan is often overlooked or produced only for show. It is a convenient and useful way to summarise the event concept, its feasibility in financial and marketing terms, and its management. At the core of every business plan is a believable budget with costs fully estimated and revenues realistically forecast. It is the budget, or financial feasibility, that sinks many events. Cash-flow projections are also vital components in business plans. Many events have to spend up-front, but earn most of their revenue only at the time of the event through sales – or even afterwards, when grants come in.

Site Planning, Operations, and Logistics Site planning is much more than preparing a map or floor plan, as the designer is attempting to create an ideal environment to facilitate desired experiences. Basic elements of a site plan (or floor plan, in the case of indoor assembly spaces) include the following: l

l

l

A map showing setting affordances and restrictions, such as what can and cannot be done as activity or decor; this will include scale, structures, underground and above-ground services; topography; vegetation; drainage; adjacent land uses and buildings; orientation to the sun, wind, and other environmental influences. Capacity (often legally prescribed by fire marshals, but otherwise determined by considerations of safety, comfort, and security). Flow: access and egress points; circulation; legibility; and presentation of sales and other displays.

l

Decor.

l

Sensory mapping (both what is desired for effects and what the guest is likely to perceive).

l

Arrangements of furniture, displays, booths, etc., considering viewing, comfort, flow, and capacity.

l

Security (fencing; ticketing; observation points; and police presence).

l

Information, including signage and more subtle cues.

l

Comfort and health (water; toilets; first aid; and evacuation routes).

Operations Operations refers to all those systems that must be in place, and the actions that have to be taken, to produce the event. Clearly, these have to be planned well in advance, unless you are doing a flash mob. Operations can also be thought of as the day-to-day decisions and actions within the event organisation or company, as opposed to strategic and business-level actions. Operations and logistics generally apply to three subsystems, namely: 1 Customer-oriented (traffic, queuing, ticketing, information, essential services, comfort, and safety, crowd management), see Plate 10.1. 2 Supplier-oriented (utilities, infrastructure, technical services, and security systems). 3 Communications (equipment, procedures, accreditation, hosting the media, and scheduling). Tum et al. (2006) provided a more comprehensive event operations model. Its main components are the analysis stage (environmental scanning and situational analysis), the operations

Event Planning and Operations

Plate 10.1  Gravel Royale Campsite Photo Credit: TransRockies / John Gibson Pictures

planning process – both strategic and detailed – implementation and delivery, and performance evaluation. The basic theory and methods come from operations management and from project planning and management. Tum et al. use the concept of transforming processes (as in our open-systems management model) to describe operations. Resources and other inputs are converted into the desired outputs, namely, the event or other services and products. Operations in this context are influenced by four major event characteristics: 1 Size and volume of output (how many guests, how many transactions?). 2 Complexity and variety of services/products offered to the consumer (size of the site, complexity of the programme). 3 Uncertainty (of attendance, costs, time, and technical requirements). 4 Interactions (extent and nature of contact between guests and staff). Logistics is about how to move people, goods and equipment, even money and tickets, to the right place at the right time. The event producer could take the approach of trying to schedule it all to perfection, as in just-in-time delivery, or simply get everything and everyone together at one place at one time and then try to sort it out. This latter approach could prove chaotic. People movement: There has to be a plan for traffic and parking, including policing and security. Site planning takes into account accessibility, flow, and emergency evacuation. Queuing and service provision efficiency are related issues. Some event production companies also engage in destination management, which in terms of logistics involves greeting and transporting arriving guests/participants, getting them from place to place, and even providing tours and entertainment. Registration and ticketing are key elements. As these often cause bottlenecks, it’s

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Event Planning and Operations best to do them in advance, electronically. Security can be a major consideration, especially if ­everybody has to be searched, and preventing a crowd rush to the stage is always necessary. Queuing theory: For many events, especially meetings and sport competitions, everyone arrives and leaves at roughly the same time, often resulting in traffic congestion and long line-ups. To the extent that arrivals and departures can be staggered, congestion can be reduced. Batch arrivals and departures can be utilised to ease the problem, such as by assembling guests at various external points and then bringing them to the venue in groups. Reservation systems, specifying times and places for guests, are an alternative solution. How to manage people in queues or line-ups is another management challenge. Theme parks have become skilled at both the psychological and physical management of queues, including offering people the option of paying extra to avoid them! One needs to consider the rate of arrivals and average service time (i.e., how fast are people arriving, and how long does it take to get them through the gates?). The resultant measure of customer intensity shows the probability of queuing and queue lengthening. Procurement and supply chain management: Many goods and services (including information) have to be purchased or subcontracted, which is procurement. The supply chain refers to how needed information, goods, and services flow to and through the event system, corresponding to the inputs, transforming processes and outputs in the open-systems model. For events, a failure in the supply chain could mean cancellation, programme reduction, or quality problems. Supply chains should be managed to achieve a number of objectives: l

Maximise efficiency (no waste or time delays; getting only what was ordered).

l

Ensure quality (through setting standards and inspections).

l

Minimise costs (e.g., through competitive bidding).

l

Bring suppliers into the event as sponsors or partners.

l

Ensure security (theft protection) and safety.

l

Benefit the host community (source locally).

l

Ensure a green event, by requiring all suppliers to conform to environmental management standards.

A key decision for any organisation is that of outsourcing versus internal supply. It might look attractive to avoid external supply costs by doing it yourself, but that strategy entails many potential investment costs and subsequent efficiency risks. Tum et al. (2006, 123) provided an illustration of the ‘chain of decisions and decision points’ associated with supply chain management. Clearly, the process requires a technical knowledge of the event’s needs, as well as how to work with suppliers.

Why Events Succeed or Fail The book Events Mismanagement: Learning From Failure (Brown, Higson, and Gaston, 2022) examined failure from multiple perspectives. One can argue that if the causes and symptoms of failure are known, then success strategies can be followed, but that is not necessarily true. The fact is, no one formula will guarantee success, and no one reason will necessarily lead to failure. But it is important to learn from examples of both. Success is largely a matter of achieving one’s goals, whatever they might be. However, if an organisation does not endure, if it lurches from crisis to crisis, if it does not adhere to principles

Event Planning and Operations of responsibility and sustainability, or if it frequently requires subsidies, one can question its success. In other words, it all depends. Failure, on the other hand, is usually associated with insolvency, bankruptcy, and termination. It can also be suggested that events that experience serious failures, such as major accidents or delivery of poor service quality, have failed – at least in part. Again, one’s perspective on success and failure matters in the definitions. Research on this subject has been minimal, leading to the need for the above-mentioned, edited book. Getz (2002) identified financial problems as the leading cause of festival failure, with others identified by respondents being the weather and organisational culture. Higson (2022) used a three-part structure to examine causes of event failure, distinguishing between those that are preventable (e.g., they arise from weak systems or incompetence), those that are intelligent (i.e., part of an experiment), and those arising from complex situations where one cannot be expected to understand or control all the various causes. Higson recommended fault-tree analysis to determine causes and discussed barriers to learning from failure. He noted that lessons must be learned at the levels of individuals, teams, and organisations. Elsewhere in the book Events Mismanagement contributors examined the following: stakeholder mismanagement; issues discussed under the headings of safety, security, health, ticketing, and legal; mis-­ marketing; waste management; and risk management. The British Council has identified factors common to unsuccessful projects, and these can be applied to events in general, or one-time events: (source: https://www.britishcouncil.gr/sites/default/files/ima-project-management-toolkit.pdf): – Poor definition of the project brief. – Specifications poorly researched or defined. – Lack of appropriate skills and experience. – Users not placed at the heart of project focus and decision-making. – Insufficient engagement by senior management. – Lack of positive communication and engagement with stakeholders. – Unrealistic timescales. – Unrealistic budget. – Poor risk identification and management. – Lack of change management control. Success strategies are more difficult to determine. Benchmarking against the most successful events in a given category is a starting point, as long as the underpinning strengths are identified. Strong corporate sponsorship and committed public funding might appear to be an event’s principal success factors, as these are indicators of becoming an institution. Environmental forces can be more important than culture, strategy, or management systems in predicting success or failure. When the pandemic hit in 2020, weaknesses were revealed in many organisations, leading to the question: was the pandemic the real cause of failure?

STUDY GUIDE

Many event management academic programmes require students to plan and deliver a real event, then evaluate the outcomes. This is experiential learning and should incorporate the principles and methods reviewed in this chapter. Using the project planning model is a starting

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Event Planning and Operations point, and in the context of an academic exercise scheduling will immediately become a big issue (i.e., “That’s all the time we have?”). If possible, use the logic model, and for more elaborate and long-term projects the theory-of-change process, to plan a bigger event. Give careful thought to your goals: are they short-term outputs, such as the immediate result of raising money, or systemic change, such as contributing to community development? If a site plan is needed, consult the design principles in Chapter 11, and find online site planning software to assemble a decent map or floor plan. Again, if time permits, do a business plan with full budget and include success factors or indicators of success. Evaluate and report on reasons for success or failure. STUDY QUESTIONS l

l

l l

l l

l

l

l l

l l

Can you identify an example of irrational planning involving events? What should have been done differently? Describe the purpose and advantages of event portfolio planning. You can jump ahead to Chapter 15 to include definitions of diversification, balance, and synergies. Who plans for events, and why? Go back to the policy chapter as a starting point. Within event organisations, what types of planning occur? Who is responsible for the different planning tasks? How are goals and objectives different? Where do KPIs enter the planning process? Why is scheduling at the heart of project planning? Referring to the toolbox, give an example of critical path analysis and how it shapes both the planning and management of the event (hint: what happens if the schedule is not met?). Explain the concept of events as agents of change, and provide a planning process for its implementation. Give an example of where this approach would be most relevant and useful. Are strategic plans necessary, or would you, as a senior manager, prefer emergent strategies? Give reasons. How are site planning and logistics related? Explain the major components of each. Explain the differences between a business model for an event and its business plan. Be sure to include ownership and mandate. What is the meaning of success? for event owners? managers? customers? Describe an event failure (as a scenario) in the context of portfolio management. How important might it be that one event goes bankrupt? FURTHER READING

Antchak, V., Ziakas, V., & Getz, D. (2019). Event Portfolio Management. Oxford: Goodfellow. Brown, T., Higson, P., & Gaston, L. (2022). Events Mismanagement: Learning from Failure. Oxford: Goodfellow. Gunder, M., Madanipour, A., & Watson, V. (2017). The Routledge Handbook of Planning Theory. London: Routledge. Salama, M. (ed.) (2021). Event Project Management. Oxford: Goodfellow. Schulenkorf, N., Schlenker, K., Rammal, H., Peachey, J., & Morgan, A. (2022). Managing and Leveraging Events: Business and Social Dimensions. London: Routledge. Ziakas, V. (2022). Strategic Event Leveraging: Models, Practices and Prospects. Wallingford: CABI.

Chapter

11

Event Design: Theory and Principles

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

Upon completion of this chapter, students should know the following: l

The meaning, practice, and evolution of design.

l

The roles of design as applied to event form, experiences, and value creation networks.

l

Considerations in designing meaningful experiences.

l

The meaning of liberating versus constraining experiences.

l

The orchestra model for event designers, and its uses.

l

The meaning of creativity and innovation and how to foster them.

l

Elements of event staging, and implications of viewing events as theatre.

l

The importance of sensory stimulation and the creation of sensory mapping.

l

Events as restorative or instorative environments.

l

Cognitive mapping and wayfinding.

l

The value of research and evidence-based design.

l

How to make virtual events more engaging and rewarding.

l

l

Design for generic event settings: assembly, procession, linear-nodal, exhibition and sales, and open spaces. Programme and service design principles, and their evaluation.

DOI: 10.4324/9781003374251-11

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Event Design: Theory and Principles l

Site planning issues and principles.

l

Theme and programme design principles.

l

l

Evaluating programme and service quality; the use of service blueprinting and evaluative mapping. The use of importance-performance measurement.

Introduction Planning and design are interrelated to the point where many people use the terms interchangeably when applied to events. It can be confusing, but as explained in the first section of this chapter, design embodies art, creativity, and technical processes to solve problems. It should be integrated with all planning processes, starting with strategic thinking about mission, goals, and sustainability. Designers will definitely be called upon to create the right settings, programme, and services to facilitate desired experiences, even though experiences are highly personal. In the first part of this chapter theory and principles are discussed, focusing on experience design, followed by application to settings, programme, and services.

What Is Design? Design is both a technical and creative act. It draws from the arts, science, and engineering. Design is also linked to sociology by way of the network society, as it is increasingly viewed as a collaborative process for value creation. Fostering creativity and innovation is inherent in the event design process. Design thinking is interdisciplinary in nature, with many starting points and applications. Designers can draw on art, computer science, sociology, marketing, storytelling, communications, and haptics. In this context, haptics refers to the sense of touch. Brown and James (2004, 59) argued that “Design is essential to an event’s success because it leads to improvement of the event on every level”. The core values of the event provide the starting point: why is an event held, and for whom? What is its substance and intended outcomes? Brown and James identified five design principles for events that will be discussed later: scale; shape; focus; timing; and build. Underlying these principles is the need for creativity and uniqueness. This can be accomplished, in part, by incorporating the rituals and symbols of the host community. Silvers (2004, 5) summarised the issue: “Remember that you are packaging and managing an experience. This means that you must envision that experience, from start to finish, from the guest’s point of view”. Berridge (2007) discussed the field of experience design, stating that the subject was in its infancy. Unfortunately, the term was being used to describe the design of everything from websites (i.e., digital media) to storytelling, theme parks, and corporate brand events. Berridge argued that the purpose of event design is to create desired perceptions, cognition, and behaviour. Building and maintaining relationships is at the core, and stimulating emotional connections through engagement is the vehicle. Berridge (2012b, 278) also argued that it might be useful to distinguish between “event architecture”, which largely encompasses the technical, ­problem-solving functions of design, and the “artistic or aesthetic design and creation” processes, both of which must be combined to create successful event experiences. Many creative challenges exist for the event experience designer, including concept and theme, entertainment, staging, ambience, decoration, and food and beverage.

Event Design: Theory and Principles

Paradigm Shift in Design Thinking Orefice (2018) examined the evolution of design thinking and applied new ideas about design to events. Drawing upon service-dominant logic and co-production to create value, the ‘event design ladder’ (Figure 11.1) illustrates how stakeholders are engaged at different levels or different conceptualisations of design are applied to events. In event production, this remains a matter of ‘form’, in which the emphasis is on theming, decor, and creative application of many elements of style. Achieving the ‘wow’ response from guests and clients is an explicit aim, placing them in the position of passive recipients. Step two in the ladder reflects the experience economy paradigm, in which experience design and ROE have entered the lexicon and are currently the dominant perspectives. Customers and guests are co-creators of experience in this frame, recognising that services and experiences cannot be fabricated like mass-produced goods. Value propositions are offered by event producers, and the customer or guest will bring their own needs, wants, and level of engagement into the experience. More importantly, users give it meaning. More and more thought is being given to how social media shapes the experience before, during, and after an event – or any other type of service encounter. Step 3, reflecting the most recent theorising about design and marketing, views design in a strategic manner. At this level, stakeholders collaborate within dynamic networks to create value systems. Picture a single event not as an entertainment, learning, fund-raising, challenging, or celebratory opportunity, but as a creator of value for individuals, communities, cultures, the economy, and the environment. Events conceived as agents of change (or as social marketing vehicles) fit this paradigm. This idea is most relevant to event portfolio planning. If events within a city or destination are conceived as a value system, rather than an ad hoc or unregulated population of independent entities, then the creation of synergies and long-term, cumulative outcomes (i.e., the benefits, or value to be created) becomes the strategy.

DESIGN as FORM GIVING

Event theme, décor, styling; the wow factor; stakeholders as customers

DESIGN as PROBLEM SOLVING

Event experience design; co-creaon with stakeholders

Figure 11.1  The Evolution of Design Thinking, Applied to Events Source: Adapted from Orefice (2018)

DESIGN as STRATEGY Events as catalysts of dynamic networks integrang people, objects and resources; stakeholders as co-designers of value systems

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Can Experiences Be Designed? It is possible to get people involved, have them do specific things, and receive desired stimuli, but it is not possible to guarantee or predict what individuals actually experience cognitively and emotionally as an outcome. Nor can the event designer know for a certainty what meanings will be attached to those event experiences, or whether they will have any transforming impact. Accordingly, it is accurate to say that experiences cannot be designed, and in many cases, the experience cannot be objectively identified through research. People might not be able to express clearly in words what they are experiencing or what it means to them, so this represents a major challenge to researchers, theorists, and designers. An experience is so highly personal that it cannot be planned, designed, or even promised to event-goers. The purpose of any event is to suggest what experiences might be had (through theming and interpretation), facilitate positive experiences (through the design of setting, programme, services, and consumables), and enable everyone concerned, as much as possible, to realise their goals (this is co-creation). On the other hand, design and management also seek to constrain undesired experiences, including aggression, violence, and over-stimulation. The ‘orchestra model’ was proposed by Pearce and Zare (2017) as the basis for teaching t­ ourismexperience design. Three experience dimensions are part of the orchestra, namely, cognitive (thinking, choosing, learning, understanding), affective (happiness, surprise, fear, love), and conative or behavioural (taking photos, texting, and physical activities). These are supplemented with two other components: sensory (seeing, hearing, smelling, touching, and tasting) and relationships (guests with service providers, companions, residents, and other guests or tourists). A number of design tools are suggested that emphasise the ‘emic’ perspective, being a full understanding of the consumer, participant, or guest leading to co-created experiences. The recommended tools include participant observation, cognitive mapping, service blueprinting, and stakeholder mapping.

Customer experience design: social and digital components Fernandes and Krolikowska (2023) proposed a new model of customer experience, with design implications, following an extensive review of the literature. They considered the importance of digital communications and experiences in suggesting that designers must integrate elements of the social and digital environments in their design of settings and experiences, with particular relevance to links with brands. Digital technologies should be used in several ways, including: user-generated content about the event; online engagement with communities and individuals; facilitating social interaction; personalised experiences within interactive programmes; crowd sourcing, where appropriate; knowledge exchange; and providing socio-emotional support (i.e., within relational networks).

Creativity and Innovation Jackson, Morgan, and Laws (2018) concluded that creativity is under-researched within Event Studies. In an effort to get festivals and events recognised as part of the ‘creative industries’, they examined the literature on creativity and determined that it requires attention to both the individual cognitive and emotional processes and to the environment in which it occurs – a position reflecting the view of design as the creation of value systems. Their paper identified “... the core facets of creativity in the management of outdoor events. These were fluency, originality, imagination, elaboration, environment and complexity”. Fluency refers to the background of creative people,

Event Design: Theory and Principles often working together: “There is a pattern to event creation and the power of creativity is dependent upon the experience gained over time”. Changing and adapting yields originality, with events being different each time they are offered. Imagination is inherent in all humans, but often it can be externally stimulated, such as by comparison with other events. New ideas have to be discussed, refined, or elaborated, often within a dynamic team, and therefore the organisational or stakeholder environment is important for supporting risk-taking, or not, and for inspiring people. The complexity of creative problem-solving motivates people, with events being a prime example of producing something meaningful out of chaos. ‘Creative capital’ has value, and it has to be attracted or nurtured. For example, Prentice and Andersen (2003, 8) examined Edinburgh and its positioning as a world-class festival city, saying it has gained “a unique selling point of creativity as well as heritage”. If the social and political environment is supportive, more people are likely to become artists and inventors; if the learning environment is oriented in such a way, students at all levels can learn to be more creative. In the following expert opinion, Steve Brown provides a personal view on event design, based on substantial experience. Steve is an award-winning Australian event designer with a background in both professional practice and academic research, publication, and teaching. His most recent project was as a Creative Producer for the Adelaide Symphony Orchestra. His own text, Event Design: Creating and Staging the Event Experience was published in 2010. Also, read Steve Brown’s profile of Illuminate Adelaide in Chapter 5.

E X P E R T O P I N I O N 1 1 . 1 :   By Dr. Steve Brown Event Design I have long held the belief that if one commits to designing (as opposed to only managing) an event with the aim of maximising the experience for the audience, it will lead to a more positive and meaningful experience for them. This, in turn, will increase the effectiveness of communication of the narrative/theme of the event to the audience. An enhanced and targeted experience and a more effective communication method will also increase the likelihood of returning business (should the event be staged again) and of meeting the stated objectives of the event whether those objectives be cultural, commercial, personal – or just for fun. The use of the application of event design principles and techniques to make it better for your audience while increasing the likelihood of meeting your event’s objectives would seem an obvious starting point for any event regardless of purpose, budget, scale, style, genre, or desired outcome. Indeed, since identifying Event Design as a set of principles and techniques in 2004 – based on my own research and professional ­practice – I have proof of concept in the staging of a wide range of very successful events for which I have been responsible. The key to the successful staging of any event is a complete understanding of your audience and designing the event based on that understanding. Too often event creators (most frequently called “managers”) concentrate their efforts on operational/logistical issues to the exclusion of making their events audience-centric. The first questions an

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Event Design: Theory and Principles event creator or event organisation needs to identify are the raison d’être for the event and its target audience. Once these are known the event can be designed specifically for that target audience (not ‘market’). Events can’t be future-proofed or ensured of success even in the short term solely by staging well-managed events for ‘everyone’. Evaluation is a critical component of creating and staging the event experience. Preevent, evaluation can obtain simple socio-demographic information that informs the event designer about their target audience. The event evaluation enables us to identify audience behaviours and how the programme elements and the site design works interact with the audience. Post-event evaluation can capture spending patterns, recall of information, intention to return and, more importantly, how effectively the event met its desired measurable outcomes. The Adelaide Symphony Orchestra (ASO) is, like many orchestras, concerned about an ageing audience subscriber base. Their raison d’être for a series of hybrid ‘rock band with orchestra’ was to attract younger audiences – starting with ‘baby boomers’ and gradually working younger. The series has included music by Bowie, Queen, Deep Purple, Led Zeppelin, Pink Floyd, Muse, and Sigur Rós. To bring younger audiences to traditionally successful concerts there was also a gospel version of Handel’s Messiah. The programmes included innovative staging designed specifically for the target audience to demonstrate the integration of the bands within the orchestra and the power and majesty of orchestral performance – all while playing their music. The events have been very well attended and a mix of formal (written) and informal (standing ovations, multiple curtain calls, Facebook, etc.) evaluation has shown that the objectives have been met with an increased commitment to return to the ASO for concerts in its ‘standard’ programme. Event design works. In combination, these simple steps are very powerful and can improve any event. Event designers need to become practiced at these steps and ­pursue an event design body of knowledge by studying events and by immersing ­themselves in the community in which their event will be staged and learning as much as they can about their audience. Only then can an event be called designed and not just managed.

Sensory Stimulation and Mapping Research on sensory stimulation at events has been minimal, yet it is clearly an important element in the event experience. Biaett (2019, 250–251) observed from personal experience how the “infusion of senses and emotions” engaged event attendees. He said, At community festivals, the maximized interrelated factors of physical collaborative creative activity, stimulated senses, and cyclically aroused emotions, give rise to highly festive atmospheres during which social capital bonding and bridging flourishes and attendees attain peak levels of liminality with feelings of well being. In addition to the traditional five senses, Biaett suggested that attention be given to temperature, vibration, and balance. Duffy and Mair (2018) explored how sensual engagement facilitates social engagement, employing an ethnographic methodology and referring to ‘sensual geographies’ for theoretical support.

Event Design: Theory and Principles Each of the five senses is not only important in the design of event experiences, constituting some of the elements of style, but also provides the theme for numerous events. Spectacle is by definition a larger-than-life visual experience (i.e., sight) and is a frequent accompaniment to events in the form of costumes, performances, light shows, and fireworks. These are often stand-alone performances as well. Taste is the essence of food and beverage events, popular the world over, and food and beverage hospitality is also an essential component of almost all events that last more than a couple of hours. The sounds of music are incredibly varied and therefore provide unlimited possibilities for themed events, from popular music to the classics, with either musicians/composers or the style of music being celebrated. Touch (or haptics) such as hands-on experiences in preparing food, are of great importance to people who want to learn, be creative, and gain immediate satisfaction from their work. Perhaps the least utilised sense in event theming is smell, but it does provide a starting point for flower shows and perfume fairs, and, as every restaurateur knows, smells entice people to eat and drink, to enter a venue and linger. Smell also carries the advantage of being associated with memories, so that a smell can, years later, invoke a pleasant or unpleasant experience. It is worth noting that recalling unpleasant experiences can become amusing over time, leading to entertaining stories and tall tales. Lindenberg (2013) noted that lighting is one of a number of sensory cues that can affect human behaviour. Experiments have shown, for example, that lower levels result in greater interpersonal intimacy and quieter or reduced conversation. That is why event designers reduce lighting just before the curtain rises or the speakers take the stage, in order to quiet the audience. On the other hand, soft lighting during a banquet will likely encourage quiet conversation. People have colour preferences, and colours affect mood. Colour can be manipulated through lighting or other design features. Perceived spaciousness can be influenced by colours and lighting, helping to reduce feelings of crowding. Colour theory relates to how specific media affect colour appearance (i.e., the effects of context on colour appearance) whereas colour psychology considers the effects of colours on feelings and behaviour (e.g., will a pink room really calm prisoners and a red room increase tension? Does blue make people feel calm and cool?). Colour symbolism is culturally defined, as whether red suggests heat, anger, or danger – or all three. Desirable sounds motivate event attendance, and people will travel a long way for the right sounds and the musicians who create them. Noise, on the other hand, is an undesired sound. We can measure sound by decibels, and when the intensity is high it can cause annoyance or pain. Persistent, loud noise is universally shunned, as it is both physically bothersome and gets in the way of desired conversations or other interactions. Yet loud noise is also expected by many concert goers, so we always have to consider motivation and the physical characteristics of the listeners (e.g., old versus young, gender, and cultural backgrounds) before labelling sounds as unwanted noise. There are huge differences between rock concerts and classical music in terms of who attends, and what sounds they want or noise levels they will tolerate. Quiet, ambient music has been found to be relaxing, although many people are rather sick of the elevator music we are too often subjected to. Research related to sounds and events has been rare. The paper by Waitt and Duffy (2010) explored “...what ears and listening can add to the understanding of the interconnections between festival spaces and people. This project adopted an interdisciplinary approach that acknowledges listening as simultaneously a neurological, psychological and culturally situated process”. Waitt, Gorman-Murray, and Gibson (2011) reported on how … An embodied sense of rhythm can add to understandings of the relationship between festival spaces and people. Insights are given to how the rhythmic qualities of

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Event Design: Theory and Principles sound help orientate bodies in festival spaces, and how bodies produce festival space through embodied responses to the rhythmic qualities of sound. Tasting is obviously the critical factor in dining experiences, and tastes can be manipulated in other event environments to stimulate emotional and behavioural responses. The popularity of ‘taste of ’ events, themed with an endless variety of foodstuff, recipes, and cultural associations, is universal. This form of taste should not be confused with tastefulness, as in how one dresses or acts, which can be viewed as an element of cultural capital. Everett (2012) used the term ‘tastescape’ to describe areas that appeal to food tourists on the basis of purity and escape, and in this context both forms of taste and tastefulness are relevant. From research on foodies and food tourism (Getz et al., 2014) it is clear that foodies (or food lovers) can be defined by a set of attitudes and behaviours that emphasise a love of cooking and strong preferences for quality in the sourcing and preparation of their food. The emphasis on quality leads foodies to markets where fresh and local produce is the appeal, and to seek authentic food experiences (with special events being highly appealing) as cultural tourists. Some foodies, and many others who would never want to use that term, believe in healthy and sustainable food habits, and this is only in part related to taste or tastefulness. Whatever the perspective taken, there is absolutely no doubt that taste is a major motivator of travel and event attendance (Plate 11.1). Exhibit designers understand that involvement with displays is better than mere visual stimulation. Getting people to touch-and-try is one key step towards learning or buying. Harvey et al. (1998) discovered that they could more than double the time visitors spent at exhibits by making them interactive and multisensory and providing better lighting and easier-to-read lettering. Visitors felt more immersed in the overall museum experience.

Sensory Mapping This is a tool that can be used in conjunction with other methods to evaluate or improve experiences at events. In particular, the visitor experiences of people with special needs, children, the elderly, or those unfamiliar with certain environments can benefit from an array of sensory stimulation. Site planning can be modified to maximise exposure to smells, for example, or to minimise them. Combined with service mapping, specific reactions to light, sound, smell, etc. can form part of the evaluation of overall service and programme quality. Combining sensory data as perceived by users, designers can identify hot or cold spots where stimulation, delight, or disgust is concentrated. Figure 11.2 provides an example of how a sensory map can be linked to service mapping by participant observers, or on the basis of user feedback, during an entire event experience – from entry to the site, through various experience opportunities, to departure. In this example, the five senses are represented by circles, and these can be enlarged relative to each other depending on their importance in any area or at particular points in time. They could also be colourcoded, or substituted with radar graphs. It is possible that all five senses are engaged to some extent all the time, but one or more are likely to dominate – or should dominate by design. Instead of examining the senses within a flow of event experiences, the setting or venue itself can be mapped in advance, leading to design modifications. For example, where (and when in the flow) do you want the visitor to experience that visual “Wow” experience? At the entrance, or when the entertainment begins and everyone is seated? Where in the large fair site, for example, will smells and tastes be maximised? Combining sensory mapping with cognitive mapping (for wayfaring) should help improve site planning, programming, and the overall event experience.

Event Design: Theory and Principles

Plate 11.1  Professors Tommy Andersson (right) and Donald Getz, Conducting Hands-on Research of Food and Wine Tourism in Italy Photo Credit: Photo by Donald Getz

Aesthetics is a branch of philosophy, but aesthetic appeal is usually associated with art and can involve all of the five senses. That is why we can talk about culinary arts, visual arts, etc. Aesthetic design elements might also hold symbolic meaning, and this can be manipulated by event designers. For example, certain colours, design features (like expensive art), and shapes or patterns are associated with political ideologies, royalty, lifestyles, social class, or other potentially unifying or controversial themes.

Sensation Seeking, Arousal, and Optimal Stimulation According to Zuckerman (1979), sensation seeking is a core personality trait, defined by the search for experiences and feelings that are “varied, novel, complex and intense”. Risk-taking is often part of this trait, but so is novelty seeking without risks. Research has demonstrated large differences among people in terms of their preference for sensory stimulation. People who are high sensation seekers, generally more males than females, require a lot of stimulation

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Event Design: Theory and Principles 1: Approach & Enter Venue: Visual smulaon: Traffic, staff, queues, direcons

SIGHT

2: Seang; waing for the meal: Olfactory smulaon dominates

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TASTE

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TASTE

SOUND S

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TOUCH H

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3: The Banquet: Tastes of food and wine

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SOUND 4: Entertainment Music, conversaon

TOUCH H

S SMELL

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5: Buying and Taking home souvenirs

Figure 11.2  Sample Sensory Map for an Event to reach their personal “optimal level of arousal”. The components of sensation seeking are thrills and adventure, unconventional experiences, disinhibition (e.g., participation in out-of-control activities), and intolerance of boredom. Interpersonal and environmental stimuli cause responses, both physiological and psychological, triggering behavioural responses. Sometimes event designers want to increase arousal, as in fostering celebration or revelry, and at other times they decrease stimulation in order to foster reverence or attentiveness. People have a limited capacity for dealing with a lot of stimulation and can become over-stimulated. When this happens, it can trigger withdrawal or anxiety, and it will usually result in a filtering of stimuli to focus on the necessary or desirable inputs. Another strategy frequently employed by people is to attempt to eliminate or adjust the stimulus, such as by screening information, turning down noise and light levels, or engaging in conversation in order to mask an annoying or boring speaker.

Environmental Stress Environmental stress theory analyses how stress factors affect people, communities, and cultures, and their responses to stress. When things feel out of control, beyond our ability to cope, we feel stress. So too when the environment poses danger, or we perceive risks. Event settings or programmes that generate sensory overload, overcrowding, nasty surprises, bad behaviour on the part of other guests, or poorly managed environmental systems can cause stress. A lack of knowledge about what is happening can generate fear and stress, so timely communications are always essential. According to Bilotta and Evans (2013, 28), chronic environmental stressors

Event Design: Theory and Principles cause the greatest harm, such as when people are exposed to continuous noise or air pollution, whereas acute stressors are those we would expect from temporary events, including crowding, noise, excessive waiting, sensory overloads, overwhelming security, or fear of being trapped. Berlonghi (1990, 73) concluded that panic at events is likely to stem from real or perceived threats, and he discussed eight crowd characteristics to help managers or security personnel identify crowd problems and security threats. Freedman (1975) also experimented with ‘contagion’, which is the rapid spread of emotions or behaviour through a group or crowd. This phenomenon obviously has a direct bearing on events, as in some cases we want to foster positive contagion (especially celebration and humour) and in others it is very bad (fear and fighting).

Personal Space What is the difference between intimacy, personal distance, social distance, and public distance? We want intimacy with lovers and family, but not strangers. We tolerate crowds, even seek them out, when a certain atmosphere is desired. At meetings, we might feel uncomfortable if the seats are too close. Hall (1966) identified the four spatial zones, with ‘intimate distance’ being 0 to 1.5 feet (touching and feeling distance, with lots of contact and various sensory exchanges). ‘Personal distance’ is 1.5 to 4 feet (mostly verbal and visual contacts; contacts with friends and regular acquaintances). ‘Social distance’ is 4 to 12 feet (impersonal and business-like eye and voice contacts, no touching, normal voice levels). Fourth, ‘public distance’ is over 12 feet (formality, as in students’ relationship to a lecturer in a classroom; when the need exists for technical assistance or raising one’s voice). A related concept is territoriality, which refers to a tendency for similar groups to stick together and apart from other groups. Within- and between-group interactions are easy to observe in most social settings, such as the little cliques that form at parties. If you want people to join in, leave an obvious opening, as in a crescent, but if you feel exclusionary, form a tight little knot with everyone facing inwards. Another form of territoriality occurs when people protect space for themselves or their group, like reserving seats or claiming tables at a banquet.

Using Positive Psychology in Designing Events Coghlan (2015) examined how to harness the key tenets of positive psychology into the design principles for events to achieve eudaimonic states (i.e., the state of mind where an individual can flourish and be happy) so that their sense of well-being is enhanced. Coghlan pointed to five predictors of well-being that have been identified as enhancing eudaimonic states: Intentional activity is derived from the literature on leisure where physical activity contributes to happiness (especially when combined with something like a charity event, which Coghlan studied). Motivation and goal attainment: intrinsic motivation with self-set goals which can be attained – as well as setting mini goals within the event. Activation of signature strengths: Coghlan described these as the thoughts, feelings, and behaviours of individuals that can contribute to the reward of participation such as endurance, a sense of community, leadership, and so forth. Positive emotions and gratification, where positive emotions help to achieve a state of authentic happiness which may be displayed through enjoyment, engagement, and satisfaction with the event.

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Event Design: Theory and Principles Sharing positive events, where individuals recount and reminisce about events in the past. Coghlan highlighted the value of appropriate forms of event design to incorporate these principles, whereby the intentional element can be achieved from the point of sign-up to the end of the charity event. The study lays the groundwork for the further development of well-being and event research. Neuhofer et al. (2021) relied on environmental psychology to inform their innovative study of the Burning Man Festival, which they described as having the reputation of being a largescale, transformative experience. They used Instagram data from before, during, and after the event to analyse digital expressions of experience, revealing and mapping 30 clusters that could trigger transformation. Clusters occurred in both an “outer socio-environmental sphere and an inner socio-psychological sphere, which, together, render the experience as a liminal space-time vehicle, giving rise to transformational festivals” (p. 11). Findings highlighted the importance of communitas, positive emotions, and social engagement.

Evidence and Research-Based Design A purely artistic approach to design is suitable for some performances, but when designing events and their programming it is highly recommended to base goals, design concepts, and the evaluation process on available evidence, and that can only be obtained through evaluation and other research. The process is dedicated to basing decisions on credible research and evidence from praxis to achieve desired outcomes. The example described below is for the design of food and wine events, but the approach is adaptable to many other situations. At many events, the food and beverage service is incidental to the main theme and programme and can be considered part of hospitality, but at others, it is experientially paramount. In particular, research has demonstrated the importance of events in satisfying the special interests of food and wine lovers, whether they stay close to home or travel the globe in search of rewarding gastronomic experiences. Getz et al. (2014) provided the research evidence for the design concept that is illustrated here (also see Getz et al., 2013; Getz, 2013b; Getz and Robinson, 2014). Most food and beverage events are focused on consumption – eating and drinking. Throw in some entertainment (and maybe some family fun) and the typical hedonistic food or beverage event emerges. But this is not what highly involved food and wine lovers want from their event experiences. As a theoretical base, involvement theory (or ego-involvement or leisure involvement) has been employed to identify the core characteristics of being a foodie or a wine lover and to profile wine and food tourists on the basis of their level of involvement (this being a segmentation method). Attending events has been revealed as being highly attractive, but more importantly, the desired experiential components that separate the highly involved from those who attend primarily for consumption or socialising have been identified. This model reflects demand-side thinking in which design follows from market intelligence. Of course, many existing food and wine-related events are based on tradition and will not necessarily want to follow this approach. It is highly appropriate for event-tourism purposes and the private sector seeking profit. Conceptually, Figure 11.3 shows the necessity for positioning food or wine events in such a way that they can attract dedicated food/wine tourists, and not merely provide generic benefits. The designed wine or food event for the highly involved segments can be stand-alone, such as a tasting at a restaurant or demonstrations by experts, or part of a larger festival. The designer starting with this concept can manifest the various core benefits with actual programming. For example, the learning benefit includes mastery of techniques, leading to cooking classes with chefs or wine blending with the winemaker. The creativity benefit includes aesthetic appreciation,

Event Design: Theory and Principles • Eating & drinking; buying; being entertained; having fun; socialising

• Demonstrations; interpretation and story telling; formal classes; exhibitions

LEARNING & MASTERY

GENERIC BENEFITS

Events targeted at the highly involved will integrate all elements

CULTURAL AUTHENTICITY • Celebration; rituals; traditions on display; communitas (belonging and sharing)

CREATIVITY & AESTHETIC APPRECIATION

• Engaging in the art of cooking or wine making; being exposed to different cuisines and winemaking styles

Figure 11.3  Design Concept for Food and Wine Events Source: Adapted from Getz, Robinson, Andersson, and Vujicic (2014)

such as a focus on serving food and wine/food pairings. Making the event ­culturally authentic can be accomplished through rituals and celebrations with like-minded food and wine lovers (achieving communitas) and through heritage interpretation – telling stories, for example, of why and how various foods have become traditions in local cuisine, or of the legendary wine pioneers.

Dramaturgy and Design As explained in the expert opinion by Vassilios Ziakas, dramaturgy offers deep insights into symbolic representations that impart shared meanings in events.

E X P E R T O P I N I O N 1 1 . 2 :   By Dr. Vassilios Ziakas Events Civic Dramaturgy Dramaturgy: the symbolic representations that instantiate shared meanings in events (Ziakas and Costa, 2011) The capacity of events, mainly through celebration and ritual, to generate communal symbolic meaning for groups and communities, and thus enable collective action is widely recognised. But while it is valued as the greatest strength of events, it is not

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Event Design: Theory and Principles thoroughly understood apart from ritual studies (Turner, 1969). The symbolic constitution of shared meaning configurations and the underlying processes of their creation remain unexplored in contemporary event-related scholarship. Event Studies fail to account for how representational meaning-making performances, interactions, stories, signs, icons, metaphors or allegories shape social relations, spaces, and systems. They actually overlook the very core of symbolic performance that events enable: the drama – that is an overwhelming meaning-making social praxis performed as much in everyday life as in events trying to make sense of the world and the place of people in it through means of symbolic action (Turner, 1974). The notion of dramaturgy brings to light conditions and modalities of communal meaning creation in events. However, it is often merely (and falsely) confused with Goffman’s symbolic interactionist view of individuals’ social action as a theatrical performance. Event dramaturgy departs from Goffman’s perspective considerably as it extends the study of symbolic action to collective performances that enact some sort of social drama to foster shared meaning for groups and communities. It sheds light on how liminality and communitas compose a communal ‘theatrical-like’ stage whereupon social drama is performed through the embodiment of symbolic event performances. It thus seeks to interpret embodied performances as a form of social drama, as meta-commentaries entailing polysemic structures that yield a variety of interconnected hedonic, atmospheric, and imaginative effects. This constitutes a dramaturgic process of ‘symbolic world-making’, as we showed in the case of a freediving event (Ziakas et al., 2022), which assists in (re)constructing alternate social realities and reinstitutes kinship links among people sharing common values within the event spaces. The above study has led me to formulate the resultant civic perspective of dramaturgy, which provides a comprehensive and discursive dramatological analytic of symbolic action and expressive culture in collective embodied performances (Ziakas, 2021). In line with my earlier work (Ziakas and Costa, 2010a, 2011), I defined civic dramaturgy in events as the extraction of shared meanings stemming from the co-performance of symbolic representations. With this dramatological lens, my intent is to examine how polysemic structures, formulated by symbols, narratives, and genres, instantiate symbolic representations in embodied performances. Subsequently, through this prism I view symbolic action to be performatively and conjointly experienced, nurturing a communal mindset that enables collective action. In all, this perspective shifts focus on the engrained mechanisms of civic dramaturgy. It is a novel theoretical analytic to study symbolic action and embodied event performances. In Figure 11.4, we can see a schematic illustration of the civic dramatological analytic. This lens integrates the ritualistic, theatrical, aesthetic, and performative aspects of social drama to investigate the construction of polysemic meaning structures (at cognitive, affective, and conative levels) that derive from layered symbols, multiple narratives, and embedded genres such as rituals, festivals, arts, or games. Polysemic structures carry intents, worldviews, and mentalities to be voiced in the embodied performances of symbolisms and imaginaries. These allegorical representations are portrayed and performed within symbolic social spaces that have the capacity to facilitate metaphoric discourse. This way the dramaturgical subtext is made up encompassing what is being said, deliberated, and negotiated in a social drama. The intended subtext can be inscribed in event elements, settings, and activities forming prepared and rehearsed scripts

Event Design: Theory and Principles

Polysemic structures - Symbols - Narraves - Genres

Embodied performances

Instantaon of symbolic acon

- Symbolic social spaces - Metaphoric discourse

- Instanang conduits - Shared meaning

Social order - Affirm - Contest - Transform

Figure 11.4  The Analytic Lens of Civic Dramaturgy Source: Adapted from Ziakas (2021)

and/or extended improvisational scenarios of action. We need to know how to divulge the subtext and pinpoint the means that can enhance symbolisms through their collective performance within event spaces (in ritualistic, theatrical, aesthetic, and performative terms). More importantly, we should bear in mind that for symbolic meaning to take shape and be crystalised in the public sphere, it should be instantiated and exemplified within its performative event context. To fully understand this multi-­layered process, we should look into the factors and settings working as instantiating conduits (or instantiators) that form shared meaning. Because symbolic action is performatively and collectively experienced, civic dramaturgy has the potential to promote an outlook for collective action. As a result, the instantiation of symbolic action enables event attendees to affirm, challenge, contest, or transform social orders that make up their relations, spaces, and systems. By examining processes of instantiation, we can appreciate the mechanisms of civic dramaturgy and how to leverage symbolic action through events. Therefore, I stress that it is imperative to reinstate the place of drama in event scholarship, and clear confusion from common misconceptions about the essence of drama in event settings and behaviours. I suggest that civic dramaturgy can progress our understanding of events as an entanglement of embodied practices and contribute to the literature by complementing and expanding extant performance studies and theory. The dramatological analytic can be taken up by future researchers to promote interdisciplinary investigation of events and attendant phenomena interlinked with symbols, social interactions, imaginaries, and cultures.

The Authentic Big Blue Event on the Greek Island of Amorgos It is an international freediving competition that celebrates the film Big Blue (1988) by Luc Besson, which was shot for the most part on the island. Its dramaturgy blending sport and art (film scene re-enactments and underwater gallery photo exhibition) instantiates freediving ideals and the legacy of the film that put Amorgos on the map as a tourism destination. See Plate 11.2.

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Plate 11.2  The Authentic Big Blue Event on the Greek Island of Amorgos Photo Credit: Photos taken by Vassilios Ziakas

References Turner, V. (1969). The Ritual Process: Structure and Anti-Structure. New York: Aldine de Gruyter. Turner, V. (1974). Dramas, Fields and Metaphors: Symbolic Action in Human Society. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press. Ziakas, V. (2021). Reclaiming drama in tourism research: A dramatological analytic. ­Tourism Recreation Research, 1–5. Ziakas, V., & Costa, C. A. (2010a). ‘Between theatre and sport’ in a rural event: Evolving unity and community development from the inside-out. Journal of Sport and Tourism, 15 (1), 7–26. Ziakas, V., & Costa, C. A. (2011). ‘The show must go on’: Event dramaturgy as consolidation of community. Journal of Policy Research in Tourism, Leisure and Events, 4 (1), 28–47. Ziakas, V., Lundberg, C., & Sakkas, G. (2022). ‘Out of the black, into the big blue’ on a single breath: Sport event value co-creation as symbolic world-making. Journal of Sport Management, 36 (1), 25–44.

Design and Co-creation Pernecky (2023) presented a new model of co-creation for events, emphasising the need to engage all stakeholders in the process, viewing them as partners, thereby extending the scope of co-creation design beyond guests and customers. The model differentiates between weak and strong co-creation in a spectrum. Rather than thinking in terms of designing the co-­ creation of experiences and value, Pernecky argued that it should be an emergent process. This

Event Design: Theory and Principles will be more achievable in smaller organisations without rigid, centralized decision-making. The resulting “democratic ecosystem” advocated by Pernecky might actually be more feasible in portfolios, wherein events collaborate. This would constitute strategic design at a macro level.

Designing Event Settings Event settings are places that have to be defined as special for the duration of the ‘time out of time’ that constitutes a planned event. The main initial considerations are location (e.g., centrality and accessibility), site characteristics (is it suitable for the event?), and the social–cultural context (has it got historical and cultural meaning?). Infrastructure and management systems then have to be developed or modified, including basic services, theme and programme, amenities and guest services, security, and controls. Generic types of event settings are described below. Assembly: These are settings for meetings, conventions, concerts, festivals, and spectator sports – any event bringing together large numbers of people where seating, viewing, and listening are core design functions. Sports arenas and stadia were once entirely outdoors, but now indoor facilities are preferred for major events plus entertainment functions. Theatres can be stand-alone or part of convention/exhibition centres, arts complexes, educational institutions, or commercial resorts and hotels. An event manager can often rent assembly venues that have their own management systems, and those who operate such venues are automatically in the event business. Virtual assembly spaces are coming into their own, see Plate 4.1 Simulations attempt to enable social interaction, not merely viewing and listening. Plate 6.1 shows a more traditional assembly with speakers and viewers. The huge arena displayed in Plate 17.1, from Auckland, facilitates both major sport events and concerts. In Plate 3.1, an outdoor setting, the golf course, has been transformed for spectator and media events by adding temporary seating. Parade or Procession: Parades, flotillas, cavalcades, marches, and other similar events are linear, mobile forms of entertainment, spectacle or ritual with special design and management requirements. The audience might be standing, seated, or moving along with the procession. The most common linear setting, however, is a street with a static audience along the route. Some processions pass through seating areas in stadia, where they take on the form of theatre, as in Rio de Janeiro’s Carnival. Logistics for such events are challenging, such as getting everyone in a parade or race mobilised for proper sequencing, the likelihood of causing traffic disruption and congestion, and the fact that most streets are unsuited for watching parades. Linear-nodal: Many sport events involve races or other linear forms of activity, including long-distance running and auto racing, which combine elements of procession with nodes of activity. Usually, the audience congregates at the nodes, such as start, finish, and transition points, but could be dispersed along the entire route, like a parade. The event designer will often have to provide live video feeds from the linear portions to the places where fans congregate. Service points for athletes and vehicles are also needed. The establishment of fan zones at major sport events has become a common practice, and this can be viewed as experience augmentation or co-creation. The fan zone experience, as Woratschek et al. (2017) concluded, enabled the highly desired benefits of shared experience and the freedom to move around. Plate 1.2 depicts the opening of Gravel Royale which would be a linear event except that it requires overnight, temporary accommodation in tent villages (Plate 10.1). TransRockies races mostly start and finish in towns, adding to the event nodes.

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Event Design: Theory and Principles Open space: Events make use of parks, plazas, and closed-off streets, especially in publicly sponsored events designed to appeal to mass audiences. Free movement is a feature of these settings, but they usually also contain sub-areas for assembly, procession, and exhibition/sales. European cities seem to have the advantage in terms of beautiful, culturally significant squares for events (although they are often over-crowded in peak travel seasons) while North American cities tend to have more space, such as waterfronts and natural parks to use for large public gatherings (Getz, 2001). Environmental concerns are important in parks, while potential damage to buildings is a concern in urban plazas. Smith (2016) examined both the positives and negatives of utilising public spaces for events, and conflicts often occur when residents perceive a loss of space or feel direct, negative impacts. Outdoor sport facilities of all types serve as event venues, and increasingly sport complexes have been built with sport tourism as a top priority. Just how residents and visitors attending events manage to share such facilities is a challenge for managers. Several open space festival settings are illustrated in the book, both from cities and the great outdoors. Exhibition/sales: Purpose-built exhibition and convention centres are the best suited for trade and consumer shows, although any event can incorporate areas for food and beverages, or other merchandise sales and demonstrations. These settings are designed to entice entry and circulation, browsing, and sales. Sometimes the audience merely views the exhibits; at other venues, sales are made. Since the purpose of these events is usually commerce, a number of principles from environmental psychology have to be applied to the design in order to ensure that interpersonal contacts are facilitated. Good circulation is necessary, but it is also desirable to have people linger and talk.

Event Settings as Restorative or Instorative Environments Setting affordances are those objective characteristics of the venue or setting that make certain actions and behaviours possible. For example, an attractive, spacious function room presents many social possibilities to dinner guests, but without wheelchair accessibility, some people cannot enter. Affordance is also a concept rooted in cognition and environmental psychology, emphasising perceived affordances. Regardless of the intentions of venue managers or event producers, people’s perception of what is possible, and what is a barrier, can differ greatly. All settings will offer something the event designer can exploit, but also present limitations. It is related to the spectrum of event settings, wherein built venues in urban environments are quite different from natural areas in what an event designer can and should do to facilitate the desired experiences. In some cases, a setting will have to be rejected because there is a mismatch. Also, consider the ways in which settings and events can work harmoniously to reduce stress and enhance well-being. Festivals and events can be restorative in terms of reducing the stress of daily life, or instorative by way of fostering mood enhancement and an improved sense of well-being. Environmental psychologists know that exposure to nature can be restorative (Joye and van den Berg, 2013), and that means holding events in parks and gardens, or in areas with water features, can have positive results. On the other hand, many events held outdoors do not facilitate rest and relaxation, with competitive sports and noisy music concerts being the prime examples. Indoors, the ambient conditions provided by designers (including lighting, layout, temperature, plants,

Event Design: Theory and Principles water features, noise suppression, pleasant smells, and mystery), can be restorative through facilitation of physical and psychological comfort and opportunities for reflection, as demonstrated by Packer and Bond (2010) for museums.

Over-Stimulation or Complexity The well-known phenomenon of mental fatigue has to be understood by event designers. Viewers, shoppers, listeners, and tasters can only devote so much attention before becoming mentally fatigued, experiencing the kind of sensory overload that prevents further enjoyment. If you are tasting wines or food delicacies, there is a limit beyond which discrimination of taste ceases to exist. In a museum, visitors eventually start passing by many exhibits without stopping because they have already absorbed enough. The same kind of mental fatigue can result in conventioneers skipping sessions, students falling asleep in class (boredom might also be a factor) or visitors to art exhibits merely glancing at outstanding works of art. Event designers can plan their setting to focus attention quickly on the primary exhibits or other features, to reach visitors prior to fatigue setting in. Lecturers, speakers, and textbook authors can hit the highlights first, then go on to the more mundane details.

Attraction Gradients This concept refers to the ways in which people move in relation to the objects of their attention, or in other words, how do you ensure that what you have to offer or exhibit gets the attendees’ attention? Some positions in an exhibition, for example, are better than others. There will be a gradient of high to low-traffic sites, with those facing the entrance having the highest. Being located next to the free food and drinks helps! Typically exhibition owners charge more for the larger and better-located sites within the venue, based on knowledge of how these factors affect viewing and sales.

The Kaplan (1987) Preference Model for Environments The Kaplan (1987) model, from environmental psychology, helps to predict people’s preferences for various types of environments. There are four basic considerations that can be used as design principles for event settings: 1 ‘Coherence’: the scene is organised, and everything hangs together. 2 ‘Legibility’: we can categorise or understand the setting, everything is clear. 3 ‘Complexity’: a measure of the number and variety of elements in the setting. 4 ‘Mystery’: hidden information or surprises are present, and we are drawn into the setting to learn more. Too much complexity or mystery, however, can be a bad thing. Mystery can be incompatible with legibility, and can potentially become frightening. If the event designer provides light and dark contrasts, the viewer might be drawn in, whereas too dark a room can be scary. Also, consider an empty room versus one in which people are present. Are we normally inclined to enter a space in which no other people are present? What appeals to people for meetings, trade shows, and learning seminars might be quite different from settings for sports, public celebrations, and private parties.

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Cognitive Mapping and Wayfinding Cognitive mapping is the process of acquiring, coding, storing, and recalling (and eventually utilising) information about the environment, such as where things are located or how to get there. We therefore hold mental images, or constructs, of the spatial patterns and relationships that are important to us, based on everyday experience (and perhaps studying maps or searching Google). Wayfinding is how we navigate, and in novel situations like going to an event for the first time, or moving into a large venue, we might have difficulty. In unfamiliar surroundings, we need information, both graphic and text, as well as other cues as to what movement is either required (such as “no entry”) or optional (such as “kids’ village this way”). Cues can be provided by sensory stimulation (e.g., dark areas discourage traffic) or the organisation and design of a venue. Coherence and legibility are important when it comes to environmental preferences, so how do we translate that into event design, and how does it impact event experiences? Bateson (1989) said that legibility is crucial in all ‘servicescapes’ because customers arrive with expectations of how the site will function. These are, of course, social constructs, such as the notion that festival sites should always have a main stage and a food/beverage area, toilets have to be close-by, and accommodation in a tent village will be within walking or viewing distance. Lynch (1960) provided the classic approach to cognitive mapping in cities, with implications for event settings. His key principles should be applied to event site planning so that people can easily understand the layout and efficiently navigate within it. The larger and more complex the site, the more important it is to strive for coherence and legibility. Lynch stressed the following features for optimal wayfinding. ‘nodes’: activity places (provide a central stage and entertainment area within a park; arrange the venue to have multiple, easily located focal points) ‘paths’: routes people follow (direction and flow within an event venue has to be controlled; use signs and edges) ‘landmarks’: shapes, signs, or symbols that everyone can see and refer to (e.g., every world’s fair builds a monument, usually in the centre) ‘districts’: neighbourhoods, shopping centres, and other themed areas (group compatible activities together) ‘edges’: perceptual or real barriers between districts (people should recognise where they are in relation to other districts). Lynch also found age and gender differences in how people wayfare, and there are probably many cultural differences as well. This suggests a research project for application to a variety of event sites. Barker’s (1968) behaviour settings can also be adapted to fit different circumstances and goals. The three generic means of control pertain to: ‘Access’ (who gets in, or under what schedule) ‘Design capacity’ (i.e., the numbers allowed; consider peak and average attendance) ‘Flow’ (time spent on-site; turnover rates). It is also necessary to consider accessibility for persons with physical and other disabilities or special needs

Event Design: Theory and Principles

The Affective Quality of Places A model by Russell and Lanius (1984), called “adaptation level and the affective appraisal of environments” holds the premise that emotional reactions to environments can be described in words along two continua: from pleasant to unpleasant, and from arousing to sleepy. Forty descriptors were developed through research, falling into these four quadrants: 1 Highly arousing and highly pleasant (e.g., exciting, exhilarating, interesting). 2 Highly arousing and unpleasant (e.g., distressing, frenzied, tense, hectic). 3 Unarousing and unpleasant (e.g., dull, dreary, unstimulating). 4 Unarousing but pleasant (e.g., serene, tranquil, peaceful, restful). Russell and Lanius determined through experimentation that the same stimulus (they used photographs) can generate widely different affective appraisals. In other words, setting designers cannot be certain that their work will elicit the intended emotional response. One major reason is that people adapt to the environment and particular stimuli, so they react differently after related experiences.

Theatrical Design Principles Theatre is one form of planned event, and theatres are common event settings, but as already discussed theatre is also a metaphor for performances and events of all kinds. There is ample scope for the event designer to draw upon theatrical productions to enhance event settings and experiences. Experience design according to Haahti and Komppula (2006) draws heavily on dramaturgy which is part of theatre and performance studies. They provide examples in which high-contact, high-involvement tourists co-create experiences with professional stagers or facilitators. Ideas for ‘manuscripts’ and ‘staged experiences’ have to be generated with the needs and expectations of guests in mind, embodying myths, stories, and history from the place or event. “This enables the creation of a place and a space for being together and the development of a group identity in experiencing” (ibid., 103). In this approach, the stage is whatever venue the experience takes place in, but it has to be appropriate to the design.

Staging: This is the most fundamental theatrical concept, based on the fact that plays and many other performances are usually produced in a specific (assembly) venue with a stage and an audience. Staging or stagecraft applies to both the layout of this type of setting and to what is done on the stage (or within the entire performance space, whatever it is) to facilitate the performance and enhance the audience’s experience.



Scripting and choreography: In most forms of theatrical performance the script is followed to the letter. How appropriate this is at other events is a matter of style and intent. In some respects, a schedule of activities, or the event programme, is a script. As an alternative, specific elements of an event can be scripted while the overall performance is improvised, or merely themed. Choreography, borrowed from dance, is an alternative approach to events. Here, characters and interactions are suggested through notations, but the actual behaviour of performers is somewhat creative and unpredictable.



Timing and build: Timing, or scheduling, has to consider the audience’s attention span and responses to stimuli, keeping in mind that “event time is different from real time and audiences respond differently to it”. In general, Brown and James (2004, 61) recommended programming

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Event Design: Theory and Principles tightly and accurately to maintain flow and contact with the audience. ‘Build’ is the use of time and programming, including ebbs and peaks of intensity, to maximise impact on the audience. There is a skill in using limited resources to achieve great emotional or intellectual stimulation. Brown and James (2004) discussed five specific theatrical applications to events. Scale, shape, and focus apply to the setting, whereas timing and build come under the heading of scripting or programming.

Scale: It is important to match the scale of the event or activity to the venue, in part to ensure the audience can see and understand what is happening. This principle will affect decisions on whether to stress the visual over the aural, and three-dimensional over two-dimensional. The audience needs enclosure but does not want to feel restricted.



Shape: Drawing from environmental psychology, knowledge of how an audience relates to, and moves within an environment, is essential. Removing visual and tangible clutter or distractions, and keeping things simple and legible, are important design principles for event settings.



Focus: The use of blocking techniques from theatre and film direction ensures that the ­audience concentrates on what the designer/programmer wants it to focus on. Consider how lighting, colour, movement, and shape affect people (this draws on both cognitive and environmental psychology). Design Capacity: Several interrelated connotations of capacity have to be considered by event designers, as follows:



– abiding by legal attendance or occupancy limits (i.e., how many people are allowed in a room, in a venue, or in a space as regulated by fire marshals or other officials?). – determining the capacity of an open-air site, by reference to the desired experience, emergency evacuation, security, and impact on the environment. – evaluating perceptual capacity (this relates to perceived crowding, or how guests/customers feel safe and comfortable with a given density). An important question in all settings will relate to servicing the expected audience. Specifically, how much is needed for food, water, tents, car parking, and staff? Being able to forecast attendance and other needs is critical to supply management. It is a very high-risk strategy to allow unlimited access to an event and then try to match supplies to the actual demand. The safer alternative is to establish a design capacity, then restrict attendance to numbers that can be accommodated (with reference to both physical capacity and desired level of service quality). Modularisation of an event can be used to combine these strategies by setting design capacities for critical elements (such as concerts) and allowing open attendance at others (e.g., parades). How long does it take to sell tickets, get people through security, for customers to buy food, or use the toilets? Efficiency studies are often needed to identify bottlenecks and management solutions. Capacity can often be increased, and wait times reduced, by either physical redesign, changes in staffing, or the addition or deletion of certain services within the site or venue. A related issue is deciding that a site is at capacity and no-one else can be allowed in. That can pose problems, not the least of which is disgruntled people who want to get in. One of the severe challenges facing many event producers is the fact that if tickets are not sold (for concerts and dinners), the revenue is lost. In technical terms, this kind of capacity cannot be stored, it is perishable. That is why the practice of revenue or yield management is required.

Event Design: Theory and Principles A related consideration is the capacity to absorb tourism, which requires stakeholder engagement and a political decision on what types of tourists, how many, when, and where they can be accommodated in a community without doing harm and arousing complaints of over-tourism.

Evaluation of Settings Customer satisfaction is commonly surveyed, but what exactly is being considered when a guest is satisfied, or not, with the setting and the experience? Great understanding can come from evaluative research that looks at perceived quality, combined with the assigned importance and performance (IP) of various elements of the setting and programme. IP measures how each element in the venue or setting has contributed to overall satisfaction. Guests and customers can be quite dissatisfied with elements of the setting, service, and programme yet express overall satisfaction with the event.

Theming and Programming A theme is a unifying idea or concept. It can be a visual or sensory theme, in the realms of decorators and chefs, an activity theme (styles of sport, play, and recreation), a fantasy theme (beloved by party planners, and usually combining decor and entertainment), an emotional theme (such as a celebration of something of value at a festival or commemoration), or it can be intellectual in nature (such as the conference topic or workshop problem). Thematic interpretation: When education is an aim, the theme should be stimulating and provocative, embodying tangible and intangible elements. Memorable themes tap into universal belief systems and should provide the take-home message – the moral of the story (Ham et al., 2005). Many entertainment or decoration themes do not do that, nor is it necessarily appropriate at concerts, parties, and other social gatherings. Whatever goes into the event programme, from sensory stimulation to entertainment and spectacle, should ideally reflect and reinforce the theme. Festivals can be defined as themed, public celebrations. If it is a Mozart Festival the theme is fairly obvious, but there might be layers of theming – the grand, unifying theme plus subthemes. Deliberately or by neglect, themes can be open to interpretation. Superficially the theme might be popular music, but do the attendees see it more as an opportunity for a sub-culture celebration involving drinking, drugs, or sex? In that case, the perceived theme might be completely different from the marketed theme, and an evaluation of motivations and meanings is needed.

Programme Planning and Life-Cycles A programme is scheduled or scripted activities for the audience and other participants. A ­concert programme can be quite simple, consisting of the order of artists or musical pieces. A festival programme might be complex, involving multiple days and venues with numerous activities and performances. Sport events have scheduled times for competitions and award ceremonies. Meetings and conventions typically operate within tight agendas to make sure the programme of speakers, plenary and breakout sessions, meals, coffee breaks, and social events keep to the schedule. Often they do not, thereby requiring flexibility to be built in. The programme planning process usually starts with an evaluation of existing programming and/or new idea generation. It is generally wise to test ideas, although for planned events this

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Event Design: Theory and Principles can be difficult. At a basic level, focus groups can be held to test programme ideas with potential patrons or with stakeholder groups, and at a more costly level, mini-events can be held to see if the concept is feasible and satisfies target segments. This stage is equivalent to formative evaluation. Life-cycle considerations are important. Some programmes and services can be slated for a short life expectancy, including their planned termination, while others can be allowed to run a full course through growth, maturity, and decline. If sales and profits are the primary measure of success, a programme or service will have to be terminated, or rejuvenated through reinvestment and repositioning, when profit margins shrink. Community service and goodwill programmes do not necessarily have to be terminated because of cost and revenue considerations, but their ongoing effectiveness has to be demonstrated. Sustaining traditional programmic elements, while innovating regularly to test new ones, is a model followed by many events including the Calgary Stampede (see Getz, 1993b, 1997). At some point, changes to programming can be so substantial as to constitute repositioning of the event. The life-cycle concept, whether it is applied to programme elements or the entire life of an event, or to portfolios of events as they evolve, links directly to the evaluation stages called formative, process, and summative (see Getz, 2018, Event Evaluation). These are discussed again in Chapter 14.

Programmic Elements of Style Style means a characteristic way of doing things to create a unique event or programme, excellence of artistic expression (being a measure of product or programme quality), or fashion (which always changes). We can say that designers have their own style, and that all events are stylistically different. Recall our earlier discussions of aesthetics and beauty, because style is largely subjective and therefore subject to widely different interpretations. Each programmic element of style has a creative and a technical component, and often they can be combined. Generally, the elements have to be designed in concert with the setting and implemented through physical development and all the management systems. Some programmic elements of style are hallmarks of particular types of events. That is, the type of event embodies it, as in exhibitions requiring demonstrations or sales, or festivals incorporating celebratory rituals. A hallmark can also be thought of as a social construct, with the element closely associated with a certain name or form. For example, business and trade events like fairs and trade shows involve commerce by nature. Festivals are celebrations, so they have to incorporate belonging and sharing, emotional stimulation, rituals, and symbolism. Sports and recreation must involve games or competitions. These constructs might vary from culture to culture, with sub- and counter-culture variations as well. Standing alone, one element of style looks bare and will generate a rather narrow range of experiences. Sports are packaged as festivals for a good reason, to expand their appeal and generate additional benefits. Business events are serious, but they almost always base part of their appeal on social and touristic opportunities. The idea of converging forms and functions in the events sector reflects this point. One way to specify programmic elements of style is to list the actions a programmer or designer can include, or the activities that participants and guests are to engage in (see Table 11.1). These are the main activity elements subject to design, but keep in mind that each one can have varying cognitive and affective outcomes.

Event Design: Theory and Principles Table 11.1  Programme Elements of Style and Sample Associated Activities Programme Elements of Style (Expressed as Goals)

Sample Associated Activities and Mediated Experiences

teach, interpret, inform

engage people in discourse or problem-solving; lecture; debate; exhibit

play, compete, and challenge

games; mental and physical activity; formal competition humour; unannounced activities/appearances/ giveaways the example of role models; motivational speakers; opportunities for spiritual reflection or mindfulness spectacle; performances; costumes culturally authentic celebrations and rituals; use of unifying symbols tactile experiences/hands-on (cooking, sculpting, inventing) fairs and exhibitions have to do this

amuse, surprise inspire, stimulate entertain foster cohesion, togetherness, communitas encourage creativity facilitate commerce: buy, sell, and trade consume socialise

validate people’s worth and identity

food and drink as the theme, or as an essential service mingling and other social opportunities; peoplewatching; family events sight, sound, touch, taste, smell; decor and aesthetic appreciation interpretation of cultural meanings; traditional costumes, recipes, rituals, and performances connect hosts and guests; personal service; welcoming; guiding; solving problems; and meeting basic needs (water, rest, toilets. etc.) accepting donations for charity; maximising volunteer benefits; doing community service; social marketing

provide for behavioural licence/ liberation/freedom

(within limits) tolerate dissent, and freedom of expression; foster revelry

provide sensory stimulation ensure authenticity maximise hospitality

Just about any combination of activities and sensory stimulation can provoke emotional and cognitive responses, but these elements are tried and true in the context of politics, patriotism, religion, and affinity groups: l

Ritual and symbolism that reflects or suggests cultural and social identity; the display of sacred or respected artefacts.

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Direct verbal appeals to loyalty, pride, community, or faith (i.e., preaching and propaganda).

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Celebrity endorsements and the charisma of speakers, especially from recognised leaders.

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Selected information and interpretation (as social marketing and propaganda).

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Evaluating Programme Quality Getz and Carlsen (2006, 146) discussed the main dimensions of event quality. Quality begins with the organisation: its mandate and vision, philosophy and customer orientation; the competence of its staff and volunteers; its governance, and the effectiveness of its management. Programme (or product) quality is experiential and subject to qualitative evaluation by all the stakeholders. Customers evaluate quality by expressing their level of satisfaction with the event overall, or with the quality of what is being presented to them in the form of sport competition, musical performance, speakers at a convention, art at an exhibit, food at a banquet, etc. Product quality can also be assessed through benchmarking against other events, the opinions of expert judges, or experiential research. Love and Crompton (1996) tested the hypothesis, based on the works of Herzberg (1966), that some event elements are ‘dissatisfiers’ which can undermine the visitor experience, while others are ‘satisfiers’ which provide benefits. Dissatisfiers are like Herzberg’s ‘maintenance factors’ – they must be provided with expected levels of quality, but in themselves do not completely satisfy visitors. The researchers argued that most of the physical factors at events, such as parking, restrooms, and information, are dissatisfiers, while ambience, fantasy, excitement, relaxation, escape, and social involvement are satisfiers. High-quality events must meet expectations in both categories, but they are non-compensatory in that a single or small number of attributes can determine the perception of overall quality. Tentative support for this model was confirmed, and the researchers believed that certain attributes were perceived to be so poor, or of such high quality, that visitors disregarded or discounted other attributes in giving their overall appraisal. In other words, it is always important to identify the importance assigned to elements of the setting, programme, or service. That is the role of IP measurement. Baker and Crompton (2000) determined that generic and entertainment features of an event are more likely to generate increased satisfaction and motivate return visits or positive wordof-mouth recommendations. Saleh and Ryan (1993) found that the quality of the music programme is the most important service factor in attracting people to jazz festivals. Overall satisfaction levels affected the intention for repeat visits. Similarly, Thrane (2002) explored the link between satisfaction and future intentions of festival-goers. The most important conclusion from his study in Norway was that event managers must try to improve programme quality (in this case music) and be concerned with other factors that shape overall satisfaction. Ryan and Lockyer (2002) studied the satisfaction levels of participants in the South Pacific Masters games in New Zealand – a friendly, multi-sport event for older athletes. The results showed that sport event managers need to pay particular attention to improving items of high importance but low satisfaction. In this sample the prime motivators – seeking challenge and fun – were found to be satisfied by the event. A factor analysis was also used to identify five components of importance to participants, namely, social (social events plus meeting people); registration (efficient, with good communications); challenge (the competitions); after-event communication; and evaluation that the event was both fun and serious.

Service Design and Quality Service in the event context is a mix of human-guest interactions (the staff and volunteers being part of the experience, as well as suppliers of services) and the various ways in which guests or customers get what they need in terms of essential services (i.e., hygiene, health, and safety, information, rest and relaxation, food and beverages, merchandise). There is a huge body of

Event Design: Theory and Principles literature on service marketing, quality, and delivery, especially for the tourism and hospitality sectors (see, for example, Prideaux et al., 2006). Applied to event design, the basic principle is that all management systems, as well as staff and volunteer actions, directly affect the customers’ perceptions of quality and therefore their level of satisfaction with the event experience.

Service Blueprinting and Evaluation Blueprinting is a tool with value in all services, but its application to planned events has been minimal. The idea is to create a map, chart, or blueprint based on the flow of intended visitor activities and experiences (this was partially attempted in Figure 11.2) and to show how the experiences are facilitated by the setting, all the management systems, and human contacts. Following implementation another map or chart can be compiled, based on evidence, showing what customers actually experienced and what they thought of it. This can be called a service map to be used as a diagnostic or evaluation tool. If there is no blueprint, which is often the case, then evaluative research during the event, combined with post-event feedback, can be highly informative and lead to improvements. Getz et al. (2001) provided two service maps to show the results of a team of nine researchers (the three authors and six trained students) who conducted an on-site evaluation of a surfing event in Western Australia. Triangulation was employed, including (1) direct observation of the site and audience, using standard checklists, (2) a visitor survey, mostly about satisfaction, and (3) logbooks based on participant observation (i.e., researchers documenting their own event experiences). Customer actions: The blueprint anticipates the flow of customer actions, starting with an approach to the site and ending with departure. If there are many activity options or venues it will be necessary to have multiple blueprints or evaluative maps, some in great detail and one for the overall process. Although the blueprint specifies actions in settings, it should consider the intended customer or guest experience in cognitive and affective terms. For example, “viewing art in gallery” can be expanded into “the guest will enjoy a quiet, aesthetic experience, aided by interactive information about the artists and their displays”. This experiential elaboration will greatly assist in planning the ‘physical evidence’ and staff–guest interactions. When doing a service mapping exercise as evaluation, multiple observers (engaged in direct and participant observation) will be needed to plot the actual flow and activities of guests and to summarise the experiential dimensions. Tangible evidence of product and service quality: The blueprint specifies all the physical evidence of quality, such as entertainment, the competition, exhibits, facilities, signs, equipment, and audio-visual effects, and these are depicted on the diagram in the area above the customer actions flow chart. Include hygiene factors like toilets and soap, water, and comfort stations. Anticipate everything the guest will need or desire and specify the quality standards. In the case of evaluations, describe gaps and flaws in tangible evidence, such as crowding, unanticipated behaviour, safety and health hazards, obvious customer confusion, and inadequate signage or direction. Describe programme or product quality as experienced by observers. Hygiene factors have been found to be extremely important at events, not in motivating people to attend or affecting their assessment of overall programme quality, but in terms of causing dissatisfaction (these include security, cleanliness, and comfort). Visible staff contacts: For each customer action, or experience setting, the blueprint has to specify staff or volunteer support that will, or could, involve staff–guest interaction. These also define potential critical incidents where service failure could occur. This line, under the customer flow

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Event Design: Theory and Principles chart, also quantifies human resource needs, in terms of staffing levels, duties, and necessary training. Viewed as cast members, staff and volunteers have both technical roles to play in delivering essential services, and an experiential role to play in facilitating desired experiences. Their appearance and demeanour are important to theming as well as service. In terms of service marketing theory (i.e., SERVQUAL, developed by Parasuraman et al., 1988), staff and volunteers have to exhibit ‘responsiveness’ (willingness to help; promptness), ‘assurance’ (knowledge and courtesy; convey trust and inspire confidence), ‘empathy’ (caring; providing individual service), and ‘reliability’ (ability and dependability). Invisible management processes: The usual practice is to draw a line under the visible staff contacts and in this bottom space on the blueprint to indicate the management systems that have to be in place to support the entire service process (which, at events, inevitably means the programme as well). In evaluations, the observers can work backwards from obvious failures or problems to determine what was missing or flawed in these hidden systems (e.g., police should have regulated the approach road).

Gaps Analysis A standard planning and evaluation tool in services management is the five-gaps model (Parasuraman et al., 1988). It directs attention to potential problems that could lead to customer dissatisfaction or disinterest in the event. Each gap can be the subject of internal scrutiny or research with customers. Here are event-related examples.

Gap 1: The event owners/designers/producers have not done adequate market research, or have failed to evaluate past performance, so they do not know what customers want or expect (maybe they think they do!).



Gap 2: Management systems do not lead to high levels of service quality or the right programme to satisfy customers. Standards are low, or specifications incomplete. Again, this is a failure of research and evaluation, but there could be other reasons such as inexperience.



Gap 3: All the planning and design were good, but the workers do not deliver. Training might have been inadequate, or on-site conditions prevented them from adhering to standards. Motivation might have been low on the day of the event.



Gap 4: Promises were made but not kept. Marketing and communications exaggerated the actual level of service to be provided or the nature and quality of the programme (in some cases this might be deliberate, which makes it fraudulent).



Gap 5: as a result of the above gaps, guests arrive expecting a high level of service and a specific kind of programme but perceive it to be low to mediocre. They might complain, or simply go home with a bad impression. Were their expectations wrong, or was service delivery at fault? Should communications have been clearer? What exactly gave rise to their expectations? This is the classic expectation-confirmation scenario.

IP Measurement It is one thing to know how satisfied a guest is, another to understand what exactly was important to their decision to attend, or most importantly their overall satisfaction with the event. Satisfaction usually links to future behaviour such as word-of-mouth recommendations and repeat visits. The IP technique is quite versatile and generates numeric scores and graphics

Event Design: Theory and Principles

IMPORTANCE-PERFORMANCE GRAPH FOR 11 ATTRIBUTES

CONCENTRATE ONCENTRAT A E HERE

KEEP UP THE GOOD WORK

Alternative means Grand Means of Scores

LOW PRIORITY

POSSIBLE OVERKILL

Increasing Importance Increasing Performance Figure 11.5  Sample IP Graph

that are fairly easy to interpret and communicate. For example, those attending music concerts can usually be expected to give a high score to the quality and reputation of performers as motivators for attending, and as the main sources of satisfaction or dissatisfaction. Ideally, the manager wants to find out that they performed very well in providing the entertainment that consumers valued the most. You do not want to find out that toilets were ranked “very poor” and provided a great source of dissatisfaction. Figure 11.5 provides an example, showing how respondents’ scores (usually from a five or ­seven-point Likert scale, then aggregated) are plotted on a grid displaying increasing importance on the vertical and increasing performance (e.g., satisfaction) on the horizontal. Sometimes the four cells are determined by plotting mean scores from all respondents (i.e., the grand mean), but that might not be a fine enough differentiation, so an alternative is shown that is based on quartiles. The purpose is to reveal priorities for action, so the top-right cell, often labelled “Keep up the good work”, should be kept small. Analysts can make it appear that the event is doing great by making that quadrant big, but keep in mind that many respondents will be reluctant to assign low ratings. Carefully examine the distribution of scores before deciding on the grid lines. Two general applications of IP should be considered. The first is to ask potential customers what motivates them, or what they expect, and present to them a range of attributes related to programme and service quality. The researcher might find the event was going to spend a lot of money and effort on services or programme elements that would not result in high levels of satisfaction. Or the opposite. As an on-site or post-event evaluation tool, IP should address perceptions of the experience, again by presenting attributes of service and programme to see

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Event Design: Theory and Principles what exactly was responsible for satisfaction and dissatisfaction. One possible result is that guests were satisfied overall, even though some elements of service and programme were perceived to be poor (but were less important). In constructing the list of attributes or features to be evaluated by research, it will always be wise to conduct preliminary tests through such methods as focus groups and interviews. STUDY GUIDE

Students should start with an appreciation that design is both a technical and creative process to meet goals and solve problems. Event design has most often been associated with the form, that is, the physical production of events, but has evolved to encompass experience design and strategic design for value creation networks (e.g., portfolios). Experiences are highly personal and therefore cannot be prescribed or guaranteed, so event producers and designers must do their best to specify intended experiences and to anticipate the motives, needs, and desired experiences of all the stakeholders. In terms of the concept of service-dominant logic, experiences are co-created through interactions: designers, producers, guests, the setting, and services. Programme and service quality are major factors in engaging and satisfying the participants or customers. The ensuing study questions address all the learning objectives and provide structure for studying the contents of this chapter. Take particular note of the various theories that inform event design, as well as the models and methods that can be used by designers, including in the evaluation of design. STUDY QUESTIONS l

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Define design and discuss its importance in Event Studies; consider event form, experiences, and value creation through networks. What are creativity and innovation, and how can they be fostered? Explain the necessity to base event design on theory from cognitive and environmental psychology. Give specific applications.

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In what ways can the event designer adapt principles from theatre?

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Give examples of how coherence and legibility can be achieved in event site planning.

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Provide examples of generic event settings and unique design challenges for each.

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Do people have preferences for event settings? Are these ‘social constructs’?

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Define restorative and instorative in the context of different types of the planned event.

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Illustrate how various programmic elements of style can be used for learning, sensory and emotional stimulation. What is the hallmark of business events? of festivals?

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Illustrate sensory mapping for a specific type of event.

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What is programme and service quality, and how can they be measured and evaluated?

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Describe service blueprinting as an event design tool, and how to convert the blueprint into an evaluation tool. What is evidence-based design? Describe market research that can inform the design of an event for a special-interest segment such as foodies or wine lovers. How can planned event experiences be made more liberating? Is this always a good idea?

Event Design: Theory and Principles FURTHER READING

Antchak, V., & Ramsbottom, O. (2020). The Fundamentals of Event Design. London: Routledge. Berridge, G. (2007). Events Design and Experience. Oxford: Elsevier. Getz, D., Robinson, R., Andersson, T., & Vujicic, S. (2014). Foodies and Food Tourism. Oxford: Goodfellow. Halsey, T. (2010). Freelancer’s Guide to Corporate Event Design. Oxford: Elsevier. Lawson, F. (2000). Congress, Convention and Exhibition Facilities: Planning, Design and Management. Oxford: Architectural Press. Meeting Professionals International (2003). Meetings and Conventions: A Planning Guide. Richards, G., Marques, L., & Mein, K. (2014). Event Design: Social Perspectives and Practices. Oxford: Routledge. Wrathall, J., & Steriopoulos, E. (2022). Reimagining and Reshaping Events: Theoretical and Practical Perspectives. Oxford: Goodfellow Publishers.

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Antecedents, Event Marketing, and Communications LEARNING OBJECTIVES

Upon completion of this chapter, students should know the following: l

The nature of personal antecedents to event attendance and participation, including the importance of personality, values and norms, attitudes, and lifestyle.

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Barriers and constraints, and how they can be overcome or negotiated.

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Consumer decision-making, including the differences between motivation and motives.

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Post-experience evaluation and future decisions.

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Differences between motivation in general, and motives to attend specific events.

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Differences between intrinsic and extrinsic motives and how they lead to participation in, and travel to attend events. Whether or not events are needed; what self-actualisation means in the context of the hierarchy of needs.

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How the theory of planned behaviour applies to event decisions.

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Factors affecting loyalty and future intentions.

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The event marketing mix, both experiential and facilitating components.

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Segmentation variables for event marketing.

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Trends in the communications mix for events.

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Social media, its uses, and benefits.

DOI: 10.4324/9781003374251-12

Antecedents, Event Marketing, and Communications

Introduction Why do people attend events? There are myriad reasons, with both demand and supply factors influencing choices. Event-related behaviour is complex, but there are theoretical perspectives that will help us understand the process and apply this knowledge to all planned events. Antecedents are all those influences that shape knowledge of, interest in, and actual event attendance or participation. We start with needs, which are closely linked to intrinsic (self-directed) and extrinsic (from outside) motivation. A discussion of demand takes us from social psychology to economics, then we draw upon consumer research to explore decision-making. Leisure theory provides a solid base for examining barriers and constraints, and how people overcome or negotiate through them to achieve their goals. Part two of this chapter follows the premise that marketing and communications should follow from a deep understanding of the antecedents to event attendance and participation. Basic marketing theory is presented, including the traditional marketing mix, but with an emphasis on how experiential marketing and service-dominant logic are influencing the events sector. Market segmentation specific to events is highlighted. In addition to introducing the traditional communications mix, new media, and the digital economy are featured. Attention is given to how social media are both communication tools and the means for interest groups to shape and even create events. The expert opinion by Barbara Mazza elaborates on communications trends.

Antecedents To start the discussion, a conceptual model of the main factors shaping participation in, or attendance at, planned events is presented (Figure 12.1). This framework is designed as a process, and it is not predictive. It shows all the main factors we need to understand and suggests how they interconnect, but it is not possible to forecast that any particular set of antecedents will result in certain decisions, or that experiences lead to predictable future behaviour. Each of the main elements is discussed in sequence, starting with personality. The model follows, in part, the work of Benckendorff and Pearce (2012) who developed a very useful framework for applying psychological theory to event participation. They considered pre-event, on-site, and post-event experiences, for spectators, attendees, performers, and elite participants. They stressed that psychological theory on personality, motivation, and involvement is important when looking at antecedents, while role theory, identity, liminality, flow, mindfulness, emotional and performative labour, and experience analysis can be applied to the event experience itself. Satisfaction, loyalty, self-actualisation, and personal development apply after an event experience.

Personality Personality, values, attitudes, and lifestyle preferences are the psychological factors that lie at the foundation of human behaviour. Individuals will show a propensity for certain behaviour as a result of these factors, but that does not necessarily mean they will act, or act consistently on them. Some people have a higher propensity to seek novelty or take risks. In the terminology of Stanley Plog (1987), there are more adventuresome types who seek out unique leisure and travel experiences. Others have a greater need for consistency and therefore a higher tolerance of boredom. According to the theory of personality-environment congruence, extroverted risk-takers will be happy at raucous concerts, but shy introverts will not. Events often cater to certain

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ANTECEDENTS -personality, values, attitudes -needs and preferences -intrinsic and extrinsic motivators -personal and interpersonal factors (culture, family stage, work and leisure) -expectations shaped by experience and marketing

BARRIERS & CONSTRAINTS

INVOLVEMENT; EVENT (TRAVEL) CAREERS

-structural (supply, choice, access, knowledge, cost, time required, age and health)

-special interests -lifestyle

-personal (preferences, risk perception) -interpersonal (social isolation)

DECISION-MAKING EVALUATION, FEEDBACK

-negotiating constraints

-satisfaction, recollection, future intentions

-attractiveness of the event

-substitutes -information search and use -loyalty versus novelty-seeking

EVENT EXPERIENCE AND MEANINGS -memorable or transforming experiences -personal, group, and cultural identity

Figure 12.1  Conceptual Model of Antecedents and the Decision-Making Process personality types without the organisers being aware. It should be emphasised, however, that people do not always adhere to generalisations like this. Personality types will not be the only influence on choices. Another theory of relevance is that of ‘optimal challenge’, which suggests that in event programming the matching of challenges with participants’ skills will likely produce the desired ‘flow’ experience. Csikszentmihalyi (1975, 1990) described flow as a state of absorption characterised by intense concentration, loss of self-awareness, being neither bored nor overwhelmed, and feeling that time is flying. This kind of experience is intrinsically rewarding, meaning that it is valued in itself, and not for what it can do. Being able to experience flow might very well help people accomplish their goals. Csikszentmihalyi also concluded that boredom results when challenges are too low, that anxiety stems from challenges that are too great, and this has implications for anyone pursuing self-development.

Values and Attitudes Values are subjective reactions to, and assessments about, the world. They are deeply held, and in behavioural terms, they imply a conscious assessment of the desirability of alternative behaviours, including what is right and wrong. They are personal and can evolve. Norms, in this context, are patterns of acceptable or desired behaviour, with reference to either society as a whole, or reference groups such as peers, family, religion, or other affiliations. They help shape values. Values are shaped by experience, religious or political affiliations, general social and cultural influences (e.g., norms), and perhaps by personality. Do you value freedom of choice? Having

Antecedents, Event Marketing, and Communications decisions made for you by the government? Environmental responsibility? How are your personal values different from the important people in your life? And do your values shape your interest in events or tourism? There can be substantial differences in event-related choices and behaviour that can be traced back to core values, for example, some events being considered contemptible, others being recommended by influencers. These and many other descriptive terms are value-laden and therefore contested. Allport (1937) provided the classic definition of attitude as a “learned predisposition to respond to an object or class of objects in a consistently favorable or unfavorable way”. Attitudes are theorised to contain conative (action and behavioural intention), affective (evaluation and affect, or emotion), and cognitive (perception and belief) components. Note that this trilogy is also used, in a slightly different way, to describe the dimensions of experience. Within the context of the “theory of planned behaviour” (Ajzen, 1991), researchers have examined attitudes towards leisure participation. Many other factors influence actual behaviour, but measuring attitudes can be a good predictor if the attitude is linked to a specific behaviour, such as “How likely are you to attend a rock concert/cultural festival/art exhibition in the next 12 months?”, as opposed to general behaviour (such as “How do you feel about attending special events?”). What are the influences shaping attitudes towards planned events? Some combination of personal, social, and cultural factors lies at the base of beliefs and predispositions. Lifestyles, as unique patterns of thinking and behaving, arise from personality, values, and attitudes. Some researchers refer to these factors as psychographics. According to Decrop (2006, 11), lifestyles reflect the ‘self-concept’ of people. Although seldom explored in the context of planned events, as opposed to leisure and travel in general, there are identifiable lifestyles that predispose or facilitate participation in events. If it is accepted that many people value experiences more than objects and consumables so that (for example) foodies and food tourists are willing – and often eager – to pay for rewarding and novel experiences, then consumption of experiences must hold symbolic value. Consistent patterns of symbolic consumption generate and help define discernible lifestyles. In the foodie lifestyle examined by Getz et al. (2014, 2015), events figure prominently in shaping and reinforcing identity, with some specialised events holding high symbolic value and therefore becoming iconic to those with a special interest in food. Basing lifestyle segmentation on personality and values has become controversial, with some contemporary theorists taking a more nuanced look at underlying meanings and culture-based value systems. This perspective links to Bourdeiu (1986) and cultural capital. Furthermore, the term lifestyle has a number of possible connotations, including the view that a healthy or moral lifestyle is highly desirable (such as being environmentally and socially responsible), or that some people have enviable or lamentable lifestyles (e.g., lifestyles of the rich and famous). In this context, being a foodie, or demonstrating any other form of lifestyle through leisure and travel, might attract criticism. That is why lifestyle cannot be separated from values and norms.

Needs and Preferences According to Maslow (1954, 1968), needs are both physiological (what we need to exist and be safe) and socially learned (what we feel we need in order to belong and be happy). The following four were said to be deficit needs, and people instinctively seek to meet them. In times of stress regression can occur, but Maslow believed people normally move from the lower to the higher-order needs in a developmental process:

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Physiological: survival needs, including water, food, and shelter;

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Safety and security needs: stability, order, protection, structure;

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Love and belonging needs: social needs, a wish for affection and to show affection, a sense of community; Esteem needs: hierarchical, with the lower order consisting of respect for others, status, and recognition; higher order – self-respect, competence and independence, achievement, and mastery.

Others have argued that there are additional needs, and that the hierarchical nature of Maslow’s theory is unsupportable. However controversial, Maslow’s hierarchy of needs has been influential, and is referenced again in our discussion of motivation. Needs get translated into wants, and some of these become economic demands for goods, services, and experiences. Needs can therefor activate behaviour (Mannell and Kleiber, 1997), and this gives rise to expectation-confirmation theory.

Self-actualisation and peak experiences Maslow’s hierarchy is often shown as a pyramid with ‘self-actualization’ at the top. Maslow believed that certain people, only 2% of the population, could be called ‘self-actualized’, and they have many more ‘peak experiences’ than others. A ‘peak experience’ is available to all, and self-actualisation is ‘growth motivation’, or a process of seeking. Peak experiences were described by Maslow as sudden feelings of intense happiness and well-­ being. They are non- religious, quasi-mystical, or mystical in nature, and possibly accompanied by awareness of ‘ultimate truth’ and the unity of all things. Also accompanying peak experiences is a heightened sense of control over the body and emotions, and a wider sense of awareness. The experience fills the individual with wonder and awe. Maslow also described peak experiences as self-validating, self-justifying moments with their own intrinsic value. They are never negative, unpleasant, or evil. They result in being disoriented in time and space, and this very much sounds like the liminal/liminoid zone of Turner, as well as Csikszentimihalyi’s ‘flow’. These experiences are said to be accompanied by a loss of fear, anxiety, doubts, and inhibitions. While these concepts have appeal, and can be applied to event experience design, critics argue that anybody, whether good or evil, could have peak experiences. Furthermore, it can be argued that, despite Maslow’s beliefs, his views on self-actualisation and peak experiences have no moral basis. In other words, self-actualising people are not superior in any way. Others find these notions to be unscientific and untestable, even though they have some intuitive appeal. Benefits are what people believe they will obtain from consumption or participation, and these are generally expressed in terms related to need fulfilment. For example, of all the benefits provided by leisure services and sport, improved health is at or near the top of the lists made by proponents of sport and sport events. People want many things or experiences, but that is not necessarily the same as needing them. Only the individual can decide when a want becomes a need, although society often makes judgements as to what is a basic need and governments implement this through their social welfare and health policies. If governments create or subsidise events, it can be considered to reflect an ideology that sees social and cultural gatherings as a need. Also consider that potential substitution comes into play, because many needs and wants can be met through different outlets. We do not need to go to a particular event unless it is forced on us (being an extrinsic motivator).

Antecedents, Event Marketing, and Communications

Do people need events? The answer is yes, in a way. People might not respond to questions by saying they need to attend a party or cultural celebration, but they do need the socialising, relaxation, or escapism that events offer. People need to discover, learn and fulfil their aesthetic ambitions, and attending events provides these benefits. Companies have to market and do business, so they need exhibitions and consumer shows. Associations have to meet. Humans need to recreate, leading to sport events. Events of all kinds have been successful because they help meet so many fundamental personal, social, cultural, and economic needs. Several questions get to the core of the issue. If a popular festival is cancelled, will a new one emerge to take its place? This has happened many times, with popular demand resulting in replacements. Of recent relevance because of the pandemic are these questions: if all festivals, meetings, conventions, participation, and spectator sport events are cancelled, is there high enough demand to bring them back as soon as possible? The pandemic did answer these questions, revealing a very strong need for events within both the business and leisure worlds.

Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivation Personality traits may have a rather permanent influence on behaviour, whereas motivation is dynamic – it can and does change. Motivation refers to the process by which people are driven to act in a certain way (Decrop, 2006, 9). Iso-Ahola (1980, 1983) took a more comprehensive approach in saying that motivations are internal factors that arouse, direct, and integrate behaviour. Another way to look at motivation is to think of a need which is accompanied by an expectation that action (such as attending an event) will satisfy it. If the expectation is met, satisfaction results. The experience of, or failure to attain satisfaction, influences future behaviour (i.e., there is a feedback mechanism). Motives, by contrast, are specific reasons for doing something, and they have to follow underlying needs and motivations. For example, people who are highly involved in a sport or lifestyle pursuit, like distance running, possess an underlying motivation to attend events where their specific needs can be satisfied. But their motives for deciding to attend a specific event might include consideration of who else is attending, the entertainment opportunities, costs, attractiveness of the location, and the event’s reputation. These important definitions are taken from the Dictionary of Event Studies, Event Management and Event Tourism (Getz, 2021, 169, 122):

Intrinsic Motivation: “Motivation from within, such as the pursuit of fun, happiness and personal development; motivation to attend events or travel to fulfil basic needs or higher-order needs like esteem and self-actualisation”.



Extrinsic Motivation: “...based on external rewards, incentives or fear; this describes attending an event or taking a trip because someone else wants or demands it, or it is perceived to offer financial or career advantages”.

The terms can also be applied to values, or how people value events (see the book, The Value of Events, Lundberg et al., 2017, 6–7). In the tourism literature, the terms push factors or drivers, and pull factors or attraction/attractiveness are often used to cover travel motivation (Crompton, 1979; Dann, 1977, 1981). When we speak of the interaction of push and pull factors, Iso-Ahola’s (1980, 1983; Mannell and Iso-Ahola, 1987) seeking and escaping theory comes to the fore. Seeking and escaping motivation

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Antecedents, Event Marketing, and Communications simultaneously influences our decisions because we are both seeking to find personal and interpersonal rewards and hoping to escape aspects of personal and interpersonal environments that bother us. Both seeking and escaping are usually forms of intrinsic motivation, or what we want to do for its own sake. In escaping our everyday environment, we seek change and novelty, especially new experiences. Under- or over-arousal gives rise to this need for escape, but of course, we also have to seek out something to alter our arousal levels – hence the need for optimal arousal at events. Motivational studies have been frequent in the events literature (e.g., Backman et al., 1995; Crompton and McKay, 1997; Formica and Murrmann, 1998; Formica and Uysal, 1998; Funk et al., 2007; Green and Chalip, 1998; Leibold and van Zyl, 1994; McGehee et al., 2003; Mohr et al., 1993; Ngamsom and Beck, 2000; Nicholson and Pearce, 2001; Nogawa et al., 1996; Oppermann and Chon, 1997; Pitts, 1999; Raybould, 1998; Ryan and Trauer, 2005; Scott, 1996; Uysal et al., 1993; Xiao and Smith, 2004). There have been a number of relevant review articles: Lee et al. (2004); Gibson (2004); Li and Petrick (2006); Maeng et al. (2016); Pilcher and Eade (2016), and Jaimangal-Jones et al. (2018). Li and Petrick (2006) found that most such studies were theoretically grounded in, and gave support to, the seeking-escaping motivation theory, and the similar push/pull model. Benckendorff and Pearce (2012) reviewed motivational studies, with an emphasis on sport spectators and attendees. Mair (2013) has reviewed the motivational studies conducted on convention attendees. Maeng et al. (2016) argued that motivational factors used extensively in the event literature have largely been drawn from tourism studies (the most commonly researched were socialisation, family togetherness, escape, novelty, excitement, and cultural exploration) and therefore more appropriate factors should be developed.

Personal and Interpersonal Factors Sport, entertainment, and business events are an integral part of many cultures. A person’s cultural background can have a profound influence on their perceptions of the need for, or their interest in, certain types of planned events. In some societies individuals are encouraged to think in terms of hedonistic consumption, leading to event consumption, but in others, the collective will or religious/political doctrine generates a quite different pattern of socially acceptable behaviour. There are many common reasons for attending cultural celebrations, including entertainment, spectacle, and social, but we also need to focus on the cultural antecedents. For traditional events, people are expected to participate, and even to organise them because of the cultural norms existing in their communities. Social obligation can impact attendance and direct participation in cultural celebrations. Some take on the status of institutions, thereby attracting volunteers who gain prestige or social standing. Buying tickets to some arts festivals might be considered the thing to do if one is in the higher social classes, while travelling to the annual Wagnerian opera festival in Bayreuth, Germany, might be considered both a pilgrimage and a chance to meet the European elite. Peers are an especially important element in events that have subcultural dimensions, including cultural celebrations and sports. Culture is neither uniform nor static, even within single countries or cities. A postmodernist view of culture and its influence on consumption and marketing led to the development of a group of theories and research methodologies known as ‘consumer culture theory’. One of the major themes in this growing body of theory and practice relates to consumer identity. According to Rokka (2021), “This includes investigations into how consumers – as active rather than passive market actors – integrate and enact various cultural resources, including brands’ symbols, myths, and

Antecedents, Event Marketing, and Communications ideologies into their own identity work in negotiating a sense of self and narratives of meaningful identity goals”. Identity can be related to gender, ethnicity, and many other variables. Following Holt and Thompson (2004), one manifestation of this line of theory building has been a growing interest in storytelling and myth-making directed at connecting brands with personal identities. Another line of theory building concerns marketplace cultures where the co-creation of experiences is the norm. The terms brand community, consumer tribes, sub-cultures, online communities, and co-created market practices emerge from this perspective. One result can be the formation of shared identities so that special interest travel such as the dedicated sport tourist (i.e., distance runners and their iconic events) is a closely related concept. The emergence of so-called influencers is relevant here, including the question of how and why people consult others or follow their lead when making brand or individual consumption decisions.

Expectations Needs and motives give rise to expectations that certain behaviours will yield desired benefits, and this is the essence of the theory of planned behaviour. Expectations are also shaped by communications (advertising and image-making) on the part of events, particularly by word-of-mouth recommendations or expressed opinions from valued reference groups. The event travel career trajectory (ETCT) is also applicable, as the more experience one has with events (either particular events or events in general), the more it will likely affect expectations. Expectation-Confirmation Theory is widely used, as in SERVQUAL, to examine satisfaction. Customers compare their expectations with actual experiences or services provided when determining their level of satisfaction or dissatisfaction. A person can attend an event with no specific expectations, presumably because it is a new or unique experience, but there will always be generic knowledge and experiences that give rise to some expectations.

Motivation and Motives for Attending Different Types of Events Many event motivation studies have examined festivals. Probably the most important conclusion is that generic motivation predominates (i.e., family togetherness, socialising, group identity, all related to underlying need fulfilment), while event-specific motives (the programme, the art form, and uniqueness features) are likely to be important to niche segments and relatively more important for tourists. We can say that festival motivators are primarily intrinsic, that is, for leisure and other personally/socially rewarding reasons, whereas for other types of events, extrinsic motivators might apply (e.g., for work and business). Numerous studies have delineated these motivational factors, suggesting that a core set of drivers for festival attendance exists, including cultural enrichment, education, novelty, and socialisation (Crompton and McKay, 1997, 429). These pull factors should be considered alongside having fun (or hedonism) as generic reasons for leisure and travel to events, with the proviso that both seeking and escaping motives are often coincidental. Escaping from boredom and stressful environments is often just as powerful a motivator as the specific attractiveness of events. The importance of socialising has been highlighted by Nordvall et al. (2014). Socialising can be in the form of family togetherness, having fun with peers, meeting like-minded people who have met online, or just being part of a crowd. Uysal and Li (2008) presented a critical

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Antecedents, Event Marketing, and Communications literature review of empirical studies of festival and event motivation. They identified that the most frequently mentioned dimension was socialisation (24.0%), followed by family togetherness (18.8%), novelty (19.0%), and escape (15.7%). The other major dimensions were cultural exploration (5.0%), entertainment (5.8%), and attractions (4.1%). The key role of social factors was also identified by Foster and Robinson (2010) focusing on the motivational factors that influence event attendance in family groups. The study of families with children confirmed the overriding importance of family togetherness, followed by socialising, and excitement in motivating family attendance at special events. The study concluded that families are willing to compromise on individual motivation and attend events that children will find satisfying. Families were not interested in novelty or uniqueness, they just wanted to spend time together. In Figure 12.2, the generic and event-specific motivators, that is, the experiences desired, are combined with essential services to provide a model of utility to event designers and marketers. The essential services can be called ‘hygiene factors’ or ‘dissatisfiers’ (after Herzberg, 1966) because they do not motivate, yet they can dissatisfy customers. Generic benefits attract the widest possible audiences but are also highly substitutable. Event-specific experiences, or the benefits offered, will attract those seeking something special such as unique, one-time-only, and high-quality programming. The highly involved are motivated by experiences they can share with others in their social worlds. A mix of generic and targeted benefits, built on a foundation of high-quality service, is essential for events to compete with other events and other forms of entertainment, and especially to attract tourists. There are many types of festivals, so event-specific motivators always have to be considered. Perhaps the most challenging type is that of the so-called community festival, which often means a multi-purpose event intended to appeal to the widest possible audience. While such festivals tend to celebrate the community itself, or have the aim of social integration, they might also contain programmic elements that are designed to attract tourists (especially

ESSENTIAL SERVICES (or hygiene factors)

* safety and health * comfort * accessibility * communicaons * informaon *food and beverages

GENERIC MOTIVATORS

• Family togetherness, communitas, and other social experiences • Escape, hedonism, fun, being entertained

EVENT-SPECIFIC MOTIVES

* unique features * high-quality programme * packaging, and co-creaon of experiences

Figure 12.2  Generic and Event-Specific Motivators and Motives

Antecedents, Event Marketing, and Communications entertainment and participatory sports). Usually, they are organised and/or supported by the local government but might be managed by a not-for-profit society or a consortium of local organisations. Jepson and Clarke (2014) and Jepson et al. (2013) explored the community festival from the perspective of social inclusion and power relations. Báez-Montenegro and Devesa-Fernández (2017) pointed to festival tourism focussed on an interest in cinema, with film festivals attracting aficionados – an observation that reflects both social world and travel career perspectives. And, as reflected in research by Podestà and Richards (2018) many such arts or creative-industry festivals have become knowledge hubs, a fact that expands their traditional roles and appeal.

Business Events We should expect that the motivations to attend meetings and business-related events will be quite different from leisure motivations, specifically that extrinsic motives will often dominate: being required to attend (lack of choice); seeking a reward for attending (learning something useful, developing a personal or business network), and a mix of extrinsic and intrinsic rewards (i.e., combining business with pleasure). Business event organisers often stress the social programme as well as pre- and post-event tours. Oppermann and Chon (1997) produced a decision-making model for attendees, and subsequent work has expanded our understanding of motives, constraints, and choices. Severt et al. (2007) examined convention-attendee motivations and identified these: activities and opportunities; networking; the convenience of the location; educational benefits, and products and deals. Mair and Thompson (2009) identified two critical factors affecting the decision to attend, namely, networking opportunities and costs. In a review article, Elston and Draper (2012) reported that total costs to the attendee were consistently reported to be the main criteria being considered by meeting planners, but they suggested that sustainability and technology should be given more attention by researchers. Mair (2013) reviewed the literature on convention motivation, observing that the main topics explored by researchers were the desire for networking and professional development/education. Constraining factors included cost, timing, accessibility, location attractiveness, and health or safety concerns. Jung and Tanford (2017) conducted a meta-analysis of the convention literature and determined that networking and education are the top contributors to attendee satisfaction, and these generate repeat attendance. However, Kim and Malek (2017) found that motivations to attend a medical conference were somewhat different from other business events, with programming and location being the most critical, so a more nuanced approach is needed when examining motivation. Exhibition motivations have been examined by Yi et al. (2018) and Fu et al. (2019). Exhibitions have to attract exhibitors, and they are primarily motivated by business factors, whereas other attendees will be looking for information, contacts, new ideas, and perhaps a good time. Fu et al. (2019) emphasised knowledge, social networking, and leisure motivations which made exhibitions places of both service and experience. Consumer-show motivations have been studied by Fox and Edwards (2009) and Rittichainuwat and Mair (2012). While these are very diverse in theme, covering such topics as lifestyle, health, leisure, and vehicles, a common motivator is to learn and compare, and sometimes to purchase. It can be expected that people with special interests are focusing on shows that cater to their social world or leisure preferences.

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Sport Fans and Spectators In applying psychological ideas to sport event participation, Benckendorff and Pearce (2012, 166) distinguished between spectators and attendees, performers and participants, and elite participants. Fans were considered to be a special segment. Personality, role theory, involvement, motivation, and the actual experience plus post-experience are important considerations. Identity theory suggests that people attend sport and other types of events that carry symbolic significance, thereby helping to define themselves. Li and Petrick’s (2006) literature review related to sports resulted in several important conclusions. First, a general motivation scale for sport event attendance by fans or spectators has been developed and widely applied (see Wann, 1995; Wann et al., 1999). Second, studying potential attendees adds to our understanding (as opposed to surveys of actual attendees), and third, travel and event motivation might be different – a finding of significance for sport tourism (also see Bodet, 2015; Parent and Chappelet, 2015).

Sport Participation A key motivator of amateur participation and sport tourism is challenging oneself through physical activity. Other forms of self-development through sport relate to health (e.g., weight loss, strength conditioning). Generic reasons include accompanying family members (especially for youth sports) and the communitas that come from belonging to specific interest groups. Prayag and Grivel (2018) summarised motives for sport participation, noting they have been extensively studied but categorised in different ways – making comparison and replication difficult. The combined evidence from many studies points to these important motivations: escape; socialising or meeting affiliation needs; hedonism, such as fun and thrill-seeking; skill development and achievement; learning or exploration, covering both the sport and the destination.

Barriers and Constraints All the antecedents we have considered act together to shape a person’s desire and propensity for certain event experiences, but there are often constraints on our actions, especially time and money, and specific barriers to overcome. The next section deals with leisure constraint theory applied to events.

Leisure Constraints Theory Why do some people not participate in events? This question is vital in marketing, but there are also important theoretical considerations that get to the nature of motivation, benefits, and the nature of the event experience. In Event Studies, the challenge is to not only identify constraints on attendance but to examine how people overcome constraints to attend, and how that knowledge might affect both event planning and marketing. In the context of serious leisure or frequent event participation by high-involvement segments, we should be studying how constraints are negotiated over a lifetime. Crawford et al. (1991) identified three general categories of constraints to leisure participation: ‘structural’, ‘personal’, and ‘interpersonal’. They are not necessarily hierarchical and might be interactive. Figure 12.3 provides examples of each from the point of view of a potential attendee or participant. Some of them sound like excuses, but excuses can have real consequences.

Antecedents, Event Marketing, and Communications

STRUCTURAL CONSTRAINTS

INTER-PERSONAL CONSTRAINTS

PERSONAL CONSTRAINTS

It costs to much; too far or difficult to get to; it’s at the wrong time

I have no-one to go with; my family is uninterested

The event does not interest me; lack of motivation

I have special needs they cannot meet

I might be ridiculed or criticised for participating in that kind of event

Never heard of it! Can’t find the information I need

The event has a bad reputation

Too many risks for me: bad weather, violence, crime

Figure 12.3  Constraints on Event Participation and Attendance Source: Adapted from Crawford et al. (1991) and Lee and Palakurthi (2013)

Note that a different set of constraints will apply to extrinsically motivated travel or event ­attendance. For example, “It doesn’t interest me” could become “It won’t benefit me” in the context of a meeting or convention. “It’s too expensive” might become “The company won’t pay”.

Structural constraints The first and foremost of these is accessibility, which stems from the location and timing of events of all kinds – they are not always available, convenient, or known by all potential participants. All aspects of supply analysis come into play here, as do marketing and communication. For example, it has long been observed that there is a huge gap between tourists’ interest in attending cultural events in other countries and actual participation. Why? Because they have imperfect knowledge of what’s available and are most likely to be in an area where the desired event experiences are not available. This is also why we are so interested in the ‘dedicated event tourist’ who travels specifically because of events. Time and cost are always structural constraints. On the one hand, we need to identify who is left out of the arts, sports, or any other type of event because they are unable to afford it, or cannot make the necessary time. On the other hand, “not enough time or money” are convenient excuses, and might often mean the person does not assign any priority to a given opportunity. The first is a constraint issue, the second pertains more to preferences. Age and health are obvious factors to consider. In youth, we cannot get about on our own, and until we have a disposable income we cannot do what we want. With advancing age and declining health (or at least specific health problems) interest and participation in many leisure and work-related events will decline. For events, there is a need to combine both life-cycle and work/career evolutionary approaches.

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Personal constraints These are individual psychological conditions, including personality and moods, that hold us back from participating. Some people are predisposed to social activities, others to introversion. Sometimes we want to mix, at other times we need to be left alone. This category is similar to our earlier discussion of personality, values, attitudes, and lifestyle. Risk perception and risk tolerance enter into many leisure and travel decisions. Do we want to have a thrill if it means assuming personal risks, or can we afford to spend time and money on an event that might not satisfy us? How preferences are first formed for events or event experiences has not been researched, but for ongoing participation, there are explanations within the interrelated concepts of ‘serious leisure’ (Bendle and Patterson, 2008; Hallmann et al., 2023; Lee et al., 2023; Stebbins, 1982, 1992, 2006), ‘recreation specialization’ (Andersson and Getz, 2020; Bryan, 1977; Lamont and Jenkins, 2013), and ‘ego, or leisure involvement’ (Getz and Andersson, 2010; Getz and McConnell, 2014; Havitz and Dimanche, 1999; Robinson and Getz, 2016; Ryan and Lockyer, 2002).

Interpersonal constraints These constraints arise within social contexts, taking into account the influence of others. This might take the form of letting significant others make decisions for us, being influenced by peer pressure (e.g., fear of ridicule), or being subjected to discrimination. Social isolation is often a limitation, especially for certain types of events – after all, who wants to go to a party or celebration alone? On the other hand, events are often great places to meet people. More research on why people do not attend events is necessary, such as reported by Miller et al. (2004) and Lee and Palakurthi (2013). Also see Mirehie et al. (2017) and Mahadevan (2018b).

Constraint Negotiation As constraints almost always exist, how do people who attend and participate in events overcome them? ‘Negotiation’ of constraints is the individual process of finding ways to do what we want to do. If we really want to attend a concert, how do we get the money, make the time, find someone to go with, and book the tickets? The seminal study in the field was by Jackson et al. (1993), who discussed generic strategies for negotiating constraints. What Jackson et al. found was that people have to strike a balance between constraints and their motivations to participate. Negotiating these barriers or constraints and balancing them with motivation results in different strategies being employed. Cognitive strategies are the internal, psychological ways we deal with constraints. For example, the theory of cognitive dissonance can be applied, by suggesting that if we cannot attend a concert because of high costs, we will devalue the artist or type of music and do something else that we perceive to provide equal benefits. In this sense, when people say they do not like certain types of events, they might mean they cannot afford them. We all want to feel good about the choices we make, even if they are influenced by constraints. Behavioural strategies include better time management, learning new skills, earning more money, or modifying our routines in order to do what we want to do. Some people turn leisure into work, or vice versa. For serious leisure, one generally has to acquire knowledge to get the most out of the experience, and this applies to many volunteers at events. In order to think of

Antecedents, Event Marketing, and Communications ­ neself as an expert or connoisseur, say for the purpose of getting the most from a wine festival, o advanced wine knowledge is useful. Time management is something we all try to improve, particularly in an age when a majority of people complain about time pressures or lack of time to get active. Multi-tasking (or pluriactivity) is the norm for most students, working people, and homemakers. Mannell and Zuzanek (1991) reported that even retired seniors felt that a lack of time was a serious leisure constraint. Setting priorities is the key. Generally, when respondents to a survey say they did not do something because of time or money constraints, they are probably truthful in a general sense. But this common response might very well be hiding a conscious or subconscious prioritisation, so they really mean “Attending the event is not high enough on my current list of priorities to justify making the effort or paying the price”. So, the researcher will have to dig deeper. It seems paradoxical, but the most constrained people are sometimes the most active! How do they manage to engage in preferred leisure pursuits when others give up? The fact is, many people find innovative ways to overcome or negotiate through constraints (see Hinch et al., 2006, for a discussion and references).

Consumer Decision-Making Negotiation of constraints is both an antecedent and a key part of specific decision-making processes. We also need to study how people search for and use information, especially because events are very time-sensitive opportunities. Also, in the context of economic demand for events, we have to consider their attractiveness, the possibility of substitute experiences (including competition), and whether or not people are loyal to certain events. A fairly recent development in consumer decision-making is the influencer, an online personality with some authority, expertise, or perceived relationships with social media followers. Usually, the influencer deals with niche markets, which could be sun destinations, entertainment shows, festivals, or sport events. They might receive benefits from the brands or companies they promote. If they are early adapters, among the first to recognise or promote a new opportunity or experience, they can have a substantial influence on leisure and travel decisions. This factor can be added to the role of travel shows on television, and countless YouTube videos and online material that is really disguised advertising, as a combination that has changed traditional thinking about decision-making. Kolb (2020) observed that ­information-seeking is no longer the necessary first step, and that online searchers, social media contacts, and influencers might very well constitute a consumer’s first knowledge of, and interest in, an event or travel product. It might be by accident, or because of participation in an online community. Wise destinations and events therefore participate aggressively in web design, social media interactions, and online promotions, establish their own blogs, and encourage the taking and sharing of photos and videos as a form of consumer-generated product. Consumer interactions are now continuous, including the availability of reviews and endorsements before decisions are made, sharing photos, videos, and real-time experiences at an event, and post-event evaluations that reach many other potential customers. This process cannot be controlled, only influenced. Reaction to bad publicity is as important as proactive image-making.

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Information Search and Use This is a very under-researched area within event marketing, with a majority of related articles dealing with sources used (e.g., Wang and Cole, 2016) and not actual search behaviour. Tasci et al. (2018) reviewed the evidence pertinent to sport tourism, finding that an important consideration is whether the decision is routine or unique. For some sport events and concert series a consumer can buy season tickets, or multi-day passes, thereby necessitating one big purchase decision – but there will still be a decision required for attending each and every game or concert. Loyal festival fans can also return year after year, in which case most of the same variables enter into the decision. When decision-making becomes routine, the person does not need a lot of information (or perceives this to be true), takes less time, and has a predisposition to act. Most event opportunities are likely to be unique decision-making episodes, especially when a travel purchase decision is required. In these cases, the consumer needs lots of information and might take a lot of time to obtain it. Part of the appeal of modern Internet marketing is that the time component can be reduced substantially, and research has found that Internet shoppers tend to use only a few sites, thereby limiting their time expenditure. The risk factor also has to be considered, because every new decision to attend or participate in an event poses risks such as wasted time and money, bad experiences, and health and safety concerns. As Kolb (2020) noted, there will be cases, and this appears to be a growing market segment, where online communities of interest share information and ideas about travel and events, even creating their own, making the traditional information search less important or irrelevant. This prospect should become a research priority for marketers. The appearance of Chat Bots might change everything. Ask an AI Chat what events will satisfy particular interests and you can instantly get a list. Chat Bots, however, do not have preferences or make judgements. Maybe someday they will.

Demand: Attractiveness of the Events Demand is often equated with how many people will come to an event, or what they will pay for it. More correctly, in economic terms, it is a function of the relationship between price and the quantity demanded for an event, in particular circumstances. For each price, the demand relationship tells the quantity the buyers want to buy at that corresponding price. The usual relationship applies for most events, being lower demand for high-cost opportunities. However, in some cases, free-to-attend events will not motivate people, while very expensive experiences (the luxury class) will be more attractive. Consider other related factors. Usually, price is a monetary cost, as in how much an admission ticket costs, but you might also want to put a value on the consumer’s time and energy expended, especially if travel is involved. For free-to-attend events, it is common to measure demand in terms of attendance, but organisers have to be cautious about interpreting this figure. Many people who attend might not be willing, or able to do so, if even a small fee is charged. When contemplating price, especially if a fee is to be charged for a previously free event, research on willingness to pay is required. This can be done with hypothetical research questions, such as “How much would you be willing to pay for...” or “Is this type of experience as attractive as, say, going to a movie?” An alternative approach is to study the economic demand for other events, especially ones that raised their price.

Antecedents, Event Marketing, and Communications A related concept is attractiveness. This means the drawing power or pull of an event, both its general appeal (generic benefits) and its targeted benefits for specific interests. In the context of economic demand, attractiveness could be equated with ‘market potential’ and measured by ‘penetration rates’. That is, within a given market area, how many purchases can be expected, expressed as a percentage of the population? If half the people come twice, that is considered to be 100%. Different market areas also have to be considered, such as local, regional, national, and international zones. Events contribute to city and destination attractiveness, a fact that helps explain the rise of eventful cities and event portfolio management. Cities that pursue a strategy of maximising their attractiveness (and in re-positioning and branding in general) invest heavily in event bidding, production, marketing, incentivising, venues, and related infrastructure. Attractiveness also depends on one’s point of view, for example meeting planners versus potential attendees. Crouch et al. (2019, 530) determined the top factors influencing international convention site selection, for associations. These will all have been modified by the pandemic and ensuing travel disruptions, cost increases, and worker shortages. Cost is always a consideration, but not a motivator. Image and attractiveness cannot be separated. An event, venue, destination, or city might have everything desirable for general-purpose or event-specific visits but still hold a negative image in the minds of potential clients.

Substitution Just about every leisure and travel pursuit can be substituted. We do not absolutely need to go to a specific destination or participate in a specific event and (this is assuming free choice) there are always alternative ways to meet our leisure needs. If extrinsic motivations to attend an event apply, substitution takes on a different meaning. We might be able to learn what we need to know from different trade shows or meet the necessary contacts at different conventions, but these choices are less common than in the leisure realm. Many event attendees go to a specific event because it is the only one, or the best one to satisfy their purposes. The theory of ‘leisure substitution’ suggests that if a person cannot do one thing, he or she will choose another that provides similar psychological experiences, satisfactions, and benefits (Brunson and Shelby, 1993). This appears to be very true for primarily social experiences, where the activity, setting, or event is often of secondary concern. Events offering targeted benefits for highly involved persons are less substitutable than those offering only generic benefits. An emerging question is the potential substitution of live events with virtual events. The benefits and the experience, in general, are different, but what exactly would induce a person to consciously select the VR alternative?

Decision to Attend or Participate Wanting to attend, even planning to, is quite different from going to an event. At some point, a commitment is made, perhaps money spent on travel or tickets, but something might still intervene to prevent attendance. Researchers therefore seek to discover the links between levels of awareness, interest in attending, forming a specific intention to go, and actual attendance. How are decisions made to attend or travel to events, and what factors are considered? Consider all the context and choices we have to understand: Decision-making occurs in stages, with feedback called post-purchase evaluation. There is an awareness and opinion-forming stage, which might be combined with information gathering (even if it’s no more than asking for someone’s advice), during which the consumer forms an intent, or rejects the opportunity.

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Antecedents, Event Marketing, and Communications Reysen et al. (2018) employed the theory of planned behaviour to assess the intention to attend a fan convention, finding that attitudes, norms, perceived control, past behaviour, and in-group identification each predicted the intention to attend. This seems to suggest a social worlds approach to marketing.

Loyalty Versus Novelty-Seeking Loyalty in the events sector is a complex concept. Except for professional sports and regular theatrical productions, most events are unique opportunities. Numerous event-related decisions are never exactly repeated, and many people engage in novelty-seeking in travel and leisure, generally preferring something new each time a decision is made. But event loyalty does exist in some forms, as indicated by sport-fan loyalty to teams. Loyalty to periodic conferences and exhibitions exists, both because of the business or professional advantages and the enjoyment of socialising with friends who always meet there. Many people go to the same festivals year after year, especially those that have become traditions in their home or online communities. Event loyalty might apply to one type or genre, rather than a specific event. It is likely to result from obtaining specific benefits, especially those related to special interests. Loyalty might also be a lifestyle factor stemming from events that fit one’s work-life and social calendar. Researchers have explored the links with satisfaction, motivations, identity, and other variables. As an example, Ho et al. (2022) investigated festival loyalty among millennial participants, while Kamath et al. (2023) reviewed the literature on loyalty in the context of tourism and religious events. A popular area of research has been to link evaluation of quality (or satisfaction) with future intentions or, more ambitiously, to link antecedents (including expectations of benefits sought, motivation, demographics, involvement, identity) with experiences (e.g., activities, spending, type and level of engagement) to quality evaluations, to satisfaction (reflecting expectancy-disconfirmation) and ultimately to future intentions (i.e., repeat visits, loyalty, recommendations). Structural equation modelling (SEM) is often the preferred method, and obviously, event-visitor data is required. An example is the study of Kim and Malek (2017). Creating memorable, transforming event experiences is the goal of many event producers, and if people really do enjoy and recollect events they are more likely to return – or seek out comparable experiences. While satisfaction is usually a precondition to loyalty, as confirmed in many studies, the mere realisation of expected benefits and satisfaction with service or programme quality is no guarantee of repeat visits. This brings us full circle in the decision-making model, stressing that antecedents include the influence of previous experience. What is not shown in the model are the effects of other kinds of experience on event-related behaviour. Also, broader forces are at work, including a person’s experiences with entertainment, sport, or business in general.

Sample Research Papers on Event Quality Evaluation Armbrecht, J. (2020). An event quality scale for participatory running events. Event Management, 24, 139–152. Armbrecht, J. (2021). Event quality, perceived value, satisfaction and behavioural intentions in an event context. Scandinavian Journal of Hospitality and Tourism, 21 (2), 169–191. Baker, D., & Crompton, J. (2000). Quality, satisfaction and behavioral intentions. Annals of Tourism Research, 27 (2), 785–804. Bruwer, J., & Kelley, K. (2015). Service performance quality evaluation and satisfaction in a USA wine festivalscape: Buying behavioural effects. International Journal of Event and Festival Management, 6 (1), 18–38.

Antecedents, Event Marketing, and Communications Crompton, J. L. (2003). Adapting Herzberg: A conceptualization of the effects of hygiene and motivator attributes on perceptions of event quality. Journal of Travel Research, 41 (3), 305–310. Getz, D., O’Neil, M., & Carlsen, J. (2001). Service quality evaluation at events through service mapping. Journal of Travel Research, 39 (4), 380–390. Stergiou, D. P., Karagiorgos, T., Alexandris, K., Benetatos, T., & Balaska, P. (2022). The contribution of event quality factors on the development of memorable tourism experiences: Evidence from the 2018 FIFA World Cup. Event Management, 26 (5), 1007–1024.

Marketing Fundamentals The American Marketing Association has adopted this formal definition: Marketing is the activity, set of institutions, and processes for creating, communicating, delivering, and exchanging offerings that have value for customers, clients, partners, and society at large. (source: https://www.ama.org/AboutAMA/Pages/Definition-of-Marketing.aspx) Marketing requires research to gain understanding of customers’ and other stakeholders’ needs, motives, and choices, the effectiveness of communications, and the influences of price and supply. Customers are not the only group that requires relationship management – that task starts internally with staff and volunteers and extends externally through facilitators and allies. The essence of exchange relationships is that the organisation offers something of value that others are willing to buy or support; it has to be a voluntary and mutually beneficial process. In our case, events are offered as an experience for consumers to buy or guests to enjoy, a product to be delivered to clients, or a marketing tool for corporations.

Customer Versus Product Orientation The classic marketing concept embodies the principle of customer orientation, which means the organisation develops events that are in demand by clearly defined customers or clients. In contrast, a product orientation is often found in the events sector, particularly in the arts, where the event is presented as a work of art that has value on its own, regardless of economic demand or support. Art event producers do not necessarily have to sell their concepts to paying customers, but they do have to convince public grant-giving agencies and corporate sponsors of their merit. We should add two provisos to customer-orientation attitudes. The first is to argue that the customer is not always right, and event producers should not merely provide the entertainment and spectacle that will generate the highest profit or please the most vocal critics. Customers do need to be educated, and many will be happy to have their tastes modified, their minds stimulated, or their emotions uplifted. And even if customers are happy to pay for unsafe or environmentally destructive events, that is not an adequate reason to provide them. A second modification is that many events exist in the realm of public good, and do not need to respond only to market forces.

Service-Dominant Logic The evolution of marketing theory has led to an emphasis on value co-creation within service-dominant logic. What it means to marketers is a mix of philosophy and practical applications.

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Antecedents, Event Marketing, and Communications Instead of selling, there should be a focus on creating value all around through knowledge and skills. Corporations and events will be facilitating customers in finding the value they need, with networks, online communities, and interest groups being encouraged and nurtured. At the centre is the guest and customer experience, with a view to maximising quality and encouraging loyalty.

The Marketing Mix The marketing mix consists of the elements that can be managed to build and sustain essential stakeholder relationships. The usual 4Ps are product, price, place, and promotion, whereas the 8 Ps advocated by Morrison (1995) cover more ground. We have grouped them into experiential and facilitating elements. The product is the event experience, although in tourism it is more useful to think of it as a package of experiences including the trip, the event, and ancillary experiences. The other marketing mix elements that directly affect the experience are place (location, site, venue, or setting), programming (including the theme), and people (interactions among staff, volunteers, guests, and participants). Facilitating components consist of partnerships, promotions, packaging (including distribution channels), and price. Partnerships refer to all the external stakeholder relationships to be managed. Packaging, especially in the context of event tourism, can sometimes be thought of as a product. That is because the tourist often prefers to buy travel, accommodation, and events all at once. Distribution is the process of communicating with customers and selling products, including by means of the Internet, social media, in-person sales, and packages sold through agents. Finally, price is a facilitating component because it determines who can, or wants to, make the purchase. Price can also affect the experience in the sense that perceived value for money impacts a consumer’s overall satisfaction.

Research, Evaluation, and Information Management for Event Marketing Wood (2004) outlined the main marketing information needs for events, starting with setting event objectives. Research and information are also needed in the context of environmental scanning, customer analysis (including segmentation and targeting, satisfaction, and expectations), competitor analysis and positioning, tactical marketing decisions, impacts, and strategic planning. The main research and data collection tools of event marketers include surveys, interviews, focus groups, and observation. Attendance counts (or estimates) and evaluation of marketing effectiveness are important tasks.

Segmentation and Target Marketing Segmentation is often tied to motivation studies and has generated a wealth of studies (e.g. Oakes, 2003; Taylor and Shanka, 2002). Basic variables used in market segmentation for events start with simple geography (market areas), demographics (age and gender), and socio-economics (income and class), and can proceed to more challenging variables including benefits sought (generic versus specific), consumption patterns (what people buy, how and where) and visitation patterns (repeat visits, loyalty, seasonality). Many studies have segmented event visitors on the basis of motivation, including Lee et al. (2004) and Barbieri et al. (2008). Interesting variations on segmentation variables include Prentice and Anderson (2003) who segmented visitors to the Edinburgh Festival on the basis of ‘tourism styles’, which is similar to a benefits-sought approach. Seven clusters of ‘consumption style’ were identified, reflecting different interest levels in international or Scottish performing arts, and in the historic city.

Antecedents, Event Marketing, and Communications Segmentation has been based on serious leisure (Mackellar, 2009, 2013), involvement (­ Robinson and Getz, 2016), expenditure (Dixon et al., 2012), planned behaviour theory (Horng et al., 2013), how stakeholders segment event audiences (Tkaczynski, 2013), music genre preferences (Kruger et al., 2011), skill and expertise in the context of recreation specialisation (Lamont and Jenkins, 2013), and leisure benefits (Lyu and Lee, 2013). Kruger et al. (2018) reviewed the literature on motives-based segmentation and studied a nature-based event. Sharma and Nayak (2018) undertook an emotions-based approach to segment yoga tourists. Tasci et al. (2018) segmented sport tourists versus non-sport tourists on the basis of socio-demographic, psychographic, and travel-behaviour variables. Abkarian et al. (2022) used spatial-temporal activity patterns, employing GPS data, to segment visitors. It should be kept in mind that segmentation is designed to aid marketing, but the related research can also provide new insights on fundamental questions of need, motivation, and benefits obtained.

Social Marketing Through Events Social marketing has been defined as “...the adaptation of traditional marketing technolgies to programs designed to influence the voluntary behavior of target audiences to improve their personal welfare and that of the society of which they are part” (Andreason, 1994, 110). Jutbring (2018) discussed how events can frame issues or act as a catalyst. He distinguished between upstream interventions targeted at influencers and policymakers, and downstream interventions targeted at consumers. The outcome of downstream interventions is the adoption of advocated attitudes and/or behaviour. For example, Andersson, Jutbring and Lundberg (2018) studied vegetarian eating as the desired behaviour, with the event eliminating meat from its premises in order to promote the cause and induce appropriate behaviour. Increasingly festivals and other events have been created as social marketing instruments, and many incorporate social marketing roles and messages with the aim of changing policies, attitudes, and consumer behaviour. These have included anti-smoking and drugs, gender equality, and education for environmental sustainability. Much of the social marketing activity of events occurs on-site, with the festival experience hopefully contributing to increased acceptance of the messages and adoption of advocated positions or activities. For example, events going green will educate their audiences and encourage (or require) them to minimise energy and water consumption as well as reduce waste. However, Hofman, Walters, and Hughes (2022) compared virtual and real-life marine tourism experiences. They found that VR technology experiences can be just as effective as real-life experiences in influencing conservation behaviours.

Communications Fundamentals Masterman and Wood (2006) considered not only the traditional communications mix by which the event reaches its targets, but also examined how events are used as communications tools. They emphasise ‘integrated marketing communications’ (IMC), which has been advanced in response to perceived failures of mass media, to new media options, and to demands from clients for demonstrating the return on investment from marketing efforts. IMC is highly targeted (both customer and multi-stakeholder-oriented), combines all the communications tools for consistency and synergy, and stresses relationship and branding goals. Expert Opinion 12.1 by Barbara Mazza summarises major trends in event communications, beginning with the effects of the pandemic.

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E X P E R T O P I N I O N 1 2 . 1 :   By Professor Barbara Mazza Trends in Event Communications Barbara is Associate Professor (Roma, Italy) and qualified full professor since 2023, in the Department of Communication and Social Research of the Sapienza University of Rome, where teaches Communication for Business Management and Event Management and Communication. From 2017–2018 to 2023–2024, she was the President of the Master’s degree course “Organization and Marketing for business communication”. Two relevant publications are: Mazza, B. (2023). Event Communication: Theory and Methods for Event Management. Oxford: Goodfellow Publishers. Mazza, B. (2023). A theoretical model of strategic communication for the sustainable development of sport tourism. Sustainability, 15 (9), 7039. The pandemic crisis caused worldwide by Covid-19, which has significantly affected the events sector, has accented the spotlight on events communication, affirming its centrality not only as a tool or promotional content but as a strategic process for developing the industry. But what trends were already evolving before the pandemic and that, above all, are in full development during subsequent recovery? This brief reflection presents the main changes summarised in three categories: organic management of processes and relationships, the centrality of an authentic approach, and digital transformation. Organic management of processes and relationships: In cyclical and planned events, especially large and mega ones, communication already has a strategic role in event management and accompanies all phases of ideation, planning, and realisation of the event. It synergises with the other operating units to pursue objectives and goals. However, the adoption of a systematic and transparent approach that allows communication to listen and actively involve all stakeholders is increasingly necessary because this helps achieve results. Van Niekerk and Getz (2019) have also highlighted the importance of the evolution of ‘internal’ communication because it allows the needs of stakeholders to be identified and included in the event project. This also requires that the communication areas (press office, public relations, media relations management, social media managers, etc.) work in an integrated and convergent manner with each other and the other units. Relationship management is the heart of an organisational machine’s efficiency and the engine that makes it work more effectively. For this reason, all events must be aware of the importance of this approach and make the most of it. The centrality of an authentic approach: Communication is the main content of the event. It announces, creates anticipation and motivation to participate, stimulates sharing among those who participate, gratifies during participation, and feeds the memory and anticipation for the next edition. The great revolution of recent years depends on transitioning from a conception of spectacularisation to authenticity. Being authentic does not mean abandoning the use of wow effects in organising the event’s main activities but shifting the focus dedicated only to the offer to manage it so that users are the real protagonists in all phases: pre, during, and after the event. Spectacularisation

Antecedents, Event Marketing, and Communications aims to amaze, fascinate, and enhance the setting and script of the event using symbolic and expressive elements that transform reality into a collective imagination, while authenticity guarantees greater adherence to truth (Domínguez-Quintero, González-­ Rodríguez and Roldán, 2019; Kim, Whitford, and Arcodia, 2019; Park, Choi, and Lee, 2019). Recent studies show that this is what users want (Pöyry et al., 2019; Syvertsen and Enli, 2020; Zhang et al., 2019): an accurate and objective picture of the offer that recalls principles and values, identities and traditions, community spirit, cultural and environmental heritage, managerial and economic rigour. People want to choose consciously, evaluate different aspects, and immerse themselves in experiences appropriate to their expectations and needs and from comparison with others. In this way, the experience that users have does not only aim to impress but to amaze the emotions, sensations, and knowledge they benefit from the event. Packer, Ballantyne, and Bond (2019) point out that the experience does not need to be emotionally intense to be memorable. However, it is memorable when visitors have the conditions to create their narratives, starting from the gratification the experience produces when it is tailored to their needs. Also, in this case, listening to and involving users means organising the offer to make people protagonists. Digital transformation: This ‘authentic revolution’ is undoubtedly favoured by digital transformation that acts on several levels. The first level concerns the physiognomy of the events, which determines the possibility of participating in the event in different ways. Most events have become hybrid because they can be followed remotely on social media and streaming. However, digital events are only made online, virtual events in which people can participate in virtual environments, such as the metaverse, through avatars and phygital, i.e., events that combine the best of the physical and virtual offers. However, the types of possible events could multiply depending on the combinations of the different types and the evolution of available technologies. In any case, the important thing is to offer the user, who is already used to using all the tools available in an omnichannel way, all possible opportunities to participate and to live authentic experiences (Brown, Luzmore, and Groß Ophoff, 2022). Even in the virtual, realism increases the value of the ‘immersive’ experience when it is accessible, reasonable concerning requests, distinctive in its characteristics, and emotionally engaging (Dixon, Hall, and Shawon, 2019; Estanyol, 2021). The second level of digital transformation concerns the packaging of the event. Technologies are used in all operational sectors of the event to manage and optimise various actions: coordination of human resources through management and applications, administrative management, security, logistics, marketing, ticketing, and sales services through e-commerce, etc. In communication, they are helpful for the collection and analysis of big data that are used for the evaluation and reporting of the event for the organisers, partners, financiers, and sponsors, for the management of service information for stakeholders and users, and for promotional ones, for packaging wow effects during the event and to encourage user participation and engagement. Concerning this last aspect, the third level is to increase the value of the experiences lived by the participants before, during, and after the event, both on a physical level and in digital and virtual environments. For example, contactless technologies are widely used that use QR-codes and beacons to increase services offered immediately and contact points, such as bracelets with RFID, blockchain and NFT (non-fungible tokens) technology, microchips, and LEDs for increased special effects, simulators,

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Antecedents, Event Marketing, and Communications AI, IoT, VR to create experiences in 3D environments and augmented reality to personalise experiences more by providing real-time updates of multimedia content. These technologies are already widely used, for example, in creating exhibition events, shows, fairs, conventions, concerts, and festivals. These tools amplify the opportunities to make the most of the event on an individual and collective level, increasing the perception of the event’s value and the experience offered (Hopkins and Siekelova, 2021). In this sense, technologies make the perceived experience more complete, inclusive, and satisfying. There may be more technologies available in the future. The important thing is not to have more tools but to know how to make the most of them to make the event optimise their use according to the objectives and needs of all the actors involved because only in this way are they applicable to the event. It is essential to co-create it, affecting everyone and sharing the benefits. This is the strategic role of communication.

References Brown, C., Luzmore, R., & Groß Ophoff, J. (2022). Facilitating the ideas-informed society: A systematic review. Emerald Open Research, 4, 25. ISSN: 2631–3952. Dixon, R. A., Hall, C., & Shawon, F. (2019). Using virtual reality and web conferencing technologies: Exploring alternatives for microteaching in a rural region. Northwest Journal of Teacher Education, 14 (1), 4. Domínguez-Quintero, A. M., González-Rodríguez, M. R., & Roldán, J. L. (2019). The role of authenticity, experience quality, emotions, and satisfaction in a cultural heritage destination. Journal of Heritage Tourism, 14 (5–6), 491–505. Estanyol, E. (2021). Traditional festivals and COVID-19: Event management and digitalization in times of physical distancing. Event Management, 26 (3), 647–659. Getz, D., & Van Niekerk, M. (2019). Event Stakeholders: Theory and Methods for Event Management and Tourism. Oxford: Goodfellow Publishers. Hopkins, E., & Siekelova, A. (2021). Internet of Things sensing networks, smart manufacturing big data, and digitized mass production in sustainable industry 4.0. Economics, Management and Financial Markets, 16 (4), 28–41. Kim, S., Whitford, M., & Arcodia, C. (2019). Development of intangible cultural heritage as a sustainable tourism resource: The intangible cultural heritage practitioners’ perspectives. Journal of Heritage Tourism, 14 (5–6), 422–435. Packer, J., Ballantyne, R., & Bond, N. (2019). Developing an instrument to capture multifaceted visitor experiences: The DoVE adjective checklist. Visitor Studies, 21 (2), 211–231. Park, E., Choi, B. K., & Lee, T. J. (2019). The role and dimensions of authenticity in heritage tourism. Tourism Management, 74, 99–109. Pöyry, E., Pelkonen, M., Naumanen, E., & Laaksonen, S. M. (2019). A call for authenticity: Audience responses to social media influencer endorsements in strategic communication. International Journal of Strategic Communication, 13 (4), 336–351. Syvertsen, T., & Enli, G. (2020). Digital detox: Media resistance and the promise of authenticity. Convergence, 26 (5–6), 1269–1283. https://doi.org/10.1177/ 1354856519847325. Zhang, S. N., Li, Y. Q., Liu, C. H., & Ruan, W. Q. (2019). How does authenticity enhance flow experience through perceived value and involvement: the moderating roles of innovation and cultural identity. Journal of Travel and Tourism Marketing, 36 (6), 710–728.

Antecedents, Event Marketing, and Communications

Positioning The aim of the positioning is to differentiate your event or destination from others, in relation to its attributes, brand, or identity, thereby achieving a competitive advantage – or at least a favourable image. Image building means communicating (and delivering) what you want stakeholders to think of you. Identity and brand reflect values and core competencies. Positioning goes with target marketing and thereby requires segmentation. It is all interrelated. It can start with an examination of what makes the event unique and attractive. Use a grid similar to IP (illustrated in Figure 11.5) to construct a positioning map that compares the event’s features against competitors. For example, start with location, setting, and accessibility. Are other events better positioned? Include programming features, cost, and reputation. To make the comparisons more valid employ market research. What are the most important attractions and features to your target segments and how do they rate your event compared to others in the market area? The map could therefore plot event locations along an axis of accessibility (poor to excellent) and an axis of cost. Usually you want to be positioned as highly accessible and low-cost, relative to competitors. If segmentation is not already available, derive target segments from the research or from a scan of competitive or complimentary events. The process can be iterative. Many event producers will do this positioning exercise in their minds, based on what they already know - which might be good, but is likely incomplete. A positioning statement could read something like this: “Our event is the best priced, offering the most value for money, among all family oriented events in the city”. The more specific, the better. Kolb (2020) discussed three approaches or strategies for branding, positioning, and advertising events: features, benefits, and values. These also have implications for the design and co-creation of experiences. A features approach emphasises what the event offers in terms of activities, experiences, services, and setting. A benefits approach goes deeper into motivation and therefore requires more careful targeting. Benefits segmentation and marketing require research focusing on special interests, as well as generic needs. It is important to differentiate generic benefits that might appeal to a wide audience, including socialising, escapism, entertainment, and noveltyseeking, from lifestyle-related or serious-leisure benefits that include belonging and sharing within well-defined communities or special-interest segments. There are clear decisions to be taken if special-interest benefits are the focus, as there is virtually an unlimited number of such communities, and mixing them might be difficult or unwise. Values-based segmentation identifies attitudes, lifestyles, and underlying values, making it a very sophisticated positioning approach. A shortcut to doing the research is to work with existing communities of interest to understand their values, then design and market accordingly. Combining the three approaches is possible and might be the best strategy. Consider a running event that features a high level of physical challenge in a natural environment, explicitly promotes socialising and community building with a strong, online presence, and reflects conservation values by adhering to sustainability principles and contributing financially to conservation efforts and local communities. Where would it be positioned relative to other events? It might actually be completely unique.

Branding and Co-Branding The essence of a brand is that it communicates the desired image and identity to the public, and especially to target segments, in ways that yield either a competitive advantage or strong stakeholder support. It is a concept, with its communication (by symbols such as a logo, ­messages, such as positioning statements, and trademarks) all working together to support the desired

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Antecedents, Event Marketing, and Communications image and identity. Brands should be tied to the event’s core values, and brands have a monetary value – which is why the Olympics protects its name and famous intersecting rings with vigorous legal action. Branding is a huge marketing topic, however little work has been published on the process or success of branding events. Mossberg and Getz (2006) used case studies to examine a number of concepts and issues involving festival branding. One of the standard approaches is to use a city’s name, often in conjunction with specification of the festival genre, as in the Calgary Children’s Festival. Another common approach, at least in North America, is co-branding with a corporate sponsor including the selling of title rights (e.g., ‘TD Canada Trust Calgary International Jazz Festival’). One conclusion of the Mossberg and Getz (2006) study was that festival managers were not fully applying branding theory to their events. Co-branding is common and offers several advantages. Events can augment their marketing (and perhaps gain more resources) by co-branding with sponsors, tourist agencies (i.e., the destination), or other events (as in Festivals Edinburgh). Event portfolios offer small events an opportunity to be part of a better-marketed brand, gaining by association with major events in the portfolio. The Hallmark Event is of necessity co-branded with its host community or destination. These events are embedded in a network of support, and have a strong brand that reflects, and impacts the host communities. If one suffers in terms of reputation, both do. Events contribute to destination or national brands (e.g., Bodet and Lacassagne, 2012; Chalip and Costa, 2006; Chen, 2012) with Richards (2017) discussing the value of events in place branding. The book Urban Events, Place Branding and Promotion: Place Event Marketing (Cudny, 2020) explored this line of research through case studies, focusing on cities that use events to build an attractive place brand.

Reputation Management Reputation literally means what people think of you, or of an event. It is judgemental, so it is different from (but linked to) image – which stems from perceived attributes. Reputations and images can be compared, resulting in positioning strategies such as “We want to be thought of as the best in our class in this country”. Fiedler et al. (2023) discussed four reputation management factors relevant to events: – Role of the founder or senior management team: Organisational culture and leadership are important in shaping the event and its evolution, and in dealing with image or reputation challenges. – Environmental context: Fitting into the community and responding to environmental changes has an impact. – Communications: All forms of media are used to deal with problems, advance a positive image, and convey values. – Stakeholder relationship management: Developing legitimacy and maintaining support is important, as is staying authentic.

New and Social Media New media have radically altered traditional communications strategies. New media refers to digital technologies and communications platforms, as distinct from traditional print, television,

Antecedents, Event Marketing, and Communications radio, and other static, one-way channels. New media also facilitates the development, ­distribution, and sale of products, and can include: l

Podcasts: available on demand; present information, opinion, and discussion of important topics.

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Websites that provide information, facilitate sales, and encourage feedback.

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Webinars: event expertise sharing and discussion.

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Internet ads attached to other advertisers, sponsors, or partners.

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YouTube videos.

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Hybrid and virtual events (when designed as communications with target segments, as well as being augmentation to live-event experiences).

The main difference between traditional media and new media is new media’s capacity to be stored, presented, and distributed over telecommunications networks, often global in scope, and accessible to many different types of devices: smartphones/watches; computers; pads; and smart TVs. Many devices incorporate cameras for photo and video recording, enabling a wide range of visual sharing on numerous sites like TikTok. Of course, these have been around for a number of years, but their utility in event design and management has been expanding, partly because of the global pandemic. Advantages include speed (instant communications) and precise targeting (usually through social media and online interest communities). Events can form, shape, or merely join communities of interest that link to event experiences and brands. Market intelligence comes from direct feedback, including at the event itself, and from netnography (analysing Instagram posts, for example). Several potential disadvantages or problems should be noted, starting with the obvious caution that the Internet and social media are full of misinformation, and events have no control over what is being said about them – they often have to react. Groups that lobby against events, or the building of venues, for example, can freely operate in opposition to anything communicated by proponents (although censorship in some countries is a concern). Finally, the privacy of communications and data has to be protected against hackers and improper use. The revolution in new media, which is as much social as it is technological in nature, led Kolb (2020) to emphasise the differences between paid, owned, earned, and shared media. Paid refers to traditional advertising, although with more media options now available. Instead of relying on advertising, a major aim has been added to attracting attention and distributing information, which is to drive interested consumers to the event’s owned media, including websites, social media accounts, blogs, video/audio/photo libraries, and webinars. According to Kolb (2020, 136) earned media consists of information shared and discussion of the event on independent sites, including how questions were answered, complaints handled, and misinformation dealt with. Largely this is beyond the control of an organisation, but it has to be vigilant and know when to respond. This is especially important during live events when customer/guest interaction with organisers is almost instantaneous and can make or break the experience. An important element in all marketing and communications is the content, its nature and quality, timeliness, and appeal. Events can be content creators in many ways, not the least of which is social media and online stories, images, videos, entertainment, information, and education. While some of this content can be designed to earn revenue, some are intended to attract attention and interest.

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Social Media and Social Networking First, we need to distinguish between social media as technical platforms for communications, such as TikTok, Twitter, or Facebook, and the actual social interaction that takes place. Online communities of interest are formed through interactions, they do not automatically arise from the existence of a platform. The implications of social media are manifold. Organisations and governments can no longer control information and discourse, not even news reporting. Corporations have found that brands are not theirs to exclusively create and manage, as everyone has an opinion and a potential audience. The event experience can be augmented by pre-, during, and post-event interactions to foster engagement and increase satisfaction. New niche markets are being created all the time, reflecting real and virtual social worlds. They offer the opportunity to co-create events interactively with online communities. Laurell and Björner (2018) stressed the need for continuous analysis of social media content. Analytics should cover the following: l

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Analysis of content concerning the festival; what people are saying about it; pictures and videos posted (this can include netnography to qualitatively evaluate the nature of attendees’ experiences, the high and low points, likes and dislikes, and recommendations for improvements). Analysis of general trends and issues that might be relevant to festivals. Obtaining feedback and addressing issues; countering negative stories (a real-time presence is ideal so that if a question or situation arises on the festival site it can immediately be addressed – and this also facilitates crowd management and emergency responses). Using social media to expand networks. STUDY GUIDE

Figure 12.1 illustrates the main factors considered in the consumer’s decisions leading to event attendance, and that is the guiding model for studying this chapter. This model is partly in the realm of psychology and consumer research, but also in the economics of supply and demand, and cultural and social forces. The discussion started with personal factors, specifically personality, values, attitudes, and lifestyle. Then needs, motivations, and motives were examined, considering the seeking-escaping theory and how needs and wants shape expectations. Review the model illustrating generic and event-specific motivations (related to the benefits they offer) and how that has influenced your own decisions. Theory on barriers and constraints, and how they are overcome or negotiated, is also important for marketers. Consider how time, cost, inconvenience, and lack of information restrict choices and actual demand for events and what marketers can do about it. When it comes to communications, consider how your own use of social media has or might influence your leisure and event-related decisions. Are you part of an online community? Finally, it would be useful to find examples of how events are linked with consumers and online communities – what media are used, and what are the messages? STUDY QUESTIONS l

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Explain how personality, values, attitudes, and lifestyle relate to interest in, and demand for event experiences. What is the relevance of the theory of planned behaviour in the model of antecedents and decision-making for event attendance?

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What are basic human needs, and how do they link to motivation? What is the difference between motivation and motives? Give examples. How important are seeking versus escaping motivations in explaining event attendance? What have researchers found that confirms or rejects this theory when applied to events? Do most people attend festivals for generic or specific benefits? Where do essential services enter the decision-making process? How are expectations formed? Consider post-event evaluation. Explain leisure constraint theory and how it applies to events. Differentiate between the main types of constraints, and give event-specific examples. What are the roles of an event website, and social media, in information searches and the decision to attend an event? What is the demand for events? How are attractiveness and substitution related to demand? What factors help explain the differences between loyalty and novelty-seeking with regard to event behaviour? Where does nostalgia fit in? Compare the traditional marketing and communications mixes and explain how they are being changed by new media.

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Discuss place marketing and events with reference to branding and positioning.

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Explain social marketing and how it links with the concept of events as agents of change. FURTHER READING

Cudny, W. (ed.) (2020). Urban Events, Place Branding and Promotion: Place Event Marketing. London: Routledge. Decrop, A. (2006). Vacation Decision Making. Wallingford: CABI. Funk, D., Alexandris, K., & McDonald, H. (eds.) (2022). Sport Consumer Behavior (2nd ed.). London: Routledge. Ozturk, A., & Hancer, M. (2022). Digital Marketing and Social Media Strategies for Tourism and Hospitality Organizations. Oxford: Goodfellow.

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Risk, Health, and Environmental Management for Events LEARNING OBJECTIVES

Upon completion of this chapter, readers should know the following: l

The many threats or hazards facing event producers, workers, and visitors.

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Risks that result when threats or hazards materialise.

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Essential components and the process of risk management, including strategies to deal with risks.

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Security concerns, and the tools of security management.

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Three domains of health and safety management.

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Differences between crowd management and control.

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The meaning of dynamic crowd management.

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Crisis management and resilience strategies.

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Environmental management, its scope, and implications for events.

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Various meanings assigned to the terms sustainability and sustainable development.

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Green and sustainable management initiatives for events, and the roles of events in other sustainability-oriented policy domains.

Introduction In this chapter, several management functions have been brought together because of the many serious threats facing the events sector, whether the events are planned or unplanned, DOI: 10.4324/9781003374251-13

Risk, Health, and Environmental Management for Events large or small. Risk management provides an umbrella concept for them all, but the threats and ­necessary strategies for dealing with them are different. Ashwin (2021, 49) noted the seriousness of c­ ontemporary threats and the critical importance of risk management: “...there has been an increasing public discourse and emerging legislative requirements for event organizers to demonstrate an evidence-based approach to risk management decisions with the ability to explain the rationale behind those decisions in clear, objective and transparent terms”. Risk management covers health and safety, leading to a discussion of crowd management and controls. Crisis management requires special considerations and raises the question of how resilient organisations can be. Finally, environmental management is discussed in the context of event greening and sustainability.

Terminology Threat or Hazard: An action or force that can cause loss or damage. Severe weather is a threat, as it might damage infrastructure and disrupt programming. Cybercriminals intent on stealing data or extorting money are a financial threat. Alcohol and drug abuse pose threats to guests and equipment. Disease is an ever-present threat to the health of attendees, but it can be invisible. Crowding threatens to cause stampedes, crushes, and personal injury or death. Threats have to be identified and countered. In today’s world, threats of all kinds have become so serious that the event producer and managers, event venues and sponsors, are adamant that risk management is one of the most important management functions. Attack: An attack is an immediate problem that must be met with an appropriate, and therefore planned, response. Cyber-attacks should be preventable, but hackers are always probing for weaknesses. One common attack is denial of service by overloading websites, another is ­ransomware – extortion by way of locking computers and demanding a payment to free up the lost data. Terrorist and criminal assaults are met with a police or military response. Less visible are attacks on reputation and image, as these can be as subtle as the spreading of disinformation or the fabrication of customer complaints. Again, there are ways to defend, but once the attack is recognised there has to be a planned response. Attacks on individuals at events are criminal in nature, requiring on-site policing and fully rehearsed emergency responses. Risk: What is at risk if a threat materialises? Health and safety are at risk if there is a violent attack on-site. The organisation’s financial viability is at risk if cyber criminals hack a database. Reputation can be damaged when anything goes wrong, especially if it turns out that the organisers were not aware, not taking adequate preventative action, not adhering to standards (or the law), and were not prepared to cope with the consequences. Events are risky! There is no possibility of avoiding all risks when people assemble, events are risky by their very nature. Human interaction produces hazards, and this fact must be acknowledged by all event producers and managers, venues, and sponsors. Some events are so risky they require specialised insurance or are unable to find insurers. Some people love taking risks, or watching others do it, which explains the popularity of dangerous sports (e.g., motor racing) and combative sports (e.g., boxing, mixed martial arts). When people or animals are at risk, some will protest, or attempt to disrupt. Animal-rights groups oppose rodeo, for example, and in many countries, animal fights are banned by law. The point is that risk and events are inseparable, making risk management both a political and managerial issue. Residual risks remain after responses have been implemented. In other words, complete elimination is not always possible, such as the financial costs occurring to an organisation after an accident has been satisfactorily dealt with. Secondary risks can occur as a consequence of the response to attacks or other incidents, and they might occur long after the response. It might

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Risk, Health, and Environmental Management for Events take many months or even years for lawsuits to be processed on an organisation, or for indirect impacts on the community or environment to be revealed. Fat-Tail risks: These are rare, but very harmful when they do occur – such as the pandemic. Impacts can be long-lasting, resulting in structural changes to systems. The phrase comes from probability theory, when a distribution is not perfectly normal, but demonstrates skewness or asymmetry. The mistake people make is thinking that normal will always prevail. Worst-case scenario: In risk planning, asking “What is the worst thing that could happen?” might be a useful exercise, but all too often disasters cannot be predicted. For many organisations the ­pandemic was a worst case in the sense that it was extremely destructive. It was unpredictable in some ways, yet scientists have been warning for many years that a serious, global pandemic was likely. And other pandemics are likely in the future, so lessons must be learned and preparations have to be made, if not at the level of an individual event then certainly at the level of portfolios important to cities and corporations. Accident: an unintended and unwanted occurrence that results in injury or loss. Sometimes the expression Act of God or Force Majeure is used to describe natural calamities that cannot be prevented (and will not be insured). An accident occurring outside the event can be an externally imposed threat. Disaster: We use the term disaster to describe sudden and unexpected occurrences that cause major damage or disruption to systems, such as earthquakes or fires. They can be beyond the control of organisations and therefore constitute external threats. They may cause a crisis at a national or regional level, with emergency forces mobilised, or in the case of the pandemic with new rules and regulations put in place to counter the threat. If disease is a threat, the risks to events include postponement, financial losses, and even bankruptcy, thereby constituting a crisis that might or might not be resolved. Crisis: externally imposed, a crisis is a condition or turning point (such as a disaster or pandemic) that changes everything, and which requires an immediate response. Internally, a crisis can be defined as the inability to cope with a threat or problem. Uncertainty is a hallmark of crises. Emergency: a condition, situation, or occurrence that is, or is believed to be, endangering life or property and requires an urgent response. Incident: a specific occurrence, such as an accident, that usually can be managed. Incident reports are needed, and documentation analysed for patterns or trends. Vulnerability: Inadequate planning and management systems leave events vulnerable, so a vulnerability analysis by experts is a good starting point. Internal reviews will also be beneficial and should be made routine. Keep in mind that a threat could result in multiple risks, as financial and reputational damage often follows from accidents and other problems experienced at events. This can lead to cascading risks, with one following the other. Uncertainty: Estimating the probability that a threat will occur, or that a risk will materialise, is inherent in risk management. For example, how likely is it that the next pandemic will result in event terminations, and how severe will the financial losses be to individual events and the entire sector? Uncertainty is a major part of risk management because we cannot accurately predict the future or all cause-effect relationships. We live with uncertainty on a daily basis, it cannot be avoided. It can, however, be studied, and we must learn from experience. Severity: The probability of occurrence is one factor in risk or vulnerability assessments, and the other is severity. It cannot be measured on one scale, as the loss of life cannot be compared with a financial loss (although courts often award compensation for injury or death according to set

Risk, Health, and Environmental Management for Events schedules). Probability times Severity (P X S) is one of the important calculations, always an estimate, to be made in risk management. Resilience: to endure by adapting; to bounce back after a crisis. Resilience should be thought of as an element of sustainability. Risk Management: This definition is from the book Risk Management for Events by Julia Rutherford Silvers and William O’Toole (Routledge, 2nd ed., 2020): Risk management is the purposeful recognition of and reaction to uncertainties with the explicit objective to minimize liabilities and maximise opportunities using a structured approach and common sense, rather than avoiding the issue. The risk manager looks at all the vulnerabilities, including financial and professional vulnerabilities, and the threats to property and life and limb and makes and carries out decisions that lessen the effects of potential losses. In the above definition, two other terms are used that have to be discussed. Liability is both a legal and moral issue. What is the event (or its organisers, owners, staff, and sponsors) liable for if something goes wrong? Liability can include the necessity to pay compensation or a fine, or even face criminal charges. Events and venues, their owners and managers, are sometimes charged with criminal offences when people are injured or killed, and often sued by individuals for all manner of harm caused. This is why venues and events require patrons to sign waivers (i.e., “you accept the risks and cannot hold us responsible for loss or injury”) or place such conditions on tickets. In open events, with no tickets or entry controls, this is not possible and so liability might increase greatly. Moral issues arise when events are not faced with the prospect of legal action, but feel responsible for the losses or injuries experienced by guests or others. Does the event have insurance to cover injuries to guests? Is there a fund to compensate people? Or do the organisers plead a lack of resources and take no responsibility? These moral issues should be considered in advance, as they are certain to arise. There is another aspect of liability to be considered. Who exactly is liable for losses incurred by events? To host the Olympics, for example, national governments are required to provide security and accept liability for certain potential losses or damages. When a publicly owned festival loses money, who has to pay off the debt? If this is not made explicit, legal problems could become severe. This is the underwriting problem. Due Diligence: event organisers have a moral and legal responsibility to investigate hazards, conduct risk management professionally and according to standards, and advise guests/­ customers of any risks being assumed by them. These must be thoroughly documented. Negligence: failure to act reasonably or as required by law, regulation, or accepted standards can be called negligence. It might also include reckless indifference (gross negligence), deliberate disregard (wilful misconduct), or intent to cause harm (malice). Accessibility: events are usually subject to regulations regarding accessibility, either in terms of physical movements (e.g., for wheelchairs) or other forms of disability (e.g., visual). Safety is also a bigger concern for people with special needs. Elsewhere we discuss accessibility in other terms, including the exclusion of disadvantaged segments and those affected by discrimination.

Threats and Risks Facing Events Numerous threats or hazards face the event producer, workers, and visitors, all of which pose risks. Researchers have examined many of these, including protests (Henderson, 2008; Horne

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Risk, Health, and Environmental Management for Events and Whannel, 2010); terrorism (Toohey, 2008); riots (Cunneen and Lynch, 1988); health issues (Ahmed et al., 2006; Choi and Almanza, 2012; Earl et al., 2005); crowd problems (Earl, 2008); crime (Barker et al., 2002; Campaniello, 2013; George and Swart, 2012; Matheson and Finkel, 2013); and alcohol (Pegg et al., 2011). Mass shootings and crushes that kill and injure guests are extreme cases in terms of casualties, but all too common. Many problems and threats are correlated with the size of events and their ability to attract media coverage. Terrorism and crime in the modern world necessitate high-level security and control measures. Bad weather and unpredictable environmental forces, including the state of the economy, can drastically affect turnout and sales. Attracting the wrong people or incompatible segments could lead to trouble. Table 13.1 is a starting point, as the major categories can be subdivided into many more detailed threats and risks. It draws on the book Crisis Management and Recovery for events by V. Ziakas, V. Antchak, and D. Getz (Goodfellow, 2021). Note that threats (or hazards), when they occur, impose risks (see the definitions above). The table lists both external and internal threats, by category.

Table 13.1  Threats and Risks Facing Events External Threats

Risks (These Are Not Mutually Exclusive, They May Occur in Multiple Threat Categories)

Natural – weather: wind; extreme temperatures; flooding; snow and ice; lightning – disease – fire – earthquake Economic – recession or depression – changes in consumer demand – increased competition – funding changes: by sponsors, government, advertisers – forced postponement or termination Human Error – mistakes made by other staff and volunteers (e.g., the venue), consultants, sponsors, collaborators – owing to incompetence, carelessness, inadequate management systems, or lack of training

– damage to facilities and infrastructure (direct costs are incurred) – injuries, loss of life – the event becomes a super-spreader – postponement or cancellation and resulting financial losses; difficulty in re-scheduling – declining attendance; failure to reach revenue targets and resulting financial losses – loss of sponsors or government funders forces a reassessment of budgets, changes to venue or programme

Human Malfeasance – crime, terrorism – fights, riots – substance abuse – slander – owing to inadequate security or management systems

– external suppliers fail to deliver necessary goods or services, causing programme or service issues – advisors fail to detect financial problems or vulnerabilities to threats, leaving the event open to losses – hackers steal data or money – protests turn into riots, impacting other venues and events – criminals sell illegal substances to eventgoers; attendees arrive inebriated or high – damage to reputation as a result of false allegations, slander, complaints (continued)

Risk, Health, and Environmental Management for Events Table 13.1  Continued External Threats

Risks (These Are Not Mutually Exclusive, They May Occur in Multiple Threat Categories)

Social and Cultural Factors – demographic shifts resulting in changes in demand, need – protests and lobbying by interest groups – value shifts (e.g., antagonism towards animal exploitation; gender rights) Internal Threats Organisational culture and conflicts – fundamental disagreements about purpose, strategy, management – organisational misdeeds (e.g., ignoring pollution, crime, social issues) Weak or Incompetent Management – bad decisions, made without adequate research or analysis – lack of training of staff and volunteers; inadequate staffing levels – weak management systems – failure to act in a timely manner in response to a threat

– a mismatch develops between event experiences and the needs or preferences of the target segments – protests mount against elements of the event programming or its name/theme/ brand

Human Malfeasance – crimes or deliberately damaging actions by staff or volunteers – attendees who do not obey laws and rules

– the organisation becomes dysfunctional owing to fundamental value differences – inability to adapt, resulting in obsolescence – the organisation is held legally responsible for misdeeds – lack of financial control results in overspending and losses – failure of emergency response or accident prevention systems – staff or volunteers cannot fulfil their duties competently – inadequate security systems – inadequate essential services (water, food, etc.) – lack of inspection (food safety, building, equipment, etc.) – over-crowding and poor guest experience – inadequate information and communications – loss of reputation arising from bad publicity – disgruntled workers commit crimes – crimes by guests against other guests or workers

Risk Management Process Those seeking details should consult the International Standard for Risk Management (www.ISO.org). ISO 31000, Risk management – Guidelines. According to Silvers and O’Toole (2020), there are four stages in the process, as illustrated in Figure 13.1. Documentation and communication are to be constant, as are monitoring and controls. Planning is to be integrated with all the other management systems, and in particular must be synchronised with the design of the setting and programme. Someone should be assigned the responsibility, or a team devoted to risk management (including health, security, and environmental, where appropriate). The resulting risk management plan should contain goals and objectives, statements on who is responsible and how the implementation is to occur, procedures and resources, monitoring, information system, assessment techniques, and

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RISK ASSESSMENT PLAN •CONTEXT •GOALS •STRATEGY •SPECIFICATIONS

INDENTIFY •THREATS & RELATED RISKS

ANALYSE •PROBABILITY AND SEVERITY OF CONSEQUENCES

RESPOND •AVOID; SHARE OR TRANSFER; REDUCE; RETAIN; INSURE

MONITORING AND CONTROL Documentaon and Communicaon Figure 13.1  Risk Management Process Source: Adapted from Silvers and O’Toole (2020)

responses (e.g., contingency plans, emergency procedures). Stakeholder engagement in this process is essential, including external agencies like police, fire, and health services. The process starts with planning, as determined by context. Large events and those with inherently risky elements will require more than small events in terms of resources and time devoted to risk planning and management. Every event needs a strategy, however, and goals to guide the process. This leads to specifications (linked to risk responses) that get translated into all aspects of design and operations. At this stage, the procedures for ongoing monitoring, reporting, and communications among all stakeholders should be established, in concert with contingency planning (e.g., police, fire, medical). The next two stages are identification and analysis. Obviously, the best and easiest way to identify threats and risks is based on direct experience plus the experience of others. The type of event is important, as there are categorically different considerations for meetings versus sports or exhibitions. Silvers and O’Toole (2020) recommended several tools, as follows.

Gap Analysis: based on experience, what differences occurred between expectations (or specifications) and outcomes. This is clearly a process of internal monitoring and evaluation. Where gaps or unexpected outcomes are found, root-cause analysis can be used to trace it back to its origins. Dangerous or hazardous conditions and areas within events need to be identified, as well as hazardous activities and crowd conditions.



Hazard Mapping: Locate the threats or hazards on a map, and describe them in documents. Some threats will be external and general, many hazards will be internal and associated with site planning and logistics.



Scenario Making: Based on consultations with experts and stakeholders, a number of what-if scenarios can be composed, including the necessary responses.



SWOT Analysis: Strengths can be equated with sound management and resilience, and weaknesses with vulnerabilities. Crises and external threats can also present opportunities, as entrepreneurs often look for profound changes in systems (such as the economy) that reveal gaps to be filled or new needs and demands.



Work or Task Analysis: As employed in project planning, and combined with scheduling (such as critical paths), threats can be identified for every element in the event project, including the threat of delays.



Risk Analysis: In order to develop effective risk response and treatment plans within the constraints of limited resources, the risk manager must analyse the identified risks to

Risk, Health, and Environmental Management for Events determine their causes, consequences, correlations, probability, and priority. Risks must be ranked to determine their order of importance or urgency so that the most critical ones will be addressed in the proper order according to legal, ethical, and risk tolerance parameters. The safety and welfare of people must always be the number one priority, with the loss of vital information second, particularly in an emergency situation.

Probability X Severity matrix: This matrix analysis is always a good exercise for stakeholders to conduct, involving all those who will be part of the planning, management, and response to threats and risks. Probability means how likely is it that something will occur, such as: “What is the probability of severe weather posing a safety threat on a given day in this location”? Probability can best be estimated using available data, but keep in mind that unlikely occurrences (such as a tornado) can have severe consequences. That is why the matrix cannot be used to eliminate planning for low-probability risks. It must be used to assess all hazards, threats, and risks. What will emerge from any P X S analysis is a set of risks that must be avoided, others that can be reduced in likelihood or severity, and some that are so uncertain that additional information or analysis is required.

Ashwin (2021, 52) provided an example of such a matrix, which he called a ‘heat map’. Five risk levels ranged from low to very high, while probability ranged from “almost certain to rare”. ­Consequences were categorised as “insignificant, minor, moderate, significant, or severe”. Ashwin used a semi-quantitative matrix with numeric values assigned to both P and S. An alternative is risk ranking whereby scores are assigned by stakeholders or managers to those threats or risks they are most worried about, resulting in an action list.

Risk Management Strategies The following are the usual strategies discussed in risk management guidelines (e.g., Silvers and O’Toole, 2020; Wynn-Moylan, 2017).

Avoidance: Many threats can be avoided, assuming they are identified and analysed as to their probability of occurrence and potential severity. Events can curtail or ban the sale and consumption of alcohol, or prevent illegal substances from entering the site. If weather is a constant or serious threat, an indoor location is preferable. However, many events will opt to accept certain risks because of their theme, financial necessity, or confidence in their risk management systems.



Retention: If risks are accepted, there are essentially three strategies to deal with them. The first is reduction, the second is to take out insurance against losses or legal implications, and the third is to self-insure by building up reserve funds. Insurance providers can help in the whole process, as they learn the risks and consequences through experience, and some have developed specific guidelines that event organisers must follow in order to qualify for insurance. Activities and whole events have been cancelled because of the cost or lack of insurance. Professional associations and cities have resorted to self-insurance schemes just to be able to continue producing events.



Reduction: All managers must seek to reduce both the threat and the consequences, as to do otherwise might be considered negligence. Some hazards and threats can be minimised or kept to an acceptable level through better management, training, operations, or actions focused on reducing the potential severity of damage or losses. Diffusion of risks in time and space is sometimes possible. Spreading out certain activities can alleviate crowding while holding several smaller events is one solution to threats posed by large assemblies.



Sharing or Transference: Insurance is one form of transferring risks, but only the financial parts. Who is liable for losses or damage is a very big issue for events, and to the extent that

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Risk, Health, and Environmental Management for Events liability can be shared, or placed as the responsibility of another organisation (or level of government), the event is better protected. Having guests and customers sign waivers is a related strategy, but it does not protect the organisation against negligence.

Health and Safety Management Health and safety management aims to ensure that all event participants, staff, volunteers, and attendees, as well as those externally impacted by an event, are protected from hazards and threats. It is people-focused and includes important crowd management and security functions. In addition, it should be linked to customer experience design. Detailed consideration is not possible in this book, but here is a partial list of items for planning and management: l

Fire codes: prevention, response.

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Occupational health and safety laws and regulations; working conditions and workers’ rights.

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Building codes (regulations, inspections).

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Food and water safety standards (regulations, inspections).

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Noise pollution and related decibel limits or time restrictions (e.g., for loud music).

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Waste disposal; hazardous material disposal; recycling.

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Hygiene (toilets, showers).

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First aid, ambulance services.

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Comfort (rest areas, water, meeting points).

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Alcohol (restrictions by area; consumption limits; serving hours).

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Animals (prevention of abuse; rights of people with guide or seeing-eye dogs).

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Emergency response; access and egress controls.

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Pyrotechnics (fireworks; smoke).

Figure 13.2 illustrates three domains of health and safety management, starting with the ­psycho-social. Essentially this means events must understand their customers or guests and the propensity for health and safety threats that result from motivation and behaviour. As discussed

PSYCHOSOCIAL Visitor health; risk of infection or injury; factors affecting physiology, such as temperature

BIOMEDICAL

Visitor motivations and behaviour, emotions, length of stay, engagement

ENVIRONMENTAL

Indoor or outdoor settings; management and service systems such as security, rest areas, first aid; crowding, threats

Figure 13.2  Three Domains of Event Health and Safety Management

Risk, Health, and Environmental Management for Events elsewhere, the contemporary pop music festival is often associated with drugs, alcohol, and illicit behaviour. These antecedents can be considered in scenarios and contingency planning. Domain two is biomedical, sometimes necessitating the involvement of medical expertise, combined with crowd management and control. Healthcare specialists want to assess the risks, the need for response services, and the ways in which prevention or minimisation can be implemented. The potential for a major incident is particularly important, including violence and the outbreak of serious disease. One important consideration when contemplating the hosting of a large-scale event is the host region’s capability to deal with a resulting disaster. Lessons from the pandemic have to be made permanent. The third domain is environmental, linked to site planning, logistics, the programme, and overall setting. Security systems have to be considered as an essential component. A review of event safety research was conducted by Vendelo (2019), who determined that new safety concerns were constantly arising. Recent themes include extreme weather, safety in developing countries, sexism, and terrorism.

Security Some events, by virtue of their symbolic value, size, or nature are more likely targets than others. Open and free-access events, where anyone can enter, present many opportunities for crime and attacks. Each event must therefore evaluate its attractiveness and vulnerabilities. Terrorism and cybercrime as threats have been discussed by Ashwin (2021), outlining both the factors that contribute to event vulnerability and the counter-measures that can be taken. Fundamental actions for event managers include the following: l

Electronic surveillance and highly visible police presence.

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Training of workers and participants to spot and report threats; drills for emergency response.

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Reducing the potential rewards of attacks (e.g., money security; dispersal and hardening of potential targets).

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De-escalation of incidents; elimination of provocations.

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Background checks on all staff, volunteers, and participants.

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Unified command, control, and communications system, including external authorities (police, fire, and medical). Access controls and security checks (gates; screening; advance warnings).

Layered Security Police and private security companies can advise on the principle of layered security, and what exactly is needed for a given event. Redundancy has to be built in, so if one element fails there is a backup. While planning for risks, health, and safety, the event’s vulnerabilities will be identified and appropriate strategies formulated, such as how to prevent a crush on the stage, protect guests and performers from attacks, secure money, and keep out drugs and alcohol. Four or five D’s are used to describe the components of a layered security system.

Detect: all workers should be trained in what to look for, such as suspicious people and items, but this might also require a surveillance system including closed-circuit television. Access controls and searchers of bags, even pat-downs, are the most obvious (and resented) ways to detect and prevent entry with banned substances or weapons.

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Deter: Visible police or security personnel are one deterrence, fencing and barriers another. It is usual to have a fenced and guarded buffer zone between the audience and the stage. Signage is used to provide warnings and prohibitions.



Delay: There are ways to slow down or divert potential incidents, such as moving people away from trouble spots, erecting temporary barriers, or having staff intervene. Effective communication among staff and security is obviously needed, but guests can also be alerted through both public address systems and personal media devices.



Deny: Take measures to deny access to certain areas, so as to protect both people and assets. Keep valuables locked up. Guard VIPs, etc.



Defend: This is the hopefully being a physical (possibly armed) direct response to attacks.

Contingency Planning and Emergency Response A contingency is a possible but unpredictable future occurrence. It might happen, uncertainty is present. But since we know of many threats we have to be prepared for at least some of them in detail, and all of them in general terms. In other words, events need pertinent policies, procedures, and, where possible, rehearsed reactions. In risk management, we want to know both the most likely threats to occur, and the most damaging ones. The contingency plan, therefore, is based on anticipating the need for reaction – possibly even crisis management – and having the strategies and arrangements in place to deal with and recover from the risks. One of the most important contingency plans is for an emergency response to a variety of immediate threats, such as approaching severe weather, and real-time incidents, such as fires or attacks that require evacuation. The need for emergency responders to enter and do their jobs is a related issue that must be taken into account at the design stage and will be an important element in site and venue planning. Detection and Triggers: Managers must be able to detect a problem before anything can be done about it. News, observations, or other indicators of a threat/problem/risk will be used, and then a decision can be made on what exactly will trigger the planned response. Weather forecasts can be vague, but monitoring a radar map for approaching severe weather can provide adequate warning. This is clearly done at golfing events, leading to sirens and course evacuations. In terms of crowding and potential crushes, what exactly are the warning signs of impending disaster? Many threats and risks might not be amenable to advance warning, so a specific trigger is needed to get the response implemented. By the time people are being crushed, it is too late for prevention. Communications: An emergency broadcast system is necessary in most event settings, otherwise direct contact with guests is needed by way of telephone, mass and social media, and signage. Communications protocols are required and must be tested to ensure that first responders receive timely and accurate news, and they in turn can communicate effectively with all concerned parties. Responsibility and authority: The chain of command must be established in order to prevent conflicting reactions, and to ensure that legal authority (such as the police and fire officials) is maintained. Immediate response: Staff and volunteers must practice responses to minor accidents as well as serious incidents. Checklists might be necessary, also posted protocols and quick-access online documentation. Incident reports are usually required following the first responses. These

Risk, Health, and Environmental Management for Events are intended to defend against lawsuits, plan for future incident responses, and perhaps even reassure the injured that it is being taken seriously. Online Resources: HSE (n.d.). Guidance on running events safely. (Health and Safety Executive. https://www.hse. gov.uk/event-safety/) The Purple Guide (2016). (https://www.thepurpleguide.co.uk/index.php/ the-purple-guide)

Crowd Management and Control Crowd management refers to all the systems and programming intended to attract, accommodate, and ensure safe, healthy, and rewarding experiences for guests, customers, participants, workers, and any others at planned events. Crowd control is one element in this management function, consisting of those measures taken in reaction to problems or threats. There is a long history of studying crowding within the behavioural sciences, illustrated by Le Bon’s (1908) study that is the foundation of many of the subsequent analyses of crowding. More recent studies such as Wynn-Moylan (2017) trace the evolution of thinking on the science of crowding and crowd behaviour pointing to influential studies such as Berlonghi (1995) on what can cause crowd problems at events. What these studies show is that there are catalysts that can trigger crowd-level reactions. Le Bon (1908) stimulated a debate by arguing that through group mind theory it was evident that individuals in a crowd lost all sense of responsibility. Many subsequent studies have questioned these assertions, suggesting that context is also important in triggering crowd-wide behaviours. For example, Wynn-Moylan (2017) points to the work of Festinger et al. (1952) which suggested deindividualisation occurs in crowd settings. This concept suggests that a wider range of behaviours may occur, dependent on the context and the individuals involved, that can lead in extreme cases to rioting and violence. Other studies have labelled this mob sociology (e.g., Momboisse, 1967) suggesting the behaviour is irrational, while Berk (1974) suggested that crowd action was rational and could be modelled. Subsequent research has shown that crowd behaviour is very much based on social identity theory (see Wynn-Moylan, 2017) where people act in relation to their own identity and in a socially coherent manner. Crowd density is an objective measure of how many people there are in a given area, whereas crowding is how people feel about the situation. Studies have shown that in wilderness settings, even the sight of a few other canoeists is crowding. Although a potential problem at events, people often expect crowds, and they can even add to our enjoyment (Lee et al., 1997; Mowen et al., 2003; Wickham and Kerstetter, 2000). Some of a person’s reaction to the presence of others is related to the size of the group and our personal space – this is social density (Bell et al., 2001, 296), whereas some of it depends on how much space there is – that is, spatial density. It is the difference between too many people to interact with, versus not enough space. Freedom to move, perceived control, and risks can also be factors. For example, what would happen in a panic – can we escape? The context also influences our judgement of what is crowding. Researchers have found that males and females are equally affected by high social density, but males suffer more from high spatial density. Friends and social support mitigate stress or anxiety caused by crowding. Evidence linking crowding with aggression or other anti-social behaviour is not clear, especially within event settings. Bell et al. (2001) compared various theoretical models pertaining to crowding. Critical causes of crowding (not of density, but the resultant feeling) have been attributed to excessive social

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Risk, Health, and Environmental Management for Events contact and social stimulation, reduced freedom (e.g., to move about), scarcity of resources (bathrooms?), violations of personal space, unwanted contacts (groping?), interference with the desired behaviour, and lack of privacy. Possible coping mechanisms for crowding include withdrawal, attempts to reduce stimulation/arousal, escape, aggressive behaviour, territoriality, and other attempts to maintain freedom, control, or privacy. Some of these coping mechanisms might be desirable even if the crowding is considered to be, overall, unavoidable or fun. Cutting across most of these models is the notion of perceived control. If we believe we can take control of the situation, the negative impacts will be diminished. Freedman’s (1975) ‘density-intensity model’ appears to have great relevance to events, although it has been controversial. His model suggests that density intensifies reactions that would otherwise occur given the particular situation, so that high density heightens the importance of other people and magnifies our reactions to them. High density therefore intensifies the pleasantness of positive situations (e.g., a party or celebration) and intensifies the negativity of situations we would rather avoid. Accordingly, your expectations, desires, and mood upon entering an event setting will directly impact your reaction to density – whether or not you feel crowded. Mowen et al. (2003) found that crowding at events is more likely to be a positive factor at the entertainment stage, and negative at food and beverage outlets. Setting a firm site capacity in terms of the number of people invited or permitted is one way to prevent overcrowding and related problems. Similarly, managers can try to regulate the flow and turnover of patrons. Other capacity and crowd management techniques include: advance and group ticketing (to avoid bottlenecks); physical barriers and activity spacing; information provision, and the management of queues (Mowen et al. 2003).

Dynamic Crowd Management (DCM) Technological advances have made it possible to monitor crowds from all angles, plus the setting (where attacks might emerge) in real time. According to O’Toole et al. (2019) in the book Crowd Management: Risk, Security and Health, Using onsite technology and smart analytic systems, the purpose of DCM is to predict, rather than simply react, and therefor prevent crowd-related problems. This requires constant measurement of size, movement and crowd characteristics linked to environmental conditions. When problems are detected, or better yet anticipated, action is required.

E X P E R T O P I N I O N 1 3 . 1 :   By William J. O’toole The Australian Safe and Healthy Crowded Places Handbook William O’Toole is an events development specialist (see www.epms.net and https://www. linkedin.com/in/william-otoole-events). He wrote the Australian Federal Government’s handbook Safe and Healthy Crowded Places. The handbook is free online at https:// knowledge.aidr.org.au/resources/handbook-15-safe-and-healthy-crowded-places/ As the events sector matures around the world, it undergoes what can be termed phase changes. The latest change concerns the adoption of risk management. Proof of the change is found in the number of public events such as festivals and parades that are cancelled due to increased security costs. Reports suggest that the budget for security is now 20% of the whole event budget.

Risk, Health, and Environmental Management for Events For many years governments and departments saw events as a source of income, tourist attractors, and part of the destination marketing mix. The current focus is for the government and its agencies to regard an event as a crowd of people. This latest phase is a result of the attacks on public events by terrorists and lone shooters combined with the increasing popularity of public festivals and concerts by the new generation. The term used is a temporary mass gathering. The risk techniques have been adapted from other types of mass gatherings such as at airports, shopping centres, and other transport hubs. The ongoing management of these venues allowed the management team to test and gradually refine their crowd management tools and techniques. With the uncertainty of a new disease, Covid-19, the risk of crowds as a mass transmitter became a new focus. Recognising this change, the Australian Government, through the Australian Institute for Disaster Resilience, decided to update its seminal manual on crowds, originally published in 1999. Called Safe and Healthy Crowded Places, the project to write the new handbook gathered numerous agencies together to hear their concerns and techniques. The agencies included representatives of all state and federal police, public health, ambulance services, city authorities, event companies, and private security companies. An interesting part of the large project was to discover that, although there are so many agencies dealing with events, they all have similar processes and issues. The standard risk management process was behind all of them. Many of the incidents and issues with crowds could be forecasted. Planning was paramount. But there were issues with crowds that arose spontaneously and, even with all the planning, could not have been foreseen. First, the issue had to be recognised by the on-site event team as a risk. In a complex dynamic entity such as a crowd what seems to be a small problem can be quickly amplified by the number of people it affects. This introduced the all-important ‘situational awareness’. Then the response teams had to use the resources at hand and work rapidly with multiple agencies and volunteers. Decision-making had to be decisive using the knowledge available as time was critical. The handbook was divided into four main topics: Crowd Management, Site and Safety, Health (including Public Health and Medical), and Security. Flowing across these domains were the processes found in risk management, communication, and emergency management. This can be illustrated using the EMBOK block model (Figure 13.3). time

Domains

Health and Medical Security

Risk Management

Site and Safety

Emergency Management Communication

Crowd Management

Figure 13.3  Model of the Safe and Healthy Crowded Places Handbook, showing the three dimensions of domains, processes, and time

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Risk, Health, and Environmental Management for Events In each of these domains, the agencies had accumulated vast experience and research, honed skills, and built heuristics. The problem was that they had developed it independently of each other and created their domain-specific terminology. We needed a common handbook that summarised this information from all these agencies and domains. Dealing with all the agencies and constructing this model led me to realise that there was not a body of work that brought the four areas together. It was obvious there was a common methodology expressed in very different words. Hence I asked four on-theground experts to write about crowd management from their perspective. This led to the new textbook Crowd Management: Risk, Security, and Health. The textbook uses the principles of emergence and complexity to describe the management of crowds. Dr Stephen Luke, author of the health section in the textbook, after describing the risks of pandemics, wrote the prophetic statement “Why then is health so often an after-thought in event planning?” The cancellation of events around the world perfectly illustrated the themes of the book: uncertainty (as distinct from risk), exposure, centralisation of decision-making, complexity, and long tail catastrophic risk. The ­double-edged sword of tourism was evident during the Covid years. Tourism spreads new money and also spreads new diseases. Dr Andrew Tatrai, highly experienced in crowd management and security described the importance of immediate information at an event. Security guards, for example, cannot see over the heads of the crowd. This was brought home in the 2022 crowd disaster in Korea. His solution is to use existing cameras and an AI system to immediately identify possible problems and relay this to the on-the-ground security and police. All of the above fits into an events sector maturity model. The development over time of individual events, event companies, government strategies, and suppliers are surprisingly similar in countries around the world. There are internal contradictions and external pressures that drive this. Risk is the most recent. Issues at events and requirements from governments have pushed the event sector along the maturity path. Covid is a perfect example of a major crisis that created an inflection point and forced governments and companies to reassess their event portfolio. This accelerated the next phase in the maturity model.

References EMBOK: Event Management Body of Knowledge, developed by a group of international event experts, including William O’Toole, to describe the profession of event management. The three-dimensional models used domains, processes and phases (time). See www.embok.org Dr. Tatrai’s work can be found at: (www.dynamiccrowdmeasurement.com) For more information on the maturity model see: O’Toole, W. (2021). Events Feasibility and Development: From Strategy to Operations (2nd. ed). London: Taylor and Francis. For more information on the role of crisis in accelerating the move along the maturity path see: O’Toole, W. (2021). Crisis: The juncture of stability and development. In V. Ziakas, V. Antchak & D. Getz (Eds.),Crisis Management and Recovery for Events. pp. 30–40. Oxford: Goodfellow.

Risk, Health, and Environmental Management for Events

Crisis Management and Resilience One important conclusion arising from the previous sections is that any threat or external situation can cause a crisis if the organisation is unprepared or responds poorly. All of which means that events must do comprehensive risk management, have contingency plans and emergency responses in place, and give serious thought to becoming more resilient. In the book Crisis Management and Recovery for Events (Ziakas, Antchak, and Getz, 2021) the basic elements of recovery planning were discussed, being: l

l

l

l

Adequate financial resources (i.e., are there committed resource providers and reserve funds available?) Committed stakeholders (Is the event an institution that must be protected, or part of a ­valued portfolio? Does it have goodwill within the community, and are politicians supportive? Has it powerful allies and partners?) Demand (Has the event a loyal customer base? Can engagement with target segments be maintained? Is redesign or repositioning necessary?) Technical feasibility (to recover, especially after cancellation, are suitable venues and times available? Are staff and volunteers able to return? Can imposed regulations or conditions be managed?)

Alongside sustainability planning and risk management, specific attention has to be given to building resilience through strengthening the organisation’s agile management systems, building and maintaining community and stakeholder support, and networking (preferably within managed, collaborating portfolios). Two terms of particular relevance are agile management and adaptability.

Adaptability: This is defined as being able to change in profound ways in response to ­ ressures, threats, or other trends in the environment such as competition, consumer prefp erences, or funding shifts. This is in contrast to flexibility, which refers to bending, or making minor changes. Organisational culture is difficult to change, and is therefore often an impediment to being able to adapt – thereby lessening resilience.



Agile management: To be adaptable requires management systems that are able to respond quickly. This is the opposite of rigidity and therefore runs counter to top-down, authoritarian decision-making. It fits perfectly with the concepts of a learning organisation, ­fostering innovation and intrapreneurship. Events that embody participatory, bottom-up decision-making, diffused and situation-specific leadership, and strong stakeholder linkages are more likely to be agile.

Gorchakova and Berdysheva (2021, 245) examined the core characteristics of agile m ­ anagement for events (see also expert opinion 4.1). Staff and volunteers must be knowledgeable, skilled, and innovative. Leadership motivates and supports change. The organisation is able to create and incorporate new ideas and management systems. Design and programming are responsive, as opposed to a product-orientation that focusses on selling a particular ­experience. Customised or individualised products and services define its audience-focused mission.

Stakeholders and Crisis Management In times of crisis and recovery, consideration of event stakeholders must intensify. Getz (2021, 85) illustrated five categories that require attention. The model shows four quadrants defined

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Risk, Health, and Environmental Management for Events by increasing potential for collaboration and assistance on one axis and increasing power, or interest and capability of doing harm, on the other. The main point is that events must look to those willing and able to help resolve the crisis and facilitate recovery, but also pay attention to, and perhaps appease, those that might impede recovery – or actually threaten it. Why would some stakeholders seek to harm events in a time of crisis? Potential enemies might include protestors, competitors for resources or political support, or those who have been harmed or suffered damage by the event (even if it is only perceived).

PROFILE 13.1 The October 2022 Halloween Disaster in Seoul, Korea The final death toll was 145, mostly young people. Here are the facts as reported in Korean media: Crowd Size: Only an estimate can be made, as this was an unofficial gathering – a celebration by mostly young people of the end of pandemic restrictions, with Halloween providing the excuse. The Itaewon district was an obvious gathering point, with its bars, clubs, and restaurants holding small events, but the streets became packed with up to 100,000 partiers and the police presence (137 officers) was there only to look for illegal drugs and violent behaviour. There were no controls on the crowd size or movements – other than the street pattern itself, and that became a major hazard. In hindsight, the crisis should have been anticipated, and it was concluded that the police presence and responses were inadequate. The Crisis: Police recorded 131 calls for help by 11 pm on the night of the disaster. It was reported that a crush had occurred in a narrow alley and people were dying, many were desperate for help. Survivors reported that people could not move, they began to fall like dominos. At least one person said they saw some men push others. Some climbed walls to attempt an escape. There were no exits. An hour and a half went by before many were freed from the crush. The police operations centre, set up to respond to crises, had remained inactive the entire time leading up to the main crush. The fire department had responded, as well as ambulances, but they could not reach the victims because of the size and density of the crowd. Aftermath: A 74-day inquiry was undertaken by the National Police Agency. It was determined that meaningful crowd control measures were not in place on the night in question, despite predictions of a large assembly following the lifting of pandemic-related prohibitions. Police had failed to heed warnings from revellers of a swelling crowd, hours before the crush. The disaster could have been prevented by employing more police and public workers to monitor or block off bottlenecks such as the alley where most people died. The subway station could have been closed early to prevent entry to the district. One-way walking lanes could have been created. But at the time, there was no way to control the scene and ensure that emergency vehicles could quickly reach the victims. Criminal charges were laid. The national government minister responsible was impeached by his colleagues. Lessons to be learned: – although an informal happening, a large crowd was expected in that particular district.

Risk, Health, and Environmental Management for Events – although the event was not subject to the normal licensing requirements of planned events, the same risk assessment and preventative measures should have been applied. – similar unsanctioned gatherings occur frequently, around the world, especially related to sports and at protests – what have the appropriate authorities learned? – the police were clearly not trained or prepared for the potential risks – were they the responsible organisation, or the city government? Co-ordination of first responders and other emergency services is essential. – the disaster occurred in a district with many bars and clubs, restaurants, one main street, and several narrow alleys; many cities have similar environments – are they prepared for worst-case scenarios? It is often pointless to distinguish such assemblies from planned events, as the lessons should apply to all mass gatherings. There were elements of planning, such as ticketed events in clubs, and the celebration was widely advertised and known to be very attractive to young people. There were police present, but their numbers and their response were woefully inadequate. Emergency vehicles were impeded by the crowd, meaning they were not truly prepared for any emergencies. Most importantly, crowd surges and crushes are frequent, and the dynamics are so well understood that preventative measures and effective responses should be automatic whenever there is an expected or planned mass assembly. (sources: https://www.asahi.com/ajw/articles/14755729; http://www.koreaherald.com/ view.php?ud=20230104000645&np=1&mp=1; https://www.latimes.com/world-nation/ story/2023-02-08/south-korea-impeach-minister-deadly-halloween-crowd-crush)

Environmental Management and Sustainability Environmental management is a broad function covering all aspects of event planning, operations, and clean-up (or dismantling) that can impact the natural and built environments. Events themselves can be considered to be threats that cause pollution and erosion, contribute to climate change through the emission of greenhouse gases, interfere with wildlife, destroy natural environments through construction or participant/crowd activities, and impose unwanted traffic, light, and noise on communities, or otherwise disrupt the life of residents. In many jurisdictions, it is the venue that will be responsible for most environmental management issues, while stand-alone events will require their own systems. Drawing on Case (2013), environmental management for events must consider a number of inter-relationships. Case advocated a systems approach, looking at inputs, and transforming processes and outputs/outcomes. With a single event as the focus, we therefore must look at inputs from, and impacts on the following: l l

l

Supply chain (e.g., infrastructure; food/beverages; energy; water; equipment, etc.). Venues (permanent or temporary; indoors or outside; their supply chain and sustainability management). Micro-environment: the event and immediate surroundings (e.g., waste; pollution; erosion; noise; light; traffic).

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l

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Macro environment (e.g., carbon emissions, changes in urban, rural, or natural e­ nvironments; alteration of habitat and ecosystems). Environmental constraints and determinants (e.g., climate; weather; landscape; policies; regulations; and values). Legacies (long-term or permanent changes attributable to an event or the event sector).

Increasingly it is necessary to consider the events sector as a whole, or at least managed portfolios, the implication being that cumulative and long-term inter-relationships and impacts must be planned and evaluated. Of relevance is Table 13.2 which outlines a sustainability strategy for events at the city level. Also of importance is the distinction between natural and built environments, both of which exist in a spectrum of possible event venues ranging from remote and pristine (e.g., an eco-challenge through wilderness areas) to major facilities in city centres. Events held in natural areas, such as parks and preserves, will almost certainly be subject to intense scrutiny and controls, if permitted at all. Major facilities are likely to have permanent environmental management systems that apply to all events. Events of different types have specific ­environmental ­management requirements, as well as peculiar impacts related to their supply chain, activities, and the people attracted.

Nature, Ecological Systems, and the Ecological Footprint of Events Nature and natural environments do occur within urban areas, usually as parks and preserves, and any perceived threat to their sanctity is usually met with strong citizen opposition. More landscaped and developed parks, such as playgrounds and rest areas, are also highly valued, including for their aesthetic attributes. Examples of strong opposition to developing such areas for events have been documented, but it is also the case that residents often object to certain types of events in their parks, for example, tourist-oriented rather than community-based, or they protest against over-use. In these instances, the threats and reasons for opposition are clear, and if the events go ahead, amelioration efforts will be required to either protect or restore the valued features. Ecological systems include all the natural processes that sustain life, including the hydrological and energy cycles, climate and weather, wildlife and vegetation populations, and evolution. Of greatest concern today is climate change and the necessity for events and tourism to seriously reduce energy use and related carbon emissions, in fact, to reduce all greenhouse gases including water vapour. It is the cumulative impact of many events and related travel that generates unacceptable carbon and ecological footprints, although mega-events on their own are significant contributors. Ecological footprints can be defined as the amount of land and sea area needed to provide the resources a person needs and to absorb carbon emissions, expressed in acres or global hectares (source: www.footprintnetwork.org). The eco-footprint of an event, or tourism in general, can be difficult to calculate, as detailed and area-specific data are required. However, it is known what makes the largest contribution, and therefore must be the primary target of greening and sustainability strategies. The inescapable conclusion is that travel by all modes should be minimised. This runs counter to most tourism strategies and is therefore strongly resisted. ­However, until travel becomes clean and green (that is a long way off, even with the rising use of electric vehicles), as well as all the supporting services (accommodation, catering, and retail), several strategies should be employed:

Risk, Health, and Environmental Management for Events l l

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Maximise use of public and mass transit; limit international travel. Reduce the number of visitors, and concentrate on yield per visitor; a small number of highly involved tourists who stay longer and spend more, and who travel mostly because of the attractiveness of an event, generate the greatest economic benefit; mass tourism is the enemy. Adopt all basic greening tools, especially utilising alternative energy, minimising energy and water consumption, and reducing all forms of waste. Employ social marketing at events, and in partnership with other stakeholders – especially sponsors – to encourage responsible, sustainable practices and to set a good example.

Carbon calculators are readily available but require a lot of hard data to be useful for events. Claims of carbon neutrality should be treated with caution, even cynicism, since in many cases the carbon load of an event or venue is simply transferred somewhere else, or takes the form of tree planting. Trees are so important that they should not be used as pawns in a game of greenwashing.

Built Environment Events that require building facilities alter the environment, sometimes permanently. H ­ owever, within urban settings, a range of recreational, entertainment, cultural, and event venues is expected and necessary. The legitimation of events means that residents are only likely to have objections to the construction of new facilities in cases of over-tourism or over-use, or where specific environmental impacts are anticipated. Cost is another matter, especially arousing opposition when it comes to mega-events.
 The literature on events and the built environment includes consideration of the range of facilities supporting events, from streets to small parks and festival sites all the way up to the largest, most expensive arenas, stadia, convention/­exhibition, and arts centres. The larger the city, or its significance within regional and national societies (such as government capitals) the more likely it is that major facilities will be desired, and that fact automatically leads to event development and marketing strategies (e.g., see Plate 13.1). Employing events within urban development and renewal projects, repositioning, or place-branding schemes also gives rise to the need for event portfolios. Culture-led development or sport-led development fits into this context.

What Is Greening and Sustainability? According to Kellison and Casper (2018, 136), “Event-greening is the process of incorporating socially and environmentally responsible decision-making into the planning, organisation and implementation of, and participation in, an event”. RRR can be a starting point, meaning Reduce, Re-use, and Recycle, but greening must also include supply chain management for increased efficiency, reducing carbon emissions, protecting ecological systems, and adopting broader sustainability principles that become a triple-bottom-line agenda. There is no lack of knowledge about how to green events, including that available in books such as by Jones (2018). What is difficult to understand is that in many jurisdictions there is no legal imposition of appropriate regulations, and standards are often merely guidelines. On the EventImpacts website advice is given on various categories of, and methods for event impact assessment. A set of indicators is suggested for environmental sustainability (source: http://www.eventimpacts.com/impact-types/environmental):

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Plate 13.1  Edinburgh International Festival. The illumination of Edinburgh Castle Photo Credit: Edinburgh International Festival – Daniel Clarke l

The waste footprint of event-related visitors.

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The proportion of waste classified as inert or hazardous.

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Changed composition of event-related waste streams.

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Changes in the amount of waste produced per event-related visitor/participant.

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Changes in the proportion of waste diverted from landfills (i.e., increase recycling and composting).

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Reduction in waste produced at event sites.

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Reduction in waste produced per event-related visitor.

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Carbon footprint in (CO2 equivalent) associated with event-related visitation.

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Carbon footprint per event-related visitor (CO2 equivalent).

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Total event carbon footprint (CO2 equivalent).

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Reductions in personal carbon footprint following events (i.e., the effect of social marketing).

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Quantity of water used (litres of public water supply) at the event site.

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Changes in the proportion of visitors using public transport to travel to/from the event.

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Changes in the proportion of visitors driving to/from the event by car.

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Total distance (miles/km) travelled by visitors to/from the event.

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Proportion of visitors using car-sharing schemes.

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Quantity of food and drink consumed.

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Quantity of food and drink consumed which is organic.

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Quantity of food and drink sourced locally (i.e., produced within 100 miles or 160 km of the event). Quantity of food and drink certified as fairtrade, or other eco-certification.

Risk, Health, and Environmental Management for Events From the list of indicators above, it can be seen that greening is not the same as sustainability, nor does the measurement of those indicators constitute a full ecological impact assessment. Sustainable events have to be green – that is a starting point – but they also have to be economically viable, socially responsible, and evaluated with regard to their long-term, cumulative impacts. Inevitably there will be disagreements about the meaning, process, and evaluation of sustainability. The term sustainable development was first defined in 1987 through what is commonly known as the Brundtland Report, or formally Our Common Future (1987, n.p.): “Sustainable development is development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs”. When this term first became popular, many people in the tourism industry and other sectors of the economy believed it meant sustainable growth. That was met with a strong reaction, the argument being that a focus on growth is counter to many of the principles of sustainability, especially the precautionary principle. Within the events sector, greening became a popular interpretation of sustainability. A more comprehensive approach to sustainable events takes a triple-bottom-line (TBL) approach, inclusive of economic, social/cultural, and ecological goals and impacts. There are those who dislike the term TBL, or its implications, but it is nothing more than a starting point for thinking more broadly and systematically about environmental management and sustainability (Getz, 2009). More recently the term resilience has been added to the sustainability discourse, as the pandemic showed that many events could not survive a major shock to their particular ecosystem. Also related is the concept of responsibility, the implication being that events (and all other organisations) have a moral responsibility to do good for society and the environment. There are types of events that attract the unsustainable label, including those opposed by ­animal-rights groups (e.g., targeting rodeos), events that promote harm to nature, foster or perpetuate racial or gender-based discrimination or stereotyping, events that encourage violence, and events that are exclusive because of their cost or location. What this all means is that sustainability has many connotations, and is often politicised. Here are some plain, dictionary-type definitions of sustainability and resilience. Note the similarities: Sustainability: the capacity to endure; to maintain a particular process or strategy. Resilience: the capacity to resist, and if necessary recover from shocks or disasters; to bounce back when stretched or damaged. Given the costs, logistical challenges, political interpretations, and other uncertainties surrounding sustainability, here is our definition. Sustainability is a process of continuous improvement, not an end goal or a particular state of being. Being responsible in social, economic, and environmental terms, greening events, and being a positive force for change are all elements of sustainability that should encourage the setting of ever-higher goals and the rigorous evaluation of all processes and outcomes.

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Environmental Management Process Taking a systems approach is necessary to prevent tunnel vision, such as a narrow focus on recycling or carbon reduction. Another good starting point is the ISO 21021 Standards for Sustainable Events Management (download at www.iso.org). It lays out procedures for event organisations to follow in pursuit of a TBL approach to sustainability. These types of standards are intended to lead to improved organisation and planning, to prevent or ameliorate negative impacts, and maximise desired outcomes. They typically include the following: l

Designing a sustainability policy.

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Issue identification and evaluation.

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Stakeholder identification and engagement.

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Objectives, targets, and plans.

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Performance against principles of sustainable development.

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Operational controls.

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Competence and training.

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Supply chain management.

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Communication.

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Monitoring and measurement.

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Corrective and preventative action.

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Management system audits.

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Management review.

The principles of sustainability described within ISO 21021 are also important. They cover integrity, inclusiveness, transparency, and stewardship. Stewardship: This concept is rooted in religion and philosophy, with the basic premise that individuals, organisations, and governments have a sacred duty to look after the world’s resources so that future generations are not disadvantaged – and preferably advantaged by our efforts. As argued by Getz (2017) there are three levels of sustainability to consider: the single event, event portfolios, and whole populations of events – all within a sustainable city or destination. Planning for sustainability in eventful cities and destinations will require both a supportive environment for planned events in general, and policies specific to event sustainability. Table 13.2 provides a starting point. Management of overlapping event portfolios will be needed, as there are multiple policy domains supporting events for social, economic, and cultural reasons. At the city or destination level, there is also a need for standard evaluation and impact assessment methods and measures. In addition to creating a supportive environment, events should be considered positive agents of change, not merely a field to regulate. Events, in this context, can be at the forefront of environmental stewardship and in advocating sustainable practices.

Standards, Accreditation, and Awards Numerous systems have been established to guide greening and sustainable event management, certify compliance and thereby accredit events, and award excellence. For example: l l

A Greener Festival Award is actually a certification system (http://agreenerfestival.org). IMEX-GMIC Innovation in Sustainability Award (www.imexexhibitions.com/awards/imexawards- programme/green-awards/).

Risk, Health, and Environmental Management for Events Table 13.2  Planned Events to Reinforce Multiple Sustainability Policies and Actions City and Destination-Level Policy Fields and Goals

Specific Concerns and Actions for Individual Events and Event Portfolios (Many Actions Apply to More than One Policy Field)

Air: reduce carbon emissions; monitor and improve air quality

– reduce carbon footprint by maximising the use of public mass transit and by careful targeting of tourist segments; events should stress yield over volumes when it comes to design capacity and marketing – adhere to emission standards for all machinery, equipment, and venues – balance event portfolios with regard to their environmental standards and impacts – reduce consumption; education of guests; avoid pollution; provide clean water as a service – use events in general to conserve wetlands (e.g., through education, donations, and responsible use) – implement reduce, re-use, recycle, especially considering supply chain controls and packaging – a collaboration among events should include joint waste management efforts – follow principles of the Circle Economy: waste is designed out of the system; everything is used to its best value; regenerate nature – reduce consumption; use alternative clean sources; evaluate all machinery and equipment for efficiency gains; work with venues to be carbon neutral – favour events (within portfolios and in bidding) that meet stringent conservation standards – reduce private-car travel; use the shuttle and public mass transit services – multiple events using the same sites and venues can potentially justify better public transit service; designation of ‘event districts’ can result in more efficient clusters in terms of accessibility, costs, and environmental management in general – educate guests regarding nature conservation; donate money to conservation projects; plant trees; avoid erosion and land pollution; utilise ecological footprint calculator – develop footprint calculators specific to events in cities – contribute to the liveability of communities through design and heritage conservation initiatives; monitor and reduce light and noise pollution; ensure safety and convenience of residents – integrate event policies and planning in all urban planning and design projects; employ events in culture and sport-led development

Water: conserve supplies; provide clean water for all citizens; prevent pollution Waste: minimise waste; improve recycling and re-use

Energy: reduce consumption; develop alternative, clean sources

Transportation: maximise the use of public, mass transit; reduce auto use and congestion; use clean fuels

Nature/ecological systems: Reduce overall ecological footprint; conserve nature and increase access to nature reserves Built environment & liveability Heritage conservation; design and use of public spaces; safer, quieter, more liveable communities

(continued)

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Risk, Health, and Environmental Management for Events Table 13.2  Continued City and Destination-Level Policy Fields and Goals

Specific Concerns and Actions for Individual Events and Event Portfolios (Many Actions Apply to More than One Policy Field)

Economic development: Foster innovation and entrepreneurship; create and preserve jobs; attract investment; foster a progressive business environment; grow responsible tourism Tourism: target high-yield visitors; overcome seasonality of demand; build and maintain a strong reputation and brand; develop a portfolio of events and venues for long-term, sustainable benefits

– develop an economic impact strategy and evaluation mechanism; grow the event and/or expand diversity; become an innovation and creative-city leader; add value through supply chain management, favouring local and regional suppliers – foster and integrate both private and social entrepreneurship in event portfolio planning

– carefully target high-yield tourists; favour off-peak timing; co-brand with the city/destination; stress longterm, sustainable value-creation within a managed event portfolio; evaluate visitor satisfaction; create hallmark and iconic events – apply sustainability policies and standards to the entire population of events and event venues – consult residents on questions of appropriate versus over-tourism – favour events and developments that generate resident-oriented leisure and cultural opportunities, advance inclusiveness, and adhere to social justice standards Food: ensure food supplies; – implement a food policy favouring authenticity and develop urban gardening; local/regional suppliers; integrate with RRR actions preserve traditions and – event portfolios should include food/beverage events maximise culinary authenticity that showcase and encourage the development of local and regional produce, and that benefit farmers Education/training: – educate guests regarding sustainability issues and Educate residents and students practices; train event evaluators on sustainability issues, and – create event portfolio positions (i.e., policy analyst, initiatives they can take planner, coordinator, evaluator) Social Policy: maximise social – set social goals and evaluate outcomes on residents, integration and harmony; foster social groups, and the community; engage many community development; stakeholders in social planning adequate housing for all; build – foster ground-up event planning through funding and institutions other forms of assistance – stress permanence and resiliency in event planning and funding Community development: – develop and manage community stakeholder relations Assist communities in dealing to maximise benefits; increase community selfwith problems, taking sufficiency through event production sustainability initiatives, and – evaluate alternative means of creating and sustaining planning their future; ensure social capital, especially through event networking leisure opportunities and and portfolio management accessibility for all residents (continued)

Risk, Health, and Environmental Management for Events Table 13.2  Continued City and Destination-Level Policy Fields and Goals

Specific Concerns and Actions for Individual Events and Event Portfolios (Many Actions Apply to More than One Policy Field)

Arts and cultural policy: Foster arts appreciation and participation; preserve valued traditions; promote tolerance and appreciation of differences Health: Maximise accessibility to quality health services; prevent disease and injury; encourage responsible, healthy lifestyles Safety and Security: ensure public safety; traffic controls; crime prevention

– utilise local talent; preserve cultural traditions; set and evaluate cultural goals – use events in culture-led development (e.g., through venues, festival spaces, celebratory promotions) – require inclusiveness when deciding on funding – provide safe, healthy, and secure events – use social marketing to encourage positive lifestyle changes – create health-oriented events and event themes – work with police and other security-related agencies to ensure a safe event experience for all – evaluate the event population and managed portfolios for overall effect on crime, safety, and security

Source: Getz (2017). Reprinted with permission of Cognizant Communication Corporation

STUDY GUIDE

These vital management functions are packaged in one chapter because of their close interdependencies. Risk management covers health, safety, and security, a key component of which is crowd management. Environmental management is about more than greening and sustainability, it also pertains to environmental hazards. Relate each of these topics to planning, especially site planning, and design, as they are all linked. As a useful exercise, compare an indoor venue (say, a convention centre) with an outdoor festival in terms of the systems in place (both obvious to event-goers, and hidden) in terms of their management of health, safety, security, and environment. Try to find out what those invisible systems are, including their greening policies, security measures, and contingency plans. This will require the active cooperation of managers. Next time you are at an event, be aware of all that is happening around you, with the aim of being vigilant of hazards and threats, conscious of your role in fostering sustainability, and how your experience is being shaped by all these management systems. Be critical, and give feedback to event producers. With regard to the example of the Seoul Halloween example, as a professional, you must ensure such disasters never happen. STUDY QUESTIONS l l

Define these key terms: threat, hazard, risk, incident, disaster, and crisis. For risk management, describe the main steps in the process, and strategies that can be employed.

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Give an example of layered security for an event.

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What are the three domains in health and safety management? Give examples of each.

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Describe conditions leading to perceived crowding (hint: density is one of them).

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Explain and give an example of DCM.

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What do resilience and sustainability have in common?

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Explain sustainability in terms of the TBL, and the need for continuous improvement.

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What are the main impediments to achieving green event and sustainability goals?

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In what ways are events threats to the environment and sustainability? FURTHER READING

Arnott, I. (2020). Risk management in events management. In V. Nadda, I. Arnott, & W. Sealy (eds), Legal, Safety, and Environmental Challenges for Event Management: Emerging Research and Opportunities, pp. 1–20. Hershey, PA: IGI Global. Goldblatt, S., & Goldblatt, J. (2011). The Complete Guide to Greener Meetings and Events. New York: Wiley. Jones, M. (2018). Sustainable Events Management: A Practical Guide (3rd ed.). Abingdon: Routledge. Musgrave, J., & Raj, R. (2009). Introduction to a conceptual framework for sustainable events. In, R. Raj & J. Musgrave (eds), Event Management and Sustainability, pp. 1–12. Wallingford: CABI. O’Toole, W., Luke, S., Brown, J., Tatrai, A., & Ashwin, P. (2020). Crowd Management: Risk Security and Health. Oxford: Goodfellow Publishers. Sèraphin, H., & Nolan, E. (eds.) (2018). Green Events and Green Tourism: An International Guide to Good Practice, pp. 18–30. Abingdon: Routledge. Ziakas, V., Antchak, V., & Getz, D. (2021). Crisis Management and Recovery for Events: Impacts and Strategies. Oxford: Goodfellow Publishers.

Chapter

14

Event Outcome Evaluation and Impact Assessment

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

Upon completion of this chapter, students should know the following: l l

The differences between outputs (in a systems model), outcomes, and impacts. How complexity increases in evaluation and impact assessment in relation to technical and political considerations.

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Value perspectives: who values events, why, and how.

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Evaluation as a profession; standards and ethics; and paradigms.

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The evaluation and impact assessment (IA) process.

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The subjects and objects of event evaluation and impact assessment.

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Setting goals and developing appropriate indicators for the measurement of outputs, ­outcomes, and impacts. Formative, process, and summative evaluation. The forces-pressure-state-impact-response model as a tool to identify forces and stressors which generate event-related outcomes, both intended and unintended. Impact assessment for these five subjects: social, cultural, ecological, built environment, and economics.

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Obtaining valid and acceptable evidence.

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How to create and use the Leopold Matrix method.

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Consideration of the distribution of benefits and costs (the equity issue) with attention to winners and losers. DOI: 10.4324/9781003374251-14

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Legacy and leveraging: how they are linked, and what is required to achieve legacy goals.

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Winner and losers – why do they exist and who are they?

Introduction Planned events always have a purpose and goals. This means the planning process has to incorporate a system for ensuring that goals are attained, necessitating evaluation and impact assessment. It is also possible that unanticipated and negative outcomes are generated, and unless evaluators search for them, or receive stakeholder input, they might go unnoticed or unmeasured. Internal evaluation by managers, often to solve problems and inform decisions, is usually paralleled by external evaluation by stakeholders. The first part of this chapter focusses on evaluation, but of necessity also introduces some of the fundamentals of impact assessment. There are important differences between routine monitoring and evaluation as a basic management function, both to stay on course and to measure outcomes, and more specific and complex impact assessments, but there are overlaps. Terminology is important, so we start there.

Terminology Outputs, Outcomes, and Impacts To be overly simplistic, an event is a transforming process converting various resources, with the help of different stakeholders, into a range of desired outputs: these could be defined, for example, as attendance, customer satisfaction, profit, or media exposure. Measuring these outputs is a necessary internal evaluation mechanism, but keep in mind that external stakeholders are also evaluating the event. They are often equally interested in the same output metrics but are much more likely to have wider concerns related to sponsor relationships with intended customers, how public policy is being implemented, or how particular segments of society feel impacted. It is therefore wise to distinguish between short-term and precisely defined outputs, and longer-term, broader outcomes or impacts. In this context, we can use outcome and impact as synonyms. Keep in mind that people often feel impacted by events, and that is how they use the term.

Value, Values, Worth, Merit, and Evaluation The root word in evaluation is value, and the literal meaning is to put a value on something or determine its worth. A full discussion can be found in Brown et al. (2015) and Getz (2018). Value: the regard that something is held to deserve (e.g., “I value my privacy”); the importance of something (e.g., society values individual human rights); the usefulness of something (e.g., events are valued as instruments of public policy); the material or monetary worth of something (e.g., event tourism generates millions in tax revenue). As a verb, to value or to evaluate means the process of assigning value or worth, although another connotation of evaluate is to assess or analyse. Values: important beliefs or ideals shared by individuals or groups about what is good or bad, or what has merit (e.g., “There is a common belief that festivals and events are good for communities”); principles or standards of behaviour (e.g., “Applying community standards means we will not tolerate certain behaviours at the event”); and judgement as to what is important in life (e.g., “Freedom of artistic and political expression is an essential element of democracy”).

Event Outcome Evaluation and Impact Assessment Many different value perspectives can be taken on events, ranging from the instrumental – as in event tourism generating new demand and tax revenue – to the position that art festivals should be valued without recourse to metrics – they are valued because they are art. You can see that values might result in extreme positions sometimes, making them politically charged. Intrinsic versus extrinsic: as discussed by Lundberg et al. (2017) and Getz (2018), some people value events intrinsically, meaning they have inherent worth, such as manifestations of culture or as healthy pursuits, and they believe we do not need to justify them through measures of output or impact. Others employ extrinsic measures of value such as economic impacts or profit/ revenue generated. Both perspectives can be taken on the same event, reflecting the mandates and goals of multiple stakeholders. Worth: Determining the overall worth of an event is therefore a challenge, and realistically this can only be done when all the stakeholders agree upon its goals and its effectiveness. In other words, the worth of an event or event portfolio will of necessity require negotiation. This principle even applies to individual, for-profit events where the needs and preferences of owners, investors, staff, volunteers, participants, suppliers, and others have to be considered. Where there is a commercial value (i.e., it can be sold), an event’s worth can be determined by valuers using various reference points such as recent sales of comparables. Merit: Dual meanings include superior quality or excellence (e.g., “The tournament merits our support because it facilitates the highest level of competition”); other reasons might lead to a similar conclusion, that something deserves praise or approval; Demonstrated ability or achievement (sometimes the evaluator’s task is kept simple: did we achieve our goals and objectives?). Evaluation of merit can therefore be fraught with danger. Ask: is that all that should be evaluated? who set the goals and objectives? whose interests are being served? Evaluation: There are two connotations of evaluation that we need to explore. The first is to put a value on something, as in determining its worth. Event venues will have a monetary value, as they can be sold in the real estate marketplace, but it is much more difficult to say that an event could be sold for a certain amount of money. The real issue is this: does an event have sufficient value to justify the investment of money and effort? Who says so? Do the benefits outweigh the costs? The second use of the term evaluation is technical in nature, and sometimes referred to as programme evaluation. This is what most managers do when they collect attendance and spending data from visitors, assess profit and loss, do market research, or examine the reasons behind a problem or failure. This form of evaluation is all about supporting the decision-­ making process and solving problems. A permanent, internal evaluation system is required for every organisation. We learn from making mistakes and doing research, but only if the lessons are incorporated into ongoing planning. Another connotation of programme evaluation is to demonstrate cause and effect in such fields as medicine, education, or engineering.

Impact Assessment As mentioned, we can equate impacts with outcomes, keeping in mind that people will perceive impacts within the frame of their own values, and analysts can try to measure them within the context of a planning and evaluation system. The International Association of Impact Assessment (IAIA.org) defines it this way: “... the process of identifying the future consequences of a current or proposed action. The ‘impact’ is the difference between what would happen with the action and what would happen without it”.

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Event Outcome Evaluation and Impact Assessment That is too narrow a definition for our purposes, but it covers how IA is used in planning and feasibility studies. In addition, we will discuss retroactive IA (what actually happened), strategic IA (evaluating the potential impacts of proposed policies or plans), and systemic (i.e., how have events changed the ecosystem?).

Theory for Evaluation and Impact Assessment The evaluator might begin with the question “What am I to evaluate, and how?”, but the more fundamental question is why – which must include consideration of the context and how results are to be used. Even more fundamental, and seldom questioned, are the paradigms that shape our assumptions and methodologies, ultimately translating into the methods and measures being used.

Paradigms Evaluation paradigms relate to epistemology and methodology, with paradigm meaning a guiding model, a set of concepts, theories, research methods, postulates, and standards that define legitimate research and evaluation. As such, they are open to debate. The positivist paradigm is widely applied, as it encompasses the search for cause and effect through experimentation and quantification. According to Rossi et al. (2004), it encompasses many conventional exercises such as needs assessment and measures of programme efficiency, to which we can add event-­ related economic impact assessments and measures of customer satisfaction. A second important paradigm is called the interpretive (Potter, 2006), consisting of methods that incorporate stakeholder collaboration in the formulation of the event, setting of its goals and objectives, and interpretation of the outcomes. This approach avoids tunnel vision and therefore is not used by those wishing to obfuscate or deny projected or real costs and negative impacts. It also gives rise to participatory evaluation and IA, wherein affected persons and groups are involved in designing the process and interpreting the results. An extension of this inclusive approach can be called critical-emancipatory (Potter, 2006) and is usually tied to action research. The event is an agent of change intended to achieve certain results, and the evaluators or IA experts are integrated into the process. Power structures might be challenged, making this a controversial paradigm.

Complexity Keep in mind that impact assessment and evaluation are often linked. If one merely wishes to know if customers are satisfied, that is a fairly simple evaluation question. But if you want to know if the cumulative impacts of all events in your city are sustainable, that is an evaluation question of great complexity. Getz (2019a, 29) developed a model to illustrate how political, theoretical, and technical considerations affect the evaluation and impact assessment process, resulting in a continuum from simple measurement tasks (e.g., quantifying our ticket sales) to the extremely difficult evaluation of long-term, cumulative impacts on the environment and society. Theory for cumulative impact evaluation in the events sector is not well developed (e.g., what are the long-term impacts of managing a diverse portfolio of events? what is a sustainable portfolio?), the technical requirements would be high (e.g., original research, multi-stakeholder input) and the political issues complicated (e.g., many stakeholder perspectives on impacts and value need to be accommodated).

Event Outcome Evaluation and Impact Assessment

Purposes and Uses The most basic problem is that many organisations are not able, and in some cases, they are prevented from, undertaking many of these tasks – even including basic data collection and monitoring. Why? Either a lack of resources prevents research or limits technological means of collecting and analysing data, or for political reasons there is a desire to maintain the illusion that only benefits are created, there are no negative impacts, and everyone should be happy. There also occur misuses of evaluation and impact assessment for the purpose of whitewashing or greenwashing – that is, presenting a positive image of an event. This frequently happens when narrow interest groups in society want to bid on mega-events and the costs and potential negative impacts are deliberately hidden or under-estimated.

Theory-Driven Evaluation Theory-driven evaluations start with a theory about how interventions (i.e., events, portfolios, or event-related social marketing) should achieve certain desired outcomes. In other words, as agents of change. Ideally, experiments are used to prove cause and effect, or other evidence of success is sought. Educators use this approach to demonstrate how certain didactic methods or approaches achieve desired learning results. Medical researchers use this approach to prove the efficacy of a new drug or procedure. We hardly ever see true, quasi, or field experiments in the realm of planned events, meaning we have no assurances that we can achieve s­ystem-­ changing results. Each event, even when conceived as an agent of change, could be viewed as an experiment.

Triple-Bottom-Line and the Balanced Scorecard TBL was a term coined by Elkington (1994) to encourage businesses to go beyond economic or financial measures of impact and success, specifically to include environmental and social factors. It is more of a philosophy than a methodology and has given way to an even broader consideration of impacts, including culture, welfare, inclusiveness, human rights, and sustainability. Similarly, the Balanced Scorecard (Kaplan and Norton, 1992) was designed as an integrated management system and has been modified by Getz (2018, 65) for application to events. Goals and KPIs are to be established for organisational culture (including establishment of a permanent, comprehensive evaluation system), customer and stakeholder orientation, internal or transforming processes, and sustainability.

Goals-driven and Goals-free Evaluations The most common evaluation approach is goals-driven. The evaluator might take the simplest approach, asking “Did we achieve our goals?” and conclude that, if yes, the event has merit. Evaluation might also focus on only one or a few goals, such as “Did we achieve our revenue targets?”, in which case the evaluation is not of the event – it is merely a technical exercise in output measurement. The degree of goal attainment is referred to as effectiveness. Goals-free evaluation is seldom employed, as it requires a broad mandate and open-ended questioning of “what happened, and why?” You can see that this approach requires a lot of resources and skills, and can lead in many unpredictable directions. It is intended to avoid the tunnel vision that can accompany narrow, technical evaluation exercises – especially the kind that avoids looking for unintended and negative outcomes.

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Event Outcome Evaluation and Impact Assessment All too often externalities are ignored, such as impacts on those not directly involved in the event’s production, or environmental pollution. A full event evaluation takes into account costs and benefits and their distribution. In goal-free evaluation no assumptions are made about purposes or goals, so evaluators seek to demonstrate what happened, whether intended or unintended. Sometimes this approach is taken when long-term, expensive programmes are evaluated, such as in health care and education. Government agencies will want to ensure that major policies are being implemented effectively and efficiently, plus they want to avoid negative impacts in other policy fields. Efficiency is defined as the relationship between inputs and outputs, giving rise to the following questions: 1 “Can we utilize our resources better?….. to achieve more?” (e.g., do we get the most from our staff and volunteers?). 2 “Can we do more, or as much, with less?” (thereby saving money or allowing re-distribution of resources). 3 “How can we cut waste? How can we use water/energy more wisely?” 4 “Where/how can we acquire more resources?” Numerous ratios exist for evaluating financial or economic efficiency, the most commonly cited being Return on Investment (ROI). However, the meaning of return is open to interpretation and varies with application. For a business, the bottom line will always be profit and financial sustainability. Calculating yield per visitor, or for hotels REVPAR (revenue per available room) are key metrics. Investors will want traditional ROI calculations (e.g., 5% return per annum), and lenders will want a number of metrics including data on the balance sheet (revenues versus expenditures) and cash-flow accounts to assure themselves they will get paid back. Tourism agencies and destinations will often focus on destination-level metrics such as growth rates (both the volume of tourism and yield per visitor; length of stay; repeat visits/loyalty), image and reputation relative to competitors, and development of infrastructure (with major events being catalysts) as their ROI. The profitability of individual businesses and events should also be considered, but it is not the primary responsibility of tourism organisations. ROI for a major event would also depend on the legacy goals, which might include non-­economic measures such as urban renewal, improved infrastructure, and making gains in trade and investment. ROE can be used, suggesting that the event organisers are not interested in profit (although they must be financially sustainable). ROE in this context is used by meeting and convention planners who want to know if the event leads to improvements (see the modified Kirkpatrick and Kirkpatrick model in Figure 9.2). Service-oriented events need the usual internal efficiency ratios that measure their output per unit of expenditure (or investment) and a set of measures useful to stakeholders – which might include the community at large or specific segments who receive benefits. Key performance and impact indicators are needed, ranging in complexity from satisfaction to indicators of systemic social/cultural change.

Professional Practice Codes of practice have been established by professional evaluation and impact assessment associations, including the American Evaluation Association (AEA) and the International Association of Impact Assessment (IAIA). There are also available standards that apply to professionally conducted evaluations. According to Stufflebeam and Coryn (2014), these include:

Event Outcome Evaluation and Impact Assessment l

Utility (serve the client’s needs; consider all stakeholder interests; make values explicit).

l

Feasibility (efficiently using resources; use project management tools; best methods used).

l

Propriety (legal, ethical, respectful; transparent, and full disclosure).

l

Accuracy (technically competent; suitable methods).

l

Accountability (open to scrutiny; full documentation; standardised methods and measures as far as possible).

Evaluations and impact assessments are, unfortunately, frequently done unprofessionally, or are misused. Too many simply give the client what the client wants, to use for their own purposes. This includes numerous economic impact studies that exaggerate mega-event benefits while ignoring or downplaying costs and potential negative impacts. Call this whitewashing. Professionals will avoid pseudo-evaluations that serve purely political or public-relations purposes and should not enable persons or groups who want to make false claims or provide misleading evidence on a given issue. Professionals will need to advise clients and stakeholders on what is feasible and how results can be used, as selective use of results can be misleading. Furthermore, in this age of climate change and turmoil, professionals should always encourage full impact assessments and cost-benefit evaluations from multiple stakeholder perspectives.

A Complete Evaluation and IA System A complete system for an event has to be fully integrated within other management systems, including strategic and project planning, risk assessment, and HR management, as illustrated in Figure 14.1. Evaluation and IA should lead to more accurate forecasts and more dependable goal attainment.

Forecasts and scenarios (of demand and impacts); feasibility and risk assessment; concept testing; setting specifications FORMATIVE (PRE EVENT)

Theory building arising from theory of change processes

REVISIONS, IMPROVEMENTS, THEORY BUILDING

PROCESS (THE EVENT)

A COMPLETE EVALUATION AND IA PROCESS Using data and evaluation reports (learning, improving); satisfying all stakeholders; benchmarking against baselines and against best-in-class events.

FEEDBACK

SUMMATIVE (POST EVENT)

Figure 14.1  A Complete Evaluation and IA Process

Detecting and correcting problems including variances from specifications; implementing and monitoring all management systems; responding to customer questions and complaints; incident response and reporting; data collection (e.g., volumes and flow of users, expenditure, guest surveys).

Effectiveness and efficiency measures; All stakeholder evaluations; TBL impact assessment; benefit and costs

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Before: forecasts and scenarios (of demand and impacts); feasibility and risk assessment; concept testing; setting specifications; revisions based on prior evaluations. This is ­ often called formative evaluation, as it is intended to shape policy and planning, design, or programming.



During: detecting and correcting problems including variances from specifications; ­implementing and monitoring all management systems; responding to customer questions and complaints; incident response and reporting; data collection (e.g., volumes and flow of users, expenditure, guest surveys). This is often called process evaluation, with monitoring and corrections being most important in long events or programmes.



After: using data and evaluation reports (learning, improving); satisfying all stakeholders; benchmarking against baselines and against best-in-class events. This can be called summative evaluation.

In addition, evaluation and impact assessment can be conceptualised in four dimensions by asking these questions: 1 Forecasting: what will be the impacts/effects/changes if we do the following? (or do nothing?); this question is inherent in all change models and relates to the very purpose of the event. By thinking (perhaps in a group setting) about the difference between taking action and doing nothing, important conclusions might be drawn, such as: “We have to act, otherwise this community will remain divided”. 2 Post-event: what were the demonstrable (or provable) outputs and outcomes? did we achieve our goals? 3 Systems: how has the event (or the entire event portfolio/population) generated impacts (positive and negative; long-term and cumulative)? and what does that mean for our organisation? 4 Strategic: what are the probable impacts of changes to the event ecosystem? (such as changes to funding, regulations, and creation of portfolios).

The Subjects and Objects of Evaluation and IA The usual focus of event management is on the guests or customers, and what benefits they derive from their experiences. They are the objects of our design and production, and we aim to satisfy them. On a deeper level, we might aim to co-create a transforming experience – giving rise to the expression return on experience. Other possible objects are groups, organisations, and things we intend to impact. When setting goals and considering outcomes, our subjects can be social, cultural, economic, or related to the built environment or nature/ecology. Any combination of these is possible. If events have the mandate to improve the quality of life of residents, then they are all pertinent, but if the mandate is to attract tourists, our subject is primarily economics. This structure is fully developed in Getz (2019a), based on work by Armbrecht and Andersson (2016). As presented in Table 14.1, there are five subjects and eight objects. Such a matrix can be modified to suit different purposes and for more or less specificity. For example, specific target segments might be featured, or particular settings. First and foremost, it is a goals-oriented system, with impact assessment and evaluation directed towards determining if and how goals are attained. Beyond that, evaluators have to be concerned with how to avoid tunnel vision and always search for unintended and negative outcomes.

Table 14.1  The Subjects and Objects of Evaluation and IA People

Events

Communities & Cities

Politics & Government

Business & Tourism

– individuals & families (customers, guests, staff, volunteers, participants) – residents; social and cultural groups – create or improve: leisure opportunities; quality of life; subjective well-being or happiness; health; personal development; family cohesion; learning opportunities; affiliation and identity; social capital. -events as agents of change – use events as tools in generating cultural capital, group and national identity, and the legitimation of subcultures

– single events, portfolios, populations

– where people live and work

– policy and strategy for events; regulations

– venues; tourism; destinations; corporations

– work with events as collaborative, network-building institutions; – achieve valuecreation networks and event portfolios

– ensure the benefits of events in contributing to community quality of life, community development, health and safety, education, social inclusion, and identity

– foster social – implement tourism linked to policies and event attendance; strategies to work to achieve support events positive hostand regulations to guest interactions ensure health and safety

– events to be integrated with cultural and artistic institutions and networks

– events designed as authentic cultural expressions; events as art; encourage cultural development; events contributing to cultural appreciation and intergroup cohesion

– maximise government policy and support for culture and the arts

Subjects

Objects

Cultural

– ensure support for cultural events through sponsorship and marketing

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(continued)

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Social

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Table 14.1  Continued Events

Communities & Cities

Politics & Government

Business & Tourism

– support events generating employment and business opportunities for individuals and families; avoid unsafe, exploitative work

– ensure viable events through competent management and sharing within networks

– integrate events, venues, and tourism in community economic development strategies

– policy to ensure that events, venues and tourism create meaningful places (i.e., healthy, safe communities; aesthetics and amenities; symbolism) – policy to ensure that events are positive contributors to sustainability; require green events

– use events & venues in place making and urban transformation

– maximise – establish public economic and private benefits of partnerships for events and event event and tourism portfolios to the development host community; ensure equitable distribution of costs and benefits – enhance the – integrate roles of events in events, venues destination image and tourism in making and physical planning marketing and urban design; use events in making positive contributions to liveable cities – events should – make events be lobbying for leaders in sustainable action creating green and sustainable destinations

Subjects

Objects Economic

Built Environ- – events to enhance Ment housing and neighbourhoods (avoiding inflation and displacement)

Ecological; Natural Environment

– increase appreciation of and access to nature; events to make positive contributions to sustainability

Source: Adapted and expanded from Armbrecht and Andersson (2016)

– ensure events are “green, relaxing oases”; events as community institutions with sustainable practices

Event Outcome Evaluation and Impact Assessment

People

Event Outcome Evaluation and Impact Assessment

Impact Assessment Theory and Process Although forecasting IA is most common (as in “What will be the impacts or outcomes of an event on the environment?”), post-event IAs are often conducted for events, most frequently regarding economic impacts. IA methods are also needed for retrospective assessments of how events and tourism have changed a system (such as “Has our portfolio of events improved this city’s living conditions?”) and for the assessment of potential impacts of policies or strategies, by comparing alternatives. Comprehensive impact assessment for events and tourism is rare, being extremely complex to conduct, but with the growing number, size, and importance of events – and managed event portfolios – an urgent need exists for theoretical and methodological development. IA goes hand in hand with evaluation, as there is generally little point in forecasting impacts if outputs and outcomes are not monitored and evaluated, and little point in knowing what impacts have occurred unless something is done about them.

Mitigation We hope to be able to forecast and prove the attainment of our goals, but what do we do about negative impacts? Mitigation takes on different forms, and as noted by the United States ­Council on Environmental Quality (1980), it can include: a Avoidance (by not doing something). b Actions taken to minimise impacts. c Repairing damage (or rehabilitation). d Reducing or eliminating the undesired outcome over time. When all else fails, compensation for losses might be needed. Note the overlaps between ­mitigation and risk management. All planning and all events entail uncertainty about the future, giving rise to risks.

Evidence and Indicators What evidence is acceptable to demonstrate goal attainment? To be effective means to achieve one’s goals, so when goals are set the means for demonstrating goal attainment are an inherent part of the process. This requires performance indicators, and the establishment of a method to obtain the evidence. Efficiency is also important, meaning how well we use resources to generate the intended outputs. Efficiency can be improved by achieving more output for less input, such as through productivity gains, reducing costs and waste, or earning more for the same effort. All these need indicators, the things to measure that define efficiency and efficiency gains. When it comes to events as agents of change, how can we prove that events cause positive or negative impacts? We lack a theory that both explains and predicts all potential outcomes, so we are left with compiling evidence and arguing our conclusions, often in a confrontational setting – such as the typical political debates surrounding the advantages and disadvantages of mega-events. If all stakeholders can agree upon the goals and related performance and impact indicators, then agree upon methods and measures, impact assessment and evaluation will be easier. What evidence will be accepted by stakeholders is in all likelihood a matter of debate and compromise. Some will want hard numbers only, especially when it comes to economic impacts, while others will be satisfied with hearing the voices of those people and groups who feel they have been impacted.

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The Forces-Pressure-State-Impact-Response Model This model is adaptable to event impact assessment, and although we do not always have theory to prove cause and effect, if we understand the forces and pressures at work there is a better chance for goal attainment and avoiding negative impacts. Pressure refers to the ways in which events, venues, and tourism can cause change. Remember that we conceptualise planned events as agents of change. These pressures include investment in event venues, event production and activities, event tourism, and even media coverage can have an impact. Some pressures are rather obvious, such as increased traffic, while others are more subtle and open to interpretation, such as the role of media coverage in shifting resident attitudes, or how events generate social capital. When events are viewed as agents of change, the state of the environment, society, culture, and economy is pulled into focus. However, these are all dynamic systems, so establishing a benchmark to assess before and after conditions is often difficult. When assessing impacts we need to consider if we are making forecasts, looking back at trends, or weighing options. To complete the model it is necessary to evaluate how people and institutions react to impacts, as the very act of doing an IA or evaluation should lead to changes. Table 14.2 provides an example. A range of forces or pressures is indicated, along with possible impacts and responses. These are intended to show how to develop and use this type of model, as it cannot be comprehensive. Each force or pressure can also be disaggregated, such as for stages of construction.

Leopold Matrix The objects-subjects matrix is a useful framework at a general level, but in IA forecasting or post-event IA, a more refined matrix is often utilised. While the subjects and objects approach can shape an IA matrix, it is designed to include more detailed information. The Leopold Matrix (Leopold et al., 1971) is often employed, or some variation of it. It was intended to examine the possible or observed impacts on environmental conditions (i.e., physical and chemical characteristics, biological conditions, cultural factors, ecological relationships) and actions that might cause (or might have caused) impacts. The information has to come from past experience, case studies, comparisons, theories, or consultations. In examining the potential environmental impacts of constructing a new arena for major sport events, we need to consider whether the planning, design, construction, and operation phases will have an impact on the economy, community, or natural systems. Previous experience will certainly provide a starting checklist for the matrix, and so will stakeholder consultations. Different kinds of information can be placed in each cell, such as the estimated probability and severity of a forecast impact, or the observed amount of pollution if that information is available in a post-project IA. Opinions can be added, even as simple as a checkmark or X to indicate that residents, through consultation, are concerned about a particular potential consequence.

Social Outcomes and IA Social-outcome goals are typically made for individuals or families, communities, groups, and nations, but we should also examine impacts on businesses, tourism, destinations, politics, government, and the events themselves. The challenge is two-fold: (a) provide logic or theory of change models that guide the attainment of these goals, and (b) employ valid and reliable

Event Outcome Evaluation and Impact Assessment Table 14.2  Forces and Pressures, Possible Impacts, and Possible Responses Forces & Pressures

Possibe Impacts

Possible Responses

Investment in: – venues – infrastructure – events

Investment: – restructuring of the economy; new or displaced jobs; political debate on priorities

Construction – traffic, noise, dust.

– event-specific policies and strategies, linked to economic development and other policy domains; regulations; demands for public input and demonstration of costs/benefits – lobbying by special-interest groups; protests against perceived negative impacts

Construction: – land-use changes – ecological processes altered (drainage, habitat) – community-level political – increased traffic, noise; action; demands for event light, energy, food, and greening; business opposition water consumption, or support; police action emissions & waste against bad behaviour; support – related business (supply for social marketing through chain) events – social capital formation – personal and family support – satisfaction or and loyalty; increased disappointment voluntarism; formalisation – learning; personal of volunteer and training development; programmes through/with transformation of events; increased event tourism attitudes or behaviour and careers – social and health benefits – balanced or exploitive – protests against over-tourism; relationships or commodification; planned renewal of traditions; demands for accountability from industry

Event Production – the programme – visitor activities – management systems

Event Experiences: – attendees/guests – staff; volunteers – other participants

Tourism: – host-guest interactions – related services (accommodation) Community Involvement

– full engagement or exclusion

Media Coverage

– supportive or negative coverage

Portfolios of Events

– long-term, cumulative impacts on culture, residents, economy, environment

– community-development initiatives increase; demands for social inclusion and equity – political action stimulated by media coverage – permanent evaluation and impact assessment system put in place

methods and measures to assess and evaluate impacts - positive or negative, intended and unintended. This approach integrates planning, operations, evaluation, and IA systems, and also leads to theory development. Each logic or theory of change (TOC) model is somewhat of an experiment designed to test certain hypotheses or informed ideas about what will happen when events are held, especially when events and tourism are conceived as agents of change. See Richards et al. (2013) on social impact assessment, and Getz (2019a) on methods and measures for SIA.

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Social Pressures and Responses What exactly causes social change is the question at the heart of both planning a logic or TOC model, and in IA. There can be general pressures beyond anyone’s control that have to be considered, such as globalisation, forms of government, cultural norms, or the state of the economy, but mostly we will be interested in the event-specific stressors and how to analyse them within a TOC or an IA matrix. Residents, and host communities, experience both direct and indirect event-related stressors. These include changes to the physical environment (e.g., traffic, noise, pollution, transport, and infrastructure), to the economy (employment, taxes), and to government, and politics (protests, policies, and strategy). Residents can decide if they want to attend events, with more choices for entertainment creating a utility value, or they might appreciate events for what they do in the community – this being a non-use value assigned to events. With events designed as agents of change, there is the necessity for specifying the intended consequences, measuring them in ways acceptable to stakeholders, and then taking appropriate action (e.g., mitigation of negative outcomes or reinforcement of positive impacts). In many cases the results of event-related stressors, and what to do about outcomes, will be open to debate.

Personal and Family Outcomes If we only want to find out if customers and guests at events are satisfied, that is a simple evaluation problem. We can use Importance-Performance questions, thereby learning more about expectations and quality perceptions. Path analysis can be used, with appropriate data, to link antecedents, experiences, and future intentions or loyalty. But none of these evaluation techniques answer a fundamental question – do events change people? If events are expected to transform visitors, or perhaps other participants and families as well, then some theory must be applicable. We can hypothesise, as is being done by researchers who will be cited, that real change, or transformation, can occur as a result of one or more of the following – singly or in concert. Activity: Especially in sports, we can expect physical and mental benefits, and this can be augmented by the development of serious leisure and event travel careers. Emotional Engagement: Especially within a festive context, communitas can be fostered. This belonging and sharing experienced by equals in an inclusive setting can foster happiness, quality of life improvements, or spiritual growth. Even simple entertainment can act as a stress reliever. Social Engagement: Personal and social identity can be fostered or reinforced through socialworld activities, or events that otherwise bring diverse people together. Social inclusion can ideally foster community-level benefits or social capital. Quality of life gains can be expected from family togetherness at events (Jepson and Stadler, 2017), while hosts and guests can meet as equals and gain mutual understanding. Sub-culture or social-world groups can seek legitimation. Hixson (2014) determined that the more young people participated in a festival, the greater their identity awareness. Volunteer engagement or work can lead to networking and career benefits, or satisfy personal needs for belonging and giving. Doherty (2009) employed social exchange theory to examine event volunteers and concluded that their intentions for future volunteering were influenced by experienced benefits of the event, including social enrichment, community contribution, and a positive life experience. This and other studies of event volunteers link specifically to volunteering as serious leisure. Hallmann et al. (2023) linked serious leisure volunteering with the development of social capital.

Event Outcome Evaluation and Impact Assessment Cognitive Engagement: If people set out to learn, or get inspired to learn through event programming, attitudes and behaviour might consequently change. This is part of the rationale behind social marketing as well as a great deal of sponsorship or live-experience marketing by corporations. Cultural capital can be gained through improved knowledge and networking. Inspirational Effects: Often cited as a justification for sport events, there is in fact little evidence to suggest that people get more involved or healthier as a result of being exposed to sport events or elite athletes (Ramchandani et al., 2017; Sousa-Mast et al., 2013; Weed, 2018). Weed (2018, 93) concluded that the accumulating evidence of sport mega-events did not affect sport participation or attract new people into sports. With appropriate leveraging, however, the inspiration effect might encourage a higher level of activity among participants. Regarding other types of events, it can be suggested that festival engagement can have transformational impacts on individuals or communities (see below), and participation in business, scientific, or incentive events might lead to changes in skill and attitude (see the Kirkpatrick and Kirkpatrick model). Kitchen and Filep (2019) argued that insufficient attention has been given to the psychological outcomes of events for attendees, all of which link to well-being. They elaborated upon self-identity, positive emotions, and a sense of belonging. They described flourishing as an overall sense of psychological fulfilment and said it is central to understanding well-being.

Social Impact Scales Research and theory development regarding social impacts has led to a large body of literature that documents perceived positives and negatives (and grey areas), attitudes towards events and event tourism, and theories of how impacts occur. A well-established theme has been a focus on resident perceptions of event impacts, both as event participants and general impacts on their communities. This led to the development and subsequent testing of social impact scales. The following are some key references on this line of research: Fredline and Faulkner (1998, 2000b, 2002a); Delamere, and Delamere et al. (2001); Fredline et al. (2003); Small et al. (2005); Fredline (2006); Deery and Jago (2010); Yang et al. (2010); Lorde et al. (2011); Pavlukovic et al. (2017), Wallstam et al. (2018); Chi et al. (2018); and Scholtz et al. (2019). The paper by Fredline et al. (2013) represents a rare case of longitudinal analysis of perceived social impacts surrounding an event. From the published research, we can identify potential costs and benefits of events for individuals and communities, but it is also inevitable that local variations will occur.

Social Exchange Theory Social exchange theory has been a foundation for many social impact studies (Fredline et al., 2013), including a study of the Olympics by Waitt (2003). Gursoy and Kendall (2006) concluded that resident support for the Olympics relied heavily on perceived benefits, confirming the social exchange theory. The basic principle of this theory is that reciprocity is sought in human relationships, whether they be economic or social in nature, and therefore if people perceive they gain more from events and tourism than they lose, directly or indirectly, they are more likely to hold positive perceptions of impacts and positive attitudes towards bidding on and holding events in their communities. Other researchers have found that support for mega-events varies over time, and a sampling of public opinion after an event will likely reveal a lowered impression of benefits. Euphoria and heavy political support beforehand will persuade

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Event Outcome Evaluation and Impact Assessment many people that the event is worthwhile, but afterwards they look for benefits that might not have accrued (Mihalik, 2001). Lorde et al. (2011) found significant differences between pre and post-event perceptions of impacts.

Social Representation Theory Social representation theory has also been suggested for the study of impacts and change (Pearce et al., 1996). In this construct, it cannot be assumed that people rationally assess the costs and benefits of events or tourism, and they hold representations of these objects based on personal experience and media coverage. The role of media in shaping discourse surrounding mega-events in particular has been identified as an issue, with both proponents and opponents attempting to frame convincing arguments through mass and social media. Waitt’s (2004) critical examination of the 2000 Sydney Olympic Games provides an example of how ‘civic boosterism’ was employed to create a dominant, positive representation of the Games, and to exclude or silence its critics. While the Games were used to reposition Sydney in the world context, they also had to be sold to the population through the exploitation of Olympic symbolism and rhetoric, and through promises of major, lasting benefits. Event Bidding (2017) by McGillivray and Turner documents how mega-event bids are both sold and resisted.

Negative Social Impacts It is possible to predict many possible negative impacts on persons, groups, and communities with the research evidence readily available. In general, the bigger the event the more likely that negative impacts will occur. The first comprehensive study of event impacts (Adelaide’s Grand Prix, by Burns et al., 1986) examined how residents were affected in their homes and while conducting their normal business, such as by increased commuting times. Accident rates were also analysed, revealing a so-called ‘hoon effect’ attributed to the atmosphere of the races and the nature of those attracted to them. Hall (1992) noted that major events, particularly those with global media coverage, tend to attract potentially violent protests and political demonstrations. Indeed, security has become a dominant theme in event management, and the costs are a deterrent to bidding and hosting major events. A fascinating account of a special event gone wrong was provided by Cunneen and Lynch (1988). They described how the annual Australian Grand Prix Motorcycle Races had become the scene for institutionalised rioting, despite, or perhaps because of, the efforts of organisers and police to control crowd behaviour. After some time, people came for the riots rather than the races. Zawadzki (2022) compared the public’s valuation of mega and non-mega sport events on social impacts, employing willingness-to-pay measures, and determined that smaller sport events offered as much perceived value, for lower costs. Mair et al. (2023) reviewed the literature on the social costs and benefits of mega-events, leading to the recommendation of a research agenda. Refer to Expert Opinion 3.1 by Adam Talbot on sport mega-events and human rights, and Expert Opinion 15.1 by Michael Duignan on over-tourism for additional insights.

Social Capital Social and cultural capital are addressed again in Chapter 16, where background theory is provided. Social capital has become an important theme in event research and theory development, with examples being: Arcodia and Whitford (2006); Finkel (2010); Pernecky (2013); Schulenkorf,

Event Outcome Evaluation and Impact Assessment Thomson, and Schlenker (2011); Wilks (2011); Jamieson (2014); Stevenson (2016); Mair and Duffy (2018). The book Exploring the Social Impacts of Events (Richards et al., 2013) focuses on social capital. Misener and Mason (2006) concluded that hosting sporting events offers opportunities for generating social capital and community development through building community networks related to events. Arai and Pedlar (2003, 185) believed that public celebrations and other community gatherings engender social capital through enhanced social cohesion, trust, mutuality, cooperation, and openness. According to the Social Capital Research website (www.socialcapitalresearch. com) the measurement of social capital, being a complex and debatable construct, has often utilised single indicators like trust, or indices combining a number of indicators. It was argued that three dimensions should be evaluated, each with appropriate indicators. The Structural Dimension is mostly about building trust and fostering civic engagement and collaboration networks. The Relational Dimension includes social cohesion and networks, emphasising bonding, bridging, and linking relationships. The Cognitive Dimension also includes trust, along with norms and values.

Cultural Outcomes and IA The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation (UNESCO, 2002) defined culture as “the set of distinctive spiritual, material, intellectual and emotional features of society or a social group, and that it encompasses, in addition to art and literature, lifestyles, ways of living together, value systems, traditions and beliefs”. The term heritage is also relevant, and many festivals and events fall into the category of intangible heritage. Festivals in particular are generally viewed as being expressions of culture, but the same could be said about all types of events – they reflect values and traditions and communicate important symbols. One of the most recurrent themes is the contention that tourism and other forms of commercial exploitation are harmful to cultural authenticity and can result in negative cultural change.

Demonstration Effects and Commodification To the degree that events generate tourism, then direct and indirect interactions between hosts (residents) and guests (tourists) will result. Many social scientists have argued that tourism in general is a destructive force in cultural terms, and that cultural events in particular are easily commodified as tourist attractions. Many authors have worried about the negative influence of tourism on traditional cultures (e.g., Greenwood, 1972; Jordan, 1980; Wilson and Udall, 1982). Often these effects are most visible in the area of cultural productions such as rituals, music, dance, and festivals, particularly those that incorporate traditional costumes. Residents of destination areas quickly learn that culture can become a commodity for which tourists will pay a great amount, resulting in either the transformation of occasional, sometimes sacred events into regular performances, or the modification of rituals into forms of entertainment that are easier to perform, or please the audiences more. In both cases, the rewards become monetary and divorced from their cultural meanings. However, there is little agreement on tourism being bad for cultural events, or on how and why negative impacts occur (see, for example, Getz, 1998b; Macnaught, 1982; Noronha, 1977). Some authors have argued that tourism actually helps to preserve or revive traditions and strengthen indigenous cultures (e.g., Boissevain, 1979; Cheska, 1981), and events are one of the most common mechanisms. Sofield (1991) examined a successful, traditional event in the South Pacific and drew conclusions regarding the analysis and attainment of sustainability for indigenous cultural tourism developments.

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Event Outcome Evaluation and Impact Assessment Shaw and Williams (2004, 175) modelled ‘stages in cultural commodification’ for festivals and events affected by tourism, arguing that commodification was part of consumer culture, that commodification and consumerism lead to dependency in tourist destination areas, and that the commodification of social and ritual events leads to “an erosion of meaning, accompanied by community fragmentation”. The stages are: l

Independent travellers take an interest in local events; they observe, but do not necessarily understand the meanings.

l

Growth in organised tourism occurs.

l

Tour operators market local culture as an attraction.

l

Events become staged for tourists, leading to a loss of meaning for local people (the event is a commodity) and tourists are observing pseudo-events.

Methods for Cultural IA Columbo’s (2016, 10) model is specifically designed for assessing the cultural impacts of events. Her approach is ….Based on the perceptions of individuals from a host society, and therefore the results are based on subjective and personal perceptions. Thus individual perceptions are the most appropriate indicator by which to measure cultural impacts, since these impacts, due to their specific characteristics, are more subjective than other impacts such as the economic ones. Columbo (2016, 3) Columbo listed potential benefits and negatives that should be examined, provided indicators for each, and advocated a method for obtaining resident input on the following: l

Perceived or not: yes it is a likely/existing impact, no it is not.

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Considered positive or negative: this can be from the individual’s or community’s perspective.

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The intensity of the impact on individuals and on the community is evaluated: (on an intensity scale, say from 1 to 10). Considered intentional or not: The evaluator could ask respondents if they think an impact was intentional or not, or draw this inclusion from the event organisers or observation and document review.

Built Environment Outcomes and IA It is useful to distinguish between nature and ecological processes on the one hand, and the built environment on the other. By built environment, we mean residential neighbourhoods, cities, landscapes modified for agriculture and industrial activities, and all the infrastructure that keeps these systems going. We need spaces in which to hold events, and in doing so we create meaningful places.

Urban Development and Renewal Mules (1993) examined how a special event was designed to draw people within the context of urban renewal and to change the image so that the area would become associated with leisure and tourism. Events as instruments of urban policy have become very widespread, with a

Event Outcome Evaluation and Impact Assessment number of researchers exploring related themes: Essex and Chalkley (1998); Sadd (2010); Xie and Gu (2015); Pacione (2012); Rogerson (2016). Mega-events create special issues, and they are often justified in part by their role in reshaping and renewing urban environments. The common negative impacts associated with massive construction projects are housing displacement, especially of the poor, and the gentrification of areas so that only the rich can afford to live in the renewed areas. The equity issues and opportunity costs associated with new venues, and especially mega-events, are often ignored. One question that should always be asked is this: are residents, and those with special needs, the ones who will benefit from new venues and re-development?

Place Making, Identity, and Attachment; Civic Pride Richards (2017, 12) examined the various elements in place making, arguing that …Cities and regions need to think about events in much broader terms than simply economic or image impacts. To have a placemaking effect, events also need to add to the meaning of the location, and creativity needs to be employed to ensure that the meanings develop are embedded in place and appropriate to the needs and capacities of the city or region. The existence of events, and engagement with them, can foster a sense of place and help shape the community’s identity as perceived by residents. Place making and identity building occur when residents are encouraged to participate, attend, and support events that first and foremost benefit locals, but it can also be combined with developing a positive image for external influence. When people hold positive attitudes about their place in a community or country, or feel pride in being citizens, they are more likely to feel an attachment that is difficult to shed. Creative city and re-positioning strategies therefore use events as instruments of policy.

Place Marketing and Branding Cities and towns often seek to attract tourists, investment, and possibly in-migrants. Events play several roles, as do venues, and improvements in quality of life in general are important. Developing a strong and appealing city or destination brand is essential, and the process of place branding can be considered an exercise in stakeholder collaboration, or value co-creation. Chalip and Costa (2006) examined event and destination co-branding and the roles of sports events in the destination event portfolio. The creation of the brand is more than names, logos, symbols, or images, but how all of these meaningfully combine in a mental schema. Wang and Jin (2019) examined the roles of mega-events in destination marketing and developed a model for event-based destination marketing. Consider how the Royal Edinburgh Military Tattoo (Plate 14.1) is co-branded with the city, and how it contributes to the local economy by utilising an iconic castle. That event consistently attracts more dedicated event tourists than most other Scottish events, and the tourists (often on coach tours) tend to travel elsewhere in the country pre- or post-Tattoo.

Use and Abuse of Public Places The animation of public and private spaces with events may be positive, but there can also be a downside. Smith (201; 2017) discusses the urbanisation of events when public space is both “performed and consumed”. Who gains and who loses is an equity issue, and this is especially

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Plate 14.1  Finale, Royal Edinburgh Military Tattoo Photo Credit: The Royal Edinburgh Military Tattoo

poignant when peaceful parks are removed from residents’ control or use. Jones (2020) looked at cultural mega-events and their relationship to heritage, saying they can figure important in the development of small to medium cities. Usually, they are a full year in length, such as ­cultural capital designations, and Jones argued they can be embedded in the community, involve many stakeholders, and generate a strong ‘felt presence’ during and post-event.

Ecological Impact Assessment An EIA has to encompass all the greening indicators and much more. In addition to consumption, emissions, and waste generated directly by events, demand by event tourism and the entire supply chain must be considered. Direct and indirect effects on wildlife, habitat, water and drainage, soils, and vegetation must be analysed, as well as noise, light, vibrations, and other ambient conditions. The EIA might even be extended to cover the potential impacts of new or displaced businesses and related supply chain activity. The most obvious pressures will arise from construction and subsequent traffic and activity. If events are conceived as agents of change, as in fostering environmental responsibility, then social marketing ­evaluation is required. Although conducting an EIA is in most countries standardised by regulation, it is usually only done for major projects. Under European Union directives, an EIA must provide information in seven key areas: 1 Description of the project or event: – breakdown into key components, i.e., construction, operations, decommissioning. – for each component list all of the sources of environmental disturbance.

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– for each component, all the inputs and outputs must be listed, e.g., air pollution, noise, hydrology. 2 Alternatives considered: – e.g., other possible locations; for energy, can wind or solar power be used? – opportunity costs: what are the alternatives to the event or venue? 3 Description of the environment: – list all aspects of the environment that may be affected by the development, corresponding with elements of the project, in a matrix. – what are the most likely impacts of the construction? of events? of related traffic and visitor activities? what are likely cumulative impacts? – consultations should reveal existing issues, fears, and potential impacts. 4 Description of the significant effects on the environment: – ‘significant’ must be defined by experts, stakeholders, and through consultations; scales can be used to indicate severity, perceived importance, and duration. 5 Mitigation: – analyse potential ways to avoid or otherwise ameliorate negative impacts. – consider how events can be moved in space and time, adopt green standards, limit attendance or types of activity, incorporate educational and social marketing campaigns, and raise money for conservation. 6 Non-technical summary: – the EIA is in the public domain and is to be used in the decision-making process. 7 Lack of know-how/technical difficulties: – this section is to advise any areas of weakness in knowledge; it can be used to focus on areas of future research.

Carbon Calculators and The Ecological Footprint of Events Carbon calculators are available online. The website greeneventbook (http://www.greeneventbook.com/event-carbon-­ footprint-­ possible/) discusses these issues as well as the meaning of carbon offsetting and neutrality. The most important method of reducing the carbon emissions of events is to reduce private automobile use, but there remains a serious issue when it comes to event tourism - it cannot occur without substantial emissions from fossil fuels. That dilemma will not be resolved until alternative, clean energy sources become widespread. The ecological footprint is an attempt to quantify the total demand that people or specific activities like an event make on the earth’s resources, thereby demonstrating how natural capital is being depleted (Wackernagel and Rees, 1996). The idea is that an event consumes resources and generates wastes that can be converted through a calculator into an area of productive land and water necessary to produce the resources and assimilate the wastes. Models for calculating the ecological footprint are not widely available, and they have to be customised for particular countries and regions. Collins et al. (2009) employed this method in a study of football and found that more than half of the event’s footprint was generated by the travel of 73,000 attendees (totalling two million kilometres); consumption of food was the second-largest contributor. Andersson and Lundberg (2013), Andersson, Jutbring and

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Event Outcome Evaluation and Impact Assessment Lundberg (2013), and Andersson, Armbrecht, and Lundberg (2016) have reported on their use in Sweden. If a carbon calculator is available, it can form the basis of a short-cut footprint analysis. The nature of the event and its setting will dictate what other indicators should form the composite index of ecological impact. For events held indoors, key indicators will include energy consumed, the volume and types of wastes and emissions, and of course the number of visitors, and how they travelled.

Economic Impact Assessment Economic impacts tend to dominate the event tourism literature, as events are viewed as instruments of development. The logic and related issues are discussed in Chapter 15 on Event Tourism. The how-to of generating desired economic impacts from events is well understood, and we know that benefits can be realised from rational development strategies. Appropriate methods are available for impact assessment and obtaining the necessary data is not difficult. But rational planning continues to be shunned and calls for transparency and accountability are disregarded when it comes to the policies and actions of many politicians and governments around the world – especially regarding mega-events. Dwyer et al. (2010) argued that economic impacts do not equal economic benefits. Proponents of large events often point to the jobs that will be created and the value of tourism that will be facilitated, while ignoring negative impacts, costs and opportunity costs, especially equity issues that arise when the distribution of costs and benefits is evaluated. If debt is incurred, it is passed on to future generations.

Legacy and Leveraging Legacy was defined by Preuss (2007, 211) as “...all planned and unplanned, positive and negative, tangible and intangible structures created for and by a sport event that remain longer than the event itself ”. The structures consist of: infrastructure (where the most money is spent, on facilities and transportation improvements; and urban renewal); knowledge (skill development and education, especially among volunteers); image (including place branding and obtaining favourable media coverage); networks (pertaining to trade and business development, attracting conferences and exhibitions before, during and after, and developing new stakeholder links); and emotion (e.g., national pride and the feel-good effect among residents, which might also be thought of as propaganda). Event leverage has been defined as “...activities that need to be undertaken around the event itself, which seeks to maximise long-term benefits from events” (Chalip, 2004, 228). As such, the event acts as a resource or catalyst from which other benefits can be leveraged (Smith, 2014). The concept of event leverage signals a paradigm shift from event thinking focussed primarily on the impacts of events, and post hoc event evaluations, or what is commonly referred to as event legacy (Preuss, 2007; Smith, 2014). This new paradigm encourages event planners and researchers to plan for and identify targeted strategies and tactics that are effective in catalysing specified outcomes (Chalip, 2006; Clark and Misener, 2015). Chalip (2018) argued that too much emphasis has been placed on legacy as tangible outcomes of hosting events, rather than on the mechanisms by which events can be used to leverage economic, social, or environmental change. Ziakas’s (2014) review of mega-event leveraging derived a list of key research themes for further study, namely: l

Equity and sustainability: ensure that distributional justice is achieved; through triple-­bottomline accounting the outcomes might be better distributed.

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Social capital and diversity: mega-events can be used to transfer social capital to more civic gatherings and bridge the gaps within communities around diversity. An ability to accommodate a diversity of meanings associated with the event and to transcend divisions across borders. Localisation of leveraging benefits and capacity building, to grow the collaboration and ability of the area to host such events by harnessing the latent potential through collaboration and coordination.

Researchers often question the whole notion of legacy, believing it to be more of a rubric to sell people on bidding or convince them of illusory benefits while hiding true costs. Bocarro, Byers, and Carter (2018, 7) concluded: “Our findings reveal that research on mega event legacy, both sporting and non-sporting, has been underpinned by a commercial ideology that perpetuates the justification of mega events through the measurement of legacy”. Their review of legacy-related research revealed five key themes: mostly it has concerned the Olympics and World Cup; it has been mostly conceptual, not empirical in nature, and narrowly focussed on single types of legacy. The short time frame, rarely more than five years has been a limitation. There have been other studies of world expositions (Expos) and Cultural events that should also be considered, and some confusion with the study of permanent hallmark events such as Mardi Gras in New Orleans. With its Agenda 2020 and New Norm, the IOC now requires bid candidates to look into seven types of legacies to develop their legacy vision and planning (International Olympic Committee, 2017c): l

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To trace the development of these interrelated concepts we have to cite very early research and publications in the event tourism literature. Getz (1984) coined the term social multiplier to complement the economic multiplier, describing events as a mechanism for encouraging communities to think about their tourism product and then undertake more comprehensive tourism planning. It was argued that community-run events could be thought of as community development projects that increase investment in social infrastructure. Furthermore, the social and economic development processes should be mutually reinforcing and balanced. This was very much in line with the 1980s thinking on community-based tourism planning, as articulated by Murphy (1985). Getz (1984, 147) provided a detailed set of sample goals and objectives for event tourism including those for mega-events. They encompassed “image enhancement, foreign tourist influx and spending, facility and monetary legacy, enhanced pride and confidence, heightened interest in the theme”. Legacy was also explicitly discussed by Ritchie (1984) in the context of hallmark events. He noted that legacies are not necessarily positive or negative. For discussions of various event legacies, see: Andersson et al. (1999), Blackman et al. (2017), Bodin and Taks (2022), Brittain et al. (2018), Getz (1999), Hall (1994), Kirby and Crabb (2019), Macrae (2017), Malhado et al. (2017), McGillivray and Turner (2017), Moss et al. (2018), Orr and Jarvis (2018), Preuss (2007), Quinn (2010), Ritchie (2000), Rogerson (2016), Sadd (2010), Sadd and Jackson (2006), and Zimbalist (2015).

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Event Outcome Evaluation and Impact Assessment What has happened over time, unfortunately, is that proponents of mega-events co-opted the term legacy to sell the idea of bidding and hosting for long-term benefits while ignoring or downplaying most costs and negative impacts, and others have used leveraging to show how it can be done. It is only within sound, integrated planning, that both legacy and leveraging are workable, and definitely not for mega-events. Why? the following discussion makes it clear. Zimbalist (2015) highlighted the fallacy of claims made about the economic benefits of megaevents, and McGillivray and Turner (2017) have documented the illogical claims behind megaevent bidding. Brittain, Bocarro, and Byers (2018) concluded: “Overall, the evidence presented in this book suggests that, at present, legacy is largely a ‘fairy tale’, if legacy is an intentional outcome of hosting a mega event”. They argued that the legacy and related research suit the agendas of powerful groups, and that the concept has taken on ‘mystical’ properties. In this context, Talbot (2021) examined the legacy of the Rio de Janeiro Olympic Games by taking the perspective of protestors and objectors, revealing how negative the entire process was in the eyes of many Rio residents. Sometimes the true value of an element of the legacy will not be clear for a very long time, or a consensus on the value might never be achieved. What usually happens is that mega-events are justified in advance in economic and business terms, but a full cost-benefit accounting is never forthcoming, for purely political reasons. Many costs are typically hidden, or treated as externalities, the big items being transportation improvements and security. The so-called induced tourism, supposedly generating a quantum leap in tourist demand (Getz, 1999), seldom materialises, and if tourism does flourish in the aftermath, it is impossible to prove that it happened because of the event. Following the Sydney Olympics of 2000, all forecasts of induced tourism growth for Australia were demolished by 9/11, resulting in a sharp decrease that lasted for years. The concepts of net present value and future earnings can be useful in evaluating the legacy. As pointed out by many economists, the development of new infrastructure for events is a cost of hosting the event, not a benefit. Any derived, future benefits first have to be justified in terms of future earnings, and then discounted because of depreciation, increasing maintenance costs, and normal investment opportunity costs. Furthermore, many so-called legacies of megaevents have turned into expensive, useless facilities.

Comprehensive Benefit and Cost Evaluation If we want to place a value on an event or events, or determine their worth, we need to evaluate all costs and benefits. This process will usually begin with a clear statement of goals, or what we want to achieve and avoid.

Desired Benefits Clear statements of desired and expected benefits are needed, including explicit reference to who will benefit and who will pay (or experience the negative impacts). The tangible benefits in social, cultural, and environmental terms have been discussed, and in economic terms, the following are typically the most important goals: generating expenditure by sponsors and other investors, and new infusions (grants and capital investments) from a senior level of government; new facilities and venues (if funded externally); new employment; event tourist expenditures and their direct economic contribution; positive media coverage resulting in tourism gains; general economic growth and trade; and increased capacity (marketing and

Event Outcome Evaluation and Impact Assessment accommodation) resulting in future tourism growth. Intangible economic benefits include placing a monetary value on the use and non-use values expressed by residents, community pride, cultural renewal, arts development, increased interest and investment in the host community or destination, or enhanced real estate values. Increasingly, eventful cities value image or branding benefits as much as direct economic gains and are emphasising the non-economic benefits as much as quantifiable, monetary gains. This is a paradigm shift in the making, aided by concerns about over-tourism, climate change, and threats to peace and quality of life.

Potential Direct and Opportunity Costs Tangible economic costs include capital and construction costs, wages, essential services (police, infrastructure), and the long-term maintenance of venues. The harm done to individuals, families, and communities is seldom assigned an economic value, but it should be. Other intangible costs include: crowding and inconvenience; noise and visual pollution; personal crime and property damage; and resident exodus and tourist avoidance of the area.

Externalities and Opportunity Costs Costs or problems not taken into account of events are termed externalities, and they include indirect and intangible problems like pollution and amenity loss, and social and cultural disruption. Opportunity costs are all the alternative uses that could be made of capital, human effort, and other resources. If events constitute good investments, it has to be asked if the same resources would generate more benefits when applied to other projects.

Evaluating and Weighing Benefits Versus Costs Getz (2019a) presented a BACE model (Benefits and Costs Evaluation). The concept is that evaluation is a step beyond impact assessment and requires much more than measuring goal attainment. All the tangible and intangible costs and benefits have to be considered, and this must be a multi-stakeholder process. Forecasting and measuring costs and benefits is but a step towards reconciling them within sustainability and social equity frames. The model does not permit one subject of impact assessment or policy domain to dominate, and all possible objects of IA – from individuals to the nation – have to be considered. The distribution of costs and benefits might very well be the most important issue, especially because it often seems that industry and the community’s powerful elite realise huge profits at the taxpayer’s expense, even while poor people are displaced, or the middle class has its taxes increased to pay for the mega-event or a new event venue. Linked to the BACE model, Getz (2019a, 213) provided a guide to identifying winners and losers. Sometimes only the stakeholders themselves can reach an appropriate conclusion on this issue, and that assumes they are all consulted. Some of the criteria for identifying winners are: those who benefit from new facilities and related leisure opportunities (but can everyone afford them?); elite sport and cultural groups who participate; clean-up of polluted areas and restoration of new natural areas could benefit everyone; improved infrastructure, especially transport, should benefit most people; construction and suppliers get jobs and profits; new housing and property developers. Who are the losers? All those who are displaced from affordable housing; taxpayers left with long-term debt and useless facilities; segments without access to the new facilities; businesses not able to pay higher rents, or have been spatially displaced from so-called urban renewal precincts.

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Impact Assessment, Evaluation, and Sustainability Principles of sustainability should be applied to impact assessments and evaluating the worth of events. You need to ask these questions: l

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Will the event (or, in the past tense, did the event or events) make it more costly or difficult for future generations to enjoy an equal or better quality of life? (if not, that would violate the principle of inter-generational equity). Were irreplaceable resources used up? (steady-state sustainability requires no net decrease). Do events add to global environmental problems, or help solve them? (events should be a positive force across all dimensions of sustainability). Can the long-term and cumulative impacts of an event, or portfolios and populations of events, be accurately predicted and a favourable benefit-to-cost ratio attained? (if not, the precautionary principle should be applied, and actions should be limited or closely monitored; incrementalism as a planning approach and mega-events are not compatible). Can preventative and ameliorative actions be implemented? (if not, how can development be justified?). STUDY GUIDE

A starting point for studying outcomes, or for any aspect of evaluation and impact assessment, is to ask the question: who or what is impacted, and in what way? We have indicated five main objects, being social, cultural, ecological, economic, and built environment, and there are many possible subjects being the people, organisations, or things affected. People should be the first object of our attention, and this broad category can be disaggregated in many ways, such as by studying participants, guests, volunteers, residents in general, or a particular social or cultural group. Outcomes should be considered in the context of the open-system model of event organisations. Similar to an industrial process, organisations and events aim to turn inputs into outputs, and in our framework for evaluation and impact assessment, these are the short-term and obvious things event producers need to measure such as attendance, revenue generated, customer satisfaction, or media coverage. When we think of longer-term outcomes or impacts the TOC comes into play because we are now viewing the event (or events) as an agent of change. Some outcomes are unintended, and even external to the event and the organisation. External stakeholders are likely to focus on these impacts. Those who are impacted by events are legitimate stakeholders, including those who represent environmental, social, and cultural concerns. When conducting impact assessments, or evaluations of outcomes, stressors or causal factors should first be identified. It is not just the event itself that can cause changes, so we have to consider related investments, tourism, physical developments, and media effects. The degree to which the community is involved in the event, or in policy formulation related to events, will also have an important bearing on outcomes and on how people feel they have been impacted. Stressors then have to be linked to the full range of potential outcomes, both desired and unintended, internal and external. Whether impacts are positive or negative will depend on one’s perspective and on the research and evaluation methods used. This analysis leads to policy, strategy, and other possible responses. A range of models and methods are indicated in this chapter for evaluation and impact assessment, but actually conducting an impact assessment requires substantial knowledge and experience with research and consultations. The next time you read about event impacts, and particularly when mega-events are discussed, you should be in a much better position to evaluate the statements being made about benefits and costs. Form your own conclusions.

Event Outcome Evaluation and Impact Assessment STUDY QUESTIONS l l

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Define outputs and outcomes within the context of an open-systems model. Explain how goals and indicators are the normal basis for evaluation and impact ­assessment, and how goal-free evaluation is an option. How would you answer this question – what is an event worth? What are stressors or causal forces? Work through an example (use a matrix) to identify the main stressors of an event on people and on nature. What are the subjects and objects of event evaluation and impact assessment? Sketch a complete evaluation and IA process (explain formative, process, and summative evaluation). Describe similarities and differences between impact assessment for these five subjects: social, cultural, ecological, built environment, and economics.

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Discuss the various definitions and interpretations of sustainability. Is it an end state or a process? Why and how should we study resident perceptions of impacts, and attitudes towards events (including use and non-use values)? Provide an explanation of benefit and cost evaluation for events, including a discussion of opportunity costs, externalities, and the distribution of impacts (including winners and losers). FURTHER READING

Brittain, I., Bocarro, J., Byers, T., & Swart, K. (2018). Legacies and Mega Events, Fact or Fairy Tales? London: Routledge. Getz, D. (2018). Event Evaluation. Oxford: Goodfellow Publishers. Getz, D. (2019). Event Impact Assessment. Oxford: Goodfellow Publishers. McGillivray, D., & Turner, D. (2017). Event Bidding: Politics, Persuasion and Resistance. London: Routledge. Zimbalist, A. (2015). Circus Maximus: The Economic Gamble Behind Hosting the Olympics and the World Cup. Washington, DC: Brookings Institution Press.

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Event Tourism

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

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The meanings of attraction and attractiveness.

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How event tourism generates income for destinations and common problems in estimating economic benefits. Possible careers related to events tourism.

Introduction Substantial reviews of the event tourism field can be found in Getz (2008), Getz and Page (2015), and in a four-volume set by Connell and Page (2010). This chapter provides an ­overview of the main topics and issues associated with event tourism as a policy area, its development, and marketing, professional practice – including possible career paths – and the critical q ­ uestion of economic impact assessment.

DOI: 10.4324/9781003374251-15

Event Tourism While tourism is often claimed to be an industry, it is in reality an assemblage of travel and hospitality-related components, including events that become attractions. Academics study tourism as a social, cultural, and economic phenomenon, and consider all its potential impacts. Like event and leisure studies, there is a strong focus on the experience and meanings attached to it, with special consideration given to the combination of event and travel experiences. Events often play a role in tourism development and marketing, but many events exist with no tourism-related purpose or function, and others do attract tourists without trying or even paying attention to the fact. What we mean by event tourism, therefore, is the deliberate, planned use of events in tourism development and marketing. In this way, events are instruments of policy and strategy, in the same way that sports or the arts in general can serve economic (including urban) development. We also want to study the social, cultural, and environmental roles and impacts of event tourism. Leisure and tourism studies clearly overlap if one views tourism as a social phenomenon taking place within leisure, and they overlap at the business and management level because numerous enterprises exist to deliver recreational/travel experiences. Event Studies sits at the intersection (or nexus) of tourism, leisure, and recreation since it can occur within all of these domains.

Destination Management and Event Tourism Event tourism introduces a special case in the management fields and professions. A destination is not an organisation, although destination management and marketing organisations (DMOs) exist to develop and promote tourism in cities, with NTOs performing this role at the national level. A destination is usually thought of as the end point in a person’s journey, but that clearly does not cover all forms of leisure or business travel. Events can be the main attraction, making the location a secondary consideration. Journeys often include many different events and places, rather than one end point. This is why it is necessary to look at destinations from both the perspective of the traveller and the organisations promoting visits. In this way, the delimitation of a destination is often equivalent to a political entity, as in a city, state, or country with their DMOs and NTOs. Destinations are in competition with each other, but generally there is a recognition that collaboration at some level serves everyone’s interests. In that way, a destination can also be thought of as a collaboration among stakeholders who provide attractions, services, and marketing. As such, a destination organisation is an institutional arrangement requiring resources and management. It can also be thought of as a policy domain established to further the goals of cities, regions, and countries, but with private-sector companies being major beneficiaries. This public–private partnership is justified in terms of creating employment, stimulating economic growth, and spin-off benefits such as improved infrastructure and leisure opportunities for residents. Destinations are seldom managed to any great extent, and DMOs or NTOs are usually focused on marketing, typically within a broader strategy of place marketing. It is not unusual for events to be marketed as attractions, and their images used for branding, without any meaningful collaboration with the event organisations. A minority of DMOs actually fund and/or produce events of their own (see Getz, 2013, for examples). NTOs get involved when mega-events are hosted. There will be city and destination tourism plans, and increasingly event strategies that include portfolio management concepts. As cities and destinations move beyond a narrow marketing focus, perhaps in response to overtourism or resident demands, there will be more ­management. The business plan released in 2019 for European Cities Marketing suggested

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Event Tourism how this is evolving, emphasising that long-term strategies had become obsolete owing to the complexity and rapid change. Their focus was shifting from marketing aimed at generating growth to the goals of creating better cities and higher quality of life through responsible tourism. In part, this was in response to many criticisms of the dominant growth model.

Potential Roles of Events in Tourism Development and Marketing The five main roles played by events in tourism are illustrated in Figure 15.1. These can be thought of as the core propositions of event tourism. In other words, advocates and practitioners believe (on the basis of considerable evidence) that events can attract tourists, act as catalysts for other development, enhance the image of destinations, and animate venues and places. This is not theory, although exactly how these benefits can be realised is subject to theory development, some of which we will discuss. The diagram also illustrates how event tourism fits into various policy domains: place marketing, social, cultural, environmental, and economic development. Note that events are also important in urban renewal, and this is often linked to sports, culture-led development, and tourism.

Ontologial Themes Dominating both the academic discourse and praxis have been three themes – outcomes, demand, and supply – each embodying key terminology and concepts that set it somewhat apart from the others. This is an ontological perspective on event tourism, as it pertains to what people know, or think they know about the phenomenon. The first theme is that of outcomes, with the emphasis placed on the assessment of the economic impacts of events and event tourism. Key topics include: event tourist expenditure and yield; seasonality effects; estimation of gross and net economic impacts; occasionally more comprehensive studies of costs and benefits; return on investment; and an interest in leveraging events and planning for long-term legacies such as urban renewal or re-positioning in a place-­ branding context. The general acceptance of a sustainability paradigm by academics has led to a more triple-bottom-line approach encompassing environmental and socio-cultural impacts, so resident perceptions and attitudes are now a very important topic, and this has expanded into a multi-stakeholder approach to evaluating outcomes. Moreover, the dominant positivistic

EVENTS AND PORTFOLIOS OF EVENTS

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Figure 15.1  The Roles of Events in Tourism and Destination Management & Marketing

Event Tourism emphasis on measuring impacts in monetary terms is giving way to a more ­interpretive and critical evaluation of the roles, costs, and benefits of events, including the matter of exactly who gains or loses. As this approach matures, we can expect to see more research and practical applications of portfolio management (i.e., cumulative and long-term value from events as assets) and on the dynamics of populations of events, within which competition for resources and markets is a dominant consideration. Displacement effects are important in this theme, as an event has the potential to displace other tourists (especially if held in peak seasons), and in time displacement, which occurs when people alter their planned or necessary travel in order to take in an event. The term casual event tourist refers to those non-residents who attend an event but do not travel because of its attraction. Often hidden in event accounts are externalities like security costs and inflation, crime and pollution, disruption of residents’ lives, and destruction of affordable housing, giving rise to debates over measurement and disclosure. Opportunity costs are a related concern, as events and tourism are not necessarily the only or best way to achieve policy aims. As events have become standard tools in development, more and more attention and debate can be expected regarding long-term and cumulative impacts. Theme two is the analysis and development of demand. Event tourism markets can generally be separated into business events, sports, entertainment, festivals, and other cultural celebrations. Within each of these markets, the emphasis is placed on dedicated event tourists, which are those individuals who travel solely or principally because of an event. Key research topics have included studies of motivation and the benefits sought, the image of events and their venues, the image of host destinations, tourist satisfaction, and the overall event tourist experience and effects on future behaviour – including event or destination loyalty. Theme 3, supply. There are many actors involved within the public, private, and not-for-profit sectors. Not all events are produced with tourism in mind, but they might nevertheless attract tourists or entertain casual visitors to a city. Organisers, on the one hand, might want tourists as one segment while emphasising residents. On the other hand, there are event development corporations that have the explicit mandate of bidding on events, sometimes creating them, and marketing destinations through the appeal and imagery of events. Business events and sports are usually capital intensive, generally requiring major facilities. They are often developed by separate organisations such as convention bureaus and sport (tourism) commissions. Cultural celebrations, and especially festivals, are favoured by communities all around the world, in part because they are not necessarily capital intensive, can be created anywhere, and tap into both community and tourist desires for authentic social and cultural experiences. Theory development in event tourism borrows heavily from economics and consumer behaviour. Much of the knowledge base is, however, purely factual (i.e., what you need to know in order to develop event tourism) and of the problem-solving kind (i.e., how to attract tourists). In looking for event-specific theory, we need to refine the concept of attractiveness as it applies to various events (that is, their drawing power for specific segments) and in the context of combating seasonality of demand and the over-concentration of tourism.

Events as Attractions; Attractiveness Although many tourism organisations stress international tourism, there is no doubt that most festivals and events are dependent on local and regional audiences. But whether events are true tourist attractions (i.e., motivating overnight or non-local travel), or a reason for visitors

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Event Tourism already in an area to stay longer, they can have tourism value. Events can also have the effect of keeping people and their money at home, rather than travelling outside the region. Event drawing power or attractiveness can be measured by how many tourists will be attracted, and how far or frequently they will travel. Important goals are to use events to overcome the seasonality problem, and to spread demand geographically throughout a country or region. The goal should not be to maximise tourist volumes but to develop a manageable and balanced portfolio of events that meet multiple goals and generate many benefits. An emphasis on event tourist quality, that is, attracting high-yield, dedicated event tourists, is preferred.

Comparative and Competitive Advantage Destinations are endowed with certain features that make them attractive, and to the extent that they are unique, or in a good location relative to demand, they yield comparative advantages. The most obvious destination features are those related to climate (e.g., winter sun destinations and winters suitable for ski resorts), other natural resources (e.g., water, forests, and mountains), and interesting, vibrant culture and history including festivals and events. Some events inherit features and a reputation that gives them advantages over newer, less wellknown events, and this is one defining characteristic of a hallmark event. Even if there are no obvious attractive features or comparative advantages in a destination, planning, and creativity can still yield competitive advantages. Developing an attractive event portfolio and related infrastructure is one such strategy. Other common initiatives designed to create competitive advantages include improvements to accessibility, modernised infrastructure, unique urban design features, special interest retailing, and focused marketing.

Events and the Seasonality Problem Seasonality refers to the way in which destinations experience, and often suffer from a rise and fall in demand over the year. Extreme seasonality is a particularly acute problem, with most or all tourists arriving in one season – typically the summer or winter – which results in underutilisation of resources and cash flow and staffing problems for businesses. The literature on events and seasonality is large, starting with a landmark study by Ritchie and Beliveau (1974), which determined that the Quebec Winter Carnival generated substantial economic benefits for the city and region, and over time became a hallmark event for Quebec, effectively co-branded with the city and the province. Connell et al. (2015) examined responses to seasonality through event tourism, and Sainaghi et al. (2019) considered the impacts of Milan’s Expo 2015 on the seasonality of demand.

Events as Animators Resorts, museums, historic districts, heritage sites, archaeological sites, markets and shopping centres, sports stadia, convention centres, and theme parks all develop programmes of special events. Built attractions and facilities have everywhere realised the advantages of animation, being the process of programming interpretive features and/or special events which make the place come alive with sensory stimulation and an appealing atmosphere. The potential benefits of animation through events are of major importance to facility and attraction managers: l

To attract people who might otherwise not make a visit because they perceive the facility or attraction itself to be uninteresting.

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To encourage repeat visits by people who might otherwise think that one visit is enough. To attract publicity for the site or facility, including the highlighting of historical events associated with the site.

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To encourage longer stays and greater spending.

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To target groups for special functions.

Venues are almost automatically in the events business, out of necessity. Pearce (1998) examined how attractions in different countries were adding events and integrating with festivals and events in their marketing. Whitfield (2009) documented the rise of meetings and conventions seeking unusual venues, and how various attractions were adapting their facilities and marketing to cater to this planned event market.

Events and Place Marketing; Co-branding Kotler et al. (1993) in Marketing Places identified the value of events in enhancing the image of communities and attracting tourists. They demonstrated how places compete for investments, quality people, and tourists, all in pursuit of more liveable and prosperous communities. Place marketing provides a framework within which events and event tourism find multiple roles, as image makers, quality-of-life enhancers, and tourist attractions. More traditional approaches to economic development stressed industrialisation and the provision of physical rather than cultural infrastructure and downplayed the economic value of tourism. Co-branding between events and destinations is important (Chalip and Costa, 2006). Jago et al. (2002, 2003) argued that there was substantial potential for events to be used in destination branding but that neither event nor destination managers do a good job of harnessing that potential. The intent is to reinforce the destination’s brand with compatible events, being a transfer of positive images, with a classic case being surfing competitions in Surfers Paradise. This is because most destinations contain an array of events, largely beyond the control of the state, and for that reason it might be wise to focus on one or a few well-imaged hallmark events to achieve place marketing and branding goals. Gibson and Davidson (2004) examined the application of place marketing through events, and related political debates, in the context of how Tamworth became Australia’s self-proclaimed country music capital. Andersson and Niedomysl (2010) focused on how, why, and what Swedish cities hope to achieve by engaging themselves in hosting the try-outs to the Eurovision Song Contest (ESC). The study relied on stakeholder interviews and found that local authorities did more collaboration than competition for the events. Various motives for bidding applied, including demonstrating that the town or city was interested in hosting events. The try-out itself was viewed by locals as little more than a good party.

Events as Image Makers It is apparent that major events can have the effect of shaping an image of the host community or country, leading to its favourable perception as a potential travel destination. With global media attention focused on the host city, even for a relatively short duration, the publicity value is enormous, and some destinations will use this fact alone to justify great expenditures on attracting events. For example, Wang and Gitelson (1988, 5) observed that the annual Spoleto Festival in Charleston, South Carolina does not appear to be economically justifiable, “but the city holds it every year to maintain a desirable image”.

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Event Tourism Hede and Jago (2005) placed the discussion in the context of theory about planned and ­reasoned action (Ajzen, 1985, 1991; Ajzen and Fishbein, 1973; Fishbein, 1980; Fishbein and Azjen, 1975) in which positive perceptions created by the publicity surrounding events (or viewing the events, or reading about them) leads to positive attitudes, intentions to travel there, and eventual travel. This theory, or belief, underlies a great deal of destination promotion. Hudson et al. (2004), however, in conceptualising (with a graphic model) the process by which events might influence travel choices, concluded that there were many intervening factors separating perception from travel behaviour, and that watching events – especially sport events – might lead to travel, but elsewhere than the actual host destination, to participate in the sport. Indeed, many sport event broadcasts do not provide much in the way of destination imagery or information. Longitudinal studies of the impact of hosting the 1988 Winter Olympic Games in Calgary (Ritchie and Smith, 1991) showed how a definite positive image boost grew, peaked, and started to decline afterwards. This life cycle of image enhancement related to one-time events has also been noted by Mackellar and Nisbet (2014). But additional gains in tourism infrastructure and the legacy of enhanced tourism marketing and organisation can potentially sustain the effect. Hosting major events in succession is another strategy employed to sustain the image enhancement effect, and this likely generates a portfolio of permanent events to manage. Pertinent research has been mostly on how events might change destination image (e.g., Chalip et al., 2003; Ferreira and Donaldson, 2013; Hede, 2005; Kim et al., 2012, 2014; Li and Vogelsong, 2005; Ritchie et al., 2006; Shibli and the Sport Industry Research Centre, 2002; Smith, 2005). Results have been mixed. The somewhat limited research on media impacts suggests that enhanced image is difficult to obtain, let alone prove (Mossberg, 2000). A study by Boo and Busser (2006) concluded that the festival under study did not contribute to a positive destination image among participants. Indeed, it appeared to have a negative impact owing to poor marketing and quality. The researchers pointed out the necessity for further research on the imputed connections between events and image enhancement. Hede (2005), however, concluded that Australians who viewed telecasts of the Athens 2004 Olympics did change their overall attitude towards Greece as a destination. Ritchie et al. (2006) concluded that media broadcasts of events helped change images of Canberra, and they recommended that events be part of any promotional strategy for national capitals. Chalip et al. (2003) examined the effects of different media (destination and event advertising, and event telecasts) on nine dimensions of destination image and intention to travel to the host destination (Gold Coast, Australia) from New Zealand and the USA. They found that different media had different impacts in foreign countries, not all of which were positive, and that different media could do more or less to attract tourists. For example, some media exposure convinced respondents that the event might have negative impacts on the Australian natural environment. Proactive media management is generally necessary to secure desired media coverage and ­communication of the desired image for events and destinations (Getz and Fairley, 2004). For example, Andrew Smith (2008, 2009) examined the use of major events to promote peripheral urban areas and concluded that it is very difficult to intervene with the media to secure desired outcomes for places. Jutbring (2014) analysed exactly how brand values of the destination can be encoded in media coverage of events. Chen (2012) examined how the hosting of major international events provided the government with opportunities to boost its image among the Chinese population. Xue, Chen, and Yu (2012) indicated that hosting events can be both a positive enhancement to a country’s image as well as a useful public relations tool.

Event Tourism What happens when negative publicity strikes a destination? To a degree, bad news events can be managed – by minimising the negative impact and fighting back. Ahmed (1991) argued that negative images can be turned into positive ones by organising festivals and commemorations of the event, although this is restricted mostly to natural disasters and entails the risk of stirring up unhappy or controversial memories. Although it can be concluded from the evidence that events can potentially have an image change effect, the measurement of media effects remains a difficult problem for evaluators. Advertising-equivalence measures are predominant, with the major shortcoming of only considering quantity and content, not impact. Alternatives include more reliance on expert opinion from target market areas and a fuller analysis of social media.

Events as Catalysts; Leveraging and the Legacy By noting that events can be catalysts for other development or attainment of a variety of other goals, we introduce both legacy and leveraging, as discussed in Chapter 14. The term catalyst literally means to bring about or assist something else to occur, without itself being consumed. The combined and long-term role of event portfolios in stimulating desired changes has not been examined in any detail, as almost all the attention has been given to mega-events. A ­carefully managed event portfolio should be able to act as a catalyst for multiple benefits.

Development of Event Tourism Development is defined here as consisting of planning, funding, building infrastructure, managing, and marketing event tourism. Another way to look at development is to consider how events and event-producing or management companies go about designing, programming, and marketing their events as tourist attractions. Full coverage is provided in the book Event Tourism, (Getz, 2013) including examples from various cities. Getz (2013) discussed five major challenges specific to event tourism planning and development, and these all remain relevant: l

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Moving from a supply side to a demand-side approach: instead of relying on selling what you have (i.e., a product orientation based on comparative advantages) develop products and experiences to meet known, and ever-changing, consumer preferences; in particular, move from mass tourism to higher yield, special interest, event tourism. From top-down to bottom-up planning: one master plan is unlikely to be fully relevant or implemented, so encourage community-based development; this will encourage sustainable strategies and grassroots entrepreneurship. From single-events to portfolio strategies: companies and destinations can both benefit from creating and managing portfolios of events, especially to create overall competitive advantages and to maximise resilience. Create your own destination events: many cities already do this, and some countries; private companies like TransRockies create destination events; these attract special interest groups and dedicated event tourists. An integrated, sustainable approach: being responsible, inclusive, transparent, and adaptable.

See Getz (2013) for examples of cities, and Antchak et al. (2019) for examples of cities, destinations, and countries engaged in event portfolio planning and development.

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Managed Portfolios for Event Tourism According to Getz (2013a, 23), “A full portfolio will consist of various types of events, for different target markets, held in different places, and at different times of the year, in pursuit of multiple goals”. Portfolio management enables longer-term strategies to prevail, thereby fostering sustainability of the events sector, and it facilitates synergies such as enhanced economic benefits and the fostering of social and cultural capital. “In a portfolio approach the types of events, and their host or owners, will often be of less importance than the cumulative effects” (Getz, 2013a, 23). The original model of an event tourism portfolio (Getz, 1997; reproduced in Antchak et al., 2019, 53) suggested a pyramid with occasional mega-events at the top and local events (much larger in number) at the base. In between were periodic hallmark events and regional events. The major considerations in building such a portfolio were value creation (measured in a TBL manner, emphasising sustainability), scale, and drawing power. Permanent hallmark events offer the greatest potential value for the least cost and risk, in terms of tourism development. With consideration of the failures of mega-events and their high costs, a revised model was developed (see Antchak et al., 2019, 54) with only three levels: major one-time events, periodic hallmark and iconic events, and a base of local and regional events. In designing and managing event portfolios, both for tourism and all other policy aims, several themes are critical. We have already discussed leveraging and legacy.

Synergy: interactions to achieve more than individual events are able to accomplish (i.e., through networking, sharing, and long-term leveraging)



Balance: This will be context-specific and open to political decision-making, as it means satisfying many competing interests and taking into account the desired outcomes. For example, by balancing sports with celebrations, and promoting MICE development with entertainment. Social goals will require accessible events, while economic goals will require ­tourist-oriented events. It also means risk reduction, as described below.



Diversification: Drawing from financial portfolio theory, one of the basic elements in event portfolios should be risk reduction (and therefore increased resilience) through ensuring that vulnerabilities and potential are considered. This requires environmental scanning and scenario-making.

Bidding on Events A substantial part of the event tourism business is bidding on events. This process has been described as a special purpose marketplace by Getz (2004a). A model was developed to demonstrate how bidders (usually DMOs) and owners (often corporations, associations, and sport governing bodies) develop relationships and arrive at a winner. Costs and risks have to be balanced against potential benefits, as discussed in terms of the legacy and immediate tourism or image impacts. Bidding has also been studied by Emery (2001), Persson (2002), Westerbeek et al. (2002), Berridge (2010), Foley et al. (2012), and Lockstone-Binney et al. (2014). Chappelet (2005) identified five types of bids: 1 The real bid: There is a high degree of competition; the requirements at all levels are complex and the governing body (or event-awarding body) controls the process. 2 The alibi bid: This bid is about creating a certain amount of media attention for the given bid candidate, the city and/or the country, but there is no real chance of the bid candidate winning.

Event Tourism 3 The warm-up bid: This is about getting a smaller event with the hope of landing a larger event in the future. Warm-up bids are meant to show the bid candidate’s event organising capabilities and raise their hosting profile. 4 The tacit bid: When a given event does not attract many candidates, but the event owner still requires bids to be officially filed, one edition of the event is given to each candidate. 5 The replacement bid: If an event is pulled from one location, the event owner will undertake a shortened bid process to find a replacement. A high level of competition for events is only good for the owners, as bidding has given rise to a considerable amount of corruption, an emphasis placed on adding value by the bidder (that is, going beyond the basic requirements set by owners), and therefore contributing to higher costs. When it comes to mega-events, experience has shown that many cities reject the very idea of bidding, or face strong citizen opposition when expensive bids are suggested by proponents. Within event portfolios, the one-time event is problematic. What exactly will it contribute to overall portfolio strengths and resilience?

Eventful Cities and Event Capitals Richards and Palmer (2010) argued for the creation of eventful cities as an antidote to stagnation. Cultural assets and resources are to be used ...In an attempt to become distinctive, to regenerate the urban fabric and to create economic, social and cultural prosperity. The creation and promotion of events such as festivals, shows, exhibitions, fairs and championships, have become a critical component of urban development strategy across the globe. (p. 2) The eventful city is not merely full of events, but is a city that fosters and manages events for multiple purposes – there is direction and strategy, and of course, there must be evaluation and accountability. In a special issue themed on festival cities and tourism, Richards and Londono (2022) said: “The “festival city” has therefore emerged as a specific type of location: a place that lends its name to its festivals, which in turn add life to their host cities”. A book by Gold and Gold (2020) provides examples, such as Venice, Edinburgh, and Salzburg. Cities sometimes call themselves event capitals or sport capitals, suggesting both a brand and a commitment to events, or to one type of event. Being a culture capital is related, although that is a title that has to be earned, or won through competition. One of the dangers inherent in event development is that of dilution and trivialisation, copy-cat event formulas, and diminishing cultural authenticity. Too much success can lead to overtourism and negative reactions by residents. Portfolio managers are therefore encouraged to take a mostly bottom-up approach to development, being strategic design through partnerships.

E X P E R T O P I N I O N 1 5 . 1 :   By Dr. Michael Duignan A Short Essay on Overtourism and Japan’s Mega Event Dr. Duignan is an Associate Professor at the Rosen College of Hospitality Management at the University of Central Florida. He is Editor-in-Chief of the journal Event Management, and author of many tourism and event-related articles, including: Duignan, M.B.

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Event Tourism (2023). Thirty years of event-related research (1992–2002). Annals of Tourism Research, V. 100. DOI:10.1016/j.annals.2023.103556. Duignan, M. B., Brittain, I., Fyall, A., Hansen, M., Gerard, S., & Page, S. (2023). Leveraging accessible tourism development through mega-events, and the disability attitude gap. Tourism Management, 99, 104766 (awaiting DOI). Duignan, M. B., Parent, M., & McGillivray, D. (2023). Accommodating (global-glocal) paradoxes across event planning. Event Management, https://doi.org/10.3727/152599 522X16419948694991 (Open Access). Watch Mike’s 2 min overview here: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=fDIeO93Bl6k. Before 2020, well-established tourist cities and the people and communities situated on local well-trodden “beaten tracks” have been grappling with the negative economic, social, and ecological fall-out of hosting large swathes of tourists – what pundits and scholars alike dub “overtourism”. Then Covid-19 happened. Travelling across borders virtually stopped. Commentators described how the amount of people movement pre-­ pandemic would not recover post-pandemic. They are being proven wrong. Pent-up demand means we are witnessing a bounce back, slowly but surely, and those responsible for managing tourism and flows of visitors to and across destinations must be vigilant to the challenges associated with overtourism. Covid provided us with a period of time to rethink current approaches to managing tourists and respective behaviours. Whether or not we have remains to be seen. The term overtourism has been defined as …When a proportion of a local community feels that the presence of tourists and the tourism industry is having a material effect on the way of life for local residents in a community, leading to a range of different forms of protest against policymakers, industry or tourists themselves by the United Nations World Tourism Organisation (2019). These material effects span across social change (e.g. implying feelings of exposure to antisocial behaviours or disregard of one’s own customs etc.); economic change (e.g. increases in costs such as housing or food prices, waiting times, and traffic congestion, etc.); and environmental change (e.g. ecological degradation, increased air pollution, people traffic, etc.). More practically, protest occurs when attitudes of a significant part of a disaffected community shift from having a positive or neutral stance on the presence of tourists to a negative or a rejectionist stance. When the strength of this negative opinion is strong enough, this often leads to increased media attention through those disaffected amplifying concerns and negative outcomes through traditional and digital and citizen-generated media. As a result, we are increasingly witnessing organised physical and digital resistance play out in specific places, alongside ad-hoc and disparate displays of protest through art and visual methods (e.g. banners telling tourists to go home or more strident messages via graffiti “your holiday, our nightmare” etc.). The frequency and stridency of protest are becoming increasingly prominent signalling a global resistance movement that those responsible for managing tourists must pay attention to (see Plate 15.1).

Event Tourism

Plate 15.1  Tourists Go Home Graffiti Has Become a Familiar Message in Many Destinations, This One Found on a Trash Bin in Venice Photo Credit: Roman Sigaev / Alamy Stock Photo

Critics often describe and explain the antecedents and contemporary reasons why increasing visitor footfall is desired by those responsible for economic growth, particularly in the tourism and related leisure industries (e.g. hospitality, sports, etc.), and how this is often at the expense of less desirable living conditions for those who are forced to welcome outsiders into local quarters (e.g. residential areas, small business districts, cultural and natural spaces like green parks and urban squares). The “new urban tourism” movement, while recognising the role locals play in enhancing tourist experiences through authentic and spontaneous host-visitor interactions, is partly to blame as this requires the blending of private and public life and the physical movement into local urban spaces visitors may not typically frequent. As tourist bubbles within cities become drag-and-drop monochromatic blandscapes, gentrified within an inch of its life, complete with a Starbucks at every end and turn, the importance of representing a more local version of the city becomes a noble if not moral quest. Yet this requires the acceptance of those locally to welcome the global – and that’s not always straightforward. Japan provides an extreme case illustrating this overtourism problem. Seeking to grow Japan’s reputation as a global tourist destination and contribute to national GDP, the government sought to host a mega event (Tokyo 2020 Games), reconfigure its tourism industry in innumerable ways, and invest heavily in domestic and international destination marketing campaigns. This was an unparalleled success. After the Fukushima nuclear disaster in 2011, Japan welcomed 7m international tourists, growing to 38 m by 2019 in the lead-up to the Tokyo 2020 Games. However, the country did not have a long history of managing and serving the quantity of inbound international tourists. English language

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Event Tourism proficiency in the hospitality industry for instance was low, requiring an industry-wide programme to be developed, through to the need to stimulate local entrepreneurialism to drive the creation of new tourist experiences to satisfy new demand. Ramen taxis to local walking tours to experience the “authentic” cultural side of Japan were created, as well as upgrades to the country’s core transport infrastructure were made: metro stations to the Shinkansen (bullet train) and the popularisation of the so-called “Golden Route” connecting up key tourist cities and districts. But quickly, Japan’s “all out growth” and “volume over value” strategy turned sour with residents reporting and resisting a deterioration of living standards. Skirmishes between locals and tourists who travel every day by bus were common, as locals were denied entry by tourists who carry heavy luggage. People in Gion Kyoto geisha district were harassed for taking selfies. Tourists littering on streets, jumping on ancient statues, flagrantly ignoring cultural norms like eating and walking in public, and speaking too loud on public transport were common sights. The local residents appear to be frustrated by the presence of tourists and developed an increasing aversion to them (“tourismophobia”). Reducing the friction between locals and tourists is a key social problem recognised by the Japanese government and Japan’s National Tourism Organisation to foster a more sustainable tourism development strategy in the coming years. What does all this have to do with hosting a mega event? Japan utilised the last decade to commodify itself and commercialise its cultural product under Shinzo Abe’s (Prime Minister at the point of winning the right to host the Tokyo 2020 Games) “Abenomics” that resembles the formative neoliberal years of Reaganomics and Thatcherism. Be under no illusion, the Tokyo 2020 Games provided an ideal vehicle to enable Japan to rally (if not force) its people behind tourism development as a key economic driver. For decades and centuries, Japan had resisted the luring commodifying of neoliberalism relative to that of other capitalist countries and cities, but the Tokyo 2020 Games served as a platform to bring together these ideas and proponents of these ideals to catalyse these p ­ rocesses - hailed as a victory for those who have the capital to participate and benefit from the windfall, and critiqued by those who do not. The problem is that for future countries and cities looking to host mega-events (e.g. the Olympic and Paralympic Games, FIFA World Cup, and Commonwealth Games) the threat or exacerbation of overtourism as a potential outcome of hosting is becoming one of the key reasons why host populations are lowering support, resisting and/or vetoing event agendas and bids if put out to referenda (see Schnitzer et al., 2021). This is an existential threat to events, big and small, as local people increasingly question “what are the benefits for us?”; “is the economic speculation worth it?”; “will we generate a return on investment for the local disruption and displacement of existing socio-economic activity likely faced?”. Indeed, as we enter a period of event strategy, policy, and practice characterised by an increased focus on rights and responsibilities and whether or not events are an appropriate driver of sustainable development, holding event owners and organisers to account for return on investment for local people has never been so prominent. For further reading on these arguments, please read Duignan, M. B., Everett, S., & McCabe, S. (2022). Events as catalysts for communal resistance to overtourism. Annals of Tourism Research, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.annals.2022.103438 (Open Access).

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References Schnitzer, M., Winner, H., & Tappeiner, G. (2021). Overtourism and support for sports mega events. Annals of Tourism Research, 16 (4), 376–392. https://doi.org/10.1080/2 1568316.2019.1595705. United Nations World Tourism Organisation (2019). Overtourism? New UNWTO report offers case studies to tackle challenges. Available from: https://www.unwto.org/ global/­press-release/2019-03-05/overtourism-new-unwto-report-offers-case-studiestackle-challenges.

Other Developmental Strategies and Tools Venues: Destinations compete on the basis of having the best, biggest, or most unique event venues. This holds true for convention and exhibition centres, sport stadia and arenas, art centres, museums, and historic sites. Investment and operational costs are high, but there is no doubt that events at the national and international level of drawing power do provide substantial, direct economic benefits. When it comes to justifying the investment in venues, future earnings potential has to be weighed against both costs and alternatives (i.e., the opportunity costs). All too often the cost of new venues (and other infrastructure) necessary for hosting mega-events has been declared a benefit without any demonstration of future pay-offs. Services provided to events: Most DMOs offer a range of services to events coming to their city or destination. These go beyond what the venues offer, and can include any of the following: l

Transportation (employing local destination management companies).

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Information before, during, and after (e.g., on attractions, restaurants, etc.).

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Policing and emergency services (arranged and coordinated; permits obtained).

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Water, electricity, clean-up, waste removal, and other essential services (for outdoor venues).

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Business services (often located within major venues).

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Local specialists in audio-visual, design, etc.

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Food and beverage catering (arranged, using local suppliers).

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Entertainment (derived from local festivals and performers).

Packaging: Sometimes a package is a product. Events can be packaged with accommodation, transportation, entertainment, and touring, making the event itself more attractive. This is also called bundling and is a service that DMOs can provide. Destination events in remote areas have to be packaged, as they are partially or fully internalised, and should be packaged for pre and post-stays in the area. Host communities usually want this feature when considering whether or not to support events. Positioning: Events and portfolios of events are automatically in a competitive environment in which positioning is important. In this context it means using the marketing mix to develop a unique selling proposition, or how you want to be viewed and understood relative to competitors. This is the idea behind hallmark events (authentic, traditional, and owned by specific communities) and iconic events (appealing to specific target segments on the basis of quality or uniqueness). Position in a competitive marketplace has to be tested through research, such as asking existing and potential customers how they describe the attributes, and how they feel about a range of events or destinations. IP-like mapping can be used effectively.

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Event Tourism Image: Here we are talking about how an event or destination wants to be viewed, the image it wants to form in everyone’s minds – especially potential customers. Through messages and media management, the event or DMO attempts to control image making. Events are tools in this process for cities and destinations. The flip side of the coin is consumer research to determine the image held, and how it has been influenced by visits, media, and events. There have been numerous studies conducted on destination and event image, which includes co-branding, and the conclusions are mixed. Events held with the specific aim of improving a place image, or re-positioning a city or destination, are on their own not likely to succeed. A more comprehensive strategy is undoubtedly required, including a portfolio of events, one or more permanent, hallmark events, and the enduring buy-in of residents and other stakeholders. As concluded by Collins et al. (2019, 423), regarding the effort made to use the Volvo Ocean Race to re-image a city (Galway, Ireland) and its port: “...Preevent expectations are often not met, entrenched images of a place are difficult to modify, and, regardless of the success of a 9-day event, considerable work is required to bring about change in established place imagery”. Reputation: The term refers to a social evaluation of an event or destination on particular criteria. For example, what are social media influencers saying about you? Is it positive or negative? What influences reputation is important. For an event, do accidents and disasters permanently condemn an event or destination to a bad reputation (for everyone or particular segments)? Regarding disasters and pandemics, events provide one means to restore a positive reputation by communicating messages such as “we are open”, “you are invited and we are welcoming”, or “it is safe now”. For companies such as TransRockies, developing and maintaining a positive reputation and the image of being unique is vital to staying competitive and profitable.

Event Tourism Market Segments Most tourism organisations distinguish between leisure and business markets, with each being subdivided according to strategy and available demand data. Mixed motives must also be considered, as business travellers often bring family and stay longer in destinations. Table 15.1 provides a useful breakdown, however it has to be said that what separates business and leisure travel is open to debate. For our purposes, it is a reflection of intrinsic versus extrinsic motivation. Table 15.1  Event Tourism Market Segments Business Segments for Event Tourism

Leisure Segments for Event Tourism

Associations: annual conventions; seminars or training sessions; meetings of directors or committees Corporations: meetings; retreats; incentive experiences; exhibitions

Spectator Sports: professional and amateur; the largest segment might very well be family accompanying youth for minor sports Participation Sports: most sports have events for active sport tourists (e.g., distance running, bicycling) VFR (visiting friends and relatives): reunions

Academic: themed conferences and seminars Political: periodic conventions; rallies Religious: pilgrimage events; holy days; retreats Military: reunions

Special interests: hobbyists; lifestyle (e.g., foodies; wine lovers; fashion) Online communities: self-organised travel and events Volunteers: may develop event-related volunteering careers

Event Tourism

Typology of event tourists Many classification systems focus on the roles of events in tourism and/or place marketing. The nuances of how terms are used are of importance, given that labelling an event as major, signature, hallmark, mega or something else might have an only situation or context-specific meaning.

Dedicated event tourist: travel specifically or mainly because of, and to an event; the destination might be a secondary consideration; iconic events cater to all special interest segments.



Casual and accidental event tourists: events did not motivate their travel, but they attend while on a trip; visiting friends and relatives often results in attending events; accidental refers to not having knowledge of the event in advance.



Participant/active: versus spectator/sightseer; many events do not occur unless there are active participants (e.g., running and cycling).



Accompanying: friends and family members who accompany someone travelling for an event.

Involvement and the Event Travel Career Trajectory (ETCT) This theory-in-development draws from the foundation theories of serious leisure (and the related constructs of active and serious sport tourism), ego- or leisure involvement, and social worlds (encompassing sub-cultures, and to a certain extent lifestyles). The notion of a motivational trajectory in which motivation changes over time because of travel experiences came from Pearce and Caltabiano (1983) and was later largely refuted by Pearce and Lee (2005), who concluded that multiple, generic motives apply to all leisure travel. However, the trajectory appears to apply much more to special interests than it does to general travel motivation, so it has been hypothesised that motivations should change over time as amateur athletes become more involved (Getz, 2008; Getz and Andersson, 2010; Getz and McConnell, 2011). It has been demonstrated that the motivations of highly involved event tourists differ significantly from the lesser involved. In particular, the highly involved stress personal development motives, rather than those relating to the lower-order needs (from Maslow, 1954) such as relaxation and socialising. General pleasure travel motivation will often be different from special interest travel. Indeed, a considerable amount of research and theory-building has occurred within the field of sport tourism, with particular relevance to sport event motivation. Gibson (1998) described ‘active sport tourists’ as those most likely to travel to participate in favourite pursuits, and they often do this well into retirement. Gibson also referred to involvement and recreation specialisation theories to help explain motivation and travel behaviour. The term career implies serious leisure as theorised by Stebbins. What we want to look for are people who, for reasons of their involvement or commitment, not only attend many events but demonstrate a progression or pattern of event participation and attendance that stems from their increasing experience and shifting motivation. Jones and Green (2006) explained the relevance of serious leisure and social worlds to sport tourism studies. They said that (p. 43): “Serious sport tourism (that is, travel to participate in serious leisure) is able to provide individuals with a positive social identity”. And (p. 44): “Travel to participate in a sport or leisure activity puts one in an extended contact with other participants . . . outside of everyday experience, and often includes more experienced members of the subculture”. In this context, sport events provide spaces for social identity formation and reinforcement. McGehee et al. (2003) found that highly involved recreational runners travelled more on overnight trips to participate in events, compared to medium-involved runners. This confirmed the

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Event Tourism well-established proposition that greater involvement results in higher levels of participation, and for runners, this means participation in competitive events. However, they found that runners did not attend all the races they would have liked to, owing to a number of constraints such as family obligations. Interestingly, highly involved runners also participated in more races in their own communities. Those authors suggested that highly involved recreational runners could become repeat visitors, assuming they had a good overall race and destination experience. Shipway and Jones (2008) applied the serious leisure framework to runners’ experiences at a major marathon. They classified runners as serious sport tourists on the basis of the level of ability needed to compete in a marathon, the length of trip and stay necessitated by participation and the relatively high cost of training for the event. Discussion of past event experiences by runners was very pronounced, with their running careers highlighted. The durable benefits of running were identified as “developing and overcoming personal challenges, experiencing a heightened sense of achievement and self-esteem, fun and happiness, healthy living, weight loss and physical well-being, injury rehabilitation” (p. 73). A related construct is the ‘sports tourism demand continuum’ developed by Jackson and Weed (2003), in which athletes can progress from incidental participation through sporadic, occasional, regular, and committed levels all the way to ‘driven’. However, this model is more relevant to professional and elite athletes. In a modification, Weed and Bull (2004) took into account the importance of travel to participants, with those at the driven level taking part in more sport tourism. Getz and Patterson (2013) explored the travel career in the context of social world theory and examined its potential applications beyond sports, while Patterson, Getz, and Gubb (2016) specifically applied both constructs to yoga practitioners and their travel. Getz et al. (2014) examined the travel careers of foodies, and Goh et al. (2019) applied the ETCT to artists. Many of the pertinent studies concern runners and triathletes. Shipway and Jones (2007, 2008) examined the careers of amateur distance runners, concluding they collected subculture capital from participation in events, leading to “the desire to travel and collect places” (2008, 72). Lamont and Kennelly (2011) concluded that various constraints have to be taken into account, as event travel careers are not necessarily linear. Lamont, Kennelly, and Wilson (2012) claimed that the choice of events is contingent upon their availability and the intensity of competing priorities. Those highly involved might still participate in local and low-profile events as preparation for more challenging events or as a consequence of ‘pulsation’ (p. 1077). Buning and Gibson (2015) proposed an elaboration, reflecting a social world perspective, being a six-stage model consisting of initiation, introduction, expansion, peak threshold, maintenance, and maturity. In support of the ETCT, Buning and Gibson (2016a) studied cyclists and detected “…an escalation in motivation related to intellectual, social, mastery competence, giving back, and competition against others with career progression”. They observed that travel behaviour linked to events changed with career progression, but concluded that “…preferred characteristics related to destinations and travel style remained relatively stagnant”. Buning and Gibson (2016b) concluded that the travel preferences of active cyclists “… vary based on travel conditions and that attractive destinations only become advantageous if event participants are traveling with non-cyclists or on trips involving longer distances”. These findings reflect only one sport, and together indicate the need for ongoing research across a range of sports, events, and destinations. Researching three types of sport tourists, cyclists, runners and triathletes, Newland and Aicher (2018) determined that travel behaviour varied with both the type of sport and the individual athlete’s motivation. They pointed out the need for careful targeting of the mix of event and destination attributes.

Event Tourism

Main Hypotheses for the ETCT According to Lee et al. (2016, 493), a number of studies have provided support for the existence of event travel careers. They concluded the six dimensions hypothesised by Getz and Andersson (2010) were widely acknowledged.

H1 (Motivation): highly involved event tourists will be motivated significantly more by higher-order needs related to self-actualisation. In the context of competitive sport, this translates into personal motivations like meeting challenges and self-improvement, as opposed to social and relaxation motivation. By implication, motivations should be revealed to change over time.



H2 (Travel Style): highly involved event tourists will be significantly different from others participating in the event. They should travel to more events, possibly more with partners and family, and combine events with general holidays.



H3 (Temporal): highly involved event tourists will exhibit less seasonality in their travel, as they seek out specific events; destinations employ events to counter normal demand peaks and troughs.



H4 (Spatial): highly involved event tourists will travel farther, longer, and more by air. An advancing career in their leisure pursuit should result in higher-level competition at the national and international levels.



H5 (Event Types): highly involved event tourists will participate in different types of events, related to their prestige, novelty, or perceived challenge. Certain events are iconic within social worlds; experienced runners, for example, should also be novelty-seekers.



H6 (Destination and Event Choice Criteria): the importance of various criteria when selecting events and destinations will differ significantly between higher- and lesser-involved event tourists. The ideal holiday destination for the highly involved will provide the opportunity to participate in an event and to satisfy partners or family members.

Figure 15.2 illustrates the ETCT, reflecting the six basic hypotheses and suggested modifications arising from the literature reviewed above. Further work is needed to consider the short-term and ultimate goals of highly involved event participants. Do some ‘iconic’ events compel them forwards, training harder, searching for H1: MOTIVATION Progression to higher-order need fulfillment (i.e., selfdevelopment)

H2: TRAVEL STYLE Travel to more events; Possibly with family, combined with vacations

H3: TEMPORAL Less seasonality as the highly involved attend more events

INCREASING INVOLVEMENT

Possible Regression Figure 15.2  The Event Travel Career Trajectory Source: Adapted from Getz and Andersson (2010)

H5: EVENT TYPES Seek more prestigious, challenging or iconic events

H4: SPATIAL Travel farther, more by air

H6: CHOICES Seek quality, reliability of events; may select destinations on the basis of their events

HIGHLY INVOLVED

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Event Tourism better performance? How do they combine their interest in running, art, or any other pursuit with more general leisure and travel preferences? How can event designers maximise the desired experiences of the highly involved as well as those for whom the event is only of general interest? One study by Andersson, Armbrecht and Lundberg (2019) tested the ETCT on five different participation sport events that are part of the Swedish Classics and provided additional evidence that the hypotheses are sound, although it was also revealed that there are differences among athletes, types of events and the specific appeal of individual events (see the Classics website: https://ensvenskklassiker.se/en/). The key findings were: l

l

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International event respondents were more active than Swedish participants; that is, they planned to attend more events in the subsequent year. Participants in the five sports were significantly different in a number of important ways; there are dynamic and diverse styles of event and destination choices in the world of amateur sport event tourists. The more active travel to significantly more events and travel longer distances; they are also involved with social worlds and travel to a larger extent with teams or clubs; they have participated in more events and plan to continue this tendency. The more active respondents were significantly more motivated by self-development; challenge is important to all, and can be considered a general identifier of the event sport tourist, and this corroborates earlier data from the Gothenburg half marathon (Getz and Andersson, 2010).

Economic Impact Assessment for Event Tourism There have been well-documented problems with economic impact assessments for events (Crompton, 2006; Crompton and McKay, 1994; Getz, 2013; Matheson, 2002; Matheson and Baade, 2003; Tyrell and Ismail, 2005), pertaining to both how they are done and the purposes they serve. Dwyer and Jago (2014, 130) identified criticisms associated with the assessment of the economic impacts of events, highlighting the exaggeration of benefits owing to either deliberate manipulation or faulty methods. The state-of-the-art economic impact assessments for events have progressed to the point where we can say there is no excuse for invalid and unreliable studies. The first comprehensive economic assessment of a major Australian event, by Burns et al. (1986), laid most of the foundations, including economic cost-benefit evaluation. Burgan and Mules (1992) reported on the economic impacts of sport events, while Crompton’s (1999) report for the National Parks and Recreation Association provided specific guidelines for municipalities to conduct valid event impact studies. Two studies by Dwyer et al. (2000a, 2000b) laid out the requirements for assessing and forecasting event impacts; they were based on a meta-analysis of Australian event impact studies, as well as economic theory. The Cooperative Research Centre in Sustainable Tourism in Australia has also published a series on event impacts including Economic Evaluation of Special Events: A Practitioner’s Guide (Jago and Dwyer, 2006). Models and Multipliers: Numerous IA’s for tourism and events have employed models and multipliers, although we argue this practice has done more harm than good by exaggerating purported benefits and downplaying or ignoring costs. The multiplier effect is mostly expressed in terms of income or value added to the area. Many authors have used multipliers, which are

Event Tourism problematic in both theory and practical application (see, for example: Archer, 1982; Burns et al., 1986; Crompton, 1999; Crompton and McKay, 1994; Dwyer et al., 2000a, 2000b; Fleming and Toepper, 1990; Jago and Dwyer, 2006; Lee et al., 2010; Tyrrell and Johnston, 2001; Vaughan, 1979; Yu and Turco, 2000). Dwyer et al. (2006) have recommended the use of computable general equilibrium models for assessing the economic impacts of events beyond the local area, rather than input–output models. The input–output approach, they argued, contains an upward bias if used for broad regions or nations. Direct Economic Contribution (DEC): There is general agreement that the estimation of direct economic contribution is the starting point for all economic IA’s for events (Dwyer et al., 2010), but we argue that it is all that is needed and desirable. A DEC calculator is provided at the website EventImpacts.com but because nothing is ever as simple as a calculator makes it appear, you MUST read the Guidance Notes (a downloadable PDF) provided by EventImpacts. Getting the right data, avoiding invalid assumptions, and knowing how to interpret forecasts and postevent impact assessments are crucial (Figure 15.3). Several terms require explanation. New Money (or incremental income) has to be attributable to the event. In other words, if there was no event this money (e.g., tourist spending, grants, sponsorship, revenue from sales) would not enter the local economy. Direct, secondary, and tertiary impacts must be estimated for specific areas, usually the locality of the event. This requires detailed surveys of tourist spending and documentation from event organisers and possibly local authorities. The critical data from tourists are: reasons for travel; length of stay; party types and size; spending within the area being studied. Most of the DEC from event tourists comes from overnight stays, as travel costs might very well accrue as income to airlines, tour operators, and others outside the area. Event organisers have to provide data on their income sources and expenditures. Leakages: Not all the direct income or new money stays in the local area. The event has possibly spent money outside the area for advertising, travel, supplies, etc. Local businesses are often externally owned, and their profits are sent away. Many local economies must import goods. An estimate has to be made of how much of the new money actually stays and circulates.

NEW MONEY (INCREMENTAL INCOME) Must be attributable to the event: -tourist spending; externally- sourced grants, revenue from sales, and sponsorship

DIRECT ECONOMIC CONTRIBUTION BACKWARD LINKAGES

LEAKAGES

SECONDARY or INDIREECT IMPACTS BACKWARD LINKAGES

TERTIARY IMPACT from INDUCED SPENDING

Figure 15.3  The Economic Contribution of Event Tourism

LEAKAGES

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Event Tourism Backward Linkages: To maximise local economic benefits, events should buy from local suppliers and employ local workers, so the money stays and circulates locally. Events can spend locally by policy, and donate money as well, thereby achieving local economic growth. The same logic applies at the regional and national levels where the multiplier is higher because of less leakage. The smaller the economy, the smaller will be the economic contribution. Secondary Impacts are due to the circulation of new money within the area. There will be leakages, and the size of the secondary impact will be substantially smaller than the DEC. Induced impacts, at the tertiary level, are attributable to increased consumer spending as money circulates and generates economic activity. In small economies, this contribution can be tiny.

Education and Careers in Event Tourism Once the preserve of marketing professionals, now numerous DMOs and special purpose event development agencies are employing event tourism professionals who understand the roles events can play in destination development and marketing. An educational background in tourism, events, and marketing is a suitable basis for employment, but increasingly there will be specialisations within event development agencies and DMOs. Table 15.2 lists a number of positions, with sample titles, and key associated tasks. Table 15.2  Sample Careers in Event Tourism Typical Functions

Major Tasks

Event Facilitator/ Coordinator

– Work with events in the destination to help realise their tourism potential (funding, advice, marketing) – Liaison with convention/exhibition centres and other venues – Liaison with sport and other organisations that produce events – Create and manage event portfolios or networks – Create and produce events specifically for their tourism value – Stakeholder management (with numerous event partners) – Develop a strategy for the city/agency/destination – Integrate events with product development and image making, branding – Work with policymakers to facilitate event tourism – Conduct research (e.g., feasibility studies, demand forecasting, impact assessments and performance evaluations) – Bid on events – Develop relationships leading to winning events for the destination – Conduct risk assessments and feasibility studies for each potential bid

Event Tourism Producer

Event tourism planner

Event tourism policy analyst (and researcher)

Director of event bidding

Event services coordinator

– Provide essential and special services to events (e.g., travel and logistics; accommodation and venue bookings; supplier contacts)

Event Tourism STUDY GUIDE

Event Tourism is an optional career path for event management professionals but is distinctive in several ways. Destinations can be defined in different ways, so it will be useful to look at the hierarchy in your area – from local to national – to find out which agencies are involved. Are they public, private, or a mix? Do they have an events strategy? What roles for events are made explicit, and do they explicitly manage an event portfolio? If there is a plan, examine it to determine if goals for events apply to multiple policy areas, and what methods are used to achieve them. As to event tourists, there should be data to examine, such as origins, length of stay, spending, motivation, and trip purpose. Has there been original research? What you want to look for is evidence of target marketing, the value of dedicated event tourists, and possibly of event travel careers. Finally, consider possible careers in event tourism. What will you need in the way of education, training, and experience to advance in this sector? STUDY QUESTIONS

– Define destination from the perspective of event tourists and governments. – When is an event the actual destination? – Of the various roles events can play in developing tourism, which do you think will be most effective in generating economic benefits? social and cultural benefits? Explain. – What is the difference between image and reputation? How can they be managed? – Regarding an event tourism portfolio, what is the potential role of one-time events won through bidding? – Are mega-events more important than hallmark events in destination development and marketing? Why? – In the event travel career trajectory, explain the concept of highly involved and specify its implications for marketing events as tourist attractions. – Consider an international trip you might make to attend an event. Work through the initial costs and trip-related spending to determine how much would stay in the local area where the event is held. What would be your DEC? – Define and give examples of leakages and backward linkages in the context of a specific event. – Provide goals for a strategy to maximise the local economic benefits of events in your area.

FURTHER READING

Cuffy, V., Bakas, F., & Coetzee, W. (eds.) (2021). Events Tourism: Critical Insights and Contemporary Perspectives. London: Routledge. Getz, D. (2013). Event Tourism. New York: Cognizant Communications. Gursoy, D., Nunkoo, R., & Yolal, M. (2020). Festival and Event Tourism Impacts. London: Routledge. Hassan, A., & Sharma, A. (eds.) (2018). Tourism Events in Asia: Marketing and Development. London: Routledge. Holt, R., & Ruta, D. (eds.) (2019). Routledge Handbook of Sport and Legacy: Meeting The Challenge of Major Sports Events. London: Routledge.

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Foundation Disciplines and Closely Related Fields for Event Studies LEARNING OBJECTIVES

Upon completion of this chapter students should know the following: l

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Contributions of foundation disciplines (Anthropology; Sociology; Philosophy; Religious Studies; Psychology; Social Psychology; Economics; Political Science; Law; History; Human Geography; and Future Studies) to understanding the roles, meanings, importance, and impacts of events in society and culture. Contributions of closely related fields to Event Studies, such as Leisure, Sport, Visitor, Hospitality, Gender, and Health Studies. How to relate the theory and methodological contributions of disciplines and fields to issues and management functions discussed previously in the book.

Introduction Tables are provided for each discipline, profession, and field, providing a short description of its focus and major contributions to the nature and meaning of event experiences, antecedents, planning and producing events, outcomes and patterns, and processes. A selection has been made, which inevitably means that other useful contributions are left out. Readers should relate the following discussion to earlier chapters where specific theoretical contributions have been incorporated. Selected Readings provide an introduction to the pertinent literature in each field and discipline. DOI: 10.4324/9781003374251-16

Foundation Disciplines and Closely Related Fields

Cultural Anthropology This foundation discipline is typically defined as the scientific study of culture and society and how they develop, including language and religion, with ethnographic research as its distinctive methodology. We draw on cultural anthropology for explanations of the origins and reasons for festivals and celebrations, and for providing the theoretical framework of rituals and liminality. Ethnology is defined as the systematic comparison of cultures (Table 16.1).

The Meaning and Dimensions of Culture Schultz and Lavenda (2005, 4) defined culture as “sets of learned behaviour and ideas that human beings acquire as members of society”. Culture is learned and passed on. It evolves and takes on different dimensions reflected in belief systems, symbols, and ritualistic behaviour. Culture is “central to the explanations of why human beings are what they are and why they do what they do” (Schultz and Lavenda, 2005, 4). Holism is the principle of studying cultures as complex systems, the implication being that the study of events has to be placed in a very broad context. For example, events may contain highly symbolic representations of importance to a culture or sub-culture. Culture and its study are often contested – even becoming highly political or involving conflict. Who speaks for disenfranchised groups, and how does history judge the winners and losers of war or colonisation? Indeed, some anthropologists have a mission, or at least a particular agenda. Mitler et al. (2004), in their text on cultural anthropology, insist that this discipline should be relevant to contemporary issues.

Ethnography Fieldwork, often an ethnographic description and analysis of one cultural group, still dominates cultural anthropology. Traditional ethnography involves living among people to gain a deep understanding of their culture and ways of life. Although the early development of this discipline was marked by a distinct bias, separating so-called civilised cultures from primitive, Table 16.1  Cultural Anthropology Cultural Anthropology

Nature and Meanings; the Event Experience

Antecedents to Attending Events

Planning and Producing Events

Outcomes and the Impacted

Processes and Patterns

Studies: the nature, functions, and systematic comparison of cultures; social organisation with a focus on symbolic representations of culture

Cultural importance and meanings of celebration: rites and rituals; symbolism; pilgrimage; communitas; authenticity; liminality

Cultural influences on attending events (e.g., traditions, perceived freedoms, consumerism

Cultural programming: culturally defined elements of style

Cultural impacts: host–guest interactions; sustainability of traditions; authenticity versus commodification

Cultural trends and forces; cultural policy

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Foundation Disciplines and Closely Related Fields today’s anthropologist values cultural relativism – the belief that cultures should not be studied, let alone devalued, through the lens of their own belief system. Holloway et al. (2010) reviewed the use of ethnographic methods in Event Studies, arguing for a more qualitative approach to experience-related research. Ethnography enables researchers to better explore structures and interactions within their cultural context, as well as the meanings people give to events and their environment. Such research is inductive, often starting without a theoretical perspective or proposition, and often includes case studies, participant observation, and interviews. Purposive sampling is favoured over random sampling, in order to talk to or observe people of specific interest. Attention has been given to rites and rituals in explaining the origins, forms, and meanings of festivals and carnivals in particular, and to the importance of communitas in potentially all event experiences. Anthropological exchange theory was discussed, pertaining to the importance of symbolism. Cultural antecedents and meanings are an important topic, as is cultural impact assessment. We discussed authenticity and commodification in these contexts.

Selected Readings Holloway, I., Brown, L., & Shipway, R. (2010). Meaning not measurement: Using ethnography to bring a deeper understanding to the participant experience of festivals and events. International Journal of Event and Festival Management, 1 (1), 74–85. Jaimangal-Jones, D. et al. (2010). Going the distance: Locating journey, liminality and rites of passage in dance music experiences. Leisure Studies, 29 (3), 253–268. Pop, C. (2013). The modern Olympic Games – a globalised cultural and sporting event. Procedia – Social and Behavioral Sciences, 92, 728–734. Stadler, R., Reid, S., & Fullager, S. (2013). An ethnographic exploration of knowledge practices within the Queensland Music Festival. International Journal of Event and Festival Management, 4 (2), 90–106. Stone, A. L. (2022). Making an inclusive collective party or building LGBTQ+ community? Tensions in LGBTQ festival events in American Mardi Gras. Journal of Policy Research in Tourism, Leisure and Events, 15 (2), 240–253. Testa, A. (2014). Rethinking the festival: Power and politics. Method and Theory in the Study of Religion, 26 (1), 44–73. Xie, P. (2003). The bamboo-beating dance in Hainan, China: Authenticity and commodification. Journal of Sustainable Tourism, 11 (1), 5–16. Ziakas, V., & Boukas, N. (2014). Contextualizing phenomenology in event management research: Deciphering the meaning of event experiences. International Journal of Event and Festival Management, 5 (1), 56–73.

Sociology Sociology is concerned with interactions between people (i.e., social life) including a focus on how relationships are patterned in the form of groups, organisations, and whole societies. Social rules and process are examined, together with social behaviour, and large-scale social processes. Social behaviour is mostly learned, and sociologists study the totality of behaviour as influenced by all facets of life including economic and political systems, family and friends, institutions, and entertainment. The subject has a wide-ranging impact and influence upon the study of events (Table 16.2).

Foundation Disciplines and Closely Related Fields Table 16.2  Sociology

The study of human interactions, or social life; patterns of relationships including groups, organisations, and whole societies how they emerge and function

Nature and Meanings; the Event Experience

Antecedents Planning and to Attending Producing Events Events

Social meanings of events Social experiences at events Symbolic interaction

Social factors influencing demand (e.g., family, race, religion, culture, community, social worlds, subcultures)

Implications for design and crowd management Organisational behaviour of eventproducing bodies and stakeholders

Outcomes and the Impacted

Processes and Patterns

Impacts on social groups and society as a whole Resident perceptions of, and attitudes towards, events

Social trends and forces (e.g., population and demographics, migration) that impact the event sector Social development policy Diffusion of innovations

According to the online source www.sociology.org.uk, major themes in this discipline include the following: l

‘Socialization process’: learning how to become human and to behave in ways that accord with the general expectations of others (in short, to be socialised).

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The structure of ‘social life’: values, norms, roles, and status (social controls).

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‘Values’ are beliefs that we have about what is important, both to us and to society as a whole.

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‘Norms’ are expected, socially acceptable, ways of behaving in any given social situation.

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‘Role’ – social roles we expect people to play.

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‘Status’ – earned or assigned.

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‘Social groups’: communities of interest; r­ elationships within groups.

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‘Culture and identity’: influencing factors on cultural identity include age, gender, ethnicity, and regionalism. ‘Subcultures’: groups sharing a particular way of life.

Research Traditions and Methods Sociologists use the scientific method and have a long tradition of positivistic methodology. However, there has also been a tradition of humanistic sociology, which stresses the understanding of cultural values, meanings, symbols, and norms. Multicultural comparisons are important. Both quantitative and qualitative methods are used, as is ethnography – which is very much akin to cultural anthropology. There are several clear perspectives or theoretical approaches that shape both research methodology and what is studied by sociologists. Alternative, competing traditions of research are now widespread in sociology (Veal, 2006).

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Foundation Disciplines and Closely Related Fields Veal (2006) assessed the evolution of sociological research pertaining to leisure and tourism and concluded that the early modelling/prediction emphasis, based on large-scale social surveys and quantitative analysis (within the ‘functionalist’ tradition), had not worked well. More qualitative methods became fashionable in the 1970s and 1980s, with a shift towards learning more about why people did what they did, and what it meant to them, rather than just measuring and forecasting what they did. This era gave rise to research and theory development on leisure benefits and constraints.

Social and Cultural Capital The sociologist Bourdieu (1972, 1986) distinguished between economic, social, symbolic, and cultural capital. Economic capital refers to a command of cash or other assets that can be invested for profit, while social capital consists of the possession of resources that derive from group membership, relationships, networks of influence, and support. Cultural capital consists of knowledge, skills, education, and other advantages possessed by a person that results in higher social status. Parents are said to transmit such advantages to their children. Symbolic capital accrues to individuals as resources on the basis of honour, prestige, or recognition – that is, some people stand out as icons. These concepts are in tune with a long tradition of philosophical thought and sociological theory on the value of networks, and the need to foster social cohesion through institutions and policy. There are clear conceptual links to notions of civil society and the power of communitas through celebration. In other words, social networking has value, and festivals and events can foster it – they also lead to the establishment of events for many social worlds and groups. Reciprocity and trust are the foundations of social capital, and to some extent, these qualities of social life are found in all communities and societies. Where social capital is high, people are more likely to be polite, talk to strangers, interact as equals, and perform random acts of kindness. In other words, we invest social capital in our community and expect others to do the same (this is similar to social exchange theory). Voluntarism can be viewed as a form of social capital at the community level, as can community-based decision-making, informal business transactions, and spontaneous celebrations. Putnam (2004) placed more emphasis on benefits accruing to the community, while others (e.g., Bourdieu, 1986; Coleman, 1988, 1990) conceptualised social capital at the individual level. When a person develops a substantial social network of friends, allies, and collaborators, their social capital increases, and when invested it can result in a variety of economic, social, psychological, and emotional benefits. Some people pursue the accumulation of social capital through deliberate networking, while others acquire it unconsciously. Social capital was discussed in Chapter 14 with regard to social impact assessment.

Social Worlds Unruh (1980, 271) used the term social world to describe “the notion that actors, events, practices, and formal organizations can coalesce into a meaningful and interactional important unit of social organization for participants”. Involvement in social worlds is voluntary, even though ‘guidelines, expectations, and rules certainly exist’ (1980, 277). It can be partial, so that order within a social world is negotiated and its bounds are those of the ‘universe of discourse’. Total involvement in one social world is highly unlikely, given that leisure choices can lead to

Foundation Disciplines and Closely Related Fields multiple affiliations. Interactions are mediated because of reliance on various channels of communication rather than spatial, kinship, or other formal ties. Nevertheless, some meeting places are usually important (these can be events), and some places are associated with social worlds because of their concentration of actors, practices, or events (a destination could become a mecca for runners, for example). Communication centres are vital, being the points where a great deal of the involvement is focused; communication sets limits on the extent of the discourse that defines a social world. Withdrawal from social worlds might carry a cost in terms of loss of one’s interpersonal contacts. Unruh provided a very useful framework for assessing social worlds. The analysis examines participants (‘actors’), what they do (‘practices’), important events in their social world activities, and organisations involved in or influencing social worlds. Consider social world theory in the context of online communities and special interest tourism, the social experiences that motivate event attendance, and serious leisure.

Social Exchange Theory Hormans (1958) suggested that social action is different from straightforward economic actions within a marketplace (i.e., buying and selling) because social actors expect and receive rewarding reactions. Resource exchanges (as well as the bestowal of prestige or support) are, in this context, the result of free, personal choice based on the assessment of expected costs and benefits. People can feel pressure to give, but exchanges should balance out over time. The theory also embodies the concepts of power and dependency within relationships and social networks. In the context of Event Studies, this theory has been used to explain variation in resident perceptions of, or attitudes towards, events. For example, people benefiting from event tourism will tend to be positive in their attitudes towards the event and its continuance, while people perceiving no benefit tend to be more critical and less supportive. See the section on social impact scales in Chapter 14 for details.

Selected Readings Barrière, L., & Finkel, R. (2022). The material culture of music festival fandoms. European Journal of Cultural Studies, 25 (2), 479–497. Breeze, M. (2013). Analysing ‘seriousness’ in roller derby: Speaking critically with the serious leisure perspective. Sociological Research Online, 18 (4), 237–249. Chiang, L., Xu, A., Kim, J., Tang, L., & Manthiou, A. (2017). Investigating festivals and events as social gatherings: The application of social identity theory. Journal of Travel & Tourism Marketing, 34 (6), 779–792. Gardner, R. (2020). The Portable Community: Place and Displacement in Bluegrass Festival Life. London: Routledge. Goh, S., Smith, K. A., & Yeoman, I. S. (2022). We are serious event travelers: event travel careers and the social worlds of arts practitioners to international arts festivals and events. Event Management, 26 (6), 1275–1296. McCauley, B., Ehlers, A., Kopanidis, F., & Helmefalk, M. (2023, January). From digital subcultures to destination tourism: Profiling attendees at multi genre festivals. In 56th Annual Hawaii International Conference on System Sciences, January 3–6, 2023 (pp. 3974–3983). HICSS Conference Office.

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Foundation Disciplines and Closely Related Fields Nunes, P. (2019). Cities regulated by cultural events: Tracking music festivals in Lisbon and São Paulo. International Journal of the Sociology of Leisure, 2, 147–162. Scholtz, M., Slabbert, E., & Saayman, M. (2019). I like you. I like you not. Dynamic social impact perceptions of an international sporting event. Event Management, 23, 149–164. Talbot, A.  (2021). Talking about the ‘rotten fruits’ of Rio 2016: Framing mega-event legacies. International Review for the Sociology of Sport, 56 (1), 20–35.

Philosophy Philosophers use reasoning, not empirical research, to theorise about the meaning of life and belief systems. However, the nature and scope of philosophy are subject to influence by changing societal values and scientific discoveries. People who contemplate the meaning of life generally fall into two categories: those who adopt religious or spiritual meanings, and those who search elsewhere, inside their own minds and value sets. Philosophy is concerned with the nature of religion and spiritualism but does not embrace faith or divine revelation, only reasoning. However, philosophy provides a firm foundation in the analysis of event phenomena, and in the meaning of event experiences. Professional and personal codes of ethics are philosophically based as are many of the political positions taken on policies affecting events. Our entire discussion of sustainability can be reviewed in the light of philosophical discourse and positions, with reference to the meaning and practice of stewardship. Aesthetics and the meaning of art have major implications for event design. One’s personal philosophy impacts the drive for self-development (or self-improvement) and well-being. All our discussions of values and valuing events or event experiences have a foundation in philosophy, even if people cannot articulate how their beliefs shape experiences and meanings (Table 16.3). How values affect politics and policies is clearly important, and this came into focus during and immediately following the pandemic – just how valued are events? Table 16.3  Philosophy Philosophy

Nature and Meanings; the Event Experience

Antecedents to Attending Events

Planning and Producing Events

Outcomes and the Impacted

Processes and Patterns

Critical thought on the nature of experience, the meaning of life, and belief systems Aesthetics Ethics Phenomenology Hermeneutics

Aesthetic experiences Experiences that shape one’s worldview How we give ethical meaning to experiences

The quest for the meaning of life as a motivator (selfdiscovery) Desire for aesthetic experiences as a motivator World-view as it shapes preferences

Values and ethics as a basis for producing and managing events (e.g., sustainability) A philosophy of event service

Evaluation of aesthetics Impacts on values and ethics at personal or social levels

Changing value systems affect event planning and policy

Foundation Disciplines and Closely Related Fields

Selected Readings Božič, I. R. (2022). The moral complexity of organising a civically engaged festival during the COVID-19 pandemic. In I. Woodward, J. Haynes, P. Berkers, A. Dillane & K. Golemo (Eds.), Remaking Culture and Music Spaces, pp. 192–206. London: Routledge. Japutra, A., Tjiptono, F., Setyawan, A., Permana, I. B. G. A., & Widaharthana, I. P. E. (2022). Life events, philosophy, spirituality and gastronomy experience. International Journal of Contemporary Hospitality Management (ahead-of-print). Joo, S., Bae, J., Jung, Y., Chun, M. S., & Park, H. (2023). Entertaining commodities or living beings? Public perception of animal welfare at local festivals in South Korea. Journal of Agricultural and Environmental Ethics, 36 (1), 2.

Religious Studies The study of religion includes attention to its origins and evolution, the comparison and analysis of belief systems, and the evaluation of impacts on society. The rites, rituals, and celebrations of various religions are scrutinised, including the use of anthropological methods, and this has direct relevance in Event Studies. Theologians hold religious belief systems and apply their specific beliefs and related values to interpreting or criticising all aspects of human society. Since so many events are religious in origin or theme, or contain programmed elements that hold religious meaning (even something as common as an opening prayer or blessing), theology contributes to Event Studies. In some societies, it is more a matter of spirituality, or even mysticism, that one finds reflected in modern events. Pilgrimage has been discussed in this context, and it also relates to the notion of transformative experiences (Table 16.4). Table 16.4  Religious Studies Religious Studies

Nature and Meanings; the Event Experience

Antecedents to Attending Events

Planning and Producing Events

Outcomes and the Impacted

Processes and Patterns

The study of religions, emphasising human society and behaviour Religious life and experience

Sacred experiences (religious rites, symbols, and celebrations) for believers Pilgrimage

Religious motivations for attending or rejecting events Quest for spiritual meaning as a motivator for belonging to religious groups

Ritual and symbolism incorporated into event programming

Religious trends and forces (e.g., the influence of religious lobbies)

Spiritual effects on the individual Impacts on religion Impacts on individual belief systems or faith

Selected Readings Digance, J. (2006). Religious and secular pilgrimage: Journeys redolent with meaning. In D. Timothy & D. Olsen (Eds.), Tourism, Religion and Spiritual Journeys, pp. 36–48. London: Routledge.

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Foundation Disciplines and Closely Related Fields Dowson, R. (2018). Religious and spiritual festivals and events. In J. Mair (Ed.), The Routledge Handbook of Festivals, 313–322. London: Routledge. Kanaujiya, A. K., & Tiwari, V. (2022). Crowd management and strategies for security and surveillance during the large mass gathering events: The Prayagraj Kumbh Mela 2019 Experience. National Academy Science Letters, 45 (3), 263–273. Piramanayagam, S., & Seal, P. P. (2021). Experience dimensions of religious festivals: Religion and spirituality at Paryaya, Udupi, India. International Journal of Religious Tourism and Pilgrimage, 9 (5), 9.

Psychology The study of the human mind, thought, and behaviour constitutes psychology. There are many sub-fields and specialised applications, such as you will encounter in education and interpretation (the psychology of learning) and industrial psychology, applied to management. There are also divisions in psychology, notably humanistic psychology, represented by the works of Maslow, which takes a phenomenological approach that is in direct opposition to the scientific or positivistic paradigm that dominates the subject area. Needs and wants were given consideration earlier in the book, linked to motivation to attend events. Also, review the effects of personality and perception in the decision-making process. In this section we examine two mainstream branches, cognitive psychology and the psychology of personality, then we turn to two blended sub-disciplines of particular relevance to Event Studies: environmental psychology and social psychology. Their significance in the wider debates on the contribution of psychology to Event Studies is demonstrated by Benckendorff and Pearce (2012, 165), who provide the most comprehensive review of the field and address the principal questions facing psychologists. A major question facing event planners and designers is that of personal development and transformation through event experiences. Psychological factors must also be considered when evaluating engagement with events, whether as volunteers, staff, participants, or spectators, and their training and learning processes (Table 16.5). Table 16.5  Psychology Psychology

Nature and Meanings; the Event Experience

Antecedents to Attending Events

Planning and Producing Events

Outcomes and the Impacted

Processes and Patterns

Explaining human personality and behaviour The study of perception, memory, feeling, knowing, and thinking

Personal needs, motives, preferences Perceiving and experiencing events Abnormal behaviour

Effects of age, gender, education, life stage, income, on demand Consumer behaviour Ego involvement

Design for personal experiences and transformation Implications for marketing and communications

Impacts on personality, values, attitudes Influence on future actions

Emergence of ‘experience economics’ as a major force

Foundation Disciplines and Closely Related Fields

Plate 16.1  Illuminate Adelaide’s City Lights, “THE POOL”, Installation by Jen Lewin Photo Credit: Tyr Liang & Xplorer Studio

Environmental Psychology Environmental psychology has considerable potential for enhancing Event Studies, as it has done in tourism research (Fridgen, 1984). It is an interdisciplinary field focusing on the perception and cognition of natural and built environments (see Moser and Uzzell, 2003 for an explanation of its scope and application to leisure). The environment is viewed as both the context for behaviour and a determinant of behaviour (see, for example, Plate 16.1). Environmental psychologists also examine the consequences of human behaviour on the environment. We have discussed the interactions of setting, people, and management on the event experiences and environmental factors affecting perceptions of the special place and mood designers attempt to create (Table 16.6).

Social Psychology Mannell and Kleiber (1997, 25) wrote that “Social psychology is the scientific study of the behaviour and experience of individuals in social situations”. For the purposes of Event Studies, social psychology helps us understand the nature and causes of behaviour at events, based on studying the relationship between the mind, groups, and behaviours. Social psychology has a range of theories and concepts it uses to study these themes. A great deal of Leisure Theory is based on social psychology, discussed specifically in this book in the context of generic social motivations and benefits (linked to communitas and well-being), crowd behaviour and management, and values and meanings placed on events (Table 16.7).

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Foundation Disciplines and Closely Related Fields Table 16.6  Environmental Psychology Environmental Nature and Psychology Meanings; the Event Experience Perception and cognition of natural and built environments Environmental design Wayfaring Behavioural settings and environmental stressors Personal space Crowding

How people perceive, make sense of, and value the event setting Environmental cues as to appropriate behaviour Feeling crowded or comfortable

Antecedents to Attending Events

Planning and Producing Events

Outcomes and the Impacted

Processes and Patterns

Preferences for certain environments Fear of crowding and environmental risks

Implications for event setting design and management (e.g., legibility; facilitating interaction, setting the mood, flow)

Environmental factors directly impact personal health, safety, and satisfaction

Environmental preferences and fears are culturally shaped and evolve Event venue development, and the use of places for events, constantly present new opportunities and ideas about the environment

Table 16.7  Social Psychology Social Psychology

Nature and Meanings; the Event Experience

Antecedents to Attending Events

Planning and Producing Events

Outcomes and the Impacted

Processes and Patterns

Studies the behaviour and experience of individuals in social situations

Events as social experiences Social role schemas Subjective meanings attached to events through social interaction (i.e., events as social constructs)

The influence of social reference groups Social needs (seeking and escaping)

Design for environment – group interactions and dynamics Creating a social atmosphere; belonging and sharing

Satisfaction of social group needs

Changes in family, social groups, and social norms affect events

Foundation Disciplines and Closely Related Fields

Selected Readings Benckendorff, P., & Pearce, P. (2012). The psychology of events. In S. J. Page & J. Connell (Eds.), The Routledge Handbook of Events, pp. 165–185. London: Routledge. Klára, K. (2020). Brand communities and self-concept congruency in the case of a music festival. Tourism and Hospitality Research, 20 (2), 157–169. Kruger, M., & Viljoen, A. (2021). A cause for celebration! A psychographic typology of attendees at a benefit concert. International Journal of Culture, Tourism and Hospitality Research, 15 (4), 580–597. Lee, J., & Kyle, G. T. (2014). Segmenting festival visitors using psychological commitment. Journal of Travel Research, 53 (5), 656–669. Oliva, J. (2023). An emotional perspective of music festival experience evaluation: a new model of emotional analysis. International Journal of Event and Festival Management, 14 (3), 310–325. Yu, N., Mair, J., Lee, A., & Ong, F. (2022). Subjective well-being and events. Event Management, 26 (1), 7–24.

Economics Craven (1990, 3) argued that within economics the principal challenge is how we allocate resources, given that many resources are scarce. Therefore, economists look at how these resources need to be allocated and the ways in which they are distributed. A key term in this debate is the term scarcity, meaning that most resources in society are finite, and decisions have to be made on the best way to use and sustain them. Economists define resources in terms of: l

Natural resources (e.g., the land).

l

Labour (e.g., human resources and entrepreneurship).

l

Capital (e.g., synthetic aids to assist in producing goods).

Collectively these resources constitute the factors of production that are used to produce both goods and services. The way in which goods and services are divided amongst people has been examined by economists in terms of the distribution of income and the degree of equality and efficiency in their distribution. An economic perspective on event tourism has dominated, including marketing to combat seasonality and events staged for destination development. Economic impact assessment is covered in Chapter 15, emphasising the process of estimating a direct economic contribution to a given area. Opportunity costs, externalities, and costs and benefits are of great importance. Additional topics covered in this book are economic forces and trends (macroeconomics), leveraging and the legacy, the use of events in economic and urban development, event finances, and budgeting (which can be thought of as microeconomics). Also refer to discussions of value, with utility value representing many economic considerations such as value for money (Table 16.8).

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Foundation Disciplines and Closely Related Fields Table 16.8  Economics Economics

Nature and Meanings; the Event Experience

Antecedents to Attending Events

Planning and Outcomes Producing and the Events Impacted

Macroeconomics (or ‘political economy’): the functioning of whole economic systems Microeconomics: the economics of consumers, and of doing business (by firms or other organisations)

The experience and meanings of consumption Perceived value for money, as it shapes the event experience

Economic incentives and barriers to consumption or participation Supply factors (e.g., cost of travel; alternatives)

The event’s business model and economic feasibility Forecasting demand Economic development policy as it affects the event sector

Measuring economic impacts and externalities Costs and benefits evaluated (including their distribution)

Processes and Patterns Economic trends and forces (competition and globalisation

Selected Readings Andersson, T., & Lundberg, E. (2013). Commensurabiity and sustainability: Triple impact assessments of a tourism event. Tourism Management, 37, 99–109. Dwyer, L. (2020). Economic assessment of special events: A perspective article. Tourism Review, 75 (1), 191–193. Getz, D. (2019b). Shifting the paradigm: A theory of change model. Journal of Policy Research in Tourism, Leisure and Events, 11 (sup1), s19–s26. Hover, P. (2022). The economic impact of major road cycling events. In The Economics of Professional Road Cycling, pp. 91–120. Cham: Springer International Publishing. Mair, J., & Smith, A. (2021). Events and sustainability: Why making events more sustainable is not enough. Journal of Sustainable Tourism, 29 (11–12), 1739–1755. Seaman, B. A. (2020). Economic impact of the arts. In R. Towse & T. Hernandez (Eds.), Handbook of Cultural Economics (3rd ed., pp. 241–253). Cheltenham: Edward Elgar Publishing. Zawadzki, K. (2022). Public valuation of social impacts. The comparison between mega and non-mega sporting events. Journal of Policy Research in Tourism, Leisure and Events, 1–22.

Political Science Political science is the theory and practice of politics, political systems, and political behaviour. Political scientists study government and its processes, public institutions, power and policymaking, politics, intergovernmental and international relations. Political philosophy, on the other hand, is more concerned with values and political ideas, such as the differences between Marxism and capitalism, or the meanings of rights and justice. The policy implications of the pandemic have been discussed in this book, including regulations and funding. Governance is important both at the micro level (the event organisation) and in bringing all stakeholders together, including governments. Political meanings attached to events can be significant, and there is a separate category we identified called political and state events. Protests often accompany them. Mega-events in particular attract political controversy (Table 16.9).

Foundation Disciplines and Closely Related Fields Table 16.9  Political Science Political Science

Nature and Meanings; the Event Experience

Antecedents to Attending Events

Planning and Producing Events

Outcomes and the Impacted

Processes and Patterns

The study of governments, public policies, and political behaviour

Events may take on political significance Attendance can be a political statement

Political motives to attend or stay away

Creating events as a political statement (e.g., protest; party loyalty; nationalism) Government policy and programmes re: events

Effects on politics, government, political parties, and law

How politics and policies influence event development and attendance

Selected Readings Nissen, J. (2022, May). ‘Give us a voice!’: Voice, envoicement, and the politics of ‘world music’at WOMAD. Ethnomusicology Forum, 31 (2), 236–259). Quinn, B., Colombo, A., Lindström, K., McGillivray, D., & Smith, A. (2021). Festivals, public space and cultural inclusion: Public policy insights. Journal of Sustainable Tourism, 29 (11–12), 1875–1893. Rasmi, J. (2022). How to build an ecosystem for the non-fiction cinema? The history and politics of Lussas Documentary Film Festival. Studies in European Cinema, 19 (3), 252–264. Sen, M. (2022). Between religion and politics: The political deification of Mahishasur. Religion, 52 (4), 616–636. Smith, A., Osborn, G., & Vodicka, G. (2022). Private events in a public park: contested music festivals and environmental justice in Finsbury Park, London. In B. Plüschke-Altof & H. Sooväli-Sepping (Eds.), Whose Green City? Contested Urban Green Spaces and Environmental Justice in Northern Europe, pp. 83–102. Cham: Springer International Publishing.

Law Governments at all levels pass a multitude of laws, each of which is enforceable by the police or other formal action. Laws either forbid actions or mandate them. They govern how persons and organisations interact, and what happens in cases of violations and disputes. There is a vast legal system for lawmaking and law enforcement, including layers of courts, the law profession, and law enforcers. A central tenet of democratic societies is the rule of law, in which justice is based on law and the courts rather than arbitrary decisions. This is all supposed to prevent abuses and protect fundamental rights. Laws and regulations have come to the fore not only because of the pandemic but also because of periodic disasters at mass assemblies. Human Rights has been identified in this book as a topic of concern. We have not paid attention to contracts and other legal aspects of event management, which will require specific legal advice within each jurisdiction. Legal ramifications of event management must be fully evaluated within the risk management process, and we have detailed how that links to disasters, resilience, health, and safety (Table 16.10).

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Foundation Disciplines and Closely Related Fields Table 16.10  Law Law

Nature and Meanings; The Event Experience

Antecedents Planning and to Attending Producing Events Events

The legal system, including legislators, courts, and police Specific laws and regulations

Events as real and implicit contracts Event experiences shaped by social/legal differences

Perception of legal implications as a factor in the decision to travel or attend events

Laws and regulations pertaining to event production Legal considerations for event management

Outcomes and Processes and the Impacted Patterns

Interpretations of justice Legal recourse for loss or injury at events

Changing laws and regulations; accountability

Events operate within political and legal systems that at once facilitate, constrain, and hold accountable the people and organisations producing them. What events can be held, and what activities can be allowed, remain a legal matter. Every event producer understands the need to obey laws, satisfy regulatory agencies, involve the police in security matters, and obtain the advice of lawyers when it comes to contracts, risk assessment, and many other technical matters. Event-producing organisations need to be legally sanctioned or incorporated. Taxes have to be paid and audits filed. One source is Becker (2006) The Essential Legal Guide to Events. However, the legal system and the laws it creates and enforces are different in every country, and laws change. Distributive justice is a principle that applies to economic development and impact assessment, raising the question of who benefits and who pays. Within welfare geography, it adds the additional concept of territorial justice, whereby who benefits and pays has the added dimension of who is affected, where, and why. ‘Legal justice’ is another relevant concept, tied closely to constitutions and the courts. If something goes wrong, can the aggrieved party find justice? The section on Human Rights in Chapter 2 and the expert opinion by Adam Talbot in Chapter 3 deal with this important legal and moral topic.

Selected Readings Heerdt, D. (2020). A rights-holder view on human rights provisions in Olympic bidding and hosting regulations. AJIL Unbound, 114, 356–361. Talbot, A., & Carter, T. F. (2018). Human rights abuses at the Rio 2016 Olympics: Activism and the media. Leisure Studies, 37 (1), 77–88.

History History does look at dates and chronologies, but historical facts are only the starting point. According to the American Historical Association (www.historians.org), history studies the human condition and social change. The ability to assess evidence, and to assess conflicting interpretations, is essential to what historians do. Because historians are usually researching a topic or theme, and often from a disciplinary perspective, it is common to speak of historical geography, historical sociology, etc. All of the disciplines we talk about in this book can be studied through the lens of historical fact-finding and interpretation (Table 16.11).

Foundation Disciplines and Closely Related Fields Table 16.11  History History

Nature and Meanings; the Event Experience

Antecedents to Attending Events

Planning and Producing Events

Outcomes and the Impacted

Processes and Patterns

Documentation and analysis of human evolution and historic events Historiography evaluates historical evidence and interpretations

Importance of events through history Changing meanings attached to events Changes in how people experience events

Historical patterns and trends in demand for, and consumption of events Changes in why people attend and what they want from events

Evolution and life cycle of events Changes in the supply of events and event types Changes in planning and designing events

Historical evidence of impacts Analysis of long-term impacts

History of specific events and of event types Evolution of planned events in different cultures History reflected in, and commemorated through planned events

Selected Readings Janiskee, R. L. (1990). History-themed festivals: A special events approach to rural recreation and tourism. In Papers and Proceedings of Applied Geography Conferences (Vol. 13, pp. 111–117). State University of New York. Higham, J. E., & Ritchie, B. (2001). The evolution of festivals and other events in rural southern New Zealand. Event Management, 7 (1), 39–49. Caneppele, P. (2022). Amateur film festivals: Sources, history, and perspectives. Studies in European Cinema, 19 (3), 191–203. Lu, Z. (2022). Forging a link between competitive gaming, sport and the Olympics: History and new developments. The International Journal of the History of Sport, 39 (3), 251–269.

Human Geography In the study of events, the predominant focus is on human geography with a focus on people and their activities - although there is also a role for physical geography, with the growing interest in environmental sustainability and the impact of hosting events on the natural environment and in resource use such as our carbon footprint and climate change. Geographical analysis can be linked directly to any of the other social sciences, and what is particularly relevant to the study of events can be described as economic/developmental, cultural/social, historical, political, or behavioural geography. Geographical analysis can also be applied to almost any form of human endeavour or a particular environment so that we can also speak of urban and rural geography or event geography. Links to physical geography, or the environmental sciences, are always present (Table 16.12).

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Foundation Disciplines and Closely Related Fields Table 16.12  Human Geography Human Geography

Nature and Meanings; the Event Experience

Antecedents to Attending Events

Planning and Producing Events

Outcomes and Processes the Impacted and Patterns

Studies humanresource interactions, especially spatial and temporal patterns of human activity and including impacts on the environment

Linking events to resources, culture, and human activity (e.g., harvest festivals; seasonality factors) Interaction with the event environment and sensemaking

Demand linked to distance and accessibility The influence of religion and culture across regions

Event settings Locational analysis

Environmental impacts analysed spatially

Spatial & temporal patterns (rural distribution; growth of events as part of urban renewal schemes)

Selected Readings Calabrese, F., Pereira, F. C., Di Lorenzo, G., Liu, L., & Ratti, C. (2010). The geography of taste: Analyzing cell-phone mobility and social events. In Pervasive Computing: 8th International Conference, Pervasive 2010, Helsinki, Finland, May 17–20, 2010. Proceedings 8 (pp. 22–37). Springer Berlin Heidelberg. Getz, D. (2004b). Geographic perspectives on event tourism. In A. Lew, C. M. Hall, & A. Williams (eds), A Companion to Tourism, pp. 410–422. Malden, MA: Blackwell. Janiskee, R. L. (1995). The temporal distribution of America’s community festivals. Festival Management and Event Tourism, 3 (3), 129–137. Richards, G. (2017). From place branding to placemaking: The role of events. International Journal of Event and Festival Management, 8 (1), 8–23. Smith, A., Vodicka, G., Colombo, A., Lindstrom, K. N., McGillivray, D., & Quinn, B. (2021). Staging city events in public spaces: An urban design perspective. International Journal of Event and Festival Management, 12 (2), 224–239. Wise, N., & Harris, J. (eds.) (2019). Events, Places and Societies. London: Routledge.

Future Studies Human fascination with the future is at least equal to our curiosity about the past. Visioning and goal setting are totally future-oriented. When we talk about planning events, we are actually seeking to shape the future. General research enables us to say more about probable future conditions, while marketing research gives us greater confidence that our plans will succeed. It is no wonder, then, that futurism and future studies have become so popular. Future Studies is an interdisciplinary approach to gaining an understanding of how today’s conditions and trends will likely shape the future (in part, it is therefore impact forecasting), and how future conditions could be shaped by policies and actions taken (or not taken) today – as in how we need to reduce greenhouse emissions to avoid the worst effects of global warming. Trend analysis, forecasting, environmental and future scanning, and scenario making are tools of future studies (Table 16.13).

Foundation Disciplines and Closely Related Fields Table 16.13  Future Studies Future Studies

Nature and Meanings; the Event Experience

Antecedents to Attending Events

Planning and Producing Events

Outcomes and the Impacted

Processes and Patterns

Future thinking (can we know or shape the future?) Trend analysis Environmental and future scanning Forecasting and scenario making

How we think about time affects our experiences and the meanings we attach to them

How do people plan for future events? Will virtual reality replace live event experiences?

Environmental and future scanning applied to the event sector

Predicting event impacts Future scenarios (likely and desired future states)

Changes in how we think about time and the future What do we envisage about the future of events?

This is a neglected research theme in Event Studies, with few contributions. Much more ­scenario-thinking has occurred, however, as a result of the pandemic and the need for building greater resilience in the system. Our examination of forces, trends, and issues in this book, plus the research agenda, should act to encourage more event-specific future studies.

Selected Readings Davies, K. (2021). Festivals post COVID-19. Leisure Sciences, 43 (1–2), 184–189. Jones, C. (2012). Events and festivals: Fit for the future? Event Management, 16 (2), 107–118. Shipway, R., & Miles, L. (2020). Bouncing back and jumping forward: Scoping the resilience landscape of international sports events and implications for events and festivals. Event Management, 24 (1), 185–196. Yeoman, I., McMahon-Beattie, U., Findlay, K., Goh, S., Tieng, S., & Nhem, S. (2021). Future proofing the success of food festivals through determining the drivers of change: A case study of Wellington on a Plate. Tourism Analysis, 26 (2–3), 167–193. Yeoman, I., Robertson, M., McMahon-Beattie, U., Smith, K. A., & Backer, E. (eds.) (2015). The Future of Events & Festivals. Abingdon: Routledge.

Leisure Studies The history of leisure studies has been reviewed by Page and Connell (2010), with landmark studies identified in Page and Connell (2006). Its modern-day roots can be traced to the parks and recreation movement in North America in the mid-nineteenth century. The pursuit of different forms of leisure research informed by sociology continued from the early twentieth century (1920s and 1930s). Development of the outdoor ethos towards recreation saw a significant boom in Europe in the early twentieth century, albeit constrained by the availability of leisure time. In many countries professionals working in recreation and park management are responsible for the provision and management of parks, recreation facilities, and leisure programmes and services. Their skill sets range from venue planning, management, and marketing to community development and therapeutic recreation programming.

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Foundation Disciplines and Closely Related Fields Table 16.14  Contributions of Leisure Studies to Event Studies Leisure Studies

Nature and Meanings of the Event Experience

Antecedents to Attending Events

Planning and Producing Events

Outcomes and the Impacted

Processes and Patterns

Theories of play and leisure Intrinsic motivation Leisure constraints

Events yield leisure benefits Serious leisure Optimal arousal and flow Lifestyle meanings Leisure philosophy

Leisure motives for attending events Leisure constraints and negotiation Recreation specialisation Ego involvement Commitment

Implications of theory for design and planning of programmes, venues, and events

How to measure the benefits of leisure (e.g., health, ­selffulfilment, social integration) Leisure careers

Leisure trends, fads

Commercial recreation requires knowledge of business management and tourism. Hospitality services are often integrated into leisure facilities, and events are both users of these facilities and elements in leisure programming. The important contributions of leisure studies to Event Studies begin with our understanding of event experiences, and the importance of intrinsic and extrinsic motivation, as not all event experiences are necessarily considered to be leisure by those involved. We looked at serious leisure, a theory that helps explain engagement and involvement in events, as well as the event travel career trajectory. It applies to hobbyists, volunteers, and various social worlds associated with all leisure pursuits. The basic differences between intrinsic and extrinsic motivations are important, especially when it comes to business events versus leisure events – and how they often overlap. Leisure constraints and how they are negotiated or overcome are an important part of our discussion of antecedents and the decision-making process. Also consider how substitution works, with many leisure and other benefits of events being generic and therefore available through other outlets (Table 16.14).

Selected Readings Jamieson, K., & Todd, L. (2021). The transgressive festival imagination and the idealisation of reversal. Leisure Studies, 40 (1), 57–68. Lee, K., Gould, J., & Hsu, H. Y. (2023). Thickening serious leisure: A review of studies that employed the serious leisure inventory and measure (SLIM) between 2008 and 2019. Leisure Studies, 42 (2), 296–313. Ma, S. M, Ma, S. C., & Chen, S. (2022). The influence of triathletes’ serious leisure traits on sport constraints, involvement, and participation. Leisure Studies, 41 (1), 100–114. Myburgh, E., & Kruger, M. (2021).The sky is the limit: A motivation and event attribute typology of trail runners, Managing Sport and Leisure, 1–20. Snelgrove, R., Wood, L., Potwarka, L., Taks, M., & Derom, I. (2022). Cognitive factors that lead to inspiration and post-event intention to swim among spectators. Managing Sport and Leisure, 1–14.

Foundation Disciplines and Closely Related Fields

Sport Studies and Sport Management The study of sport as it relates to events has many foundations in the traditional disciplines, especially psychology and sociology, with additional grounding in physical sciences when examining athletes and their performance. Sport management focuses on sport organisations, such as professional clubs and public facilities, with specific interests in sport marketing, human resources, finance, organisational structure, organisational behaviour, ethics, information technology, policy development, and communications (North American Society for Sport Management; www.nassm.com). NASSM’s Journal of Sport Management carries articles on sport events and sport tourism, which are of particular interest to Event Studies. This covers participation sports (including the event travel career trajectory) and sport venues. Mega-sport events often dominate political and economic discussions of events, given their scale and cost, and we looked closely at purported benefits and the nature of legacy planning. Discussions of health and personal development benefits figure prominently in sport and recreational events, both as motivators and potential outcomes. Sport event volunteering is a huge area (Table 16.15). Table 16.15  Sport Management and Sport Studies Nature and Meanings; the Event Experience

Antecedents Planning and to Attending Producing Events Events

Outcomes and the Impacted

Processes and Patterns

Sport tourism impacts Personal well-being and social benefits of participation in sport events

Sport trends, fads (e.g., the diffusion of new sports) Sport development policy

Sport Management Management of sport organisations, venues, and events

Sport is both big business and public good Sport for health, fitness, mastery Sport as a social phenomenon

Unique motives for competing in or spectating at sport events Demand for sport tourism

Sport venue managers produce and host events Competitions produced by leagues and clubs Sport events bid on as part of sport tourism

Sport Studies Sport psychology sociology history geography

Sport as entertainment

Social structures, patterns, and organisations engaged in sport

Sport history Sport geography (patterns of sport and sport events)

Selected Readings Andersson, T., & Getz, D. (2020). Specialization versus diversification in the event portfolios of amateur athletes. Scandinavian Journal of Hospitality and Tourism, 20 (4), 376–397. Getz, D., & Andersson, T. (2020). Testing the event travel career trajectory in multiple participation sports. Journal of Sport & Tourism, 24 (3), 155–176.

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Foundation Disciplines and Closely Related Fields Lundberg, E., & Andersson, T. (2022). Subjective well-being (SWB) of sport event participants: Causes and effects. Event Management, 26 (1), 41–57. Sobral, V., Fairley, S., & O’Brien, D. (2022). The utility of including regular sport team events in event portfolios. Journal of Sport Management, 1 (aop), 1–12. Thomson, A., Cuskelly, G., Toohey, K., Kennelly, M., Burton, P., & Fredline, L. (2019). Sport event legacy: A systematic quantitative review of literature. Sport Management Review, 22 (3), 295–321.

Visitor Studies Visitor studies is an interdisciplinary theme, and a set of methods, with its own professional association and research journal. The Visitor Studies Association (www.visitorstudies.org) focuses on all facets of the visitor experience in settings like museums, zoos, nature centres, visitor centres, historic sites, parks, and other informal learning settings. The purpose of related research and evaluation is to understand and enhance visitor experiences in informal learning settings. Obviously, tourism, hospitality, leisure, arts, and Event Studies are all concerned with visitors and their experiences (Table 16.16). Table 16.16  Visitor Studies Visitor Studies

Nature and Meanings; the Event Experience

Antecedents Planning to Attending and Events Producing Events

Understanding and enhancing visitor experiences Interpretation and exhibition design and methods (including signage) Learning and behavioural outcomes of experiences and interpretation

Events as learning experiences Enhanced events through interpretation

Demand for learning experiences Special needs and preferences of tourists

Venues produce exhibitions and other events The effects of various settings on experiences

Outcomes and the Impacted

Processes and Patterns

Measuring the effects of interpretation on visitors

Efficiency policies dictate the use of events as interpretive devices and means to attract visitors

Selected Readings Packer, J., & Ballantyne, R. (2016). Conceptualizing the visitor experience: A review of literature and development of a multifaceted model. Visitor Studies, 19 (2), 128–143. Peterman, K., Verbeke, M., & Nielsen, K. (2020). Looking back to think ahead: Reflections on science festival evaluation and research. Visitor Studies, 23 (2), 205–17.

Hospitality Studies This professional field is focused on hotels, resorts, and food and beverage services (e.g., catering, restaurants, and bars) and often encompasses elements of the travel and tourism

Foundation Disciplines and Closely Related Fields Table 16.17  Hospitality Management and Hospitality Studies Nature and Antecedents Planning and Meanings; to Attending Producing Events Events the Event Experience

Outcomes and the Impacted

Processes and Patterns

Hospitality management Hotel, resort, restaurant management; service provision; gastronomy; events as ‘functions’

Receiving hospitality at events (being a guest) Corporate hospitality as a unique event experience

Past experience with venues and service quality

Service quality Atmospherics Technical considerations (lighting, sound, safety, health)

Business impacts Client and guest satisfaction

The competitive environment for events is dynamic Rising expectations for quality

What it means to be a host or a guest

Service quality as a determinant of future demand Growth in demand for corporate and private events as professional services

Hospitality providers are key stakeholders

Impacts on suppliers

Changes in supply chains, and in technology affecting service provision

Hospitality studies Studies host–guest interactions and interdependencies The nature of hospitality and service

industry. Some diploma and degree programmes specialise in clubs, business and industry dining, leisure services, campus dining, convention facilities, transportation, theme parks, state and national park operations, and casino operations. Increasingly convention and event management is included within hospitality curricula. Frequently hospitality and tourism programmes are integrated within business schools, and in some cases with sport and leisure as well (Table 16.17).

Selected Readings Filimonau, V., Ashton, M., & Stankov, U. (2022). Virtual spaces as the future of consumption in tourism, hospitality and events. Journal of Tourism Futures, (ahead-of-print). DOI:10.1108/ jtf-07-2022-0174 Saha, P., Nath, A., & Sit, K. (2023). Re-examining the roles of experience quality at festivals: a comparative analysis using SEM and fsQCA. International Journal of Contemporary Hospitality Management, 35 (5), 1802–1823. Shereni, N., Nokukholwa, F., & Mazhande, P. (2021). Exhibitors’ preference at trade fairs: The case of Zimbabwe International Trade Fair (ZITF). Journal of Convention & Event Tourism, 22 (5), 363–383.

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Gender Studies This is a diverse, interdisciplinary field, in that many foundation disciplines contribute and are informed by it. Definitions of the field vary according to the content of pertinent university programmes, and where researchers and commentators choose to focus. It is widely suggested that the origins lie in women’s studies and have subsequently expanded to include the following: men’s studies; sexuality, power, and identity; queer studies, and expansion to include LGBTQ+. Many contributors to this diverse field concentrate on gender roles and related themes of power, inclusion, and discrimination, thereby linking with wider aspects of critical studies and social justice. Others focus on self-perception, that is whether one identifies as male, female or other (i.e., LGBTQ+). Researchers study constructions of gender in society, including politics and power, gendered representation, and gender identity (socially constructed) related to race, ethnicity, sexuality, religion, reproduction, and reproductive rights. Others focus on norms and cultural values related to “being” a boy, girl, man, or woman. The terms gender and sex are often confused or used interchangeably. To be clear on what is being discussed, the following distinctions are important: Gender: According to the World Health Organisation (WHO) (https://www.who.int/healthtopics/gender), Gender refers to the characteristics of women, men, girls and boys that are socially constructed. This includes norms, behaviours and roles associated with being a woman, man, girl or boy, as well as relationships with each other. As a social construct, gender varies from society to society and can change over time. Sex refers to physical distinctions, or natal sex (i.e., sex organs and chromosomes). Sex in the modern world can be changed, resulting in controversy – such as competition in sports labelled male or female. Sexuality refers to sexual orientation and behaviour, and is therefore a highly personal, evolving, and potentially diverse state of being. LGBTQ+ refers to lesbian, gay, bisexual, trans, questioning/queer, and sexual/gender diverse; IA, when added, means intersex and asexual. A number of themes are beyond the scope of this book, but we examine several of particular importance to events. The first is inclusiveness versus exclusion, or who is involved, who benefits, and why some are excluded. For example, Denison, Bevan, and Jeanes (2021) reviewed the literature on sport organisations related to exclusion and discrimination experienced by LGBTQ+ people, finding strong evidence of widespread discriminatory behaviour that causes harm. Representation: This issue pertains both to the ability of women or LGBTQ+ to gain employment, or be part of the programming on equal terms and to how they are portrayed at events. Crees et al. (2022) studied media influences on perceptions of LGBTQIA+ pride in the UK, documenting a shift in representations that were positive and influential. Sexual Harassment and Violence at Events: This has emerged as a major issue for many outdoor music festivals, requiring not only the education of attendees but in many cases police action. Wadds et al. (2022) linked sexual violence and harassment to drugs, alcohol, and a culture of ‘hedonistic self-indulgence’ at large, camping-oriented, Australian music festivals. The researchers aimed to uncover reasons for transgressive behaviour, in the form of sexual violence, related to ‘situational, environmental and gendered dynamics’. Their review of the literature suggests that

Table 16.18  Gender Studies Nature and Meanings; the Event Experience

Antecedents to Attending Events

Planning and Producing Events

womens’ studies; men’s studies; sexuality, power and identity; queer studies, and LGBTQ+ concerns; reproduction rights

– events as expressions – discrimination is still – many pride events are self-organised practiced in many of identity and independent places, restricting – image making; going – politics often the number and mainstream intrudes, such as types of events – performance, as in who to invite or – individuals might pride parades exclude not want to identify – advocacy of human or will seek out rights, inclusion opportunities to join – issues related to a community harassment and sexual violence

Outcomes and the Impacted

Processes and Patterns

– enhancement of individual pride and identity, community acceptance, and enhanced image – in many countries, legitimation; in others, condemnation and repression

– substantial growth in gender-related celebrations around the world – widening agendas, from mere tolerance to mainstreaming

Foundation Disciplines and Closely Related Fields

Gender Studies

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Foundation Disciplines and Closely Related Fields risky behaviour among young people stems from alienation and disenfranchisement, leading to counter-culture elements wherein youth seek to escape norms and controls. Certain behaviours become ritualised, replacing traditional rites of passage (Table 16.18).

Selected Readings Almathami, R., Khoo-Lattimore, C., & Yang, E. C. L. (2022). Exploring the challenges for women working in the event and festival sector in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. Tourism Recreation Research, 47 (1), 47–61. Christensen, J. F. (2020). Organization profile 4. Orange together: A campaign to address transgressive behaviour at Denmark’s Roskilde Festival. In P. Vizcaino, H. Jeffrey, & C. Eger (eds), Tourism and Gender-Based Violence: Challenging Inequalities, pp. 140–143. Wallingford, Oxon: CABI Publishing. Drury, J., Novelli, D., & Stott, C. (2015). Managing to avert disaster: Explaining collective resilience at an outdoor music event. European Journal of Social Psychology, 45 (4), 533–547. Grabher, B. (2021). Doing Gender in Events: Feminist Perspectives in Critical Event Studies. London: Routledge. Jutbring, H. (2016). Festivals framed as unequal: Piggybacking events to advance gender equality. Annals of Leisure Research, 19 (4), 519–537. Lim, M., Hellard, M., Hocking, J., Spelman, T., & Aitken, C. (2010). Surveillance of drug use among young people attending a music festival in Australia, 2005–2008. Drug and Alcohol Review, 29, 150–156. O’Grady, A. (2013). Interrupting flow: Researching play, performance and immersion in festival settings. Dancecult, 5 (1), 18–38. Pielichaty, H. (2015). Festival space: Gender, liminality and the carnivalesque. International Journal of Event and Festival Management, 6 (3), 235–250. Platt, S., & Finkel, R. (2020). Gendered Violence at International Festivals: An Interdisciplinary Perspective. London: Routledge. Ravenscroft, N., & Gilchrist, P. (2009). Spaces of transgression: Governance, discipline and reworking the carnivalesque. Leisure Studies, 28 (1), 35–49. Riches, G. (2011). Embracing the chaos: Mosh pits, extreme metal music and liminality. Journal for Cultural Research, 15 (3), 315–332. Stone, A. (2022). Making an inclusive collective party or building LGBTQ + community? Tensions in LGBTQ festival events in American Mardi Gras. Journal of Policy Research in Tourism, Leisure and Events, 15 (2), 240–253. Vizcaino, P., Jeffrey, H., & Eger, C. (2020). Tourism and Gender-Based Violence. Challenging Inequalities. Wallingford, Oxon: CABI.

Health Studies The relationships between events and health came to the fore at the beginning of the pandemic in 2020, with the term superspreader quickly entering the vernacular. One of the first to attract international media attention was the New Orleans Mardi Gras, with scientists confirming that it resulted in a rapid spread of Covid-19. “Our findings show how a single, large-scale social event can play a major role in kick-starting a viral epidemic when no restrictions are in place”, source: https:// globalhealth.scripps.edu/mardi-gras-2020-a-fateful-super-spreader-event/

Foundation Disciplines and Closely Related Fields Table 16.19  Health Studies Health Studies

Nature and Meanings; the Event Experience

Antecedents to Attending Events

Planning and Outcomes Producing and the Events Impacted

The study of injury and illness: causes, prevention, treatment

Events as factors contributing to health and well-being Safe and healthy experiences Experiences and behaviour modified by drugs and alcohol

Fear of injury and illness is a constraint Health concerns can motivate attendance at certain events (e.g., healthy living expos) Some events have a drug/ alcohol culture

Health and safety regulations affect design and management Restrictions on travel or activities Need for security

Health effects of events and related activities on persons and populations Events that gain bad reputations in the community

Processes and Patterns Events and the spread of illness Statistics of injury and illnesses at events, over time

Mass assemblies, from a health perspective, present a huge risk, and it is not new. Increasingly we are seeing attention given to events from health and related fields, often combining elements of risk management, security, customer service, and regulations. Event tourism is obviously impacted by disease, real or threatened, and this highlights the major role of travel medicine in informing event management and hosting (Table 16.19).

Selected Readings Singh, A., Pant, P., & Pope, F. D. (2019). Air quality during and after festivals: Aerosol concentrations, composition and health effects. Atmospheric Research, 227, 220–232. Karami, M., Doosti-Irani, A., Ardalan, A., Gohari-Ensaf, F., Berangi, Z., Massad, E., & Gouya, M. (2019). Public health threats in mass gatherings: A systematic review. Disaster Medicine and Public Health Preparedness, 13 (5–6), 1035–1046. Martin, S., Chamberlain, C. A., Rivett, A. C., & Selman, L. E. (2022). How are public engagement health festivals evaluated? A systematic review with narrative synthesis. PLoS ONE, 17 (8), [e0267158]. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0267158 Smith, J. A., Hopkins, S., Turner, C., Dack, K., Trelfa, A., Peh, J., & Monks, P. S. (2022). Public health impact of mass sporting and cultural events in a rising COVID-19 prevalence in England. Epidemiology & Infection, 150, p. e42. STUDY GUIDE

Foundation disciplines and closely related professional fields were discussed as to their links with, and contributions to, Event Studies. The related academic fields and associated professions all involve events to some extent, so the discipline of Event Studies, as it develops, can feed back important concepts to them. Note how each field has to draw upon foundation disciplines for theory and methodology, and how the ways in which they apply theory suggest possibilities and direct applications for Event Studies. Leisure studies offers the most in terms

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Foundation Disciplines and Closely Related Fields of theory and philosophy because that field is specifically concerned with events and experiences. Several leisure theories and methods are vital in helping to explain motivations to attend events and event tourism. They have also developed a philosophy of leisure service that might be applicable to events. Refer to previous chapters in linking theory from disciplines to Event Studies and event management. STUDY QUESTIONS l

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How are Sociology and Anthropology similar in terms of their theoretical and methodological contributions to Event Studies? Define culture and intangible culture. Do all events embody cultural symbolism? How can Event Studies contribute to foundation disciplines, especially Anthropology and Sociology? What is social capital, and how do events help generate it? Do you belong to a social world? What are its characteristics? How do social worlds ­constitute antecedents to event demand and participation? Are Philosophy and Religious studies compatible? Why are they relevant to Event Studies? What are the core concepts of Social Psychology that inform Leisure Studies and Event Studies? Differentiate between macroeconomics and microeconomics as they apply to Event Studies. Give examples from previous chapters.

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Politics and Law are interrelated. How is the policy for events affected by this fact?

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Give examples of historical and geographical research applied to Event Studies.

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In Future Studies, what are the roles of Scenario Making, applied to events?

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Does the Event Travel Career Trajectory embody the theory concerning involvement? How?

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Show how Hospitality and Visitor Studies are relevant to event experience design.

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What are the big issues arising from Gender Studies in the field of event management?

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For mass assemblies, what are the health-related issues? FURTHER READING

Dwyer, L., Forsyth, P., & Dwyer, W. (2010). Tourism Economics and Policy. Bristol: Channel View. Hall, C. M., & Page, S. J. (2014). The Geography of Tourism and Recreation: Environment, Place and Space (4th ed.). Abingdon: Routledge. Page, S. J., & Connell, J. (2006). Leisure: Critical Concepts in the Social Sciences, 4 Volumes. London: Routledge. Page, S. J., & Connell, J. (2010). Leisure: An Introduction. Harlow: Pearson Education. Stebbins, R. (2006). Serious Leisure: A Perspective for Our Time. Somerset, NJ: Aldine Transaction Publications. Stone, A. L. (2022). Queer carnival: Festivals and Mardi Gras in the south. New York: NYU Press. Yeoman, I., Robertson, M., McMahon-Beattie, U., Backer, E., & Smith, K. (eds.) (2014). The Future of Events and Festivals. Abingdon: Routledge.

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Research and Knowledge Creation for Event Studies LEARNING OBJECTIVES

Upon completion of this chapter, students should know the following: l

How knowledge is created for Event Studies from disciplines, reflective professionals, and other sources.

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The meaning of epistemology and ontology.

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The main paradigms of knowledge and knowledge formation.

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How positivism is challenged by alternative paradigms including interpretivism and critical theory.

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The meaning of empiricism and scientific method.

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The nature and importance of discourse and critical discourse.

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The meaning of evidence and proof within both positivistic and interpretive methodologies.

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Exploratory, explanatory, and evaluative research.

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The applications of quantitative, qualitative, and mixed methods.

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How research in Event Studies has evolved, and gaps in the literature.

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Research needs, conforming to the main elements in the model for understanding and doing research on events. Propositions regarding the future of events and Event Studies.

DOI: 10.4324/9781003374251-17

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Introduction This is not a chapter on research methods, although many are mentioned. It is intended to provide an overview of the entire knowledge creation and research process, starting with a conceptual model, and then proceeding to a discussion of basic research paradigms, methodologies, and methods. Research lies at the heart of knowledge creation for the purposes of developing theory, but researchers are not the only ones creating knowledge. Most event-related research has stemmed from sheer curiosity, or from a management or policy need. As Event Studies is a relatively new field, a lot of pertinent research has been within well-established, disciplinary lines of inquiry and closely related fields. To progress towards interdisciplinarity, wherein Event Studies will have its own theories and methodologies, we will have to focus more on the core phenomenon and related themes.

Sources of Knowledge Figure 17.1 depicts the various ways in which knowledge can be created, and also points to where a research project can begin. At the centre is our field of Event Studies, showing that we rely on established disciplines and closely related professional fields for ideas, theories, and methods. Knowledge creation also follows from the needs of managers who conduct research, evaluations, impact studies, and engage in observation and reflective thought about issues and problems. Policymakers need input, leading to research and stakeholder engagement. The think-tank approach is often used in other fields where future scenarios are commonly made, but seldom applied to events. Grounded research is singled out from other methodologies for the reason that it is seldom applied in its true form, being research without foreknowledge or assumptions. As discussed in previous chapters, methodologies from foundation disciplines have dominated in their contribution to Event Studies, sometimes filtered through the lens of applied fields like leisure studies. Event researchers have in many cases followed interdisciplinary approaches

MANAGEMENT NEEDS

POLICY NEEDS

CLOSELY RELATED FIELDS

INTROSPECTION AND THINK TANKS

INTERDISCIPLINARY PERSPECTIVES

DISCIPLINARY APPROACH

GROUNDED RESEARCH

EVENT STUDIES

REFLECTIVE PROFESSIONAL PRACTICE

Figure 17.1  Sources for Creating Knowledge and Doing Research in Event Studies

Research and Knowledge Creation for Event Studies and mixed methods, which has greatly expanded the scope of Event Studies and its contributions back to the foundation disciplines and other fields. Pernecky (2023) has examined the alternatives and pointed to the postdisciplinary approach as being by far the most contentious because it is based on abolishing disciplinary knowledge. This approach is found in the creation of new focal points of research and theory building, such as gender studies, that are not rooted in any one discipline. The idea is to examine the phenomenon in question, as opposed to being constrained by the methods or modes of inquiry that a disciplinary approach uses. In the context of re-examining the co-creation concept for events, Pernecky (2023) made the following argument against reliance on traditional methodologies: Despite their place and use in disciplinary lines of inquiry, they are often inadequate for comprehending changeable and complex webs of relation. Postdisciplinary approaches to knowledge seek to overcome these limitations by promoting disciplinary flexibility and methodological freedom to think anew: to think creatively, out of the box, and even disobediently.

Philosophy and Knowledge What is knowledge? How do we know anything? These questions are at the heart of epistemology, methodology, and ontology. Disciplines have their own perspectives on ways to conduct research, often reflected in one or more research paradigms. Science and the pursuit of knowledge are not the same. Scientific method is all about a prescribed process and theory building, whereas knowledge can be developed from original thinking (creativity), synthesis (reflective thought by informed, wise people), and serendipity (unplanned discovery). In this section, a number of important terms and concepts are examined so that event researchers will understand where their work fits into the bigger picture of science and knowledge creation. It will become clear that there is a lot of disagreement about the very meaning or usefulness of science and scientific method. Philosophy of science consists of the philosophical foundations, assumptions, and implications of natural and social sciences. It seeks to explain such things as the nature of scientific statements and concepts, and the formulation and use of the scientific method. Epistemology specifically deals with knowledge, the relationships between the knower and that which is to be known, and the justification of knowledge claims. Modern science is dominated by empiricists who believe that all knowledge is ultimately derived from some experience that requires research and analysis. Adapting Tribe’s (1997, 639) approach to tourism studies, the epistemology of Event Studies should be concerned with creating knowledge about planned events, the sources of such knowledge, the validity and reliability of claims of knowledge, the use of concepts, the boundaries of Event Studies, and the categorisation of Event Studies as a discipline or field. If we limit Event Studies to the use of scientific methods, we will miss out on large parts of the world of planned events that are not scientifically quantifiable. Event Studies needs greater epistemological breadth, encompassing philosophical, moral, aesthetic, historical, and sociological inquiry and discourse. Ontology is a branch of philosophy concerning the origins, essence, and meaning of being, or what it means to exist. It can also be defined as dealing with conceptualisations of reality. In research, ontology usually refers to how knowledge is represented, and the vocabulary being used to describe it. In the social sciences, there are four main ontological approaches. Realism is based on the idea that the truth is out there, or that researchers can indeed discover facts and

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Research and Knowledge Creation for Event Studies establish a true picture of reality. For example, marketing researchers might believe they can determine exactly who prefers certain types of events, and why. This leads to empirical research, and it can be said that empiricism entails making observations about the real world, which can be evaluated in relation to facts. Empiricism is what separates science from philosophy or theology. Positivism is the scientific approach most associated with experimentation, quantitative techniques, and the assumption that researchers are discovering the truth. The fourth ontological approach, post-modernism, rejects the notion that we discover the truth through empiricism, and proclaims that every observation or measurement is open to interpretation.

Discourse and Critical Discourse Discourse can be narrowly defined as a conversation, or in a more formalised way as a rule-based dialogue among parties. An event can be interpreted as a discourse, or forum for discourses, with Crespi-Vallbona and Richards (2007) viewing festivals as “arenas of discourse enabling people to express their views on wider cultural, social and political issues”. Foucault (1969) saw discourse as a system of ideas or knowledge, with its own vocabulary. This can result in the power to monopolise communications and debate, and to enforce particular points of view. Following the arguments of Foucault, we can view discourse as a system, or structured line of reasoning, ideas, and approaches to knowledge creation, including theory development and practical applications. Meaning is assigned within a discourse, based on researchers’ values, so that the language and concepts define and delimit what is legitimate or expected of those contributing to it. In academic and political discourse some understandings can be marginalised or ignored completely. For example, Tribe (2004, 57) argued that “the business discourse” in tourism has “some coherence and structure, and a framework of theories and concepts (borrowed from the field of business studies)”, and that tourism studies tends to crystallise around this interdisciplinary approach. Translated into the subject of this book, the business discourse becomes event tourism and is also applicable to the profession of event management. Discourse on any subject, such as a political process for determining support for cultural festivals, involves two-way or multi-stakeholder communications, with the aim of ensuring mutual understanding. It is a rule-based process in which arguments are evaluated for their validity, and it facilitates shared decision-making or consensus-building. Stating one’s opinion is not discourse, nor is propaganda and advertising. Argument without rules is not discourse. Allowing statements to be made that cannot be verified as fact or source violates the principles of discourse.

Proof and evidence As covered within the context of evaluation and impact assessment, the nature of the evidence is a critical point. Often it will be a social construct, which is an agreed-upon set of measures and methods (including key performance and impact indicators) by stakeholders in the evaluation process. These are ideally formulated within logic or theory of change models. Those inclined towards extrinsic valuation, as with the economics of event tourism, usually want quantifiables, often expressed in monetary terms, while those more interested in social and cultural goals and impacts might very well accept the voices of people as valid evidence. These voices can be in the form of opinions, stories, attitudes, and arguments.

Research and Knowledge Creation for Event Studies In terms of theory building, accumulating evidence will have to be subjected to meta-analysis, and that requires the use of standardised methods and measures. Meta-analysis involves statistical analysis of many studies that explore the same phenomenon, and it is the gold standard in medicine and drug testing. To date, we have seen limited scope for this methodology in Event Studies because of a lack of standardisation.

Research Methodologies and Methods Each discipline has its traditional and favoured methodologies, but they are not rigidly applied. In contemporary academics, inter-, multi- or trans-disciplinary research is often preferred, using mixed methods, while postmodernists and critical theorists will reject all notions of the right way to do research or build theory. Methods are the ways in which research is done, or actions accomplished. The traditional separation of quantitative and qualitative methods still holds, but as mentioned above, mixed methods are often preferred, and more revealing.

Research Purposes and Methods Veal (2006, 3) provided a typology of research from the perspective of its purpose or utility, and examples can be found throughout this book. Exploratory or descriptive research seeks to uncover facts or describe a situation. This simplest type of research is commonplace in emerging fields and might consist of inventories, mapping, and classifications of events, case histories, profiles of event organisations, or compilations of facts about policies and regulations affecting the event sector. A trend analysis of demand for events is descriptive, whereas an analysis of factors causing the trend is explanatory. Explanatory research seeks understanding. In a positivist tradition, there is often an assumption of cause and effect, such as the growth in demand for entertainment events is explained by the rise of disposable incomes enabling more people to engage in hedonistic pursuits. If we can explain why something happens, then a predictive model should be possible. Evaluative research is essential in event management and in policy development. As discussed in the context of a systems model, internal evaluation of an organisation’s effectiveness (in attaining goals) and efficiency (the best use of its resources) is the responsibility of management. External evaluation is conducted by stakeholders who want to know if their investment or support for the event has been worthwhile, or for stakeholders and experts to examine the impacts of events. Theory of change models can be used for evaluation and theory building, with each iteration of the model (incorporating feedback and revisions, new goals, and action pathways) contributing to a better understanding of reality (i.e., theory development). Quantitative methods are associated with positivism, and qualitative with interpretivism, but there is absolutely no reason why both cannot be combined in any given piece of event-related research or evaluation. The difference is not one of good technique, but of what you need to know and how best to find it out. Often an exploratory, qualitative stage, using focus groups, interviews, and observation, precedes a more quantitative stage. Qualitative methods generally do not attempt a numerical analysis and are more focused on ­discovering people’s attitudes, feelings, motives, or perhaps meanings attached to an event experience. Often the numbers of respondents involved are small, as the appropriate methods

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Research and Knowledge Creation for Event Studies (e.g., participant observation, interviews, focus groups) are time-consuming. Of special interest might be the interactions between people in a focus group setting, which need to be recorded and later interpreted, or perhaps the language used by people in a self-reporting situation. Grounded Research (Glaser and Strauss, 1967), also known as grounded theory, is a methodological approach that emphasises inductive reasoning, data collection, and analysis. The basic idea is to generate theories from empirical data, starting with either a question or some qualitative data – not with a theory or disciplinary methodology. In three stages, data are coded and categorised, and emergent theory is identified and explored. Grounded research emphasises the importance of context and the subjective experiences of individuals. There is potential to contribute to Event Studies, but so far this challenging methodology has been used infrequently (see: Biaett, 2013; Sun et al., 2019; Werner et al., 2020).

Review of Review Articles Periodic reviews of the event-specific literature have been published, each of which provides insights into the development of the field and its three main discourses. This supplements the discussion in Chapter 1 of how the field of Event Studies has evolved, but in this section we are particularly interested in the maturing of research and theory development, with a view to establishing a research agenda. Table 17.1 summarises the available articles, most being from accessible journals, while a few are from book chapters and conference proceedings. In the fourth edition of this book, more detail was provided in each review, whereas in this edition the focus is on the topical summary. Most of these reviews pertain to planned events in general, and a minority are specific to either festivals or business events. Sports have been rather neglected, in terms of systematic reviews. The reviews have concentrated on published journal articles in English, and while that is somewhat of a limitation, it does accurately reflect the research and theory development dimensions of Event Studies while omitting the wisdom of book and chapter authors. The obvious limitation is that other languages are not included. Collectively these reviews shed light on the nature and evolution of Event Studies, specifying research topics and methods employed, with most authors also identifying perceived gaps and desired lines of research. Unfortunately, there has been little attention given in these reviews to the theories being used in Event Studies, although the identified research gaps and recommended research topics and methods do suggest avenues of theory development. There were very few articles specific to events published before 1993, as that year saw the establishment of the journal Festival Management and Event Tourism (renamed to Event Management in 1999). The first review articles were therefore published in the 1990s. Since the year 2000, there has been a documented surge in event-specific articles in both event-specific journals and elsewhere. The most recent reviews bring us up to literature published in 2022, although in this fifth edition of Event Studies, you will find many citations of books and articles from the first third of 2023. As with new academic fields, the early years were marked by a great number of descriptive studies, as well as quantitative papers with data collection by surveys from single events. A clear trend is evident towards more qualitative and mixed methods, and greater diversity in the underlying research paradigms and theories informing research.

Research and Knowledge Creation for Event Studies Table 17.1  List of Review Articles Specific to Event Studies Formica, S. (1998). The development of festivals and special events studies. Festival Management and Event Tourism, 5 (3), 131–137. – reviewed 83 articles from three tourism journals plus FMET/Event Management, covering 1970–1996 Carlsen, J. (1999). A review of MICE industry evaluation and research in Asia and Australia 1988–1998. Journal of Convention and Exhibition Management, 1 (4), 51–67. – Australia and Asia; 1988–1998 (unspecified literature review) Getz, D. (2000). Developing a research agenda for the event management field. In J. Allen, et al. (eds), Events Beyond 2000: Setting the Agenda, Proceedings of Conference on Event Evaluation, Research and Education, pp. 10–21. Sydney: Australian Centre for Event Management, University of Technology, Sydney. (https://opus.lib.uts.edu.au/ handle/2100/430) – reviewed all FMET/Event Management articles from 1993 (issue 1) through Vol 6(2) Harris, R., Jago, L., Allen, J., & Huyskens, M. (2000). A rear-view mirror and a crystal ball: Past, present and future perspectives on event research in Australia. In J. Allen, et al. (eds), Events Beyond 2000: Setting the Agenda, proceedings of conference on event evaluation, research and education, pp. 10–21. Sydney: Australian Centre for Event Management, University of Technology (https://opus.lib.uts.edu.au/handle/2100/430) – Also see: Harris, R., Jago, L., Allen, J., & Huyskens, M. (2001). Towards an Australian event research agenda: First steps. Event Management, 6 (4), 213–221. – review of publications listed in event-specific bibliographies, up to 2000; obtained input from three stakeholder groups Hede, A., Jago, L., & Deery, M. (2002). Special event research 1990–2001: Key trends and issues. In Events and Place Marketing, Proceedings of the Australian Conference for Event Management, Sydney, pp. 335–338. Sydney: University of Technology. – reviewed 150 articles from 1990 to 2001 from 13 journals in leisure, tourism, hospitality, and Event Studies plus conference proceedings Yoo, J., & Weber, K. (2005). Progress in convention tourism research. Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Research, 29 (2), 194–222. – reviewed 115 articles about convention tourism, 1983–2003 Lee, M. J., & Back, K. J. (2005). A review of convention and meeting management research 1990–2003: Identification of statistical methods and subject areas. Journal of Convention and Event Tourism, 7, 1–20. – reviewed 137 articles from 14 journals, 1990–2003, on conventions & meetings Sherwood, P. (2007). A Triple Bottom Line Evaluation of the Impact of Special Events: The Development of Indicators. Unpublished Doctoral Dissertation, Victoria University, Melbourne. Online: vuir.vu.edu.au/1440/ – reviewed 224 publications on evaluation and impact assessment plus 85 reports Getz, D. (2008). Event tourism: Definition, evolution, and research. Tourism Management, 29 (3), 403–428. – reviewed previously published reviews (continued)

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Research and Knowledge Creation for Event Studies Table 17.1  Continued Getz, D. (2010). The nature and scope of festival studies. International Journal of Event Management Research, 5 (1). Available online from: Academia.edu – reviewed 423 articles on festivals up to early 2009; derived from a systematic bibliographic search, plus 100% coverage of 17 journals Page, S. J., & Connell, J. (eds.) (2012). Routledge Handbook of Events. London: Routledge. – the editors referred to contents of the Handbook plus previous reviews Mair, J. (2012). A review of business events literature. Event Management, 16 (2), 133–141 – reviewed 144 articles on business events, 2000–2009 Mair, J., & Whitford, M. (2013). An exploration of events research: Event topics, themes and emerging trends. International Journal of Event and Festival Management, 4 (1), 6–30. – a literature review generated a list of articles to discern research themes; a panel of experts responded to an online survey using Q-sort Kim, J., Boo, S., & Kim, Y. (2013). Patterns and trends in event tourism study topics over 30 years. International Journal of Event and Festival Management, 4 (1), 66–83. – reviewed 178 papers from three leading tourism journals, 1980–2010 Lee, M. J., & Lee, S. (2014). Subject areas and future research agendas in exhibition research: visitors’ and organizers’ perspectives. Event Management, 18 (3), 377–386. – reviewed 55 studies on exhibition research from journals and conference proceedings, 1991–2011 Parent, M., & Chappelet, J.-L. (2015). Conclusions and future directions for sport event management scholarship. In Parent and Chappelet (eds), The Routledge Handbook of Sports Event Management, pp. 419–429. London: Routledge. – comments made in light of articles in the Handbook (this collection takes a stakeholder perspective on sport events) Crowther, P., Bostock, J., & Perry, J. (2015). Review of established methods in event research. Event Management, 19, 93–107. – reviewed 165 selected articles (based on citations) from 6 event-specific and 15 other journals, for a 16-year period up to 2013 Getz, D., & Page, S. J. (2016). Progress and prospects for event tourism research. Tourism Management, 52, 593–631. – updated the literature review from the 2008 Getz article to 2015 Wilson, J., Arshed, N., Shaw, E., & Pret, T. (2017). Expanding the domain of festival research: A review and research agenda. International Journal of Management Reviews, February 2017 – review of festivals research up to 2015; 160 articles covered, the earliest from 1978 Park, B., & Park, K. (2017). Thematic trends in event management research. International Journal of Contemporary Hospitality Management, 29 (3), 848–861. – reviewed 463 articles, 1998–2013, from four event-specific journals & 78 articles from other journals Kim, Y.-H., & Kaewnuch, K. (2018). Finding the gaps in event management research: A descriptive meta-analysis. Event Management, 22, 453–467. – reviewed 302 papers from four event-specific journals covering 2003–2012 (continued)

Research and Knowledge Creation for Event Studies Table 17.1  Continued Draper, J., Young, L., & Fenich, G. (2018). Event management research over the past 12 years: What are the current trends in research methods, data collection, data analysis procedures, and event types? Journal of Convention & Event Tourism, 19 (1), 3–24. – reviewed 890 articles; most (69.1%) were from the event-related journals; 22.5% were in the top tourism journals and 8.4% in the top hospitality journals (covering 2004–2016) Gouthro, M., & Fox, D. (2019) Methodological approaches to festival research. In J. Mair (ed), The Routledge Handbook of Festivals, pp. 12–21. – reviewed 159 articles on festivals from 2012 to 2016, from 39 journals Yeung, E., & Thomas, R. (2021). The ‘long tail’ of event management research: evidence from the field’s main journals. Journal of Policy Research in Tourism, Leisure and Events, 1–8. – reviewed 861 papers from four journals for the period 2009–2019 John Armbrecht, Erik Lundberg, Tommy D. Andersson, & Reidar J. Mykletun (2021). 20 years of Nordic event and festival research: A review and future research agenda. Scandinavian Journal of Hospitality and Tourism, 21 (1), 49–59. A focused review of the Scandinavian contributions Greg Richards, Dianine Censon, Daniela Gračan, Mossa Haressy, Alžbeta Királ´ová, Elena Marulc, Giulia Rossetti, Marina Barkiđija Sotošek, & Davide Sterchele (2022). Event management literature: Exploring the missing body of knowledge. Journal of Policy Research in Tourism, Leisure and Events, 1–22 Singh, R., Sibi, P., & Bashir, A. (2023). The journal of convention and event tourism: A retrospective analysis using bibliometrics. Journal of Convention & Event Tourism. https://doi.org/10.1080/15470148.2022.2150731 Le, T. (2023). Research directions in business events: An evaluation of literature reviews 1996–2019. In C. Arcodia (ed), The Routledge Handbook of Business Events. London: Routledge Duignan, M. B. (2023). Thirty years of events-related research (1992–2022): Published works in Annals Of Tourism Research and Annals Of Tourism Research Empirical Insights. Annals of Tourism Research, 100, 103556 Bazzanella, F., Schnitzer, M., Peters, M., & Bichler, B. (2023). The role of sports events in developing tourism destinations: A systematized review and future research agenda. Journal of Sport & Tourism, 27 (2), 77–109

Summarising the Reviews Review articles only partially explore the evolution of Event Studies, as books and other material are generally omitted. As a supplement, it is suggested that a systematic review be conducted of professional and academic associations and their publications, conference proceedings, technical manuals, published and online expert sources (much of which is opinion based on practical experience), and other inputs. Covering languages other than English will be necessary for a complete overview, but that is a very challenging goal. There will always be a lag in the published literature, as it can take years to get reviews conducted and published, and it does appear that the evolution of the field is accelerating in terms of scope and sophistication. Indicators of this acceleration include the growing number and diversity of books, growth in the number of research articles and journals that accommodate event-themed articles, and the emergence of areas of specialisation (or research themes) such as Critical Event Studies.

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Festivals The Getz review (2010) of festivals was the largest conducted in terms of the number of journals and articles, systematically covering 17 journals and using bibliographic searches to find articles on festivals wherever they had been published. It was a thematic review, first placing analysis into the categories of antecedents, planning/management, experiences, outcomes, patterns and processes, then into three discourses: festival tourism, festival management, and disciplinary perspectives. The following ‘classical’ themes were identified, largely drawing from the anthropological and sociological disciplines and applied to festivals to varying extents: myth, ritual, and symbolism; ceremony and celebration; spectacle; communitas; host-guest interactions (and the role of the stranger); liminality, the carnivalesque, and festivity; authenticity and commodification; pilgrimage; and a considerable amount of political debate over impacts and meanings. Dominating the festival tourism discourse was the assessment of economic impacts, planning and marketing for destinations, and studies of festival tourism motivation and various segmentation approaches. The negative impacts of festivals and festival tourism were identified as a more recent line of research. A number of research gaps were pinpointed, including: cross-case and cross-cultural studies (see Getz, Andersson and Carlsen, 2010); whole populations of festivals; longitudinal research; experiences or the meanings attached to them; phenomenological (hermeneutics) and experiential assessment; both experimental and participant observation techniques; using environmental psychology theory; and choice modelling. Greater interdisciplinarity in theory development was needed. As well, Getz concluded that the three discourses do not generally inform each other, and cross-over research is rare. Wilson et al. (2017) found the dominant themes in the literature to be motivation, experience, place, impacts, and the management of festivals. They noted increasing attention to qualitative and mixed methods. The authors called for more longitudinal research, paradigmatic diversity, and theory building drawing from social sciences. More testing and refinement of scales (e.g., social impact) was said to be needed. Wilson et al. developed a graphic model for explaining their research agenda, containing four themes: pre-festival; partnerships; resources; and processes in staging festivals. Gouthro and Fox (2019) searched the literature on festivals and found that 33 countries were covered in published articles. They noted the dominance of quantitative methods, particularly using surveys to gather data, but showed that qualitative methods are receiving greater acceptance. Some of the pioneering methods being used reflect the trend to incorporate mixed methods in research projects, including elicitation of memories about festival experiences, personal meaning mapping, having respondents write empathy-based stories, role-playing, focus groups, and netnography pertaining to online communications about events. As to challenges for festival research, Gouthro and Fox pointed to the requirements for data protection, especially in relation to ‘big data’, and discussed the ethics of research - as this is an issue of increasing concern both to academics and the participants. They also raised concerns about how the academic community may be influenced by the demands of governmental monitoring and measurements.

Sports More thorough reviews of the sport event literature are definitely needed, as it tends to be a sub-theme within sport management, and is only a major theme in the journal Sport and Tourism. Many research articles published in tourism, hospitality, sport, leisure, and event-specific journals pertain to sport events, so the issues cross over many perspectives. There is no argument with the fact that large-scale, international sport events (i.e., mega-events) have attracted the most attention, with Olympics-related research arguably being a distinct sub-field. Parent

Research and Knowledge Creation for Event Studies and Chappelet (2015) based their comments on the contents of the Routledge Handbook of Sports Event Management, concluding that more attention is needed by researchers on smallscale and community sport events. They called for more critical approaches and argued that a greater diversity of theoretical lenses should be employed. That Handbook adopted a stakeholder perspective, so is somewhat limited in its coverage. Gibson (2017) discussed theory development for sport tourism, much of which applies to Event Studies. She noted (p. 154), Concepts such as leverage (Chalip, 2004), applications of Turner’s (1969) t­heory of ritual process in the form of the social leveraging of communitas (Chalip, 2006), and more recently the concept of the event portfolio (Ziakas, 2010; Ziakas & Costa, 2011) have been used to build knowledge with a particular focus on events and ­maximizing the outcomes of events by changing the mindset from ‘impact’ to a ­process of maximization of benefit, or what has come to be known as event leverage (Chalip, 2004). Getz (2008) with an application of serious leisure (Stebbins, 1982 – leisure studies) and the travel career ladder/pattern (Pearce, 1988; Pearce & Lee, 2005 – tourism studies) proposed the idea of an event travel career which has subsequently been used to understand participation in active sport tourism contexts (e.g. Buning & Gibson, 2015; Getz & Anderson, 2010; Getz & McConnell, 2011). One glaring need identified by Gibson (2017) was research on women’s experiences, for which a feminist perspective would be informative. Gammon et al. (2017, 69–70) also commented on sport tourism theory: Whilst inter-disciplinarity is a key feature of sport, tourism and sport tourism research, what is lacking is any significant evidence of theoretical reciprocity from those situated within business schools (e.g., economist, marketing and management scholars), the humanities (geographers and historians) or the social sciences (e.g., psychologists, sociologist, anthropologists). Gammon also argued that the field of sport tourism has been slow to develop because theories have not been used to reveal something new about the field – a caveat that is certainly applicable to Event Studies in general. Theories from outside the field should be adapted or augmented, and in turn that will contribute to a wider understanding of behaviour and experiences. The most recent and thorough review of sport events was published by Bazzanella et al. (2023), revealing major themes in the research literature: risks; characteristics and attributes of sport events; brand; image; hosting; impacts, and legacy. Mega-events tend to dominate. The authors called for more research on sustainability efforts, using sport events to transform destinations into attractions, the event tourism experience from different stakeholder perspectives, and media technology to enhance experiences. New methods and metrics are needed for small and mediumsized events. The links between event image and destination image should be examined in different contexts, and project management was almost completely absent from the literature.

Business events The MICE sector (Meetings, Incentives, Conferences and Exhibitions – or Events) has been a focal area for many researchers and academically tends to be tied mostly to hospitality and tourism studies. Mair (2012), however, noted that the I in MICE, usually standing for incentive travel, has mostly been ignored by researchers. It should also be remembered that the Journal

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Research and Knowledge Creation for Event Studies Festival Management and Event Tourism excluded business event papers by editorial policy through five volumes, and only in 2000 – with the new name Event Management – did it seek to include all types of planned events. Carlsen’s review (1999) was confined to Asia and Australia. The literature he canvassed was heavily oriented towards economic impact studies, leading Carlsen to propose a more comprehensive research agenda. Subsequent reviews of business event research by Yoo and Weber (2005) and Lee and Back (2005) were more comprehensive. Yoo and Weber determined that marketing and consumer behaviour topics dominated, with a focus on meeting planners. Event administration and strategy were other important topics. Those authors said there is a need for more conceptual pieces and a triple-bottom-line approach to impacts. Lee and Back noted that descriptive research had dominated, and major themes in the literature were site selection by associations, destination marketing, and economic impacts. Mair (2012) observed a lack of rigour in business event research and lamented there has been little research on social or environmental impacts. One review of exhibition-related research was conducted by Lee and Lee (2014). They noted that most research was conducted on trade shows, focusing on exhibitors and organisers, as opposed to consumer shows. Four themes were assessed: motives to attend; the role of visitors in the buying centre; service marketing, and site selection criteria. Lee and Lee proclaimed the need for more research on visitors and their perceptions of exhibition quality. In the Routledge Handbook of Business Events (2023), Le’s review suggests the need for theoretical development in the study of business events. He noted an increasing interest in exhibitions, including site selection and design to improve visitor experiences. Planning, evaluation, and technology are contemporary themes of note, and in particular, Le pointed out the rise of hybrid and virtual events resulting from the pandemic. These trends might result in changes to consumer behaviour, with implications for destinations.

Event tourism The reviews by Getz (2008) and Getz and Page (2016) covered the event tourism research literature in-depth – conceptually, chronologically, and thematically. Getz (2008) identified key research questions and related, possible methods. The literature review was updated and expanded by Getz and Page (2016) who utilised the framework for understanding and creating knowledge about events. Particular attention was given to established research themes and concepts, constraining and propelling forces, ontological advances, contributions from key journals, and emerging themes and issues. This review presented a roadmap for research activity in event tourism and the research questions have been incorporated in this chapter. A separate review by Kim, Boo, and Kim (2013) observed that event tourism articles were dominated by the impact of international scale sport events, but increased interest was noted in participants, residents, and event tourists. Those authors called for more attention to behavioural and psychological factors of event tourism, and for non-economic impact studies. Duignan (2023) reviewed articles published in the Annals of Tourism Research and its companion research journal. Trends were documented, such as a pronounced shift from the early emphasis on economic impacts, marketing, and motivations to attend events, through a growing focus on social impacts and benefits, to a more recent theme on events as platforms for social critique and protest. Duignan stressed that events have become central to the experience economy, and research on events contributes to theory development in tourism and other fields because they are unique organisations and occur in diverse spaces.

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Pandemic-Specific Review Pandemic-related research began quickly in 2020, as it was obvious that major disruption was occurring, with potentially long-lasting structural changes. The researchers could build upon previous work concerning SARS, but SARS was internationally a minor disruption and 2020 introduced a worst-case scenario. Many publications were already available in early 2023, and no doubt more will come. As argued elsewhere in this book, researchers need to look at a number of potential structural impacts, including effects on the event population (how many failures occurred, were new events created?), funding (have government policies and corporate sponsorships changed?), consumer demand and behaviour (have preferences and patterns changed?) and the nature of event experiences (especially related to virtual and hybrid events). A review of literature by Seraphin (2021) found that most of the early Covid-related publications were not specifically about events, while in the tourism literature there were many. That review identified two themes, the first on negative impacts, most of which have been obvious, and the second on opportunities. What could be the positive outcomes? Re-consideration of how things work or do not work (e.g., why events and organisations failed), determining the best methods of resilience planning, or identifying new education and training needs and methods might emerge.

Selected References on the Pandemic and Events A special issue of Leisure Sciences: An Interdisciplinary Journal (Volume 43, 2021, Issue 1–2) addressed a range of pandemic-related issues, with one article on festivals by Davies, who examined the potential for an economic paradigm shift. Antchak, V., Gorchakova, V., & Rossetti, G. (2022). The value of events in times of uncertainty: Insights from balcony performances in Italy during the COVID-19 lockdown. Annals of Leisure Research, 1–18. Budimulia, S., & Ong, F. (2022). The impacts of event cancellation on social movements. Journal of Policy Research in Tourism, Leisure and Event, 15 (2), 254–271. Coles, T., Garcia, G., O’Malley, E., & Turner, C. (2022). Experiencing event management during the coronavirus pandemic: A public sector perspective. Frontiers in Sports & Active Living, 3, 814146. https://doi.org/10.3389/fspor.2021.814146. Davies, K. (2021). Festivals post Covid-1. Leisure Sciences, 43 (1–2), 184–189. Estanyol, E. (2022). Traditional festivals and COVID-19: Event management and digitalization in times of physical distancing. Event Management, 26 (3), 647–659. Helsen, K., Derom, I., Corthouts, J., De Bosscher, V., Willem, A., & Scheerder, J. (2022). Participatory sport events in times of Covid-19: Analysing the (virtual) sport behaviour of event participants. European Sport Management Quarterly, 22 (1), 35–54. Subramaniam, P. (2022). Festival and event tourism: Building resilience and promoting sustainability challenges and opportunities in a post-covid-19 environment. In Mohanty, Priyakrushna, Anukrati Sharma, James Kennell, & Azizul Hassan (eds), The Emerald Handbook of Destination Recovery in Tourism and Hospitality, pp. 497–507. Leeds: Emerald. Teevan, D. (2021). Online and on land: An examination of Irish arts festivals’ response to Covid-19. Irish Journal of Arts Management & Cultural Policy, 8 (1), 133–157. Thibaut, E., Constandt, B., Bosscher, V., Willem, A., Ricour, M., & Scheerder, J. (2022). Sports participation during a lockdown. How COVID-19 changed the sports frequency and motivation of participants in club, event, and online sports, Leisure Studies, 41 (4), 457–470.

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E X P E R T O P I N I O N 1 7 . 1 :   By Dr. Sandra Goh Event Sector Recovery in New Zealand Sandra is a Tourism & Event Senior Lecturer; Programme Leader, and Bachelor of Arts in Event Management, at School of Hospitality & Tourism, Auckland University of Technology. While things in New Zealand may look like they are back to normal after the travel restriction was lifted in September 2022 (see Plate 17.1), the impact of the pandemic and ongoing challenges with climate change calls for a new strategy from the government and event organisers to remain sustainable. A Delphi study conducted with event experts revealed that jobs lost in the event environment were more than in other industries. This affects the supply chain of events bringing about a shortage of labour and forcing the shutdown of smaller companies that were unable to withstand the impact of the pandemic. The loss of labour was seen by the exit of event talent, as organisations restructured to remain viable. Higher operating costs are expected as the services of event specialists become available under the operation of fewer competitors. Condé Nast Traveler (2022) named Auckland, New Zealand one of the best places to visit in 2023 because of an eventful year. Many of these events were postponed due

Plate 17.1  Ed Sheeran’s Mathematics Tour in Eden Park, Auckland, New Zealand, February 10, 2023. The Singer-Songwriter Performed to a Packed Stadium of Audience Without Masks Photo Credit:  Sandra Goh

Research and Knowledge Creation for Event Studies to the lockdown and received funding that was granted pre-Covid. However, funding for events under the New Zealand Government’s national tourism recovery is limited. To compete for visitors post-Covid, competition for international events is keener than ever between countries that depend on events to boost their economies. Bidding for international events requires a big budget. To compete on a more sustainable means, New Zealand business experts and the government urged the private sector to build on homegrown events instead of international events. Among the suggestions are fresh ideas to attract visitors (Williams, 2022). On a more positive note, Tourism New Zealand and Auckland Convention Bureau seem to be heading in the right direction in terms of wooing international business visitors to New Zealand with the support of industry leaders and academics. Tourism New Zealand’s Conference Assistance Programme is available to any association or organisation, including universities, that wants to bid to host an international conference in New  Zealand with a minimum of 200 international delegates (TTGmice, 2022). With this strategy, bidding for the right event is just as important as getting the tourist traffic through to New Zealand. For example, a host destination for a Rotary International Convention in 2024 would expect 25,000 delegates (Mui, 2017). Even after the pandemic, New Zealand is witnessing new challenges with climate change. A recent study (Frame et al., 2020) found that $140M of the total $470M in damages from the 12 worst flood events in New Zealand over the period 2007–2017 were directly attributable to climate change. Elton John’s final show in Auckland was cancelled less than half an hour before he was set to take to the stage as torrential rain wreaked havoc across Auckland in January 2023. Moving forward, change is necessary to bring about transformation within the event economy without compromising on event risk management. The debate continues on whether events should be offered under a hybrid model – to allow both in-person and virtual experiences.

References Condé Nast Traveler (2022, November 29). The 23 Best Places to Go in 2023. Available from: https://www.cntraveler.com/story/best-places-to-go-in-2023 Frame, D. J., Rosier, S. M., Noy, I., Harrington, L. J., Carey-Smith, T., Sparrow, S. N., ... & Dean, S. M. (2020). Climate change attribution and the economic costs of extreme weather events: a study on damages from extreme rainfall and drought. Climatic Change, 162, 781–797. Mui, R. (2017, November 28). Singapore wins bid to host Rotary International Convention 2024, its largest-ever association congress. Singapore: The Straits Times. https:// www.straitstimes.com/business/companies-markets/singapore-wins-bid-to-­hostrotary-international-convention-2024-its TTGmice: https://www.ttgmice.com/2022/ Williams, A. (2022, November 9). Fears Tātaki Auckland Unlimited’s Funding Shortfall Will Lead to Uneventful Times for City. Available from: https://www.rnz.co.nz/ news/national/478352/fears-tataki-auckland-unlimited-s-funding-shortfall-will-leadto-­uneventful-times-for-city

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Research Agenda and Major Challenges This section is shaped by our framework for knowledge creation (Figure 1.3), starting with the core of planned events and event experiences and followed by antecedents, planning and management, outcomes and the impacts, and finally patterns and processes. The research agenda builds on those published in previous editions of Event Studies by incorporating ideas from review articles and our own coverage of the literature. Themes and questions remain important over a long time period, but new ones do keep appearing. Suggested theoretical foundations can apply to more than one of these agendas. New theoretical perspectives and methods also keep appearing, and that is definitely a good sign for the advancement of Event Studies.

Event Experiences and Meanings This is the core of Event Studies and therefore demands constant attention from researchers and theorists. The core separates Event Studies from other fields, but also brings several closely related fields to the table. According to Borrie and Birzell (2001), there have been four common approaches to studying visitor experiences, namely, a focus on satisfaction, benefits, experiences, and meanings. The satisfaction approach is really about using surrogate measures, as it asks if people were satisfied with their experiences – not what those experiences were or what they meant. Expectation-confirmation theory lies at the heart of this line of research, recognising that many event attendees (but not all) will have expectations of quality and experiences, and these are shaped by both past experience, marketing, and other personal or cultural antecedents. An alternative is to indirectly measure satisfaction through observation or technology that permits the monitoring of what people do and where they go – leading to conclusions about what appealed to them and what did not (e.g., hot and cold spots). The literature on services marketing has informed many event-specific studies, the more sophisticated of which employ techniques like importance-performance, service mapping, and technology-based tracking. In line with the generic marketing literature, many papers have been published linking satisfaction with antecedents (i.e., motivations, expectations, involvement, demographics, past event experiences, and lifestyle) with quality perceptions and forward to future intentions (i.e., loyalty, repeat visits, personal recommendations). Structural equation modelling has been a favourite tool, but it has to be remembered that this does not develop new theory, it serves to confirm hypotheses that must emerge from theory. The benefits approach asks respondents to indicate their level of agreement with statements regarding the benefits they might have received, such as escaping, relaxing, learning, etc. It is similar to asking about motivations to attend an event. A priority here is examining and comparing motives/benefits at all types of events, in different cultures and settings. Leisure researchers have paid particular attention to benefits, partly to justify leisure services by demonstrating the personal, social, and cultural benefits – and this leads to the issue of how events might be transforming experiences, or to consideration of cumulative impacts. We can also observe this line of research in recent work on event experiences and quality of life, but mostly it is manifested in comprehensive impact assessments that take into account different stakeholders and value perspectives. Asking “what is the value or worth of this event” brings benefits and meanings to the fore. Experience-based methods involve reporting on thoughts, feelings, or moods during daily life, a trip, or event. Phenomenological approaches should be a top priority in Event Studies, particularly for gaining a better theoretical understanding of immediate conscious experience. Experiential sampling and the various forms of experience and meaning mapping should be utilised in a variety of event circumstances. Autoethnographic methods have emerged as a way

Research and Knowledge Creation for Event Studies to explore the meanings of experiences. A big question for theorists has been to ask how events can be a transforming experience for attendees and other participants, and that links to involvement, engagement, and meanings. A meanings-based approach requires deep insights obtained through participant observation or interviews, or the application of hermeneutic phenomenology wherein life-enriching stories are elicited. We need considerably more research on social and personal constructs of event meanings, and how these vary over time and cross-culturally. Virtual and Hybrid Experiences can no longer be ignored, thanks in large part to the pandemic. Researchers will have to continue looking at possible structural changes in the events and tourism sectors arising from the pandemic, including the event population, how event portfolios are being affected, and changes in consumer behaviour, funding, and sponsorship. As to the experience, there is no doubt that live events offer different, and for many people preferred social experiences and quite possibly better educational experiences. How virtuality can enhance social experiences, especially networking, and provide more and different value propositions to users is a very practical challenge for designers. Technology continues to evolve and offer new opportunities for enhancing event experiences. This is both a research challenge and a very important element in contemporary event design. Obviously, virtual and hybrid event experiences are directly influenced by available technology, and therefore designers will be looking for enhancements. Live events will also be exploiting technology for communications and marketing improvements, direct and live interaction with guests, and augmentation of on-site experiences (Table 17.2).

Antecedents and Choices Motivation to attend events, and for event tourism, has been a well-explored topic, with recent theory development specific to events including a fuller adoption of leisure theory which in turn draws upon social psychology. Consideration of serious leisure, social worlds, ego involvement, identity, and constraint negotiation have informed the Event Travel Career Trajectory. Leisure constraints theory offers considerable scope for examining why some people attend events and others do not. Constraint negotiation applied to intrinsically and extrinsically motivated event attendance should be examined. Economic theories and methods should be applied to gain a better understanding of supply and demand issues that influence event attendance, particularly willingness to pay and pricing. A new issue has emerged, being the option of avoiding live events and attending only virtual events (Table 17.3). This makes some sense in the workplace for meetings and conferences, even exhibitions, but does it have any prospect of taking hold in the realms of celebration and entertainment? Will the metaverse offer some people better choices than live events?

Outcomes and the Impacted An over-emphasis on the economic impacts of events and event tourism impeded comprehensive theory and methodological development for many years. However, growing acceptance of the sustainability and social responsibility paradigm has led to considerable attention to the greening of events, the meanings of sustainability and how to achieve it, the roles of events in sustainable development or sustainable cities, and new methods for social, cultural, and environmental impact assessment. Claims about the economic benefits of mega-events in particular are no longer accepted at face value, largely because of a history of unaccountability, corruption, violations of human rights, flawed methodologies, and a clear bias on the part of advocates towards development at any cost. A more critical examination of costs, b ­ enefits, and their distribution (i.e., the equity issue) is now an essential task for researchers and practitioners.

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Research and Knowledge Creation for Event Studies Table 17.2  Event Experiences and Meanings Themes and Questions

Suggested Theoretical Foundations

Possible Research Methods

Practical Management Challenges

– How do people describe, and assign meaning and value to various event experiences? within each of these dimensions: conative (behaviour); affective (emotional) and cognitive – Describe and explain the formation of personal and social constructs regarding event experiences – How does the level of involvement or engagement affect the event experience? – What makes event experiences memorable and transforming? – How do virtual event experiences compare with live events? – How does ‘communitas’ form at events? Can it be facilitated? – Systematically compare different event experiences (for all stakeholders, from paying customers and guests to the general public, and between types of events, from sport to carnival) – How is quality evaluated?

– leisure Theory (mostly from social psychology) on the nature of leisure experiences (e.g., arousal, flow, and peak experiences); needs satisfaction; serious leisure; motivation; travel careers; social worlds; play – identity Theory: personal and social; involvement – dramaturgy – quality of Life Theory (e.g., happiness; family quality time) – lifestyle Theory (e.g., foodies and fans) – critical theory (e.g., feminist and post-colonial perspectives) – communitas as a dimension of social identity and group behaviour – cognition (perception, learning, memory formation, and recall) – stress theory (e.g., emotions, trauma) – cultural and ­ sub-cultural identity – exchange Theory (economic, social, and symbolic exchanges)

– hermeneutics (analysis of texts; self-reporting) and Phenomenology (e.g., in-depth interviews at events, recollections, and storytelling) – personal or life histories (e.g., how and why athletes get involved); longitudinal – direct and participant observation; netnography; auto-ethnography; attendee tracking; experience mapping – experiential sampling (diary or time-sampling with standard questions); meaning mapping – life-cycle studies, including documentation of convergence of form and function, and the meanings attached to events – cross-case and cross-cultural comparisons – longitudinal studies of persons, families, groups – role-playing and storytelling about experiences – visual representations of experiences; photo elicitation

– monitoring and adapting to possible changes in consumer preferences and behaviour, especially as related to the effects of the pandemic – maximising the potential of technology to augment and enhance experiences – adding new value propositions to virtual event experiences – taking into account cultural differences within societies and between regions and countries – practical measures to ensure engagement and inclusiveness, equality, and relevance for all segments of society

Research and Knowledge Creation for Event Studies Table 17.3  Antecedents and Choices Themes and Questions

Suggested Theoretical Foundations

Possible Research Methods

Practical Management Challenges

– What are the main cultural variables affecting the perceived value and attractiveness of events? of virtual events? – Examine the relative importance and nature of generic versus specific (targeted) needs, motives, and benefits that are sought through different planned event experiences. – Develop marketing implications – Do people believe they ‘need’ events? – How is economic demand for events shaped by price, competition, substitution, policy and other factors? How are event careers developed? – In what ways does ‘serious leisure’ affect events? – What constraints are most important in shaping demand and attendance at different types of events? – How are constraints negotiated for intrinsically and extrinsically motivated event attendance?

– Motivation (intrinsic versus extrinsic; seeking and escaping or push-pull; novelty versus routine) – Needs Hierarchy – Leisure involvement and specialisation; consumption constellations; serious leisure; social worlds; and recreation specialisation – Event Travel Career Trajectory (six hypotheses) – Leisure Constraints – Product involvement and how decisions are made (e.g., routine versus unique)

– General consumer and marketarea demand surveys – Focus groups (within social worlds, clubs, etc.) – Supply demand analyses (measuring opportunity) – In-depth interviews and life histories examining changes over time in motivation and behaviour – Time-budget studies; changes in event-related demand and travel; measure constraints as they evolve – Comparisons among leisure pursuits, types of sport, types of events

– determine and adapt to possible pandemic caused changes in consumer preferences and demand – employ virtuality to expand consumer choices (e.g., timeless online events) – react to economic conditions in terms of pricing and accessibility (e.g., impacts of inflation, supply chain problems, poverty) – develop event portfolios that meet multiple needs (i.e., balance) – cater to specific sub-cultures and interest groups in developing and marketing iconic, destination events

Professionalism is required in the practice of evaluation and impact assessment for events, event portfolios, and event populations. It is essential to build comprehensive evaluation into event organisations, and to work with stakeholders on external evaluation and impact assessment. Professionalism requires theory, skills, and a code of conduct that will augment those of existing event management and event tourism practitioners (Table 17.4). There have been specific and substantial contributions to our understanding of the social and cultural impacts of planned events, but it cannot be said that there is a comprehensive or systematic approach. Anthropologists and sociologists have paid a lot of attention to festivals in particular, and to certain event-related issues, but they have had their own theoretical agendas. Their collective contributions do not constitute sufficient knowledge about the real or potential outcomes of all planned events as agents of change.

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Research and Knowledge Creation for Event Studies Table 17.4  Outcomes and the Impacted Themes and Questions

Theoretical Foundations

Possible Research Methods

Practical Management Challenges

– How do people describe and explain why events are satisfying, memorable, or transforming? – Value perspectives; intrinsic and extrinsic; quantitative versus qualitative approaches – What are the personal and social consequences of negative event experiences? – What performance measures exist and are needed for the social, cultural, and environmental policy domains? – How does exchange theory influence various stakeholder perceptions of event impacts? – How are social representations of events formed? – How does the nature and extent of community involvement influence event success and outcomes? – Under what circumstances are events commodified and authenticity lost, versus traditions renewed and culture revitalised? – How are the benefits and costs of events distributed through the population? – What strategies work best for maximising local economic benefits? – Who are the high-yield event tourists, and how should they be attracted?

– personal and social identity (building and reinforcement of identity through social worlds and events) – kirkpatrick and Kitkpatrick model (experiences leading to attitude and behaviour change) – systems Theory (transforming processes; outputs and outcomes) – FPSIR (forces, pressures, state, impact, and responses) model – theory of Change and Logic Models (as theorybuilding experiments) – cumulative impacts (synergistic and other interactive effects; tipping points; feedback mechanisms; limits of acceptable change)

– reflective – consultation practitioners must and learn from failures consideration and disasters, of diverse whether at planned voices; focus or unplanned groups; events in-depth – planned events interviews; are not universally resident praised or surveys; appreciated; the consumer and negative impacts are social surveys often felt most by – media content the disadvantaged; analysis principles of – stakeholder sustainability and consultations responsibility require – ethnography an equal emphasis – comprehensive on providing cost-benefit benefits to all, and evaluations ensuring none suffer – business as a consequence; surveys Market in this light it is not research possible to justify – environmental mega-events that audits and impose enormous formal impact costs and generate assessments substantial carbon – valuations of emissions worth – evaluation and – logic and impact Theory of assessment Change methods for events Models for have not been planning and used wisely – too evaluation often they have – matrices been used for (specifying hiding costs and the objects exaggerating and subjects imputed benefits; of impact always consider assessment) who stands to gain, – baselines and and who will pay or monitoring of lose changes over time; using key evaluation and impact indicators (continued)

Research and Knowledge Creation for Event Studies Table 17.4  Continued Themes and Questions

Theoretical Foundations

– How can events and event portfolios/ populations be made more environmentally sustainable? – What are the cumulative impacts of an event and events in general, within a community or ecosystem? – What is the value of any given event? – How is uncertainty and risk factored into decisions about events? – Is the Precautionary principle used in practice? – What mitigation policies and actions are taken with regard to events and event tourism, and how effective are they?

– Knowledge: explicit, implicit, and tacit (as the sources of evidence and opinion) – Sustainability (sustainable development criteria versus steady-state sustainability) – Social integration and inclusion; social and cultural capital – Social exchange theory – Ecological Footprint

Possible Research Methods

Practical Management Challenges – what can practitioners contribute to knowledge about the cumulative impacts of events in particular communities, and about the longterm sustainability and resilience of managed event portfolios?

Management, Planning, Design, and Operations Getz (2018, viii) has argued that the application of mainstream management theory has been lagging. There has been a tendency to think of event management as the design and production of events, rather than viewing it as an application of management theory to a field of practice. With the pandemic came a realisation that the entire events sector, along with leisure, tourism, and hospitality, were vulnerable to major disruptions. Resilience, agile management, risk management, security, and health/safety have of necessity come to the fore. A real challenge is to balance competent management, including events as businesses, with design and creativity (Table 17.5).

Patterns and Processes Patterns represent geographical or spatial dimensions, and processes encompass history and policy. The environment in which events and tourism exist is constantly changing. A major gap in theory development remains: what are the dynamics of event populations and managed portfolios, and how can policy and strategy foster sustainability? So little historical and historiographical research has been undertaken on planned events that it is practically an untouched theme. How has the profession of event management evolved, from the earliest times? The Olympics have been over-analysed, but what about other forms of events that have a long lineage? Multi- and cross-cultural studies are essential. Geographical research on planned events has been given a solid foundation by Robert Janiskee (1980, 1985, 1991, 1994, 1996) and a few others, but there has been no consistent

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Research and Knowledge Creation for Event Studies Table 17.5  Management, Planning, Design, and Operations Themes and Questions

Suggested Theoretical Foundations

Possible Research Methods

Practical Management Challenges

– What leadership styles are most effective for different types of events and event settings? – How can creativity and management competency be balanced in the event sector? – What strategies are most effective in achieving event sustainability and institutional status? – Which stakeholder management strategies work best? – Does rational planning and decision-making work better for events than incrementalism or advocacy? Compare onetime and periodic events. – How do various stakeholders perceive and manage the risks associated with events? – What are the potential effects of sensory and emotional stimulation at events? – How can theory from environmental psychology improve event logistics and crowd management? – What are the main determinants of customer satisfaction at events? – What volunteer careers exist in the event sector, and how do they foster commitment and professionalism? – What are the new necessities in ensuring event health and safety, security, and resilience?

– design Theory (co-creation of value; experience design) – portfolio Theory (synergies; management strategies) – population Ecology (dynamics; niche; legitimation) – collaboration Theory – stakeholder Theory – resource Dependency – organisational culture – strategic Planning – competitive Advantages

– case studies and crosscase analysis – historical research – open-system audits – stakeholder mapping – organisational ethnography – surveys of owners and managers – consumer experiments – financial audits and ROI studies – whole population studies (over time)

– defining and implementing a postpandemic “new normal” will be challenging; what exactly does it mean? have lessons been learned about crisis management and event resilience? – continued evaluation of virtual and hybrid experiences is needed in order to refine the design and use technology to the fullest – learn from disasters at planned and unplanned events; security and safety are now paramount issues for planners and managers – rethink event financing in light of the pandemic; a return to basics might be necessary for resilience (i.e., balanced budgets) – consider the nature of risk-taking for your organisation – what is the comfort zone? – were stakeholders lost, gained, or otherwise changed during the pandemic? networks, stakeholder relationships, and guaranteed funding commitments are hallmarks of financial security and resilience – for not-for-profit events, collaboration is a more secure strategy than the competition – who are your best potential friends, allies, and collaborators and how are those relationships managed?

Research and Knowledge Creation for Event Studies spatial-temporal approach. In cities, what has been the distribution and evolution of events, and how are they to be explained? Have resources, culture, or strategy been most responsible for the observable portfolios of events in any given area? When or how does an area or c­ ommunity reach saturation level in terms of the numbers and types of events? How do events interact? What are their cumulative impacts? Some of the answers will assist in event-strategy formulation, policymaking, and marketing. They tie in with the concepts of place marketing and the eventful city, but with the proviso that overtourism is a serious issue in many places (Table 17.6). Table 17.6  Patterns and Processes Themes and Questions

Suggested Theoretical Foundations

Possible Research Methods

Practical Management Challenges

– In what fundamental ways have various types of events evolved, in different cultures? – Do events progress naturally through life cycles? What factors most shape their evolution? – Do communities or destinations reach event saturation (in part related to overtourism)? What explains different patterns of events in time and space? – What are the forces shaping the future of events? Can they be controlled? How do events adapt? – What are the ways in which stakeholders exercise power, and negotiate, to develop events and eventrelated policy? Who gets excluded or marginalised? – How do we know when event policies are effective and efficiently administered? – Which justifications for public involvement in events are supported, and why? – What are the ideological foundations of event policy?

– innovation diffusion – product and destination life cycles – acculturation; demonstration effects (evolutionary perspective on events) – central Place Theory

– document review – interviews with people who shaped history – mapping – delphi panels, Trends analysis, Scenario making, and Policy reviews

– Analyse structural changes caused by the pandemic at the level of single events and event populations and portfolios; relate this environmental scan to strategy for long-term event, portfolio, and population health and resilience – is there a risk of over-supply and resulting overtourism in your area? there are potential problems ahead when supply exceeds demand – monitor the economy closely for indications of future conditions affecting events, and monitor consumer trends carefully for possible shifts – it is particularly important in the post-pandemic era to ensure strong governmental support and funding from all sources – what needs to be done by events collaboratively to ensure a favourable ecosystem?

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Research and Knowledge Creation for Event Studies

Future Perspectives Did the global pandemic change everything? Many people talk of a new normal as if we have put Covid and its variants behind us, and learned everything there is to be learned from the disaster. If there is a new normal, it is one in which we should all be alarmed by the prospect of a­ ccelerating climate change, ongoing wars, mass migration, economic and supply chain problems, poverty, human rights violations, inflation, and recurring diseases. The new normal might be defined by the term permacrisis. Those involved in events understand that people and businesses need the experiences and positive outcomes, therefore event management will continue to be important – perhaps more so. Events meet fundamental human needs, so whatever the challenges and setbacks, the event sector will move forward and in many cases lead the way. That is especially important in terms of environmental sustainability, equality and human rights, and celebration of all things that bring people together peacefully and for the common good. The fourth edition of this book contained a number of propositions about the future of events, and this is a good time to re-visit them, and in some cases make changes. This is an ­exercise in scenario making, part of future studies. That means we could be wrong. Seraphin’s (2021) review confirmed those future propositions, but added two - related to future event ­professionals and their competence in dealing with crises. We agree that these are relevant.

FP 1 (Future proposition 1): Planned, live events, both personal and societal in scale and meaning, will always be a prominent feature of civilisation, in all societies and cultures. Update: Events bounced back as soon as pandemic restrictions were lifted (in some areas prematurely), showing the enduring importance of this sector of society and the economy. Unfortunately, there are more parts of the world where war, repressive regions, poverty, disease, and natural disasters restrict or eliminate the planning of celebrations, sports, and business events. This very constraining trend shows no signs of relenting, and in many cases has been accompanied by protests, riots, and mass migration.



FP 2: Virtual events will gain in frequency and importance in response to advances in global technology, and because of globalisation forces and the costs or risks of travel, but they will be in addition to, and not a substitute for, live event experiences. Update: Hybrid and virtual events are now likely to be a permanent feature, thereby requiring designers to enhance the experience and provide new value propositions. The metaverse is developing with AI and other new technologies that will make virtual and hybrid events more engaging and, perhaps, a preferred choice for some people for some purposes. Strong demand for live events, however, will not be diminished unless circumstances actually impede travel at the local level – if that happens, we will all be going virtual.



FP 3: Corporate influence on the field of planned events will continue to increase, especially in terms of events produced as manifestations of marketing and branding. Update: The nature of experiential marketing has shifted somewhat, with online or metaverse experiences gaining in popularity in the corporate world. Online influencers have become a force shaping demand, and online communities of interest are generating their own travel and event experiences, thereby potentially reducing the power of corporations and travel mediators such as destination marketers.



FP 4: The strategic justifications for public sector involvement with events, especially mega-events ­bearing heavy costs, will be increasingly scrutinised and more difficult to defend, while social, cultural, and environmental justifications will become more acceptable.

Research and Knowledge Creation for Event Studies Update: Slow to change, the International Olympic Committee is finally showing signs of adopting sustainability principles as opposed to its long-standing habit of encouraging excessive competition and extravagant waste. Numerous cities do not want mega-events, and protests against bids are commonplace. Eventually, politicians, proponents, and governing bodies will get the message – sustainability and mega-events are incompatible. Debate on the so-called legacy will shift from promises made (often ignored, and sometimes nothing but bold lies) to planning events as agents of change. In this regard, the emphasis must shift from one-time events to permanent event portfolios.

FP 5: Cities and destinations will become more aggressive and sophisticated in creating and managing portfolios of events for multiple purposes, and in facilitating synergies among events, venues, tourism, and other policy areas. Update: It is not yet clear if the pandemic caused cities and destinations to rethink their event-related strategies. However, the argument that managed portfolios are more resilient has been strengthened by the pandemic, as many inherent weaknesses were revealed in the sector.



FP 6: The event professional of the future will be competent in event management theory and applications, knowledgeable about the importance of events in society, an effective advocate for event-related policy, and a constant learner within the field of Event Studies. Leaders of the future will be adaptable, creative, and devoted to excellence. They will be agile, able to deal effectively with crises, and will foster long-term resilience. Update: These points remain valid. However, the pandemic did cause changes in the nature of work (e.g., working from home, telecommuting and virtual conferencing, parttime versus full) as well as perceptions of what kind of work and working conditions are desirable or acceptable. It remains to be seen how the event sector will adapt, and in particular, whether professionals and volunteers will remain committed. Will student demand remain high? The well-being of volunteers and workers has become a priority. As AI makes many jobs redundant, event-related professions and jobs will remain vital to the economy and the well-being of society. For creators, dreamers, mentors, and experienc designers, the future is yours. Regarding competent business/organisational managers, you will always be needed.



FP 7: Even if travel and tourism collapse, possibly because of the cascading effects of global warming, another energy crisis, war, terrorism, or pandemics, events will still remain important globally because they meet fundamental human needs. Update: We believe this proposition remains valid, however, the event sector will have to continue to adapt, taking a more community-based, bottom-up, and inclusive approach to development and management. If travel becomes impossible, a real prospect in some areas, virtuality will permit people to communicate, celebrate, stay informed, and be entertained. STUDY GUIDE

Before beginning research, it is important to consider a number of philosophical issues regarding the meaning and creation of knowledge, hence a discussion of epistemology, ontology, positivism, and alternative paradigms. Research in Event Studies should not be confined to any particular research paradigm or methodology, rather it should be inclusive and integrative. Positivism, associated with quantitative, scientific methods (including experimentation) has led to substantial theory development in the foundation disciplines, much of which is necessary for Event Studies. Yet the experiential nature of events, and the diverse meanings attached to them, necessitate alternative approaches such as phenomenology, ethnography, and inductive,

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Research and Knowledge Creation for Event Studies grounded research in general. An interpretivist perspective, recognising socially constructed realities, will definitely help progress the field. Research and evaluation purposes and methods were then discussed, revealing the broad range of approaches that can be useful. Throughout the book, examples of many methods have been provided, hopefully making it clear that no particular approach or technique should have pre-eminence. Give some thought to the future propositions, especially as the impacts of the pandemic continue to play out. Where do professional event careers go from here? Are they still attractive and feasible? Think about your own career plans. STUDY QUESTIONS l

Is Event Studies a ‘discipline’, ‘multidisciplinary’, or ‘interdisciplinary’? Why?

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Explain the ways in which knowledge can be created for Event Studies.

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Define these terms and explain how they affect the creation of knowledge: ‘epistemology’; ‘ontology’; ‘positivism’; ‘post-modernism’; and ‘critical theory’.

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Why are ‘theories’ needed in Event Studies? How are they developed?

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Show how ‘deductive’ and ‘inductive’ methodologies are both appropriate in Event Studies.

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What are the main purposes and uses of research and evaluation?

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Give examples of established research methods from foundation disciplines that can be applied in Event Studies. Illustrate ‘quantitative’ and ‘qualitative’ research that has been applied to the study of planned events. Explain ‘phenomenology’ and why it is important in Event Studies. Choose one of the suggested research questions and develop an idea (or a full proposal) for a research project. Critically examine the future propositions and provide an alternative scenario. FURTHER READING

Fox, D., Gouthro, M., Morakabati, Y., & Brackstone, J. (2014). Doing Events Research. From Theory to Practice. London: Routledge. Goodson, L., & Phillimore, J. (eds.) (2004). Qualitative Research in Tourism: Ontologies, Epistemologies and Methodologies. London: Routledge. Tribe, J. (ed.) (2009). Philosophical Issues in Tourism. Bristol: Channel View. Veal, A. (2010). Leisure, Sport and Tourism: Politics, Policy and Planning (3rd ed.). Wallingford: CABI. Veal, A. (2011). Research Methods for Leisure and Tourism: A Practical Guide (4th ed.). Harlow: Prentice Hall. Veal, A., & Burton, C. (2014). Research Methods for Arts and Event Management. Harlow: Pearson. Veal, A., & Darcy, S. (2014). Research Methods in Sport Studies and Sport Management: A Practical Guide. London: Routledge.

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Index

Note: Bold page numbers refer to tables, italic page numbers refer to figures. access 93, 264 accessibility, inclusion, and diversity 12, 29, 83, 262, 307 accident(s) 306; see also risk accountability 48, 176, 203 accreditation 326 action plan 149 activities (and programme ­elements of style) 269 activity or event? 64 adaptability 239, 319 administration 163, 176 advantage: comparative 171, 362; competitive 171–172, 362 advertising see communications; media advice and coordination 142 advocacy 223, 239 aesthetic(s) 70, 111, 183–184, 253, 257, 386 affective: dimension of experiences 69–70, 80; quality of places 265 affordances see setting age dependence 187 ageing, and intergenerational challenges 26 agent(s) of change 165–167, 199, 215, 236–239 agile management (agility) 234, 319; business events 84–87 allies and collaborators 179

analysis 47, 137, 204, 205, 207, 272, 302, 310, 411–412 analytics 302 Andersson, Tommy (Expert Opinion) 210–213, 253 animator role / animation 82, 360–363 antecedents 11, 80; and choices 423, 425; event marketing, and communications 276–303; motivations, and decision-making 15 attitudes 215; and values 278–279; and social marketing 156; defined 279 anthropological exchange theory 382 anthropology (cultural) 381– 382; and experience theory; and communitas 78 arousal 70, 253–254, 265; optimal 80–81 art(s) and entertainment 45, 109–110; exhibits 45; visual 111; see also aesthetics; festival; music artificial intelligence (AI) 85, 111, 218 assembly 261 assessment see evaluation; impact; life-cycle; needs; outcomes; risk

assistance to events 141–142 association(s) 10; and ethics 216; versus corporate events 116; professional, and careers 218–219 athletes 126, 129, 374; see also participants; sport attack 305, 313–314 attendance see constraints; decision-making; demand; motive; tourist; visitor attendee(s) see antecedents; crowd; experience; stakeholder; visitor attitude(s): and social marketing 156; and values 278–279; changing 215 attraction: events as 359, 361–363; gradients 263 attractiveness: and demand 290–291, 361–363; see also motivation attributes: and importanceperformance 273–274; of organisational culture 202; of stakeholders 178–179 attribution problem see direct economic contribution; incremental; new money audience(s) 250, 265–266; see also Adelaide; crowd; health and safety audience-centric 249

486 INDEX Australia see Adelaide; Sunshine Coast Australian Safe and Healthy Crowded Places Handbook 316–318 authentic: Big Blue Event 259; centrality of an authentic approach 296; experiences 90–91 authenticity, perceived 93 authority responsibility, and administration 164, 176–177, 203, 314 autocratic leadership 199 avoidance of risk 311–312 award(s) 188–189, 326; ceremonies 45, 112 BACE model (benefits and cost evaluation) 355 backward linkage 377–378 balance in portfolios 189, 193, 229, 366 balanced scorecard 335; see also triple bottom line barriers and constraints 286–288, 278 behaviour: anti-social 155; planned (theory of) 76, 279, 283, 292, 295; see also crowd; social marketing benchmarking 194, 205, 243, 270, 337, 338 benefit(s) 280, 299, 422; desired 283, 354; versus costs 355 bequest value 147 Berdysheva, Ekaterina (expert opinion) 84–87 bidding on events 366–367 Big Blue event 259 biomedical domain 312–313 blueprinting 271–272 brand(ing) and co-branding 283, 299–300; and place marketing 349, 363 Brand Experience Festival 123–124 Brown, Steve (Expert Opinions): Profile of Illuminate Adelaide 103; Event Design 249 budget(ing) 174–175, 235; see also business plan

built environment 323, 327; outcomes and impact assessment 348–349 business events (MICE) 115–116, 361, 417–418; and agility 84; motivation to attend 285; research themes 417–418; see also EMBOK; MBECS business model 172–173 business plan(ning) 230, 239–240 calculator(s): carbon and ecological footprint 351–352; direct economic contribution 377 capacity 146, 156, 176, 240, 264, 266–267, 316, 325, 353; see also limits; sustainability capital: creative 249; culture/ cultural 367; economic 391; event capitals 367; natural 351; social 346–347, 353; social and cultural 384 carbon calculator 323–324, 351 career(s): event travel career trajectory 72, 80, 278, 373– 375; in event management 215–218; in event tourism 378; see also education; HR; professionalism; work carnivals and Mardi Gras 45, 105–107, 111; see also festival casual and accidental event tourists 361, 373 catalysts, events as 247, 360, 365; see also legacy and leveraging causal pathways 238 cause and effect see evaluation; experiment; proof; research cause-related events 61 celebration(s) events and experiences 45, 96–109, 257; see also culture; dramaturgy championships 45, 125, 367 changing: needs, motives, expectations 80; nature of work and careers 217–218 charismatic leadership 199 city/cities: and destination level policy fields and goals

327–329; eventful 367; see also Adelaide; community; destination; Edinburgh; place; Seoul civic: dramaturgy 257–260; pride 349 classification 44–67; see also typology climate change 3, 24, 31 closely-related fields 380–406, 408 co-branding 299–300, 363 co-creating event experiences 79 co-creation and design 260–261 co-producers 179 codes of conduct see ethics cognitive: engagement 345; dimension of experience 69–70, 74, 77, 80; dimension of social capital 347; engagement 345; mapping and wayfinding 264; psychology 70, 388; strategies 288 collaboration 149–151; theory 180–181; see also stakeholder colour 251 commemoration(s) 45, 107–108; see also heritage commerce: as a hallmark 268–269; see also business events; digital commitment 234–236 commodification 41, 347–348 commodity, time as 49 communications 121–123; fundamentals 295; trends 296–298 communitas 70, 78, 129, 130, 257, 284; see also experience community: context 177; development 54, 155, 328, 339, 343, 347; festivals 284–285 community of practice for event professionals 10 comparative and competitive advantage 171, 362 competition versus co-operation 186–187; see also bidding; collaboration; sport complete evaluation and IA system 337–338

INDEX 487 complex(ity) 241, 263, 334–335 comprehensive: impact assessment 341; benefit and cost evaluation 354–356 conative dimension of experience 69–70, 80, 82, 248, 258, 279 conference 115–116; see also business events; convention; MICE congress 115–116 constraint(s) and barriers 286–289; negotiation 288–289, 423 constructs: time 49; social and political 89 consumer: behaviour (and theories) 15, 46, 72, 77, 361; culture theory 282; decisionmaking 289–292; shows 117; surplus 146, 175–176; see also social marketing contest(ed): culture, stakeholders and legitimacy 89, 91, 97, 108, 139, 259, 381; spaces 99, 170 contingency: planning and emergency response 314–315; school 198 control(s) 48; and accountability 176, 234; see also crowd; financial management convention 115–117; see also business events convergence of forms and functions 53–55 core phenomenon 5, 13–14 corporate events 45, 120–124; see also SHIFT cost and benefit evaluation 354–355; see also bidding; constraints; demand; feasibility; financial; impact; mega-events; positioning; pricing; project; sustainability counter: arguments 147; cultures 38, 101–103, 404 country/nation see bidding; destination; national Couto, Ubaldino Sequeira (Profile, Lusofonia Festival) 181–185

Covid 19 (pandemic) 2, 19, 28, 31, 33, 84, 102, 107, 121, 296, 317–318, 368, 404, 419, 421, 430 creating public good 144 creative capital 249 creativity 257; and innovation 248–249; see also design crisis 306; management and resilience 319–321 criteria for evaluation of event populations 189 critical: event studies 12–13; incidents 271; path 237 cross cultural studies 11, 50, 416 crowd management and control 315–318, 320–321; see also health and safety; risk cultural anthropology 381–382 cultural authenticity 41, 51, 79, 87, 90–91, 257, 367 cultural capital 279, 345–346, 384 cultural celebrations 45, 97 cultural outcomes and impact assessment 347–348 cultural policy and events 153–154 cultural tourism experiences 97 culture(s): contested (stakeholders and legitimacy) 91; counter 38, 101–103, 404; organisational 190 cumulative impacts (assessment) 334 curriculum 8 customer: experience design (social and digital components) 248; orientation 293 cyber crime and security 305, 313 Darq dreamscapes 33–40 data 194; see also evaluation; impact assessment; research decision-making: and accountability 203–205, 278; consumer 289–292; to attend or participate 291; tools 203–204; see also leadership; planning; risk

dedicated event tourist / tourism 146, 256, 283, 287, 349, 361–362, 373 demand: analysis and development 361–362; and attractiveness of events 290– 291, 319; see also economics; economic impact; seasonality demand-based planning 224 democracy: and human rights 59; under threat 5 democratic leadership 235–236 demographics / demography and population 24–26 demonstration(s) 47, 52, 65, 128, 134, 346; effects 224; and commodification 347–348; and interpretation 257; see also exhibitions density: crowd 315–316, 320; dependence 187–188; relational 187; social 315; spatial 315 design and planning, management and marketing 15–16 design theory and principles 11, 163, 245–275; see also capacity; creativity; dramaturgy; Steve Brown; food and beverage; settings desired benefits 283, 354 destination 327, 360; management and event tourism 359–360; see also place; tourism detailed planning phase 235–236 development: arts 154; community 54, 155, 328, 343, 347; cultural 153, 154, 156, 339; economic 153, 156, 328, 343, 392; personal 54, 88, 109, 281, 339, 343, 373, 388; sustainable 3, 123, 156–157, 325–326, 370, 423; urban 323, 348–349, 367; see also policy; tourism development development(al) strategies and tools for event tourism 365–372 digital: economy 6; transformation 297; see also new and social media

488 INDEX direct and opportunity costs 355 direct economic contribution (DEC) 354, 377 directing, leadership, and human resources for events 159, 197–220 disabilities 29 disaster 306, 314, 317, 320–321 disciplines/disciplinary 7, 10, 12, 75, 199, 207, 208, 380–406, 408–409, 411–412 discourse: and critical discourse 410; public discourse and policy 143–144 displacement: or crowding out 361; of goals 174 dissatisfaction/dissatisfiers 77, 166, 208, 270–274, 283–284 distribution: and marketing 294, 301; of costs and benefits 336, 352, 355; see also equity distributive justice 394 diversification in populations and portfolios 189, 226, 366 diversity: and inclusion 12, 149, 214, 216, 353; in populations 185–186; in HR 213 domains: of experience 74; policy 137–138, 359; of event health and safety management 312–313 dramaturgy 117, 265; and design 257–260; civic 257 drawing power, pull, or attractiveness 291, 361–362, 371 due diligence 307 Duignan, Michael (Expert Opinion) 367–371 duration 55, 62–63, 65, 77, 127; see also project dynamic: networks 247; crowd management 316 ecological: impact assessment 350–352; systems and footprint 322–323; see also environmental; greening; nature; over-tourism; sustainability ecology 4; organisational and population 185–187; see also

ecosystem; organizational ecology economic(s) 30–31, 391–392; costs 355; demand 291; development 53, 143, 145, 328, 360, 363, 394; efficiency and ROI 146, 336; goals 54; impacts (and assessment) 57, 145, 149, 328, 334, 337, 352–356, 376–378; policy 153; threats 308; see also legacy and leveraging ecosystem: and populations 186; festival 150–151; see also ecology(ical); nature; sustainability Edinburgh and Scotland 147–152, 349–350 education 215, 267, 328; and careers in event management 216–217; and careers in event tourism 378; and scientific events 124; see also HR evaluation; training educational and scientific congresses 45 effective: event leaders 198–199; and rewarding customer and tourist experiences 92–94 effectiveness 154–155, 174, 178, 214–215, 229, 335, 337, 411; see also efficiency; evaluation efficiency 140, 144, 146, 178, 190, 242, 266, 323, 336–337, 341, 400; see also evaluation ego 72; involvement 72, 74, 256, 288, 373, 423 elements of style 52–53, 63, 65–66, 92, 100, 247, 251, 268–269 elderly 9 embedded events 51, 55 EMBOK (Event Management Body of Knowledge) 163–164, 176, 317 emergency (response) 28, 266, 305–306, 314; see also crisis; disaster; risk emergent strategy 239 emotion(al) 69, 72, 81, 83, 131, 198, 265, 269, 279, 344 emotive 93 empiricism 409

employment 102, 378; see also education; careers; human resources enduring meaning 92 energy 42, 327; see also sustainability engagement 41, 54, 62, 70, 78, 80, 81–83, 184, 207, 243, 250, 310, 344–345, 347, 398, 408 entertain(ment) 45, 108–112, 163, 175, 254, 269, 371 entrepreneurs(hip) and intrapreneurs 201, 218, 328; social 169 environment(al): and sustainability 231; built 323, 327, 340, 348–349; domain 313; forces, trends; general and internal 177; issues 31; management and sustainability 321–329; natural 340, 395; policy and events 156–157; psychology 389–390; stress 254–255; see also ecological impact assessment epistemology 409 equity / equitable 142, 144–145, 154, 343, 349, 352, 355–356; see also distributional effects escape 127, 284; see also seeking and escaping ethics 163, 213, 216, 386 ethnography 381–382 evaluating event populations 189 evaluating organisations 195 evaluating performance 207 evaluating (programme) quality 270, 292–293 evaluating services 271–272 evaluating settings 267 evaluation 11, 16, 140–141, 143, 153, 162, 166, 177–178, 222–223, 229, 235, 237, 250, 268, 278 evaluation, external and internal processes 177, 411 evaluation of human resource management 213–215 evaluation of marketing 294 evaluation of outcomes and impact assessment 331–357

INDEX 489 evaluation, post-purchase 291 evaluation research 411 Event Compass 195 Event Studies: and interrelationships 18–19; evolution 6–10; influence on other disciplines and fields 13 event tourism: experiences 78–79; research themes 418–419; see also destination; tourism eventful cities and event capitals 367 EventImpacts.com 149 events at the margin 127–128 evidence 215; and proof 410–411; and research-based design 256; physical and tangible 271; and indicators 342 evolution and institutionalisation 189–192 exchange theory: anthropological 382; social 345, 384–385 exhibitions 45, 62, 111, 219, 257; trade and consumer shows 117–118; see also corporate events; fairs; MICE existence value 146–147, 193 existential: authenticity 90; communitas 78 expectancy theory 208 expectation-(dis)confirmation theory 71, 236, 272, 280–281, 283, 422 expectations 80, 283 experience design 246–249 experience economy 5–6 experience evaluation 215 experience(s) and meanings 7, 11, 63, 70, 68–95, 278, 442; see also flow; optimal; peak; guaranteed and safe; return on; virtual experiences and anthropology 78 experiences at festivals 98–100 experiences of different stakeholders 128–134 experiences, theoretical dimensions 70 experiential: and facilitating elements of marketing 61, 294, 430; learning 194,

216–217; sampling 423; typology 53 experiment(ation) 238, 335, 343, 410; see also positivism explanatory research 411 exploratory research 411 externalities 25, 157, 177, 336, 354, 361; and opportunity costs 355, 391 extrinsic: motivation 76, 116, 277, 281, 372; value / valuation 41, 333 facilitate/facilitation 142, 199, 269 facilitator 179–180, 378 failure 186–187, 242–243, 272, 307, 309; or inadequacies of the marketplace 144–146, 154, 169, 175, 224 fair(s) 45, 85, 98, 118–119, 219; see also exhibitions; World’s Fair family 47–49, 87, 283–284; personal and family outcomes 344–345 fans and fanatics 62, 286 feasibility (studies) 230, 232, 319, 334, 337–338; see also project management feedback 278, 281, 291, 337 festival(s) 97–105; city 149, 188, 238, 249, 367; research themes 416; see also Edinburgh; Illuminate Adelaide; Big Blue; Lusofonia; SHIFT; Sunshine Coast festivalisation and commodification 41, 99 Festivals Edinburgh 150, 238, 300 fields of study 13; see also closelyrelated fields financial (management) 28, 142, 163–164, 173–176, 243, 305, 319, 336, 366; see also risk fishbone diagram 205 five gaps model 272; see also SERVQUAL five senses see aesthetics; perception; sensory flash mobs 62, 65, 81, 127–128, 240

flexibility 65, 73, 199; see also agile flow 264, 271, 277–278, 280 food (and beverage) 3, 31–32, 252, 284, 312, 321, 324, 328, 351, 371, 400 food and wine events design concept 256–257 forecasting 338, 341–342, 396; see also forces; trends; future; planning forces-pressure-state-impactresponse model (FPSIR) 342–343 forces, trends and issues affecting events 23–43; propelling and constraining 24 form and functions of events 52–53, 63; see also convergence formative evaluation 268, 337, 338 foundation disciplines and closely related fields 380–406 founders 198, 300 framework for understanding and creating knowledge about planned events 13–16 frequency, scale, duration and periodicity 62–64 Frew, Matt (Expert Opinion) 33–40 fun events 45, 257; see also hedonism; motivation functions, private 45, 112; see also convergence; form and function; management fund(ing) 140; see also financial; policy future(s): intentions 292; perspectives 430–431; scanning 239; scenarios and modelling 224; studies 396–397; see also planning Gantt chart 237 gaps analysis 272, 310; see also SERVQUAL gender: and sexual minorities 29; studies 402–404 general: approaches to planning 223–224; environment 177

490 INDEX generic: and event-specific motivators and motives 283– 285; benefits 257; settings 261 global forces, trends, issues 3–5, 30–33 globalisation 30–31, 107, 128, 226, 430 goals 54, 222, 269, 310, 327–329; policy domains and event-related 152–157; sustainability 3, 233; see also evaluation; planning; theory of change; impact assessment; portfolios goals-driven and goals-free evaluation 335–336 goals, objectives, indicators and methods 229 Goh, Sandra (Expert Opinion) 420–421 Goldblatt, Joe (Expert Opinion) 17–18 good, public 144 Gorchakova, Valentina (Expert Opinion) 84 governance 139, 167–169, 392 government 141, 168; see also Australia; city; evaluation; ideology; New Zealand; overtourism; planning; policy; political science; regulation; Scotland and Edinburgh grants and fundraising 142, 173, 377 greening and sustainability 31, 116, 166, 323–326 grounded research 408 growth-related issues facing the events sector 40–43 guaranteed and safe experiences 79 guests 129, 131; see also customer; host; tourist; visitor hallmark(s): and elements of style 268; events 45, 51, 53–56, 187, 300, 362, 366, 371 Halloween disaster (Seoul, Korea) 3, 320–321 happiness 75, 77, 210–213, 255, 280; see also well-being; quality of life; satisfaction

hazard or threat 305, 310 health (studies) 4, 24, 54, 143, 155, 156, 163, 166, 231, 278, 284, 287, 312–313, 317, 329, 404–405; see also pandemic; well-being healthy population of events 188–189, 194 hedonism 284 heritage 45, 107–108, 148, 183, 249, 257, 327, 347 Herzberg’s two-factor theory 208 hierarchical model (Kirkpatrick) 215 hierarchy of needs (Maslow) 74, 208, 280 highly involved 256–257 history (of) 108, 111, 118–119, 128, 210, 315, 369, 394–395, 397; see also event-history analysis holiday celebrations 112 hospitality (studies) 7, 130, 131, 400–401 host(s) and guest relations 154, 343, 381, 401, 416 how people describe their experiences 69–70 human error 308–309 human geography 99, 395–396 human rights 4, 27, 28–30, 58–61, 430 human resource(s) (HR management) 133, 163, 165, 206–215; see also career; education; ethics; evaluation; leadership; professionalisation; wellbeing and sustainable HR; work hybrid and virtual events/ experiences 33, 83–87, 121, 129, 131, 166, 301, 423, 430 hygiene (factors) 208, 270–271, 284, 312 hypotheses 343, 375–376; see also research; theory iconic events 5, 45, 53, 56, 373, 375 identifications 127 identity: personal 72; theory 424, 286, 315

ideology 75, 137–139, 144, 222, 353 IFEA (International Festivals and Events Association) 10, 116, 188, 216, 218 Illuminate Adelaide 103–105 image making 360, 363–365, 372; see also reputation; brand; place marketing / making impact(s) assessment (IA) 11, 16, 63, 323, 331–356; benefits and costs 353–355; built environment 348–350; complete system 337–338; cultural 347–348; ecological 350–352; economic 352; and evaluation and sustainability 356; event tourism 376–378; FPSIR Model 342; legacy and leveraging 352–354; professional practice 336–337, 342–347; subjects and objects 338–340; terminology 332–334; theory (and process) 334–336, 341; see also evaluation; goals; objectives; outcomes; policy implementation phase 235–236 importance-performance (IP) measurement 267, 272–274 incident (report) 214, 306, 314, 338 inclusion / inclusive(ness) 98, 103, 149, 189, 402; see also critical event studies; gender income 377; see also multiplier indicator(s) 82, 138–139, 152, 213, 229, 238, 323–325, 341, 348, 410; see also key impact and performance indicators industry 10, 101–102, 114, 118, 121–123; is there an events industry? 66 information search and use 290 initiation phase 234 innovation 233–234, 248–249 input(s) 177, 238; see also resources; stakeholders inspiration or demonstration effects 224, 345 installation(s) 45, 46, 111; see also Adelaide

INDEX 491 institutional: arrangements 140, 359; status 192 institutionalisation process 55, 171, 189–192 instorative and restorative 262–263 intangible benefits and costs 146–147, 355 inter-organisation and stakeholder relations 177 inter-personal constraints 286–288 interactive 62, 93 interdisciplinary 5, 7–8, 16, 408, 410 internal: communications 203, 296; evaluation 310, 332–333, 411; environment 177; stakeholders 164, 177–178, 191; threats 309 internationalisation 11 interpretation (thematic) 92, 156, 257, 267, 400 intrapreneurship 201 intrinsic and extrinsic: motivation 116, 126, 255, 277–278, 281–283, 285, 372, 398; value or worth 280, 333 introspection and think tanks 408 involvement: ego 72, 74, 77, 92, 256, 288; and the event travel career trajectory 278, 373, 375; public sector 144–147, 154 IOC (Olympics) 58–59, 404 ISO 20121 standards 213–214, 309, 326 issues: growth-related 40; eventspecific 23–40; global 3 justice, distributive and legal 394; see also equity; human rights justifying public sector involvement 144–147 Kaplan Preference Model for Environments 263 key impact indicators 229, 233, 238, 410 key performance indicators (KPIs) 152–155, 213–214, 229, 233, 336, 410

Kirkpatrick and Kirkpatrick Hierarchical Model of Training Effectiveness 214–215, 336, 345 knowledge: and philosophy 409– 410; areas for project planning 232–234; -based theory of the firm 171; management 194–195, 234; and EMBOK 163; sources 408–409 law 393–394; and politics 26–28; of the commons 145–146 layered security 313–314 leadership (styles and roles) 198–202, 208, 233–234, 319; see also human resources league play 45, 56 leakages and linkages 378 learning 54, 70, 94, 215, 257, 388, 400; experiential 216–217; organisation (and knowledge management) 194, 200, 239; see also evaluation legacy 41, 148, 336; and leveraging 332, 352–354, 365 legitimacy 91, 178, 190; and contested culture 91; and legitimation 139 leisure: constraints theory 286–289; experiences 77; involvement 256, 288, 373; serious 80, 373; studies 397–398 length or duration 65 Leopold Matrix 342 levels of policy creation for events 141 LGBTQ+ 402; see also gender life-cycle: assessment 233; programme 267–268 lifestyle 278, 279 liminal/liminoid 49, 69, 75, 78–79, 80, 81, 101, 280 limits 188 linear 109, 261 linkages 179, 377, 378 literature festival 111 live versus virtual events 42, 46 living environments 4 local government 141; see also city; governance; policy

logic: and theory of change models 236–239; servicedominant 172, 293–294 logistics 231, 240–242, 261 long term see cumulative impacts; legacy; portfolios; sustainability loyalty versus novelty seeking 292 Lusofonia Festival (Macao) 181–185 major events see mega; hallmark; prestige managed portfolios for event tourism 366 management fundamentals 150–196; agile 84, 234, 319; crisis 305, 319–320; crowd 315–318; definition/ delimiting 160–162; destination 241, 359–360; financial 173–176; functions 160, 163–167, 207; hospitality 401; human resource (HR) 206–215; information 294; knowledge 194–195; needs 408; portfolios 150, 226–229, 336, 366; risk, health and environmental 304–329; stakeholder 179–185; supply chain 242, 323, 333, 326; unique event 163–167; yield 176, 266 mandate 167–169, 239 mapping: cognitive 264; hazard 310; sensory 240, 250–252; service 272–272 Mardi Gras 45, 105 margin (events at) 127–128 marginalisation 12, 223 market(s) 45; failure 137, 144, 244; segment(ation) 294, 361, 366, 372–373 marketing (antecedents and communications) 276–303; concept (customer versus product orientation) 293; experiential 61, 174, 430; fundamentals 293–295; live 61; mix 156, 294; place 41, 45, 349, 359,

492 INDEX 363; and planning, design, management 15–16, 231; research, evaluation and information management 294; segment(ation) and target marketing 294–295; service-dominant logic 293–294; social marketing through events 295; support 142 mass assembly 405 material support 142 matrix / matrices: blended stakeholder 180; decision 204; Leopold 342; probability X severity 311; task responsibility 237 maturity model for events 226 Mazza, Barbara (Expert Opinion) 296–298 MBECS (Meeting and Business Events Competency Standards) 163–164 McGregor’s Theory X and Y 208 meaning(s): attached to events and event experiences 7, 87–94; symbolic 54 measure(ment): importanceperformance 272–274; see also indicators; methods media: coverage 63; events 52, 61, 112, 134; new and social 33, 300–302; management 364, 372 meetings, conventions, conferences, and congresses 45, 115–116, 163, 285, 417 mega-events 40, 45, 56–61, 155, 346, 349, 353–354, 366–371; see also Olympics; World’s Fair memorable or transforming experiences 54, 278 memory 70–72 merit 332–333 meta: analysis 411, 285, 376; event 45, 170 metaverse 34–38, 45–46, 106, 122, 423, 430 method(s)/methodology 47, 54, 82, 179, 192, 250, 334, 348, 381–384, 409–412, 416, 422; see also discipline; experiment;

evaluation; impact assessment; indicators; metrics; positivism; qualitative; quantitative metrics 229 MICE see business and trade events military 45 mitigation 341, 344, 351, 427; see also evaluation; impact assessment models and multipliers 376 monitoring and control 310 moral issues 307 motivation: and experiences 116–117, 120, 126, 133; and goal attainment 255; and motives for attending different types of events 283; and reward 208–210; and the event travel career trajectory 375; generic and eventspecific 284; intrinsic and extrinsic 281–282 motives 80, 281, 283–284; see also motivation multiplier(s) 353, 376, 378; see also impact assessment multisensory 93 music: and the senses 251–254; festivals 79, 100–102, 110 national government 141, 147–152 natural: resources 391; threats 308 nature: and classification of planned events 44–67; and scope of event studies 5; ecological systems, and the ecological footprint of events 322–323; of work and careers 217–218 needs: assessment 207; -based planning 223; and preferences 279–280; and wants 74–75; see also motives; motivation negative social impacts 346; see also costs; impact assessment negligence 307–312 negotiation of constraints 288–289

network: diagram 237; theory 178–179, 187, 191 networking 142, 302 new: and social media 300–302; money 377–378 New Zealand, event-sector recovery 420–421 niche theory 187 no such thing as events 47 not-for-profit 168–169; see also governance; ownership novelty 54, 93, 284; -seeking 79, 126, 253, 278, 292, 375 objective(s) 229; see also goals; indicators objects and subjects of evaluation and impact assessment 338–340 official(s) 129; and security 132 Olympic and mega-event studies 58; see also mega-events one-off 45, 63 ontology/ontological 8, 409–410, 360 open space 262; also see outdoor open-system(s) 177–178 operations and event planning 163, 221–244, 427 opportunity costs 40, 355, 361, 371, 391 optimal: arousal and stimulation 80, 253–254, 282; peak experiences 70, 77–78, 88 orchestra model 248 organic management 296 organisation(al): culture 190, 202–203, 309; ecology and event populations 185–188; structure and coordination 169–170 organising and coordination 164, 167 O’Toole, William J. (Expert Opinion) 316–318 outcomes 177–178, 238, 332, 360; and the impacted 423–424; built environment 348; cultural 347; evaluation and impact assessment 11, 16; personal and family 344–345; social 342–343

INDEX 493 outputs 16, 177–178, 236–239, 332, 336 over-stimulation or complexity 71, 263 over-tourism 41, 267, 367–371 ownership 28; governance, and mandate 167–168 packaging 246, 284, 294, 371 paid staff 130, 133–134 pandemic 2, 19, 23–24, 28, 31, 116, 151, 419, 431 parades and processions 45, 108, 261 paradigm(s) 334; shift in design thinking 247 paradoxes 57–58 participant(s) 62, 373 participation 224; constraints on 287; sports 126, 286 parties 45 pathways, causal 238 patterns and processes 11, 16, 427–429 paying customers 129, 130 peace 4 peak experiences 70, 74–75, 77, 280 perceived: authenticity 93; behavioural control 76; impacts 178, 348; see also perception perception 70–71 performance 200, 207, 214–215; see also importance-performance; KPIs; objectives; quality performers 129, 131 performing arts 110 periodicity 62–64 personal: and family outcomes 344; and interpersonal factors 382–383; constraints 288; development 54, 88, 109, 281, 373; identity 72; meanings 88; relevance 94; space 255; see also identity; motivation; psychology personality 72, 277–278 PERT (project evaluation and review technique) 237 phases of an event project 234–236

phenomenology 54, 423 phenomenon, core 5, 13 philosophy 386–387; and knowledge 409–410; Ubuntu 17 pilgrimage 45, 54, 90, 108–109 place(s): and time 50; making, identity and attachment; civic pride 349; making 50–51; marketing and (co)branding 349; placelessness 51; public 349–350 plan(ning) and operations 221–244; business 230, 240; community 98, 223, 353, 365, 384, 431; contingency and emergency response 314; environment and sustainability 230; for and within events 225–226; health, safety, and security 230; HR 206–208; marketing 230; operations and logistics 230, 240; portfolios 226–228; programme and life-cycles 267–268; projects 230, 232–236; risk 306, 310–311; site, operations and logistics 230, 240; strategic 147, 230; theory 222–225; see also goals; decision making; policy planned behaviour theory 76, 279, 283, 292, 295 planned events: and the digital economy 6; and the experience economy 5–6; defined /explained 5, 7, 11; definitions 45–46; framework 13; planned versus unplanned 48; theory of? 16–17; typology 44–45 policy (public policy and events) 136–158; analysis 137; considerations specific to events 140; cultural 153–154; domains and event-related goals 152–157; economic 153; environmental 156–157; implications 63; levels 141; needs 408; public 137–138, 143–144; regimes 138; social 155–156, 328

political: and state events 124–125, 392; congress 45; market square 140, 178, 180, 223, 239; science 392–393 politics: and government 339–340, 393; and law 26–27, 145; and power 137, 139; see also policy; power pop music festivals 101 popular culture 101, 109–110 population(s): and demographics 24–26; of events 185–189; resilient and healthy 188–189, 192–194 portfolio(s) (management and planning) 147–151, 193–194, 226–229, 366 position(ing) 299–300, 349, 371–372 positive psychology 211, 255 positivism/positivist 334, 360, 383, 388, 410–411 poverty 3, 24–25 power 12, 137–140, 178–180, 200–201 precautionary principle 157, 325 preconditions 238 preferences and needs 278, 279–280 pressure (FPSIR model) 342 prestige or premier events 56 pricing 176 private events (functions) 45, 112 private, for-profit ownership 19–20, 139, 167–169, 201 probability X severity (matrix) 306, 310, 311 procurement (and supply-chain management) 163, 231, 242 produce your own events 142 producers 129; and directors and senior managers 132 product: developers (events as) 51–52; orientation 293, 365; in marketing mix 294; quality 270–271; see also coproduce professional: bodies 8; practice 14, 336, 408 professionalisation 52, 190, 198, 215–216

494 INDEX professionalism 215–216, 425; see also education; human resources; ethics programme 48, 163, 177, 284; elements of style 52, 268–269; evaluating quality 270; planning and life-cycles 267–268; see also evaluation; convergence; design programming and theming 267, 294 project planning and management 230, 232–237 proof and evidence 410–411, 232; see also evaluation; impact assessment propelling and constraining forces 24–43 propositions (future) 430–431 protest! demonstrate! riot! 128; see also over-tourism pseudo-events 90 psychic: benefits 134; value 146–147 psycho-social domain 312–313 psychology 70–75, 388; environmental 389; positive 255–256; social 75–77, 389–391; see also constraints; experience; motivation public: at large 134; discourse and policy 143; good 139, 144–145; sector 9, 144–146, 169; see also policy publicity stunts 61 pulsating event organisations 133, 206–207 purposes(s): of planned events 48; and uses of evaluation 335 qualitative methods 383–384, 411–412, 416 quality 284, 333, 422; and service design; evaluation 270–274, 292; of life 26, 338, 344; see also evaluation quantitative methods 383, 410–411, 416 queuing 242 racism 29 rational versus irrational planning 223–225

recreational: and sport events 125–126; rioting 128; see also leisure; participants; sport reduction of risk 311 reflective professional practice 408 regional 54, 141; see also portfolio regulation(s) 27–28, 141, 205, 226, 231; see also policy regulators 130, 132, 179 relational density and network theory 187 religious: rites 45; studies 387–388; see also philosophy; pilgrimage reputation management 300 research: action 334; agenda and major challenges 422–430; and knowledge creation for event studies 407; methods 411–412, 424–429; traditions and methods in sociology 383–384; see also methodology; evaluation; impact assessment; knowledge creation resident(s) 9, 192–194; see also community; family; social resilience 2, 42, 156, 171, 230, 307, 317, 319, 325 resilient and healthy population of events 188–189 resource(s): acquisition and allocation 170; -based theory of the firm 170; dependency 170–173; partitioning 187; see also human resources restorative and instorative environments 262–263 retention of risk 311 retrospective impact assessment 341 return on: experience (ROE) 214, 247, 336, 338; investment (ROI) 146, 214, 336, 370; objectives (ROO) 214 reunions 45, 112, 372 revenue 173–176, 377; or yield management 176, 266; see also economic impact review of review articles 412–419

rights see human rights riot(ing) 128 risk management 305–321; process 309–311; strategies 311–312; terminology 305–307; threats and risks 307–309 rites: of passage 42, 47, 49, 64, 78, 88, 12, 404; religious 45 rituals 54, 99, 108–109, 257, 269, 348; see also anthropology; celebration; communitas; elements of style; festival; religious roles of events in tourism development and marketing 360–365 root-cause analysis 205, 310 royal 45, 125 RRR (Reduce, Reuse, Recycle) 231, 223 sacred 78, 80, 97, 106, 108–109, 269, 387 safe (and guaranteed) experiences 79 Safe and Healthy Crowded Places Handbook (Australian) 316–318 safety (and health) 24, 143, 163, 214, 226, 231, 284; management 312–318 sales revenue 173 satisfaction: and happiness 210; and well-being 214; see also customer; expectation; Importance-Performance; loyalty; motivation; quality; SERVQUAL scale, frequency, duration and periodicity 62–63 scenario (making) 224, 306, 310 schedule(ing) 230, 232, 236, 265 scheduled concerts, shows, theatre 45 science/scientific 409–410; see also political science Scotland and Edinburgh (profile) 147–152 scripting and choreography 265 seasonality (problem) and events 362, 375, 391 secular pilgrimage 109

INDEX 495 security 240, 313–318, 329; food 31; officials 132; sustainability, and resilience 42; see also crowd; needs; risk; safety segmentation 74, 256, 276, 279, 299; and target marketing 294–295 self: -actualization and peak experiences 129; concept 72, 279; development 62, 70, 278, 286, 376, 386; determination theory 76; efficacy 70, 74–76, 81 semiotics and the meaning of meanings 14–15 sensation seeking, arousal and optimal stimulation 72–73, 253–254 sense(s) 71, 250–253 sensory stimulation and mapping 71, 73, 79, 240, 248, 250–254, 263–264, 269; see also perception separation 80–81 serious leisure 65, 72–73, 80, 81, 286, 288, 373–375, 398; see also involvement serious sport tourism 373–374 servant leadership 199–200 service(s) design and quality 270–274 service-dominant logic 79, 172, 247, 293–294 SERVQUAL 77, 272, 283 setting(s) 312, 262–267; see also design; environmental; visitor studies setting affordances 240, 262 severity 306–307, 310, 311, 342 sex and sexuality 402; see also gender sharing: or transference of risk 311–312; see also communitas; knowledge; portfolio; stakeholders SHIFT Business festival (case study) 84–87 shows 45, 11, 117–119 site planning 230, 252, 264, 310; and operations and logistics 240–242

size: and costs 40–41, 62; see also crowd(ing); mega small versus large events 63 SMART objectives 229 social and cultural: domain 74; capital 346–347, 384; constructs of time 49; threats 308 social and new media 33, 300–302 social and political constructs 89 social capital 54, 179, 190, 229, 238–239, 250, 344, 346–347, 353, 384 social cognition 75–76 social entrepreneurs(hip) 169, 201 social equity 144–145, 355 social exchange theory 79, 344–346, 384–385 social experiences 284; see also generic social identity (theory) 49, 98, 127, 269, 315, 344, 373, 424, 426 social inclusion 154, 344 social integration 25, 32, 145, 155, 226, 238, 284, 328 social licence 139 social marketing 61, 156, 215, 247, 295, 323, 335 social meanings 89, 99 social networking (and social media) 117, 285, 302, 384 social opportunities 93 social outcomes and impact assessment 342–347 social policy and events 155–156 social pressures and responses 344 social problems 155–156, 191 social psychology 74, 389–390; and leisure experience 75–77 social representation theory 346 social responsibility 120, 233–234, 423 social value 54 social worlds 72, 284, 344, 373–376, 384–385, 398 society and culture 32 sociology 382–386 space(s) see place; setting specialness of events 65

spectacle 107, 126, 251; versus engagement 41–42 spectator(s) 42, 62, 126, 286, 372 spiritual (and religious) experiences 109, 386 sponsor(ship) 142, 163, 173–174, 377 sponsors 129–130; and donors 132 sport: and recreation 45, 125–126; as cultural expression 89–90; fans and spectators 127, 286; festivals 45, 125; participation 286, 345; research themes 416–417; studies and management 399–400; see also involvement; Olympics; TransRockies staging 265 stakeholder(s): management 179–180; relations 177; theory 139, 171, 177–180; see also institutionalisation; Lusofonia Festival; project; systems model; theory of change standards 9, 10, 123, 163–164, 166, 231, 326, 332, 336 stewardship 145, 326, 386 stimuli 71 story or narrative 93 strategy/strategic 142, 206, 222, 225–226, 230, 239, 247, 310, 338; intervention choices 142; see also portfolio; Scotland and Edinburgh; Sunshine Coast stress, environmental 254–255 stressors or causal forces 344; see also forces structural: changes 24, 28, 116; constraints 286–288; dimension 347; inertia 186 style: attentional 73; leadership 200; programmic elements 52–53, 247, 251, 268–269; travel 374–375 subjects and objects of evaluation and impact assessment 338–340, 342 substitution 291, 398

496 INDEX succeed or fail 242–243 summative evaluation 337, 338 summits 45 Sunshine Coast, Australia (Profile) 192–194 superspreader events 2, 404 supervision 203, 207, 209 suppliers: and vendors 130, 133; and venues 179; see also stakeholders supply and demand 365, 423 supply chain (management) 2, 242, 321, 323, 350, 420 surrogate measures 229 sustainability 157, 189, 231, 233, 321–326, 352, 356, 431; and security, resilience 42; goals 3, 13, 83, 123, 156; see also adaptation; environmental; greening; resilience; standards; TBL; ISO SWOT (strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, threats) 205, 310 symbolic: capital 384; meaning 14–15, 42, 51, 54, 56, 98, 253, 257–260, 279 synergy in portfolios 366 system(s): model for events 177–178, 242; see also ecological; ecosystem; equilibrium; outcomes Talbot, Adam (Expert Opinion) 58–61 target marketing 224 task responsibility matrix 237; see also work TBL (triple bottom line) and the balanced scorecard 335 team(s)/teamwork 176, 198, 199, 203, 205, 207, 208, 210, 214, 237 technology 6, 24, 32–49, 233, 297, 316, 423; see also cyber; digital; virtual temporal 11, 16, 45, 375, 427–429 terror(ism) 24, 27, 33, 308, 313 theatre 7, 45, 110, 265 theatrical design principles 265–267

thematic interpretation 92, 156, 267 theme 92, 163, 177, 247; see also celebration; design; hallmark; programme theming and programming 267 theoretical dimensions of human experience 70–94 theory: building 337; -driven evaluation 335; for evaluation and impact assessment 334; logic and theory of change (TOC) models 236–239; management theory for events 161–162; see also disciplines; models; paradigms; science Theory X and Theory Y 208 threat or hazard 305 threats and risks facing events 307–310 three domains of event health and safety management 312 time: is of the essence 48–51; out of time 50, 80, 97, 99, 261; see also constraints timing and build 265 tools/toolkit 149, 203–205, 236–237, 371 top-down versus bottom-up 143, 203, 223, 234 touring entertainment, circuses, carnivals and other shows 111 tourism: and destination management 359–376; economic impact of event tourism 354, 376–378, 391; studies 7; see also attraction; competitive advantage; destination; legacy and leveraging tourist (dedicated event) 146, 287, 349, 361–362, 373; see also TransRockies training 207, 209, 214–215, 313; see also careers; education transactional leadership 200 transformational: leadership 200, 208; technologies 33–40 transforming: experiences 109, 116, 174, 278, 292, 338,

422–431; process 177–178, 241–242, 332 TransRockies Inc. and Gravel Royale (Profile) 19–21 travel careers (ETCT) 373–376 trends and forces 24, 116; in event communications 296 triple bottom line (TBL) and the balanced scorecard 325, 335 tunnel vision 326, 334–335, 338 typology: arts festivals 100; event tourists 373; experiential 53; form and function 45, 52–53; research 411–412; virtual events 83 Ubuntu philosophy 17–18 UK (United Kingdom) music festivals 101–102 uncertainty 306; see also crisis; risk; TransRockies unique: aspects of event management 163–167; core phenomenon 5; decisionmaking 290; experiential dimensions 129–130; features 284; selling proposition 371 uniqueness 46, 93 unplanned events 47–48, 65; see also Seoul Halloween disaster urban: development and renewal 119, 155–156, 348–349; life 26; see also built environment; city; festivalisation; local government use and abuse of public spaces 349–350 use and non-use values 147, 192, 355 value, values, worth, merit and evaluation 332–333 values 32, 89, 146–147, 192, 202, 278–279, 299, 383, 386; see also Sunshine Coast venue(s) see design; setting; security VIPs 45, 125 virtual and hybrid events 2, 6, 33–40, 42, 46, 51, 83–87, 129, 131, 170, 295–298, 301, 423, 430

INDEX 497 vision(ing) 149, 198–200, 222–224; see also mandate; strategy visitor(s): motivations 312; studies 400; see also guests; participants; satisfaction; tourist visual: arts 111; Wow! 252; see also sensory; spectacle; theme volunteer(s): engagement 344; experience 70, 130; management 206–217; motivation 133 Vroom’s expectancy theory 208 vulnerability 170, 306, 313; see also risk

wants and needs 74–75, 280 wayfinding (and cognitive mapping) 264 weak or incompetent management 309 weddings 45 well-being 207, 255, 262, 280; and sustainable HR 209–214 wellness 156 whole populations of events 185, 326, 416 willingness to pay (WTP) 146, 193, 290, 346, 423 winners and losers 355, 381 world’s fairs (Expos) 55–56, 58, 65, 115, 119 work: breakdown structure 237; changing nature and careers

217–218, 431; task analysis 310 workforce 206 worth 144, 176, 192, 332–333, 354, 422; see also consumer surplus; merit; value wrap-up phase 235–236 Wünsch, Ulrich (Expert Opinion) 120–124 yield: or revenue management 176, 266; per visitor 323, 328, 336, 365 Ziakas, Vassilios (Expert Opinions) 226–229, 257–260