European Migration Law (Oxford European Union Law Library) 0192894277, 9780192894274

This title provides a comprehensive overview of European migration law. More than three dozen directives and regulations

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OXFORD EU LAW LIBRARY General Editors ROBERT SCHÜTZE Professor of European and Global Law, Durham Law School and Co-​Director, Global Policy Institute, Durham Law School PIET EECKHOUT Professor of EU Law and Dean of the Faculty of Laws, UCL, and Academic Director of the European Institute

European Migration Law

OX F O R D E U L AW L I B R A RY The aim of the series is to publish important and original studies of the various branches of EU law. Each work provides a clear, concise, and critical exposition of the law in its social, economic, and political context, at a level which will interest the advanced student, the practitioner, the academic, and government officials. OTHER TITLES IN THIS SERIES EU Securities and Financial Markets Regulation Fourth Edition Niamh Moloney

EU Procedural Law Koen Lenaerts, Ignace Maselis, Kathleen Gutman, Janek Tomasz Nowak

EU Diplomatic Law Sanderijn Duquet

The EU Common Security and Defence Policy Panos Koutrakos

EU Constitutional Law Koen Lenaerts, Piet Van Nuffel, Tim Corthaut

EU Anti-​Discrimination Law Second Edition Evelyn Ellis and Philippa Watson

EU Customs Law Third Edition Timothy Lyons

EU Employment Law Fourth Edition Catherine Barnard

Principles and Practice in EU Sports Law Stephen Weatherill

EU External Relations Law Second Edition Piet Eeckhout

EU Justice and Home Affairs Law Fourth Edition Steve Peers

The EU Common Fisheries Policy Robin Churchill and Daniel Owen

European Migration Law DA N I E L T H YM

Great Clarendon Street, Oxford, OX2 6DP, United Kingdom Oxford University Press is a department of the University of Oxford. It furthers the University’s objective of excellence in research, scholarship, and education by publishing worldwide. Oxford is a registered trade mark of Oxford University Press in the UK and in certain other countries © Daniel Thym 2023 The moral rights of the author have been asserted First Edition published in 2023​ All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, without the prior permission in writing of Oxford University Press, or as expressly permitted by law, by licence or under terms agreed with the appropriate reprographics rights organization. Enquiries concerning reproduction outside the scope of the above should be sent to the Rights Department, Oxford University Press, at the address above You must not circulate this work in any other form and you must impose this same condition on any acquirer Public sector information reproduced under Open Government Licence v3.0 (http://​www.natio​nala​rchi​ves.gov.uk/​doc/​open-​gov​ernm​ent-​lice​nce/​open-​gov​ernm​ent-​lice​nce.htm) Published in the United States of America by Oxford University Press 198 Madison Avenue, New York, NY 10016, United States of America British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data Data available Library of Congress Control Number: 2023936578 ISBN 978–​0–​19–​289427–​4 DOI: 10.1093/​oso/​9780192894274.001.0001 Printed and bound in the UK by TJ Books Limited Links to third party websites are provided by Oxford in good faith and for information only. Oxford disclaims any responsibility for the materials contained in any third party website referenced in this work.

Acknowledgements This book builds upon more than two decades of experience with European migration law and policy. Numerous friends and colleagues have informed my thinking on this complex and controversial topic ever since I started writing my PhD at the Walter Hallstein Institute for European Constitutional Law at Humboldt University in Berlin in the early 2000s. An important change came when I was appointed full Professor of Public, European, and International Law at the University of Konstanz ten years later, as the successor to Kay Hailbronner who was a prominent participant in the foundational period of European migration law. To be not primarily a German academic, writing in the national language for a domestic audience, had always been my aspiration as well. The dynamic and interdisciplinary atmosphere in Konstanz proved a perfect academic base to do so. Membership in the transnational Odysseus Network, coordinated by Philippe De Bruycker, equally supports a pan-​European outlook. I am indebted to friends and colleagues with whom I have discussed migration law throughout all these years. Anyone reading the book will realise that my analysis moves beyond questions of legal interpretation by considering both the policy concept and the theoretical positions that lie beneath. Doing so is not self-​evident for someone who studied law on the continent. I benefited greatly from my involvement in the interdisciplinary Clusters of Excellence ‘Cultural Foundations of Cultural Integration’ and ‘The Politics of Inequality’ at the University of Konstanz. Similarly, I learnt new perspectives during the seven years I served as a member and vice-​chairperson of the German Expert Council on Integration and Migration, an independent advisory body in Berlin. Our annual reports covered diverse issues such as asylum, labour migration, integration, diversity, and relations with Africa. Equally instructive were ongoing discussions with journalists and regular appearances as an expert witness in the home affairs committee of the German parliament in the hectic years following the events of 2015/​16. Over the years, I became acquainted with a rich arsenal of research questions, practical challenges, and methodological approaches. Few people have the luxury of being able to consider these multiple experiences at an intermediate level of abstraction. Writing this book allowed me to do precisely this. My home university generously supported this venture with a supplementary sabbatical, which I spent in the inspiring and charming environment of the European University Institute in Florence, just before another round of lockdowns during the Covid-​19 pandemic. They interrupted the usual travel circuit and brought back the intimate atmosphere of the academic study room, where I spent endless days and evenings writing the manuscript. My partner deserves praise for having accepted my repeated assurances of ‘just one more hour’ again and again. Generations of student assistants have accumulated countless articles, book chapters, and other documents as print copies or as digital files. They go unnamed, but their relentless efforts are much appreciated indeed. Our university library must have one of the most comprehensive collections of European migration law by now. The research assistants at my university chair invested time and energy in adapting the references to the OSCOLA

vi Acknowledgements style guide. Sabine Gerber did a wonderful job in coordinating the different activities and supporting me on the administrative front. Without her valuable work, this book could not have been written besides all my other obligations. Finally, I am grateful to Oxford University Press for having accepted this contribution to the EU Law Library Series and for having accompanied the production process diligently. Once my literary ‘baby’ is born, it will be up to readers to receive it as a new player in the world of migration law and policy. Any kind of feedback is welcome (daniel.thym@uni-​konstanz.de). The highly dynamic nature of this object of analysis calls for a reasonably swift second edition for sure. Konstanz February 2023

Summary Contents Table of Cases  Table of EU Legislation  List of Abbreviations  Introduction 

xxi xxxi xliii 1

PA RT I   OV E R A R C H I N G T H E M E S 1. Building an Area of Freedom, Security, and Justice 

13

2. Institutional Prerogatives and Decision-​making 

42

3. Court of Justice: Achievements and Limitations 

69

4. Interdisciplinary Perspectives and Methodology 

96

5. Human Rights and State Sovereignty 

122

6. Doctrinal Foundations of the Case Law 

150

7. Administrative Dimension 

172

8. Agencies (Frontex and Asylum Agency) 

197

9. Databases 

223

PA RT I I   SE C T O R A L L E G I SL AT IO N A N D P O L IC I E S 10. General Features of EU Legislation 

253

11. Visa Policy 

280

12. Border Controls 

301

13. Common European Asylum System 

337

14. Legal Migration 

427

15. Integration and Settlement 

469

16. Irregular Presence and Return 

505

17. Association Agreements with Neighbours 

550

18. International Cooperation with Third States 

570

Bibliography  Index 

597 635

Contents Table of Cases  Table of EU Legislation  List of Abbreviations  Introduction: European Migration Law as a Field of Inquiry 

xxi xxxi xliii 1

PA RT I   OV E R A R C H I N G T H E M E S 1. Building an Area of Freedom, Security, and Justice  1.1 From International to EU Migration Law 

13 14



1.2 Towards Distinct Policies for Third Country Nationals 

24



1.3 Distinguishing Union Citizenship from Third Country Nationals 

33



1.4 Summary 

40



1.1.1 Parallelism of emigration, imperialism, and tourism  1.1.2 Migration law as a by-​product of state formation  1.1.3 Towards international protection for refugees  1.1.4 Prehistory of EU rules on labour migration  1.1.5 Free movement within the single market  1.1.6 Colonial migration: the downside of free movement  1.1.7 Theoretical ambiguity of Union citizenship 



1.2.1 ‘Schengen’: compensatory logic  1.2.2 Treaty of Maastricht: fragile intergovernmental cooperation  1.2.3 Treaty of Amsterdam: gradual supranationalisation  1.2.4 Treaty of Lisbon: autonomy of migration law  1.2.5 European Council: political programming  1.2.6 Public discourse between ‘fortress Europe’ and ‘common values’ 



1.3.1 Primary law: open-​ended Treaty objectives  1.3.2 Legislative leeway within the confines of human rights  1.3.3 Overlap with Union citizenship  1.3.4 Tipping points in the legislative process 

14 16 17 18 20 20 22 24 26 27 29 29 31 34 35 37 39

2. Institutional Prerogatives and Decision-​making  2.1 Driving Forces behind Europeanisation 

42 42



49



2.1.1 The choice for Schengen as an example  2.1.2 Continuity of mixed results in migration policy  2.1.3 From ‘permissive consensus’ to ‘constraining dissensus’  2.1.4 The danger of institutional blockage 

2.2 Influence on the Policy Output 

2.2.1 Commission  2.2.1.1 Civil servants between expertise and politics  2.2.1.2 Technocratic posture on migration law  2.2.2 European Council  2.2.3 Council 

43 44 46 47 49 49 50 51 52

x Contents 2.2.3.1 The ‘backroom’: working parties of national civil servants  2.2.3.2 Consensus culture in the shadow of majority voting  2.2.4 European Parliament  2.2.4.1 Committees as the ‘engines’ of parliamentary impact  2.2.4.2 Shifting positions on migration law 

52 53 54 55 55



2.3 Interinstitutional Practices 

56



2.4 Differentiated Integration: Opt-​outs after Brexit 

63



2.5 Summary 

67



2.3.1 Treaty change: limited relevance  2.3.2 Secondary legislation: prevalence of informal ‘trilogues’  2.3.3 Curtailment of delegated and implementing acts  2.3.4 Ancillary role of ‘soft law’  2.3.5 International cooperation: side-​effects of informalisation  2.3.6 Private actors: a democratic virtue for migration law? 



2.4.1 Denmark: the long shadow of the referenda  2.4.2 Ireland: relic of British reticence 

56 57 58 59 60 61 64 65

3. Court of Justice: Achievements and Limitations  3.1 Influence of the Court Architecture 

69 69



3.2 Constitutional Authority of the Supranational Judiciary 

74



3.3 Access to and Output in the Area of Migration 

79



3.4 Alternative Accountability Mechanisms 

90



3.5 Summary 

94



3.1.1 Collective and multi-​lingual adjudication  3.1.2 Horizontal outlook beyond migration law  3.1.3 Frontex, Asylum Agency, and the pitfalls of specialised tribunals  3.1.4 Non-​governmental organisations and the limits of third party intervention 



3.2.1 Reputation of ‘constitutional imagination’  3.2.2 Migration law: ‘administrative mindset’  3.2.3 Interaction with the legislature 

3.3.1 Validity disputes  3.3.1.1 Direct actions by individuals on migratory matters  3.3.1.2 Privileged access by the EU institutions  3.3.2 Infringement proceedings  3.3.2.1 Importance of the pre-​litigation stage  3.3.2.2 Changing dynamics in migration law  3.3.3 Preliminary references  3.3.3.1 Stark discrepancies between the Member States  3.3.3.2 Carrots and sticks for loyal cooperation  3.3.3.3 Between micromanagement and vagueness  3.3.4 ‘Demand’ side  3.3.4.1 Thematic asymmetries in migration law  3.3.4.2 Strategic litigation to the benefit of migrants 

3.4.1 Accountability for wrongdoing beyond courts  3.4.2 Ombudspersons as vehicles of administrative control  3.4.3 Financial and managerial accountability  3.4.4 Political oversight by parliaments  3.4.5 Access to documents as a source of public debates 

70 71 72 73 75 76 77 79 79 80 80 81 81 83 83 85 86 87 87 89 90 91 92 93 94

Contents  xi

4. Interdisciplinary Perspectives and Methodology  4.1 Drivers of Migratory Movements 

4.1.1 Numerous ‘push’ and ‘pull’ factors  4.1.2 Migration as a process over time  4.1.3 Intermediate level: networks, regimes, and infrastructures  4.1.4 Continuum of ‘voluntary’ and ‘forced’ migration 



4.2.1 Normative background: the open borders debate  4.2.2 Explaining the ‘control gap’: the liberal paradox  4.2.3 Public opinion and intergroup threat perceptions  4.2.4 Multiple actors of migration governance  4.2.5 Individual migrant agency 



4.3.1 Starting point: Foucault and constructivism  4.3.2 ‘Labels’ as a means of government  4.3.3 Language between ‘abuse’, ‘crisis’, and ‘normality’  4.3.4 Securitisation versus rights-​based approach 



4.4.1 Academic discourse: from enthusiasm to scepticism  4.4.2 Between ‘black letter’ and doctrinal constructivism  4.4.3 Interdisciplinary and critical approaches 

96 96

97 99 101 102



4.2 Significance of State Measures 

103



4.3 Law as an Instrument of Government 

110



4.4 Legal Methodology between Doctrine and Critique 

115



4.5 Summary 

120

5. Human Rights and State Sovereignty  5.1 ‘Aliens Law’ as Protection qua Nationality 

5.1.1 Historic minimum standards as inter-​state obligations  5.1.2 Limited impact of the conventions of the Council of Europe  5.1.3 Reduction of statelessness as a legal obligation 



5.2.1 Individual guarantees for ‘everyone’  5.2.2 Hanna Arendt and the ‘right to have rights’  5.2.3 Normative counterweight to state sovereignty 



5.3.1 Judicial dynamism in the field of migration  5.3.2 Focus on general principles and the Grand Chamber  5.3.3 Interaction with EU law 



5.4.1 More generous protection  5.4.2 Rights of the child as an example  5.4.3 EU not a ‘human rights organisation’  5.4.4 Limited scope of application of the Charter 



5.5.1 Plethora of human rights treaty bodies  5.5.2 Potential source of dynamism in the field of migration  5.5.3 Special rapporteurs and diplomatic initiatives  5.5.4 Global Compacts for Migration and on Refugees 



5.6.1 Interaction with Union law  5.6.2 Supporting role in the judicial practice  5.6.3 Practical priority of human rights 

104 105 106 107 109 110 111 112 114 115 116 118

122 123

123 124 126



5.2 Human Rights qua Personhood 

127



5.3 Lead Function of the European Convention 

130



5.4 Added Value of the Charter 

134



5.5 Complementary Role of International Bodies and Political Fora 

139



5.6 Refugee Convention: Distant Lodestar 

143



5.7 Summary 

148

127 128 129 130 132 133 134 135 136 137 139 140 141 142 143 145 147

xii Contents

6. Doctrinal Foundations of the Case Law  6.1 ‘Legal Order’ as Doctrinal Self-​sufficiency  6.2 The Promise and Limits of Coherence 

150 150 152



6.3 Constitutional Essentials in Migration Law 

155



6.4 Pitfalls of the Interpretative Exercise 

158



6.5 Individual Rights of Migrants 

163



6.6 Practical Tips for Dealing with the Case Law  6.7 Summary 

169 170

7. Administrative Dimension  7.1 European Migration Law as a Composite System 

172 173



7.2 National Procedural Autonomy and Its Limits 

179



7.3 Transnational Effects of Horizontal Cooperation 

187



7.4 Money as a Means of Governance  7.5 Summary 

191 195



6.2.1 Legislative fragmentation  6.2.2 Vision of an ‘immigration code’  6.2.3 Interpretative approximation 



6.3.1 Direct effect and primacy as an everyday practice  6.3.2 No categorical distinction between directives and regulations  6.3.3 Subsidiarity as political preference 



6.4.1 Multilingualism of EU migration law  6.4.2 Revival of the drafting history  6.4.3 Indeterminacy of teleological interpretation  6.4.4 Autonomous concepts and their limits  6.4.5 Effet utile as a useful doctrinal tool 

6.5.1 Individual rights enshrined in legislation  6.5.2 Added valued in comparison to human rights  6.5.3 Ambiguous Court practice on the Charter  6.5.3.1 Interpretation in conformity with human rights  6.5.3.2 Silence or vagueness on the Charter  6.5.4 Scope of the right to an effective remedy 



7.1.1 Conceptual vagueness of ‘areas’ and ‘systems’  7.1.2 Multiplicity of actors at different levels  7.1.3 Operational character of asylum and border controls  7.1.4 Diverse avenues of inter-​state cooperation 

7.2.1 The many faces of procedural harmonisation  7.2.2 Effectiveness as a corrective vehicle  7.2.2.1 Court practice on migration law  7.2.2.2 Time limits as a test case  7.2.3 Fundamental right to an effective remedy  7.2.3.1 Availability of legal remedies  7.2.3.2 Scope of judicial oversight  7.2.3.3 Suspensive effect and legal assistance  7.2.4 Good administration  7.2.4.1 Giving reasons and right to be heard  7.2.4.2 Consequences of procedural deficits 

7.3.1 Visas and databases: rules in secondary legislation  7.3.2 Entry bans: failure of inter-​state consultation  7.3.3 Intra-​EU mobility: ‘golden visas’ as an abusive practice? 

152 153 154 155 156 157 158 159 160 162 163 164 164 166 166 166 168

173 175 176 177 179 180 181 182 182 183 183 184 185 185 186 188 189 191

Contents  xiii

8. Agencies (Frontex and Asylum Agency)  8.1 Theory and Policy Design 

197 198



8.2 Constitutional Foundations 

203



8.3 Frontex: Institutional Muscle Formation 

207



8.4 Asylum Agency: Latecomer with Subtle Influence 

211



8.5 Accountability for Wrongdoing 

214



8.6 Summary 

221



8.1.1 Elusive vision of administrative centralisation  8.1.2 The choice for Frontex and the Asylum Office  8.1.3 Formal expansion of the mandates  8.1.4 Exponential growth in practice 



8.2.1 Involvement in administrative decision-​making  8.2.2 ‘Meroni’ doctrine: no decisive hurdle  8.2.3 Territorial scope 



8.3.1 Operational powers  8.3.2 Supervision of the Member States  8.3.3 Cooperation with third states  8.3.4 Eurosur and procurement of equipment 



8.4.1 Information gathering and practical guidance  8.4.2 Operational support in ‘hotpots’ and beyond  8.4.3 Supervision and international cooperation 



8.5.1 Legislative provisions on agency involvement  8.5.2 Institutional governance  8.5.3 Legal remedies for composite procedures 

198 200 201 202 203 205 206 207 208 209 210 211 212 214 215 217 218

9. Databases  9.1 Theory and Policy Design 

223 224



9.2 Constitutional Foundations 

227



9.3 An Overview of Migration Databases 

230



9.4 Prospect of Interoperability and Artificial Intelligence 

236



9.5 Respect for Data Protection Standards 

243



9.6 Summary 

248



9.1.1 Information technology as ‘invisible’ infrastructure  9.1.2 ‘Function creep’ over three decades 



9.2.1 Supranational competences  9.2.2 Decentralised network structure  9.2.3 Territorial scope 



9.3.1 Schengen Information System (SIS)  9.3.2 Eurodac  9.3.3 Visa Information System (VIS)  9.3.4 Travel authorisation (ETIAS)  9.3.5 Entry/​Exit System (EES) 



9.4.1 From support to automated processing  9.4.2 Quality concerns and implementation deficits  9.4.3 The spectre of ‘interoperability’ 



9.5.1 Principles of data protection  9.5.2 Core elements of the human rights assessment  9.5.3 Preventive and reactive supervision 

224 225 227 228 228 230 232 233 234 236 237 239 241 243 244 247

xiv Contents

PA RT I I   SE C T O R A L L E G I SL AT IO N A N D P O L IC I E S 10. General Features of EU Legislation  10.1 Acquisition of Residence Permits 

253 254



10.2 Sufficient Resources Requirement  10.3 Public Policy Exception 

257 258



10.4 Equal Treatment as a Constitutional Guarantee 

262



10.5 Proportionality 

267



10.6 More Favourable Domestic Rules 

270





10.1.1 Of ‘residence permits’ and ‘visas’  10.1.2 Constitutive state authorisation  10.1.3 Fee levels  10.3.1 Overlap with Union citizenship  10.3.2 Sector-​specific outcomes 

10.4.1 Human rights instead of Union citizenship  10.4.2 Different scrutiny levels in the judicial practice  10.4.3 Distinctions based on migration status  10.4.4 Racial and ethnic discrimination  10.5.1 Context-​specific outcomes  10.5.2 Abstract or individual assessment?  10.6.1 Identification of mandatory provisions  10.6.2 Different patterns in secondary legislation 

10.7 Exceptional Non-​Compliance (Article 72 TFEU)  10.8 Abusive Practices  10.9 Practical Tips for Dealing with Legislation  10.10 Summary 

254 255 256 259 260 262 264 265 266 267 269 270 271

273 275 276 278

11. Visa Policy  11.1 Theory and Policy Design  11.2 Constitutional Foundations 

280 281 282



11.3 Visa Requirements 

283



11.4 Visa Procedure 

288



11.5 Special Case: Humanitarian Visas  11.6 Other Pre-​arrival Measures 

294 295



11.7 Summary 

299



11.2.1 Supranational competences  11.2.2 Territorial scope  11.3.1 Rationale behind ‘black’ and ‘white’ lists  11.3.2 Visa liberalisation as a bargaining chip  11.3.3 Reciprocity in relations with third states  11.4.1 Admission criteria  11.4.2 Application procedure  11.4.3 Decision and legal remedies  11.4.4 Visa format  11.4.5 Inter-​state cooperation  11.6.1 Carrier sanctions  11.6.2 Export of visa policy to transit countries  11.6.3 Liaison officers abroad 

282 282 283 285 287 288 290 291 292 292 295 297 298

Contents  xv

12. Border Controls  12.1 Theory and Policy Design 

301 302



12.2 Constitutional Foundations 

305



12.3 Schengen Governance 

311



12.4 Internal Movements within the Schengen Area 

316



12.5 External Controls at Crossing Points 

324



12.6 Surveillance of the External Borders 

328



12.7 Document Security  12.8 Summary 

334 335



12.1.1 Symbolic weight of borders  12.1.2 Incomplete ‘territorialisation’ of the EU  12.1.3 Towards a new ‘culture’ of border controls 

12.2.1 Supranational competences  12.2.2 Extraterritorial reach of human rights  12.2.3 Search and rescue at sea  12.2.4 Rejection at the border  12.2.4.1 Right to asylum and prohibition of refoulement  12.2.4.2 Prohibition of collective expulsion  12.2.5 Territorial scope 

12.3.1 Membership and phased implementation  12.3.2 Crises and reform efforts  12.3.3 Scope of the ‘Schengen acquis’ 

12.4.1 Circulation of third country nationals  12.4.1.1 Free travel for short stays  12.4.1.2 Secondary movements of asylum applicants  12.4.2 Internal border controls  12.4.2.1 Requirements for temporary reintroduction  12.4.2.2 Extensive and illegal state practice  12.4.3 Police checks in border areas 

12.5.1 Entry conditions  12.5.2 Checks on persons  12.5.3 Refusal of entry and legal remedies  12.5.4 Local border traffic 

12.6.1 Land borders  12.6.2 Interaction with asylum law  12.6.3 Sea borders  12.6.3.1 Sea Borders Regulation  12.6.3.2 Basic procedural safeguards 

302 303 304

305 306 308 309 309 310 311 312 313 315 317 317 318 319 319 320 322 324 325 327 328 329 330 331 332 333

13. Common European Asylum System  13.1 Theory and Policy Design 

337 338



349



13.1.1 A history of half-​hearted commitment  13.1.2 Early years of intergovernmental cooperation  13.1.3 First and second phase of harmonisation  13.1.4 Policy crisis of 2015/​16  13.1.5 Elusive reform efforts  13.1.6 Geopolitics enter the political equation  13.1.7 Structural deficits and their fallout 



13.2.1 Supranational competences 

13.2 Constitutional Foundations 

338 339 341 342 344 345 347 349

xvi Contents 13.2.2 Prohibition of refoulement  13.2.3 Right to asylum  13.2.3.1 Article 18 CFR  13.2.3.2 Protocol on Union citizens  13.2.4 Solidarity (Article 80 TFEU)  13.2.5 Territorial scope 

351 353 353 354 355 357



13.3 Asylum Jurisdiction 

357



13.4 Asylum Procedures 

372



13.5 Refugee Status 

386



13.6 Subsidiary and Complementary Protection 

400



13.3.1 Origin of the first entry rule  13.3.2 Futile quest for solidarity  13.3.3 Hierarchy of the substantive criteria  13.3.4 Scope and procedure  13.3.5 Take charge/​back requests  13.3.6 Mutual trust and its limits  13.3.7 Secondary movements and the transfer of jurisdiction 

13.4.1 Access to the procedure  13.4.2 Personal interview and individualised assessment  13.4.3 Sixfold procedural differentiation  13.4.3.1 Asylum jurisdiction and admissibility  13.4.3.2 Regular and accelerated examination  13.4.3.3 Subsequent applications and withdrawal  13.4.4 Border procedures  13.4.5 Safe countries  13.4.5.1 Safe countries of origin and common lists  13.4.5.2 Rebuttal of the presumption of safety  13.4.5.3 Controversies about safe third countries  13.4.6 Legal remedies  13.4.7 Recurring ‘vision’: external processing  13.5.1 Preventing disparate recognition quotas  13.5.2 Standards and burden of proof  13.5.3 Notion of persecution  13.5.3.1 Severe violation of basic human rights  13.5.3.2 Refugees sur place and family members  13.5.3.3 Poverty  13.5.3.4 Climate change  13.5.4 Actors of protection  13.5.4.1 Home state and international organisations  13.5.4.2 Internal protection alternative  13.5.5 Reasons for persecution  13.5.5.1 Membership of a particular social group  13.5.5.2 Refusal to perform military service  13.5.6 Exclusion and cessation  13.5.6.1 Palestinian refugees  13.5.6.2 Terrorism and other serious crime  13.5.6.3 Change of circumstance in the home state 

13.6.1 Added value of Europeanisation  13.6.2 Protection against indiscriminate violence  13.6.3 Other scenarios: divergence from human rights 

358 360 362 364 365 368 370 373 374 376 376 377 378 379 381 381 382 383 384 385 387 388 390 390 392 392 393 394 394 395 396 396 397 398 398 399 400 400 401 403

Contents  xvii

13.6.4 ‘Complementary’ protection under national laws 

403



13.7 Temporary Protection 

405



13.8 Reception Conditions for Asylum Applicants 

410



13.9 Rights of Beneficiaries of International Protection 

415



13.7.1 Rationale behind blanket recognition  13.7.2 Conditions and contents of temporary protection  13.7.3 Interaction with EU migration law  13.8.1 Protracted differences between the Member States  13.8.2 Living conditions and other guarantees  13.8.3 Restrictions and human rights compliance  13.8.4 Right to remain and ‘fiction of non-​entry’  13.9.1 Limits of equal treatment  13.9.2 Specific guarantees  13.9.3 Free movement and option of ‘uniform status’  13.9.4 Refugees without protection status 

405 406 408 410 411 412 414 415 416 417 418



13.10 Resettlement and Other Legal Pathways 

420



13.11 Summary 

424



13.10.1 Soft side of asylum policy  13.10.2 EU resettlement framework  13.10.3 Other protracted entry procedures 

420 421 423

14. Legal Migration  14.1 Theory and Policy Design 

427 428



14.2 Constitutional Foundations 

435



14.3 Family Reunification 

440



14.4 Skilled Labour Migration 

448



14.1.1 ‘Guest workers’ outside the reach of EU institutions  14.1.2 Family bonds as a critical gateway  14.1.3 Globalisation and the ‘battle’ over labour migration  14.1.4 Sectoral approach to economic migration  14.1.5 Limits of Europeanisation  14.1.6 Effects on the welfare state  14.2.1 Supranational competences  14.2.2 National prerogatives for labour migration  14.2.3 Human rights, family life, and rights of the child  14.2.4 Territorial scope 

14.3.1 EU citizens and their family members  14.3.2 Scope of the Family Reunification Directive  14.3.2.1 Limitation to the nuclear family  14.3.2.2 Optional clauses  14.3.3 Conditions under the Directive  14.3.4 Procedure and rights of family members  14.3.5 Beneficiaries of international protection  14.4.1 Regulatory toolbox and driving forces beyond the law  14.4.2 Blue Card Directive  14.4.2.1 Personal and thematic scope  14.4.2.2 Procedure and rights of blue card holders  14.4.3 Students and Researchers Directive  14.4.3.1 Students as ‘ideal immigrants’  14.4.3.2 Delegation of responsibility to research organisations 

428 429 431 432 433 434 436 437 438 439 440 443 443 444 445 445 447

448 450 450 452 453 453 454

xviii Contents

14.4.4 Single Permit Directive  14.4.5 Vexed issue of intra-​European mobility 



14.5.1 Posted workers in the single market  14.5.2 GATS and other trade agreements  14.5.3 Inter-​Corporate Transfers Directive  14.5.4 Seasonal Workers Directive  14.5.5 Legal pathways for economic purposes 

455 456



14.5 Temporary Economic Activities 

458



14.6 Summary 

466

459 460 461 463 464

15. Integration and Settlement  15.1 Theory and Policy Design 

469 470



15.2 Constitutional Foundations 

476



15.3 Equality Provisions in Secondary Legislation 

479



15.4 Mandatory Integration Requirements 

487



15.5 Other Integration Measures  15.6 Long-​Term Residents Directive 

492 494



15.7 Acquisition of Nationality 

498



15.8 Summary 

503



15.1.1 From ‘denizenship’ to citizenship  15.1.2 Models of migrant integration  15.1.3 Disputes over the direction of EU migration law  15.1.4 Status change in multiple directions  15.1.5 Mixed output in migration law and beyond 



15.2.1 Scope of supranational competences  15.2.2 Human rights protection against expulsion  15.2.3 Territorial scope 

15.3.1 Complexity of the legislative framework  15.3.2 Overarching doctrinal characteristics  15.3.3 Social security other benefits  15.3.3.1 Exclusion from social assistance and advantages  15.3.3.2 Human rights compliance  15.3.4 Disparate effects of equal treatment  15.3.5 Distinctions between refugees and subsidiary protection 

15.4.1 Proliferation and significance of domestic laws  15.4.2 Supranational legal framework  15.4.3 Judicial endorsement, subject to a caveat 



15.6.1 Independence from the original purpose  15.6.2 Scope and conditions  15.6.3 Procedure and loss 



15.7.1 Conceptual lacuna of EU migration law  15.7.2 Member State prerogatives and their limits under EU law  15.7.3 ‘Golden passport’ schemes 

470 472 473 474 475 477 477 478 479 481 482 482 484 484 486 488 489 491 494 496 497 499 500 502

16. Irregular Presence and Return  16.1 Theory and Policy Design 

505 505



509



16.1.1 Beyond binary conceptions of (il)legality  16.1.2 Relentless search for effectiveness  16.1.3 Contrasting policy dynamics 

16.2 Constitutional Foundations 

506 507 508

Contents  xix

16.2.1 Supranational competences  16.2.2 Detention in conformity with human rights  16.2.3 Human rights of those irregularly present  16.2.4 Territorial scope 



16.3.1 Prosecution of ‘smuggling’  16.3.2 Intimidation of search and rescue  16.3.3 Limits for criminal sanctions  16.3.4 Victims of trafficking  16.3.5 Employer sanctions 



16.4.1 Refusal for different reasons  16.4.2 Entry bans under the Return Directive 



16.5.1 Reasons for illegal stay  16.5.2 Exceptions from the scope  16.5.3 Return decision  16.5.4 Voluntary departure and removal  16.5.5 Limbo of ‘non-​removable’ returnees 



16.6.1 Mutual recognition of expulsion decisions  16.6.2 Cooperation between the Member States  16.6.3 Return to other Member States  16.6.4 Readmission agreements with third states 

510 511 513 514



16.3 Criminalisation of Illegal Entry and Stay 

514



16.4 Bans on Entry and Stay 

524



16.5 Structure of the Return Directive 

526



16.6 Inter-​state Cooperation 

533



16.7 Detention 

539



16.8 Regularisation  16.9 Summary 

546 547

16.7.1 Delimitation of EU legislation  16.7.2 Grounds for detention  16.7.2.1 Risk of absconding  16.7.2.2 Other criteria for asylum seekers  16.7.2.3 Additional grounds for returnees  16.7.3 Alternatives and length  16.7.4 Conditions of detention 

515 517 518 520 522 524 525 527 528 528 530 532 534 535 536 537 539 540 541 542 543 544 545

17. Association Agreements with Neighbours  17.1 Constitutional Foundations 

550 551



17.2 ‘Best friends’: European Economic Area and Switzerland 

555



17.3 United Kingdom: Reversed Dynamics 

559



17.4 Turkey: ‘Consolation Prize’ with Much Practical Effects 

561



17.1.1 Supranational competences  17.1.2 Status in the EU legal order  17.1.3 Interpretative parallelism and its limits 



17.2.1 Free movement of persons  17.2.2 Membership in Schengen and Dublin  17.2.3 Micro states and Gibraltar 



17.3.1 Acquired rights of (former) Union citizens  17.3.2 Sovereign control over future movements 



17.4.1 Turkish nationals residing in the Member States  17.4.2 ‘Standstill’ as dynamism for first admission 

551 552 553 555 557 558 559 560 561 563

xx Contents

17.5 Western Balkans: Pre-​accession Guarantees 

564



17.6 Neighbourhood: Novel Focus on Migration Control 

566



17.7 Summary 

568



17.5.1 Former agreements and transitional periods  17.5.2 Limited impact of contemporary agreements 



17.6.1 Eastern partnership: pragmatic cooperation  17.6.2 Union for the Mediterranean: hotbed of control practices 

564 565 566 567

18. International Cooperation with Third States  18.1 Theory and Policy Design 

570 571



18.2 Constitutional Foundations 

577



18.3 Externalisation of Control Practices 

581



18.4 Development Cooperation and Legal Pathways 

588



18.5 Summary 

595



18.1.1 ‘Migration management’ as an overarching narrative  18.1.2 A short history of the EU’s strategic vision  18.1.3 Trial and error of external migration policy  18.1.4 Give and take in the mutual interest 



18.2.1 Supranational competences  18.2.2 Spread of informal cooperation frameworks 



18.3.1 A recurring theme in the policy discourse  18.3.2 Conditionality: ‘carrots and sticks’ for cooperation  18.3.3 Capacity building and operational cooperation  18.3.4 EU involvement via Frontex and CSDP missions 



18.4.1 Contextual complexity of the migration-​development nexus  18.4.2 Financial support for multiple purposes  18.4.3 Refugee protection in the Global South  18.4.4 From ‘mobility’ to ‘talent’ partnerships 

Bibliography  Index 

571 573 575 576 578 579 581 583 586 587 589 590 591 593

597 635

Table of Cases COURT OF JUSTICE 1/​03 [Opinion] Lugano Convention EU:C:2006:81�������������������������������������������������������������������������� 574n.25 1/​13 [Opinion] Accession of Third States to the Hague Convention EU:C:2014:2303������������������ 578n.44 1/​15 [Opinion] Draft Agreement between Canada and the EU EU:C:2017:592 ��������� 239n.84, 239n.87, 244n.121, 245–​46 1/​17 [Opinion] EU-​Canada CETA-​Agreement EU:C:2019:341 ���������������������������������������������������� 262n.69 1/​19 [Opinion] Istanbul Convention EU:C:2021:832���������������������������������������������������������������������� 579n.51 1/​91 [Opinion] EEA I EU:C:1991:490���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 553n.18 2/​13 [Opinion] Accession to the ECHR EU:C:2014:2454���������������������������������������������������������������� 133n.56 2/​15 [Opinion] EU-​Singapore FTA EU:C:2017:376������������������������������������������������������������������������ 579n.50 2/​94 [Opinion] Accession to the ECHR EU:C:1996:140������������������������������������������������������ 83n.66, 86n.81 C-​4/​11 Puid EU:C:2013:740 �������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 164n.74 6/​64 Costa v ENEL EU:C:1964:66�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 150n.1 C-​8/​15 P to C-​10/​15 P Ledra Advertising v Commission and ECB EU:C:2016:701��������������������220n.142 C-​8/​20 LR EU:C:2021:404������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 558n.52 C-​9/​16 A EU:C:2017:483����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������268n.105, 323, 323n.151 9/​56 Meroni EU:C:1958:7 ����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 56n.83, 203, 205–​6 12/​86 Demirel EU:C:1987:400��������������������������������������������������������������������������������550n.1, 551–​52, 563n.90 C-​13/​01 Safalero EU:C:2003:447 ����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������219n.129 C-​14/​09 Genc EU:C:2010:57�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 554n.22 C-​14/​21 and C-​15/​21 Sea Watch EU:C:2022:604����������������������������������������������308n.51, 309n.57, 517–​18 C-​15/​11 Sommer EU:C:2012:371����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������454n.174 C-​16/​05 Tum and Dari EU:C:2007:530�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 563n.92 C-​17/​16 El Dakkak and Intercontinental EU:C:2017:341��������������������������������������������������������������327n.180 C-​18/​16 K EU:C:2017:680������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 512n.37, 542n.268, 544n.283 C-​18/​19 Stadt Frankfurt am Main EU:C:2020:511����������� 159n.44, 163n.70, 259n.42, 273n.146, 546n.312 C-​18/​20 Bundesamt für Fremdenwesen und Asyl EU:C:2021:710������������������������������������ 379n.306, n.308 C-​19/​08 Petrosian EU:C:2009:41 ����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������367n.205 C-​19/​21 Staatssecretaris van Justitie en Veiligheid EU:C:2022:605��������������������������������������������������������169 C-​20/​12 Giersch and others EU:C:2013:411�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 518n.80 C-​22/​08 and C-​23/​08 Vatsouras and Koupatantze EU:C:2009:344������������������������������������������������ 262n.69 C-​23/​12 Zakaria EU:C:2013:24 �������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 138n.93, 327n.183 25/​62 Plaumann EU:C:1963:17������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 79–​80 26/​62 van Gend en Loos EU:C:1963:1���������������������������������������������������������������18n.26, 122n.1, 150n.1, 356 C-​27/​04 Commission v Council EU:C:2004:436�������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 80n.45 30/​77 Bouchereau EU:C:1977:172 ���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 260n.50 C-​31/​09 Bolbol EU:C:2010:351��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������398n.434 33/​76 Rewe-​Zentralfinanz EU:C:1976:188���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 181n.35 C-​36/​17 Ahmed EU:C:2017:273������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 364n.180, 377n.279 C-​38/​14 Zaizoune EU:C:2015:260 ������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������519 C-​40/​11 Iida EU:C:2012:2405������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 37n.157, 496n.189 41/​74 Van Duyn EU:C:1974:133�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 260n.51 C-​44/​14 Spain v Parliament and Council EU:C:2015:554 �������������������������������������������������������������� 65n.137 C-​45/​07 Commission v Greece EU:C:2009:81 ��������������������������������������������������������������������������������144n.121 C-​47/​15 Affum EU:C:2016:408�������������������������������������������������������518n.79, 519n.90, 528n.159, 536n.220 C-​47/​17 and C-​48/​17 X and X EU:C:2018:900�������������������������������������������������������������� 161n.61, 367n.202 48/​75 Royer EU:C:1976:57������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 255n.11 C-​51/​03 Georgescu EU:C:2004:200������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 83n.68 C-​56/​17 Fathi EU:C:2018:803������������������������������������������������������������������������� 364n.182, 389–​90, 391n.390

xxii  Table of Cases C-​57/​09 and 101/​09 B and D EU:C:2010:661 �������������������������� 271n.125, 272n.139, 399n.447, 399n.449 C-​60/​16 Khir Amayry EU:C:2017:675����������������������������������������������������������������������������� 540n.249, 544–​45 C-​61/​11 PPU El Dridi EU:C:2011:268�����������������161n.63, 519, 519n.82, 530n.175, 530n.177, 544n.284 C-​63/​09 Walz EU:C:2010:251����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������144n.127 C-​63/​15 Ghezelbash EU:C:2016:409���������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 161n.61, 164n.75 C-​64/​96 and C-​65/​96 Uecker and Jacquet EU:C:1997:285�������������������������������������������������������������� 442n.87 C-​66/​21 Staatssecretaris van Justitie en Veiligheid EU:C:2022:809��������������������������������������521n.105, 522 C-​67/​14 Alimanovic EU:C:2015:597 ����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������269n.115 C-​68/​89 Commission v Netherlands EU:C:1991:226����������������������������������������������������������������������326n.173 C-​69/​10 Samba Diouf EU:C:2011:524���������������������������������������� 182n.45, 219n.129, 269n.112, 374n.260 C-​70/​09 Hengartner and Gasser EU:C:2010:430������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 556n.39 C-​70/​18 A and others EU:C:2019:823��������������������������������������������������������������������245, 245n.124, 246n.134 72/​83 Campus Oil EU:C:1984:256 ���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 260n.53 C-​77/​05 United Kingdom v Council EU:C:2007:803����������������������������������������������������������������������������������66 C-​79/​13 Saciri and others EU:C:2014:103�������������������������������������������������������������������� 412n.532, 413n.542 C-​81/​13 United Kingdom v Council EU:C:2014:2449���������������������������������������������������������������������� 436n.53 C-​82/​16, KA and others EU:C:2018:308�������������������������������������������37n.157, 259n.42, 442n.91, 526n.145 C-​83/​12 PPU Minh Khao Vo EU:C:2012:202 ���������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 188n.83 C-​83/​14 CHEZ Razpredelenie Bulgaria EU:C:2015:480����������������������������������������������������������������266n.100 C-​84/​12 Koushkaki EU:C:2013:862 ��������������������������������������������������162n.67, 163n.69, 255n.10, 261n.65, 271n.127, 289n.59, 290n.61, 292n.84 C-​85/​96 Martínez Sala EU:C:1998:217 �������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 155n.21 C-​86/​12 Alopka and Moudoulou EU:C:2013:645���������������������������������������������������������������������������� 442n.93 C-​88/​14 Commission v Parliament and Council EU:C:2015:499������������������������������������������������������ 59n.95 C-​89/​18 A EU:C:2019:580������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 564n.97 90/​63 and 91/​63 Commission v Luxembourg and Belgium EU:C:1964:80������������������������������������ 156n.26 C-​91/​05 Commission v Council EU:C:2008:288������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 579n.49 C-​91/​20 Bundesrepublik Deutschland EU:C:2021:898�������������� 146n.137, 160n.49, 271n.130, 391n.385 C-​94/​20 Land Oberösterreich EU:C:2021:477�������������������������������138n.91, 266n.101, 483n.94, 484n.100 C-​95/​99–​C-​98/​99 and C-​180/​99 Khalil EU:C:2001:532 ���������������������������������������������������������������� 262n.69 C-​97/​91 Oleificio Borelli v Commission EU:C:1992:491����������������������������������������������������������������220n.135 98/​80 Romano EU:C:1981:104 ���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 205n.39 C-​101/​13 U EU:C:2014:2249�������������������������������������������������������������������������� 111n.81, 245n.124, 334n.220 C-​105/​15 P to C-​109/​15 P Mallis and Malli v Commission and ECB EU:C:2016:702�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 218n.124, 220n.137 106/​77 Simmenthal EU:C:1978:49���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 155n.22 C-​109/​01 Akrich EU:C:2003:491������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 441n.83 C-​112/​20 État belge EU:C:2021:197������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������533n.197 C-​113/​89 Rush Portuguesa EU:C:1990:142������������������������������������������������������������������������������������459n.206 C-​118/​20 Wiener Landesregierung EU:C:2022:34�����������������������������������������������������������������������������������501 C-​123/​17 Yön EU:C:2018:632�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 563n.93, 564n.97 C-​127/​08 Metock EU:C:2008:449������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 441n.83 C-​129/​18 SM EU:C:2019:248 �������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 136n.76, 443n.99 C-​130/​08 Commission v Greece EU:C:2008:854����������������������������������������������������������������������������365n.194 C-​131/​12 Google Spain SL and Google Inc EU:C:2014:317 ����������������������������������������������������������243n.115 C-​133/​06 Parliament v Council EU:C:2008:257 �������������������������������������������������������������� 58n.89, 382n.324 C-​133/​19, C-​136/​19 and C-​137/​19 État belge EU:C:2020:577 ��������� 161n.59, 162n.68, 167n.91, 448n.130 C-​135/​08 Rottmann EU:C:2010:104���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������269–​70, 500–​1 C-​137/​05 United Kingdom v Council EU:C:2007:805���������������������������������������������������������������������� 66n.148 C-​138/​13 Dogan EU:C:2014:2066 ���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 563n.95 139/​85 Kempf EU:C:1986:223������������������������������