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OXFORD EU LAW LIBRARY General Editors ROBERT SCHÜTZE Professor of European and Global Law, Durham Law School and Co-Director, Global Policy Institute, Durham Law School PIET EECKHOUT Professor of EU Law and Dean of the Faculty of Laws, UCL, and Academic Director of the European Institute
European Migration Law
OX F O R D E U L AW L I B R A RY The aim of the series is to publish important and original studies of the various branches of EU law. Each work provides a clear, concise, and critical exposition of the law in its social, economic, and political context, at a level which will interest the advanced student, the practitioner, the academic, and government officials. OTHER TITLES IN THIS SERIES EU Securities and Financial Markets Regulation Fourth Edition Niamh Moloney
EU Procedural Law Koen Lenaerts, Ignace Maselis, Kathleen Gutman, Janek Tomasz Nowak
EU Diplomatic Law Sanderijn Duquet
The EU Common Security and Defence Policy Panos Koutrakos
EU Constitutional Law Koen Lenaerts, Piet Van Nuffel, Tim Corthaut
EU Anti-Discrimination Law Second Edition Evelyn Ellis and Philippa Watson
EU Customs Law Third Edition Timothy Lyons
EU Employment Law Fourth Edition Catherine Barnard
Principles and Practice in EU Sports Law Stephen Weatherill
EU External Relations Law Second Edition Piet Eeckhout
EU Justice and Home Affairs Law Fourth Edition Steve Peers
The EU Common Fisheries Policy Robin Churchill and Daniel Owen
European Migration Law DA N I E L T H YM
Great Clarendon Street, Oxford, OX2 6DP, United Kingdom Oxford University Press is a department of the University of Oxford. It furthers the University’s objective of excellence in research, scholarship, and education by publishing worldwide. Oxford is a registered trade mark of Oxford University Press in the UK and in certain other countries © Daniel Thym 2023 The moral rights of the author have been asserted First Edition published in 2023 All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, without the prior permission in writing of Oxford University Press, or as expressly permitted by law, by licence or under terms agreed with the appropriate reprographics rights organization. Enquiries concerning reproduction outside the scope of the above should be sent to the Rights Department, Oxford University Press, at the address above You must not circulate this work in any other form and you must impose this same condition on any acquirer Public sector information reproduced under Open Government Licence v3.0 (http://www.nationalarchives.gov.uk/doc/open-government-licence/open-government-licence.htm) Published in the United States of America by Oxford University Press 198 Madison Avenue, New York, NY 10016, United States of America British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data Data available Library of Congress Control Number: 2023936578 ISBN 978–0–19–289427–4 DOI: 10.1093/oso/9780192894274.001.0001 Printed and bound in the UK by TJ Books Limited Links to third party websites are provided by Oxford in good faith and for information only. Oxford disclaims any responsibility for the materials contained in any third party website referenced in this work.
Acknowledgements This book builds upon more than two decades of experience with European migration law and policy. Numerous friends and colleagues have informed my thinking on this complex and controversial topic ever since I started writing my PhD at the Walter Hallstein Institute for European Constitutional Law at Humboldt University in Berlin in the early 2000s. An important change came when I was appointed full Professor of Public, European, and International Law at the University of Konstanz ten years later, as the successor to Kay Hailbronner who was a prominent participant in the foundational period of European migration law. To be not primarily a German academic, writing in the national language for a domestic audience, had always been my aspiration as well. The dynamic and interdisciplinary atmosphere in Konstanz proved a perfect academic base to do so. Membership in the transnational Odysseus Network, coordinated by Philippe De Bruycker, equally supports a pan-European outlook. I am indebted to friends and colleagues with whom I have discussed migration law throughout all these years. Anyone reading the book will realise that my analysis moves beyond questions of legal interpretation by considering both the policy concept and the theoretical positions that lie beneath. Doing so is not self-evident for someone who studied law on the continent. I benefited greatly from my involvement in the interdisciplinary Clusters of Excellence ‘Cultural Foundations of Cultural Integration’ and ‘The Politics of Inequality’ at the University of Konstanz. Similarly, I learnt new perspectives during the seven years I served as a member and vice-chairperson of the German Expert Council on Integration and Migration, an independent advisory body in Berlin. Our annual reports covered diverse issues such as asylum, labour migration, integration, diversity, and relations with Africa. Equally instructive were ongoing discussions with journalists and regular appearances as an expert witness in the home affairs committee of the German parliament in the hectic years following the events of 2015/16. Over the years, I became acquainted with a rich arsenal of research questions, practical challenges, and methodological approaches. Few people have the luxury of being able to consider these multiple experiences at an intermediate level of abstraction. Writing this book allowed me to do precisely this. My home university generously supported this venture with a supplementary sabbatical, which I spent in the inspiring and charming environment of the European University Institute in Florence, just before another round of lockdowns during the Covid-19 pandemic. They interrupted the usual travel circuit and brought back the intimate atmosphere of the academic study room, where I spent endless days and evenings writing the manuscript. My partner deserves praise for having accepted my repeated assurances of ‘just one more hour’ again and again. Generations of student assistants have accumulated countless articles, book chapters, and other documents as print copies or as digital files. They go unnamed, but their relentless efforts are much appreciated indeed. Our university library must have one of the most comprehensive collections of European migration law by now. The research assistants at my university chair invested time and energy in adapting the references to the OSCOLA
vi Acknowledgements style guide. Sabine Gerber did a wonderful job in coordinating the different activities and supporting me on the administrative front. Without her valuable work, this book could not have been written besides all my other obligations. Finally, I am grateful to Oxford University Press for having accepted this contribution to the EU Law Library Series and for having accompanied the production process diligently. Once my literary ‘baby’ is born, it will be up to readers to receive it as a new player in the world of migration law and policy. Any kind of feedback is welcome (daniel.thym@uni-konstanz.de). The highly dynamic nature of this object of analysis calls for a reasonably swift second edition for sure. Konstanz February 2023
Summary Contents Table of Cases Table of EU Legislation List of Abbreviations Introduction
xxi xxxi xliii 1
PA RT I OV E R A R C H I N G T H E M E S 1. Building an Area of Freedom, Security, and Justice
13
2. Institutional Prerogatives and Decision-making
42
3. Court of Justice: Achievements and Limitations
69
4. Interdisciplinary Perspectives and Methodology
96
5. Human Rights and State Sovereignty
122
6. Doctrinal Foundations of the Case Law
150
7. Administrative Dimension
172
8. Agencies (Frontex and Asylum Agency)
197
9. Databases
223
PA RT I I SE C T O R A L L E G I SL AT IO N A N D P O L IC I E S 10. General Features of EU Legislation
253
11. Visa Policy
280
12. Border Controls
301
13. Common European Asylum System
337
14. Legal Migration
427
15. Integration and Settlement
469
16. Irregular Presence and Return
505
17. Association Agreements with Neighbours
550
18. International Cooperation with Third States
570
Bibliography Index
597 635
Contents Table of Cases Table of EU Legislation List of Abbreviations Introduction: European Migration Law as a Field of Inquiry
xxi xxxi xliii 1
PA RT I OV E R A R C H I N G T H E M E S 1. Building an Area of Freedom, Security, and Justice 1.1 From International to EU Migration Law
13 14
1.2 Towards Distinct Policies for Third Country Nationals
24
1.3 Distinguishing Union Citizenship from Third Country Nationals
33
1.4 Summary
40
1.1.1 Parallelism of emigration, imperialism, and tourism 1.1.2 Migration law as a by-product of state formation 1.1.3 Towards international protection for refugees 1.1.4 Prehistory of EU rules on labour migration 1.1.5 Free movement within the single market 1.1.6 Colonial migration: the downside of free movement 1.1.7 Theoretical ambiguity of Union citizenship
1.2.1 ‘Schengen’: compensatory logic 1.2.2 Treaty of Maastricht: fragile intergovernmental cooperation 1.2.3 Treaty of Amsterdam: gradual supranationalisation 1.2.4 Treaty of Lisbon: autonomy of migration law 1.2.5 European Council: political programming 1.2.6 Public discourse between ‘fortress Europe’ and ‘common values’
1.3.1 Primary law: open-ended Treaty objectives 1.3.2 Legislative leeway within the confines of human rights 1.3.3 Overlap with Union citizenship 1.3.4 Tipping points in the legislative process
14 16 17 18 20 20 22 24 26 27 29 29 31 34 35 37 39
2. Institutional Prerogatives and Decision-making 2.1 Driving Forces behind Europeanisation
42 42
49
2.1.1 The choice for Schengen as an example 2.1.2 Continuity of mixed results in migration policy 2.1.3 From ‘permissive consensus’ to ‘constraining dissensus’ 2.1.4 The danger of institutional blockage
2.2 Influence on the Policy Output
2.2.1 Commission 2.2.1.1 Civil servants between expertise and politics 2.2.1.2 Technocratic posture on migration law 2.2.2 European Council 2.2.3 Council
43 44 46 47 49 49 50 51 52
x Contents 2.2.3.1 The ‘backroom’: working parties of national civil servants 2.2.3.2 Consensus culture in the shadow of majority voting 2.2.4 European Parliament 2.2.4.1 Committees as the ‘engines’ of parliamentary impact 2.2.4.2 Shifting positions on migration law
52 53 54 55 55
2.3 Interinstitutional Practices
56
2.4 Differentiated Integration: Opt-outs after Brexit
63
2.5 Summary
67
2.3.1 Treaty change: limited relevance 2.3.2 Secondary legislation: prevalence of informal ‘trilogues’ 2.3.3 Curtailment of delegated and implementing acts 2.3.4 Ancillary role of ‘soft law’ 2.3.5 International cooperation: side-effects of informalisation 2.3.6 Private actors: a democratic virtue for migration law?
2.4.1 Denmark: the long shadow of the referenda 2.4.2 Ireland: relic of British reticence
56 57 58 59 60 61 64 65
3. Court of Justice: Achievements and Limitations 3.1 Influence of the Court Architecture
69 69
3.2 Constitutional Authority of the Supranational Judiciary
74
3.3 Access to and Output in the Area of Migration
79
3.4 Alternative Accountability Mechanisms
90
3.5 Summary
94
3.1.1 Collective and multi-lingual adjudication 3.1.2 Horizontal outlook beyond migration law 3.1.3 Frontex, Asylum Agency, and the pitfalls of specialised tribunals 3.1.4 Non-governmental organisations and the limits of third party intervention
3.2.1 Reputation of ‘constitutional imagination’ 3.2.2 Migration law: ‘administrative mindset’ 3.2.3 Interaction with the legislature
3.3.1 Validity disputes 3.3.1.1 Direct actions by individuals on migratory matters 3.3.1.2 Privileged access by the EU institutions 3.3.2 Infringement proceedings 3.3.2.1 Importance of the pre-litigation stage 3.3.2.2 Changing dynamics in migration law 3.3.3 Preliminary references 3.3.3.1 Stark discrepancies between the Member States 3.3.3.2 Carrots and sticks for loyal cooperation 3.3.3.3 Between micromanagement and vagueness 3.3.4 ‘Demand’ side 3.3.4.1 Thematic asymmetries in migration law 3.3.4.2 Strategic litigation to the benefit of migrants
3.4.1 Accountability for wrongdoing beyond courts 3.4.2 Ombudspersons as vehicles of administrative control 3.4.3 Financial and managerial accountability 3.4.4 Political oversight by parliaments 3.4.5 Access to documents as a source of public debates
70 71 72 73 75 76 77 79 79 80 80 81 81 83 83 85 86 87 87 89 90 91 92 93 94
Contents xi
4. Interdisciplinary Perspectives and Methodology 4.1 Drivers of Migratory Movements
4.1.1 Numerous ‘push’ and ‘pull’ factors 4.1.2 Migration as a process over time 4.1.3 Intermediate level: networks, regimes, and infrastructures 4.1.4 Continuum of ‘voluntary’ and ‘forced’ migration
4.2.1 Normative background: the open borders debate 4.2.2 Explaining the ‘control gap’: the liberal paradox 4.2.3 Public opinion and intergroup threat perceptions 4.2.4 Multiple actors of migration governance 4.2.5 Individual migrant agency
4.3.1 Starting point: Foucault and constructivism 4.3.2 ‘Labels’ as a means of government 4.3.3 Language between ‘abuse’, ‘crisis’, and ‘normality’ 4.3.4 Securitisation versus rights-based approach
4.4.1 Academic discourse: from enthusiasm to scepticism 4.4.2 Between ‘black letter’ and doctrinal constructivism 4.4.3 Interdisciplinary and critical approaches
96 96
97 99 101 102
4.2 Significance of State Measures
103
4.3 Law as an Instrument of Government
110
4.4 Legal Methodology between Doctrine and Critique
115
4.5 Summary
120
5. Human Rights and State Sovereignty 5.1 ‘Aliens Law’ as Protection qua Nationality
5.1.1 Historic minimum standards as inter-state obligations 5.1.2 Limited impact of the conventions of the Council of Europe 5.1.3 Reduction of statelessness as a legal obligation
5.2.1 Individual guarantees for ‘everyone’ 5.2.2 Hanna Arendt and the ‘right to have rights’ 5.2.3 Normative counterweight to state sovereignty
5.3.1 Judicial dynamism in the field of migration 5.3.2 Focus on general principles and the Grand Chamber 5.3.3 Interaction with EU law
5.4.1 More generous protection 5.4.2 Rights of the child as an example 5.4.3 EU not a ‘human rights organisation’ 5.4.4 Limited scope of application of the Charter
5.5.1 Plethora of human rights treaty bodies 5.5.2 Potential source of dynamism in the field of migration 5.5.3 Special rapporteurs and diplomatic initiatives 5.5.4 Global Compacts for Migration and on Refugees
5.6.1 Interaction with Union law 5.6.2 Supporting role in the judicial practice 5.6.3 Practical priority of human rights
104 105 106 107 109 110 111 112 114 115 116 118
122 123
123 124 126
5.2 Human Rights qua Personhood
127
5.3 Lead Function of the European Convention
130
5.4 Added Value of the Charter
134
5.5 Complementary Role of International Bodies and Political Fora
139
5.6 Refugee Convention: Distant Lodestar
143
5.7 Summary
148
127 128 129 130 132 133 134 135 136 137 139 140 141 142 143 145 147
xii Contents
6. Doctrinal Foundations of the Case Law 6.1 ‘Legal Order’ as Doctrinal Self-sufficiency 6.2 The Promise and Limits of Coherence
150 150 152
6.3 Constitutional Essentials in Migration Law
155
6.4 Pitfalls of the Interpretative Exercise
158
6.5 Individual Rights of Migrants
163
6.6 Practical Tips for Dealing with the Case Law 6.7 Summary
169 170
7. Administrative Dimension 7.1 European Migration Law as a Composite System
172 173
7.2 National Procedural Autonomy and Its Limits
179
7.3 Transnational Effects of Horizontal Cooperation
187
7.4 Money as a Means of Governance 7.5 Summary
191 195
6.2.1 Legislative fragmentation 6.2.2 Vision of an ‘immigration code’ 6.2.3 Interpretative approximation
6.3.1 Direct effect and primacy as an everyday practice 6.3.2 No categorical distinction between directives and regulations 6.3.3 Subsidiarity as political preference
6.4.1 Multilingualism of EU migration law 6.4.2 Revival of the drafting history 6.4.3 Indeterminacy of teleological interpretation 6.4.4 Autonomous concepts and their limits 6.4.5 Effet utile as a useful doctrinal tool
6.5.1 Individual rights enshrined in legislation 6.5.2 Added valued in comparison to human rights 6.5.3 Ambiguous Court practice on the Charter 6.5.3.1 Interpretation in conformity with human rights 6.5.3.2 Silence or vagueness on the Charter 6.5.4 Scope of the right to an effective remedy
7.1.1 Conceptual vagueness of ‘areas’ and ‘systems’ 7.1.2 Multiplicity of actors at different levels 7.1.3 Operational character of asylum and border controls 7.1.4 Diverse avenues of inter-state cooperation
7.2.1 The many faces of procedural harmonisation 7.2.2 Effectiveness as a corrective vehicle 7.2.2.1 Court practice on migration law 7.2.2.2 Time limits as a test case 7.2.3 Fundamental right to an effective remedy 7.2.3.1 Availability of legal remedies 7.2.3.2 Scope of judicial oversight 7.2.3.3 Suspensive effect and legal assistance 7.2.4 Good administration 7.2.4.1 Giving reasons and right to be heard 7.2.4.2 Consequences of procedural deficits
7.3.1 Visas and databases: rules in secondary legislation 7.3.2 Entry bans: failure of inter-state consultation 7.3.3 Intra-EU mobility: ‘golden visas’ as an abusive practice?
152 153 154 155 156 157 158 159 160 162 163 164 164 166 166 166 168
173 175 176 177 179 180 181 182 182 183 183 184 185 185 186 188 189 191
Contents xiii
8. Agencies (Frontex and Asylum Agency) 8.1 Theory and Policy Design
197 198
8.2 Constitutional Foundations
203
8.3 Frontex: Institutional Muscle Formation
207
8.4 Asylum Agency: Latecomer with Subtle Influence
211
8.5 Accountability for Wrongdoing
214
8.6 Summary
221
8.1.1 Elusive vision of administrative centralisation 8.1.2 The choice for Frontex and the Asylum Office 8.1.3 Formal expansion of the mandates 8.1.4 Exponential growth in practice
8.2.1 Involvement in administrative decision-making 8.2.2 ‘Meroni’ doctrine: no decisive hurdle 8.2.3 Territorial scope
8.3.1 Operational powers 8.3.2 Supervision of the Member States 8.3.3 Cooperation with third states 8.3.4 Eurosur and procurement of equipment
8.4.1 Information gathering and practical guidance 8.4.2 Operational support in ‘hotpots’ and beyond 8.4.3 Supervision and international cooperation
8.5.1 Legislative provisions on agency involvement 8.5.2 Institutional governance 8.5.3 Legal remedies for composite procedures
198 200 201 202 203 205 206 207 208 209 210 211 212 214 215 217 218
9. Databases 9.1 Theory and Policy Design
223 224
9.2 Constitutional Foundations
227
9.3 An Overview of Migration Databases
230
9.4 Prospect of Interoperability and Artificial Intelligence
236
9.5 Respect for Data Protection Standards
243
9.6 Summary
248
9.1.1 Information technology as ‘invisible’ infrastructure 9.1.2 ‘Function creep’ over three decades
9.2.1 Supranational competences 9.2.2 Decentralised network structure 9.2.3 Territorial scope
9.3.1 Schengen Information System (SIS) 9.3.2 Eurodac 9.3.3 Visa Information System (VIS) 9.3.4 Travel authorisation (ETIAS) 9.3.5 Entry/Exit System (EES)
9.4.1 From support to automated processing 9.4.2 Quality concerns and implementation deficits 9.4.3 The spectre of ‘interoperability’
9.5.1 Principles of data protection 9.5.2 Core elements of the human rights assessment 9.5.3 Preventive and reactive supervision
224 225 227 228 228 230 232 233 234 236 237 239 241 243 244 247
xiv Contents
PA RT I I SE C T O R A L L E G I SL AT IO N A N D P O L IC I E S 10. General Features of EU Legislation 10.1 Acquisition of Residence Permits
253 254
10.2 Sufficient Resources Requirement 10.3 Public Policy Exception
257 258
10.4 Equal Treatment as a Constitutional Guarantee
262
10.5 Proportionality
267
10.6 More Favourable Domestic Rules
270
10.1.1 Of ‘residence permits’ and ‘visas’ 10.1.2 Constitutive state authorisation 10.1.3 Fee levels 10.3.1 Overlap with Union citizenship 10.3.2 Sector-specific outcomes
10.4.1 Human rights instead of Union citizenship 10.4.2 Different scrutiny levels in the judicial practice 10.4.3 Distinctions based on migration status 10.4.4 Racial and ethnic discrimination 10.5.1 Context-specific outcomes 10.5.2 Abstract or individual assessment? 10.6.1 Identification of mandatory provisions 10.6.2 Different patterns in secondary legislation
10.7 Exceptional Non-Compliance (Article 72 TFEU) 10.8 Abusive Practices 10.9 Practical Tips for Dealing with Legislation 10.10 Summary
254 255 256 259 260 262 264 265 266 267 269 270 271
273 275 276 278
11. Visa Policy 11.1 Theory and Policy Design 11.2 Constitutional Foundations
280 281 282
11.3 Visa Requirements
283
11.4 Visa Procedure
288
11.5 Special Case: Humanitarian Visas 11.6 Other Pre-arrival Measures
294 295
11.7 Summary
299
11.2.1 Supranational competences 11.2.2 Territorial scope 11.3.1 Rationale behind ‘black’ and ‘white’ lists 11.3.2 Visa liberalisation as a bargaining chip 11.3.3 Reciprocity in relations with third states 11.4.1 Admission criteria 11.4.2 Application procedure 11.4.3 Decision and legal remedies 11.4.4 Visa format 11.4.5 Inter-state cooperation 11.6.1 Carrier sanctions 11.6.2 Export of visa policy to transit countries 11.6.3 Liaison officers abroad
282 282 283 285 287 288 290 291 292 292 295 297 298
Contents xv
12. Border Controls 12.1 Theory and Policy Design
301 302
12.2 Constitutional Foundations
305
12.3 Schengen Governance
311
12.4 Internal Movements within the Schengen Area
316
12.5 External Controls at Crossing Points
324
12.6 Surveillance of the External Borders
328
12.7 Document Security 12.8 Summary
334 335
12.1.1 Symbolic weight of borders 12.1.2 Incomplete ‘territorialisation’ of the EU 12.1.3 Towards a new ‘culture’ of border controls
12.2.1 Supranational competences 12.2.2 Extraterritorial reach of human rights 12.2.3 Search and rescue at sea 12.2.4 Rejection at the border 12.2.4.1 Right to asylum and prohibition of refoulement 12.2.4.2 Prohibition of collective expulsion 12.2.5 Territorial scope
12.3.1 Membership and phased implementation 12.3.2 Crises and reform efforts 12.3.3 Scope of the ‘Schengen acquis’
12.4.1 Circulation of third country nationals 12.4.1.1 Free travel for short stays 12.4.1.2 Secondary movements of asylum applicants 12.4.2 Internal border controls 12.4.2.1 Requirements for temporary reintroduction 12.4.2.2 Extensive and illegal state practice 12.4.3 Police checks in border areas
12.5.1 Entry conditions 12.5.2 Checks on persons 12.5.3 Refusal of entry and legal remedies 12.5.4 Local border traffic
12.6.1 Land borders 12.6.2 Interaction with asylum law 12.6.3 Sea borders 12.6.3.1 Sea Borders Regulation 12.6.3.2 Basic procedural safeguards
302 303 304
305 306 308 309 309 310 311 312 313 315 317 317 318 319 319 320 322 324 325 327 328 329 330 331 332 333
13. Common European Asylum System 13.1 Theory and Policy Design
337 338
349
13.1.1 A history of half-hearted commitment 13.1.2 Early years of intergovernmental cooperation 13.1.3 First and second phase of harmonisation 13.1.4 Policy crisis of 2015/16 13.1.5 Elusive reform efforts 13.1.6 Geopolitics enter the political equation 13.1.7 Structural deficits and their fallout
13.2.1 Supranational competences
13.2 Constitutional Foundations
338 339 341 342 344 345 347 349
xvi Contents 13.2.2 Prohibition of refoulement 13.2.3 Right to asylum 13.2.3.1 Article 18 CFR 13.2.3.2 Protocol on Union citizens 13.2.4 Solidarity (Article 80 TFEU) 13.2.5 Territorial scope
351 353 353 354 355 357
13.3 Asylum Jurisdiction
357
13.4 Asylum Procedures
372
13.5 Refugee Status
386
13.6 Subsidiary and Complementary Protection
400
13.3.1 Origin of the first entry rule 13.3.2 Futile quest for solidarity 13.3.3 Hierarchy of the substantive criteria 13.3.4 Scope and procedure 13.3.5 Take charge/back requests 13.3.6 Mutual trust and its limits 13.3.7 Secondary movements and the transfer of jurisdiction
13.4.1 Access to the procedure 13.4.2 Personal interview and individualised assessment 13.4.3 Sixfold procedural differentiation 13.4.3.1 Asylum jurisdiction and admissibility 13.4.3.2 Regular and accelerated examination 13.4.3.3 Subsequent applications and withdrawal 13.4.4 Border procedures 13.4.5 Safe countries 13.4.5.1 Safe countries of origin and common lists 13.4.5.2 Rebuttal of the presumption of safety 13.4.5.3 Controversies about safe third countries 13.4.6 Legal remedies 13.4.7 Recurring ‘vision’: external processing 13.5.1 Preventing disparate recognition quotas 13.5.2 Standards and burden of proof 13.5.3 Notion of persecution 13.5.3.1 Severe violation of basic human rights 13.5.3.2 Refugees sur place and family members 13.5.3.3 Poverty 13.5.3.4 Climate change 13.5.4 Actors of protection 13.5.4.1 Home state and international organisations 13.5.4.2 Internal protection alternative 13.5.5 Reasons for persecution 13.5.5.1 Membership of a particular social group 13.5.5.2 Refusal to perform military service 13.5.6 Exclusion and cessation 13.5.6.1 Palestinian refugees 13.5.6.2 Terrorism and other serious crime 13.5.6.3 Change of circumstance in the home state
13.6.1 Added value of Europeanisation 13.6.2 Protection against indiscriminate violence 13.6.3 Other scenarios: divergence from human rights
358 360 362 364 365 368 370 373 374 376 376 377 378 379 381 381 382 383 384 385 387 388 390 390 392 392 393 394 394 395 396 396 397 398 398 399 400 400 401 403
Contents xvii
13.6.4 ‘Complementary’ protection under national laws
403
13.7 Temporary Protection
405
13.8 Reception Conditions for Asylum Applicants
410
13.9 Rights of Beneficiaries of International Protection
415
13.7.1 Rationale behind blanket recognition 13.7.2 Conditions and contents of temporary protection 13.7.3 Interaction with EU migration law 13.8.1 Protracted differences between the Member States 13.8.2 Living conditions and other guarantees 13.8.3 Restrictions and human rights compliance 13.8.4 Right to remain and ‘fiction of non-entry’ 13.9.1 Limits of equal treatment 13.9.2 Specific guarantees 13.9.3 Free movement and option of ‘uniform status’ 13.9.4 Refugees without protection status
405 406 408 410 411 412 414 415 416 417 418
13.10 Resettlement and Other Legal Pathways
420
13.11 Summary
424
13.10.1 Soft side of asylum policy 13.10.2 EU resettlement framework 13.10.3 Other protracted entry procedures
420 421 423
14. Legal Migration 14.1 Theory and Policy Design
427 428
14.2 Constitutional Foundations
435
14.3 Family Reunification
440
14.4 Skilled Labour Migration
448
14.1.1 ‘Guest workers’ outside the reach of EU institutions 14.1.2 Family bonds as a critical gateway 14.1.3 Globalisation and the ‘battle’ over labour migration 14.1.4 Sectoral approach to economic migration 14.1.5 Limits of Europeanisation 14.1.6 Effects on the welfare state 14.2.1 Supranational competences 14.2.2 National prerogatives for labour migration 14.2.3 Human rights, family life, and rights of the child 14.2.4 Territorial scope
14.3.1 EU citizens and their family members 14.3.2 Scope of the Family Reunification Directive 14.3.2.1 Limitation to the nuclear family 14.3.2.2 Optional clauses 14.3.3 Conditions under the Directive 14.3.4 Procedure and rights of family members 14.3.5 Beneficiaries of international protection 14.4.1 Regulatory toolbox and driving forces beyond the law 14.4.2 Blue Card Directive 14.4.2.1 Personal and thematic scope 14.4.2.2 Procedure and rights of blue card holders 14.4.3 Students and Researchers Directive 14.4.3.1 Students as ‘ideal immigrants’ 14.4.3.2 Delegation of responsibility to research organisations
428 429 431 432 433 434 436 437 438 439 440 443 443 444 445 445 447
448 450 450 452 453 453 454
xviii Contents
14.4.4 Single Permit Directive 14.4.5 Vexed issue of intra-European mobility
14.5.1 Posted workers in the single market 14.5.2 GATS and other trade agreements 14.5.3 Inter-Corporate Transfers Directive 14.5.4 Seasonal Workers Directive 14.5.5 Legal pathways for economic purposes
455 456
14.5 Temporary Economic Activities
458
14.6 Summary
466
459 460 461 463 464
15. Integration and Settlement 15.1 Theory and Policy Design
469 470
15.2 Constitutional Foundations
476
15.3 Equality Provisions in Secondary Legislation
479
15.4 Mandatory Integration Requirements
487
15.5 Other Integration Measures 15.6 Long-Term Residents Directive
492 494
15.7 Acquisition of Nationality
498
15.8 Summary
503
15.1.1 From ‘denizenship’ to citizenship 15.1.2 Models of migrant integration 15.1.3 Disputes over the direction of EU migration law 15.1.4 Status change in multiple directions 15.1.5 Mixed output in migration law and beyond
15.2.1 Scope of supranational competences 15.2.2 Human rights protection against expulsion 15.2.3 Territorial scope
15.3.1 Complexity of the legislative framework 15.3.2 Overarching doctrinal characteristics 15.3.3 Social security other benefits 15.3.3.1 Exclusion from social assistance and advantages 15.3.3.2 Human rights compliance 15.3.4 Disparate effects of equal treatment 15.3.5 Distinctions between refugees and subsidiary protection
15.4.1 Proliferation and significance of domestic laws 15.4.2 Supranational legal framework 15.4.3 Judicial endorsement, subject to a caveat
15.6.1 Independence from the original purpose 15.6.2 Scope and conditions 15.6.3 Procedure and loss
15.7.1 Conceptual lacuna of EU migration law 15.7.2 Member State prerogatives and their limits under EU law 15.7.3 ‘Golden passport’ schemes
470 472 473 474 475 477 477 478 479 481 482 482 484 484 486 488 489 491 494 496 497 499 500 502
16. Irregular Presence and Return 16.1 Theory and Policy Design
505 505
509
16.1.1 Beyond binary conceptions of (il)legality 16.1.2 Relentless search for effectiveness 16.1.3 Contrasting policy dynamics
16.2 Constitutional Foundations
506 507 508
Contents xix
16.2.1 Supranational competences 16.2.2 Detention in conformity with human rights 16.2.3 Human rights of those irregularly present 16.2.4 Territorial scope
16.3.1 Prosecution of ‘smuggling’ 16.3.2 Intimidation of search and rescue 16.3.3 Limits for criminal sanctions 16.3.4 Victims of trafficking 16.3.5 Employer sanctions
16.4.1 Refusal for different reasons 16.4.2 Entry bans under the Return Directive
16.5.1 Reasons for illegal stay 16.5.2 Exceptions from the scope 16.5.3 Return decision 16.5.4 Voluntary departure and removal 16.5.5 Limbo of ‘non-removable’ returnees
16.6.1 Mutual recognition of expulsion decisions 16.6.2 Cooperation between the Member States 16.6.3 Return to other Member States 16.6.4 Readmission agreements with third states
510 511 513 514
16.3 Criminalisation of Illegal Entry and Stay
514
16.4 Bans on Entry and Stay
524
16.5 Structure of the Return Directive
526
16.6 Inter-state Cooperation
533
16.7 Detention
539
16.8 Regularisation 16.9 Summary
546 547
16.7.1 Delimitation of EU legislation 16.7.2 Grounds for detention 16.7.2.1 Risk of absconding 16.7.2.2 Other criteria for asylum seekers 16.7.2.3 Additional grounds for returnees 16.7.3 Alternatives and length 16.7.4 Conditions of detention
515 517 518 520 522 524 525 527 528 528 530 532 534 535 536 537 539 540 541 542 543 544 545
17. Association Agreements with Neighbours 17.1 Constitutional Foundations
550 551
17.2 ‘Best friends’: European Economic Area and Switzerland
555
17.3 United Kingdom: Reversed Dynamics
559
17.4 Turkey: ‘Consolation Prize’ with Much Practical Effects
561
17.1.1 Supranational competences 17.1.2 Status in the EU legal order 17.1.3 Interpretative parallelism and its limits
17.2.1 Free movement of persons 17.2.2 Membership in Schengen and Dublin 17.2.3 Micro states and Gibraltar
17.3.1 Acquired rights of (former) Union citizens 17.3.2 Sovereign control over future movements
17.4.1 Turkish nationals residing in the Member States 17.4.2 ‘Standstill’ as dynamism for first admission
551 552 553 555 557 558 559 560 561 563
xx Contents
17.5 Western Balkans: Pre-accession Guarantees
564
17.6 Neighbourhood: Novel Focus on Migration Control
566
17.7 Summary
568
17.5.1 Former agreements and transitional periods 17.5.2 Limited impact of contemporary agreements
17.6.1 Eastern partnership: pragmatic cooperation 17.6.2 Union for the Mediterranean: hotbed of control practices
564 565 566 567
18. International Cooperation with Third States 18.1 Theory and Policy Design
570 571
18.2 Constitutional Foundations
577
18.3 Externalisation of Control Practices
581
18.4 Development Cooperation and Legal Pathways
588
18.5 Summary
595
18.1.1 ‘Migration management’ as an overarching narrative 18.1.2 A short history of the EU’s strategic vision 18.1.3 Trial and error of external migration policy 18.1.4 Give and take in the mutual interest
18.2.1 Supranational competences 18.2.2 Spread of informal cooperation frameworks
18.3.1 A recurring theme in the policy discourse 18.3.2 Conditionality: ‘carrots and sticks’ for cooperation 18.3.3 Capacity building and operational cooperation 18.3.4 EU involvement via Frontex and CSDP missions
18.4.1 Contextual complexity of the migration-development nexus 18.4.2 Financial support for multiple purposes 18.4.3 Refugee protection in the Global South 18.4.4 From ‘mobility’ to ‘talent’ partnerships
Bibliography Index
571 573 575 576 578 579 581 583 586 587 589 590 591 593
597 635
Table of Cases COURT OF JUSTICE 1/03 [Opinion] Lugano Convention EU:C:2006:81�������������������������������������������������������������������������� 574n.25 1/13 [Opinion] Accession of Third States to the Hague Convention EU:C:2014:2303������������������ 578n.44 1/15 [Opinion] Draft Agreement between Canada and the EU EU:C:2017:592 ��������� 239n.84, 239n.87, 244n.121, 245–46 1/17 [Opinion] EU-Canada CETA-Agreement EU:C:2019:341 ���������������������������������������������������� 262n.69 1/19 [Opinion] Istanbul Convention EU:C:2021:832���������������������������������������������������������������������� 579n.51 1/91 [Opinion] EEA I EU:C:1991:490���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 553n.18 2/13 [Opinion] Accession to the ECHR EU:C:2014:2454���������������������������������������������������������������� 133n.56 2/15 [Opinion] EU-Singapore FTA EU:C:2017:376������������������������������������������������������������������������ 579n.50 2/94 [Opinion] Accession to the ECHR EU:C:1996:140������������������������������������������������������ 83n.66, 86n.81 C-4/11 Puid EU:C:2013:740 �������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 164n.74 6/64 Costa v ENEL EU:C:1964:66�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 150n.1 C-8/15 P to C-10/15 P Ledra Advertising v Commission and ECB EU:C:2016:701��������������������220n.142 C-8/20 LR EU:C:2021:404������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 558n.52 C-9/16 A EU:C:2017:483����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������268n.105, 323, 323n.151 9/56 Meroni EU:C:1958:7 ����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 56n.83, 203, 205–6 12/86 Demirel EU:C:1987:400��������������������������������������������������������������������������������550n.1, 551–52, 563n.90 C-13/01 Safalero EU:C:2003:447 ����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������219n.129 C-14/09 Genc EU:C:2010:57�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 554n.22 C-14/21 and C-15/21 Sea Watch EU:C:2022:604����������������������������������������������308n.51, 309n.57, 517–18 C-15/11 Sommer EU:C:2012:371����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������454n.174 C-16/05 Tum and Dari EU:C:2007:530�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 563n.92 C-17/16 El Dakkak and Intercontinental EU:C:2017:341��������������������������������������������������������������327n.180 C-18/16 K EU:C:2017:680������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 512n.37, 542n.268, 544n.283 C-18/19 Stadt Frankfurt am Main EU:C:2020:511����������� 159n.44, 163n.70, 259n.42, 273n.146, 546n.312 C-18/20 Bundesamt für Fremdenwesen und Asyl EU:C:2021:710������������������������������������ 379n.306, n.308 C-19/08 Petrosian EU:C:2009:41 ����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������367n.205 C-19/21 Staatssecretaris van Justitie en Veiligheid EU:C:2022:605��������������������������������������������������������169 C-20/12 Giersch and others EU:C:2013:411�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 518n.80 C-22/08 and C-23/08 Vatsouras and Koupatantze EU:C:2009:344������������������������������������������������ 262n.69 C-23/12 Zakaria EU:C:2013:24 �������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 138n.93, 327n.183 25/62 Plaumann EU:C:1963:17������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 79–80 26/62 van Gend en Loos EU:C:1963:1���������������������������������������������������������������18n.26, 122n.1, 150n.1, 356 C-27/04 Commission v Council EU:C:2004:436�������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 80n.45 30/77 Bouchereau EU:C:1977:172 ���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 260n.50 C-31/09 Bolbol EU:C:2010:351��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������398n.434 33/76 Rewe-Zentralfinanz EU:C:1976:188���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 181n.35 C-36/17 Ahmed EU:C:2017:273������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 364n.180, 377n.279 C-38/14 Zaizoune EU:C:2015:260 ������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������519 C-40/11 Iida EU:C:2012:2405������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 37n.157, 496n.189 41/74 Van Duyn EU:C:1974:133�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 260n.51 C-44/14 Spain v Parliament and Council EU:C:2015:554 �������������������������������������������������������������� 65n.137 C-45/07 Commission v Greece EU:C:2009:81 ��������������������������������������������������������������������������������144n.121 C-47/15 Affum EU:C:2016:408�������������������������������������������������������518n.79, 519n.90, 528n.159, 536n.220 C-47/17 and C-48/17 X and X EU:C:2018:900�������������������������������������������������������������� 161n.61, 367n.202 48/75 Royer EU:C:1976:57������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 255n.11 C-51/03 Georgescu EU:C:2004:200������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 83n.68 C-56/17 Fathi EU:C:2018:803������������������������������������������������������������������������� 364n.182, 389–90, 391n.390
xxii Table of Cases C-57/09 and 101/09 B and D EU:C:2010:661 �������������������������� 271n.125, 272n.139, 399n.447, 399n.449 C-60/16 Khir Amayry EU:C:2017:675����������������������������������������������������������������������������� 540n.249, 544–45 C-61/11 PPU El Dridi EU:C:2011:268�����������������161n.63, 519, 519n.82, 530n.175, 530n.177, 544n.284 C-63/09 Walz EU:C:2010:251����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������144n.127 C-63/15 Ghezelbash EU:C:2016:409���������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 161n.61, 164n.75 C-64/96 and C-65/96 Uecker and Jacquet EU:C:1997:285�������������������������������������������������������������� 442n.87 C-66/21 Staatssecretaris van Justitie en Veiligheid EU:C:2022:809��������������������������������������521n.105, 522 C-67/14 Alimanovic EU:C:2015:597 ����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������269n.115 C-68/89 Commission v Netherlands EU:C:1991:226����������������������������������������������������������������������326n.173 C-69/10 Samba Diouf EU:C:2011:524���������������������������������������� 182n.45, 219n.129, 269n.112, 374n.260 C-70/09 Hengartner and Gasser EU:C:2010:430������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 556n.39 C-70/18 A and others EU:C:2019:823��������������������������������������������������������������������245, 245n.124, 246n.134 72/83 Campus Oil EU:C:1984:256 ���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 260n.53 C-77/05 United Kingdom v Council EU:C:2007:803����������������������������������������������������������������������������������66 C-79/13 Saciri and others EU:C:2014:103�������������������������������������������������������������������� 412n.532, 413n.542 C-81/13 United Kingdom v Council EU:C:2014:2449���������������������������������������������������������������������� 436n.53 C-82/16, KA and others EU:C:2018:308�������������������������������������������37n.157, 259n.42, 442n.91, 526n.145 C-83/12 PPU Minh Khao Vo EU:C:2012:202 ���������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 188n.83 C-83/14 CHEZ Razpredelenie Bulgaria EU:C:2015:480����������������������������������������������������������������266n.100 C-84/12 Koushkaki EU:C:2013:862 ��������������������������������������������������162n.67, 163n.69, 255n.10, 261n.65, 271n.127, 289n.59, 290n.61, 292n.84 C-85/96 Martínez Sala EU:C:1998:217 �������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 155n.21 C-86/12 Alopka and Moudoulou EU:C:2013:645���������������������������������������������������������������������������� 442n.93 C-88/14 Commission v Parliament and Council EU:C:2015:499������������������������������������������������������ 59n.95 C-89/18 A EU:C:2019:580������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 564n.97 90/63 and 91/63 Commission v Luxembourg and Belgium EU:C:1964:80������������������������������������ 156n.26 C-91/05 Commission v Council EU:C:2008:288������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 579n.49 C-91/20 Bundesrepublik Deutschland EU:C:2021:898�������������� 146n.137, 160n.49, 271n.130, 391n.385 C-94/20 Land Oberösterreich EU:C:2021:477�������������������������������138n.91, 266n.101, 483n.94, 484n.100 C-95/99–C-98/99 and C-180/99 Khalil EU:C:2001:532 ���������������������������������������������������������������� 262n.69 C-97/91 Oleificio Borelli v Commission EU:C:1992:491����������������������������������������������������������������220n.135 98/80 Romano EU:C:1981:104 ���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 205n.39 C-101/13 U EU:C:2014:2249�������������������������������������������������������������������������� 111n.81, 245n.124, 334n.220 C-105/15 P to C-109/15 P Mallis and Malli v Commission and ECB EU:C:2016:702�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 218n.124, 220n.137 106/77 Simmenthal EU:C:1978:49���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 155n.22 C-109/01 Akrich EU:C:2003:491������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 441n.83 C-112/20 État belge EU:C:2021:197������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������533n.197 C-113/89 Rush Portuguesa EU:C:1990:142������������������������������������������������������������������������������������459n.206 C-118/20 Wiener Landesregierung EU:C:2022:34�����������������������������������������������������������������������������������501 C-123/17 Yön EU:C:2018:632�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 563n.93, 564n.97 C-127/08 Metock EU:C:2008:449������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 441n.83 C-129/18 SM EU:C:2019:248 �������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 136n.76, 443n.99 C-130/08 Commission v Greece EU:C:2008:854����������������������������������������������������������������������������365n.194 C-131/12 Google Spain SL and Google Inc EU:C:2014:317 ����������������������������������������������������������243n.115 C-133/06 Parliament v Council EU:C:2008:257 �������������������������������������������������������������� 58n.89, 382n.324 C-133/19, C-136/19 and C-137/19 État belge EU:C:2020:577 ��������� 161n.59, 162n.68, 167n.91, 448n.130 C-135/08 Rottmann EU:C:2010:104���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������269–70, 500–1 C-137/05 United Kingdom v Council EU:C:2007:805���������������������������������������������������������������������� 66n.148 C-138/13 Dogan EU:C:2014:2066 ���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 563n.95 139/85 Kempf EU:C:1986:223������������������������������