European Handbook of Central Asian Studies. History, Politics, and Society [1 ed.] 9783838215181

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EUROPEAN HANDBOOK OF CENTRAL ASIAN STUDIES History, Politics, and Societies Eds. Jeroen Van den Bosch, Adrien Fauve, Bruno De Cordier

ibidem

Jeroen Van den Bosch, Adrien Fauve, Bruno De Cordier (eds.)

The European Handbook of Central Asian Studies History, Politics, and Societies

Editors: Bruno J. De Cordier - senior topic editor (History-Society) Adrien Fauve - topic editor (Society-Politics), peer-review manager Jeroen J.J. Van den Bosch - topic editor (Politics-History), developmental editor Other roles: Justyna Hadaś – didactic editor Jeroen J.J. Van den Bosch, Bruno J. De Cordier - map design i.c.w. authors Adrien Fauve – curriculum design expert EISCAS project coordinator: Jeroen J.J. Van den Bosch This handbook was co-funded by the Erasmus Plus Programme of the European Union and developed within the EISCAS project.

ORIENTALISM, POSTCOLONIAL AND DECOLONIAL FRAMES ON CENTRAL ASIA

EUROPEAN HANDBOOK OF CENTRAL ASIAN STUDIES History, Politics, and Societies Jeroen Van den Bosch, Adrien Fauve, Bruno De Cordier (eds.)

ibidem

III

Bibliografische Information der Deutschen Nationalbibliothek Die Deutsche Nationalbibliothek verzeichnet diese Publikation in der Deutschen Nationalbibliografie; detaillierte bibliografische Daten sind im Internet über http://dnb.d-nb.de abrufbar. Bibliographic information published by the Deutsche Nationalbibliothek Die Deutsche Nationalbibliothek lists this publication in the Deutsche Nationalbibliografie; detailed bibliographic data are available in the Internet at http://dnb.d-nb.de. DOI: 10.24216/9783838215181 Lizenziert unter / Licensed under CC BY-NC-ND 3.0 s. https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/3.0/ You are free to: • Share — copy and redistribute the material in any medium or format. Under the following terms: • Attribution — You must give appropriate credit, provide a link to the license, and indicate if changes were made. You may do so in any reasonable manner, but not in any way that suggests the licensor endorses you or your use. • NonCommercial — You may not use the material for commercial purposes. • NoDerivatives — If you remix, transform, or build upon the material, you may not distribute the modified material. Cover illustration: “Asie,” engraved by A. Sengteller, reviewed by A.F. Chartier, (Paris: L.E. Desbuissons, 1870). Design: Typeface nv (www.boekopmaak.be)

ISBN-13: 978-3-8382-7518-5 © ibidem-Verlag, Stuttgart 2021 Alle Rechte vorbehalten Das Werk einschließlich aller seiner Teile ist urheberrechtlich geschützt. Jede Verwertung außerhalb der engen Grenzen des Urheberrechtsgesetzes ist ohne Zustimmung des Verlages unzulässig und strafbar. Dies gilt insbesondere für Vervielfältigungen, Übersetzungen, Mikroverfilmungen und elektronische Speicherformen sowie die Einspeicherung und Verarbeitung in elektronischen Systemen. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in or introduced into a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form, or by any means (electronical, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise) without the prior written permission of the publisher. Any person who does any unauthorized act in relation to this publication may be liable to criminal prosecution and civil claims for damages. Printed in the EU

Table of content



Foreword 

IX



Images Speak Louder than Words? Historical Postcard Exhibition of Early-20th Century Central Asia 

XI



A Confusion of Tongues? On Non-Latin Scripts and Transliteration 

XIII

List of Abbreviations  

XVI

Glossary of Terms  

XVIII

List of Boxes  

XXVIII

List of Tables and Figures  

XXIX

Concise Atlas & List of Maps  

XXXI

PART I: INTRODUCTION  1

1

Central Asian Studies: A Maturing Field? 

3

Adrien Fauve

2

Defining and Delineating Central Asia from a European Perspective

13

How to Use this Handbook: Didactic Vision and Study Guide 

39

Bruno J. De Cordier and Jeroen J.J. Van den Bosch

3

Justyna Hadaś and Jeroen J.J. Van den Bosch

PART II: IDENTITIES AND HISTORICAL ROOTS 

71

4 The Original Islamization of Central Asia: From the Arab Frontier Colonies to the ‘Governorate Dynasties’ (650-1000) 

73

Bruno J. De Cordier

5

Early Modern Interactions between Pastoral Nomadic and ­Sedentary Societies in the Central Asian Culture Complex 

117

Vincent Fourniau

6 Orientalism, Postcolonial and Decolonial Frames on Central Asia: Theoretical Relevance and Applicability  Svetlana Gorshenina

V

175

VI

TABLE OF CONTENTS

7

Central Asia’s Contemporary (Post-Soviet) Religious Landscape: A ‘De-Secularization’ in the Making? 

245

Sébastien Peyrouse

8 The Historical Conditioning of Languages and Ethnicities in Central Asia 

291

PART III: SOCIETAL-POLITICAL DYNAMICS 

325

9 Clans, Class and Ethnicity in Post-Soviet Central Asia 

327

10 Presidential Elections and Ruling Parties in Central Asia 

361

11 Political Regimes in Central Asia: Tracing Personalist Rule from the Khanates to the Present 

385

12 Civil Society Development in Post-Soviet Central Asia 

451

13 Women in Central Asia: Decolonizing Gender Studies 

499

14 Contemporary Central Asian Legal Systems in Developmental Context: Genealogy, Political Economy, State Architecture 

537

PART IV: EXTERNAL INTERACTIONS 

567

15 History and Evolution of Geopolitics toward Central Asia 

569

16 Between Myth and Reality: The Restoration of the Silk Roads in Central Asia 

633

17 International Relations in Central Asia: A Focus on Foreign ­Policies (1991-2020) 

685

18 Terrorism and Security in Central Asia 

751

Gian Marco Moisé and Abel Polese

Jeremy Smith

Adrien Fauve

Jeroen J.J. Van den Bosch Baktybek Kainazarov Rano Turaeva

Scott Newton

Slavomír Horák

Sébastien Peyrouse

Catherine Poujol

Bernardo Teles Fazendeiro and Maria Raquel Freire

TABLE OF CONTENTS

VII

PART V: ECONOMY AND ENVIRONMENT 

777

19 Facing the Soviet Legacy: Political Economy and Development Patterns in Central Asia 

779

20 Environmental Geopolitics in Central Asia 

811

21 Labour Migration from Central Asia to Russia: Laws, Policies and Effects on Sending States 

855

22 Between Sotsgorod and Bazaar: Urbanization Dynamics in Central Asia 

885

PART VI: CASE STUDIES & OVERVIEW OF LEARNING OUTCOMES 

923

Case Study 1 The Imprint of the Khazars 

925

Luca Anceschi and Julia Schwab Natalie Koch

Bhavna Davé

Suzanne Harris-Brandts and Abel Polese

by Bruno J. De Cordier

Case Study 2 Toponymy of Central Asia: Proper Names or Forged Concepts? 929 by Svetlana Gorshenina

Case Study 3 Media and Personality Cult in Authoritarian Regimes: The Case of Turkmenistan 

939

Case Study 4 Promoting and Protecting Women Rights in Kyrgyzstan 

947

Case Study 5 Railway Geopolitics in Central Asia from the 19th to the 21st Century

965

Case study 6 The Story of Makhsudbek (‘Misha’), a Labour Migrant from Uzbekistan 

987

Overview of Learning Outcomes 

923

INDICES 

999

About the EISCAS project 

1019

by Oguljamal Yazliyeva

by Baktybek Kainazarov

by Slavomír Horák

by Bhavna Davé

VIIICHAPTER 6

(View of) Romanov Street.

Foreword

L

ike the film setting of a good criminal or espionage thriller, this story starts one misty noon in October 2017 with a secretive two-person meeting in the Flemish city of Ghent, where ‘the Three Towers’ mark the skyline and the Scheldt and Lys meet. It takes an illustrious lunch in the back end of a brasserie in the medieval centre, about half a million euros, and a cunning plan. As the meeting progressed to that stage of twinkly eyes, extra napkins for notetaking and involuntary exclamations of “this is how we do it,” Bruno De Cordier and I left, strolled back to the premises of Ghent University with full stomachs and even fuller minds. It was time to convince the EU Polish national agency that the world needed this handbook, and we had to put “the team” together. But, first of all, we needed a third editor (with a complimentary academic profile to ourselves). In the end, it was the ‘French Connection’ that put us in direct line with Adrien Fauve. This led to another meeting in Brussels in November 2017, and soon after, an online “Ocean’s 11” model of author recruitment. You know how this goes. A-scholar-knows-a-scholar who works on this, specializes in that, or has written some uncanny paper on a topic we needed. Our author headhunting struck gold when we encountered another scholarly syndicate eager to join the fray. Then it was January 2018, the month of my doctoral defence that heralded there would be no more excuses to put off writing the enormous Erasmus+ Strategic Partnership in Higher Education grant application. ‘20 March 2018,’ that was the deadline, and I remember like yesterday, it was my first grant of this size, stakes or scope. A 150-page beast, with endless budget lines and several large sub-sections that – like Hannibal’s elephants – had to be prodded through the Alps, on time! Of course, this would not have been possible without the input of the co-leads and authors, and the willingness of key partners to take on the responsibility for organizing complex events at their home institutions. This is where I am also much obliged to Katarzyna Hadaś, for showing me the ropes of how to edit and improve the grant proposal drafts. A day before the deadline, Eurasian Insights: Strengthening Central Asian Studies in Europe (EISCAS) was submitted, and after the long wait for the final verdict, it would change my professional life forever. IX

XFOREWORD

Three years later, by now already accustomed to the relentless pandemic in the background, we feel like the editorial Volga boatmen, slowly hauling our proofread barge to our publisher, ibidem Verlag. Like the seemingly endless Volga itself, this has been a long and arduous road, with many different movie genres to describe the various project experiences on the way (The Wolf of Wall Street, The Twelve Chairs, We Need to Talk About Kevin, Die Hard, The Revenant, etc.). If I look back, I realize that such an intense, collective effort like this has been an enormous opportunity for personal growth, that I have gained many interesting friendships, that the international Central Asian scholarly community is cooperative and supportive, and that I still strongly believe that this project we embarked on is relevant and necessary, and will continue to be so for a long time. For this very reason, I would like to thank the EU grant committee and the Polish National Agency, as well as our publisher ibidem Verlag, for believing in this project and making all this possible. My sincere gratitude goes to all our authors, anonymous reviewers, contributing scholars for the curriculum design and didactic team, hosting institutions, guest lecturers and teachers, Master Class applicants, my colleagues at AMU, our film crew, and volunteers, who together gave this project not only legs, but also wings. Specifically for this handbook, a big thank you to our design firm for inventing the layout, and their patience and elegant solutions during the creation of the maps, and to our proofreaders. A warm ‘merci’ to Adrien and Bruno, for their editorial commitment and diligence, and for keeping the work fun. I loved working with you both! Last but not least, to Nune Srapyan, my right hand to rule the bureaucratic equivalent of the barungar (‘Right Wing’), if our university administration was a premodern Turko-Mongol polity (with the Polish National Agency being the ‘Left Wing’). Without you, I would still be drowning in paperwork. And finally, to my wife, who lived as much with this project as I did. Poznań, 20 July 2021 Jeroen Van den Bosch

Images Speak Louder than Words? Historical Postcard Exhibition of Early-20th Century Central Asia “The historian should show us that the past was, at the same time, trivial like every present, and fascinating like every past.” Nicolás Gómez Dávila (1913-1994)

T

he images between the different sections and chapters of this book are a selection of 31 postcards from different series that were published in the 1900s and 1910s, that were prepared for an exhibition named: Catching the end, convergence or the beginning of (a) world(s)? The visualization of early-twentieth century Central Asia through postcards of Tashkent and its surroundings, for the EISCAS conference in Ghent (September 2021). The postcards show both general sights and more specific scenes in the city of Tashkent – which was the administrative-military capital of the Tsarist Governorate-General of Turkestan and Central Asia’s largest city at the time – as well as in its nearby surroundings. The images show the ‘old Oriental’ and the ‘new European’ parts of the city. They look like very separate worlds but were in fact intertwined and complementary.  More importantly, they reflect the transformation into different forms of modernity the Central Asian region went through at the time. These postcards were not merely a gadget or collector’s item published at the time in an ideological or political vacuum, but reflected notions of territoriality, national consciousness and the perception of and relationship to the ‘Other’ in this case, the ‘internal Other’ which is common and characteristic for all sufficiently large and culturally-sociologically diverse polities and societies. Do these images and postcards show life as it was, or what the makers, publishers and their audiences wanted to see? It varies. Although there are some exceptions, the chosen images somehow feel less like Orientalist and folkloristic setups than general views of the everyday surroundings in these areas. They document societies and lifestyles the imagery of which often leaves the impression that these changed little over the decades if not centuries, but which were in fact already being heavily

XI

XII

HISTORICAL POSTCARD EXHIBITION OF EARLY-20TH CENTURY CENTRAL ASIA

affected by modernity. Rather than showing the end of an era, they show the impact of a number of developments that had taken place in this part of the Central Asian region in the late 19th and early 20th century. As such, they are a useful tool and illustration for the teaching of modern Central Asian history, and trigger curiosity about the historical reality behind the images. This exhibition is not meant as a moral or political judgement about the Tsarist system and about the region’s local societies and cultures. The postcards are of course the product of subjective imaginary and of the way their makers and audiences wanted to show and look at the region. Yet they offer a powerful glimpse at worlds, lifestyles and environments which were to be heavily affected if not obliterated following the dramatic historical events – the First World War followed by the Bolshevik coup d’état and the Russian Civil War – that would occur only a few years after they were produced.  This exhibition was compiled by Bruno De Cordier, Ghent University, and Svetlana Gorshenina, CNRS-Eur'Orbem and Alerte Héritage international observatory, with the technical support from Anatolii Otlivanchik of Tashkent Retrospective, Moscow. The original postcards were produced and published between 1900 and 1916 by the Suvorin (Moscow), Bek-Nazarov (Tashkent), Kirshner (Tashkent), Khlubna (Tashkent) and Schneider (Odessa) publishing companies. The large majority (24) of the images come from the private postcard collections the late Sergey Priakhin (Kapchagai) and of Nizami Ibragimov (Moscow). The remaining are from the personal collections of François Guichard (3; Paris), Svetlana Gorshenina (3; Paris/Lausanne) and Yulia Pelipai (1; Moscow).

A Confusion of Tongues? On Non-Latin Scripts and Transliteration

T

his handbook uses a wide variety of literature sources, many of them not written in English or even in the more common European languages, and many do not use the Latin script. The book often mentions many names and terms from other languages than English − not in the least, in Russian − which are, on top of that, also not spelled using the Latin alphabet. This multilingualism is part of the character of this book. The editors feel that the languages used in our region of interest have to be shown to the advantage of readers, some who read them or might happen to study them, or just take an interest. This, of course, brought with it its fair share of challenges in terms of transliteration and finding the right place for non-Latin scripts. So how did we proceed? In general, the most common names in Russian (and other languages) were spelled according to the English form most often encountered in the literature and in the media: e.g. Joseph Stalin, Nikita Khrushchev, Kazakhs, Kassym-Jomart Tokayev, etc. The same goes for rather common terms, such as: politburo, kolkhoz, khanate, emirate, etc. Likewise, for present-day locations in either language, we used the available standard English transliterations: e.g. Tashkent instead of Toshkent, Uzgen and not Özgön, Xinjiang and not Xīnjiāng or Shinjang, Kashgar instead of Kaxgar or Kashi, etc. Where deemed relevant, the actual, non-Anglicized name or any alternative name in use was put in brackets the first time such a name appears in a text: e.g. Kashgar – called Kāshí – 喀什 in modern Chinese. Our goal was to strike a balance regarding such exonyms or alternative names, a trade-off between exhaustiveness and readability to highlight this region’s notorious complexity. In the reference lists and in the bibliographies, the author names and the titles of works in Russian and in other languages which do not use the Latin alphabet have been left in Cyrillic or the respective alphabet in use, since these are, after all, the languages and alphabets these works are written in. To look these up and consult them, readers need to know these languages anyway. This means that Latinization is pointless. For the same reason, no translation of such book or article titles to English is provided in brackets – as XIII

XIV

A CONFUSION OF TONGUES? ON NON-LATIN SCRIPTS AND TRANSLITERATION

is sometimes, and in our view pointlessly, requested by international journals. Also, a bad translation could actually make it more difficult to track down such sources. In the main text, cited terms from Russian, Arabic, Chinese, Farsi, etc., are all transliterated to Latin, and – where relevant, especially for key concepts – are presented with the original term in Cyrillic, Arabic, Chinese script, etc., which is added between brackets: e.g. dār al-islām (   ); sotsgorod (соцгород); ‘China Dream’ 中国梦 - (Zhōngguó mèng). For these transliterations, we used the following systems: Terms, names, titles of books and articles, etc. in Russian were transliterated according to the British BGN/PCGN Romanization of Russian system: Russian · https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/

system/uploads/attachment_da​ta/file/807920/ROMANIZATION_OF_RUSSIAN.pdf

For the transliteration of terms, names, titles of books and articles, etc. from sources written in Central Asian languages using a modified Cyrillic alphabet (Kazakh, Kyrgyz, Tajik, pre-1993 Turkmen and pre-2001 Uzbek), we used the respective BGN/BCGN Romanization systems: Modified Cyrillic · https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/romanisation-systems For the transliteration of Arabo-Islamic terms, we used the Brill Encyclopaedia of Islam. Encyclopaedia of Islam 1 / 2 / 3 · https://referenceworks.brillonline.com/browse/encyclopaedia-of-islam-1 · https://referenceworks.brillonline.com/browse/encyclopaedia-of-islam-2 · https://referenceworks.brillonline.com/browse/encyclopaedia-of-islam-3 For the transliteration of terms, names, locations, etc. from sources written in languages using a modified Arabic script (Farsi, Dari, Uyghur, the Turkic languages and Tajik in the Soviet Central Asia

A CONFUSION OF TONGUES? ON NON-LATIN SCRIPTS AND TRANSLITERATION

of the 1920s-30s, etc.), we used the BGN/BCGN and LOC Romanization Systems for these idioms: Modified Arabic • https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/ attachment_da​ta/file/320079/Arabic_Romanization.pdf

Persian • https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/ attachment_da​ta/file/858002/ROMANIZATION_OF_PERSIAN.pdf ) Uyghur • https://www.loc.gov/catdir/cpso/romanization/uighur.pdf Finally, for transliterations from Chinese, we used the pinyin Romanization system for Mandarin: Chinese • http://assets.press.princeton.edu/chapters/i10279.pdf

XV

XVICHAPTER 6 XVI

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS ADB – Asian Development Bank AfDB – African Development Bank AIIB – Asian Infrastructure Investment Bank (China) ASEAN – Association of Southeast Asian Nations  ASSR – Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic (lesser-ranking, either a subunit of or preceding the formation of a constituent SSR) bcm – billion cubic metres BOMCA – Border Management Programme in Central Asia (EU project) BRI – Belt and Road Initiative – see also: Map 16.1. CACO – Central Asian Cooperation Organization – see also: Table 17.1. CADAP – Central Asia Drug Action Programme (EU project) CAEU – Central Asian Economic Union – see also: Table 17.1. CANWFZ – The Central Asian Nuclear-Weapon-Free Zone – see also: Table 17.1. CAREC – Central Asia Regional Economic Cooperation Program  CASA-1000 – Central Asia-South Asia Power Project CAU – Central Asian Union – see also: Table 17.1. CBO – Community-based organization (plural: CBOs) CCTSS – Cooperation Council of Turkic-Speaking States CCWAEC – China-Central Asia-West Asia Economic Corridor – see also: Map 16.1. CDB – China Development Bank  Centrasbat – Central Asian Battalion (for joint NATO exercises) CIC – China Investment Corporation  CICA – Conference on Interaction and Confidence-Building Measures in Asia  CIS – Commonwealth of Independent States  CMEC – China-Myanmar Economic Corridor – see also: Map 16.1. CNPC – China National Petroleum Company COP – Conference of Parties (a body of the UNFCCC) CPC – Caspian Pipeline Consortium (Russian-Kazakh oil transportation project) CPEC – China-Pakistan Economic Corridor – see also: Map 16.1.

CSO – Civil Society Organization CSTO – Collective Security Treaty Organization (Tashkent Treaty) DCK – Democratic Choice of Kazakhstan (DVK in Russian) EAEU – Eurasian Economic Union – see also: Box 17.3. EAPC – Euro-Atlantic Partnership Council EBRD – European Bank for Reconstruction and Development ECO – Economic Cooperation Organization (under UN charter, founded by Iran, Turkey and Pakistan) EMS – Eurasian Migration System EurAsEC – Eurasian Economic Community – see also: Table 17.1. FAO – Food and Agriculture Organization  FBO – Faith-based organization (plural: FBOs) FDI – Foreign Direct Investment FMS – Federal Migration Service (Russia) FP – foreign policy FPA – Foreign Policies Analysis  FPE – Foreign Policy Executive (Plural: FPEs) FSU – Former Soviet Union FTA – Free Trade Agreement GBV – Gender-based violence  GDPR – the EU’s General Data Protection Regulation  Gosplan – State Planning Committee (USSR) HOTS – Higher order thinking skills HSR – High-Speed Railway  IBRD – International Bank for Reconstruction and Development ICBC – Industrial and Commercial Bank of China  ICO – Islamic Cooperation Organization – synonym for OIC ICT – Information and Communications Technology IDB – Islamic Development Bank IDP – Internally Displaced Person (plural: IDPs) IFAS – International Fund to save the Aral Sea  IJU – Islamic Jihad Union IMF – International Monetary Fund IMU – Islamic Movement of Uzbekistan IO – international organization (plural: IOs) IR – International Relations (as an academic discipline)

ORIENTALISM, LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS POSTCOLONIAL AND DECOLONIAL FRAMES ON CENTRAL ASIA

IRP or IRPT – Islamic Renaissance Party (of Tajikistan) ISAF – International Security Assistance Force (NATO operation) ISIL – Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant, also known as IS, ISIL or by its Arabic acronym ‘Daesh’  ISIS – Islamic State of Iraq and Syria (synonym for ISIL) JV – Joint Venture(s) K2 – Karshi-Khanabad (US military airbase in Uzbekistan) LDPR – Liberal Democratic Party of Russia LEICA – Law Enforcement in Central Asia (EU project) LLDC Landlocked Developing Country (Plural: LLDCs) LO – Learning Outcomes, short form of  ‘Intended Learning Outcomes’ within the context of student-centred education or ‘Outcomes-Based Teaching and Learning’ (OBTL). MFA – Ministry of Foreign Affairs  MMTs – Multifunction Migration Centres (in Russia) MSR – 21st Century Maritime Silk Road – see also: Map 16.1. NATO – North Atlantic Treaty Organization NDPT – People’s Democratic Party (Tajikistan) NELBEC – New Eurasian Land Bridge Economic Corridor – see also: Map 16.1. NIS – newly independent states OBOR – ‘One Belt One Road’ development strategy – see also: BRI OBTL – Outcomes-Based Teaching and Learning OECD – Organization of Economic Cooperation and Development  OIC – Organization of Islamic Cooperation – synonym for: ICO OSCE – Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe PCA – Partnership and Cooperation Agreement (with the EU) PfP – Partnership for Peace (a NATO program) POW – prisoner of war PRC – People’s Republic of China  RATS – Regional Anti-Terrorist Structure (created by the SCO) RCD – Regional Cooperation for Development (predecessor of ECO)

RE – renewable energy REE – Rare earth element (plural: REEs) ROC – Russian Orthodox Church RoL – Rule of Law RSFSR – Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic SADUM – Central Spiritual Administration of Muslims (USSR) SAFE – State Administration of Foreign Exchange (China) SCO – Shanghai Cooperation Organization – see also: Box 17.2. SDG – Sustainable Development Goal (plural: SDGs) SREB – Silk Road Economic Belt  SRF – Silk Road Fund SSR – Soviet Socialist Republic (Plural: SSRs) TAPI – Turkmenistan-Afghanistan-Pakistan-India gas pipeline TDP – Democratic Party of Turkmenistan TEU – twenty-foot equivalent unit (standard for transport containers) TFEC – total final energy consumption TIC – territorial-industrial complex (plural: TICs) TİKA – Turkish Cooperation and Coordination Agency TRACECA – Transport Corridor Europe-Caucasus-Asia TURKSOY – International Association of Turkish Culture UN DESA – United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs UNDP – United Nations Development Programme UNEP – United Nations Environment Programme UNESCO – United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization UNFCCC – United Nations Climate Change Framework Convention  UNFPA – United Nations Population Fund, (formerly: the United Nations Fund for Population Activities) USAID – United States Agency for International Development USSR – Union of Soviet Socialist Republics  UTO – United Tajik Opposition VPN – Virtual Private Network  ZAGS – Civil Status Registration Office (zapis aktov grazhdanskogo sostoyaniya) (USSR)

XVII

XVIII

GLOSSARY OF TERMS 3-D jobs – dirty, dangerous and degrading jobs. Abbasid caliphate – third caliphate and second great dynasty to succeed (750-1258) the original Islamic empire of the Prophet.  adat (Arab.)– codified customary law. ahl al-dhimma (Arab.) – a state of legal protection for non-Muslims, guaranteeing property rights and ascribing their duties and rights in historical times.   akim – from Arab. ‘hakim,’ regional administrator in local government in Central Asia. aksakal (Turkic) – (male) elder – also transliterated aqsaqal or acsacal, lit. “white-beard” – an informal position in local social (and political) hierarchies. al-Khurāsān (Arab.) – “Eastern Lands” referring to Central Asia, from the perspective of the Umayyads, later became a province under the Abbasids with Merv and Nishapur as main political-military centres. al-Khwārizm (Arab.) – Central Asian province south of the Aral Sea in the Abbasid caliphate, with Kat as its capital. al-Nusra Front – ‘Jabhat al-Nusra’ or “front of supporters” – a Salafist, jihadist organization and rebel group that took up arms against the Syrian regime of Bashir al-Assad during the Syrian Civil War (2011-) with the aim to create their own Islamic State in Syria.  Al-Qaeda – also spelled ‘al-Qaida’ and ‘al-Qa'ida’ – translated as “the Base” – is a widespread Salafist-Takfiri jihadist terrorist organization founded by Osama Bin Laden in the late 1980s.  Alty Shahr – (also spelled Altishahr)  translated as “six cities” in the Uyghur language. The region covers the Tarim Basin, and was later called Kashgaria. It is now on the territory of southern Xinjiang. 

'āmil (Arab.) – an office in historic Islamic polities, responsible for fiscal-financial affairs and tax collection. Amtscharisma – ‘charisma of office’ or ‘institutional-charismatic rulership’ – in Weber-derived classifications – see also ‘Herrshaft.’ apparatchiks – lit. “the apparatus people” – derived from Soviet slang, the term designates career bureaucrats and communist party cadres who were perfectly inter-exchangeable between functions, and often abide by typical personality types, lifestyles and career tracks. Asar – ‘All Together,’ political party in Kazakhstan, created by Dariga Nazarbayeva, later merged with ‘Nur Otan.’ ashar (Arab.) – (also spelled hashar) – collective work on voluntary basis, usually for one’s community coordinated by a traditional, informal social structure like mahalla or council of elders.  Ashkenazi Jews – often also called ‘European Jews,’ these were Jews from Central and Eastern Europe, who traditionally often spoke Yiddish as their internal ‘lingua franca’ and mostly settled in Central Asia in the 20th century. Most now live in Israel, the US, and in Western Europe. ashrāf (Arab.) – aristocratic lineages tracing their descent to early Arab conquerors, or even directly to the Prophet or members of his entourage aul (Turkic) – nomadic (fortified) village in the Central Asian Steppe. From Turkic/Kazakh ‘auyl’ – meaning ‘kin-village.’ Auls are subunits of a clan.  avlod (Arab.) – Tajik (and Uzbek) clan networks. awliy (Arab.) – “Friends of God” – Islamic saints Bey (Turkic – maybe from old Persian) – head of a clan; Kyrgyz: ‘Biy,’ Uzbek, Kazakh: ‘Bek,’ Turkmen: ‘Beg,’ Tajik: ‘Be’ 

GLOSSARY Birlik – (Unity) – Declaredly nationalist-democratic political party in Uzbekistan, led by Abdurahim Polat. Banned in 1994.  Bukharan Jews – Ancient Oriental Jewish group of Iranian origin that was historically present in what is now Uzbekistan and traditionally spoke a Judeo-Tajik dialect. Most now live in Israel and the US. Caesaropapism – a system of rule that merges religious and political power, with religious institutions answering to the political powerholders. It has many variations and StateChurch relations altered over time, oscillating between an interdependency of ‘symphony’ between the two, to a dependency where rulers acted as the supreme judge in religious affairs. caliph – from khalīfah (Arab.) meaning “successor” – Islamic title, ruler of a ‘caliphate’ caliphate – an Islamic state (in line with theocratic doctrine), ruled by a temporal ruler, a caliph, who wields political and spiritual authority, but does not have prophetic power and thus cannot exercise power in matters of religious doctrine.  Centrasbat – The ‘Central Asian Battalion’ put together for conducting multinational military (peacekeeping/humanitarian) exercises in Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan and Uzbekistan (other participating nations include Russia, Ukraine, Turkey, United Kingdom, Georgia, Azerbaijan, and Mongolia) aimed at training exercises on regional security and strengthening military-to-military relationships.  chachvan see ‘parandji’ chaikhana – “teahouse,” a place for public debate on a range of political, social and community topics.  Charisma – the exceptional sanctity or heroic qualities or exemplary character of a person, and of the orders that this person proclaims or creates (cf. Max Weber) – see also ‘Herrshaft.’ Chishtīs – also ‘Chishtīyya,’ Sunni Sufi order, which was founded near Herat in the 10th century,

XIX but built an especially large following in India and (present-day) Pakistan and Bangladesh. dahaqīn (Arab.) – landowner class in Islamic Central Asian and Iranian society.  dār al-‘ahd (Arab.) – “realm of truce” (or covenant), where non-Muslims are recognized by an Islamic authority after a treaty. dār al-hārb (Arab.) – “realm of war,” where non-Islamic laws are enforced, or territory that is not or no longer adjacent to any Muslim territory  dār al-islām (Arab.) – “realm of Islam,” where Muslims are in the majority or politically sovereign  dār al-kufr (Arab.) – “realm of unbelief,” see ‘dār al-hārb.’  Dasht-e Qibchaq – (or ‘Dasht-i-Kipchak’) translated as the ‘Plains of the Kipchak’ from Persian, was later referred to as ‘the Kazakh Steppe’ from the 15th century onwards. It refers to the enormous grassland steppes and deserts extending from the lower reaches of the Syr Darya and Lake Balkhash to the mouth of the Danube.  dawāwīn (Arab.) – (single: dīwān, sometimes spelled divan or dewan) – derived from ‘logbook’ or ‘register,’ this came to mean the administrative departments in charge of specific fields like the judiciary, taxation, irrigation, etc. in Islamic polities.  dekhanstvo – Russian term based on the Persian term for peasant. Refers to the Central Asian peasant class and individual or family-based peasant households. Democratic Party of Turkmenistan (TDP) (in Turkmen: ‘Türkmenistanyň Demokratik Partiýasy’) – ruling party in Turkmenistan since 1991.  dinar – Islamic medieval gold currency; still the name of the national currency in a number of Arab countries and in Serbia. djizya (Arab.) – yearly tax paid by a non-Muslim (Dhimmi) to uphold their privileges and protected status in Islam-dominated polities.  Dzhungaria – lit. “lands of the left hand” in Mongolian, Dzhungaria is a sub-region of northwestern China, and one of the Turko-Mongol

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GLOSSARY political homelands, coinciding with contemporary northern Xinjiang.  (Other spellings include Dzungaria, Djungaria, Jungaria, Zhungaria and Zungaria) Dzhungars – also known as ‘Oirat,’ a Mongol tribal confederation inhabiting and maintaining a khanate in what is now northern Xinjiang between 1635 and 1755. This khanate, which also vassalized the city-states of what is now southern Xinjiang, was one of the last expansive Mongol polities. The Dzhungars, who mostly professed Tibetan Lamaism, were in a near-constant state of war with the neighbouring Kazakhs, until they were defeated and almost exterminated by the Chinese empire. East Turkestan see Dzhungaria. emir – (from amīr – Arab.) provincial governor in Islamic polities, responsible for political-military matters (and also fiscal-financial affairs before the creation of the separate office of 'āmil). Emirs enjoyed far reaching autonomy and often only nominally pledged allegiance to caliphs. Dynasties of emirs cannot trace back their lineage to royalty (like khans), nor to lineal descent from the Prophet (like caliphs).  emirate – the office of, and polity led by, an emir. Erbscharisma – ‘hereditary charisma’ – a form of traditional rulership in the writings of Max Weber – see also ‘Herrshaft.’ Eurasianism (in Kazakhstan) – a geostrategy developed under N. Nazarbayev, portraying Kazakhstan as a “Eurasian land bridge” with the aim to underline Kazakh multi-vector foreign policy. Eurasianism (in Russia) – was a political (geo-) ideology and movement created in the 1920s among Russian émigrés that had fled the Russian revolutions. Adherents presented Russia as a unique (leading) civilization spanning two continents, its culture being a ‘mix’ born of the fusion of Slavic and Turko-Muslim peoples, and as an alternative to Western modernity, building on and reinterpreting many elements from Orientalist and Westerners-Slavophile debates. fiqh (Arab.) – Islamic jurisprudence.

Genossen – ‘traditional associates’ or ‘staff’ of a ruler who derive their legitimacy from tradition (cf. Max Weber) – see also ‘Herrshaft.’ ghāzī – volunteer Islamic warrior engaged in a holy war for the protection and propagation of the faith. Glasnost’ –  Closely associated with and popularized by the personality of Mikhail Gorbachev, refers to the process of ‘new openness’ and ‘transparency’ in governance and international relations in the Soviet Union between 1986 and 1991. Often mentioned in the same breath as ‘perestroika’ (‘reconstruction’), which referred to a series of 1980s reforms aimed at making the Soviet command economy more effective. Gorno-Badakhshan – lit. ‘Highland Badakhshan.’ Autonomous region of Tajikistan, added to what was then the Tajik Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic in early 1925. Encompasses the western Pamirs and the Murgab plateau. Gosplan – ‘Gosudarstvennyy Planovyy Komitet’ (Rus.), meaning ‘State Planning Committee’ – the USSR main central planning and implementation committee responsible for steering the Soviet state-led economy at the behest of the Communist Party and its republics’ leadership.   Hajj (Arab.) – Pilgrimage to Mecca – one of Islam’s five pillars. Hanabali – the smallest and most traditional of the four Sunni schools of Islamic jurisprudence (fiqh). Does not allow jurist discretion nor customary interpretation by a community.  Hanafi – the largest Sunni school of Islamic jurisprudence (fiqh); widespread in Central Asia, it is considered the most liberal of all four schools allowing jurist discretion.  hashar see ‘ashar.’ Herrschaft – ‘Rulership’ (also translated as ‘Authority’ or ‘Domination’) – a theory by Max Weber – see also Box 11.1. hijab – head covering worn by Muslim women. Hizb ut-Tahrir – an international, pan-Islamist political party founded in 1952 in what was

GLOSSARY then still Jordan-occupied Jerusalem, pursuing the goals to restore the Caliphate and unite the Muslim community under proper Islamic governance.   Hizbi Nahzati Islomii Tojikiston see ‘Islamic Renaissance Party of Tajikistan.’ Hujum –  (also spelled ‘hudjum’) – Soviet policy of defeudalization and labour mobilization by eradicating gender inequality, forbidding (Islamic) female veiling and seclusion. The term is derived from the Arabo-Turkic term for ‘assault,’ and originates from the 1920s communist ‘women’s liberation’ campaign aimed at Muslim Central Asian women. Although popularly associated with veil burning ceremonies, its more general purpose was to radically extirpate traditional ethnic-Islamic customs and institutions, instil socialist class consciousness among Muslim women, and bring women into the labour force. Eventually proved counter-productive. Similar campaigns took place in the Caucasus and among the Tatars. Iftar – “breaking of the fast” – the evening meal with which Muslims end their daily Ramadan fast at sunset.  Islamic Renaissance Party of Tajikistan – in Tajik: ‘Hizbi Nahzati Islomii Tojikiston’ – Sunni Islamist party founded by Said Abdullo Nuri in 1991 (though the group who founded the party has a history dating back to 1973) as the Tajik branch of the pan-Soviet Islamic Renaissance Party. Was the main component of the ‘United Tajik Opposition’ during the Tajik Civil War of 1992-97. After the 1997 peace agreement, it was represented in parliament and government and was active with a social wing and quite large membership base, until it was banned in 2015. Until then, it was post-1991 Central Asia’s only and largest legal Islamist party. Islamist Movement of Uzbekistan – (Uzbek: O’zbekiston islomiy harakati) – a militant organization created in 1998 aimed at installing an Islamist regime in Uzbekistan, later radicalizing and pledging allegiance to Al-Qaeda, the Taliban and also ISIS. In former Soviet Central Asia their actions were related mostly with violent kidnappings (for ransom), in Afghan-

XXI istan they conducted terrorist activities and fought alongside the Taliban. Was initially led by Juma Namangani and Tahir Yuldash. Ismaili Shia – one of the three largest Shia branches existing today. It differs from Twelver Shia by bestowing the rightful imanate succession to a different son (the eldest, Ismail) instead of the third son (Musa al-Kadhim) after the death of their father, Imam Jafar ibn Muhammad as-Sadiq, of the line of Ali. The Ismailis also differ in their Quranic interpretation, drawing upon both exoteric and esoteric sources of knowledge.  Jacobites – pre-Islamic Christian religion, see Box 4.1.  Jadidism – Reformist political movement founded in Bakhchysarai on the Crimea in 1883 by Ismailbey Gaspirali, a Tatar publicist and publisher who was inspired by reformist movements in the Ottoman empire. Often self-designated as Taraqqiparvarlar (‘the progressives’). Its aim was to uplift and emancipate the Turkic Muslims of the Russian empire through, first, the propagation of a common Turkic lingua franca (Chagatai Turkish) and, second, an educational network based on the üsül ul-jad (‘new teaching method’ in Arabo-Turkic, whence the name) that would combine modern subjects and sciences with proper understanding of Islam. It also propagated proper translations of the Quran into the Turkic languages. The movement eventually spread into Central Asia through Tatars from Kazan. The number of schools in Central Asia that were somehow influenced by Jadidism by the year 1911 is estimated at 100. A number of Jadids and alumni of Jadid schools later played active roles in Pan-Turkic nationalist movements in Russia, Central Asia and Xinjiang, and even in the early-Soviet nationalities policy in Central Asia. See also Box 7.2. jamoat (Turkic) – council of elders or village council. Jungaria see Dzhungaria. kalym – bride price, paid to the fiancée’s parents as a “refund” for bringing up their daughter. Kamolot – an Uzbek public youth association.

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GLOSSARY kanat – the Kyrgyz, like other Turko-Mongol societies, encompassed a supra-tribal grouping that in various times was subdivided into two or three wings: ‘Ong kanat’ (Right wing), ‘Sol kanat’ (Left wing), and sometimes ‘Ichkilik’ (Internal or Middle wing). Kara Kum – lit. ‘black sand,’ desert in Turkmenistan. Karakalpak – Central Asian Turkic ethnic group of the Kipchak-Nogai branch, related to the Kazakhs. Traditionally live in the Aral Sea basin, currently a recognized minority in Uzbekistan, with their own Autonomous Republic in northwestern Uzbekistan (capital Nukus) – see also Map 8.3 and 8.4. Kara-Kirgiz – lit. ‘Black Kyrgyz,’ name used in the Tsarist and early-Soviet era (1880s-1920s) to designate the forebears of the Kyrgyz of the Tien Shan and Alay highlands in what is now Kyrgyzstan, in order to distinguish them from the ‘Kirgiz of the steppe,’ which were the forbears of the Kazakhs, see ‘Kirgiz’ kazi – (Also ‘Qadi’) – Islamic magistrate or judge of a sharia court. kelin (Turkic) – (young) bride, daughter-in-law, the social status of a newlywed married woman in regard to her husband’s family, with whom she moves in until she has (older) children of her own, according to custom – see Box 13.4. Khalwa (Arab.) – “solitude” – Islamic (Sufi) practice of retreat or withdrawal from the world.   khan (Turkic) – title of lord (or prince) attributed to chiefs of nomadic confederations in Eurasia since the 13th century, also used, thereafter, in other languages. Khorasan – province in Iran, translated as the ‘eastern province’ in Persian, located in the northeast of the country, and historically part of the Central Asian culture complex, see also ‘al-Khurāsān’ and ‘Transoxiana’ Kirgiz – Name used in the Tsarist and early-Soviet eras for the various groups of the Kazakh steppe, which now form the Kazakhs. Sometimes also called ‘Kirgiz-Kaysak.’ Not to be

confused with ‘Kyrgyz,’ which is the common name for the titular nation of modern Kyrgyzstan. kolkhoz (Rus.) – collective farm and organizational unit during Soviet times; contraction of ‘kollektivnoye khozaystvo’ (Rus.).  kompromat – Russian abbreviation for ‘compromising material’ used for the blackmail or character assassination of politicians or public figures.  Komsomol (Rus.) – A communist youth movement – abbreviation for the ‘Kommunisticheskiy soyuz molodyëzhi’ (Rus.) – itself an alias for the ‘Vsesoyuzny Leninskii kommunisticheskii soyuz molodyëzhi’ (Rus.) – for youths aged 14 to 28.  Korenizatsiya – lit. “rooting in” – a process of integration (1930s to 1950s) of members of the titular Turkic and Tajik majorities into the republican Communist party sections and into the administrative structures and governments (especially in symbolic functions, and in the local-level echelons), as well as in some sections of the security apparatus of the respective Soviet republics. The aim was to create a sustainable support base for socialism and communism among the population, and enhance its Sovietization. Was also applied in the Caucasus, Ukraine and Belarus. This Soviet policy of indigenization was limited under Stalin and intensified under Brezhnev. Kubraviyya – Central Asian Sufi order, see Box  7.1. Kurban bayrami – Islamic feast of sacrifice.  Kut (Turkic) – see ‘Mandate of heaven.’ kutlugh (Turkic) – see ‘Mandate of heaven.’ kyz ala kachuu (Kyrgyz) – translates as: “take the girl and run” – bride kidnapping, mostly associated with contemporary Kyrgyzstan – see Box 12.2. Kyzyl Kum – lit. ‘red sand,’ desert located between the Syr Darya and Amu Darya rivers, currently on the territory of Turkmenistan, Kazakhstan and Uzbekistan. 

GLOSSARY

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Mā warā’ al-Nahr (Arab.) – province in the Abbasid caliphate with Samarkand as its capital. 

Naqshbandiyya – Central Asian Sufi order, see Box 7.1.

Mahalla (Persian) – territorial unit: urban district or dense rural settlement in southern, sedentary Central Asia. Simultaneously, the term refers to the informal social institution for local governance, at the level of city districts or villages – see also Box 13.2.

Navruz – Iranian New Year, celebrated around 21 March.

Maliki – Sunni school of Islamic jurisprudence (‘fiqh’), more liberal than Hanabali or Shafi’i in that it allows interpretation of Islamic law based on the customs of the Medina (city) tradition.  Manat – Turkmen currency. Mandate of heaven – (‘kut’ in Turkic, ‘tiānmìng’ in Chinese) – the moral right to rule by khans, emperors or other monarchs, which are considered ‘Fortunate’ or ‘Heaven-favoured’ (Turkic: ‘kutlugh’) by the skygod (Tengri) or cosmic order.  Manicheism – pre-Islamic religion, see Box 4.1.  mawālī (Arab.) – non-Arab (primarily, though not exclusively, Iranian) converts to Islam.  Melkites – pre-Islamic Christian religion, see Box 4.1.  Mestnye (Rus.) – autochthonous Muslim Central Asian populations. Mikrorayon – Soviet-Russian, lit. ‘micro-district,’ a basic (sub)urban-organizational unit that became characteristic for Soviet cities. Originally conceived to each provide housing, utilities and social services for 5,000 inhabitants. Usually modern (i.e. 1960s-80s-built) neighbourhoods of socialist apartment blocks along streets laid-out in checkerboard pattern – see also Box. 22.1. Muftiate – legal and administrative territorial unit (in parallel fashion to Christian dioceses) with the purpose of regulating Islam, led by an Islamic jurist (mufti), who oversees the local boards, clerics, mosques, and trusteeships (waqf). Such directorates emerged in South-Eastern Europe and the former Soviet Union. 

Near Abroad (blizhneye zarubesh’e – Rus.) a geopolitical term for former Soviet states neighbouring Russia, claimed as a natural zone of influence by Russian policy-makers.  Neo-Eurasianism (in Russia) – A revival of Russian ‘Eurasianism’ in geopolitical terms, functions as an anti-Western geo-ideology in Russian foreign policy under Putin, mostly developed by Alexander Dugin and based on his writings. Neo-Ottomanism / Osmanism – a Turkish, nationalist, imperialist geo-ideology that sees Turkey as a model of transformation in its region, reappraising Ottoman values (and its ‘natural right’ to rule). Nestorianism – pre-Islamic Christian religion, see Box 4.1.  Nur Otan – ‘Light of the Fatherland’ – People’s Democratic Party (ruling party in Kazakhstan since 2006). O’zlidep – Uzbekistan Liberal Democratic Party (in Uzbek: ‘O’zbekiston Liberal Demokratik Partiyasi’) – ruling party in Uzbekistan. oblast’ (Rus.) – subnational Russian administrative unit at the level of region, province or county.  Old believers – Followers of the liturgical and ritual practices of the Eastern Orthodox Church as practised before the reforms of Patriarch Nikon of Moscow in the 17th century. They were branded heretics at the synod of 1666-1667, leading to a schism in the Eastern Orthodox Church.  Orgnabor (Rus.) – state-organized labour recruitment.  Otan – ‘Fatherland’ – predecessor of ‘Nur Otan’ (ruling party in Kazakhstan from 1999 to 2006) parandji (Arab.) – (also ‘paranja,’ sometimes spelled ‘parandja’) – Central Asian robe or integral veil for women and girls, similar to the Afghan burka or the Arab abaya. It covers the

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GLOSSARY whole body while the face is hidden behind a (heavy, black) veil, traditionally made from horsehair, called a chachvan. patent (Rus.) – a work permit in the Russian Federation. Perestroika (Rus.) – economic reformist policy introduced by M. Gorbachev in 1985, aimed at restructuring the command-economy to counter the economic stagnation in the late Brezhnev years.  Pioneers – A Communist youth organization, alias for the All-Union Pioneer Organization of V. I. Lenin (‘Vsesoyuznaya pionerskaya organizatsiya imeni V. I. Lenina’ – Rus.) for youths aged 9 to 15.  polity – generic term for any self-organized political entity (size and organi