Eucalyptus: Engineered Wood Products and Other Applications 9819979188, 9789819979189

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Seng Hua Lee · Wei Chen Lum · Petar Antov · Ľuboš Krišťák · Muhammad Adly Rahandi Lubis · Widya Fatriasari   Editors

Eucalyptus Engineered Wood Products and Other Applications

Eucalyptus

Seng Hua Lee · Wei Chen Lum · Petar Antov · L’uboš Krišt’ák · Muhammad Adly Rahandi Lubis · Widya Fatriasari Editors

Eucalyptus Engineered Wood Products and Other Applications

Editors Seng Hua Lee Faculty of Applied Sciences Universiti Teknologi MARA (UiTM) Pahang Branch Jengka Campus Pahang, Malaysia Petar Antov University of Forestry Sofia, Bulgaria Muhammad Adly Rahandi Lubis Research Collaboration Center Between BRIN and Universitas Padjadjaran National Research and Innovation Agency Cibinong, Indonesia

Wei Chen Lum Faculty of Bioengineering and Technology Universiti Malaysia Kelantan Jeli Campus Kelantan, Malaysia L’uboš Krišt’ák Technical University in Zvolen Zvolen, Slovakia Widya Fatriasari Research Center for Biomass and Bioproducts National Research and Innovation Agency (BRIN) Cibinong, Indonesia

ISBN 978-981-99-7918-9 ISBN 978-981-99-7919-6 (eBook) https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-7919-6 © The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2024 This work is subject to copyright. All rights are solely and exclusively licensed by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed. The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use. The publisher, the authors, and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the authors or the editors give a warranty, expressed or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been made. The publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. This Springer imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. The registered company address is: 152 Beach Road, #21-01/04 Gateway East, Singapore 189721, Singapore Paper in this product is recyclable.

Preface

As one of the most widely planted broad-leaf forest species worldwide, the Eucalyptus plantation area has surpassed 22.57 million hectares in 95 countries, with 15 countries accounting for approximately 90% of the global eucalyptus plantation area. Brazil, China, and India are the top three countries with the most planted area. In the Myrtaceae family, Eucalyptus is a large genus with 822 species, but only about 500 of them have industrial plantation potential. They are primarily endemic to Australia, New Zealand, South Africa, Papua New Guinea, Brazil, China, Indonesia, and the Philippines. Currently, 90% of the Eucalyptus plantations worldwide are dominated by the “big nine” species and their hybrids which are Eucalyptus camaldulensis, E. grandis, E. tereticornis, E. globulus, E. nitens, E. urophylla, E. saligna, E. dunnii, and E. pellita This genus is indigenous to Australia and nearby Pacific islands, but it is cultivated as an exotic in numerous tropical and subtropical regions. This species satisfies nearly all requirements for commercial plantation species with a short rotation, including plantation-specific rapid growth, restricted branching in straight stems, and adequate wood quality for specific uses and products. Initially, Eucalyptus is planted in order to produce chips for pulping. Nonetheless, as the demand for engineered wood products continues to rise due to the dearth of high-quality solid wood, many planters have begun to focus on Eucalyptus for a variety of value-added products. In addition, following the decline in natural forest area, a new hardwood plantation expansion is emerging. Exotic species such as Paulownia (Paulownia spp.), African mahogany (Khaya spp.), and teak (Tectona grandis) have been planted. In the 1990s, many nations, including Brazil, Uruguay, and Argentina, switched to Eucalyptus plantation management. In some countries, eucalyptus has been utilized for the production of panels in order to protect local forests and secure larger-diameter logs for other uses. Prior to the last few decades, there was a widespread misconception that large log diameters were required to produce veneer. However, as of the early twenty-first century, large-diameter logs are no longer required for veneer production, as technological advances in veneer lathes have rendered this possibility obsolete. New lathe technologies are capable of peeling logs with small diameters down to cores with diameters smaller than 20 mm. Technological advancement has revolutionized the veneer and plywood industry by enabling the use of smaller trees v

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(with a diameter of less than 60 mm) and younger eucalyptus trees (with an age range of 4-5 years) for higher-value applications. The plantation of eucalyptus is regarded as an ideal planted species due to its potential to supply sufficient volume for veneer production. Since then, the global Eucalyptus plantation has expanded to meet the needs of numerous applications. This book is structured to present the many uses of Eucalyptus spp. The global distribution of eucalyptus plantations and their hybridization and cloning status are described. This book also discusses the effects of diseases on the properties of eucalyptus wood as well as the problems associated with splitting eucalyptus logs. This book also discusses engineered wood products like particleboard, oriented standard board (OSB), medium density fiberboard (MDF), glue laminated timber (Glulam), veneers and veneer-based panels like plywood and laminated lumber veneer made from eucalyptus wood. In addition to these manufactured wood products, applications of eucalyptus species in pulp and paper, essential oils, and green chemical feedstocks have been emphasized. Last but not least, the social, economic, and environmental value impacts of eucalyptus plantation expansion have also been highlighted. Pahang, Malaysia Kelantan, Malaysia Sofia, Bulgaria Zvolen, Slovakia Cibinong, Indonesia Cibinong, Indonesia August 2023

Seng Hua Lee Wei Chen Lum Petar Antov L’uboš Krišt’ák Muhammad Adly Rahandi Lubis Widya Fatriasari

Acknowledgements The editors would like to thank the Malaysian Ministry of Higher Education (MOHE) for their support with this project, which was funded by the Transdisciplinary Fundamental Research Grant Scheme (TRGS 2018-1), reference code: TRGS/1/2018/UPM/01/2/3. The editors would also like to express their appreciation to the Institute of Tropical Forestry and Forest Products (INTROP), Universiti Putra Malaysia, a Higher Education Center of Excellence (HICoE), for their assistance during the implementation of the project.

Contents

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Eucalyptus Plantation Worldwide, Its Hybridization and Cloning Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Seng Hua Lee, Rasdianah Dahali, Nik Hazlan Nik Hashim, Mazlin Kusin, Siti Zalifah Mahmud, Norashikin Kamarudin, Ainul Munirah Abdul Jalil, and Muhammad Adly Rahandi Lubis

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Diseases Infection in Eucalyptus Plantation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Rasdianah Dahali, Paridah Md Tahir, Seng Hua Lee, and Zhang Jun

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Splitting Issues in Eucalyptus Logs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Manuel Espey, Paridah Md Tahir, Seng Hua Lee, Adlin Sabrina Muhammad Roseley, and Roger Meder

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Particleboard Made of Eucalyptus Wood Bonded by Isocyanate Resin: Considering Moisture Content of the Particles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Arif Nuryawan, Inka Cristy Vera Simorangkir, Eka Mulya Alamsyah, and Halimatuddahliana

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An Overview of Medium-Density Fiberboard and Oriented Strand Board Made from Eucalyptus Wood . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Muhammad Amirul Akmal Rosli, Nasroien Bambang Purwanto, Lum Wei Chen, Norshariza Mohamad Bhkari, Boon Jia Geng, Mohd Ezwan Bin Selamat, and Liew Jeng Young Veneers from Eucalyptus spp. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Yusri Helmi Muhammad, Wan Mohd Nazri Wan Abdul Rahman, Nurul Husna Mohd Hassan, Nurrohana Ahmad, Noorshashillawati Azura Mohammad, Siti Noorbaini Sarmin, and Petar Antov

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Veneer-Based Products from Eucalyptus spp. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Ahmad Fauzi Awang Othman, Junaiza Ahmad Zaki, Norhafizah Rosman, Amran Shafie, Nur Hannani Abdul Latif, Zaimatul Aqmar Abdullah, and L’uboš Krišt’ák

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Glue-Laminated Timber from Eucalyptus spp. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111 Chee Beng Ong, Alia Syahirah Yusoh, and Mohd Khairun Anwar Uyup

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Bleached and Dissolving Pulp Properties of Eucalyptus Urophylla . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123 Nyoman J. Wistara, Angga W. Nasdi, Susi Sugesty, and Teddy Kardyansah

10 Eucalyptus Bark Tannin for Green Chemistry Agent . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137 Maya Ismayati, Nissa Nurfajrin Sholihat, and Fahriya Puspita Sari 11 Phytochemical, Essential Oils and Product Applications from Eucalyptus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163 Aswandi Aswandi, Cut Rizlani Kholibrina, and Harlinda Kuspradini 12 Review on Expansion of Eucalyptus: Its Value Impacts on Social, Economic, and Environmental . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185 Rizki Maharani, Andrian Fernandes, and Widya Fatriasari

Chapter 1

Eucalyptus Plantation Worldwide, Its Hybridization and Cloning Development Seng Hua Lee, Rasdianah Dahali, Nik Hazlan Nik Hashim, Mazlin Kusin, Siti Zalifah Mahmud, Norashikin Kamarudin, Ainul Munirah Abdul Jalil, and Muhammad Adly Rahandi Lubis

1.1 Planted Forest Across the Globe According to the Global Forest Resources Assessment (FRA) report that was published by the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) in the year 2020, the total forest area across the globe is estimated to have amounted to 4.06 billion hectares (ha), which covers 31% of the total land area (FAO 2020). The Forest Resources Assessment (FRA) has determined that there are two primary types of forests, namely those that regenerate naturally and those that are planted. About 3.75 billion hectares, or approximately 93% of the total forest area, are covered by forests that regenerate naturally. In the meantime, it is estimated that the total area of planted forests across the globe is 294 million ha, which accounts for 7% of the total area of the world’s forests. After Europe, North and Central America, South America, Africa, and Oceania, Asia has the largest area of planted forests, totaling 135.23 million hectares (ha), which accounts for 46% of the total planted forest area across the globe. Asia is followed by Oceania and Africa. The increase in the amount of planted forest area across all regions is depicted in Fig. 1.1, which covers S. H. Lee (B) · N. H. Nik Hashim · M. Kusin · S. Z. Mahmud · N. Kamarudin · A. M. Abdul Jalil Faculty of Applied Sciences, Department of Wood Industry, Universiti Teknologi MARA (UiTM) Cawangan Pahang Kampus Jengka, 26400 Bandar Tun Razak, Pahang, Malaysia e-mail: [email protected] S. H. Lee · R. Dahali Institute of Tropical Forestry and Forest Products, Universiti Putra Malaysia, 43400 UPM Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia M. A. R. Lubis Research Center for Biomass and Bioproducts, National Research and Innovation Agency, Cibinong 16911, Indonesia Research Collaboration Center for Biomass and Biorefinery Between BRIN and Universitas Padjajaran, National Research and Innovation Agency, Cibinong 16911, Indonesia © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2024 S. H. Lee et al. (eds.), Eucalyptus, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-7919-6_1

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Fig. 1.1 Planted forest area by region for the period 1990–2020 (Lee et al. 2022, open access; freely reuse under Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License (https://www.hindawi. com/journals/amse/2022/8000780/); no change is made to the original image)

the period from 1990 to 2020. In comparison to the year 1990, the total area of newly planted forests in the world had significantly expanded by 72% by the year 2020.

1.2 Eucalyptus Plantation Worldwide As one of the globally most widely-planted broad-leaf forest species, Eucalyptus plantation area has exceeded 22.57 million hectares in 95 countries worldwide (Zhang and Wang 2021). Among the 95 countries, 90% of the eucalyptus plantation area has been dominated by the top 15 countries (Wen et al. 2018). Figure 1.2 depicts the proportion of Eucalyptus plantation area. Brazil, China, and India are the top three countries in terms of Eucalyptus planted area. These three countries are home to more than half of the world’s Eucalyptus plantations. Currently, 90% of the Eucalyptus plantations worldwide are dominated by the “big nine” species and their hybrids (Stanturf et al. 2013). Table 1.1 shows the list of “big nine” species and their common name. Eucalyptus is a large genus in the Myrtaceae family with 822 species (Brooker 2000), but only about 500 of them have industrial plantation potential (FAO 2020). It is found primarily in Australia, New Zealand, South Africa, Papua New Guinea, Brazil, China, Indonesia, and the Philippines. This genus is native to Australia and neighboring Pacific islands, but it is grown as an exotic in many tropical and subtropical regions. Outside of Australia, Eucalyptus was initially considered as botanical oddities. Once in cultivation, the ability of some Eucalyptus species to grow quickly and produce straight stems was recognized and spread throughout the world. Some

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Fig. 1.2 Top 15 countries with the most planted area of Eucalyptus (Wen et al. 2018)

Table 1.1 The “big nine” species and their common name Species

Common name

Eucalyptus camaldulensis

River red gum

Eucalyptus grandis

Flooded gum or rose gum

Eucalyptus tereticornis

Forest red gum, blue gum, or red iron gum

Eucalyptus globulus

Southern blue gum, Tasmanian blue gum or blue gum

Eucalyptus nitens

Shining gum or silvertop

Eucalyptus urophylla

Timor white gum, Timor mountain gum, popo or ampupu

Eucalyptus saligna

Sydney blue gum or blue gum

Eucalyptus dunnii

Dunn’s white gum or white gum

Eucalyptus pellita

Large-fruited red mahogany

were planted to provide shade and shelter from typhoons in coastal areas, while others were planted for wind barriers and land reclamation (Keane et al. 2000; Hillis and Brown 1983). The reasons for planting Eucalyptus have evolved significantly, and the various species’ end uses are diverse. Sawn timber, mine props, poles, firewood, pulp, and charcoal are all produced by Eucalyptus (Keane et al. 2000; Hillis and Brown 1983). This is because of their favorable characteristics and many useful silvicultural properties, such as high growth rates, valuable properties, adaptability to a wide range of environments such as soil and climate, coppicing ability, and lack of a weedy tendency in most environments (Keane et al. 2000). Many exotic tree species used for plantation development have the potential to become serious weeds that harm sensitive native ecosystems. Pinus radiata, P. contorta, and P. pinaster, for example, were introduced as plantation trees and are now considered serious invaders in many parts of the world

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(Aylward et al. 2019; Naidoo et al. 2014). Despite this, the size of Eucalyptus plantations established for the production of wood products has grown exponentially over the last century. This expansion is being driven by global demand. Eucalyptus trees are valuable not only for their timber, but also for non-timber products like essential oils, honey, and tannin (Richardson and Rejmanek 2011).

1.3 Development of Eucalyptus sp. Plantation After Corymbia, Angophora, Arillastrum, Allosyncarpia, Eucalyptopsis, and Stockwellia, Eucalyptus L’Heritier is the largest genus in the Myrtaceae family and the most globally planted genus of hardwood trees in forest plantation (Ladiges et al. 2003). Eucalyptus is a large genus with over 700 species that inhabit a wide range of ecological niches (Lee et al. 2022; Labate et al. 2008; Brooker 2000). Eucalyptus is derived from the Greek words Eu (wells) and kalyptus (closed), and it has an operculum to protect it (Grossberg 2009). More than 200 years ago, Eucalyptus was developed (Sembiring et al. 2020). As a result of migration from Australia and New Zealand, this plant arrived in the United States in the mid-nineteenth century. Eucalyptus plants are found all over the world due to their vast ecological level and ability to adapt to the global forest surface area. It is native to Australia and its Pacific neighboring islands, but it is also planted as an exotic in many tropical and subtropical regions such as New Guinea, Brazil, Malaysia, and the Philippines. This species meets nearly all of the criteria for commercial plantation species with a short rotation, such as plantation-specific rapid growth, restricted branching in straight stems, and adequate wood quality for specific purposes and products. Selected Eucalyptus species can withstand a variety of soil types and site conditions, and they are also somewhat resistant to common pests and diseases (Aylward et al. 2019; Zaiton et al. 2018; Lukmandaru et al. 2016; Naidoo et al. 2014). These plantations could be easily accredited by environmental certification schemes such as the Forest Stewardship Council (FSC) if excellent forestry practices are used throughout the entire supply chain (Lee et al. 2022). Furthermore, Eucalyptus plants provide significant environmental and industrial benefits (Sembiring et al. 2020), including: (a) Because of their higher growth capacity and dense wood properties, eucalyptus plants are extremely efficient at trapping CO2 , creating oxygen, and improving carbon. (b) Owing to their bulk effect, eucalyptus plants serve as oxygen storage tanks. (c) Due to their rapid growth and rejuvenation every 10–15 years, eucalyptus plants can increase the amount of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere. (d) Compared to other species, eucalyptus consumes water more effectively. (e) Eucalyptus plantation create new natural space and increase biodiversity. (f) Eucalyptus plantation can act like natural forests due to their function, despite the fact that these plants are not natural forests. (g) Eucalyptus has the ability to improve soil fertility.

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(h) Eucalyptus can help to repair degraded or unproductive land. (i) Eucalyptus leaves and stems can act as a nutrient for the soil and are not acidic. (j) Planting these plants generates income and employment in rural regions by utilizing community-owned property. (k) Eucalyptus plants are ideal for producing pulp and renewable energy, due to their excellent characteristics. (l) Eucalyptus produces high-quality tissue paper at a lesser cost. (m) The area around the eucalyptus plantations can be used for a variety of industrial and social purposes, including livestock farming and hunting. (n) The energy potential of eucalyptus biomass provides chances for economic and social growth. As a result, Eucalyptus is becoming a popular raw material for wood products and composite panels in a number of tropical and subtropical countries, including Thailand, Chile, Brazil, and Malaysia (Foroughbakhch et al. 2017). To a wide range of tropical and subtropical regions, combined with versatile wood properties for energy, solid wood products, and pulp and paper, they have earned an enviable position in today’s world forestry. Eucalyptus grandis Hill ex Maiden, E. urophylla S.T. Blake, E. camaldulensis Dehnh and their hybrids are the main species planted in tropical regions, while E. globulus Labill and E. nitens H. Deane and Maiden are the most important species in temperate regions. Eucalyptus is primarily composed of flowering trees and some shrubs (Richardson and Rejmanek 2011). The trees grow in tall open forests and woodlands in environments ranging from high rainfall areas to semi-arid regions, and from sea level to subalpine altitudes (Labate et al. 2008; Eldridge et al. 1993). The majority of Eucalyptus grows naturally in low-nutrient soils, but they have the ability to respond to more fertile conditions (particularly higher nitrogen and phosphorus levels) with increased growth rates. The response of different species to increased soil fertility varies. Soil depth is an important factor in tree growth because it influences moisture storage and root penetration. A few Eucalyptus species can grow in very shallow soils, and some can use fissures in the underlying rock to maintain stability and moisture. Only a few species thrive in heavy clays, sandy soils, or loams. Waterlogged and poorly drained soils are generally unsuitable for Eucalyptus growth, but some species, such as E. camaldulensis, E. robusta, E. rudis, and to a lesser extent E. grandis, tolerate periodic flooding. Some Eucalyptus species have thrived under flood irrigation, particularly in areas with high temperatures and little rainfall. Extreme weather conditions, such as sudden and severe frosts, are, however, significant constraints, particularly in the temperate zone (Stanturf et al. 2013). According to Malaysian history, the planting of Eucalyptus began in Peninsular Malaysia as early as 1893, using seed from Queensland, Australia (FAO 1979). E. robusta was the first species to be planted. Various species were planted as ornamentals in hill stations by British colonizers in the early 1920s (Freezaillah et al. 1966). The Forestry Department introduced Eucalyptus for the first time in 1927 (Freezaillah et al. 1966), when the seed of E. deglupta was obtained from New Guinea. Plantations of various Eucalyptus were established at the Forest Reserves in the

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Cameron Highlands in the period 1931–1941 designated for the use of timber and fuel wood production. The total area planted was about 40 ha, of which about 10 ha is E. robusta. While the remaining consisted of E. saligna, E. grandis, E. bicostata, E. corymbosa, E. deglupta, E. globulus, E. maculata, E. melliodora, E. racemosa, E. sideroxylon, E. umbellata, E. citriodora, E. paniculata, E. pellita, E. resinifera, and E. torelliana. Nonetheless, of all the Eucalyptus species tested, only E. robusta, E. grandis, and E. saligna yielded promising results, while the others were either total failures or inconclusive (Salleh 1995). Meanwhile, in the 1980s, the Kemasul Forest Reserve in Pahang had a Forest Plantation Program. A similar planting was carried out in Sabah in the 1970s, primarily in the Sabah Softwood Berhad, with a total of 7,000 ha planted with E. deglupta. Sabah Forest Industries Sdn. Bhd. planted another 620 ha with E. grandis, E. urophylla, E. globulus, and E. camaldulensis in 1991 (Gibson and Zulkifli 1992). Malaysian plantations have used seed from Australia, New Guinea, Indonesia, and Sri Lanka. Seed has been collected from some of the older plantations for future small-scale plantation programs (Appanah and Weinland 1993). In Sarawak, the Forestry Department planted only 0.4 ha of Eucalyptus sp. in 1979 (Kendawang 1992). However, all the forest plantation programs failed when the E. deglupta, E. camaldulensis, and E. tereticornis stands were attacked by insects and did not survive the intended 15-year cycle (Enters et al. 2002). Eucalyptus spp. is still being reviewed and considered for listing by the government; however, it is gaining importance as Eucalyptus plantation areas constructed by forestry firms, particularly in Sabah and Sarawak (Ahmad 2020), as shown in Fig. 1.3. According to recent developments, the Eucalyptus has been widely regarded as the major species within the plantation program, demonstrating an ability to grow quickly on often difficult sites and under conditions that may differ from those discovered in their natural environment. Eucalyptus hybrid (E. urophylla x E. grandis) and E. pellita are the most commonly planted Eucalyptus species because they have a high survival rate, a wider range of adaptability with sites, and a favorable stem form (Ahmad 2020). Globally, the size of Eucalyptus plantations established for the production of wood products has grown exponentially over the last century. Meanwhile, in Malaysia, the

Fig. 1.3 Eucalyptus plantation in Malaysia (own photo)

1 Eucalyptus Plantation Worldwide, Its Hybridization and Cloning … Table 1.2 Estimated area of Eucalyptus plantation in the Southeast Asia region in 1995 until the year of 2008

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Year

1995

Country

Plantation area of Eucalyptus (ha)

2008

Malaysia

8,000

19,000

Indonesia

80,000

128,000

Myanmar

40,000

76,189

Philippines

10,000

189,000

Thailand

195,000

500,000

Vietnam

350,000

586,000

Total

683,000

1,498,189

Source GIT Forestry Consulting (2008), FAO (1995)

plantation area has increased dramatically since 1995 as shown in Table 1.2 (GIT Forestry Consulting 2008; FAO 1995). Based on the increase in plantation area, it can be concluded that there is a high demand for Eucalyptus wood in Malaysia, as they have a broad ecological level and adaptability to the global forest surface area, resulting in an increase in this species’ plantation area. The statistics show that Eucalyptus spp. has a high demand for their product and can be used as one of the timber sources. With the increment of Eucalyptus plantation area, thus it was increasing the total export as in 2020, the Malaysia export value of Eucalyptus timber last year recorded RM3 billion but for the last six months, the value halved to RM1.49 billion due to the Covid-19 pandemic (The Star 2020). The incredible success with which these trees have been grown outside their native range has largely been attributed to an initial escape from natural enemies (Wingfield 2003). However, this disease-free period has been relatively short-lived, and disease and pest problems have become an important constraint to the sustainability of Eucalyptus plantations globally (Burgess and Wingfield 2017).

1.4 Hybridization and Cloning of Eucalyptus sp. for Properties Enhancement Tree breeding programs involving Eucalyptus species and provenance selection in hybridization and cloning are required to develop superior Eucalyptus sp. (Prasetyo et al. 2017). The rapid formation of clonal plantations in various parts of the world has resulted from the selection of hybrids, followed by vegetative propagation, cuttings, and tissue culture. The main countries where hybrid plants are widely planted are Brazil, Congo, China, Indonesia, and South Africa. However, there are also small plantations in other Asian countries (including the Philippines, Vietnam, Thailand, and Malaysia) and South American countries (including Argentina, Chile, Paraguay, and Uruguay) (Dungey and Nikles 2000; Toloza et al. 2008).

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This type of establishment is becoming more popular as a method of rapidly increasing yields through the use of superior genetic material. It is critical to consider species-site matching as well as disease potential when employing these strategies (Barber 2004). These superior species had better growth characteristics, adaptability to the environment and climate, pest and disease resistance, and valuable wood properties (Prasetyo et al. 2017). Aside from growth, the primary characteristics discovered for improvement through hybridization are propagation, coppicing, frost, drought and salt resistance, wood density, and pulp yield (Potts and Dungey 2004). Eucalyptus hybridization, on the other hand, has been used to improve the quality and quantity of essential oils (Farah et al. 2002). E. urophylla, E. grandis, and E. pellita have been used to create interspecific hybrids with superior growth and wood characteristics required by the pulp and paper industries (Sharma et al. 2015). E. urophylla and E. pellita are two of these species with dense wood, and it is possible to improve the wood properties of both species to make it more suitable for use as lumber by using the proper breeding techniques. Several Eucalyptus tree breeding programs, such as those in Aracruz (Brazil) and Pointe Noire clonal plantations, have produced outstanding results (Congo). With seed from unselected local sources, the first plantations in Aracruz in 1967 produced approximately 28 m3 /ha/year yields of E. grandis. In 1971, a tree improvement initiative was launched, which discovered ideal provenances and spontaneous hybrids for rapid growth and tolerance to pests and diseases, increasing the increment to 45 m3 /ha/year for pulp production. On some sites, hybrids of E. grandis and E. urophylla have grown at rates of up to 70 m3 /ha/year. Selection and breeding for superior stem form and branch traits, combined with clonal forestry operations, have resulted in increased gains while lowering logging costs (Campinhos and Ikemori 1983). In the Pointe Noire plantations, clonal planting stock of E. tereticornis, E. urophylla, and hybrids is used. Initially, this scheme used a smaller pool of clones, and more than half of the area was established using only five clones (Martin et al. 1989). Since the threats of exposure to increased risk of devastating insect or disease attack with so few clones were recognized, the genetic base was widened through “natural” crossing of E. urophylla x E. alba and E. tereticornis x E. grandis (Martin 1991) and controlled crossings of E. urophylla x E. pellita (CIRAD 1992). The most common species in commercial plantations (about 80%) are E. grandis, E. globulus, E. camaldulensis, and their hybrids (Potts 2004). E. urophylla, E. grandis, and their hybrids are grown primarily in tropical and subtropical environments, whereas E. globulus is preferred in temperate climates (Potts 2004). For decades, Eucalyptus hybrids have been used in forestry and are an important component of Eucalyptus plantation forestry. Hybridization has the potential to significantly impact tree breeding programs by producing superior genotypes, potentially increasing the value of genetic resources. However, the effect of hybridizing and cloning on improving growth stress and interlocked grain characteristics in Eucalyptus sp., particularly E. grandis, remains unknown (Van den Berg 2017). The causes of high levels of growth stress are still unknown. There is still a scarcity of data on the effects of growth stress on interlocked grain and log end splitting.

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Despite this, they are strongly linked to genotype, age, log size, growth rate, and stem inclination. Barnett and Bonham (2004) concluded that the only theory capable of explaining stress difference was related to the microfibril angle (MFA) of the S2 layer. Furthermore, Archer (1987) confirms that as MFA decreases, internal growth stress increases. Growth stress can be seen in the log after the tree has been felled and in sawn timber after log break down in the sawmill. Meanwhile, interlocked grain is sometimes considered a wood defect because it can cause warping and cracking during the drying process. As a result, the sawn yield is reduced, which can have a negative impact on sawmill productivity in extreme cases. As a result of its direct effect on lumber performance and recovery, the selection of genetic material with lower growth stress combined with improved sawmill techniques can reduce the problem of end-split and distortion in the wood. Aside from that, the technical fundamentals necessitate the quantification of growth stress in different genotypes and their association with environmental factors that may affect the material’s performance. It is also critical to develop appropriate stress management techniques and conditions, as well as to assess the quality of trees derived from fast-growing tree plantations. Superior wood characteristics, tolerance to biotic and abiotic stresses, disease resistance, and greater vigor on specific sites when compared to pure species combinations of the same properties (Hettasch et al. 2005). As a result, they represent an important source of superior individuals capable of introducing genetic gains into forest productivity and wood properties. Crossing different species allows for the production of complementary wood properties in trees to meet special industrial requirements and improve wood quality. E. urophylla, E. grandis, E. camaldulensis, E. saligna, E. pellita, E. exserta, and E. tereticornis are the most common hybrids used in industrial plantations. Such hybrids are widely planted in China, Brazil and Congo, Indonesia, and South Africa. In more temperate zones, hybrids are less common. Controlled crossing programs for Eucalyptus were initiated early in countries such as Russia and France, but hybrid development was hampered by extreme frosts. Such artificial hybridization began in temperate Australia early on, with the goal of better understanding trait inheritance and the reproductive barriers between species. Hybrid development between E. urophylla and E. grandis is becoming increasingly important for increasing yields on some types of sites and improving disease resistance (Hung et al. 2015). This is because it combines E. grandis’s rapid growth with E. urophylla’s disease/climate tolerance (Kullan et al. 2012). The availability of functional large-scale cloning systems is critical to the successful and rapid incorporation of hybrid genetic advances into industrial processes. Mass vegetative propagation complements hybridization admirably for the development of clonal forestry and offers several advantages over sexual methods of mass reproduction of selected families, in addition to being the most effective means of commercially exploiting heterosis observed in several Eucalyptus hybrid crosses (Labate et al. 2008). Vegetative propagation allows for maximum benefits from wood properties and productivity, as well as the production of more uniform raw material, which is highly beneficial to the industrial process and product quality from an industrial standpoint (Zobel 1992). As a result, tree breeding initiatives focusing

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on these forest sector characteristics will have a significant impact on the three key competitive components: productivity, product quality, and production prices (Assis 2001). E. urophylla x E. grandis is a hybrid breeding by Brazil. It can be grown into a tree up to 18 m height, 20.3 cm in diameter at breast height (DBH). It has 60% and 27% higher tree height and DBH respectively compared to E. urophylla and 66% and 22% higher than E. grandis, respectively. On a factory scale, an integrated technology for tissue culture has been successful. E. urophylla x E. grandis was introduced from Brazil to the Dongmen farm in the Chinese province of Guangxi in 1984. The trees grow quickly. Meanwhile, Melesse and Zewotir (2017) found that the E. urophylla x E. grandis clone developed faster than the E. grandis x E. camaldulensis clone, indicating greater genetic potential for rapid growth and productivity. This species and wide plant are being introduced into China’s Guangdong, Guangxi, Hainan, and Fujian provinces, among others. The hybrid of E. urophylla (Timor white gum) and E. grandis (Flooded gum) has been successfully planted as clones in the tropical and subtropical regions (Van den Berg 2017). This interspecific hybrid, also known as E. urograndis (Lyptus), was one of the most significant. Although E. grandis grows quickly, the mechanical properties of the plant are significantly lower (Franca et al. 2020), and it is susceptible to canker and leaf fungus. E. urophylla, on the other hand, has high disease resistance and transmits it in a hybrid combination with E. grandis (Van den Berg 2017; Leonardi et al. 2015; Kullan et al. 2012). Because of characteristics such as low taper, good straightness, desirable wood density, rigidity, and wood surface texture, this hybrid clone is excellent for solid wood applications, including veneer production (Jiang et al. 2007; Labate et al. 2008). Furthermore, these hybrid clones are well adapted to the ecological conditions and are simple to propagate (Carvalho 2000). Many countries currently prefer this hybrid for the pulp and paper industries (Van den Berg 2017; Prasetyo et al. 2017; Sharma et al. 2015; Leonardi et al. 2015). Interspecific hybridization occurs when two species from the same genus that are not normally sexually compatible cross. This allows cultivated species to benefit from advantageous genes or characteristics found in wild, unimproved species (Lidder and Sonnino 2012). In Malaysia, planters in Sabah and Sarawak are replacing Acacias with Eucalyptus species such as E. pellita and Eucalyptus hybrid (E. urophylla x E. grandis). Both species have been well accepted as plantation species, with a total of 11,000 and 28,090 ha of E. hybrid and E. pellita plantations established in Sabah and Sarawak by the end of 2015 (Wong et al. 2015). Furthermore, E. pellita is a promising species for hybridization with other Eucalyptus species, particularly E. urophylla and E. grandis, to produce hybrids better suited to Malaysia’s humid tropical climate. Also, E. pellita and related interspecific hybrids are simple to clone for operational planting, making it possible to screen for disease tolerance and quickly deploy the most tolerant genotypes (Lee 2018). Harwood et al. (1997) compared the early growth and survival of E. pellita provenances to E. grandis, E. urophylla, and Acacia mangium in a variety of tropical environments. After 2–3 years, it was clear that New Guinea provenances outperformed Queensland provenances in the humid tropical environment in terms of survival,

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growth, and form, as well as crown health. Melesse and Zewotir (2017) investigated the differences in growth potential of two clones planted in Queensland using average stem radial growth advantage. According to the findings, the E. urophylla x E. grandis clone grew faster than the E. grandis x E. camaldulensis clone, indicating a higher genetic potential for rapid growth and yield. The current study focuses on the early growth performance of two Eucalyptus species planted in a humid tropical environment in Peninsular Malaysia as part of future expansion work. Meanwhile, according to Japarudin et al. (2020), the Eucalyptus hybrid (E. urograndis) had significantly better growth performance than the E. pellita in terms of total height (ht), diameter at breast height (d), and periodic annual increment (PAI), with an excellent survival rate of more than 90%.

1.5 Conclusions Eucalyptus spp.’s unique wood properties, which stand out for productivity and environmental tolerance, allow it to reach various parts of the timber industry. If the variation in wood properties of these clones is known, Eucalyptus clones can be matched to a specific market, such as the lumber and furniture industry, pulp and paper industry, or the production of charcoal for the steel industries. Recognizing the importance of hybridization and cloning in industrial production has resulted in a rapid expansion of the techniques and procedures involved in these operations. As a result, technical and operational procedures for producing hybrid seeds and commercial cloning in Eucalyptus spp. are now well understood and very effective. Using existing approaches, these two technologies enable large-scale controlled crossing, which is both technically challenging and economically unfeasible. Cloning Eucalyptus species has advanced forestry firms over the last 20 years, particularly in Brazil, South Africa, China, and Australia, by resolving disease issues such as Cryphonectria cubensis and increasing output. Cloning is now focused on industrial requirements rather than disease resistance and increased volume. Wood’s beneficial effects are considered, especially when cloning has a significant impact on product quality and industrial operations. Acknowledgements This study was funded by the Transdisciplinary Fundamental Research Grant Scheme (TRGS 2018–1), reference code: TRGS/1/2018/UPM/01/2/3, by the Ministry of Higher Education (MOHE), Malaysia.

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Chapter 2

Diseases Infection in Eucalyptus Plantation Rasdianah Dahali, Paridah Md Tahir, Seng Hua Lee, and Zhang Jun

2.1 Factors Affecting Disease Development Pathogens in the field face a variety of environmental challenges. To grow, develop, and produce, almost all plants require favourable environmental conditions. Various biotic and abiotic factors (Table 2.1) influence disease occurrence and pathogen intensity in plants (Pokhrel 2021). A disease triangle depicts the dynamic relationship between a susceptible host and a pathogen that is intricately linked to the environment, impacting each other and resulting in physiological and morphological changes. Lack of favourable conditions for any of these three factors results in disease failure (Stevens 1960). The outcome of a three-way interaction between a vulnerable host, a virulent pathogen, and a favourable environmental condition will determine the speed and severity of disease symptom development (Pokhrel 2021; Brown and Ogle 1997). Environmental variables (for example, high temperature) can have a positive, neutral, or negative impact on plant disease development. Both pathogens and hosts have an ideal environment for growth and reproduction, with an ideal environment that favours disease. The greater the deviation of environmental conditions from R. Dahali · P. Md Tahir (B) Institute of Tropical Forestry and Forest Products, Universiti Putra Malaysia, 43400 UPM Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia e-mail: [email protected] P. Md Tahir Faculty of Forestry and Environment, Universiti Putra Malaysia, 43400 UPM Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia S. H. Lee Faculty of Applied Sciences, Department of Wood Industry, Universiti Teknologi MARA (UiTM) Cawangan Pahang Kampus Jengka, 26400 Bandar Tun Razak, Pahang, Malaysia Z. Jun Yunnan Key Laboratory of Wood Adhesives and Glued Products, Southwest Forestry University, Kunming 650224, China © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2024 S. H. Lee et al. (eds.), Eucalyptus, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-7919-6_2

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Table 2.1 Distinguishing between biotic and abiotic factors in plant disease Biotic factors

Abiotic factor

Diseases develop throughout time, generally starting small and growing in size or severity when pathogen inoculum spreads and infects new plant tissue

Damage is frequently unexpected, such as phytotoxicity from a chemical or storm damage

Gradual transition between affected and unaffected plants. Normally, a slight gradient of increasing severity exists at the edge of infected areas

There is a significant difference in damage between affected and unaffected plants. A common example is chemical spills

Symptoms occur randomly on plants of the same species or cultivar throughout the landscape. Diseases do not occur in straight lines

Damage normally follows a consistent or recurrent pattern on an individual plant or throughout a planting. An abiotic disorder is usually responsible for damage that occurs just on one side of a plant or an area. Chemical damage might take the form of a spreader or sprayer pattern

Damage occurs to one plant species or cultivar, but rarely to large areas of a mixed planting. There is no impact on the nearby areas

Damage frequently affects a number of different plant species, including weeds

Source Krisnapillay and Appanah (2002)

this “disease optimum,” the fewer disease symptoms will appear on the plant. When environmental factors reduce the host’s resistance to the pathogen, the balance shifts in favour of the pathogen, and disease occurs.

2.2 Diseases Infection in Eucalyptus Plantation Despite the fact that Eucalyptus is a popular plantation species, several diseases have been discovered. The Eucalyptus plantings were essentially disease-free. Plantations, on the other hand, have continued to spread into tropical and subtropical climates, which are warmer and more humid, making them more conducive to disease infection. When grown as exotics in Brazil during the winter, they may be exposed to infections not found in their natural habitat. Cankers with multiple stems on the primary stem are common in hospitable microclimates. According to Soares et al. (2018) and Naidoo et al. (2014), disease infection can occur in both natural and introduced environments. Despite the fact that foreign Eucalyptus species have been isolated from their natural enemies, serious disease problems have arisen on these trees in the majority of the countries where they have been planted (Roux et al. 2000). Disease pressures in the subtropics and tropics differ from those experienced by exotic plantations grown in temperate climates. The greater diversity of pathogen species

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found in tropical areas, particularly in the tropics, reflects the increased biodiversity found there (Ploetz 2007; Wellman 1968, 1972). Furthermore, unlike temperate climates, where pathogen numbers die off or are reduced during the cooler season, tropical conditions are often favourable for pathogen species’ year-round survival and reproduction. Callan (2001) defined tree disease as the negative effects of a harmful agent, pest, or infectious agent such as fungi, which typically develop from a complex interaction between the susceptible tree, predisposing environmental condition, or infectious agent such as fungi. Tree disease encompasses a wide range of pathogenic infection, abnormalities, and disruption of the tree’s normal structure and growth. Furthermore, the use of high-yielding genotypes with unknown disease resistance, clonal forestry, and the implementation of cutting-edge management practices has all contributed to the emergence of disease epidemics in recent decades. According to additional research by Old et al. (2003) and Gezahgne (2010), numerous diseases affect Eucalyptus species, from seedlings to trees and from roots to leaves, with fungi being the most common culprit. Prominent diseases such as Myrtle rust or Guava rust caused by Puccinia psidii, the stem canker caused by Chrysoporthe austroafricana, C. cubensis (now known as C. cubensis), C. deuterocubensis, Coniothyrium zuluense (now known as Teratosphaeria zuluensis), and Erithricum salmonicolor (known as Pink disease), canker and dieback caused by Botryosphaeria spp., vascular wilt caused by Ceratocystis fimbriata, the root rot disease by Phytophthora cinnamomi and Leaf diseases caused by species of Mycosphaerella Johanson, Aulographina eucalypti and Cylindrocladium Morgan are examples of diseases in commercial Eucalyptus plantation (Gezahgne 2010; Wingfield 2003; Wingfield et al. 1997; Linde et al. 1994; Ferreira 1989; Park and Keane 1984). The majority of serious illnesses manifest themselves within the first three years of outplanting. While some diseases are temporary, others afflict trees until the end of the rotation, severely limiting growth and output (Mohanan 2014; Sharma et al. 1985a, b). Furthermore, because inoculum accumulates over time, plantations are expected to experience higher disease incidence in their second and subsequent rotations than in their first rotation (Lee 2018).

2.3 Canker Diseases in Eucalyptus Plantation A variety of diseases infect Eucalyptus trees in plantations. One of them is canker disease, which has recently become a serious problem infecting global Eucalyptus plantations, including those in Malaysia. According to Jackson (2003), members of the Myrtaceae (Eucalyptus) family are particularly susceptible to canker fungus. Cankers are areas of necrotic lesion bark and outer sapwood that can be seen sunken of the main roots, stems, or branches areas caused by tissue outside the xylem cylinder disintegrating, but the extent is occasionally limited by host reactions that may cause more or less significant proliferation of nearby tissues (Old and Davison 2000).

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Table 2.2 Type of canker disease Biscogniauxia

Cryphonectria

Botryosphaeria

Cytospora

Sphaeropsis

Nectria

Thyronectria

Cypress

Hypoxylon

Phomopsis

Lasiodiplodia

Butternut

Calosphaeria

Larch

Eutypella

Cryptodiaporthe

Amphilogia

Valsa

Macrovalsaria

Pitch

Nattrassa

Hysterium

Pink disease

Phytophthora disease

Source Mohanan (2014)

Cankers appear as sunken, cracked tissue with the associated phloem discolored dark brown, branch dieback, injured appearance, and caused a tree to fail once the phloem and sapwood have been invaded (Khew 1990). Canker is caused by a variety of fungal pathogens (Old and Davison 2000; Mohd et al. 2013), and occurs most commonly in bark areas, beginning with a wound, lenticel, or branch stub. The fungus’ entry point causes the canker to spread in all directions. Canker has an oval or elongated shape because it expands more rapidly along the limb’s major axis. Cankers are classified as either annual, perennial, or diffuse (Jackson 2003; Old and Davison 2000; Shearer 1994; Fraser and Davison 1985). The host defenses contain an annual canker within the first year of invasion (Old and Davison 2000; Shearer 1994). A perennial canker develops when a plant is stressed and unable to mount an effective defense against a pathogen. Perennial cankers are distinguished by the concentric rings formed as the host defends itself against recurring pathogen infections. The infection can survive on dead tissue until it can infiltrate healthy tissue again. Diffuse cankers are caused by fungi that invade quickly and elicit a weak or inefficient host response. These cankers cause extensive lesions that encircle stems and lateral branches (Old and Davison 2000). Canker pathogen fruiting bodies appeared as pinhead-sized, black or colored raised bumps embedded in or beneath the bark (Dwinell et al. 1985). These fruiting bodies are rarely visible and difficult to identify visually. As shown in Table 2.2, there are more than 20 types of canker disease that have been recognized and recorded all over the world. These canker diseases gradually weaken and harm the trees. Canker symptoms varied depending on the species and the health of the tree. Different canker causal agents infected and displayed various symptoms and characteristics.

2.4 Symptom and Characteristics of Stem Canker by Chrysoporthe sp. Stem cankers are areas of necrotic bark and outer sapwood on the stem of an Eucalyptus tree that have been infected by a variety of fungal pathogens. Canker symptoms differ depending on the species and condition of the host plant, as well as

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the fungus that causes the canker. The canker fungus eventually overcomes the resistance response, allowing it to pass through the callus barrier. When this cycle of callus formation and breaching continues for several years, concentric rings form, giving the appearance of a target (Wegulo and Gleason 2001). Drought, foliar pathogen or insect defoliation, nutrient limitation, or growth suppression make trees more susceptible to canker pathogens than vigorous trees well suited to the site. Canker disease does not kill the tree right away, but this pathogen infects their hosts through wounds or lenticel to spread disease (Yuan and Mohammed 2001). It might occur naturally or is the result of human activity, such as singling of young multi-stemmed trees, pruning, and incomplete occlusion of suppressed lower branches (Tarigan et al. 2011; Lee 2018). Furthermore, wind-borne and other mammalian attacks such as monkeys, elephants, squirrels, and insect damage can lead to new infections via spore movement and the formation of new infection courts (Lee 2018). The most common tree sections that are extremely susceptible to fungal infection are at the bases or lower stems of young trees up to breast height or higher on the bole (FAO 2009). All Cryponectriaceae species form slimy conidial tendrils or droplets, indicating that insects play an important role in spore movement, with flying insects being more likely to be involved in both long and short distance spore movement. After a while, spore tendrils or droplets harden and can easily break off after mechanical disturbance and be dispersed by wind, dust, or soil. Raindrops and moisture further dissolve these droplets, resulting in additional spore distribution, usually over short distances (Anon 2002). Spore production may continue for 1–2 years, and once it begins, it will continue for the life of the canker. Warm temperatures and rain encourage infection (Myburg et al. 2004). Lesions spread more quickly when plants are adequately watered than when the soil or environment is relatively dry. The disease is epidemiologically significant in areas with a mean temperature of 23 °C and an annual rainfall of 1200 mm, according to Guimaraes et al. (2010). Eucalyptus canker has three main symptoms. The first occurs in plants less than a year old. In this case, infected trees frequently succumb to stem girdling and cambium death. The second set of symptoms and indicators appears in at least two-year-old trees. This set is defined by the appearance of sunken areas in the stem, cracking of the bark, either at the base of these sunken areas or along the stem, and external colonization of the peel around the dead cambium. The third set of symptoms is a well-defined deep lesion/swollen or set of lesions surrounded by calluses around the site of infection (Fig. 2.1a), resulting in the bulging of the outer layer of bark. This occurs when a significant portion of the cambium dies and the tree attempts to recover from the illness (Guimaraes et al. 2010). The infected outer bark of some trees may be sloughed off before the cambium is killed. At this stage, a cross section of the bole can be seen with sectorial dark brown discoloration (Boerboom and Maas 1970). Initially, infected trees have elongated sunken areas or deformed cankers on their bark (Fig. 2.1b), which form several years after infection and can extend several metres up the stem (Florence et al. 1986). The tissue beneath the swollen bark is brown and appears to be dead. Later, the bark cracks and splits around the infected area. Severe bark cracking over brown necrotic

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sapwood weakened the stem and caused decay. This may be hazardous to the main stem when exposed to high winds (Seixas et al. 2004) because the infected tree has a tendency to breakage, as illustrated in Figs. 2.1d and 3.1e. Kino or gummosis is a common finding in canker (Boerboom and Maas 1970) and is usually associated with older canker (Fig. 2.1c). The gummosis is an exudate rich in polyphenolics that is a typical reaction in Eucalyptus trees due to cambial damage (Old and Davison 2000), resulting in the formation of a tiny pocket hole known as kino pocket (Bakshi et al. 1972). The ruby-colored kino is washed away in the rain and imparts a distinct color to diseased tissue (Boerboom and Maas 1970). Gummosis is fairly common in E. grandis, but it has not been observed in E. tereticornis (Sharma et al. 1985a, b). Lesion frequently encircles the stem or branches (Fig. 2.1f). Once an infected tree has complete phloem girdling, it may wilt and, in severe cases, die (Gryzenhout et al. 2006). In comparison to healthy stumps, fewer sprouted clumps develop and multiple epicormic shoots may vary from a few to as many. Because of the large number of

Fig. 2.1 Symptoms and damage caused by stem canker disease (Chrysoporthe sp) on Eucalyptus tree: a callus; b crack; c exudation of gummosis around canker area; f bark fissures at the base of infected tree (own photo)

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shoots per clump in diseased stumps, the shoots remain stunted and weak in comparison to those on healthy stumps (Sharma et al. 1985a, b). Stem cankers are known to reduce the sprouting of stumps/epicormic shoots by 10–20%. In a study conducted in Kerala by Mohanan (2014), despite the fact that the frequency of basal cankers was low, approximately 35% of the stumps affected with the disease (indicated by gummosis) failed to produce coppice shoots. It appears that excessive gummosis, like cankers, kills the tissues of the outer bark, resulting in sprouting failure. Even though mortality was lower in such plantations, the disease’s impact on the coppice crop was greater. Cryponectriceae members typically have a complex and noticeable orange fruiting structure (Gryzenhout et al. 2006). Many fruiting structures are produced on the bark surface or in fissures and can be seen with the naked eye or a hand lens. At infected areas, these bodies are usually stromatic, with dark perithecia embedded in stromatic tissue. It is distinguished by black ostiolar dots covered by orange or dark layers of tissue and a perithecial protruding neck (Gryzenhout et al. 2006).

2.5 Effects of Stem Canker Disease Infection on the Tree, Properties, Quality and Recovery of Eucalyptus Wood According to Mafia et al. (2013), the severity of infection can vary depending on the infection period and the fungus’s aggressiveness. If no precautions are taken early on, a fungal infection can become severe and destroy a large area (Davis et al. 2002). Previously, many Eucalyptus plantation areas in Malaysia were wiped out by this disease, resulting in a drastic temporary slowdown in plantation development in the country (Muhammad 2012). This disease’s widespread distribution and virulence have the greatest negative impact on Eucalyptus trees in both native and introduced ranges (Mohali et al. 2007; Burgess et al. 2005; Slippers et al. 2004). The pathogenic fungus Chrysoporthe sp. has been identified as highly pathogenic to Eucalyptus species. Currently, stem canker diseases caused by Chrysoporthe sp., as shown in Fig. 2.2, are one of the most damaging diseases of Eucalyptus plantations in many tropical and subtropical areas around the world (Alfenas et al. 2011; Barber 2004; Old et al. 2003; Wingfield 2003). Although trees only die in severe cases of the disease, the impact of infectious disease on the forest industry can be devastating because the fungus can infect all tree species and the closest stand, making management difficult (Cruickshank 2010). Worse, in many areas, harvesting or forestry practices that leave stumps may worsen the disease’s prevalence and severity (Cruickshank 2010; Cruickshank et al. 2009; Cruickshank and Morrison 1997). These unanticipated health consequences are irreversible. When a tree is cut down, lesions on the roots become active and colonize the stump in a matter of years in all tree species. The fungus spreads through root contacts to newly planted or partially cut trees, or it can produce rhizomorphs that connect the roots of colonized stumps and trees.

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Fig. 2.2 Eucalyptus trees that are infected by stem canker diseases Chrysoporthe spp

Diseases primarily draw attention because they cause long-term mortality, but the effect of chronic infection on the properties, quality, quantity, and value of timber products has rarely been considered, despite the fact that it may affect the endproduct quality of plantation-grown trees. Disease infection can be severe, resulting in significant losses to the plantation of these trees in the area where they have emerged (Davis et al. 2002). Even the majority of disease pathogens do not harm healthy, vigorous trees, but rather those that are already severely weakened or stressed. If the disease is prevalent in young trees, it may affect diameter and height growth (Cruickshank 2010; Cruickshank et al. 2009), cause stands to stagnate, especially if the stand is overly dense, cause the trees to be slow-growing, and, in the worst-case scenario, result in death. Meanwhile, infection on older trees makes them vulnerable to wind damage (Sharma et al. 1985a, b; Wingfield 2003; Nakabonge et al. 2006). The physical properties of the tree were affected once the woody tissues were infected by disease, causing the tissues to dry up, indicating early degradation. As the fungus penetrates the tree bark, it colonizes the phloem (tissue responsible for nutrient transport), then the vascular cambium, and finally the xylem (tissue responsible for water transport to other parts of the tree) (Gunduz et al. 2016). If the attacks continue

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and spread to other parts of the tree, they will disrupt tree growth activities due to the loss of photosynthetic tissue and the redirection of resources away from growth and toward defense (Gordon et al. 2004). When disease infection forms on the main stem or branch, the proportion of the crown affected increases dramatically (wilting). Cankers on the main stem can harm the entire tree by interfering with water transport to the canopy and photosynthate transport to the roots. Cankers on the main stem can also cause differential rates of radial expansion, increasing the risk of structural failure and providing entry points for other wound-infecting pathogens like wood-decay organisms (Gordon et al. 2004). As a result, moisture is lost, and in the case of a severe attack, the wood becomes softened and rotten/decayed as a result of nutrient deficiency, resulting in a decline in tree canopy and the infected tree eventually dying. Tree infection usually results in localized cankers, and trees are not girdled. However, under favorable microclimatic conditions, multiple stem cankers and partial to complete stem girdling occur. The fungus disease mostly affected the trees until the end of the rotation. In severe cases, infection causes tree stunting and dieback, sometimes leading to the death of the entire tree. The volumetric wood was also being reduced. Fernandes et al. (2014) discovered that Ceratocystis fimbriata infection caused a 29.3% loss in timber volume in seven-year-old Eucalyptus urophylla. According to Lockman (2004), an infected tree will reduce the volume by up to 50%, indirectly lowering the density of wood. Mafia et al. (2013) discovered this finding when they reported that wood from E. grandis hybrids infected with Ceratocystis has lower density than healthy trees. Gunduz et al. (2016) reported on shrinkage behavior in chestnut trees infected with Cryponectria parasitica (Murrill) M.E. Barr discovered that the shrinkage of infected wood was generally lower than that of healthy wood, especially radial shrinkage (Rsh ). As previously stated, wood from healthier trees shrinks more than wood from infected trees because it contains more moisture and nutrients for tree growth (Dahali et al. 2021). This is consistent with the findings of Wessel et al. (2016), who found that Rsh is easily influenced by external factors like cracks or checks during drying. Wood’s mechanical properties (strength) are also affected. A higher proportion of non-woody cells reduces wood strength (Gordon et al. 2004). Pima et al. (2018) discovered that infection reduces wood strength such as modulus of rupture (MOR) and modulus of elasticity (MOE) by up to 50% and 55%, respectively, because it destroys the cell walls. C. deuterocubensis significantly affects the mechanical strength (modulus of rupture, modulus of elasticity, shear and compression strength parallel to the grain, and hardness) of wood, according to Dahali et al. (2021). The reduction varied depending on the type of fungi and the weight loss induced by the fungus (Blanchette et al. 1990). The lower strength of infected wood compared to healthy wood is an obvious sign of the wood being decomposed by fungi or bacteria as they degrade structural polymers of the wooden cell wall. While the disruption of tree growth causes the formation of reaction wood or tension wood with higher density, the infected tree’s wood density increases. Tension wood has a lower modulus of rupture (MOR) than normal wood and exhibits high uniformity, making it unsuitable for any structural application (Clair and Thibaut 2014; Gezahgne et al. 2003). In terms

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of mechanical strength, the loss of mechanical strength in pieces of timber exposed to fungus attack, as well as the chemical and other changes occurring in the wood, has been accurately tracked (Findlay 1931). The infected tree has a lower strength, owing to lignocellulose compound degradation. These fungi diseases weaken wood by metabolizing the holocellulose fraction. Several fungi in the Ascomycetes genus attack cellulose and hemicellulose (Gunduz et al. 2016; Salmiah et al. 2007). The primary component of wood, holocelluloses, is critical to the strength of the wood. Fungi are born as mycelial fragments or fungal spores. Then, in the production, fungal spores—long, end-to-end cells with fine, hair-like features known as fungal hyphae—germinate. Hyphae fragments that land on wood may also initiate a growth process that allows colonization to spread to more of the wood. C. deuterocubensis hyphae typically spread through the wall after entering through a “pit” depression and developing in the lumen of individual woody cells. During this early stage of growth, all fungi that inhabit wood look for parenchyma-stored products in order to build up fungal biomass within or on the surface of the wood structure and as a convenient nutrition source for the fungus’s energy. They then proceed to the secondary xylem and vascular cambium by damaging the cell walls’ tissue fibers and vessels (Mafia et al. 2013; Gunduz et al. 2016; Gordh and McKirdy 2014; Baker 1969). As a result, the strength of wood is reduced. While holocellulose content decreased, lignin and extractive content increased (Dahali et al. 2023; Fernandes et al. 2014). According to Ferrari et al. (2021) and Savory and Pinion (1958), ascomycete fungi can, albeit inefficiently, break down lignin. According to Andlar et al. (2018), Janusz et al. (2017), and Kirk and Farrell (1987), Ascomycete fungi are unable to degrade lignin and only consume the easily accessible hemicellulose and cellulose. When the authors examined the wood from Eucalyptus trees infected with Ceratocystis fimbriata and C. cubensis (Bruner) Hodges, they discovered an increase in the proportions of lignin and extractives. The increased concentration of these components could be attributed to the activation of the tree’s defense mechanisms, which also results in the production of chemicals, gums, and tyloses (Lesniewska et al. 2017). In response to infection, the plant may initiate reactions that inhibit fungus penetration or limit fungus colonization in host tissues, such as the accumulation of extractive, lignin, and other phenolic compounds (Nicholson and Hammerschmid 1992; Vance et al. 1980). However, the reaction zones are not always effective against microbial penetration. Activated defense mechanisms include changes in the cell wall and occlusion of xylem elements. Because of these factors, infected wood is more resistant to fungal decay and termite infestation than healthy wood. Weight loss of infected wood was significantly reduced in a study by Dahali et al. (2023) as the class of infection by disease of block samples became more severe when exposed again to fungal decay and termite attack. Another plausible explanation for the weight loss reduction was the lower density and equilibrium moisture content (EMC) in infected wood. This phenomenon is thought to be stressful for fungal growth and termite colonization (Rouhier 2021). Furthermore, more than 300 Eucalyptus species are interspecific

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hybrids containing volatile oils composed of hydrocarbons (terpenes and sesquiterpenes) and oxygenated compounds (alcohols, esters, ethers, aldehydes, ketones, lactones, phenols, and phenol ethers) (FAO 1995; Toloza et al. 2008; Guenther 1972). These volatile oils have beneficial insecticidal and antimicrobial properties (Bayle 2019; FAO 1995). Additionally, vessel obstruction caused by fungus infection may be another factor that discourages fungal decay and termite attack (Dahali et al. 2023). As a result, the durability classes of infected wood were improved. The pulp and paper industry’s situation deteriorated as a result of the disease’s impact on the yield (holocellulose) of Eucalyptus pulp production (Mafia et al. 2013, 2012). Infected wood had lower basic density, higher concentrations of extractives such as ethanol and toluene, and Klason lignin, higher alkaline loads, and lower pulp screening yield at kappa numbers than healthy wood (Mafia et al. 2013; Foelkel et al. 1978; Souza et al. 2010). Pulp production decreased and wood-specific consumption increased as a result of the requirement to increase the alkaline load when heating infected wood in order to produce unbleached pulp with the same Kappa number as healthy wood (Mafia et al. 2012). The colonization of vessels by fungal structures, as well as the formation of tyloses and gum deposition, can make cooking difficult because it restricts the entry of the cooking fluid. As a result, production costs were significantly impacted (Aylward et al. 2019). Additionally, changes in wood quality and cooking conditions influenced fiber resistance, viscosity, and hemicellulose concentration. When hemicelluloses become more hydrophilic, their resistance and refinability may suffer. This accounts for a large portion of water absorption, increasing fiber swelling and, as a result, fiber flexibility, increasing the surface of contact between fibers and the strength of their linkages (Wagberg and Annergren 1997). Improved refinability and increased pulp tensile index are critical for manufacturers of writing and printing papers because they allow for energy savings during the refining process, result in better sheets, and improve the tunability of paper machines (Foelkel 2007). Disease most likely causes irregularly distributed annual ring growth along the stem circumference after infection. Tangential and radial stem growth in healthy and sick tree columns is altered locally (Cruickshank 2002). When a stem becomes diseased, its radial growth slows while its growth over a healthy root on the opposite side accelerates, and this impact becomes less pronounced as height increases (Cruickshank 2002). The yearly growth ring was perturbed by these forms in radial, tangential, and vertical directions. Furthermore, piths are frequently misaligned lower on the stem while being properly centered at the top, resulting in grain that is not parallel to the stem (Cruickshank 2002). As a result, the surface of the infected board was rougher than that of the healthy board (Gunduz et al. 2016; Dahali et al. 2022). Dahali et al. (2022) discovered that healthy lumber produced a cleaner and smoother surface than infected lumber in a study of machining properties. However, the difference in infection severity did not produce significantly different results in terms of sawing, planning, and boring quality, as the lowest grade obtained was grade III (average). All of the samples’ machining properties are excellent, with grades ranging from I (very good) to III (average).

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The yield and productivity of plantations decrease significantly as the trees show negative growth (Sharma et al. 1985a, b; Mohanan 2014), resulting in fewer trees cut per year for lumber and higher production costs for manufacturers to process the tree into lumber because only lumber that met the grading standard requirements (only contained acceptable defects) was declared as recovery. Aside from that, the log diameter of an infected tree’s stem is smaller and has an irregular shape/taper due to swollen, sunken, and canker at the infected area, resulting in a lower recovery than a healthy tree. According to Huang et al. (2012) and Melo et al. (2014), one of the factors influencing lumber recovery is stem conicity and straightness. According to a study conducted by Blackburn et al. (2011), stem straightness influences the length of acceptably straight sawlog that can be obtained, and thus the volume of green boards (sawn timber prior to drying) recovered from the tree. The rate of decrease in stem diameter per unit length of stem is referred to as stem swollen/taper. Increased log taper reduces the recovery of green sawn boards and generates more waste for a given stem diameter at breast height. Cruickshank (2010) discovered that disease causes a reduction in the number of boards in infected trees with many defects in his study using healthy and infected Douglas-fir with the same diameter. In a study by Dahali et al. (2023, unpublished), kino (gummosis/resinous), canker, and kino pockets were the most common problems on board from infected lumber. In Eucalyptus plantations managed for solid wood, these defects have the potential to cause lost recoveries, grade limitations, and values (Beadle et al. 2008). In this study, the findings indicate that disease may have an impact on product conversion efficiency, as well as product quality and quantity. This is consistent with the findings of Ratnasingam et al. (2013), who discovered that log quality had a significant impact on sawmilling yield. The release of these growth stresses during tree felling and cross-cutting of logs can lead to a high incidence and severity of log end splitting in plantation-grown Eucalyptus (Yang and Waugh 2001; McKenzie et al. 2003a, b). Valencia et al. (2011) found that log end splitting is a significant predictor of green board end splitting in E. nitens, which affects total green board volume recovery. Other defects such as bark (wane), decay, knot, kino and kino pockets, as mentioned by Ananías et al. (2014) are the most important raw material quality characteristics affecting recovery and production of high-quality lumbers or veneers. This was agreed upon in a study by McGavin et al. (2014a, b) who processed E. globulus and E. nitens into veneer and reported that these defects were the main contributing cause of the high proportion of E. globulus and E. nitens restricted to D-grade, the lowest grade described in AS/ NZS 2269.0.2012. Furthermore, it will have an impact on the quality of the sawn timber produced to the extent that it was rejected for use in lumber or veneer-based products (Aylward et al. 2019; Gezahgne 2010; Gezahgne et al. 2003). The type and severity of defects determine the degree of downgrade, which can be quantified by the final grade of the sawn boards. The relative yield of sawn boards in various grades is addressed by grade recovery (Yang 2005). Prices would fall as the acceptable quality standard/grade of sawn timber/veneer produced fell (lower value). Furthermore, the wood is stained with kino/gummosis exudation from cracks on the canker area (Old et al. 2003; Gezahgne et al. 2003; Aylward et al. 2019), which impairs the appearance of the wood, changes its shape, reduces its permeability to preservatives, and lowers

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the value of the timber products (Gordon et al. 2004). Because of the high content of resin and stain, chips may be rejected in chipboard manufacturing. Acknowledgements This study was funded by the Transdisciplinary Fundamental Research Grant Scheme (TRGS 2018–1), reference code: TRGS/1/2018/UPM/01/2/3, by the Ministry of Higher Education (MOHE), Malaysia.

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Salmiah U, Andrew HHW, Jones EBG (2007) Wood degrading fungi. In: Jones EBG, Hyde KD, Vikneswary S (eds) Malaysian fungal diversity, 1st ed. Mushroom Research Centre, University of Malaya & Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment: Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia Savory JG, Pinion LC (1958) Chemical aspects of decay of beech wood by Chaetomium globosum. Int J Biol Chem Phys Technol Wood 12:99–103 Seixas CDS, Barreto RW, Alfenas AC, Ferreira FA (2004) Cryphonectria cubensis on an indigenous host in Brazil: a possible origin for eucalyptus canker disease? Mycologist 18:39–45 Sharma JK, Mohanan C, Florence EJM (1985a) Occurrence of Cryphonectria canker disease of Eucalyptus in Kerala, India. Ann Appl Biol 106(2):265–276 Sharma JK, Mohanan C, Florence EJM (1985b) Disease survey in nurseries and plantations of forest tree species grown in Kerala. KFRI research report No. 36. Peechi, KFRI, p 268 Shearer BL (1994) The major plant pathogens occurring in native ecosystems of south-western Australia. J R Soc West Aust 77:113–122 Slippers B, Fourie G, Crous PW, Coutinho TA, Wingfield BD, Carnegie AJ, Wingfield MJ (2004) Speciation and distribution of Botryosphaeria spp. on native and introduced eucalyptus trees in Australia and South Africa. Stud Mycol 50:343–358 Soares TPF, Fereira MA, Mafia RG, Oliveira LSS, Hodges CS, Alfenas AC (2018) Canker disease by Chrysoporthe doradensis and C. cubensis on Eucalyptus sp. and Tibouchina spp. In Brazil. Trop Plant Pathol 43:314–322 Souza SE, Sansigolo CA, Furtado EL, de Jesus WC, Oliveira RR (2010) Influencia do cancro basal em Eucalyptus grandis nas propriedades da madeira e polpacao Kraft. Sci FlorestIs 38(88):447– 457 Standards Australia (AS/NZS 2269.0:2012) (2012) “Plywood-structural,” Australian Standard/New Zealand Standard distributed by SAI Global Limited, www.saiglobal.com Stevens RB (1960) Cultural practices in disease control. In: Horsfall JG (ed) Plant pathology: an advanced treatise: the diseases population epidemics and control, vol 3. Academic Press Inc., London, pp 357–429 Tarigan M, Roux J, Van Wyk M, Tjahjono B, Wingfield MJ (2011) A new wilt and die-back disease of Acacia mangium associated with Ceratocystis manginecans and C. acaciivora sp. nov in Indonesia. S Afr J Bot 77:292–304 Toloza AC, Lucia A, Zerba E, Masuh H, Picollo MI (2008) Interspecific hybridization of Eucalyptus as a potential tool to improve the bioactivity of essential oils against permethrin-resistant head lice from Argentina. Biores Technol 99(15):7341–7347 Vance CP, Kirk TK, Sherwood RT (1980) Lignification as a mechanism of disease resistance. Annu Rev Phytopathol 18:259–288 Valencia J, Harwood C, Washusen R, Morrow A, Wood M, Volker P (2011) Longitudinal growth strain as a log and wood quality predictor for plantation-grown Eucalyptus nitens sawlogs. Wood Sci 45:15–34. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00226-010-0302-1 Wagberg L, Annergren G (1997) Physicochemical characterization of papermaking fibres. In: Proceedings of the fundamental reserch symposium, 11, Cambridge, pp 1–82 Wegulo S, Gleason M (2001) Fungal cankers of tree. Sustainable urban landscapes. Department of Plant Pathology Iowa State University Wellman FL (1968) More diseases on crops in the tropics than in temperate zones. Ceiba 14:17–28 Wellman FL (1972) Tropical American plant disease. The Scarecrow Press, Metuchen, NJ Wessel CB, Crafford PL, Toit BD, Grahn T, Johnsson M, Lundqvist SO, Sall H, Seifert T (2016) Variation in physical and mechanical properties from three drought tolerant eucalyptus species grown on dry west coast of Southern Africa. Eur J Wood Wood Prod 74:563–575 Wingfield MJ, Crous PW, Coutinho TA (1997) A serious canker disease of Eucalyptus in South Africa caused by a new species of Coniothyrium. Mycopathologia 136:139–145 Wingfield MJ (2003) Increasing threat of diseases to exotic plantation forests in the Southern Hemisphere: lessons from Cryphonectria canker. Australas Plant Pathol 32:133–139. https:// doi.org/10.1071/AP03024

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Chapter 3

Splitting Issues in Eucalyptus Logs Manuel Espey, Paridah Md Tahir, Seng Hua Lee, Adlin Sabrina Muhammad Roseley, and Roger Meder

3.1 Introduction The genus Eucalyptus belongs to the Myrtaceae family and contains approximately 700 species, which are commonly referred to as gum trees or stringy bark trees. Only two eucalyptus species (Eucalyptus urophylla S.T. Blake and Eucalyptus deglupta Blume) occur exclusively outside of Australia. E. urophylla stands can be found on Timor and several Indonesian islands. E. deglupta’s natural range extends from various Indonesian islands to Papua New Guinea and Mindanao in the Philippines. E. pellita is one of nine northern Australian species found in South New Guinea. Despite the abundance of Eucalyptus species, only a few are used in the establishment of industrial tree plantations (Davidson 2021). E. grandis, E. camaldulensis Dehnh., E. tereticornis Sm., E. globulus Labill., and E. urophylla are the five most important M. Espey · P. Md Tahir (B) Institute of Tropical Forestry and Forest Products (INTROP), Universiti Putra Malaysia, 43400, UPM Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia e-mail: [email protected] M. Espey Forest Solutions Malaysia Sdn. Bhd., L-70-7 KK Times Square, Off Coastal Highway, 88100 Kota Kinabalu, Sabah, Malaysia P. Md Tahir · A. S. Muhammad Roseley Faculty of Forestry and Environment, Universiti Putra Malaysia, 43400, UPM Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia S. H. Lee Faculty of Applied Sciences, Department of Wood Industry, Universiti Teknologi MARA (UiTM) Cawangan Pahang Kampus Jengka, 26400 Bandar Tun Razak, Pahang, Malaysia R. Meder Forest Industries Research Centre, University of the Sunshine Coast, Sippy Downs, Brisbane, QLD 4557, Australia Meder Consulting, Bracken Ridge, QLD 4017, Australia © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2024 S. H. Lee et al. (eds.), Eucalyptus, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-7919-6_3

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and widely planted Eucalyptus species in the world (Eldridge et al. 1993). There are approximately 20 million hectares of Eucalyptus plantations worldwide, with a further rapid increase in planted area size expected (Laclau et al. 2020). In 2012, commercial plantings of E. pellita began in Sabah and Sarawak, replacing diseased A. mangium stands (Yahya 2020; Nambiar et al. 2018). When compared to A. mangium, the wood properties of E. pellita allow for a broader range of end uses, particularly high-value end products such as solid wood and veneer. However, the wood properties of E. pellita are not entirely advantageous; studies in Sabah revealed that end-grain splitting was the leading cause of recovery and value loss (Japarudin et al. 2020).

3.2 Splitting in Wood A split is the separation of wood fibres. The most commonly used terms are split, crack, check, and shake (Fig. 3.1). Splits occur for a variety of reasons, and as a result, the defect is classified into four major categories: resource-related, woodprocessing-related, moisture content-variation-related, and end-use-related (Lamb 1992).

3.2.1 Resource Related Splits These splits can be found in the standing tree or after the tree has been felled and the log has been made. Growth stress, site and environmental conditions, and microorganisms such as bacteria can all play a role. Splits caused by growth stress run radially across growth rings. Ring shake is a type of split that occurs parallel to the growth rings in mature trees. Wounds to the stem, disease, bacteria, site and environmental Fig. 3.1 Splitting of E. pellita and measurement of split width for splits from pith to bark (Espey et al. 2021, open access; freely reuse under Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License (https://www.mdpi.com/ 1999-4907/12/3/266); no change is made to the original image)

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conditions, and wood chemical composition are all factors that contribute to ring shake (Lamb 1992).

3.2.2 Wood Processing and Drying Related Splits The type of machinery used in wood processing can harm the wood. Loosened grain is the most common type of machining-related damage. Loosened grain can be found parallel to the growth ring (Lamb 1992). The drying of logs or green lumber is an important part of the wood processing process. Checks are splits that occur during the drying process of wood. Checks run in a radial direction across growth rings. These checks are referred to as end-checks, surface checks, and internal checks, also known as honeycomb checks, depending on where they are located (Lamb 1992). Hard wood is dried in a kiln to a moisture content of about 12% (Yang and Normand 2012). If the environment’s moisture content (equilibrium moisture content) is lower than the moisture content of the dried wood, evaporation occurs, causing shrinkage stress and splitting of the wood or connecting glue lines (Lamb 1992).

3.2.3 End Use Related Splits Wood products shrink or swell depending on the moisture content of the environment in which they are installed. The design and installation of wood products can help to prevent wood expansion or shrinkage as a result of changing moisture content in the environment, which causes wood splits (Lamb 1992). Mechanical damage and splits can occur as a result of rough handling and dropping while transporting, erecting, and installing (Lamb 1992).

3.3 Reasons for Wood Splits 3.3.1 Growth Stress and Growth Strain Stresses accumulate during the growth of a tree, resulting in strain in the form of tension and compression. These growth stresses are unrelated to shrinkage stresses caused by drying wood, despite the fact that both factors are likely to interact (Kübler 1987). Eucalyptus species have been reported to have particularly high levels of growth stress (Kübler 1987). Wood is tensioned at the outer periphery and compressed near the pith in the longitudinal direction. Wood compression decreases from pith to bark (Malan 1979). For wood processing, longitudinal growth stresses are the most problematic (Hillis 1984). Growth stress and its release cause splits, cracks,

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and warp, resulting in economic losses; therefore, it is critical to predict and mitigate it. End-grain splitting occurs immediately after felling and bucking of trees or ready-cut log sections (Cassens and Serrano 2004). The occurrence and severity of growth stress differs not only between species but also within species. Growth stresses are especially high in leaning tree reaction wood, but they are also related to tree height, different seasons, and silvicultural regimes (Kübler 1987). Furthermore, growth strain is associated with wood properties such as modulus of elasticity (MOE), basic density, shrinkage, fibre wall thickness, lignin-cellulose content, and microfibril angle (Hillis 1997). Because of the decline of natural forests and increased wood production from fast-growing industrial tree plantations, less mature wood is being used (Cassens and Serrano 2004). Short rotation plantation trees have a higher proportion of juvenile wood, reaction wood, and growth stress than older trees (Maeglin 1987). Increased supply of wood from fast-growing tree plantations will result in a greater proportion of wood with growth stresses being processed. As a result, quality and recovery issues are likely to worsen (Cassens and Serrano 2004).

3.3.2 Wood Drying and Shrinkage During the drying (seasoning) of logs or green boards, moisture evaporates more quickly from the outside than from the inside (Iowa State University 2000). Drying stresses occur when the outer layers of wood dry much below the fibre saturation point while the inner wood remains saturated. Stresses are built up as a result of the uneven rate of moisture loss and thus uneven shrinkage of the wood (Keey et al. 2000), which leads to rupture of the wood tissue and separation of wood fibres, resulting in wood splits (Iowa State University 2000). To avoid drying-related wood defects, it is critical to control and balance the rate of moisture loss from the outer and interior wood layers. When wood is seasoned in kiln compartments, this is possible. The temperature, relative humidity, and air circulation in a kiln are all controlled so that the inner and outer wood layers dry and shrink evenly without splitting. Warm steam is circulated around the wood and slowly released during kiln drying (Iowa State University 2000).

3.4 Economic Losses Due to Wood Splits and Growth Stress Wood splits and defects caused by the release of growth stress have a significant impact on economic returns. Splitting losses occur at all stages of downstream processing and are not limited to round log production. According to Maree and Malan (2000), the losses due to splitting amounted to up to 10% of the sawn timber production for E. grandis in South Africa. While Yang (2005) reported losses of up to 6% of the log volume due to the need to remove the curved edges in E. globulus Labill slabs. In the same study, recovery losses from end-docking of log end-grain splits

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amounted to 1% of the log volume, or about 4% of the dried board volume. Based on the figures above, the total annual economic losses for a sawmill processing 40,000 m3 are estimated to be up to $1,143,000. Similarly, 28% of veneers in Australia were downgraded to low value D-grade quality due to veneer splits (McGavin et al. 2014), while peeling and sawing trials in Sarawak (Hii et al. 2017) and Sabah (Japarudin et al. 2021) identified end-grain splits as the greatest source of recovery loss for veneer and board production. In China, the use of E. urophylla x E. grandis hybrids increases the recovery of higher value veneer grades while decreasing losses (Peng et al. 2014). Yang and Pongracic (2004) used split indices to quantify the overall severity of log end-grain splitting. They also reported on methods for estimating the volume of curved-edge off-cuts to determine the loss of sawn timber recovery associated with growth stress release. The main cause of yield losses in Eucalypts is thought to be growth stress (Grzeskowiak et al. 2001). Due to the growth stress effects of E. dunnii Maiden, up to 30% of the sawn timber production is reduced in quality (Matos et al. 2003). A study of E. globulus resulted in 30% rejection of sawn boards, with 40% of these boards rejected due to growth stress (Yang et al. 2002).

3.5 Heritability of Log End-Grain Splitting and Tangential Shrinkage It has been demonstrated for several Eucalypt species that splitting is heritable and, to some extent, under genetic control. For example, the end-grain splitting trait in South African E. grandis is moderately heritable, allowing it to be reduced through genetic selection (Malan 1984). A study in Sri Lanka found heritability estimates for E. grandis end-grain splitting of 0.16–0.15 (Bandara and Arnold 2017). In Brazil, E. grandis had a higher heritability estimate for end-grain splitting of 0.31 (Santos et al. 2003). An evaluation of nine-year-old E. dunnii plantation trees in Australia revealed a longitudinal growth strain heritability of 0.3–0.5 (Murphy et al. 2005). A New Zealand study on E. bosistoana F. Muell. found a heritability of 0.63 for growth strain and a heritability of 0.29 for shrinkage, both of which contribute to split formation (Davies et al. 2017). In clonal trials, Norway spruce (Picea abies (L.) H. Karst.) had broad sense heritability estimates of up to 0.45–0.57 (Hannrup et al. 2004). A Tasmanian study of split in E. nitens (H. Deane & Maiden) found that this trait has a heritability of 0.38 (Kube and Raymond 2005). In a progeny trial for tangential shrinkage caused by drying of the wood, E. pilularis Sm. had moderate heritability estimates (Pelletier et al. 2008). Meanwhile, end-splitting heritability of 0.24 was recorded in E. pellita in Sabah, Malaysia (Espey et al. 2021).

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3.6 Wood Properties as Part of Breeding Strategies According to the reported heritability estimates, growth stress levels can be genetically altered through selection. It is unknown whether and to what extent split formation and severity in E. pellita are heritable, and how far breeding strategies might be able to control it in Malaysia. Only genetic material with low end-grain splitting was accepted as part of the breeding population in the South African breeding programme for E. grandis (Malan 1984). The emphasis on volume production alone in the New Zealand Pinus radiata D. Don breeding programme has resulted in a decrease in wood properties and economic returns (Burdon 2010). If genetic selections for this trait are carried out on E. nitens, it is possible to reduce splitting in produced boards by 35% (Kube and Raymond 2005). According to the same study, this improvement in split reduction results in lower growth due to an 18% reduction in diameter in logs. As a result, the authors conclude that genetic selections must include both traits in order to predict a significant increase in higher grade board recovery. Stem cracking in Norwegian grown spruce can be reduced through genetic selections based on progeny trial evaluation results (Zeltins et al. 2018). In E. bosistoana, growth strain and thus splitting are genetically controlled and can be reduced through tree breeding strategies (Davies et al. 2017). The same study found an unfavourable relationship between growth stress and wood stiffness, necessitating a trade-off if breeding for both traits is done concurrently. To date, wood property traits have not been sufficiently included as a selection criterion in breeding programmes due to the difficulty and cost of assessment (Pelletier et al. 2008). E. pellita growth and various wood property traits were found to be moderately heritable in Vietnam, with a high potential for genetic improvements through breeding strategies (Tran 2014). The same study in Vietnam concluded that selection based solely on wood quality traits can result in reduced diameter growth (Tran 2014). Tran (2014) observed that growth and wood property traits in E. pellita differ significantly between families, whereas seed sources show little variation. He predicted that selecting the best-performing families would result in significant improvements. Furthermore, growth and some wood quality traits are positively correlated, allowing for multi-trait selections to improve E. pellita’s wood resource (Tran 2014). To maximise economic gains, Malaysian tree growers will need to develop strategies to improve the wood properties and growth rates of E. pellita and other Eucalyptus species. This suggests that the traditional method of selecting genetic material for breeding purposes based solely on phenotypic expression (primarily form and volume) is insufficient, and that additional incorporation of wood property traits is required (Wu et al. 2008; Ivkovic et al. 2010).

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3.7 Tree Growth and Split Relation Several studies involving various tree species have revealed a negative relationship between growth rate and wood properties such as split formation and severity. An unfavourable relationship has been reported between growth factors (height, diameter, volume) and round log splitting in E. grandis grown in Sri Lanka (Bandara and Arnold 2017). A study on Acacia auriculiformis revealed that the development of growth strain (stress), which is responsible for wood splits, is dynamic and varies significantly with increased age and tree height increment (Aggarwal et al. 2006). The same study found a moderate relationship between DBH (diameter at breast height) and growth strain in A. auriculiformis A. Cunn. ex. Benth. In Chile, the growth strain of E. nitens plantation trees changes significantly with age, tree height, and slenderness (height-diameter ratio) (Biechele et al. 2009). End-grain splitting in South African E. grandis logs increases with growth rate, resulting in more splits for fast-growing trees (Malan and Hoon 1992). Growth-related end-grain splitting must be observed in close relation to soil or site conditions, and thus growing conditions. Because of a larger growth strain gradient from the pith to the log periphery, longitudinal growth strain is higher in younger and smaller logs (Kübler 1959). Wood products from younger and smaller logs have a greater number and severity of quality issues than products from larger and older logs. Short rotation, rapid growth Eucalyptus plantations are said to have higher levels of growth stress than older, longer-rotating tree crops. Another factor is that when fast-growing plantations are harvested at a young age, the amount of juvenile wood used increases. When compared to mature wood, juvenile wood has lower quality traits, such as lower strength. End-grain splitting in fast-growing plantation logs is associated with higher levels of growth stress and lower strength to resist wood rupture when compared to older logs (Yang and Waugh 2001).

3.8 End-Grain Splitting in Relation to Environment The chemical and physical properties of the soil have a significant impact on growth. Environmental conditions and genetic environment interactions determine whether a species, genotype, or family grows well or poorly. Site conditions, particularly soil characteristics, have a strong influence on growth and the accumulation of growth stress. End-grain splitting for E. grandis on good quality sites is approximately 50% higher than on low quality sites in South Africa (Malan 1984). Regional differences in splitting have been reported for E. nitens in Tasmania, which have been linked to different environmental conditions (Vega et al. 2016). A study on E. nitens in Tasmania discovered significant variation in sawn board splitting when different sites were compared. Splitting was reduced by 20% on low growth sites with higher basic density and cellulose content ranging from 4 to 5% (Kube and Raymond 2005).

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3.9 End-Grain Splitting in E. pellita Logs Planted in Malaysia E. pellita is a relatively new plantation tree species in Malaysia and North Borneo. Although splits are a common occurrence, there have been few published studies on splitting and wood properties of plantation logs for Malaysian conditions. Meder (2016) investigated the sawing and peeling properties of E. pellita logs in Sabah Softwoods Sdn Bhd (SSB) and Jaya Tiasa Holdings (JTH) in Sarawak. Significant splitting of plantation logs was observed immediately after felling and cross cutting, as well as splitting of boards and veneers. He informed members of the Borneo Forestry Cooperative (BFC) that the recovery of higher grade solid wood end products is a concern, with recovery being significantly reduced due to wood splits. He observed variation in split occurrence and severity on an individual tree basis while felling trees at the site. As a result, he proposed that split formation in E. pellita plantation logs might have a genetic basis. E. pellita and other Eucalypts have been chosen as the main tree species for plantation development by the majority of large forestry companies in Sabah and Sarawak. To date, approximately 36,200 ha (AFI, AFCS, SSB, and SFI company information, 2021) of this species have been planted in Sabah alone, and further expansion of plantation areas is underway. With the scale of plantation development necessitating detailed studies in this field, there is little published, statistically sound information on E. pellita end-grain splitting of plantation logs and wood property traits under Malaysian conditions. There are published research results on log endgrain splitting for several other Eucalypt species from other countries.

3.9.1 Remedial Measures to Prevent or Mitigate End-Grain Splitting Remedial measures can be taken to reduce the post-felling splitting of the Eucalyptus trees. There are numerous methods for reducing splitting (Table 3.1). Splitting of plantation logs or finished solid wood end products is prevented, reduced, or mitigated by remediation measures. In general, two approaches can be distinguished: (1) Products that physically hold or bind the wood together (Max Amrhein GmbH, S-hooks, company website) and (2) Products that reduce moisture loss and thus split formation (Rice 1995).

Five different methods were tested to reduce the effects of growth stress on saw log and board production. Treatments: End sealer application to log ends, 30% of the large end diameter cut for standing trees, herbicide (Chopper/ Imazapyr) treatment of standing trees, combined 30% diameter cut and herbicide application. Boards produced were assessed for splits, springs, bows, and cuppings

Four different end-sealers were applied to oak logs at small and large end cut surface. Aqueous paraffin, alcohol-based and two water-based end sealers were compared against a control of no remediation applied

Reduction of growth Eucalyptus dunnii stress effects

End-coating

Quercus petrarea

Methodology

A pre-peeling steam treatment was applied to the logs. Log end-grain splitting was assessed and compared with those immediately after felling, after transport and storage on a log-yard, and just before peeling

Species

Eucalyptus nitens

Method/techniques

Steaming of logs

Table 3.1 Studies on split remedial methods and findings Findings—advantages and limitations

References Vega et al. (2016)

All of the four grain end-sealer products had significant effect on reduction of split formation. The two water-based products performed significantly better compared to the aqueous paraffin and alcohol-based product

(continued)

Szeles et al. (2015)

The treatment where the end coating was Matos et al. (2003) applied to the saw logs showed the highest splits and bows (12,05%). 30% cut of large end diameter resulted in the lowest spring rate (0.38 mm/m). Boards from logs treated with herbicide had the lowest bow rate (3 mm/ m). Combination of 30% diameter cuts and herbicide treatment was most effective in reduction of degrade due to growth stress

Steaming did not significantly affect the intensity of end-grain splitting. End-grain splitting varied across sites and within tree log position and increased with time in storage

3 Splitting Issues in Eucalyptus Logs 43

North American hardwoods

Water Sprinkling

For logs harvested from April to October and storage of more than five weeks, water sprinkling is advised

Canada: Bark removal or bark damage must be avoided during harvesting, especially in summer

North American hardwoods

Bark removal

Reduced checking is observed

Reduced checking is observed

Canada: Logs harvested from November to Storage during summer is possible without March are stored under snow and bark checking debris

North American hardwoods

No significant checking/ splitting is observed for winter harvested logs

Log end-grain splitting was assessed on the Increase in storage time leads to a first day after felling, 13–14 days after significant increase in log end-grain felling, and 25–33 days after felling splitting. Splitting was most severe in upper/smaller diameter logs. It is assumed that growth stress changes within a tree with height above ground

Canada: Less splitting is observed for Northeast-Southwest storage. Hungary: Significant less splitting exists for East–West storage direction

Findings—advantages and limitations

Log storage

Eucalyptus nitens

Log storage

Canada, Quebec: Green log ends should face Northeast–Southwest direction to reduce the amount of sunlight received. Hungary: Green log piles were stored facing North–South and East–West direction to reduce the amount of sunlight received

Methodology

Canada: Winter harvest of logs from November to March is advised. Avoid harvesting from April to October

North American hardwoods & Quercus petraea

Operational timing North American of logging operations hardwoods

Species

Method/techniques

Log storage

Table 3.1 (continued)

(continued)

Yang (2004)

Yang and Beauregard (2001)

Yang and Normand (2012)

Yang and Normand (2012)

Vega et al. (2016)

Yang and Normand (2008), Szeles et al. (2015)

References

44 M. Espey et al.

Most log/ lumber sealer products are Reduction in wood checking suitable to reduce moisture loss and thus wood checking. There is little difference in effectiveness comparing commercial coatings

End sealers must be applied as soon as possible to fresh cut logs. A delay in log end sealing will reduce the effect of the product

Logs have to be stored in the forest shade if Reduction in wood checking end sealing is not possible immediately after cutting

For poles or logs of small diameter an Log end checking is reduced during the electric current can be sent through the log following drying process from one end to another. Before or after the electric treatment the bark has to be removed

North American hardwoods

North American hardwoods

North American hardwoods

Operational timing of end-coating application

Log storage

Electric treatment

Reduction in wood checking

Prevent end-checking

North American hardwoods

Findings—advantages and limitations

End-coating

End-coating is a common practice in sawmills

North American hardwoods

Methodology

Species

Method/techniques

End-coating

Table 3.1 (continued)

(continued)

Marko (1999)

Yang and Normand (2012)

Yang and Normand (2012)

Rice (1995)

Linares-Hernandez and Wengert (1997)

References

3 Splitting Issues in Eucalyptus Logs 45

108 logs were air dried under room temperature in a shed with open side walls. Log diameters of 60–150 mm were analyzed. Logs were dried until equilibrium moisture content. The drying took six months. Log samples were weighed every two weeks and the split length was measured by electronic caliper

Five treatments were tested, and each treatment was applied to 10 logs. Average DBH of the stems of 22 cm, aged 13 years. All 50 logs cut to boards and assessed T 1: Pre-girdling of the log prior to felling, after felling second girdling at the small end of the log, girdling depth 30% of diameter, logs processed to boards after 12 days T 2: Systemic herbicide “Round Up” was applied into a hole at DBH height. Trees were left standing for 29 days. After tree death felling and cutting to boards took place T 3: End sealer “Neutrol” was applied to cut logs at small and large end. After 30 days logs were cut to boards T 4: Cut logs remained in field 10 days before sawing to boards commenced T 5: Cut logs were left in field 72 h before sawing to boards commenced

Eucalyptus urophylla

Reduction of growth Eucalyptus stress effects urophylla

Methodology

Species

Method/techniques

Air drying

Table 3.1 (continued) References

Significant reduction in board cracking was Silva et al. (2017) achieved with the herbicide treatment (T 2). While the end-sealant treatment (T 3) had significant increased board cracking and has proven to be ineffective. T 1, T 4, and T 5 were not significantly different in split reduction although longer remaining period of 10 days resulted in higher split occurrence and severity

End-grain splitting was increased in larger Nascimento et al. diameter logs compared to smaller (2019) diameters. Wood density did not have significant effect on log end-grain splitting. More research is required to determine how long growth stresses influence splitting and its interaction with moisture loss due to drying. It is required to control drying at the beginning in order to reduce splitting

Findings—advantages and limitations

46 M. Espey et al.

3 Splitting Issues in Eucalyptus Logs

47

Acknowledgements This study was funded by the Transdisciplinary Fundamental Research Grant Scheme (TRGS 2018–1), reference code: TRGS/1/2018/UPM/01/2/3, by the Ministry of Higher Education (MOHE), Malaysia.

References Aggarwal PK, Chauhan SS, Karmarkar A (2006) Growth strain in Acacia auriculaeformis trees of different age: their relationship with growth rate and height. J Inst Wood Sci 17:212–215 Bandara KMA, Arnold RJ (2017) Genetic variation of growth and log end- splitting in secondgeneration Eucalyptus grandis in Sri Lanka. Aust for 80:264–271 Biechele T, Nutto L, Becker G (2009) Growth stress in Eucalyptus nitens at different stages of development. Silva Fenn 43:669–679 Burdon RD (2010) Wood properties and genetic improvement of radiata pine. N Z J for 55:22–27 Cassens DL, Serrano JR (16–19 Mar 2004) Growth stress in hardwood timber. In: Proceedings of the 14th central hardwood forest conference, Wooster, Ohio Davidson J (2021) Ecological aspects of Eucalyptus plantations. In: Proceedings. Regional expert consultation on eucalyptus, volume I. FAO Davies NT, Apiolaza LA, Sharma M (2017) Heritability of growth strain in Eucalyptus bosistoana: a bayesian approach with left-censored data. NZ J for Sci 47:1–5 Eldridge KG, Davidson J, Harwood CE, Wyk G van (1993) Eucalypts natural and planted. In: Eucalypt domestication and breeding. Claredon Press, Oxford, pp 288 Espey M, Md Tahir P, Lee SH, Muhammad Roseley AS, Meder R (2021) Incidence and severity of end-splitting in plantation-grown Eucalyptus pellita F. Muell. in North Borneo. Forests 12(3):266 Grzeskowiak V, Turner P, Sefara NL (2001) Potential of screening tools for early prediction of splitting and brittleheard in Eucalyptus grandis. CSIR international report Hannrup B, Cahalan C, Chantre G, Grabner M, Karlsson B, Le Bayon I, Jones GL, Mueller U, Pereira H, Rodrigues JC (2004) Genetic parameters of growth and wood quality traits in Picea abies. Scand J for Res 19:14–29 Hii SY, Ha KS, Ngui ML, Ak Penguang S, Duju A, Teng XY, Meder R (2017) Assessment of plantation-grown Eucalyptus pellita in Borneo, Malaysia for solid wood utilization. Aust For 80:26–33 Hillis WE (18–22 Aug 1997) Timber management towards wood quality and end-wood product value: Australia’s experience. In: Proceedings of the CTIA/IUFRO international wood quality workshop, Division III, Quebec City, Canada Hillis WE (1984) Wood quality and utilization. Eucalyptus for wood production. CSIRO, Canberra, Australia Iowa State University (2000) Wood drying. Iowa State University Ivkovic M, Wu HX, Kumar S (2010) Bio-economic modeling as a method for determining economic weights for optimal multiple-trait tree selection. Silvae Genet 59:77–90 Japarudin Y, Lapammu M, Alwi A, Warburton P, Macdonell P, Boden D, Brawner JT, Brown M, Meder R (2020) Growth performance of selected taxa as candidate species for productive tree plantations in Borneo. Aust for 38:29–38 Japarudin Y, Meder R, Lapammu M, Alwi A, Chiu KC, Ghaffariyan M, Brown M (2021) Veneering and sawing performance of plantation-grown Eucalyptus pellita, aged 7–23 years, in Borneo Malaysia. Int Wood Prod J 12:1–12 Kube PD, Raymond CA (2005) Breeding to minimise the effects of collapse in Eucalyptus nitens sawn timber. For Genet 12:23–34 Kübler H (1959) Die Spannungen in Faserrichtung. Holz als Roh- und Werkstoff 17:44–54 Kübler H (1987) Growth stresses in trees and related wood properties. For Prod Abstr 10:61–119

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Keey RB, Langrish TAG, Walker JCF (2000) Stress and strain behavior. In: Kiln-drying of lumber. Springer, Berlin, pp 224–231 Laclau JP, Mareschal L, Bouvet JM (2020) Eucalyptus plantations. In: Binkley D (ed) Forest ecology and management. Elsevier, Amsterdam, Netherlands, pp 87–98 Lamb FM (1992) Splits and cracks in wood. Virginia Tech. Virginia Tech: Blacksburg, Virginia Linares-Hernandez A, Wengert EM (1997) End coating logs to prevent stain and checking. For Prod J 47:65–70 Maeglin R (1987) Juvenile wood, and growth stress effects on processing hardwood. In: Proceedings of the 15th annual hardwood symposium of the hardwood research council, Memphis, USA, TN, pp 100–108 Malan FS (1984) Studies on the phenotypic variation in growth stress intensity and its association with tree and wood properties of South African grown Eucalyptus grandis (Hill ex Maiden), PhD thesis, University of Stellenbosch, South Africa Malan FS (1979) The control of end splitting in sawlogs: a short literature review. S Afr for J 109:14–18 Malan FS, Hoon M (1992) Effect of initial spacing and thinning on some wood properties of Eucalyptus grandis. S Afr For J 163:13–20 Maree B, Malan FS (19–24 Mar 2000) Growing for solid hardwood products–a South African experience and perspective. The future of eucalypts for wood products. In: Proceedings of IUFRO conference, Launceston, Tasmania, Australia Marko M (1999) Wood treatment process to prevent splitting and checking during drying. CA Patent No. CA2238353 Matos JLM, Iwakiri S, Rocha MP, Andrade LO (2003) Reduction of growth stress effects in the logs of Eucalyptus dunnii. Sci for 64:128–135 Meder R (2016) Summary of solid wood assessment of E. pellita at four sites in East Malaysia. Report to the members of the Borneo Forestry Cooperative. Boden and Associates, Cooroy, Australia McGavin RL, Bailleres H, Lane F, Blackburn D, Vega M, Ozarska B (2014) Veneer recovery analysis of plantation eucalypt species using spindleless lathe technology. BioResources 9(1): 613–627 Murphy TN, Henson M, Vanclay JK (2005) Growth stress in Eucalyptus dunnii. Aust for 68:144–149 Nambiar EKS, Harwood CE, Mendham DS (2018) Path to sustainable wood supply to the pulp and paper industry in Indonesia after diseases have forced a change of species from acacia to eucalypts. Aust for 81:1–14 Nascimento TM, Monteiro TC, Barauna EEP, Moulin JC, Azewedo AM (2019) Drying influence on the development of cracks in Eucalyptus logs. BioResources 14:220–233 Pelletier MC, Henson M, Boyton S, Thomas D, Vanclay J (2008) Genetic variation in shrinkage of Eucalyptus pilularis (Smith) assessed using increment cores: Preliminary results. NZ J for Sci 38:194–210 Peng Y, Washusen R, Xiang D, Lan J, Chen S, Arnold R (2014) Grade and value variation in Eucalyptus urophylla x E. grandis veneer due to variation in initial plantation spacings. Aust for 77:39–50 Rice RW (1995) Transport coefficients for six log and lumber end coatings. For Prod J 45:64–68 Santos PET, Geraldi IO, Garcia JN (2003) Estimates of genetic parameters for physical and mechanical properties of wood in Eucalyptus grandis. Sci for 63:54–64 Silva JCD, Carvalho AMML, Faria BFHD (2017) Methods for alleviation and reduction of the effects of growth stresses in Eucalyptus urophylla. Rev Arvore 41:1–8 Szeles P, Koman S, Feher S (2015) Mitigation of end shakes on oak saw timber as a result of storage by applying environment-friendly methods. Wood Res 60:823–832 Tran DH (2014) NIR for combined selection in hardwoods for both growth and wood properties, PhD thesis, University of Queensland, Australia Vega M, Hamilton MG, Blackburn DP, McGavin RL, Baileres H, Potts BM (2016) Influence of site, storage and steaming of Eucalyptus nitens log-end slitting. Ann for Sci 73:257–266

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Wu HX, Ivkovich M, Gapare WJ, Matheson AC, Baltunis BS, Powell MB, McRae TA (2008) Breeding for wood quality and profit in radiata pine: a review of genetic parameters and implication for breeding and deployment. NZ J for Sci 38:56–87 Yahya AZ (2020) Planting of eucalyptus in Malaysia. Acta Sci Agric 4:139–140 Yang JL, Waugh G (2001) Growth stress, its measurement and effects. Aust For 64(2):127–35 Yang DQ, Beauregard R (2001) Check development on jack pine logs in Eastern Canada. For Prod J 51:63–65 Yang DQ, Normand D (2008) End coating to prevent checks on hardwood. FP Innovations-Forintek report No. 5366. Eastern Region, Quebec, Canada Yang DQ, Normand D (2012) Best practices to avoid hardwood checking, part I. Hardwood checking–the causes and prevention. FP Innovations, Pointe-Claire, Canada Yang DQ (2004) Prevention of hardwood fungal stain through proper sawmill operations. FP Innovations-Forintek report No. 3258. Eastern Region, Quebec, Canada Yang JL, Fife D, Waugh D, Blackwell P (2002) The effect of growth strain and other defects on the sawn timber quality of 10-year-old Eucalyptus globulus Labill. Aust for 65:31–37 Yang JL, Pongracic S (2004) The impact of growth stresses on sawn distortion and log end-splitting of 32-year-old plantation Blue Gum. Forest & Wood Products Research and Development Corporation, Australia Yang JL (2005) The impact of log-end splits and spring on sawn recovery of 32-year-old plantation Eucalyptus globulus Labill. Holz als Roh- und Werkstoff 63:442–448 Zeltins P, Katrevics J, Gailis A, Maaten T, Baders E, Jansons A (2018) Effect of stem diameter, genetics, and wood properties on stem cracking in Norway spruce. Forests 9:546

Chapter 4

Particleboard Made of Eucalyptus Wood Bonded by Isocyanate Resin: Considering Moisture Content of the Particles Arif Nuryawan , Inka Cristy Vera Simorangkir, Eka Mulya Alamsyah , and Halimatuddahliana

4.1 Introduction Particleboard is defined as the boards which are formed mainly from wood particles (including chip, flake, wafer, strand, etc.) by hot pressing with adhesives (JAS 2003). Usually, formaldehyde (F)-based resins such as urea–formaldehyde (UF), melamine–formaldehyde (MF), phenol–formaldehyde (PF), and mixture of urea (U) and melamine (M) with different proportions, so-called UMF or MUF have been used as the binder of this product. In this study, isocyanate adhesive was intended as the glue because it contains isocyanate group (–N=C=O) with high reactivity, which can be bonded with hydroxyl (–OH) in wood and non-wood of macromolecular cellulose material and can also react with compounds having active hydrogen (Pagel and Luckmann 1984; Qiao et al. 2000; Grøstad and Pedersen 2010). In fact, when employed as a binder for wood components, isocyanate resins undergo a reaction with the wood component (Rowell and Ellis 1981) and water (Umemura et al. 1998). The isocyanate resins would react with the water rather than the wood component if there is water present in the wood products. As a result, when bonding wood composite materials with isocyanate resins, the isocyanate resinwater reaction is regarded as one of the most crucial reactions. Because their –NCO A. Nuryawan (B) · I. C. V. Simorangkir Faculty of Forestry, Universitas Sumatera Utara, Jl. Lingkar Kampus USU 2, Deli Serdang Regency 20353, North Sumatra, Indonesia e-mail: [email protected] E. M. Alamsyah Department of Post Harvest Technology, School of Life Sciences and Technology, Institut Teknologi Bandung, Jl. Ganesa 10, Bandung, Indonesia Halimatuddahliana Faculty of Engineering, Universitas Sumatera Utara, Padang Bulan Campus, Medan 20155, North Sumatra, Indonesia © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2024 S. H. Lee et al. (eds.), Eucalyptus, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-7919-6_4

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group can react with substances containing active hydrogen like water, including wood with water therein (free and bonded water), isocyanates have strong bonding (Conner 2001; Lepene et al. 2002; He and Yan 2005). Evidence that isocyanates also reacted with the wood component, notably the cell wall component, was reported in a superb review and experiment result published more than three decades ago (Glasser et al. 1982). Indeed, this work is the extension of our study regarding interaction between wood (particle) and isocyanate adhesive within the particleboard system (Nuryawan and Alamsyah 2018; Nuryawan and Alamsyah 2019a; Nuryawan and Alamsyah 2019b). This study emphasized the wood particle roles since it is a hygroscopic material. In this case, wood particles derived from Eucalyptus (Eucalyptus grandis) which has been planted in area of PT. Toba Pulp Lestari, Tbk, North Sumatra, Indonesia were selected as the raw material. E. grandis was considered in this study, hoping that it may be its moisture content (MC) of the wood was low because this plant has the lowest evapotranspiration (water consumption) (Alfian et al. 2019). Research on physical property of the MC of E. grandis wood with ages 3, 6, and 9 years old revealed that the green MC was in the range of 116.61–128.88% and the air dry MC was in the range of 15.06–17.77% with average density of 0.55 g/cm3 and volume shrinkage of 7.18%.

4.2 Eucalyptus Wood in Brief Government of Indonesia has set policies and promoted the growth of plantation forests in the context of forest rehabilitation, environmental improvement, and boosting timber production. Implementation of the development of plantation forest is crucial because there are still large expanses of unproductive land, bushes, and grasslands which are unsuitable for agriculture but good for forestry crops, therefore it is possible that planting forests will boost land productivity (Latifah 2004). The development strategy of forest plantation was implemented in Indonesia since 1989/ 1990 with the following objectives (Indartik et al. 2011): (1) Increasing the productivity of production forests in the context of the need for raw materials and the wood processing industry (promoting growth), creating jobs (promoting jobs), bolstering the economies of communities surrounding the forest (supporting the poor), and improving environmental quality (promoting green); and (2) Improving the competitiveness of wood industry products (sawmills, plywood, pulp and paper, furniture, etc.). It is possible to grow some types of trees using specific methods, which can increase productivity, for instance, multi-purpose tree system, fast growing species, or hybrid species. For instance, a pulp producer company in Indonesia, PT. Toba Pulp Lestari (TPL), Tbk, located in North Sumatra Province, cultivates Eucalyptus tree on its sites as the main material of pulp making (Butar-Butar and Sembiring 1991).

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Since its establishment in 1979 (former name was PT. Inti Indorayon Utama Tbk), there were four species of the Eucalyptus, namely Eucalyptus urophylla, E. deglupta, E. saligna, and E.grandis that developed in its lands (Latifah 2004). According to electronic media, even though there were five species Eucalyptus have been cultivated in PT. TPL sites (E. pellita, E. urophylla, E. grandis, E. saligna, and E. citradora), only three species of them (E. pellita, E. urophylla, and E. grandis) have been produced in its land concessions. The seeds of the three originated from Papua New Guinea, East Timor, and Australia, respectively (Prasetyo et al. 2017). Even though the Eucalyptus belongs to hardwood which has had shorter fiber, it is preferred by this producer because of less water consumption. Cultivation of this plant is not expected to be a trigger of drought in the area of Toba Lake, the largest lake in the world (Alfian et al. 2019).

4.2.1 Eucalyptus Grandis In order to fulfill the suitability of Eucalyptus plant, PT.TPL has been conducted breeding among the broods, for instance, cross breeding between E. urophylla x E. grandis which resulted in E. urograndis. An old publication (Alzate 2009) compared anatomical properties between the hybrid (E. urophylla x E. grandis) and the ancestor, E. grandis as depicted in Fig. 4.1. Recently, in the last annual report (Toba Pulp Lestari 2022), PT. TPL has been cloned into 123 types of clones. However, most of these clones have not been developed because over time they are susceptible to attack by pests and diseases. Fortunately, emergence of new clones is better in terms of productivity and more resistant to pests and diseases, for instance, research of Harianja et al. (2019) revealed that from five clones comprised of IND 61, IND 66, IND 47, IND 52 and IND 60, only

(a) cross section 10x; cross section 50x; (b) cross section 10x; cross section 50x; tangential section 50x; radial section 50x; bar tangential section 50x; radial section 50x; bar scale: 10x = 1 mm and 50x = 250µm scale: 10x = 1 mm and 50x = 250µm

Fig. 4.1 Comparison of anatomical properties of (a) hybrid Eucalyptus (E. urophylla × E. grandis) and the ancestor E. grandis (b), from Ref. Alzate (2009)

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clone of IND 61 has had potential wood. As a form of tree, E. grandis grows quickly and uses less water than other species like acacia and pine. Eucalyptus only used 46% less water than pine, which used 61.5%, and acacia, which used 68.8% (Myers et al 1996). Eucalyptus belongs to hardwood, therefore anatomically, its length fiber has had much shorter compared to that of pine which belongs to softwood. Maceration for measuring the dimension of Eucalyptus fiber exhibited the size of length fiber was 1252.8 µm (bottom), 1054.8 µm (middle), 1003.0 µm (upper), and 1103.53 µm (average) (Hutagalung 2010) while the mean fiber length value of merkusii pine ranged at 2066–4974 µm (Darmawan et al. 2018).

4.2.2 Some Research Involving E. grandis W. Hill ex Maiden The E. grandis is well known for its fast-growing characteristics and adaptability to a wide range of environmental conditions (Prasetyo et al. 2017) and potentially as carbon sink (Kwatrina et al. 2005). Since the establishment of Study Program of Forestry in Universitas Sumatera Utara in 1999 (Universitas Sumatera Utara 2023), research collaboration with stakeholders, education institutions, including industries have been carried out. For instance, collaboration with PT. TPL resulted in some fundamental data of E. grandis through final assignments or student thesis (Afandi 2007; Roger 2011). In this study, the wood of E. grandis derived from standing stock which have had age of 6 (six) years old having physical and chemical properties as presented in Table 4.1. Table 4.1 Physical and chemical properties of E. grandis

No.

Properties

Mean valuea

Physical properties 1.

Green moisture content (MC) (%)

2.

Air dry MC (%)

16.24

3.

Density (g/cm3 )

0.55

124.88

4.

Wood green shrinkage (%)

15.24

5.

Wood air dry shrinkage (%)

7.37

Chemical properties 1.

Extractives solubility in cold water (%)

8.30

2.

Extractives solubility in hot water (%)

9.34

3.

Extractives solubility in alcohol 96% (%)

11.20

4.

Extractives solubility in NaOH 1% (%)

14.27

a

The value was the mean from bottom, middle, and upper part of the log

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Recently, a study involving sawdust of E. grandis as raw material of particleboard has been finished and become the main study in this chapter (Simorangkir 2020).

4.3 E. grandis W. Hill ex Maiden Wood as Raw Material of the Particleboard In this study, the species used is E. grandis derived from the site of PT. TPL at the sector of Aek Nauli as depicted in Fig. 4.2. The E. grandis has had the classification as follows: – – – – – – –

Divisio: Spermathopyta Sub Divisio: Angiospermae Class: Dicotyledon Ordo: Myrtales Family: Myrtaceae Genus: Eucalyptus Species: Eucalyptus grandis W. Hill ex Maiden

Figure 4.3 shows the condition of the standing stock of E. grandis on the site of PT. TPL at sector of Aek Nauli whose coordinate was at 2°46, N and 98°51, E with ±1250 m in altitude. Further, the distance between the E. grandis trees was 3.0 m × 1.5 m. When the trees were planted, fertilizer (N, TSP, and rock phosphate) was applied; no thinning or pruning was carried out (Prasetyo et al. 2017).

4.4 Materials and Methods As aforementioned discussion, the materials used in this study were logs with diameter of 10 cm derived from standing stocks of six-years-old E. grandis on the site of PT. TPL at Aek Nauli sector. The specific gravity of the E. grandis wood was 0.54. Isocyanate type H3M was used as the adhesive, with performance of brown color, solid content of 99%, and viscosity of 180 cps, as previous study was carried out (Nuryawan and Alamsyah 2018). Main tools used in this work comprised of a hammermilling machine for producing wood particles, a unit for mixing wood particle and adhesive comprised of a compressor connected with a spray gun, and a hot press unit equipped by a pair of steel plate. Additional tools comprised of a sieve with size of 60 mesh, a convection oven, an electrical balance, and a moisture meter. For testing purpose, a set of UTM (Universal Testing Machine) and an FT-IR (Fourier Transform Infrared) were employed. The research procedure for making particleboard was comprised of raw material preparation, drying, blending, mat forming, hot pressing, conditioning, specimen

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Fig. 4.2 Site of PT.TPL where the standing stock of E. grandis existed and became of this study (courtesy of the late Irawati Azhar)

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57

Fig. 4.3 Standing tree of E. grandis on the site of PT. TPL at Aek Nauli sector

cutting and testing. The preparations included harvesting the E. grandis having a diameter around 10 cm, debarking, and hammermilling. In order to obtain the uniform wood particles, a sieve with 60 mesh size was employed. The resulting wood particles are then put in the convection oven for a period of 24–48 h and regularly checked using a moisture meter (Fig. 4.4) to get moisture content of the wood particles 15, 12, 10, 7, and 5%. The respective wood particle of E. grandis was then mixed with isocyanate with an amount of 7% based on oven-dry wood particles using a spray gun equipped by a compressor inside of a blender. The furnish then experienced a mat forming with a size of 25 cm × 25 cm × 1 cm and a density target of 0.75 g/cm3 . The required raw material is as presented in Table 4.2. The procedure of making particleboard was described as follows: 1. Blending; the wood particle of E. grandis was mixed with isocyanate adhesive in a rotary blender with an aid of a spray gun. 2. Mat forming; the furnish, a mixture of E. grandis wood particle and isocyanate adhesive, was placed on the frame, a set of bar steel for controlling the thickness of the particleboard. The furnish then entered the “day-light” of the hot-press in order to set the size of 25 cm × 25 cm × 1 cm and targeted density of 0,75 g/ cm3 .

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Fig. 4.4 A moisture meter for checking the targeted moisture content of the wood particle

Table 4.2 Raw material amount for particleboard made of E. grandis bonded by isocyanate in various moisture content of the wood particles MC of the E. grandis wood particle (%) Amount of E. grandis wood particlea (g) Isocyanate required (g) 5

483

7

492

10

505

12

515

15

529

32.189

a

The amount of wood particle was added 5% as the spilation; with amount of adhesive was 7% based on oven dry wood particle

3. Hot pressing: the furnish was exposed to the hot-press with a pressure of 50 kgf/ cm2 at a temperature of 160˚C for 10 min in order to set the furnish. 4. Conditioning; the resulted particleboard then experienced a conditioning for 7 days in order to remove the residual stress derived from exposure of hotpressing. The conditioning was able to synchronize the moisture content within the particleboard and moisture content of the environment. 5. Specimen cutting; the particleboard was then cut into specimens for testing according to Japanese Industrial Standard (JIS) A 5908–2003 based particleboard and decorative particleboard type. 6. Physical and mechanical properties of the particleboard were calculated and the resulted values were compared with the JIS as well as Standard National of Indonesia (SNI) 03-2105-2006.

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7. The physical properties were comprised of density, moisture content, water absorption, and thickness swelling while mechanical properties were composed of modulus of elasticity (MOE), modulus of rupture (MOR) dan internal bond (IB). 8. Statistical analysis of analysis of variance was carried out in order to differentiate the effect of factor of initial moisture content of the wood particle of E. grandis consisting of MC of 5, 7, 10, 12, and 15% to the quality of resulted particleboard bonded by isocyanate using a randomized complete pattern design with a significance level of 5%. If substantial variations exist among the factors and their interaction, Duncan’s multiple range test (DMRT) will be employed.

4.5 Results and Discussions 4.5.1 Physical Properties Physical properties of the particleboard made of E. grandis wood bonded by isocyanate adhesive consisted of density, moisture content, thickness swelling, and water absorption as depicted in Figs. 4.5, 4.6, 4.7, and 4.8. The value of the density ranged from 0.63 to 0.71 g/cm3 and these values fulfilled both standards (SNI 03-2105-2006 and JIS A 5908-2003) included as medium density particleboard which required a value of 0.40–0.80 g/cm3 as classified by Maloney (1993). However, the target of the density was not achieved at 0.75 g/cm3 presumably because of spring-back action (Tsoumis 1991). Particleboard is subjected to pressure JIS A 5908-2003

1

0.69a

Density (g/cm3)

0.8

0.63a

0.71a 0.66a SNI 03-21052006

0.63a

0.6

0.4

0.2

0 5%

7%

10%

12%

15%

Moisture Content of the E.grandis wood particle

Fig. 4.5 Density of the particleboard at various moisture content of the E. grandis wood particle

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A. Nuryawan et al. 14

SNI 03-2105-2006

12

Moisture content (%)

JIS A 5908-2003 10 8 6

4.92a

6.32a

6.27a

12%

15%

5.18a

3.97a

4 2 0 5%

7%

10%

Moisture Content of the E.grandis wood particle

Fig. 4.6 Moisture content of the particleboard at various moisture content of the E. grandis wood particle 14 11.53d

Thickness swelling (%)

12

SNI 03-2105-2006 and JIS A 5908-2003

10 7.95e

6.87f

8

6.73f

6.35f

5.73a 6 4

2.8b

2.29bc

2.04c

2.34bc

2 0 5%

7%

10%

12%

15%

Moisture Content of the E.grandis wood particle

Fig. 4.7 Thickness swelling of the particleboard at various moisture content of the E. grandis wood particle (blue: 2 h and red: 24 h)

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40 33.14b

35

Water absorption (%)

28.74bc 30 23.36cd 25

20.83d

20.71d

20 15.11a 15 10.52a 10

9.48a

9.17a

9.13a

5 0 5%

7% 10% 12% Moisture Content of the E.grandis wood particle

15%

Fig. 4.8 Water absorption of the particleboard at various moisture content of the E. grandis wood particle (blue: 2 h and red: 24 h)

after pressing, and spring-back refers to the actions taken to reduce that pressure and increase the thickness of the particleboard by adjusting the moisture content of the board during conditioning. The raw material employed in this study has a medium density of 0.54 g/cm3 , hence the particleboard produced has a greater density value than the raw material. This circumstance makes it easier for the particles to compact during the compression process and improves particle contact, resulting in stronger particle bonds and stronger particleboards. The board and raw material are compressed at a 1.22 compaction ratio. Typically, a felt ratio between 1.2 and 1.6 is needed to create adequate contact between the particles (Bowyer et al. 2003) and specifically 1.3 is the optimum value for making particleboard (Maloney 1993). The analysis of variance findings demonstrated that changes in the MC of the particles had no appreciable impact on the density at the 95% confidence level. The findings of additional DMRT tests also indicated that there was no appreciable difference in density between the particles’ five water contents. Particleboard’s average moisture content of 10, 12, and 15% satisfies SNI 032105-2006 and JIS A 5908-2003 requirements. Statistically, there is no change even though the water content tends to rise. Because sawdust, the primary component of particleboard, has hygroscopic qualities and can retain water during conditioning, the moisture content of the board has increased as a result (Nuryawan et al. 2009). Additionally, because isocyanate is an adhesive with a reactive group and may form bonds with hydrogen atoms in water, it is believed that the use of isocyanate adhesives in this study will have an impact on the particleboard’s water content. According to Langenberg et al. (2010), isocyanate adhesives are among the best types of adhesives because they feature chemical groups that are very reactive and may make chemical connections with chemical groups containing active hydrogen atoms.

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As the board’s thickness increases, the board’s dimensions alter due to the expansion in thickness. The thickness development decides whether a board may be utilized inside or outside. Due to its limited dimensional stability and poor mechanical qualities, particleboard with a high expansion thickness cannot be utilized for external applications (Massijaya et al. 2000). The density of the original wood as well as the density of the particleboard itself are additional factors that determine the high or low value of particleboard thickness development. Particleboard’s low density will make it simpler for water to seep into the board’s crevices, which will exacerbate the swelling that takes place. The analysis of variance revealed that the swelling of particleboard thickness after 2 and 24 h of immersion was significantly influenced by differences in particle moisture content. The findings of the DMRT test after 24 h of immersion showed no appreciable differences between particle MC of 10, 12, and 15%, but they did show a discernible difference between particle MC of 5 and 7% for particleboard. After two hours of immersion, the average percentage of water absorbed by particleboard varied from 9.13 to 15.11%. After 24 h of immersion, the average percentage of water absorbed by particleboard varied from 20.71 to 33.14%. A statistical analysis of 2 h of particleboard soaking revealed no differences among the boards. However, each board had a difference after being submerged for 24 h. The value of particleboard water absorption is not required by the SNI 03-2105-2006 and JIS A 5908-2003 standards, but it is an important physical attribute of particleboard since it influences the output quality. This test is necessary to ascertain the particleboard’s water resistance and how quickly water penetrates the material, particularly if the board will be used outside where it will come into touch with moisture and rain since these particleboards were bonded by isocyanate adhesive. Additionally, if particleboard is to be utilized as a building or construction material, this water absorption must likewise be kept to a minimum. The analysis of variance data revealed that differences in the water content of the particles had a significant impact on the water absorption of particleboard after 24 h of immersion but not after 2 h. The findings of the DMRT study after two hours of immersion revealed that there was no appreciable difference in the water absorption between changes in the water content of the particles. The findings of the DMRT test after a 24-h immersion did not differ substantially for particleboard with particle moisture contents of 10, 12, and 15%, but they did differ considerably for particleboard with particle moisture contents of 5 and 7%.

4.5.2 Mechanical Properties As shown in Figs. 4.9, 4.10, and 4.11, the mechanical characteristics of the particleboard manufactured from E. grandis wood and bonded with isocyanate glue included modulus of elasticity (MoE), modulus of rupture (MoR), and internal bond (IB). The resultant particleboard’s modulus of elasticity (MOE) ranges from 7448.72 to 15,985.82 kgf/cm2 on average. Particleboard’s MOE value at 12% particle water

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24000 22000

JIS A 5908-2003

20000

MoE (kgf/cm2)

18000

15985.82a

SNI 03-2105-2006

16000

13204.53ab

14000 11413.11bc 12000 10000

9389.39bc 7448.72c

8000 6000 4000 2000 0 5%

7%

10%

12%

15%

Moisture Content of the E.grandis wood particle

Fig. 4.9 Modulus of elasticity (MoE) of the particleboard at various moisture content of the E. grandis wood particle 140 120

118.69cd

100

MoR (kgf/cm2)

109.71d

SNI 03-2105-2006 dan JIS A 5908-2003 78.71bc 68.69ab

80 60

38.01a

40 20 0 5%

7%

10%

12%

15%

Moisture Content of the E.grandis wood particle

Fig. 4.10 Modulus of rupture (MoR) of the particleboard at various moisture content of the E. grandis wood particle

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A. Nuryawan et al. 14

11.41a 10.59ab

12 8.09ab

4.79ab 6

4.17b

4 2

JIS A 5908-2003

8 SNI 03-2105-2006

IB (kgf/cm2)

10

0 5%

7%

10% Kadar Air Partikel Papan

12%

15%

Fig. 4.11 Internal bonding (IB) of the particleboard at various moisture content of the E. grandis wood particle

content satisfies SNI 03-2105-1996 norms but falls short of JIS A 5908-2003 requirements. The chosen particle size has an impact on the final MOE value. Smaller particles have lower mechanical characteristics, and one of the key variables affecting the modulus of elastic properties is the slenderness ratio of the particles (Arabi et al. 2023). The particle size utilized in this study, 60 mesh, is still considered to be tiny despite being included in the particle size category. The maximum bond limit between the particle moisture content and the adhesive is believed to be the cause of the decline in the MOE value of particleboard with a particle moisture content from 12 to 15%. A drop in particleboard with a water content of 15% occurs when the maximum bond limit between the water content of the particles and the adhesive is reached. The variance analysis findings showed that changes in particle moisture content significantly impacted MOE. According to the findings of the DMRT study, there was no discernible difference between particleboards with particle moisture contents of 5, 7, and 10%, but there was a discernible difference between boards with particle moisture contents of 12 and 15%. The resultant particleboard’s average modulus of rupture (MOR) value ranges from 38.01 to 118.69 kgf/cm2 . The MOR of particleboard meets with SNI 03-21052006 and JIS A 5908-2003 requirements at 12 and 15% particle moisture content. For particle moisture contents of 5, 7, and 10%, it fails to meet the requirements of JIS A 5908-2003 and SNI 03-2105-2006. The variance analysis results showed that changes in particle moisture content significantly impacted MOR. Particleboards with a particle moisture level of 5 and 7% did not substantially differ from one another, according to the findings of the DMRT study, whereas boards with particle moisture contents of 10, 12, and 15% did. The produced particleboard has an average internal bond (IB) value that ranges from 4.17 to 11.41 kgf/cm2 . All boards’ IB values adhere to JIS A 5908-2003 and SNI

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03-2105-2006 specifications. IB displays the degree to which particles are bonded together inside each sheet of particleboard. Internal adhesive strength testing was done to determine whether the glue mixing, shaping, and pressing processes were successful (Bowyer et al. 2003). Even though the IB value varied, statistically there was no difference between particleboard with particle moisture contents of 10, 12, and 15%. Variations in the particles’ water content had a substantial impact on IB, according to the variance results. According to the findings of the DMRT study, there was a substantial difference between particleboard with a moisture content of 5 and 7%, indicating that the essential range for water content for isocyanate bonding was in the range of 5–7% particle moisture content.

4.5.3 Fourier Transform Infra Red (FT-IR) In this investigation, each particleboard replica with a moisture level of 5, 7, 10, 12, and 15% was scraped to create a powder made from a combination of isocyanate and sawdust with a certain moisture content. Additionally, the 12% particle water content particle powder without a blend of adhesive and isocyanate glue was also put to the test. After scraping, adding particle powder, and mixing in glue, the powder was evaluated using a Fourier Transform Infrared (FT-IR) spectrophotometer, which produced the spectra in Fig. 4.12.

Fig. 4.12 Spectra of infra-red of isocyanate adhesive (blue) and E, grandis wood particle at MC of 12% (red)

66 Table 4.3 Absorption value of isocyanate adhesive in FT-IR spectra

A. Nuryawan et al.

Absorption value

Group

2279 cm−1

N=C=O stretching

Isocyanate

2079 cm−1

N=C=S stretching

Isothiocyanate

1897 cm−1

C–H stretching

Aromatic compound

1716 cm−1

C=O stretching

Aliphatic keton

1230 cm−1

C–N stretching

Amine

cm−1

C–N stretching

Amine

1022 cm−1

C–N stretching

Amine

Absorption value

Group

Remarks

1111

Table 4.4 Absorption value of E. grandis wood particle at MC of 12% in FT-IR spectra

Remarks

cm−1

C–H stretching

Alkane

2341 cm−1

O=C=O stretching

Carbon dioxide

2310 cm−1

O=C=O stretching

Carbon dioxide

cm−1

C=O stretching

Aldehyde

1604 cm−1

C=C stretching

Conjugated alkene

1323 cm−1

C–N stretching

Aromatic amine

cm−1

C–N stretching

Amine

1111 cm−1

C–N stretching

Amine

1045 cm−1

C–N stretching

Amine

2924

1732

1238

The detailed spectra were presented in Table 4.3 for isocyanate adhesive and in Table 4.4 for E. grandis wood particle. There are aliphatic, aromatic, and other groups from the isocyanate structure that help construct the isocyanate structure itself. For instance, the N–C–O group at wave number 2279 cm−1 makes up the isocyanate structure itself (Table 4.3). At wave number 2079 cm−1 , it continues to exhibit a unique isocyanate absorption, namely that of isothiocyanates, which is the consequence of a string of R groups present in isocyanates. A succession of R groups present in isocyanates also contributes to the creation of an aromatic compound group at wave number 1897 cm−1 and an aliphatic ketone group at wave number 1716 cm−1 . The current group has cellulose, hemicellulose, and lignin in its structure, making it a typical group. The C-H group is the typical group in cellulose. Wave number 2924 cm−1 is where the C–H group is located (Table 4.4). The CH2 OH polymer, which will subsequently bond to the OH group and react to produce cellulose, contains the C-H group in the structure of cellulose. The usual group found in hemicellulose is O=C=O. Wave numbers 2341 cm−1 and 2310 cm−1 are where the O=C=O group is located (Table 4.4). Later on, this group will attach to OH and other groups, react, and produce hemicellulose. The polymers –OOC and CH3 COOCH2 contain

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the O=C=O group. Some polymers need this O=C=O group to generate hemicellulose. Hemicellulose will develop in the CH2 OH and CH3 C polymers with the aid of the C-H group from cellulose. The C=C and C=O groups are two common groups in lignin. In wave number 1604 cm−1 , the C=C group is present, while wave number 1732 cm−1 is the case for the C=O group (Table 4.4). The beginning of bonding with other polymers is the presence of C–H groups in C–H polymers. CHO polymers, H2 COH, and other compounds include the C=O group in the meanwhile. A crucial part of the formation of lignin is the C–H and C=O groups. Aside from amines and carbon dioxide, isocyanates and water will react to form these substances. A graph of powder particles without adhesives in Fig. 4.13 showed amine groups in the places where these amines were created without interacting with isocyanates. On the isocyanate graph, meantime, it is discovered that amine and isocyanate groups are also created independently of water. In addition, it was discovered that powder particles devoid of glue contained the lignin polymer C=C (Table 4.4). Figure 4.13 shows a graph of particleboard that has been combined with isocyanate adhesive and has different water contents. Each particleboard graph shows the presence of isocyanate and amine groups as tabulated in Table 4.5. It is believed that the powder particles themselves, which also possessed amine groups before being combined, are where the amine groups that were produced while combining powder particles with isocyanate adhesives at different water levels originated. Additionally, isocyanates, which also include an amine group before being combined with the powder particles, are likely to be the source of the amine groups (Fig. 4.12,

Fig. 4.13 Spectra of FT-IR of the particleboard with raw material of E. grandis wood particle at various MC, namely 5, 7, 10, 12, and 15%

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Tables 4.3 and 4.4). The result of isocyanates reacting with water to form amines also adds amine groups, as seen in the following reaction: H O (R – N – C – OH) R – NCO + H2O Isocyanate Water Carbamic Acid R = aliphatic or aromatic groups, etc.

RNH 2 + CO2 Amine Carbon dioxide

(1)

Overall, particleboard with a particle moisture content of 12% provides a board with good physical and mechanical capabilities and complies with both SNI-03105-2006 and JIS A 5908-2003, according to research on the material’s physical and Table 4.5 Absorption value of particleboard made of E. grandis wood particle at various MC bonded by isocyanate adhesive in FT-IR spectra MC of the wood (%)

Absorption value

Group

Remarks

5

2272 cm−1

N=C=O stretching

Isocyanate

cm−1

C–N stretching

Aromatic amine

1234 cm−1

C–N stretching

Amine

1037 cm−1

C–N stretching

Amine

1319

7

2276

N=C=O stretching

Isocyanate

1315 cm−1

C–N stretching

Aromatic amine

1230 cm−1

C–N stretching

Amine

cm−1

C–N stretching

Amine

1060 cm−1

C–N stretching

Amine

1033 cm−1

C–N stretching

Amine

1111

10

2272

N=C=O stretching

Isocyanate

C–N stretching

Aromatic amine

1234 cm−1

C–N stretching

Amine

cm−1

C–N stretching

Amine

1041 cm−1

C–N stretching

Amine

2272 cm−1

N=C=O stretching

Isocyanate

cm−1

C–N stretching

Aromatic amine

1234 cm−1

C–N stretching

Amine

1111 cm−1

C–N stretching

Amine

cm−1

1319

1041 15

cm−1

1323 cm−1 1111 12

cm−1

C–N stretching

Amine

2272 cm−1

N=C=O stretching

Isocyanate

1319 cm−1

C–N stretching

Aromatic amine

cm−1

C–N stretching

Amine

1111 cm−1

C–N stretching

Amine

1045 cm−1

C–N stretching

Amine

1234

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mechanical properties. However, particleboard with a particle moisture content of 7% gives better strength in terms of internal bond (IB) mechanical qualities (Fig. 4.11). This is implied by the FT-IR test findings, which show that the particleboard with the highest isocyanate value among the other boards has a particle moisture content of 7%. It follows that this might have an impact on the Internal Bond (IB) value of the board. While this is going on, Fig. 4.8 shows that particleboard with a particle moisture content of 15% either has a lower or superior water absorption value. This may be inferred from the FT-IR test findings, which show that particleboard with a particle moisture content of 15% generates an amine value that is higher than those of the other boards while having a lower aromatic value. Bonds can prevent water absorption as a result of a more extensive reaction.

4.6 Conclusions Moisture content (MC) of the wood particle, in this regard E. grandis sawdust, is important for producing particleboard particularly when bonded by isocyanate, a reactive polymer adhesive. MC within the wood, either free or bound water, can react with wood substances (cellulose, hemicellulose, or lignin) as well as the glue to build a structure of the particleboard. Acknowledgements This work was the extension of the postdoctoral research scheme in the year 2017–2018 to AN and EMA as the proposing and the directing researcher, respectively. This study was financially supported by the Ministry of Technology and Higher Education Republic of Indonesia and part of ICVS’ thesis under the supervision of AN and H.

References Afandi M (2007) Analysis of chemical content of extractives of wood bark of Eucalyptus grandis W. Hill ex Maiden based on bark position on the stem and difference of tree ages [Undergraduate Thesis, in Bahasa Indonesia] Department of Forestry, Faculty of Agriculture, Universitas Sumatera Utara, Medan, Indonesia Alfian Z, Marpaung H, Taufik M, Lenny S, Andriayani, Samosir SJ (2019) GC-MS Analysis of chemical contents and physical properties of essential oil of Eucalyptus grandis from PT. Toba Pulp Lestari. Asian J Chem 31(10):2319–2322 Alzate BA (2009) Estrutura anatômica da madeira de clones de eucalyptus. Revista Investigaciones Aplicadas (5):1–14. http://convena.upb.edu.co/revistaaplicada Arabi M, Haftkhani AR, Pourbaba R (2023) Investigating the effect of particle slenderness ratio on optimizing the mechanical properties of particleboard using the response surface method. BioResources 18(2):2800–2814 Butar-Butar T, dan Sembiring S (1991) Riap rata-rata dan riap berjalan diameter selama 5 tahun terakhir hutan tanaman Shorea platyclados di Purba Tongah, Sumatera Utara. Buletin Penelitian Kehutanan Vol 7 No. 1 April 1991. BPK Pematang Siantar Bowyer JL, Shmulsky R, Haygreen JG (2003) Forest product and wood science: an introduction, 4thedn. Iowa State Press. Iowa

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Conner AH (2001) Wood: adhesive. In: Encyclopedia of materials: science and technology. Elsevier Science Ltd., New York, pp 9583–9599 Darmawan W, Nandika D, Afaf BDH, Rahayu I, Lumongga D (2018) Radial variation in selected wood properties of Indonesian Merkusii Pine. J Korean Wood Sci Technol 46(4):323–337 Glasser WG, Saraf VP, Newman WH (1982) Hydroxy propylated lignin-isocyanate combinations as bonding agents for wood and cellulosic fiber. J Adhes 14:233–325 Grøstad K, Pedersen A (2010) Emulsion polymer isocyanates as wood adhesive: a review. J Adhes Sci Technol 24:1357–1381 Harianja DR, Sihombing BH, Sinaga P (2019) Potency of wood at the variety of Ekaliptus clones in PT TOBA PULP LESTARI Tbk, Tele Sector, Samosir Regency. (In Bahasa Indonesia). Jurnal Akar 1(1):24–37 He G, Yan N (2005) Effect of moisture content on curing kinetics of pMDI resin and wood mixtures. Int J Adhes Adhes 25:450–454 Hutagalung FJ (2010) Study on some fundamental properties of Ekaliptus (Eucalyptus grandis) of the ages of 5 years old. [Undergraduate Thesis, in Bahasa Indonesia] Department of Forestry, Faculty of Agriculture, Universitas Sumatera Utara, Medan, Indonesia Indartik, Parlinah N, Lugina M (2011) Development efforts of plantation forest for carbon emission reduction. JURNAL Penelit Sos dan Ekon Kehutan Hal. 8(2):139–147 Japanese Standards Association [JAS] (2003) Japanese Industrial Standard JIS A 5908:2003. Akasaka, Minato-ku, Tokyo, Japan, pp 107–8440 Kwatrina RT, Sugiarti, Sukmana (2005) The biomass and carbon content prediction of Eucalyptus grandis at PT. Toba Pulp Lestari, Tbk, Aek Nauli, North Sumatra. J Penelit Has Hutan 2(5):507– 517 Langenberg, KV, Warden P, Adam C, Milner HR (2010) The durability of isocyanate-based adhesives under service in Australian conditions. The results from a 3 year exposure study and accelerated testing regime (literature review). Forest & Wood Products Australia Limited, Australia Latifah S (2004) Pertumbuhan dan Hasil Tegakan Eucalyptus grandis di Hutan Tanaman Industri. http://repository.usu.ac.id/handle/123456789/946 Lepene BS, Long TE, Meyer A, Kranbuehl DE (2002) Moisture-curing kinetics of isocyanate prepolymer adhesives. J Adhes 78:297–312 Maloney TM (1993) Modern particleboard and dry process fibreboard manufacturing. Miller Freeman Publications, San Fransisco Massijaya MY, Hadi YS, Tambunan B, Bakar ES, Subari WA (2000) The use of plastic waste as a component of particleboard raw materials. Jurnal Teknologi Hasil Hutan 8:18–24 Myers BJ, Theiveyanathan S, O’brien ND, Bond WJ (1996) Growth and water use of Eucalyptus grandis and Pinus radiata plantations irrigated with effluent. Tree Physiol 16:211–219 Nuryawan A, Alamsyah EM (2018) Chapter 5. A review of isocyanate wood adhesive: a case study in Indonesia. In Applied adhesive bonding in science and technology. Intechopen Croatia, https://doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.73115 Nuryawan A, Alamsyah EM (2019a) Thermal properties of isocyanate as particleboard’s adhesive. In: IOP Conf Ser: Mater Sci Eng 593:012004. https://doi.org/10.1088/1757-899X/593/1/012004 Nuryawan A, Alamsyah EM (2019b) Thermal stability of isocyanate as particleboard’s adhesive investigated by TGA (thermogravimetric analysis). IOP Conf Ser: Earth Environ Sci 374:012004. https://doi.org/10.1088/1755-1315/374/1/012004 Nuryawan A, Risnasari I, Sinaga PS (2009) Physical and mechanical properties of the particleboard made of logging residue. Jurnal Ilmu Dan Teknologi Hasil Hutan 2:57–63 Pagel HF, Luckmann ER (1984) Appl Polym Symp 40:191–202 Prasetyo A, Aiso H, Ishiguri F, Wahyudi I, Wijaya IPG, Ohshima J, Yokota S (2017) Variations on growth characteristics and wood properties of three Eucalyptus species planted for pulpwood in Indonesia. Tropics 26(2):59–69 Qiao L, Easteal AJ, Bolt CJ, Coveny PK, Franich RA (2000) Pigment Resin Technol 29(4):229–237

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Roger R (2011) Wood machining properties of Eucalyptus grandis. [Undergraduate Thesis, in Bahasa Indonesia] Department of Forestry, Faculty of Agriculture, Universitas Sumatera Utara, Medan, Indonesia Rowel RM, Ellis WD (1981) Bonding of isocyanates to wood. In: Edward KS, Gum WF (eds) ACS symposium series. Urethane chemistry and applications. American Chemical Society, Washington Simorangkir ICV (2020) Particleboard made of Eucalyptus grandis wood bonded by isocyanate at various moisture content of particle. [Undergraduate Thesis, in Bahasa Indonesia] Department of Forest Products Technology, Faculty of Forestry, Universitas Sumatera Utara, Medan, Indonesia Toba Pulp Lestari (2022) Annual Report 2022. PT. Toba Pulp Lestari, Tbk. www.tobapulp.com Tsoumis G (1991) Science and technology of wood (structure, properties, utilization). Van Nostrand, New York Umemura K, Takahashi A, Kawai S (1998) Durability of isocyanate resin adhesives for wood I: thermal properties of isocyanate resin cured with water. J Wood Sci 44:204–210 Universitas Sumatera Utara (2023) Fakultas Kehutanan. https://fhut.usu.ac.id/id/tentang-kami. Accessed 1 Aug 2023

Chapter 5

An Overview of Medium-Density Fiberboard and Oriented Strand Board Made from Eucalyptus Wood Muhammad Amirul Akmal Rosli, Nasroien Bambang Purwanto, Lum Wei Chen, Norshariza Mohamad Bhkari, Boon Jia Geng, Mohd Ezwan Bin Selamat, and Liew Jeng Young

M. A. A. Rosli · N. B. Purwanto (B) · N. M. Bhkari School of Civil Engineering, College of Engineering, Universiti Teknologi MARA, 40450 Shah Alam, Selangor, Malaysia e-mail: [email protected] M. A. A. Rosli e-mail: [email protected] N. M. Bhkari e-mail: [email protected] N. B. Purwanto · N. M. Bhkari Institute for Infrastructure Engineering and Sustainable Management, Universiti Teknologi MARA Malaysia, 40450 Shah Alam, Selangor, Malaysia L. W. Chen · B. J. Geng · M. E. B. Selamat Faculty of Bioengineering and Technology, Universiti Malaysia Kelantan, Jeli Campus, 17600 Jeli, Kelantan, Malaysia e-mail: [email protected] B. J. Geng e-mail: [email protected] M. E. B. Selamat e-mail: [email protected] L. J. Young Faculty of Agro Based Industry, Universiti Malaysia Kelantan, Jeli Campus, 17600 Jeli, Kelantan, Malaysia e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2024 S. H. Lee et al. (eds.), Eucalyptus, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-7919-6_5

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5.1 Introduction Wood-based materials provide a compelling alternative, broadening the scope of available materials applicable in diverse sectors such as furniture industry and civil construction. This expansion offers intriguing possibilities for incorporating woodbased products into these industries, potentially leading to innovative solutions that harness the unique qualities of wood in novel ways. In civil construction, for instance, the integration of wood-based materials can introduce eco-friendly options that balance structural integrity with sustainable practices. In recent years, production of wood products has increased dramatically, especially composite products. MediumDensity Fiberboard (MDF) and Oriented Strand Board (OSB) are two significant wood-based products that have been established as versatile materials with diverse applications across multiple industries. Medium-density fiberboards (MDF), also known as dry process fiberboards, are engineered panels crafted from wood fibers that are securely bonded using a synthetic resin adhesive. The production process typically commences with the reduction of wood into small chips, followed by a thermal softening stage where these chips are transformed into fibers through mechanical refinement. These fibers are subsequently blended with a synthetic resin binder. After the fibers are infused with resin, it will undergo a drying process before being fabricated into a compressed form ready for pressing. This compressed form is then subjected to a hot press, which imparts the desired thickness to the material (Violeta et al. 2016). There are many types of synthetic resins used to produce MDF and it is evident from most studies that urea–formaldehyde (UF) resins were the most commonly used adhesive. However, high temperatures can break down cured UF resins, so it’s customary to cool UF-bonded panels after they come out of the press (Dazmiri et al. 2019). One notable advantage of UF resins is that they require lower curing temperatures compared to phenol–formaldehyde (PF) resins. Additionally, it can adapt to various curing conditions easily. In terms of cost, UF resins are the more economical choice among the thermosetting adhesive resins. A noteworthy benefit is its light color, which is often a crucial factor in producing decorative items. However, a growing concern stems from the release of formaldehyde from products bonded with UF resins, raising health-related issues (Stark et al. 2010). The density of MDF generally falls in the range of 600 kg/m3 to 800 kg/m3 (Lee et al. 2022). Generally, MDF is denser than plywood and particleboard. MDF has been known as one of the most rapidly growing products in the world wood-based panel industry. Typically, MDF was employed in industrial contexts, where it serves as a primary resource for crafting end products such as pre-assembled furniture and cabinets (Wilson 2008). MDF production can utilize softwood or hardwood species. Most of the MDF is composed primarily of softwood, but some individual brands might have a higher percentage of temperate hardwood, influenced by the location of the factory to the local forest resource (Wood Panel Industries Federation 2014).

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Oriented strand board (OSB) on the other hand, is a structural panel fabricated from aligned wood strands, adhesives, and additives subjected to heat and pressure, emerged as a significant advancement over waferboard and a viable substitute for plywood in the realm of home construction. The first dedicated OSB mill was established in 1982, although some existing mills had already begun producing OSB before then (Lowood 1997). Its popularity in construction grew, as it offered a compelling combination of strength, cost-effectiveness, and environmental sustainability. OSB’s manufacturing process involves arranging wood strands in a specific orientation, which enhances its mechanical properties and makes it more dimensionally stable compared to traditional wood products. As an engineered wood composite, OSB also addresses concerns about deforestation and resource depletion, aligning with the growing emphasis on sustainable building practices. In a world increasingly focused on renewable materials, OSB stands out as a testament to innovation and efficiency in the construction industry. Oriented Strand Board (OSB), which is a multi-layer structural board, holds paramount importance in modern construction attributed to its remarkable physical and mechanical properties. Engineered from wood strands arranged in specific orientations and bonded with adhesives under controlled conditions, OSB serves as a cost-effective alternative to traditional plywood, finding extensive application in residential, commercial, and industrial projects for purposes such as wall sheathing, roof decking, and subflooring. The influential factors shaping OSB’s properties, as mentioned by Winandy and Kamke (2003), encompass wood species, strand geometry, adhesive type, content and characteristics, hot-pressing duration, temperature, and press closing rate. These variables collectively determine OSB’s performance, making it a versatile, eco-friendly, and reliable choice meeting the diverse demands of contemporary construction practices. Nowadays, many countries have been producing wood products from forest plantations due to the high demand from industry to provide environmental, recreational, and other social needs. A study by Holokiz (1991), proved that Eucalyptus fibers used in the composition of MDF give greater modulus of rupture (MOR) and have slightly lower percentage of water absorption and swelling which can affect the thickness properties of the board. According to a study by Krzysik et al. (2001), Brazil appears to be the largest plantation grower of various species of Eucalyptus, with 2.7 million hectares. Many other countries such as South Africa, Congo, India, and Burundi are following the trend on growing Eucalyptus as the source of wood production. Due to the increasing demand for MDF as the composite products, Eucalyptus has been chosen as one of the suitable fast growing plantation species. In Australia, Eucalyptus fiber-based boards were widely favored on a global scale as the preferred substrate for prefinished hardboard products. Due to the comparatively shorter length of eucalyptus fibers, it exhibits a reduced tendency to form clusters or flocculate compared to longer fibers. This unique characteristic contributes to the creation of boards with enhanced surface properties.

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In accordance with Foelkel’s research (2006), Eucalyptus species have gained attention within the timber industries due to the viable and economically advantageous utilization of their bark as a potential fuel source. The majority of Eucalyptus wood harvested from short rotation forests is channeled into the energy sector. This strategic choice is rooted in the fact that such wood primarily originates from young trees, which often possess diameters inadequate for applications in highvalue economic sectors like lumber. Additionally, these young trees tend to possess a predominance of juvenile wood, resulting in elevated anisotropy coefficients and substantial growth stresses that subsequently disrupt the proper drying of the timber. Therefore, redirecting such wood toward energy production, where the specific qualities of young and juvenile wood are less of a concern and prove to be a practical and financially sound decision. Eucalyptus is a highly suitable raw material for oriented strand board (OSB) manufacturing due to its notable characteristics and properties. The wood of Eucalyptus trees, particularly Eucalyptus grandis and Eucalyptus saligna, exhibits a range of favorable traits for OSB production. These species are known for their fast growth rate, resulting in a readily available and sustainable supply of raw materials. The wood’s relatively high density, along with its fine and uniform texture, contributes to the production of durable and structurally sound OSB boards. Additionally, Eucalyptus wood possesses inherent qualities of dimensional stability, which is essential for maintaining the integrity of the final product. Moreover, the results of comprehensive physical and mechanical property tests have revealed the significant potential of Eucalyptus grandis and Eucalyptus saligna for OSB manufacturing. Comparative analysis demonstrated that boards manufactured using Eucalyptus grandis wood not only exhibited similar but often superior average values for physical and mechanical properties when compared to Pinus taeda, the primary species conventionally employed for OSB production in Brazil (Iwakiri et al. 2004). This data underscores the viability of incorporating Eucalyptus wood into the OSB manufacturing process, offering an attractive alternative to enhance the overall quality and sustainability of OSB products.

5.2 Manufacturing Process of MDF and OSB The manufacturing process of Medium-Density Fiberboard (MDF) involves a series of intricate steps that transform wood fibers into a versatile and widely used engineered wood product. MDF finds applications in furniture, interior design, and various industrial sectors due to its smooth surface, uniform density, and ease of customization. The key stages involved in the manufacturing of MDF are as follows: (i) Wood Fiber Preparation: The production of MDF starts with obtaining wood fibers from various sources. These wood fibers can be obtained from both hardwood and softwood species. Hardwood fibers, such as those from eucalyptus or oak, and softwood fibers, like pine or spruce, are commonly used.

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(ii)

(iii)

(iv)

(v)

(vi)

(vii)

(viii)

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The choice of fiber source can influence the final characteristics of the MDF, such as its density and strength. Refining the Wood Fibers: The wood fibers are then subjected to a refining process. In this step, the wood chips or particles are mechanically processed to break them down into smaller individual fibers. This refining process enhances the uniformity and consistency of the fibers, which is crucial for achieving a homogeneous end-product. Adhesive Binders: To create the MDF panel, the refined wood fibers are mixed with adhesive binders. Urea–formaldehyde and phenol–formaldehyde resins are commonly used as adhesive binders. These resins play a critical role in binding the wood fibers together during the manufacturing process. The choice of adhesive can affect the MDF’s performance characteristics, including its strength, moisture resistance, and emissions. Mixing and Blending: The wood fibers and adhesive binders are thoroughly mixed to ensure an even distribution of the adhesive throughout the fiber mixture. This step is crucial for achieving consistent bonding and overall panel quality. Forming the Panels: Once the fiber-adhesive mixture is well-blended, it is spread onto a forming belt or mat. The thickness and density of the panel are determined by the amount of fiber mixture applied. The panel can vary in thickness depending on the intended application. Pressing and Heating: The forming mat, laden with the fiber-adhesive mixture, is then fed into a hydraulic press. The press applies both heat and pressure to the mat. The heat activates the adhesive, causing it to cure and harden. The pressure compacts the fibers together and squeezes out excess moisture, resulting in a dense and solid panel. Cooling and Trimming: After the pressing phase, the newly formed MDF panels are cooled to set the adhesive further. Once cooled, the panels are trimmed to achieve the desired dimensions and remove any uneven edges. Finishing and Surface Treatment: The smooth surface of MDF is one of its key attributes. However, during the manufacturing process, the surface might still have slight imperfections. Therefore, some manufacturers perform additional sanding or surface treatment to achieve an exceptionally smooth finish that is ideal for painting, veneering, or other finishing techniques.

Besides, OSB panels are commonly manufactured in three or more layers, each composed of strands with consistent thicknesses. These layers are meticulously arranged in a perpendicular pattern for optimal structural integrity. The comprehensive manufacturing process of OSB panels encompasses a series of crucial steps: (i) Strand Selection, Grading, and Classification: Initially, strands are carefully chosen from suitable wood sources. These strands undergo rigorous grading and classification to ensure uniformity in size and quality, which is essential for achieving reliable panel properties.

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(ii) Strand Conditioning and Blending: Selected strands are subjected to conditioning processes, which might involve steaming or drying to attain the appropriate moisture content. After conditioning, the strands are meticulously blended to create a homogeneous mixture, guaranteeing consistent panel properties. (iii) Strand Orientation and Forming: The conditioned and blended strands are then strategically oriented to achieve specific panel performance attributes. This step involves aligning the strands to optimize strength and stiffness in various directions. (iv) Mat Lay-up: The oriented strands are carefully placed layer by layer to create a mat, with alternating orientations between adjacent layers. This arrangement further enhances the structural characteristics of the final OSB panel. (v) Adhesive Application and Continuous Pressing: A specially formulated adhesive is applied evenly to the mat. This adhesive not only binds the strands together but also contributes significantly to the panel’s overall strength and durability. Meanwhile, the adhesive-coated mat is subjected to high-pressure continuous pressing. This process consolidates the strands and adhesive, facilitating optimal bonding and cohesion throughout the panel. (vi) OSB On-line Quality Control, Trimming, and Cutting: During the manufacturing process, the OSB panels undergo continuous quality control checks to ensure conformity to specified standards. Following quality checks, the panels are trimmed to precise dimensions and cut into desired sizes. (vii) Product Labeling, Packaging, and Distribution: Once the panels meet the established quality standards, they are labeled, packaged, and prepared for distribution. Proper packaging safeguards the panels during transportation and storage, ensuring they reach their destination in optimal condition. The efficacy of the OSB manufacturing process is contingent upon maintaining consistent strand quality and meticulous control of various parameters that impact adhesive bonding strength and overall panel quality. This comprehensive approach to manufacturing guarantees that OSB panels exhibit the necessary properties for a wide array of construction and industrial applications.

5.3 Mechanical Properties of MDF and OSB Made from Eucalyptus Wood Bending properties such as modulus of rupture (MOR) and modulus of elasticity (MOE) are normally determined using a three-point or four-point bending test. In the literatures, some modified testing methods are also being used based on the specimens and specified criteria being studied and determined. The bending properties for MDF and OSB made from Eucalyptus wood are summarized in Table 5.1.

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Table 5.1 Mechanical properties of MDF and OSB made from Eucalyptus timber species correspond to the testing methods and other related parameters Type of board Parameters

Testing method

MOR (N/ mm2 )

MOE (N/mm2 ) Reference

MDF

Temperature/ panel composition – 0 °C/25:50:25 – 0 °C/30:40:30 – 175 °C/ 25:50:25 – 175 °C/ 30:40:30 – 200 °C/ 25:50:25 – 200 °C/ 30:40:30

Static bending

Parallel (40–50) Perpendicular (19–27)

Parallel (6100–7575) Perpendicular (2126–2669)

Sugahara et al. (2022)

MDF

Different contents of castor-oil-based polyurethane resin – 8% – 10% – 12%

Static bending

– 232 – 263 – 281

– 24,529 – 27,158 – 29,264

Campos and Lahr (2004)

OSB

Different composition of panels (bark/ strands/shavings) – P1 (25/65/10) % – P2 (50/40/10) % – P3 (75/15/10) % – P4 (90/0/10) %

Static bending, Dynamic NDT test

Transverse (2.5–9.7) Longitudinal (4.1–18.4)

Transverse (369–1228) Longitudinal (949–2780) Transverse (1023–1868) Longitudinal (797–3580)

Domingos and de Melo Moura (2019)

OSB

Different types of Eucalyptus species – E. benthamii – E. dunnii – E. grandis – E. saligna – E. urograndis

Static bending, Internal bond to panel surface

Parallel/ Perpendicular – 26.63/27.47 – 23.90/26.11 – 26.80/24.45 – 29.92/30.60 – 27.67/25.11

Parallel/ Perpendicular – 4902/2884 – 5185/2855 – 4921/2823 – 5588/3220 – 5520/2976

Da Rosa et al. (2017b, a)

OSB/ particleboard

Heat treatment time – Control – 10 min – 12 min

Static bending

Control (22.69) 10 min (19.50) 12 min (21.02)

Control (2710) 10 min (2554) 12 min (2558)

Pereira et al. (2021)

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5.4 Factors Affecting Bending Properties Generally, the bending properties of wood-based panel are influenced by various factors which encompass timber species, manufacturing processes, and environmental and treatment conditions. Several factors have a direct impact on the mechanical properties of Medium-Density Fiberboard (MDF), including the nature of the resin used and the characteristics of the fibers. The key factors that significantly influence the bending strength of MediumDensity Fiberboard (MDF) and Oriented Strand Board (OSB) can be summarized as follows: 1. Wood Species and Strands: The choice of wood species used to create the strands has a substantial impact on MDF and OSB’s bending strength (Nishimura 2015). Different wood species exhibit varying densities and mechanical properties, which directly affect the overall strength of the MDF and OSB panels. The arrangement and orientation of these wood strands within the panel are critical. Specific wood species are selected based on their inherent strength and compatibility with the manufacturing process to ensure optimal bending performance. 2. Adhesive Quality and Distribution: The adhesive used to bind the wood strands together is fundamental in determining the structural integrity and bending strength of the MDF and OSB panels. High-quality adhesives that penetrate the wood strands effectively and create strong bonds are essential (Frihart 2015). The adhesive distribution ensures uniform bonding throughout the panel, contributing to its overall strength and load-carrying capacity. 3. Strand Alignment and Orientation: During manufacturing, the orientation and alignment of the wood strands within the MDF and OSB panels are deliberately controlled (Cabangon et al. 2002). This strategic arrangement involves placing the strands in different layers with perpendicular orientations. This approach optimizes the panel’s bending and shear strength, allowing it to withstand loads in multiple directions effectively. 4. Panel Density: The density of the MDF and OSB panels is a key factor influencing its bending strength (Li and Ren 2022). Higher panel density typically results in enhanced bending resistance. This is because a denser panel contains more wood strands and adhesive bonds within the same volume, leading to increased load-carrying capacity. Careful adjustment of the strand density during the manufacturing process can thus impact the overall strength of the MDF and OSB panel. Table 5.1 shows that the mechanical properties of MDF and OSB made from Eucalyptus wood are affected specifically by the studies variable, i.e., treatment temperature and panel layer composition, grain direction against loading, different content of adhesive used, composition of different types of fiber (bark, shaving and shavings), and different types of Eucalyptus timber species. Sugahara et al. (2022) demonstrated that parallel-loaded specimens displayed higher bending strength and

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stiffness compared to those loaded in the perpendicular direction. The researchers also found that other studied parameters which were treatment temperature and panel composition has less effect on the bending strength of Eucalyptus MDF. However, it is worth noting that increasing the treatment temperature lowered the MOR, MOE, and internal bonding (IB). The research showed that, the advantage of increasing treatment temperature was the improvement of thickness swelling (TS) and water absorption (WA) of the panels with 44 and 33% decrease in TS and WA respectively. The study conducted by Pereira et al. (2021) showed that increasing the heat treatment time to 12 min from 10 min shows slight increment of mechanical properties. However, the control specimen showed the highest properties and decreased with increasing treatment temperature and time. The physical properties TS and WA showed the opposite trend, the value decreased with increasing temperature and time. This phenomenon was caused by the increase in crystallinity of cellulose in cell wall and the decrease of functional OH groups occurred during high temperature (Brito et al. 2008). Besides treatment temperature, adhesive content also directly affected the bending properties of Eucalyptus MDF. The study by Campos and Lahr (2004) showed that increasing the adhesive content from 8 to 12% increased the MOR and MOE of the panels by 21% and 19% respectively. The physical properties such as TS and WA were also decreased as the adhesive content increased as expected. This finding was in agreement with that of Pranda (1995) which reported that using the same resin content, MDF made from Eucalyptus has better TS and WA than the ones fabricated from pine fiber despite needing a higher resin content to achieve comparable bending strength. The research by Campos Lahr (2004) also laid the foundation for MDF made from new materials such as Eucalyptus fiber, as the results showed that the fiber can be bonded well with green adhesive system to produce high quality MDF similar to the more conventional pine fiber. Beside Eucalyptus wood fiber, the bark of Eucalyptus tree also can be utilized to improve the properties of OSB. Domingos et al. (2019) found that incorporating Eucalyptus bark and shaving in the manufacturing of OSB from Pinus strand improves both the physical and mechanical properties significantly. There was an approximately 3.3-fold increment in transversal MOE and 2.9-fold increment in longitudinal MOE. Whereas the increment for transversal and longitudinal MOR was 3.9-fold and 4.5-fold respectively. The increment of bending properties can be attributed to the higher compaction ratio of the MDF panel fabricated using high ratio of Eucalyptus bark. On the other hand, the improvement of dimensional stability proved that sufficient bonding existed in the MDF panel made with high ratio of Eucalyptus bark. It is well known that the bending strength of OSB is influenced by the timber species used for its manufacturing. Da Rosa et al. (2017a, b) embarked on a research journey to study the effects on different Eucalyptus species on the properties of OSD fabricated. The researchers found out that MDF produced from all the Eucalyptus species displayed similar MOR value compared to Pinus counterparts. Contrarily, the MOE value of Eucalyptus MDF was significantly higher. Among the studies Eucalyptus species E. saligna showed the highest bending properties. The panels

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produced demonstrated high MOR and MOE value of 29.92 and 5588 N/mm2 when loaded parallelly and 30.60 and 3220 N/mm2 when loaded perpendicularly. All the factors mentioned above collectively interact to define the bending strength of MDF and OSB panels. The careful selection of wood species, treatment condition, manufacturing techniques, and processing parameters will result in panels exhibiting the desired physical and mechanical properties.

5.5 Applications of MDF and OSB in the Construction Industry The biggest applications of MDF are in furniture production, where MDF occupies a central position as a versatile and widely utilized material. As stated by Barata et al. (2016), its unique properties make it an essential choice for crafting a diverse range of furniture pieces, contributing to both the aesthetic appeal and functional aspects of the final products. MDF is commonly employed in crafting cabinets and shelves. Its uniform density ensures that these pieces are structurally sound, and capable of withstanding the weight of items stored within. The ability to shape MDF allows for the creation of custom cabinets and shelves that fit specific spaces and design preferences. Besides, the material’s flexibility in terms of shaping and molding enables the crafting of intricate table legs, chair frames, and other components, ensuring the stability and longevity of these pieces, making them reliable and functional elements in homes, offices, and various establishments. Furthermore, in the automotive industry, MDF plays a crucial role in the production of interior components that contribute to the overall aesthetics, functionality, and comfort of vehicles. MDF’s specific qualities make it a valuable choice for crafting various elements within the vehicle’s cabin: MDF is used to create the structural framework of door panels. Its dimensional stability and consistent density provide a solid foundation for attaching other materials like fabric, leather, or synthetic coverings. MDF panels are often shaped to fit the contours of the door, ensuring a precise fit for design and assembly. MDF is employed to craft interior trim pieces like center console covers, storage compartments, and armrests. These pieces are essential for enhancing the comfort and functionality of the vehicle’s interior. MDF’s adaptability allows manufacturers to create intricate designs that align with the vehicle’s branding and desired ambiance (Kohl et al. 2016). Factors collectively interact to define the bending strength of MDF and OSB panels. The careful selection of wood species, adhesive quality, and manufacturing techniques ensures that the resulting panels exhibit the desired mechanical properties for various construction applications. The deliberate arrangement of strands and optimization of panel density contribute to MDF and OSB’s ability to provide reliable and predictable bending performance, making it a valuable choice in modern construction practices. OSB has emerged as a pivotal constituent in the construction industry, characterized by its multifaceted utility and cost-efficient attributes. Impressively, a substantial

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80% of OSB’s application is attributed to construction endeavors, thus attesting to its pivotal standing as an indispensable construction material. OSB’s significance manifests prominently in pivotal roles such as sheathing and roof decking, contributing substantively to structural integrity and thermal performance. Furthermore, its role as subflooring establishes a robust foundation for diverse flooring finishes, demonstrating dimensional stability and load-bearing prowess. The material’s versatility extends to structural panels, roof, and wall sheathing, as well as its role in accelerating prefabricated and modular construction practices, ultimately fostering expedited project timelines and bolstered structural stability. This prevalence underscores OSB’s propensity to offer durability, consistency, and adaptability in meeting a diverse spectrum of construction prerequisites. The comprehensive figure extrapolated from the European Panel Federation’s report augments the understanding of OSB’s diverse applicability beyond construction confines. Noteworthy is the material’s role in packaging (6%), flooring (5%), furniture (3%), DIY initiatives (2%), and various other miscellaneous applications (4%). The material’s involvement in packaging underscores its aptitude for safeguarding goods during transit, underpinned by its tenacity and resilience. Simultaneously, its application in flooring underlines its efficacy as subflooring material, affording a stable base for a plethora of distinct flooring finishes. The presence of OSB in furniture and DIY undertakings is a testament to its distinctive aesthetic appeal and user-friendly manipulability. As OSB continues to extend its footprint across a diverse array of industries, its entrenched position in construction, coupled with its presence in a gamut of ancillary end-uses, positions it as an adaptable and multifarious material that profoundly influences modern construction paradigms and an array of allied sectors. OSB finds versatile applications in the construction industry, serving as a fundamental building block for a range of structural and functional elements (Fan and Fu 2017). OSB is utilized as wall sheathing, bolstering structural integrity, and providing protection against external elements. It serves as a reliable foundation for roofs through roof decking, while its use as subflooring ensures a level base for diverse flooring materials. OSB’s role extends to structural panels, contributing to the framework of roofs, walls, and floors, and it supports the efficient construction of prefab and modular buildings. Additionally, OSB plays a crucial role in creating shear walls that resist lateral forces, contributing to overall stability. Its adaptability includes serving as backing for insulation, both interior and exterior finishes, and even packaging material. Furthermore, OSB finds its place in furniture and DIY projects due to its distinctive appearance. Collectively, these applications emphasize OSB’s significance in enhancing the strength, stability, and versatility of construction projects.

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5.6 Challenges, Limitations, and Future of MDF and OSB The main challenges and limitations associated with using Eucalyptus to produce MDF and OSB lie in the supply chain. Lee et al. (2022) described in detail regarding the factors that limit the output and quality of Eucalyptus timber from plantation such as unsustainable management practices, shortage of available land, and public concerns due to the depletion of soil nutrient and its excessive need of water during the short rotation period. Besides that, Eucalyptus wood has relatively high density and hardness, which can pose difficulties for cutting, machining, and screwing of MDF and OSB. The higher density and hardness also increase the weight and cost of the products, as well as reduce their dimensional stability and nail-holding capacity. Furthermore, Eucalyptus wood has high variability in its anatomical, physical, and mechanical properties, depending on the species, provenance, site, age, and silvicultural practices. This variability can affect the uniformity and performance of MDF and OSB, as well as require more quality control and optimization of the production parameters. As other wood-based products, Eucalyptus MDF and OSB is sensitive to moisture and could swell and warp when exposed to high moisture. In the study of Magalhães et al. (2021), MDF primarily composed of wood fibers readily absorbs moisture in the atmosphere. Also, when exposed to a humid environment or direct water contact, these fibers absorb water molecules from the surrounding atmosphere. As the fibers take in water, they expand and increase in size. This expansion can lead to the swelling of the entire MDF and OSB board, causing it to increase in both length and width. Simultaneously, the absorption of moisture can lead to an uneven distribution of water across the board’s surface. This uneven moisture distribution can result in differential expansion and contraction of different areas of the board, leading to warping which causes a decrement in mechanical strength and aesthetic value. Furthermore, MDF and OSB susceptibility to moisture-related issues restricts its application in scenarios where dimensional stability is essential. For instance, in applications where tight tolerances and precise measurements are crucial, such as cabinetry and furniture production, the risk of swelling and warping can lead to challenges in achieving accurate and consistent results. It is evident that the incorporation of Eucalyptus fiber in the manufacturing of MDF and OSB greatly improves their dimensional stability. However, in most cases the bending strength properties are lower. This technical issue needs to be addressed with further research. The addition of additives such as Nano SiO2 could improve the mechanical properties of Eucalyptus MDF and OSB as suggested by Domingos and de Melo Moura (2019). The particular limitation of OSB includes aesthetic considerations, as OSB’s appearance, characterized by layered wood strands, may not align with certain applications, particularly those emphasizing visual appeal. Additionally, OSB’s span, and load capacities might be restricted compared to alternative materials, necessitating careful design and application (Ramli Sulong et al. 2019). As the construction industry seeks eco-friendly alternatives, Eucalyptus panels inherent renewability and potential for recycling align with sustainability objectives

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(Rider et al. 2011). The future of MDF and OSB holds promising developments driven by continuous research and development (R&D) endeavors. These efforts are aimed at addressing existing limitations and elevating the overall performance of MDF and OSB, making them more versatile and adaptable to various applications and environments. Incorporating natural fibers, nanomaterials, or reinforcing elements could result in panels with unique mechanical, thermal, or acoustic properties. Manufacturing processes are also evolving. Advanced techniques like nanotechnology, microwave curing, and advanced pressing methods are being investigated to create panels with improved properties and shorter production cycles. These techniques can enable better control over material distribution and bonding, leading to enhanced performance. Ongoing research and development endeavors aim to address challenges while harnessing Eucalyptus panel’s cost-effectiveness. Collectively, by navigating challenges and capitalizing on innovation, the trajectory of Eucalyptus panels points toward an increasingly valuable role in the construction landscape.

5.7 Conclusions In conclusion, MDF and OSB made from Eucalyptus fiber represent remarkable achievements in the realm of construction materials, each with their distinct characteristics and applications. OSB’s ascendancy as a versatile, durable, and costeffective structural panel has revolutionized the construction industry. Its manufacturing process, meticulous strand orientation, and bonding techniques have led to its widespread use in crucial roles such as wall sheathing, roof decking, and subflooring. Its role in sustainable building practices, coupled with its capacity for prefabrication and modular construction, positions OSB as a key driver of modern construction paradigms. MDF, on the other hand, serves as an adaptable material in interior applications, exemplifying its finesse in precision and aesthetic appeal. Its homogenous composition, ease of shaping, and suitability for intricate designs render it invaluable for furniture, cabinetry, and decorative elements. Both materials, while celebrated for their myriad benefits, face challenges and limitations. The susceptibility of OSB to moisture-related issues underscores the importance of meticulous moisture management during installation and usage. Similarly, MDF’s vulnerability to moisture poses constraints on its use in high-humidity environments. Moreover, aesthetic considerations, load capacities, and structural limitations define their scope in certain applications. Nonetheless, the future of both OSB and MDF is characterized by a trajectory of innovation and growth. Advancements in manufacturing techniques, adhesive formulations, and sustainable practices hold the potential to further enhance their performance and environmental friendliness. The integration of digital technologies and evolving design methodologies are poised to refine their application precision. As construction practices increasingly align with sustainability goals, the recyclability and renewability of OSB and MDF emerge as key strengths.

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References Arbec Forest Production (2023) Process for the Production of OSB. https://www.arbec.ca/en/pro ducts/manufacturing-process Barata TQF, Rodrigues OV, Matos BM, Pinto RS (2016) Furniture design using MDF boards applying concepts of sustainability. Prod: Manag Dev 14(1):68–83 Brito JO, Silva FG, Leão MM, Almeida G (2008) Chemical composition changes in Eucalyptus and Pinus woods submitted to heat treatment. Bioresour Technol 99:8545–8548 Campos CID, Lahr FAR (2004) Production and characterization of MDF using eucalyptus fibers and castor oil-based polyurethane resin. Mater Res 7:421–425 Da Rosa TS, Trianoski R, Iwakiri S, Bonduelle GM (2017a) Use of five eucalyptus species for particleboards manufacture. Revista Árvore 41(2):e410215 Dazmiri M, Kiamahalleh M, Dorieh A, Pizzi A (2019) Effect of the initial F/U molar ratio in urea-formaldehyde resins synthesis and its influence on the performance of medium density fiberboard bonded with them. Int J Adhes Adhes 95:102440. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijadhadh. 2019.102440 Domingos BEM, de Melo Moura JD (2019) Viabilty of eucalyptus bark for the composition of OSB panels. BioResources 14(4):9472–9484 Fan M, Fu F (2017) Introduction: a perspective–natural fibre composites in construction. In Advanced high strength natural fibre composites in construction. Woodhead Publishing, pp 1–20 Foelkel C (2006) Casca da Arvore do Eucalipto: Aspectos Morfológicos, Fisiológicos, Florestais, Ecológicos e Industriais, Visando a Produção de Celulose e Papel, MSc Thesis, UNESP, São Paulo, Brazil Frihart CR (2015) Introduction to special issue: wood adhesives: past, present, and future. For Prod J 65(1–2):4–8 Holokiz H (1991) The effects of stock washing on the properties of hardboard. Appita v 25(3):194– 199 Iwakiri S, Mendes L, Saldanha L, Santos J (2004) Utilizacao da madeira de eucalipto na producao de chapas de particulas orientadas – OSB. Cerne 10:46–52 Kohl D, Link P, Böhm S (2016) Wood as a technical material for structural vehicle components. Procedia CIRP 40:557–561 Krzysik AM, Muehl JH, Franca FS, Youngquist JA (2001) Medium Density Fiberboard Made from Eucalyptus Saligna. For Prod J 51:10 Lee SH, Lum WC, Petar A, Lubos K, Paridah MY (2022) Engineering wood products from Eucalyptus spp. Adv Mater Sci Eng 1:14.https://doi.org/10.1155/2022/8000780 Li J, Pang S (2006) Modelling of energy demand in an MDF plant. In: Proceedings of the CHEMECA: knowledge and innovation conference, Auckland, New Zealand, September 2006 Li M, Ren H (2022) Study on the interlaminar shear properties of hybrid cross-laminated timber (HCLT) prepared with larch, poplar and OSB. Ind Crops Prod 189:115756 Lowood J (1997) Oriented strand board and waferboard. In: Smulski S (ed) Engineered wood products: a guide for specifiers, designers, and users. PFS Research Foundation, Madison, Wise, pp 123–145 Magalhães R, Nogueira B, Costa S, Paiva N, Ferra JM, Magalhães FD, Martins J, Carvalho LH (2021) Effect of panel moisture content on internal bond strength and thickness swelling of medium density fiberboard. Polymers 13(1):114. https://doi.org/10.3390/polym13010114 Nishimura T (2015) Chipboard, oriented strand board (OSB) and structural composite lumber. In Wood composites. Woodhead Publishing 103–121 Pereira GF, Iwakiri S, Trianoski R, Rios PDA, Raia RZ (2021) Influence of thermal modification on the physical and mechanical properties of Eucalyptus badjensis mixed particleboard/OSB panels. Floresta 51(2):419–428 Pranda J (1995) Painéis de fibra de média densidade feitos de Pinus pinaster e Eucalipto globulus Área de composição química específica da madeira desfibrada. Drevarsky Vyskum 2:19–28

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Ramli Sulong NH, Mustapa SAS, Abdul Rashid MK (2019) Application of expanded polystyrene (EPS) in buildings and constructions: a review. J Appl Polym Sci 136(20):47529 Rider TR, Glass S, McNaughton J (2011) Understanding green building materials. WW Norton & Company Rosa TSD, Trianoski R, Iwakiri S, Bonduelle GM, Souza HPD (2017) Utilização de cinco espécies de Eucalyptus para a produção de painéis OSB. Floresta e Ambiente 24 Stark NM, Cai Z, Carll C (2010) Wood-based composite materials panel products, glued-laminated timber, structural composite lumber, and wood–nonwood composite materials. In: Wood handbook: wood as an engineering material, vol 1, pp 11–20 Sugahara E, Dias A, Arroyo F, Christoforo A, Michelle LC, Edson CB, Alfredo MPGD, Campos C (2022) Study of the influence of heat treatment on OSB panels produced with eucalyptus wood in different layer compositions. Forests 13:2083 Wilson JB (2008) Medium density fiberboard (MDF): a life-cycle inventory of manufacturing panels from resource through product. Final report to the Consortium for Research on Renewable Industrial Materials Winandy JE, Kamke FA (2003) Fundamentals of composite processing. proceedings of a workshop (report no. FPL-GTR-149). U.S. Department of Agriculture Forest Products Laboratory, Madison, WI, USA Wood Panel Industries federation, TRADA and National Panel Products Division (2014) Panel guide version 4, annex 2E—dry process fiberboards (MDF) (http://www.wpif.org.uk/uploads/ PanelGuide/PanelGuide_2014_Annex2E.pdf)

Chapter 6

Veneers from Eucalyptus spp. Yusri Helmi Muhammad, Wan Mohd Nazri Wan Abdul Rahman, Nurul Husna Mohd Hassan, Nurrohana Ahmad, Noorshashillawati Azura Mohammad, Siti Noorbaini Sarmin, and Petar Antov

6.1 Introduction Wood veneer is the main building block of veneer-based products or veneer-based engineered wood products. It is also called layered wood composites. Plywood, laminated veneer lumber (LVL), and parallel strand lumber (PSL) are examples of veneer-based products that are made by bonding thin veneer together with adhesive. These veneer-based products could serve as appealing construction and building materials owing to their relatively higher homogeneous structure compared to that of solid timber (Vladimirova and Gong 2022). Prior to the last few decades, there was a widespread misconception that producing veneer required large log diameters as a necessary prerequisite. During that time period in China, it was common practice to grow plantation logs with larger diameters and faster growth rates (Arnold et al. 2013). The use of locally manufactured rotary veneer lathes has resulted in a method of producing veneers that is both economical and productive (Ye and Xiong 2005). However, as of the early 2000s, large diameter logs are not a necessary prerequisite for the production of veneer because technological advancements in veneer lathes have made this possibility obsolete. It was reported that new lathe technologies are capable of peeling logs with small diameters down to cores that are less than 20 mm in diameter (Balatinecz et al. 2010). The advancement in technology has been a game-changer for the veneer and plywood industry because it has made it possible for smaller sized trees (with a diameter of less than 60 mm) and younger Eucalyptus trees (with an age range of 4–5 years) to Y. H. Muhammad (B) · W. M. N. Wan Abdul Rahman · N. H. Mohd Hassan · N. Ahmad · N. A. Mohammad · S. N. Sarmin Department of Wood Industry, Faculty of Applied Sciences, Universiti Teknologi MARA (UiTM) Cawangan Pahang Kampus Jengka, 26400 Bandar Tun Razak, Pahang, Malaysia e-mail: [email protected] P. Antov Faculty of Forest Industry, University of Forestry, 1797 Sofia, Bulgaria © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2024 S. H. Lee et al. (eds.), Eucalyptus, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-7919-6_6

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be used for higher value applications (Peng et al. 2011). A plantation of Eucalyptus is considered to be an ideal planted species because it has the potential to supply sufficient volume for the production of veneer. It has been said that Eucalyptus is capable of producing veneer of a high quality, which can then be used in the manufacturing of products that rely on veneer, such as plywood and laminated veneer lumber (LVL). In Australia, Farrell et al. (2009) conducted a first large-scale peeling trial on plantation of E. nitens to test the effectiveness of the method. The purpose of the study was to investigate the quality of plywood made from veneers peeled from fiber-managed plantations of E. nitens grown in Tasmania, as well as the veneers themselves. In this study, the veneer properties of E. nitens that was 16 years old, E. nitens that was 26 years old, and E. globulus that was 33 years old were compared. The most important findings of the study indicated that E. globulus and 26-year-old E. nitens both possessed high dynamic MOE and, as a result, exhibited the capability to produce structural peeled products. In the meantime, E. nitens had a lower density than E. globulus, which enables E. nitens to be utilized in the production of panels with a higher stiffness. However, one of the most significant limitations is that E. nitens was unable to produce veneer with a visual grade recovery higher than D-grade. This is one of the major constraints. However, because these veneers are stiff, they still have the possibility of being used in structural applications even though face grade is not required for those applications.

6.2 International Hardwood Veneer Grading Rules Rules for veneer grading are essential because they provide a foundation for the pricing and value segregation of veneers, as well as group veneers together so that they can be utilized more effectively. The uses of the veneers, such as face veneer and core veneer, are determined by the veneer grading. The criteria for grading can typically be broken down into two categories: natural defects and man-made defects. Knots and natural splitting are two examples of natural defects that can occur during the peeling process. On the other hand, knife marks and natural splitting are examples of man and machine defects that can occur. Redman (2020) has provided a table that contains a summary of the global grading standards for peeled hardwood veneer (Table 6.1). The two systems of grading that are utilized most frequently are the alphabetical letter system and the numerical number system. The veneer with an appearance grade of D has the poorest quality according to the standards used in Australia and New Zealand. This is followed by S-grade veneer, B-grade veneer, C-grade veneer, and finally A-grade veneer. According to the standards of the United States of America, N-grade veneers have the highest quality and are the best choice for natural finish outer veneer, followed by A-, B-, C-, and D-grade veneers. In the meantime, according to the standards of both Europe and Russia, Class E veneer possesses the highest quality of all veneers that have a high-quality clear face veneer designed for a natural

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Table 6.1 Summary of veneer quality classification based on international standards (Redman 2020) Standard

Country

Veneer quality classification

AS/NZS 2269.0:2012

Australia & New Zealand

A-grade S-grade B-grade C-grade D-grade

USA Standard PS 1–95

United States

N-grade A-grade B-grade C-grade D-grade

EN 635-2&3: 1995

European

Class E Class I Class II Class III Class IV

GOST 3916.1&2-96: 1995

Russia

Class E Class I Class II Class III Class IV

LYT 1599:2011

China

Grade I Grade II Grade III Grade IV Grade V

TCVN 10316:2014

Vietnam

Grade I Grade II Grade III Grade IV Grade V

SFS 2413

Finland

B-grade S-grade BB-grade WG-grade

finish. This is the case for both Europe and Russia. The appearance quality of veneers classified as Class IV is the lowest. On the other hand, China and Vietnam divided veneers into five different classes, ranging from Class I to Class V, with the first class being the highest quality and the fifth class being the lowest quality. It is interesting to note that the Finnish standard classified veneers into four different classes, which is a significant departure from the earlier standards. The grades B, S, BB, and WG were those that were utilized in the Finnish standard. The WG-grade is the least desirable of all the grades, followed by the S-grade, then the BB-grade, and then the B-grade. In the report that was put together by Redman (2020), you can find

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Fig. 6.1 Face grade veneer with no splitting (top) and composer grade veneer with severe splitting (bottom) (Guo and Altaner 2018; open access,; freely reuse under Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License (https://doi.org/10. 1186/s40490-018-0109-7); no change is made to the original image)

a classification that is more in depth. The example of face grade veneer with no splitting and composer grade veneer with severe splitting are shown in Fig. 6.1.

6.3 Veneer Cutting Techniques According to Lutz (1974), there are two different ways that veneers can be cut. The first is parallel to the annual rings, and the second is parallel to the wood rays. The first method is referred to as a rotary cut, while the second method is called a quarter slice. The primary distinction between these two approaches is that the veneer is cut using a lathe in the first approach, whereas a slicer is utilized in the second approach. The first method is the most common one that is utilized when producing veneer for use in plywood for construction. In certain circumstances, decorative face veneer might be produced. In the meantime, the slicing method is predominantly utilized for the production of decorative face veneers (Lutz 1974). Altering the directions in which the cut was made allowed for the production of wood veneers with a variety of grain patterns. In addition to the rotary method, some other ways of cutting include the rift-cut, the back-cut, the flat-slicing, the half-round cutting, and the quarter-slicing (Lutz 1974). On page 33 of Lutz (1974), you’ll find a demonstration that provides a detailed description of the differences in cutting directions. Cutting veneer with

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a rotary saw is by far the most common method, accounting for between 80 and 90 percent of all veneer cuts. This is true regardless of the direction in which the veneer is being cut (Lutz 1974). Rotary cutting results in the highest veneer yield, the widest sheets, and relatively small knot cross-sections on the veneer surface. This is in comparison to flat-slicing and quarter-slicing, which both result in lower veneer yields. In addition to this, the rotary method results in the production of continuous long veneers that have smooth surfaces on both sides of the veneers (Syafii et al. 2020). It’s possible that this is why rotary cutting is the method that the vast majority of veneer plants use. The use of spindle-less veneer lathe has been expanded in the recent year to peel small-diameter logs (McGavin et al. 2014). Rotary peeling of Eucalyptus trees with spindled and spindle-less lathes could offer two different potential applications. Altaner (2020) found that spindled lathes leave behind a sizable peeler core of eucalyptus log when working with the material. This corewood is of low value and cannot be utilized as a structural component because it is too soft. On the other hand, the sapwood and the heartwood of a Eucalyptus log are exceptionally resistant to the effects of ground contact. As a consequence of this, it has the potential to be traded for high-value posts for use in agricultural industries, as stated by Altaner (2020). On the other hand, when spindle-less lathes are utilized, a more compact peeler core is produced. It indicates that a greater number of veneers can be produced, leading to an increased veneer yield (Arnold et al. 2013; McGavin 2016). Therefore, in spite of the fact that both kinds of lathes have benefits and drawbacks, it is possible for either kind to boost the profitability of rotary peeling durable Eucalyptus.

6.4 Properties of Eucalyptus Veneer It has been determined that certain species of Eucalyptus are capable of producing veneers that are of a high enough quality to be used as veneers. These veneers can be used for a variety of applications. In addition, it is said that Eucalyptus logs have the capacity to produce green veneer at a high rate of recovery. It was reported, however, that the quality of the veneer and also their recovery are highly dependent on a wide variety of factors including plantation sites, log position, spacing treatments, clones, and so on. This is because of the interconnected nature of these factors (Hamilton et al. 2015; Luo et al. 2013; Peng et al. 2014). According to the results that are presented in Table 6.2, Hamilton et al. (2015) investigated the effects of sites and log position on the post-felling characteristics and green rotary-peeled veneer recovery of two temperate Eucalyptus species (E. globulus and E. nitens). It is clear that there is a connection between the recovery rate and the post-felling log characteristics. Peelable billet volume, for instance, decreased as sweep, taper, out-of-roundness, and end splitting of the log increased. Other factors included. In the meantime, factors such as small-end-diameter under bark (SEDUB), sweep, taper, and out-of-roundness contributed to a reduction in the recovered green veneer. It’s interesting to note that the amount of recovered green

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veneer increased alongside the amount of end splitting. However, despite the general downward trend caused by the log traits, it was reported that only out-of-roundness exerted significant effects on the peelable billet volume, recovered green veneer, and roundup loss of the Eucalyptus logs. This was the case even though the log traits themselves caused the general downward trend (Hamilton et al. 2015). The researchers, Belleville et al. (2018), investigated the effects of taxon and log position on the recovery and quality of the veneer of three different Eucalyptus species. These Eucalyptus species were E. pellita, E. camaldulensis, and eucalypt clone K7 (E. camaldulensis × E. deglupta). According to the findings of the study, the taxon, also known as the species, had significant effects on the log-end splitting. This was demonstrated by the fact that Eucalyptus clone K7 displayed significantly higher log-end splitting in comparison to the other two studied species. Additionally, it has been demonstrated that the eucalyptus clone K7 produced the highest veneer green recovery as well as the highest veneer dry recovery, which were respectively 67.0% and 62.7%. On the other hand, E. camaldulensis had the lowest green and dry recovery out of all of the species that were studied, with percentages of 57.0 and 52.0, respectively. Both the green recovery and the dry recovery of E. pellita are approximately 58.8%, which places them in the middle of the range. Luo et al. (2013) investigated the effects of 11 different Eucalyptus clones and log position on the characteristics of the tree and log, as well as the veneer recoveries, properties, and values. In terms of volumes, circularities, sweep, visible knots, and end-check indices, it was discovered that there was a significant amount of variation in the log traits between different clones. In addition to that, the characteristics displayed by logs in different positions were significantly distinct from one another. For example, the lower log was found to have high sweep and taper indices in addition to low circularity, visible knots, and end check indices. While this was going on, the veneer recoveries varied between clones as well, going anywhere from 28.4 percent to 50.5%. However, only three of the clones managed to recover more than forty percent of their green veneer. The clones that produced the most veneer per log resulted in the highest value per log, which was increased by a factor of two in comparison to the clones that produced the least veneer per log. In addition, the clones produced the best overall average veneer grade as well as the highest veneer recoveries. In addition to that, the position of the log was another factor that significantly impacted the veneer recoveries. Due to higher sweep and taper in the lower logs, the veneer recoveries that were recorded in the middle logs were the highest at 50.5%, followed by the upper logs at 44.4%, and the lowest was recorded in the lower logs at 36.75%. Nonetheless, more than 95% of the veneer that was produced for this study was categorized as having a quality that was below average, which was graded as either 3 or 4. There is not a single veneer of grade 1, and less than 2% of them are grade 2 veneer. According to the findings of the study, the five clones that contained E. grandis were ranked in the top six out of eleven for grade, recoveries, and all value traits. According to the findings of Peng et al. (2014) the initial plantation spacings are another factor that can have an effect on the veneer grade. On the E. urophylla × E. grandis trees that were used in this research, Peng et al. (2014) experimented with

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Table 6.2 Factors affecting the log traits and veneer recoveries Eucalyptus species

Factors studied

References

11 eucalypt clones

Clones and log position • The traits of logs differed significantly within clones • Higher log had lower sweep, higher circularity, lower taper but higher log end check indices and also higher number of visible knots. Overall, middle logs had the best traits among the three log position • Green veneer recovery varied greatly among clones • Lower logs yielded lower veneer recovery but better grade veneer

Luo et al. (2013)

Eucalyptus globulus and Eucalyptus nitens

Sites and log position Hamilton et al. (2015) • Post-felling traits such as small-end-diameter under bark (SEDUB), sweep, taper, out-of-roundness, and end-splitting varied greatly among sites • Upper log had lower SEDUB, taper, out-of-roundness, and sweep • Compared to upper log, lower log had lower peelable billet volume (%) and lower recovered green veneer (%) but higher roundup loss (%) • Sites affect peelable billet volume, roundup loss, and residual core diameter significantly but not in recovered volume of green veneer

Eucalyptus urophylla × E. grandis

Plantation spacings (667 to 2222 trees/ha) and Peng et al. log height (2014) • Closest spacing resulted in logs with lower small-end diameters and also lower tapered, visible bumps and branch stubs • Closest spacing also resulted in the highest recovery of B+ -grade recovery but total veneer recovery did not differ significantly among all the spacings • Bigger trees were found in wider spacings and therefore higher log veneer values • Butt log (1st log) is more tapered and had higher sweep compared to 2nd log. The latter is smaller in volume but is able to yield significantly higher total veneer recovery

Eucalyptus pellita Eucalypt Clone K7 (E. camaldulensis × E. deglupta) E. camaldulensis

Taxon and log position • Taxon had significant effects on the log-end splitting • the Eucalyptus clone K7 produced the highest veneer green recovery as well as the highest veneer dry recovery

Belleville et al. (2018)

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a variety of spacing treatments, including 667, 833, 1250, 1667, and 2222 trees/ha. According to the findings, the treatment with the closest tree density (2222 trees/ha) resulted in a higher recovery of B+-grade veneer than the treatments with the widest tree density (667 and 833 trees/ha), but this did not affect the overall veneer recovery. It is important to note that the veneer value per unit volume was not different between the various spacing treatments, despite the fact that wider spacings typically result in logs with larger diameters (Peng et al. 2014). As is customary, the characteristics of the logs have a significant impact on the amount of veneer recovered, the grade, and the value of the logs. The total veneer recovery and also the recovery of B+-grade veneer were both decreased as a result of taper, which in turn led to a decrease in the value per unit volume of the log. When the taper is increased, the amount of high-grade veneer recovered (B+ grade) will decrease, while the amount of lowgrade veneer recovered (D+ grade) will increase. It was also discovered that sweep decreased the total amount of veneer that was recovered as well as the value per unit volume of the log. Throughout the course of the research conducted by Peng et al. (2014), it was observed that the veneers obtained did not possess the quality required to be considered appearance-grade. Over eighty percent of them were graded as Dgrade veneer, while only a small percentage of them, less than 3%, were considered to be of S, B, or C quality. Even worse, seventeen percent of them were determined to be of reject-grade quality. Therefore, improvements in silviculture are recommended in order to improve the quality of the veneer and logs and increase their value. The authors suggested that one feasible option would be to plant Eucalyptus trees at a higher stocking (close spacing) with regular spacing. This would allow for more trees to be grown in a given area. Having said that, the theory has not been validated as of yet. During the process of peeling the Eucalyptus logs, there were a few complications that arose. Guo and Altaner (2018) attempted to peel E. globoidea logs while they were exposed to cold temperatures, but they were unsuccessful. Therefore, preheating is required to soften the wood in order to improve the efficiency of the peeling process. E. globoidea showed a lower average veneer recovery of 54.5% when compared to other wood species such as radiata pine. Radiant pine logs recorded an average veneer recovery of 69.8%, whereas E. globoidea logs recorded an average veneer recovery of 54.5%. The findings are extremely consistent with the report that McKenzie et al. (2003) produced, in which they stated that the overall recovery value for E. nitens was 59%. It should be pointed out, however, that the highest recovery rate of 74.5% was recorded in E. globoidea, which also possessed the best log traits, including the lowest end-splitting. However, the veneer recovery varies greatly from one individual log of E. globoidea to the next (23.6% to 74.5%). In addition, Guo and Altoner (2018) found that E. globoidea logs had a superior form in comparison to radiata pine logs, as evidenced by a lower round-up loss.

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6.5 Conclusions It has been demonstrated in the prior literature that various species of Eucalyptus have a significant amount of potential for the production of veneer. If logs with the desired characteristics, such as lower sweep and taper, were used in the peeling process, it would be possible to obtain a high recovery rate. Additionally, prior to peeling, the Eucalyptus logs may require a pre-treatment consisting of steam or heat treatment in order to be pliable enough for veneer production of a higher quality. The majority of the veneer that is produced is of the D grade, which is suitable for use in the production of structural plywood and meets no requirements regarding its appearance. In general, Eucalyptus has a lot of benefits to offer when it comes to being used as raw materials for the production of veneer because it is a species that grows quickly and has a high stiffness. Acknowledgements This study was funded by the Transdisciplinary Fundamental Research Grant Scheme (TRGS 2018-1), reference code: TRGS/1/2018/UPM/01/2/3, by the Ministry of Higher Education (MOHE), Malaysia.

References Altaner C (2020) Value of veneer, wood fibre and posts from improved Eucalyptus bosistoanatrees. University of Canterbury, Christchurch, New Zealand Arnold RJ, Xie YJ, Midgley SJ, Luo JZ, Chen XF (2013) Emergence and rise of eucalypt veneer production in China. Int for Rev 15(1):33–47 Balatinecz J, Mertens P, De Boever L, Yukun H, Jin J, Van Acker J (2010) Properties, processing and utilization. In: Poplars and Willows in the World. FAO/IPC Poplars and Willows in the World. Working Paper IPC/9-10. FAO, Rome, Italy. CHAPTER 10 Belleville B, Redman A, Chounlamounty P, Phengthajam V, Xiong S, Boupha L, Ozarska B (2018) Potential of veneer peeled from young eucalypts in Laos. BioResources 13(4):7581–7594 Farrell R, Blum S, Williams D, Blackburn D (2009) The potential to recover higher value veneer products from fibre managed plantation eucalypts and broaden market opportunities for this resource: Part A. Forest & Wood Products Australia Limited, Melbourne, Australia. Project No: PNB139-0809 Guo F, Altaner CM (2018) Properties of rotary peeled veneer and laminated veneer lumber (LVL) from New Zealand grown Eucalyptus globoidea. NZ J Forest Sci 48:1–10 Hamilton MG, Blackburn DP, McGavin RL, Baillères H, Vega M, Potts BM (2015) Factors affecting log traits and green rotary-peeled veneer recovery from temperate eucalypt plantations. Ann for Sci 72:357–365 Luo J, Arnold R, Ren S, Jiang Y, Lu W, Peng Y, Xie Y (2013) Veneer grades, recoveries, and values from 5-year-old eucalypt clones. Ann for Sci 70:417–428 Lutz JF (1974) Techniques for peeling, slicing and drying veneer, vol 228. Forest Products Laboratory, Forest Service, USDA McGavin RL (2016) Analysis of small-log processing to achieve structural veneer from juvenile hardwood plantations. PhD Thesis, The University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Australia McGavin RL, Bailleres H, Lane F, Blackburn D, Vega M, Ozarska B (2014) Veneer recovery analysis of plantation eucalypt species using spindleless lathe technology. BioResources 9(1):613–627

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McKenzie HM, Turner JCP, Shelbourne CJA (2003) Processing young plantation-grown Eucalyptus nitens for solid-wood products. 1: Individual-tree variation in quality and recovery of appearance-grade lumber and veneer. N Z J For Sci 33(1):62–78 Peng Y, Chen SX, Washusen R, Northway R, Xie YJ, Wu ZH (2011) Wood properties, veneer production and veneer’s economic value of 5 Eucalyptus urophylla × E. grandis clones. Eucalypt Sci Technol 28(2):1–9 Peng Y, Washusen R, Xiang D, Lan J, Chen S, Arnold R (2014) Grade and value variations in Eucalyptus urophylla × E. grandis veneer due to variations in initial plantation spacings. Aust For 77(1):39–50 Redman A (2020) International hardwood veneer grading rules. Burapha Agro-Forestry, Vientiane, Laos Syafii, Supraptono B, Budiarso E, Sulistyobudi A (2020) Contribution of spindle-less rotary lathe and its effect on the yield of peeled veneers at Pt. Rimba Raya Lestari, Kutai Kartanegara, East Kalimantan of Indonesia. Russ J Agric Socio-Econ Sci 108(12):167–173 Vladimirova E, Gong M (2022) Veneer-based engineered wood products in construction. In Gong M (Ed) Engineered wood products for construction. IntechOpen, London, UK. https://doi.org/ 10.5772/intechopen.102034 Ye K, Xiong M (2005) Current Situation and prospect for plywood production and trade in China. In: New directions for tropical plywood – proceedings of an ITTO/FAO international conference on tropical plywood. 26–28 September 2005, Beijing, China. ITTO Technical Series No. 26: pp. 31–38

Chapter 7

Veneer-Based Products from Eucalyptus spp. Ahmad Fauzi Awang Othman, Junaiza Ahmad Zaki, Norhafizah Rosman, Amran Shafie, Nur Hannani Abdul Latif, Zaimatul Aqmar Abdullah, and L’uboš Krišt’ák

7.1 Introduction Plywood belongs to one of the engineered wood products that is manufactured by gluing thin layers of wood veneers, normally called plies, together with each ply (or layer) adhered perpendicularly to the adjacent plies. Normally, rotary lathe is used to peel veneers that are intended to be used for structural plywood. Meanwhile, peeling or slicing is used for decorative veneers. It was reported that 95% of the veneers were produced by rotary peeling (Hopewell et al. 2008). The global market for plywood is going strong. Based on the Markets and Markets (2023)’s report, in 2022, the value of global production of plywood is amounted to USD 54.2 billion. It was estimated that global production will increase at a compound annual growth rate (CAGR) of 6.2% and reach a value of USD 73.3 billion by 2027. In 2020, the volume of the plywood produced globally by China, India, and USA are the top three plywood producing countries in 2020, accounted for an astounding share of 74.1% (Helgi Library 2023). On the basis of how well they bond together, different classes of plywood can be distinguished from one another. The classifications shift slightly depending on the particular standard of people who are being discussed. According to Suffian and Rafeadah (2021), plywood can be categorized based on the quality of its bonding in a variety of different environments where it is intended to be used. The most fundamental requirement for plywood is that it be able to withstand dry conditions; A. F. Awang Othman (B) · J. Ahmad Zaki · N. Rosman · A. Shafie · N. H. Abdul Latif · Z. A. Abdullah Department of Wood Industry, Faculty of Applied Sciences, Universiti Teknologi MARA (UiTM) Cawangan Pahang Kampus Jengka, 26400 Bandar Tun Razak, Pahang, Malaysia e-mail: [email protected] L’. Krišt’ák Faculty of Wood Sciences and Technology, Technical University in Zvolen, 96001 Zvolen, Slovakia © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2024 S. H. Lee et al. (eds.), Eucalyptus, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-7919-6_7

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however, plywood that is also capable of withstanding semi-dry or humid conditions is regarded as having superior bonding quality. The plywood that can be used in environments with a high level of humidity as well as moisture is considered to have the best bonding quality. The European (EN) standard and the Japanese (JAS) standard both categorize plywood into different bonding quality categories, but the EN standard is more common. According to the EN standard, plywood was divided into three different classes: Class 1, Class 2, and Class 3. In the meantime, the JAS standard divided plywood into three different types: Type Special, Type 1, and Type 2. (Suffian and Rafeadah 2021). Class 1 is designed for use in dry conditions, Class 2 is suitable for use in humid conditions, and Class 3 is appropriate for use in outdoor conditions. Plywood of the Type Special variety, on the other hand, is designed to be used outside or in other locations with persistently damp conditions. Plywood of type 1 is intended for use in areas that experience wet conditions on an intermittent basis, while plywood of type 2 is designed for use in areas that experience wet conditions on an occasional basis. Before being subjected to the bonding quality test, various types of plywood must first be pretreated in a specific manner, which varies according to the applicable standard.

7.2 Plywood from Eucalyptus spp. The common wood species used for plywood production is highly dependent on the availability of raw materials in that specific region. For example, silver birch (Betula pendula) or European white birch is the most prevalently used species in the Baltic and Nordic regions of Europe. Meanwhile, owing to their abundancy and good quality, spruce, pine, and birch are among the popular wood species used to manufacture plywood in Northern Europe (Akkurt et al. 2022). In British Columbia, Canada, the commonly used softwood species for plywood production include Douglas-fir or spruce, pine, and fir (Naturally:wood 2023). Paricá, teak, and poplar are being used traditionally in South Brazil for the production of plywood (Machado et al. 2018). Radiata pine is the most dominant softwood species being used in plywood manufacturing in Australia. Other softwood species such as Hoop pine, maritime pine, slash pine, and Caribbean pine and their hybrids have also been used for this purpose (WoodSolutions 2015). These softwood species are mainly plantation-based while hardwood species used for plywood production are mainly grown in native forests. Similarly, plywood produced in South Africa is based on pine species (Veneer Craft 2014). There are three main species of pine in South Africa, namely Pinus patula, P. elliottii, and P. taeda are being grown and used for plywood production (Veneer Craft 2014). Native species such as oriental beech is the commonly used species for plywood production in Turkey, together with poplar and its hybrids (Bal and Bektas 2014). In Asia, deciduous larches are the most utilized species by the local plywood manufacturer (Lee et al. 2021) while poplar is the predominant species

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in China (Jia et al. 2019). A wide variety of tropical hardwood species are available and being utilized for plywood production in Southeast Asia region such as Malaysia and Indonesia. In Malaysia, several popular species have been used to produce plywood, such as Bintangor, Dark Red Meranti, Kelempayan, Kembang Semangkok, Keruing, Mengkulang, Mersawa, Nyatoh, Rubberwood, Sepetir, and Yellow Meranti (Malaysian Timber Council 2020). Recently, due to the diminishing natural forest resources as well as other issues, there is a shortage of the supply of good-quality peeler logs. To keep up with the increasing demand of plywood from the European and American markets, new raw materials have to be sought for plywood production. In Australia, it used to be vibrant veneer and plywood industry in the north Queensland started from 1930. Several high-quality veneering species were reported to have extracted from the local productive tropical rainforests. However, a substantial tract of rainforests in the wet tropics had been listed in World Heritage Listing in the late 1980s, the veneer and plywood industry in the region has ceased to exist (Hopewell et al. 2008). Since then, a new upsurge in hardwood plantation has emerged. Paulownia (Paulownia spp.), African mahogany (Khaya spp.), and teak (Tectona grandis) are among the exotic species that have been planted. In the 1990s, Eucalyptus followed the steps and has seen many countries such as Brazil, Uruguay, and Argentina shifted their plantation management to Eucalyptus. In some countries, Eucalyptus has been used in plywood manufacturing for the sake of protection of local forest and securing bigger-diameter logs for other purposes. For instance, in Ghana, the potential of E. globulus in plywood production has been explored by local organizations in order to protect Ghanaian natural forest cover from receding. Also, exploring the possibility of Eucalyptus could secure the carbon sink potential of the natural forest (Seidu et al. 2023). In Brazil, pine from non-native forests is the type of timber that is utilized the most frequently in the manufacturing of plywood. When it comes to the production of plywood, P. taeda and P. elliottii are two of the pine species that are utilized the most frequently. In addition to that, certain tropical wood species native to the Amazon region that have been harvested from forests have been used as a raw material in the production of plywood (Iwakiri et al. 2013). According to what has been reported, Brazil placed a significant amount of reliance on Pinus spp. for the production of plywood, with Pinus spp. accounting for seventy percent of the plywood produced in 2008 (Iwakiri et al. 2013). An inadequate supply of large-diameter logs, which is required for the production of veneers of a high quality, has been brought about as a direct consequence of over-exploitation of the Pinus species. According to Iwakiri et al. (2013), some pioneers in Brazil have investigated the feasibility of using Eucalyptus for plywood production. However, not all Eucalyptus species are suitable for plywood production. For example, Jankowski (1979) reported that E. grandis offers good veneer quality and is suitable for plywood production. Meanwhile, Jankowski and Aguiar (1983) stated that the veneers derived from E. triantha and E. saligna have satisfactory properties and are suitable to produce plywood. On the other hand, Bortoletto Júnior (2003) found that 6 out of 11 Eucalyptus are suitable to produce exterior plywood.

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Fig. 7.1 Suitability of nine Eucalyptus species in manufacturing plywood (Iwakiri et al. 2013)

Iwakiri et al. (2013) used the veneers of nine Eucalyptus species as shown in Fig. 7.1 for the production of plywood. It was noted that E. viminalis gives the best overall results. Meanwhile, veneers of E. phaeotricha and E. pellita had lamination yields below 50%. Plywood made from E. robusta, E. dunnii, and E. deanei did not achieve the shear strength of equal or more than 1.0 MPa. Therefore, four Eucalyptus species, namely E. grandis, E. saligna, E. globulus, and E. viminalis were identified to have great potential for the manufacturing of exterior-used plywood. Figure 7.1 shows that the use of E. pellita in the production of plywood has a significant amount of potential, despite the fact that the veneers have some undesirable properties. Both the shear strength and the bending strength were significantly higher than the minimum requirements. The following table (Table 7.1) presents several additional species of Eucalyptus that have been utilized in the manufacturing of plywood. It is common knowledge that a wide variety of wood species as well as a number of different adhesives can be used to produce plywood of a quality that can be considered satisfactory. Eucalyptus is an ideal material for plywood manufacturing as shown by other studies. For example, Bal and Bektas (2014) compared the flexural and tensileshear properties of plywood made from eucalyptus (E. grandis), beech (Fagus orientalis), and hybrid poplar (Populus x euramericana) in a study. The veneers from the mentioned species were bonded with urea–formaldehyde (UF), melamineurea–formaldehyde (MUF), and phenol–formaldehyde (PF) adhesives. The results revealed that plywood made with Eucalyptus has the highest modulus of rupture (MOR) and modulus of elasticity (MOE) compared to that of beech and hybrid poplar, regardless of the types of adhesives used. The density of the wood veneers used in the study varies. Therefore, specific MOR and MOE were calculated to

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Table 7.1 Eucalyptus species and type of adhesive used to produce plywood Species

Type of adhesive

References

Eucalyptus globulus

Tannin–phenol–formaldehyde

Vázquez et al. (2003)

Eucalyptus globulus

Resol-tannin

Stefani et al. (2008)

Eucalyptus grandis

Soybean protein-based adhesives

Nicolao et al. (2022)

Eucalyptus cloeziana and E. pellita

Phenolic formaldehyde resin

Hopewell et al. (2008)

Eucalyptus nitens

Commercial glue

Blackburn et al. (2018)

Eucalyptus grandis

Castor oil-based polyurethane adhesive

Dias and Lahr (2004)

Eucalyptus saligna and E. dunnii

Melamine urea–formaldehyde (MUF) resin

La et al. (2015)

remove the effect of density. It showed that Eucalyptus plywood still has the highest SMOR and SMOE than the beech and hybrid poplar plywood. In terms of tensileshear strength, eucalyptus plywood is lower than that of beech plywood, but the difference is not big. The authors have specially pointed out that beech is a species with slow growing rate when compared with fast-growing eucalyptus. Therefore, Eucalyptus has been shown to be a very promising plywood material in this study. In another study by Nicolao et al. (2022), Eucalyptus and pine plywood were produced and compared. The surface energy of the pine wood veneers is slightly higher than Eucalyptus wood veneers, but the wettability of both wood species is almost similar. Therefore, a good affinity of wood adhesive can be observed in both wood veneers and that eliminates its probability to cause the variation in mechanical properties of the plywood produced. Morphological differences between the two species are the main cause to the difference in mechanical properties in this study. The findings of the study showed that the Eucalyptus plywood has significantly better shear strength and wood failure compared to that of pine plywood. The differences could be explained by the morphological properties of both Eucalyptus and pine. Eucalyptus has smaller lumen diameter than pine earlywood and the greater lumen in pine makes it easy to be crushed and weakened during hot pressing process. The authors reported tracheid deformation near the bondline in pine plywood and it may lead to failure through the bondline and resulted in weaker bonding strength. Therefore, Eucalyptus proved to be a suitable material for plywood production compared to pine, despite the latter being used as a main species in plywood production in many countries.

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7.3 Laminated Veneer Lumber (LVL) from Eucalyptus spp. According to Bal and Bektas (2012), the high stiffness of Eucalyptus makes it an ideal material for the production of laminated veneer lumber (LVL). LVL is very similar to plywood, with the exception of the layer configuration, in which plywood is laid out perpendicularly within layers and LVL is laid out parallel between layers. LVL, on the other hand, is laid out parallel between layers (Lee et al. 2022). The two tree species that are utilized the most frequently for the production of LVL are poplar (Populus spp.) and pine (Pinus spp.) (Murata et al. 2021; Guo and Altaner 2018). However, Eucalyptus has been found to be useful in the production of LVL as a result of the widespread growth of eucalyptus plantations around the world and the high rigidity of the veneer. The mechanical properties of LVL made of eucalyptus were reportedly higher than those of LVL made of beech (Bal and Bektas 2012) and poplar (Bal 2016). However, despite the fact that it has a lot of potential and promise, there are a few obstacles to overcome when making LVL out of eucalyptus. One of the most significant problems is that the eucalyptus tree is subject to very high levels of growth stress. The release of these growth stresses during cutting will inevitably result in severe end-splitting and veneer breaking during breaking. This cannot be avoided (Yang and Waugh 2001). As a consequence of this, the end product is always veneers of poor quality with a recovery rate of only twenty percent. Regrettably, there is not yet a method that is proven to be efficient in mitigating the negative effects of growth stresses. A large-scale breeding programme has been put into place in order to select species that have a high natural durability and low growth stresses in an effort to find a solution for the problem that was mentioned earlier. E. bosistoana F. Muell., E. quadrangulata H. Deane & Maiden, and E. globoidea are three examples of species that have been introduced to New Zealand due to their exceptionally high natural stiffness and exceptional natural durability (Millen et al. 2009). It is anticipated that these species will have the ability to produce long-lasting LVL without the utilization of any preservatives. There have been numerous species of Eucalyptus that have been utilized effectively in the production of LVL. A comprehensive analysis of the available research is provided in Table 7.2. E. nitens veneers were utilized by Gaunt et al. (2003) in order to produce LVL that exhibited exceptional strength and stiffness. The authors combined veneers of E. nitens into three different classes of stiffness, which had a significant impact on the mechanical strength of the LVL that was produced as a result of their work. The mechanical strength of LVL that is made with high stiffness veneers is significantly greater than that of LVL that is made with medium or low stiffness veneers. In comparison to LVL made from locally grown P. radiata, which has low stiffness, LVL made from E. nitens is considerably more robust. In order to manufacture LVL, Mathieu and his colleagues (2004) made use of blackbutt, which is more properly known by its scientific name, Eucalyptus pilularis. The investigation revealed that LVL could be manufactured using veneer derived from blackbutt wood.

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Table 7.2 Study on laminated veneer lumber (LVL) made with several eucalyptus species and main findings Species

Parameters

Main finding

References

Eucalyptus nitens

Veneers were classified into three stiffness classes which are low (17 GPa) Pressing temperature—141 °C for 8 min Press pressure—210 psi (1.45 MPa) Cold pressing—8 min Glue-phenolic glue

Veneer obtained from E. nitens Gaunt et al. was found not suitable for (2003) plywood manufacturing, yet it produced LVL with high strength and stiffness E. nitens LVL is superior in terms of strength and stiffness compared to P. radiata LVL

E. camaldulensis

Glue—UF and PVA Glue spread rate—180 g/m2 Press temperature—110 °C and 15 min for UF & 50 °C and 50 min for PVA Press pressure—12 kg/ cm2 for UF and 7 kg/ cm2 for PVA

UF-bonded Beech LVL had Aydın et al. higher specific gravity than (2004) UF-bonded Eucalyptus LVL and therefore Eucalyptus LVL had inferior bending and compressive strength UF-bonded LVL had superior mechanical properties than PVA-bonded LVL

E. urophylla

Glue—phenolic glue Glue spread rate—250 g/m2 Press temperature—130, 140, 160, 170 and 180 °C Veneer thickness—1.70, 2.25 and 3.25 mm LVL layer—5, 7, 9, 11, 13, 15, 17, 19 and 21

MOE of the LVL increased as the Yu et al. (2007) temperature increased, and the increment slowed down when higher temperature is used MOR increased as the temperature increased from 130 to 160 °C but started to decrease after that MOR and MOE decreased as the thickness of veneer and number of layers increased (continued)

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Table 7.2 (continued) Species

Parameters

Main finding

References

E. globoidea

Glue—phenolic glue Glue spread rate—180 g/m2 Press temperature—160 °C Press pressure—12 MPa 10-ply LVL with alternating E. globoidea and radiata pine

Poor bonding quality was found in E. globoidea LVL but was improved by alternating with radiata pine veneers

Guo and Altaner (2018)

E. grandis

Glue—phenolic glue Glue spread rate—200 g/m2 Press pressure—7–12 kg/cm2 7 layered LVL with mono poplar (A), 2 layers eucalyptus at face and back (B), 4 layers Eucalyptus at face and back (C) and mono eucalyptus (D)

LVL with the existence of eucalyptus (group B, C and D) had higher mechanical properties and lower water absorption than LVL made of mono poplar layers (group A)

Bal (2016)

Another issue that is plaguing the industries is the eucalyptus veneer has high density accompanied by higher amount of extractive, making gluing process very challenging (Gaunt et al. 2003). Adhesive failures occur very frequently during the production process. Consequently, high variation in the mechanical properties of the resultant LVL is always observed. Owing to that, Murata et al. (2021) proposed using alternating lamination method where low-density poplar veneers were laminated alternatively with eucalyptus. The findings of the study revealed that, although LVL produced with mixing eucalyptus and poplar had lower MOE compared to that of mono species LVL, lower MOE variation was observed. The alternating lamination technique was said to improve the adhesive failure of the mono eucalyptus LVL and the softer poplar veneer in the core layer could absorb the deformation of the eucalyptus layers. A study by Bal (2016) also reportedly used mixed species layers to produce LVL. However, in his study, it was mentioned that the application of E. grandis veneer, even just one slice each at the face and back, is able to improve the mechanical properties of the 7-layered poplar LVL. Guo and Altaner (2018) also reported that LVL made of mono E. globoidea had poor bonding quality. However, by alternating lamination with radiata pine, LVL with better bonding quality could be obtained.

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7.4 Conclusions Due to the high level of rigidity that they possess, the veneers that are peeled off of Eucalyptus logs have the potential to serve as a useful raw material in the manufacturing of LVL and plywood. However, this ability is not shared by all species of the Eucalyptus genus. When converted into structural veneer products, certain species of Eucalyptus displayed exceptional properties and showed promise in terms of their performance. In spite of the fact that eucalyptus has been hampered by a number of obstacles that prevent it from being used effectively in the production of plywood and LVL, there are always some solutions that can be found to overcome these problems. For instance, reducing the MOE variation of the resultant veneer-based panels can be accomplished through the use of alternating lamination with softer and lower density wood veneer. To summarize, the fast growing characteristics and high stiffness of Eucalyptus veneer present many opportunities to the veneer-based panel industries. However, in order to take advantage of these opportunities, a more reliable silviculture treatment and production process must be followed. Acknowledgements This study was funded by the Transdisciplinary Fundamental Research Grant Scheme (TRGS 2018-1), reference code: TRGS/1/2018/UPM/01/2/3, by the Ministry of Higher Education (MOHE), Malaysia.

References Akkurt T, Kallakas H, Rohumaa A, Hunt CG, Kers J (2022) Impact of Aspen and Black Alder substitution in Birch Plywood. Forests 13(2):142 Aydın ˙I, Çolak S, Çolako˘glu G, Salih E (2004) A comparative study on some physical and mechanical properties of Laminated Veneer Lumber (LVL) produced from Beech (Fagus orientalis Lipsky) and Eucalyptus (Eucalyptus camaldulensis Dehn.) veneers. Eur J Wood Wood Prod 62(3):218– 220 Bal BC (2016) Some technological properties of laminated veneer lumber produced with fastgrowing Poplar and Eucalyptus Maderas. Ciencia y Tecnología 18(3):413–424 Bal BC, Bektas I (2014) Some mechanical properties of plywood produced from eucalyptus, beech, and poplar veneer Maderas. Ciencia y Tecnología 16(1):99–108 Bal BC, Bektas I (2012) The effects of some factors on the impact bending strength of laminated veneer lumber. BioResources 7(4):5855–5863 Blackburn D, Vega M, Yong R, Britton D, Nolan G (2018) Factors influencing the production of structural plywood in Tasmania, Australia from Eucalyptus nitens rotary peeled veneer. South For: J For Sci 80(4):319–328 Bortoletto Junior G (2003) Produção de compensados com 11 espécies do gênero Eucalyptus, avaliação das suas propriedades físico-mecânicas e indicações para utilização. Sci For 63(2003):65–78 Dias FM, Lahr FAR (2004) Alternative castor oil-based polyurethane adhesive used in the production of plywood. Mater Res 7:413–420 Gaunt D, Penellum B, McKenzie HM (2003) Eucalyptus nitens laminated veneer lumber structural properties. NZ J Forest Sci 33(1):114–125

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Guo F, Altaner CM (2018) Properties of rotary peeled veneer and laminated veneer lumber (LVL) from New Zealand grown Eucalyptus globoidea. NZ J Forest Sci 48:1 Helgi Library (2023) Which country produces the most plywood? Plywood production (‘000 cbm), 2020 or latest. Available from https://www.helgilibrary.com/charts/which-country-producesthe-most-plywood/ Hopewell GP, Atyeo WJ, McGavin RL (2008) Evaluation of wood characteristics of tropical postmid rotation plantation Eucalyptus cloeziana and E. pellita: Part (d) Veneer and plywood potential. Project No: PN07.3022, Forest and Wood Products Australia Limited, Melbourne, Australia Iwakiri S, Matos JL, Prata JG, Trianoski R, Silva LS (2013) Evaluation of the use potential of nine species of genus Eucalyptus for production of veneers and plywood panels. Cerne 19:263–269 Jankowski IP (1979) Manufatura de painéis compensados commadeira de Eucalyptus spp: resultados preliminares. Piracicaba: IPEF, 1979. 4 p. (Circular Técnica IPEF, 82) Jankowski IP, Aguiar OJR (1983) Manufatura de painéiscompensados com Eucalyptus: caracterização de diversasespécies. Floresta, Colombo 14(1):46–53 Jia L, Chu J, Ma L, Qi X, Kumar A (2019) Life cycle assessment of plywood manufacturing process in China. Int J Environ Res Public Health 16(11):2037 La H, Zhilin C, Feng F, Mizi F (2015) Investigation of factory fire retardant treatment of eucalyptus plywood. For Prod J 65(7–8):320–326 Lee HM, Jeon WS, Lee JW (2021) Analysis of anatomical characteristics for wood species identification of commercial plywood in Korea. J Korean Wood Sci Technol 49(6):574–590 Lee SH, Lum WC, Antov P, Kristak L, Paridah MT (2022) Engineering wood products from Eucalyptus spp. Adv Mater Sci Eng. https://doi.org/10.1155/2022/8000780 Machado JF, Hillig É, Watzlawick LF, Bednarczuk E, Tavares EL (2018) Production of plywood panel for exterior use with paricá and embaúba timbers. Revista Árvore 42:e420406 Malaysian Timber Council (2020) Timber Malaysia - Issue: July–August. https://mtc.com.my/ima ges/publication/222/TM_Issue_Aug_2020_Final3_151020.pdf. p 14 Markets and Markets (2023) Plywood market. https://www.marketsandmarkets.com/Market-Rep orts/plywood-market-233250253.html Mathieu K, Carrick JW, Marosszeky M (2004) A Method for Cleavage Fracture Testing of Hardwood Laminated Veneer Lumber. In: SIF 2004 - Structural Integrity and Fracture, SIF 2004 - Structural Integrity and Fracture, Brisbane, Qld, presented at SIF 2004 - Structural Integrity and Fracture, Brisbane, Qld, 26 September 2004–29 September 2004 Millen PA, Apiolaza L, Chauhan S, Walker J. NZ Dryland Forests Initiative: a market focused durable eucalypt R&D project. InRevisiting eucalypts 2009: Workshop proceedings 2009. Christchurch: Wood Technology Research Centre, University of Canterbury, pp 57–74 Murata K, Nakano M, Miyazaki K, Yamada N, Yokoo Y, Yokoo K, Umemura K, Nakamura M (2021) Utilization of Chinese fast-growing trees and the effect of alternating lamination using mixed-species eucalyptus and poplar veneers. J Wood Sci 67:1–8 Naturally:wood (2023) Plywood - The fabrication, uses, performance and sustainability of plywood. Available from https://www.naturallywood.com/products/plywood/ Nicolao, E.S., Monteoliva, S., Ciannamea, E.M. and Stefani, P., 2022. Plywoods of northeast Argentinian woods and soybean protein-based adhesives: Relationship between morphological aspects of veneers and shear strength values. Maderas. Ciencia y tecnología 24 Seidu H, Németh R, Owusu FW, Korang J, Emmanuel AK, Govina JK, Younis FA (2023) Ibrahim S (2023) Mechanical properties of PF and MUF bonded juvenile hybrid eucalyptus plywoods produced in Ghana. Wood Research 68(3):521–531 Stefani PM, Peña C, Ruseckaite RA, Piter JC, Mondragon I (2008) Processing conditions analysis of Eucalyptus globulus plywood bonded with resol-tannin adhesives. Biores Technol 99(13):5977– 5980 Suffian M, Rafeadah R (2021) Basic Attributes of Plywood. Timber Technology Bulletin No. 113, Forest Research Institute Malaysia (FRIM), Kepong, Kuala Lumpur

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Vázquez G, González-Álvarez J, López-Suevos F, Antorrena G (2003) Effect of veneer side wettability on bonding quality of Eucalyptus globulus plywoods prepared using a tannin–phenol– formaldehyde adhesive. Biores Technol 87(3):349–353 Veneer Craft (2014) General Description of Plywood. Available from: https://irp.cdn-website.com/ 5610848a/files/uploaded/Detailed-Plywood-description.pdf. p. 2 WoodSolutions (2015) Environmental product declaration: plywood. https://www.australply.com. au/images/pdf/Environmental%20Product%20Declaration%20(EPD).pdf. p. 4 Yang JL, Waugh G (2001) Growth stress, its measurement and effects. Aust for 64(2):127–135 Yu Y, Yu W, Wang G (2007) Manufacturing Technology and Main Properties for Laminated Veneer Lumber of Eucalyptus. Scientia Silvae Sinicae 43(8):154–158

Chapter 8

Glue-Laminated Timber from Eucalyptus spp. Chee Beng Ong, Alia Syahirah Yusoh, and Mohd Khairun Anwar Uyup

8.1 History of Glulam Since the nineteenth century, glue-laminated timber (glulam) has been used as a construction material, alternative to steel and concrete. Glulam beams are known to have a better strength-to-weight ratio compared to concrete and steel, good fire performance, and dimension versatility in meeting the demanding shapes and sizes from the construction industries. Examples of the early glulam structures were the arches in the construction of railway bridges in England and Scotland from 1835 to 1855 (Riberholt 2007), King Edward College’s hall, England in 1860 (Lehringer and Gabriel 2014), cupola of the main building of University of Zurich in 1911 (Rinke 2015), tram depot in Basel in 1916 (Rinke 2019) and arches of the building at the Forest Products Laboratory, Wisconsin in 1934 (Moody and Hernandez 1997). During this period, glulam technology was patented as “Hetzer System” by Otto Hetzer in Germany in 1906 and later acquired by Bernhard Terner a few years later (Rinke 2015). In the last few decades, the versatility of glulam encourages the employment in the construction of modern buildings, some with long-span arches and aesthetic look. Examples are the main glulam arches of the Richmond Olympic Oval, Canada spanning almost 100 m (Canadian Wood Council 2010), the 17-m span road bridge in Zagreb with glulam girders (Haiman and Baljkas 2000), the construction of 160-m long wood pedestrian bridge with glulam girders in Mistissini, Québec in 2013 (Lefebvre and Richard 2014), the three- and four-storeys accommodation in Denver, Colorado employing glulam beams as columns and headers (APA 2014). Early records in Malaysia included the construction of a mosque in Forest Research Institute Malaysia (FRIM) using glulam technology as the rafters (Fig. 8.1) of the main building in 1977 (How et al. 2016). Other glulam structures in FRIM include a pedestrian glulam bridge first built in 1962 and a curved glulam footbridge C. B. Ong (B) · A. S. Yusoh · M. K. A. Uyup Forest Products Division, Forest Research Institute Malaysia (FRIM), 52109 Selangor, Malaysia e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2024 S. H. Lee et al. (eds.), Eucalyptus, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-7919-6_8

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in 1983. Subsequent replacements of this footbridge were made with the most recent completed construction of the glulam footbridge (Fig. 8.2) in 2018 (Gan et al. 2020). Other than the glulam members produced by the researchers in FRIM, other wellknown structures are the segmental glulam roof beams of the Malaysian Timber Industry Board (MTIB) Glulam Gallery in Johor, the arches of the main buildings for the Crops for the Future Research Centre (CFFRC) in Selangor and the arches of a restaurant in Langkawi. Hardwood timber species were commonly used in the manufacturing of the glulam beams in Malaysia due to the inherent timber resources from the tropical rainforest in the country. In recent times, the trend to utilize timber from the plantation forests is gaining momentum. One of the species is Eucalyptus timber. Plantation forests, such as the plantation of the Eucalyptus trees, are created to reduce the dependence of timber from the natural forests. Eucalyptus trees consist of many species such as Eucalyptus pellita, E. grandis, E. urophylla, E. globulus, and E. nitens, as well from hybrids. Eucalyptus plantation was established in Sabah, Malaysia in 1970s to promote forest conservation (Zaiton et al. 2020). Presently, the fast-growing nature of Eucalyptus trees makes it possible for the timber industry to harvest them quickly especially for the production of pulp and paper, fibreboard, charcoal, and firewood Fig. 8.1 Glulam rafters of Masjid Jamek FRIM

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Fig. 8.2 Curved glulam footbridge across a pond in FRIM

(Lee et al. 2022). Eucalyptus timber was also reported to be suitable in the manufacturing of glulam members (Balboni et al. 2023; Nogueira et al. 2023; Oliveira et al. 2023).

8.2 Glulam Manufacturing Glulam consists of pieces of timber, usually with finger joints, laminated edgewise or/and flatwise using moisture-resistant structural adhesive as bonding medium. The timber undergoes drying and strength grading, before being finger-jointed, laminated, and finishing to the targeted shapes and sizes (Ong 2015). Timber from Eucalyptus tree usually contains many knots due to their fast-growing nature. Thus, fingerjointing technique complements well where knots and other inherent defects are removed and re-jointed to produce longer pieces with higher mechanical strength. After finger-jointing, the timber pieces are laminated flatwise or edgewise to produce larger or wider beam in accordance with specifications by the customer. The positions of the finger joints are normally distributed and spaced at least 15 cm from the finger joints of the adjacent layer.

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8.3 Grading The individual layers of a glulam, called laminations or lamellae, are normally graded visually or by machine in accordance with practices or requirements of respective countries. Information related to the general requirements for strength graded structural timber can be found in the BS EN 14081-1. There are various non-destructive methods to grade and segregate the laminations. Balasso et al. (2021) used acoustic wave velocity (AWV) method to non-destructively test and grade sawn boards from E. nitens. The study managed to develop a linear model based on modulus of elasticity (MOE). The results from AWV tests showed high correlation between the MOE gathered from AWV and the mechanical tests. Balasso et al. (2022) further investigated the use of AWV method on E. Nitens trees and logs. The study indicated that the segregation at log level using AWV higher than 3.91 km/s produced the best yield with minimal numbers of logs sawn tested. The study concluded that the sorting of logs based on stiffness would result in higher recoveries of high-quality boards but the optimal sorting approach will still depend on the number of logs a producer could sort as well as the requirements from the market. Extensive tests were also conducted by Ettelaei et al. (2022) on sawn boards from E. nitens. The results indicated a strong linear correlation between the predicted MOE obtained from AWV method and static bending test, as well between MOE from machine strength grading (MSG) and static bending tests. Combination of parameters, specifically density and AWV, showed good results in estimating MOE using the multiple linear regression model in the study. Ultrasound grading was also used to sort Eucalyptus logs based on the requirements of the Brazilian standard NBR 15521. Ruy et al. (2018) used ultrasound equipment to sort E. grandis, E. cloeziana, and E. saligna logs in both saturated moisture content (greater than 30%) and air dry (moisture content approximately 12%) conditions. The results indicated that the measurement of velocity on logs with saturated moisture content (MC) produced good results and easiest to be used in the ultrasound grading of Eucalyptus timber. The study concluded that the diameter of the logs influenced the velocity measurements, which were used in calculating the coefficient of rigidity when grading. Efforts were also made to machine grade sawn timber of E. grandis according to European standards. Piter et al. (2004a) obtained a high correlation between the MOE and strength when subjected to bending, taking into account density and knot ratio in the machine strength grading of E. grandis sawn timber. Traditional visual strength grading (VSG) has limitations when segregating plantation timber such as Eucalyptus because of the inherent large number of knots and checks, although the actual stiffness of the timber piece was high. Piter et al. (2004b) investigated the use of VSG method on E. grandis. The study suggested that the annual rings of E. grandis should be discounted when visually grading the timber because of the difficulty in differentiating them. Another parameter, namely the slope of grain was also suggested to be disregarded in VSG of E. grandis because the number of test specimens exhibiting high slope of grain was low in the study.

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The results showed poor correlation between knot ratio with bending and tensile strength when tested mechanically. The pith of the timber, normally affiliated with large fissures, was found to be significantly affecting the bending and tensile strength, as well as the MOE in bending, tension, and compression.

8.4 Finger Joints Finger joints were known to be used as joints in the wooden parts by the American and German automotive companies in the 1920s (Jokerst 1981). Later, Karl Egner and Jagfeld from Otto Graf Stuttgart Technischer Hoschuele are credited with documenting the use of finger joints in timber structures in 1947 (Pereira et al. 2016). They reviewed the test results of finger joint components of a bridge built in the early 1940s. Currently, finger joints for both structural and nonstructural uses are well documented. Generally, finger-jointed piece is weaker compared to the solid unjointed piece, but could potentially achieve more than 75% of the tensile strength of a solid timber piece with no defects (Moody and Hernandez 1997). In the manufacturing of glulam, the production requirements of finger joints are well described in BS EN 14080 and BS EN 15497. In the bending strength test of glulam beams, failure usually initiated from the finger joints at the tension surface. Thus, it is important to study the strength properties of the finger joints especially in the manufacturing of glulam members. Many studies were conducted to assess the performance of finger joints produced from Eucalyptus timber. Pereira et al. (2016) tested 21 mm length finger joints of E. grandis and E. urophyla hybrid, bonded using polyurethane (PUR) glue and produced by a glulam manufacturer. The mean tensile strength of the finger joints was 47.72% lower than the test pieces without finger joints. The majority of the failures occurred along the glue lines with the mode of failure indicated as glue failure, indicating that the bonding of the joints is weaker than the wood. The study also concluded that the density of the test pieces influences the tensile strength of the finger joints. Nogueira et al. (2023) tested E. urograndis glulam beams consisting of finger joints of 20 mm length. The study concluded that the finger joints in the glulam beams were the weakest member since failures started from this region. Piter et al. (2007) also observed that the majority of failures in their bending strength test of E. grandis glulam beams initiated from finger joints and suggested that improvements to the strength of the glulam beams could be achieved by increasing the quality of the finger joints and utilizing machine strength grading to grade the laminations. Efforts were also made to glue finger joints in green condition. The advantages in green-gluing finger joints were said to be able to reduce material wastage compared to the traditional finger-jointing in dry condition; increasing the quality of the finger-jointed timber with less drying defects; increase the profits gained from the resulting by-products such as pulp chips in comparison to dry chips; cost reduction in drying and many more beneficial factors (González-Prieto et al. 2021). In the study conducted by González-Prieto et al. (2021), one-component PUR adhesive

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was used as bonding medium of the E. globulus finger joints. The results indicated that the mean density and modulus of rupture (MOR) of green-glued finger joints were statistically not different from the solid unjointed timber pieces when tested in dry condition. The green-glued finger joints even showed higher mean MOE in bending compared to dry-glued finger joints and solid wood. Hou et al. (2022) also employed one-component PUR adhesive to bond the finger joints of E. nitens timber. The study showed promising results and suggested the use of E. nitens to produce engineered wood product, incorporating finger joints in the laminations. The mean edgewise MOE of E. nitens showed reduction after finger-jointing but the average flatwise MOE did not show any significant difference from the solid wood. The study concluded that the characteristics MOE in bending of the finger-jointed E. nitens pieces could achieve the requirements of the Australian standard AS 1720.1 for timber structures. Although finger joints are weaker compared to unjointed solid timber pieces, but they are important to replace the defects especially in the fast-growing plantation species such as Eucalyptus. In the manufacturing of the glulam beams, defects such as knots, rot, warping, and splitting are removed and timber pieces are fingerjointed to produce longer piece. Finger-jointed pieces will have higher mechanical properties when compared to the timber with significant defects that have uncertain strength values. Furthermore, some studies indicated that gluing of finger joints in green condition showed promising results and comparable to solid wood of the same Eucalyptus species in terms of the MOE in bending.

8.5 Laminations Glulam consists of timber pieces, with or without finger joints, laminated together with the grain arranged in parallel to the length. Structural or load-bearing adhesive is used as the bonding medium. The laminations can be arranged homogeneously, with all the laminations from the same strength classes, or in a combined lay-up where laminations with different strength classes constitute the glulam timber. Examples of classification of glulam beam lay-ups and strength classes are given in BS EN 14080. The standard comprehensively documents the requirements in the production of glulam timber, including the bonding evaluation of the laminations, specifically delamination and shear tests of the glue lines. The testing of glue lines is important to ensure that the laminations met the requirements when manufacturing glulam and will not fail or delaminate while in-service. Many studies were conducted to evaluate the bonding performance of laminations made from Eucalyptus timber. Castro and Paganini (2003) conducted delamination and shear tests on glue lines of glulam beams arranged with a single E. grandis clone as well on glulam beams consisted of mixed timber species (two outer laminations consisted of E. grandis clone and five inner laminations consisted of poplar timber). The results showed good bonding quality between the glue lines of the E. grandis laminations and also between the mixed species of the glulam beams. Franke and

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Marto (2014) investigated the use of E. globulus timber in the manufacturing of structural and non-structural glulam beams. The timber boards were glued together using PUR adhesive and later tested with delamination test (EN 391) and shear test (EN 392). The results showed that the glue lines did not meet the delamination requirements of the standard, specifically under extreme climate variation or for external uses. In the shear tests, only some of the glue lines met the requirements in terms of shear strength and minimum wood failure percentage. The study concluded that other factors such as the use of different adhesives as bonding medium and improvement in processing methods could be further investigated to improve the bonding performance of the laminations and encourage the use of E. globulus timber in the production of glulam members. Pröller et al. (2015) investigated the potential of gluing E. grandis timber boards in green condition using PUR adhesive. The results showed poor bonding quality in the shear tests. The study concluded that further improvements on the quality of the glue lines can be made by improving the processing of the laminations prior to gluing; increasing the applied pressure when laminating because E. grandis timber has higher density; improving the gluing processes such as controlling the surrounding humidity and temperature; and shortening the assembly time. Delamination test in accordance with AITC 2007 was also conducted on glulam made of E. grandis and E. urophylla hybrid using resorcinol formaldehyde (RF) and castor oil PUR adhesives as bonding medium (de Oliveira et al. 2020). The study indicated good bonding of the laminations with no delamination recorded after the test. It was concluded that the Eucalyptus hybrid laminations glued with the tested adhesives were suitable for structural uses in terms of the bonding performance. E. grandis timber pieces were also laminated using emulsion polymer isocyanate (EPI) and polyvinyl acetate emulsion (PVAc) as bonding medium (Iejavs et al. 2022). The study evaluated the shear strength of the glue lines incorporating factors such as bonding pressure, pressing time, and adhesive spread. The results showed that the laminations bonded with EPI gave better bonding performance compared to PVAc. The bonding pressure and pressing time when laminating was found to be affecting the shear strength of the laminations. The study suggested that Eucalyptus timber bonded with EPI adhesive has great potential to be used as nonstructural glulam members and can be employed in humid condition. Eucalyptus timber is known to have difficulty in drying and thus the dimensional stability of the timber will affect the bonding performance of the glulam. Suleimana et al. (2020) investigated the shrinkage and shear strength properties of Eucalyptus wood specimens. The results showed that the mean radial and tangential shrinkage were 8.62% and 16.96% respectively, which is higher than other softwood such as Spruce, Scots Pine, and Maritime Pine reported by Silva et al. (2014). The shear strength of the solid wood and the glue lines were also tested according to ASTM D143 and Annex D of EN 14080 respectively, with melamine urea formaldehyde (MUF) used as bonding medium of the laminations. The results showed that the mean shear strength of the Eucalyptus wood was 12.14 MPa, stated as higher than the characteristic shear strength value of strength class D40 in EN 338. The mean shear strength of glue lines of surface- and edge-bonding were 14.19 MPa and

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12.03 MPa respectively, with failure at wood, indicating good bonding performance. These results showed the suitability of Eucalyptus timber in the manufacturing of glulam members.

8.6 Recent Research on Using Eucalyptus spp. The use of Eucalyptus timber in the manufacturing of glulam has been encouraging in the last few decades. The use of this fast-growing plantation species attracted interests because Eucalyptus timber exhibited similar or better mechanical properties to the commonly used softwoods; and has attractive and distinct-coloured wood surfaces (Oliveira et al. 2023). Many studies have been conducted on the performance of finger-jointed Eucalyptus timber, bonding properties of the laminations and the structural performance of the glulam beams. Martins et al. (2019) conducted bending tests on five-layers glulam beams made from single E. globulus timber and mixed glulam beams consisting of E. globulus and Poplar timber. The laminations were graded before being bonded. The layer arrangement consisted of the laminations with the lowest stiffness positioned at the center, increasing towards the outer layer of the glulam beam. In the mixed glulam beam, three Poplar laminations were placed as the central layers and the two external layers were the E. globulus laminations. The glulam beams were assembled in accordance with EN 14080 specifications and the adhesive used was one-component PUR. The results showed good bending properties, with the mean MOR of 121 MPa and 91 MPa, and mean MOE of 23,700 MPa and 19,100 MPa, for the E. globulus glulam beams and the mixed glulam beams respectively. The study also attempted to correlate the use of NDT methods with the MOE and MOR of static bending test of the glulam beams. The results showed that the transformed section method gave high correlation coefficient of the bending properties of the beams, while longitudinal vibration method was suggested to be suitable in grading or sorting of the laminations prior to gluing. The study also stated that the bonding between glue lines of (1) E. globulus laminations and (2) E. globulus and Poplar laminations, did not meet the minimum requirements of EN 14080 when tested for delamination (Method A of Annex C) and shear strength test (Annex D). The study concluded that the E. globulus glulam beams have the potential to be used for load bearing structures but further improvement on the quality of the glue lines is needed. Balboni et al. (2023) attempted to make use of prestressed E. grandis laminations in the manufacturing of glulam beams. The prestressing of the beams was made by straightening of bowed laminations in the laminating process. The beams were divided into two groups, namely beams with the bottom surface (1) pretensioned and (2) precompressed. They were tested using four-point bending test in accordance with ASTM D198. The findings indicated that there was no significant influence on the beam’s stiffness and strength when using bowed laminations to prestressed the glulam beams. Nevertheless, it was concluded that the Eucalyptus beams achieved adequate bending properties with low properties variation, although some inherent

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knots were maintained in the beams and 80% of the individual laminations did not meet the bow distortion requirements in the Australian standard AS 2796.1. A study by Nogueira et al. (2023) involved extensive testing of 40 glulam beams produced using E. urograndis. The glulam beams were grouped into four groups, sorted according to beams with or without finger joints, and combinations of either MUF or one-component PUR as bonding medium. The results showed that the beams were able to achieve bending strength with mean values above 56.5 MPa; mean bending stiffness of more than 17,812 MPa, mean compression strength parallel to grain above 65.4 MPa and mean shear strength of glue lines above 9.9 MPa. The mean bending strength of glulam beams without finger joints was near 90 MPa. This seems to indicate that the finger joints have an influence on the bending strength of the glulam beams. The results also showed mean percentage of wood failure lower than 90% in the shear test for some of the glue lines. These two factors indicated that the adhesives used in the study were not suitable because they were developed for gluing softwood timber. It was concluded that E. urograndis has great potential to be used as raw material in the production of glulam and suggested further development of suitable adhesives for gluing hardwood or hybrid species. Bourscheid and Terezo (2020) investigated the reinforcement of the finger joints in the Eucalyptus glulam beams using bidirectional glass and carbon fiber fabrics. The results indicated increments up to 37.8 and 40.5% in bending strength for glulam beams with finger joints reinforced with glass and carbon fiber respectively, when compared to the unreinforced beams. Petrauski et al. (2016) investigated the structural performance of porticos constructed using glulam members from Eucalyptus timber. The structure consisted of glulam beams connected by glued joints and metal spherical bearings. The study indicated that the porticos showed satisfactory mechanical performance and the resulting deformations, after applied loading, were lower than the allowable value indicated in the Brazilian standard ABNT NBR 7190. Castro and Paganini (2003) investigated the bending properties of glulam beams manufactured from mechanically graded E. grandis clones, as well on beams made of combination of Poplar and E. grandis clones. The beams were tested in four-point bending in accordance with EN 408. The results showed higher structural efficiency by the mixed glulam beams compared to beams manufactured using single species, either Poplar or Eucalyptus timber. The study suggested future possibility of classifying the Eucalyptus glulam in one of the strength classes in EN 1194, but further testing with increased replications is needed to obtain adequate data for calculating the characteristic strength of the tested glulam beams. Piter et al. (2007) conducted bending strength test according to EN 408 on 100 glulam beams of Argentinean E. grandis, comprising of groups from homogenous and combined lay-ups; as well as being grouped into different strength classes of GL 1 (highest grade) and GL 2 (lowest grade). The study also tested 191 fingerjointed laminations in accordance with EN 385 flatwise static bending tests. The results indicated that the homogenous glulam beams showed no differences from the combined lay-ups in terms of strength and stiffness in bending. The strength values of GL 1 and GL 2 glulam beams were found to be comparable to the GL 28 and GL 24 respectively, of the European standard EN 1194. The mean MOE of both GL 1

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and GL 2 showed higher values than all the strength classes listed in the European standard. The study also indicated that the ratio between MOE and density of the glulam beams was high, suggesting the suitability for structural uses. Analysis of the bending results showed significant percentages of glulam beams failure initiated from the finger joints region. The study suggested future improvement on the finger joints in the laminations and adopting more stringent criteria in establishing the characteristic bending strength of the finger joints.

References ABNT NBR 7190 (1997) Design of timber structures. Brazilian Association of Technical Standards, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil ABNT NBR 15521 (2007) Non-destructive testing—ultrasonic testing—mechanical classification of dicotyledonous sawn wood. Brazilian Association of Technical Standards, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil AITC (2007) Test T110: Test methods for structural glued laminated timber—cyclic delamination test. American Institute of Timber Construction, Centennial, USA APA (2014) Case study: glulam beams carry the load at downtown Denver Garden apartments. The Engineered Wood Association. Retrieved 3rd January 2023 at: https://www.apawood.org/dow nload_pdf.ashx?pubid=9ef0b3bd-e10c-4ba4-b51f-69904ece726f AS 1720.1 (2010) Timber structures, Part 1: Design methods. Standards Australia AS 2796.1 (1999) Timber–Hardwood—Sawn and milled products, Part 1: Product specification. Standards Australia ASTM D143 (2009) Standard test methods for small clear specimens of timber. ASTM International, West Conshohocken, Pennsylvania, United States ASTM D198 (1999) Standard test methods of static tests of lumber in structural sizes. ASTM International, West Conshohocken, Pennsylvania, United States Balasso M, Hunt M, Jacobs A, O’Reilly-Wapstra J (2021) Development of non-destructive-testing based selection and grading strategies for plantation Eucalyptus nitens sawn boards. Forests 12(3):343 Balasso M, Hunt M, Jacobs A, O’Reilly-Wapstra J (2022) Development of a segregation method to sort fast-grown Eucalyptus nitens (H. Deane & Maiden) Maiden plantation trees and logs for higher quality structural timber products. Ann For Sci 79:1, 1–15 Balboni BM, Wessels CB, Ribeiro ML, Garcia JN (2023) Investigating the use of bow for prestressing lamellas of glulam beams made with young Eucalyptus grandis timber. Constr Build Mater 362:129725 BS EN 14080 (2013) Timber structures—glued laminated timber and glued solid timber—requirements. British Standards Institution BS EN 14081-1:2016+A1 (2019) Timber structures. Strength graded structural timber with rectangular cross section. British Standards Institution BS EN 15497 (2014) Structural finger jointed solid timber—performance and minimum production requirements. British Standards Institution Bourscheid CB, Terezo RF (2020) Eucalyptus spp. glued laminated timber with reinforced fiber finger-joints. Floresta 51(1):109–117 Canadian Wood Council (2010) Case study: the Richmond Olympic Oval, p 36. Retrieved 3rd January 2023 at: http://cwc.ca/wp-content/uploads/publications-casestudy-RichmondOval_hires.pdf Castro G, Paganini F (2003) Mixed glued laminated timber of poplar and Eucalyptus grandis clones. Holz Als Roh-Und Werkstoff 61:291–298

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de Oliveira RG, Gonçalves FG, Segundinho PGDA, Oliveira JTDS, Paes JB, Chaves IL, Brito AS (2020) Analysis of glue line and correlations between density and anatomical characteristics of Eucalyptus grandis × Eucalyptus urophylla glulam. Maderas Ciencia y Tecnología 22(4):495– 504 EN 338 (2016) Structural timber—strength classes. European Committee for Standardization (CEN), Brussels, Belgium EN 385 (2001) Finger-jointed structural timber—performance requirements and minimum production requirements. European Committee for Standardization (CEN), Brussels, Belgium EN 391 (2001) Glued laminated timber – delamination of the glue lines. European Committee for Standardization (CEN), Brussels, Belgium EN 392 (1995) Glued laminated timber—shear test of glue lines. European Committee for Standardization (CEN), Brussels, Belgium EN 408 (2003) Timber structures—structural timber and glued laminated timber—determination of some physical and mechanical properties. European Committee for Standardization (CEN), Brussels, Belgium EN 1194 (1999) Timber structures—glued laminated timber. Strength classes and determination of characteristic values. European Committee for Standardization (CEN), Brussels, Belgium EN 14080 (2013) Timber structures—glued laminated timber and glued solid timber—requirements. European Committee for Standardization (CEN), Brussels, Belgium Ettelaei A, Taoum A, Nolan G (2022) Assessment of different measurement methods/techniques in predicting modulus of elasticity of plantation Eucalyptus nitens timber for structural purposes. Forests 13(4):607 Franke S, Marto J (2014) Investigation of Eucalyptus globulus wood for the use as an engineered material. In World Conference on Timber Engineering, Quebec, Canadá, p 8 Gan KS, CB Ong, How SS, Mohamad Omar MK, Zairul Amin R (2020) Construction of the glulam bridge at FRIM. FRIM Special Publication No. 43, Kepong, Selangor González-Prieto O, Casas Mirás JM, Torres LO (2021) Finger-jointing of green Eucalyptus globulus L. wood with one-component polyurethane adhesives. Eur J Wood Wood Prod, 1–9 Haiman M, Baljkas B (2000) New glulam timber structures in Croatia. In: 6th World Conference on Timber Engineering, Canada, p 9 Hou J, Taoum A, Kotlarewski N, Nolan G (2022) Study on the effect of finger joints on the stiffness of fibre-managed E. nitens sawn boards. Buildings 12:12, 2078 How SS, Sik HS, Anwar UMK (2016) An overview of manufacturing process of glue-laminated timber. Timber Technol Bull (63) Iejavs J, Š¸ke¯ le K, Grants E, Uzuls A (2022) Bonding performance of wood of fast-growing tree species eucalyptus (Eucalyptus grandis) and radiata pine (Pinus radiata D. Don) with polyvinyl acetate and emulsion polymer isocyanate adhesives. Agron Res 20:1, 174–187 Jokerst RW (1981) Finger-jointed wood products, vol 382. US Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Forest Products Laboratory Lee SH, Lum WC, Antov P, Kristak L, Md Tahir P (2022) Engineering wood products from Eucalyptus spp. Adv Mater Sci Eng, 1–14 Lefebvre D, Richard G (2014) Design and construction of a 160-metre-long wood bridge in Mistissini, Quebec. In: Proceeding of Internationales Holzbau-Forum, pp 3–5 Lehringer C, Gabriel J (2014) Review of recent research activities on one-component PUR-adhesives for engineered wood products. In: Aicher S, Reinhardt H-W, Garrecht H (eds) Materials and joints in timber structures, RILEM bookseries 9. Springer, pp 405–420 Martins C, Dias AMPG, Cruz H (2019) Blue gum: assessment of its potential for load bearing structures. In: 7th-International Scientific Conference on Hardwood Processing, p 104 Moody RC, Hernandez R (1997) Glued-laminated timber. Forest Product Laboratory, USDA Forest Service, Madison, Wisconsin Nogueira RDS, Icimoto FH, Calil Junior C, Lahr FAR (2023) Experimental study on full-scale glulam beams manufactured with Eucalyptus urograndis. Maderas Ciencia y Tecnología 25 Ong CB (2015) Glue-laminated timber (Glulam). Wood Composites, pp 123–140

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Oliveira RF, de Alcantara Segundinho PG, da Silva JGM, Gonçalves FG, Silva JPM, Lopes NF, da Cunha Mastela L, Paes JB, de Souza CGF, Lahr FAR (2023) Adding value to low-value eucalyptus wood by glulam production: Evaluation and prediction of its properties by nondestructive tool (preprint) Pereira MCDM, Calil Neto C, Icimoto FH, Calil Junior C (2016) Evaluation of tensile strength of a eucalyptus grandis and eucalyptus urophyla hybrid in wood beams bonded together by means of finger joints and polyurethane-based glue. Mater Res 19:1270–1275 Petrauski SMFC, Silva JDC, Petrauski A, Lucia RMD (2016) Analysis of eucalyptus gluedlaminated timber porticos structural performance. Revista Árvore 40:931–939 Piter JC, Cotrina AD, Sosa Zitto MA, Stefani PM, Torrán EA (2007) Determination of characteristic strength and stiffness values in glued laminated beams of Argentinean Eucalyptus grandis according to European standards. Holz Als Roh-Und Werkstoff 65(4):261–266 Piter JC, Zerbino RL, Blaß HJ (2004a) Machine strength grading of Argentinean Eucalyptus grandis: Main grading parameters and analysis of strength profiles according to European standards. Holz Als Roh-Und Werkstoff 62:9–15 Piter JC, Zerbino RL, Blaß HJ (2004b) Visual strength grading of Argentinean Eucalyptus grandis: Strength, stiffness and density profiles and corresponding limits for the main grading parameters. Holz Als Roh-Und Werkstoff 62:1–8 Pröller M, Wessels CB, Barbu MC (2015) Green-gluing of Eucalyptus grandis for laminated wood products. In: XIV World Forestry Congress Riberholt H (2007) Performance of old glulam structures in Europe. Rapport, BYG·DTU R-177, Danmarks Tekniske Universitet, p 18 Rinke M (2015) Terner & Chopard and the new timber—early development and application of laminated timber in Switzerland. In: 5th International Congress on Construction History, Chicago, p8 Rinke M (2019) Mechanization and early hybrid material use in glulam construction—the tram depot in Basel from 1916. In: Studies in the history of services and construction. Proceedings of the Sixth Conference of the Construction History Society, pp 651–660 Ruy M, Gonçalves R, Pereira DM, Lorensani RGM, Bertoldo C (2018) Ultrasound grading of round Eucalyptus timber using the Brazilian standard. European Journal of Wood and Wood Products 76:889–898 Silva C, Branco JM, Camões A, Lourenço PB (2014) Dimensional variation of three softwood due to hygroscopic behavior. Constr Build Mater 59:25–31 Suleimana A, Sena CS, Branco JM, Camões A (2020) Ability to glue Portuguese eucalyptus elements. Buildings 10(7):133 Zaiton S, Sheriza MR, Ainishifaa R, Alfred K, Norfaryanti K (2020) Eucalyptus in Malaysia: Review on environmental impacts. J Landsc Ecol 13(2):79–94

Chapter 9

Bleached and Dissolving Pulp Properties of Eucalyptus Urophylla Nyoman J. Wistara, Angga W. Nasdi, Susi Sugesty, and Teddy Kardyansah

9.1 Introduction In recent decades, there has been an increase in the demand for cellulose-based products. FAO (2009) predicted that by 2030, the demand for paper and paperboard would reach approximately 747 million m3 , with only approximately 743 million m3 produced. The scarcity of lignocellulosic raw materials has been critical in the development of pulp and paper. Sorghum (Wistara and Fatriasari 2023), reed (Fatriasari et al. 2023), ginger torch stem (Zendrato et al. 2021), and fast-growing wood species such as jabon wood have all been investigated as raw material sources (Wistara et al. 2015). Recently, demand for cellulose derivatives such as dissolving pulp-based products has increased (Lemma et al. 2023; Gong et al. 2023). Wood shared about 95–97% of pulp raw materials (Jiménez et al. 2005). Eucalyptus is the most important fiber raw material for pulp and paper in many regions, such as Southwestern Europe (Portugal and Spain), South America (Brazil and Chile), South Africa, Japan, and other countries (Rencoret et al. 2007). Eucalyptus globulus and Eucalyptus nitens are preferred species for temperate and Mediterranean climates, while the E. grandis, E urophylla, and hybrid species are most suitable to be grown in sub-tropical and tropical regions (Domingues et al. 2011). The potential of eucalyptus wood as a raw material for pulp and paper is comparable to mangium wood. It is a relatively fast-growing species that can reach a diameter of 14.82–16.69 cm at the age of 7.5 years and an annual increment of 31.5–40.7 m3 ha−1 year−1 (Pereira et al. 2013). The cellulose content of eucalyptus wood (E. N. J. Wistara (B) · A. W. Nasdi Department of Forest Products, Faculty of Forestry and Environment, IPB University, IPB Campus Darmaga, Jl. Ulin, Bogor 16680, Indonesia e-mail: [email protected] S. Sugesty · T. Kardyansah Center for Pulp and Paper, Indonesian Ministry of Industry, Jl. Raya Dayeuhkolot 132, Bandung 40258, Indonesia © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2024 S. H. Lee et al. (eds.), Eucalyptus, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-7919-6_9

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globulus, E. urograndis, E. grandis) is higher than that of mangium wood, with lower lignin, extractives, and ash content (Evtuguin and Neto 2007). Several species of eucalyptus are easily cooked to produce low kappa numbers with satisfactory yields (Khristova et al. 2006). In addition to being easy to cook, eucalyptus wood (E. urograndis) is also easy to bleach (Liu and Zhou 2011). From the anatomy of its fibers, E. grandis has longer fibers, narrower lumens, and thinner cell walls than those of E. alba, E. tereticornis, E. torrellina, E. urophylla, and E. Camaldulensis (Dutt and Tyagi 2011). This study aimed to determine the age of eucalyptus wood (Eucalyptus urophylla S. T. Blake) that can produce the best-bleached pulp quality based on fiber morphology, wood chemical composition, optical properties, and pulp strength. It is important to know the exact age of the wood and the level of the chemical components of the wood because the age and chemical properties of the raw material determine the strength of the pulp (Kevin et al. 2000). Fiber derivative values have been commonly used to evaluate the quality of paper raw materials. The results of this study can be used to determine the optimum harvesting rotation of eucalyptus wood stands for pulp and paper raw materials. Evaluation of the wood’s dissolving pulp properties was also examined.

9.2 Materials and Methods 9.2.1 Sample Preparation and Chemical Analysis of Wood The eucalyptus wood (Eucalyptus urophylla) aged 4, 5, 6, and 7 years was obtained from Garut, West Java, Indonesia. The wood was barked before being chipped into approximately 60 × 30 × 20 mm size. For chemical analysis, about 500 g of chips were pulverized into 40–60 mesh wood meals. A number of chips were also sampled for fiber dimension measurement according to SNI 01-1840-1990. The content of holocellulose, pentosan, α-cellulose, Klason lignin, cold and hot water solubility, 1% NaOH solubility, extractives (in dichloromethane), and ash was respectively determined following the standard procedures of SNI 01-1303-1989, SNI 01-15611989, SNI 0444:2009, SNI 0492:2008, SNI 01-1305-1989, SNI 01-1033-1989, SNI 14-7197-2006, and SNI 0442:2009.

9.2.2 Pulping and Pulp Bleaching Pulping was carried out on a laboratory scale using a kraft pulping process with an active alkali of 17% and a sulfidity of 30%. The liquor to wood (L/W) ratio was 4:1. The cooking time was carried out for 3.5 h with a maximum temperature of 165 C. The pulping yield was measured as a screened yield. The kappa number of pulp was

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Table 9.1 Pulp bleaching conditions Parameters

D0

E

D1

D2

ClO2 (%, active chlorine)

0.22 KN

–

–

–

ClO2 (%)

–

–

1

0.5

NaOH (%)

–

1.5

–

–

Consistency (%)

10

10

10

10

Temperature (°C)

60

75

75

75

Time (minutes)

60

75

180

180

determined following the standard procedure of SNI 0494:2008. The pulp was then bleached using an ECF bleaching process of 4 stages, namely D0 –E–D1 –D2 . The conditions of the bleaching process are listed in Table 9.1.

9.2.3 Mechanical Properties, Brightness, and Dirt Evaluation of Pulp The bleached pulp was beaten in a Niagara beater to a freeness of 300 ml CSF (Canadian Standard Freeness). Pulp handsheets were made with a grammage of 60 gsm, pressed, and air-dried according to SNI ISO 187:2011 with drying conditions of 27 ± 1 C temperature and 50 ± 2% relative humidity. The properties of pulp tested include tensile resistance (SNI ISO 1924-2-2010), Elmendorf method tear resistance (SNI 0436:2009), burst resistance (SNI ISO 2758:2011), brightness (SNI 14-4733-1998), and dirt (SNI 0697:2009).

9.2.4 Fiber Measurements Measurements of fiber length, fiber diameter, and cell wall thickness were carried out by OLYMPUS fiber optic tester PTCB-E02 microscope. The fiber sample was stained with safranin on a petri dish and was kept for 12 h before measurement. Measurement was carried out on 100 fibers at 200 magnifications for fiber diameter and 50 magnifications for fiber length.

9.2.5 Statistical Analysis of the Chemical Components Data on wood chemical components, cooking yields, and kappa numbers were statistically analyzed using a simple complete randomized design at a 95% confidence level. Further analysis with Duncan MRT was carried out to ascertain the effect of

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wood age on pulp quality. The treatment in this study was the age of the wood (4, 5, 6, and 7 years) with two replications. The model for the design was: Yi j = U + Ai j + e where: Y ij = observations data due to the influence of age to i on the test to j, U = The average general value of the observation results, Aij = Effect of the ith age treatment at the jth replication, e = error.

9.2.6 Dissolving Pulp Evaluation Dissolving pulp evaluation was carried out with the 6-years-old wood, considering that the wood indicated relatively better chemical properties, pulping, and pulp properties. Chipping will be more efficient with a relatively bigger diameter than those of the 4 and 5-years-old wood. The prehydrolized-kraft process was used for the preparation of the dissolving pulp. Hydrolysis was done by adding a 0.4% sulfuric acid concentration to the cooking liquor (water). Upon the pre-hydrolysis stage, kraft pulping was done with active alkaline and sulfidity of 17% and 30%, respectively. Both pre-hydrolysis and kraft pulping stages operated at the L/W of 4/1, the maximum cooking temperature of 165 C, and a total cooking time of 3.5 h (2 h impregnation time and 1,5 h cooking at maximum temperature). The resulting pulp was then bleached with an ECF method consisting of 5 bleaching stages, i.e., D0 ED1 ED2 . Table 9.2 indicates the bleaching conditions. The characteristics of the dissolving pulp were examined, referring to the regular rayon pulp specifications. The parameters studied were α-cellulose content (SNI ISO 692), alkali solubility at 10% (R10) and 18% (R18) NaOH concentration, extractive content (dichloromethane), ash content, acid-insoluble ash, viscosity, hemicellulose Table 9.2 Bleaching conditions for the preparation of the dissolving pulp Parameter

D0

E

D1

E

D2

ClO2 , %

0.22 KN

–

1.0

–

0.5

NaOH, %

–

1.5

–

1.5

–

Consistency, %

10

10

10

10

10

Temperature, C

70

70

75

70

75

Reaction Time, min

60

60

180

60

180

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content, and brightness. These parameters were respectively determined following the Indonesian National Standard (SNI) of SNI 0444, SNI ISO 692, SNI 7197, SNI 7460, SNI ISO 776, SNI 0936, and SCAN-CM 15, and SNI ISO 2470.

9.3 Results and Discussion 9.3.1 Fiber Quality Grade Fiber dimensions and their derivatization value are common measurements used as a preliminary assessment for wood quality as a raw material of pulp and paper. The fiber dimensions and derivatives value of E. urophylla fibers of the present study can be seen in Table 9.3. The fiber length of E. urophylla increased from the 4-year-old to the 6-year-old trees and then decreased afterward. The average fiber and lumen diameter of E. urophylla increased until the age of 5 years and then reduced. Meanwhile, the average cell wall thickness decreased with the age of the wood. The fiber dimension of other species of eucalyptus has been reported. The fiber length, cell wall thickness, and fiber diameter of E. grandis is 1.06 mm, 3.2 μm, and 19.21 μm, respectively (Dutt and Tyagi 2011). Lukmandaru et al. (2016) found that the fiber dimensions of 9-years-old E. pellita was 1.02 mm (fiber length), 3.15 μm (cell wall thickness), and 13.25 μm (fiber diameter). Mangium wood (Acacia mangium) is another primary source of pulp raw material in Indonesia. The wood has a fiber length of 0.98 mm, a cell wall thickness of 2.5 μm, and a fiber diameter of 14.29 μm (Yahya et al. 2010). Therefore, the fiber of the 6-year-old E. europhylla was longer than those of E. grandis, E. pelita, and A. mangium. Its cell wall thickness and fiber diameter were much higher than those of E. grandis, E. pellita, and A. mangium. Long fibers are well known to improve the formation during the papermaking process and the tear strength of paper (Haygreen and Bowyer 1996). Fiber diameter influences pulp and papermaking processes, such as the pulp’s strength, washing, filtration, refining, sheet formation, and interfiber bonding. Based on LPHH’s (1976) scoring system of fiber dimensions and fiber derivatives values, E. urophylla aged 4, 5, 6, and 7 years were classified as the quality grade of II. The woods have the same quality grade as A. mangium (Yahya et al. 2010) and E. grandis (Dutt and Tyagi 2011). Fibers of quality grade II will produce paper with a moderate tear, breaking, and tensile strength.

9.3.2 Chemical Components Table 9.4 indicates the content of investigated E. urophylla chemical components. Holocellulose content of E. urophylla tended to increase from age 4 to 5 years, then decreased afterward. ANOVA (Table 9.5) showed that the age of wood significantly

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Table 9.3 Quality classification and grade of E. urophylla fiber as a raw material for pulp and paper Fiber dimensions and derivatives

Pulp quality classification (LPHH 1976)

Age (quality grade*)

I (100)

III (25)

4

II (50)

5

6

7

Fiber length (mm)

>2

1–2

90

50–90

60

73,20 (III)

63,67 (III)

68,46 (III)

68,69 (III)

Coefficient of 0,15

0,24 (III)

0,20 (III)

0,22 (III)

0,22 (III)

Flexibility ratio

>0,8

0,5–0,8

150°). Meanwhile, da Cruz et al. (2020) combined cationic tannin polymer derivative (TN) with PVA to create films. PVA/TN shows increasing antimicrobial activity against P. aeruginosa and S. aureus.

10.4.5 Adhesive The use of tannins as adhesives has received a lot of attention. The desire to limit formaldehyde emissions in the synthetic adhesive (the primary concern with adhesive nowadays) arises from a significant threat to customers’ health caused by carcinogenic substances (Das et al. 2020; da Silva Araujo et al. 2021). The emissions that can be released into the environment occur mostly during the preparation of the adhesive and the manufacture of wooden boards. There may be residually emitted in wood goods after their production (da Silva Araujo et al. 2021). Aside from its potential to minimize the emissions of formaldehyde, tannin adhesive is recognized by its fungal resistance (da Silva Araujo et al. 2021). Tannin wood adhesives are gaining popularity due to their cross-linking chemistry and similar reactivity to formaldehyde as resorcinol- and phenol–formaldehyde structure (Shirmohammadli et al. 2018; Tahir et al. 2019). Tannins and synthetic adhesives can be copolymerized in two goals: in

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the synthetic resin, a small amount of tannin can reduce the emission of formaldehyde; nevertheless, in the tannin-based adhesives, a small amount of synthetic resin can increase water resistance (Shirmohammadli et al. 2018). Natural tannin-based adhesives produce very low quantities of formaldehyde due to the strong reactivity of these substances related to the composition of the condensed tannins. The improvements in wood characteristics including flammability, strength, and longevity of wood utilizing condensed tannins and hydrolyzable tannins were confirmed by (Das et al. 2020). Adhesives based on polyethylenimine and condensed tannins were also discovered to have improved water resistance and excellent shear strength qualities in wood composites (Das et al. 2020). Condensed tannins are preferred over hydrolyzable tannins because they are more resistant to moisture. After all, the bonded unit compositions have better moisture resistance. Condensed tannins can be employed in adhesive manufacturing with two techniques: auto-condensation or polycondensation reactions (Shirmohammadli et al. 2018). Eucalyptus plantations are primarily used for pulp and paper production although the prospect of producing wood adhesives using Eucalyptus bark as a feedstock should be explored more (Amari et al. 2021). Some researchers have attempted to use Eucalyptus tannin as an adhesive, but it has some drawbacks such as high viscosity and low glue line resilience (Tahir et al. 2019). Amari et al. (2021) extracted tannins from E. globulus bark at 70 °C in an alkaline condition with a 27.1% yield (Amari et al. 2021). The extracted tannins contain a rich of condensed tannins, mainly in prodelphinidin and procyanidin units. This tannin extract and hexamine were used to produce an adhesive. With a MOE of 2807 MPa at 180 °C and a shear strength of 689.4 N/mm2 , this adhesive demonstrated great thermal stability and outstanding mechanical properties. Tannin from the bark of E. camaldulensis trees was also successfully isolated via sulfitation (Tahir et al. 2019). The sulfited tannin reinforced with UF and PF resins was utilized to create 3-ply plywood with medium–high-medium density veneers. Tannin-UF bonded plywood has much better bonding qualities (shear strength) than tannin-PF bonded plywood. However, after the boiling-drying-boiling (BDB) test. tannin-PF bonded plywood demonstrates superior bonding quality (Tahir et al. 2019).

10.4.6 Biopesticide The expansion and promotion of biopesticides as eco-friendly and harmless pesticides which only attack the target pest has attracted worldwide attention in the recent decade. A chemical pesticide was produced by plants as the defense self-mechanism against pest attacks or fungi. The mode of tannin action in insects shows widespread agreement in the physiology and behavior of insects, such as repellency and insecticidal action. The presence of tannins in a bound form with proteins is assumed to have properties that reduce the digestibility of food protein, inhibition of digestive enzymes, repellent taste sensation, and astringency (Schultz 1989). Biopesticide properties that will be discussed are fungal activity and insect activity.

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Numerous investigations have noted a volatile compound from Eucalyptus oil that has biopesticide action. The plant extract of E. camaldulensis, E. citriodora, E. dalrympleana, E. globulus, E. rostrate, and E. camaldulensis has been demonstrated to have antifungal action against decay fungi T. rubrum, Microsporum gypsum, and Epidermophyton floccosum. Human pathogen Candida species and Trichophyton mentagrophytes, Microsporum canis and E. follicularis (Su et al. 2006; Zhang et al. 2010). Moreover, insecticidal properties evaluated from eucalyptus essential oils against Aphis gossypii, Apriona germarii, Psacothea hilaris, and Monochamus alternatus (extracted from E. globulus); Sitophilus zeamais and Tribolium confusum (extracted from E. grandis and E.saligna). The anti-termite activity was also detected in plant extracts of E. urophylla and E. citriodora (Lin 1998). Natural herbicides against Parthenium hysterophorus, Cassia occidentalis. Echinochloa crus-galli and A. viridis were evaluated in Eucalyptus oils (Zhang et al. 2010). Further, this study reviews in detail the application of tannins as biopesticides extracted from the bark of Eucalyptus. Insect, fungus, and bacterial attacks can be warded off by compounds found in the bark. Tannins, which were utilized as pesticides, herbicides, and wood preservatives in earlier studies, are one of the chemical components that make up a large portion of the bark. (Ohmura et al. 1999; Ohara et al. 2003). Condensed tannins and hydrolyzed tannins are the two main categories of tannins. The 3-ol flavan compounds that make up condensed tannins have 4 → 6 and 4 → 8 carbon linkages. Functional groups in tannins’ structure and biological activity are strongly connected, as well as tannin stereochemistry (Ohara et al. 2003). The bark of Eucalyptus was rich in tannin and other phenolic compounds. Previous research has shown that the chemical content of bark is higher when compared to other parts such as heartwood, sapwood, and knots. The acetone bark extract of E. camaldulensis reported bioinsecticide properties as antifungal, contact, and fumigant activity against insects. The development of the fungi F. culmorum and B. cinerea on the wood block treated with the acetone extract of E. camaldulensis (3%) was inhibited with values of 49.66% and 43.33%, while there was no effect on R. solania. Antifungal and insecticidal activities have been attributed to the presence of polyphenolic substances (flavonoid and tannin) such as gallic, protocatechuic, vanillic, ellagic acids, protocatechuic aldehyde, eriodictyol, quercetin, aringenin, luteolin, and kaemperol (Conde et al. 1996; Nasr et al. 2019a). For the insecticidal test, the result showed that after 24 h the extract caused 100% mortality of T. castaneum and S. oryzae. As evidenced by the insect behavior that decided to avoid discs treated with extract, the mode of insect response following treatments was poisonous and repellent behavior. The toxicity increased with higher doses, longer exposure times, and different pest species (Ismayati et al. 2016; Abdelkhalek et al. 2020). S. oryzae was more tolerant than T. castaneum to the extract treatment. The same observation on the effect of the teak wood extract on termites, where C. formosanus was more tolerant to the extractives than R. speratus (Ismayati et al. 2016). Meanwhile, the feeding deterrent activity is thought to be caused by the presence of quercetin. Condensed tannins consist of 3-ol flavan compounds, as reported by Gressel and Ammann that quercetin as an allelochemical

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has insecticidal activity in storage insects (Gressel and Ammann 2008). Another report mentioned that ethanol extract from E. camaldulensis has antifeedant against Helicoverpa armigera larvae in no-choice bioassays with the EI50 value of about 6.9%. Generally, tannin compounds in the bark of Eucalyptus have potency as biopesticide as alternative integrated pest management.

10.4.7 Fire Retardant Tannin is a natural polyphenolic compound present in both vascular and nonvascular plants with excellent thermal stability properties (Vera and Urbano 2021; Basak et al. 2021). Both types of tannin, HTs, and CTs such as gallic acid, ellagitannin, pedunculagin, gallotannin, and catechol. Quercetin, and gallocatchein play roles in fire-retardant properties (Bauer et al. 2010; Pacher et al. 2022). Home furnishing products with a lignocellulose material show an aesthetic and warm ambient but it is a low fire resistance caused by the presence of C, H, and O in wood (as a cellulose form) (Carosio et al. 2015). In order to prevent the spread of fire in a material, flameretardant additives have been thoroughly explored for use in construction materials. Nonflammable items on the market are typically constructed of inorganic materials and have good performance, but they have a negative impact on the environment (Segev et al. 2009). A green way to raise the economic worth of bark is to utilize or repurpose waste products from the wood industry in conjunction with sustainable technology. Tree bark, a byproduct of the pulp and paper industry has a lot of potential as a raw material for MDF, particleboard (Xing et al. 2007), thermal (Barbu et al. 2020; Gößwald et al. 2021), acoustic (Tudor et al. 2021), and other insulations, as well as in applications as an adhesive filler with low formaldehyde emissions (Réh et al. 2021). When applied at a spray volume of 2.0 L m−2 and a concentration of 0.0060% (diluted in water) within 2.0 h of application on the combustible material, the water-retaining polymer was successful and can be used as a fire retardant for indirect use, including in controlled burning in plantations of hybrid clones of Eucalyptus urophylla x Eucalyptus grandis (Lima et al. 2020). A tannin as a natural polyphenol can be synthesized with urea or formaldehyde to produce a high content of nitrogen polymer under alkaline conditions via the Mannich reaction. (Widsten et al. 2021; Pöhler et al. 2022). The most nucleophilic aromatic carbons are those that are ortho or para to a phenolic hydroxyl group in procyanidin-type condensed tannin A-rings. Urea and formaldehyde form an electrophilic immonium ion intermediate. Electron-rich aromatic carbons attack this intermediate to form imines (Aristri et al. 2021; Pöhler et al. 2022). The mechanism reaction is illustrated in Fig. 10.6. Another application has been reported by Pacher et al. (2022), in which the tree bark and cement composite provide a fire-retardant and fulfill EN 1363-1:2020 standard (EN 1363-1 2020; Pacher et al. 2022). Unfortunately, the content of hemicellulose, starch in bark extract caused a longer setting time and a limitation in the

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Fig. 10.6 Illustration of mannish reaction of condensed tannin with urea to produce imides polymer (* is are active site) modified from (Pöhler et al. 2022)

strength of the material, as a consequence of micro-fracturing of the matrix during cement hydration (Lin et al. 1994).

10.5 Conclusions Considering that an abundance of Eucalyptus barks as a by-product of the pulp and paper industry is unutilized, it must take advantage of it as a source of natural polyphenols. The richness of tannins in Eucalyptus tree bark is varying qualitatively and quantitatively according to the species and the origin of the samples. Tanninbased polymers have a lot of potential for addressing the need for renewable resources that can satisfy current polymer needs while yet being environmentally responsible. The tannin-based polymer, which comes from a renewable source and uses green chemistry, has various benefits, including its ability to work as an adhesive and as a fire retardant in addition to being useful for pharmaceuticals, textiles, and other products. However, in fact, this natural source of polyphenols has limits related to the purity of the tannin compounds from eucalyptus bark, which undoubtedly influences the stability of the biological characteristics of the tannin-based polymer. In order to increase the economic value of bark waste and compete with synthetic polyphenols, which are fossil and non-renewable materials, more thorough research will still be required in the future on the method of isolating tannin from Eucalyptus wood bark on a pilot or industrial scale with the best polyphenol (tannin) content. Acknowledgements The authors are grateful for a research grant from the Deputy of Research and Innovation. National Research and Innovation Agency (BRIN) entitled “Pusat Kolaborasi Riset Kosmetik Berteknologi Nano Berbasis Biomassa” the fiscal year 2022 (Grant number: 398/II/FR/ 3/2022)

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Chapter 11

Phytochemical, Essential Oils and Product Applications from Eucalyptus Aswandi Aswandi, Cut Rizlani Kholibrina, and Harlinda Kuspradini

11.1 Introduction Natural ingredients are applied in an expanding number of products, such as cosmetics, food, beverages, and personal care items, as a result of increased public awareness of the serious health concerns linked to the long-term utilization of synthetic additives (Sharma et al. 2021). This rising consumer awareness and the push for international rules have driven the beauty industries to explore novel bioactive components as raw materials for their safer and more environmentally beneficial products (Amberg and Fogarassy 2019; Firenzuoli et al. 2014). Essential oils are growing as a promising ingredient in cosmetics and health due to their distinct aromatic character, particularly for fragrance formulation, as well as the advantages of each component, such as anti-inflammatory, antibacterial, and antioxidant properties (Guzmán and Lucia 2021; Sharmeen et al. 2021). Different active components are utilized to create a variety of cosmetic goods, including lipsticks, fragrances, conditioners, as well as moisturizers, lotions, and cleansers for the skin. Consumer interest in the quality and efficacy of organic products has driven the growth of the natural cosmetics market in recent years. Natural cosmetics represent for 10% of global cosmetics market in 2021, or a market share of over 40 billion USD (Guzmán and Lucia 2021). This promotes initiatives to discovery and utilizes plant bioactive substances in advanced product development for health, beauty, and human A. Aswandi (B) · C. R. Kholibrina · H. Kuspradini Research Center for Biomass and Bioproducts, National Research and Innovation Agency, Jl. Raya Bogor Km 46, Bogor 16911, Indonesia e-mail: [email protected] Faculty of Forestry, Department of Forest Product, Mulawarman University, Jl. Penajam, PO Box 1013, Samarinda 75119, Indonesia Research Collaboration Center for Cosmetic Based Nano-Biomass, Faculty of Forestry, Mulawarman University, Jl. Penajam, PO Box 1013, Samarinda 75119, Indonesia © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2024 S. H. Lee et al. (eds.), Eucalyptus, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-7919-6_11

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welfare. Essential oils, along with their corresponding ingredients, are considered as the most valuable components to meet a number of requirements in innovative product designs (Sharmeen et al. 2021). One essential oil that is recognized as antibacterial, anti-inflammatory, and painrelieving properties, and daily use is Eucalyptus oil. This natural extract has been employed for analgesic, expectorant, antispasmodic, insecticidal, and antiviral functions. This essential compound is identified as high antioxidants, and contains several flavonoids which shield the human body from destructive free radicals and oxidative stress. The main flavonoids included in eucalyptus leaf oil are recognized to play a significant role in preventing cardiovascular problems and several malignancies, as well as providing several advantages for skin health. Eucalyptus oil has been extensively applied in a variety of beauty goods, fragrances, and home appliances due to its analgesic, antibacterial, and antimicrobial properties. This chapter aims to present a current perspective on eucalyptus essential oil application in cosmetics. Additionally, several issues regarding possible safety measures considered when applying essential oils in cosmetic formulations will be highlighted.

11.2 Origins and Essential Oils Eucalyptus is a member of Myrtaceae, origin from Australia with a long history in the region. The aborigin communities have employed this oil for therapeutic purposes, including cuts and wounds treatment. Although this tree species was once utilized in folk medicines, it is now widely grown to create pulp and timber all over the world. Several Eucalyptus species, including Eucalyptus citriodora, E. globulus, E. polybractea, E. radiata, and E. grandis, contributed significantly to oil production. Secondary metabolites found in eucalyptus oil include monoterpenes, sesquiterpenes, aldehydes, and ketones. These phytochemical constituents are determined by species, geographical region, season, harvesting period, and extraction technique (Barra 2009). Eucalyptus oil from different tree species has different levels of chemical compounds that make each one uniquely suited for applications. One of the most common Eucalyptus oil-producing tree species is Eucalyptus globulus. This oil has a long history of use for treating fever, illness, sneezing, and nasal congestion symptoms. Currently, the pharmaceutical industry employs globulus oil as an antimicrobial, decongestant, and expectorant. This oil relieves chest tightness by assisting in the removal of excess mucus from the respiratory tract. The breath-relieving properties of menthol- and camphor-like scented oil also make it an excellent option for aromatherapy, especially for promoting recovery from bronchitis and sinusitis. Depending on the quality and source of oil, the 1,8-cineole content in this oil might reach up to 70%. Another species, Eucalyptus citriodora has a much lower content of 1,8-cineole (about 2%) than E. globulus oil. Since this essential oil has a fresh and uplifting lemon scent, citriodora oil is frequently used to add fragrance to cosmetics, personal care products and complementary medications. The oil is often referred to as lemon

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gum or lemon Eucalyptus. Citriodora oil is identified to contain antioxidants, antiinflammatory, and analgesic. Due to its relaxing impact on the respiratory system, this oil is particularly beneficial for alleviating cold, flu, asthmatic, and/or sinusitis symptoms. It can also reduce allergy-related symptoms. Eucalyptus radiata produces a distinctively aromatic essential oil that is frequently applied in aromatherapy. The aroma of radiata oil is gentler and sweeter than that of globulus oil because it contains less eucalyptol (approximately 65%). For the benefits of aromatherapy, Eucalyptus radiata oil can effectively help relax and relieve stress, as well as improve mood. This oil also helps energize and regain focus. Just like other eucalyptus oils, radiata oil has been identified to help relieve respiratory infections such as asthma, bronchitis, and sinusitis. It also works well as an analgesic and is found as a common ingredient in many muscle balms, gels, and pain-relieving ointments. Since it has anti-inflammatory and anti-bacterial properties, radiata essential oil is also utilized in skin care products. These benefits include improved circulation, the removal of toxins from the body, and the ability to calm acne-prone and congested skin. The highest concentration of eucalyptol (around 90%) is present in Eucalyptus polybractea oil. The significant eucalyptol content correlates with a strong and fresh medicinal aroma. The pharmaceutical business uses polybractea oil, like E. globulus and E. radiata oils, to treat respiratory issues and acts as a decongestant and antiinflammatory. One of the Eucalyptus species that is widely planted for pulp and timber production is Eucalyptus grandis, popularly known as rose gum. In their origin, this plant is the most popular among other eucalyptus trees because it grows almost all over mainland Australia, even today it can be found in almost all tropical regions of the world, including Indonesia. The ability of this plant to sprout and thrive swiftly after a fire is one of its distinctive qualities. In general, eucalyptus contains flavonoids, terpenoids, and tannins. Eucalyptus essential oil is a natural extract that is distilled from Eucalyptus leaves. Eucalyptus oil is usually a liquid with a lower density than water. Moreover, the oil is insoluble in water (hydrophobic), but can be mixed with alcohol, ether, and fats. Essential oils play an important role in self-defensing, signaling, or as part of secondary metabolism in plants (Sharifi-Rad et al. 2017). This oil, which is also characterized as etheric oil or volatile oil, has wide applications in dietary supplements, pharmaceuticals, cosmetic, perfumery, and toiletry industries. Eucalyptus oil also has insect repellent properties and has been utilized as an ingredient in mosquito repellent (Sheikh et al. 2021). Essential oils are very complicated compositions of various volatile constituents with different molecular weights and concentrations (Guzmán and Lucia 2021). In this instance, the phytochemical constitution of an essential oil is influenced by various factors: (a) the extraction, processing, drying and storage procedures; (b) harvesting period and climatic conditions (Barra 2009), and (c) species and plant parts are utilized (Sarkic and Stappen 2018; Sharmeen et al. 2021; Turek and Stintzing 2013). As a result, the chemical profile of essential oils is unique and determined by each component, but the composition of an essential oil may change

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depending on the method employed for extraction. Thus, distillation yields more low-volatile constituents, such as diterpenes, whereas derivatives of terpenoids, such as carotenoids and sterols, retain in the non-volatile fraction present in resins or plant gums, persisting as residues during distillation processing (Guzmán and Lucia 2021; Turek and Stintzing 2013). The quality of Eucalyptus oil can be determined by testing its physicochemical properties, such as specific gravity, refractive index, optical rotation, solubility in alcohol or ethanol, cineol content, and conditions which include color and odor produced from eucalyptus oil. Eucalyptus oil has several weaknesses, including high volatility, low water solubility, and chemical and thermal labilities (Guzmán and Lucia 2021). Most particles become brittle due to oxidation upon exposure to the environment, making the design of cosmetic products challenging and requiring precise control over their conditioning, packaging, and storage (Barra 2009). Moreover, the efficacy of eucalyptus oil in aromatherapy and cosmetics is not always favorable and may instead result in allergic responses; as a result, prudent calculation of their optimum cosmetic formulation is required in order to ensure the product’s safety.

11.3 Phytochemical Constituents The primary ingredients in the majority of essential oils are short-chain aliphatic hydrocarbon derivatives (terpenes), lipophilic terpenoids, and aromatic chemicals. Hydrocarbons, esters, alcohols, aldehydes, ketones, oxides, aromatic or ether derivatives of phenol are among the terpenes (Guzmán and Lucia 2021). Essential oils from different eucalyptus species have varied chemical and physical qualities (Limam et al. 2020). Eucalyptol or 1,8-cineole is a compound that is frequently present in eucalyptus oil, even in some species this compound is the primary constituent. The 1,8-cineol compound is grouped into oxygenated hydrocarbon group and belongs to ester group of terpene alcohol derivatives. The National Standard Agency (BSN) of Indonesia has determined that the quality standard for eucalyptus oil must contain a 1,8-cineole of 50–65% as contained in SNI 06-3954-2006. As well as determined by species, the essential oil content also differs according to the harvesting location. According to GC–MS analysis, it identified the presence of sesquiterpenes, monoterpenes, oxygenated monoterpenes, and oxygenated sesquiterpenes. Some of the major ingredients are eucalyptol (1,8-cineole), β-pinene, αpinene, β-eudesmol, α-phellandrene, globulol p-cymene, limonene and γ-eudesmol. While minor constituents include Cis-carvyl acerare, 4-carene, 4-terpineol, alloaromadendrene, α-thujene, α-campholenal, α-fenchyl alcohol, α-terpenyl acetate, αterpinene, α-campholenal, α-guaiene, α-gurjunene, α-humulene, α-phellandrene, α-selinene, α-terpineol, α-terpinolene, aristolene, aromadendrene, β-cymene, βcaryophyllene, β-gurjunene, β-myrcene, β-panasinsene, β-selinene, borneol, bornyl acetate, camphene, camphor, caren-4-ol, carveol, carvone, cis-beta-ocimene, cissabinol, citronnellol, cryptone, cycloprop(e) azulene, endo fenchol, epiglobulol,

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eudesmeneol, γ-terpinene, geraniol, geranyl acetate, isoledene, isopulegol acetate, L-pinacarveol, ledene, ledol, linalool, methane-1,2,3-triol, myrcene, myrtenol, ocymene, pinanediol, pinocarveol, pinocarvone, pulegone, sabinene, spathulenol, trans-carveol, trans-caryophyllene, trans-pinocarveol, veridiflorol, and viridiflorene (Joshi et al. 2016). The eucalyptol compound is the primary ingredient in all essential oils from all countries. Eucalyptol (1,8-cineole) is a cyclic ether with the scientific name 1, 3, 3-trimethyl-2-oxabicyclo [2.2.2] octane and the empirical formula C10 H18 O. This component is economically significant as an ingredient for variety of businesses. The highest percentage of eucalyptol is in Montenegro (85.82%) and the lowest is in Tunisia (43.18%). Various percentages of eucalyptol in E. globulus leaf oil from different locations have also been reported, which include 86.7% in California, 77% in Cuba, 64.5% in Uruguay, 58–82% in Morocco, 50–65% in Argentina, and 48.7% in Africa (Joshi et al. 2016). One of the compounds, α-pinene is prevalent in eucalyptus oils in all countries, but the higher percentage (24.60%) from Algeria and Ethiopia (23.79%). Anti-inflammatory, antibiotic, antibacterial, anticoagulant, antioxidant, anticancer, antimalarial, anti-leishmania, and analgesic properties are a few of the bioactive components of α-pinene that have been documented (Salehi et al. 2019). In contrast, another compound, β-eudesmol has only been found in eucalyptus oils from India 4.68% and Ethiopia 0.10%. This compound suppresses tumor growth by inhibiting neovascularization and cell proliferation (Ma et al. 2008). In India, six unique compounds were also found, namely γ-eudesmol (1.20%), borneol (0.27%), αfenchyl alcohol (0.27%), trans-caryophyllene (0.09%), α-humulene (0.07%), and ledol (0.03%) respectively. Variations in chemical composition are caused by variety of environmental and agronomic variables. The chemical composition of essential oils is also affected by age and geoclimatic factors (Barra 2009; Nteziyaremye et al. 2021). The phytochemical content of Eucalyptus grandis leaves harvested from Sumatra, Indonesia showed differences in composition. Based on GC–MS analysis, the compounds α-pinene (45.21%) and cineole (36.55%) were components with the highest concentration, followed by α-terpineol (8.87%), β-caryophyllene (1.72%), camphene (1.38%), 1–nonadecene (1.17%), β-pinene (1.11%), elemol (0.85%), spathulenol (0.84%), pinocarvone (0.83%) and camphogen (0.74%) and α-campholene aldehyde (0.73%). Eucalyptus essential oil is extracted from small secretory structures which are primarily distributed in the leaves. Several essential oils such as sage and thyme are also produced from leaf biomass extraction, while vetiver oil is produced from roots; rose, jasmine, ylang-ylang from flower petals; styrax and myrrh of resin; cedar, sandalwood, rosewood from wood; cinnamon from bark; almond and caraway oil from seeds; and lemon, lime, orange from fruit peels (Guzmán and Lucia 2021; Singh et al. 2019). Different physico-chemical techniques can be carried out to isolate, concentrate, and purify essential oils from different portions of plants. These techniques are grouped into three categories: (i) distillation (hydro-steam distillation

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and dry distillation) (Aswandi and Kholibrina 2021a; b); (ii) extraction (maceration, solvent, enfleuration, microwave and ultrasound assisted extraction, supercritical fluid extraction,); and (iii) pressing technique (mechanical or cold pressing) (Firenzuoli et al. 2014; Guzmán and Lucia 2021; Mohamad et al. 2019). The distillation procedure is commonly applied in obtaining eucalyptus essential oil (Firenzuoli et al. 2014; Eyvazkhani et al. 2021). The leaf biomass is introduced above the water in the distillation apparatus. When the water is boiled, the steam flows through the leaf biomass, allowing volatile constituents to evaporate. The resulting vapor circulates along the cooling coils, where it condenses back to liquid and is collected into the vessel (Aswandi and Kholibrina 2021b). However, the application of the distillation procedure to produce essential oils has a number of disadvantages, including the potential loss of thermolabile components, and the lengthy distillation process (Firenzuoli et al. 2014; Guzmán and Lucia 2021; Aswandi and Kholibrina 2021b; Mohamad et al. 2019).

11.4 Benefits and Uses 11.4.1 Fragrances and Aromatherapy Eucalyptus oil is one of the most frequently utilized natural extracts in aromatherapy, especially considering its effectiveness and several healing qualities in various health disorders. For massage applications to relieve muscle fatigue or cramps, this essential oil is applied topically in combination with a carrier oil. This oil can also be vaporized and applied through the inhalation process to help relieve nasal congestion (Kholibrina and Aswandi 2021a). Other health advantages relate to its ability to help deal with boredom, tension, or being overwhelmed (Kholibrina and Aswandi 2021b). This can be especially beneficial for patients with anxiety-related disorders such as obsessive–compulsive disorder (OCD), post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), or panic attacks. Essential oils and their constituents are frequently applied in beauty products. These aromatic compounds are an advantage considering that consumers prefer products with pleasant aromas (Vilela et al. 2020). Another main reason for using essential oils in cosmetics is to overcome the unpleasant odor from the fatty oils, fatty acids, and emulsifiers employed in the manufacturing process (Guzmán and Lucia 2021). Essential oils are also added in anti-dandruff shampoos to mask bad odors and offer a subtle, fresh, and natural scent. The addition of essential oils is also intended to increase sensory perception, evoke certain moods or sensations, for example, cleanliness. One of the most significant natural ingredients employed in the cosmetics is essential oils and their terpenoids (Sharmeen et al. 2021). Essential oils are fragrances comprising of a complex blend of components, each of which has a distinct aroma. The combination of different essential oils provides different fragrance profiles, so that the formulation of cosmetic products

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must combine various aromas to obtain a certain and distinctive aroma (Guzmán and Lucia 2021; Sharmeen et al. 2021; Kholibrina and Aswandi 2021a). As a blend of constituent compounds with a particular aroma, eucalyptus oil is identified as a significant source of fragrance in perfumes and cosmetics. Table 11.1 presents the aroma profiles of eucalyptus oil components that have the potency to be applied in the cosmetic industry. The fragrance industry classifies aromas as a function of odor characteristics, volatility, and degree of air dispersion, leading to three distinct categories recognized as top, middle, or base-notes (Guzmán and Lucia 2021; Sharmeen et al. 2021; Sarkic and Stappen 2018). As a result, essential oils which are highly volatile and the first aroma to be noticed are classified as the top notes. Top-note aromas are responsible for the freshness of the blends that make up the fragrance. Typically, they are fresh fragrances that fade first. Eucalyptus oil constituents such as limonene, carvone, citronellol and various essential oils such as bergamot, orange, lemon or gardenia are classified as top-note aromas. Middle-notes are typically closely correlated floral or spicy notes that provide the body of the perfume. Scent derived from jasmine, lily, cinnamon, cardamon peppermint, ylang-ylang, geranium, lavender, and cloves are included in this category. The eucalyptus oil constituents which are classified Table 11.1 Aroma profiles of some eucalyptus oil component Components

Aroma profiles

References

Bornyl acetate

Spicy, camphor, woody, menthol El-Zaeddi et al. (2016)

Eucalyptol (1,8-cineol)

Fresh aroma like camphor with spicy taste

Burnett et al. (2019)

Carvone

Minty herbaceous

d’Acampora Zellner et al. (2006)

p-Cymene

Spice, fresh citrus, woody, terpene

El-Zaeddi et al. (2016)

Citronellol

Sweet like, strong floral, rose

Ravi et al. (2007)

Geraniol

Fresh, sweet, rose-like

Ravi et al. (2007)

Geranyl acetate

Floral rose, herbal, pleasant

Ravi et al. (2007)

Limonene

Strong odor of orange

Sarkic and Stappen (2018)

Linalool

Floral, grassy, pleasant, citrus

Ravi et al. (2007)

Myrcene

Pleasant floral

Ravi et al. (2007)

α-Pinene

Fresh, camphor, sweet, pine, woody

El-Zaeddi et al. (2016)

β-Pinene

Woody, turpentine

Ravi et al. (2007)

Sabinene

Woody, terpene, citrus, pine, spice

El-Zaeddi et al. (2016)

α-Pinene

Woody, terpene, lemon, lime, herbal

El-Zaeddi et al. (2016)

Terpineol

Sweet, lilac odor

Ravi et al. (2007)

Terpinolene

Fresh, woody, sweet, pine, citrus El-Zaeddi et al. (2016)

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as middle-notes include geraniol, linalool, p-cymene, bornyl acetate, myrcene, and eucalyptol. Their time duration is also short and can last up to one hour. Furthermore, the base notes provide a depth to the perfume and reflect the aroma’s longevity. It is the least volatile oil and can last for several hours. Base notes include sandalwood, patchouli, myrrh, cedarwood, vanilla, and benzoin incense (styrax benzoin oil). The constituents of eucalyptus oil which are classified as base notes include α-pinene and sabinene.

11.4.2 Cosmetic Products The addition of essential oils in the manufacture of various cosmetic products is stimulated by their effectiveness for health and beauty. Essential oils with antiseptic properties, such as eucalyptus, lemon, and orange, have a high content of terpenes, including limonene, which are promising bioactive constituents for hair and skin health (Erasto and Viljoen 2008). On topical application, the phytochemical constituents of eucalyptus oil have been discovered to interfere with the functional capacity of skin cells. These phytochemicals are also beneficial for anti-aging, anti-acne, sunscreen, and skin-lightening (Erasto and Viljoen 2008). Eucalyptus oil also possesses anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, antibacterial, and antifungal activities to strengthen all the capillary fibers in the hair and promote health and scalp cleanliness (Zhou et al. 2021). Eucalyptus oil is also included in cosmetic goods as a natural preservative to provide protection against bacteria and fungi (Erasto and Viljoen 2008; Zhou et al. 2021). Some potential utilization of essential oil ingredient in cosmetics are presented in Table 11.2.

11.4.3 Hair Cares Although information regarding the essential oils application in hair care is limited, several studies have reported that a number of bioactive ingredients have been identified as effective in hair care (Guzmán and Lucia 2021; Abelan et al. 2022). Topical application in shampoo or conditioner formulations on the scalp allows some essential oil components to infiltrate into the scalp, enter the nutritional channels, and subsequently moisturize the hair roots, thus stimulating hair follicle growth and strengthening capillary fibers (Abelan et al. 2022). In addition, some essential oil compounds increase the brightness and fixation of the color, giving it a glossy appearance (Manou et al. 1998). Essential oils also play an important role in preventing hair loss or alopecia (Guzmán and Lucia 2021; Abelan et al. 2022; Bassino et al. 2020; Hay et al. 1998). The antioxidant properties of eucalyptus oil can help alleviate oxidative stress, that leads to alopecia. Moreover, essential oils significantly enhance blood circulation in the hair follicles as well as protect the vascularization of hair epidermis papillae

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Table 11.2 Potential application of Eucalyptus oils component in cosmetic formulations Application

Main component

Properties

Function

References

Skin care

1,8-cineole; β-caryophyllene; α-terpineol; α-pinene; β-pinene; p-cymene; borneol; citronellol; linalool; limonene; myrcene; ocimene; terpinolene

Anti-inflammatory Antibacterial antioxidant Wound healing

Anti-acne Anti-aging

Guzmán and Lucia (2021), Sharmeen et al. (2021), Sarkic and Stappen (2018), Limam et al. (2020), Michalak (2022)

Hair care

Limonene; myrcene, α-pinene; β-pinene

Antibacterial antioxidant

Antidandruff

Guzmán and Lucia (2021), Sharmeen et al. (2021), Sarkic and Stappen (2018), Limam et al. (2020), Erasto and Viljoen (2008)

1,8-cineole; α Antibacterial terpineol; antioxidant β-carophyllene; Antifungal borneol; linalool; limonene; geraniol; p-cymene; γ-terpinene

Hair growth conditioning

Guzmán and Lucia (2021), Sharmeen et al. (2021), Sarkic and Stappen (2018), Limam et al. (2020), Prusinowska and ´ Smigielski (2014)

(Abelan et al. 2022; Oh et al. 2014). The addition of eucalyptus oil in anti-dandruff haircare formulas enhances the product’s efficacy by combining anti-inflammatory, antifungal, and antioxidant activities, which contribute to the elimination of the origin of dandruff (Abelan et al. 2022). The advantage of employing eucalyptus oil for hair care is also connected to seborrhea, a condition caused by physiological capillary dysfunction and the oily substance of hair fibers. This pathology is somewhat mitigated by essential oils (Abelan et al. 2022). This is feasible because the bioactive ingredients in eucalyptus essential oil have antibacterial properties that can inhibit the growth of microbes linked to the initiation of seborrhea.

11.4.4 Skin Cares Traditionally, eucalyptus oil has been used to heal wounds, insect bites, minor cuts, scabs, and bruises. In recent years, this essential oil gained attention as a key ingredient in beauty and skin care goods including soaps, moisturizers, hair care products, ointments, and body oils. This is related to their bioactivities, which include anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial, and antioxidant properties, which are effective in preserving the skin’s youth, health, and freshness (Dhalaria et al. 2020; Muyima et al.

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2002; Aburjai and Natsheh 2003). Eucalyptus oil is also considered as natural moisturizer, as well as its anti-inflammatory components can help treat skin problems like acne and eczema. Since this oil has antibacterial and antiseptic properties, it treats acne-prone skin and helps to maintain healthy skin by removing pollutants that lead to acne outbreaks from the epidermis. In particular, the lipophilic properties may promote the skin’s microbiota, which is crucial for maintaining healthy skin (Beri 2018; Wi´nska et al. 2019). The capacity to inhibit the acne appearance is associated with the properties of preventing the Propionibacterium acnes proliferation (Sahraie-Rad et al. 2015; Akter Happy et al. 2021), as well as reducing inflammation and the formation of postacne scars. The antibacterial property to eradicate acne-causing bacteria, combined with free radical scavenging activity and capacity to inhibit 5LOX enzyme activity, contributes to the inflammatory reduction that leads to acne development (Lertsatithanakorn et al. 2006). Basically, inflammation is a series of healing processes in the form of increased blood flow to certain areas in reaction to harmful stimuli such as irritation or germs. Eucalyptus oil can reduce blood flow to the area and relieve inflammation by increasing blood circulation. Eucalyptol, when applied topically, with its potent anti-inflammatory qualities, helps to rehydrate and revitalize the skin. Topical application of eucalyptus oil to reduce the acne effects is also attributed to the role of geraniol, a compound presenting a potent antibacterial property that aids in tyrosinase inhibition and a decrease in cytokines. Moreover, borneol compound which is also present in eucalyptus oil, can be formulated as a natural antibiotic and anti-inflammatory. Other components, including linalool, citronellol, and geraniol, contribute to restoring skin elasticity and increasing blood circulation to skin so that it can also be used to treat acne, skin aging, dried skin, or eczema (Nadjib Boukhatem et al. 2013; Moreira et al. 2022). Moreover, the components of this oil allow for skin’s hydration balance regulation and skin cell renewal (Sinha et al. 2014), as well as minimizing various skin discolorations, such as skin irritation marks, brown spots, red marks, or age spots (Akter Happy et al. 2021). It is important to mention that the optimum dosage of essential oils for skin care must take into consideration their allergic effects. This is related to the activity of sesquiterpenes as enzyme inhibitors related with skin aging, such as tyrosinase, collagenase, hyaluronidase, and elastase. The anti-aging activity of essential oil is also correlated with free radical scavenging properties. Essential oils with the highest antioxidant substances lead to a stronger antioxidant effect against skin damage from UV light. This is possible because monoterpenes, ascorbic acid, carotenoids, polyphenols, tocopherols, and macromolecules produce significant inhibition of enzymes activity associated with melanogenesis, aging, and skin health (Tu and Tawata 2015; Michalak 2022). The equilibrium between sweat and sebum can be an important health and aesthetic concern. In order to preserve the skin’s natural sebum balance without drying it out, geranial components may effectively relieve excess oil from the skin that clogs pores (Akter Happy et al. 2021; Ao et al. 2008; Nieto et al. 2018). In summary, essential oils and their components have potential applications in skin care

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formulations, including treating psoriasis, acne, and eczema, as well as to provide healthy, and youthful skin.

11.4.5 Other Applications As with other well-recognized essential oils, eucalyptus oil application in the beauty business has now surpassed its use in perfumery formulations as well as its traditional applications for hair and skin care. Essential oils can be utilized in sunscreen formulations due to their ability to filter the majority of UV radiation, preventing sunburn, premature aging, and skin wrinkled (Lohani et al. 2019). Several constituents such as camphor, eucalyptol, and terpinen-4-ol have not only antibacterial and antioxidant activity, but also tyrosinase inhibitory activity (Adewinogo et al. 2021). In dental health, eucalyptus oil is employed in formulations to support improved oral hygiene. Eucalyptus oil is also utilized in mouthwash to combat the bacteria that cause periodontitis and tooth destruction (Rajendiran et al. 2021). Gum that contains eucalyptus oil has better periodontal health. Preservatives of cosmetic products The manufacture of cosmetic products involves a number of preservatives to ensure the protection of the formulation against microbial contamination. Synthetic preservatives, however, frequently cause allergies and contact irritants (Martins et al. 2022). Therefore, preservative-free formulations are preferred. Essential oils can be added to compositions to fulfill this requirement by acting as both active components and preservatives simultaneously (de Andrade et al. 2021). Eucalyptus oil and numerous essential oils, such as cinnamon, clove, lavender, peppermint, and tea tree, have been linked to antimicrobial properties. This is generally correlated with higher concentrations of phenolic, aromatic, or alcoholic constituents, which exhibit intense antimicrobial properties (Wi´nska et al. 2019). Antibacterial and antifungal properties as a preservative for cosmetic products relate to essential oil content. The emergence of microbes can be inhibited by raising pcymene concentration. However, there are several issues with using essential oils as a preservative for cosmetic applications, such as specificity of various and unique organisms, therefore detailed analysis of the most appropriate composition is recommended. Allergies can also be induced by essential oils and their constituents. Strong smells might not be appropriate for some cosmetic applications.

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11.5 Quality and Safety Concern 11.5.1 Encapsulation The essential oils application in cosmetic formulation presents several challenges, due to their volatility, low water solubility, and thermal and chemical lability. This issue can be accomplished by encapsulating, shielding, or dissolving the bioactive compounds in a variety of nano-carriers, such as cyclodextrins (Marques 2010), liposomes (Ruano et al. 2021), microemulsions (Lucia et al. 2017), or nanoparticles (Li et al. 2007; Sánchez-Arribas et al. 2018). The utilization of nanocarriers can help prepare active compound formulations in well-controlled medium, thereby increasing their stability and durability. This also enables a regulated release of the bioactive ingredient, minimizing losses during manufacturing and storage (Hosseini et al. 2013; Pivetta et al. 2018). However, apart from protecting essential oils from their environment from their reactive photodegradation, hydrolysis, and oxidation, encapsulation also reduces their volatility (Marques 2010). Therefore, the development of appropriate encapsulation techniques is an important issue in essential oils utilization in the cosmetic industry (Marques 2010; Hosseini et al. 2013). The bioactive components, carrier materials, release pathway, and expected application of the formulated product should all be considered when using the encapsulation approach. In this situation, the selection of the most suitable carrier material is very important since it affects the physico-chemical properties, stability, and release characteristics of the capsule (Fernandes et al. 2014). Moreover, the design of the encapsulation process is highly influenced by the type of substance as well as the expected application (Krishnan et al. 2005; Guzmán et al. 2021). The encapsulation process in cosmetic industries primarily focuses on extending the odor duration of fragrances. There are several methods for encapsulating the bioactive molecules, generally classified into three classes based on their important features: (i) chemistry; (ii) physics-chemistry, and (iii) physics-mechanics (Carvalho et al. 2016). Essential oil encapsulation in urea–formaldehyde microcapsules was identified to maintain the duration of the fragrance (Park et al. 2001). Additionally, emulsification is employed to produce shampoos with encapsulated limonene for hair conditioning. The formula exhibits excellent conditioning and caring properties that support hair repair (Guzmán and Lucia 2021). Chitosan capsules can also be formulated to preserve the essential oils qualities for longer than six months (Anchisi et al. 2007). The melt dispersion technique, polymer matrix (PEG-6000 and paraffin wax), and inclusion of Mentha piperita oil as an aroma enhancer can also be utilized in the synthesis of eucalyptus oil nano-encapsulation. In this technique, a nanoencapsulated powder has a particle size smaller than 100 nm and is also resistant to coagulate at ambient temperature. With these advantages, these nano-powders can be wrapped in porous paper for inhalation and utilized in aromatherapy to ease breathing problems (Wahyuningsih et al. 2022).

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11.5.2 Standardization The high demand for pure essential oils from various industrial and technological fields has resulted in significant growth in recent years. However, the production of essential oils is usually constrained by lower yields compared to raw material biomass, so that large-scale demand on the international market is a challenge. Therefore, counterfeiting and contamination have become an increasingly important problem in the essential oil market in recent years. Blending with non-volatile components, artificial substances, less expensive natural ingredients, volatile compounds from other essential oils, or vegetable oils are a few examples of counterfeiting that have been discovered (Sharmeen et al. 2021; Syafri et al. 2022; Do et al. 2015). Essential oil counterfeiting lowers their quality and frequently jeopardizes consumer safety. Therefore, authentication of essential oil is important for both consumers and industry. The essential oils quality can be assessed on two separate scales. The first involves a panel of sensory analysts evaluating the product’s organoleptic characteristics. The second stage is determined by measurement of physico-chemical parameters which include specific gravity, refractive index, optical rotation, solubility in alcohol or ethanol, cineol content, and conditions which include the color and odor produced from eucalyptus oil (Table 11.3). One important indicator of the potential for adulteration of essential oils is their solubility in specific solvents, such as ethanol (Guzmán and Lucia 2021; Sharmeen et al. 2021; Syafri et al. 2022; Do et al. 2015). On the other hand, chemical analysis of some elements, such as acidity and concentrations of esters, alcohols, aldehydes, or ketones, can also yield important details about the purity of a particular essential oil (Syafri et al. 2022; Do et al. 2015). The evaluation of adulterations may not be conceivable if only using the physicochemical properties, so the application of more effective analytical techniques, such as mass spectrometry, gas and liquid chromatography, infrared spectroscopy, nuclear magnetic resonance, or Raman spectroscopy may be required (Jentzsch et al. 2015). However, failure to meet standardization testing is not always an indicator of fraudulent essential oils. Various aspects related to aging, processing, or storage can cause Table 11.3 Eucalyptus oil quality requirements

No. 1

Test type

Unit

Requirements

Circumstances a. Colour

–

Clear to greenish yellow

b. Odour

–

Typical of Eucalyptus

2

Specific gravity

–

0,900–0,930

3

Refractive index

–

1,450–1,470

4

Solubility in ethanol

–

1:1 to 1:10

5

Optical rotation

–

−4° to 0o

6

Content of cineole

%

50–65%

Source National Standardization Agency (2006)

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racemization or polymerization processes that cause changes in essential properties without any counterfeiting (Sharmeen et al. 2021; Do et al. 2015).

11.5.3 Safety Concern Numerous cosmetic products have employed essential oils, which are generally regarded as harmless. But, certain negative consequences, such as allergy and chronic toxicity have been observed, therefore, caution should be exercised, and in particular, at the dose to minimize potential risks (Firenzuoli et al. 2014; Herman 2021). This necessitates addressing dosage, composition, dilution, frequency of use, and application into account. Most of the safety concerns in the application of eucalyptus essential oil are related to its quality and standardization. Low quality or non-standard oils may irritate the skin, trigger allergic reactions, or even cause hepatotoxicity, particularly on frequent contact. In addition, contamination or counterfeiting can also affect its allergenic potential. Moreover, some components of essential oils, such as limonene and α-pinene, become significantly more reactive through the process of oxidation, increasing their reactivity. (Bakkali et al. 2008; Higgins et al. 2015). Some essential oil components that show a higher propensity to trigger negative responses are presented in Table 11.4. The frequent problems dealing with the utilization of essential oils in cosmetics are contact dermatitis, skin reactions, and phototoxicity or photosensitivity reactions ˙ caused by exposure of sunlight (Zukiewicz-Sobczak et al. 2013). Furthermore, high oil concentrations in cosmetic products increase the risk of skin sensitization. Despite the potential for allergic properties, the application of essential oil compounds in cosmetic products can be considered safe, except for a small population of susceptible Table 11.4 Allergic component of eucalyptus essential oil in cosmetics and toiletries Allergenic constituents

Incidence (Cases per × habitants)

References

1,8-cineol (eucalyptol)

24–150 per 10,000

Higgins et al. (2015)

Carvone

15 per 541 (2.77%)

Paulsen et al. (1993)

Citronellol

27 per 10,000

Bråred Christensson et al. (2016)

Geraniol

34 per million

Jongeneel et al. (2018)

Linalool

71 per 10,000

Ogueta et al. (2022)

Limonene

50 per 10,000

Sindle and Martin (2021), Jack et al. (2013), Herro and Jacob (2010), Warshaw et al. (2015), Ogueta et al. (2022)

Pulegone

–

Choi et al. (2018), Ribeiro-Silva et al. (2022)

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individuals, especially when considering the ratio of evidence of allergic reactions after their widespread application. According to the North American Contact Dermatitis Group report, that nearly 1% of the global population is susceptible to allergic reactions to eucalyptus oil. This susceptibility is related to the relatively high concentration of eucalyptol, which is the major constituent in eucalyptus oil’s antimicrobial effect (Park et al. 2016). Eucalyptus essential oil can also cause inflammation and pruritus due to its significant concentration of limonene, pulegone, and, carvone, which have recently been considered as new allergens (Erasto and Viljoen 2008; Ribeiro-Silva et al. 2022). Furthermore, eucalyptus oil can trigger allergic contact dermatitis when applied topically, with an incidence of around 0.5% of the population. Eucalyptus oil has also been linked with the appearance of allergic reactions in cosmetic applications due to its content of linalool, which is a weak allergen and sensitizer in its pure form (Guzmán and Lucia 2021). Because pure eucalyptus oil is a highly concentrated compound, even small amounts should not be consumed without dilution. It should be recognized that ingesting large amounts of this toxic oil can be fatal. If utilized topically, eucalyptus oil, like many others, must be diluted with a carrier oil, otherwise there is a risk of severe irritation. Almond, apricot kernel, fractionated coconut oil, jojoba, and avocado are some examples of carrier oils that can be employed. A general rule of thumb is 5–10 drops of eucalyptus oil per ounce of carrier oil. Similarly, 2–3 drops of eucalyptus oil may be mixed with petroleum jelly and used as an ointment that should be implemented to the affected area three to four times per day. Due to the high concentration of 1,8-cineole, its use should be avoided near the mouth, eyes, or sensitive areas as well as cracked or exposed skin. Since essential oils are processed by the digestive and excretory systems, passing through the liver and kidneys, topical application at high concentrations must also be performed with caution (Guzmán and Lucia 2021). Therefore, people with liver or kidney disease should avoid long-term use of high concentrations of eucalyptus oil. Due to insufficient information to determine whether eucalyptus oil is safe to utilize during pregnancy or breastfeeding, it is not recommended to use this oil without advising a healthcare practitioner. Since fragrances are considered as cosmetic ingredients, regulatory agencies such as the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) do not require permission for fragrances composed of essential oils. The FDA’s regulatory process for essential oils used as ingredients in cosmetics is less stringent compared to that for food and pharmaceutical goods. Consequently, cosmetic manufacturers are exclusively responsible for the products they provide. Although ingredient lists are required, the FDA does not require manufacturers to divulge the secrets of cosmetic formulations, therefore labeling allergenic ingredients in cosmetics is not a requirement. Consumers may suffer as a result of this circumstance, particularly those who are unfamiliar with essential oils. Contact dermatitis has been observed in a limited percentage of patients, even though eucalyptus oil can be used properly to treat a variety of skin issues. As a result, if the allergenic compound concentration is greater than the permitted concentration

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of 0.01% in shower gels and baths (rinse products) and greater than 0.001% in creams, massage oils, and body oils, it must be indicated on the container or in the communication brochure (Sharmeen et al. 2021; Vostinaru et al. 2020). The highest composition of these compounds in cosmetics should not exceed 0.01% in fine perfumes, 0.004% in eau de toilette, 0.002% in perfumed creams, 0.0002% in other non-rinse goods, when natural allergenic compounds in essential oils are applied as components. However, due to the complexities of their composition, it is critical to examine the allergenic effects of an essential oil, bearing in mind that dilution alone is not sufficient to eliminate contact allergy (Sindle and Martin 2021). Due to the complexity of phytochemical constituents and their mutual sensitivity with other fragrances, it is frequently difficult to identify which allergen is responsible. Even though some well-known essential oils offer information about their allergenic properties, it’s still advisable to examine patients with their own products because aging may have changed the substances’ composition. Most essential oils can be assayed with a petrolatum oil concentration of 2–5% (Pesonen et al. 2014). Patch tests can be performed to detect and avoid skin responses, especially in patients who may be at risk. For this use, essential oil is put to a band-aid and positioned on the forearm after being diluted to twice the required concentration. Irritation will occur instantly if it is certain to happen (Pesonen et al. 2014). Photosensitization can also occur when the photo toxins in essential oils are employed to the skin in the exposure of sunlight or ultraviolet A light. Skin pigmentation, burning sensation, and burn injuries are all examples of inflammatory skin problems. It is therefore suggested that sun exposure should be prevented for at least 24 h after essential oil implementation (Sarkic and Stappen 2018). Furthermore, essential oil oxidation can increase the risk of skin problems due to the formed oxides and peroxides are more reactive. As a result, essential oils should be stored in a tightly closed brown bottle in a dark, cool environment or refrigerator (Sharmeen et al. 2021; Vostinaru et al. 2020).

11.6 Conclusions Eucalyptus oil has a long history in aromatherapy and cosmetics application. It is valued for its capacity to relieve tension, aid the respiratory system, promote relaxation, and soothe sore muscles. Furthermore, it has also been shown to treat eczema and acne, as well as improve wound treating and provide pain killer for slight scrapes and cuts, in additional to its application in hair care. The antibacterial, moisturizing, antioxidant, and anti-inflammatory properties of eucalyptus oil are effective and well-proven. When considering the application of eucalyptus oil in aromatherapy and cosmetics, it is important to remember that each type has specific applications and may have different health benefits depending on how it is used and some of the potential risks that come with it. In order to utilize eucalyptus oil effectively, it must be diluted and placed in small quantities on the skin, or a patch test must be performed

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ahead of time on patients, particularly those who are prone to allergic reactions. Finally, recent developments in eucalyptus oil application in cosmetics, apart from providing insight into designing and perfecting cosmetic formulations involving plant extracts, will also increase awareness of natural compounds application to support human health, beauty and well-being. Acknowledgements This manuscript is the result of work at the Research Collaboration Center for Cosmetic based Nano-biomass, the Research Center for Biomass and Bioproducts and the Research Center for Nanotechnology. The authors thank Prof. Enos Tangke Arung and Prof. Widya Fatriasari for their ideas, discussions, and suggestions.

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Chapter 12

Review on Expansion of Eucalyptus: Its Value Impacts on Social, Economic, and Environmental Rizki Maharani, Andrian Fernandes, and Widya Fatriasari

12.1 Introduction Nowadays, Eucalyptus continues to be cultivated by many farmers in various customs due to multipurpose uses and rescues in the livelihood. The majority of eucalyptus species (Eucalypts) are found naturally in Australia, although certain species are also cultivated there in natural habitats, including the Papua New Guinea, Philippines, Indonesia, and Timor Leste (Silenet and Fikadu 2018) (Fig. 12.1). Eucalyptus has been cultivated because they grow fast and are capable of thriving in marginal surroundings. It is thus a desirable species to be cultivated to cater to the increasing global demand for wood supply for industrial purposes (Alfred et al. 2020). This genus has numerous advantages, including preventing the further deterioration of natural forests, replacing endemic species with fuel wood, regulating soil erosion, removing factors that frequently contribute to desertification, and providing habitat for wild animals and food (Bayle 2019). Due to the socio-economic benefits and environmental effects of eucalyptus trees, their spread is causing tremendous concern. As an example, Daba (2016) stated that in Ethiopia, Eucalyptus even has a big impact on life hood. Eucalyptus cultivation is crucial for bridging the enormous gap between supply and demand for wood caused by rising deforestation, it is preferred over other species due to its fast growth, minimized maintenance, produces wood quality and fiber better than others, and favored by the market, easy to reproduction, shrubs can easily regrow after harvest, can grow in a poor environment and wide R. Maharani (B) · A. Fernandes · W. Fatriasari Research Center for Biomass and Bioproducts, National Research and Innovation Agency, Jl. Raya Jakarta - Bogor Km. 46, Cibinong, Bogor, Jawa Barat 16911, Indonesia e-mail: [email protected] R. Maharani · W. Fatriasari Research Collaboration Center for Biomass-Based Nano Cosmetic, in Collaboration With Mulawarman University and BRIN, Samarinda, East Kalimantan 75119, Indonesia © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2024 S. H. Lee et al. (eds.), Eucalyptus, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-7919-6_12

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Fig. 12.1 Eucalyptus cultivation in Forest Plantation Industry, Indonesia (Source Rizki Maharani, own photo)

ecological zones; more resistant stress to and environmental diseases, and generates huge income to increasing the economy of rural and urban households. In several regions of Ethiopia during the past few decades, eucalyptus has also been raised more frequently for sacred purposes. Eucalyptus is cultivated in an area known as the “church forests”, which is a sacred grove of old Afromontane trees surrounding the Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahido churches. There are social sites that have been informing it many times ago that its revered holy shrine has long been documented for its cultural value. Additionally, helpful for ecosystem services, these “church forests” have the potential to aid in species conservation and restoration. Due to the fact that it is the only refuge for a number of Ethiopia’s natural and endemic plant and animal groups, the development of these “church woods” is prioritized (Chahboun et al. 2014; Liang et al. 2016). However, Eucalyptus expansion also has harmful effects on the environment due to it using up a lot of soil nutrients during its growth. This lead causes soil exhaustion and reduced crop yields, secretion of allelochemicals, and decreased crop production (Bayle 2019). Eucalyptus cultivation is frequently combined with diverse farming practices in some South African nations, such as Ethiopia, and has led to higher economic success than other land conversion for crop production (Jenbere et al. 2012). Farmers’ increased interest in the establishment and development of eucalyptus plantations has led to the conversion of fertile land, even productive agricultural land into eucalyptus wood plantations (Jenbere et al. 2012). Therefore, the uncontrolled growth of eucalypts on productive farmlands has caused a lot of

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anxiety, especially since it is said to take negative effects on soil production (ElKhawas and Shehata 2005; Forrester et al. 2006). According to earlier research conducted in Ethiopia, crops that are produced close to Eucalyptus produce less in terms of crop growth and production. Due to competition for soil and water nutrients, shading, and the production of allelochemicals, Eucalyptus has been observed to affect productivity and crop development (Michelsen et al. 1993; Jagger and Pender 2003; Selamyihun 2004; Ahmed et al. 2008; Chanie et al. 2013). Numerous study reports (Jenbere et al. 2012; Chanie et al. 2013; Rassaeifar et al. 2013; Daba 2016) have shown that Eucalyptus expansion has negative effects on the environment, including their leaf litter’s negative effects on soil humus, their heavy depletion of soil nutrients, their lack of water availability from farmlands, catchments areas, stream banks, and underground water, their inability to provide adequate food sources or habitat for wildlife, and their ability to inhibit the growth of other plants. Additional current evidence from some kinds of the literature suggested that Eucalyptus may not always have negative impacts. Several studies also reported many social, economic, and environmental benefits impacts on our daily. Even so far there have been concerns among growers, users, scientists, farmers, and stakeholders that Eucalyptus trees have more negative impacts than positive ones. The social, economic, and environmental impacts of Eucalyptus trees have been considered to some extent in various land-type conditions around the world. Therefore, a deeper review is needed to further highlight the socioeconomic and environmental benefits and impacts of Eucalyptus. The socio-economic benefits and environmental effects of Eucalyptus trees are briefly summarized in this review paper along with the main factors that encourage farmers to plant eucalyptus, including the rising market demand for wood products, a lack of wood on the farm, a high rate of biomass production, ease of cultivation, and wide range of adaptability.

12.2 The Social Impact of Eucalyptus Cultivations Previous studies stated that Eucalyptus is extensively accessible and very important for the rural poor. The utilization of Eucalyptus is ecologically sustainable and incentives, and able to increase their value-added and income earnings (Edberg et al. 2022). In addition, by offering a range of consumables, sources of livelihood, and lucrative income, Eucalyptus, directly and indirectly, contributes to the security of livelihood (Ball 1993). Rural communities frequently grow eucalyptus in addition to other sources of income to meet year-round household needs, which even leads to dependence. Therefore, the Eucalyptus sustainable cultivation and livelihood activities have to be supported because it is crucial for social resilience (Phimmavong et al. 2009; Edberg et al. 2022). Several studies have documented that Eucalyptus cultivation and utilization are essential livelihood activities, and its given socioeconomic impacts on rural households, especially in Asia (Phompila et al. 2017; Phimmavong et al. 2019; Edberg et al. 2022). Other studies have shown Eucalyptus planting creates a new community

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due to changes in economic activity around the planting area in Entre Ríos Province, Argentina (Selfa et al. 2021). In the Ethiopian highlands, eucalyptus helps millions of rural communities reduce poverty and ensure food security (Alemayehu and Melka 2022). Since eucalyptus resources and products are used either domestically or traded, the harvesting of Eucalyptus is considered to result in less ecological damage than the extraction of wood. This is due to the fact that eucalyptus often regenerates quickly and that its removal rarely modifies fundamental biophysical conditions and processes (Manivong and Cramb 2008; Edberg et al. 2022). In other research, community forests in Northern Laos were also financially analyzed. It was discovered that farmers benefit greatly economically from planting fast-growing trees like Eucalyptus. Despite the drawbacks, these advantages help farmers earn more money and prosper, pique the interest of the public and private sectors, and compel rural communities to engage in free markets, diversify their sources of income, and find alternative sources of income from degraded forest lands and other marginal lands (Phompila et al. 2017; Phimmavong et al. 2019; Edberg et al. 2022). Meanwhile, the traditional local cultivation methods that have been carried out still survive, and with the massive expansion of Eucalyptus, a cultivation model has been developed and has been tested into cultivation directed at commercial cultivation, namely the agroforestry model (Alemayehu and Melka 2022). Due to the adoption of superior agricultural techniques, it has been demonstrated that this agroforestry model produces higher yields of rice than those achieved using conventional shifting cultivation methods (Alemayehu and Melka 2022). However, any debates over the agroforestry model policy pertaining to internal resettlement, such as the Land and Forest Allocation Programs policy and other land reform policies, will exacerbate rural Laos’ poverty and cultural amplification. The Laos government has not yet provided details of a strategy that will guarantee that local residents profit from the switch to plantation implementation and relocation programs. From an economic standpoint, the right incentives and regulatory tools are required to support the combination of concessional plantations and out-grower programs and to more successfully integrate conventional agricultural livelihoods with timber plantations (Chanthalath et al. 2017). In the Eucalyptus expansion, the participation of women workers is also crucial to its success. The participation of women workers in Eucalyptus plantations in Chile is small because the plantations require intensive labor, which is almost exclusively filled with men (Carte et al. 2021). Eucalyptus planting in Guangxi province, China, is dominated by men, while only 21.43% of female workers (D’Amato et al. 2017). While in the Eucalyptus semi-mechanized harvesting process, the number of female workers increased to 30.77% (Engler et al. 2016). Women don’t like being workers at eucalyptus planting in Mozambique because women workers are required to be “super-human” beings who have to finish work in the eucalyptus planting area while also completing homework (Bruna 2020). Female workers are mostly found only in nurseries (Malkamäki et al. 2018). Workers from large families are preferred in eucalyptus planting in the Wegera district of Amhara region, Ethiopia (Dessie et al.

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2019a). Workers in Eucalyptus planting areas in the Amhara region, Ethiopia, tend to use lower-class workers (Tefera and Kassa 2017).

12.3 The Economic Impact of Eucalyptus Cultivation For smallholder tree cultivators, the current market and demand imply that Eucalyptus planting will yield a considerably better reoccurrence on investment than alternate land uses (crop production and animal rearing). The Eucalyptus expansion will help households become timber self-sufficient and provide substantial cash income. Eucalyptus is, therefore, in many regions of the country, the second main source of income for rural communities after crop production (Alemayehu and Melka 2022). Eucalyptus is generally planted as timber or forest plantations to replace productive agricultural systems, but this is not supported sufficiently. Eucalyptus greatly contributed to rural development and poverty decrease. Eucalyptus development among farmers is influenced by multiple socio-economic and demographic aspects that touch farmers’ decisions to plant eucalyptus (Nadir et al. 2018; Alemayehu and Melka 2022; Dos Santos et al. 2022). According to earlier research, compared to other forms of agriculture, such as animal husbandry, annual crop cultivation, and other non-farm activities, Eucalyptus harvesting offers farmers a higher rate of return (Alemu 2016). Eucalyptus planting in Brazil generates a renewable energy supply from certified forests (de Souza and Pacca 2021). The revenue from eucalyptus plantations in Ethiopia is significantly higher than the revenue from cereal crops (Aklilu et al. 2019). In Wolaita Sodo, Southern Ethiopia showed that planting eucalyptus increased more than 60% income of families around the planting area (Alemu 2016). Due to the potential for more lucrative long-term profits than other agricultural crops, the eucalyptus plantation increases employment prospects for the rural residents who live close to the plantation region while also generating additional money for those who are already working (Alfred et al. 2020). Smallholder in several study regions, Eucalyptus plantations have been discovered; they are a component of the livelihood portfolio that provide both the household’s need for wood and the means of generating revenue. This is now a crucial land-use choice for many homes. Tree planting is widely regarded as a transition from less profitable traditionally grown crops to more profitable crops. For smallholder tree growers in Ethiopia, eucalyptus plantations offer a much higher investment return than additional land uses such as animal keeping and crop production (Alemayehu and Melka 2022). At least 92% of respondents in Gudo Beret Kebele, Ethiopia, said that cultivating Eucalyptus timber plantation had a beneficial effect on the socio-economic position of the neighborhood as it generates direct income through the sale of wood diversification products including poles, building supplies, and fuelwood (Tadesse and Tafere 2017).

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The ten-year farm portfolio forecasts from a hectare of land at a 12% discount rate revealed a higher BCR for Eucalyptus monoculture plantations in Ethiopia (Phimmavong et al. 2019). Residents’ marginal willingness to pay for the corresponding ecological improvement features from Ethiopia’s monoculture eucalyptus plantation was USD 205 per person per year (Tesfaw et al. 2022). Monoculture eucalyptus plantations were deemed economically feasible in the Pampa biome of Brazil for the specified 7-year rotation, IRR 17.58%, and B/C 1.68 (Jesus et al. 2022). Meanwhile, others argue that Eucalyptus agroforestry with the right silvicultural system will produce high economic value while maintaining ecological and environmental aspects (Raj et al. 2016). Compared to monoculture, eucalyptus agroforestry systems were more profitable (Gonçalves et al. 2021). Eucalyptus trees cultivated in the middle of agricultural fields boost photosynthesis, increasing crop yield (Herbert and Krishnan 2016). Integration of silvopasture with agro-silvopasture in eucalyptus agroforestry provides higher photosynthetic, tree volume, and carbon sequestration values (Pezzopane et al. 2021). Several attempts have been conducted in order to increase the benefits of Eucalyptus expansion, including applying the right investment model and strengthening industrial capacity through modern equipment uses. The Eucalyptus-Rice System in Lao PDR is a cutting-edge “collaborative investment model” that combines foreign corporate investment in trees with local labor input to grow rice. The system’s value and benefits are shared by the company and the participating villagers, with 21% of NPV and an IRR that ranges from 17–20% (Phimmavong et al. 2019). In contrast, the use of modern equipment in the eucalyptus oil industry on Buru Island, Indonesia, requires a higher education level of workers resulting in a decrease in the percentage of workers from 11.78% in 2015 to 6.40% in 2018 (Lionardo et al. 2021). In Wogera Districts of Amhara National Regional State of Ethiopia showed that the negative impact of increasing the standard of living of workers on eucalyptus planting is that it becomes easy to access credit for buying goods that are less needed than to buy consumption needed for daily life (Dessie et al. 2019b). Therefore, the government should also play a role in strengthening Eucalyptus planting techniques by giving particular regions of intervention in this sector the highest priority through the creation of effective rural development plans, projects, and programs. However, at the same time, efforts should be made to overcome the effects of increasing inequality through various means, including progressive taxes.

12.4 The Environmental Impact of Eucalyptus Cultivations Although the Eucalyptus genus is native to Australia and Indonesia (Fig. 12.2), it has been intensively grown throughout the world. In tropical and subtropical regions, Eucalyptus has demonstrated exceptional success. Although certain species can adapt to some temperate settings, they have restrictions due to weather issues. The majority of current efforts to improve tree traits employ hybrids and clones, and work is already in progress to create eucalyptus trees that have been genetically edited. Improved

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properties and various advantages make Eucalyptus attractive for development as a source of other bioproducts and bioenergy. However, improved traits including high fecundity, accelerated growth, and tolerance to a varied range of soil and climatic conditions, also make them possibly invasive when using monoculture planting (Stanturf et al. 2013). Monoculture planting is carried out to reduce deforestation pressure and natural forest degradation while still meeting wood demands (Liu et al. 2018), one of which is eucalyptus planting. Eucalyptus cultivation for pharmaceutical purposes should consider ecological factors, and monoculture planting should be the last choice (Bayle 2019). There is a reciprocal relationship between the growth of eucalyptus plants and changes in temperature in the planting area. In Gaofeng forest, Guangxi province, China, the mixed woodland and the eucalyptus plantation had daily average temperatures of 20.7 °C and 20.8 °C, which were 1.5 °C and 1.4 °C colder than the surrounding area (Yang et al. 2022). MATOPIBA is a new eucalyptus agroforestry frontier in Brazil when water shortages are larger than 300 mm per year and air temperature values are over 3 °C (Florêncio et al. 2022). From Brazil to Uruguay, changes in forest temperature affect the growth of eucalyptus plantation. With each degree Celsius increase in temperature, eucalyptus productivity decreased by 2.5 Mg ha−1 year−1 (Binkley et al. 2017). Meanwhile, in the Gaofeng forest, Guangxi province, China, the Mixed Forest canopies’ average yearly penetration rate of solar radiation was

Fig. 12.2 Monoculture planting of Eucalyptus in Post Mining Coal, Indonesia (Source Rizki Maharani, own photo)

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1.75 times greater than that of the Eucalyptus plantation canopies (Yang et al. 2022). For each rise of one degree in latitude, there is an average increment increase of 0.91 m3 ha−1 year−1 in Brazil (Elli et al. 2020b). The previous study showed that Eucalyptus planting preparations ignore forest soil conservation; in which forestland is converted to open land to eliminate, harvesting waste and forest litter (Gonçalves et al. 2017). Intensive management has a detrimental long-term impact on the richness of understory plant species, significant exotic plant invasion in the understory, deterioration of soil nutrients, particularly N and P cycling, and development of Eucalyptus trees over time (Zhou et al. 2020). Eucalyptus efficiency will have a site-specific response. Adjusting for the negative effects of increased temperatures and feasible efficiency gains brought on by higher CO2 concentrations will be the main factor (Elli et al. 2020a). The majority of the research in India points to a dose–response association between an increase in ambient temperature and all-cause mortality (Salve et al. 2018). The actual heat exposure of people during high-temperature occurrences, as well as the actions and conduct of those at risk (Hondula et al. 2015). An increase in the concentration of CO2 in the atmosphere can trigger and increase stress in humans (Jacobson et al. 2019). The health of people can be harmed by rising CO2 levels, especially the weaker elements of society including the young, old, and young at heart (Aslam et al. 2021). Even in unmanaged plantations, eucalyptus plantations can have a significant negative influence on the taxonomic and functional diversity of ant groups (Martello et al. 2018). Ants are useful markers of predation and responses to temperature changes in mega-diverse forest ecosystems (Tiede et al. 2017). The existence of the type and number of ants in the forest can be an indicator of the perfection of the forest canopy cover (Lawes et al. 2017). Meanwhile, in Entre Rıos province, Argentina, eucalyptus plantations can reduce the population and diversity of birds in the planting area within up to a 500 m radius of the planting area (Phifer et al. 2017). With a markedly lower species, and richness in both a lower quantity of birds and taxa, eucalyptus plantations in northwest Spain provide a substantially poorer environment for both birds and plants than natural forests (Goded et al. 2019). Mixed planting of Eucalyptus and acacia on Brazilian planosol produces larger tree diameters when harvested compared to monoculture planting (Santos et al. 2016).

12.5 Conclusions Over the past few centuries, eucalyptus trees have grown and spread, becoming the most widely farmed tree species globally. By examining its socio-economic and environmental advantages, foresters, growers, users, and the timber industry encourage its spread. Numerous socio-economic studies revealed that extensive Eucalyptus plantations, especially on land unsuitable for sustainable agriculture, have protected many impoverished farmers from financial problems. Meanwhile, environmentalists, academics, and researchers are more concerned about the negative impact on

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the environment. Research studies carried out in a number of nations have revealed that eucalyptus is one of the most preferred trees because it grows quickly, can survive in challenging environments, requires little upkeep, is more resistant to environmental stresses and diseases, and can satisfy the rising demand for wood products such as construction, wood energy, and furniture. On the other hand, the alleged negative environmental impacts include the inability to provide productive and fewer ecological services, impact on environmental and ecological services any issues with watershed and soil conservation, depletion of soil nutrients, increase soil erosion, and is unable to supply habitat or food sources for wildlife, as well as aesthetic values or recreational opportunities. Therefore, instead of complaining about whether to circumvent or reduce the negative impacts of Eucalyptus trees; the highlighting should be placed by environmentalists, academics, researchers, and policymakers to sustain the appropriate use and selection of lands such as degraded lands; steep slopes; roadside; waterlogging area and recommend selecting Eucalyptus tree species and applying proper tree management cultivation techniques so that ecological and environmental negative impacts can be lessened and socio-economic profits of Eucalyptus can be enhanced. Other issues need to be analyzed and scrutinized, regarding the use of many nutrients leading to soil exhaustion, reduced yields, allelochemical secretion, and production reduced, and an observant analysis of the social and ecological implications must be carried out before planting. There are certain decisions to be taken, including where, what, why, and how to grow and manage it. The social, economic, and environmental implications of each decision must be counted up. Acknowledgements The funding for “Pusat Kolaboratif Riset Kosmetik Berteknologi Nano Berbasis Biomassa” in the Fiscal Year 2022 (Grant number: 398/II/FR/3/2022) was provided by the Deputy of Research and Innovation, National Research and Innovation Agency (BRIN). The Integrated Laboratory of Bioproducts (iLaB), Research Center for Biomass and Bioproducts, National Research and Innovation Agency (BRIN), and E-Layanan Sains National Research and Innovation Agency (BRIN), Indonesia are also acknowledged by the authors for their scientific and technical assistance.

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