Ethics, Morality And Business: The Development Of Modern Economic Systems, Volume I: Ancient Civilizations [1, 1st Edition] 3030714926, 9783030714925, 9783030714932

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Dipak Basu ∙ Victoria Miroshnik

Ethics, Morality and Business: The Development of Modern Economic Systems, Volume I Ancient Civilizations

Ethics, Morality and Business: The Development of Modern Economic Systems, Volume I

Dipak Basu · Victoria Miroshnik

Ethics, Morality and Business: The Development of Modern Economic Systems, Volume I Ancient Civilizations

Dipak Basu Nagasaki University Nagasaki, Japan

Victoria Miroshnik Reitaku University Kashiwa, Japan

ISBN 978-3-030-71492-5 ISBN 978-3-030-71493-2 (eBook) https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-71493-2 © The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 This work is subject to copyright. All rights are solely and exclusively licensed by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed. The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use. The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the authors or the editors give a warranty, expressed or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been made. The publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. This Palgrave Macmillan imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature Switzerland AG The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland

This book is dedicated to the famous philosopher of Japan Professor Chikuro Hiroike, founder of the Reitaku University & to our uncle Nishith Ranjan Mitra, the Managing Director of Deb Sahitya Kuthir, the famous publishing house of India, who have inspired us always.

Introduction: Civilizations and Morality

This book is interdisciplinary trying to combine ancient history and modern business ethics. Civilization begins, not with the invention of agriculture, but with the articulation almost 70,000 years ago, according to Puranas, the set of books of history from the beginning of the world, in Sanskrit, with a valid ethical code. Those societies, which lived in closest harmony with the evolutionary ethics, would be the most inventive and dynamic. This would enable them to group together into the largest societies, which were the foundations for civilization. No civilization is possible without an ethical code. A civilized people may be defined as a group of persons tied together by a common ethical code who systematically control their collective ability and behavior. The essential difference between civilized and uncivilized people is that among the latter there is no systematic effort by its members to create anything for the benefit of them as a whole. It is this idea of plan and care for the future that separates the civilized people from the uncivilized. The idea for the future has close links with the ethical concerns. Early Aryan religious customs spread along the Eurasian planes. From India, it went to the land of the Assyrians or Asurs, Hittites, Mitranis, along with the common religion to worship Mitra or the Sun. Subsequently, it was carried forward to Russia via Armenia and Georgia. One group went toward Bulgaria and Greece. Another group stayed in Asia Minor. Other groups went toward Japan and became Ainu, the ancient people of Japan.

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As the ethical codes give rise to religions, the unifying force combining a group of people was always religious. In the early civilizations, religion, agriculture, and technology were all interrelated. If the religion and ethical code are not interrelated, then the civilization will be corrupted and may even die. Religion is a psychosocial character, which combines the mind of both individuals and the society. Human society continues along with religion, which guides the society to some specific direction and provides satisfaction during a crisis. Religion obviously implies a sense of duty and virtue, and unconditional respect for moral rules, rights, and needs—“do your duty without expecting the results,” as Krishna said in Bhagavad Gita. It is also related to Kant’s “categorical imperative,” on respect for human dignity and virtue, the rigorous fulfillment of moral principles. Opposite examples include: • Lie if it helps, or “Taquiya” in Islam, • Self-interest, even greed is ethically neutral in that it promotes general welfare, the logic of Adam Smith to justify capitalism, • Charity may be immoral when it keeps people dependent, the standard logic against welfare state or socialism, • make and take bribes if it saves jobs. Corporate Citizenship is a new approach to philanthropy that is concerned with general social issues. Corporate Governance concerns about securing the interests of shareholders preserving trust. Corporate Social Responsibility concerns about responsibility as a social institution. By promoting this responsibility, a business organization promotes ultimately its own interests. Thus, business ethics promote business interest. Toyota Management System is the best example of it, where the alienation problem of the workers, mentioned by Karl Marx, is attempted to solve, using a unique operations management system. There are some moral rights too apart from moral responsibility. The examples are the rights of consumers to information, the rights of employees to be treated humanely, and the rights of entrepreneurs to do their business in an honest environment. There are two different views of ethics, as the discipline that deals with morals. Ethics tries to describe the role morality plays in our everyday

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lives; this is descriptive ethics. It may try to tell us what is morally right and wrong. That’s called normative ethics. Descriptive ethics raises the question about the role “morality” actually plays in the actual economy. We may say that business has nothing to do with morality. However, morality has important roles for the efficiency of any economic system. In an exchange economy, if there is no trust in transactions, there cannot be any transaction. In recent decades, efforts have been made to implant capitalist economic systems and impose capitalist structural reforms on countries meant to induce some sort of self-sustaining economic growth. The efficient functioning of economic institutions is not independent of its cultural context. If economic theory itself is ignorant of that context, it will be irrelevant and could not produce any real effects. The success of an economic system and its resultant institutions are very much contingent on cultural factors and moral criteria. Moral norms make economic behavior more predictable and reliable. Thus, they make economic transactions possible. Moral norms create an important economic resource, called “social capital,” denoting intangible resources that can be sustained via social relationships. Such moral norms include: • A commitment to honor contracts or absence of any “Taquiya” where a Muslim does not have to fulfill a contract if the other party is not a Muslim; • Relationships, inside and between organizations, built on loyalty, and harmony with friendship, reciprocity, and cooperation; • Compliance to the law. These are issues that can undermine these ethical norms. If these norms may be exclusive to a family organization, there can be nepotism and favoritism which discriminate against outsiders. There can be bribery, which discriminates those who play by the rules and creates an atmosphere of fraud. There can be cartels and price fixing in which companies form “oligopolies,” restricting competition to create excessive profits. As a result, consumers and the country have to incur losses. Prices can go up and there can be mal-distribution of wealth and assets.

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Without morals and ethical behavior, efficient and legitimate business cannot survive. This book analyzes the history of morality starting with the Aryan morality as written in the ancient texts. It was followed by the modern philosophy. Analysis of ethics of Japan as reflected in the Japanese management system in the context of the ethics of management and capitalism was narrated and explained in the context of Japan’s national philosophy.

Philosophy of Moral Science Moralogy is a term coined by the famous Japanese philosopher Chikuro Hiroike in his book, Treatise on Moral Science: A First Attempt at Establishing Moralogy as a New Science, the fruit of many years of study and hard experiences in life, which was published in Japanese in 1928. Moralogy is a science, which should be viewed as a comprehensive human science—it is not traditional moral philosophy or ethics. Moralogy aims to expand the horizon of knowledge by understanding the realities of history, utilizing the knowledge and methodologies of science and technology, taking advantage of ordinary people as well as philosophical and religious wisdom, and learning from the teaching of various sages around the world in a spirit of studying the past to learn new things. The existence, development, security, peace, and happiness of humankind form the essence of the ultimate good. Activities of humankind to realize this ultimate good in all aspects of life constitute ethics and morals. “Moralogy tries to understand the deeds and traditions of world sages, not in the religious dimensions but as a model of morality that applies to all mankind and allows different groups to coexist” (Hiroike 1928, p. 123). Moralogy as a science of morality proposes the following notions: 1. The world sages have taught human society about sacred transcendental beings that permit various values and standpoints with regard to life to coexist in a peaceful manner. 2. When we take this moral approach and seek to understand the universe and the divine, we see that the universe reflects the soul of the divine while humankind takes its place as an element of the universe, retaining part of that soul. Buddha said, “Very form is emptiness and emptiness if form”; we understand that people and things of this world are mutable and

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subject to continuous change. By knowing our mind that everything is transient and not permanent, we can be freed from various obsessions and preoccupations to enhance our mental power gaining full command of it and creating a deep sense of security and joy (Hiroike, 1928, page 32–33). The Japanese religions—Confucianism, Shintoism, and Buddhism—are transcendental in nature. This means that each believes that every single thing, including people, has its own soul or spirit, or numen as the Japanese call it. Each individual numen combines with all others to form the great life force of the universe. Work is understood to be a selfexpression of the great life force, and Japanese people unconsciously, and sometimes consciously, try to unify themselves with the great life force by concentrating on their own work. The second aspect of transcendentalism that affects Japanese working practices, and therefore ethics, is the emphasis on groups. In the group environment, a group is considered to be superior to its ordinary members mainly because, while the group is expected to be able to connect with the numen of the universe in a direct way, the members of the group individually are not related to the force in the same way. The only way for the members to connect with the life force is through the activities of their group.

The Limitations of Ordinary Morality Following Chikuro Hiroike (1928), ordinary morality encompasses the social customs, manners, and the like which have been accumulated to date, and so must be respected and observed at all times. Examples of ordinary morality include maintaining one’s health by practicing moderation; studying diligently to extend one’s abilities; working hard to improve one’s livelihood; building good relationship; and devoting oneself loyally to the development of the organization to which one belongs. Using one’s word and being industrious, sincere, honest, kind, and compassionate are also among the important moral qualities needed in our social life. More particularly, paying attention to one’s own manners and etiquette is a moral quality that is essential in building and maintaining smooth human relationship. Ordinary morality is insufficient as a guide to life. Based as it is on the natural human instinct of self-preservation, it is in essence self-centered.

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Ordinary morality can often result in an attitude of sympathy or kindness only. It also tends to form of morality, which patronizingly demands a return from others. Types and Characteristics of Ordinary Morality A. A B. A C. A D. A E. A F. A G. A

temporary emotional form of morality potentially egoistic form of morality morality of sympathy and kindness form of morality that demands reward cold intellectual form of morality perfunctory form of morality zealous strenuous form of morality.

Thus, ordinary morality cannot avoid a tendency toward selfcenteredness.

Supreme Morality as an Aspiration The characteristics of the World Sages: Hiroike summarized the characteristics of these sages as follows: The sages possessed the spirit of love and benevolence, which is an impartial love for all beings. Whatever oppression they might have suffered and in the absence of all support, they reflected deeply upon themselves and in spirit never laid any blame on others. The sages aimed at the peace of the world and the happiness of humankind. Their actions are intended to be universal, open to all humankind. Supreme morality represents the moral principles practiced by the world sages. Buddha described: May all creatures be happy minded, As a mother at the risk of her life watches over her own child, so also let everyone cultivate a boundless (friendly) mind towards all beings ”. (Sutta-nipata, viii, 5–7)

Buddhist ethics finds its foundation not on the changing social customs but rather on the unchanging laws of nature. Buddhist ethical values are intrinsically a part of nature and the unchanging law of cause and effect (karma). The simple fact that Buddhist ethics are rooted in natural law makes its principles both useful and acceptable to the modern world.

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Similarly, Christ in his sermons from the mountain asserted the moral values of his messages: Blessed are the poor in spirit: for theirs is the kingdom of heaven. Blessed are they that mourn: for they shall be comforted. Blessed are the meek: for they shall inherit the earth. Blessed are they who do hunger and thirst after righteousness: for they shall be filled. Blessed are the merciful: for they shall obtain mercy. Blessed are the pure in heart: for they shall see God. Blessed are the peacemakers: for they shall be called the children of God. Blessed are they who are persecuted for righteousness’ sake: for theirs is the kingdom of heaven. (Mathew, 5: 3–12).

Morality in Buddhism is essentially practical in that it is only a means leading to the final goal of ultimate happiness. On the Buddhist path to emancipation, each individual is considered responsible for his own fortunes and misfortunes. Each individual is expected to work his own deliverance by his understanding and effort. Buddhist salvation is the result of one’s own moral development and can neither be imposed nor granted to one by some external agent. The Buddha’s mission was to enlighten men as to the nature of existence and to advise them how best to act for their own happiness and for the benefit of others. In Buddhist terms, scientific and technological progress has in no way resulted in the reduction of the unwholesome roots of human behavior, namely greed, hatred, and delusion. As long as these roots of unwholesome behavior are not drastically reduced or are kept within reasonable limits, it would not be possible to think of peace, harmony, happiness, and contentment in society. Buddhism can be considered as a path of moral perfection. The entire path is comprised of gradual stages of ethical purification. This is the reason why it was traditionally described as a Visuddhimagga. The goal of Hinduism, Buddhism, and Christianity is a modification of a person’s behavior and a transformation of a person’s emotive and cognitive constitution. The consequence of this modification and transformation is that the person concerned overcomes the ills of existence and ceases to produce suffering to others. The goal of Buddhism is defined purely in psychological terms. It is not merging with God or Brahman or surviving

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to eternity in some incomprehensible realm of Being, but becoming free from greed, hatred, and delusion. People who have given up metaphysics and religious dogma in preference to the modern scientific, materialist, and deterministic view of existence have moved toward a skeptical stance on the nature of moral values. They tend to associate morality with metaphysics and religion. The consequence of this attitude is the creation of a moral vacuum in their lives. Under such circumstances, greed, hatred, and delusion become the motivating forces of their behavior. The materialist and determinist ideology associated with modern science, which is seeking to displace metaphysics and religious dogma, attempts to transform society by effecting changes in the material conditions of living. The scientific worldview attaches no significance to the importance of morality. Morality is considered as a matter of attitudes and emotions. Moral values are considered to be relative and subjective. According to this view, only empirical facts have objectivity. If external factors alone determine human behavior, people cannot be responsible for their moral failings. They cannot be blamed for what they do. Such a view of the nature of human action encourages the renunciation of personal responsibility for what people do. Today, Hinduism, Buddhism, and Christianity remain as a great civilizing force in the modern world. Buddhism and Christianity awaken the self-respect and feeling self-responsibility of countless people and stir up the energy of many a nation. Hiroike, the noted Japanese philosopher, regarded the morality of the Japanese imperial household, which originated with its ancestress Amaterasu Omikami and was passed on by succeeding emperors as another linage of supreme morality. According to the Record of Ancient Matters and the Chronicles of Japan, Amaterasu Omikami is the goddess and ruler of Takamanohara, the Plain of High Heaven and also ancestress of the Japanese imperial family. In moralogy, the fundamental spirit of Omikami or the spirit of benevolence, tolerance, and self-examination is viewed as the origin of the moral spirit of Japan. In the Record of Ancient Matters, Amaterasu Omikami after observing several acts of violence of her brother Susanoo no Mikoto and forgiving him in the spirit of tolerance shut herself up in a cave to further her moral discipline. Hiroike was always concerned to emphasize the fact that generations of Emperors

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believed in Amaterasu Omikami inherited her spirit of benevolence, tolerance, and self-examination and played a central role in the elevation of Japanese morality. In Bushido: The Soul of Japan (1899), Inazo Nitobe describes how Bushido exemplified the way in which Japan became acquainted with and assimilated the best that was offered by the outside world while preserving the highest achievements of its own history and civilization. Sources of the concept of spiritual Ortholions in Japanese Morality: 1. Buddhism…. Faith in Buddha, Dharma and Sangha; benevolent practice and the practice of the Bodhisatta; 2. Confucianism……faith in Heaven, the worship of ancestral spirits and the code of life, including properties; 3. Shinto….. ancestral Kami (gods) of the Imperial Family and local tutelary Kami of the people and land; 4. Taoism….. a multiplicity of gods, transcendent beings, and the way of nature; 5. Lines of other religions of the world; 6. Lines of science and other philosophies and cultures. The essence of supreme morality can be expressed in certain specific principles: self-renunciation; justice and benevolence; the precedence of duty; returning favors to ortholinons; and enlightenment and salvation. Accordingly, it is useful to read the records of the words and actions of the sages from different cultures. Reading such important works as Plato’s Apology of Socrates, Buddha’s Teaching, the Analects of Confucius, the Holy Bible, and the Koran allows us to progress from ignorance to knowledge. The original systems of supreme morality were inherited and developed by outstanding people including, for example, Aristotle, Paul, Augustine, and Thomas Aquinas in the West and Nagarjuna, Shankar, Sri Chaitannya, Swami Vivekananda, Prince Shotoku, Zhu Zi, Baigan Ishida, and Sontoku Ninomiya in Asia. Judaism, Christianity, Islam, Hinduism, and other religions have produced brilliant persons of wisdom and morality that have ultimately been accorded the faith and worship of humankind. We, in Volume One, start here, with an analysis of the history of the origin of the Aryans as it will shed a lot of light on the unknown parts of history, which is related to the supreme morality. We consider Aryans to include Indian, Greek, Roman, and Japanese in the spirit of the Puranas.

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In this book, we traced the important philosophers who could not get proper attention so far. The reason is that normally we ignore eastern philosophy and social system. Thus, we include analysis of Hindu philosophy and associated history, which was neglected so far in the Western literature. Given the vastness of the subject, we could not include every sage we wanted to include.

Reference Hiroike, C., 1928. Treatise of Moral Science, Vol. 1–9. Kashiwa: Reitaku University.

Contents

1

1

Origin of the Aryans

2

Ancient History of the Indians, Russians, and Japanese

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3

Ethics of the Aryans and Modern Sages of India

57

4

Ethics of Kautilya

105

5

Relationship Between Ancient Greece and Ancient India, and Christianity

125

6

Ethics of Buddhism

153

7

Ethics of Japanese Buddhism, Shintoism, and Confusion Philosophy

165

Conclusion

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Index

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List of Diagrams

Diagram 2.1 Diagram 2.2 Diagram 2.3 Diagram 2.4 Diagram 2.5 Diagram Diagram Diagram Diagram

2.6 2.7 2.8 2.9

Diagram 2.10 Diagram 2.11

Square Lake, in the Kola region, Russian Arctic Paved Road, Kola Region, Russian Arctic Who puts these small stones on the bottom of a large stone, Kola Region, Russian Arctic Perfectly shaped round stones, Kola region, Russian Arctic Perfectly polished stones, part of walls, Kola Region, Russian Arctic Pyramid in Kola region, Russian Arctic Steps, Kola region, Russian arctic A Square lake, Kola region, Russian Arctic Plan of the city under sea in Yanagumi, Okinawa, Japan Under-sea ruins near Okinawa Ruins under the sea

46 47 48 48 49 49 50 51 52 52 53

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CHAPTER 1

Origin of the Aryans

According to the Puranas, Human history, after the last ice age, possibly started in about 80,000 years ago (Mazumdar 1917). Manu was born in about 72,000 years ago. He was called Adima or the first Patriarch. He had seven sons who occupied seven continents of the world. Bhavishya Purana gave clear account of that period. Aryans after their migrations out of India reached the north of Russia, which was called Uttara Kuru. Rig Veda mentioned large Aryan settlements in Roosam (Russia) and Hariyupia (Europe) before 3000 B.C. (Mazumdar 1917). After the discovery of the Denisovians in some caves in Siberia we have to push back that time to perhaps 400,000 years ago (Zubova et al. 2017). Denisovians were giants, called Davav in the Puranas, who used to live in Balochistan before. Thus, Aryans went everywhere in every continents and all civilizations came out of the Aryan influence. Aryans, derived from the original Sanskrit word Arya, means cultivated educated person, according to Sri Aurobindo, used to have very high moral standard with great regard for truth, promise, and hospitality. Thus, we have to describe the Aryans if we want to analyze moral aspects of human civilization. Their sages, or Rishis, after many years of meditations and learning, derived some great ideas (Riks) on God and universe.

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 D. Basu and V. Miroshnik, Ethics, Morality and Business: The Development of Modern Economic Systems, Volume I, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-71493-2_1

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Ancient Aryans divided the entire world into three land masses: Aswa Kranta (Eurasia), Ratha Kranta (Africa), Vishnu Kranta (the two Americas). They divided the world into seven continents: Saka (Europe), Jambu (Asia), Plaksha (a submerged continent between Asia and Africa), Pushkara (North America), Kusa (South America), Salmali (Africa), and Krauncha (Oceania). Europe was called alternatively Hariyupia, Saka, and Ishurupa. According to Mahabharata, a son of Krishna, Samva brought a group of Sakal Brahmins to modern Multan (then called Mitra Sthana or Mula Sthana). Hue En Shang, the Chinese monk when visited that place, he has seen a Sun Temple, Sambapura, made of gold. Some of the Aryans after leaving India entered Babylon, Assyria, and Egypt. They are called Panis in Rig Veda. Most of them settled in Asia Minor (Historians History of the World, 1902). Rig Veda mentioned them as great navigators using Satarika Nau (a ship with 100 oars). Original people of Assyria were not Semitic. Before 4000 B.C., Southern Babylon was the original home of the Sumerians from India and Northern Babylon originally came from central Asia. Modern name Mesopotamia came from the original Madhya Vedi, according to the Historians History of the World (vols. 1 and 2, 1902). One of the most famous King of Babylon was Asur Bani Pal, a pure Sanskrit name. Both Hittite and Mitranis used to speak Indo-European language. Their gods were Vedic gods. HR Hall, curator of the British Museum wrote (Hall 1939), “The ethnic type of the Sumerians so strongly marked in their statues and relief was as different from those of the races which surround them as was their language from those of the Semites; they were decidedly Indian in type. The face type of the average Indian of today is no doubt much the same as that of his race ancestors thousands of years ago. And it is by no means improbable that the Sumerians were an Indian race. It was in the Indian home, perhaps the Indus valley; we suppose for them, that their culture developed. There their writings may have invented and progressed from a purely pictorial to a simplified and abbreviated from which afterwards in Babylonia took on its peculiar cuneiform appearance owing to its being written with a square ended stylus on soft-clay. There is little doubt that India must have been one of earliest centres of human civilization and it seems natural to suppose that the strange un-Semitic people who came from the East to civilise the West were of Indian origin, especially when we see with our eyes how very Indian the Sumerians were in type”.

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There were linguistic and ethnic resemblance between the Sumerians and the Dravidians, people from South India. Both Rig Veda and Mahabharata mentioned the Deva-Asura war, which lasted 32 years in which Devas, the Aryans of North India, driven other tribes. In both Harappa and Babylon an unknown script was discovered, demonstrating close connection between the Indus valley and Babylon. Woolley in Ur found a similar seal with a very early cuneiform inscription (Woolley 1929). Indus culture is older than Sumerian and Egyptian culture (Hall 1928, 1939). According to the Puranas, the Sumerians were driven out by Rudra to shores of the western sea. The two brothers Vritra and Bala with their Aryan followers settled in ancient Persia and Mesopotamia, respectively. The Panis, allies of the Asuras, were also ousted and they settled down on the shore of the Levant sea, according to the Puranas. Mazumdar (1917) thought it was in 2800 B.C. but according to the latest research it can be before 9000 B.C. Their capital was Tyre. Indra led the Aryans to Apa, modern Afghanistan. Vritra made a treaty with Indra and founded his capital in Babylon. However, according to Rig Veda, Indra broke that treaty and killed Varitra. Indra then went to East Europe and killed sons of Varashika of the Vrichivat clan (Rig Veda, V, VI, 27, 5). Thus, Russia, East Europe, Greece, West Asia, Mesopotamia, Persia, Afghanistan, and India were filled by these Aryans. German historian A. H. L. Heeren, Professor of History in the University of Gottingen, believed in the Indian origin of the Egyptian civilization. According to him, in the Historians History of the World, vol. 1, pp. 198 and 200 and in the History of Ancient Civilizations, published from the Gottingen University in 1799, skulls of the ancient Egyptians and ancient Indians have close resemblance. It might mean that the Egyptians had one day been emigrants from India. Egyptians were divided into castes similar to India. The early Aryan name of Egypt was Ekantina, a country that worship one supreme being in the very ancient time. According to James Todd (1920), “ …from ancient Ethiopia, Egypt had her civilized institutions and that the Ethiopians were of Indian origin.” Homer also called the Indians as eastern Ethiopians (Mazumdar 1917, p. 1). Recently Max Plank Institute in Jena and the University of Tubingen examined the 3500-year-old mummies from Egypt and found out the DNA of the ancient Egyptians are not related to the people of sub-Saharan Africa but are related to ancient people of Anatolia, who were originally from India (https://edition.cnn.com/2017/06/22/hea lth/ancient-egypt-mummy-dna).

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Rig Veda (1, 22, 16–21) mentioned Vishnu the leader of the Aryans and his people used to live in a place called Indra-Laya from 8000 to 5000 B.C., and in 5000 B.C. they started to disperse in different directions. Manu was the first person, the origin of the Aryans. Priyavrata, son of Manu, according to Vishnu Purana (II, 1), Garura Purana, Bhagavata (V, 1), Devi-Bhagavata (VIII, 4), divided his kingdom among his ten sons but three of them refused to be Kings, instead chose to be hermits. Prince Agnidhara got Jambu Dwipa (Asia), Medhatithi got Plakssha (submerged continent between Africa and Asia). Vapushman got Samali (Africa), Dyutiman got Krauncha Dwipa (Australia), Bhavya got Saka-Dwipa (Europe), Savala got Pushkara-Dwipa (North America), Jyotishman got Kusa Dwipa (South America). The grandson of Manu, Agnidhara divided Asia among his nine sons (Vishnu Purana [II, 2], Garura Purana [I, 54], Brahma Purana [18]). India was able to assimilate itself to Buddhism by accepting the Aryan traditions. Gautama Buddha himself was an Aryan, His philosophy is called the “Aryan Way.” That is the reason it is important to know the origin of the values and traditions of the Aryan society. This chapter analyzes the history of the Aryan civilizational values. Indians and Greeks are the two major Aryan tribes. Their relationship through the philosophical tradition is very close. Upanishad and Eleatics are almost similar. Xenophanes taught that God and the Universe are one, eternal, and unchangeable. Parmenides holds that Universal being is neither created nor to be destroyed and omnipresent, only reality. These are similar to the messages of Upanishads. The idea of ancient Greece that everything came from water is similar to the idea of the Vedas. Ideas of the Samkhya philosophy also have its reflection in Greece. Samkhya doctrine said that the material world is produced by Prakiti, the primitive matter, and ultimately sinks back to it. Anaximander thought that foundation of all things, a primitive matter, eternal, unfathomable and indefinite, from which definite substances arise and into which they return. Innumerable annihilations and reformations of the universe of the Samkhya doctrine have its reflections in philosophy of Heraclitus. Samkhya proposed the eternal and endless reality of all products and eternity and indestructibility of matter. These are reflected in the theories of Empedocles and Epicurus. Almost all doctrines of Pythagoras used to exist in India early sixth century B.C., including the Pythagoras theorem or irrational number in Sulva-sutra (Von Schroeder 1884). The doctrines of Pythagoras, number is the essence of things, elements of numbers

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are to be considered as the everything that exists, the whole universe is harmony and is ruled by the mathematical laws came from India (Von Schroeder 1884). Plotinus, the chief of the Neo-Platonists, was in perfect agreement with the Samkhya philosophy that the suffering of the world belongs to the matter but the soul is free from sorrows and passions, untouched by all affections. Plotinus called upon us to throw off the influence of the phenomenal world with the ambition of the union with the deity was from the Yoga Philosophy. In Chapter 5, we have analyzed this relationship in detail.

Aryan Philosophy and Ethics Vedic literature is the origin of Aryan thought. It analyzes six systems of philosophy in the Aryan society: Vedanta, Mimansa, Samkhya, Yoga, Nyaya, and Vaisesika. In addition, there are three rebel philosophical systems: Charvaka Lokayata, Buddhism, Jainism. All systems were developed from the Vedas. Indian Veda became Avesta in ancient Persia. The Vedic literature can be divided into four groups: (a) Samhitas; (b) Bhahmanas; (C) Aranyakas; (d) Upanishads. Four Vedas Rig, Sam, Yoju and Atharva, are Samhitas, each one of them is accompanied by Brahmana which are elaboration of the Samhitas. Aranyaks and Upanishads are philosophical explanations of the four Vedas. Rig Veda narrates the origin of the creation, the early history of the Aryans, various deities and their origin from ultimate Brahman, early social system, and adorations of the spirits of Brahman. Four varnas are the four parts of the cosmic man, Purusha, with head of the Brahman is the Brahmins—the priests and intellectuals, Arms are the Khatriyas—warriors and administrators, legs are the Vaishyas—the businessmen, and feet are the Sudras—the workers (Rig Veda, X, 90, 11–12). Maximum importance is thus given to the workers or Sudras, as without feet a person cannot even stand up and become worthless; thus, without the Sudras even Brahman will be worthless. This emphasis on the workers is significant and highly progressive. In the Aitreya Brahmana II, 19, there is a story of Kavasha, who despite being son of servant girl, not a Brahmin, became the favorite of the gods, elevated to be one of the Rishis or wise sages. Regarding the origin of the creation Rig Veda said, Brahman came first, he is the source of all. When the Brahman was meditating, there was no sky or earth, no existence or non-existence, the first thing that

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emerged is emotion or love. Thus, love is the foundation of the universe. This message is reflected in every other texts of the Aryans. Knowledge must be liberated without any constraint. That was expressed in Rig Veda in a story where the non-Aryans were hiding the cows in caves and Indra, the leader of the Aryans, liberated them. According to Sri Aurobindo (1995), cows are knowledge, and the fights described in the Rig Vedas were between the spirit of the Aryans following the path of the sun or pure knowledge—knowledge that benefits human beings and the Asura, the followers of knowledge that harm human being. Thus, Vedas promoted pure knowledge, not harmful knowledge. Vedas were against social evils like widow burning or suicides. There is a chapter in Rig Veda (Griffith 2017) in 10.18.7–8, where a brother was trying to persuade his sister not to commit suicide, while she in grief was about to join her dead husband’s funeral pyre. According to Rig Veda, extreme attachments to material body are wrong. Suicide also is wrong as we cannot give life to any entities, human or nonhuman, only Brahman can. Satapatha Brahmans raised some philosophical question like what is man and what is the essence of man. It concluded that Atman is the essence of man. Atman is the absolute body or absolute soul. It considers thought as the primary source (X, 5). While Rig Veda (X, 129) considers the nature is the primary source, Satapatha Brahman considers thought as the beginning where nature are the state in which thought assumes a clear shape. Ethical views are expressed in sections “Truth and untruth” (II, 2) and “Genuine and non-Geneuine” (XI, 5). Men of truth and honesty are poorer than false and dishonest men, though ultimately he who speaks the truth wins. Aranakyas are the products of the sages who lived in the forests and thought about the essence of all that is and what takes place. Aitreya Aranakya puts the emphasis on concrete phenomena of nature and Atma (soul) is the embodiment of rational principle. Man is superior to both animals and plants because his reason is improving itself continuously, as he never rests. Chandogya Upanishad puts the emphasis on internal sacrifice of mind and soul rather than external sacrifice through rituals. In the section “The Five Fires” (V, 10) it explains transmigration of soul from one body to another upon death and the new birth depends on the behavior of the person during his or her lifetime of the previous birth. That provides foundation of all ethical behavior and truthful living.

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Brihad Arankya Upanishad explains the relationship between Atma and Brahman. Atman is the Brahman of all works. Yajna Valkya described Brahman as universal common basis, as everything comes out of it and goes back to it. Aitreya Upanishad supports the idea of Brihad Arankya Upanishad with the idea that Atman is the source of life and the entire universe is based on consciousness. Kausitaki Upanishad tied reincarnations with this idea. Depending on the deeds or Karma of the past incarnations, the soul can be reborn in most diverse forms, man, animals, or insects. The end of reincarnations is the highest goal of life. That can be achieved through the merging of the ordinary soul of men with the great soul of the Brahman. Thus, karma must be based on ethical foundations. Taittriya Upanishad has a strong rationalistic basis. According to it, everything in human life is based on knowledge which directs the actions of men and Brahman is the ultimate knowledge. Thus mind is Brahman, as men are alive by mind. Brahman is the ultimate cause and purpose of the existence of the world and this Brahman can be approached by knowledge. This is also the lesson of Keno-Upanishad. Isa Upanishad said there are two types of knowledge, Vidya or superior knowledge and Avidya where the person know only objects and phenomena but not their genuine nature. According to Katha-Upanishad (section I, Part III. 8), those who have correct understanding, who are pure, whose mind are well controlled reaches the goal from where none is again born. Every person has his Dharma, his law of the mode of life preordained from on high. Deviation from performances of the Dharma may result in that person’s soul being reborn in the body of an animal or even insect. If he would perform according to his Dharma he will born in a superior standing. This doctrine provides the ethical foundations of behavior of all people. Katha Upanishad has a story of a boy Nachiketa and the Lord of Death. Nachiketa went to the house of the lord of death as his father wanted to give him to death. For three days, he had to wait. Because of that, Lord of Death offered him three boons. One of these boons was the answer to the question what is explanation when a man dies whether he exists or not. The Lord of Death was very reluctant to answer this question and he offered a lot of wealth, kingdom, and long-life instead, but the boy still insisting for the answer. Then the Lord of Death answered: “Worldly objects give either joy or pleasure. The wise man prefers the joyful but the ignorant due to greed and attachment chooses the pleasurable. The

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wise man abandons both joy and sorrows by meditation on the self, and is released from the jaws of death.” Charvaka Lokyatika are materialistic philosophers. Discarding idealism and mysticism, the materialists developed the proposition that only this world exists, there is no supernatural purpose; nature is governed and directed by itself. Brihaspati was the founder of this school. Four material elements, fire, water, air, and, earth, are the basis for everything. There is no God. This world is that exists (Chattopadhya 1959). Only direct perception gives man genuine knowledge. There are two kinds of sense perceptions: internal and external. External perceptions are from the activity of the senses. Internal perceptions are the result of mental operations based on data obtained from the senses. A related system of philosophy is that of Nyaya or logical school. Gotama is considered as the founder of this school. Greek philosopher Callisthenes was with the army of Alexander, when he invaded India. He learned Nyaya from India and passed this system to Aristotle. Nyaya is the foundation of Aristotle’s logical theory (Brodov 1984). According to Nyaya, material world exist objectively and existence of the external objects does not depend on the source of knowledge. Everything, that is not accessible through sense perception, has no real existence. Nyaya is concerned with the instruments of cognition. There are four types of cognitions: perceptions, inference, comparison, and verbal testimony. There are similarity of Nyaya and Charvakas as Brihaspati was the common originator of the both systems.

Materialistic Ideas in Indian Philosophy There are elements of spontaneous materialism and dialects in the Vaishesika school of Kanada (about third century B.C.). According to it, there are two worlds: sensual and super-sensual. Sensual world is materialistic; this is based on the atoms existing in space. Atoms are countless and eternal. Ether or Akash has no atomic structure. It fills the empty space between the atoms of earth, water, light, and air. Atoms are invisible and their combinations make up the world. Each atoms are qualitatively different from other atoms. Atoms are immutable, inert, devoid of inner motion. Motion of the atoms, i.e., combination, separation, and mechanical shifting, is due to external causes, due to an action of an external object. Apart from this visual cause, there is an invisible cause, which is the ultimate cause of movements of all atoms. However, this invisible cause

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is not divine, but natural. Greek philosopher Democritus and Epicurus extended this theory of atoms further by saying, every event is the result of necessity; there is no accidental object or phenomena in the world. Another materialistic school of philosophy of India is that of Kapila (possibly sixth century B.C.). Kapila has expanded the Samkhya school, but the idea is very old, as Krishna in Bhagavad Gita said, Samkhya and Yoga schools (explained later) are the same. According to Kapila, the world is material. Matter is the basis of everything. The motion of matter is eternal as matter itself. Matter has no beginning or end. The world was not created but developed gradually by itself. There is a continuity in the development of the world as nothing can arise out of something that does not exist. There is a close link between cause and effect. Each cause conditions a specific effect and there cannot be any cause without an effect. The effect is inseparable from the cause and our existence is conditional. The cause of this world is matter and the universe is the result of modifications of matter. It is related to Krishna. As Krishna said in Bhagavad Gita, that “I am the cause of this universe.” It justifies why Sankhya and Yoga, which tries to relate individual souls to the soul of the universe, are related. Ethical dimensions can be created from it. If individuals are responsible for the effects in their lives, then good effects can be caused by good works; that is the theory of Karma in Bhagavad Gita (Mascaro 1969). However, Buddhists and followers of Nayaya and Vaisheshikas have a different view on this issue. Their arguments is if the effect existed in the material cause, there is no need for the efficient cause. If the pot existed in the clay, there is no need for the potter. If Brahman created this universe, Brahman was not reduced to this universe. Brahman is the cause, but the universe is the effect (Dasgupta 1922). According to Kapila, Prakiti or Nature is one, all pervading and eternal. It is uncaused and independent. Products are caused and dependent (Brodov 1984). The Nature has three components or Gunas: Sattva— illuminating and potential consciousness, Rajas—motivating and source of motion, and Tamasa—restraining action. These three Gunas composed the basis of any objects or phenomenon and are connected and mutually conditioned. Matter cannot be created or destroyed. The sum total of all matters remains constant. The elements of matter are in constant motion. Any growth or disappearance of matter is only redistribution of matter. It is related to Bhagavad Gita and modern science and Greek Philosophy. Bhagavad Gita also mentioned these three Gunas and appropriate

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life styles and food habits for these three Gunas. Samkhya philosophy describes the development of this world from finer forms to the dense forms or material elements. Matter in the general form is the first cause of the world of objects, but it was not cognizable as it is in its finer form. Matter subsequently became in its singular form became moving objects, phenomena, and events developing in space and time. Purusha, or extremely fine element is beyond any cognition is the origin of consciousness; it is passive, only Prakiti or matter creates everything, when it comes into contact with the Purusha. At a certain stage of the development of the world, consciousness arises out of things while quantitative changes reaching a certain phase of development became qualitative changes producing new qualities (Ram Mohan Roy 1902/1982). According to Samkhya doctrine, the world is material. Matter is the ultimate basis of all that is. It is eternal and one. Matter cannot be either created or destroyed. Yoga is a method based on Samkhya school of Philosophy to free oneself to be united with the absolute soul or Atma (soul of the Brahman, the creator) which would mean the end of all suffering and release from the cycle of birth and rebirth. Patanjali, the main proponent of the Yuga school, interpreted the Samkhya philosophy in the spirit of dualism. The material (Prakiti) and the spiritual (Spiritual) are regarded as opposite principles that cannot be reduced to each other, but spirit is the supreme. As Krishna said, “Spirit, linked to molded matter, enter into bond with qualities by nature, framed and thus married to matter” (Bhagavad Gita, Ch 13). Man is one of the highest and most complicated material-spiritual combinations. Birth and death should be considered as changes in the matter, but not in the soul. There is no death, but long cycle, which is called reincarnations or Samsara. Soul attains a degree of purity from matter after going through a number of reincarnations. Patanjali described man as system composed of several sub-systems, mineral man, vegetable man, animal man and ultimately human man when an individual spiritual subsystem, called Purusa (the soul), is introduced into the individual material subsystem (Prakiti). The activity of the human man then rises to the highest level, as it is endowed with reason and soul, ready for the liberation of the soul from the material world to meet the Atma and receives the ultimate release from the Samsara, the cycle of birth and rebirth. The final philosophical system is Vedanta (which means the end of the Vedas or the essence of these) based on Brahma-Sutra of Badarayana of seventh to fifth century B.C.. It explains the nature of Brahman, its

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relationship with the individual soul and the world. There are various explanatory books within this school. Mandukya Karika of Gaurapada (seventh century B.C.) based on Mandukya Upanishad is one of the most important. It explains the concept of Maya or Illusion. The world according to Gaurapada is just as unreal when he is awake, as it is when he is asleep. The only reality is Brahman. Samkara in the eighth century explained it further. Brahman is infinite, eternal. The world of phenomena, of nature and matter are the dreams or illusion of Brahman. The relationship between Brahman and this world is like the relationship between the ocean and its waves, like an object and its properties. Our world is the Maya or sleep of the Brahman. Maya is neither real nor unreal. Sensory and logical cognitions are relative empirical truth, not the substantive basis of truth. Knowledge about the Brahman is the real cognition of the truth. Ramanuja in twelfth century disputed that according to him, Brahman is manifested in the form of this world, which is real and not an illusion (Brodov 1984). Sri Chaitannya in fourteenth century is a follower of Ramanuja’s Bhakti Movement, according to whom the God is accessible to all, irrespective of caste or even religious differences. Swami Vivekananda of nineteenth century India and ISKCON (International Society of Krishna Consciousness) followed this interpretation of Ramanuja. The cause of human sufferings does not lie in the illusory world concealing Brahman but we cannot demonstrate enough love and loyalty to Brahman. For the followers of Ramanuja serving any living creature is the worship of the Brahman. Materialism in the Jain and Buddhist Tradition Jainism is an ancient and much stricter version of Buddhism. It was founded by Mahabhir (possibly sixth century B.C. or earlier). The ultimate basis can be of two types, extended and un-extended. Un-extended substance are eternal, infinite, immobile, and amorphous. Extended substances are divided into two types, living and non-living. Matter or un-extended substance is the physical basis of this world. All physical objects are the result of combinations of gross and fine elements of atoms, which are eternal, infinite, and indestructible. Karma represents matter in intangible form.

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In the Tripritaka, Buddhism said, the whole of the world of things and phenomena surrounding man and man himself with his consciousness consist of atoms. These atoms are not the primary elements and non-eternal. Each individual’s existence has a beginning and an end. Buddhism does not accept definiteness of objects and phenomena; these are illusory and does not exist in reality. All nature is a single stream, a whirlwind consisting of elements or atoms. These elements have their carrier Dharma, which is the essence of all phenomena. As Nagarjuna (first century A.D.) explained, if an object is not caused by any outside factor, exist. As in the material world there is no phenomena without causes, all material objects are just flares, or illusion. However, beyond this world of phenomena there is a reality, which is beyond any description. According to Brodov (1984), the atomistic theories reflected the contradictions between materialism and idealism, between dialectics and metaphysics. These are primarily directed against the religious view that the world was created by an external factor called God. Thus, the world itself is an illusion, as explained by Samkara in eighth century. Lenin explained (in Conspectus of Hegel’s book Lectures on the History of Philosophy, Collected Works, vol. 38, p. 264), “The Atomists are generally speaking, opposed to the idea of the creation and maintenance of the world by means of a foreign principle. For, if nature is represented as created and held together by another, then it is conceived of as nonexistence in itself.”

Appendix A Ancient India: possibly 15000 B.C. and after Vedic Period (Source: Vedas) Period of Ramayana and Raghu Dynasty (possibly 7500 B.C.) Period of Mahabharata and Bharat Dynasty (about 4000 B.C.) Indus Valley Civilization (3500 B.C.) Birth of Gautam Buddha (563 B.C.) Invasion of Alexander (326 B.C.) and Chandra Gupta (321 B.C.) Asoke (265 B.C.) and Expansion of Buddhism India in South East Asia: Sri Vijaya (Indonesia), Barman (Burma), Champa (Vietnam), Cambojh (Cambodia and Laos), Suvarnabhumi (Thailand) Samudra Gupta and Gupta Dynasty (320 A.D. to 600 A.D.)

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Invasion of the Arabs (644 A.D.) Pala Dynasty (eighth to twelfth century) Invasion of Turks (eighth century onward) Occupation and Destruction of North India by Turks (twelfth century) Sources of Information about Ancient India: Four Vedas (Rig, Sam, Yajur, Atharva): Describe origin of the universes, social system in ancient India Upanishad and other Philosophical texts: Describes society and its relationship with the nature Ramayana: Describes the history of a Dynasty in ancient India Mahabharata: Describes the history of a dynasty and history of India at about 4000 B.C. Puranas: Describes in terms of stories various events in ancient India from era before the last ice age up to the twelfth century Archaeological excavations in India and Russia Descriptions given by Greek and Roman historians Descriptions given by Greek ambassadors to the Maurya Empire Chandra Gupta-Asoke Contributions to Science and Mathematics Ancient India: Estimation of time of the creation: The 8.64 billion years that mark a full day-and-night cycle in Brahma’s life is about half the modern estimate for the age of the universe. The geometrical formula known as the Pythagorean theorem can be traced to the Baudhayana, the earliest form of the Shulba Sustras prior to the eighth century B. C. Basic Algebra are also there in Sulva Sutras. The concept of atoms are in Kanad (sixth century B.C.). Binary System of Number Representation A Mathematician named Pingala (c. 100 B.C.) developed a system of binary enumeration convertible to decimal numerals. He described the system in his book called Chandah-shaastra. The system he described is quite similar to that of Leibnitz, who was born in the seventeenth century. The oldest known text to use zero is an Indian (Jaina) text entitled the Lokavi-bhaaga (“The Parts of the Universe”), which has been definitely dated to 25 August 458 B.C.

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The Indian numeral system and its place value, decimal system of enumeration came to the attention of the Arabs in the seventh or eighth century, and served as the basis for the well known advancement in Arab mathematics, represented by al-Khwarizmi. Zero reached Europe in the twelfth century when Adelard translated al-Khwarizmi’s works into Latin. Fibonacci was one of the main mathematicians who accepted the concepts of zero in Europe. Indian system of medicine is called Aryerveda. Most of the medical properties of various plants and herbs were developed in ancient India. There were several universities in ancient India: Taxila, Nalanda, Vikramshila, Odontyapuri, Ujjain, Sombihar or Paharpur. Taxila was famous for medical science. Gautam Buddha has received treatment there. However, at the time of the Turkish invasion in twelfth century all these universities were destroyed. Steel was invented possibly before the time of Asoke (265 B.C.). Asoke had built several steel pillars in different parts of India and Afghanistan. Most of the astrological knowledge were known to the ancient Indian. Arya Bhatta about 1200 years before Copernicus knew earth moves around the Sun and moon moves around the earth. BramhaGupta in sixth century knew about gravity long before Newton. Contributions of Individual Scientists Arya Bhatta (476 A.D.): Calculation of Phi, Quadratic equations, Division by Zero, Geometry and Trigonometry, Decimal system, Indeterminate Equations, simultaneous equations, Motions of the Solar System, Eclipses, Heliocentrism. Brahma Gupta (sixth century): Imaginary number, Square root, solution of Quadratic and simultaneous equation, gravity, distances of sun and moon from earth. Bhashkar (eighth century): Logarithm, sequence of series, indeterminate equations and numerical mathematics, basic ideas of calculus. Sridhar (ninth century): Arithmetic and geometric progressions, including progressions with fractional numbers or terms, and formulas for the sum of certain finite series.

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Madhav (fourteenth century): Expansion of the cos and sine functions.

Appendix B R . ig Veda It has five commandments: Ahinsa—non-injury ˙ Brahmacharya—non-fornication Asteya—non-stealing Satya—non-lying Aparigraha—non-possessiveness The following excerpt from the R.ig Veda sums up the Pancha-vrata: Violence, womanizing, drinking liquor, gambling, stealing, falsehood or lying and association with those who commit these sins; one who commits any of these sins is a sinner.

Y¯ ajñavalkya Smrti It has five commandments. Sage Y¯ajña-valkya was a r.s.i in the Vedic age and mentor of R¯aj¯a Janaka. The Y¯ajña-valkya Smr.ti prescribes the Panchavrata, apart from other moral codes. Yoga Sutra It has ten commandments. Patanjali in his Yoga Sutras lists them to follow for a good or sinless livelihood. 1. Ahins¯ ˙ a: Nonviolence. Abstinence from injury that arises out of love for all, harmlessness, the not causing of pain to any living creature in thought, word, or deed at any time. This and Satya are the “main” yama. The other eight are there in support of its accomplishment. 2. Satya: Truthfulness, word and thought in conformity with the facts, honesty.

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3. Asteya: Non-stealing, non-coveting, non-entering into debt. 4. Brahmacharya: Being constantly aware of the universe, immersed in divinity, divine conduct, continence, celibate when single, faithfulness when married. 5. Ks.ama: Patience, releasing time, functioning in the now. 6. Dr.ti: Steadfastness, overcoming non-perseverance, fear, and indecision; seeing each task through to completion. 7. Day¯a: Compassion; conquering callous, cruel and insensitive feelings toward all beings. ¯ 8. Arjava: Honesty, straightforwardness, renouncing deception and wrongdoing. 9. Mithara: Moderate appetite, neither eating too much nor too little; nor consuming meat, fish, shellfish, fowl or eggs. ´ 10. Saucha: Purity, avoidance of impurity in body, mind and speech ´ andilya Upanis.ad S¯ It has ten commandments. 1. Ahins¯ ˙ a—Non-violence 2. Satya—Truth 3. Asteya—Non-stealing 4. Brahmacharya—Celibacy 5. Day¯a—Compassion ¯ 6. Arjava—Equanimity 7. Ks.am¯a—Forgiveness 8. Dhr.ti—Firmness of mind 9. Mit¯ah¯ara—Vegetarianism and non-wasting of food 10. Sancha Veda Vy¯ asa ´ Devî It has ten commandments. In the Mah¯a Pur¯an.am Srimad Bh¯agavatam, Veda Vy¯asa writes of achieving yoga or union with God by destroying the six enemies of yoga; 1. Lust 2. Anger

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3. Greed 4. Ignorance 5. Vanity 6. Jealousy The six attributes can be destroyed by following Patanjali’s commandments. Maharishi Gautama It has ten commandments. Mahar.s.i Gautama was a lawgiver and ascribed eight yamas. 1. D¯ay¯a sarvabhuteshu: Kindness, compassion, pity, and sympathy toward every living being. 2. Ks.am¯a: Forgiveness. 3. Anusuy¯a, anirmatsarata: No jealousy. ´ 4. Sauch, antar-b¯ahya-´suchirbhutata: Purity, the state of being pure from outside and inside. 5. An¯ay¯asa: Not to indulge in petty and meaningless things. 6. Mangala: To think, wish, and work for bliss, well-being, and prosperity of all. 7. Akarpanya: Neither to be nor to show weakness and miserliness. 8. Aspr.ha: Neither list nor wish to possess whatever belonged to others. Srimad Bhagavatam ´ Bh¯agavatam lays down the It has thirty commandments. The Srimad following customs to be practiced for a good human life. 1. Truthfulness 2. Mercy 3. Austerity 4. Bathing twice a day 5. Tolerance 6. Discrimination between right and wrong 7. Control of the mind 8. Control of the senses

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9. Nonviolence 10. Celibacy 11. Charity 12. Reading of scripture 13. Simplicity 14. Satisfaction 15. Rendering service to saintly persons 16. Gradually taking leave of unnecessary engagements 17. Observing the futility of the unnecessary activities of human society 18. Remaining silent and grave and avoiding unnecessary talk 19. Considering whether one is the body or the soul 20. Distributing food equally to all living entities 21. Seeing every soul as a part of the Supreme Lord 22. Hearing about the activities and instructions given by the Supreme Personality of Godhead 23. Chanting about these activities and instructions 24. Always remembering these activities and instructions 25. Trying to render service 26. Performing worship 27. Offering obeisance 28. Becoming a servant 29. Becoming a friend 30. Surrendering one’s whole self

References Brodov, V. 1984. Indian Philosophy in Modern Times. Moscow: Progress Publisher. Chattopadhya, D. 1959. Lokayata, a Study in Ancient Indian Materialism. New Delhi: Peoples Publishing House. Dasgupta, S. 1922. A History of Indian Philosophy. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Griffith, R.T.H. 2017. Rig Veda. London: Create Space. Hall, H.R. 1928. The Discoveries at Ur and Seniority of Sumerian Civilization. Antiquity 2 (5): 56–98.

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Hall, H.R. 1939. A Season’s Work at Ur, Al-Ubaid, Abu Shahrain (Eridu) and Elsewhere: Being an Unofficial Account of the British Museum Archaeological Mission to Babylonia. London: Methuen. Mascaro, J. 1969. Bhagwat Gita. London: Penguin Press. Mazumdar, A.K. 1917/2008. The Hindu History. New Delhi: Rupa. Roy, Ram Mohan. 1902/1982. History of Indian Philosophy. In The English Works of Raja Rammohan Roy, ed. J.C. Ghosh. New Delhi: Cosmo Publisher. Sri Aurobindo. 1995. Secret of the Veda. Twin Lakes, WI: Lotus Light Publications. Todd, J. 1920. Annals and Antiquities of Rajasthan, vol. 11. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Von Schroeder, L. 1884. Pythagoras und die Inder. Leipsiz: Leipsiz University. Williams, H.S. 1902. Historians History of the World. Edinburgh: Morrison & Gibbs. Woolley, C. 1929. Ur of the Chaldees. London: Ernest Benn. Zubova, Alisa, T. Chikisheva, and M.V. Shunkov. 2017. The Morphology of Permanent Molars from the Paleolithic Layers of Denisova Cave. Archaeology, Ethnology & Anthropology of Eurasia 45: 121–134.

Reference from the Internet https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text. Badrinarayanan, S. 2007. https://www.express.co.uk/news/science/829341/ adams-bridge-nasa-modern-humans. Chavda, A.L. https://indiafacts.org/aryan-invasion-myth-21st-century-sciencedebunks-19th-century-indology/. Dolgin, E. 2009. https://www.nature.com/news/2009/090922/full/news. 2009.935.html. Indian ancestry revealed. Vartak, P.V. Vastav Ramayan. https://www.icfc.ws/resources/RamayanDating. htm.

CHAPTER 2

Ancient History of the Indians, Russians, and Japanese

Origin of the Aryans The Aryan invasion theory according to the British was that, ancient Aryans invaded India at about 1500 B.C., driven out the Dravidians from their land, have imported the Hindu civilization along with Sanskrit language from the steppes of Central Asia (Kuhn 1845; Max Muller 1878; Childe 1926; Elst 1999; Trautmann 2005; Thapar 2014). The theory was the justification for the British occupation of India. Although there was no archeological evidence to support this theory, it has become the most important doctrine on the ancient Indian history. However, some recent archeological discoveries in India, Russia, and Japan have pushed back the antiquity of the Aryans to at least 9000 B.C. and proved beyond doubt that the ancient Aryans were not nomadic tribes from Central Asia but had very advanced urban civilizations. Sir William Jones in 1786 showed that Sanskrit and the European languages such as Greek, Latin, German, Celtic, Gothic, as also the Persian, had a common origin (Mukherjee 1968). The scholars have named this language group as Indo-European or Indo-German language group. Max Muller also emphatically pointed out that scientifically speaking, Aryan means language and not race. India was possibly the original home of the Aryans. From India, the Aryan language and other languages of Aryan affinity came into existence due to the contacts between the migrating Aryans and non-Aryans out © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 D. Basu and V. Miroshnik, Ethics, Morality and Business: The Development of Modern Economic Systems, Volume I, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-71493-2_2

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of India (Mazumdar 1917). The Vedic literature was the expression of the highly developed thoughts of the Aryans. If the Aryans had come to India from outside it would be natural to find some traces of their thoughts and literary activities in some of the places through which they had traveled. However, no such record has been discovered at any place. To suggest that the Aryans had attained the highly developed literary and intellectual acumen after coming into India does not justify the absence of any record whatsoever in any of the places through which they had traveled into India. Genetic Evidence for Westward Indo-Aryan Expansion Recent DNA evidence shows that Europe experienced a massive population influx from the east, beginning around 4500 years from the present. Several haplogroups were involved in this expansion, including the Indian-origin R1a1a. This was almost a total replacement event, which indicates that Indo-Aryans, among others, expanded westward into Europe and to a large extent, replaced indigenous European males and their Y-chromosome strata (Sharma and his associates 2009). This genetic evidence indicates that several Y-chromosomal (patrilineal) lineages, one of which was the Indian-origin R1a1a, gave rise to the modern European population. Out of these lineages, R1a1a is the most widespread and numerous. In genetic terminology, a “haplogroup” is a group of individuals that share a common ancestor with a particular genetic mutation. A haplogroup pertains to a single line of descent, which typically dates back several thousand years. In other words, a haplogroup is a large, extended family or clan, all of whose members have a shared ancestry. There are two types of haplogroups: Y-chromosome (patrilineal) haplogroups, and mtDNA (matrilineal) haplogroups. Haplogroups are identified by letters of the alphabet (A, B, C, etc.) and sub-groups are denoted by letters and numbers (A1, A1a, etc.). The Y-chromosomal (patrilineal) haplogroup R1a1a (also known as RM17) is the world’s most successful extended family. Its members number in the high hundreds of millions, possibly over a billion. It is widespread across Eurasia, with high concentrations in Russia, Poland, and Ukraine, as well as in the Indian subcontinent and the Tuva region of Asiatic Russia.

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R1a1a is closely associated with the spread of Indo-European languages across Eurasia. In India, R1a1a is identified as the haplogroup that represents the Indo-Aryan people. It records an uninterrupted lineage of males, from father to son, all of whom have descended from one common male ancestor. Many major rival models of the origin of the Hindu caste system coexist despite extensive studies, each with associated genetic evidences. One of the major factors that has still kept the origin of the Indian caste system obscure is the unresolved question of the origin of Y haplogroup R1a1* , at times associated with a male-mediated major genetic influx from Central Asia or Eurasia, which has contributed to the higher castes in India. Y haplogroup R1a1* has a widespread distribution and high frequency across Eurasia, Central Asia, and the Indian subcontinent, with scanty reports of its ancestral (R* , R1* ,and R1a* ) and derived lineages (R1a1a, R1a1b, and R1a1c). To resolve these issues, researchers screened 621 Y-chromosomes (of Brahmins occupying the upper-most caste position and schedule castes/tribals occupying the lower-most positions) with 55 Ychromosomal binary markers and seven Y-microsatellite markers and compiled an extensive dataset of 2809 Y-chromosomes (681 Brahmins, and 2128 tribals and schedule castes) for conclusions. A peculiar observation of the highest frequency (up to 72.22%) of Y-haplogroup R1a1* in Brahmins hinted at its presence as a founder lineage for this caste group. Further, observation of R1a1* in different tribal population groups, existence of Y-haplogroup R1a* in ancestors and extended phylogenetic analyses of the pooled dataset of 530 Indians, 224 Pakistanis and 276 Central Asians and Eurasians bearing the R1a1* haplogroup supported the autochthonous origin of R1a1 lineage in India and a tribal link to Indian Brahmins. However, it is important to discover novel Y-chromosomal binary marker(s) for a higher resolution of R1a1* and confirm the present conclusions. Sharma et al. (2009) demonstrate that the R1a1* haplogroup, which is found throughout Eurasia, originated in India. Here, the * refers to all subgroups of the parent haplogroup R1a1. This is a momentous discovery. It proves that: 1. The R1a haplogroup originated in India.

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2. The Indo-Aryan people have lived in India for at least 15,450 years, which invalidates the theory that the Indo-Aryans invaded India 3500 years ago. 3. The hundreds of millions of members (possibly over a billion) of the R1a family living across the world today—a very large fraction of humanity—are all descended from one single male ancestor who lived in India at least 15,450 years ago. This discovery demonstrates the close genetic (and hence linguistic and cultural) affinity of Indians with the Russian and Polish people, the Vikings and Normans, and with the ancient Scythians and Tocharians, among many others (Sharma et al. 2009). This is irrefutable scientific proof that not only did the Indo-Aryan people originate in India over 15,450 years ago, but also that they expanded out of India and settled in lands far to the west in Europe. It thoroughly invalidates the AIT (Aryan Invasion Theory) and AMT (Aryan Migration Theory). Literary Evidence for Westward Indo-Aryan Expansion Consider the Baudhayana Shrauta Sutra, a Vedic text. Baudhayana Shrauta Sutra 18:44 records: Amavasu migrated westward. His people are Gandhari, Parsu and Aratta.

This refers to a Vedic king called Amavasu, whose people are the Gandhari (Gandhara—Afghanistan), the Parsu (Persians), and the Aratta, who are tentatively identified as living in the vicinity of Mt. Ararat, which is located in Turkey (eastern Anatolia) and Armenia. Afghanistan (Gandhara) was historically part of the Indian civilization until the Islamic invasions. The name “Persia” comes from the ancient Parshva people (an Aryan clan). The word “Parshva” is derived from the Sanskrit/Avestan (Old Persian) word “Parshu,” which means “battleaxe.” There are clear linguistic and cultural similarities between India and Persia. The traditional Armenian name for Mt. Ararat is Masis. It is named after the legendary Armenian king Amasya. The name “Amasya” is linguistically related to the name “Amavasu” of the Indian king recorded in the Baudhayana’s Shrauta-Sutra. This establishes literary evidence

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for the westward expansion of Indo-Aryans, via Afghanistan, to Persia, Armenia, and Anatolia. The ancient kingdom of Mitranni, of the people who used to worship Mitra, the Vedic God, located in present-day Syria and Anatolia, had an Indo-Aryan, Sanskrit-speaking ruling class. Mitranni kings had IndoAryan names. The oldest recorded (Vedic) Sanskrit words are found in a horse training manual by a Mitranni horse master named Kikkuli. Although the text is written in the Hittite language, it appears that Kikkuli was not familiar enough with that language to use technical terms, which made it necessary for him to use the terminology of his own language (Vedic Sanskrit) instead. Inscribed clay tablets discovered in Bo˘gazkale, Anatolia (Turkey), record a royal treaty and invoke the Vedic gods Indra, Mitra, Nasatya, and Varuna by the Hittites, another Indo-European tribe, as witnesses. The Bo˘gazkale clay tablets are dated to about 1380 B.C. This is around the same time as Kikkuli’s horse training manual. The Mitranni and Hittites belonged to the Indian-origin haplogroup R1a1a. This is clear evidence of a large-scale westward expansion of Sanskrit-speaking Indo-Aryans, and their presence as the ruling aristocracy in lands thousands of kilometers west of India. The Children of Goddess Danu The primordial Rig Vedic river goddess Danu is the mother/progenitor of the Danava clan of Indo-Aryans. The Danavas revolted against the Devas and were eventually defeated and got banished. As it turns out, that was far from the end of their story. The word d¯anu means “fluid, drop” in Rig Vedic Sanskrit. The Avestan (old Iranian) word for “river” is “d¯anu.” The Scythian (Saka/Shaka) and Sarmatian words for “river” are also “d¯anu.” Now consider this: linguistically, the names of the European rivers Danube, Dnieper, Dniestr, Don, Donets, Dunajec, Dvina or Daugava, and Dysna are all derived from the Rig Vedic Sanskrit root word “d¯anu.” These rivers flow across eastern and central Europe. These rivers, all named after the Rig Vedic goddess Danu, seem to trace the gradual westward migration through Europe of the Danava clan of Rig Vedic Indo-Aryans. According to Irish and Celtic mythology, the Irish and Celtic people are descended from a mother goddess—a river goddess—called Danu.

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The ancient (mythological) people of Ireland are called the Tuatha Dé Danann (Old Irish: “The peoples of the goddess Danu”). Is there genetic evidence to support this story? As it turns out, there is. The R1a1a haplogroup is rare in Ireland, at 2.5% of the population. This can be explained by the fact that Ireland has suffered many invasions since the Bronze Age, which would have led to the gradual replacement of the R1a1a haplogroup with those of the various invaders. The fact that R1a1a is still present in Ireland proves that people of Indo-Aryan origin settled there in the past (Sharma et al. 2009). Elsdon Best (1925) in his book wrote that the ancestors of a tribe Tuhoe in New Zealand came from India via Peru. DNA test on some of them proved the origin of their ancestors. They said that they traveled from India after the Mahabharata war to New Zealand. Thus, the story of Manu dividing up the world among his sons may not be not a myth (Youtube.com/watch?v=nTb3anTVGJY). In a report published in the Nature, a group of scientists and archeologists of the ASI (Archeological Survey of India) and IIT (Indian Institute of Technology, Kharagpur) proved that the cities of Indus valley were at least 9000 years old, not just 3500 years. The cause of the decline was not any Aryan invasion, but continuous lack of rainfall since that 9000 years when most rivers dried up. That might have caused outward migration of the Aryans from India (Sarkar et al. 2016). New Archaeological Evidence It is clear that there is layer upon layer of archaeological, literary, linguistic, and, most importantly, genetic evidence that forms a consistent, repeated, and predictable pattern that debunks the Aryan Invasion Theory and supports the Indigenous Aryans Theory. These layers of evidence, taken together, paint a vast canvas and prove that: The Indo-Aryan people and languages originated in the Indian subcontinent. The Vedic civilization and the Indus valley civilization (Sindhu-Sarasvati civilization) are one and the same. Rather than being a religion of invaders, Hinduism is indigenous to India and had its origins in the very beginning of the Sindhu-Sarasvati civilization. North Indians and South Indians are genetically and culturally alike. The Aryan-Dravidian divide is a myth; it has no basis in fact. The “high caste”-“low caste” divide also has no basis, as during the Satya Yuga (earliest Vedic period), there was no caste system.

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Indian civilization is a continuous, unbroken tradition that dates back to the very beginning of the Sindhu-Sarasvati civilization, at least 9500 years before present. This makes India not only the world’s oldest civilization, older than Mesopotamia and Egypt, but also the world’s oldest continuously existing civilization. Indo-Aryans carrying R1a1a lineages expanded westward for thousands of years ago, conquering and populating territories as far west as Europe. Their descendants are the Slavs (Russians, Ukrainians, Czechs, Poles, Slovaks, Serbs, Croats, Macedonians, etc.) and the Scandinavians, and many others (Sharma et al. 2009; Sarkar et al. 2016; Shinde et al. 2019). Russian archeologists and linguists also proved that the Aryans have migrated not from the Russian steppes but came to Russia via Armenia and Georgia. There is increasing evidence that India was the original home of the Aryans. Hyperborea: Alternative Explanation of the Origin of the Aryans The name “Hyperborea” may be translated to mean “Beyond the North Wind,” which is an indication of where the ancient Greeks thought this land was located. The “Hyperborean civilization” was developed in the Arctic Ocean in the region bounded by the Ob and Yenisei Valleys, possibly 40,000 years ago, definitely long before the last Ice Age. Hyperborea is a location in Greek mythology. The inhabitants of this mythical land are known as Hyperboreans, whom the ancient Greeks believed enjoyed extremely long lives. Hyperborea is mentioned by a number of Greek and Roman writers, including Herodotus, Pliny the Elder, and Pindar. Although Hyperborea is a mythical land, there has been speculation over the ages that it is a real place on earth. Alexander Barchenko and his team of archaeologists investigated in 1922 on the Kola Peninsula near Seydozero in the Arctic area of north Russia. Megalithic structures and other traces of the ancient Arctic civilization have been discovered there. The “Arctic Home” theory, of the origin of the Aryan culture was first seriously advocated by Bal Gangadhar Tilak, the freedom fighter and scholar of India in his book Arctic Home in the Vedas published in 1903. Tilak (1893, 1903) justified his theory of the Arctic origin of the Aryans using the literary evidences from Vedas and Upanishads. Recent scientific discoveries have shown that it is plausible to assume that the Arctic Ocean was open during the last glaciation and that a temperate climate

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prevailed there. The earliest Indo-European literature, the hymns of the Rig Veda provide evidence that the religious worship of these people was based upon the concept of a Savior God. Tilak argues that such a concept would arise only in the Arctic region, where the sun appears every year to be threatened with extinction and a main pre-occupation is the salvation of mankind from the threat of endless darkness. He also gave layers of arguments citing Vedas and Upanishads. There is also the theory that the Indo-European languages originated in the presumed lost continent of Atlantis. The Atlantis of Plato’s Timaeus was most possibly the Island of Crete and that its kingdoms were confined to the Eastern Mediterranean. At the height of the last Ice Age between 18,000 and 25,000 years before the present, there was already a high culture in Western Europe. This great period was succeeded by a period of degeneration, which led to debased modes of life. According to this theory, Indo-European culture and language were developed by people living in the circumpolar regions. The term hyperborean is taken from the Greek myth of Islands of the Blest, which flourished in far northern waters in the dawn of time. The Indo-European culture was originated in the Hyperborean Regions of Northern Siberia and the islands of the circumpolar regions. Tilak’s work is based upon the assumption that at a certain time the land regions round the North Pole were temperate and enjoyed a perpetual spring. There was no evidence that this could be true for at least the last 40,000 years. Thus, those conditions obtained during the last inter-glacial period, which ended at least 40,000 years ago. The Arctic Ocean was not frozen before the last ice age, which ended in around 10,000 B.C. During nearly 20,000,000 years that preceded the Pleistocene, that is since the early Miocene, there were no Ice Ages. The climate of the earth was relatively stable and favorable for the development of mammalian life. Many theories have been proposed to account for the origin and course of the glaciations. Some attribute it to changes in the heat that the earth receives from the sun, others to the periodic variations in the position of the earth in its orbit around the sun, the precession of the equinoxes, and the inclination of the earth’s axis. According to American climatologists Ewing and Donn (1956), the onset of the Ice Ages was due to the shifting of the Poles from the open ocean of the North Atlantic and South Pacific to the present locations in the enclosed oceans of the present Polar Regions and the Antarctic Continent. This occurs through a drifting of the earth’s crust upon the molten layers below:

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a movement, which is now quite plausibly explained by currents in the semi-liquid magma upon which the crust itself is floating. During the 600,000 years of the Pleistocene, there were four major glaciations in the Northern Hemisphere. Between the interglacial periods, the climate has been relatively mild. The variations are certainly in part traceable to astronomical influences of the kind worked out in detail by Milankovitch. He said that in every 26,000 years sky changes because of changes in the magnetic field of the world due to the changes in the axis of rotation and in every 41,000 years there are changes in its obliquity of the earth (Milankovitch 1941). We may go straight to the literary evidence of Tilak (1903) from the Vedas and the myths of the Indo-European peoples from Ireland to India. In the Vedic literature, we do find passages, which compare the motion of the heavens to that of a wheel, and describe the celestial vault as supported on an axis. Thus in Rig. X, 89, 4, Indra is said “to uphold and separate by his power, heaven and earth as the two wheels of a chariot are held by the axle.” The same idea occurs in other places, and sometimes the sky is described as being supported even without a pole, testifying by to the great might of Indra (II, 15, 2; IV, 56, 3). In X, 89, 2, Indra was identified with Surya the Sun God and he was described as “turning the widest expanse like the wheels of a chariot.” The word for “expanse” is varamsi, which Sayana understands to mean “lights,” or “stars.” The verse in question refers to the revolution of the sky, and compares it to the motion of a chariot wheel. Now, the heavens in the temperate and the tropical regions may be described as moving like a wheel from east to west and then back again to the east, though the latter half of this circuit is not visible to the observer. “But we cannot certainly speak of the tropical sky as being supported on a pole, for the simple reason that the North Pole, which must be the point of support, will not be close enough to the zenith. If, we combine the two statements, that the heavens are supported as on a pole, and that they move like a wheel, we may safely infer that the reference is to a motion of the celestial hemisphere such as can be witnessed only by an observer near the North Pole” (Bennett 1963). In the Rig Veda I, 24, 10, the constellation of Ursa Major, Rikshah, is described as being placed “high” Guchhah, since this can refer only to the altitude of the constellation, it follows that it must has been over the head of the observer, which is possible only in the circumpolar regions. Mount Meru is the terrestrial North Pole of the Indian astronomers, and the Surya-Siddhanta, XII, 67, says:—“At Meru, Gods behold the sun after

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but a single rising during the half of his revolution beginning with Aries.” The day of the Gods corresponds with the passage of the sun from the vernal to the autumnal equinox, when the sun is visible at the North Pole, or the Meru. The nights are the southern passage of the sun, from the autumnal back to the vernal equinox. The next authority is Manu 67. In describing the divisions of time, Manu says: “A human year is a day and a night of the Gods; thus are the two divided, the northern passage of the sun is the day and the southern the night.” The day and the night of the Gods are than taken as a unit for measuring longer periods of time such as the Kalpas. The Mahabharata, which gives such a clear description of Mount Meru, the lord of the mountains, as to leave no doubt about it’s being situated at the North Pole. In chapters 163 and 164 of the Vana-parva, Arjuna’s visit to the Mount is described in detail, and we are therein told, “At Meru the sun and the moon go round from left to right every day, and so do all the stars.” “The mountain so overcomes the darkness of night, that the night can hardly be distinguished from the day.” “The day and the night are together equal to a year to the residents of the place.” These quotations are sufficient to convince one that, at the time when the great epic was composed, Indian writers had a tolerably accurate knowledge of the meteorological and astronomical characteristics of the North Pole. The reference to the luster of the mountain is specially interesting; as, in all probability, it is a description of the splendors of the Aurora Borealis visible at the North Pole (Tilak 1893, 1903; Bennett 1963). Mount Meru described as the seat of seven Adityas in the Taittiriya Aranyaka 7.1, while the eight Adityas are said never to leave the great Meru. Kashyapa is described as communicating light to the seven Adityas, and himself perpetually illuminating the great mountain. In the Taittiriya Brahmana (III, 9, 22), we can see “that which is a year is but a single day of the Gods.” The Rig Veda does not contain any specific references to six months’ day-light; but it does refer in many passages to the long dawns that characterize the shores of the Arctic Ocean. The six months’ day and night apply strictly only to the North Pole itself. At 10° from the Pole, this phenomenon is replaced by the strange and wonderful approach of the sun which heralds the long day. Rig Veda has Usha, the Goddess of the Dawn, is one of the favorite deities of the early Vedas. Usha is celebrated in about twenty hymns and mentioned more than three hundred times. The importance they attribute to the Dawn Goddess is quite out of place for people living in sub-tropical regions where the day comes so

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quickly that the dawn is scarcely noticed (Tilak 1903; Bennett 1963). The long duration of the Vedic dawn is mentioned in the Aitareya Brahmana. Before commencing the Gava-mayana sacrifice, there is a long recitation of not less than a thousand verses, to be recited by the Hotri priest. This Ashvina-shastra, as it is called, is addressed to Agni, Ushas and Ashvins, which deities rule at the end of the night and the commencement of the day. The same period of time is referred to also in the Rig Veda VII, 67, 2 and 3. There are several explicit references to a dawn that lasts for many days. The seventh Mandala contains several dawn hymns. Rig. VII 76.3 said: “Verily, many were those days which were aforetime at the uprising of the sun and about which, O Down, thou was seen moving on, as towards a lover, and not as a woman, who forsakes.” Tilak discusses this verse in great detail and concludes that it must refer to a dawn lasting continuously for many days, which is possible only in the Arctic regions. Taittiriya Samhita (IV. 3. II) expressly states that the dawns are thirty sisters and that they go round and round in five groups reaching the same appointed place. This corresponds exactly to what would be observed by priests on the shores of the Northern Ocean watching for the rising of the sun to begin the intense activity of the circumpolar summer (Tilak 1893, 1903; Bennett 1963). We shall now examine some of the results of archaeological and prehistoric research done since Tilak’s book was published. Two kinds of evidence interest us here. Palaeolithic settlements are found over a wide area within the Arctic Circle and even as far North as latitude 80° on Ellesmere Island and Spitzbergen. If these can be ascribed to dates prior to 10,000 B.C., they belong to the Ice Age. The second type of evidence is climatic. If temperate vegetation existed in the “Circumpolar” regions during the Ice Age, then conditions for human life were also present. The book written in 1903 by Tilak should be more seriously re-examined. That was done by the Russians. One of such investigations was made in 1922 on the Kola Peninsula near Seydozero by Prof. Alexander Barchenko and his team. Barchenko was from the Institute for the Study of the Brain and Human Mental Activity in Moscow. However, the expedition was funded by Dzerzhinsky, the head of Chika, the secret police of the USSR immediately after the revolution of Russia, himself. Alexander Vasilyevich was also invited to participate. Megalithic structures and other traces of the ancient Arctic

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civilization have been discovered here. One of the participants of this expedition, astrophysicist A. Kondiain, wrote in his diary, A gigantic figure stands out against a white, as it were, a cleared background, reminiscent of a human in its dark contours. Motovskaya lip is striking, immensely beautiful. One must imagine a narrow corridor two or three versts wide, bounded on the right and left by giant sheer cliffs up to one verst in height. Autumn has painted the slopes interspersed with bushes of birches, aspens and alders. In the distance there are gorges, among which there is Seidozero. In one of the gorges, we saw a mysterious thing. Next to the snow here and there, spots lying on the slopes of the gorge, could be seen a yellowish-white column like a giant candle, and next to it a cube stone. On the other side of the mountain, a giant cave stood out at a height of 200 fathoms, and next to it was something like a crypt. The outline of the “Old Man” stood out clearly against the white plafond of the mountain. A luxurious trail leads to the lake through Taibolu. Rather, a wide driveway; it even seems to be paved. There is a small rise at the end of the road. Everything indicates that the grove was reserved for deep antiquity, and the elevation at the end of the road served as a kind of altar-altar in front of the “Old Man”. (Zharnikova 1989/2019)

V. Demin’s expedition, which visited these places in 1997, confirmed the presence of a whole ancient city, once enclosed by cyclopean stone walls and had its own observatory. We quote the comments of one of the investigators Sidorov: “The find on the Kola Peninsula overturns the traditional idea of history of earthly civilization. And what? And Barchenko and his associates are killed, and their diaries are also perishing, and the book by A. Barchenko, written by him for Russia before, being shot ” (Zharnikova 1989/2019). In 1997, the expedition of V. N. Demin visited the ruins near Seydozero. The city found by A. V. Barchenko and V. N. Demin is more ancient than all the civilizations of Asia and Africa, because it was once buried by a glacier, and the glacier on the Kola Peninsula only melted 10–12 thousand years B.C. The ruins of the Hyperborean city discovered by Barchenko are only the beginning. During the exploration of the terrain, the expedition, came across an unusual hole leading underground. The most interesting discoveries are in the Seydozero region (translated from the Sami—Holy Lake). He found some geometrically hewn slabs, a white column, glades. Astrophysicist Alexander Kondiain wrote in his diary: “In one of the gorges we saw a

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yellowish-white column, like a giant candle, and next to it a cube stone” (Zharnikova 1989/2019). On the opposite shore of the lake, on the vertical surface of the rock, a one-hundred-meter figure of a man with arms raised in a cruciform manner was clearly visible. In ancient times, the legend says, giant Kuiva attacked the Sami. There was no way they could defeat him, although they fought bravely. They asked for help from their gods. Those, struck by the atrocities of the giant, threw a sheaf of lightning at him and incinerated him. Only the imprint of his giant body remained on the rock, which was named “old man Kuiva.” The authors have seen these types of imprints of human being vaporized in nuclear attack in 1945 in Nagasaki. Is that mean, in Russian hyperborean, the people had nuclear weapons, 20,000 years ago? Were the people the giants? In Puranas, it was mentioned that there were people called Danavs or Daityas who lived in the now Arctic cycle and they were giants. At an altitude of about 500 meters above sea level, a powerful complex was discovered: cyclopean structures, religious and defensive masonry, geometrically regular slabs with mysterious signs and traces of technogenic processing, and, the remains of the observatory, laid in the rocks and directed into the sky, and a 15-meter trench with sighting devices. The remains of ancient buildings and underground passages were found, and, in the vicinity of the lake there were numerous petroglyphs written in ancient Indian language. Pyramids are another recent find on the peninsula. Analysis of the data obtained during their study showed that the age of the pyramids is at least 9000 years or more, that is, twice as old as the Egyptian ones. The Kola pyramids are located strictly along the west-east line and may have been used as an observatory. In the vicinity of Seydozero, the members of the expedition found many geoglyphs (giant “earth” images). In addition to the 100-meter tall Kuiva with his arms raised in a cruciform manner, an even more impressive image is visible on the slope of another mountain—an approximately 400meter half-erased trident. It is almost double the size of the famous white “candelabra” geoglyph in Peru. Presumably, Hyperborea existed at the North Pole 20,000– 10,000 years ago. It was a large continent with a rather mild, Mediterranean-like climate. There were warm-loving animals and lush vegetation. In its center—at the pole—there was the legendary Mount Meru, mentioned in the Vedas and the Puranas.

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Hyperborea perished due to some kind of cataclysm. According to one version, the cause of the death of the most ancient civilization was the fall of a meteorite, the displacement of the Earth’s magnetic poles, and, as a result, a sharp change in climate and an increase in the water level in the world’s oceans. Some researchers believe that the surviving Hyperborean, who managed to move to the territory of northern Europe and Asia, spread throughout the world, forming new peoples. They built pyramids like in Egypt, many temples like in Greece, erected Stonehenge and created Arkaim in Western Siberia. One of the direct descendants of the Hyperborean is the Slavs. Many pagan myths of the Slavs mention the legendary northern continent. Legends about the Sunflower Country, located far away from the land, are often found in Russian epics. The very name of the Kola Peninsula comes from the oldest Indo-European name for the Sun—Kolo. No wonder in his “Centuries” Nostradamus called the Russians nothing but “the Hyperborean people.” Roman historian Pliny the Elder wrote, “Behind the Hyperborean mountains, on the other side of Aquilon, there lives a happy people called the Hyperboreans, reaching very advanced years and glorified by wonderful legends. The sun shines there for six months, and this is only one day when the sun does not hide from the spring the equinox until the autumn, the luminaries rise there only once a year at the summer solstice, and set only at the winter solstice. This country has a favorable climate and is devoid of any harmful wind. Death comes there only from satiety with life. There is no doubt about the existence of this people” (Pliny 2004). According to Barchenko’s hypothesis, mankind originated in the North during the so-called Golden Age, that is, approximately 20 thousand years ago (Zhirnikova 1989/2019). Global flood forced the Aryan tribes living there to leave the area of present Kola Peninsula and move south. Barchenko was convinced that the Hyperboreans had a fairly highly developed civilization. In 1998, another expedition visited the Kola Peninsula. On one of the slopes of Ninchurt, archaeologist Alexander Prokhorov discovered a powerful masonry wall. On the isthmus between Lovozero and Seydozero, in one of the most inaccessible places, they came across a very ancient seid. On top of this large stone of a very regular geometric shape, there was a kind of cavity, and in it, at the very bottom, there were coals. One of the most exciting finds here is the remains of an ancient observatory, a structure in the form of a 15-meter trench with two visors. The expedition leader, V. N. Demin will later write in his book,

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All these facts confirm the concept of a number of Russian and foreign scientists about the northern origin of the entire world civilization and the fact that ethnic groups in the distant past - several tens of thousands of years ago - left the North, and forced them to this migration by natural catastrophe. And our Kola Peninsula is one of the centers of Hyperborean culture. (Zhirnikova 1989/2019)

The most recent attempt to unravel the secrets of the Russian North was made in 2007 by a Russian expedition team including Sergei Smirnov, Valery Chudinov, and Dmitry Subetto. They found the Kola pyramids, which are two buildings about 50 meters high, connected by a bridge and oriented to the cardinal points. The conclusion of geologists was unambiguous: the elevations are of an anthropogenic nature, therefore, these are not natural hills, but pyramids—the creation of human hands. The pyramids stand clearly in the East-West direction. Inside the pyramids, voids or chambers of unknown purpose were found. Moreover, they were rebuilt three times: the ancient people constantly built them up in height (Zubova et al. 2017). By fairly simple methods, a system was created with the help of which our ancestors recorded galactic changes and studied the Cosmos. The shape of the pyramids resembles the legendary Mount Meru. The pyramids of the Kola Peninsula are twice as old as the Egyptian ones. Geophysicists have conducted research and found that our northern pyramids were erected at least 9000 years ago (Zubova et al. 2017). The Hyperboreans possessed many skills—they knew how to control the weather, fly long distances (it was not for nothing that Perseus Hyperborean was depicted with wings on sandals), build large buildings, and much more. They never got sick and lived without strife in endless happiness. Hyperborea died (went under water) due to some kind of cataclysm. According to one version, the cause of the death of the most ancient civilization was the fall of a meteorite, the displacement of the Earth’s magnetic poles, and, as a result, a sharp change in climate and an increase in the water level in the world’s oceans. Some researchers believe that the surviving Hyperboreans, who managed to move to the territory of northern Europe and Asia, spread throughout the world, forming new peoples. They built pyramids like in Egypt, many temples like in Greece, erected Stonehenge and Arkaim. One of the direct descendants of the Hyperboreans is the Slavs, or as they are called by the scientists of the Pre-Slavs. Many pagan myths of

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the Slavs mention the legendary northern continent. Legends about the Sunflower Country, located far away from the land, are often found in Russian epics. The very name of the Kola Peninsula comes from the oldest Indo-European name for the Sun—Kolo. No wonder in his “Centuries” Nostradamus called the Russians nothing but “the Hyperborean people.” Advanced Civilization of the Aryans in Chelyabinsk Pravda reported (on 16 July 2005) about the startling discovery of ruins of a very advanced civilization of Indo-Aryan origin, which was at least 4000 years old in Arkaim. The Arkaim valley in the south of Ural was supposed to be flooded in 1987; local authorities were going to create a water reservoir there to irrigate droughty fields. However, scientists found strange circles in the center of the valley: the authorities gave archaeologists time to explore the area. Scientists were shocked to find out that Arkaim was the same age as Egypt and Babylon, even older. Archaeological excavations showed that the people, who inhabited Arkaim, represented the ancient Indo-Aryan civilizations. Russian President Putin has visited one of the most mysterious places on planet Earth—the ruins of the ancient town of Arkaim, which is situated on the outskirts of the city of Chelyabinsk. Arkaim had not only a city, but also a temple and an astronomic observatory. Prof. Gennady Zdanovich, the chairman of the archaeological expedition said, “We achieved what seemed to be absolutely unreal. How did people of such ancient civilization manage to accomplish incredible technological progress, which still seems to be unachievable nowadays?” (Pravda, on 16 July 2005). A group of Russian researchers, headed by Prof. Vadim Chernobrovy, has recently returned from the mysterious region. He said, “A flight above Arkaim on board a helicopter gives you an incredible impression. The huge concentric circles on the valley are clearly visible. The town and its outskirts are all enclosed in the circles. We still do not know what point the gigantic circles have, whether they were made for defensive, scientific, educational, or ritual purposes. Some researchers say that the circles were actually used as the runway for an ancient spaceport” (Pravda, 16 July 2005). Researchers discovered that the ancient town was equipped with the storm sewage system, which helped Arkaim’s residents avoid floods. The people were protected against fires as well: timbered floorings and houses themselves were imbued with fireproof substance. It was a rather strong

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compound, the remnants of which can still be found in the ruins of the town. Each house was outfitted with “all modern conveniences,” as they would say nowadays. There was a well, an oven, and dome-like food storage in every house. The well was branching out into two underground trenches: one of them was directed to the oven and the other one ended in the food storage. The trenches were used to supply chilly air to the oven and to the food storage. The cool air from the trenches was also creating a very powerful traction force in the Aryan oven, which made it possible to smelt bronze there. The central square in Arkaim was the only object of square shape in the town. Judging upon traces of bonfires that were placed in a specific order on the square, the place was used as a site for certain rituals. Arkaim was built according to a previously projected plan as a single complicated complex, which also had an acute orientation on astronomic objects. Prof. Grigoryev of the Institute of History and Archaeology, Ural branch of Russian Academy of Sciences, Chelyabinsk, Russia, said recently, “There are no features of ‘Steppe cultures’ in cultures of India and Iran. There are no Finno-Ugric borrowings in languages of Avesta and Rig Veda.” According to Grigoryev (1996, 1998), Ancient Aryans came originally from east of Iran to Russia via Syria, Anatolia, Armenia and formed the vast cities in Sintashta-Petrovka area near Chelyabinsk. Thus, Arkaim is unrelated to Hyperborean culture. Earlier linguistic experts Prof. Gamkrelidze and Prof. Ivanov (1984) confirmed that explanation. We also know from the Purana, that Aryans were divided into two groups, Sur of India and Asura of Iran. India was the origin of the ancient Aryans, who had migrated to Russia via Armenia. The discovery made by the Russian archeologists of the temple of Mitra under the basement of the world’s oldest official Christian church in Yerevan, Armenia shows that link (authors had visited that place in Yerevan). In the aerial view of a massive city with astronomical observatory, Arkaim, ancient Aryan Houses in Arkaim, were recently excavated (Pravda, 16 July 2005). The site is known by the Russian archeologists for at least 70 years as Sintashta-Petrovka cultural area of ancient Aryans, but it was ignored by the Anglo-American historians. Sintashta-Petrovka cultural area runs along the eastern Urals of the Eurasian steppe for about 400 km south of Chelyabinsk and to the east for about 200 km. There are 23 sites recognized as belonging to this group. The Sintashta burials, and those found at other Arkiam sites, vary greatly in detail. These burials provide archaeological evidence of the burial rituals set down in

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the Rig Veda and Avesta and, thus, these are called Indo-Iranian. The sites have been called “towns” and, most of them have been discovered through aerial photography; they are laid out in round, square, or oval shapes. While only two of these “towns,” Arkaim and Sintashta, have been excavated largely, they are characterized as being fortified, having connecting houses, and having extensive evidence for metallurgy. The excavator of Sintashta, Gening (1979), has shown that the burials from Sintashta do, how-ever, provide archaeological evidence for numerous aspects of the burial rituals set down in texts of Rig Veda and Avesta. The Avesta was composed by Zarathustra, who attempted to erase the earlier practice of worship of God Mitra, a Vedic God from Rig Veda. The dating of the Avesta is problematic, since there are disputes about the time of Zarathustra. According to Xanthus of Lydia, it was 6480 B.C.; according to Aristotle it was 6350 B.C. (in Herodotus 1990). According to Firdausi’s Shahnamah, it was 6600 B.C.; according to the Roman historian Plutarch it was 6000 B.C. Suppose we accept it was 6000 B.C., and given the fact the Rig Veda was older than Avesta, as Zarathustra has tried to erase out worships of Vedic gods in favor of only one God Asura Mazda, Aryans were in India before 6000 B.C. Sintashta Culture, in which Arkaim is a part, was formed in Chelyabinsk in about 2000 B.C., according to the radiocarbon tests (Trifonov 1997). This culture was spread over a vast geographic region from the Dnieper River in Ukraine to eastern Kazakhstan. The investigation of the metal ores was undertaken using spectral analysis. The results indicated that the ores recovered from Sintashta settlements did not contain arsenic while in contrast, slag retrieved from the same sites contained high levels of the element. However, metal structures of the Caucasus and Anatolia are similar to the metal structure of the Sintashta Culture, and the tradition of alloying during the ore smelting stage was well established in the Caucasus region. All the features of the Syro-Anatolian cultures have parallels with the archaeological cultures of this region, the most remarkable of which are the Sintashta fortified settlements that are identical to Anatolian settlements. In addition, there are many analogies with the Sintashta Culture in the ceramics, and stone and metal artifacts of the Syro-Anatolian cultures. This is the basis of the conclusion suggested by the Russian archeologists and linguistics (Gamkrelidze and Ivanov 1984; Grigoryev 1996, 1998) that the Aryans migrated from east of Iran to Armenia and then to Russia. According to them, Aryans most possibly had started migrating

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from Iran in 8000 B.C. They had reached Balkan Peninsula and Anatolia in about 6000 B.C. and had reached Russian steppes in Chelyabinsk in about 4000 B.C. By that time, they had very advanced urban civilization, not at all nomadic in any way. The Indo-Europeanization of the Armenia, Georgia, Ukraine lasted for a long time, from the Neolithic to the beginning of the Iron Age. In the Middle Bronze Age Indo-Aryans came to Bulgaria, former Yugoslavia, and Greece. Aryan City Under the Sea Near Japan With the discovery of ruins of a city, at least 6000 years old, under the sea near Okinawa, Japan we can assert that the original people of Japan were Indo-Aryans and the structure of the ruins has close similarities to the ancient architecture of Russian arctic. A unique structure was once found beneath the sea, where Japan’s western most Yonaguni Island lies. In 1997, an investigation team from the University of the Ryukyus in Okinawa discovered the site. Prof. Masaaki Kimura (1997), professor at the University of the Ryukyus, a marine geologist, said that, “We found that the ruins are at least 6000 years old. It could go back another 4000 years when we consider the length of time before they sank into the water.” Okinawa was connected to the Asian continent. Geologic chronology shows that the area in Yonaguni was already underwater 6000 years ago. Prof. Kimura says “During the past 10,000 years, the ocean water level rose about 40 meters. From this fact, it is only natural to think that the ancient civilization is now deep in water. All of a sudden, such an advanced civilization was discovered, so we believe there must be a lost culture before that” (in his book “Mu Tairiku Wa Ryukyu ni Atta” or “The legendary sunken continent was in the Ryukyus” published in 1997). Marine geologists think that the lost civilization was once on ground level, but now it has sunk into the ocean. The ocean surface has risen land 100 meters in the past 20,000 years. Profile of the undersea ruins in Okinawa Undersea ruins near Yonaguni Island stand 25 meters tall and 100 meters long. This megalithic structure was artificially formed. There are a number of these types of ruins off the coast of Okinawa. However, this one in Yonaguni is the largest, and the only authenticated one. Underwater robot and SCUBA diving surveys reveal the existence of artificial topographies constructed more than 10,000 years ago. Features

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were found that look like an ancient city including stepped pyramids, roads, and water canals off of the southern coast of Yonaguni Island. Its width is about 1 km × 1 km and water depths vary from 0 to 35 m. Monuments are connected by roads constructed by cutting the basement rock or laying flagstones. The most elaborate one in the point is labeled as Yonaguni underwater pyramid. It looks like a stepped pyramid, which closely resembles a giant Gusuku from ancient Okinawa and those of Kola region of Russian Arctic. The Gusuku is thought to be a mixed structure, part castle and part temple. SCUBA and SEABAT surveys reveal the existence of a ancient, megalithic civilization similar to that of ancient Russia. Detailed surveys such as SCUBA diving and sonic sounding using SEABAT with multi-narrow beams have been carried out off Yonaguni since 1992, at and around the underwater ruins sites, by the Submarine Research Group of the University of the Ryukyus. Underwater robot surveys have been used since 2002. The structure of the buildings is not Mongolian in character but related to the Siberian ruins. The ancient people of Japan were not Mongolian, but Indo-Aryans; Mongolians began to migrate to Japan about 2000 years ago. The descendants of the ancient Indo-Aryans of Japan, Aino people, are still there in the northern island of Hokkaido; they have distinct IndoAryan physical features. Details of this lost civilizations and photos of the undersea buildings are in the Web site [http://www.pref.okinawa.jp/sum mit/tokusyu/ruins1.htm] and in the Appendix. Genetic Origin of the Japanese Two of them, R1a and R1b, descended from the R1 haplo group. R1a is the group, conditionally called the Aryans, which embraces about 50% of the current population of Eastern Europe. Currently, approximately 72% of the some upper Indian castes belong to the R1a haplogroup (Sharma et al. 2009). Haplogroup R1a apparently arose about 20,000 B.C. (Klyosov and Rozhanskii 2012) in North Russia and possibly in the southern Siberia region of the Altai Mountains. Its ancient sub-clade M17 is observed in north China (Klyosov 2009; Klyosov and Rozhanskii 2012) in Central Asia and possibly in the southern Siberia region of the Altai Mountains. Its ancient sub-clade M17 is observed in north China (Klyosov 2009). R1a bearers migrated from Central Asia across Tibet, Hindustan, the Iranian Plateau, and Anatolia in at least 12,000 B.C. There downstream

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subclade, M417, crossed Asia Minor and entered the Balkans in at least 10,000 B.C. The furthest the Aryan trail, if we equate R1a with Aryan genes, seems to make it to, in any numbers is to north China, Cambodia and Japan. Rama as Historical Person Rama was mentioned not only in Valmiki’s Ramayana, but also in Vyas’s Mahabharata. According to ancient Indian chronology given in the Puran, Rama was born in the 24th Treta Yuga (Great Age). Combined age of all four Yugas, called Chaturyugi, is 4.3 million years. Satya Yuga had 1.7 million years, followed by Dwapar with 864,000 years, and Treta with about 1.2 million years. Kali Yuga has 432,000 years. We are presently in the Kali Yuga, and so far, 5108 years of Kali Yuga have lapsed (Mazumdar 1917). Arya Bhatta in fourth century had calculated from the astronomical charts given in both Ramayana and Mahabharat the age of Ram and Krishna. Bankim Chandra Chatterjee (1886) in his essay “Is Krishna a Historical Figure” has revised these calculations. Some recent astronomers, like Dr. P. V. Vartak in his book Vastav Ramayan, have revised these earlier calculations. Dr. P. V. Vartak, has come up with the possible date of 5561 B.C. based on his interpretation of astronomical Tithis and positions described for the Nakshatras (in, http://www.icfc. ws/resources/RamayanDating.htm). The Valmiki Ramayana (Bal Kanda 18.8.9) mentions at the time of Lord Ram’s birth as the ninth lunar day of the bright fortnight of Chaitra, Punarvasu was in the ascendant and five planets (the Sun, Mars, Saturn, Jupiter and Venus) appeared in the zodiacal signs of Mesa or Aries, Makara or Capricorn, Tula or Libra, Karka or Cancer, and Mina or Pisces, respectively. Jupiter in conjunction with the Moon appeared in Karka. From these, it is possible to calculate that Ram was born on January 10, 5561 B.C. If Ram indeed lived during the last phase of the 24th Treta Yuga, as mentioned in Valmiki’s Ramayana, then he lived 1.8 million years ago. According to astronomy, the position of zodiac constellations repeats itself every 26,000 years. Thus, Ram could have been born in any of the repetitive cycles in planetary positions. The scientific interpretation of the photographs of the remains of Ram Setu taken by NASA’s Gemini-11 spacecraft in 2002 reveals that this ancient bridge linking India to Sri

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Lanka was about 1.75 million years old. If Ram built this bridge, the constellations would have completed 66 cycles before coming back to its original position. According to Vedas, the world is 4.32 billion years old, and man arrived on earth approximately two billion years ago. Man was created on earth in the seventh Manmantar (reincarnations) of Vaivasvat Manu. The sun, planets, stars, earth, sea, vegetation, flora and fauna were created in the earlier six Manmantars. Western scholars now agree that the earth is aged between 3.96 and 4.3 billion years. Evidence from the Rama Sethu The Rama Bridge, dated by a NASA digital image, is considered 1.7 million years old, which matches the ancient age of human settlement in Sri Lanka. The existence of a man-made bridge and of its floating nature was emphasized by the former director of the Geological Survey of India and a member of the National Institute of Ocean Technology (NIOT), S. Badrinarayanan. Badrinarayanan said in Mumbai Mirror (24 April 2007), that the Ram Setu was not a natural formation. “Coral reefs,” he said, “are formed only on hard surfaces, but during (our) study we found that the formation at the Bridge is nothing but boulders of coral reefs. When we drilled for investigation, we found that there was loose sand two to three meters below the reefs. Hard rocks were found several meters below the sand.” Such a natural formation is impossible. Unless somebody has transported them and dumped them there, those reefs could not have come there. Some boulders were so light that they could float on water. Apparently, whoever has done it, has identified light (but strong) boulders to make it easy for transportation. Since they are strong, they can withstand a lot of weight. It should be preserved as a national monument. The Geological logging of the boreholes drilled by NIOT in the inter-tidal areas of Ram Sethu reveals very interesting details. In all the boreholes, the top portion is seen to be occupied by recent marine sands. In almost of all the boreholes between 4.5 and 7.5 m the borehole intersected hard formations, which have been found to be calcareous sand stones and corals. In the case of Ram Sethu area, we observe that the Coral formations hardly occur 1 to 2.5 m in length and resting on loose marine sands.

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Most of these coral rock pieces are seem to be rounded pebbles of corals. These things appear to point these coral rock pieces and pebbles have been transported and placed in these areas. Since the calcareous sand stones and Corals are less dense than normal hard rock and quite compact, probably these were used by the ancients to form a connecting link to Sri Lanka, on the higher elevations of the Ram Sethu ridge and this is analogous to modern day causeway.

The possibility of this bridge being a submarine anticline ridge is also ruled out because the bridge area is located in the recent sediments, which are not yet subjected to any folding activity. Hence, this submarine feature, called Rama Bridge, remains to be man-made to connect the two landmasses of Tamil Nadu (India) and Sri Lanka, both being separated by the sea. That is, it would have been developed manually to cross the ocean when the sea level was lower than the present one. Ramayana has mentioned five different types of human races apart from the north Indian Aryans. They were (1) Vanaras; (2) Golanguls; (3) Rukshyas; (4) Gradhru; (5) Rakshasas. Apart from the Rakshasas, other four types of human races helped Rama to build the bridge. In Europe, we have the evidence that Neanderthals, who were almost human but not human, existed side by side with the human in ancient time. In ancient India too, there were several near-human races apart from the human race. The origin of the human settlement in Sri Lanka in about 1.7 million years ago corresponds to the year when according to the Purana, Rama first went to Sri Lanka. The Bridge, according to NASA, was also constructed at about 1.7 million years ago. Relationship with Krishna’s Dwarka The discoveries at Gulf of Cambay by the National Institute of Ocean Technology established, using carbon-14 date of 7500 years for the wood samples excavated from under the sea, the existence of a civilization dating to that period. Krishna’s Dwarka existed some 7500 years ago. There was a rise in the sea level about 30 meters in 7500 years, approximately at the rate of 10 meters in 3500–3800 years. Eroded debris and pottery provided evidence of a port town destroyed by sea about 3500 years ago. The discovery of submerged buildings of the legendary city of Dwarka indicates that Indians were masters in town planning and maritime

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activity, 7500 years ago. The rise in the sea level in Dwarka is a scientific truth. Studies have proved that the sea considerably and suddenly rose to submerge the city. Harivamsha describes the submerging of Dwarka saying Krishna instructed Arjuna, who was then visiting Dwarka, to evacuate the residents of the city as the sea was going to engulf the city. “On the seventh day (of Krishna saying this), as the last of the citizens were leaving the city, the sea entered the streets of Dwarka” (Nathan 2004). Ruins of Dwarka also show a very advanced civilization of at least 7500 years old, which could not be formed by semi-nomadic Aryans coming down from Central Asia in 1500 B.C. Comments Many scientists have devoted themselves to the search for evidence of the existence of an ancient civilization. In 1595, Gerard Mercator published a map on which he indicated an unknown continent in the center of the Northern Ocean, and around it the shores of Eurasia and North America. This was preceded by a long painstaking work on the study of the remains of ancient maps and texts. There is another mysterious document—the world map of Piri Reis. Its creation dates back to 1513. It depicts all continents with unusual accuracy, including the as yet undiscovered Antarctica, which was depicted without ice. Such accuracy was only possible with aerial photography. The continents on this map are not depicted in their current position, but as they were located about 20,000 years ago. If we accept the accounts given in the Puranas, the history of the world written in Sanskrit, we can resolve the problem posed by the “theory of Tilak” and the “out of India” hypothesis. In Matsya Purana, chapter 95, it is written that the Daityas and the Danavas used to live in near the Sweta Parvata in the far north. Sweta in Russian and Sanskrit languages means white. Parvata in Sanskrit means mountain. There was a sea in the north, now within the Arctic circle, that was called Milk Sea, where the Surs and Asuras, two major tribes of the Aryans searched the sea under, Lomonosov Ridge, within the Arctic circle. Human civilization emerged about 80,000 years ago and the Aryans emerged about 72,000 years ago in India with Manu and his wife Satarupa (Mazumdar 1917). The descendants of Manu populated India initially for thousands of years. Because of climatic change, Saraswati river dried up and some of the people, who used to live in the cities on the banks of Saraswati, went out of India.

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Earlier, Daityas used to live in Balochistan and Afghanistan. They went up to Siberia, called Sumeru or Uttara Kuru, according to Bhavisya Purana, and formed Hyperborea. That pre-ice age civilization in Hyperborea was destroyed because of the sudden arrival of the Ice Age due to the changes in the magnetic field of the earth. Those who had survived moved toward the south from Siberia, as described in Avesta, the holy book of the Zoroastrians. Subsequently, the massive flood that followed at the end of the Ice Age, when sea level went up by 40 meters, most of the assets of these pre-ice age civilizations were destroyed leaving only the massive megalithic structures. For many years, the world “elite” and its owners, using orthodox science as a tool to manipulate people’s consciousness, hid the true history of the world from humanity. For this purpose, ancient written sources were destroyed, which were replaced with falsified forgeries. Numerous artifacts were ignored, including ancient megalithic structures, especially those related to the culture of Arctida or Hyperborea (Cremo 1998, 2003). In Europe, epics of Homer and The Bible are not considered as myths, but informal history. The ruins of Troy, described by Homer, were already excavated. Israel government made serious efforts to excavate every place mentioned in The Bible to find out its ancient past. In India as well, S. R. Rao, former chief of the Archaeological Survey of India, has discovered the ruins of Dwarka, submerged in water off the coast of Gujarat. Japanese ground Radar Company Tojo-Vikas has found out ruins of huge places 30 meters under the ground of Ayodhya. Thus, it is most unscientific to rule out Ramayana, Mahabharata, and Puranas as just myths, but not informal history of the ancient India and the world.

Appendix 1: Archeological Details in Russia See Diagrams 2.1, 2.2, 2.3, 2.4, 2.5, 2.6, 2.7, and 2.8.

Appendix 2 See Diagrams 2.9, 2.10, and 2.11.

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Diagram 2.1 Square Lake, in the Kola region, Russian Arctic

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Diagram 2.2 Paved Road, Kola Region, Russian Arctic

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Diagram 2.3 Who puts these small stones on the bottom of a large stone, Kola Region, Russian Arctic

Diagram 2.4 Perfectly shaped round stones, Kola region, Russian Arctic

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Diagram 2.5 Perfectly polished stones, part of walls, Kola Region, Russian Arctic

Diagram 2.6 Pyramid in Kola region, Russian Arctic

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Diagram 2.7 Steps, Kola region, Russian arctic

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Diagram 2.8 A Square lake, Kola region, Russian Arctic

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Diagram 2.9 Plan of the city under sea in Yanagumi, Okinawa, Japan

Diagram 2.10

Under-sea ruins near Okinawa

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Diagram 2.11

Ruins under the sea

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References Bennett, J.G. 1963. The Hyperborean Origin of the Indo-European Culture. Systematics 1 (3): 105–110. Best, E. 1925. Tuhoe, the Children of the Mist. Auckland: Board of Maori Ethnological Research. Chatterjee, Bankim Chandra. 1886. Krishna Charita. In Complete Works, Vol 4. Calcutta: Tuli-Kalam Publishers. Childe, V.G. 1926. The Aryans. London: Paul, Trench, Trubner and Company. Cremo, M. 1998. Forbidden Archaeology. New York: Bhaktivedanta Book Trust. ———. 2003. Devolution of Man. Alachua, FL: BBT Science. Elst, K. 1999. Update on the Aryan Invasion Debate. New Delhi: Aditya Prakashan. Ewing, M., and W. Donn. 1956. A New Theory of Ice Ages. Science 123 (3207): 1061–1066. Gamkrelidze, T.V., and V.V. Ivanov. 1984. Indoevropejskil Yazak I Indo-evropejci. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter (in Russian). Gening, V.F. 1979. The Cemetery at Sintashta and the Early Indo-Iranian Peoples. Journal of Indo-European Studies 7: 1–30. Grigoryev, S.A. 1996. Sintashta I Ariyaskiye Migracii in Novoye v Arkkheologii Yuzhnogo Urala. Chelyabinsk: Chelyabinsk State University. ———. 1998. The Sintashta Culture and Some Questions of Indo-European Origins. Proceedings of the Chelyabinsk Scientific Center 2: 82–85. Herodotus. 1990. Books I and II . Cambridge: Harvard University Press. Kimura, M. 1997. Mu Tairiku wa Ryukyu ni Atta (The Legendary Sunken Continent Was in the Ryukyus). Naha: Ryukyus University Press (in Japanese). Klyosov, A.A. 2009. DNA Genealogy, Mutation Rates and Some Historical Evidences Written in Y-Chromosome. Journal of Genetic Genealogy 5: 186–256. Klyosov, A., and I.L. Rozhanskii. 2012. Haplogroup R1a as the Proto IndoEuropeans and the Legendary Aryans as Witnessed by the DNA of their current Descendants. Advances in Anthropology 2 (1): 1–23. Kuhn, A. 1845. Zur Alteste Geschichte der Indogerm. Volker, Berlin: Nauck. Max Muller, F. 1878/1923. Lectures on the Origin and Growth of Religion as Illustrated by the Religions of India. London: Longman, Green and Company. Mazumdar, A.K. 1917/2008. The Hindu History. New Delhi: Rupa. Milankovitch, M. 1941. Canon of Insolation and the Ice Age Problem. Belgrade: Koniglich Serbische Akademie. Mukherjee, S.N. 1968. Sir William Jones. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Nathan, Vaidehi. 2004. Search on Krishna’s Dwarka Comes to a Standstill, 20 June, Organiser.

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Pravda. 2005. Ancient Aryan Civilization Achieved Incredible Technological Progress 40 Centuries Ago. 16 July. Pliny the Elder. 1669/2004. Natural History. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Sarkar, A., A. Mukherjee, and M. Bera. 2016. Oxygen Isotope in Archaeological Bioapatites from India: Implications to Climate Change and Decline of Bronze Age Harappan Civilization. Scientific Report 6: 26555. https://doi. org/10.1038/step26555. Sharma, S., E. Rai, P. Sharma, M. Jena, S. Singh, K. Darvishi, and A. Bhat. 2009. The Indian Origin of the Paternal Haplogroup R1a1* Substantiates the Autochtonous Origin of the Brahmins and the Caste System. Journal of Human Genetics 54: 47–55. Shinde, V., V.M. Narasimhan, N. Rohland, S. Mallick, M. Mah, M. Lipson, N. Nakatsuka, N. Adamski, N. Broomandkhoshbacht, M. Ferry, A.M. Lawson, M. Michel, J. Oppenheimer, K. Stewardson, N. Jadhav, Y. Kim, M. Chatterjee, A. Munshi, A. Panyam, P. Waghmare, Y. Yadav, H. Patel, A. Kaushik, K. Thangaraj, M. Meyer, N. Patterson, N. Rai, and D. Reich. 2019. An Ancient Harappan Genome Lacks Ancestry from Steppe Pastoralists or Iranian Farmers. Cell 179 (3): 729–735. Thapar, R. 2014. Can Genetics Help Us Understand Indian Social History? Cold Spring Harbor Perspectives in Biology 6 (11): 1–9. Trautmann, T. 2005. The Aryan Debate. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Trifonov, V.A. 1997. K absolyutnoy khronologii evro-aziatskikhkulturnykh kontaktov v epokhu bronzy. Radiouglerod I Arkheologiya 2: 94–97. Tilak, B.G. 1903. The Artic Home in the Vedas. Poone: Tilak Bros. ———. 1893/2010. Orion or Researches into the Antiquity of the Vedas. New York: Kessinger. Youtube.com/watch?v=nTb3anTVGJY. Zharnikova, S.V. 1989/2019. Hyperborea, and the Aryan Ancestral Home. Moscow: WP IPGEB. Zubova, Alisa, T. Chikisheva, and V.M. Shunkov. 2017. The Morphology of Permanent Molars from the Paleolithic Layers of Denisova Cave. Archaeology, Ethnology & Anthropology of Eurasia 45: 121–134.

CHAPTER 3

Ethics of the Aryans and Modern Sages of India

In this chapter, we review the traditional Aryan concepts of morality. We define Aryan in the sense of Purana (Mazumdar 1917). According to Purana, Aryan originated in India spread throughout the world. In this chapter, we try to combine the collective knowledge and ethics of the major countries of the world. In the classical humanism of Greece and Rome, the existence of gods was denied putting emphasis on human as the center of attention. They considered human values independent of gods are the supreme. In the “Integral Humanism,” the God is the source of all human virtues of humanism. In order to explain classical humanism, Roman philosopher Cicero (106–43 B.C.) in his book, “The Nature of the Gods” (Natura Deorum in Latin) wrote (1933): “Honours are paid to the human virtues of these hero (or the gods) rather than to their immortality”. According to him, “…. the concept of the gods is invented to make men more virtuous. In many countries the memory of brave men has been celebrated with divine honour to promote the manly virtues and to make men more willing to face danger bravely in the service of the state”. Cicero (1933) wrote, “…in the first place, it is improbable that the material substance which is the origin of all things was created by divine Providence. It has and has always had a force and nature of its own”. Cicero’s idea of materialism is very similar to both Brihaspati of sixth century B.C. (or earlier), proponent of the Charvaka Nayatantra, and © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 D. Basu and V. Miroshnik, Ethics, Morality and Business: The Development of Modern Economic Systems, Volume I, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-71493-2_3

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Marx-Engels in the nineteenth century. Their concepts of Humanism are also very similar (Brodov 1984). As Capitalism dehumanizes human beings by turning them into mere factors of production, which can be discarded if market demands that, humanism is not associated with capitalism at all. Maximization of profit irrespective of its social consequences is the rational behavior under capitalism. In this system, workers are deprived from the fruits of their toil thus making them alien to the production system in which they are the essential part. This alienation creates discontent among the workers and that leads to the social and economic contradictions, leading to revolutionary changes in the society (Karl Marx 1844/1976). There are reflections of it in Hinduism as well. This is the basic idea of both Karl Marx and Swami Vivekananda (1946, Collected Works, vol. IV); both of them have predicted a future society of the workers or the Sudras. Karl Marx has approached the issue from the point of view of classical humanism; Vivekananda has used the Hindu approach to analyze social change in the tradition of “Integral Humanism,” which does not reject the concept of God. Both classical and integral humanism are thus opposed to capitalism, whatever form it may take. We can analyze the issue from the basic point of “Utilitarianism” the fundamental philosophy and rationale of capitalism. The Hindu view of life is that the personal life of an individual is ultimately subject to the same universal law as of all nature. Man sets himself the goal of freeing himself from the bondage of nature. The meaning of a man’s life, according to the Indian culture, “is the awareness of the soul to its bondage and its efforts to stand up and assert itself ” (Romain Rolland 1930). According to the message of Krishna in “Bhagavad Gita”, this freedom can only be achieved by Karma yoga or selfless work and Gnana Yoga or pure knowledge (Bhagavad Gita, Chapter 3, verse 3). Karma yoga recommends working for the sake of the work itself, not for the fruits of the work. Work without pay, absence of attachment to the result, generally to the point of complete disregard for one’s personal interest, complete selflessness is the karma yoga. This is essentially opposite to the “utilitarianism”, the philosophy of “capitalism.” Humanistic aspects of Indian national culture, i.e. renunciation, selfless work, sacrifice, work without any attachment to the results do not correspond to the acquisitive consumerism glorified by capitalism. The essential characteristics of national cultures can be traced on these basic human values signified by the Hindu philosophy of life, which suggests that the

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present acquisitive consumerism or the capitalist system controlled by the merchant class cannot last, but would be replaced by an alternative system, as Swami Vivekananda has predicted (1946a, Collected Works, vol. IV). Thus, according to both Swami Vivekananda and Sri Aurobindo, fundamental ideas of Hinduism are the same as those of “Integral Humanism,” a system of non-capitalistic nature based upon religion. Greed, possessiveness, desires to create wealth are the virtues of capitalism but for Sri Krishna these are the gates of hell, enemies of the soul. Those who are attached to these are described by Sri Krishna as those “who hate me” (Bhagavad Gita, verse 18, Chapter 16). Thus, Aryan ethics considers both social and economic inequality and the resultant arrogance as unacceptable. Swami Vivekananda wrote (1946b), in “On India and Her Problems” that, “I consider that the great national sin is the neglect of the masses, and that is one of the causes of her (India) downfall ”. Down the centuries he wrote, “..the rulers and the dominant castes neglected the interests and the lot of the simple people, and that was one of the greatest social evils ”. Rabindranath Tagore (1950) also wrote, in his essay “Crisis of Civilization” that capitalism, as a civilization is incapable of ensuring humanity’s progress. After visiting the efforts of construction of that socialist state the Soviet Union in 1930, Tagore wrote (1960), in Letters of Russia, “This (Soviet) civilization spreads the power of humanity”. “Integral Humanism” is identical to the political ideology of Swami Vivekananda (1946b). Humanism rejects capitalism, as capitalism dehumanizes individuals. Swami Vivekananda has tried to find out the solution of India’s age-old problem of poverty and inequality. His solution does not reject the concept of “God” but he has put religion or enlightenment as the means to remove poverty. Hinduism, for Swami Vivekananda, is the unifying force in the world; it can absorb fundamental ideas of all religions of the world by saying that different religions are nothing but different roads to the same truth. In the words of Ramakrishna Paramhamsa, the God is like a lake full of spiritual water. People from different parts of the world who are spiritually thirsty may ask for that water in many different languages, but that does not change the character of the water (Brodov 1984). Swami Vivekananda has analyzed the history of the world and came to the conclusion down the centuries, the rulers and the dominant castes neglected the interests and the lot of the simple people and that was one of the greatest social evils (Vivekananda 1946b). The rulers and

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the oppressors increased their material wealth forgetting that wealth was created for men and by men. According to him, this age is dominated by the Vaisya or the merchant class, “whose battle fields are the market places of the world” (Vivekananda 1946a). However, the supremacy of the Vaisyas (merchant class ) is now coming to an end. In future, the supremacy of the Sudras (workers ) must emerge according to the laws of nature. Under it, just distribution of material values will be achieved, equality of the rights of all members of society to ownership of property established and caste differences obliterated. “If it is possible to form a state in which the knowledge of the priest period, the culture of the military period, the distributive spirit of the commerce and the ideal of equality of the Sudra period can all be kept intact minus their evils, it will be an ideal state” (Vivekananda 1946a, The Complete Works, vol. VI, p. 343). The first three periods have already occurred in India and now the time has come for the fourth, during which “New India” will be built. “Integral Humanism” is the foundation of that new India. The economic ideology of Swami Vivekananda and Sri Aurobindo, who have expressed in modern language the wisdom of Bhagavad Gita, Upanishad, and the Vedas, call for a harmonious, caring social model where the state will take care of every aspects of the welfare of the people, and will not reject anyone who may fail. Swami Vivekananda asked every Indian to say with pride: “Wretched Indians, poorest Indians, illiterate Indians are my brothers ”, not to reject them as “underclass.” In the “Rama-Rajya,” the king is even responsible for the snakebite on a boy. That idealistic Hindu state demands a totalitarian government where ordinary people would be taken care of from “cradle to the cremation ground” as it was the case in the former Soviet Union or in some countries in the Western Europe today. Anglo-American ideas like competition, profit-motivated efficiency, small government with total freedom for the business community to exploit the people, cannot uphold that Hindu idealism. The Aryan view of life is that the personal life of an individual is ultimately subject to the same universal law as of all nature. The fundamental principle is the “theory of Karma,” which says that each action eventually causes a certain effect. Everything in nature, from abstract thought to practical action is determined and directed by this law. Man sets himself the goal of freeing himself from the bondage of the nature. According to the message of Krishna in “Bhagavad Gita,” this freedom can only

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be achieved by Karma Yoga or selfless works and Gnana Yoga or pure knowledge (Bhagwad Gita, Chapter 3, verse 3; 1983). Sri Aurobindo (Ghosh 1947) has explained it further. Principal contradiction of human life is that between the individual and society or aggregate. The essence of ideal law of human development demands that individual should harmonize his life with the life of the social aggregate. Individualism, the ideal of the western culture propagated by the “Globalization” process does not correspond to the ideal view of life according to this universal law of nature. Following the basic philosophical premise that the universe is subject to the action of identical universal laws, Vedantic philosophy according to Vivekananda (vol. IV, 1946a) says, society develops cyclically. With each cycle, society rises to higher and still higher stages achieving more and more perfection. Vivekananda divided the whole of the Indian society into two classes, the rich (the upper class) and the poor (the lower class). The lower class, the Sudras or the workers are the people, the masses; the future is theirs. “The only hope of India was from the masses, for the upper classes were physically and morally dead” (Vivekananda 1946b). World at present is being ruled by the merchant class. However, the supremacy of the merchant class is coming to an end. In future, “…. the supremacy of the workers must emerge. Under it, just distribution of material values will be achieved, equality of the rights of all members of society to ownership of property established and caste differences obliterated” (Vivekananda, vol. IV, 1946a). In order to achieve this ideal state, according to Vivekananda, one must understand the causes of the downfall of the colonized world. The causes are, perversion of religion, tyranny toward the masses, absence of due education and instructions, underestimating the role of the women and physical and spiritual weakness and inertia (Vivekananda 1946b). Down the centuries, the rulers and the dominant castes neglected the interests and the lot of the simple people and that was one of the greatest social evils. Without support of the lower class, there should be no question of serious reforms. Highly developed production and material well-being, cannot by themselves, make men happy if their “spiritual civilization” is low. In capitalism, wealth is being concentrated in the hands of the few. The dominion of the capitalist class today is justified in the name of economic growth and production efficiency. The resultant deprivations are visible even in the developed countries. In the United States, at least 12 million

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people are homeless, one-third of the people cannot afford even primary health care, 17% of the children are living below the poverty line, about 23% of the people are functionally illiterate; there is no security of either job or of life. Albert Einstein (1948) has explained, “The United States is fortunate in producing all the important industrial products and foods in her own country, in sufficient quantities. The country also possesses almost all-important raw materials. Because of her tenacious belief in “free enterprise”, she cannot succeed in keeping the purchasing power of the people in balance with the productive capacity of the country. For these very same reasons there is a constant danger that unemployment will reach threatening dimensions ” (Einstein 1948). Thus, capitalism has so far failed to maximize social welfare through the maximization of individual’s profit. The resultant discontent will grow substantially due to the “Globalization” process, which will intensify deprivation in pursuit of efficiency across the globe. If the economic system imposed from outside does not correspond to the national culture or the philosophy of life, it will collapse sooner or later due to its own inherent contradictions. According to the Hindu philosophy of life, we are in the era of the merchants or the capitalistic system. This system cannot last forever due to the tyranny, oppression, and degenerations it creates just like other systems those came before it. Relationship between culture or the philosophy of life of a country and its economic and social system is important for all nations. Humanistic aspects of Indian national culture, i.e., renunciations, selfless work, sacrifice, work without any attachments to the results do not correspond to the acquisitive consumerism glorified by the capitalism which is the philosophy of the “Globalization” process. The essential characteristics of national cultures can be traced on these basic human values signified by the Hindu philosophy of life, which suggests that the present acquisitive consumerism or the capitalist system controlled by the merchant class cannot last, but would be replaced by an alternative system. While the market economy is based on materialism and selfishness, the ideals of Hinduism are exactly opposite to these. Sri Krishna has described Utilitarian men very clearly, “They say: this world has no truth, no moral foundation, no God. There is no law of creation” (Bhagavad Gita, Chapter 16, verse 8). “Their highest goal is sensual enjoyment and they firmly think that is all ” (Bhagavad Gita, Chapter 16, verse 11). “In their chain of selfishness and arrogance, of violence and anger and lust, these malignant men hate me” (Bhagavad Gita, Chapter 16, verse 18).

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Market system is based on profit; every work must be justified by the results. Hindu ideals are based on selfless work without expecting any rewards. “When work is done as sacred work, unselfishly, with a peaceful mind, without lust or hate, with no desire for reward, then the work is pure” (Bhagavad Gita, Chapter 18, verse 23). Sri Krishna also said, when a man dwells on the pleasures of sense, the lust of possession arises, which leads to anger, ruin of reason and ultimate destruction (Bhagavad Gita, Chapter 2, verse 62). Thus, market economy is against the Hindu ideals.

The Concept of Equality In Rig Veda or Upanishad and particularly in Bhagavad Gita, the ideal of equality both social, economic, and gender are fundamental. Following these classical texts of Hindu religion, Jainism, Buddhism, and Sikhism subsequently have considered equality as the essential part of their religious doctrines. The Islam or Christianity did not introduce the concept of equality to India. In Hinduism and the related religious systems of Jainism, Buddhism, and Sikhism in India “Enlightenment,” unity with the absolute or the realization of the Brahman (The God) is accessible to all irrespective of their origin, gender, economic, or social status. In Rig Veda, it is written, “Brahman of glory is he to whom both the Aryans and the Dasas belong ” (Rig Veda, Book VIII, Chapter 8, verse 9). (Dasas and Asuras are the people of ancient Iran and Iraq.) Sri Krishna in Bhagavad Gita said, “I look upon all creatures equally; none is less dear to me and none more dear” (Chapter 9, verse 29). “All those who take refuge in me, whatever their birth, race, sex, or caste, will attain the supreme goal; this realization can be attained even by those whom society scorns ” (Bhagavad Gita, Chapter 9, verse 32,33). In both Jainism and Buddhism, equality is proclaimed more forcefully. According to Gautama Buddha, (in Dharmapada, 402–422), an Aryan is one who follows the Aryan Eightfold path and a Brahmin is one who attains the stage of “Arahant” or supreme knowledge. “In whom there exist both truth and righteousness, pure is he, a Brahmin is he. He is free from impediments, free from clinging ” (Dharmapada, 393–396). For Jainism, “By deeds, not by birth, is one a Brahmin. By deeds one is Ksatriya, by deeds is one a Vaishya and by deeds is one a Sudra” (Uttara Dhyayana Sutra, 25,3). Mahavir said clearly, “If the Brahmin, Kshatriya, etc initiated into my holy order of equality still subscribe to castes and exult

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therein, they behave like unregenerate beings ” (Sutra Kritanga, Book 1, Chapter 13, verse 10–11). There is complete equality in Sikhism. “Castes and dynastic pride are condemnable notions. The Master shelters all existence. He who arrogates superiority to himself shall be disillusioned, says Nanak. Superiority shall be determined by God, crediting such a one with honour” (Adi Granth, Sri Ki Var Mahalla, m.1). There are many similarities between Hindu and European gods: sky god Dyaus Pitar and the Roman Dyu-piter (the actual pronunciation of “Jupiter”); thunder god Indra, who bears a lightening bolt, and thunder god Thor, who also bears a lightning bolt (and both being known as nearly invincible warriors who sometimes drink too much); or the Vedic name for the gods, Asura, and the Norse name for the gods, Aesir. The Veda mentions four tribes that all originally lived in India: the Pritus, Parsus, Druhyus, and Alinas; now scholars are wondering if they are not direct names for the Parthians, Persians, Druids, and Hellenes. Sri Aurobindo (Ghosh 1971) said, “Indian polytheism is not the popular polytheism of ancient Europe; for here the worshipper of many Gods still knows that all his divinities are forms, names, personalities and powers of the One; his gods proceed from the one Purusha, his goddesses are energies of the one divine Force.” Aryan Ethics According to Rig Veda Rig Veda, Upanishad, and Bhagavad Gita, according to the Vedanta school of thought, are the core of the Sanatan Dharma or Hinduism as we call it now. Going through the holy texts of Hinduism, we can get the correct picture about the nature of Hinduism—whether it is Monotheist or Polytheist. Different Devas and Devis in Hinduism were all created, according to Puran, by Brahman and their powers are derived from the Brahman, who can take away their powers too, like what has happened to Indra in the Ramayana. Thus, these Devas and Devis are nothing but very powerful angels. They are not Gods or Goddesses as they are in ancient Greek religion, where they are created independently. According to Rig Veda, Manu has created the Devas and Devis as well as men and women. “Worship the Vasus, Agni. Here the Rudras, the Adityas, all. Who spring from Manu” (Rig Veda, Book 1, Hymn XLV, verse 1). A number of the Devas and Devis are mentioned in the Rig Veda. Varun, Indra, Vishnu, Agni, Mitra, Rudra, Saraswati, Usha, and Ila are the principal among them but there are others.

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If Manu has created them, then who has created Manu? Rig Veda said, “The Devas are later than this world’s production”. The main question how the creation was formed. Here we have the description in the Rig Veda, Book X, verse 129: Then was not non-existent nor existent; there was no realm of air, no sky beyond it. The ONE, breathless breathed by its own nature; apart from it was nothing whatsoever. All that existed then was void and formless; by the great power of warmth (Tapasya) was born that UNIT. Thereafter rose LOVE, the primal seed and germ of SPIRIT. Devas are later than this world’s creation. HE the first origin of this creation; HE formed it all. WHOSE eye controls this world.

Thus, HE the Brahman is the creator of the Devas and Devis. It is supported by Bhagavad Gita in this verse: I am the one source of all; the evolution of all comes from me (Bhagavad Gita, Chapter 10, verse 8) and I am the source of all beings; I support them all, but I rest not in them. (Bhagavad Gita, Chapter 9, verse 5)

These verses are definitely pointing out for One creator Brahman, who in turn is responsible for the creation of all other Devas and Devis. We get further supports from Bhagavad Gita in the following verses: Brahman is the supreme, the eternal (Chapter 8, verse 3);

In other Vedas, we also get this concept of One creator. He is without any form, yet dwells inside and outside all things With form and shape, Yet He is entirely free of error, faultless and pure. He is far beyond anything a human body can comprehend. And being the Divine Poet. He is inspiration itself. He maintains peace and harmony because He is both peace and Harmony made manifest. (Max Muller, Yajur Veda, 1873b)

He is present in all places and rules everywhere.

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His power controls utterly all the three regions: Earth, the Middle-Air, and the highest heavens. One foot is rooted in things we understand: But the other rests in a realm of deep, dark mystery, A place far beyond the knowledge of mankind. (Max Muller, Artharva Veda, 1873a)

These later Vedas are reflecting what is written in the Rig Veda, “He is substance of every great eternal law. And He can be perceived in the universal forces of life.” Vedic Invocations invoke GOD through his attributes and functions. He is the Force behind all of nature’s mighty forces, the Light behind the light; the Delight behind delights; the Ultimate Activity behind all activities. Similarly, God’s various names in the Vedas are the one GOD viewed in terms of his attributes, functions, and nature. There is no real suggestion of anything besides the ONE. Long before Siva, Vishnu, Rama, Ganesh, Parvati, Laxmi, and the others, there was the GOD of the Vedas—Brahman. Raja Ram Mohan Roy, Ramakrishna Paramahamsa, Swami Vivekananda, all have the same opinion that Allah, Jehova, and Iswar are the three names of the Brahman, the Supreme. Ramakrishna Paramahamsa used to tell a story that Brahman is the water. Three persons, Hindu, Christian, and a Muslim, are thristy. The Hindu is asking, where is Jalam; the Muslim is asking where is Pani; and the Christian is asking where is water. These three different names of the same water do not change the character of the water. Thus, according to Ramakrishna Paramahamsa, Iswar, Allah, and Jehova are three different names of the same Brahman, the Supreme Creator of all (Brodov 1984). Swami Chidananda (2002) of Ram Krishna Mission has explained in some simple words, “We will know and clearly understand that all Divine forms are symbolic and signify one God who has manifested multifariously in order to help human beings in various stages of Spiritual evolution and of different tastes and temperaments and capacities to find a suitable expression of the Divine that appeals to their temperament and attracts their devotion and thus enables them to focus their mind.”. He is reflecting what is written in Rig Veda, “Truth is One, but sages call it by many names ” (Book 1, Hymn 164, verse 46).

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Hinduism and Christianity Similarly, the Christian missionaries and Christian leaders have followed a wrong version of Christianity, which is far from the true religion. Shaunaka Rishi Das, Director of the Oxford Centre for Hindu Studies in the University of Oxford has explained the similarity between Hinduism and Christianity in the website https://www.nchtuk.org/content.php?id=267 of the National Council of Hindu Temples of UK. He said, “Hindus don’t really see Jesus as a Christian at all. When we ask how we can see spirituality in Hindus, the answer comes, by behaviour and practice. We can ask are we humble, are we tolerant and are we nonviolent, and can we control our senses and our mind? Are we aware of others suffering and are we willing to give up our comfort to help them? Looking at these criteria, Jesus measures up as a Sadhu, a holy man. He preached a universal message, love of God and love of brother, which was beyond any sectarianism or selfishness. Jesus was one of those people who appealed from heart to heart, and that is what makes him such a Hindu Saint. His message is no different from the message preached in another time and place by Lord Krishna and Lord Chaitanya.” Similarity between Hinduism and Christianity is in the concept of the supreme One. In the Rig Veda, we can read: He is One Brahma, The Creator of the cosmos, Who pervades and protects, And enlightens all beings, He is One Supreme Entity, Whom sages call by various names, Such as Indra, the glorious, Mitra, the benign friend, Varuna, the greatest, the noblest, Agni, the resplendent, the bright, Yama, the dispenser of justice, Matarishwa, the almighty. (Rig Veda, Book 1, Hymn 164, verse 46)

These words are also reflected in the Christianity: “For there are three that bear record in heaven, the Father, the Word, and the Holy Ghost; and these three are one” (John, 5/7, on page 1279 of the King James Version of the Holy Bible). Samkara has purified Hinduism when during the Middle Ages it got submerged into mindless rituals and distortions. His message was the same as that of Raja Ram Mohan Roy in modern time when during the nineteenth century in India, according to Rabindranath Tagore, “…only the ghost of the living ancient Hindu religion held its sway in the funeral grounds. It had no life, it had no vitality, it only had its strictures and threats. Ram Mohun proceeded fearlessly to free society from the serpent-like

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bondage” (Charitra Puja: Rammohun Roy (in Bengali) by Rabindranath Tagore 1961). Ram Mohan Roy’s Brahma Samaj had proclaimed the greatness of Hindu religion as given in the texts of the Vedas, and Upanishads, in some simple words: “There is only one God. None equals Him. He has no end. He is present in all living beings.” Ramakrishna Paramahamsa described Brahman in a very simple way: “Think of Brahman, Existence-Knowledge-Bliss Absolute, as a shoreless ocean. Through the cooling influence, as it were, of the bhakta’a love, the water has frozen at places into blocks of ice. In other words, God now and then assumes various forms for His lovers and reveals Himself to them as a Person. But with the rising of the sun of Knowledge, the blocks of ice melt. Then one doesn’t feel anymore that God is a Person, nor does one see God’s forms ” (Brodov 1984). Thus, the debate whether Hinduism is monotheistic or not is not a meaningful one. Despite the formal differences due to historical and cultural reasons there can be some differences between different religions of the world, but as Ramakrishna Paramahamsa has observed, “all roads leads to the same truth” (Brodov 1984).

Hinduism and Islam Relationship between Hinduism and other major religions of the world should be cordial although the followers of these religions may not think so. The main adversary of Hinduism, Buddhism, and Zoroastrianism in Asia is Islam, which has wiped out these religions from most parts of Asia already. Much of the misery of India, derived from the partition of the country in 1947, is directly related to the activity of the followers of Islam. However, Islam, according to The Koran, has close similarity with Hinduism. Islam was distorted and corrupted immediately after the death of Prophet Mohammed. The true Islam was destroyed by Khalifa Yazid, whose father, the King of Syria, was the mortal enemy of Prophet Mohammed. Kalifa Yazid invaded Medina and Mecca, killed every relative of the Prophet Mohammed including Hassan and Hussein—sons of Ali the first Khalifas appointed by Prophet Mohammed. Thereafter, Yazid rewrote the Haddith, Sariyat and according to some scholar even some parts of The Koran to justify his Syrian Arab Empire to bring death and

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destruction to the vast parts of Eurasia and North Africa. That is the evil face of the Muslims, which is very well known. However, The Koran says exactly the opposite, if the Muslims would care to read it. The Koran said, “God does not forbid you to be kind and equitable to those who have neither made war on your religion nor driven you from your homes. God loves the equitable” (in Al Utahanah, 60:5). Similarity between Hinduism and Islam can be traced if we analyze the texts properly. Rig Veda says “Let our meditation be on the glorious light of Savitri; may this light illuminate our minds.” The Koran also said, “God is the light of the heavens and earth….God guides to his light whom he will ” (Al-Nur, 24:35). Sri Krishna said, “When righteousness is weak and faints and unrighteousness exults in pride, my spirit arises on earth” (Bhagavad Gita, Chapter 4, verse 7). The Koran said similarly in Jonah, 10:47, “An apostle is sent to each community. When their apostle comes, justice is done among them; they are not wronged”. Also in Al-Nahl, 16:36, The Koran said, “We raised an apostle in each community, saying: Serve God and keep away from false gods ”. Sri Krishna said, “For this is my word of promise, that he who loves me shall not perish. For those who come to me for shelter, however weak or humble or sinful they may be …they all reach the path supreme” (Bhagavad Gita, Chapter 9, verse 31–32). The Koran also said, “God is the patron of the faithful; he leads them from darkness to the light ” (Al-Baqarah, 2:257). The Koran says, “Righteousness does not consist in whether you face towards the East or the West. The righteous man is he …who gives away his wealth to kinsfolk, to orphans, to the destitute, to the traveler in need and to beggars and for the redemption of captives…. who is true to his promises. Such are the true believers ” (Al-Baqarah, 2:177). Thus, Islam is now corrupted. Muslims do not obey “The Koran” and became violent. They are going against the lesson of The Koran. Some Muslims identify themselves with the empires of Arab, Turk, and Mongols and are very proud about their exploits. Imperialists, like Saladin, Ben Kasem, Ghoury, and Sultan Mahmood, are considered as heros for the Muslims. Mohammed Iqbal, the national poet of Pakistan, even wrote poems to glorify Sultan Mahmud’s massacres of the Hindus in the ninth century. These acts are against Islam, as The Koran said, “God does not forbid you to be kind and equitable to those who have neither made war on your

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religion nor driven you from your homes. God loves the equitable” (in Al Utahanah, 60:5). Terrible atrocities were committed by these empires of Arab, Turk, and Mongols on the countries they have occupied. There was no reason for the Muslims to support these empires as these were against the true Islam. The Koran said, “Fight for the sake of God those that fight against you, but do not attack them first; God does not love aggressors ” (Al-Baqarah, 2:191). During the seventh century, in the known part of the world, in the Roman Empire, Byzantine Empire, Persian Empire and in the Empires of India, religions were reduced to mindless rituals, witchcrafts and exploitation of the ordinary people by the priests appointed by the feudal lords. As Sri Krishna said, “when righteousness is weak and faints and unrighteousness exults in pride, my spirit arises on earth” (Bhagavad Gita, Chapter 4, verse 7). Prophet Mohammed as that spirit of the God has tried to re-establish true religion by declaring the uniqueness of the God. He was against superstitions and rituals and asking everyone to the essential duties of every person to take care of the poor members of the society. Sri Krishna similarly said clearly that by building temples, performing rituals of the Vedas and worshiping other gods, one couldn’t reach Brahman. Jesus was crucified, because he went against the Jewish priests, who forgetting their true religion, had turned the temple in Jerusalem as a business center. Prophet Mohammed also was attacked and was forced to leave Makkah. That true message of Islam was demolished by Yazid, son of the king of Syria, a mortal enemy of Prophet Mohammed. Thereafter Yazid burned down the Kabbah in Mokkah, killed every relatives of Prophet Mohammed, appointed his own people to rewrite the Haddiths—the biography of Prophet Mohammed, to suit his own evil purpose to expand the Arab empire to terrorize vast areas of Asia, Europe, and North Africa by killing millions and destroying all achievements of earlier civilizations. His followers had destroyed Alexandria and the great centers of learning in Balkh, Baghdad, Samarkhand, Taxila, and Nalanda in the name of Islam. The mantle of that Arab empire was taken up by extremely ferocious and uncivilized Turkish tribes from Central Asia, who had at one time occupied India, the Middle East including Egypt, East European countries including Greece and parts of Russia. Turkish emperors proclaimed themselves as Khalifa so that the subject people would be forced to worship them as divine, which is fundamentally against the teaching of Prophet Mohammed and is nothing but crude imperialism.

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In South Asia and Afghanistan, Mongols took over from the Turks later and started building mountains of severed heads of their innocent victims as Timur Long did in Afghanistan and the Mongol Emperor Akhbar did in Chittore, India. When Muslims today consider American imperialists as “great Satans,” they should understand that Arab, Turkish, Mongol empires, and the most recent Pakistani empires were not any virtuous than the British, Spanish, Portuguese, French, or American empires. The Koran said in Jonah, 10:47, “An apostle is sent to each community. When their apostle comes, justice is done among them; they are not wronged.” Also in Al-Nahl, 16:36, The Koran said, “We raised an apostle in each community, saying: Serve God and keep away from false gods.” Thus, the Muslims should not refuse to accept Rama, Krishna, Zarathustra, and Gautama Buddha as the spirits of God. When the Muslims can understand that the god of all communities is One, as the Hindu saint Ramakrishna Paramahamsa understood when he has converted himself to both Islam and Christianity, they will not cause violence against the people of other religions or ideas. Religion according to Karl Marx is “the sigh of the oppressed creature, the heart of an otherwise heartless world, and the soul of soulless conditions ” (Marx 1844). Religion is the shelter for the people who are dispossessed, whether materially or psychologically. Sri Krishna said, “For this is my word of promise, that he who loves me shall not perish. For those who come to me for shelter, however weak or humble or sinful they may be …they all reach the path supreme” (Bhagavad Gita, Chapter 9, verse 31–32). The Koran also said, “God is the patron of the faithful; he leads them from darkness to the light ” (Al-Baqarah, 2:257). The contributions of Prophet Mohammed are in these words in The Koran, “Righteousness does not consist in whether you face towards the East or the West. The righteous man is he …who gives away his wealth to kinsfolk, to orphans, to the destitute, to the traveler in need and to beggars and for the redemption of captives…. who is true to his promises. Such are the true believers ” (Al-Baqarah, 2:177). Islam means surrender to the will of God, and thus, Muslims should listen to these positive message of Prophet Mohammed and denounce violent doctrine of Khalifa Yazid. In this case, they can influence the world toward Islam. (https://news.bbc.co.uk/hi/english/world/south_asia/newsid_176 3000/1763950.stm)

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The Aryan Literature The most important Hindu scriptures are the Vedas, which are recorded in the four sub-categories viz., Rig Veda, Yajur Veda, Sama Veda, and Atharva Veda and contain the earliest concepts of Hinduism. These four Vedas are further divided into two parts, Karma-Kanda and Jnana-Kanda. Karma Kanda is the section dealing with rituals and prayers while JnanaKanda deals only with the ontological realities—the nature of world, consciousness (or self), and God known as Brahman in the Vedas. Vedanta refers to the set of teachings that are contained in the Jnana-Kanda section, which are culmination of the Vedas. The three most important constituents of Vedanta are the Upanishads, Bhagavad Gita and Brahma-sutras. Upanishads are passages from the Jnana-kanda section of the Vedas. They are the core of Vedic wisdom and are essentially philosophical in nature. Brahma-sutras are intended to logically explain the teachings of the Upanishads. Ancient philosophy of India has six distinct parts: i. Kapila’s Samkhya Philosophy, ii. Patanjali’s Yogasastra, iii. Gautam’s Nyaya Philosophy, iv. Kanad’s Vaisesik Philosophy, v. Jasmine’s Purba Mimamgsa, vi. Vedavyasa’s Uttar Mimamgsa is Vedanta Philosophy. Kapila was the son of Devahuti, the daughter of Manu. Manu wrote the Manu Samhita, the law book of ancient India. The philosophy of Kapila is the first recorded system of Philosophy in the world, earliest attempt on record to give an answer from reason alone to the mysterious questions which arise in every thoughtful mind about the origin of the world, the nature and relations of man and his future destiny. (Macdonell 1912)

Kapila admits immortality of the soul and eternity of matter. He gives the theory of evolution. Macdonell (1912) observed, “From the original substance the world is described through certain evolutionary stages. The diversity of material products is explained by the combination in varying proportions, of the three inherent gunas or constituents of that substance. At

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the end of a cosmic period, all things are dissolved into primordial matter. The alternations of evolution, existence and dissolution form a series of cycles, which has neither beginning nor end”. In the sixth century B.C., Pythagoras introduced Kapil’s theory in Europe (Mazumdar 1917). R. C. Dutt (in Ancient India, vol. 2, Book III, Chapter X, p. 141, observed, “…Manas (mental activity), Ahankara (consciousness) and even Buddhi (the intellect) were material in their origin. Kapil declares that the subtle elements and gross elements proceed from consciousness. Kapil herein seems to anticipate the philosophy of Berkeley, Hume, and Mill, that objects are but permanent possibilities of sensations and agrees with Kant that we have no knowledge of an external world except as by the action of our faculties; it is represented to the soul and take as granted the objective reality of our sense perceptions ”. The German philosophy of Schopenhauer and Von Hartmann is a reproduction of the philosophic system of Kapila in its materialistic part, presented in a more elaborate form but on the same fundamental lines (Brodov 1984). Samkhya is dualist, considering the universe composed of two realities, purus.a (consciousness) and prakr.ti (matter). Jiva (a living being) is the result in which purus.a is bonded to prakr.ti in some way. This unification led to the emergence of buddhi (“intellect”) and ahank¯ ˙ ara (ego consciousness). During the state of imbalance a form of bondage can be created, the end of which is called liberation, or kaivalya, by the Samkhya school. Gravity, gravitation, heat, light, electricity, magnetism, and power of thinking are but expressions of one force called prana. In the Rig Veda, prana means vibration. When the great end of dissolution comes, these forces revert to their primordial state in very subtle form generally called adi-prana (either). In that state, it is almost inactive. Then again emanation and expansion begins called srishti, not covered by the word creation. All that is in the world has come through the vibration of akash or either. From the subtle proceeds, the gross gradually. The forces revert to prana and gross forms to akash. These two finally revert to mahad or an all pervading and attribute-less Brahma or force or energy (Brodov 1984). Mind is a very subtle thing behind this gross body mind is not soul, which is immortal, unchangeable. Like the Vedas and Kapila, Patanjali also speaks of the Evolution theory… by the gradually developing property of nature one class is changed into a higher stage and the process continues for ever and ever (Mazumdar 1917).

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Patanjali wrote, as the farmer feeds his fields so a very great power feeds us from within. This body is the great obstacle. The more this body attains greater structural excellence, the more power does it express. Tama or darkness, yields to Raja (passion) and then Raja change into Satwa or goodness. Vaisheshika school of Kanad postulated that all objects in the physical universe are reducible to param¯ an.u (atoms), and one’s experiences are derived from the interplay of substance-like atoms. Nyaya schools of Gautama accepts that human suffering results from mistakes or defects produced by activity under wrong knowledge. Liberation is gained through right knowledge. False knowledge is delusion. Correct knowledge can help us to discover delusions, which is essential to understand true nature of soul, self, and reality. Mimamsa school was founded by Jasmine. It has two parts, Purva Mimamsa and Uttara Mimamsa. It deals with the philosophical theories on the nature of dharma. Dharma as understood by P¯urva M¯ım¯am . s¯a can be called as “virtue,” “morality,” or “duty”. Vedanta is one of the six orthodox schools of Indian philosophy. It urva M¯ım¯ am a, the “former enquiry” or “primary enquiry” has also P¯ . s¯ and Uttara M¯ım¯ am a, the “latter enquiry” or “higher enquiry.” The . s¯ word Vedanta literally means the end of the Vedas and originally referred to the Upanishads. It observed that Brahman exists as the unchanging material cause and instrumental cause of the world. The self ¯ atman) is the agent of its own acts (karma) and the recipient (Atman/Jiv¯ of the consequences of these actions. According to Nakamura (1950), the Vedanta school has had a historic and central influence on Hinduism; the Hindu religious sects, the common faith of the Indian populace, looked to Vedanta philosophy for the theoretical foundations for their theology.

The Nature of the Brahman Bhagavad-g¯ıt¯a (Chapter 14: The Three Modes Of Material Nature) said, “The total material substance, called Brahman, is the source of birth, and it is that Brahman that I impregnate, making possible the births of all living beings ”. Everything that takes place is due to the combination of the body and the spirit soul. This combination of material nature and the living entity is made possible by the Supreme God Himself. The Lord is the cause of all the manifestations of living entities in this material world.

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Manusmriti Manu is considered as the forefather of all human races. Manu created set of laws that guided the social and religious behavior of people following the ethical principle of Dharma. Manu was the legendary man in Hindu. He was the first sociologist of human society and the lawgiver and the architect of the Hindu society that divides Hindus into four Varnas. It has 10 commandments. In Manusmr.iti, ten aspects of general duties are mentioned. They are: Ahins¯ ˙ a (non-Violence), Truthfulness, Non-stealing, Purity, Control of senses, Intelligence, Knowledge, Non-anger, Forgiveness, Tenacity of purpose. Manusmriti (1920) known as M¯anava-Dharma-S¯astra is the first regulatory system in the history of mankind. Manusmriti is also well renowned as Laws of Manu or Institution of Manu. It has provided base to the Hindu laws and regulations. Manusmriti is divided into 12 chapters and content wise it can be divided into three sections and they are: 1. Origin of the World 2. Sources of the Law 3. Dharma of the four Social varnas (Brahamanas/Kshatriyas/Vaishyas/Shudras)

or

social

classes

It was first translated into English in 1794 by Sir William Jones, judge of the British Supreme Court of Judicature in Calcutta and the founder of The Asiatic Society.

Essence in Manusmriti The essence of Manusmriti is that it seeks morality, fair play, and justice in every human activity. For Manu, dharma is the basis for ethics and morality. Manu describes all the modes of creation within the universal soul. The physical world is material manifestation of the ultimate universal self. The supreme self is defined as eternal, containing all created beings. The self-existent Supreme Being is material and efficient cause of the creation. As the Creator creates the material elements, the material world is considered real.

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Manu’s main aim, as a law-giver, is to provide a code of social conduct to create a specific social system. Manu thought the model society should have the four Varnas or types. Social prosperity and stability demand unity and mutual cooperation among these four types. Manu, like Plato, thought that an ideal society is a stable society. Both Manu and Plato wanted stability through classification in society with different social classes with specific function. Manu defined Dharma or ethical obligations of each class into twofold: Sadharana Dharma and Visista Dharma. The former contains the common duties of three higher castes, the duties specific to one’s particular caste and particular stage in life. Manu in (VI. 92) suggested certain virtues for the twice born; these are steadfastness (Dhairya), forgiveness (Ksama), application (Dama), non-appropriation (Chowryabhava), cleanliness (Soucha), repression of senses (Indriyani-graha), wisdom (Dhi), learning (Vidya), veracity (Satya) and restraint from anger (Akrodha). Individual perfection can be enhanced with the practice of these virtues. Wealth is needed for material comforts, but wealth should not be obtained in any way that could violate Dharma. Manu considered Dharma as individual and social duties, along with law and justice. For Manu, Dharma as justice is supreme. The King got to demonstrate impartiality in administration of law and justice and he got to submit to them. The king has to punish every offender irrespective of whether the offender is his relative or his acquaintance (VIII. 335). The law of Manu suggests different rates of interest to different castes. There should be discount for the highest caste of the Brahmins, who can barrow at the rate of three or 4% per month, while other castes can barrow at 5%, per month (VIII. 142). For a crime like theft, higher castes should receive more punishment. A Vaishya and a Kshatriya thief should pay two or four times the fine payable by a Sudra thief. If a Brahmin thief has to pay eight, or sixteen times the fine payable by a Sudra thief. If the king himself is the offender, he has to pay one thousand times the fine of a Sudra thief (VIII. 337, 338). There are two implications in these laws. The court should be independent of the king, and the seriousness of offense increases as we go upwards along the caste ladder. Reality of the world was accepted for both Vedic sacrifices and the moral situation of the society. According to Manu (1.82) Dharma for the society and for the individual can be varied in every epoch according to the criteria of the social and behavioral dharma of that epoch.

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Ethics of War in Manu There were specific laws of war to ensure human rights even in the case of war, similar to the Samurai code of conduct or the Geneva conference rules. The code of Manu asked the kings to observe these rules to ensure that the battle will be honest. The kings have obligations to treat the vanquished humanely and there are the prohibitions of poisoned weapons. The army of the King in battle should not kill one who has surrendered his arms, or the wives or children of enemy soldiers. According to Manu: persons walking on the road, not participating in the conflict, or mere travellers, or those who are engaged in eating and drinking or pursuing their special avocations or activities or diplomatic errands and of course Brahmins, unless they are engaged in war, were not to be killed.

The king who will win has the obligations to grant remissions on taxes instead of looting and destroying the property in the defeated territory. He must try to win the non-combatants of the enemy country by good behavior. He should offer an amnesty to all who have surrendered to him. Manu had derived these laws from The Rig Veda, which also has the right conduct of war. “Vedic rules maintain that it is unjust to strike someone from behind, cowardly to poison the tip of the arrow and heinous to attack the sick or old, children and women. The Ramayana describes an interesting discussion between Ravana and his brother Vibhishana about the inviolability of an ambassador. Ravana planned to kill Ambassador Hanuman, who appeared at his court on behalf of Rama. His brother Vibheeshana reminded him that if he did kill the ambassador, he would be acting against Raj Dharma (the duty of kings)” (Sinha 1998). Sinha (2005) describes a story from The Ramayana when an ultradestructive weapon became available to Lakshmana, the younger brother of Rama, which could destroy the entire enemy race, including those who could not bear arms. Rama advised Lakshmana that the weapon could not be used because such mass destruction was forbidden by the ancient laws of war, even though the enemy, Ravana, was fighting an unjust war with an unrighteous objective. A similar story is in Mahabharata when Arjuna, observing the laws of war, “refrained from using an ultra-destructive weapon in a conventional war, for when fighting was restricted to ordinary conventional weapons,

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the use of extraordinary or unconventional types was immoral, besides contravening religious tenets or the recognized laws of warfare” (Sinha 2005). The Agni Purana clearly mentions that prisoners of war should not be enslaved. Kautilya’s Arthasastra mentioned the importance of negotiations, where kings were requested, before starting to a war, to have recourse to negotiation as the means of solving conflicts between them.

The Morality in Bhagavad Gita Gita has nine commandments. These are: Absence of pride, Absence of deceit, Non-injury, Patience, Uprightness, Service to the teacher, Internal and external purity, Steadfastness, and Self-control. Gita is a part of The Mahabharata, an epic describing the war between the Kauravas and the Pandavas. The war lasted eighteen days and led to the destruction of the Kauravas. Before the war started Arjuna is burdened with severe self-doubt about what he is just about to engage in: a bloody war with his cousins over a kingdom! Lord Krishna enlightens him through the teachings that together form the Bhagavad Gita. The main intention of these teachings is to help humans, to discriminate, choose and perform actions that are moral and righteous, especially when one is going through an emotional crisis. One of the tenets of Bhagavad Gita’s philosophy is Karma Yoga that translates into “path of union through action.” It emphasizes on performing selfless actions with an attitude that is not influenced by one’s likes and dislikes. In the Bhagavad Gita, Lord Krishna says: Therefore, without being attached to the fruits of activities, one should act as a matter of duty, for by working without attachment one attains the Supreme.

The Purusharthas (Human Endeavors) The Indian ethos is the results of Hindu way of life. Indian life has four fundamental goals (Purushartthas) such as Dharma, Artha, Kama, and Moksha. To fulfill these goals, human life is divided into four stages namely Brahmacharya, Grahasthasrama, Vanaprastha, and Sanyasrama. To achieve the purusharthas, the Indian philosophy states three fundamental ways. They are Karma (Action), Bhakthi (Devotion), and Jnana

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(Knowledge). An individual can select a particular path which depends upon the degree and level of his psychological and spiritual evolutions (Passion), and his Gunas or values. A man has three Gunas namely Satva (the enlightening force), Rajas (the kinetic force), or Tamas (dark force) (Brodov 1984). Dharma takes into account every type of good conduct, covering all aspects of life, that is essential for the survivals of the person, society, and the world. It demands the need to perform one’s duty with honesty. Artha and Kama are pursuits of wealth and pleasure, respectively. Some of these pursuits for wealth creation can also be viewed as Kama because they also provide pleasure. Dharma is the basis for Artha and Kama. When a person achieves all other Purusharthas, he is qualified to attain Moksha. A similar concept was proposed by Maslow (1943). He described a “hierarchy of needs” model in which he divided human needs into “basic (physiological, safety, love, and esteem) and growth needs (cognitive, aesthetics and self-actualization)” (Maslow 1943, 1954).

Dharma as Universal Moral Principles Human beings are born with the unique mental faculty to discriminate and choose. If someone gives extreme importance to Artha and Kama, he goes away from Dharma and becomes a corrupt. It gives rise to passions of greed, desire, jealousy, and anger, which are admired by the philosophers of Capitalism. Dharma says that there is an close relationship between all creations based on some on implied laws. If these laws were ignored, then the one would get penalized through strange ways that do not seem illogical. Brahman is the foundation of the creation. In Mahabharata, there is a dialogue between Yudhisthira and Dharma disguised as a Yaksa, who asked which is the highest dharma. Yudhisthir replied: non-injury. The real meaning is a person who is human and compassionate. Ethics of Vidura of Mahabharata “The Ethics of Vidura” came from the translation into English of The Mahabharata by Kisari Mohan Ganguli (1883). Udyoga-Parva of the Mahabharata contains The Ethics of Vidura which is a dialogue between Dhritarashtra and Vidura. Vidura advised Dhritarashtra to tell his sons

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not to start a war with the Pandavas to deceive them the share of the kingdom. According to Vidura, the ideal acts of a person should be: 1. Adherence to acts, faith, and reverence are the marks of a wise man. He, who is never angry, not proud, not recourse to any vanity, is considered wise. 2. He whose proposed actions are never halted by heat or cold, fear, greed for prosperity is considered wise. 3. He, whose judgment, detached from desire and pleasure, follows virtue, is considered wise. Foolish is he, who wishes for those things that should not be desired, and who bears malice powerful people, is regarded to be foolish. The most foolish is he, who casts the blame on others, and who gives vent to anger is the most foolish of men. Verily, truth, charity, diligence, benevolence, forgiveness and patience are the six qualities that should never be forsaken by men. (Ganguli 1883).

Controls of the senses are the most important. If someone wants to overpower his enemies without controlling his senses, he will soon be overpowered by his enemy. Thus one should in the case of conflict pay attention to righteousness and morality. “Sacrifice, study, charity, asceticism, truth, forgiveness, mercy and contentment constitute the eight different paths of righteousness. The first four of these may be practiced from motives of pride, but the last four can exist only in those that are truly noble.” Sin destroys intelligence and the man who has lost intelligence commits sin. “A king, although powerful, should never consult men of small sense, men that are procrastinating, men that are indolent and men that are flatterers.” A king should renounce the seven faults; these are women, dice, hunting, drinking, harshness of speech, severity of punishment and misuse of wealth. (Ganguli 1883)

The king Dhritarashtra could not control his sons who were determined to start the war against their cousins and as a result lost his entire family and fortune.

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Ethics of Narada of Bhagavata Purana The Ethics of Narada is contained in Chapters 11–15 of the Bhagavata Purana (Thompson 2007; Gupta and Valpey 2013). This is in the nature of a dialogue between Narada and Yudhishthira, elaborated by Sri Sukadeva. The Bhagavata Purana explains the Dharma that comprises moral qualities to purify the mind. Narada gave advices to Yudhishthira in the following way: Truthfulness, mercy, asceticism, purity, endurance, power of discrimination between right and wrong, control of mind and the senses, non-violence, celibacy, charity, straight-forwardness, contentment, service unto those who regard all beings as equals, to look upon all living creatures, especially human beings, as one’s own self and as the deity, service to fellow human beings, are the characteristics for the highest Dharma. Thus, it is similar to what Bidur said to Dhritarashtra. The ethics of Vyasa is contained in Chapters 113–117 of Brahma-Purana (Söhnen and Schreiner 1989). What Vyasa describes to the sages relates to the compulsory and optional duties. Vyasa said that Good conduct should always be preserved by a householder. A clever man shall never be arrogant, proud, and harsh. “Kindness and sympathy towards all living beings, forbearance, absence of over-exertion, auspiciousness, loving and gentle speech, friendliness, absence of desire, abstention from miserliness and being devoid of jealousy are recounted as the noble characteristics of all the varnas. Neither the womb of birth, nor the consecratory rites, nor the Vedic knowledge, nor the lineage can be the cause of Brahmin-hood. Conduct is the real cause. All men are Brahmins if their conduct is pure. Even a Sudra who strictly adheres to good conduct attains to Brahmin-hood” (Söhnen and Schreiner 1989). Vyasa repeated what are there in other parts of Mahabharata.

Sages of the Medieval Period We are at great difficulty to select a few among many scholars of this period who enhanced the Aryan philosophy and ethics in India during the period after in Greek invasion of India. We can select those who were the main proponents. Indian philosophy is mainly Vedantic, where Vedanta (the end of Vedas) influenced almost all sages who came after Buddha. The origin of the Vedanta school is in Bramha-Sutra of Badrayana who

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was born in about seventh century B.C.. The main propagator of this philosophy was Gaurapada in his Mandukya Karika, which is a commentary of Mandukya Upanishad. It explains the unreality of this world where the Atma in its genuine nature is outside the limits of all perception, reasoning, definition, and expressions. Atma is uncreated, unalterable, and immaterial. The world perceived by man in his waking hours is just unreal and illusory as during sleep. Shamkara of the ninth century, founder of the non-dualist Vedanta, propagated that foundation of all the phenomena of nature and society is an absolute spiritual reality, which was designed by Brahman, who is eternal, infinite, and amorphous. The world of phenomena is just the dreams and illusions of Brahman, which are called Mayas. The Mayas are neither real nor unreal, these are likes waves to an ocean, concealing the Brahman, the cause and effects of the material world (Brodov 1984). Knowledge about the material world is of lower level of wisdom, where the higher level of wisdom which cognizes Brahman and gives us the absolute truth. Ramanujan of twelfth century thought that the entire world of materials are the manifestation of the Brahman is real, not illusions. The material world is an attribute of the Brahman. Matter is the object of consciousness. Consciousness is capable of enlightening itself, on the basis of its own existence. Reality without attributes is not cognizable and its existence cannot be proved by any mode of cognition. The concept of attributes is present even in intuition. The cause of human sufferings does not lie in the illusory world concealing Brahman but we do not demonstrate enough love and loyalty to Brahman. This is the basis of the Bhakti Movement, which propagated that God as Brahman is accessible to all irrespective of caste, origin, or even religion, as Brahman is the origin of all (Brodov 1984). Sri Chaitanya of the fourteenth century was the main follower of Ramanujan and he had popularized the Bhakti Movement in Northern India and now all over the world. According to him, Krishna as Brahman is the supreme absolute truth and the sources of all energies. Individual souls are all separated parts of the Brahman. In the sleeping state or with inadequate knowledge, these souls are under the influence of matter, but in the liberated state, these souls are free of the matter. Both the souls and the material world are with the Brahman who created these. Pure devotion and love are the only way to attain Brahman (Kapoor 1976).

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Modern Sages of India There are sages in the modern age; we have to mention them to complete the analysis of the Aryan ethics. As there are many of them we need to concentrate only to some of the most prominent of them; Ram Mohan Roy, Rabindranath Tagore, and Swami Vivekananda and try to relate their ideas to that of other philosophers. Raja Ram Mohan Roy was possibly the first Indian came to Britain. He has influenced most the great minds of the West in favor of Hinduism, which was unknown at that time in nineteenth-century Britain. Raja Ram Mohan Roy Raja Ram Mohan Roy was called “the father of Indian Renaissance in nineteenth-century India for his progressive thinking and social reforms. He is best known for his efforts to convince the British to abolish the practice of Sati, introduce a minimum age of marriage, women’s right to inheritance and women’s right to education. He was also instrumental to oppose the British policy to restrict the education only to languages. Because of his efforts education of science was introduced in India. He was also the first Indian to produce newspapers in three languages, Persian, Bengal, and English to make the people of India aware of their political rights. As a result of which his followers have organized the Congress Party. He has received the title Raja from the Mughal Emperor Bahadur Shah. In 1829, he traveled to England to meet the East India Company bosses and the British Parliament. He presented petitions to the House of Commons in support of the abolition of the suttee rite and had the satisfaction of being present in the House when the appeal against such abolition was rejected on the 11th of July 1832. He met with King William IV. He went to France in 1833 and was received by King Louis Philippe. Incidentally, the French Revolution left a lasting impact on Roy’s thought. Back from Paris to Bristol, Raja Ram Mohan died on September 27th, 1833. A decade later his mortal remains were taken to Arno’s Vales cemetery, Bristol and were buried there with a memorial built by Prince Dwarkanath Tagore. His main contribution to Hinduism was to reform to purge all perversions and distortions that were prevailing in the nineteenth-century India. In 1814, he formed the Atmiya Sabha and carried on a persistent struggle

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against the religious social evils which were widely prevalent among the Hindus. He therefore, opposed the worship of idols, the rigidity of caste, and the prevalence of meaningless religious rituals. He condemned the priestly class for encouraging these practices. His greatest contribution was his lifelong crusade against the evil practice of sati. Beginning in 1818, he set out to rouse public opinion on the question. By citing the authority of the oldest sacred books, he showed that the Hindu religion at its best was opposed to the practice; on the other hand, he appealed to the reason and humanity and compassion of the people. He visited the burning ghats at Calcutta to try to persuade the relatives of widows to give up their plan of self-immolation. He organized groups of like-minded people to keep a strict check on such performances and to prevent any attempt to force the widows to become sati. Finally, Sati was abolished by the govt. in 1829. He was also a stout champion of women’s rights. He condemned the subjugation of women and opposed the prevailing idea that women were inferior to men in intellect or in a moral sense. He attacked polygamy and the degraded state to which widows were often reduced. To raise the status of women, he demanded that they be given the right of inheritance and property. Raja Ram Mohan Roy believed that India could progress only through western education. He put forward the idea that new India, guided by reason, should acquire and treasure all that was best in the East and the West. Thus, he wanted India to learn from the west but this learning was to be an intellectual and creative process through which Indian culture and thought were to be renovated; it was not to be an imposition of western culture on India. Thus, he encouraged western education. In 1817, Ram Mohan Roy gave most enthusiastic assistance to establish Hindu College in Calcutta, which later was expanded into the first university in India. In addition, he maintained at his own cost an English school in Calcutta from 1817 in which, among other subjects, mechanics, and the philosophy of Voltaire were taught. In 1825, he established a Vedanta College in which courses both in Indian learning and in western social and physical sciences were offered. The books written by Rammohan Roy are: Vedantasara 1815, Translation of an Abridgment of the Vedant 1816, Ishopanishad 1816, Kathopanishad 1817, A Conference between an Advocate for, and an Opponent of the Practice of Burning Widows Alive

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(Bengali and English) 1818, Munduk Upanishad 1819, A Defence of Hindu Theism 1820, A Second Defence of the Monotheistical System of the Veds 1820, A Second Conference, 1820 (the case for women’s rights), The Precepts of Jesus—Guide to Peace and Happiness 1820, Sambad Kaumudi—a Bengali newspaper 1821, Mirat-ul-Akbar—Persian journal 1822, Padari Sisya Sambad (Bengali satire) 1823, Bengali Grammar 1826, Brahmapasona 1828, Brahmasangeet 1829 and The Universal Religion 1829, History of Indian Philosophy 1829. Rabindranath Tagore in a speech 1921 on Rammohun Roy said this in the opening: Ram Mohun Roy inaugurated the Modern Age in India. He was born at a time when our country having lost its link with the inmost truths of its being, struggled under a crushing load of unreason, in abject slavery to circumstance. In social usage, in politics, in the realm of religion and art, we had entered the zone of uncreative habit, of decadent tradition and ceased to exercise our humanity. In this dark gloom of India’s degeneration Ram Mohun rose up, a luminous star in the firmament of India’s history, with prophetic purity of vision and unconquerable heroism of soul. He shed radiance all over the land; he rescued us from the penury of self-oblivion. Through the dynamic power of his personality, his uncompromising freedom of the spirit, he vitalized our national being with the urgency of creative endeavor, and launched it into the arduous adventure of realization. He is the great path-maker of this century who has removed ponderous obstacles that impeded our progress at every step, initiated us into the present Era of world-wide co-operation of humanity. (Kripalani 1965)

Romain Rolland (1930) wrote about him in this way, “This gigantic personality forced his plough deep into the soil of India… a great writer in Sanskrit, Bengali, Arabic, Persian, and English, author of famous hymns, poems, discourses, philosophical and political treaties, controversial writings of all kinds of questions, he generously sowed the seeds of his thoughts and his flame”. Philosophical Ideas of Rammohan Roy According to Brodov (1984), “His philosophical views are that of an objective idealist ”. He was a follower of Vedanta of Ramanuja–Sri Chaitannya line. It is not Maya or illusion of Shankar but recognition of the beauty

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of this world. He wrote, “This world has no independent existence but receives its existence from the Supreme Being ”. Matter is eternal, uncreated, and conditioned by itself as its own cause. The Supreme Being is an overseer, watching over things and processes of the material world. All objects pertain to either, the matter or to the spirit. Each material object takes its source in universal matter under the supervision of the supreme spirit and then goes back to its source. The material cause of the world is the minutest particles, which are called Anu or atoms, which are indestructible. They arise out of nothing or they arise out of an immaterial divinity, are both logically unacceptable. These atoms must exist eternally and they take different shapes in different places at different times at God’s will, as Ram Mohan Roy wrote in his book the History of Indian Philosophy, in 1829. These ideas have their reflections in the writings of Swami Vivekananda, Sri Aurobindo Dayanand Saraswati, Tilak, and Rabindranath Tagore later. Rabindranath Tagore Rabindranath Tagore is giant in the nineteenth century and in the first half of the twentieth century contributing in every fields of culture and civilization. Here we concentrate on the philosophical and political writings of Rabindranath Tagore. Philosophy of Tagore He was much influenced by the Bhakti movement of Ramanuj-Sri Chaitannya. For Tagore, where the primary reality, the efficient and material causes come from the Brahman, the god of love. The primary basis of all has three attributes: Sat or being, chit or consciousness and Ananda or bliss. Tagore’s interpretations are more materialistic. Nature and the entire world that around us exist objectively (Sat). All the objects and the laws that govern these are knowable (Chit). Everything can and should be used for the welfare of the people (Ananda). He wrote in Personality that the world is what we perceive it to be. He wrote in Sadhana (1913) that “Things are what they are, the knowledge is one of the channels of our relation with the things outside us ”. According to Radhakrishnan (1919), Rabindranath’s philosophy of life is the ancient wisdom of India restated to meet the needs of modern times. “In India, where civilization developed in forests near to nature, there was no thought of an antagonism between man and nature, no idea

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of forcibly wresting treasures from nature. Indian mind never has any hesitation in acknowledging its kinship with nature, its unbroken relation with all ”. “Only through nature, spirit realizes itself. The earth, water, and light, fruits, flowers, were not just physical phenomena, to be turned to use and then left aside. These are necessary to her in the attainment of the ideal of perfection as every note is necessary to the completeness of the symphony”. (Tagore, Sadhana, 1913). Tagore’s conception of unity of the world gives us the assurance that ideals of science and morality are real and sustains us on the path of right untampered by the grim realities of pain and crime. It makes us realize how the spiritual forces of the world co-operate with us in our endeavors. The vision of the supreme one in our own soul is a direct and immediate intuition not based on any ratiocination or demonstration at all. (Tagore, Sadhana, 1913)

The Absolute of the organic whole consisting of different elements of matter, life, consciousness, and intellect. “Ignorance of the real nature of the world and man’s place in it chains us in the bonds of Maya or illusion. Our self is Maya, where it is merely individual and finite where it considers its separateness as absolute. It is Satyam or truth, where it recognizes its essence in the universal and infinite in the supreme self or the Paramatman.” Russian philosopher Brodov (1964) wrote about Tagore that “the tendency towards a dialectical approach to the objects of cognition affects Tagore’s understanding of the very process of cognition.” Tagore (Sadhana, 1913) wrote, “We have a series of opposites in creation … these opposites do not bring confusions in the universe, but harmony”. “Knowledge is the contact of the intellect with the surrounding world”. Apart from the truth of nature, there is a truth in our soul, attained by intuition, through joy and love. According to Tagore, there are three modes of perception of truth in life. The first mode is intellectual perception. The second mode of perception is practical activity. The third mode is emotional perception of beauty. Objective existence of nature and belief in human perceptions and logical thinking are the source of our cognition. Art ultimately is the objective source. For Tagore, the artistic images are the reflections of the external world in man’s consciousness. “In art, man reveals himself and not his objects.” Artistic activity must be stimulated by man’s aesthetic

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need and a desire for perfect beauty. According to him, “… the vision of paradise is to be seen in the sunlight and the green of the earth, in the beauty of the human face, and the wealth of human life” (Tagore 1913). Tagore’s interest in the life of man, his desire to employ his energy in the service of the Indian people conditioned the materialist trend in his creativity, according to Brodov (1964). Political Ideas of Tagore In the second phase of his life, Tagore had a close association of the peasants of India both in his landed property in East Bengal and around the university, he had established. He wrote, “As I emerged into the stark light of bare facts, the sight of the dire poverty of the Indian masses rent my heart. Rudely shaken out of my dreams, I began to realise that perhaps in no other modern state was there such hopeless dearth of the most elementary needs of existence. I could never remotely imagine that the great ideals of humanity would end up in such ruthless travesty. But today, a glaring example of it stares me in the utter and contemptuous indifference of a so-called civilized race to the well-being of crores of Indian people” (Tagore, Crisis of Civilization, 1950). In Tagore’s A Vision of India’s History (1902) and Crisis of Civilization (1950), he expressed his frank opinion about India’s past and her mission in the present and future. In Tagore’s book, Nationalism (1919), he identified nation with capitalism and imperialism. Nation, according to him, is a special organization established by a definite group of people for plundering the people both within their own country and outside it. Therefore, the Nation is the greatest evil for the Nation. He was much criticized in India for this opinion. One major political party asked for the banning of this book of Tagore without understanding what he meant. Tagore explained that although he had great respect for the British people but their government is neither British nor anything else. The nations or colonialists decided that India would stay in her mud huts and do only agriculture. “Thus, India is being turned into so many predigested morsels of food ready to be swallowed at any moment by any nation which has even the most rudimentary set of teeth in its head”. India during the British rule was systematically plagued by famine when millions of Indians died of starvation. Tagore wrote that “hungry India nourished fat England” (Tagore, Nationalism, 1919).

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Political independence is important but country’s true freedom and economic independence are more important. Tagore wrote, “if our political progress was to be real, the underdogs of our society must be helped to become men”. He has first seen that in the Soviet Union in September 1930 and wrote in Letters from Russia (Tagore 1960), “Whichever way I look I am filled with wonder. From top to bottom, they are rousing everybody up without distinction. The light of the mightiest sacrificial fire has been lit in the world’s history. I can see that they are determined to raise a new world. They have no time to lose, because the whole world is their opponent, they must prove without delay that what they want is not wrong, that it is no fraud; a decade or two is determined to prevail against a millennium. Very small is their material strength but the daring of their will power defies comparison”. It was done by the abolition of classes, which means placing all citizens on an equal footing with regard to the means of production belonging to the society as a whole. It means giving all citizens equal opportunities of working on the publicly owned means of production, on the publicly owned land, at the public owned factories (Lenin, Collected works, vol. 20, A liberal professor on equality). This is what Tagore meant by real independence. Tagore wrote, “As the mission of the rose lies in the unfoldment of the petals which implies distinctness so the rose of humanity is perfect only when the diverse races and the nations have evolved their perfected distinct characteristics but all attached to the stem of humanity by the bond of love” (Tagore, My Interpretations of Indian History, 1962). Swami Vivekananda Vivekananda traveled from one part of India to another, from one country to another to promote his idea of universal brotherhood, and to proclaim that the oppressed people of the world are the sons and daughters of the divine and must reclaim their rights. He wrote, “They have money, have kept the government of the land under their thumb, are robbing and drying up all the sap of the people, and sending them as soldiers to fight and be slain on foreign shores, so that in case of victory, their coffers may be full of gold bought by the blood of the people” (Vivekananda, Complete Works, vol. V, pp. 364–365, 1946a). He exclaimed: “Awake, arise, and stop not till the desired end is reached” (Vivekananda, Complete Works, vol. II, p. 138, 1946a).

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What is the desired end, according to Vivekananda it must be a socialist state. He called himself a Socialist. He wrote, “Everything goes to show that socialism or some form of rule by the people, is coming on boards. The people will certainly want the satisfaction of their material needs, less work, no oppression, no war, more food” (Vivekananda, On India and Her Problem, p. 39, 1946b). Ideal society, according to Vivekananda, is a combination of the knowledge of the priest (or Brahmin) period, the culture of the military (or Kshatriya) period, the distributive spirit of the commercial (Vaishya) and the ideal of equality of the Worker (Sudra) period, which has not arrived yet in India, minus their evils (Vivekananda, Complete Works, vol. VI, p. 343, 1946a). The causes of the decline of India, according to Vivekananda, are perversion of religious tyranny toward the masses, absence of proper education and instruction, underestimating the role of the women, physical and spiritual weakness and inertia (Vivekananda, On India and Her Problems, p. 20, 1946b). Down the centuries, the rulers and the dominant castes neglected the interests and the lot of the simple people and that was one of the greatest social evils. “…the great national sin is the neglect of the masses and that is one of the causes of her downfall ” (Vivekananda, On India and Her Problems, p. 23, 1946b). Without support from the lower classes, there could be no question of serious reforms. Vivekananda organized various societies all over India for educating and rousing the masses. “The weak have no place in this life or in any other life. Weakness leads to slavery. Vivekananda gave great significance to the development of the feeling of patriotism of human dignity and national pride. He gave importance to the idea of equality of all people to perform progressive historical actions. Vivekananda condemned the capitalist system; in the USA, the fight between labour and capital is constant. Highly developed production and material wellbeing cannot by themselves make men happy if their spiritual civilization is low” (Vivekananda, Complete Works, vol. IV, p. 307, 1946a). Vivekananda advocated fighting for freedom, consciously linking up the tasks of the national liberation struggle with the considerations for the condition of the popular masses. According to him, neglect of the masses is the great national sin and that was the one of the causes of the downfall of India, Men are more valuable than all the wealth of the world. Vivekananda wanted to start a broad program of action, which would take into account the interests of the entire nation and the popular masses in particular. Absence of education is the reason for the worse Karma

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of India. He created Ram Krishna Mission in 1897 for that purpose of educating the masses. Vivekananda emphasized the sense of patriotism, national pride, and human dignity. He gave importance to the idea of equality of all people and inspired confidence in the ability of the Indians to perform progressive historical actions. He wrote, “Weakness has no place here. Weakness leads to slavery. Weakness leads to all kinds of misery, physical and mental. Weakness is death” (Vivekananda, The Complete Works, vol. II, p. 4, 1946a). India in Vivekananda’s dream was a socialist India. He divided the whole of India into two parts, the rich or the upper class and the poor, or the lower class. The lower classes are the people, the masses, and future is theirs. The only hope of India comes from the masses, because the upper class is physically and morally dead. A time would come when the Sudras or the workers of the world would rise, throw off the dominance of the upper classes. Philosophy of Vivekananda Vivekananda was a radical Vedantist, and action-oriented yugi, or a Karma Yugi. He was a follower of Ramanuja and Sri Chaitannya, of Dualistic Vedanta and was opposed to non-Dualistic Vedanta of Samkara. Indian dualism has a different meaning from that of Western dualism, where two opposite substances, material and spiritual are the sources of all being. For the Indian dualists, Matter and spirit are both nature, matter is crude and spirit is fine; both are phenomena of this world. Nature is the sum total of all phenomena. Matter are the forces from outside and mind are the forces from inside us. The whole universe may be either mind or matter. Nature is homogeneous, differentiation is in manifestation. Vivekananda rejected the idea of Samkara that the world is illusion. According to Vivekananda, “…the world is the great gymnasium. To believe that mind is all, that thought is all, is only a higher materialism. The materialist admit that out of matter, all hope, and religion and everything have come, I say, all these come out of Brahman” (Vivekananda, Complete Works, vol. II, p. 138, 1946a). Brahman is the Absolute, eternal, motionless, without qualities, infinite, amorphous. Brahman is at the same time is the cause of this universe (the nature) in the objects and phenomena of nature, it becomes relative, transient, moving, finite and having form. The question is how the infinite absolute become the finite (Brodov 1984).

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The concept of the universe includes not only the material world but also the mental or spiritual one. Mind is the name of a change, and body the name of another change and all these changes compose our universe. This absolute has become the universe by coming through time, apace, and causation. The universe moves in cycles of wave-forms. It rises, reaches its zenith, then falls and remains in the hollow. It rises again. The history of human organization is also subject to this cyclic development. The individual man also goes through cycles, along with nature and society. A man is a soul and has a body. Nature is Maya or temporary phenomena, which can change. Soul is not a part of nature, as soul is immortal. Sri Aurobindo Sri Aurobindo is another progressive thinker who was a revolutionary in the first phase of his life, then he became philosopher. His major contribution was to provide a reinterpretation of the Vedas. He opposed the traditional interpretation of Sayana of fourteenth century, which was only literal. Sri Aurobindo tried to find out the psychological meaning of various aspects of the Vedas. In his book A Reinterpretation of the Vedas, Sri Aurobindo, wrote that while Vedas means knowledge, the war described in the Vedas are not real war, but the war between the Surs and Asurs regarding the possession of knowledge. While Asurs wanted to keep the knowledge only for themselves, like the modern proponents of the royalty system, Indra as the leader of the Surs fought against the Asurs and released the knowledge, which were described in the Vedas as cows, for everyone, as modern equivalent of open-source publication. Sri Aurobindo also proposed Integral Vedanta, which is a combination of three principal versions of Vedanta: unrestricted monism, restricted monism, and dualism. Sri Aurobindo recognized three interconnected forms of Brahman: the Indefinite Brahman, the Definite Brahman and Brahman as Absolute Consciousness. In the Vedanta system, matter is inorganic world, life is the organic world and consciousness is the attribute of Brahman. The Material Brahman is definite Brahman, the Spiritual Brahman is the consciousness. Aurobindo wrote, “Matter is eternal, … by Matter all beings exist and to matter all beings depart and return” (Ghosh 1947). Modern idealists like Indian ascetics, ignore matter as mechanical illusion, but matter and consciousness are connected as two aspects of a single whole, according

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to Aurobindo, who said, “God comes out of one form of things, only to enter into another” (Ghosh 1971). Brahman is Sat-Chit-Ananda, being, consciousness and bliss all combined. Being in a state of bliss, Brahman creates the phenomenal world of matter. Matter and Consciousness are always interconnected as two attributes of Brahman. “A Spiritual evolution, an evolution of consciousness in Matter is then the keynote, the central significant motive of the terrestrial existence” (The Life Divine, vol. II, p. 648, Ghosh 1947). Aurobindo emphasizes knowledge (or Vedas), as only through knowledge, man learns the true essence of the objects of the surrounding world, can rise to the level of Brahman, merging with it and attain the “Life Divine” (Brodov 1984). According to Brodov (1984), Aurobindo confirms what Engels wrote in his essay, Ludwig Feurbach and the End of Classical German Philosophy, that “…the idealist systems also filled themselves more and more with a materialist content and attempted to reconcile the antithesis between mind and matter” (Marx and Engels 1976). Aurobindo thought, society develops from the less complicated forms of aggregate states to the more complicated ones. In the twentieth century, the highest form of the aggregate state is the nation, which consolidates the people physically and politically to protect their interests. Their political freedom and economic independence are of universal significance and valid for all countries and peoples of the world. According to the law of nature, all men are equal, as the same divine fire, a part of Brahman, is burning in their hearts. In the imperfect aggregate states, which Rabindranath Tagore described as the creation of evils of nationalism in his book, Nationalism, such intolerable evils emerges as oppression, racial discrimination, lack of rights, poverty, inequality, etc. Aurobindo wrote, that the ideal law of social development consisted of individuals allowed to have free development to achieve his potential ability, and individuals must provide assistance to others to harmonize his life with the life of the social aggregate to achieve the expression of the divine in himself (Ghosh 1947). That individual consciousness develops social aggregates and the higher the quality of individual’s consciousness the more perfect will be the social aggregates like the nation. Universal triumph of rationalism will initiate the spiritual age. Spiritualized society must have a corresponding economic order, which Aurobindo characterized as socialism, all over the world, within the framework of the entire humanity, in a world-union, where the causes of the weakness and backwardness of the peoples should be eliminated. Aurobindo gave

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a comprehensive philosophical system which points to mankind the true way to attain integral living in the highest form of terrestrial life in general, but like Vivekananda he fails to say how that can be achieved in practice. Thus, like Vivekananda, Sri Aurobindo was a utopian socialist. Tilak About Bal Gangadhar Tilak, Lenin (1960) wrote in his essay “Inflamable Materials in World Politics” in 1908, when Tilak was arrested by the British and in response in a massive riot in Bombay at least 30 people were killed by the British police and hundreds injured, “In India, the streets are beginning to stand up for its writers and political leaders. The infamous sentence pronounced by the British jackals on Indian democrat Tilak… these revenges against a democrat by the lackeys of the money-bag evoked street demonstrations and a strike in Bombay. In India, the proletariats have already developed to conscious political mass struggle” (Lenin 1960). Tilak was in prison in Burma in Mandalay for six years for writing articles supporting the mass movement in Bengal in 1905 against the partition of Bengal by the British and the reprisals of the British authority in Bengal. Tilak in politics was associated with the “Garam” (hot) group of the freedom fighters, with Sri Aurobindo, Lajpat Rai, Bipin Pal, within the Congress Party, against the “Naram” (soft) group of politicians like Surendranath Banerjee, Dadabhai Naoroji, Gopal Krishna Gokhale. The “Naram” group used to only plead and request the British for more facilities, like Gandhi later, but they wanted to stay within the British Empire. However, Tilak and his friends were promoting revolution and mass movements to get rid of the British. British took violent revenge against this “Garam” group. Lajpat Rai was killed. Brother of Sri Aurobindo (then Aurobindo Ghosh), Barin Ghosh was sent to the penal island in Andaman; plans was ready for Aurobindo Ghosh or Sri Aurobindo to be sent to Andaman prison as well, before he could escape to the French colony of Pondicherry. Bipin Pal, the scholar, was turned into a bankrupt pauper and was nearly starved to death, without any help from anyone, as the British prevented anyone to help him. Tilak, the scholar was sent to a prison in Burma for many years. Empire loyalist Gokhale invited Gandhi to come back to India from South Africa, which he did in 1915 to expel all remaining supporters

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of the “Garam” group, like Ajit Singh and later Srinivas Ayenger from the Congress Party. Gandhi turned the Congress Party as the party of the Khilafats, instead of any freedom movement against the British, to support the pro-British Sultan of Turkey against the secular leader of the Turks, Kamal Ataturk, who was supported by Lenin and then the newly formed, the Soviet Union. To mislead the people of India, Gandhi called it Noncooperation movement, but it has little to do against the British. Tilak was against Gandhi, but unfortunately, Tilak died in 1920 as a long-term consequence of torture he received in prison in Burma. Tilak used to believe in Karma Yoga as propagated by Krishna in Bhagavad Gita (Chaturvedi 2010; Brown 1958), at the same time he was also a firm believer of Gyana Yoga, particularly when he was jail in Mandalay. He used that time to write a number of books; Gita Rahasya, and Arctic Home of the Vedas, are famous. In Chapter 2, we have discussed in detail Tilak’s argument in favor of Arctic origin of the Aryans. Both Tilak and Sri Aurobindo rejected Gandhi’s idea of non-violence, as according to them non-violence by itself has no absolute value. Gandhi was a hypocritical person who advocated non-violence, but also asked Indians to join the British army in the First World War to demonstrate their loyalty to the oppressive British Empire. Tilak argued, “Did Sivaji commit a sin in killing Afzal Khan or not?. The answer can be found in the Mahabharat itself. Srimat Krishna’s advice in the Gita is to kill even our own teachers and our kinsmen. No blame attaches to any person if he is doing deeds without being actuated by a desire to reap the fruits of his deeds ” (Tilak 1918/1956; Brodov 1984). Afzal Khan was Muslim commander of the Mughal army in India. Tilak argued that the Muslims were not invited to come to India, but violently occupied India; it is just to apply any violent means to expel them. That reflects the argument of Aurobindo Ghosh also, “The choice by a subject nation of the means it will use for vindicating its liberty is best determined by the circumstances of its servitude” (Sri Aurobindo 1965). Tilak wrote, “We all are striving to gain our lost independence, and this terrible load is to be uplifted by us all in combination. It will never be proper to place obstacles in the way of any person, who, with a true mind, follows the path of uplifting this burden in the manner he deems fit ” (Tilak 1918/1956). Tilak was imprisoned by the British for writing these; Sri Aurobindo was protected by the French.

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Philosophy of Tilak Tilak was convinced that Bhagavad Gita was essentially a text that preached Karma-Yoga (Brodov 1984; Mishra 2019). Gita was on the question of act or renounce. There is no conflict between the way of knowledge and the way of action. Gita explained the right attitude, right action, the most perfect condition of the “self”, the highest ideal of any human being. The conversation between Krishna and Arjuna was mainly about right action on the impending war described in the Mahabharata. Krishna stimulated Arjuna to perform his duties, without expecting the fruits of his action, which is the essence of Karma-Yoga. In Chapter 2 of Gita, Tilak mentioned, Krishna advised Arjuna to perform action, having become a yogi and in Chapter 3 of Gita, Krishna said, yogis are persons who perform actions. The duty of a Kshatriya is to protect the world from injustice. Tilak was in complete agreement with Sri Aurobindo that the passive method of Gandhi is only suitable to countries, where the government depends on the voluntary support of the people to main the administration; that was not the situation in India under the British rule imposed upon India violently (Danino 2000). There are many other modern sages in India we have not mentioned in this book. Dayananda Saraswati and Ramakrishna were most prominent of them. Their duty was to reform India through religion. They preached equality of all human beings on a spiritual plane. Oppressed and downtrodden Indians are just as good humans as all men on earth and their struggle for freedom and independence is their natural right.

Comments Aryan ideals tried to create a universal world of ethics and morality by creating a very comprehensive philosophical system and an integral sociology. That would direct the mankind toward integral living, the highest form of terrestrial life in general. The efficient and personal cause of all that exist is the God, Brahman, the god of mercy and love with the attributes of Sat (being), Chit (consciousness) and Ananda (bliss). Brahman’s main quality is love and the power of joy to denote the power of knowledge. The nature and the entire world of objects and phenomena that surround us exist objectively (Sat); all the objects and phenomena of nature and laws by which their existence is governed are knowable (Chit); everything that has been cognized can and should be used for the interest

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of the people (Ananda). The phenomena of the nature, we may call these as “Mayas” (illusions are the wrong translation of a word in Sanskrit, which cannot be translated properly), have mutability, fluctuations, and contradictions, but these opposites do not bring confusion but harmony. The tendency toward a dialectical approach to the objects of cognition affects our understanding of the very process of cognition. The process of cognition is a reflection of the world in human sense organs. Knowledge is the contact of the intellect with the surrounding world. Perception is the channel through which we obtain knowledge of nature and achieve the truth. The beautiful is the complete correspondence of human being’s ideals with reality. A happy and beautiful life can be built of earth through the efforts of the people. The Aryan heaven was described by no other than Rabindranath Tagore (1953) when he wrote: Where the mind is without fear and the head is held high. Where the world has not been broken up into fragments by narrow domestic walls. Where words come out from the depth of truth. Where tireless striving stretches its arms towards perfection. Where the clear stream of reason has not lost its way into the dreary desert sand of dead habit. Where the mind is led forward by thee into ever- widening thought and action. God take my country, Into that heaven of freedom.

Appendix N¯ arada Bhakti Sutra It has five commandments. The N¯arada Bhakti S¯utra 78 declares five principles to practice. 1. Nonviolence 2. Truthfulness 3. Cleanliness 4. Compassion 5. Faith

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R . ig Veda It has 5 commandments: Ahinsa—non-injury ˙ Brahmacharya—non-fornication Asteya—non-stealing Satya—non-lying Aparigraha—non-possessiveness The following excerpt from the R.ig Veda sums up the Pancha-vrata: Violence, womanizing, drinking liquor, gambling, stealing, falsehood or lying and association with those who commit these sins; one who commits any of these sins is a sinner.

Y¯ ajñavalkya Smrti It has 5 commandments. Sage Y¯ajña-valkya was a sage (r.is.i) in the Vedic age and mentor of R¯aj¯a Janaka. The Y¯ajña-valkya Smr.ti prescribes the Pancha-vrata, apart from other moral codes.[ Yoga Sutra It has 9 commandments. Patanjali in his Yoga Sutras lists them to follow for a good or sinless livelihood. 1. Ahins¯ ˙ a: Nonviolence. Abstinence from injury that arises out of love for all, harmlessness, the not causing of pain to any living creature in thought, word, or deed at any time. This and Satya are the “main” yama. The other eight are there in support of its accomplishment. 2. Satya: Truthfulness, word and thought in conformity with the facts, honesty. 3. Asteya: Non-stealing, non-coveting, non-entering into debt. 4. Brahmacharya: Being constantly aware of the universe, immersed in divinity, divine conduct, continence, celibate when single, faithfulness when married. 5. Ks.ama: Patience, releasing time, functioning in the now.

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6. Dr.ti: Steadfastness, overcoming non-perseverance, fear, and indecision; seeing each task through to completion. 7. Day¯a: Compassion; conquering callous, cruel and insensitive feelings toward all beings. ¯ 8. Arjava: Honesty, straightforwardness, renouncing deception and wrongdoing. 9. Mithara: Moderate appetite, neither eating too much nor too little; nor consuming meat, fish, shellfish, fowl or eggs. ´ 10. Saucha: Purity, avoidance of impurity in body, mind and speech ´ andilya Upanis.ad S¯ ´ andilya Upanis.ad is the 62nd Upanis.ad and It has 10 commandments. S¯ it declares 10 yamas. 1. Ahins¯ ˙ a—Non-violence 2. Satya—Truth 3. Asteya—Non-stealing 4. Brahmacharya—Celibacy 5. Day¯a—Compassion ¯ 6. Arjava—Equanimity 7. Ks.am¯a—Forgiveness 8. Dhr.ti—Firmness of mind 9. Mit¯ah¯ara—Vegetarianism and non-wasting of food 10. Sancha Veda Vy¯ asa ´ Devî Bh¯agavatam, It has 6 commandments. In the Mah¯a Pur¯an.am Srimad Veda Vy¯asa writes of achieving yoga or union with God by destroying the six enemies of yoga; 1. Lust 2. Anger 3. Greed 4. Ignorance 5. Vanity 6. Jealousy

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Maharishi Gautama It has 8 commandments. Mahar.s.i Gautama was a lawgiver, and ascribed eight yamas. 1. D¯ay¯a sarvabhuteshu: Kindness, compassion, pity and sympathy towards every living being. 2. Ks.am¯a: Forgiveness. 3. Anusuy¯a, anirmatsarata: No jealousy. ´ 4. Sauch, antar-b¯ahya-´suchirbhutata: Purity, the state of being pure from outside and inside. 5. An¯ay¯asa: Not to indulge in petty and meaningless things. 6. Mangala: To think, wish and work for bliss, well-being and prosperity of all. 7. Akarpanya: Neither to be nor to show weakness and miserliness. 8. Aspr.ha: Neither list nor wish to possess whatever belonged to others. Srimad Bhagavatam ´ Bh¯agavatam lays down the It has 30 commandments. The Srimad following customs to be practiced for a good human life. 1. Truthfulness 2. Mercy 3. Austerity 4. Bathing twice a day 5. Tolerance 6. Discrimination between right and wrong 7. Control of the mind 8. Control of the senses 9. Nonviolence 10. Celibacy 11. Charity 12. Reading of scripture 13. Simplicity 14. Satisfaction 15. Rendering service to saintly persons 16. Gradually taking leave of unnecessary engagements 17. Observing the futility of the unnecessary activities of human society

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18. Remaining silent and grave and avoiding unnecessary talk 19. Considering whether one is the body or the soul 20. Distributing food equally to all living entities[18] 21. Seeing every soul as a part of the Supreme Lord 22. Hearing about the activities and instructions given by the Supreme Personality of Godhead[20] 23. Chanting about these activities and instructions 24. Always remembering these activities and instructions 25. Trying to render service 26. Performing worship 27. Offering obeisance 28. Becoming a servant 29. Becoming a friend 30. Surrendering one’s whole self N¯ arada Bhakti Sutra It has 5 commandments. Nonviolence Truthfulness Cleanliness Compassion Faith

References Adi Granth. 1985. Translated by Ernest Trumpp. New Delhi: Motilal Benarasidas. Bhagwad Gita. 1983. Translated by Juan Mascaro. New York: Viking Press. Brodov, M. 1964. Indian Philosophy in Modern Times. Moscow: Progress Publisher. Brodov, V. 1984. Indian Philosophy in Modern Times. Moscow: Progress Publishers. Brown, M. 1958. The Philosophy of Bal Gangadhar Tilak. Journal of Asian Studies 17 (2): 197–206.

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Chaturvedi, V. 2010. Rethinking Knowledge with Action: VD Savarkar, The Bhagwat Gita, and Histories of Warfare. Modern Intellectual History 7 (2): 417–435. Cicero, Marcus Tullius. 1933. The Nature of the Gods, trans. H. Rackham. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Danino, M. 2000. Sri Aurobindo and the Gita. https://www.bharatvani.org/ michel_danino/gita_lecture01.html. Dharmapada. 2006. Translated by Gil Fonsdal. Seattle: Washington State University Press. Dutt, R.C. 1890/2002. A History of Civilizations in Ancient India. New Delhi: Cosmo Publications Einstein, Albert. 1948. A Reply to Soviet Scientists. Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists 4 (2): 35–38. Ghosh Arabindo. 1947. The Life Divine, vol. 1. Calcutta: Arya Publishing House. Ghosh Aurobindo. 1965. On Nationalism: Selected Writings and Speeches. Pondicherry: Sri Aurobindo Ashram. Ghosh Arabindo. 1971. The Human Cycle in Selected Works, vol. 15. Pondicherry: All India Press. Gupta, R., and K. Valpey. 2013. The Bhagavata Purana: Sacred Text and Living Tradition. New York: Columbia University Press. Kapoor, O.B.L. 1976. The Philosophy and Religion of Sri Chaitanya. New Delhi: Munshiram Manoharlal. Koran. 2008. Translated by Abdel Haleem. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Kripalani, K. 1965. Modern India, Rammohun Roy to Rabindranath Tagore. Poona: University of Poona. Lenin, V.I. 1960. Collected Works. Moscow: Progress Publishers. Macdonell, A.A. 1912. Vedic Index of Names and Subjects, vol. II. London: John Murray & Co. Mahabharata. 1884. Translated by K.M. Ganguli. Calcutta: Bharata Press Manusmriti. 1920. Translated by G. Jha. New Delhi: Motilal Banarasidass. Marx, K. 1844/1976. Introduction to a Contribution to the Critique of Hegel’s Philosophy of Right. In The Collected Works, vol. 5, Deutsch-Französische Jahrbücher. Moscow: Progress Publisher. Marx, K., and F. Engels. 1976. Collected Works, vol. 3. Moscow: Progress Publisher. Max Muller. 1873a/2020. Hymns of Atharva Veda. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Max Muller. 1873b/2020. Hymns of Yajur Veda. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Maslow, A. 1943. A Theory of Human Motivation. Psychological Review 50: 370–396. Maslow, A. 1954. Motivation and Personality. New York: Harper.

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Mazumdar, A.K. 1917/2008. The Hindu History. New Delhi: Rupa. Mill, J.S. 1863. Utilitarianism. London: Parker, Son and Bourn. Mishra, Kavita. 2019. Tilak and Karmayoga. https://drkavitasharma.org. Nakamura, H. 1950. A History of Early Ved¯ anta Philosophy. New Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass. Radhakrishnan, S. 1919. Philosophy of Rabindranath Tagore. London: Macmillan. Rig Veda. 1992. Translation from Sanskrit by Ralph Griffith. New Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass. Rolland, Romain. 1930/1944. La Vie de Vivekananda el L’Evangile Universel. Calcutta: Vedanta Press. Sinha, D.M. 1998. Ramayana and Modernity. New Delhi: Sterling Publishers. Sinha, M.J. 2005. Hinduism and International Humanitarian Law. International Review of the Red Cross 87 (858): 285–294. Söhnen, R., and P. Schreiner. 1989. Brahma-Pur¯ an.a. Berlin: Otto Harrassowitz Verlag. Sri Aurobindo. 1947. The Life Divine, vol. 1. Calcutta: Arya Publishing House. Sri Aurobindo. 1971. The Human Cycle in Selected Works, vol. 15. Pondicherry: All India Press. Sri Aurobindo. 1965. On Nationalism: Selected Writings and Speeches. Pondicherry: Sri Aurobindo Ashram. Sutra Kritanga. 1968. Translated by Jacobi Hermann. New York: Dover Publications. Tagore, Rabindranath. 1913. Sadhana, the Realisation of Life. London: Macmillan. Tagore, Rabindranath. 1919. Nationalism. London: Macmillan. Tagore, Rabindranath. 1950. Crisis of Civilization. Santineketan: Vishwa Bharati. Tagore, Rabindranath. 1953. Gitanjali. London: Macmillan. Tagore, Rabindranath. 1960. Letters from Russia. Santineketan: Vishwa Bharati. Tagore, Rabindranath. 1961. Complete Works of Rabindranath in Bengali. Calcutta: West Bengal Government. Tagore, Rabindranath. 1962. My Interpretations of Indian History. Santineketan: Vishwa Bharati. Thompson, R.L. 2007. The Cosmology of the Bhagavata Purana. New Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass. Tilak, B.G. 1918/1956. Report of S.A.T. Rawlatt. In Lokmanya Tilak: A Biography, Ram Gopal. Bombay: Asia Publishing House. Uttara Dhyayana Sutra. 2003. Translated by Hermann Jacobi. New Delhi: Satguru Publishers. Vivekananda. 1946a. Complete Works, vols. I–VIII. Calcutta: Vedanta Publishers. Vivekananda. 1946b. On India and Her Problems. Calcutta: Advaitya Ashrama.

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From the Internet https://news.bbc.co.uk/hi/english/world/south_asia/newsid_1763000/176 3950.stm. Ganguli, K.M. 1883. The Mahabharata of Krishna-Dwaipayana Vyasa. https:// www.sacred-texts.com/hin/maha/index.htm. Swami Chidananda. 2002. Monotheism and Polytheism Reconciled. www.dis hq.org.

CHAPTER 4

Ethics of Kautilya

The Arthashastra (Rangarajan 1987) is an ancient Indian treatise on statecraft, economic policy and military strategy, written in Sanskrit, by Kautilya, also identified as Vishnugupta and Chanakya. He was a professor at Takshashila University, and the guardian of Emperor Chandragupta Maurya. Chandragupta came to the throne in 321 B.C., the date of composition of this work was about the same time. The Arthashastra has 150 chapters, which were reclassified by topic in 15 books. Kautilya also completed two other works: Chanakya-Sutras(Rules of Science) and Chanakya-Rajanitisastra (Science of Government Policies). What relates to human conduct in society is called ethics. The term ethics or ethic means a pattern or norm or code of conduct adopted by a group of people. Kautilya is primarily concerned with the practical administration of the state by its ruler, in all its facets, in Arthashastra (Sivakumar and Rao 1996). Whatever codes of conduct he deliberates for individual members of the society constituting the state are to sub-serve the interests of the state. The Arthashastra is a text of political science and is primarily concerned with the society and its organization (Shoham and Liebig 2016). The fundamental policy of Kautilya was: In the happiness of his subjects lies King’s happiness; in their welfare is his welfare. The king shall not consider as good only that which pleases him but treat as beneficial to him whatever pleases his subjects.

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 D. Basu and V. Miroshnik, Ethics, Morality and Business: The Development of Modern Economic Systems, Volume I, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-71493-2_4

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Arthashastra in the context of ethics is what existed in the society at the time of its compilation, with the practical advice of the author to the king and the officers of the state to manipulate the codes of human conduct primarily to sub-serve the interests of the state (Kumar 2005). The Sastra lays down for each individual, to whichever varna and asrama he may belong, the duties of ahimsa (refraining from injury), satya (truthfulness), sauca (purity), anasuya (freedom from malice), anrsamsya (compassion) and kshama (forgiveness). These ideals of conduct are meant for individuals. The Sastra regards them as obligatory, though the conduct of public life shall not be guided by rules of individual morality (Olivelle 2004, 2013; Mill 1848/1999). The Sastra lays down that the ruler is required to safe-guard the social order based on the varna and the asrama system. This order is believed to have been prescribed in the Veda and, as such, divinely ordained. The state had no role in its creation. Thus, it does not have any role to try to modify it. The duty of the state is only to preserve this order and not to allow it to be disturbed in any way (McClish 2009, 2014). According to Kautilya, the major underlying factor for resorting to aggressive and creative accounting (which he calls “false accounting”) is excessive greed, and he attempted to contain it through moral persuasion and legal means. Regarding compliance, he proposed at least three conditions. First, he believed that citizens (including government officials) have to be informed of the laws. With that in mind, he modified, extended, and above all, codified the existing rules and regulations. Second, he proposed an organizational structure that reduces the scope for conflicts of interest. Third, he suggested comprehensive schemes of rewards and punishments to increase compliance (Sihag 2004). He advanced the hypothesis that the pursuit of productive activities was the key to stabilization of the current income and its rapid growth in the future (Schlingloff 1967; Sen and Basu 2006).

Kautilya on the Factors Relevant to Creating Wealth Kautilya [p. 255 of Rangarajan’s translation of Arthashashtra] stated: The following are the means of increasing the wealth of the State: ensuring the prosperity of state activities; continuing well-tried policies; eliminating theft; keeping strict control over government employees, increasing agricultural production; promoting trade; avoiding troubles and calamities;

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reducing exemptions and remissions and increasing cash income [2.8.3 sloka in Arthashashtra]. Obstruction, misuse of government property and false accounting by government servants lead to a reduction of wealth [2.8.4]. With no distraction, the people will be fully involved in the work in the fields and there will be an increase in the supply of labor, money, commodities, grain, and liquids to the treasury [2.1.33–35]. He added, “Calamities to the treasury can be any internal or external action which has the effect of reducing the revenue. Financial health can be affected by misappropriation by chiefs, remission of taxes, scattered collection, false accounting and looting by enemies and tribes before the revenue reaches the Treasury” [8.4.49].

Fiscal Policy of Kautilya Kautilya recommended a mixed economy and argued for a very active role by the government. He explored ethically possible avenues to maximize the level of wealth in the public sector. He was aware of the limits placed on governments to raise revenue through taxation. He confessed the taxation is the main source of revenue. The power of taxing of the state is boundless but taxation should not be excessive. He supported that tax base should be increased not the tax rate. He commented the excessive burden of tax on people. Kautilya stated that “King must collect taxes like honey bee, enough to sustain but not too much to destroy.” He highlights fairness, stability of tax structure, fiscal federalism, avoidance of heavy taxation, ensuring of tax compliance and subsidies to encourage capital formation. He advocated limiting the taxation power of the State, having low rates of taxation, maintaining a gradual increase in taxation and most importantly devising a tax structure that ensured compliance many postulates of Kautilya’s philosophy of political economy are applicable to modern times (Seth 2015). Preferably, the government should collect taxes and do welfare of people. Kautilya’s system of taxation involved the elements of sacrifice by the taxpayer, direct benefit to the taxpayers, redistribution of income, and tax incentives for desired investments (Smith 1776/1998). He suggested tax holiday as an incentive, which means if any one brings new land under cultivation, he should be relieved from agricultural tax for at least two years. He advocates a mixed economy and argued for

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a very active role of government. His conversation on taxation gave an idea of three principles that include, taxation power is limited, taxation should not be heavy and excessive and tax increase should be reasonable. He recommended a system of tax collection and public expenditure of revenue in such a way as to build up the permanent revenue yielding capacity of the economy. He stated that tax base should be increased not the tax rate (Sihag 2004). He encouraged indirect taxes such as excise and custom duties and direct taxes as income tax on individuals, wealth tax, and profession tax. He also promoted land revenue, water tax and toll, fine and penalties. According to him, tax receipts can be divided into three parts; income earned through taxes on goods produced within a country, income earned through taxes on goods produced in the capital and income earned through taxes on imports and exports. He supported that wealthy people should pay higher tax according to their paying capacity (McClish 2014). In this way, he considers the ability to pay approach. Tax should be levied one in a year. Kautilya supported that most of the revenue generated from taxation should be spent on creative activities and public welfare. He argued different items where state should incur expenditure such as on national defense, public administration and salaries of the ministers, government departments, maintenance of national store house and granaries, maintenance of armies and on the acquisition of valuable gems, stones, and ornaments and whatever was left should be deposited to the treasury (Sivakumar and Rao 1996). Kautilya emphasized heavily the financial health of the state and understood that a sound treasury was a prerequisite to accomplishing other goals. He [p. 253] stated, “All state activities depend first on the Treasury. Therefore, a King shall devote his best attention to it. A King with a depleted Treasury eats into the very vitality of the citizens and the country [2.8.12].” In fact, according to Kautilya [p. 147], a King should begin his day by receiving “reports on defense, revenue and expenditure.” He [p. 145] added “Artha (sound economics) is the most important; for, dharma and kama are both dependent on it [1.7].” He [p. 255] continued, “If receipts and expenditure are properly looked after, the King will not find himself in financial difficulties [5.3.45].” According to Kautilya, therefore, a king must carefully manage the financial affairs of the state. He [p. 426] suggested an interest rate of 120% and 240% on

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commercial loans involving highly risky travel through forests and by sea respectively [3.11]. Kautilya [p. 120] stated, “A councilor or minister of the highest rank should be a native of the state, born in a high family and controllable [by the king]. He should have been trained in all the arts and have logical ability to foresee things. He should be intelligent, persevering, dexterous, eloquent, energetic, bold, brave, and able to endure adversities and firm in loyalty. He should neither be haughty nor fickle. He should be amicable and not excite hatred or enmity in others [1.9].” The Chief Controller of State Trading shall ascertain the profitability of a trading operation with a foreign country. He shall, in general, trade with such foreign countries as will generate a profit; he shall avoid unprofitable areas [2.16]. Kautilya prescribed that each public enterprise be required to generate a maximum amount of profit without crossing ethical bounds. Therefore, accurate measurement of the economic performance of a public enterprise and the elimination of opportunities for misappropriation of public funds by government employees was deemed critical. The Comptroller-Auditor, who was ultimately responsible for financial matters, was required to be knowledgeable, efficient, and incorruptible. He proposed the establishment of two very important offices to monitor and manage the financial health of the state: the positions of Treasurer and Chief ComptrollerAuditor. Both were to be very well paid, and in turn, they were to be incorruptible and efficient. The Treasurer was responsible for managing assets while the Comptroller-Auditor handled: the construction and maintenance of the Records Office, maintenance of Records, compilation of rules, inspection, audit, and preparing and presenting financial reports to the king. He recommended an income tax on agricultural income and a kind of occupational tax on non-agricultural income to deny opportunities for income-shifting to merchants. His analysis, of course, was implicit, not explicit; it rested upon the assumption that individual behavior could be controlled in large measure through economic rewards and penalties, particularly when these were commensurate with the action to be encouraged or discouraged. Arthashastra stipulates restraint on taxes imposed, fairness, the amounts and how tax increases should is implemented. The text suggests that the tax should be “convenient to pay, easy to calculate, inexpensive to administer, equitable and non-distortive, and not inhibit growth. Fair

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taxes build popular support for the king, state the text. Some manufacturers and artisans, such as those of textiles, were subject to a flat tax. The Arthashastra states that taxes should only be collected from ripened economic activity, and should not be collected from early, unripe stages of economic activity.” Spengler (1971) noted that Kautilya’s discussion of taxation and expenditure gave expression to three Indian principles: taxing power [of state] is limited; taxation should not be felt to be heavy or exclusive [discriminatory]; tax increases should be graduated. Agriculture on privately owned land was taxed at the rate of 16.67%, but the tax was exempted in cases of famine, epidemic, and settlement into new pastures previously uncultivated and if damaged during a war. New public projects such as irrigation and waterworks were exempt from taxes for five years, and major renovations to ruined or abandoned waterworks were granted tax exemption for four years. Temple and Gurukul (lands belonged to the teachers) lands were exempt from taxes, fines, or penalties. Trade in and outside the kingdom’s borders was subject to toll fees or duties. Taxes varied between 10 and 25% on industrialists and businessmen, and it could be paid in kind (produce), through labor, or in cash.

Kautilya on the Role of Ethics According to Kautilya, “Righteousness is the root of happiness. Greed clouds the intellect. Another’s wealth, even if it be husk, should not be stolen”. He [p. 107] described the basic ethical (dharmic) values as follows: “Duties common to all: Ahimsa [abstaining from injury to all living creatures]; satyam [truthfulness]; cleanliness; freedom from malice; compassion and tolerance [1.3.13].” He wrote: “Proper behavior is more important than being virtuous.” He stated [p. 142] a prince “should learn philosophy and the three Vedas from authoritative teachers, economics from the heads of [various government] departments, and the science of government from [not only] theoretical exponents of political science [but also] from practicing politicians.” Kautilya emphasized the creation of an ethical climate in the state and also suggested various measures to enhance it. He argued that

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bureaucratic organizations were necessary since nothing can be accomplished without them but was very apprehensive about the potential for corruption and the difficulty of detecting such practices. According to Kautilya, an official who causes loss may be arrogant “about his learning, his wealth or the support he gets from highly placed persons ” [2.7.10]. The phrase “support he gets from highly placed persons” implies the potential for abuse from undue access to high officials. Similarly, an official may be greedy, “which prompts him to use false balances, weights or measures, or to make false assessments and calculations ” [2.7.10]. Kautilya insisted on character references before a person was hired. According to Kautilya, a king should uphold the highest ethical standards and rule through his leadership and not by his authority. Selfcontrol is the first step for a leader. Kautilya, for instance, advises the king as follows: “Restraint of the organs of sense on which success in study and discipline depends, can be enforced by abandoning lust, anger, greed, vanity…whosoever is of the reverse character…will soon perish, though possessed of the whole world bounded by the four Quarters ”. Among the other recommendations proposed were measures covering the laws against sexual harassment, child labor, and the establishment of an ethical code of conduct. Kautilya also attaches great importance to human rights on how the invaded ruler and his ministers should be treated. He shows a deep understanding of criminal justice and justice of war. Surprisingly, for a harsh and realist man like Kautilya he shows mercy toward the people defeated in a war and recommends humanity and justice toward them. He thought that this is important to preserve the mandala structure of war and peace. He advocated that defeated king shall be treated with respect and he should be made an ally. He thinks that the key people advising the defeated king should be eliminated through a silent war. He thinks that justice is an important constituent of sovereignty and it needs to be preserved by the State and the ultimate responsibility lies with the King. He proposed the mandala concept in war and diplomacy and created intricate web of relations. The Mandala concept is one in which there are circles of friends and foes with the central point being the King and his State (Budac 2015). The six types of foreign policy that he advocates are

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1. Sandhi: This means accommodation, which means that kings seek to accommodate the each other and does not resolve to hostile means. These Sandhis could be temporary or permanent and it depends on the environment and relative power. 2. Vigraha: This means hostility shown to neighbor or a state. Kautilya strongly believed that the states are always at war and seek power; hence it is necessary to have hostile foreign policy toward a few states which are either equal in power or subordinate in power. 3. Asana: This means indifference and he chooses this policy for states which are neutral in his mandala concept of nations. He also believes that an indifferent foreign policy works well in the case of kings with equal powers. Sandhi in his view could be of five types: Mitrasandhi: With an ally on definite terms, Hiranyasandhi: Agreement based on transfer of wealth, Bhoomisandhi: Agreement based on transfer of land or territory, Karmasandhi: Agreement for exchange of military, and Anavasitasandhi: Agreement to help colonize an unoccupied place. Vigraha means hostility shown to neighbor or a state. Kautilya strongly believed that the states are always at war and seek power hence it is necessary to have hostile foreign policy toward few states which are either equal in power or subordinate in power. Asana means indifference and he chooses this policy for states, which are neutral in his mandala concept of nations. He also believes that an indifferent foreign policy works well in the case of equal power. Dvaidhibhava means double policy, which was very well practiced by Bismarck. Kautilya advocates this foreign policy for states, which are superior militarily. Kissinger followed this strategy where he made alliance with China. The purpose was to create a division between Russia and China. Kautilya advocated the same concept within his Mandala framework. Samsarya: This policy of protection is followed where a stronger state intervenes and shelters a weak state. Kautilya advocates this policy when a stronger state needs a shield to protect itself from an equal power it is good to use this policy of protection for a third state and use this alliance to defend against the potential enemy.

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Yana: This policy is to attack. Kautilya does mention that peace and stability in a state make the state even powerful but never shies away from attacking the weak and unjust king. Kautilya’s Arthashastra explicates three types of conquests, which any conqueror could undertake: Dharmavijay (a just conquest); Lobhavijay (conquest of greed); and Asuravijay (conquest as a demon). Dharamvijay means a righteous method of warfare where diplomacy and conciliation were pressed into service to avoid actual fighting as far as possible. The example is given in Book Seven, Chapter Five, Section 108 which is on “Regarding an Attack on a Vulnerable King and the (natural) Enemy.” Kautilya suggests in 7.5.14–15: Impoverished and greedy subjects, when devoted to their master, remain steadfast in what is beneficial to the master or make the instigations futile, on the principle, Where there is love, all qualities are present. Hence he should march only against one with rebellious subjects.

Then at 7.5.16–18, he states: (When the choice is) between a strong king unjustly behaved and a weak king justly behaved, he should march against the strong king unjustly behaved. The subjects do not help the strong unjust king when he is attacked. They drive him out or resort to his enemy. However, the subjects support in every way the weak but just king when he is attacked or follow him if he has to flee.

“Where there is love, all qualities are present” (7.5.14) and “devotion” to the king even when there is impoverishment, has an important contribution in the Indian tradition. This is the reverse of what Machiavelli may have to say: that to gain and hold power, it is better to be feared than loved. In causes leading to

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“Decline, Greed and Disaffection among the Subjects,” Verses (7.5.19– 26) of Arthashastra list a set of wrong policies which if the king follows lead to dissatisfaction and rebellion among the subjects. It is a list for the causes of poverty, greed and disloyalty. Here, when the king is mostly discarding good and fair governance for evil ways, or where Dharma is not followed by a king who is not just. It is in such situations that the Arthashastra gives a crucial warning, followed by strong moral policy advice to the leader. In 7.5.27, subjects, when impoverished, become greedy; when greedy, they become disaffected; when disaffected, they either go over to enemy or themselves kill the master. In 7.5.28, therefore, he should not allow these situations to cause decline, greed and disaffection among the subjects to arise, or, he should immediately counter-act them. In Book Seven, Chapter 13, Section 117 the high values placed on the righteousness of a king who is justly behaved in Kautilya’s Arthashastra. Righteous is also Dharma or a principle of morals and ethics. In Kautilya’s Arthashastra, it is clearly mentioned that in capturing a fort, the conqueror should grant safety to the people. Those, who have to be removed from the place, where fighting may take place, should be settled elsewhere and helped in every way. Further, in book thirteen, under Chapter 5, Section 176, there are the rules on pacification of the conquered territory. Sutra 13.5.3, for example, states: “After gaining new territory, he should cover enemy’s fault with his own virtues, his virtues with double virtues.” Further, sutra 4 continues: “He should carry out what is agreeable and beneficial to the subjects by doing his own duty as laid down, granting favours, giving exemptions, making gifts and showing honour”. Moreover, in sutras 13.5.7–8, the king is given the following advice for the just and sensible treatment of the vanquished: “He should adopt a similar character, dress, language and behaviour as the subjects. And he should show the same devotion in festivals in honour of deities of the country, festive gathering and sportive amusements ”.

Kautilya and Ethics of War Kautilya advocated the humanitarian treatment of conquered soldiers and citizens. In particular, he maintained that a humanitarian policy toward a defeated people was practical, pointing out that if a king massacres those

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whom he has defeated, he frightens all the kingdoms that surround him and terrifies even his own ministers, whereas more land and loyal subjects can be gained if the defeated are treated magnanimously (Sinha 2005). Kautilya advised that the conquering king should order the release of all prisoners and give help to the distressed, the helpless, and the sick. He thus called for the establishment of a righteous course of conduct for sound military policy. In taking this stance, Kautilya was following the traditional advice given in the Dharma Sastras that Aryans condemn the killing of those who have thrown down their weapons, who have disheveled hair, who fold their hands in supplication, or who are fleeing. He states that the just conqueror is satisfied with the obeisance of the defeated ruler. Kautilya also held that the fundamental rule about immoveable property was that it did not belong to the victor by right; only such things as chariots, animals, and war material belonged to the conquering forces. The king should personally examine all such captured wealth and should then keep a part for himself and distribute the rest among his armed forces according to rank. A conquering king should reassure a defeated people, that not much has changed except their rulers. He should honor the local deities and make grants of land and money to men distinguished in wisdom and piety. The conquering king should show his goodwill toward the defeated by instituting a righteous custom that had not previously been introduced. Kautilya commented that “one must kill a dangerous person; however, the king must leave his property untouched and shall not appropriate the land, property, sons or wives of the killed one.” The laws of war in ancient India with regard to occupied territory were more humane and broader than those of international humanitarian law today (Boesche 2003; Brekke 2009).

Kautilya and Plato Kautilya and Plato have many similarities in terms of social structure, belief in autocracy, emphasis on virtues of honesty and favoring the elitist in the society. Kautilya endorsed caste structure and approved of lower caste doing menial jobs while Plato strongly favored slavery. But both men never discuss slavery in detail nor do they justify it as an institution. Plato and Kautilya both thought the state should be governed by the learned and elites while despising the idea of democracy. They thought

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democracy would result in anarchy. Plato and Kautilya liked the idea of a military class and thought that the rulers should come from that sect of the society. In addition, they believed in honesty and just behavior by the kings toward their subjects as Kautilya and so did Plato believe in the state of happiness for the Nation (Brodov 1984). Plato believed in unity and common good central to the state, while Kautilya thought military to be the focus of the state and a powerful state can be created only by a strong military. In terms of diplomacy, Plato has very little contribution toward foreign policy and in fact, thought foreign trade was a negative influence on the state. In contrast, Kautilya has thought about diplomacy and foreign policy elaborately. Similarly, these two men differ on their economic policy making where Plato thinks about the State as a provider of rule of law, Kautilya suggested extraction of value from the citizens through taxes to redistributes wealth. Kautilya attributed a lot of importance to “Dharma.” According to him, “the ultimate source of all law is Dharma.” He enticed in the name of “Dharma” to the sense of honor, duty, human dignity, moral responsibility, and enlightened loyalty. It is quite understandable that the judge in the Arthashastra was called “Dharmashta” or upholder of Dharma. He said that so long as every “Arya” follows his “svadharma” (own Dharma) having due regard to his “varna” (caste) and “ashrama” (abodes of the sages) and the king follows his “rajdharma” (King’s Dharma), he can sustain social order. Kautilya comments, “A King who administers justice in accordance with ‘dharma’, evidence, customs, and written law will be able to conquer whole world”. Kautilya acknowledged the importance of rational law or King’s law and its importance to “Dharma,” “vyayhara” (evidence) and “charitra” (character). He upheld that King’s law was to be in harmony with the injunctions of the three Vedas wherein the four “varnas” (castes) and “ashramas” (abodes of the sages) are defined. Laws were derived from four sources, Dharma (scared law), vyavhara (evidence), charita (history and custom), and rajasasana (edicts of the King). Kautilya recommended that any matter of dispute shall be judged according to four bases of justice. These in order of increasing importance are: 1. “Dharma,” which is based on truth, 2. “Evidence,” which is based on witnesses,

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3. “Custom,” i.e., tradition accepted by the people, 4. “Royal Edicts,” i.e., law as promulgated. Arthashastra sketches a system of civil, criminal, and business laws (Sihag 2004). If there is conflict among the various laws, dharma was supreme. The ordering of the other laws was case-specific. Rajasasana ordered the relationship between the three major social groupings, the citizen, the association, and the state. The constitutional rules at the state level were specified in the rajasasana but the constitutional rules at the level of the association were to be decided by the members of the association. The mutual choice and the operational level rules of the association were also decided by the members of the association though the state did promulgate laws to safeguard the individual member from the oppression of the majority in the association. The influential treatise, Arthashastra discovers issues of social welfare, the collective ethics that hold a society together, counseling the king that in times and in areas distressed by famine, epidemic and such acts of nature, or by war, he should initiate public projects such as building irrigation system, building forts around major strategic holdings and towns, and exempt taxes on those affected by floods or drought (Sihag 2004). Social welfare is the main focal point of Kautilya’s economic notions. The State was required to help the poor and helpless and to be proactive in contributing to the welfare of its citizens. Kautilya gave more emphasis to human capital formation that is relevant in current times because development is not possible without human capital growth. Arthashastra gave importance to the conservation of natural resources and environment (Boesche 2003). Kautilya has delivered a comprehensive and explanatory description of the duties, responsibilities, and role of the king, prince(s), ministers, and other state officials. As for the state’s political administration, Kautilya provided a complete commentary as to how this should be effectively undertaken. He gave instructions about the defense of the state’s limits, protection of the forts, and the manner in which the attack by the rival must be controlled. The Arthashastra categorizes legal matters into civil and criminal and it stipulates extravagant strategies for administering justice in terms of evidence, procedures, and witnesses. It can be said that Kautilya’s Arthashastra offers valuable foundation for economy. It consists of valuable insights about finances (Gautam 2016).

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Buddhist Lankavatara-sutra refers to Kautilya as Rsi (sage). Aryasura, the author of Jatakamala, demonstrated his knowledge of Arthashastra. Jain scholar Somadeva referred to Kautilya as Nayavid, or the follower of justice. Kautilya never ignores Dharma. For him, both foreign policy and warfare are subject to moral norms—“to be in accordance with dharma, the place and time of battle must be specified beforehand” (10.3.26). Noncombatants and those who surrender should not be harmed (13.4.52). His Arthashastra was written for a state functioning according to Dharma (Gautam 2016; Schlingloff 1967). Kautilya’s Arthashastra maintains that for good governance, all administrators, including the king are considered servants of the people. Good governance and stability are completely linked. If rulers are responsive, accountable, removable, recallable, there is stability. If not there will be instability. These tenets hold good even today. Kautilya’s fourfold duty of a king—Raksha (protection), vridhi (prosperity), palana (maintain), and Yogakshema (welfare). The substitution of the state with the corporation, the king with the CEO or the board of a corporation, and the subjects with the shareholders, bring out the quintessence of corporate governance, because central to the concept of corporate governance is the belief that public good should be ahead of private good and that the corporation’s resources cannot be used for personal benefit (Boesche 2002; Sihag 2004). i. Raksha—literally means protection, in the corporate scenario it can be equated with the risk management aspect. ii. Vriddhi—literally means growth, in the present-day context can be equated to stakeholder value enhancement. iii. Palana—literally means maintenance/compliance, in the presentday context it can be equated to compliance to the law in letter and spirit. iv. Yogakshema—literally means welfare and in Kautilya’s Arthashastra it is used in the context of a social security system. In the presentday context, it can be equated to corporate social responsibility. Arthashastra talks self-discipline for a king and the six enemies, which a king should overcome—lust, anger, greed, conceit, arrogance, and foolhardiness. In the present-day context, this addresses the ethics aspect of businesses and the personal ethics of the corporate leaders.

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Kautilya asserts that “A king can reign only with the help of others; one wheel alone does not move a chariot. Therefore, a king should appoint advisors (as councilors and ministers) and listen to their advice. The opinion of advisers shall be sought individually as well as together [as a group]. The reason why each one holds a particular opinion shall also be ascertained.” According to Kautilya, the State had a moral purpose: to bring about order. The king at all times should be guided by Dharma (Gautam 2016). On the other hand, Machiavelli, who was an observer of the happenings around him in Italy at his time, was skeptical of the efficacy of morality. He knew the shortcomings of relying solely on morality as a basis of political power and thus wanted to see virtue fortified with real power. In contrast, “Kautilya’s King is, therefore, a respectable, wise, and courageous individual, who comes from a well-respected family, and conducts himself with absolute dignity” (Gautam 2016). The King cannot afford to be disliked by his subjects. He should be willing to take any step to protect his subjects and protect them as a patriarchal figure, while guided by the ideas of “dharma.” The King was the upholder of the Law and could “conquer Earth up to its four ends.” Machiavelli, on the other hand, said that the idea of having a State in place was to impose order on its subjects. Whether rule and order came about by fear or genuine respect did not matter, as long as order was established (Boesche 2003). The virtue of a Prince was not guided by a strict code of moral conduct, but rather by what was the need of the hour, and what proved to be a necessity at that point of time. Kautilya ascribed a lot of importance to “Dharma.” According to him, “the ultimate source of all law is Dharma.” He appealed in the name of “Dharma” to the sense of honor and duty and to human dignity, to moral responsibility and to enlightened patriotism. Kautilya’s emphasis on duties of King in maintaining law and order in the society is so much that he writes in Arthashastra, “because the King is the guardian of right conduct of this world with four ‘varnas’ and four ‘ashramas’ he alone can enact and promulgate laws to uphold them when all traditional codes of conduct perish through disuse or disobedience.” The King was looked upon an embodiment of virtue, a protector of Dharma. He too was governed by his dharma as any other citizen was. Thus, if any actions of the King went against the prevailing notion of Dharma, associations and/or the individual citizens were free to question him. He recalls every time that “Dharma” alone is guiding star for

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every king, or rather every individual and that following “Dharma” one shall have a life of dignity while social order prevailing in society (Olivelle 2013). King was not the sole interpreter of Dharma. Kautilya did not view law to be an expression of the free will of the people. Thus sovereignty—the authority to make laws, did not vest with citizens. In case of conflict among the various laws, Dharma was supreme. The ordering of the other laws was case-specific. Rajasasana ordered the relationship between the three major social groupings—the citizen, the association, and the state. The constitutional rules at the state level were specified in the Rajasasana but the constitutional rules at the level of the association were to be decided by the members of the association. The collective choice and the operational-level rules of the association were also decided by the members of the association though the state did promulgate laws to safeguard the individual member from the tyranny of the majority in the association. Arthashastra outlines a system of civil, criminal, and mercantile law (now known as business laws). For example, the following were codified: a procedure for interrogation, torture, and trial, the rights of the accused, what constitutes permissible evidence, a procedure for autopsy in case of death in suspicious circumstances, what constitutes defamation and procedure for claiming damages, valid and invalid contracts. We see in Arthashastra that law was not viewed just as code of prohibition, nor was it limited to corrective justice of law courts. Its range was wider than morality itself and institutions were creation of law while traditions and customs rested on its sanctions (Thanawala 2014; Waldauer 1996). All ideas of society were molded by it and law was blended with religion, with morality and with public opinion and by its subtle operations subjected the society to its will. The role of law in the society was to bring a just order in society and the tremendous task was to be shouldered by the King along with his subordinates. As rightly pointed out by Kautilya in his famous verse— In the happiness of his subjects lies the King’s happiness; In their welfare is his welfare. He shall not consider as good only that which pleases him but, Treat as beneficial to him whatever pleases his subjects.

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Nature of the State Boesche (2002) interprets that the Arthashastra is grounded more like the Soviet Union, where the state envisions itself as driven by the welfare of the common good, but operates an extensive spy state and system of surveillance. Kautilya’s Arthashastra depicts a bureaucratic welfare state, in fact some kind of socialized monarchy, in which the central government administers the details of the economy for the common good (Starzl and Dhir 1986; Boesche 2003). The Arthashastra discusses a mixed economy, where private enterprise and state enterprise frequently competed side by side, in agriculture, animal husbandry, forest produce, mining, manufacturing, and trade. However, royal statutes and officials regulated private economic activities, some economic activity was the monopoly of the state, and a superintendent oversaw that both private and state-owned enterprises followed the same regulations. The private enterprises were taxed. Mines were state owned, but leased to private parties for operations, according to chapter 2.12 of the text. The Arthashastra states that protecting the consumer must be an important priority for the officials of the kingdom. Trautmann (2012) mentioned that the Arthashastra (in chapter 3.9) recognizes the concept of land ownership rights. It also requires king to protect that right from seizure or abuse. This makes it unlike Soviet Union’s model of citizen’s private property rights. The text dedicates Book 3 and 4 to economic laws, and a court system to oversee and resolve economic, contracts, and market-related disputes.

Comparisons to Machiavelli In 1919, a few years after the newly discovered Arthashastra manuscript’s translation was first published, Max Weber (1978) stated: Truly radical “Machiavellianism”, in the popular sense of that word, is classically expressed in Indian literature in the Arthashastra of Kautilya, written long before the birth of Christ, ostensibly in the time of Chandragupta, compared to it, Machiavelli’s The Prince is harmless.

More recent scholarship has disagreed with the characterization of Arthashastra as “Machiavellianism.” In Machiavelli’s The Prince, the king and his coterie are single-mindedly aimed at preserving the monarch’s

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power for its own sake, but in the Arthashastra, the king is required “to benefit and protect his citizens, including the peasants ” (Brians 1993). Kautilya asserts in Arthashastra that, “the ultimate source of the prosperity of the kingdom is its security and prosperity of its people,” a view never mentioned in Machiavelli’s text. The text advocates “land reform”, states Brians (1993), where land should be taken from landowners and farmers who own land but do not grow anything for a long time, and given to poorer farmers who want to grow crops but do not own any land.

Comments Arthashastra declares, in numerous occasions, the need for empowering the weak and poor in one’s kingdom, a sentiment that is not found in Machiavelli. Arthashastra, according to Brians (1993), advises “the king shall provide the orphans, the aged, the infirm, the afflicted, and the helpless with maintenance with welfare support. He shall also provide subsistence to helpless women when they are carrying and also to the children they give birth to”. Elsewhere, the text values not just powerless human life, but even animal life and suggests in Book 2 that horses and elephants be given food, when they become incapacitated from old age, disease or after war. Thus, Kautilya promoted morality and Dharma. Kautilya’s economics should be the basis for the modern economics. Arthashastra is a treatise on how a state should pursue economic development and it emphasized proper measurement of economic performance, and the role of ethics, considering ethical values as the glue, which binds society and promotes economic development. Rather than pursuing capitalist method of economic management, which ignores Dharma, and promotes only greed and selfishness, Arthashastra should be the guiding principle of any modern state, as Kautilya was both an idealist and a political realist.

References Boesche, R. 2002. The First Great Political Realist: Kautilya and His Arthashastra. Lanham: Lexington Books. Boesche, R. 2003. Kautilya’s Artha´s¯astra on War and Diplomacy in Ancient India. the Journal of Military History 67 (1): 9–37.

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Brekke, T. 2009. The Ethics of War in Asian Civilizations: A Comparative Perspective. London: Routledge. Brians, P. 1993. Reading About the World, vol. 1. Seattle: Washington State University Press. Brodov, M. 1984. Indian Philosophy in Modern Times. Moscow: Progress Publishers. Budac, C. 2015. Mandala of Power. Procedia—Social and Behavioral Sciences 18 (3): 129–134. Gautam, P.K. 2016. Statecraft Through Kautilya’s Arthashastra. New Delhi: Institute for Defence Studies and Analyses. Kumar, A. 2005. The Structure and Principles of Public Organization in Kautilya’s Arthashastra. The Indian Journal of Political Science 66 (3): 463–488. McClish, M.R. 2009. Political Brahmanism and the State a Compositional History of the Artha´s¯astra. PhD thesis, University of Texas. McClish, M. 2014. The Dependence of Manu’s Seventh Chapter on Kautilya’s Artha¨sastra. Journal of the American Oriental Society 134 (2): 241–262. Mill, J.S. 1848/1999. Principles of Political Economy. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ´ astric Intertextuality. Olivelle, P. 2004. Manu and the Artha´s¯astra, A Study in S¯ Journal of Indian Philosophy 32 (2): 281–291. Olivelle, P. 2013. King, Governance, and Law in Ancient India: Kaut.ilya’s Artha´s¯ astra. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Rangarajan, L.N. 1987. The Arthashastra. New Delhi: Penguin Books. Schlingloff, D. 1967. Arthashastra-Studien. Wiener Zeitschrift für die Kunde Südund Ostasiens 1 (11): 44–80. Sen, R.K., and R.L. Basu. 2006. Economics in Arthashastra. New Delhi: Deep & Deep Publications. Seth, S. 2015. Ancient Wisdom for the Modern World: Revisiting Kautilya and His Arthashastra in the Third Millennium. Strategic Analysis 39 (6): 710–714. Shoham, D., and M. Liebig. 2016. The Intelligence Dimension of Kautilyan Statecraft and Its Implications for the Present. Journal of Intelligence History 15 (2): 119–138. Sihag, B.S. 2004. Kautilya on the Scope and Methodology of Accounting, Organizational Design and the Role of Ethics in Ancient India. The Accounting Historians Journal 31 (2): 125–148. Sivakumar, N., and U.S. Rao. 1996. Guidelines for Value Based Management in Kautilya’s Arthashastra. Journal of Business Ethics 15 (4): 415–423. Sinha, M.K. 2005. Ethics of War in Other Sanskrit Literature: Hinduism and International Humanitarian Law. International Review of the Red Cross 87 (8): 285–294.

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Smith, Adam. 1776/1998. An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Spengler, J. 1971. Indian Economic Thought. Medford: Duke University Press. Starzl, T., and K. Dhir. 1986. Strategic Planning 2300 Years Ago: The Strategy of Kautilya. Management International Review 26 (4): 70–77. Thanawala, K. 2014. Ancient Economic Thought. London: Routledge. Trautmann, T. 2012. Arthashastra: The Science of Wealth. London: Penguin. Waldauer, C. 1996. Kautilya’s Arthashastra: A Neglected Precursor to Classical Economics. Indian Economic Review XXXI (1): 101–108. Weber, M. 1919/1978. Politics as a Vocation. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

CHAPTER 5

Relationship Between Ancient Greece and Ancient India, and Christianity

For the Ancient Greeks, India meant only the eastern banks of the River Sindhu at the time of Alexander the Great. Indians called the Greeks Yonas and Yavanas, the people from Ionia. Megasthenes mentioned about the God Dionysus and Herakles in India. Philostratus mentioned about a silver disk in the temple in Delphi where it was written “Dionysus the son of Semele and of Zeus, from the men of India to the Apollo of Delphi” (Mazumdar 1917; Lomperis 1984). Indeed, the Mitranis, the ancestors of the Greeks in Asia Minor, used to worship the Sun or Apollo, and that was the real reason for the war between the Greeks of Greece, who used to worship Zeus, and the Greeks of Troy, followers of Apollo. In the Greek mythology, Philodemus wrote that Perseus was in love with the Indian Andromeda. Apollonius Rhodius in Argonautica wrote that Nysean, son of Zeus, came to live in Thebes, leaving the ten tribes of the Indians. According to Philostratus, Greek philosopher Apollonius traveled to India, so was Democritus and Pantaenus and possibly Pythagoras. Arrian wrote about India in his work Indica. The philosopher Pyrrho accompanied Alexander the Great on his Indian campaign, and Pyrrho’s teaching is based on Buddhism (Lomperis 1984; Mazumdar 1917). Seleucus the commander of Alexander and the ruler of Babylon after the death of Alexander invaded the Maurya Empire of Chandra Gupta © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 D. Basu and V. Miroshnik, Ethics, Morality and Business: The Development of Modern Economic Systems, Volume I, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-71493-2_5

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but was defeated. According to the treaty of the truce, the daughter of Seleucus was married to Chandra Gupta and Megasthenes was sent to Patliputra as the ambassador of Seleucus to Chandra Gupta. His descendent Emperor Asoka sent ten missionaries to Greece to propagate Buddhism and Dharma-raksita a Greek was one of those missionaries. Maha-dharma-raksita was a Greek Buddhist master, traveled to Anuradhapura in Sri Lanka together with 30,000 Greek Buddhist monks from Alexandria (Mazumdar 1917). In Kandahar, Edicts of Ashoka, were written in the Greek language. Ptolemy II Philadelphus is mentioned in the Edicts of Ashoka as a recipient of the Buddhist Dharma. There were Greek kings supported by the Maurya Empire in Bactria, modern-day Afghanistan. Plutarch wrote in “Life of Alexander” about the Indian King Ambhi of Taxila, who supported Alexander. Bindusara, the son of Chandra Gupta, requested Antiochus to send him a Greek sophist for his court. Pliny the Elder sent an ambassador named Dionysius to the Mauryan Emperor Ashoka. Diodorus mentioned that Maurya Emperor had a “great love for the Greeks” (Mazumdar 1917). The Heliodorus pillar was erected around 110 BC in present-day central India in Vidisha, by Heliodorus a Greek ambassador of the IndoGreek King Antialcidas to the court of the Shunga King Bhagabhadra. The Roman Emperor Augustus received envoys from the Saka King of India. Menander (Milinda), originally a general of Demetrius, is probably the most successful Indo-Greek king of Bactria. Menander is also remembered in Buddhist literature (the Milinda Panha) as a convert to Buddhism. The Gandhara Schools of art and sculpture in the lower Kabul Valley and the upper Indus around Peshawar and Mathura flourished under the Kushan kings, for the honor of producing images of the Buddha. There were Indian ambassadors in the court of Emperor Antoninus Pius. The most distinguished student of Plotinus, Porphyry learned from them the contrast between the spiritual and the material world as explained in the Samkhya and Yoga doctrines (Mazumdar 1917; Bhattacharya 1976). During the fifth and the early fourth centuries B. C., Greek philosophers wrote their rational thought in several areas like epistemology, anthropology, sociology, religion, and politics. Despite the established Western belief that the traditional Greek society provided the basis, Greek philosophers, Protagoras, Gorgias, Antiphon, Critias, and others were

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mainly influenced by Buddhist and other Indian philosophers, who were very influential before the rise of the Greek rationalist movement (Rahula 2000; Tablan 2017; Stoneman 2019). As a reaction to the social discriminations caused by the metaphysical and ideological concepts in the early Hindu tradition, Indian rationalists, materialists, Jains, and Buddhists developed their argument against Hindu beliefs. In this development, the Hindu interpretations of creation and the transmigration of the soul were challenged by the Indian rationalist philosophers (Brodov 1984). Pythagoras, Empedocles, and Democritus, the originators of Greek sophist philosophy, were the followers of Indian rational concepts. Protagoras was a disciple of Democritus. Democritus visited India, and what he wrote is similar to the Buddhist and other Indian thought. Democritus had influenced Protagoras (Buraet 1930; Rankin 1983; Raju 1971). Empedocles’s writings have close similarities with both Buddhist concepts and Indian materialistic views. Empedocles influenced Gorgias (Untersteiner 1954). Prodicus was a student of Protagoras. Most of these philosophers wrote treaties similar to Indian metaphysical concepts, demonstrating their link with India (Gangopadhya 1980; Lomperis 1984). According to Plato, Protagoras wrote Truth which was objected to by Socrates’s friend Hermogenes, Protagoras presented himself as an atheist in his book On the Gods, and consequently, he was executed by the Athenians. Porphyry wrote in his Lectures on Literature that Protagoras in On Being argued against those who proposed Being as one; thus, Protagoras was an early victim of the Monotheists (Rahula 2000; Allen 1966; Freeman 1948). Plato borrowed his counter-arguments in Dialogues from Protagoras’ method of arguing in 0n Being. Protagoras did not believe in the concept of creation. In On Virtue, Protagoras emphasized the value of virtue. Protagoras disregarded any divine power emphasized human virtues. Protagoras said, virtue is an essential basis for the well-being of society. Following Protagoras, Gorgias wrote On the Nonexistent or On Nature, giving a theory of knowledge. Prodicus, Antiphon, and Critias wrote about the social creation of truths. Prodicus wrote a treatise on natural philosophy, in On Nature (Buraet 1930; Lomperis 1984). An anthropological explanation of religion was given by Protagoras, Prodicus, and Critias. Thus, these philosophers represented a rational movement that was against established ideas about religion, metaphysics,

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society, and the human being. Aristides said in Orations, the word sophist meant wise, learned people. Herodotus used this word to mean all learned men in Greece. Androtion, a contemporary of Plato, recognized the Seven Sages as sophists (Rahula 2000; Gorman 1979; Poulakos 1995). Protagoras was the one who, for the first time in Greece, conducted debates on Eleatics and any given topic, and rejected all absolute truths. He refused to accept the Being, arguing that the Being was not subject to his empirical knowledge. He also argued that nothing could be acceptable beyond human experience, which is similar to Charbak lokayatika of India (Brodov 1984). Parmenides and his disciple Zeno visited Athens about 450 B.C. The reading given by Zeno at the residence of Pythagoras during this tour impressed Socrates. The philosophy Plato admired was apparently a blend of the Eleatic metaphysical concept of the Being and Socrates’ and Plato’s own modifications of that concept. “The word rationality itself and it variants such as “rationalism” and “rational” are constantly used with reference to both Buddhist and other Indian materialistic and skeptic views and sophist thought in Greece” (Rahula 2000). The rational thoughts of the Eleatics were similar to that of the Brahmanas, the interpretations of the Vedas. It is written in Chandogya Upanishad: “In the beginning, my dear, this universe was Being alone. Some say that in the beginning this was non-being alone, and from that nonbeing, being was born. But how, indeed, could it be thus, my dear? How could being be born from non-being? No, my dear, it was being alone that existed in the beginning ” (Nanananda 1971). Melissus of the Eleatic School said: “If being had a beginning, that is, a coming into being, it can only have come from Not-being; but nothing can come out of Not-being, which is nothing ” (Rahula 2000; Sedley 1999). The Indian rationalistic age emerged and flourished during the sixth and the early fifth centuries B.C. The Nyayaiks were the creators of Indian formal logic. Brahmin priests described the entire system of the Nyaya logic to the Greek philosopher Callisthenes, who had accompanied Alexander’s army. Callisthenes explained that system to Aristotle—that had formed the basis of Aristotle’s logic (Brodov 1984). Buddha rejected speculations (conclusions with insufficient evidence), metaphysics (truths beyond objective experience), and ideology (ideas taken as certain truths), as well as the instruments to justify these truths: authority, logic, and theorizing. The following words of the Buddha provide justifications for free inquiry among Indian rationalists:

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“….do not accept anything on mere hearsay. Do not accept anything by mere tradition. Do not accept anything on account of rumors. Do not accept anything just because it accords in your scriptures. Do not accept anything by mere supposition. Do not accept anything by mere theorizing. Do not accept anything by merely considering the appearances. Do not accept anything merely because it agrees with your preconceived notion. Do not accept anything because it seems acceptable. When you know for yourself—these things [beliefs and practices] are moral, these things are blameless, these things are praised by the wise, these things, when performed and undertaken, conduce to well-being and happiness, then do you live and act accordingly.” (Narada 1980)

Aristotle’s enthymeme came from Protagoras who learned Probabilities from India. Kairos or the right time for speech, the predominant concept of Isocrates, also appears to have entered Greece in the same manner. Pythagoras, who possibly had lived for twelve years in Babylon, learned a lot from Jainism and a society similar to that of the Jains was established in Croton, Italy, by him. His respect for non-Greeks and for women’s rights may be regarded as direct borrowings from Jainism. “Empedocles presumably imitated Indian materialistic theory of four great elements and the Buddhist idealistic theory of Nirvana, showing his inclination both to the rationality promoted by Indian materialists and to the metaphysical values surrounding the concept of Nirvana” (Rahula 2000). Democritus, who visited India, had followed the theory of atoms of the Indian materialistic theory of elements of Kapil, Kanad, and the Buddhist concept of Nirvana. As a result, both Empedocles and Democritus influenced their students Gorgias and Protagoras to reject all ideological concepts and to follow rationalistic philosophy (Brodov 1984). Gorgias and Protagoras adopted skepticism about idealism, which was adapted from the Indian skeptic views toward knowledge. “Ideas of Protagoras on human-measure fragment, the two-logoi fragment, and his concept of Kairos were adopted from the then predominant Indian practice of debating and argumentation” (Rahula 2000). Rational concepts such as social evolution, theory of Social Contract, and social ethics based on humanity were borrowed from Buddhist sources by Antiphon, Prodicus, and Critias. One fragment of Empedocles strongly suggests that he had known about the Buddha and his philosophy while another of Democritus provides similar evidence of his familiarity with Indian rationalist philosophers and their ideas. The

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Buddha himself had heard about the social practices in Ionian Islands (Raju 1971; Stoneman 2019). Phoenicians had carried on their trade between India and Ionia since the sixth century B.C., thus facilitating the communications between the two societies (Raju 1971; Stoneman 2019). During 480–479 B.C., just before the rise of the sophist movement, thousands of Indian and Ionian troops combined together as the soldiers for the Persian Empire and fought together against other Greeks in central Greece. Persian Empire connected both India and Ionia and allowed religious freedom. Megasthenes (350–290 B.C.) noted in his Indica that “all that has been said by the ancients about nature is also said by philosophers outside Greece, the Brahmans in India, and people called the Jews in Syria” (Raju 1971; Rahula 2000). Alexander Polyhistor said during the early first century B.C. that Pythagoras learned his doctrine from Brahmins (Gorman 1979). Ionians being islanders, knowledge from other civilized nations easily reached Greece from the sea. As Gomperz (1901) suggested, the initial intermediary assistance for borrowing was provided by Phoenician merchants who sailed between Ionian Islands and other civilized nations. Herodotus remarked that those Phoenicians who chose to live in Ionia introduced “Greeks to a number of accomplishments, most notably the alphabet, which the Greeks did not have before then” (Sedler 1980; Waterfield 1998). Along with the alphabet, Phoenicians also brought their religious texts to Ionia, thus revealing the anthology of the then developed nations at that time. Pherecydes was one of those early Ionians who had revolutionized Greek thought. His concept of time as God was without precedent in early Greek accounts of the origin of the world (West 1971). This concept, a personification of time as progenitor of the world, as West (1971) has suggested, had appeared in Babylonian, Egyptian, and Phoenician myths many centuries before it reached Greece during the sixth century B.C. It was also present in the Atharva Veda, a text in early Hinduism (Brodov 1984). It is possible that Pherecydes came to know about this concept from Phoenician travelers. Suida’s remarks that Pherecydes had no teacher but gained his knowledge after reading Phoenician sacred texts strongly support this assumption (Rahula 2000; Raju 1971). Thales of Miletus, father of Greek philosophy and an immigrant from Phoenicia according to Aristotle and a man of Phoenician lineage

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according to Herodotus, was one of those early Greeks who accumulated knowledge through traveling. Not only did he visit Egypt, but for many years he stayed there, studying various subjects. Besides, “He had probably familiarized himself in Sardis with the elements of Babylonian wisdom, and he borrowed from it the law of the periodicity” (Gomperz 1901). Similarly, his view that water is the primary element of everything should have come from elsewhere. “This conception of unbounded primordial water is not Greek; it is found in the great river-civilizations of Egypt and Babylon, and in Genesis ” (Allen 1966). Thales’ view that gods are everywhere can be traced back to Indian religious texts. Virtually everything of Thales’ knowledge and thoughts came from his familiarity with Asian concepts, which he learned during his stay in Egypt and nearby islands (Bhattacharya 1976; Raju 1971). Thales went to the East and became familiar with the oriental philosophy. He became very popular to talk about his experience and became a sage. Xenophanes, the father of the Eleatic thought, obtained his speculative thought from India. Anaximander was a student of Thales and his philosophy of infinite Boundless was directly derived from Indian philosophy (Rahula 2000; Raju 1971). His concepts include negation of any element as primary matter and his description of primary substance as the Non-Limited were borrowed from much older philosophy of India (West 1971). The Svetesvatara Upanishad said: Should nature, or necessity, or chance, or the elements be regarded as the cause? Is it the self?… The sages, absorbed in meditation through onepointedness of mind, discovered the power belonging to the deva himself. That nondual deva rales over all those causes. (Raju 1971)

Anaximander’s and the Upanishadic thought both accepted that the nondualistic power of the deva (or Brahman) over all other causes indicates boundlessness of the original cause in the early Hinduism while boundlessness was considered by Anaximander as universal cause. Boundless is eternal and indestructible, two characteristics that clearly match with the nature of the primary cause in Upanishads (Rahula 2000; Stoneman 2019). The Svetesvatara Upanishad [1.2–3] analyzed a number of doctrines. One very popular concept is that Time was the source of the universe. Upanishads gave overwhelming importance of the universal being or Brahman over all other concepts (Bhattacharya 1976; Raju 1971).

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Most of the concepts Greek philosophers held before and after Anaximander came from the Indian philosophy. These became very popular between seventh and sixth centuries B.C. Pherecydes’ theory of Time, Thales’ Water, Anaximenes’ Air, and Heraclitus’ Fire all were in India (Gangopadhya 1980; Lomperis 1984). Xenophanes, who revolutionized the Greek concept of gods, was a student of Anaximander and was familiar with the theory of Boundlessness (Buraet 1930; Barnes 1979; Poulakos 1995). Indian philosophers considered Brahma was the source of everything. They had developed elaborate analysis of Brahma, a practice, which was not there in other monotheistic religions before the fourth century B.C. The concept that everything is a different manifestation of Brahma and the absolute truth cannot be sensually graspable. Xenophanes’s One Reality of underlying material phenomena is the same as in Vedic hymns and the Upanishads (Rawlinson 1952; Stoneman 2019). Xenophanes’ teaching that the Being sees as a whole, thinks as a whole, and hears as a whole is the same as the Being’s power that pervades through all sensual phenomena as described in the Upanishads (Gangopadhya 1980). Theory in the Upanishads is that sensual experience is a mere Illusion or Maya, and only through intellect, and contemplation that one could visualize the Brahma, the ultimate reality. Xenophanes’ writings are similar to that of Upanishadic philosophy (Sedler 1980; Lomperis 1984). Xenophanes student Parmenides expanded Xenophanes thought of the Being. Parmenides’s Being was un-generated, un-perishing, unmoving, not divisible, and unchangeable. Sense perception is not totally erroneous; rather, beyond the sense perception lies the absolute truth. Sense perception means various manifestations of the Being. Brahman is imperishable, without shadow, without body, without color, un-decaying, not graspable by eye, speech, or other senses, soundless, intangible, formless, tasteless, odor-less, without beginning and end, and unchanging. A similar description of the Being of Parmenides may prove that Parmenides could have been influenced by the Brahmin thinking. Parmenides’ illusion of sense perception, a concept that was also presented by Xenophanes, was original only in the Indian philosophy. The Svetesvatara Upanishad said that “….the non-dual Lord who, by the power of his maya [illusion], covered himself like a spider with threads drawn from primary matter.” “The whole universe is full with objects which are parts of His Being: “Thou art woman, Thou art man; Thou art youth

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and maiden too;… Thou alone who assumes diverse forms. Thou art the dark blue bee; Thou art the thunder cloud, the seasons, and the seas. Thou art beginning-less and all-pervading. From Thee all the worlds are born” (Upanishad, 1949). Maya is not illusion, but a “peculiar power of God for creating the world.” The Mundaka Upanishad remarked that “through serenity of intellect” one could see the Brahma. The following two quotations explain the identical nature of the Upanishadic and the Eleatic thoughts. Chandogya Upanishad: “In the beginning, my dear, this universe was Being alone. Some say that in the beginning this was non-being alone, and from that non-being, being was born. But how, indeed, could it be thus, my dear? How could being be born from non-being? No, my dear, it was being alone that existed in the beginning”. (Upanishad 1949)

Melissus:

“That which was, was always and always will be. For if it had come into being, it necessarily follows that before it came into being, Nothing existed. If however nothing existed, in no way could anything come into being out of nothing.” (Lomperis, 1984)

Both texts accepted that the Being had no beginning, and both asserted that the Being could not come out of non-being. Parmenides had already said that Being did not come from non-being, and Melissus has argued in favor of his teacher’s view. Greek thinkers have thus developed a virtually indescribable god who is almost identical with Brahma. In fact, Parmenides said exactly what the Upanishads had long held: Words are inadequate to express the ultimate truth. (Freeman 1948; Rahula 2000)

The Kena Upanishad said, “That which cannot be expressed by speech, but by which speech is expressed- that alone [you must] know as Brahma.” “Knowledge would come through serenity of intellect, not through sight, speech, or other senses ” (Upanishad 1949).

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The Eleatic school of thought developed mainly from the influence of Upanishadic system of thought (Lomperis 1984). Zeno’s remark that he would love “to see one single Indian in the fire to mastering all the theoretical arguments about hardship” may indicate that the Eleatics themselves were willing to appreciate Indian concepts in addition to the possibility that the Indian system of thought had already reached there (Rahula 2000). Indian speculative concepts could also have reached Greece by the mid-fifth century B.C. (Stoneman 2019).

Pythagoras and Jainism Pythagoras was a rationalist and the first Greek to depart from the Eleatic ideology. He was influenced by Jain concepts (Bhattacharya 1976; Gorman 1979). Pythagoras, Empedocles, and Democritus were all influenced by the noteworthy concepts originated in India. Indian influence on Pythagoras stands out as the most acceptable source of his reincarnation theory. The concept of the reincarnation of the soul in other forms and having beings was only to be found in India from early times, playing an important part in everyday religious life. Leopold Von Schroeder’s assertive remarks “Pythagoras can only have taken over this teaching from Indians” would be the most accurate statement to identify the source of Pythagoras’ theory of transmigration (Gorman 1979; Lomperis 1984). This concept was developed by the Hindus from the very ancient times and was adopted by both Jains and Buddhists to argue against the caste system. To emphasize human ability rather than divine grace to end transmigration, Jains asserted that everybody would be born as a human being in the last birth. Therefore, this concept, which naturally originated in India, had probably no connection with the Egyptian system of thought at all. Overall, all characteristics of transmigration exposed by Herodotus among Greek thinkers originated and flourished in India with striking similarities, thus making the possible source of Herodotus’ version of Greek transmigration purely Indian. Alexander Polyhistor of Miletus, the early first century B.C. encyclopedic, recorded in his On Pythagorean Symbols that Pythagoras learned from Brahmins (Rahula 2000; Untersteiner 1954). The main characteristics of Pythagoras’ religious teaching consisted of transmigration of the soul, respectable treatment to animals and plants, purification of the soul through asceticism and contemplation, absence of any absolute divinity, and social organization as a community for religious

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practices, all of which came from Hinduism and Jainism. His respect for animal life was based on his belief that “animals were men’s brothers, having the same elements and the same constitution” (Rahula 2000; Gorman 1979; Shah 1998) including the soul that would transmigrate to humans in another life. Mahavira, the founder of Jain tradition, in fifth century BC, taught that all forms of life were worthy of respect since the soul, which transmigrates, is associated with every form of life. Jains abstained from eating meat and fish and refrained from harming plants and trees. Pythagoras, apparently, introduced the same practice into Greece with slight modifications. To release the soul from the bondage of rebirth, Mahavira recommended strict asceticism. This doctrine, which was original and unique in Jain teaching, could have reached Pythagoras from nowhere else other than from a Jain community (Rahula 2000; Shah 1998).

Empedocles and Indian Materialism and Buddhisra Aristotle recognized Empedocles as the inventor of rhetoric. Empedocles was an influential pre-Socratic philosopher. He initiated serious inquiry into the nature of the universe and its relationship with the mankind. The rational thinking of materialism was a dominant power in India during the early sixth century B.C. (Brodov 1984). Empedocles’ first influential sources were possibly Indian materialistic teaching. In his On nature, Empedocles cited some great elements as the primary cause of the universe. Life remains nothing other than a combination of elements, and death means the separation; nothing exists after or before death; the elements are neither created nor perishable but eternal. Along with other fragments of On Nature, Empedocles expressed the idea that “thoughtless men call this disappearance [of elements] death, and their caring together birth, as they lament or rejoice accordingly,” but they [men] “perish miserably, having understood nothing of the real essence of the world” (Wright 1981). Buddhist text Samannaphala Sutta summarized the concept of elements held by two rationalists at the time of the Buddha. Ajita, a proponent of the rationalist school in ancient India, held the view that “There is no such thing as sacrifice, or offering as no benefit can be achieved with these acts. There is neither finite nor result of good or evil deeds. There is no such things as this world or the next, since only elements exist. There is neither father nor mother, only the elements cause birth, nor beings spring

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into life without them as nothing originates without elements. There are in the world no recluses or Brahmins who have reached the highest point, who walk perfectly, and who having understood and realized both this world and the next, make their wisdom known to others. A human being is built up of four elements. When he dies the earthy in him returns and relapses to the earth, the fluid to the water, the heat to the fire, the wind to the air, and his faculties to the space” (Narada 1980). Pakudha Kaccayana, a rationalist in ancient India of the Buddhist school, said: The following seven things are neither made nor commanded to be made, neither created nor caused to be created. They move not, nor do they vary. These elements—earth, water, fire, air, ease, pain, the soul are these seventh elements. (Narada 1980)

Empedocles and Indian materialists have remarkable similarities. Empedocles propagated “after they elements have separated, they, beings, were, and are, nothing at all.” “Rising into the air,” all beings “fly away like smoke,” and nothing would remain. Empedocles described human life as an intolerable, painful, suffering experience while Pythagoras emphasized suffering itself as an indispensable necessity for purification. These ideas are the most important point to detect possible Buddhist influences on Empedocles (Rahula 2000). Empedocles gave up Pythagorean austerity and saw human life as an intolerably agonizing experience (Wright 1981; Gorman 1979; Sedley 1999). Buddha condemned asceticism as a dangerous extreme that would delay self-purification indefinitely. Buddha emphasized that life itself is full of Dukkha (suffering, dissatisfaction, etc.) just as to reject asceticism as a twofold burden that would take the living person to misery. Buddha’s concept of Dukkha recognized suffering, impermanence, and human ignorance as related to each other. Empedocles’ theory of suffering was essentially connected to human ignorance. A theory almost identical with the Buddha’s main teaching of Dukkha appears to have pervaded through Empedocles’ Purifications. Overall, his possible imitation of the Indian materialistic teaching of the elements provided a scientific theory to reject both the traditional Greek concept about gods and the Eleatic myth of Being (Rahula 2000; Bhattacharya 1976).

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Democritus and Buddhist Rationality and Indian Atomism Democritus’ influence on sophist rhetoric, particularly on Protagoras’s rational thought, is well known. An echo of Protagoras’ thinking about logos is found in Democritus (Lambridis 1976; Buraet 1930). Democritas’ mental “Well-Being” was influenced by Indian Buddhist concept of Nirvana. Empedocles’s and the Buddha’s concepts of purification achieving happiness were the bliss with Nirvana. Democritas’ idea of higher happiness is almost identical with Buddhist Nirvana. Highest level of happiness was not a divine revelation or a gift since no such divine power was recognized in Buddhism. Buddhism called for a pure self-acquisition through self-endeavor. Wisdom means one’s ability to see Tanha (craving, greed, desire, attachment, etc.) as the primary cause of mental dissatisfaction. Bhava Tanha and Vibhava Tanha, which means desire for existence and desire for self-annihilation after death, and Kama Tanha, endless desire for possession of material objects and sensual gratification are the causes for unhappiness. Buddha and his contemporary disciples rejected both the theory of the soul created by the Brahman advocated by the Hinduism and the theory of non-existence propagated by Charbaks-materialists (Rahula 2000; Narada 1980). Democritas’ suggestion that “one needs to achieve the ultimate happiness through one’s own effort” is close to the Buddhism. Democritas emphasized desire as the main cause of dissatisfaction and restraint of desire as the gateway and path to happiness, which is again similar to the Buddhist teaching (Bailey 1964; Gangopadhya 1980). In fragment 189, he wrote that mortal things would give no pleasure at all. In fragment 235, ephemeral pleasure in sensual satisfaction and its eventual dissatisfaction are clearly recognized (Barnes 1979; Keith 1968). Democritus while wandering in India learned that “Less is more,” which was a common Buddhist thought. “Contentment” provides ultimate happiness. These similarities are numerous, but only a few of them may be cited here: The Buddha: Friend, I do proclaim that in this very body, with its perception and consciousness, is the universe, the arising of the universe, the cessation of the universe, and the path leading to the cessation of the universe. (Narada 1980) Democritus: Man is a universe in little microcosm. (Rahula 2000)

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The Buddha said: … behold this beautiful body, a mass of sores, a heapedup lump, diseased, much thought of, in which nothing lasts, nothing persist. Of bones plastered with flesh and blood. Herein are stored decay, death, conceit, and detraction. (Narada 1980) Democritus said: Inside we are a complex store-house and treasury of ills, with many possibilities of suffering. (Lambridis 1976) The Buddha: Here he rejoices, hereafter he rejoices. In both states the welldoer rejoices. He rejoices, exceedingly rejoices, perceiving the purity of his own deeds. Here he suffers, hereafter he suffers. In both states the evil-doer suffers. Thinking, evil have I done, he suffers. He suffers further after going to an evil state. (Narada 1980) Democritus said: The cheerful man, who is impelled towards works that are just and lawful, rejoices by day and by night, and is strong and free from care. But the man who neglects justice, and does not do what he ought, find all such things disagreeable when he is afraid and torments himself. (Rahula 2000)

Democritus’ concept of soul shares a remarkable similarity to other popular Indian soul concepts like the belief that the soul consists of mind and intellect, which comes from the Upanishad. The Taittiriya Upanishad said that within the sheath of the vital breath (prana), a maintenance force of the soul, lies mind (manoma yakosá) in the shape of the human body, and within mind lies the intellect (vijnana). Also, Democritus’ belief that breathing maintains soul closely resembles the “vital breath” in the Taittiriya Upanishad. So, the influence of the Upanishads on Democritus’ theory of the soul is noticeable (Rahula 2000; Lambridis 1976). The concept of atomism was developed in India at least since the seventh century B.C. Leucippus and Democritus, following Empedocles’ borrowing of the concept of elements, took atomism from the Indian sources (Keith 1968; Gangopadhya 1980). There are the two forms of knowledge, conventional and absolute, which defined the sensory phenomenon and the inner truth of the sensory impression, respectively. Ancient Indian philosophers like Brihaspati, Kanad, and Kapil developed an atomic theory and a concept of two truths. Empedocles learned this philosophy from India following his predecessors. Atoms were mentioned in the Vedas, but the main expositions are in the Vaisesika Sutra of Kanada (third century B.C.) and Kapila (sixth century B.C.). The atomic theory actually existed in India before Democritas went to India and before Leucippus adopted the theory.

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The concept of Brahma, the earliest Vedic idea in India and the absolute truth behind the sensory world, created Vaisheshika philosophy, the origin for atomic development. The Vaisheshika tradition emphasized a single essence or anu behind human body and sensual objects. Indian materialists and Ajivikas, rationalists at the time of Buddha, recognized the elements as immutable atomic units (Gangopadhya 1980; Basham 1951). Democritas maintained that all forms of sensory recognition are conventional, and in reality, only atoms and void exist (Brodov 1984; Gangopadhya 1980). Thus, older philosophy of Indian atomism had reached an advanced level by the time Leucippus and Democritus followed these in Greece. Original source was Buddhist Nirvana. “Democritus borrowed this idealistic form of happiness during his visit in India. These ideas ultimately, through Protagoras, reached Socrates, who opposed it and Aristotle who refined it. Pericles was a friend of Protagoras, who told Pericles about the idea of non-perturbation of mind and how to achieve this state of mind through meditation, which Democritus learned from India” (Keith 1968; Rahula 2000). Socrates, although against Democritus, explained to Antiphon, the nature of his life’s philosophy, that “….it is an attribute of God to want nothing and it is next to divine to want as little as possible” (Stace 1965).

Plato, Aristotle, and Indian Philosophy According to Sir William Jones, Nyaya was analogous to the Peripatetic, the Mimansas are analogous to Platonic ideas, so that Gautama correspond to Aristotle, Kanada with Thales, Jaimini with Socrates, Kapila with Pythagoras, and Patanjali with Zeno (Keith 1968). That was how strong the relationship between Greece and India in ancient time. Plato created his Theory of Forms in an effort to go against Protagoras and provide his Pythagorean idealism, a rational basis on which objective truth can be built. Plato said that human happiness could be enhanced by spiritual perfection. A person can be happy if he would go deep into himself and discover his self. The Realm of Forms contained the perfect expressions for good, true, and beautiful; all that was experienced by humans on earth and defined as good or true or beautiful were only so in so far as they are formed as part of the higher, more perfect Form of good or true or beautiful. Aristotle had never accepted Plato’s Theory of

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Forms. Also had not accepted that the unseen was a cause of the observed world. In his physics and metaphysics, Aristotle claims the First Cause in the universe is the Prime Mover that which moves all else but is itself unmoved; this is a reflection of the ideas of Upanishads and Bhagavad Gita. Plato argued that all learning have their origin from the past life. Aristotle rejected this claim. Aristotle instead emphasized learning, and education and the views of people change with time. Aristotle said, “…achievements of life is happiness, which can be obtained through security in life, self -sufficiency, wealth, physical well-being, and virtuous welfare” (Aristotle 2009; Keith 1968; Allen 1966).

Secular Thought in Cicero and India Marcus Tullius Cicero (1933) exerted a major influence on rhetoric: intellectual writings, oratory, and education in the early Roman civilization in the first century BC. He has the credit of developing humanism without a divine creator, similar to both Jainism and Buddhism. Cicero’s humanism expressed a fellowship with society and included justice, reasoning, moral and social duties to the community. Throughout Book III of the Republic, Cicero moves into a lengthy dialogue with Philus and Laelius concerning the roles of wisdom and justice, injustice, and their roles in society and the state. This leads us into Book IV, in which Cicero explains his views on education, philosophy, and the humanities in general and their role in producing a healthy, literate, and educated society, which he thinks is necessary for the health, stability, and justice for any order (Cicero 1998; Wood 1988). Along with Plato and Aristotle, who both asserted that knowledge was the first principle for cultivating virtue, which leads to moral and ethical actions, Cicero argued, “Hence my opinion that anyone who achieves both objectives, familiarizing himself with our native institutions and with theoretical knowledge, has acquired everything necessary for distinction” (Wood 1988). For Cicero, there are two types of human beings. The first is the rational, intellectual, and thinking person. This is the man, who is fully alive. The alternative to this is the “brute animal,” as he calls them, people who are ignorant and suppress their intellect. That gift of the gods is rational thought and speech. Cicero wrote in Book III, “Their minds rose higher and succeeding in achieving, in thought or action, something worthy of what I have previously called the

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gift of the gods. So let us regard those who theorize about ethical principles as great men, which indeed they are.” This combination of practical virtue (understanding the roots and institutions of Roman life) and intellectual virtue (philosophy) leads to the fullest embodiment of wisdom according to Cicero. Cicero opts in favor of a just state (Wood 1988). Corrupt rationality leads to folly and ignorance, which lead to a desire to destroy rather than inherit and modify. Therefore, from Cicero’s observation, the collapse of rigorous intellectual education leads to the retardation of a civilization and culture, which may eventually lead to its demise. Cicero retains the theme of responsibility and moral virtue here. A republic exists only when it has a population that is morally virtuous and takes responsibility for their lives, actions, and building of the common good necessary for a republic to flourish (Wood 1988; Cicero 1998). The moral person is not the person who seeks the transformation of the world. The purpose of morality, for Cicero, is primarily for the health of one’s intellect, to be a virtuous individual. The moral person is the virtuous person who comes to defense of that which is already good and beautiful against those, in their folly, nihilism, or passionate outburst, threaten to destroy the good and beautiful. Cicero is asking us what are we willing to do to confront the forces of nihilism, chaos, and tyranny? What makes us truly human, for Cicero, is the cultivation of our intellect, which leads to the development of moral character, “Their minds rose higher and succeeding in achieving, in thought or action, something worthy of what I have previously called the gift of the god” (Wood 1988). Cicero (1933) wrote in his book, The Nature of the Gods: …if the Gods have neither the power nor the inclination to help us; if they take no care of us, and pay no regard to our actions; and if there is no single advantage which can possibly accrue to the life of man; then what reason can we have to pay any adoration, or any honors, or to prefer any prayers to them? Piety, like the other virtues, cannot have any connection with vain show or dissimulation; and without piety, neither sanctity nor religion can be supported; the total subversion of which must be attended with great confusion and disturbance in life.

In the classical humanism of Greece and Rome, the existence of God is denied putting emphasis on humans as the center of attention and considering human values independent of the gods are the supreme (Wynne 2019). Cicero (1933) in his book The Nature of the Gods wrote, “The

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concept of the gods is invented to make men more virtuous. In many countries the memory of brave men has been celebrated with divine honor to promote the manly virtues and to make men more willing to face danger bravely in the service of the state.” Again Cicero (1933) wrote, “In the first place, it is improbable that the material substance which is the origin of all things was created by divine providence. It has and has always had a force and nature of its own.” Cicero’s idea of materialism is similar to the ideas of Brihaspati, Kanad, and Kapil of India of sixth century B.C. or even earlier of the philosophical school of Charvaka Nayatantra (Brodov 1984). Their concept of humanism is also similar.

Christian Values Christian values historically refer to the values derived from the teachings of Jesus Christ and taught by Christians throughout the history of the religion. Christian philosophy began around the second century. It arises through the movement of the Christian community called Patristics, which had as main objective the defense of the Christian faith. It is likely that Patristics ended around the eighth century. From the eleventh century onward, Christian philosophy was expanded by the writings of St. Augustine, Emmanuel Kant, and others. Thomas Aquinas (thirteenth century) developed Christian ethics by using Aristotelian ethics as intellectual support, although he gave primacy to love (Aquinas 1981/1273; Ratzinger 1975; Wadell 1991; Cessario 2013). Christian morality consists of living one’s life with guidance and inspiration from the Christian scriptures and traditions. The Ten Commandments of the Old Testament are the basis, but on top of that Christian concepts of forgiveness and love for the enemies are added. The following are the major lesson of Jesus from Mathew, 5: 3–1: Blessed are the poor in spirit: for theirs is the kingdom of heaven. Blessed are they that mourn: for they shall be comforted. Blessed are the meek: for they shall inherit the earth. Blessed are they which do hunger and thirst after righteousness: for they shall be filled. Blessed are the merciful: for they shall obtain mercy. Blessed are the pure in heart: for they shall see God.

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Blessed are the peacemakers: for they shall be called the children of God. Blessed are they, which are persecuted for righteousness’ sake: for theirs is the kingdom of heaven. Blessed are ye, when men shall revile you, and persecute you, and shall say all manner of evil against you falsely, for my sake. Rejoice, and be exceeding glad: for great is your reward in heaven: for so persecuted they the prophets which were before you.

Basic principles are from St. Paul, Galatians 5: love, joy, peace, forbearance, kindness, goodness, faithfulness, gentleness, and self-control. Christians tended to give importance to the fall of Adam, which is considered as the original sin (Genesis 3). St. Ignatius writes: Who is able to explain the bond of the love of God? Who is equal to the telling of the greatness of His beauty? The height to which love lifts us in unutterable. Love unites us to God. (McGrath 1999; Gill 2001)

Jesus frees us from that original sin through love and regeneration (Pinckaers 1995; Wogaman 1993). This is because God is goodness. A person’s highest ethical duty is to love God with all of his heart, mind, soul, and strength. Their second highest ethical duty is to love their neighbor as themselves (Crook 2002; Gill 2001). In a world that is in rebellion against God, those who uphold God’s moral standards will have to shine light into darkness and will have to speak against sinful practices that may be widely accepted in society. Moral goodness is defined by the nature of God, and everything he commands is in accordance with his perfect and righteous goodness. Since God’s commands are found in Scripture, the Bible is the authority for ethics (McGrath 1999).

Christian Ethics Many Christian laws are from the Ten Commandments of Moses. Forbidding murder and theft are laws, which reflect the eternal moral character of God. Perhaps the most famous example is the Categorical Imperative of Immanuel Kant. He argued that we should only act out of a good will, and a good will does its moral duty for the sake of duty alone and not for the sake of consequences (Cessario 2013; Ratzinger 1975). Kant said exactly what Krishna said in Bhagavad Gita that we should work without thinking about the result or profit. Love of God for his

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children was related to Ramanuja of twelfth century and Sri Chaitanya of fourteenth century, who promoted the Bhakti (devotional) movement in India (Brodov 1984). Notovitch (1894) claimed that Jesus spent about 16 years in India from the age of 13–29, learning both Hinduism and Buddhism and came back to Palestine to preach Buddhism. That is the possible reason for the similarities of Christianity with both Hinduism and particularly Buddhism. Jesus said: “whoever wishes to be the great come great among you must be your servant, and whoever wishes to be first among you must be your slave; just as the Son of Man came not to be served, but to serve” (Bible, Matthew 20:27–28). These words promoted throughout the ages by followers of Jesus are at the root of the concept of “servant leadership,” in which the duty of the leader is to serve. This theory accentuates developing members of the organization, empowering them to serve, and demonstrating that serving others spurs followers onto virtuous behavior. Robert Greenleaf (2002) is the founder of this recent philosophy of leadership as he wrote in 2002 his book, Servant Leadership: a journey into the nature of legitimate power and greatness. He was inspired by Hermann Hesse’s books Journey to the East and Siddhartha. Obviously, he was inspired by Buddhism, which was the source of Christian values.

Christianity and Buddhism and Hinduism The idea that Jesus actually visited India can be traced to the Russian writer Nicolas Notovitch (1894) and his book The Unknown Life of Jesus Christ. In it, Notovitch claims to have visited the monastery of Hemis near Leh, Ladakh, in 1887 and to have read manuscripts there telling of the travels of Jesus, known as “Issa,” in India, including his teachings, his work with untouchables, and his conflicts with Brahmans and Zoroastrian priests (Crossan 1998; Bentley 1992). Swami Abhedananda, a brother monk of Swami Vivekananda, verified the claims of Notovitch by vising the same monastery in Ladakh in 1922 and supported Notovitch (Abhedananda 1988). In 1929, Nicholas Roerich and his son George Roerich went there and found clear evidences to support Notovitch (Roerich 1929; Roerich 1931). In 1986, Elizabeth Prophet mounted a defense of Notovitch’s book by pointing to other very similar accounts by the Indian Swami Abhedananda in 1922 and Elizabeth Caspari in 1937 (Prophet 1986). Holger Kersten

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(1994), in Jesus Lived in India: His Unknown Life before and after the Crucifixion, added an extra twist to this line of reasoning by arguing that Jesus visited India not only during his “lost years” but also after his crucifixion, which he allegedly survived, calling himself Yuz Asaf. Max Müller once wrote that Buddhist missionaries were sent forth from India as early as 300 B.C., comprising “a succession of devoted men who spent their lives in spreading the faith of the Buddha over all parts of Asia” (De Bunsen 1880; Martin 1999; Melamed 1933). In 1935, Will Durant confirmed Müller’s claim by arguing that, in the wake of Alexander’s conquests, the great Indian ruler Ashoka “sent Buddhist missionaries to all parts of India and Ceylon, even to Syria, Egypt and Greece, where, perhaps, they helped prepare for the ethics of Christ” (Durant 1935). Melamed (1933) concluded that “Palestine, together with many other parts of Asia Minor, was inundated with Buddhist propaganda for two centuries before Christ.” One good example of this is the Buddhist monk Thich Nhat Hanh’s (1995) book Living Buddha, Living Christ, in which the author acknowledges “I touch both of them as my spiritual ancestors.” A year later, the Dalai Lama (1995) himself cited numerous equivalent texts in Christianity and Buddhism when writing The Good Heart: A Buddhist Perspective on the Teachings of Jesus. The specifics of Christ’s teachings also bear remarkably close resemblance to those of Buddha (Borg 2005; Gross and Much 2000; Hanson 2005; Jones 2007). We cite from Borg (1999) some examples to prove the similarities: JESUS: “A foolish man, which built his house on sand.” BUDDHA: “Perishable is a city built on sand.” JESUS: “Therefore confess your sins one to another, and pray one for another, that you may be healed.” BUDDHA: “Confess before the world the sins you have committed.” JESUS: “In him we have redemption through his blood, the forgiveness of sins.” BUDDHA: “Let all sins that were committed in this world fall on me, that the world may be delivered.” JESUS: “Do to others as you would have them do to you.” BUDDHA: “Consider others as yourself.” JESUS: “If anyone strikes you on the cheek, offer the other also.” BUDDHA: “If anyone should give you a blow with his hand, with a stick, or with a knife, you should abandon all desires and utter no evil words.”

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JESUS: “Love your enemies, do good to those who hate, bless those who curse you, pray for those who abuse you.” BUDDHA: “Hatreds do not cease in this world by hating, but by love: this is an eternal truth. Overcome anger by love, overcome evil by good.” JESUS: “This is my commandment, that you love one another as I have loved you.” BUDDHA: “Let your thoughts of boundless love pervade the whole world.” JESUS: “Let anyone among you who is without sin be the first to cast a stone at her.” BUDDHA: “Do not look at the faults of others or what others have done or not done; observe what you yourself have done and have not done.”

Given the extensive and remarkably close correlations between the lives of Jesus and Buddha, as well as between their teachings, that we at the very least have a puzzle to solve, whether fundamental Christianity is an extension of Buddhism or it is a continuation of Judaism and Old Testament, providing violent and racist doctrines with which Jesus had no similarity. Hinduism gives extreme importance to love just like Christianity. In Rig Veda, there is a song of creation, which says: There was no sky, and no heaven beyond the sky. There was neither death nor immortality, there is no signs of day and night. Darkness is hidden in darkness. All was fluid and formless. The ONE was breathing by its own power….in the void, by the fire of fervor arose the ONE. In the ONE arose love. Love is the first seed of soul. (Rig Veda, 10, 129)

Bhagavad Gita has love interwoven with it. “Love is the means of turning life into light, the bond of union between the finite and the infinite. Man can find peace in the Infinite, not in the finite. This is expressed very clearly by St John of the cross, when he says, Cuando reparas en algo, dejas de arrojarte al Todo. If you desire anything for its finite pleasure we shall miss its infinite joy” (Bhagwat Gita 1984). Krishna said to Arjuna in Bhagavad Gita, “leave all things behind.” Krishna said, “In any way that men love me, in that same way, they find my love” (Bhagavad Gita, 4.11). “Even those who in faith worship other gods, because of their love, they worship me” (Bhagavad Gita, 9.23). St Teresa expressed that too, when she said, “Ni hay para que querer luego que todos vayan por nuestro camino. There is no reason why we should want everyone else to follow our own path” (Muscaro 1962).

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Self-control and sense of perfection are the essence of Karma Yoga of Bhagavad Gita. Only self-control makes it possible to create harmony. Emmanuel Kant said self-control must be at the service of a good will. If the joy of the inner kingdom is found, the pleasure of the lower disappears (Muscaro 1962) St John of the Cross said, it is the love alone that unites the soul with God; St Teresa said, the love of God must not be built up in our imagination, but must be tried by works. These ideas are reflected in the Bhagavad Gita (Muscaro 1962). Bhagavad Gita said, all work should be both beautiful and holy. Krishna said, “…offer to me all thy works and rest thy mind on the Supreme. Be free from vain hopes and selfish thoughts and with inner peace fight thou thy fight” (Bhagavad Gita, 3.30). He also said, “Whatever you do or eat or give or offer in adoration, let it be an offering to me; and whatever you suffer, suffer it fort me.” St Paul said the same in the Corinthians, “Whether, therefore ye eat or drink or whatsoever ye do, do all to the glory of God” (Acts of the Apostle, Cor. 10:31). St Thomas came to India in the second century A.D. Syrian text of the Acts of St Thomas mentioned the connection between Gondopharnes (Lord of Gandhar, Gandharvesa in Sanskrit). St Thomas converted him into Christianity in about 21 A.D., preached in South India, founded several churches there, and died a martyr’s death at Mylapore near Madras in 68 A.D., according to the South Indian Christians. Eusebius the Bishop of Carsarca, mentioned that Pantainos of Alexandria came to India in the late second century A.D., to preach the Gospel of Christ. In Malabar, he found St Bartholomew, who was preaching the Hebrew Gospel of Mathew. Christian Churches in India were established by the missionaries from Persia. The Historians History of the World, Vol II, p 170, said that “The tenets of Christ were all of Eastern origin.” The Therapeuts of Egypt and the Essenes of Palestine were Buddhist sects. Buddhism in Syria was a preparation for Christianity. Messages and teaching of Buddhism and Christianity are the same. Close relationship existed between India and Greece before Christ in scientific, religious, and literary ideas. Buddhist ideas penetrated into the Greek world before Christ, the example is the Girnar inscription of Emperor Ashoka. Christian legends, tales, traditions, forms, institutions, and moral precepts are largely based on Buddhism. Pliny in his Natural History (V, p 17) describes the Essenes of Palestine (Pliny the Elder 2009). They spread the tenets of Buddha to pious and

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thoughtful Jews. Early Christianity was Essenism, that is, Buddhism as it prevailed in Palestine. Similarity between Hinduism and Christianity is no less important. Both give importance of devotion as the means of salvation. There is close relationship between the messages of Krishna and Christ. Both preached religion and lofty morality. Both Christianity and Hinduism have trinity and transmigration of soul. Both Krishna and Christ promised that they would not abandon their devotees. Both preached love. There were Hindu colonies in Syria, Palestine, and other parts of Western Asia. So, Christ was influenced by both Hinduism and Buddhism. Similarity of the Indian, Greek philosophies and the religions like Hinduism, Buddhism, and Jesus’s teaching begs the question about their same origin. The answer can be found in some unbiased history of the ancient world (Mazumdar 1917). Religious institutions and universities particularly in the Western world deliberately distorted the real history and propagated their imaginary history to prove the separate origin of Greek and Indian civilizations; examples can be found in the recent writings of Fredericksen (2000), Eddy and Boyd (2007), and Forbes (2009).

References Abhedananda. 1988. Journey into Kashmir and Tibet. Calcutta: Vedanta Press. Allen, R. 1966. Greek Philosophy: Thales to Aristotle. New York: The Free Press. Aristotle. 2009. Nicomachean Ethics, trans. D. Ross). Oxford: Oxford University Press. Aquinas, T. 1981/1273. Summa Theologiae. London: Burns Oates and Washbourne Ltd. Bailey, C. 1964. The Greek Atomists and Epicurus. New York: Russell & Russell. Barnes, J. 1979. The Pre-Socratic Philosophers, vol. 2. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul. Basham, A.L. 1951. History and Doctrine of the Ajivikas. A Vanished Indian Religion. London: Luzak & Co. Bentley, J. 1992. Cross-Cultural Contacts and Exchanges in Pre-Modern Times. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Bhagwat Gita. 1984. London: Penguin. Bhattachariya, N. 1976. Jain Philosophy: Historical Outline. New Delhi: Munshiram Manoharial. Borg, M. 1999. Jesus and Buddha: The Parallel Sayings. Berkeley, CA: Ulysses Press.

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Borg, M. 2005. The Spirit-Filled Existence of Jesus. In The Historical Jesus in Recent Research, ed. James Dunn and Scot McKnight. New York: Eisenbrauns. Brodov, N. 1984. Indian Philosophy in Modern Times. Moscow: Progress Publisher. Buraet, J. 1930. Early Greek Philosophy. London: Adam & Charles Black. Cessario, R. 2013. Introduction to Moral Theology. Washington, DC: Catholic University of America Press. Cicero. 1933. De Natura Deorum, trans. H. Rackham. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. Cicero. 1998. De Re Publica, trans. N. Rudd. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Crook, R.H. 2002. An introduction to Christian ethics. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall. Crossan, J.D. 1998. The Birth of Christianity: Discovering What Happened in the Years Immediately After the Execution of Jesus. San Francisco: Harper. Dalai Lama. 1995. The Good Heart. New York: Rider. De Bunsen, E. 1880. The Angel Messiah of Buddhists, Essenes, and Christians. London: Longmans. Dharma Path. 1988. Kuala Lumpur: Sasana Abhiwurdhi Wardena Society. Durant, W. 1935. The Story of Civilization: Our Oriental Heritage, Part One. New York: Simon and Schuster. Eddy, P., and G. Boyd. 2007. The Jesus Legend: A Case for the Historical Reliability of the Synoptic Gospels. Michigan: Baker. Forbes, D. 2009. A Christian Apologetic to a Buddhist Christ, M. A. Thesis, Liberty Baptist Theological Seminary. Fredericksen, Paula. 2000. From Jesus to Christ. New Haven: Yale University Press. Freeman, K. 1948. Ancilla to Pre-Socratic Philosophers. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. Gangopadhya, M. 1980. Indian Atomism: History and Sources. Calcutta: K. P. Bagchi & Co. Gill, R. 2001. The Cambridge Companion to Christian Ethics. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Gomperz, T. 1901. Greek Thinkers, vol. I. London: John Murray. Gorman, P. 1979. Pythagoras: A Life. London: Routíedge & Kegan Paul. Greenleaf, R.K. 2002. Servant Leadership. Indianapolis: Paulist Press. Gross, R., and T. Much (eds.). 2000. Buddhists Talk about Jesus, Christians Talk about The Buddha. London: Bloomsbury. Hanh, Thich Nhat. 1995. Living Buddha, Living Christ. New York: Penguin Putnam. Hanson, J. 2005. Was Jesus a Buddhist? Buddhist-Christian Studies 25: 75–89. Jones, David. 2007. Did Jesus Visit India?, 101. New Dawn: March-April.

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Keith, A.B. 1968. Indian Logic and Atomism. New York: Green Wood Press. Kersten, H. 1994. Jesus Lived in India: His Unknown Life before and after the Crucifixion. New York: HarperCollins. Lambridis, H. 1976. Empedocles. Birmingham: The University of Alabama Press. Lomperis, T.J. 1984. Hindu Influence on Greek Philosophy. Calcutta: Minerva. Martin, E.T. 1999. King of Travelers: Jesus’ Lost Years in India. New York: Jonah Publishing Company. Mazumdar, A.K. 1917/2008. Hindu History. New Delhi: Rupa. McGrath, A.E. 1999. Christian Spirituality. An Introduction. Oxford: Blackwell. Melamed, S.M. 1933. Spinoza and Buddha: Visions of a Dead God. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Muscaro, Juan. 1962. Bhagwat Gita, a Translation. London: Penguin. Nanananda, B. 1971. Concept and Reality in Early Buddhist Thought. Kandy: Buddhist Publication Society. Narada, Maha Thera T. 1980. Buddha and His Teachings. Colombo: The Associated Newspapers of Ceylon Ltd. Notovitch, N. 1894. The Unknown Life of Jesus Christ. New York: Simon & Schuster. Pinckaers, S. 1995. The Sources of Christian Ethics (Original: Les sources de la morale crètinne, University Press Fribourg, 1985). Washington, DC: The Catholic University of America. Pliny the Elder. 2009. The Natural History. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Poulakos, J. 1995. Sophistical Rhetoric in Classical Greece. Columbia: University of South Carolina Press. Prophet, Elizabeth. 1986. Lost Years of Jesus. New Delhi: Jaico. Rahula, B. 2000. The Untold Story About Greek Rational Thought: Buddhist And Other Indian Rationalist Influences On Sophist Rhetoric, PhD thesis, Texas Technical University. Raju, P.T. 1971. Philosophical Traditions of India. London: University of Pittsburgh Press. Rankin, H.D. 1983. Sophists, Socratics, and Cynics. London: Croom Helm. Ratzinger, J. 1975. The Church’s Teaching. In Principles of Christian Morality, ed. J. Ratzinger Schürmann and H. V. Balthasar, 45–73. San Francisco: Ignatius Press. Rawlinson, H.G. 1952. India. New York: Praeger. Roerich, N. 1929. Altai-Himalaya. New York: Frederick Stokes. Roerich, G. 1931. Trails to Inmost Asia: Five Years of Exploration. New Haven, CN: Yale University Press. Shah, N. 1998. Jainism: The World of the Conquerors. Brighton: Sussex Academic press. Sedler, J.W. 1980. India and the Greek World. London: Rowman and Littlefield.

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Sedley, D. 1999. Parmenides and Melissus. In Cambridge Companion to Early Greek Philosophy, ed. A. A. Long. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Stace, W.T. 1965. A Critícal History of Greek Philosophy. London: Macmillan. Stoneman, R. 2019. The Greek Experience of India. Princeton: Princeton University Press. Tablan, F. 2017. Early Philosophical Atomism: Indian and Greek. Washington: Bellevue College Press. Untersteiner, Mario. 1954. Older Sophists (Trans. Kathleen Freeman). New York: Philosophical Library. Upanishad. 1949. New York: Ramakrishna-Vivekananda Center. Wadell, P.J. 1991. The Primacy of Love: An Introduction to the Ethics of Thomas Aquinas. New York: Paulist Press. Waterfield, R. 1998. The Histories. By Herodotus. Oxford: Oxford University Press. West, M.L. 1971. Early Greek Philosophy and the Orient. Oxford: The Clarendon Press. Wogaman, J.P. 1993. Christian Ethics: A Historical Introduction. Louisville, KY: John Knox Press. Wood, N. 1988. Cicero’s Social and Political Thought. Berkeley: University of California Press. Wright, M.R. 1981. Purifications. Empedocles: The Extant Fragments. New Haven: Yale University Press. Wynne, J.P.F. 2019. Cicero on the philosophy of Religion. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

CHAPTER 6

Ethics of Buddhism

The Buddhist tradition acknowledges that life is complex and that there is not a single course of action that will be right in all circumstances. Buddhism encourages the impartial investigation of Nature, an activity referred to as Dharma-Vicaya, the principal object of study being oneself (Harvey 2000; Snodgrass 2003). Classical philosophers like Aristotle and medieval philosophers in the Aristotelian tradition like Maimonides and St. Thomas Aquinas thought that human beings, too, had a purpose. For Aristotle, it was a telos or “final end” intended by Nature—man’s telos was fulfilled by developing one’s intellectual and moral virtues so as to achieve a state of eudaemonia, often translated as “human flourishing” or “well-being.” For St. Thomas, man’s purpose was to live in accordance with God’s intentions, for who we are to be and with Natural Law as established by God. Our initial idea of value is inherent in our consciousness itself (De Bunsen 1880; Fredericksen 2000). There are a number of possible strands within the Buddhist tradition, which might allow for such a solution. The first is the classical Buddhist idea of karma as the causes and consequences of rebirth and of ethics as along with meditation and wisdom resulting in enlightenment. Morality determines higher and higher level of rebirths and freedom from future rebirths. This scheme is the answer to the question of “why should we

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behave morally?” It is related to Aristotelian path toward eudaemonia and to perfect enlightenment (Tamura 2001; Keown 1992). Dependent Origination implies that the human qualities of consciousness, reason, and value are coming from Nature and ultimately from the universe. The Bodhisattva Path offers a telos, a final end (Edelglass 2013; Takaya 2005). Concentration is the primary requirement. Wisdom is the complete, overall knowledge of our activity is wisdom. There is no other way. Morality is the binding force (Sizemore and Swearer 1990; Ratanakul 2007).

The Buddhist Approach to Morality Karma Lekshe Tsomo, a professor of theology and a nun in the Tibetan Buddhist tradition, explains, “ When making moral choices, individuals are advised to examine their motivation and to weigh the consequences of their actions in light of the Buddha’s teachings ” (Daizen 2006). To quote St. Augustine (354–430), from his seventh homily on the First Epistle of John: ….through love hold your peace, whether you correct, through love correct; whether you spare, through love do you spare: let the root of love be within (Hanson 2005).

A human with power to command and kill should demonstrate benevolence and mercy: love, magnanimity, affection for others, sympathy, and pity, as these are the highest values of the human soul. Courtesy and politeness should be the expressions of benevolence. The goal of Buddhist practice is generally to break the cycle of rebirth through good deeds. The five precepts are (Wijiyaratna 1990): 1. I undertake the training rule to abstain from taking life; 2. I undertake the training rule to abstain from taking what is not given; 3. I undertake the training rule to abstain from sensual misconduct; 4. I undertake the training rule to abstain from false speech; 5. I undertake the training rule to abstain from liquors, wines, and other intoxicants, which are the basis for heedlessness. The three additional rules of the Eight Precepts are (Bodiford 2008):

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6. “I accept the training rule to abstain from food at improper times” (e.g., no solid foods after noon, and not until dawn the following day). 7. “I accept the training rule (a) to abstain from dancing, singing, instrumental music, and shows, and (b) from the use of jewelry, cosmetics, and beauty lotions.” 8. “I accept the training rule to abstain from the use of high and luxurious beds and seats.” Ten Wholesome Actions Bodily actions (Harvey 2000): 1. “Someone gives up killing living creatures,” they “renounce the rod and the sword.” 2. “They give up stealing. 3. “They give up sexual misconduct. Verbal actions: 1. They don’t deliberately lie for the sake of themselves or another, or for some trivial worldly reason.” 2. “They give up divisive speech. 3. “They give up talking nonsense. Mental actions: 1. They don’t covet the wealth and belongings of others. 2. They are loving and live with their heart full of love. They’re kind and live with their heart full of kindness. 3. There is meaning in giving, sacrifice, and offerings. There are fruits and results of good and bad deeds. There is an afterlife. There are duties to mother and father. Buddhism does not see humans as being in a special moral category over animals or as having any kind of God given dominion over them as Christianity does. Humans are seen as being more able to make moral choices,

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and this means that they should protect and be kind to animals who are also suffering beings who are living in samsara (Borg 1999, 2005). The Buddhist King Ashoka promoted vegetarian diets and attempted to decrease the number of animals killed for food in his kingdom by introducing “no slaughter days” during the year (Durant 1935). Monks are not allowed to cut down trees, and the planting of trees and plants is seen as fruitful. Buddha’s teachings tended to promote gender equality as the Buddha held that women had the same spiritual capacities as men did. Buddhist monks and nuns of most traditions are not only expected to refrain from all sexual activity but also take vows of celibacy (Forbes 2009; Eiichi 2005). Buddhist Pathway of Life The Buddhist philosophy said that man can overcome his problems by killing the desires hidden. Desire is the root cause of all unhappiness. It was the task of Buddha to provide a firm foundation for morality. Buddhism tried to shift the center from the worship of God to the service of man. Buddha founded a religion independent of dogma and priesthood, sacrifice, and sacrament; instead, it would insist on an inward change of heart and system of self-culture. He made it clear that the attainment of salvation depends upon the perfection of character and devotion to the good but not on the acceptance of doubtful dogmas or indulging in the deeds of darkness. The message of Buddha is in the following words: Never in this world does hatred cease by hatred – hatred ceases by love. Victory breeds hatred, for the conquered is unhappy. One may conquer a thousand men in battle; but he who conquers himself is the greatest victor. Let man overcome anger by kindness, evil by good not by birth, but by his conduct alone, does a man become a low caste or a Br¯ahmin. (Drama Path)

Buddha stood for the uplift of poor, the lowly, and disinherited. Buddhism represented a progressive world outlook and expressed in its own manner the discontent of the oppressed people and their aspirations for social equality and a better life. Buddhism is humanistic. It suggests the ability of the individual to achieve ethical goals in this world. It said:

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An act which is to be opposite to the evil of hims¯ ˙ a (violence) has to be, in part at least, positive by nature. The cultivation of each of the four brahma-vih¯aras serves as an antidote to corresponding evil. By friendliness, malevolence will be prevented. By sympathetic joy aversion will be overcome. By equanimity sensory reaction will be prevented. (Dharma Path)

Buddhist Philosophy The philosophical foundation of Buddhism is the theory of Dharmas. According to this theory, all that is, all nature is a single stream, a whirlwind consisting of elements (atoms). The life span of an element is infinitesimal or a flare (Brodov 1984). Everything, which consists of them, will sooner or later cease to exist. All phenomena of nature, both material and spiritual, cannot be called real being. Dharma the carrier of these elements, the real, eternal, and immutable substance, is the essence of all phenomena. Brodov (1984) explains this philosophy in simple terms. The world consists of unlimited number of qualities, things, objects, and phenomena. However, these have their beginning and end. Any quality is just a flare, which exists for a fixed time and then disappears. Thus, objects and phenomena do not exist. These are illusions. In the material world, almost everything depends on everything else. This was principally directed against the religious view of the world as a derivative of God the creator. Lenin wrote, “It is in the theory of atoms, that natural science first feels released from the need for demonstrating a foundation for the world. For if nature is represented as created and held together by another, then it is conceived of as not existent in itself ” (Lenin, The Collected works, vol 38, Conspectus on Hegel’s book Lectures on the History of Philosophy). Ethics and Buddhism Ethics is the philosophical study of morality. Ethics is the foundation and structure of morality regarding how we ought to live. Ethics is defined as systematic understanding of moral concepts. Ethics justifies the theories and principles of right behavior that guides individuals and groups on how to behave in the society. The general notion about all areas of knowledge

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is that if it is not scientific or demonstrable, then there is no use of it. Ethics break this dogma. The well-being of mankind is another end considered to be of supreme value in the Buddhist texts and this well-being and happiness are conceived of as both material and spiritual welfare. Buddhist ethics, therefore, has a close connection with a social philosophy as well. We have in the Buddhist texts an account of the nature and origin of society and the causes of social change. There is also an account of the nature and functions of government, the form of the ideal social order, and how it is likely to be brought about. Man-made laws and social customs do not form the basis of Buddhist ethics. Buddhist ethics finds its foundation not on the changing social customs but rather on the unchanging laws of nature. The simple fact that Buddhist ethics is rooted in natural law makes its principles both useful and acceptable to the modern world. Morality in Buddhism is essentially practical in that it is only a means leading to the final goal of ultimate happiness. Buddhist ethics are not founded on any commandments which men are compelled to follow. Rather than addressing sinners with such words as “shameful,” “wicked,” “wretched,” “unworthy,” and “blasphemous,” he would merely say, “You are unwise in acting in such a way since this will bring sorrow upon yourselves and others.” The goal of Buddhism is a modification of a person’s behavior and a transformation of a person’s emotive and cognitive constitution. The goal of Buddhism is defined purely in psychological terms. It is to be free from greed, hatred, and delusion. They are described as unwholesome roots because it is through their influence that people are motivated to commit unethical acts such as destruction of life, causing harm or injury to other living beings, misappropriation of the belongings of others, indulgence in sexual misconduct and the wrongful enjoyment of sense pleasures, the use of false, harsh, frivolous, and slanderous speech, etc. Action themselves are considered as neither good nor bad but only the intention and thought make them so. Deeds are condensations of thoughts just as rain is a condensation of vapor. A person who has a purified and radiant mind, who has a mind empty of all defiled thoughts and feelings, is incapable of committing immoral actions. Buddhist ethics also recognizes the objectivity of moral value. In other words, the karmic consequences of actions occur in accordance with natural karmic law, regardless of the attitude of the individual or regardless

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of social attitudes toward the act. For example, drunkenness has karmic consequences; it is evil since it promotes one’s own unhappiness as well as the unhappiness of others. The karmic effects of drunkenness exist despite what the drunkard or his society may think about the habit of drinking. The ethic or moral truth is created by an individual and is revealed by an individual in his behavior. Buddhism is a worldview centered on ethics. The argument is related to the evaluation of the views of Leo Tolstoy. It is well known that Tolstoy created an integrated religious and moral teaching that equated the rationality of human existence with man’s righteousness, while the rational perception of the world was made contingent on sensible behavior. Tolstoy came up with the notion of non-violent resistance to evil. He used the principle of nonresistance, an unconditionally moral principle, as a limit to all other forms of activity by man, and he transferred man’s struggle against moral evil in the world to the inner world of man himself. In founding his view of man and the world, Tolstoy proceeded from Jesus Christ’s Sermon on the Mount. Furthermore, he believed his teaching to be the most precise interpretation of Christianity. He set off the Sermon on the Mount against the symbol of faith and, while denying his divine nature, considered Jesus Christ a great reformer. This was explained by Abdusalam Guseynov in Buddhism as an Ethics-centered Worldview, in the Symposium with Institute of Philosophy, Russian Academy of Sciences (Brodov 1984). Economic Ethics Bhutan’s government promotes the concept of “Gross National Happiness” (GNH), based on Buddhist spiritual values. Buddha’s teachings to the laypeople included advice on how to make their living and how to use their wealth. Right livelihood is an element of the Noble Eightfold Path and generally refers to making one’s living without killing, being complicit in the suffering of other beings (by selling weapons, poison, alcohol, or flesh), or through lying, stealing, or deceit (advertising which deceives others, for example) (Edelglass 2013; Keown 1992). The Buddha placed much emphasis on the virtue of giving and sharing, and hence, the practice of donating and charity is central to Buddhist economic ethics. Even the poor are encouraged to share, because this brings about greater spiritual wealth.

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The modern growth of “Engaged Buddhism” has seen an emphasis on social work and charity. Buddhist aid and activist organizations include “Buddhist Global Relief,” “Lotus Outreach,” “Buddhist Peace Fellowship,” “Piyarra Kutta,” “International Network of Engaged Buddhists,” “The Tzu Chi Foundation,” “Nonviolent Peace force,” and “Zen Peacemakers” (Keown 2003). Buddhist texts promote the building of public works, which benefit the community and stories of Buddhist kings like Ashoka are used as an example of laypeople who promoted the public welfare by building hospitals and parks for the people (Durant 1935). The gold standard for rulers in Buddhism is the ideal “wheel turning king,” the Chakravartin. A Chakravartin is said to rule justly, giving to the needy and combating poverty so as to prevent social unrest. A Chakravartin does not fight wars for gain but only in defense of the kingdom, he accepts immigrants and refugees, and builds hospitals, parks, hostels, wells, canals, and rest houses for the people and animals (Durant 1935; Harvey 2000). Mahayana Buddhism maintains that lay Bodhisattvas should engage in social welfare activities for the good and safety of others. Buddhist monasteries often became places where the poor, destitute, orphaned, and elderly can take shelter. Monasteries often provided education and took care of the sick, and therefore are also centers of social welfare for the poor (Harvey 2000; Snodgrass 2003). Mahayana Buddhist tradition is politically supporting “a welfare state …a rule of compassionate socialism.” Prominent Buddhist socialists include the 14th Dalai Lama who promotes Buddhist economics that does not necessarily define itself as socialist but still offers a critique of modern consumer capitalism. E. F. Schumacher on the Buddhist economics (1973) wrote: “Buddhist economics must be very different from the economics of modern materialism, since the Buddhist sees the essence of civilization not in a multiplication of human wants but in the purification of human character” (Schumacher 1973: Ratanakul 2007). While modern economics seeks to satisfy human desires, Buddhism seeks to reduce our desires, and hence, Buddhist economics would tend to promote a sense of Anti-consumerism and Simple living. From a Buddhist perspective then, “Right consumption” is based on well-being while “wrong consumption” is the need to “satisfy the desire for pleasing sensations or ego-gratification.” The religion of consumerism emphasizes greed, hatred, and delusion which causes anxiety and that this must be

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opposed to an ethic of satisfaction. Modern attempts to practice Buddhist economics are in the Gross National Happiness economics of Bhutan (Daizen 2006). Buddhism praises contentment as “the greatest wealth.” Poverty and debt are seen as causes of suffering, immorality, and social unrest if they prevent one from having basic needs. Buddhism promotes the middle way between a life of poverty and a materialistic or consumerist life. According to Sizemore and Swearer: “it specifies an attitude to be cultivated and expressed in whatever material condition one finds oneself. To be nonattached is to possess and use material things but not to be possessed or used by them. Therefore, the idea of non-attachment applies all across Buddhist society, to laymen and monk alike” (Sizemore and Swearer 1990). The Buddhist view is that moral behavior flows naturally from mastering one’s ego and desires and cultivating loving kindness and compassion. Ethical conduct—through speech, action, and livelihood— is part of the path, as are mental discipline—through concentration and mindfulness—and wisdom (Kenji 2006). The relevance of Buddhism to the modern social context lies in the fact that it offers a middle way that recognizes in principle the norms of scientific rationality, while rejecting both the extreme materialist worldview of modern science and the metaphysical and dogmatic fundamentalism of traditional religion. In Buddhist terms, scientific and technological progress has in no way resulted in the reduction of the unwholesome roots of human behavior, namely greed, hatred, and delusion. As long as these roots of unwholesome behavior are not drastically reduced or are kept within reasonable limits, it would not be possible to think of peace, harmony, happiness, and contentment in society. Modern science does not provide us with the knowledge of what is morally right or wrong, good or bad. One of the most important features that distinguish life among humans from life among brutes is that human beings desire not only to live, but also to live well. They search for meaning in life and seek to attain rationally justifiable moral ideals and goals. To be concerned with morality is to be concerned with human good and harm, happiness and unhappiness, ill and well-being. The ultimate goal of the Buddhist way of life is the eradication of greed, hatred, and delusion. The goal of Buddhist practice is generally to break the cycle of Samsara of births and rebirths as one can also work for rebirth in a better condition through good deeds. Actions,

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which produce good outcomes, are termed “merit” (fruitful, auspicious), and obtaining merit is an important goal of Buddhist practice.

References Bodiford, W. 2008. Soto Zen in Medieval Japan. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press. Borg, M. 1999. Jesus and Buddha: The Parallel Sayings. Berkeley, CA: Ulysses Press. Borg, M., 2005. The Spirit-Filled Existence of Jesus. In The Historical Jesus in Recent Research, eds. James Dunn and Scot McKnight. New York: Eisenbrauns. Brodov, N. 1984. Indian Philosophy in Modern Times. Moscow: Progress Publisher. Daizen, B. 2006. Zen at War. Lanham: Rowman & Littlefield. De Bunsen, E. 1880. The Angel Messiah of Buddhists, Essenes, and Christians. London: Longmans. Durant, W. 1935. The Story of Civilization: Our Oriental Heritage, Part One. New York: Simon and Schuster. Dharma Path, 1988, Kuala Lumpur: Sasana Abhiwurdhi Wardena Society. Edelglass, W. 2013. Buddhist Ethics and Western Moral Philosophy. In A Companion to Buddhist Philosophy, ed. S.M. Emmanuel. London: WileyBlackwell. Eiichi, O. 2005. Missionary Activities of Nichiren Buddhism in East Asia. In Modern Japanese Buddhism and Pan-Asianism. The 19th World Congress of the International Association for the History of Religions, Tokyo. Forbes, D. 2009. A Christian Apologetic to a Buddhist Christ. M. A. Thesis, Liberty Baptist Theological Seminary. Fredericksen, Paula. 2000. From Jesus to Christ. New Haven: Yale University Press. Hanson, J. 2005. Was Jesus a Buddhist? Buddhist-Christian Studies 25: 75–89. Harvey, P. 2000. An Introduction to Buddhist Ethics. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Kenji, N. 2006. On Buddhism, trans. S. Yamamoto. Albany: State University of New York Press. Keown, D. 1992. The Nature of Buddhist Ethics. London: Macmillan. Keown, D. 2003. A Dictionary of Buddhism. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Lenin, V.I. 1976. Collected Works, Vol. 38. Moscow: Progress Publisher. Ratanakul, P. 2007. The Dynamics of Tradition and Change in Theravada Buddhism. The Journal of Religion and Culture 1 (1): 233–257. Schumacher, E.F. 1973. Small Is Beautiful. New York: Harpers Collins.

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Sizemore, R., and D. Swearer. 1990. Ethics, Wealth and Salvation: A Study in Buddhist Social Ethics. Columbia, SC: University of South Carolina. Snodgrass, Judith. 2003. Presenting Japanese Buddhism to the West: Orientalism, Occidentalism, and the Columbian Exposition. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press. Takaya, K. 2005. The Jodo Shinshu Sect´s Missionary Work in Colonial Korea. In Modern Japanese Buddhism and Pan-Asianism. The 19th World Congress of the International Association for the History of Religions, Tokyo. Tamura, Y. 2001. Japanese Buddhism: A Cultural History. Tokyo: Kosei. Wijayaratna, M. 1990. Buddhist Monastic Life: According to the Texts of the Therav¯ ada Tradition. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. http://plato.stanford.edu/archives/fall2014/entries/ethics-indian-buddhism/.

CHAPTER 7

Ethics of Japanese Buddhism, Shintoism, and Confusion Philosophy

In the year 467 A.D., five monks from Kabul region of Gandhara traveled by ship to Fusang as Japan used to be called. Then, in sixth century, Bodhisena arrived from India to make Buddhism popular in Japan. Empress Suiko, reigned from 593 A.D. to 628 A.D., encouraged the people to accept Buddhism. The cultural life of the Heian period, especially among the aristocrats, was heavily indebted to Buddhism, especially in the arts. There can be little doubt that Buddhism brought about an ethical, psychological, and literary deepening of the Japanese intellectual and cultural tradition through the introduction of its systematic philosophical exploration of the human condition. The intricate and profound explorations of the human condition in The Tale of Genji cannot be understood without reference to Buddhist thought. Buddha dedicated himself to a life of asceticism and study with the aim of releasing people from the four sources of sufferings, namely birth, aging, sickness, and death. Saicho (Dengyo Daishi) the founder of the Tendai Sect of Buddhism in Japan wrote, “it may be a corner in society but find your own place and became a person who tries his or her best to serve the world.” It reflects the concept of there being one vehicle by which everyone can achieve enlightenment based on what he or she has. Buddha taught the following: © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 D. Basu and V. Miroshnik, Ethics, Morality and Business: The Development of Modern Economic Systems, Volume I, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-71493-2_7

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All things have mind as their precursor. Mind is the master, gives rise to everything. If with an impure mind someone perform acts, sufferings follow him in the same way as the cart follows the foot of the ox. If with a pure mind, someone speaks or acts, happiness follows him like his shadow that never leaves him. (Dharma Path)

As the thirteenth-century Japanese Buddhist monk Eihei Dogen might say, “earth, grasses and trees, fences and walls, tiles and pebbles” coparticipate in our enlightenment, our enlightenment transforming space and time as we co-awaken with the whole of reality. Actions that help ourselves, and others to actualize wisdom and facilitate mindful awareness, non-harming, compassion, and non-grasping, are moral. Actions that detract from it are immoral (Daizen 2006; Suzuki 1959). Zen Buddhism in particular has become a method of training in perfection, a method of concentration and self-control, a training in efficiency, in aesthetic appreciation, and in creativity. Outside Japan, it is rare to find techniques of mysticism practiced by many without the reward of a religious mystic experience; yet here it is practiced by policemen and soldiers, sportsmen, artists, and businessmen as a superior way of reaching perfection in their chosen way of life. Through the practice of Zen, one reaches complete denial of the self (muga, mushin, i.e., non-existence of the self). The Buddhist view is that moral behavior flows naturally from mastering one’s ego and desires and cultivating loving kindness and compassion. The foundation teaching of Buddhism, expressed in the Four Noble Truths, is that the stress and unhappiness of life are caused by our desires and ego-clinging. Ethical conduct—through speech, action, and livelihood—is part of the path, as are mental discipline—through concentration and mindfulness—and wisdom (Daizen 2006).

Economic Effects of Buddhism in Japan In both China and Japan, the phase of capitalist expansion in the secular economy was preceded by an economic boom within the enclave of religious economy. In Asia, a Buddhist monastic economy laid the foundations for growth. The first expansion occurred in early medieval China, resulting in a breakout to a secular economy in the Sung dynasty. In Japan, imported Chinese Buddhist institutions spearheaded a growing market economy. Japan broke free from the direct influx of Chinese culture just when China was turning, institutionally and ideologically,

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against Buddhism. The bureaucratic centralization of the Ming (1368– 1644) and Manchu Colonial (1644–1911) dynasties became dominant in China after the independence of the Chinese monasteries had been crushed and their properties confiscated; meanwhile, Japan was becoming socially and culturally autonomous. While Buddhism was declining in China during the Neo-Confucian revival, Japan acquired the Chinese Buddhist organizations. These proliferated throughout Japan from 1200 to 1500 in the form of the Pure Land and Zen movements. The monasteries and the popular Buddhist movements built up networks of transactions, which before the Tokugawa period had placed Japan in favorable economic position as any other part of the world, according to Collins (1997). Growth of the Medieval Buddhist Economy in Japan The beginnings of economic growth in medieval Japan can be traced through several waves of religious movements (Kitagawa 1987; McMullin 1984; Yamamura 1990). The original Japanese society of kin-based clans was organized in the sixth and seventh centuries into a centralized state, primarily by the establishment of Buddhism as a state religion. The original Buddhist temples were modeled on organizational lineages imported from China and Korea, just when Tang-dynasty Buddhism was at its wealthiest and most powerful. In Japan, Buddhism grew even more dominant than in China because the rival power of Confucian bureaucracy, which eventually undercut Buddhism in China, failed to develop in Japan. The great Buddhist temples operated economically much like the court aristocracy. Located in or near the capital cities, Nara and subsequently Heian (Kyoto), these temples were supported by the agrarian economy. The major Buddhist temples became the leading landholders and the centers of the largest extractive networks. This disintegration of Japan in 1330 coincided with the outburst of two new kinds of Buddhist movements, the popular Pure Land sects and the more elite Zen. The major Pure Land sects and their offshoots (Jodo, founded in 1175; Jodo Shinshu or Ikko, founded by Shinran in 1224; Nichiren-shu, founded by Nichiren in 1253; Ji, founded 1275) were movements of wandering evangelists. Whereas the great court monasteries recruited primarily from the upper class and emphasized elaborate ceremonial, the Pure Land sects simplified the ritual of salvation down to chanting a few prayers or vows (nembutsu).

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The economic base of these movements shifted to alms collected from the common people and to temples in the small towns as well as in the commercial quarters of the cities. Encouraging lay participation, some evangelists (above all the Ikko movement) broke down the lifestyle barrier between monks and laity, and allowed priests to marry. In effect, they created a “Protestant” form of Buddhism paralleling the break from celibacy in European Christianity following Luther. Zen began by recruiting from a higher-class base, especially the feudal warriors, while maintaining contact with the court aristocracy. Zen reformed court Buddhism, in this case by emphasizing meditation rather than ceremonial and magic. In the 1200s and 1300s, one major branch of Zen, the Rinzai lineages, built large monasteries under patronage from both the Kamakura shogun and the Kyoto aristocracy. By the late 1300s, the great Rinzai temples in these two capitals, the so-called Five Mountains, presided over a hierarchy of secondary and provincial temples throughout the country, whose revenues contributed to the elite temples. Because of its influence on elite culture, Rinzai Zen is the most famous version of Japanese Buddhism; but other branches of Zen spread more widely around the countryside and probably had more effect on the economic practices of everyday life. A rival branch of Zen, the Soto lineages, expanded to a different niche: small-scale rural monasteries, which made meditation exercises available to common people. Soto provided the elementary education that promoted widespread literacy of the Japanese population. Soto Zen, like the Pure Land movements, tended to dissolve the barriers within traditional Buddhism between the lifestyles of monks and laypeople. Monasteries and religious movements became the dominant Japanese institutions during the Muromachi era (1333–1460) and especially the Sengoku era (1460–1570), the period of the “Country at War.” Buddhist organizations were diverse and contributed to economic dynamism. The main distinctions are those among the older ceremonial Buddhism of the court-related monasteries (especially Shingon and Tendai), the Zen movement, and the Pure Land-type movements.

Economic Ethics An ethic of self-discipline and ascetic restraint on consumption, resulting in accumulation and investment, originated in internal reforms in medieval Japanese Buddhism (Collins 1997). The earliest temples in the

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Nara and Heian periods (ca. 700–1185) had carried out ostentatious aristocratic court display, combining Shingon magic and ceremony with the traditional ritualism of the dominant Japanese clans. The Buddhist movements that proliferated after 1185 reacted against this dominance of ceremonial religion: in one direction, by Zen reforms in the monasteries; in another, by the Pure Land movements of simplified participation among the common people. Zen introduced disciplined monastic life and attempted to get rid of magic and ceremony. Zen meditation practices were oriented not toward producing deep trance, but (especially in the Zazen of the Soto branch) toward tranquil attentiveness. Scholars looking for sources of the Japanese work ethic draw our attention to Suzuki Shosan in the early Tokugawa period. Suzuki, a Zen monk independent of the main sects, proselytized among the common people, explicitly declaring that all work is Buddhist spiritual practice; he formulated an ethical code for merchants that stressed the performance of duties without greed for personal gain (Nakamura 1967; Yamamoto 1992). The Nichiren movement gave special emphasis to asceticism and discipline. Radically anticeremonial, it pruned down all rituals by reciting the Lotus sutra. Nichiren-shu was a movement of emotional evangelism that called for continuous purification in the midst of everyday life. Like the other branches of Pure Land, the religious emphasis shifted from the worldly benefits of magic and ritual to ethical concerns with inner sinfulness and the need for otherworldly salvation. Pure Land missionaries preached the tortures of hell awaiting human sinners; the religion exerted tremendous emotional pressure, to make a sincere invocation of divine Grace. Nichiren-shu spread primarily among townspeople and was the main urban religion just when Japan was transformed from a land of rural manors to a network of market towns. The rival Ikko movement built on yet another social base, organizing bands of adherents among the peasants. This was the great Ishiyama Honganji at Osaka Bay, which became the largest and most powerful temple, indeed the most powerful economic and military unit of any kind in Japan during the 1500s.

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The Buddhist Contribution to Bureaucratic Legalism and Property Rights Japanese Buddhism began to provide systematic law protecting property transactions. In Europe, Weber ascribed this role to the emergence of state bureaucracy, along with the traditions of Greek citizenship and Roman law. In the Confucian institutions imported from China, however, there was no independent profession of lawyer. Apart from state administrative law, there was no legal structure, which was oriented toward protecting private property. Moreover, even the state-bureaucratic aspect of Confucian institutions did not take hold in Japan, where the government was dominated first by the court aristocracy and then by the independent feudal warriors. Buddhism, within its own sphere, had the features of systematic legal regulation. Buddhism had a long-standing legal system, embodied in the Vinaya (Modesty) regulations (Ritsu) that covered every aspect of monastic life including monks’ personal possessions and use of collective property. In both the Chinese and Japanese monasteries, a full-scale bureaucratic structure existed (Akamatsu and Yampolsky 1977). The task of administering internal transactions among parts of a temple’s corporate properties represented a decisive step toward far-reaching legal regulation of economic transactions. After 1300, temple-gate towns (monzen-machi) or precinct towns grew up, in which temples acted as legal authorities and arbitrated disputes among merchants. In self-governing cities such as Sakai, it was possible to buy and sell land. The same legal structures that permitted these transactions protected property from debt cancellation. Such property protections also spread to the feudal domains, as the warring daimyo tried to attract merchants by guaranteeing similar property protection in the castle towns. In Europe, the papacy gave a special impetus to European legalism by its development of canon law and the resulting incorporation of law schools into the church-sanctioned universities. In Japan, the power of the great monasteries was based on their monk-armies. Buddhist organizations became increasingly well equipped to defend their rights and the rights of their followers. They represent the existence of a Buddhist political machinery capable of enforcing property rights. In both cases, citizenship rights of joint political participation took form through corporate bodies of armed men. In Japan, these corporate

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bodies originated in the Buddhist orders. The Japanese Buddhist conception of “citizenship” did not stress the rights of the individual monk, but rather the collective rights of the sangha (the monastic community); the power of the monastic armies translated this ideal into rights. The Breakout to the Secular Economy The peasant uprisings beginning in the 1470s, that deprived both temples and aristocrats of traditional coerced land rents, succeeded mainly when organized as peasant confederations (monto) under the Ikko Pure Land sect. Economic control shifted from the more traditional temples to the most market-oriented temples—the Ikko headquarters, the Honganji temple at Osaka bay. The Shoguns Nobunaga and Hideyoshi carried out a policy of monastic property confiscation similar in many respects to that of the Protestant Reformation in Europe. Guild privileges were undermined by the establishment of free markets; toll barriers (previously operated by temples as sources of revenue) were abolished; merchants were allowed free movement within domains. As a result, Buddhist capitalism was substantially eliminated. Temples were reduced to tiny, essentially propertyless units. In the medieval period, the temples held at minimum 25 percent of all cultivated land; by the early Tokugawa, their holdings had declined to 2.5 percent.

Meiji and Buddhism By 1800, Japanese workers’ standard of living was close to that of English workers, which itself was exceptional within Europe (Hanley 1986; Yasuba 1986). Tokugawa Japan also had the world’s highest popular literacy rate and one of the earliest and largest commercial markets for books. Meiji period ruined Buddhism in Japan, when main temples were destroyed. Shinto was declared the state religion. Japan came under the influence of Britain. Religious institutions were the most likely place within agrarian societies where a leading sector of capitalist institutions could first be assembled. Pre-Tokugawa Buddhist Japan provided those institutions. This development in turn led the general revival of East Asian economic dynamism that has surged to such heights in the world trading system of the twentieth century (Collins 1997).

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Zen Buddhism Bodhidharma was the founder of Zen, the Japanese Buddhism. The unwritten Samurai code of conduct, known as Bushido, held that the true warrior must hold that loyalty, courage, veracity, compassion, and honor as important, above all else. An appreciation and respect for life were also imperative, as it added balance to the warrior character of the Samurai (Holmes and Horioka 1973). Bushido refers not only to martial rectitude, but to personal rectitude: Rectitude or justice is the strongest virtue of Bushido. Bushido distinguishes between bravery and courage: Courage is worthy of being counted among virtues only if it is exercised in the cause of righteousness and rectitude (Takaya 2005; Tamura 2001). There are six major principles in Zen Buddhism (Inazo 1899; Hiroike 1928): 1. Living every moment to the fullest. 2. Transcending dualism and using it freely. 3. Respecting the physical. 4. Enlarging awareness. 5. Releasing natural altruistic action. 6. Increasing serenity and effectiveness in daily life (From Masunaga Text. Hiroike 1928). These can be expanded into the following principles (Inazo 1899): 1. The realities of life are most truly seen in everyday things and actions. 2. Everything exists according to its own nature. Our individual perceptions of worth, correctness, beauty, size, and values exist inside our heads, not outside them. 3. Everything exists in relation to other things. 4. The self and the rest of the universe are not separate entities but one functioning whole. 5. Man arises from nature and gets along most effectively by collaborating with nature, rather than trying to master it. 6. There is no ego in the sense of an endlessly enduring, unchanging private soul or personality that temporarily inhabits the body.

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7. True insight does not issue from specialized knowledge, from membership in coteries, from doctrines or dogmas. It comes from the preconscious intuitions of one’s whole being, from one’s own code. 8. In emptiness, forms are born. When one becomes empty of the assumptions, inferences, and judgments he has acquired over the years, he comes close to his original nature and is capable of conceiving original ideas and reacting freshly. 9. Being a spectator while one is also a participant spoils one’s performance. 10. Security and changelessness are fabricated by the ego-dominated mind and do not exist in nature. To accept insecurity and commit oneself to the unknown creates a relaxing faith in the universe. 11. One can live only in the present moment. 12. Living process and words about it are not the same and should not be treated as equal in worth. 13. When we perceive the incongruity between theories about life and what we feel intuitively to be true on the nonverbal, non-judging plane, there is nothing to do but to laugh. 14. Each of us develops into a unique individual who enters into unique transactions with the world as it exists for him. The following Eight Gates of Training “are designed to help the practitioner get in touch with the free, unconditioned nature of the self” (Hiroike 1928): 1. Seated meditation—Zazen 2. Teacher-student relationship 3. Liturgy 4. Right Action—Precepts 5. Art practice 6. Body practice 7. Academic study 8. Work practice. Japanese Buddhist philosophy is more or less practice oriented, and the distinction between philosophy and religion is often blurred accordingly. A greater number of Buddhist theories and texts appeared in and after

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the Heian period (794–1185 A.D.). The growth of honji suijaku (“true nature manifestation”) theory, according to which indigenous Japanese gods are transformed or syncretized manifestations of the Buddhist pantheon, and the development of hongaku (“original enlightenment”) theory, which asserts the strict non-duality of the phenomenal and the real, offer fine examples of Japanese creativity. In the Rinzai school of Zen, students introspect with koans, verses from Buddhist philosophy. In the Soto school of Zen, students generally do not engage in koan introspection. In both Rinzai and Soto Zen, teachers often present koans in formal talks. Zen teachers may make a new koan any time, out of just about anything. Zen scholar Eihei Dogen might say, “earth, grasses and trees, fences and walls, tiles and pebbles” coparticipate in our enlightenment, our enlightenment transforming space and time as we co-awaken with the whole of reality. Actions that help ourselves, and others to actualize wisdom and facilitate mindful awareness, non-harming, compassion and non-grasping, are moral. Actions that detract from it are immoral (Daizen 2006; Suzuki 1959). Late in the thirteenth century, samurai began to practice Zen meditation with Rinzai masters. The intensive concentration of Rinzai-style meditation can be an aid in enhancing martial arts skills and reducing fear of death on a battlefield. Some samurai intensely engaged in Rinzai Zen practice, and a few became masters. Both Soto and Rinzai Zen grew in prominence and influence during the Muromachi Period (1336–1573), when Zen made a huge impact on many aspects of Japanese art and culture. As regards Japan, Zen was first introduced into the island as the faith first for the Samurai or the military class, and molded the characters of many distinguished soldiers.

Bushido is the code of conduct for the Samurai class. In the book, Bushido: The Soul of Japan, Nitobe Inazo interprets the samurai code of behavior: how chivalrous men should act in their personal and professional lives. The word samurai originally meant “one who serves” and referred to men of noble birth assigned to guard members of the Imperial Court. Eventually, some evolved

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into daimyo or feudal lords who ruled specific territories independently of the central government.

Though Bushido deals with the profession of soldiering, it is equally concerned with non-martial behavior: The sense of Honor, a vivid consciousness of personal dignity and worth, characterized the samurai. Bushido teaches that men should behave according to an absolute moral standard, one that transcends logic. What’s right is right, and what’s wrong is wrong. The first objective of samurai education was to build up Character (Suzuki 1959). True samurai disdained money. Bushido encouraged thrift, not for economical reasons so much as for the exercise of abstinence. Luxury was thought the greatest menace to manhood, and severe simplicity was required of the warrior class. We collected the Bushido’s Eight Virtues (Hiroike 1928): I. Rectitude or Justice Bushido refers not only to martial rectitude, but to personal rectitude: Rectitude or justice is the strongest virtue of Bushido. A well-known samurai defines it this way: “Rectitude is one’s power to decide upon a course of conduct in accordance with reason, without wavering; to die when to die is right, to strike when to strike is right” (Hiroike 1928). II. Courage Bushido distinguishes between bravery and courage: Courage is worthy of being counted among virtues only if it is exercised in the cause of righteousness and rectitude. III. Benevolence or Mercy A human invested with the power to command and the power to kill was expected to demonstrate equally extraordinary powers of benevolence and mercy: Love, magnanimity, affection for others, sympathy and pity, are traits of benevolence, the highest attribute of the human soul. IV. Politeness In Japan, for a true man, courtesy is rooted in benevolence. Politeness should be the expression of a benevolent regard for the feelings of others. V. Honesty and Sincerity

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Bushido encouraged thrift, not for economical reasons so much as for the exercise of abstinence. Luxury was thought the greatest menace to manhood, and severe simplicity was required of the warrior class … the counting machine and abacus were abhorred. VI. Honor The sense of honor, a vivid consciousness of personal dignity and worth, characterized the samurai. VII. Loyalty Loyalty to a superior was the most distinctive virtue of the feudal era. VIII. Character and Self-Control Bushido teaches that men should behave according to an absolute moral standard. The first objective of samurai education was to build up Character.

Shintoism Shintoism is indigenous to Japan and characterized by ancestor worship. “In Japan the ancient Samurai who risked their lives on the battlefield knew well the importance of character. The essence of their training and discipline lay in mastering the mind which means polishing one’s character. The Samurais knew by experience that a sense of gratitude, loyalty, truthfulness, responsibility and the mastery of art exerted a great influence over their ability to compose themselves in the face of imminent danger” (Hiroike 1928). Isolation and trade protection served to encourage domestic entrepreneurs from foreign competition and helped to develop the home economy. During the Meiji period, an extreme sense of nationalism, including economic nationalism, was developed. The Japanese themselves see work as the real aspect of life. Work is, after all, making things as the gods made the worlds. The term “care” refers to attention, consideration, and concern (Mizuno 1991; Hiroi 2000). In Article I, the Constitution states that Japanese society must be based on the fundamental principle of WA or harmony. “Harmony is to be honoured, and discord to be averted. However, everyone has his personal interpretations and biases, and few arc farsighted. Hence there are those who disobey their lords and fathers, and who quarrel with their neighbours. When concord and union are maintained between those above

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and below, and harmony rules in the discussion of affairs, right reason will prevail by itself and anything can be accomplished” (Hiroike 1928). According to Articles X and XVII of the Constitution of Japan, which is based on Shintoism, in order to achieve harmony, rulers should discuss important matters with their subjects. Article II states the moral levels of the individual citizens can be improved through Buddhism and the state should propagate that. Article XII decrees that local governors are not rulers but civil servants. Bureaucrats must respect sincerity (Art. IX). They should not accept bribes (Art. V). The people should be served without delay (Art. XIII). (www.pass.va/content/dam/scienzesociali/pdf/acta5/acta5-pittau. pdf) For Japanese people, the moral values were created through the Record of Ancient Matters (Lojiki), the Chronicle of Japan (Nihon Shoki), and Ten Thousand leaves (Manyoshu). In addition, the eleventh-century Tale of the Genji (Genji Monogatari) and the thirteenth-century Tale of the Heike (Heike Monogatari) also constitute moral lessons for the Japanese people. Record of Ancient Matters (Kojiki) edited by Yasumaro Ono in 712, Nihon Shoki (Chronicle of Japan) written in 720, was compiled by Prince Toneri; documents regarding the Imperial Court from the age of the Gods to the reign of Empress Jitou were major contributors of moral lesson for the people (Hiroike 1928). Japan’s national anthem Kimigayo (His Majesty’s Reign) is a song of love for this symbolic Emperor and the National Community: “Thousands of years of happy reign be thine Rule on, my lord, till what are pebbles now By age united to mighty rocks shall grow Whose venerable sides the moss doth line.”

(Collection of poems ancient and modern, Kokin Waka Shu, an Imperial anthology, conceived of by Emperor Uda (r. 887–897) and published by order of his son Emperor Daigo (r. 897–930), in about 905, Hiroike 1928) Emperor Meiji wrote a poem about his concern for world peace, written just before the Russo-Japanese War (Hiroike 1928):

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“It is our hope That all the world’s oceans Be joined in peace So why do the winds and waves Now rise up in angry rage? Were we to have ties Of affection as deep as Brothers and sisters Then even foreign people Would not become estranged.”

Bushido puts extreme importance on the education of character and soul rather than knowledge and brain and the teacher was respected as a person with a sacred mission. Amaterasu Omikami is the center of national morality in Japan. It placed the importance on the purity of mind. Harmony was the central point of the Seventeen Article Constitution (604 A.D.) by Prince Shotoku. This spirit is also present in the three sacred objects: the mirror (knowledge), the curve stand jewels (benevolence), and the sword (bravery) (Hiroike 1928). Bushido means the way of the warrior traced the importance of loyalty to the master, respect for ancestors, and filial piety toward parents, righteousness, courage, benevolence, propriety, and faithfulness. It derives from Buddhism quiet submissions to inevitable events and calmness in the face of danger or disaster (Rozman 1991). Righteousness in Bushido means justice, fairness in every dealings with other people. A strong samurai should have utmost integrity, never compromising what is right. He is fearless. Extending courtesy is another character the Samurais must have. Samurais must display honesty. He must be absolutely loyal to his master. A Samurai should behave according to an absolute moral standard. “Zen” is the Japanese equivalent for the Dhyâna, which “represents human effort to reach through meditation zones of thought beyond the range of verbal expression.” To the Japanese, the country is more than land and soil—it is the sacred abode of the gods, the spirits of the forefathers: to the Japanese the Emperor is the bodily representative of Heaven on earth, blending in his person its power and its mercy. The tenets of Shintoism cover the two most important features, patriotism and loyalty. The philosopher and ethical Tetsuro Watsuji (1889–1969) explained that the moral character of the Japanese in the old days is expressed in their esteem for the value of purity, which includes respect for fairness, honor, benevolence, and justice

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(Hiroike 1928). The guiding political and social principles of the Meiji era were also grounded in this spirit as well as in the Imperial Oath of Five Articles (1868). Shinto has a very unique way of viewing things. First, there is no absolute distinction between the divine, the human, and the natural; rather, they form a continuum. The term for the divine is kami, which is most often rendered in English as “god,” but which seems to have been used in the sense of “superior,” “that which has strange powers,” “that which man cannot understand,” “miraculous,” or “awesome.” Whenever there was something, which inspired a sense of awe in man because of its power or beauty, this was said to be a kami or a place where a kami resided. Anything which had this cosmic charisma was a kami, whether it was a rock, a mountain, a man, or a phenomenon of nature; thus, for example, Mt. Fuji was a kami, as were many historical figures and the Emperor (Bellah 1957; Yamamura 1989). Everything in the world had a spirit and even speech, but some places or beings were loci for especially intense concentrations of this spiritual or cosmic energy, and this was called kami. This means, there is an essential oneness about the universe; man is not above nature but part of it and consequently is able to live in friendly intimacy with the gods who, too, are part of the whole. The relationship to the kami was very much a communal, rather than an individual, affair, since the local objects of worship were most likely nonpersonified powers that protected the village or the forces of nature essential to sustaining the agricultural cycle. It was only at a later stage that personalities were ascribed—and then only cursorily—or that humans could be regarded as kami. In fact, there seems to have been little or no distinction between a man or object being a kami and a man or object being respected as a kami because of being possessed by a spirit or infused with a cosmic energy (Inazo 1899; Nishitani 2006). Thus, the notion of the kami as lawgivers who must be obeyed on pain of punishment did not arise. Rather, both kami and men participated in the natural order of things, which was seen as a general progression from chaos to order. This progression, the order of things, was very much a manifest phenomenon to be discerned directly through perception and intuition, rather than the result of hidden workings, which could only be grasped through the application of tortured reasoning. Although there was a distinction between the manifest and the hidden, the emphasis was always on the apprehensible and the immediate. There

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was very little reference to the world of darkness after death except to note that it was there and that it was man’s fate to die as part of the natural order of things. Shinto was basically optimistic in orientation and focused on the present, concrete world of ordinary existence. Man, and the world also, was inherently good. There were, of course, calamities and misfortunes to be avoided if at all possible, which could be called evils. Some of these— death, for example—were in fact unavoidable, but such evils, including possession and harassment by malevolent spirits, were regarded as circumstances to be contended with as part of the conditions of human existence (Yamamura 1989; Daizen 2006). There were no elaborate and systematic ethical proscriptions since there was no absolute good or evil. What was counted as good or evil depended very much on the specific conditions obtaining as well as on the nature of the community to which one belonged (Holmes and Horioka 1973). What counted more than anything else were sincerity and courtesy, which meant the eradication of selfish desire. A man of pure heart would automatically act properly and promote harmony in the community. The distinction between evil, proper, and improper action would be made by the soul of man on the basis of intuition, which could be strengthened and sharpened with the help of the kami. It was as if there was a harmony between the soul of man and the higher energy level of the deity, which would produce greater clarity of vision in the former (Bellah 1957; Nishitani 2006). However, one could not simply approach the kami, sources of such immense spiritual power, without taking proper precautions. To avoid insulting the kami or otherwise causing a dissonance between the kami and oneself, with all the dire consequences that might entail, the petitioner had to purify his mind and body before coming into the sacred precincts. The importance of the rites of purification in Shinto cannot be understated. The core concepts, both metaphysically and ethically, are purity and pollution or defilement, not virtue and sin. One is supposed to make the effort to avoid defilement; should one fail to avoid defilement, it is then necessary to undergo rituals of purification. Sin or moral guilt was not a feature of Shinto belief, or at least not the outstanding feature, but defilement very definitely was (Dumoulin 1990; Inazo 1899).

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Rites of purification thus become a central concern in Shinto, since they alone can restore an individual to the condition of purity required to make him fit to stand in the presence of the kami and to participate in human society. In other words, upon deeper investigation, it becomes clear that many of the same values and beliefs that Weber (1991, 1992) described in his Protestant Ethic have long been present in Japan. Japanese Ethic of long working hours, high savings rates, and entrepreneurship has been guided by that nation’s particular culture. In his writings on Asia, Weber failed to apply his own basic rule of inquiry because of his ignorance and racial superiority: how an economic system within a particular society was uniquely shaped by its history, culture, and other embedded superstructure. Although guided by a different set of ideological principles, the same basic tenets of capitalist development, which Weber (1991, 1992) attributed exclusively to Protestantism, hard work, asceticism, and profit oriented, private entrepreneurship, were already long present in Japan at the time of his writings in the early twentieth century. In fact, evidence suggests that all three elements were among the guiding tenets of Japanese entrepreneurs for more than 400 years, especially among the merchants of its historic commercial capital, Osaka (Roberts 1973; Yamamoto 1992). Evidence clearly suggests that, at least since the beginning of the twentieth century, Japanese workers have been equally as committed, if not more so, to the concept of work, as their counterparts in the USA and UK, the two nations that have represented Weber’s prototypical examples of his Protestant Ethic (Wargo 1990). The second important factor is there to explain why the Japanese have worked so hard. There is a hegemonic politico-social context, which since ancient times has instilled a strong sense of filial piety in its citizens.

Confucian Ethic At the decisive moments of Japanese history, Confucianism with its ethical orientation has been the key clement in forging the political and economic system of Japan. The Taika Reform, with the Seventeen Article Constitution of Shotoku Taishi in 604, the unification of the country under the Tokugawa Shogunate (1603–1868), the Meiji restoration (1868) and its consequent radical changes, and finally, the post-war period (from 1945)

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have always had Confucianism as their ideological inspiration and ethical orientation (Hiroike 1928). Confucius was explained in The Great Learning (Da Xue): When objects were discerned, then the knowledge became perfect. When the knowledge was perfected, then the spirit became sincere. When the spirit was made sincere, then the mind became righteous. When the mind was corrected, then the character became (Da Xue text, Hiroike 1928). “Confucius emphasized the indispensible need for morality and highlighted the role of virtue in politics, holding up the ideal of ren or benevolence as the standard for human behavior” (in Analects of Confucius, 450 B.C., Hiroike 1928). Whereas in China, Confucianism had benevolence as its central virtue, in Japan, loyalty became the central virtue. Loyalty means total devotion to one’s lord or group, firm, or company; it is the will to serve, even at the sacrifice of one’s own life. Loyalty, together with filial piety and respect for elders, forms the triad of values, which regulate the social, hierarchical relationships. In such an ethical system, individualism does not flourish. Japanese Confucianism demands obedience to superiors, service to parents, reverence toward elders, and conformity with the majority. There is very little room left for the problem of the individual conscience or for a universal norm (Nishijima 1986; Eberhard 1977). Benevolence as taught by Confucius is compassion of mind for others. Mencius said in Gong Sun Chou, “The sense of compassion is the beginning of benevolence” (Hiroike, 1928). From this Confucian attitude, we could say that the Japanese see themselves primarily as members of groups, in which specific intragroup or intergroup relationships take precedence. In other words, ethics are more relativistic or situational rather than universal. Confucius emphasized the indispensible need for morality and highlighted the role of virtue in politics, holding up the ideal of ren or benevolence as the standard for human behavior (in Analects of Confucius, 450 B.C.). According to the Analects of Confucius, people with high character will prove steadfast when faced with situations where things do not go in the desired direction (Morishima 1987; Mark 1973). Ethics and morality orient our mind and behaviors toward the realization of happiness, the ultimate good, and allow us to stay the course. It also provides norms for mutual help and human coexistence fostering a spirit of mutual care and trust. It plays the essential role of strengthening

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the spiritual bond within a family, group, and organization, maintaining and developing order within the group, and giving joy and a sense of meaning of living to the members of the group. Frugality has long been a foundation tenet of Japanese-style Confucianism. However, its importance was substantially raised during the late-nineteenth century, after the Meiji government issued its imperial injunction to the armed forces, which emphasized it, along with loyalty, ceremony, faith, and bravery, as the most important virtues to be observed by the military and all segments of Japanese society. Frugality became a significant part of Japanese ethos in the lateeighteenth century, when the teachings of merchant turned philosopher, Baigan Ishida, became popular among Osaka, Kyoto, and Edo (now Tokyo) and among the businessmen, samurai, and townspeople. Ishida school of ethics, which came to be known as Sekimon Shingaku (a blend of Shintoism, Confucianism, and Buddhism), and whose principles viewed work and asceticism as a Zen calling, had played an influential role in the development of a spirit of capitalism in Japan. Jodo Shinshu Buddhism (Pure Land School), founded by Shinran Shonin in 1175, and currently the most widespread Buddhist sect in Japan, also stressed hard work and asceticism. Weber (1991) thought otherwise and stressed how devout Buddhist monks shunned work. Weber believed that as a Confucian society, Japan was too firmly grounded in taboo, traditional authority, and substantive rationality to foster economic individualism among its citizens. Weber was just ignorant. Moreover, he argued that since Japan continued to view merchants as of the lowest social status, even among the “heimin” or commoners (farmers, artisan, and merchants), its belief system prevented it from developing a rational money economy. Combined, these factors inhibited it from cultivating the entrepreneurial spirit necessary to develop capitalism. However, Weber’s view on Japanese social system was completely wrong. Weber thought wrongly that the Chinese caste system, where merchants had lower status, was also true for Japan. In the Japanese caste system, merchants were above both farmers and artisans; some merchants have equal status as that the rulers. However, as mentioned, a money economy replaced bartering in Japan centuries before Weber, by most accounts in the early seventeenth century. According to historians, the government first attempted, although unsuccessfully, to promote a money economy, in the eighth

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century. Then, in the late twelfth century, the circulation of money spread rapidly. By the fifteenth century, copper coins imported from China were regularly used in commercial centers, such as Osaka and Sakai, for overseas trade. This was followed by the establishment of the currency “Ryo” in 1601, which was measured in coins called “koban.” Thereafter, in 1615, paper money appeared in the form of notes issued by merchants (Roberts 1973; Yasuba 1986). While it was certainly possible that Weber (1991) was simply ignorant of these facts, he certainly should have been aware of the Yen being clearly established as the legal currency of commerce in Japan in 1871, nearly 35 years prior to his publishing of the Protestant Ethic and 45 years prior to his publishing of the articles which would become known as the Religions of Asia (Nakamura 1967; Yamamoto, 1981, 1992). Mercantilism and a money economy first flourished in Japan as early as the twelfth century, but were later terminated by the feudal leaders. An early stage of capitalism was alive and well in Japan perhaps as long ago as the fourteenth or fifteenth centuries, when Japanese merchant traders were already dominating Chinese shipping and commercial lanes (Hanley 1986; Hauser 1974; Morris-Suzuki 1994). By the mid-nineteenth century, entrepreneurial skills were well developed in the country, and “in every village there was at least one wealthy farming family” which had profitable auxiliary businesses on the side. However, these merchants were not just part of a new wave of entrepreneurialism. Rather, many of them were descendants of a rich tradition of entrepreneurship dating back to the seventeenth century, if not several centuries before. The markets of Izumi and Settsu, centered on Sakai and Osaka, date back to the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries, respectively. The area was so renowned for its commercial activities that it was frequently referred to as either the “Manchester of the Orient” or the “Manchester of the Far East” (Hall et al. 1981; Hall and Toyoda 1977; Hanley and Yamamura 1977). Max Weber (1991, 1992) was right to conclude that hard work, asceticism, and a strong entrepreneurial spirit were necessary embedded preconditions to capitalist development. What he was wrong about was Asian religions and particularly Japan, and its ability to develop such an ethic. Japan’s culture and religion have fostered a propensity to work long hours (hard work) and to maintain high savings rates (asceticism) (Jacobs 2010). It also has been a fertile crucible for entrepreneurship,

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with a rich history of profit-motivated merchants dating back more than 400 years (Sansom 1963a, b; McClain and Wakita 1999; Dator 1971; Sydney 1963). Confucianism was not and is not the basis of Japanese behavior as there is a significant difference between the behavior of the Chinese and Japanese.

Appendix Japanese DNA Haplogroup: There are three main Y-haplogroups in Japan, D, O, and C. D: Roughly 40% of Japanese belong to D, but nearly all of it is D1b which is unique to Japanese only. There is no D in China or Korea except in Tibet. But Tibetans are D1a. The D has very unique mutation called YAP. But there is one another haplogroup that has YAP, which is the haplogroup E. E only exists in the eastern Africa, West Asia, and some parts of Europe. So this could be the Japanese connection with Caucasians. O: Up to 30% of the Japanese belong to the haplogroup O, but they are O1b2 (O-47z), which almost exclusively occurs in Japan. Koreans are xO-47, and there is none of this in China. 15–20% of Japanese belong to O2. About 70% of the northern Chinese and 35% of Koreans belong to O2, so that this could well be the Japanese connection with Chinese and Koreans.

References Akamatsu, T., and P. Yampolsky. 1977. Muromachi Zen and the Gozan System. In Japan in the Muromachi Age, ed. J.W. Hall and T. Toyoda. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. Bellah, R. 1957. Tokugawa Religion. The Cultural Roots of Modern Japan. New York: Free Press. Collins, R. 1997. An Asian Route to Capitalism: Religious Economy and the Origins of Self-Transforming Growth in Japan. American Sociological Review 62 (6): 843–865. Daizen, B. 2006. Zen at War. Lanham: Rowman & Littlefield. Dator JA. 1971, The Protestant Ethic in Japan. In Selected Readings in Modern Japanese Society, eds. G.K. Yamamoto and T. Ishida. Berkeley: University of California Press.

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Dharma Path, collected by Bhikku Bodhi, http://www.maithri.com/dhamma pada. Dumoulin, H. 1990. Zen Buddhism: A History. New York: Macmillan. Eberhard, W. 1977. A History of China. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. Guseynov, A. 1975. Buddhism as an Ethics-centered Worldview in the Symposium with Institute of Philosophy. Moscow: Russian Academy of Sciences. Jacobs, A.J. 2010. Max Weber Was Right About the Preconditions, Just Wrong About Japan: The Japanese Ethic and Its Spirit of Capitalism. The Open Area Studies Journal 3: 12–29. Hall, J.W., K. Nagahara, and K. Yamamura. 1981. Japan Before Tokugawa: Political Consolidation and Economic Growth, 1500 to 1650. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. Hall, J.W., and T. Toyoda. 1977. Japan in the Muromachi Age. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. Hanley, S., and K. Yamamura. 1977. Economic and Demographic Change in Preindustrial Japan, 1600–1868. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. Hanley, S. 1986. Standard of Living in Nineteenth Century Japan: Reply to Yasuba. Journal of Economic History 46: 225–226. Hauser, W. 1974. Economic Institutional Change in Tokugawa Japan: Osaka and the Kinai Cotton Trade. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Hiroike, C. 1928. Treatise on Moral Science. Tokyo: Reitaku University. Hiroi, Y. 2000. Kea Gaku (A Science of Care). Tokyo: Igaku Shoin. Holmes, S., and C. Horioka. 1973. Zen Art for Meditation, Rutland. Vermont: Charles E. Tuttle. Inazo, N. 1899. Bushido, The Soul of Japan. Tokyo: Reitaku University. Kitagawa, J. 1987. On Understanding Japanese Religion. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. Mark, E. 1973. The Pattern of the Chinese Past. London: Methuen. McClain, J.L., and O. Wakita. 1999. The Merchants’ Capital of Early Modern Japan. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press. McMullin, N. 1984. Buddhism and State in Sixteenth Century Japan. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. Mizuno, J. 1991. Kea no Ningengaku, A Philosophical Anthropology of Care. Tokyo: Yumiru Shuppan. Morris-Suzuki, T. 1994. The Technological Transformation of Japan: From the Seventeenth to the Twenty- first Century. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Morishima, M. 1987. Confucius and Capitalism. New York: UNESCO. Nakamura, H. 1967. Suzuki Shosan and the Spirit of Capitalism in Japanese Buddhism. Moniimenta Nipponica 22: 1–14.

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Nishijima, S. 1986. The Economic and Social History of Former Han. In The Cambridge History of China, vol. 1, The Chin and Han Empires, eds. D. Twitchett and M. Loewe. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Nishitani, K. 2006. On Buddhism, trans. Seisaku Yamamoto and Robert E. Carter. Albany: State University of New York Press. Roberts, J.G. 1973. Mitsui: Three Centuries of Japanese Business. New York: Weatherhill. Rozman, G. 1991. The East Asian Region. Confucian Heritage and Its Modern Adaptation. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. Sansom G. 1963a. A History of Japan: 1334–1615. Palo Alto, CA: Stanford University Press. Sansom, G. 1963b. A History of Japan: 1615–1867 . Palo Alto, CA: Stanford University Press. Suzuki, D.T. 1959. Zen and Japanese Culture. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. Sydney, C.E. 1963. Changes in Japanese Commerce in the Tokugawa Period. Journal of Asian Studies 23: 387–400. Takaya K. 2005. The Jodo Shinshu Sect´s Missionary Work in Colonial Korea. In Modern Japanese Buddhism and Pan-Asianism. The 19th World Congress of the International Association for the History of Religions, Tokyo. Tamura, Y. 2001. Japanese Buddhism: A Cultural History. Tokyo: Kosei. Wargo, R. 1990. Japanese Ethics: Beyond Good and Evil. Philosophy East & West 40 (4): 499–509. Weber, M. 1992. The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism. New York: Routledge. Weber, M. 1991. Sociology of Religion. Boston: Beacon Press. Yamamoto, S. 1992. The Spirit of Japanese Capitalism. New York: Madison Books. Yamamura, K. 1997. The Economic Emergence of Modern Japan. New York: Cambridge University Press. Yamamura, K. 1989. Zen and the gozan. In The Cambridge History of Japan, vol. 3, Me-dieval Japan, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Yamamura, K. 1981. Returns on Unification: Economic Growth in Japan, 1550– 1650. In Japan Before Tokygawa, ed. J. Hall, K. Nagahara, and K. Yamamura. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. Yamamura, K. 1990. The Growth of Commerce in Medieval Japan. In The Cambridge History of Japan, vol. 3, Medieval Japan. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Yasuba, Y. 1986. Standard of Living in Japan before Industrialization: From What Level Did Japan Begin. Journal of Economic History 46: 217–224.

Conclusion

In this book, we have analyzed the origin of Economics from the historical point of views. The origin is in Arthashastra of Kautilya, which has its foundation on the ethical basis provided by Rig Veda and Upanishad, the ancient literature of the Aryan. We have analyzed the origin of the Aryans, and how they went out of India, to various parts of the world, as described by the Purana, the history of the world written in ancient Sanskrit. We have narrated the recent archaeological evidences in India, Russia, and Japan to justify the Puranic descriptions. We have explained the close relationship between the Greeks and Indian philosophical literature. We have narrated the similarities of Christianity and the Buddhist religions and the economic ethics of these two great religions to upheld humanistic heritages of the ideas expressed by Siddhartha, Aristotle, Jesus, and Cicero. Our main purpose is to dig out the ideas so far neglected in the Western literature and in the history of economic ethics. In this book, we have proved that despite differences in formalities and ceremonies, there are great similarities between Buddhism and Christianity on ethical dimensions. In Gospel of Mathews, particularly in the Sermons of Jesus from the mountain, we can see differences in the Christianity and laws of Moses. We have discussed at length Japanese Buddhism and Bushido, the way of the Samurais. When Buddhism became popular in Japan, the people

© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 D. Basu and V. Miroshnik, Ethics, Morality and Business: The Development of Modern Economic Systems, Volume I, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-71493-2

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have promoted Hindu deities as Buddhist deities or Bodhisattvas, mainly because of the similarities of Shinto Kamis and Hindu Devas and Devis. Our ultimate purpose is to spread the message that sages of different countries said the similar moral and ethical ideals, despite their different ceremonies and formal aspects. Human beings have same origin, among the cultivated cultured people or the Aryans. Aryan comes from the word Arya in Sanskrit, which means cultivated and cultured people. Economics should be based on these moral aspects of the accumulated knowledge of the human society rather than the stock market or the mathematics of finance. Wealth of a nation comes from moral sentiments that nation possesses, that was the real message of Adam Smith, which was said by both Aristotle and Kautilya, by both Jesus and Siddhartha Gautama Buddha before. Reference Sen, Amartya. 2010. Erasmus Journal of Philosophy and Economics 3 (1), 50–67.

Index

A Absolute Consciousness, 92 Action, 158 Adi Granth, 64 Aino, 40 Alienation, 58 Ancient Greece, 4 Ancient Greeks, 125 Arctic Circle, 31 Arctic civilization, 32 Arctic Home, 27 Arkaim, 36, 37 Arthashastra, 78, 105 Aryan-Dravidian, 26 Aryan(s), 1 culture, 27 ethics, 64 heaven, 97 invasion, 21 Ashoka, 156 Atma, 10 Atomism, 137 Atomistic theories, 12 Aurora Borealis, 30

Avesta, 38

B Babylonian wisdom, 131 Behavior, 161 Benevolence, 154, 175, 182 Bhagavad Gita, 58, 74, 146 Bhakti Movement, 82 Bhavishya Purana, 1 Brahman, 11, 65, 74 Brahma-Purana, 81 Brahmins/Br¯ahmin, 23, 156 British occupation, 21 Buddha, 128 Buddhism, 155 Buddhist capitalism, 171 economics, 160 ethics, 158 philosophy, 156 way of life, 161 Bureaucratic Legalism, 170 Bushido, 172

© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 D. Basu and V. Miroshnik, Ethics, Morality and Business: The Development of Modern Economic Systems, Volume I, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-71493-2

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INDEX

C Capitalism, 58 Capitalist institutions, 171 Celtic mythology, 25 Centralized state, 167 Chandogya Upanishad, 128 Chandra Gupta, 125 Character, 175 Charbak lokayatika, 128 Charvaka Nayatantra, 57, 142 Charvakas, 8 Chika, 31 Child labor, 111 Chinese caste system, 183 Christian ethics, 143 Christian values, 142 Citizenship rights, 170 Classical humanism, 57, 141 Classical philosophers, 153 Cognition, 97 Collective rights, 171 Commercial activities, 184 Commercial loans, 109 Competition, 60 Comptroller-Auditor, 109 Concrete world, 180 Consciousness, 82 Constitution of Japan, 177 Contracts, 120 Courage, 175

D Davav, 1 Definite Brahman, 92 Denial of the self, 166 Denisovians, 1 Dharma, 7, 75, 114 Dharmapada, 63 Dharma Path, 157, 166 DNA test, 26 Domestic entrepreneurs, 176

Dukkha, 136 Dwarka, 43 E Economic base, 168 Economic effects, 166 Economic nationalism, 176 Edicts of Ashoka, 126 Efficiency, 166 Eleatic School, 128 Empress Suiko, 165 Enthymeme, 129 Entrepreneurial spirit, 184 Equality, 63 Equanimity, 157 Ethics, 157 Ethics of Narada, 81 Ethics of Vidura, 79 Ethics of war, 114 Eurasians, 23 F Fiscal federalism, 107 Four Noble Truths, 166 Four varnas, 5 Frugality, 183 G Gandhara, 126, 165 Garam, 94 Gnana Yoga, 58 Great Learning, The, 182 Greek Buddhist, 126 Greek mythology, 27 Greek rationalist movement, 127 Gross National Happiness, 161 Gunas, 9 H Haplogroups, 22

INDEX

Happiness, 161 Heian period, 165 Hindu approach, 58 Hinduism, 59, 144 Home economy, 176 Honesty, 175 honji suijaku, 174 Human soul, 154 Hyperborea, 27, 34

I Ice Age, 27, 28, 45 Ideal society, 90 Immorality, 166 Indefinite Brahman, 92 Indian-origin R1a1a, 22 Indian rationalistic age, 128 Indian Renaissance, 83 Indigenous Aryans, 26 Indirect taxes, 108 Individual consciousness, 93 Individualism, 182 Indo-Aryan people, 24 Indo-European language group, 21 Indo-German language group, 21 Indus valley, 26 Integral Humanism, 57 Integral Vedanta, 92 Irish, 25 Islam, 68

J Jainism, 134 Japanese Buddhist philosophy, 173 Japanese entrepreneurs, 181 Japanese Ethic, 181 Japanese ethos, 183 Japanese society, 176 Jesus Christ, 144, 159 Justice, 116

193

K kami, 179 Karma, 7 Karma yoga, 58 Kautilya, 105 guardian of Emperor Chandragupta, 105 professor at Takshashila University, 105 Khilafats, 95 Kimigayo, 177 Kola Peninsula, 27, 32 Koran, The, 69 Kshatriya, 90 Kyoto aristocracy, 168 L Loyalty, 176 M Machiavelli, 113 Mahabharata, 30, 77 Mahayana Buddhism, 160 Mandala, 111 Mandukya Upanishad, 82 Man’s purpose, 153 Manu, 1 Manusmr.iti, 75 Market-oriented temples, 171 Mass movements, 94 Material Brahman, 92 Materialism, 135, 136 Materialistic ideas, 8 Matter, 86 Maya/Mayas, 11, 82, 92, 97 Megalithic structure, 39 Meiji, 171 Members of groups, 182 Mercantilism, 184 Migration, 26 Mimamsa school, 74

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INDEX

Miocene, 28 Mitranis, 125 Monastic economy, 166 Monastic life, 169 Money economy, 183 Monk-armies, 170 Morality, 153, 157, 166 Moral standard, 175 Moral values, 177 Mount Meru, 30 mtDNA, 22 Muromachi era, 168 Muromachi Period, 174

N Nagarjuna, 12 Naram, 94 Natural Law, 153 Neanderthals, 43 Neo-Confucian revival, 167 Nichiren movement, 169 Noble Eightfold Path, 159 Non-cooperation movement, 95 Nyaya, 8 Nyaya schools, 74

O Obedience, 182 Objective existence, 87 Okinawa, 39

P Pagan myths, 35 Palaeolithic settlements, 31 Patanjali, 10 Patriotism, 91 Peasant confederations, 171 Phoenician merchants, 130 Plato, 115 Pleistocene, 28

Politeness, 175 Polytheism, 64 Prakiti, 10 Proper behavior, 110 Property Rights, 170 Protestant ethics, 181 Protestantism, 181 Public administration, 108 Public enterprise, 109 Purana, 43 Pure heart, 180 Pure Land, 167 Purification, 180, 181 Purusha, 10 Purushartthas, 78 Pyramids, 33 R Rama, 41 Ramayana, 41 Ram Sethu, 43 Rationality, 141 Rebirth, 135 Rectitude, 175 Righteousness, 110, 159 Rig Veda, 1, 30 Rinzai, 168 Russian archeologists, 27 Russian epics, 34 Ryukyus, 39 S Sacred objects, 178 Sakai, 170 Samkhya, 4 Samurai, 172 Sanatan Dharma, 64 Sati, 84 Secularism, 140 Seleucus, 125 Self-control, 176

INDEX

Sengoku era, 168 Shinto, 171 Shintoism, 176 Simplicity, 175 Sindhu-Sarasvati, 26 Sintashta, 38 Sintashta-Petrovka, 37 Slavs, the, 36 Socialist India, 91 Social order, 106 Soviet Union, 121 Spiritual Brahman, 92 Spiritual civilization, 61 Spiritual practice, 169 Sri Lanka, 43 Steppe cultures, 37 Subsidies, 107 Sudra, 90 Svetesvatara Upanishad, 131

T Taittiriya Brahmana, 30 Tang-dynasty Buddhism, 167 Taxation, 107 Tax structure, 107 Tendai Sect, 165 Theory of Forms , 139 Tokugawa period, 167 Tranquil attentiveness, 169

U Upanishad, 63 Usha, 30 Utilitarianism, 58 V Vaisheshika philosophy, 139 Vaisheshikas, 9, 74 Vaishya, 90 Varnas, 75 Vedanta, 74 Vedic literature, 22 W Warfare, 113 Weakness, 91 Wealth creation of, 106 redistribution of, 116 Y Yoga Philosophy, 5 Yonaguni Island, 39 Z Zen Buddhism, 166 Zen Peacemakers, 160 Zoroastrianism, 68

195