Ether and Matter
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Ether and matter, by Carl Frederick Krafft. Krafft, Carl F. (Carl Frederick), 1892Richmond, Va., Dietz, 1945. http://hdl.handle.net/2027/uc1.b4253177
7 7 1 3 5 2 4 b . 1 c u / 7 2 0 2 / t e n . e l d n a h e . l l d g o h o / / : g p d t t p h # / s e T u _ M s G s e 1 c 3 : c a 6 / 0 g r 3 o . 2 t 5 s u r 0 - t 4 i h 1 t 0 a 2 h . n w o w ) w a / i : n / i p g r t t i h V f / o y d t i e z s r i t e i g v i i n d U ( e g c l 6 o o k j G e , r i n o a f d m e o t D a r c e i l n b e u G P
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7 7 1 3 5 2 4 b . 1 c u / 7 2 0 2 / t e n . e l d n a h e . l l d g o h / o / : g p d t t p h # / s e T u _ M s G s e 1 c 3 : c a 6 / 0 g r 3 o . 2 t 5 s u r 0 - t 4 i h 1 t 0 a 2 h . n w o w ) w a / i : n / i p g r t t i h V f / o y d t i e z s r i t e i g v i i n d U l ( e c g 6 o o k j G e , r i n o a f d m e o t D a r c e i l n b e u G P
7 7 1 3 5 2 4 b . 1 c u / 7 2 0 2 / t e n . e l d n a h e . l l d g o h o / / : g p d t t p h # / s e T u _ M s G s e 1 c 3 : c a 6 / 0 g r 3 o . 2 t 5 s u r 0 - t 4 i h 1 t 0 a 2 h . n w o w ) w a / i : n / i p g r t t i h V f / o y d t e i z s r i t e i g v i i n d U l ( e c g 6 o o k G j e , r i n o a f d m e o t a D r c e i l n b e u G P
7 7 1 3 5 2 4 b . 1 c u / 7 2 0 2 / t e n . e l d n a h e . l l d g o h o / / : g p d t t p h # / s e T u _ M s G s e 1 c 3 : c a 6 / 0 g r 3 o . 2 - t 5 s u r 0 - t 4 i h 1 t 0 a 2 h . n w o w ) w a / i : n / i p g t r t i h V f / o y d t e i z s r i t i e g v i i n d U l ( e c g 6 o o k G j e , r i n o a f d m e o t D a r c i e l n b e u G P
7 7 1 3 5 2 4 b . 1 c u / 7 2 0 2 / t e n . e l d n a h e . l l d g o h o / / : g p d t t p h # / s e T u _ M s G s e 1 c 3 : c a 6 / 0 g r 3 o . 2 - t 5 s u r 0 - t 4 i h 1 t 0 a 2 h . n w o w ) w a / i : n / i p g t r t i h V f / o y d t e i z s i r t i e g v i i n d U l ( e c g 6 o o k G j e , r i n o a f d m e o t D a r c e i l n b e u G P
7 7 1 3 5 2 4 b . 1 c u / 7 2 0 2 / t e n . e l d n a h e . l l d g o h o / / : g p d t t p h # / s e T u _ M s G s e 1 c 3 : c a 6 / 0 g r 3 o . 2 t 5 s u r 0 - t 4 i h 1 t 0 a 2 h . n w o w ) w a / i : n / i p g t r t i h V f / o y d t i e z s r i t e i g v i i n d U l ( e c g 6 o o k j G e , r i n o a f d m e o t D a r c e i l n b e u G P
7 7 1 3 5 2 4 b . 1 c u / 7 2 0 2 / t e n . e l d n a h e . l l d g o h / o / : g p d t t p h # / s e T u _ M s G s e 1 c 3 : c a 6 / 0 g r 3 o . 2 t 5 s u r 0 - t 4 i h 1 t 0 a 2 h . n w o w ) w a / i : n / i p g r t t i h V f / o y d t i e z s r i t e i g v i i n d U l ( e g c 6 o o k j G e , r i n o a f d m e o t D a r c e i l n b e u G P
E T H E R
A N D M A TT
R
B Y
C
A
R
L
F
R
E D R
I C
K
K R
A
F
F
T
H
R I C H M O N D , V R G
TH E
1
D
E TZ PR
I
N T
N I A :
N GC
O MPA N Y
45
7 7 1 3 5 2 4 b . 1 c u / 7 2 0 2 / t e n . e l d n a h e . l l d g o h o / / : g p d t t p h # / s e T u _ M s G s e 1 c 3 : c a 6 / g 0 r 3 o . 2 t 5 s u r 0 - t 4 i h 1 t 0 a 2 h . n w o w ) w a / i : n / i p g r t t i h V f / o y d t i e z s r i t e i g v i i n d U l ( e g c 6 o o k j G e , r i n o a f d m e o t D a r c e i l n b e u G P
Q C
n i
C O P
R I
C H T 1 ,
45
B Y
C arlF
. Krafft
P rinet d in t h e U ntie d S t a t s eo f A
m e ric a
7 7 1 3 5 2 4 b . 1 c u / 7 2 0 2 / t e n . e l d n a h e . l l d g o h o / / : g p d t t p h # / s e T u _ M s G s e 1 c 3 : c a 6 / 0 g r 3 o . 2 - t 5 s u r 0 - t 4 i h 1 t 0 a 2 h . n w o w ) w a / i : n / i p g t r t i h V f / o y d t e i z s r i t i e g v i i n d U l ( e c g 6 o o k G j e , r i n o a f d m e o t D a r c i e l n b e u G P
Preface
I
T is o f t e n sat t e d t htat h e p u rpsoe o f s cie ce c ne is t o m a k e
measurements,torecordobservations,andtofindcorre-
lationsbetweenthesame.Thatsuchpursuitsbelong
properlytotherealmof sciencecannotbedisputed,but
scienceisnotlimited topurelyempiricalorinductive
methodsofinvestigation.A nyprocedurebywhichthefacts
ofnaturecanbeascertaineddeservesto berecognizedasa
trulyscientificpursuit.Modernphysicsis devotedlargelyto
theuseofmathematicalsymbolsande
uations,butthesuc-
cessofthismethoddoes notjustifyusin condemningtheuse
ofmechanicalmodelsasunscientific.Mechanicalmodelsare
basedprimarilyongeometry,andgeometryisabranch of
mathematics—afacttod oftenignoredbyphysicists.These
considerationsareespeciallypertinentinthefield ofatomic
structurewheregeometricrelationshipsmustbepresumed
toplayanimportantrole,althoughhiddenfrom directview.
Physicistsmaybecorrectin theirgeneralpropositionthat
nothingistrulyscientificunless itcanbee
matically,butitis thewriter
pressedmathe-
scontentionthatnosystemof
atomicstructureistrulyscientific unlessitcanbe e
geom e t rica lly b y p ict u re s a n d d ia g ra m s—"
pressed
s t rutcu re
b y it s
verydefinitionbeingsomethingwhichmusthavegeometric
form.
Therehasbeenmuchphilosophicalargumentover
w h eht e rt h e e
t e rnlp a h y s ic a lw o rld re a lly e
w h eht e rt h e t em r "
p h y sca i lre aitl y
is t s , ad n
ha sa ny m e a n in g. I
a d o p t tehid e a li s t icv ie w o f B is h o p B e rk e le y andI
K a n t t h tam a t t e rdeos n o t e
fwe
mmau nel
is t o f it s o w n a cco rd btuis o n ly
7 7 1 3 5 2 4 b . 1 c u / 7 2 0 2 / t e n . e l d n a h e . l l d g o h o / / : g p d t t p h #
acreationofthemind, thentheprimarypurposeoftheoreti-
calphysicswouldnotbe toascertainanyunknownfacts,but
rathertofindthe clearestandmostsatisfactorysymbolic
representationoftheknownfacts.Thisisthe attitudetaken
bymostoftheleading physicistsoftoday,andnearlyallthe
recentbooksonq
M3 64
[
uantummechanicsandatomicstructureare
0
H i
/ s e T u _ M s G s e 1 c 3 : c a 6 / 0 g r 3 o . 2 - t 5 s u r 0 - t 4 i h 1 t 0 a 2 h . n w o w ) w a / i : n / i p g t r t i h V f / o y d t e i z s t i r i e g v i i n d U l ( e c g 6 o o k G j e , r i n o a f d m e o t D a r c e i l n b e u G P
Preface
couchedinsuchlanguagethatit isimpossibletotell where
theworldofphysicalrealityends andwheretheworldof
m ath e m a tca i lf a cy c ny b e g in s. I
newphysics
f w ea sk a ny e
ponn etof "
the
whet hertheelectronsactuallytravelin orbits
abouttheatoms,wewillprobablygeta lessoninJ
esuitism
f o ra re p ly , b u t n e v ra e n y d iretca n s w ro reo f "
o r"
yes
no
.
O ntheotherhandif weadoptthematerialisticviewof
Thales,Descartes,andahostofother ancientandmodern
w rit e rstha tm a rs t t e rd osee
is t o f it s o w n a cco rd , thenthe
primarypurposeoftheoreticalphysicswouldbeto ascertain
thetruefactsof nature,regardlessofwhetherornotthey
willreadilylendthemselvestosymbolicrepresentationor
m ath e m a tca i lt retam e n.tF
s t ru ct u re t h e v rt oe
o re
a m p le inht e ca s e o f aot m ic
atom w it h it s co m p le
in t enr a lcirc u-
lationofethercurrentsis moredifficulttodealwithsym-
bolicallyinmathematicale
uationsthantheB
ohratomwith
itsplanetaryelectronstravelingina groovedether.This
d ra w b a ck t o t h e o v rt e
atom th e o ry w sare co g n i ze d b y A . A ize
.
Michelsonwhenhewrotethat
Themathematicsofthesubjectis unfortunatelyverydifficult,
andthisseemstobe oneoftheprincipalreasonsfor theslowprogress
m a d e in t h e t h e o ry .(
I
L
ig h t W a v e s a n d t e h irU s s e
, p . 1 6 2).
f h o w eev rw e a re in q u e s t o f t h e t ru e f ct c at s o f n aut re , t hn e
wecannotbeconcernedoverwhetheror notthefactswill
betoourliking.
Thepresentbooktakesthematerialisticviewpointfor
grantedandproceedswiththeassumptionthatthe e
p h y sca i lw old r re a y ll e
is t s : T e h v o rt e
7 7 1 3 5 2 4 b . 1 c u / 7 2 0 2 / t e n . e l d n a h e . l l d g o h o / / : g p d t t p h # / s e T u _ M s G s e 1 c 3 : c a 6 / 0 g r 3 o . 2 - t 5 s u r 0 - t 4 i h 1 t 0 a 2 h . n w o w ) w a / i : n / i p g t r t i V h f / o y d t i e z s r i t e i g v i i n d -
hereinpresentedpurporttobeat leastappro
representationsofwhatactuallye
ternal
a t o m sru t ct uer s
imatelytrue
istsinnature,andnot
merelyconvenientmathematicalorgeometricfictions.This
ismorethancan beconscientiouslyclaimedfortheR
uther-
ford-Bohr atom.
Thelastchapterin whichmindandconsciousnessare
discussedwillprobablynotmeetwiththe approvalofthe
religionistswhowouldprefertohaveeverythingofa
spiritualnatureremainshroudedinmysteryandenveloped
iv]
U l ( e c g 6 o o k j G e , r i n o a f d m e o t D a r c e i l n b e u G P
Preface
inanatmosphereofsupernaturalism.Thewriteris notat-
temptingtodisputetheclaimsof thereligioniststhatthe
activitiesofmindandconsciousnessfallwithin therealmof
religion,butinhis capacityasastudentof sciencethewriter
doesmaintainthatmind,consciousness,andallrelatedsub-
jectssuchasmorals andethicsalsofallproperlywithin the
realmofscience.I
fscientistsshallnot havetheprivilegeof
decidingwhatshallbeincludedwithin therealmofscience,
thenwhyshouldreligionistshavetheprivilegeof deciding
whatshallbeincludedwithinthe realmofreligion
Whether thehumanmindismerelythe subjectiveaspectof
thelivingorganismoris aseparatesoul-likeentitywhich
survivesafterdeath,andwhattherelationof themindor
soulisto theall-pervadingether,areq
uestionswhichnot
onlymaybe,butmustbe consideredinanythoroughgoing
treatiseonetherandmatter.Thefact thatthecomple
physico-chemicalprocesseswhichgiverisetomentalactivity
arenotyetas completelyunderstoodassomeofthesimpler
mechanicalprocessesisnoreasonfore
comple
science,becauseasH
I
cludingthesemore
an dlessunderstoodprocessesfromthe fieldof
erbertDingletellsus,
t is n o t f a irt o inis s t o n a ra toi n a le
p la ntaio n o f e s ay t h in g sa nd
fallbackonsupernaturalismforthedifficult ones.I
fwebringin
supernaturalagenciesatonepointwemayas well'
bringtheminat
allpoints,andsaveourselvesthetrouble ofconstructingatrivial
m a nm - a d e ra t io n a l o rd e r.N lo ( A
A
TUR E
,J
u n e 1 7 , 1 4 4 , p . 7 3 .3)
lthoughtherelationofmindand consciousnesstothe
etherhasbeendiscussedin thelastchapterofthis book,
7 7 1 3 5 2 4 b . 1 c u / 7 2 0 2 / t e n . e l d n a h e . l l d g o h / o / : g p d t t p h #
therehasnotbeenanythingsaid abouttherelationofGod
totheether.Thereasonfor thisdiscriminationisthatwe
allunderstandwhatismeantby mindandconsciousness,but
thereisnounanimityof opinionastowhatis meantby
"
Go d
o rh o w t htat e rm s h old u b e d e f in e d . T o s a y taht
Go d is " a s p iritaulb e in g
d o e s n tom e a n m u c h u n lessw e ch
f irs t acu c ra tly e d e f in e b o t h " s p irit ual and"
b e in g . R
gionistshavegivenusdefinitionsofGod rangingalltheway
fromtheultimategoalofhumanperfectionin thecaseofa
[
v.
/ e s T u _ M s G s e 1 c 3 : c a 6 / 0 g r 3 o . 2 t 5 s u r 0 - t 4 i h 1 t 0 a 2 h . n w o w ) w a / i : n / i p g r t t i h V f / o y d t i e z s r i t e i g v i i n d U l ( e c g 6 o o k j G e , r i n o a f d m e o t D a r c e i l n b e u G P
e li-
Preface
personalGod,tomerelawof natureinthecaseof anon-
personalGod.I
ftheGodunderconsiderationis ofthe
personalvariety,thenthesubjecthasbeensufficientlydealt
withinthelast chapterofthisbookbecauseeverythingthat
wassaidwithreferencetothe humanmindwouldalsobe
applicabletoapersonalGod.O
ntheotherhand iftheGod
underconsiderationisnon-personalsoasto bee
uivalentto
merelawofnature,thenthe subjecthasalsobeensufficiently
dealtwiththroughoutthevariouschaptersofthis book.
Therearealsosomewhohaveattemptedto defineGodas
the" F
irs t C a u s e
, b u t t h a t is jutsa n o t e h rw a y o f s y a in g t hta
theetherisGod,the etherhavingbeenformulatedinsucha
mann e ra s t o m a e k it t h e f irs t ca useo f ev e r y t in ry ihn g . I f it b e
arguedthattheetheritself musthavebeencreatedoriginal-
lybysomeGod,thento beconsistentitwouldalso haveto
bearguedthatthisfirst-mentionedGodmusthimself have
beenproducedbysomeolderGod,and soonadinfinitum.
O n t h e o t h rh reh a n d if it b e a rg u e d t h taa Go d m a y b e e t e r n a l, rn
t h e n it co u l d a ls o b e agr u e d wtih e ld
u a lp ro p r ie t y taht t h e rie
e t h e rit s e lf m y a b e e t e rn a l. I
t is , in f a ct ,ht e w ritre
thattheetherhasactually e
istedfrometernityandnever
s o p in io n
w a s" cre a ted .
Thereishoweveroneseriousobjectionto anyinterpre-
tationoftheetheras God,andthatisthat thehistorical
mean i n g o f t h e w rd in o "
Go d
s h o udl n o t b e co m p le t e ly ly
ignored.TheGodofpasthistory (whoisstillbeingwor-
shipedinallthe churchesoftoday)wasdefinitelyapersonal
ifnotananthropomorphicGod.Peopledonot sayprayers
7 7 1 3 5 2 4 b . 1 c u / 7 2 0 2 / t e n . e l d n a h e . l l d g o h / o / : g p d t t p h # / s e T u _ M s G s e 1 c 3 : c a 6 / 0 g r 3 o . 2 t 5 s u r 0 - t 4 i h 1 t 0 a 2 h . n w o w ) w a / i : n / i p g r t t i h V f / o y d t i e z s r i t e i g v i i n d U l ( e g c 6 o o k j G e , r i n o a f d m e o t D a r c e i l n b e u G P
tothelawsof physicsorworshiptheprinciplesof chemistry.
A
n y in t rp rep re ttaio n o f t h e teh e ro rn tau ra lla w a s"
canthereforeonlyleadtoconfusion.
C . F . K .
vi]
Go d
C o n t etns
Page
TheH ypothesisofaH
ydromechanicalE ther...i
C la s sca i lv e rs u s E in s tin e ia n R e la t ivtiy 7
TheR
edS
Gra vtia t io n2
TheC
hift.20
7
onstitutionoftheS
unandS
tars34
E lectromagnetism3
TheoriesofA
I
tomicS
tructure44
n t ro u d ct io n t o t h e V o rt e
V o rt e
A tom S
A
tom 4
t ru ct u re s 6 7
TheH eavierE lements8 7
L
iv in g M a t t e r1 0
7 7 1 3 5 2 4 b . 1 c u / 7 2 0 2 / t e n . e l d n a h e . l l d g o h o / / : g p d t t p h # / s e T u _ M s G s e 1 c 3 : c a 6 / 0 g r 3 o . 2 - t 5 s u r 0 - t 4 i h 1 t 0 a 2 h . n w o w ) w a / i : n / i p g t r t i h V f / o y d t e i z s r i t e i g v i i n d U l ( e g c 6 o o k G j e , r i n o a f d m e o t D a r c e i l n b e u G P
Theuniverse,containingallthate
ists,hasbeencreated
n e it h e rb y a Go d n o rb y a m n a , b u t h a s lw law a y se
is t e d ad n
willeverremainavivifyingfire,being kindledande
tin-
guishedaccordingtodefinitelaws.(H
phesus,
eraclitusofE
540 —475B . C. )
Matterisnot,asthe countlessfollowersandadherents
ofthatideaassert,dead,un
uickened,andlifeless,buton
thecontraryisfull ofstirringlife,andnot anatomofit is
withoutmotion,butinconstantuninterruptedmovementand
activity.N orismatter,asso manyassert,amorphous,but
onthecontrary,form,noless thanmotion,isitseternal,
inalienableattribute.N orismattergross,as simplephiloso-
phersoftencallit,but onthecontrary,soindefinitelyfine
andcomplicatedinitscompositionas tosurpassallour
conceptions....I
tisnot withoutfeeling,butisfullof the
mostacutesensibilityinthe creaturesitbringsforth
nor,
lastly,isitdevoidof spiritorthought,buton thecontrary,
developesintheorgansdestinedtheretobythe peculiarkind
ofdelicacyoftheircomposition,thehighest mentalpotencies
knowntous.W hatwecalllife,sensibility,organization,and
thoughtareonlythepeculiarand highertendenciesand
activitiesofmatter,ac
uiredinthecourse ofmanymillions
ofyearsbywell-knownnaturalprocesses,andwhichin
certainorganismsorcombinationsresultinthe self-consci-
ousnessofmatter.W hereforealsomatterisnotunconscious,
asisoftenproclaimedwithfalse pathos,butinitsgradual
earthlyandorganicprocessofdevelopmentite
hibitsall
thecogitabledegreesofconsciousnessfromthelowestto the
h ig h e st
v iii]
(
u d w ig B u e ch n r, re, F o rce a n d M a t t e,r1
7 7 1 3 5 2 4 b . 1 c u / 7 2 0 2 / t e n . e l d n a h e . l l d g o h o / / : g p d t t p h # / e s T u _ M s G s e 1 c 3 : c a 6 / 0 g r 3 o . 2 - t 5 s u r 0 - t 4 i 1 h t 0 a 2 h . n w o w ) w a / i : n / i p g t r t i h V f / o y d t e i z s i r t i e g v i i n d -
U l ( e c g 6 o o k G j e , r i n o a f d m e o t D a r c e i l n b e u G P
8 4. )
TheH ypothesis
o f a H y d ro m e ch aica n lE t h e r
I
Tisgenerallyassertedthatscience canrevealtous only
groupstructure,butcangiveus noinformationasto
anyultimaterealitybehindsuchgroupstructure.I
tis
notapparent,however,howtherecouldevenbeanygroup
structureunlessthereissomethingthat isbeinggrouped—
somesubstratewhichisitselfdevoidof structure,butwhich
neverthelesshasreale
istence.Thisultimatesubstratewas
themateriaprimaofthescholastics,and istodayknownas
t h e " e t h e r , it s v a rio u s f o rm s o f m o t io n b e in g t e h m o d enr
in t epr re t a t io n o f s ch o la sic" t
f o rm
.
Therehasbeenmuchargumentasto whethertheether
reallye
ists,butthedefinitenessofthe velocityoflightand
theabilityoflight totravelatall arestrongargumentsif
notconclusiveproofforthee
istenceofanether.The real
disagreementisprobablynotsomuchon thee
istenceofan
ether,asonits constitutionandproperties.Doestheether
havemass,inertia,viscosity,compressibility,oranyofthe
otherpropertiesthatarefoundin ordinarymatter,orisit
somethingmoreabstract—somethinginthe natureofmind
o rco n sio c usn ess
Thee
is t ece n o f so m eso r t o f a n e t hris rt e
alogicalnecessity,butwhetherit isasubstanceor something
tooabstractforusto visualizewillhavetobe leftfor
furtherconsideration.
I
ftherewerenoether ofanysort,magnetsandelectric
ch a rg e s co u ld ntoe
e rt a n y mg an e tco i re le cticf r o rce sa ta
distance,norcouldcelestialbodiesact gravitationallyupon
oneanother.Toattributegravitationtoac urvatureof
7 7 1 3 5 2 4 b . 1 c u / 7 2 0 2 / t e n . e l d n a h e . l l d g o h o / / : g p d t t p h # / s e T u _ M s G s e 1 c 3 : c a 6 / 0 g r 3 o . 2 - t 5 s u r 0 - t 4 i h 1 t 0 a 2 h . n w o w ) w a / i : n / i p g t r i t V h f / o y d t i e z s r i t e i g v i i n d -
s p a ce is a n e v a s io n ra t h e rtha na ne rt
h a s n o m oer e
p la n a t io n . C u rv e d s pce a
p la ntao ry v lu lau e t h a n t w is t e d tm i e . I t is o n ly
onthebasisof ahydromechanicaletherandE
geometrythatwecanhopetoe
f o rce s o f n a t uer . U n d e rE rE
[
i
uclidean
plainthefundamental
in s t e i n ia n re in l a t iv la it y n o s u ch e
U l ( e c g 6 o o k j G e , r i n o a f d m e o t D a r c e i l n b e u G P
-
t TH E
R '
A f i b" M a TT
R
planationwilleverbepossiblebecauseas E insteinhimself
admits,themodernrelativitytheorydoesnotpermitthe
ethertobevisualizedas asysteme
DerA
istinginspaceand time:
therdarfnichtausdurch dieZ
beste hen
eitverfolgbarenTeilen
d e rB e w e g u n s gb e g r if f d afra u f i rif
h n n ich t a n g e wn ed e t
w e rd e n . ( A t h e ru n d R e la tvi it a ts- T e h o rie , p. 15, 1
ThisassertionofE
20. )
insteinissopreposterousthatit should
n o t b e a cce p t e d u nel s s t h e e
p e rim e n t a lpor o f o f it is s o
conclusiveastoleavenoalternative.Thee
perimental
facts,however,donotjustifysucha conclusion.TheE
in-
steinianrelativitytheorywasbasedprimarilyonthenegative
re s utlo f t h e M ich e ls o n - M o rl eye
mentcouldnothavebeene
negativeresults.I
p e rim e n t , b tut h is e
p e ri-
pectedtogiveanythingbut
twasperformedwithaninterferometer
inahorzontalplane,andall horizontaldirectionsarephysi-
ca lly e
u iv le lae n t . I t s h o u ld hvae b e e n prf e o rm e d w it h a n
interferometerinaverticalplane(rotatingon ahorizontal
a
is)soas tocomparethevelocityoflight perpendicularto
thegravitationalforcewiththevelocityin thedirectionof
suchforce.I
tisonlyin thedirectionofthegravitational
lin e s o f frce o thatw e ca n e
p e ct t o f in d a n y d rif tof the
etherrelativetotheearth.
A
n o t hre e
p e rim enttha tsh o u ld b e tie r d is t o a rra ngean
in t efre ro m e t e ro f a p ro
im a tly es
u a re f o rm o no ne o f te rm h
endfacesofa largeelectromagnetasshowninF
ig.12soas
tocomparethevelocityoflight inthedirectionof the
solenoidalelectriccurrentwithits velocityintheopposite
direction.
7 7 1 3 5 2 4 b . 1 c u / 7 2 0 2 / t e n . e l d n a h e . l l d g o h o / / : g p d t t p h # / s e T u _ M s G s e 1 c 3 : c a 6 / 0 g r 3 o . 2 t 5 s u r 0 - t 4 i h 1 t 0 a 2 h . n w o w ) w a / i : n / i p g r t t i h V f / o y d t i e z s r i t e i g v i i n d U l ( e c g 6 o o k j G e , r i n o a f d m e o t D a r c e i l n b e u G P
S t illa n toh e re
p e rim e n t t h a t sohu ld b e t ri e d is t o s e t u p
a n in t efre ro m e t e ro f a p ro
im aet ly s
u a re f rm rom a n d s u p e r-
imposeastrongelectrostaticpotentialgradientalongoneof
t h e b if u r ca t e rca dbeam s a s s h o w n in F ig . 1 7 s o a s , t o t e s t fra o
flowofetheralongelectrostaticlinesof force.
A
in F
n d s t illa o n t h e re
ig . 1
p e rim enttha t s h o u ld b e tie r d is s h w on
w h eer in a b e a m o f la lpa n e p la loa rize d lig h t is p asse d
transverselyandslightlytoonesideof anelongatedelectro-
staticfield.Theadvantageofthislast e
2]
perimentisthat
TheH ypothesisofaH
ydromechanicalE ther
thereisalmostnolimit tothepossiblelengthof theelectri-
fiedwireswhichcanbe used,sothatthesensitivenessofthe
e
A
perimentcanbeincreasedalmostwithoutlimit.
n d in a d d io it n t o t h e a o bv ee
opticale
p e rim e n t s ,ht e m a g e nto-
perimentwithabeamofplanepolarizedlight
shouldberepeated,butwithmagnetsmuchlongerthan those
heretoforeused.With amagneticfieldsufficientlylong,a
measurablerotationoftheplaneofpolarizationmaybe
obtained,evenwithoutthepresenceofanymaterialsub-
stanceinthemagneticfield.
I
f any oneof te habov ee
p e rim entssho u ld b e f o n udto
givepositiveresults,itwouldbe almostconclusiveproofof
thee
is t e n c e o f a n e t hr, ce e b e casue t h e a b v oee
p e rim entsdo
notdependonthepresenceof matterinthepathof thelight
ray.W heneverlighttraversesamovingmaterialmedium,
thelatterimpartsafraction (i-i//
2)ofits velocitytothe
lightwherenis theinde
ofrefractionofthemedium,this
f ra ct io n b e in gk now na s"
F re s n e l
S u ch e
s co n v ct c et io n co e f f ic ie n t
p e rim entsw e r e p e rfrm re o e d b y F ize a u u s in g n a in t e r-
ferometerwithcirculatingwaterandbyS
rotatingglassdisk.A
in t h e s e e
agnacusinga
lthoughpositiveresultswereobtained
p e rim e n t s ,ht e y d o n o t por v e t h e e
is t e n ce o f a ce
hydromechanicalether.
I
twouldnotbeconsistent withscientificcautiontopredict
positiveresultsfore
perimentswhichhaveneverbeentried,
butregardlessofwhattheresults oftheabovesuggested
e
perimentsmaybe,itisnone thelessunscientifictoassert
dogmaticallythattheconceptofmotionis notapplicableto
7 7 1 3 5 2 4 b . 1 c u / 7 2 0 2 / t e n . e l d n a h e . l l d g o h / o / : g p d t t p h # / e s T u _ M s G s e 1 c 3 : c a 6 / 0 g r 3 o . 2 t 5 s u r 0 - t 4 i h 1 t 0 a 2 h . n w o w ) w a / i : n / i p g r t t i h V f / o y d t i e z s r i t e i g v i i n d U l ( e g c 6 o o k j G e , r i n o a f d m e o t D a r c e i l n b e u G P
theetherwhenthemostobviouse
perimentsfortesting
suchadoctrinehavenot yetbeenperformed.
Theethermustbea fluidratherthana solidbecauseifit
wereasolidtheentire worldwouldbefrozen.I
tcannot
havecompressionalelasticitybecauseitwouldthenhaveto
becapableoftransmittingwavesoflongitudinaldisplace-
mentwhichhaveneverbeenfoundtooccur therein.I
tis
eithernotcompressibleatall,or itisinfinitelycompressible.
B y"
in f in i t e ly co it m p ressib le
is m e a n t it s a b ili t y t o f lo w
continuallyintosinksorout ofsources.I
[
3
tmustalsocom-
.
E t h e ra n d M atter
pletelyfillallspace,becauseany voidsorvacantspaces
wouldgiveitatleast alimitedcompressionalelasticity.I
t
musthaveinertia,becausewithoutinertiaanyportionof it
whichwouldhappentobein motionatanyinstantwould
immediatelycometoastandstill,whileatthe sametimeany
stationaryportionofitcouldstart movingatrandom.With-
outinertiaitwouldbe difficulttoaccountforradiantenergy
andradiantpressure,orforthe finitevelocityandrectilinear
traveloflight.F
urthermoreiftheetherwouldnothave
inertia,itwouldbedifficult toaccountfortheinertia of
matteriftheelementaryparticlesofmatterconsist ofether
inmotion.
A
notherinterestingq
uestioniswhetherthelawsofther-
modynamicsandtheprincipleofconservationofeneryand
momentumareapplicabletotheether.W
iththeirusual
restrictedmeaningsthesefundamentallawsandprinciples
areapplicableonlytoisolatedmaterialsystems,butthe
etherisnotan isolatedsystemnorisit composedofmatter.
O ntheotherhandwith anetherwhichis randomorfortuit-
ousinits behavioritwouldbedifficultto accountforthe
orderlybehaviorofmatterunlesswerepudiatethedoctrine
thatmatterconsistsofetherin motion,andnoothersatis-
f a ct o ry e ry
p la ntaio n f o rt h ee
is t e ce c ne o f m a tet rh a s e v re
beensuggested.
Theterms"
random
and"
fortuitous
arereallymis-
nomerswhenusedinthedescriptionof physicalsystems.
Theyarenotdescriptiveofthe systemsthemselves,butonly
oftherelationofsuch systemstotheobserver.Thuswhen
7 7 1 3 5 2 4 b . 1 c u / 7 2 0 2 / t e n . e l d n a h e . l l d g o h o / / : g p d t t p h # / e s T u _ M s G s e 1 c 3 : c a 6 / 0 g r 3 o . 2 t 5 s u r 0 - t 4 i h 1 t 0 a 2 h . n w o w ) w a / i : n / i p g r t t i h V f / o y d t e i z s r i t e i g v i i n d U l ( e g c 6 o o k G j e , r i n o a f d m e o t a D r c e i l n b e u G P
wesaythatthemoleculesof agashavearandombehavior
orthattheiractions areindeterminatewedonotmeanthat
theyarenotgovernedbydefinitephysicallaws,but rather
thatwearenotable toobservetheindividualmolecules
andmakemeasurementsthereon.S imilarlyourinabilityto
measureaccuratelyboththevelocityandpositionofan elec-
trondoesnotnecessarilymeanthatthe electrondoesnot
havedefinitevelocityandposition.W ecanconceiveofa
pointchargeofelectricitypassinga certainpositionwitha
definitevelocityataparticularinstant,even thoughwe
4]
TheH ypothesisofaH
ydromechanicalE ther
cannotobtainsuchinformatione
perimentally.On theother
h a n d if t h e e l e ct ro le nbea ssum e d t o co nis s t o f a v o rt e
in
theetherandasnot havinganydefiniteboundaries,thenwe
cannoteveninourimaginationconceiveofit ashavingdefi-
nitevelocityandposition.N
everthelessitmustbeassumed
thatscientificlawsandprinciplesgoverneverythingin
nature,includingtheether,andthereare othermethodsof
ascertainingsuchlawsandprinciplesthanhand-to-mouth
empiricism.O urrealizationthatthebehaviorof theether
isinsomerespects indeterminateshouldthereforenotdis-
courageusfromfurtherstudyof thesame.
S incetheetherdoestransmitlight andelectricwavesof
transversedisplacementitmusthaveshearelasticity,not-
withstandingitsabilitytoflow.Thesetwopropertiesare not
mutuallye
clusive.Theshearelasticityofthe etherhas
beende s ig n a t e d a s " q u a s if rict io n
byH ermannF
e
o r"
id e aize l d v is co s it y
rickeinGermanywhohasbeenthe leading
ponentofthehydromechanicalethertheoryduringthe
manyyearswhiletheoreticalphysicsremainedsubservient
toE
insteinianrelativity.I
nhisastrophysicaltheorycorrelat-
ingtemperaturewithgravitationalforce,F
rickeassumed
thattheetherpossessesapropertyanalogousto frictionby
virtueofwhichnotits energybutitdirectionof flowis
affected—aconceptwhich waslateradoptedbythewriter
asthebasisfor thenewvorte
theoryoftheatom.This
q u a s if rict io n a lp rin c ip le w saa ls o u s e d y cip bS
in h is e
irGe o rg eS tok es
p la n a t io n o f t e h M ich eslo nM - o rle ye
p e rim e n t , a l-
thoughhelaterreluctantlyandperhapserroneouslyaban-
7 7 1 3 5 2 4 b . 1 c u / 7 2 0 2 / t e n . e l d n a h e . l l d g o h o / / : g p d t t p h # / s e T u _ M s G s e 1 c 3 : c a 6 / 0 g r 3 o . 2 - t 5 s u r 0 - t 4 i h 1 t 0 a 2 h . n w o w ) w a / i : n / i p g t r t i h V f / o y d t e i z s r i t i e g v i i n d -
donedh ise is
p la ntaio n .
E versincethetimeof S tokes,theoreticalphysicshasbeen
socompletelydominatedbyE
insteinianrelativitythatthere
havebeenonlyafewisolatedphysicistswho havedaredto
appearopenlyinfavorofthe hydromechanicalethertheory.
F
o re m o sta m o n g t h e m hvae b e e n A . A
Wavesa ndte h i r Us e )s, O . W i e n e r P( H Y
pp. 552 -55
3 1 ) , L. Z
e h n dr( e
S cie nift icM e e t in g a t S t u t t g a rt ,1
5
S.Z
ig h t
E I
T.1
) , O. C . H ilg e rf b e rg ( UebrGra vtia t io n , T ro m -
ben, un d W e lle n , 1
[
. M ich ls les o n (
e ct uer b e f oer t h e
35), H. E
.I
U l ( e c g 6 o o k j G e , r i n o a f d m e o t D a r c i e l n b e u G P
ves
24,
E t h e ra n d M atter
(
F
C I
EN
C E
, g, i 2 5 32 , p .p 7
-
4, 140)a , n dHerm a nn
rickewhohasalreadybeenmentioned.Thepresentsitu-
ationhasbeenterselysummarizedbyF
rickeinanunpub-
lishedmanuscriptinwhichhe stated:
I
n s t ed ao f t h e e t h e r w e n o w h aev f o rm u rw la sa nde la
u a t io n s a ccodr -
towhichsomestarsare millionsoftimesmoredenseandothers
millionsoftimeslessdensethan thesun,althoughcomposedofthe
samechemicalelements.We arenowsupposedtobeable toascertain
(viamathematics)thediameteroftheentireworld,and alsothe
numberofprotonsandelectronsin it.A
to'
b e a b le t o ca l cu la lcu tethee
ndfinallywearesupposed
a ct t im e w h e n t h e w rld o ( in cl u d in g
s p a ce ad nt im e t h e m s e lv e s ) b e gn aw it h t h e e
p lo soi n o f a p o in t
A
s
toallthis,the 20thcenturyphysicistmayharangueasmuchas he
p le aes s . A llo f t h is is a cce p t e d a s w e lln ig h cetra in . It is o n ly t h e
mechanicsoftheetherandthe vorte
atomtheorywhichhemaynot
writeaboutortakeup forseriousstudy—that isanathema.
I
f t h e re is a y n o n e w ohis q
M ich ls les o nM - o rl eye
u a lif ie d t o s a y w h e t h rt ret h e
p e rim e n t h a s d is p ro v edthee
anethe r , it s h o udl b e A r,
.A
is t e ce c ne o f
. M ich ls les o n h im s e lf , ad nh e h a s
nevercometoanysucha conclusion.O nthecontrary,
Michelsonhasalwaysvigorouslydefendedthedynamic
etherandvorte
atomtheory,andhasemphaticallytold
usthat
...all thephenomenaofthephysicaluniverseareonlydifferent
manifestationsofthevariousmodesofmotionofoneall-pervading
s u b sat n ce — t h e eht e r. { L
ig h t W a v e s a n d t e h irU s s e, p . 1 6 2 , 1 0 3 . )
6]
7 7 1 3 5 2 4 b . 1 c u / 7 2 0 2 / t e n . e l d n a h e . l l d g o h o / / : g p d t t p h # / s e T u _ M s G s e 1 c 3 : c a 6 / 0 g r 3 o . 2 - t 5 s u r 0 - t 4 i h 1 t 0 a 2 h . n w o w ) w a / i : n / i p g t r t i h V f / o y d t e i z s i r t i e g v i i n d U l ( e c g 6 o o k j G e , r i n o a f d m e o t D a r c e i l n b e u G P
i lV C la s sca
rs u s E in s t e in ia n R e la tvi it y
TH E R E
thee
havebeenrepeatedattemptstodemonstrate
is t e n c e o f a n e t hrb ce e y m e a n s o fht e M ich ls les o n -
M o rle ye
p e rim e n t , f ir s t p e rf o rm e d in 1 8 5 , b u t t h e
re s utls h a v e awl a y s b e n n e gtaiv e o ra pro p
im aet ly s o . I f
theearthmovesthroughastationaryether,then itshould
takelightalongertime totravelbackandforthin the
directionoftheearth
smotionthroughtheetherthan ina
directionperpendicularthereto.I
tmayappearatfirst glance
thatwhatevertimewouldbelostby lightwavestravelling
againstthedriftofthe etherwouldbegainedwhiletravell-
ingwiththeetherduring theirreturntrip,but thisisnot
true.S
upposeaboatcanbe rowedthreemilesanhour,and
anattemptbemadetogo toaplacedownstreamandback
onariverwhich flowsthreemilesanhour.Theboat would
getthereinhalf thetime,butwouldnevergetback.
ThenegativeresultoftheMichelson-Morleye
periment
wouldbecompletelyaccountedforonthebasis ofcorpuscu-
laroremissiontheoriesof lightbecausetheobservedvelo-
cityoflightwouldthen bethevectorsumof thevelocity
withwhichitis emitted,andthevelocityofthesource.
A
stronomicalevidence,however,isagainstsuchanassump-
t io n . B in a ry s t a r s , f o re rs
o b e y Ke p le r
a m p le , w o u ld ntob e o b s e rv edto
s la w s , a s tehy a ct ully a d o , if t h e lig h t f ro m
thempartookofthemotionofthe source.
Todayphysicistsusuallyaccountforthenegativeresult
oftheMichelson-Morleye
t h e L o re nzt
o f E in s t e in in
L
perimenteitheronthebasisof
it zg e r a ld co n ra t ra ct io n f o rm u la , o ro n t e h b a s is
s s p e cia l t h e o ry fore la tvi it .yA lt
cco rd ingto the in
7 7 1 3 5 2 4 b . 1 c u / 7 2 0 2 / t e n . e l d n a h e . l l d g o h o / / : g p d t t p h / # e s T u _ M s G s e 1 c 3 : c a 6 / 0 g r 3 o . 2 t 5 s u r 0 - t 4 i h 1 t 0 a 2 h . n w o w ) w a / i : n / i p g t r t i h V f / o y d t i e z s r i t e i g v i i n d U l ( e c g 6 o o k j G e , r i n o a f d m e o t D a r c e i l n b e u G P
orentz-
itzgeraldtheory,theabsenceofanobservedether
driftisto beattributedtoacontractionof theinterfero-
meterinthedirectionof itsmovementthroughtheether,
whichhoweverhasnoe
planatoryvalueaslongasthe
co n tar ct io n it s e lf is n toe
p la in e d . E in s t e in
se
u a t io nso f
specialrelativity,whicharebasedonthe assumptionthatthe
[
7
E t h e ra n d M atter
velocityoflightremainsconstantregardlessofthe relative
movementoftheobserverandthesourceof radiation,are
essentiallynothingmorethanparaphrasedversionsofthe
L
o re nzt
it zg e r a ld co tnra ct ra io n f o rm u la ( i— v V c25) 4 , a n d
thelatterwasderivedonthe assumptionthatthevelocityof
lightremainsconstant.Thiswasclearlyrecognized'
by
E in s t in ien w h e n h e sid a:
O f co u rs e tis h[
thee
co n sat n t v e lo cit y o f lig ht
uationsoftheL
is n o t s u rp ris in g , s in ce
orentztransformationwerederivedconform-
ablytothispoint ofview.(R elativity,p.34.)
R egardlessofwhetherthevelocityoflight isactually
co n sat n t , it is re d n e re d co n s t a n t in t h e E in s t e in ia ne
bytheuseof variableunitsofmeasurement.I
notsurprisingthatthee
u a t io ns
tistherefore
uationsofspecialrelativityhave
s u cce s s f uly l m e t a llt e h s o - cale l d" e
p e rim e n t a ltset s
, be-
causetheyareinsubstancenothing morethanmathematical
trueisms,andanyviolationofamathematicaltrueismis
unthinkable.
I
fthevelocityoflight wereactuallyconstantregardless
oftherelativemovementoftheobserverandthe source,
thentheq
uestionwouldimmediatelyariseastowhywedo
notm ee t w it h a s imla i rp a ra do
TheE
in e
p e rim e n t s wtih s o u n.d
insteinianrelativistshavenotyetgivena satisfactory
answertothisq
uestion,butneverthelesstheytellusthat
E insteinianrelativityisnolongerarguedabout bythephy-
sicistsoftoday,butis actuallyusedbythemintheir work.
TheonlypartofE
instein
sspecialrelativitytheorythatis
u s e d t oady f o rp ra c t ica lprp ct u o se s is t h e L
o re tnz-
7 7 1 3 5 2 4 b . 1 c u / 7 2 0 2 / t e n . e l d n a h e . l l d g o h / o / : g p d t t p h / # e s T u _ M s G s e 1 c 3 : c a 6 / 0 g r 3 o . 2 t 5 s u r 0 - t 4 i h 1 t 0 a 2 h . n w o w ) w a / i : n / i p g r t t i h V f / o y d t i e z s r i t e i g v i i n d U l ( e g c 6 o o k j G e , r i n o a f d m e o t D a r c e i l n b e u G P
contractionformula,andthatwasnotoriginatedbyE
E x
p e rim e n t a lv rif e ica t io n o f E in s t e in
it zg e r a ld ra
instein.
s g e n e ra l t h e o ry fo lt
relativityhasbeenclaimedonthe basisoftheprogression
oftheperihelionofMercury,the bendingofstarlightwhile
passingclosebytheedge ofthesun,andthe gravitational
redshift.Theeffectsactuallyobservedin eachcase,how-
ever,areveryminute,beingalmostatthe limitofaccuracy
ofe
e
8
p e rim e n t a lmaes u re m e nst, a n d a s O. C
. H ilg e b n e rg h a s
plainedindetailinhis recentlypublishedbooklets,the
]
i lv e rs u s E in s tin e ia n R e la t ivtiy C la s sca
observedeffectscanbeaccountedforunderthe hydro-
mechanicalethertheoryaswellas,and evenbetterthan
underE
I
insteinianrelativity.
n s t ed ao f cla rif y in g t h e co n ce p t o f re la t iv i t y , E in s t e in it
s
interpretationthereofhasonlyintroducedconfusionbecause
assoonaswetamperwith theconceptsofspaceand time
themselves,wearenolongerinthe realmofscience.Physi-
ca lco nec p t s ca n b e u n d e rs toodon ly to the e ly
tenttow h i ch ich
theycanbevisualizedagainstthe backgroundofE ucidean
spaceandN
stein
ewtoniantime,andsuchvisualizationofE
in-
ssecondpostulateisimpossible.Theuse ofvariable
unitsforthemeasurementofspaceand timeinE
insteinian
fashionleadstoaconfusionof thechronologicalorderof
eventsandamisunderstandingoftherelationshipofcause
toeffect.S
uchmisunderstandings,saysJ
amesMackaye,
inevitablyarisefromtheattempttoignoremechanismsandmodels
a n d a cce p t a s a g u id e ' s o m e m athem a t ica le le
cannotbefurtheranalyzed.
p re sio s n . . . W h ich
Thisprocess,thoughrecommendedby
E ddingtonandvariousothermodernphysicists,istoo blindtobe
s a fe { . J
1
O U R N A L
3 4 , PP - 3 7 5-5 3
O
F
S irO liv e rLo d g e h a s lik e w is e e
oftheE
T H E
F R A
N K L
I N
I
-)
p re ses d h is d is p a p roav l
insteinianrelativitytheorywhenhesaidin acom-
m u n ic a t io n t oht e B rit is hA
E speciallydoI
s s o cia t io n e aly r in 1
21:
attackthatpropositionwhichassertsthatto every
observerthevelocityoflightwill notonlybeconstantin reality,but
willalsosuperficiallyappearconstantevenwhenheignores hisown
motionthroughthelight-conveyingmedium—apropositionor postu-
7 7 1 3 5 2 4 b . 1 c u / 7 2 0 2 / t e n . e l d n a h e . l l d g o h o / / : g p d t t p h / # e s T u _ M s G s e 1 c 3 : c a 6 / g 0 r 3 o . 2 t 5 s u r 0 - t 4 i h 1 t 0 a 2 h . n w o w ) w a / i : n / i p g r t t i h V f / o y d t i e z s r i t e i g v i i n d U l e ( g c 6 o o k j G e , r i n o a f d m e o t D a r c e i l n b e u
la t e o ra
io m w h i ch h a s b e e ich n s h o w not le a d t o cu ri o usa nd , a sI
think,illegitimatecomplications,threateningtolandphysicistsin
regionstowhichtheyhaveno righttoenter,andtemptingthemto
interferewithmetaphysicalabstractionsbeyondtheirproperken...
[
Thespecialprincipleofrelativity
isacontradictoryproposition.
Giventheconstancyofthereal velocityoflight— ifanobserver
traveltomeetit,it mustappeartoarrivemoreq
uicklythanifhe
travelawayfromit,providedhehas anymeansofmakingtheobser-
vationatall...
m a t hm e a t ic a ld o ctin r e o f [ s p e ci al
t h is e
re laiv t it y myab e b a s e d uopn
p e rim enta l re s u lt [ t h e t oa- n d -ro lre f jo u rn e y o f a b e a m folig h t
andmaybeconvenientforreasoningpurposes,butno suchdoctrine
t9
,
N S T
T U T
, S ep ep .t,
E t h e ra n d M atter
is re
u ire d b yht e f a ct.sT h e f a ct s a re p a t ie n t o f t h e d otcrin e
donotcompelit,nor dotheyjustifyit.W
uponane
they
hy,then,proceedtobuild
uationanelaboratemetaphysicalstructure
Thecorrecte
planationfortheMichelson-Morleye
m e n t s e m s t o h aev b e e n g iv e n b y S irGe o rg eS
peri-
tok s ew h o
assumedthattheetherinthe vicinityoftheearthis carried
a lo n g w it h t h e e rt rat h , a s w e w o u ld e
po sss es e s vsico s y ito rq
p e ct it t o b e if it
u a s if rict io n. S tok e s
t h e oyr h a s b e e n
discardedbyphysicistsinfavorof E insteinianrelativitybe-
causeitwassaidto becontradictedbyastronomicalaber-
ration,butsubse
uentandmorethoroughstudieshave
shownthatastronomicalaberrationdoesnotinanymanner
co n tar d ict S t o k e s
theo ry . (H . F ry
p p. 1 2 , 82, & 115 , 1
N A
C H R
. ,1
3
;
rick ,eW e lt a t h e rf o rs ch ung,
an dL. Z
S incetheMichelson-Morleye
TR ON
perimenthasalwaysbeen
performedwithapparatusrotatingonaverticala
notdisprovedthee
eh nd e r, A S
2 .1 )
is,ithas
istenceofethercurrentsflowingverti-
ca lly in t h e d ire ct io n o f t h e e rt rat h
s g ra v it a t ioanlf ie ld .I
suchverticallyflowingethercurrentse
f
ist,thenitshould be
possibletodetectthemwithan interferometermountedfor
ro t aio t n o n a h o ri zo n t a la la
is s o t h a t e it h e ro n e o f tehb e a m s
canbepositionedverticallyandthe otheronehorizontally.
Preparationsforcarryingoutsuchan e
m a d e b y O. C
perimenthavebeen
. H ilg e b n e rg in Gem r any , b u t h is p la n s w e re
in t eru r pte d b y t h e w a.rA
cco rd i n g t o H ilg e n b e rg s ca lcu in
lations,theetheratthe surfaceoftheearthshouldhavea
v e rtca i lv e lo cit y o f 2 , 7 04 k ilo m e t e rs prs e e co n d . ( O. C . H il-
7 7 1 3 5 2 4 b . 1 c u / 7 2 0 2 / t e n . e l d n a h e . l l d g o h o / / : g p d t t p h / # e s T u _ M s G s e 1 c 3 : c a 6 / 0 g r 3 o . 2 - t 5 s u r 0 - t 4 i h 1 t 0 a 2 h . n w o w ) w a / i : n / i p g t r t i h V f / o y d t e i z s r i t i e g v i i n d U l e ( g c 6 o o k G j e , r i n o a f d m e o t D a r c i e l n b e u
genberg,UberS trdmungsversuchemitS enkenundS
d ie d a s W e s e n d e rS ch w e rkar f t g ru n d le g e n d e rk l
1 3
nellen,
d re n ,
.)
Thosewhowishtomakeadetailed studyofthedynamic
ethertheoryinits physicalandastronomicalapplications,
andofthemathematicaldevelopmentthereofwithspecial
referencetoproblemsofrelativity,cannotdobetterthan to
re a d t hsi1
3
b o o kel t o f H ilg e n b e rg , a n d a ls o hsi1
bookletUberGravitation,Tromben,undWellen inbeweg-
10]
31
OM,
G P
i lv e rs u s E in s tin e ia n R e la t ivtiy C la s sca
tenMed ie n, a d ie n h is 1
3 3 b o ole k t U b e rdn eM a g n s u-
undseineUmkehrung.A
fekt
completetranslationofthese
workscannothepresentedhere,butsomeof thepertinent
portionsthereofhavebeencollectedandthesubstancethere-
o f w illb e in c lu d e clu d in t h is a n d s usbe
I
u e n t ch a p t esr.
ntheinterestsofclarity, andalsobecausetheformulas
tobederivedwillbe usedfurtheron,weshallbeginwith
fundamentalprinciplesbyfirstinvestigatingasimpleprob-
lemofmotioninwhich theclassicalprincipleofrelativity
ofmotionwillbemadeuse ofina thorough-goingmanner.
I
ndealingwiththeDopplereffect andthecloselyrelated
phenomenonofaberrationitiscustomarytodeal withonly
t w o s y tse m— s t h e s o u rce o f lig htS
andtheob s e rv e rO — b u t
inourpresenttreatmentweshall introduceasathird system
theetherormediumM inwhichthelight wavesaretrans-
mitted.Themovementsofthesethreesystemsrelativeto
oneanothercanbeclearlyvisualizedif wecoordinatethem
relativetoafi
edbackgroundofabsolutespaceasa fourth
system.Theintrinsicnatureofthe wavesisonlyofsecond-
aryimportance,andtheformulastobe derivedwillbevalid
notonlyforlight wavesbutalsoforsoundwaves,water
waves,etc.A
ssumingthatthewavetransmittingmediumis
homogeneousandthatwhenitmovesitdoes soinitsentirety
relativetoabsolutespace,wearriveat thefollowingtabular
coordinationofthevelocitysof thesourceofradiation,the
velocity0oftheobserver,and thevelocitymofthemedium,
the23possiblecombinationsbeingdeterminedbywhichof
t h e v e lo cit ie s re rae e
I
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
mo
mo
mo
m
m
m
mo
m
so
so
s
S o
s
S o
s
s
O o
0
O o
O o
O o
0
0
0
[
I
u a lt o ze ro :
7 7 1 3 5 2 4 b . 1 c u / 7 2 0 2 / t e n . e l d n a h e . l l d g o h o / / : g p d t t p h / # e s T u _ M s G s e 1 c 3 : c a 6 / 0 g r 3 o . 2 - t 5 s u r 0 - t 4 i h 1 t 0 a 2 h . n w o w ) w a / i : n / i p g t r t i h V f / o y d t e i z s t i r i e g v i i n d U l e ( g c 6 o o k G j e , r i n o a f d m e o t D a r c e i l n b e u
TA B L
I
E
I
G P
E t h e ra n d M atter
Thefollowingsymbolswillbeused:
cthevelocityof thewavessentintothemedium
/theirfre
uency,withreferencetothebodyfromwhich they
aresent
ftheirfre
uency,asmeasuredbytheobserver
atheangleof aberration,bywhichS
,whenobservedfromO ,ap-
pearstobelaterallydisplaced
d t h e a ct uld a is t a n ce b e t w ce eenO andS;
d
t h e d isat n ce b y w h ich S , a s o b s rv rev e d for m O, a p p e a rs e it e h rt o
b e d is pal ce d f rt rut h e ra w a y in t h e d ire ct io n OS
, o rt o b e b ro u h gt
closertotheobserver.
C ases2,3,and4 inwhichonlyoneof thethreesystemsis
inmotionareespeciallyinteresting,andthe differencesbe-
tweenthesethreecasesarenot merelyrelative.Thediffer-
encesbetween2and5,3 and6,and4 and7arehowever
onlyrelativeifthosevelocitieswhichare note
areofe
I
ualtozero
ualmagnitudeandoppositeindirection.
ncases2and 3theobserverwillencounterthe phenome-
nonofaberrationconsistingofa lateraldisplacementofthe
sourceofradiation,andalsothe Dopplereffectconsistingof
a ch a n g e o f f re
ade
u e n cy . M o s t p hsyics t e
tboo k s d o n o t g iv e
uateconsiderationtotheapparentdisplacementofthe
sourceoflightin thedirectionofthelight ray,whichwill
occurincases3 and4.
We shallconsidersuccessivelycases2,3,and 4ofTable
I
,andespeciallythevariouscases subordinatetheretowhich
dependonwhetherthemovementwhichgivesriseto the
Dopplereffect,ortoan apparentdisplacementofthesource
7 7 1 3 5 2 4 b . 1 c u / 7 2 0 2 / t e n . e l d n a h e . l l d g o h o / / : g p d t t p h / # e s T u _ M s G s e 1 c 3 : c a 6 / 0 g r 3 o . 2 - t 5 s u r 0 - t 4 i h 1 t 0 a 2 h . n w o w ) w a / i : n / i p g t r t i V h f / o y d t i e z s r i t e i g v i i n d U e ( l c g 6 o o k j G e , r i n o a f d m e o t D a r c e i l n b e u
oflight,isparallel tothedirection05or perpendicular
thereto.
I
twillbeassumedthat thewavevelocitycrelativeto the
mediuminwhichthewavestravelis independentofthe
movementofthesourceS
,ascanbe observedinthecaseof
w ate r w a v e,sa n d w hch rw i a cco rd in g t o d e S it t e r, ( P H Y
14, 42
and126 7, 1
wavesthathavebeensentoutfroma movingsourceof
12]
S .Z S .,
1 3 , ) is aslo t ru e f o rli ghtw ae v s. T he
G P
i lv e rs u s E in s tin e ia n R e la t ivtiy C la s sca
radiationwillthenbespreadout assphericalwavefronts
concentricwiththeiroriginalsource.
I
n ca s e 2 t h e s o rce ruce S
a n d t h e md eiu m M in w h i ch t h e ich
wavestravelareabsolutelyatrest,whilethe observerO
is
movingwithavelocityo.Thefollowingconditionsmay
e
is t:
(a)Thev e c t o ro is in t h e d ir ct e ct io n f ro m S t o O;
(b)Thev e c t o r0 is in t h e d ir ct e ct io n f ro m O t o S ;
( c) T h e v e c t o r0 is in a d iretcio n p epr e n dcu ct i la rt o OS
.
( a ) 0 is d iretce d f ro m S t o 0 . A t t h e t im e w h e n t h eirs f t
wavereachesO ,thesecondwavewillbe atadistancec/f
from0.W earenbwconfrontedwiththe oldproblemof
A
ch ille s a n d t h e t u rt le in a s ce r t a inni g t h e t im rt e t w re
u ire d
forthesecondwavemovingwitha velocityctoovertake
theobserverO ,whoishimselfrecedingwith avelocityo
andisinitiallyat adistancec/ffromthe secondwave.We
nowhave:
ct w = o t w + c/ f ,
tw =
I
c/ f ( c- o ) = i/ f
,
t w illb e s e n e t h a t t h e fer
smallerthantheactualfre
u e n cy f a s b o s e rv e d b y O is
uency/.Therewillbeneither
aberrationnoranapparentdisplacementofthesource,so
thattheactuallocationof S
O
anditslocationasobservedby
willcoincide.Thiswillbe readilyunderstoodifwebear
inmindthatthe amplitudeoftheemittedwavesdecreases
a sthey sp r e a d o tuin t h e m e d iu re m.I
n t h e p rees n t ca s e t h e
decreaseinamplitudedependsontheactual distancefrom
0toS.
7 7 1 3 5 2 4 b . 1 c u / 7 2 0 2 / t e n . e l d n a h e . l l d g o h / o / : g p d t t p h / # e s T u _ M s G s e 1 c 3 : c a 6 / 0 g r 3 o . 2 t 5 s u r 0 - t 4 i h 1 t 0 a 2 h . n w o w ) w a / i : n / i p g r t t i h V f / o y d t i e z s r i t e i g v i i n d U l e ( c g 6 o o k j G e , r i n o a f d m e o t D a r c e i l n b e u
( b ) 0 is d ire ct e d f ro m O t o 5 . B y m a k in g a n a p ro rpo p ria te
alterationintheabovecalculations,weobtain:
c
[
13
G P
E t h e ra n d M atter
H erealsotheactuallocation ofS
coincideswithitslocation
a so bse r v e d b y O. rv
( c) o is p e rp e n d icu l a rt o 0 la
detectanychangeoffre
.A
n o b s e rv e ra t O
d o e s n to
uency,butratheranaberrationor
la t ear ld is pal ce mn et o f S . F
o rt h e s a e k o f cla rit y t h is co n d ii-
tionwillbeconsideredwithreferenceto case5,whichdiffers
onlyrelativelyfromcase2.O
w illthenbeabsolutelyat rest,
w h ile M mvoe s w it h a v e lo cit ym=
.isstationaryrelativetoM.W
a t t h e in sat n t w hn eO
— o ( in ca s e 2,)a n d S
eshallconsiderthesituation
is clo s s et t o S
a n d is e noc u n tre e dby a
wavecrestpreviouslyemittedfrom5.
F
ig.1.(Mediumandsourceare movingwithatransversevelocitym
relativetoastationaryobserveratO
.
Thewavecrest,whichispartiallyrepresentedin F ig.1,
hastwovelocitycomponents,namelycinthe directionS
andm (e
u iv ael n t t o — o ) p e rp ed nicu la rt o S
moreclearlyshownintheperspectiveviewin F
O
0 . T h is is
ig.2.W hen
thewavecrest,namelyhalfawave,hasmovedpast O ,then
therectilinearlyrepresentedwaveelement,whicherstwhile
a rriv e d a t 0 , w illhvae m o v d et o W . A
n o b s e rv e ra t O
14]
7 7 1 3 5 2 4 b . 1 c u / 7 2 0 2 / t e n . e l d n a h e . l l d g o h / o / : g p d t t p h / # e s T u _ M s G s e 1 c 3 : c a 6 / 0 g r 3 o . 2 t 5 s u r 0 - t 4 i h 1 t 0 a 2 h . n w o w ) w a / i : n / i p g r t t i h V f / o y d t i e z s r i t e i g v i i n d U l e ( g c 6 o o k j G e , r i n o a f d m e o t D a r c e i l n b e u
w ill
G P
i lv e rs u s E in s tin e ia n R e la t ivtiy C la s sca
thereforereachtheconclusionthatthewavecame inthe
d ire ct io n S '
O. T h e a n g l e o f a b era le r t io n a w illt h e n b e dtee r-
m in e d b y thee
u a t io n:
t a n a = m / c.
I
t w illb e re d a ily s e e n t h a t t h e a p a re n t d is t n a ce o f S is e
ual
toitsactualdistance.
Therelationshipsofcase5 arereadilyapplicabletocase
2 . A s a p ra ct ica le
a m pel w e m a y co n s id e rt e hmov m e entof
a s u rf rid e r a s h e is d ra w n in lo ra lao n g t h e sohre . I f h e clo s s e
hiseyeshewill gettheimpressionthatthewaterwaves
strikehim,notsidewise,butobli
I
n ca s e 3 t h e o bes rv e rO rO
uelyfromthefront.
andthem e d iu m M aer a b s o -
lutelyatrest,whilethe sourceofradiationS
moveswitha
velocitys.Threesubordinatecaseswillagainbe considered:
(a)Thev e c t o ry lie s in t e ct h d ire ct io n f ro mO
toS ;
(b)Thev e c t o r$ lie s in t h e dre ct i ctoi n f ro m S t o O;
( c) T h e v e c t o riis p e rpn ct ed icu l a rt o OS la
( a ) iis d ire ct e d f ro m 0 t o S . A
.
t t h e in s tn at w h e n a
w a v e is s e n t o u t , S w illb e a t S o . D u rin g t h e frs i t o s cil la t io n
s e n t o u tro f m S , w h ich ccu c ocu p ie s a t im e 1 / / ,ht e s o u rc eS
w ill
havemovedthroughapaths/fto S i,wherebyeverypoint
betw e e n S o a n d S i w illh aev b e co m e t h e ce n tro e f a s p h e ric al
waveinsuchamannerthat acertaindisplacement,asindi-
catedinF
ig.3,willspreadout fromeverysuchpointwith
a v e lo ci t y c. A
d is pal ce mn et a t S iw illb e s e n t otula t e rt h n a
a d is p la ce m e ce n t S o b y a n in t evr a lo f t im e i/ f , a n d re
t im e scf / t o a rriv eatS
t w = i /+ f s / c= f {
o , t h a t is , it re
c + s ) / fc
7 7 1 3 5 2 4 b . 1 c u / 7 2 0 2 / t e n . e l d n a h e . l l d g o h o / / : g p d t t p h / # e s T u _ M s G s e 1 c 3 : c a 6 / 0 g r 3 o . 2 - t 5 s u r 0 - t 4 i h 1 t 0 a 2 h . n w o w ) w a / i : n / i p g t r t i h V f / o y d t e i z s r i t e i g v i i n d U l e ( g c 6 o o k G j e , r i n o a f d m e o t D a r c e i l n b e u
forthepointS
u ire s a
u ire s a t im e
otochangefromits stateofvibrationwhen
thefirstwaveisemittedto thecorrespondingstateofvib-
ra t io n o f t h e s e co ndw av e. Thew v a e t ra in for m S o t o S i
w h ich a r riv s rriv ea t O
f
[
h a s a f re
= i / t w = c f (/ c + s ) .
i5
u e n cy
G P
E t h e ra n d M atter
F
ig . 3 . S o u rce S
is m o vni g a w a yro f m theob s e rv e r0 .
Duringthetime/which transpireswhilethefirstwavesent
o u t f ro m S o m o v e s t o O, t h e s o u rce S w illh aev m o v e d a
d is t a n ce s t = d
toS '
. T h e a ct a u ld is t n a ce d b e t w een0andS
a t t h e t im e w h e n t h e frs i tw ae v a rriv esa tO
Thedistancectis thereforee
d
is t h e re f o re 0 5 .
ualtod— d
,andwehave:
= s d / c( + s ) .
Thesourceofradiationwillthereforeappearto theob-
s e rv rO e
a s b e in g cl o s e rt a h n it a ct u a l ly is , b y a d is lly t a n ce d .
Thesederivationswouldbemorecomplicatedifa point
adjacenttheobserverO
weretobeusedas thecenterof
reference.
( b ) s is d ire ct e d f ro m S t o 0 . W e t h e n h a v e :
f
= c f / ( -cs )
a n d d = s d / ( c — s.)
Thesourceofradiationnowappearsfurtherawayfrom 0
thanitactuallyis.
( c) s is p e rp e n d icu l a rt o OS la
. T h e s o uce r S
s id eer d a t t h e in satn t w h e n it is a t t h e p o in t S '
clo s e s t t o t h e o bes rv e rO. A
whichwasemittedfromS
e
w illb e co-n
(
ig . 4 )
t t h is in s tn at t h e s p hrica e lw a ve
o,whereS
waslocatedpriortothe
pirationofthetime/,will havetraveledthedistance
S oO =
ct . A n o b s evr e ra t O w illt h e reof re s e e t e h s o u rce
displacedbyananglea fromitsactualposition,andfurther
16]
7 7 1 3 5 2 4 b . 1 c u / 7 2 0 2 / t e n . e l d n a h e . l l d g o h o / / : g p d t t p h / # e s T u _ M s G s e 1 c 3 : c a 6 / 0 g r 3 o . 2 - t 5 s u r 0 - t 4 i 1 h t 0 a 2 h . n w o w ) w a / i : n / i p g t r t i h V f / o y d t e i z s i r t i e g v i i n d U l e ( c g o 6 o k G j e , r i n o a f d m e o t D a r c e i l n b e
G P
i lv e rs u s E in s tin e ia n R e la t ivtiy C la s sca
F
ig.4.S
ourceismoving-withatransversevelocitys relativetoastation-
arymediumandastationaryobserver.
a w a y b y a dsit a nec d
fre
t h a n it a ct u a lly is .A
n in cresae o f
uencywillalsobeobserved,forthe followingreason:
s in a =
c
t a n a = - ^ / ( i- s 3 / c
d
= d
i (/ -i s2 c/
r = f (/ -i s
F
/ c
)X
) y> - i -
)
o ra ce rt ani v a lu e b o f t h e a n g le w ich h jm a k e s w it h t h e
lin e f ro mS
t o O, t h e o b s e rv e d f re
u e nyc /
t h e a ct u a lf re
u e nyc / . T h is a n le lge w illb e
b= —
+ a r c t a ns( / )c
I
^—
w illb e e
n ca s e 4 , S a n d O a re a bos lu t e l y a t re s t . T ly h e t ra nm s it -
t in g m eiu d mMmov e s w it h a v eol cit y m .I
seenfromwhathasalreadybeene
t ca n b e re a ily idly
plainedthatregardless
ofthedirectionin whichMmoves,therecanneverbe a
[
i7
7 7 1 3 5 2 4 b . 1 c u / 7 2 0 2 / t e n . e l d n a h e . l l d g o h o / / : g p d t t p h / # e s T u _ M s G s e 1 c 3 : c a 6 / 0 g r 3 o . 2 - t 5 s u r 0 - t 4 i h 1 t 0 a 2 h . n w o w ) w a / i : n / i p g t r i t V h f / o y d t i e z s r i t e i g v i i n d U l e ( c g o 6 o k j G e , r i n o a f d m e o t D a r c e i l n b e
u a lt o
u G P
E t h e ra n d M atter
changeoffre
uencyoranaberrationaldisplacementob-
servedby0becausetheeffect ofS
a t re s t in M w le il
relativelytoS
movingrelativelyto0
a ct ly nu et ra li ze t h e e fefct o f O m o vni g
atrestinM. Thustherecanbeno changeof
pitchinsoundfroma stationarysourcetransmittingthrough
awindofuniformvelocity,providedthereis noshiftingof
thewind.
TheapparentdisplacementofS
inthedirectionO
S ,which
willoccurincase 3butnotin case2,willnotbe compen-
sated.F
ig.5showsforthe relationshipc/m— T,thevarious
magnitudesofthisdisplacement,dependingonthedirection
F
ig . 5 . M eiu d m is m o v i n g w it in h a v e lo cit y m in t h e d iretcio n S O
toastationarysourceanda stationaryobserver.
ofthestationaryvectorm.S
circle o f ra d iu s OS
maybeatanypoint ona
^ d w it h O a s t h e ce n t e r, n a d in a n y
particularpositionofitthere willbeadefiniteangular
re laio t nsh ipbe tw ip e e n m a n d OS
.S
'
w illin e ah c ca s e b e a t
somepointonthedottedcircle ofradiusrand eccentricityq ,
sothatthefollowingrelationshipswille
ist:
and
1
1
7 7 1 3 5 2 4 b . 1 c u / 7 2 0 2 / t e n . e l d n a h e . l l d g o h o / / : g p d t t p h / # e s T u _ M s G s e 1 c 3 : c a 6 / 0 g r 3 o . 2 t 5 s u r 0 - t 4 i h 1 t 0 a 2 h . n w o w ) w a / i : n / i p g r t t i h V f / o y d t i e z s r i t e i g v i i n d U e ( l c g o 6 o k j G e , r i n o a f d m e o t D a r c e i l n b
re laiv t e
e u G P
i lv e rs u s E in s tin e ia n R e la t ivtiy C la s sca
A
sa ne
a m pel o f t h e a p pre a n t d is p la ce m entof aw v ae-
emittingbodyS
inthedirectionofradiation,thespreading
o uto f so u n d w a v seb y t h e w in d m ay'
b e m e nio t n e.dI
t is
truethatthedisplacementofthe sourceinthiscase cannot
bedeterminedbyobservationsfrompointsadjacentO
causethedirectionofS
be-
willnotbechanged.Theapparent
displacementofthesourceinthe directionofradiationwill
howeverbemadeknownbyanincreasein theamplitudeof
thesoundwavesastheyare beingreceivedatO
Thegeneralizedcases5,6,7, and8
ofTableI
.
canbe
readilycorrelatedwiththecasesthat havealreadybeen
discussedindetail.
7 7 1 3 5 2 4 b . 1 c u / 7 2 0 2 / t e n . e l d n a h e . l l d g o h / o / : g p d t t p h / # e s T u _ M s G s e 1 c 3 : c a 6 / 0 g r 3 o . 2 t 5 s u r 0 - t 4 i h 1 t 0 a 2 h . n w o w ) w a / i : n / i p g r t t i h V f / o y d t i e z s r i t e i g v i i n d U e ( l c g o 6 o k j G e , r i n o a f d m e o t D a r c e i l n b
e u G P
TheR
WE
edS
hift
havethusfarconsideredonlythe idealcasewhere
theetherishomogeneousandmovableonlyasan
entirety,'
butweshallnowconsidera casethatis
closertotheconditionsthat actuallye
istininterstellar
space.We shallnowassumethatthelight wavesmigrate
fromastationarymediumacrossatransitionplane intoa
mediumofthesameconstitutionwhichis inuniformmotion
paralleltothisplane,and thatuponcontinuedmovementin
thesamedirectiontheypassout ofthemovingmediumand
intothestationarymediumagain.I
tisgenerallyagreedthat
theraysorrather thewave-frontnormalsofthewaves
comingfromthestationarymediumwillundergorefraction
inthedirectionof motionofthemediumbecauseofthe
carryingalongofthewavesbythe movingmedium.I
f
everyportionofthemediumbeimaginedto possessthe
attributesofanobserver(orreceiver)and anemitter(or
sender),andifonlya singlestationaryhomogeneous
mediumispresent,thenthepathand thedirectionofradia-
tion(whicharecoincidentin thiscase,althoughnotalways
so,)canbeso dennedthateverymovingelementinthewave
willcontinuetomovein thesamedirectioninwhichit
arrived,theraybeingthusrenderedrectilinear.The normal
tothewavefrontis inthiscasecoincident withthepath
anddirectionoftheray.
O nthebasisof thisdefinitionoftheconceptsof pathand
directionofradiation,thepassageofa rayoflightfroma
stationaryintoamovingmediumwillnowbe followedon
F
ig.6.Theratioof thevelocitymofthe mediumtothe
7 7 1 3 5 2 4 b . 1 c u / 7 2 0 2 / t e n . e l d n a h e . l l d g o h o / / : g p d t t p h / # e s T u _ M s G s e 1 c 3 : c a 6 / 0 g r 3 o . 2 t 5 s u r 0 - t 4 i h 1 t 0 a 2 h . n w o w ) w a / i : n / i p g r t t i h V f / o y d t e i z s r i t e i g v i i d U n l e ( c g 6 o o k G j e , r i n o a f d m e o t a D r c e i l n b
w avev e lo ci t y cin t h e m e dui m is t h e re tkae n a s mc= /
F
y
orthesakeofclarity weshalldesignateallpointswhich
areatrestrelativeto thestationarymediumbyunprimed
capitals,andthosewhichareat restrelativetothemoving
mediumbyprimedcapitals.F
orsimplicityweshalldesig-
nateastheangleof incidenceb,nottheangle betweenthe
20]
.
e u G P
7 7 1 3 5 2 4 b . 1 c u / 7 2 0 2 / t e n . e l d n a h e . l l d g o h o / / : g p d t t p h e / # s T u _ M s G s e 1 c 3 : c a 6 / 0 g r 3 o . 2 - t 5 s u r 0 - t 4 i h 1 t 0 a 2 h . n w o w ) w a / i : n / i p g t r t i h V f / o y d t e i z s r i t i e g v i i d U n l e ( c g 6 o o k G j e , r i n o a f d m e o t D a r c i e l n b
e u G P
E t h e ra n d M atter
incidentrayandthenormalto thesurfaceoftransition,but
rathertheanglewhichthe raymakeswiththedirectionof
motionofthemovingmedium.A
spositivevaluesofb will
b e d e s ig n a t e d ala l n g le supto 1
0 0 . A n o b s evr e ra t t h e
pointPonthe interfacePR
whoisatrest relativetothe
movingmedium,andwhoreceivesaraycomingfrom0
alongthelineO
Pperpendiculartotheinterfacewill find,
becauseofaberration,thattherayappearsto comefrom
t h e p o in tQ
so a sto m a e k a n a n g le g — b +
a iw it h t e h in t e r-
face,theangleofaberrationbeingdeterminedbytan ai=
m / c( caes2 co f T a b le I ) . A
n y p a rt icle A '
m e d iu m w illb e a fef ct e d in e
a ct ly t e hsa m em a n n e.rS
t h e p a rt icle A '
of them v o in g
in ce
is a t re s t real t iv eot t h e m o vni g m e dui m , t h e
undulatorymovementwhichtheparticlereceivedwhileatP
willspreadoutasa waveimpulsewithavelocityc (the
s a m e a s in t h e s t a t io n a ry m e d iu m ) in tehd ire ct io n A '
thelineQ
D
t h is lin eot t h e p o in t G . D u rin g t is ihs t im e t h e p a rt ic le A
ha sm o v e d a lo n g t h e p a t h P R t o t h e p oni t R
me
in
P,andina unitintervaloftimewill travelalong
'
w it h a v eol cit y
u a lt o t h tao f t h e m e dui m . D uin r gthesm a e t im e t h e
pointG
ha slikewisemovedtothestationarypoint5, that
is , t h e w a v e im pls u e p roec e d in g f ro m A '
directionP
cle s B '
ha sm o e v d in t h e
relativetothestationarymedium.O therparti-
a n d C o f t h e m oin v g m e iu idu m w hch i a rriv esubse-
q uentlyatthepointP willsendoutotherwaveimpulsesin
d ire ct io n s B '
inadirectionP
E '
a n d C P re la t iv e t o t h e m o v in g m e d iu m, but
relativetothestationarymedium,sothat
anobserveratrestrelativeto thestationarymediumwhois
7 7 1 3 5 2 4 b . 1 c u / 7 2 0 2 / t e n . e l d n a h e . l l d g o h o / / : g p d t t p h e / # s T u _ M s G s e 1 c 3 : c a 6 / 0 g r 3 o . 2 - t 5 s u r 0 - t 4 i h 1 t 0 a 2 h . n w o w ) w a / i : n / i p g t r t i h V f / o y d t e i z s i r t i e g v i i d U n l e ( c g o 6 o k j G e , r i n o a f d m e o t D a r c e i l n b
lo caet d a t a n y p in ion t T o n t h e ra y p tah P
thew av e im p usle s f ro mht e p a rtcle i sA '
w illreec iv e al l
,B
'
,C
, e t c. S in ce
thestationaryobservedatTmoveswitha velocity—m
relativetothemovingmedium,hewillnot receivetheray»
f ro m a d ir e ct io n p a ra ll e lt o A
'
D
willreceiveitfroma directionTU,theangleofaberration
«
2beingdeterminedbytherelationship:
m s in g
tana2=
c
22]
.
, b u t b e ca u s e o f a brra e t io n
e u G P
TheR
edS
hift
Thepathofradiationandthe directionofradiationthere-
foreappeartothestationaryobserverat Ttoheat anangle
toeachother.F
urthermoresuchanobserverwillnot
receivethewaveimpulsesattheiroriginal fre
s in ce t h e im p u ls e e m it tni g p a rtcle i sA \
uency/,but
B '
, O , e t c. re ce de
fromhimwithavelocitym cosg,hewill receivesuchim-
pulses,inaccordancewithcase3 ofTableI
fre
,ata diminished
uec ny
c+ m co sg
A
t t h e p o in t V w e h re t h e lin esP
in t esre ct s t e hother
boundarysurfacebetweenthestationaryandthemoving
media,therayleavesthemovingmedium.A
particleatV
inthestationarymediumcontinuallyreceiveswaveimpulses
f ro m a d ir e ct io n p a ra ll e lt o Q P , a n d jutsa s in t h e ca s e o f
theobserveratT,thesewaves,becauseof aberration,will
appeartocomefromthedirection VW paralleltoTU.B
ut
theywillnotcontinueto travelinthisdirectionin the
stationarymediumbecauseintheinfinitesimalregionof
transitionbetweenthetwomediathewavevelocitydoesnot
remainc,butis reducedto
c
A
— c — mc mc o s (i
o
-
) .
t t h e in s t n a t o f t ra s nit io n t h e s a m e co n d itoi n s w le il
is t a s
whenaraypassesfroma rarerintoadensermedium,
where:
co s e c
co s : c— m co s g
eandi beingtheangleswhichtheincident andrefracted
raysmakewiththeplaneof transitionbetweenthetwo
7 7 1 3 5 2 4 b . 1 c u / 7 2 0 2 / t e n . e l d n a h e . l l d g o h o / / : g p d t t p h e / # s T u _ M s G s e 1 c 3 : c a 6 / 0 g r 3 o . 2 t 5 s u r 0 - t 4 i h 1 t 0 a 2 h . n w o w ) w a / i : n / i p g t r t i h V f / o y d t i e z s r i t e i g v i i d U n l e ( c g o 6 o k j G e , r i n o a f d m e o t D a r c e i l n b
media.I
nthestationarymediumthedirectionof therayis
againidenticalwiththepathof theray.Theraydirections
beforeandaftertraversingthemovingmediummakewith
e a ch o tehra n a n g le b , a n d t h e s a m e d im in u t io n o fre f
whichoccurredatTwill alsobeobservedatV.
I
nF
[
23
ig . 7 t h e inid c e n t ra y is s h o w ,nn o t a t rig h t a n g le sto
u e n cy
e u G P
E t h e ra n d M atter
themovingmedium,butatanobli
ueanglethereto.A
stationaryobserverinthemovingmediumwillfindthat the
pathoftheray,as wellasthedirectionof theray,arere-
fractedintheup-streamdirection,althoughthecontraryhas
beenstatedbynearlyallwriters onthissubject.
F
ig . 7 . S a m e a s F
o b li
I
ig . 6 , b u t w it h t h e ra yra t v esrin g t h e cu rre n t a t a n
u e a n g le .
nF
ig . 7 t h e f re
u e nyc f w h ich w lb il e m e a s u re dby a n re
observerwhoisatrest relativetothemovingmedium,
a ccodr in g t o caes 2 a o f T a bel I
f
w h eer / is t h e f re
f re
, w illb e :
= f ( c — m c o s b /) c
u e n cy f
u e n cy a t t h e s o uce r o f ra d ia t io n . h Te
w h ich w illb e m e s au re d b y a n o b s e rv e ra t re s t
24]
7 7 1 3 5 2 4 b . 1 c u / 7 2 0 2 / t e n . e l d n a h e . l l d g o h / o / : g p d t t p h e / # s T u _ M s G s e 1 c 3 : c a 6 / 0 g r 3 o . 2 t 5 s u r 0 - t 4 i h 1 t 0 a 2 h . n w o w ) w a / i : n / i p g r t t i h V f / o y d t i e z s r i t e i g v i i d U n l e ( c g o 6 o k j G e , r i n o a f d m e o t D a r c e i l n
b e u G P
TheR
edS
hift
inthestationarymediumafterthewaveshavetraversedthe
movingmediumandhavereturnedintothestationary
m e d iu m w illb e , aco c rdni g t o ca s e 3 a o f a T b le I :
f
=
= c f
/ c( m - co sg
)
f ( c— m co s b ) / (— c m co s g 1 )
w h eer g
is t h e a n gel w h ich t e h ra y in t h e m v o in g m e d iu m
make s w it h m . S in ce ( f f o rv a lu e s o f m / c^ 1 is a lw a s y
g re aet rt h a n b , f
w illa lw a y s b e lesst h a n / .
Thesamediminutionoffre
F
uencywhichoccurredin
ig . 6 w illt e h re f o r e a ls o b e osbe rv e re d in F
ig . 7 b y a n o b -
serverinthestationarymediumonthe remotesideofthe
movingmedium.I
ftherayis inclinedinthedirection ofthe
current,thediminutionoffre
uencyuponenteringthemov-
ingmediumwillbegreaterthan theincreaseoffre
uency
uponleavingthesame,whereasiftheray isinclinedin a
directionoppositetothatofthe current,theincreaseof
fre
uencyuponenteringthemovingmediumwillbe less
thanthedecreaseoffre
uencyuponleavingthesame.
Thefollowingisthereforeuniversallytrueforall media:
Whenevera trainofwavestraversesamediumthat has
currentsflowingacrossit,anobserverwho isatrestrelative
tothesourceof radiationwillobserveadiminutionoffre-
q uency,andasimultaneousrefractionoftheray inadirec-
tionoppositetothedirection ofthecurrentit traverses.
I
n t h e ca s e o f g li h t w a v e s , t hsip h e n o meno n is e
h ib it ed
bytheredshift ofthelightfromdistant nebulaewhichis
todaygenerallyinterpretedasaDopplereffect,andis ac-
ceptedbyalmosteverybodyasproofofthe actualrecession
7 7 1 3 5 2 4 b . 1 c u / 7 2 0 2 / t e n . e l d n a h e . l l d g o h o / / : g p d t t p
ofsuchnebulae.I
fthiswerea trueDopplereffect,thenthe
velocityofrecessionofnebulaeata distanceof5,000light
yearswouldbeonekilometerpersecond.I
tisdifficult to
understandwherealltheenergycouldcomefrom thatwould
benecessarytogivethesenebulaetheir outwardvelocityand
acceleration,orwhyourownMilkyW
ayshouldbethe
centeroftheuniverse.Thistheoryis sounreasonableonthe
faceofitthat wefeelcompelledtolookfor someother
e
[
p la a n t io n .I
25
t w o u ld s e m m o re re a s o nb ale t o a t tib r uteth e
h # e / s T u _ M s G s e 1 c 3 : c a 6 / g 0 r 3 o . 2 t 5 s u r 0 - t 4 i h 1 t 0 a 2 h . n w o w ) w a / i : n / i p g r t t i h V f / o y d t i e z s r i t e i g v i i d U n l e ( c g o 6 o k j G e , r i n o a f d m e o t D a r c e i l
b e u G P
TheR
edS
hift
redshifttoether currentsininterstellarspaceas e
plained
intheprecedingpages,or tosomethinganalogoustothe
R a m a n o r' C o m pot n e f f ct c et s . I n e it h e r ca s e t h e f utrh e ra rca
nebulaisawaythegreaterwouldbe theregionsofflowing
andturbulentetherwithrarifiedgasesthrough whichthe
lightwaveshavepassed.
Theforegoinge
planationoftheredshift onthebasisof
in t esrt e lla re t h e rcure r n t s w sap re s e n t e d b y O. C
b e rg in 1
ofE
3 1 , in o p o p s itoi n t o t h e e
insteinandL
. H ilg e n -
p a n dni g u n iv e rs e t hoery
emaitre.Thevaguenessandambiguityof
t h e E in s t e in ia nie f ld e
u a t io n s is s h o w n b y t h e co nra t d ic t o ry
conclusionswhichhavebeendrawntherefrom,namelythe
f in it e b u t e n d le s s u n iv e rse o f A . E rs
butmasslessuniverseofW
G. L e m a it re a n d A . F
.deS
in s t e ina ndthe e in
p a n in idn g
itter,withthetheoriesof
rie d m a n a s t h e irfni a lp ro d u ct . Taht
therearelimitsto whatcanbelearnedaboutthefacts of
naturefromsuchmathematicale
b yde S i tt re { N A T UR UR W I
1
uationsalone,wasrealized
S S
E N S
C H A
3 1 ) w hn eh e re m akr e d : " U b e rd ie m a t h e m ais t ch e n
Gleichungenkonnenwirnichthinausgehen.
B esidesthenebularredshift referredtoabove,thereis
alsothegravitationalredshiftproducedby thegravitational
fieldoftheradiatingbody.This canalsobeaccountedfor
underthedynamicethertheorybecausein theneighborhood
ofalargegravitatingbodylike thesunora starthereis
presumablyagreaterturbulenceofetherthanin interstellar
space.I
nanswertotheE
insteinianrelativistswhowould
faintamperwithspaceandtime themselvesinorderto
7 7 1 3 5 2 4 b . 1 c u / 7 2 0 2 / t e n . e l d n a h e . l l d g o h o / / : g p d t t p h # e / s T u _ M s G s e 1 c 3 : c a 6 / 0 g r 3 o . 2 - t 5 s u r 0 - t 4 i h 1 t 0 a 2 h . n w o w ) w a / i : n / i p g t r t i h V f / o y d t e i z s r i t i e g v i i d U n l e ( c g 6 o o k G j e , r i n o a f d m e o t D a r c i e l
accountfortheredshift, wethereforeneedonlyreplywith
thefamiliaraphorismofL
ichtenberg,therebeingmore
thingsinheavenandon earththanaredreamedofin
E insteinianrelativity.
26]
F T
N , ig 3 , 6 ,
n b e u G P
Gravitation
I
Tseemstobethe prevailingopiniontodaythatallat-
tem p tsto e
p la in tehf o rce o f gar v it y n o t h e b a s is o f
ethermechanicshavebeenunsuccessful,butthata satis-
factorye
planationhasbeenarrivedatonthe basisof
curvatureofspace.Theattemptedhydromechanicale
pla-
nationsmayhavebeenimperfect,buttheywerecertainly
stepsintheright direction.O ntheotherhandto attribute
gravitationtoacurvatureofspace isscientificallynoe
pla-
nationatall,butonly ametaphysicalevasion.Gravitation
isdefinitelyaphysicalforce,and thereforere
ca le
uiresaphysi-
p la n a t io n .
Theforceofgravitymustact throughtheintervening
ether,andiftheether isafluidr atherthanasolid,as it
obviouslymustbe,thengravitationmustbecausedby a
pressureofthisfluidfrom behindratherthanbya pullfrom
infront,andsucha pressurecanonlybecausedby aflow
oftheetherin thedirectionofthegravitationalforce.Thus
L
eS
a g e in 1 7 5 0 co m p a r e d t h e f rce re roce o f g ra v it y wtih t h e
effectofahailstormon twocirculardisksheldin parallelism
ashortdistancefromeach other.I
fthestormis rather
turbulentsothatthehailstonesstrike thedisksfromall
directions,thenthetwodiskswill bedriventowardeach
otherwithaforcethat becomesgreateriasthedistancebe-
tw ee n t h e d is s k b e co m e s le s s . Le S
etherconsistsof"
a g e a su sm edth atthe
ultra-mundanecorpuscles
flyingaboutin
alldirections,andcausingmaterialbodiesto beforced
towardeachotherinthe abovemanner.
L
eS
age
s t h e o ry id idd n o t m e e t w it h g e e n ra la pro p val
7 7 1 3 5 2 4 b . 1 c u / 7 2 0 2 / t e n . e l d n a h e . l l d g o h o / / : g p d t t p h # e / s T u _ M s G s e 1 c 3 : c a 6 / 0 g r 3 o . 2 - t 5 s u r 0 - t 4 i h 1 t 0 a 2 h . n w o w ) w a / i : n / i p g t r t i h V f / o y d t e i z s t i r i e g v i i d U n l e ( c g o 6 o k j G e , r i n o a f d m e o t D a r c e i l
becauseitwasthoughtthatsuch anactionofthe etherupon
materialbodieswouldcauseheatingthereof,butthatseems
tobeanargumentin favorofratherthanagainsthis theory,
becausethelargecelestialbodiesdo havesurfacetempera-
tureswhichareproportionaltothe gravitationalforcesat
theirsurfaces.H istheoryalsometwith disapprovalbecause
[
27
n b e u G P
E t h e ra n d M atter
itwasthoughtthatan ethercomposedofsuchultra-mundane
corpusclesshouldbecapableofbeing screenedinamanner
similartoelectrostaticandmagneticforces.H
owever,the
apparentscreeningofelectrostaticandmagneticforcesis
reallyneutralizationratherthanscreening.Theredoesnot
seemtobea singleelementaryforceinnaturewhichis truly
s cre e ned, so w hy e
p e ct t h e frce o o f g rait v y toe
h ib it s u ch ch
anunprecedentedbehavior
A
ttem ptsha v ea lso be e nm ls adetoe
p la in gar v ittaio n o n
thetheorythatmaterialbodiesfunctionas ethersinks,since
itcanbe showne
perimentallythatwhentwobodiesare
connectedwithsuitableconduitssoas tosuckinthe sur-
roundingfluid,theywillattracteach other.A
llethersink
theoriesofgravitation,however,areconfrontedbythediffi-
cultyofe
plainingnotonlywhatcausessuch inwardflowof
ether,butalsowhathappenstothe etherafteritis absorbed.
Z enneckincoordinatingthevarioushypothesesontheme-
chanicale
planationofgravitationwithnumerousreferences
toliterature,statedasfollows:
Theassumptionthattheetherbehaveslikea li
uidora gasleads
totheconclusionthatthe ethercurrentsmustflowintothe atomsof
m a t tr. eA
cco rd ingto J in
.B
e rn u o illi, B . R
ie m n an, andJ . Y
a rk v o sk i
theseethercurrentscarrythe materialbodieswiththemandthus
causegravitation....A
mongthemanydifficultieswhichconfront
thistheory,thereisalso theq
uestionastowhatbecomesof theether
Which flowsintothesematerialbodies.Thereareonlytwo possible
answers—eithertheether accumulatesinthem,oritdisappearsin the
same.iB ernouilli,H elm,andY
arkovskihavedecidedinfavorofthe
7 7 1 3 5 2 4 b . 1 c u / 7 2 0 2 / t e n . e l d n a h e . l l d g o h o / / : g p d t t p h # e / s T u _ M s G s e 1 c 3 : c a 6 / 0 g r 3 o . 2 - t 5 s u r 0 - t 4 i h 1 t 0 a 2 h . n w o w ) w a / i : n / i p g t r t i V h f / o y d t i e z s r i t e i g v i i d U n l e ( c g o 6 o k j G e , r i n o a f d m e o t D a r c e i l
f o rm e r, a n d R ie m a n n in f v a o ro f t h e la t t e r. (
M A T H . P T
S S
E N
S C
N Z Y K L
H , 5 ,P ,P H Y S I
K
H ilgenbergassumedthatatleasta portionoftheab-
sorbedetherisconvertedintomatter,but thedifficultywith
thate
p la ntaio n is t h a t t h e e t h rw rew o u ld sillh t av etobe
compressibleifitis toaccumulateinanyform,andfurther-
moretheproductionofmatterde novowouldre
uiremuch
moreenergythantheinwardlyflowingetherwouldpossess.
A
ninfinitelycompressibleetherwouldhelpto solvethe
problem,butthatwouldagainleadto otherdifficulties.
2
]
. D.
1 , 4 5 ,1 ,1
0 3 - 1 2 1 ).
n b e u G P
Gravitation
N everthelessitseemsinevitablethatgravitationmustbe
causedbyadrift oftheetherthroughthegravitatingbody
inthedirectionof itsacceleration,somewhataspicturedby
L
eS
a g e . I f t h e p root n s a n d eel ct ro n s o f w h ic h g ra v it a t in g
bodiesarecomposedweremerelypointchargesasphysicists
havebeenassumingfornearlyhalfa century,thenitwould
bedifficulttoaccountfor suchanetherdrift.O
ntheother
handiftheelementaryorsubatomicparticlesare vorticesin
theether,thenitwould bereasonabletoassumethatsuch
vorticeskeeptheetherin aturbulentandstreamingcon-
dition.Theabundanceofcosmicraysin theupperatmos-
phereseemstocorroboratethetheorythat theetherisactive
a n d n o t q u ie s ce n.t
A
dynamicallyactiveetherwillreadilyaccountfora uni-
directionaletherdriftthroughthegravitatingbodyin the
d ire ct io n o f it s a cc e le ra t io n . A s e
p la in e d e ls w e h eer b y t h e
writer,theelementaryparticlesofmatterandelectricity
probablyconsistofdipolarvorticesarrangedso astohave
outw a rd p o la r f lu rf
F
ig.8
a n d in w a rd e
u a t oia r lf lu
, o rv ice v rs res a ,
.Twogravitatingbodieswiththeirassociatedether currents.
dependingonwhethertheyareprotonsorelectrons.A
ingthattheether isincompressible,thetotalamountof
etherwhichflowsoutwardlymustbee
[
ualtothetotal
2
7 7 1 3 5 2 4 b . 1 c u / 7 2 0 2 / t e n . e l d n a h e . l l d g o h / o / : g p d t t p h # e / s T u _ M s G s e 1 c 3 : c a 6 / 0 g r 3 o . 2 t 5 s u r 0 - t 4 i h 1 t 0 a 2 h . n w o w ) w a / i : n / i p g r t t i h V f / o y d t i e z s r i t e i g v i i d n l e U ( c g o 6 o k j G e , r i n o a f d m e o t D a r c e i l
ssum-
n b e u G P
E t h e ra n d M atter
amountofetherwhichflowsinwardly,buttheoutwardly
flowingcurrentswilltravelmuchgreaterdistancesthan the
inwardlyflowingcurrents.Thiscanbeillustratedwith an
electricfanwhichwillsend theoutwardlyflowingaircurrent
adistanceoftenfeet ormore,whereastheinwardlyflowing
aircurrentcannotbefelt atadistanceofthat manyinches.
C onse
uentlywhentwogravitatingbodies(liketheearth
andthesun)are atafinitedistancefromeach other,itwill
beprincipallytheoutwardlyflowingethercurrentswhich
willencountereachotherin thespacebetweenthetwo
bodies,andwillspreadoutradiallyin alldirections,event-
uallyreturningintothesamebodiesfrom thesidesorfrom
therear.Thiswillresult inanon-uniformdistributionof
ethercurrentsoverthesurfacesof thegravitatingbodies,
sincemorethanhalfof thetotalinwardlyflowingetherwill
enterthebodiesthroughthesides awayfromeachother,
andlessthanhalfof itthroughthesidestowardeach other.
Theamountofetherthatcan bedrawninon thesides
towardeachotherisalso limitedineachcaseby thepresence
oftheotherbodywhichdraws etherfromthesamespace
butintheoppositedirection,whereason thesidesawayfrom
eachotherthetwobodiescan drawinetherinunlimited
amou nts. I nF
e
ig 8
t h e s e co n d itoi n s a re s hw o n s o mw e hat
agge r a t e dof rt h e s a e ra k o f cla rit y.
Thesameprinciplesapplywhenoneof thebodiesisvery
la rg e ad nt h e o t h e rbd oy v e ry s m a ll, e
ce p t t htain t h is ca s e
theoutwardlytravelingethercurrentsofthe smallerbody
willbedeflectedmuchmorethan thoseofthelargerbody,
7 7 1 3 5 2 4 b . 1 c u / 7 2 0 2 / t e n . e l d n a h e . l l d g o h / o / : g p d t t p h e / # s T u _ M s G s e 1 c 3 : c a 6 / 0 g r 3 o . 2 t 5 s u r 0 - t 4 i h 1 t 0 a 2 h . n w o w ) w a / i : n / i p g r t t i h V f / o y d t i e z s r i t e i g v i i d n l e U ( c g o 6 o k j G e , r i n o a f d m e o t D a r c e il
andthesmallerbodywillthereforehavea muchgreater
acceleration.I
twillbeseen fromtheforegoingthatwhen
twogravitatingbodiesarebroughtintothe presenceofeach
other,theirsurroundingethercurrentswillnot remainuni-
formlyandsymmetricallydistributedovertheirsurfacesbut
willbecomeorganizedinsucha mannerastoforma large
d o u bel v o rt e
f lu
w it h in w a rd p oal rf lu
a n d o uw t a rd e
u a t ria roia l
, e a ch b o d y b e in g a t o rnaert h e ce net ro f o n e v rt rot e
isplainlyshowninthe diagram,thiswillproduceanether
driftthrougheachbodyin thedirectionofits gravitational
30]
.A
s
n b e u G P
Gravitation
accelerationtowardtheotherbody.I
ftheatomsorsubato-
micparticlesofwhicheach bodyiscomposedconsistof
vorticesinthesameether,then itisreasonabletoassume
thattheywillbepushed orcarriedalongbythe etherwhich
driftsthroughthem.
Thesituationcanalsobe presentedinasomewhatdiffer-
entway.W hentwobodiesarein thepresenceofeachother,
theymusteitherattracteachother,repel eachother,or
remainindifferenttowardeachother.S
incetheethercur-
rentsintheregions aroundthetwobodiesmustbepresumed
toactuponeach other,theywillnotremainsymmetrical
aboutthecentersofthe twobodies,andwithanunsymmetri-
caldistributionofethercurrents itisnot likelythatthetwo
bodieswillbein e
uilibriumwithrespecttoeach other.
Theywilleitherattracteachother orrepeleachother.
S in ce it ca n b e sohw n e
p e rim e n t lly laly t h a t in li u id s a s w e ll ll
asingasesa sinkalwaysattractsasinkand asourcealways
attractsasource,it seemsmoreprobablethattheforcere-
sultingfromsuchanunsymmetricaldistributionofether
currentswillbean attractionthanthatitwill bearepulsion.
W e s h a lln o w co nid s e rt h eaf n cif u le
p e rim entof A .
E insteinforprovingtheidentityof gravitationalandinertial
m a ss . ( A . E i n ts eni , P H Y
S.Z
S . 1 41 , 25 4, 1
1 3). A
suspendedbyacablein freespaceundertheinfluenceof a
g ra vtia t io n a lf ie ld. I ld
n t h is b o
t h e re is a p rs res o n w h o re le s ae s
a s t o n e for m h is h a d n. T hesto n e d ro s pd o w n . I f t h e b o
werenotina gravitationalfield,butwouldbeaccelerated
bythepullof thecable,thenthestone,after beingreleased,
7 7 1 3 5 2 4 b . 1 c u / 7 2 0 2 / t e n . e l d n a h e . l l d g o h o / / : g p d t t p h e / # s T u _ M s G s e 1 c 3 : c a 6 / 0 g r 3 o . 2 - t 5 s u r 0 - t 4 i h 1 t 0 a 2 h . n w o w ) w a / i : n / i p g t r t i h V f / o y d t e i z s r i t e i g v i i d n l e U ( c g o 6 o k G j e , r i n o a f d m e o t D a r c e i
althoughnotfallingundertheinfluenceof thegravitational
field,wouldneverthelessappeartothepersonin thebo
behaveinthesamemanneraswhenthe bo
to
w assuspended
inthegravitationalfield.
Theq
uestionwillnowbeconsideredwhetherthetwo
casessetforthabovewillcontinue todifferonlyrelatively
fromeachotherifwe bringintothefieldof actionathird
relativelymovingsystem,namelytheether,andalsoafourth
systemorframeofreference,namelyabsolutespace.
I
finthefirst case(withthestonefallingin agravitational
[
3i
bo
is
l n b e u G P
E t h e ra n d M atter
f ie ld ) t h e e t h ra rea n d t h e '
bo
secondcase(withthebo
a re b o t h sat t ioanry , t e h n in t h e
acceleratedandthestoneremain-
ingstationary),inorderto maintainthepurelyrelative
relationship,theetherwouldhavetobe putintoaccelerated
m o t io n t o g e tehrw it h t h e o b
.I
f in t h e s e co n d ca s e ( w it h
thestoneabsolutelyatrest)the etheralsoremainsatrest,
t h e n in t h eirs f t ca s e ( w it h t h e b o
a b s oul t e ly tare s t ) t h e
etherwouldhavetofallwith thestone.
Uponcarefulstudyofthesetwocases, whichdifferonly
relativelyfromeachother,thelastpair ofsuppositions
appearsthemoreprobablewhenwetakeintoconsideration
theben d in g o f a ra y o f li g h t in ia g rait v a toi n a lf ie ld. I ld
f (as
inthefirstpair ofassumptions)theetherremainsstation-
a ry re la t iv e t o t e hbo
thebo
, t h e n in t h e frs i t ca s e t h e p e rs n o in
m ig h t a t t ribtue t h e b e n d in g o f a ra y o f g li h t t o t h e
gravitationalfield
butwewouldgetinto difficultiesinthe
secondcasewiththebo
acceleratedbythepullofthe cable
intheabsenceofany gravitationalfield,becauseinthislatter
casethepersoninthe bo
wouldnotobserveanybendingof
a ra y o f lig th. On t h e o t hrh e a n d if ( a s in t h e sco e n d p ir iar
ofassumptions)theethermovesrelativetothe bo
an d
withthefallingstonein thedirectionofthegravitational
field,thenthepersonin thebo
(ifprovidedwiththeneces-
saryapparatus)shouldbeableto detectabendingofa ray
oflight,andshouldalso beabletodetectsuch bending
ifthegravitationalfieldwereabsentand thebo
we re
acceleratedbythepullof thecable.
Theconclusionthattheetheris alwaysatrestrelativeto
7 7 1 3 5 2 4 b . 1 c u / 7 2 0 2 / t e n . e l d n a h e . l l d g o h o / / : g p d t t p h # e / s T u _ M s G s e 1 c 3 : c a 6 / 0 g r 3 o . 2 - t 5 s u r 0 - t 4 i 1 h t 0 a 2 h . n w o w ) w a / i : n / i p g t r t i h V f / o y d t e i z s i r t i e g v i i d n e U ( l c g 6 o o k G j e , r i n o a f d m e o t D a r c e i
thestone(absolutelyatrestwith thestoneinthe caseof
theacceleratedbo
butdescendingatthesamerate asthe
stoneinthecase ofthebo
suspendedinagravitational
field)ishoweveruntenablebecauseiftwostoneswere drop-
pedinsuccessionthenthe etherwhichmovesinunisonwith
thefirststonecouldnot beatrestrelativeto thesecond
stone.
We shallthereforeconsiderathirdschemeand assume
thatagravitationalfieldactingupon amaterialbodycorres-
pondstoaflowof etherthroughthebodyin thedirection
32]
l n b e u G P
Gravitation
o f t h e f ie ld. A ld
bo
p o s it io n e d in sch u a f ie ld wllh i avea
uniformethercurrentflowingdownwardlythroughit.A
s t o n e hld e'
b y a n o b srv e e rin t h e b o
w illa ls o b e t ra v rs res e d b y
theethercurrent,andwill fallifreleased.A
lig h t t ra v e rsni g t h e b o
( u n le s s it is e
of theeth e rcu rre n t ) w illb e bn et . I
eratedbo
ndarayof
a ct ly in t e h d ire ct io n
n t h e ca s e o f t e h a cce l-
intheabsenceofa gravitationalfield,thebo
willbetraversedbyan ethercurrentina directionopposite
toitsacceleration.I
fthestonehasbeen releasedjustprior
t o t h e a cce le raio t nof thebo
, t h e n it w il ln o t b e t ra e v rs e d
byanethercurrentand itspositioninabsolutespace willnot
ch a n g e . B u t a ra y o f lig h t t ra v rs e in g t h ebo
a no bse r v e rin t h e b o rv
[
w illa p e p a rt o
t o b e b e n.t
33
7 7 1 3 5 2 4 b . 1 c u / 7 2 0 2 / t e n . e l d n a h e . l l d g o h o / / : g p d t t p h # e / s T u _ M s G s e 1 c 3 : c a 6 / 0 g r 3 o . 2 - t 5 s u r 0 - t 4 i h 1 t 0 a 2 h . n w o w ) w a / i : n / i p g t r i t V h f / o y d t i e z s r i t e i g v i i d n e U l ( c g 6 o o k j G e , r i n o a f d m e o t D a r c i
e l n b e u G P
TheC
UR
onstitutionoftheS
unandS
tars
studyoftheetherandgravitationshould notbe
concludedwithoutabriefconsiderationofthe astro-
physicaltheoriesofH
ermannF
rickewhohasbeen
sponsoringthetheoryofadynamicether withq uasifrictional
properties,inoppositiontotherelativitytheoryof E instein
a n d t h e q u ie s ce n t eht e rt h o e ry o f L o re tnz. ( H . F
im in n enr e rd a h n lich e S o n n e , i
1
3
. )I tisF rick e
^^
rick e , D ie
n d W e lt a tehrf osrch u g n,
sco n t e tni o ntha ttheu s nan d s t ras a er
nothotandgaseousinsideas taughtbytheastronomersof
today,butthattheyareearthlikebodiescoveredwith great
depthsofoceanwater,andwithonly theirouteratmos-
pheresincandescent.A ccordingtoF
rickethehighsurface
temperaturesofthesunandstars arecausedbyafrictional
effectoftheforceof gravityuponthegaseousatmospheres,
a s f o re
a m pel b y a f lo w o f eht e rin t h e d ir e ct io nof the
gravitationalforce,orbylargenumbersofcosmic ray
particlesbeingdrawninby theforceofgravity.
Theargumentmostfre
F
rick e
uentlypresentedinoppositionto
s t h e oyr is t h a t t h e h ig h s u rf aec t e m p e r a t uer o f a ra
bodylikethesunwouldsoon e
interior.I
aporateanywaterinthe
tisa wellestablishedprincipleofphysics,how-
ever,thatheatcantravelonly byradiation,conduction,or
convection.R adiationisimmediatelystoppedbythethinnest
layersofopa
uematerial,arid,thereforecannotpenetrate
f o ra n y dsit a nec in t o t h e s n u
lyinade
s in t e ri o r. C o n d u ct io n is e
uatewherethousandsofmilesofpoorlyconducting
materialhavetobetraversed.Thereremainsthenonly
convection,andtheeffectofconvectionisto producestratifi-
7 7 1 3 5 2 4 b . 1 c u / 7 2 0 2 / t e n . e l d n a h e . l l d g o h o / / : g p d t t p h # e / s T u _ M s G s e 1 c 3 : c a 6 / 0 g r 3 o . 2 t 5 s u r 0 - t 4 i h 1 t 0 a 2 h . n w o w ) w a / i : n / i p g r t t i h V f / o y d t i e z s r i t e i g v i i n d e U ( l c g o 6 o k j G e , r i n o a f d m e o t D a r c
cation—thecooler massessinkingtolowerlevelswhilethe
hottermassesrisetothe top.E
verylargegravitatingbody
thereforeactsasanautomaticrefrigerator,theinterior
beingkeptcoolwhileanyheatedmaterialis broughttothe
surface.S incethereseemstobe noobviousfallacyin
34]
u a l-
e l n b e u G P
TheC
F
onstitutionoftheS
rick e
unandS
tars
s t h e oyr , h is re s ao n s w ln il o w b e p re sente d in d e t a il
asfollows:
(1)Themoonwhichis relativelysmallhasalowsurface
temperatureandnowater.Theearthwhichis ofmoderate
sizehasasomewhathighersurfacetemperatureanda
limitedamountofwater.I
twouldnaturallyfollowthere-
forethatthesunwhich isoflargesize shouldhaveahigh
surfacetemperatureandmuchwater.
(2)Thesunhas asharplydefinedcircularoutline,which
w o udl b e d if f ic u lt t o e
thereisatransition ;
t h e li
(3)S
p la in o n n a y o t h rb reb a s is t h a nthat
atitssurfacefromthe gaseousstateto
u id s t aet .
unspotsplainlyshowthatthesunis darkinside.
Photographsofsunspotstakenfromdifferentanglesclearly
showthatthedarkregionsare belowandnotabovethelevel
o f t h e lu m in o u s la y e r. I f t h e in t rio reio ro f t h e s n u w e re a t a
temperatureofmillionsofdegrees,thenitwould becontrary
t o a llt h e la w s o f p h y scs i f o rt h e s u not b e d a rk inid s e. I t
maybetruethattemperaturesofseveralthousanddegrees
havebeenfoundtoe
istinthesunspots,but thatisprobably
duetohotgasesfrom higherlevelsofthephotosphere
whichoverliethecratersofthe sunspots.Theundisputed
factisthatsunspotsare atalowertemperaturethanthe
luminoussurface,whereasifthesunwereat atemperature
ofmillionsofdegreesinside,thensunspots shouldbebril-
liantlyincandescent.
(4)S
unspotsalwaysoccurinthesameportions ofthe
s un
ssu r af ce . ( C
e
I
EN
C E
, Q 2 , 30
7 7 1 3 5 2 4 b . 1 c u / 7 2 0 2 / t e n . e l d n a h e . l l d g o h / o / : g p d t t p h e / # s T u _ M s G s e 1 c 3 : c a 6 / 0 g r 3 o . 2 t 5 s u r 0 - t 4 i h 1 t 0 a 2 h . n w o w ) w a / i : n / i p g r t t i h V f / o y d t i e z s r i t e i g v i i n d e U ( l c g o 6 o k j G e , r i n o a f d m e o t D a r c
, 1
p la in a b le if t h e sn uh a s a s o lid inet rio,rb u t if it w e re
gaseousinside,thenthesunspotsshouldnotbe confinedto
anyparticularportionofits surface.
(5)Theaveragedensityofthe sunis1.41,oronly
slightlygreaterthanthatofocean water.Thisisjustwhat
wouldbee
pectedifitconsisted ofasolidinteriorcovered
byagreatdepthof oceanwater.
(6)I
[
35
f t h e h e a t o fht e s u n w eer g e n ear t e d in t h e in t e rio r, r,
40 . )h T si i s er ad li y
e i l n b e u G P
E t h e ra n d M atter
thenitcouldonly betheresultofthe highpressuresinside.
E normouspressureshavebeenproducedartificially,butno
spontaneousheatingeffectshaveeverbeenobserved.
(7)I
f thesun
s h e a t is ca uesd b y g ra v i t a toi n a la ct it io n a t
itssurface,thenothercelestialbodies,as fore
e a rt h , s h o udl e
h ib it sm i ila reffe ct.sI
tem p e ra t u r e n e v rf re ref a lls '
amplethe
n t h e p o la r re g io s rre nt h e
b e lo w about—67
C , w h ich is 2 6 00
absolute.With thepoorthermalconductivityoftherocks
formingthesurfaceoftheearth,this residualtemperature
of2060absolutewouldsoonberadiatedawayduring the
longwinternightofthe polarregionsifit werenotbeing
continuallyreplenished.I
fitis thegravitationalforceofthe
s u n w hch i keep supthesun
shea t, te h n it s h o ld lud a ls o b e t e h
gravitationalforceoftheearthwhichkeepsup theresidual
heatoftheearth.Thegravitationalforceat thesurfaceof
t h e e a rt h b e in g i/ 2
t h t h a t a t t h e srf u a ce o f tehs u n , t h e
residualtemperatureatthesurfaceofthe earthshouldalso
be1/ 2
57
F
t h t h a t a t t h e srf u a ce o f tehs u n . A n d 1 / 2
thof
0 0 is a b o u t 26 00 .
rick e
s t h e oyr h a s b e e n ues d w it h re m a rk a b le s cce c uce s s f o r
thecalculationofthemassesand densitiesofthefi
edstars,
especiallythosewhichareofthe sametypeasoursun.O
n
accountofthegreatdistancesof allstars,theyappearmere-
lyaspoint-sourcesoflight,even inthemostpowerfultele-
scopes.Theirdiametersthereforecannotbemeasured
directly,butmusthecalculatedon thebasisofotherfactors.
A
ndsincetheirdensitiesdependon theirdiameters,itis
obviousthatwecannotascertaintheirdensitieswith any
7 7 1 3 5 2 4 b . 1 c u / 7 2 0 2 / t e n . e l d n a h e . l l d g o h o / / : g p d t t p h e / # s T u _ M s G s e 1 c 3 : c a 6 / 0 g r 3 o . 2 t 5 s u r 0 - t 4 i h 1 t 0 a 2 h . n w o w ) w a / i : n / i p g r t t i h V f / o y d t e i z s r i t e i g v i i
greatercertaintythantheirdiameters.H
owunreliablethe
usualmethodsofcalculatingstellardensitiesare willbe
apparentfromthefactthatsomestars aresupposedtobe
thousandsoftimesmoredensethananyknownsubstance,
whereasothersaresupposedtobemoreattenuatedthan the
insideofa.vacuumtube.S
urelythesevaluescannotbetrue
tofact,notwithstandingthedogmaticcertaintywithwhich
theyhavealwaysbeenannounced.
O ntheotherhandif stellardiametersanddensitiesbe
36]
n d e U ( l c g o 6 o k j G e , r i n o a f d m e o t a D r c
e i l n b e u G P
TheC
onstitutionoftheS
unandS
ca lcual t e d o n t h e b a s is o f F rick e
ity'
tars
s t h e oyr , t h e p ro p o rtoi n a l-
betweensurfacetemperaturesandgravitationalforces
willleadtothe followingformulas:.
TT
M a s s = D e n stiy =
S
S
d
w h eer t h e m a s s a n d t h e d e nit s y a re in t e rm so f the sn rm u
s
massanddensity,andthesurfacetemperatureTof thestar
isintermsof thesurfacetemperatureS
ofthesun,dbeing
thediameterofthestar intermsofsun-diameters.
C a lcual t io n s o f t h e d e nit s ie s o f la rg e n u m b e rs o f f i
starshavebeenmadebyF
ed
ricke,andthedensitieshaveal-
w a y s been f o u n dtobeaboutw h a t w o ld lud b e e
p e ctd eif t h e
starconsistedmainlyofwater,orin thecaseofa giantstar,
of w ate r v a p o.rE x rv
t re mly e h ig h o re
t re m e ly lo w d e n s itei s
neveroccurifthe calculationsaremadeonthebasis of
F
rik ce
sthe o r .y
O newouldthinkthatafterall thepreceptswhichhave
beenpromulgatedabout"
thescientificmethod,
itshould
notbedifficultto inducethescientificprofessiontogive
F
rick e
s t h e oyr d u e co nid s e ra t io n o n t h e a b s is o f it s m e rit s
in s t e a d o f m e re ly ig n oin r g it . I f F
rick e
s t h e oyr is o b v io u s ly
wrong,thenitisthe dutyofthoseinauthoritativepositions
toe
poseitsfallacies,whereasifit isobviouslycorrect,then
it is t h e ird tuy t o p u b li cly e n drs o e it . A n d if it is n o t p o s s ibel
tocometoanyimmediateconclusioneitherfor oragainstit,
thenitis thedutyofthosein authoritativepositionsto
p re s e n t it a lo nsgid e t h e t e h o ry o f E d d in g t n oandJ
7 7 1 3 5 2 4 b . 1 c u / 7 2 0 2 / t e n . e l d n a h e . l l d g o h o / / : g p d t t p h e / # s T u _ M s G s e 1 c 3 : c a 6 / 0 g r 3 o . 2 - t 5 s u r 0 - t 4 i h 1 t 0 a 2 h . n w o w ) w a / i : n / i p g t r t i h V f / o y d t e i z s r i t i e g v i i
e a n s in -
steadofgivingpublicityonlyto thelatterandthusmaking
itappearthatthegas-ball theoryistheonlyavailable
e
[
p la a n t io n .
37
n d e U ( l c g 6 o o k j G e , r i n o a f d m e o t D a r
c e i l n b e u G P
E lectromagnetism
M A GN
E T
C f ie ld s e e m s s o co m p le t e ly d if f e re n t f ro m
anelectrostaticfieldthattherewould appeartobeno
relationshipbetweenthetwo,wereitnotfor thefact
thatbothhavetheirseat ororigininthe sameelectrified
particlesandthatbothcan coe
istinthe samespacearound
suchparticles.Theelectrostaticfieldis usuallyconsidered
asaconditionof stressorstrainin theether(orin free
spacewithoutanyether),butthedifficultywith suchacon-
ce p t is t h a t a co n d itoi n o f s t re s s o rs t rani ca n e
is t o n ly in a
solidbodyhavingrigiditywhereastheether,(or freespace
ifwepreferthatterm) cannotpossessrigidity.I
ftheether
isnota rigidsolidthenit mustbeafluid,and ifthisfluidis
incompressiblethentheelectrostaticfieldcanbe nothing
otherthanastateof floworcirculationtherein.
I
nF
ig . 9 t h e e t hris e s h o w n a s fol w in g in a d ire ct lin e
fromtheprotontothe electron,andreturningthroughout-
s id e p aht s . W h e n a p ro t n o is in clo s e p ro
tron,thefirstq
anyorientingeffectuponeachother.I
orq
im it y t o n a e le c-
uestionthatconfrontsusis whethertheyhave
uasifrictionalfluid,thenthisq
ftheetheris aviscous
uestionmustbeanswered
intheaffirmative,andconsiderationsofsymmetrycompelus
toassumethatthemoststable configurationwillbethatin
whichtheprotonandthe electronareina
ialalinement
becausethisisthe configurationinwhichthesymmetryisa
ma
im u m . Theede g - t oe- d g e ara r n gm e e n t wu old b e n e
t in
orderofsymmetry,butthispresentssuch insuperablediffi-
cultiesinthebuilding ofthemorecomple
atomsthatit
E L E
C TR TR O N
F
ig.9
.Thehydrogenatomwithits associatedethercurrents.
3
]
7 7 1 3 5 2 4 b . 1 c u / 7 2 0 2 / t e n . e l d n a h e . l l d g o h o / / : g p d t t p h e / # s T u _ M s G s e 1 c 3 : c a 6 / 0 g r 3 o . 2 - t 5 s u r 0 - t 4 i h 1 t 0 a 2 h . n w o w ) w a / i : n / i p g t r t i h V f / o y d t e i z s i r t i e g v i i n d e U l ( c g 6 o o k j G e , r i n o a f d m e o t D a r
c e i l n b e u G P
E lectromagnetism
doesnotneedtobe consideredseriously.Therelationship
ofthiscoa
e
ialarrangementtothemagneticfieldwill be
p la in e d la t e.r
Themagneticfieldissometimesenvisionedasa circu-
lationofetherin circlesorspiralsaroundthe electriccur-
rentsothatin asolenoidalwindingtheetherwouldflowout
ofthenorthpoleand intothesouthpole.This interpreta-
tioncannothoweverconstituteatruepicture ofwhatactual-
lytakesplacebecauseif twocurrentsflowinthesame direc-
tioninparallelwirestheir surroundingethercurrentswould
thenrubeachotherin oppositedirectionsinthespacebe-
tweenthewiressoas tocauserepulsioninsteadofattraction.
Thiscanbedemonstratedbytwoparallel shaftssuspended
verticallyinwater.I
ftheyarerotatedin thesamedirection
theywillrepeleachother.The etherthereforecannotbe
consideredasflowingincircularor spiralpathsaroundthe
current-carryingwires.
I
thasalsobeen suggestedthatthemagneticfieldmay
consistofaflowof etherlongitudinallyofthewirecarrying
theelectriccurrent,theether presumablybeingcarried
alongbythemovingelectrons.Thistheorywill e
plainthe
attractionandrepulsionbetweenparallelelectriccurrents
flowinginthesameandin oppositedirectionsrespectively,
b u t it b re a k sdo w n w h e n w e tyr t o e
p la in w h y a s t re m a of
electronsrepelsaparallelstreamof protons(inavacuum
tube)travellinginthesamedirection.I
fthemagneticfield
iscausedbysomeof thesurroundingetherbeingcarried
alongbythemovingelectriccharges,then itwouldseemthat
7 7 1 3 5 2 4 b . 1 c u / 7 2 0 2 / t e n . e l d n a h e . l l d g o h o / / : g p d t t p h # e / s T u _ M s G s e 1 c 3 : c a 6 / 0 g r 3 o . 2 t 5 s u r 0 - t 4 i h 1 t 0 a 2 h . n w o w ) w a / i : n / i p g t r t i h V f / o y d t i e z s r i t e i g v i i n d e U ( l c g 6 o o k j G e , r i n o a f d m e o t a D
astreamofprotonsshouldbe magneticallyattractedtoa
wirecarryingacurrentof electronsinthesamedirection,
whereasactuallytheyaremagneticallyrepelledfromeach
other.Theetherthereforecannotbeconsideredas being
merelycarriedalongbythemovingelectronsor protons.
Thesedifficultiesareavoidedbytheether vorte
theory
whichteachesthatprotonsandelectronsdo notmerely
carrytheadjacentetheralongwith them,butthattheykeep
itincirculationbetweenthemas shownintheabovedia-
gram.I
[
3
foneprotonandone electronproduceanether
c i e l n b e u G P
E t h e ra n d M atter
circual t io n o fht e k in d s h o w n in F ig . 9
, t h e n it is re a s o n ale b
toassumethatmanyprotonsandmanyelectronswill pro-
duceasimilarcirculation,but onalargerscale.O
rdinarily
theprotonsandelectronsin acopperwirearearrangedat
random,butwhenacurrentflowsalongthe wirethefree
electronsduringtheirmovementwilltendto alinethem-
selveswiththeirassociatedprotonsina directionparallelto
thea
isofthewire,and thecirculatingethercurrentswill
orientthemselvesaccordingly.F orreasonse
where,itseemsmoreprobablethatthedirect a
plainedelse-
ialorpolar
flowofetherisfrom theprotonstotheelectronsinstead of
in t h e re v rs e e d ire c t io n ct . Thea
ia lo rp o la r f lo w w lt rf il h e n b e
confinedtotheinsideof thecurrent-carryingwire,whilethe
returnflowwillbeprincipallyon theoutsideofthewire and
intheoppositedirection.Twoparallelwires carryingelec-
triccurrentsflowinginthe samedirectionwillthenattract
eachotherbecause,asshowninF
F
ig.10,
ig.10.Twoelectriccurrentsflowingin thesamedirection.Thearrows
indicatethedirectionofflowof theether.A
comparisonofthisdiagram
withthatofthehydrogenatomwill showthatthereisa closerelationship
betweentheelectrostaticandthemagneticfield.
thee
ternalflowofetherwillbe inthesamedirectionalong
bothwires.Thiswillalsobe trueifinplace ofoneofthe
wireswesubstituteavacuumtubethroughwhich issenta
streamofprotonsina directionoppositetothedirectionof
40]
7 7 1 3 5 2 4 b . 1 c u / 7 2 0 2 / t e n . e l d n a h e . l l d g o h / o / : g p d t t p h e / # s T u _ M s G s e 1 c 3 : c a 6 / 0 g r 3 o . 2 t 5 s u r 0 - t 4 i h 1 t 0 a 2 h . n w o w ) w a / i : n / i p g r t t i h V f / o y d t i e z s r i t e i g v i i n d e U ( l g c 6 o o k j G e , r i n o a f d m e o t a D
r c i e l n b e u G P
E lectromagnetism
traveloftheelectrons,becauseamovementofelectronsin
onedirectionwillproducethesame orientationofether
currentsasamovementofprotonsin theoppositedirection.
I
tisonlytheir relativemovementthatisnecessary.
I
fthecurrentsin thetwowiresarein oppositedirections,
thee
t e rn a l e t h e rf lo le w o f o n e w ir e w ill'
b e in a d ire ct io n
oppositetothatofthe otherwire,sothatthe twocurrents
willthenrepeleachother.
E lectromagneticinductionisusuallyattributedeithertoa
"
cu t t in g
of"
k in k s
o f t h e m an ge t iclin e s o f f o rce , o rt o t h e p rees n ce
in t h e e le c t rotsa t iclin ct e s o f f o rc e o f t h e a cce l e rle
atedorretardedelectrons.H
oweverconvenientthesecon-
ceptsmaybeformakingpractical calculations,theycannot
constitutetherealcauseof electromagneticinductionbe-
causeneithermagneticnorelectrostaticlinesof forceare
physicalrealities.Theyaremerelymathematicalfictions,
andtotalkabouta mathematicalfictioncoactingwitha
materialparticletoe
ertaforcethereon,doesnot make
sense.
Undertheethervorte
theorywhenanelectriccurrent
isstartedina wiretherewillbeestablisheda returnflowof
e t h e re
t e rn a l ly o f t h e wre lly i in a d ire ct io n o p o p s it e t o t e h
directionofmovementoftheelectrons.W
henthisreaches
£ ± E E D
F
ig . 1 1 . A n in cre a s in g cu rre tnin t h e p rim a ry in dcin u g a cu rre n t in t h e
secondaryintheoppositedirection.Thearrowsindicatethe directionof
flowoftheether.
anadjacentwireparallelthereto,it willcausethefreeelec-
7 7 1 3 5 2 4 b . 1 c u / 7 2 0 2 / t e n . e l d n a h e . l l d g o h o / / : g p d t t p h e / # s T u _ M s G s e 1 c 3 : c a 6 / 0 g r 3 o . 2 t 5 s u r 0 - t 4 i h 1 t 0 a 2 h . n w o w ) w a / i : n / i p g r t t i h V f / o y d t i e z s r i t e i g v i i
tronsandtheirassociatedethercurrents inthesecondwire
toorientthemselvesinsucha mannerthattheq
[
4i
uasifrictional
n d e U ( l c g o 6 o k j G e , r i n o a f d m e o t a D
r c e i l n b e u G P
E t h e ra n d M atter
o rv is co uso ppo s it io n w ill'
areanchoredinfi
b e a m in im u m . S in ce t h e p ro t n os
edpositions,thiscanonlybe accomplished
byamovementofthefreeelectrons inthesecondwirein
thesamedirectionasthe e
A
ternaletherflowofthe firstwire.
nincreasingelectriccurrentin theprimarythereforein-
ducesacurrentin thesecondaryintheoppositedirection.
I
f n o w t h e cure r n t in t h e rim rpim ayr d o e s n o t in c re aes a n y cre
furtherbutcontinuestoflowat aconstantrate,thesecond-
arywillstillbe inthemagneticfieldof theprimary.There
willthennolongerbe anyactualflowofelectronsor any
inducedelectromotiveforceinthesecondary,butthe condi-
tionofelectronicorientationthatwaspreviouslyestablished
w illco n t in u e t o e
is t . T hsiis e v id n e ce d b y t h e a b ilit yofa
magneticfieldtocauserotationof theplaneofpolarization
oflightasit traversesamaterialmedium.
I
fthecurrentin theprimarynowdecreases,thereverse
oftheaboveprocesswilloccur. Thee
ternalflowofether
inthespacearoundthe primarywilldiminish,sothatthe
freeelectronsinthesecondaryand theirassociatedether
currentswillagainassumerandompositions.S
to nsm u s t re m ani in f i
incethepro-
e d p o s it io n s ,ht is ca n o cc u ro n ly b y
movementofthefreeelectronsinthe reversedirection,
namelyinthesamedirectionin whichtheelectronsare
movingintheprimary.A
decrea singelectriccurrentin the
primarythereforeinducesacurrent(or electromotiveforce)
inthesecondaryinthe samedirection.
Theforegoingconceptofthemagneticfieldis capableof
d ire ct e
p e rim e n t lt lat e s t w it h teha p p a ra tussho w n in F
7 7 1 3 5 2 4 b . 1 c u / 7 2 0 2 / t e n . e l d n a h e . l l d g o h o / / : g p d t t p h e / # s T u _ M s G s e 1 c 3 : c a 6 / 0 g r 3 o . 2 - t 5 s u r 0 - t 4 i h 1 t 0 a 2 h . n w o w ) w a / i : n / i p g t r t i h V f / o y d t e i z s r i t i e g v i i
ig . 1 2
inwhichthecircle representstheendfaceofa verylarge
electromagnet,andthecurvedarrowsrepresentthedirection
offlowoftheether.W
ithaninterferometerarrangedas
shownthereshouldbeashift oftheinterferencefringes
whenthesolenoidalcurrentisturned on,providedtheether
flowswithsufficientvelocity.Thedirectionofthe shift
shouldbesuchas toindicateaflowof etherinadirection
oppositetothedirectionof travelofthenegativeelectrons
inthesolenoidalcurrent.
Thereisnomethodknownbywhich thevelocityofthe
42]
n d e U ( l c g 6 o o k j G e , r i n o a f d m e o t a D
r c e i l n b e u G P
E lectromagnetism
F
ig.12.A
ninterferometerarrangedontheendface ofalargeelectromagnet.
etherinamagneticfield ofgivenintensitycanbe calculated,
butthefactthat amagneticfieldinthe absenceofanysolid
orli
uidsubstancedoesnotrotatethe planeofpolarization
o f lig h t t o a m e a s u ra b le e
t e n t e nb ale s u s t o p la ce a n u p p e r
limitonsuchvelocity.
Whether theflowofetherin themagneticfieldisactually
inthedirectionindicated,or intheoppositedirection,de-
pendsonwhichofthe twodipolarvorticesisthe protonand
w h ich is t h e e le ctor n . F o rre a s o n s w ich ihch w illb e e
later,theonewithoutwardpolarflu
p la in ed
hasbeeninterpreted
a s t h e p ro tonandthen o e w it h o u t w adr e
u a t oia r lf lu
as
theelectron.Thisconclusionseemstobe corroboratedby
thefactthatnearlyall substanceswhenplacedinamagnetic
fieldwillrotatetheplane ofpolarizationoflightin the
directionofthesolenoidalelectriccurrent,namelyin a
directionoppositetothedirectionof movementofthenega-
t iv e e le ct ro n.sI
ntho sef e w ca s e s (ef rricch l o rid eof re lo
-
ample)wheretherotationisin thereversedirectionitis
probablyduetosomepeculiarityofthe molecularstructure.
[
43
7 7 1 3 5 2 4 b . 1 c u / 7 2 0 2 / t e n . e l d n a h e . l l d g o h o / / : g p d t t p h e / # s T u _ M s G s e 1 c 3 : c a 6 / 0 g r 3 o . 2 - t 5 s u r 0 - t 4 i h 1 t 0 a 2 h . n w o w ) w a / i : n / i p g t r t i h V f / o y d t e i z s t i r i e g v i i n d e U ( l c g 6 o o k j G e , r i n o a f d m e o t a D
r c e i l n b e u G P
TheoriesofA
H
tomicS
tructures
atom ict h e oyr is u s u a y ll t h o u g h t t o h a v e been
o rig in a t e d b y D lt lat o n a n d H ig g in s in t h e e a rly a p rt o f
thenineteenthcentury,butactuallyithad itsoriginin
a n cie n t Gre eec a n d I
I
n d ia .I
n t h e o ld S a n s k rit lit ra rea t uer o f
n d ia , a d t in g f rt rut h e rbck a than50B
.C
, K anad ahad
formulatedanatomictheoryinwhichall atomsconsistedof
thesameelementaryparticles.I
nGreecetheatomictheory
w a s f irs t d e v e lo p e d in d e tilb a yL
e u cip puso f M e il t u s , Io n ia ,
whoprobablyderivedhisideasfromthe moreancientH indu
writings.We havetodayonlyonefragmentoftheoriginal
writingsofL
eucippus,andinthatweread theremarkably
advanceddoctrinethat"
N othinghappenswithoutacause,
buteverythingwithacauseand bynecessity.
w how a s a s t u d e n t foL
O rd e ro f t h e U n iv rs res e
Demo critus
e u cip p u s w ro teabook " O
nthe
in w h ich tehv ie w s o f Le u cip p u s
werecloselyadheredto,andit isDemocritusratherthan
L
eucippuswhoistodaygenerallyhonoredasthe founder
ofGreekatomism.
TheatomsofL
eucippusandDemocritusdifferedfrom
oneanotherinshapeandsize andinthearrangementswhich
theyassumed,buttheywerephysicallyindivisible.They
wereprovidedwithdifferentmechanicalcontrivancesfor
attachingthemselvestootheratomsindefinitespatialrela-
tionships,thusdifferingfromthemodernatomictheories
onlyintheuse ofmechanicalratherthanelectricalcontriv-
ances.I
nfact,thecontrivancessuggestedbythe ancient
Greekatomistswouldseemtobemoresuitable foreffecting
chemicalcombinationsthantheplanetaryelectronsofthe
7 7 1 3 5 2 4 b . 1 c u / 7 2 0 2 / t e n . e l d n a h e . l l d g o h o / / : g p d t t p h # / e s T u _ M s G s e 1 c 3 : c a 6 / 0 g r 3 o . 2 - t 5 s u r 0 - t 4 i h 1 t 0 a 2 h . n w o w ) w a / i : n / i p g t r t i V h f / o y d t i e z s r i t e i g v i i n d e U ( l c g 6 o o k j G e , r i n o a f d m e o t D
B o h ra t m o .
I
nthete
tboo k so f to dy a w e g e n ra rea lly fni d m e nio t ned
onlytwotheoriesofatomicstructure— theB
ohrtheoryand
t h e L e w is - a n g m u irt h e ry roy , b oht o f w h ich aer v e rsoi n s o f
theR
utherfordnucleartheory,andbothofwhichhave been
co m bni e d a n d re c o n ci co le d ( o rs hllw a e s a y " e ra s e d
?
)by the
S chroedingerwave-atomtheory.TheBohr theoryisbeset
44]
r c i e l n b e u G P
TheoriesofA
tomicS
tructures
withsomanydifficultiesthatit cannotbeseriouslyconsider-
edasconstitutingevenanappro
imatepictureofphysical
reality.Themainargumentinfavorofit hasbeenthatit
furnishediaphysicalbasisforthe derivationoftheB
formulaforthecalculationofspectral fre
nowknownthattheB
basisoftheq
almer
uencies,butitis
almerformulacanbederivedonthe
uantumtheoryalone,independentlyofthe
conceptoforbits.TheL
ewis-
angmuirtheoryprobablyhas
ascintillaoftruth initsince itassignstheelectronsto defi-
nitepositionsintheatoms,but liketheB
re
u ire s a g a la la
ohrtheoryitialso
y o f a rb itar ry p otsu laet s in o rd e r t o p ro d uec rt
anoperativeworkingmodeloftheatom.
Theunsatisfactorycharacterofthepresent-daytheories
ofatomicstructurehasdemonstratedthatwecannothope to
gainacompleteunderstandingofthestructure oftheatom
untilwehavefirstascertainedthe structuresofprotons,
electrons,andneutrons.Thesesubatomicparticlesmust
havephysicalstructures,anditis inconceivablehowtheir
structurescanconsistof(anythinge
ceptstableformsof
motionintheether.
I
t h a s a lred ay b e e n e
p la in edthatte h e t h e rm u stbe
eitherentirelyincompressible,or.itmustbe infinitelycom-
pressible.Therelationshipofthesetwoetherconceptsto
thevarioussystemsofatomicstructureis asfollows:
I
n co m p re sib s le
ether
I
nfinitelycompressible
ether
7 7 1 3 5 2 4 b . 1 c u / 7 2 0 2 / t e n . e l d n a h e . l l d g o h / o / : g p d t t p h # / e s T u _ M s G s e 1 c 3 : c a 6 / 0 g r 3 o . 2 t 5 s u r 0 - t 4 i h 1 t 0 a 2 h . n w o w ) w a / i : n / i p g r t t i h V f / o y d t i e z s r i t e i g v i i n d e U ( l g c 6 o o k j G e , r i n o a f d m e o t D
V o rt e a t o m
Wav eatom
S ource-sinkatom
A
nysystemofatomicstructurewhichreally goesdownto
fundamentalsisclassifiableunderoneoranotherof these
h e a dni g s , a t le a stno o th e rb a s is o n w h ich t o e
p la in t e h
e
istenceofatomicparticleshaseverbeen suggested.The
e
is t ece n of atom s is n o t e
p la in e d b y m e re ly s a y in gthat
theyconsistofprotons,electrons,andneutronsas longas
thee
e
istenceofthesesubatomicparticlesthemselvesisnot
plained.Themostoutstandingcharacteristicofallele-
mentaryparticlesofmatteristheir localizedpersistenceof
individuality,anditisinconceivablehowthis canbee
[
45
-
a r c i e l n b e u G P
E t h e ra n d M atter
plainedonanyotherbasisthan vorte
motion ,wavemotion,
ormotionintoorout ofacenterfunctioningas asinkor
source.
I
ftheetheris incompressible,thenitcanhaveonlytwo
formsofmotionwhicharedynamicallyself-sustaining,
namelyvorte
motionandwavemotion.Thestabilityof
thesetw o f o rm s o f m o t io n is ntod u e t o a n y u in
u e p ro prt ey
ofthemedium,butis inherentintheformof motionitself.
A
ninfinitelycompressibleethermaybeableto support
wavemotionbutcannotsupportvorte
motionbecauseif
theetherisfreelycompressiblethen itmustalsobefreely
e
p a nib s le , ad na n y f o rm fov o rt e
m o toi n w o udl im m e iid-
atelybecomedispersedinitby centrifugalforce.A
ninfinite-
lycompressibleetherishoweverideallysuitablefor ether
sourcesandsinksbecausesuchan ethershouldbecapableof
flowingcontinuallyoutoforinto pointlikesourcesorsinks
in a ccodr a n ce w it h N e w t o n
s'
f irs t la w o f m o t io n . T h is w o u ld
accountforthelocalizedpersistenceof individualityofthe
elementaryparticlesofmatter,andwouldalsofurnisha
satisfactorybasisforasource-sinktheoryofgravitationsuch
a s t h a t o f O. C
. H ilg e n b e rg . U n t ilt h e per s e n t tm i e, how -
ever,therehasnotbeenany source-sinktheoryofatomic
structureworkedoutinsufficientdetailto justifyitspresen-
tationhere.
B y the"
w a v e tao m
in t h e a b v o e cla sifs icaio t n is m e a nt
anatomwhichconsistsentirelyof waveformations,iandnot
atomsofothertypeswhichmerelycarry waveformations
a lo n g w it h t h e m .A
v o rt e
a t o m f re roe
a m pel m a y b e a s -
7 7 1 3 5 2 4 b . 1 c u / 7 2 0 2 / t e n . e l d n a h e . l l d g o h / o / : g p d t t p h # / e s T u _ M s G s e 1 c 3 : c a 6 / 0 g r 3 o . 2 t 5 s u r 0 - t 4 i h 1 t 0 a 2 h . n w o w ) w a / i : n / i p g r t t i h V f / o y d t i e z s r i t e i g v i i n d e U ( l g c 6 o o k j G e , r i n o a f d m e o t D
sumedtocarryanarray ofstandingwiavesalongwithitin
theformofnodesandloops inthestreamlinesofthe circu-
latingether,asis evidencedbyelectrondiffractionpatterns,
butthisis somethingverydifferentfromtheusualconcept
o f " w a v e at o m .
Wave motion,althoughdynamicallyself-sustaining ,isnot
localizedinspacelikethe elementaryparticlesofmatterand
isthereforenotsufficientin itselfasabasis foratomicstruc-
ture,althoughitmaybeancillary thereto.Thewaveatomof
modernphysicscouldnote
46]
istofitsown accord,butwould
a r c e i l n b e u G P
TheoriesofA
tomicS
tructures
havetodependonsomethingelsewithinit togiveitshape
andform,becauseatrainof waves,eitheraloneorincon-
junctionwithotherwave-trains,willnotremainlocalizedin
spaceliketheelementaryparticlesofmatter.Perhapsthe
waveatomshouldnothavebeenincludedat allintheabove
classification.Theveryfactthatweare stillwithoutany
satisfactorypicturesordiagramsofthesupposedwaveatom
structuresofprotons,electrons,andneutronsshouldmake
usskepticalaboutthemeritsof wavemotionasabasisfor
atomicstructure.
W h a t is g e n e raly l k now na sthe"
sophisticatedversionoftheR
w a v e tao m
is o n ly . a
utherford-Bohrnucleated
atom.Thepresentpopularityofthenucleartheory,how-
ever,isnotdueto anyintrinsicmeritsofthat theory,but
rathertothefact thatthenuclearconceptofthe atomhas
beenworkeduponbytheentirescientific professionfor
nearlyhalfacentury,whereasthemodernvorte
conceptof
theatomisonlyabout onedecadeoldandhasnever been
publishedinsucha mannerastobringit effectivelytothe
attentionofphysicistsandchemists.I
nordertocorrectly
evaluatetherelativemeritsofthesetwotheories,the vorte
theoryshouldthereforenotbecomparedwiththe nuclear
theoryoftoday,butratherwiththe nucleartheiryasit
e
is t e d t w e n t y o rt irt ihrt y y a e rs a g o . E v e n t h a t w u o ld g iv e teh
nucleartheoryanunfairadvantagebecausethenuclear
theoryhasneverhadtoface theemotionalprejudiceand
ridiculewhichthevorte
theoryhasalwaysbeenconfronted
with.Thereasonforthisemotionalprejudiceand ridicule
7 7 1 3 5 2 4 b . 1 c u / 7 2 0 2 / t e n . e l d n a h e . l l d g o h o / / : g p d t t p h # / e s T u _ M s G s e 1 c 3 : c a 6 / 0 g r 3 o . 2 - t 5 s u r 0 - t 4 i h 1 t 0 a 2 h . n w o w ) w a / i : n / i p g t r t i h V f / o y d t e i z s r i t e i g v i i n d e U ( l g c 6 o o k j G e , r i n o a f d m e o t
hadbee ntw of o l d : is t b ca ld c ea u s e t h e v e ry n a m e"
v o rt e
atom
hasalwaysbroughttomindthe obsoleteandunsuccessful
v o rt e
atom te h ry o f Lo rd K
e lv in , a n d 2 n d b ca c ea u s e v rt oe
ringssuggestsmokeringswhichare usuallyblownforamuse-
mentratherthanforseriousscientific study.Thescientific
professionoftodaydoesnotgiveseriousconsiderationto the
vorte
theorybecauseitisnot endorsedbyauthoritiesof
recognizedstanding,andtheauthoritiesrefusetoendorseit
becauseitisnot recognizedbythescientificprofession.
F
ro m s u ch a vcio i u s ci rcle it is d ificu f lt t o fni d a w a y o u.t
[
47
a r c e i l n b e u G P
I
n t ro u d ct io n t o t h e V o rt e
I
T w a s R e n e D e s ca rt e s e a rlyni t h e 1 7 t h cetnu ry w o hw as
t h e f irs ttom ak ee
f o rt h e e
A
tom
t e n svi e u s e o f t h e teh e rv rt rot e
t h e oyr
p la n a t io n o f n tau ra lp h enom ena. I n16
Descartes
theoryofvorticeswasrevivedbyC
0
hristian
H uy gn e s in h is D is co u rs e s u rla C a u s e d e la P csn at e u,rb u t
afterthatnothingfurtherseemsto havebeendonewiththe
v o rt e
the o ry u nil1 t
3
w henJ
a m e s McC a u lla g h in h is
E s s a y s tw o a rd s a D y n a mca i lT h o e ry o f C ry s t a llin eR
tionandR
e f le-c
efractiondevelopedatypeofelasticityforthe
etherwhichwaswhollyrotational,resistingangulardeflec-
tionsomewhatlikeaflywheel.MacC ullagh
f utrh er e
(
pou ndd ebyW.J
cie n tfi i c Pa p res , i
. M ac
sideaswere
u onr R a n k i n ein1
8 i , p . 1 .7) a d nin1
co m m e n t e daf v o ra b ly o n R a n k in e
7
s t h e o ry .(
50
C lerk Maw ell
cie nift ic
Papers,Vol.2,p.662.)
I
n t h e m e atnim e t h e a t o m ict e h o ry o f Dlt a o n a n d H ig g in s
hadbecomefirmlyestablished,anditwasH
ermannvon
H elmholtzwhofirstcorrelatedthestabilityof vorte
motion
withthepermanenceoftheelementaryparticlesofmatter.
H elmholtzbroughtthistotheattentionof William Thorn-
F
ig . 1 3 . 1 toh ce n try u v o rt e - a t o m m o d e ls .
so n(
e
o rd K e lvni ) w h o t h n e b e ca m e o n e o f t h e le a d in g
pone ntso f the1
w it h J o s e p hL
t h ce n t ry ruy v o rt e
a rm o u r, A . A
N e a rly llp lalp h y scis i tso f te h1
t h ce n try u a ssum edthatte h
etherisafrictionless fluidandthatavorte
4
- a t o mht e o ry , a lo n g
. M ich e l s o n , ad ls nm a n y o tehrs .
filam entwould
]
7 7 1 3 5 2 4 b . 1 c u / 7 2 0 2 / t e n . e l d n a h e . l l d g o h o / / : g p d t t p h # / e s T u _ M s G s e 1 c 3 : c a 6 / 0 g r 3 o . 2 - t 5 s u r 0 - t 4 i 1 h t 0 a 2 h . n w o w ) w a / i : n / i p g t r t i h V f / o y d t e i z s i r t i e g v i i n d e U ( l c g 6 o o k j G e , r i n o a f d m e o t
D a r c e i l n b e u G P
I
n t ro u d ct io n t o t h e V o rt e
note
A
tom
ertanyeffectuponits surroundings,whichwasreally
aninconsistentpositionforthemto takesincetheentire
classicaltheoryofelectrodynamicstookthee
etherwithviscosityforgranted.The1
istenceofan
thcenturyphysicists
attemptedtoaccountforthedifferentchemicalelementsby
differentformsofknottingorinterlinkingofthe vorte
fila-
ments.S uchknottingorinterlinking,however,willalways
bringadjacent
filamentsintosuchrelationshipthattheywill
rubeachotherin transverseoroppositedirections.I
,instructuresformedofsimplecircular vorte
tisonly
ringswhere
thereisnointernal rubbing,andthelatterhaveaccordingly
beenadoptedbythewriteras theultimatestructuralunitsof
allatomicparticles.
Thenewvorte
atomshouldthereforenotbeconfused
w it h t h e Ke lv in v otre
thingincommon.I
atom w it h w h ic h it h a s lit tel if a n y -
tmayhoweverberegardedasa further
developmentofthedynamicatomofPhilippL
precededtheR
enardwhich
utherford-Bohr atomandwasacompetitor
o f t h e latte r. T h e Le n a rd a t o m w a sba sd e e n t ire ly o ne ly
-
perimentalevidenceanddidnotdependonany theory.I
t
co n ssit e d o f a n u m b e ro f " d y n a m id s
w h ich w e re co ule p ts
ofpositiveandnegativechargesofdefinitemoment.These
weredistributedthroughouttheatomandwereassumedto
besoconstitutedthattheywould captureslowly-moving
electronsfromastreamofcathoderays,but wouldallowthe
morerapidlymovingelectronstopassby uncaptured.The
scatteringofelectronswasattributedbyL
enardtoclose
approachesoftheelectronstothe dynamids.
I
7 7 1 3 5 2 4 b . 1 c u / 7 2 0 2 / t e n . e l d n a h e . l l d g o h o / / : g p d t t p h # / e s T u _ M s G s e 2 c 3 : c a 6 / 0 g r 3 o . 2 - t 5 s u r 0 - t 4 i h 1 t 0 a 2 h . n w o w ) w a / i : n / i p g t r i t V h f / o y d t i e z s r i t e i g v i i n d e U l ( c g 6 o o k j G e , r i n o a f d m e o t
n t h e v o rt e
a t o m o f td oa y t h e " d y n a m id s
a re t h e
heliumgroupswhicharedistributedthroughouttheatom
withanabundanceofvacantspacebetweenthem,e
postulatedbyL
actlyas
enard.Theseheliumgroupsshouldbecapa-
bleofcapturingslowlymovingelectronswheneveroneof
theoutermostvorte
heliumgroupsoasto e
ringsisknockedofffromaneutral
poseiapositivecharge.Thiscapture
ofelectronscannotbesatisfactorilye
plainedunderthe
nucleartheory.When cathoderayspassthroughanalumi-
numfoil,thereisno reasonwhythealuminumatoms,if
[
4
a D r c i e l n b e u G P
E t h e ra n d M atter
constitutedaccordingtothenucleartheory,wouldcapture
anyoftheelectrons,andespeciallynot theslowlymoving
oneswhichareactuallycapturedin greatestnumbers.
Thedeflectionofalphaparticlescan bee
readilyunderthenewvorte
theory.Thee
plainedas
theoryasunderthenuclear
perimentsmerelyprovethatallpartsof the
atomarefirmlyboundtoa tinycentralregion,butdonot
provethattheentiremassof theatomiscontainedwithin
thiscentralregion.A
n u cle us. I
structuralcenterisnot necessarilya
n t h e n e w v rt rot e
a t o m llp lalp a rt s a reirm f ly bu on d
tothecentralheliumgroup,althoughnot containedwithin
thesame.Thesecentralheliumgroupswillhave thesame
effectasatomicnucleiwhenbombardedbyhigh velocity
p a rtcle i s . I n t h e v o rt e
atom , ju s t a s in t h e n u c le aet d a t o m cle ,
abruptdeflectionswillbeproducedonlywhenthe atomis
strucksomewherenearitscenter.
Vorte
ringscandiffergreatlyin sizeandproportions.
Thesizeofthe elementaryvorte
ringsisprobablydeter-
minedbytheaveragedensityofmatterin theuniverse,but
theratiooffilamentdiameterto ringdiameterprobably
dependsonotherfactors.Theupperlimit ofthisratiois
y2,butthereis notheoreticallowerlimit.I
however,thatifthevorte
tisobvious,
filamentweretobecomeindefi-
nitelyattenuatedandthediameterofthevorte
ring
indefinitelyincreased,theringwouldeventuallybecometoo
fragiletomaintainitsintegrity.I
tmustthereforebeas-
sumedthattheelementaryvorte
ringseitherdonothave
anytendencyatallto changetheirsize,orthat theytendto
7 7 1 3 5 2 4 b . 1 c u / 7 2 0 2 / t e n . e l d n a h e . l l d g o h o / / : g p d t t h # p / e s T u _ M s G s e 2 c 3 : c a 6 / 0 g r 3 o . 2 t 5 s u r 0 - t 4 i h 1 t 0 a 2 h . n w o w ) w a / i : n / i p g r t t i h V f / o y d t i e z s r i t e i g v i i n d e U ( l g c 6 o o k j G e , r i n o a f d m e o t
shrinktoaminimumring diameterwithama
diameter.I
imumfilament
tseemsthatviscousoppositionfromthe sur-
roundings,whichalwaysactsinwardlytowardthecenterof
thering,wouldgivesuchrings atendencytoshrinkto a
minimumover-allsize.I
mentaryvorte
tisthereforethoughtthat theele-
ringseitherdonot haveanycentralopening
atall,orone thatisrelativelysmall.
I
tisalso possiblethattheelementaryvorticesmaynotbe
ringswithdefinitesurfacesanddiameters,butrather centers
ofconvergentanddivergentflowinthe ether.N evertheless
50]
D a r c i e l n b e u G P
I
n t ro u d ct io n t o t h e V o rt e
A
tom
theconventionalformofvorte
ringwillbeused inthe
diagramsforthesakeofclarity.
I
ftheetherpossessesa propertyanalogoustoviscosityor
fluidfriction,thenitmust '
ringscomeintoclosepro
beassumedthatwhentwovorte
imitywitheachothertheywill
assumeonlythosepositionsinwhichthere isaminimumof
rubbingcontactandama
imumofrollingcontactbetween
them.Theseconditionswillbesatisfiedif theyarearranged
coa
iallywithbothoftheir adjacentsurfacesmovingeither
inwardlyoroutwardlyinthee
uatorialplane,butnotin
oppositedirections.Thegeometricpossibilityoftwosuch
arrangementsimmediatelysuggestsastructuralbasisfor
protonsandelectrons.
F
ig.14.N
eutron(left)andhydrogenatom(right).
Thehydrogenatomwouldthenhaveappro
imatelythe
structureshowninthediagramat theright,butweare not
yetinaposition tosaywhichhalfof itisthe protonand
whichhalftheelectron.
L
e t u s f irs t co n s id rt ret h is q u e s t io n f ro mht e t h e oer t ica l
sta nd p o in.tI
p a iro f v o rte rt
nF
ig . 1 5 in t h e dai g ra m a t t h e le f t is s hw o na
rin g s w it h t h ere i
wardlyandtheirpolarflu
u a t oia r lf lu
d iretce d in -
directedoutwardly,whileinthe
diagramattherightis showntheconversearrangement.
Thelongarrowsineach caserepresentrandomethercur-
rentswhichencounterthesevorte
[
ringsfromtheoutside.
5i
7 7 1 3 5 2 4 b . 1 c u / 7 2 0 2 / t e n . e l d n a h e . l l d g o h / o / : g p d t t h # p / e s T u _ M s G s e 2 c 3 : c a 6 / 0 g r 3 o . 2 t 5 s u r 0 - t 4 i h 1 t 0 a 2 h . n w o w ) w a / i : n / i p g r t t i h V f / o y d t i e z s r i t e i g v i i n d e U ( l g c 6 o o k j G e , r i n o a f d m e o
t D a r c i e l n b e u G P
E t h e ra n d M atter
I
f t h e ro t tain g f ila m e nsto f e t h e rv rt rot e
rin g s aer s u b jetct o
theMagnuseffect,astheypresumablymustbein aviscous
I I
I
ill
^
^
F
ig.15.TheMagnuseffectonprotons andelectrons.
orq
^
^
^
^
uasifrictionalether,thentheeffectofthe horizontal
arrowsinthediagramat theleftwillbeto maketherings
increaseindiameter,whiletheverticalarrowswill makethe
t w o rinsgm o v e m o r e clo s ly re ley t o e a ch oht e r. E x
a ct ly t h eop-
positeofthesetwoeffectswill beproducedinthediagram
a t t h e rig h t. I
n t h e ire
u ilib r iu m p oit riu s io n t e h t w o . rin gsa t
theleftwillthereforebe morefirmlyjoinedtoeachother
thanthetworingsat theright.I
nthesediagramstheether
currentsfromoutsidesourceshavebeenrepresentedasact-
ingdirectlyonthe vorte
filaments,butsimilarresultswill
beproducediftheelementaryparticlesof matterdonot
consistofvorte
filamentsatall,butonlyof centersofcircu-
lation.Theeffectineachcase shouldbeadilationof the
polarsources,acontractionofthe polarsinks,awideningof
thee
uato r ia ls o rce ria ruce s , a n d a p in ch in gtogeth e ro f t h e e
torialsinks.B
ua-
earinginmindthatthe protonhasmoremass
thantheelectron,andis thereforemoredifficulttodestroy,
itseemsthatthestructure attheleftmust betheprotonand
thestructureatthe righttheelectron.
TheforegoingdescriptionoftheMagnuseffectis how-
e v e ro n ly a q ly
u a lit a t iv esta tem e n t o f w htah a p p n es. I
likelythatalltheseeffectsoccur ine
stilldonotknowwhich ofthempredominates.I
7 7 1 3 5 2 4 b . 1 c u / 7 2 0 2 / t e n . e l d n a h e . l l d g o h o / / : g p d t t
tanttobe a rin m in d t htap ro t o n s a re a b o tu1 ,
52]
t is n o t
ualamount,andwe
tisimpor-
0 0 t im s em o re
h # p / e s T u _ M s G s e 2 c 3 : c a 6 / 0 g r 3 o . 2 t 5 s u r 0 - t 4 i h 1 t 0 a 2 h . n w o w ) w a / i : n / i p g r t t i h V f / o y d t e i z s r i t e i g v i i n d e U ( l g c 6 o o k j G e , r i n o a f d m e o
t D a r c e i l n b e u G P
I
n t ro u d ct io n t o t h e V o rt e
A
tom
massivethanelectrons,andthemassofa protonmusthave
itsoriginin thegyrostaticeffectofthecirculating orrotating
ether,eitherinsideoroutsidethe vorte
rings.Thegreater
massoftheprotonas comparedwiththeelectronmaythen
beattributedeithertoa greaterspeedofcirculatorymove-
mentoftheether,or toagreatervolumeofcirculating
ether,ortothe differenceingeometricstructures.
I
ftheprotonis largerthantheelectron,andits greater
sizeistheresult oftheMagnuseffect,thenthevorte
fila-
mentitselfmustbethickerin theprotonthaninthe electron.
Thisassumptionleadstodifficulties,however,whenwetry
todrawapicture oftheneutron,becausethemiddlevorte
ringispart oftheelectronaswell aspartofthe proton.
I
tthereforeseemsmorelikelythatthe greatermassofthe
protonisdueto itsuni
uegeometricstructure,ratherthan
t o a d if f re ree n ce in sze i .I
t a ls o a p e p a rs t h a tthesped eof
circulatorymovementintheprotonmustbethe sameasin
theelectron,becauseotherwisethethreevorte
N E U TR TR O I
ringsofthe
t PR O T O N
E le ct ro n
F
ig.16.Doubleweightneutron,formedbythecollision ofanordinary
neutronandaproton.
neutroncouldnotbein rollingcontactwitheachother.
TheneutronshowninF
ig.14hasthe samemassasthe
proton,butwhensuchaneutron collideswithaproton
travellingine
actlytherightdirectionand attheproper
speed,soastobring theadjacentsurfacesintorollingcon-
[
53
7 7 1 3 5 2 4 b . 1 c u / 7 2 0 2 / t e n . e l d n a h e . l l d g o h o / / : g p d t t h # p / e s T u _ M s G s e 2 c 3 : c a 6 / 0 g r 3 o . 2 - t 5 s u r 0 - t 4 i h 1 t 0 a 2 h . n w o w ) w a / i : n / i p g t r t i h V f / o y d t e i z s r i t i e g v i i n d e U ( l g c 6 o o k j G e , r i n o a f d m e o
t D a r c e i l n b e u G P
E t h e ra n d M atter
tact,therewillbeformeda doubleweightneutronasshown
inF
ig.16.Theelectronwhichis formeddenovoatthe
instantofcollisionservesto holdtheneutronandtheproton
togetherbyaforceof attractionwhichhasbeencalled
"
supergravitation
b y t h e w ri t e rin 1
I
.Thisforceofattractionwas predicted
3 1 in t h e f o o ll w in g w o rd:s
fbothchargesareof thesamesign,then...as thetwocharges
arebroughtmorecloselytogether.. .theforceofrepulsion will
graduallydisappearandleavethetwochargesfirmlyunited.(C
S c i en c e E x
p l ian L i f e
Thesamepredictionwasrepeatedbythewriter in1
(TheMechanisticA
la t e,rin 1
F
33.
utonomyofN ature,p.23.)Threeyears
3 6 , t h is frce o w a s d is co v eer d e
ig.17.A
p e rim e n t aly l .
ninterferometerwithanelectrostaticpotentialgradientallong
oneofthebifurcatedbeams.
I
foneprotonandone electronproducesthesystemof
ethercurrentsshowninthe diagramofthehydrogenatom
inF
ig.14,thenmanyprotonsandmanyelectrons should
produceasimilarsystemofether currents,butonalarger
s ca le .I
n o rd e rt o t s et f o rt h e p re s e n ce o f s u ch e t h rcu recu r-
rents,thearrangementofapparatusshowninF
beused .A
n in t e rf e ro m e t e ro f a p ro
ig.17may
im aet ly s
u a re f o rm rm
hashollowmetalspheresorcylindersplaced overtwoof
thecorners.Thesespheresorcylindersare thencharged
electrostaticallyasshownsothattherewill beanelectro-
I
I
54]
an
, p. 92. )
7 7 1 3 5 2 4 b . 1 c u / 7 2 0 2 / t e n . e l d n a h e . l l d g o h o / / : g p d t t h # p / e s T u _ M s G s e 2 c 3 : c a 6 / 0 g r 3 o . 2 - t 5 s u r 0 - t 4 i h 1 t 0 a 2 h . n w o w ) w a / i : n / i p g t r t i h V f / o y d t e i z s i r t i e g v i i n d e U l ( c g 6 o o k j G e , r i n o a f d m e o
t D a r c e i l n b e u G P
I
n t ro u d ct io n t o t h e V o rt e
A
tom
staticpotentialgradientalongoneofthe bifurcatedbeams.
I
fthereisa flowofetheralongelectrostaticlinesof force
asindicatedbytheshort straightarrows,thenthereshould
beashiftof theinterferencefringeswhentheelectrostatic
fieldisapplied,providedtheether flowswithsufficient
velocitytoproduceanobservableeffect.F
urthermorethe
directionoftheshiftwouldtell uswhichofthe twoarrange-
m e nsts h o w n in F ig . 1 5 is t h e p ro t n o a n d w h ic h is t h e e le c-
tron.Thesameinformationwouldalsobeobtainedfrom
them ag n e t ice
p e rim e n t illu s t ra td ein F
ig . 1 2 , if t h e la t t e r
shouldbefoundtogive positiveresults.
A
n o t hre e
p e rim enttha tsh o u ld b e tie r d is t o a rra ngetw o
w ire s in pra a lle l is m a s s hw lis o n in F ig . 1
, a n d t h e n psas a
beamofplanepolarizedlightalonga pathparalleltothe
wiresandaboutmidwaybetweenthem,butslightlyabove
orbelowthelevelof thewires.I
ftheelectrostaticfield
consistsofadirect flowofetherfromthepositiveto the
negativecharge,(orviceversa,)anda returnflowthrough
outsidepaths,thenthereshouldbea rotationoftheplane
ofpolarizationwhenthewiresaregiven oppositeelectro-
staticcharges.
F
ig . 1
. T ra nvs e rs ees ct io n t h ro u h g a p a iro f p a ra l le lw ir lle e s ch a rg ed
electrostatically,withabeamofplanepolarizedlight paralleltothewires
andslightlyabovetheplanein whichtheylie.
Thediagramofthehydrogenatomin F
ig.14clearly
showswhytheelectroncannotfallinto theproton,the
reasonbeingthatuponcloseapproachthe surfacesof
thesetwoparticleswillrub eachotherinoppositedirections
7 7 1 3 5 2 4 b . 1 c u / 7 2 0 2 / t e n . e l d n a h e . l l d g o h o / / : g p d t t h # p / e s T u _ M s G s e 2 c 3 : c a 6 / 0 g r 3 o . 2 t 5 s u r 0 - t 4 i h 1 t 0 a 2 h . n w o w ) w a / i : n / i p g t r t i h V f / o y d t i e z s r i t e i g v i
asindicatedbytheshort curvedarrows.Underthenuclear
theorytheonlye
planationthatcanbeofferedis thatthe
centrifugalforceoftheorbitalelectron willkeepitaway
[
55
i n d e U ( l c g 6 o o k j G e , r i n o a f d m e o
t D a r c i e l n b e u G P
E t h e ra n d M atter
fromtheproton,buteventhenit wouldradiateawayits
energyandeventuallyfallintothecenter ofattraction.O n
theotherhandifwe maketheadhocassumptionthatan
orbitalelectrondoesnotradiateawayits energy,thenwe
arereallynotdealingwithan electronatall,butwith some-
t h in g esle . T hsiis t y p ica l o f t h e s o rt o f " e lo
p la a n t io n s
offeredunderthenucleartheorywhereinthebehaviorsof
theatomsareattributedtocertain arrangementsofelec-
trons,andthenthoseelectronsare madetobehaveina
mannerinwhichpointchargesof electricityneverdobe-
have.I
tmaybetruethat thenucleartheoryhasbeensuc-
cessfullyfittedtosomeofthe factsofphysicsandchemistry,
butitwouldbe difficulttoinventanytheoryof atomicstruc-
turewhichcouldnotbe fittedtoanyfacts.Thenuclear
theoryhasnotbeenanywherenearassuccessful asitshould
havebeenifit weretrueinits majorfeatures.O urpresent
te
tbooksdonotmakeafair appraisalofthesituation.
Theyplacee
dubious"
aggeratedemphasisonthefewandrather
successes
ofthenucleartheory,butgenerallysay
nothingaboutitsdifficultiesandcontradictions.
I
tisgenerallystatedthat likeelectricchargesrepeleach
other,whereasunlikechargesattract.This,however,isnot
thewholetruth.I
fwechargeonebodyelectrostaticallyto
minus1,000volts,andanotherbodytominus 2,000volts,
theywillrepeleachother becausetheyhavelikecharges.
B utifwetakethese twochargedbodiesintosomeregion
oftheupperatmospherewherethereis anabsolutepoten-
tialof— 1500volts,theywillattracteach other.E lectro-
7 7 1 3 5 2 4 b . 1 c u / 7 2 0 2 / t e n . e l d n a h e . l l d g o h / o / : g p d t t h # p / e s T u _ M s G s e 2 c 3 : c a 6 / 0 g r 3 o . 2 t 5 s u r 0 - t 4 i h 1 t 0 a 2 h . n w o w ) w a / i : n / i p g r t t i h V f / o y d t i e z s r i t e i g v i
staticattractionandrepulsionis thereforenotmerelya
functionofthecharges,butalso dependsonthecooperation
oftheenvironment,namelyonthewayin whichthecircu-
latingetheroftheprotons andelectronsencountersthat
f ro m e
I
t ra n e o u s s o rce ruce s .
t w illn o t b e n ce c ee s s a ry to e ry
p la in eel ct ro s t a tca i t t ra ct io n
andrepulsionseparately,becausetheonedependsonthe
other.Themovementofunlikechargestowardeachother
necessarilyinvolvesthemovementofeachoftheseaway
fromotherlikechargesin theenvironment.I
56]
nthehydrogen
i n d e U ( l g c 6 o o k j G e , r i n o a f d m
e o t D a r c e i l n b e u G P
I
n t ro u d ct io n t o t h e V o rt e
atom,fore
A
tom
ample,theprotonandtheelectronwill keep
thesurroundingetherincirculation,so thatitwillencounter
andrubagainsttheether currentsfrome
ternalsourcesand
berepelledthereby.Theprotonandthe electronofthe
hydrogenatomwillthereforeberepelledfromall sides,
e
ce p t f ro m t h e s id s ea d ja ce n t e a ch oht e r. W h e n a p ro tn o
is in clo s e por
( DO D O
im it yot a n e le ctor n , t h e otuw a rd p o la ro r
MOM
H yrogenmoleculeDeuteriummolecule
00O00C D-Z -GD
H e liu m tao m A lp h a p a rt icl e
F
ig . 1
. H y d ro e g n m o le cu le ( u p e rle f)t, a n d d etue riu m m o le cu l e ( u p pre le
right).H eliumatom(lowerleft),andalphaparticle(lowerright).
a
ia lf lu
f ro m t h e p ro t n o w illf o rm a co n t in u o u s lin e fo
flowwiththecorrespondinginwardflu
willfindane
pheralflu
[
oftheelectron,and
ternalreturnpaththroughtheradial orperi-
.Thesecirculatingstreamsofether whichinter-
57
7 7 1 3 5 2 4 b . 1 c u / 7 2 0 2 / t e n . e l d n a h e . l l d g o h o / / : g p d t t # h p / e s T u _ M s G s e 2 c 3 : c a 6 / 0 g r 3 o . 2 t 5 s u r 0 - t 4 i h 1 t 0 a 2 h . n w o w ) w a / i : n / i p g r t t i h V f / o y d t i e z s r i t e i g v i i n d e U ( l g c 6 o o k j G e , r i n o a f d m
e o t D a r c e i l n b e u G P
E t h e ra n d M atter
linktheprotonwiththe electronwillassumetheformofa
largervorte
sindicatedbythe a longcurvedarrows,and
willbeendowedwiththesamestability whichischaracteris-
ticofvorte
motiongenerally.A ttractionbetweenunlike
chargesnecessarilyresultsfromtheformationofsuch larger
v o rt e
b e ca u s e it is o n ly o n it se
t e rn a l s id e s w e ls h re it w ill
ru b a g ani s t a n d b e re p u lsd eb y e t h e rcu r re n t sro rre f me
traneoussources.I
a
ia lf lu
-
nternallyitwillencounteronlyits own
, w h ich w illa lw y a s b e in t h e s a m e d iretcio n a d n
willthereforenotcauseanyrubbingand conse
uentre-
pulsion.
I
nanytheoryofatomicstructure,physical andchemical
propertiesmustbedeterminedbytheperipheralarchitecture
oftheatomormolecule.I
inthevorte
nthenucleartheory,as wellas
the ory,thehydrogenmoleculeissimilarto the
deuteriummoleculeinthatbotharefour-sidedstructures
withtworemovableelectronswhichaccountsfortheirsimi-
larityinproperties.Thenucleartheory,however,doesnot
e
plainwhyheliumisinert.The nucleatedheliumatomis
alsosupposedtohavetworemovableelectrons,andshould
thereforebechemicallyactive,justlikethe hydrogenmole-
cu le . Tis h d if fcu i lt y d o esno te
is t in t h e v otre
t h e oyr
whereintheheliumatomconsistsoftwoordinary protons
a n d t w o ng ea t iv e p ro t n o sa ssho w n in F
ig . 1
. W h e n it is
subjectedtoroughtreatment,asduringan electricdischarge,
oneorbothof thesenegativeprotonsmaylosetheirtermi-
nalvorte
ringssoasto eliminatetheiroutermostelectrons,
resultingintheformationofsingly ordoublychargedhelium
7 7 1 3 5 2 4 b . 1 c u / 7 2 0 2 / t e n . e l d n a h e . l l d g o h o / / : g p d t t # h p / e s T u _ M s G s e 2 c 3 : c a 6 / 0 g r 3 o . 2 - t 5 s u r 0 - t 4 i h 1 t 0 a 2 h . n w o w ) w a / i : n / i p g t r t i h V f / o y d t e i z s r i t i e g v i i n d e U ( l g c 6 o o k G j e , r i n o a f d m
ions(e.g.alphaparticles).The erstwhilenegativeprotons
arethusconvertedintoneutrons.E
consistsofthreevorte
achoftheseneutrons
rings,theinnertwoof whichcon-
stituteanelectron,whoseconnectionswiththetwoneighbor-
ingprotonshavenotbeendisturbedby suchionization.I
n
thehydrogenordeuteriummolecule,ontheother hand,the
integrityoftheentirestructurewill bedestroyedifthe
peripheralelectronsareremoved.
Theproponentsofthenucleartheorytell usthatthe
peripheralpropertiesofatomsandmoleculesaredetermined
5
]
e o t D a r c e i l n b e u G P
I
n t ro u d ct io n t o t h e V o rt e
A
tom
bythenumberofouterelectrons,but theydonote
plain
whyheliumwithonlytwoouterelectronsis sosimilarto
neonwitheightinits outershell,whileberylliumwhichalso
hasanoutershellof two,orcarbonwithits outershellof
f o u r, o ro ro
fromneon.I
y genw it h it s o uet rs h e llo f s i , a re s o d ifef re tn
fitis amatterofsymmetry,asnuclearphy-
sicistssayitis, thentheberyllium,carbon,ando
s h o udl b e q u it e in rt ret . U n d e rt h e v otre
ygenatoms
t h e oyr t h e n e n o
atomconsistsofonecentraland fourperipheralhelium
groupssothatits peripheralpropertiesshouldbesubstan-
tiallythesameasthose ofhelium.
A
notherinconsistencyofthenucleartheoryis thatthe
emissionofradiationbyinertgas atomsisattributedto
theirabilitytobecomeseparatedfromtheir peripheralelec-
trons,whereastheirchemicalinertnessisattributedto their
inabilitytoseparatefromtheirelectrons.Underthe vorte
theorytheemissionofradiationdoesnot re
uirethebodily
removalofelectrons,butmaybeaccomplishedbythe re-
mova l o f s in g le v lo o rt e
rin g s s o a s t o e
p o s e p rip reip h e ra l ra
cdo-:-oc0o
'
F
ig . 2 0 . A p e rip h e ra lh e l iu m g ro liu u p w it h a ca p t u re d le lee ct ro n . H e liu m
groupsoccurinthe peripheralstructuresofnearlyoil
aheliumgroup'
atoms,andwhensuch
becomesionizedandcapturesanelectronit formsanatomic
oscillatorsimilartothehydrogenatom.Thereis stillmuchuncertaintyasto
thee
actmodeofvibrationofatomicoscillators,iand theshowinginthe
abovediagramisintendedonlyasa symbolicrepresentation.
positivechargesontheheliumgroupsas showninF
A
ig.20.
nystrayelectronthatis capturedbysuchaperipheral
7 7 1 3 5 2 4 b . 1 c u / 7 2 0 2 / t e n . e l d n a h e . l l d g o h o / / : g p t d t # h p / e s T u _ M s G s e 2 c 3 : c a 6 / 0 g r 3 o . 2 - t 5 s u r 0 - t 4 i h 1 t 0 a 2 h . n w o w ) w a / i : n / i p g t r t i h V f / o y d t e i z s t i r i e g v i i n d e U l ( g c 6 o o k G j e , r i n o a f d m
heliumgroupshouldthenbecapableof absorbingand
emittingradiation.
[
5
e o t D a r c e i l n b e u G P
E t h e ra n d M atter
H ydrogengasconsistsoftwoallotropicforms,orthohy-
drogenandparahydrogen,whichordinarilyoccurinthe
ratioof3to i,andwhichdifferonlyslightly intheirprop-
erties.A
tverylowtemperaturesandunderpressure,and
especiallyinthepresenceofcharcoal,there isarapid con-
versionoforthohydrogenintoparahydrogen.A thigher
temperaturestheparahydrogengraduallyrevertsintoortho-
h y d ro g e n u n tlti h e e
u ilib r iu m raio riu t of 3toI
O rthohydrogenParahydroge nO
F
ig.21.O
is re a ch ed.
rthohydrogen
rthohydrogen(leftandright)andparahydrogen(center).
C anthesetwoformsofmolecularhydrogenbe accounted
forstructurally,orisit necessarytoinvokemysterious
"
s p in s
w h ich d o o ntobey th e o rd inry a la w s o f m e ch a ics incs
andelectrodynamics
Underthenucleartheoryit ismani-
festlyimpossibletoaccountforthemstructurallybecause
thenucleatedatomhasnostructure— atleastnonethatcan
berepresenteddiagrammaticallyasaplausiblepictureof
p h y sca i lre aitl y . I n t h e n e w v rt oe
re
u ire d sru t ct re rue — a co m p le
t h e oyr w e d o h a e v the
sy stm e o f circu l a t in la gether
currentswhichshouldbecapableof assumingdifferentcon-
figurationsofstablee
uilibrium.
Thehydrogenmoleculeinthevorte
theoryconsistsof
twoatomswhichmaybeinterlinkedeitherby meansof
t h e irp o l a rf lu la
a s in t h e d iara g m a t t h e le f t , o rb y m a enso f
t h e irp e r ip h e rip r a lf lu ra
a s in t h e d iara g m a t t h e ri g h t , o rb y
bothasinthe diagraminthecenter.Thefact thattwo
differentstructuresaretheoreticallyavailableforortho-
hydrogenneednotworryusbecauseoneof thesemaybe
60]
7 7 1 3 5 2 4 b . 1 c u / 7 2 0 2 / t e n . e l d n a h e . l l d g o h o / / : g p t d t # h p / e s T u _ M s G s e 2 c 3 : c a 6 / 0 g r 3 o . 2 - t 5 s u r 0 - t 4 i h 1 t 0 a 2 h . n w o w ) w a / i : n / i p g t r t i V h f / o y d t i e z s r i t e i g v i i n d e U ( l c g 6 o o k j G e , r i n o a f d m
e o t D a r c e i l n b e u G P
I
n t ro u d ct io n t o t h e V o rt e
unstable.I
A
tom
tisbetter tohavetoomanypossibilitiesthantoo
fewasunderthenucleartheory.
A
sisclearlyshownin thediagrams,theparahydrogen
moleculeisflatandsymmetricalandwill retainitssymmetry
whiletraversingataperingmagneticfieldas intheS
Gerlache
ternand
periment.Theinertgasatomsbehaveina similar
manner,asmightbee
pectedfromthestabilityandsymme-
tryoftheiratomicstructures.O
hydrogenmoleculewil
ntheotherhandthe ortho-
lalwaysbemoreor lesstetrahedral
andunsymmetricalsoastoe
istintwoenantiomorphic
forms,whichwillbedeflectedin oppositedirectionsina
taperingmagneticfield.W hiletraversingsuchafield the
protonswillbeacteduponby atransverseforceinonedirec-
tionandtheelectronsby atransverseforceinthe opposite
direction.B oththeorthohydrogenandtheparahydrogen
moleculeswillthereforebedrawnintothe tetrahedralform,
butonlytheorthohydrogenmoleculeswillbeunsymmetrical.
Monovalentatomslikesodiumbehaveinamannersimilar
toorthohydrogen,asmightbee
pectedfromtheresem-
blanceoftheirvalencebondsto hydrogenmolecules.
S incehydrogengroupsarepresentin allotheratoms
e
ceptthoseoftheinert gases,itwouldbereasonableto
e
p e ct s ch c uh h y d ro g e n g ro upsto e
h ib it sm i ila rco n f ig u r a t io ra ns
intheatomsofother elements,andthisiswhatseemsto be
in d ica tede
p e rim e n t aly l . F o re
a m pel , t h e s o iu idu m a t o m is
deflectedbyataperingmagneticfieldin thesamemanneras
hydrogen,butheliumandneonarenot deflected.A pparent-
lytheinertgas atomse
istonlyinthe para-configuration.
7 7 1 3 5 2 4 b . 1 c u / 7 2 0 2 / t e n . e l d n a h e . l l d g o h / o / : g p d t t # h p / e s T u _ M s G s e 2 c 3 : c a 6 / 0 g r 3 o . 2 t 5 s u r 0 - t 4 i h 1 t 0 a 2 h . n w o w ) w a / i : n / i p g r t t i h V f / o y d t i e z s r i t e i g v i i n d e U ( l g c 6 o o k j G e , r i n o a f d m
Thisisnotsurprising becauseinertgasatomsconsistentirely
ofheliumgroups,andweknowthatthe heliumatomis
strongerandlessfle
iblethanthehydrogenmolecule.
Thetwonegativeprotonsoftheheliumatom carrye
-
posedelectronsattheirouterends, andtherearereasons
forbelievingthatthesemaintainastrong flowofether
laterallyoutwardinalldirectionsso astobehavelikelarge
disks.I
nthehydrogenmoleculethisoutwardflowof ether
fromtheelectronsistakenup bytheadjacentprotons,
whereasintheheliumatomthereare noprotonsimmediate-
[
61
e o t D a r c e i l n b e u G P
E t h e ra n d M atter
lyadjacenttheouterelectrons.Thehelium atomwillthere-
forebeshapedsomewhatliketwoparalleldisks,and these
willnotpermitsufficienttilting fortheatomtoremain
permanentlyinthetetrahedralform.
Thefactthatatomsof differentelementsproduceseries
ofspectrallinesverysimilar tooneanotherseemstoindi-
catethattheatomicoscillatorsof thedifferentelementsare
likewiseofsimilarconstitution.F
ore
ample,thePickering
seriesoftheheliumspectrumis sosimilartothe B almer
seriesofthehydrogenspectrumthatit wasatonetimemis-
takenforthelatter.S
incethehydrogenatomconsistsof
onlyoneelectronandoneproton,it mustbeassumedthat
thesuccessivelinesofthe B almerseriesrepresentsuccessive
positionsoftheelectronrelativeto theproton.Thehelium
atomhasnoremovableelectrons,butwemayassumethat
thetwooutermostvorte
ringsofthenegativeprotonscan
bereadilyknockedoff.Thisisa reasonableassumption
becausetheenergye
volts,asagainst9
uivalentofanelectronis only500,000
30millionvoltsofthe proton.Theelec-
tronisthereforemuchmoreeasily destroyedthanthepro-
ton,sothatif anypartoftheheliumatom isruptured,it
willbeoneof theelectrons.
R emoa v lo f a n o uet rm otsv o rt e
rin g f ro m oneof the
negativeprotonswillleavetheheliumatomwithan e
posed
positivecharge,sothatit shouldbehavesimilarlytothe
h y d ro g e n io n . If it p ick s u p a s tar y e letcro n a s s hw o n in
F
ig.20(whichmaybe produceddenovofromtheknocked
o f f v otre
rin g)s, t h e n w e m aye
p e ct t hsie le cticd r o u bel t t o
7 7 1 3 5 2 4 b . 1 c u / 7 2 0 2 / t e n . e l d n a h e . l l d g o h / o / : g p d t
behaveinamannersimilarto thehydrogenatomandpro-
duceasimilarseriesof spectrallines.B
esidesthePickering
series,heliumalsoproducesseveralotherseriesof lines,
whichmaybeaccountedforby assumingthattheothernega-
tiveprotoncanalsoundergoa seriesofsimilartransfor-
m a t io ns. I
t m a y s im ly lpy lo s e it s trm e in lv lav o rt e
b e le f t wtih a n e
rin g s o a s t o
po se d p o s itvi e ch a rg e , o rit m a y t e h n p ick
upanotherstrayelectronwhichcan alsoassumeaseriesof
differentpositions.
Theassumptionwhichhasjustbeenmadeconcerningthe
62]
t # h p / e s T u _ M s G s e 2 c 3 : c a 6 / 0 g r 3 o . 2 t 5 s u r 0 - t 4 i h 1 t 0 a 2 h . n w o w ) w a / i : n / i p g r t t i h V f / o y d t i e z s r i t e i g v i i n d e U ( l g c 6 o o k j G e , r i n o a f d m
e o t D a r c e i l n b e u G P
I
n t ro u d ct io n t o t h e V o rt e
A
tom
formationofelectronsdenovoiscorroborated'
bythecon-
tinualformationofnegativeelectricityinthe earth.The
entiresurfaceoftheearth isatalltimes negativelycharged
tosuchane
tentthattheatmosphereinthe neighborhood
oftheearthis keptunderaconstantpotentialgradientof
1 5 0 vo tl s ep rm te e r .( .(
1
C I
E N
T
F I
M O N T H L Y
35,p.50.)Thiscausesa continualoutwardflowofabout
1,000amperesintointerstellarspace,whichwouldcom-
pletelydischargetheearthina shorttimeifthe electricity
werenotreplenished.Thismustresultfroman actualsyn-
thesisofelectronsfromnon-electricmaterial,andthe vorte
theoryfurnishestheonlyavailablee
planation.
We shallnowconsiderthespectrumofthe neutralsodium
atomasproducedbyits valenceelectron,allthehelium
groupsremainingintact.Metallicsodium,whensufficiently
heated,producesamonatomicvaporwhoseabsorption
spectrumisaconvergingseriesof lines,knownasthe"
cipalseries
prin-
,eachofwhichrepresentsa transitionfromone
of theabn o rm a l o re lo
cit e d sat t e s o f t e h"
P
se
u e n ce t o
t h e n o rm a ls t a t e , t h e la tet rb e in g tehlo w etss t a t e o f t h e"
se
u e n ce . U p o n clo s e re
S "
a m in a t io n ech a lin e o f t h e rin rpin cip al
serieswillbefoundto beadoublet,whichis knownasthe
"
f in e s tur ct uer
. E a ch lin e o f a e ch d o b u le t ca n b e frt u her
resolvedintoasmallerdoublet,knownasthe "
s t ru ct u re
.A
hyperfine
cco rd i n g t o t h e n cle in c ule a rt hoery , t e h p rin cip al
seriesisproducedbytransitionsof thevalenceelectronfrom
thoseorbitswhichhaveanangularmomentumof2(h/2ir)
tothesmallestorbitof zeroangularmomentum.Thelatter
7 7 1 3 5 2 4 b . 1 c u / 7 2 0 2 / t e n . e l d n a h e . l l d g o h o / / : g p d t t # h p / e s T u _ M s G s e 2 c 3 : c a 6 / 0 g r 3 o . 2 - t 5 s u r 0 - t 4 i h 1 t 0 a 2 h . n w o w ) w a / i : n / i p g t r t i h V f / o y d t e i z s r i t e i g v i i n d e U ( l g c 6 o o k G j e , r i n o a f
is s u p p o s e d t o b e e it h e ra "
clo u d o f e l e ct ri le f icaio t n
everthesemaymean.I
s t ragi h t -in l e o rbti
, o ra "
, a"
s p h eica r l
p ro b b a ilit y re g io n — w h a t -
nordertoaccount forthefine
structure,thenucleartheoryassumesthattheelectrons can
s p in o n t hira e
e s in o n e d ire ct io n o rt e h o t h e,rb u t in o rd re
toaccountforthehyperfinestructure asimilarspinis attri-
butedtothenucleus.Doesit notseemstrangethattwo
structuresasdifferentfromeachotheras theelectronand
thenucleusshouldhavethesamespinning movement,and
withsimilareffectsonthespectral lines
[
63
, J u l y
d m e o t D a r c e i l n b e u G P
E t h e ra n d M atter
Therearenosuchinherent difficultiesinaccountingfor
thefineandhyperfinestructuresunderthe vorte
I
n t h e v o rt e
theo ry.
atom th e p e ripehra lh y ro d g e n ad nh e liu m
groupsarejoinedtothe centralheliumgroupbyelastic
swivelconnectionswhichwillpermittheseperipheralgroups
toarrangethemselvesinanyoneof severaldifferentposi-
tionsofstablee
uilibrium,somewhatlikethegear-shift
le v e ro f a nautom o b ile .S
in ce t h e fer
u e n ci e s o f o s ci lla t io n
oftheatomicoscillatorswill dependontheelectricfieldsin
whichsuchoscillatorsarepositioned,andsince theseelectric
fieldsaredeterminedbythelocationsor orientationsofthe
adjacenthydrogenandheliumgroups,itappearsthatall the
necessaryconditionsarepresentinthevorte
atomforthe
productionofthefineandhyperfinestructures.
Theallegedsuccessofthe nucleartheoryhasbeenpredi-
catedprincipallyonthecalculationof spectralfre
bytheuseof theB
almerandR
uencies
ydbergformulas,butthese
canbederivedindependentlyoftheconceptof orbits.The
onlyassumptionwhichneedstobemadein thederivationof
theseformulasisthatenergyis absorbedorradiatedin
integralmultiplesofaunit q uantum,andthetheoryofq
uan-
tizationofenergyisjust ascompatiblewiththevorte
theoryaswiththenucleartheory.There isalsonothingin
anyofthewaveatomcalculationsof thenewq
m e chn aics t h tare
u ire s t e he
uantum
is t e n ce o f a n a t o m ce icn u cle usa s
distinguishedfromthestructuralcenteror centerofinertia
o f t h e v otre
atom .
We havethusfarbeenconsideringonlythose particles
7 7 1 3 5 2 4 b . 1 c u / 7 2 0 2 / t e n . e l d n a h e . l l d g o h o / / : g p t d t # h p / e s T u _ M s G s e 2 c 3 : c a 6 / 0 g r 3 o . 2 - t 5 s u r 0 - t 4 i 1 h t 0 a 2 h . n w o w ) w a / i : n / i p g t r t i h V f / o y d t e i z s i r t i e g v i i n d e U ( l g c 6 o o k G j e , r i n o a f
whicharepermanentstructuralunitsofthe atoms.There
arealsootherparticleslike thepositronandthemesotron
whichappeartohaveonlytransitorye
fromotherknownparticlesonlyinmass.I
istenceanddiffer
tisbelievedthat
thesecanbereadilyaccountedfor onthetheorythatthe
electricchargeofa particleisdeterminedbythenumber
andarrangementofitsconstituentvorte
massisdeterminedbythee
rings,whereasits
ternalethercurrentsinterlinked
therewith.S incetherecannotbea fractionalnumberof
vorte
rings,andsincethereis onlyalimitednumberof
d m e o t D a r c e i l n b e u G P
I
n t ro u d ct io n t o t h e V o rt e
A
tom
waysinwhichsuchrings canbearrangedwithrespectto one
another,itnecessarilyfollowsthattheelectric chargesofthe
elementaryparticlesmustheinthe relationofsmallwhole
numberstooneanother.O
ntheotherhandit isconceivable
thattheinterlinkedethercurrentsmayhaveany arbitrary
magnitudesothatthemassesofthe elementaryparticles
,mayvaryaccordingly.W hysomeparticleslikethepositron
andthemesotronareunstablecannotbe e
plainedinthe
presentstateofourknowledge,butneithercan itbee
-
plainedunderthenucleartheory.
Themesotronunderthevorte
theorywouldhavethe
generalformofoneofthe negativeprotonsofthehelium
atom,butthetwoinnervorte
rings(whichwouldnormally
constitutetheproton)wouldhavelessthan theusualvolume
ofcirculatingetherassociatedtherewith.Thisinterpreta-
tionofthemesotronhasbeen corroboratedbyarecent
photographwhichshowedamesotrontrackterminatingin
agas,anda fastelectrontrackemergingfromitsend.
(NA
TURE
,J
a n . 2 0 , 1 4 0 , p p . 12 0- 1 0 .3) T h e k in e t ic
energyoftheelectrontrackwas foundtobemuchgreater
thanthekineticenergyofthe mesotron,butwascomparable
w it h it s m a s s e n egr y , w h i ch is e ich
a ct ly w h a t w old u bee
pectedifoneofthe electronsofthemesotronbecamecap-
turedbyapositiveion andtheotherelectronthenbroke
awaywiththeeliminationofthepartiallyformedprotonat
thecenter.
t65
7 7 1 3 5 2 4 b . 1 c u / 7 2 0 2 / t e n . e l d n a h e . l l d g o h o / / : g p t d t # h p / e s T u _ M s G s e 2 c 3 : c a 6 / 0 g r 3 o . 2 - t 5 s u r 0 - t 4 i h 1 t 0 a 2 h . n w o w ) w a / i : n / i p g t r i t V h f / o y d t i e z s r i t e i g v i i n d e U l ( c g 6 o o k j G e , r i n o a f
-
d m e o t a D r c e i l n b e u G P
E t h e ra n d M atter
TA B L
E
MassesofE
I
I
lementaryParticles
E lectronN eutronProtonDeuteronTriton
. 00051 . 00
01. 00
12. 014 73. 011 7
H y b rid ium iu
3.0171
H e liu m Lit h iu m B e ry lliu m B o ro n C a rb o n N it ro gn eO x
4. 003
6 . 0 17 69
7. 01 011. 01 2
1
-014
1 0 . 06 11 1 2 . 0 3 6 1 40. 0 7 3 1 60. 0 0 0 1
1 3 . 07 03 1 5 . 0 4
y g e n F lu o rin e
. 004
17. 046
. 0 03
N e o n S o d iu m M a g e n s iu m A lu m in u m S ilico n P h s op h o r u s S u lp h rC ru ruC
1
.
9 8 6 2 2.
2 1 .
9 8 5 2
2 .
8 45 45
A
8 6 43 43 -3
7
8
9
2 .6
3 6 -
rgn o
3 5.
76
37-
3
.
9 7 23 23 - 9 3
753
-
754
66]
7 7 1 3 5 2 4 b . 1 c u / 7 2 0 2 / t e n . e l d n a h e . l l d g o h o / / : g p t d t # h p / e s T u _ M s G s e 2 c 3 : c a 6 / 0 g r 3 o . 2 t 5 s u r 0 - t 4 i h 1 t 0 a 2 h . n w o w ) w a / i : n / i p g r t t i h V f / o y d t i e z s r i t e i g v i i n d e U ( l c g 6 o o k j G e , r i n o a f
9 1 1 7 2.
77 7
8 6 0 3 0.
h lo ri ne
8 4 4 3 1.
8 1 2 4 3.
7
6
d m e o t D a r c i e l n b e u G P
V o tr e
S I
A
tomStru ctu res
N CE
t h e h y dor g e n m o le cu l e co n ssit s o f t w o por t o n s le
andtwoelectrons,andthealphaparticle oftwopro-
tonsandtwoneutrons,itappearsthat electronsand
neutronsareinterchangeableinsuchstructures.L
etus
thereforesubstituteaneutronforoneof theelectronsinthe
hydrogenmolecule.S incetheresultingstructurewill havea
netchargeofplusone, itshouldbepossibleto substituteit
foroneofthe protonsofaheliumatomas showninthe
H O ll
x
^
Mil- l
^ ^
F
l- l- M ) llll- l- lllk - lj)
- ~
— ' —
\ \ V j \
)
-
ig.22.F
ourtheoreticallypossibleformsofthelithium atomofatomic
■weight6. E achheavylinerepresentsonevorte
ring,viewededgewise.
Thepreferredformisshownin theupperleftdiagram.
(
I
-M
M
O
I
I
(11-2111112(11^-11)
F
ig.23.L
numbers3>
[
ithiumatom(above)andberylliumatom(below),ofatomic
and4andatomicweights7 and9
respectively.
67
7 7 1 3 5 2 4 b . 1 c u / 7 2 0 2 / t e n . e l d n a h e . l l d g o h / o / : g p d t t # h p / e s T u _ M s G s e 2 c 3 : c a 6 / 0 g r 3 o . 2 t 5 s u r 0 - t 4 i h 1 t 0 a 2 h . n w o w ) w a / i : n / i p g r t t i h V f / o y d t i e z s r i t e i g i v i n d e U ( l g c 6 o o k j G e , r i n o a f
d m e o t D a r c e i l n b e u G P
E t h e ra n d M atter
upperleftdiagramofF
ig.22,andthusproducea newkind
ofatomwhichcanonlybe thelithiumatom.B
ymakinga
similarsubstitutionontheotherside ofthesamehelium
atom,itshouldbepossibleto producetheberylliumatom.
A
s s h o w n in F ig . 2 2 , t h e re re rae t h re e toh e rw a y s in w h ich
itappearstheoreticallypossibletoattacha hydrogenmole-
culetoahelium atom,buttheresultingstructureswouldnot
accountforthephysicalandchemical propertiesoflithium
a n d b e ry lliu m .I
t is n o t lik eyl , f o re
a m pel , t h a t t e h lit h iu m
andberylliumatomshaveprotonsatthefree endsofthe
hydrogengroups,becausesuchprotonswouldreadilydis-
sociatetherefromandleavetheremainingstructuresstrong-
lyelectronegative.I
tisalso notlikelythatthelithiumatom
wouldhaveanegativeprotonatthe freeendofthehelium
group,becauseifanotherhydrogengroupwereaddedto
formtheberylliumatom,thelatterwouldnot haveany
e
posednegativeprotonstofurnishtheneutronsthatare
actuallyproducedingreatabundancewhenberylliumis
bombarded.F urthermorethemeltingpointsoftheseele-
mentscouldnotbesatisfactorilyaccountedfor onthebasis
ofsuchalternativestructures.
I
nthepreferredformofthe lithiumatomtheportion
withinthedottedcircleis notanordinaryhydrogenmole-
0 C D 0
00 ' ( D
F
ig.24.H
'
w e ig ht3.
E } *
ybridiumatomandionofatomicnumber1.5 andatomic
cule,buthasa neutroninplaceofone oftheelectronssoas
toconstituteahybridof hydrogenandhelium.S uchastruc-
7 7 1 3 5 2 4 b . 1 c u / 7 2 0 2 / t e n . e l d n a h e . l l d g o h o / / : g p d t t # h p / e s T u _ M s G s e 2 c 3 : c a 6 / 0 g r 3 o . 2 t 5 s u r 0 - t 4 i h 1 t 0 a 2 h . n w o w ) w a / i : n / i p g r t t i h V f / o y d t e i z s r i t e i g i v i n d e U ( l g c 6 o o k G j e , r i n o a f
tureisprobablyidenticalwithwhat hasbeendescribedin
recentpublicationsastheheliumisotopeof atomicweight3,
6
]
d m e o t D a r c e i l n b e u G P
V o tr e
A
tomStru ctu res
butaccordingtothevorte
theorytherecannotbeanylower
is o t o peofheu li m . T h e o v rt e
thee
F
t h e oyr d o e s h o w e v e rre
u ire
is t e n c e o f a p a rtcle ce i t h a t is co n s t ittue d a s s h w o n in
ig . 2 4 , a d n w h ich h s ab e e n n a m ed"
h y b ri d iu m
w it h t e h
sy m b o lH y b y V . M . W a a g e .
I
nitscompletelyionizedconditionshownin thediagram
attheright,this particlewillhaveapositivecharge oftwo,
andmightreadilybemistakenfora lowerisotopeofhelium.
{ P H Y S I
C A L
R E V
E W , 56 56, 37
& 6 13 1 ,
particleshouldconstituteatrue atomandnotamolecule
becausethenegativeproton(ortheneutronwhen inthe
ionizedcondition)willkeepitfrom goingtopiecesasin
thecaseofthe hydrogenmolecule.I
tshouldhaveachemi-
calvalenceofone,andshould bestronglyelectropositive
becausethetwoprotonsatthe sidesarenotguardedby
heliumgroupsaseffectivelyasin theatomsoftheelec-
tronegativeelements.I
tshouldbehavelikethefirst member
ofthealkalimetalgroup,and shouldoccupytheplaceusual-
ly a llotte d t o h y ro rdo g n e w h ich is re a l ly n o t a m e lly t a la t a ll. I t
isalsosignificantthatthe heliumspectrumhasnotyetbeen
obtainedfromthisallegedheliumisotope,andtheatomic
weightsalsodiscredittheconclusionthat itisa helium
isotope.
N ormalheliumhasatomicweight4.003
whileitsalleged
is o t o peha sa to m icw egi h t 3 . 1 071. Th e d if f re ree n ce is 0 .
8 6
orconsiderablylessthan1.0,whereasthedifferencein
atomicweightbetweentheisotopesofallother elementsin
theneighborhoodofheliumisgreaterthan 1.0.I
fitwere
7 7 1 3 5 2 4 b . 1 c u / 7 2 0 2 / t e n . e l d n a h e . l l d g o h o / / : g p d t t # h p / e s T u _ M s G s e 2 c 3 : c a 6 / 0 g r 3 o . 2 - t 5 s u r 0 - t 4 i h 1 t 0 a 2 h . n w o w ) w a / i : n / i p g t r t i h V f / o y d t e i z s r i t i e g
reallyanisotopeofhelium,thenits atomicweightshould
beaboutthree-fourthsthatofordinaryhelium,or about
3.0027,whichisfarless thanitsobservedatomicweight
of3.0171.
O n t h e o t h rh reh a n d if it is t h e f ir s t m e mebro f t h e a lk a li
metalseries,thenitmaybe consideredasretainingonlyone-
q uarterofthenormalheliumstructure,namelythe onenega-
tiveproton,whichwouldhaveaweightof about4.003
/4=
1.0010.Thetworemainingprotonsmaythenbeconsidered
aspartsofa hydrogengroupandwillhavea combined
[
6
i v i n d e U ( l g c 6 o o k G j e , r i n o a f
,
3
. )S u ch a
d m e o t D a r c e i l n b e u G P
E t h e ra n d M atter
w e ig h t o f 2 ( i. 0 0
1 ) = 2 . 0 1 6 2 . A d d in g u p , t hsig iv e s a t o tla
atomicweightof3.0172whichisalmost e
actlytheob-
servedatomicweight.
I
f t h is s y set m o f co s nt ru ct io n w eer t o '
theboronatomwouldappearasshownin F
b e co n tni u e ,dt h e n
ig.25withtwo
ofitshydrogengroupshavingan electronoutermost,but
thethirdonehavinga protonoutermost.I
tseemsimprob-
able,however,thatthehydrogengroupswhichconstitute
thevalencebondsshouldbeof twodifferenttypes,andfor
reasonspreviouslygivenitalsoseemsimprobablethatany
ofthesehydrogengroupscarryprotonsat theirouter
e
F
t re m e t ie.s
ig . 2 5 . A h y p o t h e tca i l
s t ru ct u re a p ro rpo
im ain t g t h a t o fht e b o ro n a tom ,
butnotbelievedtobe entirelytruetofact.
F
ig . 2 6 . B o ro n a t o m foa t o mcn i u m b r5 re5 a n d a t o mcw i e ig th1 1 .
I
tseemsmorelikelythatthe boronatomisconstitutedas
showninF
ig.26.Theonlydifficultywith thislatterstruc-
tureisthatthe neutralatomcontainselevenprotonsbutonly
tenelectrons,whereasitisgenerallythoughtthat ina
neutralatomtheremustbeas manyelectronsasprotons.
70]
7 7 1 3 5 2 4 b . 1 c u / 7 2 0 2 / t e n . e l d n a h e . l l d g o h o / / : g p t d t # h p / e s T u _ M s G s e 2 c 3 : c a 6 / 0 g r 3 o . 2 - t 5 s u r 0 - t 4 i h 1 t 0 a 2 h . n w o w ) w a / i : n / i p g t r t i h V f / o y d t e i z s i r t i e g i v i n d e U l ( g c 6 o o k j G e , r i n o a f
d m e o t D a r c e i l n b e u G P
V o tr b
A
t o m S t r u tcuer s
H owever,therecentlydiscoveredforceofattractionbe-
tweenprotonsatcloserange(sometimescalled"
tation
e
supergravi-
)provesthatelectricallychargedparticles donot
erttheirusualelectrostaticforcesat intra-atomicdistances
butbehaveinananomalousmanner.I
tappears,therefore,
thatwearenotjustified inmakingthegeneralizedassump-
tionthatineveryneutral atomtheelectronsandtheprotons
m u s t o cc u rin e
u a ln u m b e rs .
F
ig.27.C
arbonatomofatomicnumber6and atomicweight12.
I
nthediagramsofthe lithium,beryllium,boron,and
carbonatomsinF
igs.23,26,and27, onlythepredominant
is o t o p e is s h o w n in e a ch caes . I
n o rd e rt o p ro d u ce t h e
lithiumisotopeofweight6,an ordinaryneutronwouldhave
tobesubstitutedforthe doubleweightneutronasinthe
u p p e rle f t h a n d co r n e ro f F ig . 2 2 . S in ce t h e e rn
t e rn a l s t ru cls
tureoftheatomis notappreciablychangedbysucha sub-
stitution,thephysicalandchemicalpropertieswouldremain
thesame.
I
ntheseriesof elementsfromlithiumtocarbon,thecen-
tralheliumgroupbecomesprogressivelycoveredbyhydro-
gengroups.S
inceheliumisan inertgas,thepresenceof
heliumgroupsintheperipheryof anatomshouldtendto
keepitina fluid(li
uidorgaseous)condition,whereasthe
hydrogengroups,whichconstitutevalencebonds,should
tendtokeeptheatomsanchoredto oneanotherasina solid.
C onse
[
uentlyasthecentralheliumgroups becomeprogress-
7i
7 7 1 3 5 2 4 b . 1 c u / 7 2 0 2 / t e n . e l d n a h e . l l d g o h o / / : g p t d t # p h / e s T u _ M s G s e 2 c 3 : c a 6 / 0 g r 3 o . 2 t 5 s u r 0 - t 4 i h 1 t 0 a 2 h . n w o w ) w a / i : n / i p g t r t i h V f / o y d t i e z s r i t e i g i v i n d e U ( l c g 6 o o k j G e , r i n o a f
d m e o t D a r c i e l n b e u G P
E t h e ra n d M atter
ivelycoveredbyhydrogengroups,themeltingpointsshould
becomehigher.Thuslithiumwithitshelium groupe
onthreesidesmeltsat 1
e
posed
60,berylliumwithitsheliumgroup
po se d o n t w o s idsem e lt s a t 1 2 0 0 , b o ro n w it h it s h liu leiu m
groupe
posedononesidemelts at23000,andcarbonwith
it s h e liu m g ro u p e
po sd e o n n o s id e re m a in s s lid loid u p t o a b otu
40000 . O f t h e 9 2 ch e m ic a le lm n e t s , cabr o n is t h e o ly lny o n e
i A = / A /
/-
I
I I
( (_: : )
F
I O I I
I I
I - U -
H W
-/
^
ig . 2
. D ib oar n e m oel cu le C 2 H g . S in ce t hsiis a rin g - s a h p e d sru t ct re rue ,
itwasnecessarytosplit itopenandspreadit outflattoshowit clearly.
I
I
I
I
J
l I
I
I
(iiljii^ injii)
impii
1111- -1111
iiiij-niiigiiiiij-iiii
I
l rl
F
ig . 2
l ll
8
and10andatomicweights16 and20respectively.Thenitrogenand
.O x
y g e n aot m ( a ib ov e)ad nneonato m ( b e lo w )of ato m icn u m b e rs
fluorineatomsmaybesuppliedbyobviousinterpolation.
72]
7 7 1 3 5 2 4 b . 1 c u / 7 2 0 2 / t e n . e l d n a h e . l l d g o h / o / : g p d t t # p h / e s T u _ M s G s e 2 c 3 : c a 6 / 0 g r 3 o . 2 t 5 s u r 0 - t 4 i h 1 t 0 a 2 h . n w o w ) w a / i : n / i p g r t t i h V f / o y d t i e z s r i t e i g i v i n d e U ( l g c 6 o o k j G e , r i n o a f
d m e o t D a r c e i l n b e u G P
V o tr e
A
tomStru ctu res
(besideshydrogen)whichhasnoe
posedheliumgroups.
Thisisprobablythereasonwhy cafbonisthemostrefrac-
toryofallelements.
B eforeleavingthisseriesofelementsattentionshouldbe
directedtodiboraneB
2H 6,agaseoussubstancewhosemole-
culesconsistoftwoboron atomsandsi
{ NA
T UR E
hydrogenatoms .
, Feb. 27, 1 37, p. 3
1-3 2. )Now te h b oor n
atomunderthenucleartheoryhasonly threevalenceelec-
trons,whereasthediboranemoleculewouldre
atomswithatleastfourelectrons each.A
uireboron
sthediagram
shows,biboranecanbeaccountedforwithoutdifficultyunder
t he v roe t
t he or y. { N
A TUR E
, J
an . 8, 1
44 , p5 .
Thereisstillsome doubtastothepositionsof someof
theperipheralheliumgroupsinthe elementsfromnitrogen
toneon .I
t is p o s s ib le tha tth le e y m a y a llb e o p s it io nedso a s
tohavetheirnegativeprotonsoutermost.
A
fterpassingcarboninthe seriesofelementswecannot
addanymorehydrogengroupstothe peripheryoftheatom,
butcanonlychangethe hydrogengroups,onebyone,to
heliumgroups.Thiswillproducetheatoms ofnitrogen,
o
y g e n ,lu f o ri n e , a n d noen . I
t w illb e n oet d t h a t t h e n um be r
ofelementsinthefirst horizontalrowoftheperiodictable
is e
a ct ly w hatthev o rte rt
t h e oyr re
moreoroneless,then theentirevorte
u ire.sI
f t h e re w re ree o n e
ato mtheorywould
havetobediscarded.Thatthe atomicstructuresofthese
elementsareactuallyformedinthemannerabovedescribed
isalsocorroboratedbytheir meltingpoints.S incethereisa
progressivelyincreasingnumberofperipheralheliumgroups
7 7 1 3 5 2 4 b . 1 c u / 7 2 0 2 / t e n . e l d n a h e . l l d g o h o / / : g p d t t # p h / e s T u _ M s G s e 2 c 3 : c a 6 / g 0 r 3 o . 2 t 5 s u r 0 - t 4 i h 1 t 0 a 2 h . n w o w ) w a / i : n / i p g r t t i h V f / o y d t i e z s r i t e i g i v i n d e U ( l g c 6 o o k j G e , r i n o f a
aswepassfromnitrogento neon,themeltingpointshould
godownateachstep,and soitdoes.N
—2100, o
at—24
y genat—21
°
itrogenmeltsat
, f lu oin r e a t — 2 2 3 0 , a n d noen
0 . T h is ca n n o t b e mre e ly a s e ri e s o f ch a ce c ne co inic
dences.Thereareninedifferentelementsfromheliumto
neon,andaseriesof ninemeltingpointscanbearrangedin
f a ct o r ia l9 o r3 6 2 , ria
8 0 d if f re ree n t w a y s . On ly o n e o f t h e s e
correspondstotheactualarrangementofthemelting points
oftheknownchemicalelements,andthatis theveryone
t h a t t hsiv o rt e
[
73
theo r y re ry
u ire.sA
n d f u rtehrm oer t h is
. )
f d m e o t D a r c e i l n b e u G P
E t h e ra n d M atter
agreementofmeltingpointswithvorte
atomstructuresis
notlimitedtothefirst horizontalrow,butholdstrue
throughoutthegreaterpartofthe periodictable,e
cept
wherethestructuresbecomesocomplicatedthatother fac-
torsenterintothe problem.
Theatomicstructuresshowninthe diagramshavebeen
spreadoutflatin theplaneofthepaper,but inrealitythey
e
tendintothreedimensionsofspace.Thecarbon atom,
fore
ample,shouldbecapableofbucklingfromthe flat
configurationintoeitheroftwoenantiomorphs,anditseems
likelythatsuchbucklingactuallyoccurs intheW
aldenin-
versionandduringracemizationbyheat,andperhapsalso
duringcertainkindsofmetabolism.S
carbonatomwillalsoe
uchbucklingofthe
plaintheconversionof/-chloro-
succinicacidintoits d-isomeridebytreatmentwithmoist
silvero
idetoproduce/-malicacid,and thentheconversion
ofthelatterinto d-chloro-succinicacidbytreatmentwith
PCI
5. I
t w illa ls o e
p la in tehra ce mza i t io n o f m a n dlica e cid
(byheatinginheavywater)withoutketo-enoltautomerism.
{ NA
T UR E
, Sept. 26 ,1
3 6 , .p5 4 .7) I
t w il la l s oe
whyglutaconicacid
C O O
H . C H : C H . C H 2. 2. C O O H
ha sbee nf oundtoe
is t in o n ly o n e f o rm , a n d w illpor b a byl
alsoaccountforthedifficultyof separatingtheoptically
activeformsofallenederivativesofthetype
aa
\
/
c= c= c
/\
bb
7 7 1 3 5 2 4 b . 1 c u / 7 2 0 2 / t e n . e l d n a h e . l l d g o h o / / : g p d t t # p h / e s T u _ M s G s e 2 c 3 : c a 6 / 0 g r 3 o . 2 - t 5 s u r 0 - t 4 i h 1 t 0 a 2 h . n w o w ) w a / i : n / i p g t r t i h V f / o y d t e i z s r i t i e g i v i n d e U ( l g c 6 o o k G j e , r i n o
Thereisagradualchange fromelectropositivenessto
electronegativenesswhilepassingfromtheleftsidetothe
rightsideofthe periodictable.N owelectropositiveness
simplymeansthetendencytolosenegativeelectrons,where-
aselectronegativenessmeansthetendencytohangonto
suchelectrons.I
1
741
nanysystemofatomicstructure itmustbe
p l ian
f a d m e o t D a r c e i l n b e u G P
V o tr e
A
tomStru ctu res
E L E C T R O P O S I T
j> «
F
oJ
V
E L E C T R O N E G A T
>
ig.30.Diagrammaticrepresentationoftheelementsofthefirst hori-
zontalrowoftheperiodic table.E achcirclerepresentsoneheliumgroup,
andeachsolidblackdot representsonehydrogengrouporvalencebond.
Thedottedlinesindicatethegradual changefromelectropositivenessto
electronegativeness.
theprotonsthatareresponsiblefor theretentionofthe
negativeelectrons.I
ftheseprotonsarewell guardedagainst
attackfromtheoutside,thentheywill beabletohangon to
theirelectronsmorefirmlythanif theyareine
t io n.sA
posedposi-
n in s p ct c et io n o f t e h d ia g ra m s in F ig . 3 0 w ls il h o w
thattheprotonsofthe peripheralhydrogengroupsaremore
e
po se d in t h e a t o m ics t rutcu re s a t t h e le f t s id e o f the
periodictablethaninthe structuresattherightside. Under
thenucleartheorynosuch e
planationispossiblebecause
therearenoperipheralheliumgroupsin thenucleatedatom.
O nthecontrary,theelectronsthemselvesbecomemore
crowdedintheperipheryofthe nucleatedatomaswepass
fromtheleftsidetowardthe rightsideofthe periodictable.
Underthenucleartheorytheelectronegativeelements
shouldthereforeoccurattheleft sideandtheelectropositive
elementsattherightside oftheperiodictable,andthis
difficultycannotbeeliminatedbyconjuringwiththe mystic
w odr "
o cet t
.
Molecularnitrogenremainsveryinert,evenathigh tem-
peratures,whereasmolecularo
ygenisoneofthe most
reactivesubstancesknown.Thenitrogenmoleculemust
7 7 1 3 5 2 4 b . 1 c u / 7 2 0 2 / t e n . e l d n a h e . l l d g o h o / / : g p t d t # p h / e s T u _ M s G s e 2 c 3 : c a 6 / 0 g r 3 o . 2 - t 5 s u r 0 - t 4 i h 1 t 0 a 2 h . n w o w ) w a / i : n / i p g t r t i h V f / o y d t e i z s t i r i e g i v d i n e U l ( g c 6 o o k G j e , r i n o
thereforebeamuchmorestablestructure thantheo
ygen
molecule.Underthenucleartheorytheonlydifferencein
surfacestructuresbetweenthenitrogenando
ygenatomsis
thattheformerhasfiveperipheralelectrons whereasthe
[
75
V
f a d m e o t D a r c e i l n b e u G P
E t h e ra n d M atter
la t t e rha ssi rh
.I
f sy m m e t ry o f eel ct ro n icco nig f u ra t io n s h a s
anythingtodowithstability,thenit wouldappear,underthe
nucleartheory,thattheo
ygenmoleculeshouldbethemore
stableandthelessreactiveof thetwo.
F
ig . j1 . N it ro g e n m o le cu l e ( le f)ta n d o le
Underthevorte
y genm o le cu l e ( rig h le t).
theorythenitrogenatomistetrahedral
informandhasone peripheralheliumgroupandthree
peripheralhydrogengroupswhichserveasvalencebonds.
I
nthediatomicnitrogenmoleculethehelium groupswill
thereforebediametricallyoppositeeachotherwiththe
valencebondsmidwaybetweenthem,whereasinthedi-
atomico
ygenmoleculetheheliumgroupsofthe twoatoms
willbecloselyadjacenteachother sothattheirthermal
vibrationwillcauserepulsionbetweenthetwoatomsin
oppositiontothebindingeffortof theirvalencebonds.This
e
p la in s o n a p u re ly g o e m ericb t a ssiw h y o
y g e n is chm e i-
callymorereactivethannitrogen.
I
f n it ro e g n m o le cu le s aer co n s ttiu t e d a s sohw n in F ig . 3 1 ,
thentheyshouldbeq
uitesimilarinstructure andphysical
b e h aio v rt o m oel cu le s o f ca rb o nmono
id e , b ca c ea u s e t h eC O
moleculealsoconsistsofa clusterofvalencebondswithtwo
heliumgroupsnearthecenter,andtwo peripheralhelium
groupsonoppositesidesofthe molecule.S uchsimilarityof
structureiscorroboratedbythemelting andboilingpoints
ofthesesubstances,nitrogenandcarbonmono
at—210 0and—27 00,n adbo i lni g a t — 1
idemelting
6
and—1
respectively.Thefewdegreesdifferencebetweenthemelt-
76]
7 7 1 3 5 2 4 b . 1 c u / 7 2 0 2 / t e n . e l d n a h e . l l d g o h o / / : g p t d t # p h / e s T u _ M s G s e 2 c 3 : c a 6 / 0 g r 3 o . 2 - t 5 s u r 0 - t 4 i h 1 t 0 a 2 h . n w o w ) w a / i : n / i p g t r t i V h f / o y d t i e z s r i t e i g i v d i n e U ( l c g 6 o o k j G e , r i n o
20
f a d m e o t D a r c e i l n b e u G P
V o tr e
A
tomStru ctu res
ingandboilingpointsof nitrogenandthoseofcarbon
mono
id e is p roabb ly d u e t oht e f a ct t htain t h e n it ro gen
moleculethevalencebondsareclusteredmorecloselyaround
thecenterandtheperipheralhelium groupsareslightly
furtherapartthaninthe carbonmono
I
I
I
idemolecule.
I
N = N . N = N
6K
F
6
ig . 3 2 . I s o m e r is m o f o ris
im e s ( aobv e ) a d n d ia zo co m poun d s ( b d lo w ).
Thetetrahedralformofthenitrogenatomis alsocor-
roboratedbytheisomerismofunsymmetricalo
imes,diazo
compounds,andhyponitrousacid,eachofwhichoccursin
twodifferentformswithslightlydifferentphysicaland
ch e mca i lp roeprt ie s . S u ch is o m e ris m is e
te
t h e ry roy re
cannotbee
a ct ly W h a t t h e v ro
u ire,sw h e re a sunde r t h e n u cle rt a rt h e ry roy it
plained.Thethreevalenceelctronsofthe
nucleartrivalentnitrogenatomwoulddistributethemselves
uniformlyaboutthecenteroftheatom.The factthatthe
threevalencebondscrowdovertoone sideprovesthatthere
mustbesomethingontheother sidetopushthemover,
whichcanbenothingotherthan aperipheralheliumgroup.
S u ch a n e
p la a n t io n is n top o s s ib l e u n d rt le ret h e n u cle a rt h e ry roy
becauseallheliumgroupsofthe nucleatednitrogenatomare
inthenucleus,farremovedfromthe peripherywherethe
valenceelectronsarelocated.Thepresenceofa fourthand
-
[
77
7 7 1 3 5 2 4 b . 1 c u / 7 2 0 2 / t e n . e l d n a h e . l l d g o h / o / : g p d t p h # / e s T u _ M s G s e 2 c 3 : c a 6 / 0 g r 3 o . 2 t 5 s u r 0 - t 4 i h 1 t 0 a 2 h . n w o w ) w a / i : n / i p g r t t i h V f / o y d t i e z s r i t e i g i v i n d e U ( l c g 6 o o k j G e , r i n o
a f d m e o t D a r c e i l n b e u G P
E t h e ra n d M atter
fifthelectronintheperipheryof thenucleatednitrogen
atomdoesnothelpany,becausethesewouldtend toarrange
themselvessymmetricallyatthepoles.
A
lt h o g uhthee
is t e n ce o f u n s m ce y m erica t lo
im e s , d i a zo ia
compounds,andhyponitritesintwodifferentgeometric
formsseemstoprovethatthe trivalentnitrogenatomis
tetrahedralwiththethreevalencebondsonone sideofthe
atom,neverthelessthefailureofallattemptsto produce
opticallyactivesubstitutedaminesofthetypeN
thrownsomedoubtuponthisconclusion.S
activecarboncompoundsofthetypeQ
abchas
inceoptically
abcdcanbeproduced,
evenwhenoneofthesubstituentsis ahydrogenatom,it
appearsthatwhateverispresentatthe fourthcornerofthe
nitrogenatommustbeslightlysmallerthan thehydride
groupsoasto permitbucklingofthenitrogenatomin
substitutedamineswhereeachofthesubstituentsis capable
offreerotation,butat thesametimeitmust besomething
largeenoughtopreventsuchbucklingwheretwo ofthe
valencebondsareinthe formofadoublebondso asto
makefreerotationimpossible.Thenitrogenvorte
w it h it s prip e he r a lh e liu ra m g ro u p h s ae
atom
a ct ly t h e re
u ire d
structure,thisheliumgroupbeingjust alittlelessbulky than
ahydridegroup.
A
notherdifficultyofthenucleartheoryis thattheaverage
distancebetweenelectronsinthesameshell ismuchgreater
thanthedistancebetweenshells.I
tisthereforedifficultto
understandwhytheelectronsshouldconfinethemselvesto
definiteshellsatall,insteadof assumingagenerallystag-
7 7 1 3 5 2 4 b . 1 c u / 7 2 0 2 / t e n . e l d n a h e . l l d g o h / o / : g p d t p h # / e s T u _ M s G s e 2 c 3 : c a 6 / 0 g r 3 o . 2 t 5 s u r 0 - t 4 i h 1 t 0 a 2 h . n w o w ) w a / i : n / i p g r t t i h V f / o y d t i e z s r i t e i g i v i n d e U ( l g c 6 o o k j G e , r i n
geredarrangement.Thisdifficultyisfurtheraggravatedby
theintroductionofellipticalorbitswhich couldnotpossibly
beconfinedtotheirrespectiveshells.
Underthenucleartheoryit wouldalsobedifficultto
accountfortherelativelyhighheats offormationofdouble
andtriplebondsbetweencarbonatoms,whichare252 and
365gramcaloriesrespectively,ascomparedwith136gram
caloriesforsinglebonds.B
earinginmindthattwo spherical
objectscantoucheachother atonlyonepoint,andthat
electronsrepeleachother,itappearsthat underthenuclear
7
]
o a f d m e o t D a r c e i l n b e u G P
V o tr e
A
tomStru ctu res
theorytheheatsofformationofdoubleand triplebonds
couldnotbemuchgreater thantheheatofformationof
s in gel b o n d s . It is d if f re ree n t in t h e o v rt e
F
ig.33.O
a t o m w ehre t h e
rdinaryvalencebond(above)andbranchedvalencebond(below).
electronsofonevalencebonddonot appreciablyoppose
thoseofadjacentvalencebonds.
Thevalencebondunderthenucleartheory issupposedto
[
7
7 7 1 3 5 2 4 b . 1 c u / 7 2 0 2 / t e n . e l d n a h e . l l d g o h o / / : g p d t p h # / e s T u _ M s G s e 2 c 3 : c a 6 / 0 g r 3 o . 2 - t 5 s u r 0 - t 4 i h 1 t 0 a 2 h . n w o w ) w a / i : n / i p g t r t i h V f / o y d t e i z s r i t e i g i v i n d e U ( l g c 6 o o k G j e , r i n
o a f d m e o t D a r c e i l n b e u G P
E t h e ra n d M atter
beformedofoneor moreelectronsfloatingfreelyinthe
spacebetweentwoatoms.B earinginmindthatthe out-
standingcharacteristicofavalencebondis thefirmnesswith
w h ich it hld o sthea to m sa ta f i
e d d is tn ace f ro m e a ch o t hr, e
onecouldhardlyimagineamoreunsuitablemechanismfor
thepurpose.N ucleatedatomswiththeiroutershellscon-
sistingentirelyofnegativeelectricitywouldonlyrepel each
other,somewhatlikecolloidalparticleshavingsimilarelec-
triccharges.
I
t w o u ld aslo b e im p o s s ibel t o e
p la in t e h rig idtiy o f
crystalswiththefreelyfloatingvalenceelectronsof the
nucleatedatom.Therigidityofcrystalsprovesipso facto
thattheindividualatomsandmoleculeshavea similarglass-
likerigidity.I
ofvorte
tisconceivablethatskeletalstructuresformed
ringswithinterlinkingethercurrentsmighthave
considerablerigidity,buthowanyconditionofglasslike
rigiditycoulde
istinstructuresformedof nucleatedatoms
withtheirwidelyscatteredelectrons(notto mentionwave
atoms)isbeyondtheunderstanding.
Underthenucleartheorythevalencebond canforma
junctionbetweenonlytwoatoms,whichisnecessarilyso be-
causethreeormoresphericalstructures cannotbebrought
intocontactwithoneanotherat asinglepoint.J
unctions
betweenthreeorevenfouratomsarehoweverpossible
u n d e rt h e v o rt e
t h e oyr , a s s h o w n in F ig s . 3 3 a d n 3 4 . S u ch
multiplejunctionsprobablyalsooccurabundantlyinmetals.
Metalliccrystalsaremadeupof singleelectricallyneutral
N it ricOx
8 0]
id e P oat s s iu mI
s o cy a n id e
7 7 1 3 5 2 4 b . 1 c u / 7 2 0 2 / t e n . e l d n a h e . l l d g o h o / / : g p d t p h # / e s T u _ M s G s e 2 c 3 : c a 6 / 0 g r 3 o . 2 - t 5 s u r 0 - t 4 i 1 h t 0 a 2 h . n w o w ) w a / i : n / i p g t r t i h V f / o y d t e i z s i r t i e g i v i n d e U ( l g c 6 o o k G j e , r n i
o a f d m o e t D a r c e i l n b e u G P
V o tr e
A
tomStru ctu res
C a rb o n
Mon o
J
ide
"
■P.o
H
0
H
0
H O -
Phosphoric^'
A
cid0
P a rh c l roi c A c i d
00
H
H
S u lp h ricA ruicA cid
(dilute)
< Z °
0> c j
H
H
H
H
N aphthalene
C
a .
c
C h
f tf t
N ick e l
C a rb oynl
F
ig.34.F
amiliarcompoundswithbranchedvalencebonds.
atomspackedcloselytogetherandjoinedtoone anotherby
7 7 1 3 5 2 4 b . 1 c u / 7 2 0 2 / t e n . e l d n a h e . l l d g o h o / / : g p d t p h # / e s T u _ M s G s e 2 c 3 : c a 6 / 0 g r 3 o . 2 - t 5 s u r 0 - t 4 i h 1 t 0 a 2 h . n w o w ) w a / i : n / i p g t r i t V h f / o y d t i e z s r i t e i i v i g n d e U l ( c g 6 o o k j G e , r n
theirvalencebondsinsuch amannerthateachatomis in
contactwitheighttotwelveothers.I
nthecaseof mono-
valentmetalssuchastructurecan beproducedonlyby
branchingofthevalencebonds.
Thebranchedvalencebondisalso ofparticularinterest
[
8 1
o a f d m o e t D a r c e i l n b e u G P
E t h e ra n d M atter
withreferncetothebenzenering structure.TheK
ekule
structurewithalternatesingleanddoublebondswill not
accountforthepresenceofonly oneortho-substitutionpro-
ductunlessweassumethatthe singleanddoublebondsin
thebenzeneringarecontinuallyin astateoftautomeric
interchange,andweknowfromnumerousothercarboncom-
poundsthatalternatesingleanddoublebondsdo notgen-
erallyactinthis manner.ThecentricformulaofA
andB
rmstrong
aeyerisinagreementwithall knownfactsabout
benzenederivatives,butrepresentsanimpossiblestructure
underthenucleartheorybecausevalenceelectronsfloating
freelyabouttheatomicnucleiof thecarbonatomswould
arrangethemselvesontheoutsideandnoton theinsideof
thebenzenering.
I
thasalsobeen suggestedthatthecarbonatomsofthe
benzeneringmaybejoinedto oneanotherbyvalencebonds
consistingofthreeelectronsbetweeneverytwoadjacent
carbonatoms.Thisthree-electrontypeofbondwouldbe
justassatisfactoryasthe centricbond,buthasnot been
adoptedbecauseunderthenucleartheoryit wouldnotbe
possibletoaccountfornaphthalene,anthracene,andother
condensedringsystemsonthebasisof suchastructure.
A
s s h o w n in F ig . 3 5 , t h e v otre
atom th e o ry e m li in a tes
allthesedifficulties.Thebenzeneringunder thevorte
theoryisessentiallyacentric structure,althoughitcould
alsobeinterpretedasa three-electronstructure.N aphtha-
lene,anthracene,andothercondensedringstructurescanbe
formedinasimilarmannerwithoutdifficulty.Ther ecently
7 7 1 3 5 2 4 b . 1 c u / 7 2 0 2 / t e n . e l d n a h e . l l d g o h o / / : g p -
developedresonancetheoryofthebenzeneringstructure
withsingleanddoublebondsin tautomericinterchangeis
thereforesuperfluous.
Thepeculiarringstructurethat isshowninF
possibleonlywithsi
uni
ue"
a ro m a t ic
atomring,knownas"
ig.35is
atomrings,whichaccountsfortheir
p ro p rt ret ie.sI
n t h e co rre s p o n in idn g e igth
cyclo-octatetrene
,thecentralconnec-
tionscannotbeformedbecausethedistancesto bespanned
aretoogreat,sothat cyclo-octatetrenecanonlyhavealter-
natesingleanddoublebondslike thoseoftheK
8 2]
ekule
t d p h # / e s T u _ M s G s e 2 c 3 : c a 6 / 0 g r 3 o . 2 t 5 s u r 0 - t 4 i h 1 t 0 a 2 h . n w o w ) w a / i : n / i p g r t t i h V f / o y d t i e z s r i t e i i v d i g n e U ( l c g 6 o o k j G e , r n
o i a f d m e o t D a r c i e l n b e u G P
V o tr e
A
tomStru ctu res
structure.Thisiscorroboratedbythe factthatcyclo-octate-
trenedoesnote
hibitanyaromaticpropertiesbutbehaves
likeatypicalolefine.Theabsenceof aromaticpropertiesin
cyclo-octatetreneisalsoastrongargumentagainstthe reson-
a n ce t hoery o f t h e Ke k u le s t ru c t u re b e ct c a u s e ifis ca
a t o m ri ngs
o
o
ii1 1 1 1 1 1 m im iii
i i °i i
F
J
i
ig . 3 5 . T e h b e n ze n e rin g , C g H g .
werecapableofsucha tautomericresonancecondition,then
eightatomringsshouldalsoe
hibitasimilarcondition.
Thepyridineringwouldhavethesame centralstructure
asthebenzenering,but aheliumgroupwouldtakethe
placeofoneofthe peripheralhydrogengroups.Thepres-
enceofsucha peripheralheliumgrouponthepyridinering
wille
plainthemiscibilityofpyridinein waterbecausewater
alsocontainssimilarperipheralheliumgroups,andit isthe
g e n ear lru le t hta"
lik e d is s o lv selik e
. T h e s o lu b ilit yor
miscibilityofthesimplerorganicnitrogenand o
ygencom-
poundsinwaterisgenerallydirectly proportionaltothe
[
8 3
7 7 1 3 5 2 4 b . 1 c u / 7 2 0 2 / t e n . e l d n a h e . l l d g o h / o / : g p t p h d # / e s T u _ M s G s e 2 c 3 : c a 6 / 0 g r 3 o . 2 t 5 s u r 0 - t 4 i h 1 t 0 a 2 h . n w o w ) w a / i : n / i p g r t t i h V f / o y d t i e z s r i t e i i v d i g n e U ( l g c 6 o o k j G e , r n
o i a f d m e o t D a r c e i l n b e u G P
E t h e ra n d M atter
prominenceoftheperipheralheliumgroupsin theorganic
molecules.
I
tisinteresting,however,thatorganicchlorinesubstitu-
tionproductsaregenerallynotsolublein water.Thereason
forthisseemstobe thatsolubilityinwaterdependson
hydrogenbondformation,andamongthesimplerchemical
elementshydrogencancoordinateonlybetweenatomsof
nitrogen,o
ygen,andfluorine,orbetweenoneoftheseand
acarbonatomifthe latterhasstronglynegativegroups
attachedtoit.N
owthecharacteristicfeatureaboutthe
N , O , andF
atom s is t h a t e a ch o f tehm h a s o n e o r m o re rm
peripheralheliumgroupsimmediatelyadjacentthecentral
heliumgroup,whichappearstobea necessaryconditionfor
hydrogenbondformationwithwatermolecules.Theeffect
oftheseheliumgroupsin promotinghydrogenbondforma-
tionseemstobeclosely relatedtotheireffectof rendering
theatomsattheright sideoftheperiodictable electro-
negative.
N a s ce tn
P o s it iv e I
t a t e H y d rid e
o n N e g a t iv e I
on
F
ig . 3 6 . V rio raio u s ap s e ct s o fht e v o rt e
I
fvalencebondsareformedfromhydrogengroupsas
taughtbythevorte
a t o m v le lae n ce b ond.
theory,thenpositiveandnegativeions
wouldhavethebifurcatedstructuresshowninF
e
p la in s t h e f re
ig.36.This
uentf o r m a toi n o f n e gtaiv e iosnf ro m p oirm s
8 4]
7 7 1 3 5 2 4 b . 1 c u / 7 2 0 2 / t e n . e l d n a h e . l l d g o h o / / : g p t p h d # / e s T u _ M s G s e 2 c 3 : c a 6 / 0 g r 3 o . 2 t 5 s u r 0 - t 4 i h 1 t 0 a 2 h . n w o w ) w a / i : n / i p g r t t i h V f / o y d t e i z s r i t e i i v i g n d e U ( l g c 6 o o k G j e , r
i o a f d m e o t D a r c e i l n b e u G P
V o tr e
A
tomStru ctu res
tiveionsratherthanfromneutral molecules.I
thasbeen
foundthatwhenelectronsarepassedthrougha gas(H g,
H 2, N2, O
2 , o rC O
2, )theng e a t iv e io n s a re f rm rom e d n o t f ro m
neutralmoleculesaswouldtoee
pectedunderthenuclear
theory,butfrompositiveions,eachofwhich takesontwo
e le ct ro n s w h e n it s t rik e s t h e ca tohd e . ( N A
1
36 p. 16 2
TUR E
F eb. 2 7 , 1 3 7 , p. 3 7 ;
,J
u ly 2 5 ,
an dDe c. 1 3, 13
p.1165.)
O
*
«
< §
>
0
A
A
as•
c% »
« § »
H a
M
«
«
g
« $ »
« § »
I 2 A , ,3 * ,
§
»
«
§
»
«
I
17 A 1
P I S
ft S 1 6* 6* C
K 1
C a 2 0S c 2 1 •
§
»
i
ig . 3 7 . A t o m ics t rutcu re s bilt u u p o n o n e s tur ct uar lce n tr. e
[
8 5
7 7 1 3 5 2 4 b . 1 c u / 7 2 0 2 / t e n . e l d n a h e . l l d g o h o / / : g p t p h d # / e s T u _ M s G s e 2 c 3 : c a 6 / 0 g r 3 o . 2 - t 5 s u r 0 - t 4 i h 1 t 0 a 2 h . n w o w ) w a / i : n / i p g t r t i h V f / o y d t e i z s r i t i e i v i g n d e U ( l g c 6 o o k G j e ,
,
r i n o a f d m e o t D a r c e i l n b e u G P
E t h e ra n d M atter
TA B L
E
I
PeriodicTableofE
I
I
lements
Thedensitiesandmeltingpointsaregenerallyhighest nearthe
centerofthetable(in Group4)anddiminishtowardeitherside.
Thenumericaldesignationsofthehorizontalrowsindicatethe num-
berofstructuralcentersor branchesonwhichtheatomsarebuilt.
H
/
0
1
Z
3
H x
H
H y
5
6
7
la
H e
2
L
i
3
B e
H
B
C
6
N
7
0
8
F
5
9
lb
N e
10
N a
11
Mg
A
l
S i
I
H
P
15
S
16
C I
17
I
Z
13
I
c
A
K
C a
20
S c
21
11
2Z
2a
1
7 7 1 3 5 2 4 b . 1 c u / 7 2 0 2 / t e n . e l d n a h e . l l d g o h o / / : g p t p h d # / e s T u _ M s G s e 2 c 3 : c a 6 / 0 g r 3 o . 2 - t 5 s u r 0 - t 4 i h 1 t 0 a 2 h . n w o w ) w a / i : n / i p g t r t i h V f / o y d t e i z s i r t i e i v i g n d e U l ( g c 6 o o k j G e ,
1
V
r i n o a f d m e o t D a r c e i l n b e u G P
C rMn
2H 2
re
C o N
TheH eavierE lements
H E
secondhorizontalrowoftheperiodictable follows
thesamegeneralorderasthe firstrow,andthisradial
*
b u ild i n g u p p roec s s co n in t in u s ein t o t h e t hrd i ro w w it h
progressivelyincreasingmeltingpointsuntilwepasstitan-
ium.Thenthereoccursa slightdropandlevelingoffof the
meltingpointcurvewiththeusheringin ofnewproperties,
suchascoloredcompounds,irregularchangesofvalence,
andmetallicstatesofgreathardnesswith thesuddenap-
pearanceofferromagnetism.A fterpassingthisseriesof
hardmetallicelementswhichdonotfit readilyunderanyof
theprecedingelements,wefinallycometoarsenic,selenium,
bromine,andkrypton,forwhichweagainfindreserved
places.F
romthereonthemelting pointagaingoesupstep
bystepuntilmolybdenumisreached.J
ustastitaniumrepre-
sentedtheendofthe radialbuildingupprocessfromone
structuralcenter,somolybdenumrepresentstheendofthe
radialbuildingupprocessfromtwo structuralcenters.This
alsoe
plainswhythereweretwomoreelementsfrom
kryptontomolybdenumthantherewerefromargonto
titanium.
I
f t h e p e rio d ict a bel b e n o w reef rre d t o , it w illb e s e e n
thattheelementsinrowsia, ib,andichave atomsbuilt
u p f ro m o n e s t ru ct u ra lce tne r, t h o s e in ro w s2a , 2
b, and2C
fromtwostructuralcenters,thosein rows3a,3b,and3c
fromthreestructuralcenters,whilethosein rows4a,4b,and
4carebuiltup onamorecomple
fourbranchedpattern.
Thedensitiesandmeltingpointsaregenerallyhighest in
thecenterofthetable (ingroup4),becausethe numberof
7 7 1 3 5 2 4 b . 1 c u / 7 2 0 2 / t e n . e l d n a h e . l l d g o h o / / : g p -
peripheralhydrogengroupsisthereama
imumanddi-
minishestowardeitherside.
TheelementsMg,A
l,S
i,andPof thesecondrowhave
abnormallylowmeltingpointsascomparedwiththeele-
mentsimmediatelyaboveandbelowthem,butthismaybe
attributedtogreaterfreedomforthermalvibrationasthe
[
8 7
t d p h # / e s T u _ M s G s e 2 c 3 : c a 6 / 0 g r 3 o . 2 t 5 s u r 0 - t 4 i h 1 t 0 a 2 h . n w o w ) w a / i : n / i p g t r t i h V f / o y d t i e z s r i t e i i v g d n i U l ( e c g 6 o o k j G e ,
r i n o a f d m e o t D a r c i e l n b e u G P
E t h e ra n d M atter
radialdimensionsoftheatomsincreases,especiallyinverti-
caltransitionsfromthefirst tothesecondrow.Therela-
t iv eyl h ig h rm rem e lt in g p o in t s foC
im m e d ia t e ly ly
b e lo w M g, A
a , S c, a n d T i, ( w h ich a re
l, a n d S i, ) m a y t h e n b e attrib uetd
totheincreaseddistancebetweenthevalencebonds,the
effectofwhichnowpredominatesovertheoppositeeffectof
increasedthermalvibration.Theriseofthe meltingpoint
intheverticaltransitionfromphosphorusto arsenic,(the
valencebondsbeingthesamedistanceapartin bothcases,)
maythenbeattributedtothe substitutionoftheargon
groupofthearsenicatomfor theoutermostheliumgroup
ofthephosphorusatom.S
inceargonmeltsata higher
temperaturethanhelium,itwouldbereasonabletoe
pect
arsenictomeltat ahighertemperaturethanphosphorus.
Themeltingpointsofthehalogensincrease withincreas-
ingatomicweight,whereasthemeltingpointsof thealkali
metalsdecreasewithincreasingatomicweights.Thisseems
peculiar,sinceboththehalogenandalkali metalatoms
consistofonevalenceelectronand aninertgasatomresidue.
I
nthealkalimetalatom,however,thevalenceelectronis
onlylooselyassociatedwiththeinertgas atomresidue,
whereasinthehalogenatomthetwo arefirmlyheldtogether
soastoform asinglestructure.H
alogenatomsalsotend
touniteinpairs toformdiscretemoleculeswiththevalence
electronsnearthecentersofthe molecules,sothattheouter
e
posedportionsofsuchmoleculeswillconsist entirelyof
inertgasatomresidues.I
toe
twouldthereforebereasonable
pectthehalogenmoleculestobehavein thesamegen-
7 7 1 3 5 2 4 b . 1 c u / 7 2 0 2 / t e n . e l d n a h e . l l d g o h / o / : g p -
eralwayasinertgas atoms,andthatmaybethe reasonwhy
themeltingpointsbecomehigherin bothcasesastheatomic
ormolecularweightsincrease.O
ntheotherhandin the
alkalimetalstherearenodiscrete diatomicmolecules,the
valenceelectronsandinertgasatomresidues beingheld
togetherbygeneralelectrostaticattraction,sothattheir
effectsarepurelyadditive.S
incethevalenceelectronsarethe
sameforallalkalimetals,the meltingpointsofsuchmetals
mustdependentirelyontheinert gasatomresidues,anditis
reasonabletoassumethatwhensuchresiduesare largeand
8 8
]
t d p h # / e s T u _ M s G s e 2 c 3 : c a 6 / 0 g r 3 o . 2 t 5 s u r 0 - t 4 i h 1 t 0 a 2 h . n w o w ) w a / i : n / i p g r t t i h V f / o y d t i e z s r i t e i i v g d n i U l ( e g c 6 o o k j G e ,
r i n o a f d m e o t D a r c e i l n b e u G P
TheH eavierE lements
heavytheywillbemoreeffectivein keepingthesubstancein
afluidconditionthanwhenthey aresmallandlight.
Thereissomeuncertaintyasto wherethetransitionfrom
onestructuralcentertotwo structuralcentersoccurs.There
issomespectroscopicevidencethatit occursinthetransition
F
ig. 3 . ine rtgs aa t o m
s.
fromcalciumtoscandium,butscandiumandtitanium donot
formcoloredcompoundsandtheirmeltingpointsand val-
encesseemtobringtheme
ca lciu m.I
actlyinlinewithpotassiumand
t is t ru e t h a t ttia n iu m ca n b e t riv a le n,tb u t it is
usuallytetravalentandinitstrivalentcondition twoofthe
hydrogengroupsareprobablylinkedtoeachother inthe
formofabranchedvalencebond.
t8
9
7 7 1 3 5 2 4 b . 1 c u / 7 2 0 2 / t e n . e l d n a h e . l l d g o h o / / : g p t p h d # / e s T u _ M s G s e 2 c 3 : c a 6 / g 0 r 3 o . 2 t 5 s u r 0 - t 4 i h 1 t 0 a 2 h . n w o w ) w a / i : n / i p g r t t i h V f / o y d t i e z s r i t e i i v i g n d e U ( l g c 6 o o k j G e ,
r i n o a f d m e o t D a r c e i l n b e u G P
E t h e ra n d M atter
I
fthevanadiumatomhasonlya singlestructuralcenter,
thenitcandiffer fromtitaniumonlyinthesubstitutionof a
heliumgroupforoneofthe hydrogengroups.Thismay
accountforvanadiumwhenconsideredbyitself,butvanad-
iumclearlybelongstothe seriesofpolyvalentelementswith
coloredionsimmediatelyfollowingit,andtheentireseries
cannotbesatisfactorilyaccountedforonthe assumptionthat
theyareallbuilt uponasingle structuralcenter.Thefur-
theralongwegoin theperiodictablethemoredifficulties
wegetintoif wetrytocontinuebuildingupon onestruc-
turalcenter.
Theinertgasatomsare especiallydifficulttoaccountfor
o n t h e b ais s o f o n e s t ru ct u ra l ce n t e,rb u t a s F ig . 3 lce
sho w s,
theycanbesatisfactorilyaccountedforif weassumethatthe
heavierelementshavemultiplecenters.Theintermediate
stagesinthetransitionsfromone inertgasstructureto
anotherarerepresentedintheperiodictable bythehorizon-
talrowsofelements.Thesecomprisetwoshort periods
(heliumtoneonandneonto argon),followedbytwolonger
periods(argontokryptonandkryptontox
b y a s t illlo g n e rp e ri od(
A
enon),andthen
e n o n t o ra d o n.)
lthoughthereisnodirect methodofascertainingthe
atomicstructuresoftheheavierelements,neverthelesswe
cangenerallyarriveatsomeconclusionas totheplausi-
bilityofanyproposedstructureby determiningwhetherit
hasbeenbuiltin accordancewiththesameprinciplesthat
werefoundtobeapplicablein theformationoftheatoms
ofthelighterelements.Theseprinciplesare asfollows:
(1)A
7 7 1 3 5 2 4 b . 1 c u / 7 2 0 2 / t e n . e l d n a h e . l l d g o h o / / : g p t p h d # / e s T u _ M s G s e 2 c 3 : c a 6 / 0 g r 3 o . 2 - t 5 s u r 0 - t 4 i h 1 t 0 a 2 h . n w o w ) w a / i : n / i p g t r t i h V f / o y d t e i z s r i t i e i v d i g n e U ( l c g 6 o o k j G e ,
givennumberofheliumandhydrogengroupswill
alwaysassumeanarrangementofma
(2)I
imumsymmetry
n t h e s a m e tao m a llt rm rem in lh lah e liu m ro rgo u p s aer in
thesameshell(i.e. atthesamedistancefromthe structural
centertowhichtheyare attached
(3)I
n t h e s a m e tao m a llh d y ro gn eg ro u p s aer in t h e
sa m esh e ll
and
(4)Terminalheliumgroupsareneverfoundoutside of
theargonshell.
F
romrules(2)and(3) itnecessarilyfollowsthathelium
9 0]
r i n o a f d m e o t D a r c e i l n b e u G P
TheH eavierE lements
groupsneveroccurinany shellinwhichthereare vacant
placesnotyetoccupiedby hydrogengroups.
Thefourrulesstatedabovehavebeendeduced froma
studyofthesimpleratomswith onestructuralcenter,but
arebelievedtobeof generalaplicability.I
natomswithtwo
ormorestructuralcenters,thefollowingadditionalrules
appeartoholdtrue:
(5)E
verystructuralcenterisoutsideof theargonshell
o f e v eyr o t h e rsru t ct uar lce n tre
and
(6)Theargonshellaround thecenteroftheatomwill
betangenttoeitherthe neonortheargonshell ofevery
remainingstructuralcenter.
F
romrules(5)and(6) itnecessarilyfollowsthatadja-
centstructuralcentersalwayshaveatleast twoandnever
morethanfourheliumgroupsbetweenthem.
Thereasonforallthis isprobablysomeconditionof
resonanceintheatom,whichwouldprobablyalsoaccount
forthegreaterabundanceofisotopesin theevenelements
thanintheodd elements,theformerhavingthegreater
degreeofsymmetryandthereforethegreaterstability.
I
fweassumethateveryheliumgroupcontributes two
unitstotheatomicnumberand everyhydrogengroupone
unit,thenthevanadiumatommusthaveeithernine helium
groupsandfivehydrogengroups,orten heliumgroupsand
threehydrogengroups.S incetenheliumgroupswouldbe
furnishedbytwoneonatoms,andsincethree hydrogen
groupswouldaccountforthechemicalsimilarityof vanad-
tophosphorus,itisbelievedto bemostprobablethatthe
7 7 1 3 5 2 4 b . 1 c u / 7 2 0 2 / t e n . e l d n a h e . l l d g o h o / / : g p t p h d # / e s T u _ M s G s e 2 c 3 : c a 6 / 0 g r 3 o . 2 - t 5 s u r 0 - t 4 i h 1 t 0 a 2 h . n w o w ) w a / i : n / i p g t r t i h V f / o y d t e i z s t i r i e i v d i g n e U ( l c g 6 o o k j G e
vanadiumatomconsistsoftwoneongroupsjoineddirectly
toeachother,withthreehydrogengroupson theirperi-
phery.Thesimilarityofvanadiumtophosphorusinits
chemicalpropertieswouldseemtoindicatethatall three
hydrogengroupsofthevanadiumatomareonthe same
neoncenter,butsucha structurewouldnotaccountforthe
highmeltingpointofvanadium,orfor theappearanceof
colorinvanadiumcompounds.I
tisthereforebelievedthat
twoofthehydrogengroupsareon oneneoncenter,andthe
thirdhydrogengroupontheother neoncenter.Thisalso
[
9 1
r i n o a f d m e o t D a r c e i l n b e u G P
E t h e ra n d M atter
accountsmorereadilyforthemultiplevalencesof vanadium.
Thevanadiumatommaythenberegardedasa closeunion
ofasodiumatomwitha magnesiumatom.Thesetwoatoms
donotcombinewitheachother chemically,butitispossible
thatundercertainconditionstheionized gaseousatomsmay
combinewitheachotherthroughtheirhelium groups.
Thechromium,manganese,andironatomscouldthenbe
formedbytheadditionofhydrogengroupsto theperiphery
ofthevanadiumatom.S
omeofthesewillprobablyform
internalchemicalbonds,whichmayormaynot bebranched.
Themultiplevalencesoftheseelementscanbe readilyac-
countedforinthis manner,buttherewouldnotbeany
simplerelationshipbetweenthevalencesoftheseelements
andthenumbersofhydrogengroupson theiratoms,and
theirmeltingpointswillalso notbearanysuchsimplerela-
tionshiptothenumbersofhydrogengroupsas wasfound
toe
is t in t h e f ir s t h o rizo n t a lro w .
Thecobalt,nickel,copper,andzincatomscould besimi-
larlyaccountedforbythe successivesubstitutionofhelium
groupsforhydrogengroupsinthe ironatom,whichwould
alsoaccountfortheprogressiveloweringof themelting
pointalongthisseriesof elements.
Therewillhoweverbealimit tothenumberofhelium
groupsthatcanbethus addedbecauseastheperiphery
becomesmorecrowded,thetensionbetweenthetwostruc-
turalcenterswillincrease.Thisis probablythereasonwhy
thene
telementafterzincis notamonovalentelement,but
rathertrivalentgalliumwiththreeheliumgroupsbetween
7 7 1 3 5 2 4 b . 1 c u / 7 2 0 2 / t e n . e l d n a h e . l l d g o h o / / : g p t p h d # / e s T u _ M s G s e 2 c 3 : c a 6 / 0 g r 3 o . 2 t 5 s u r 0 - t 4 i h 1 t 0 a 2 h . n w o w ) w a / i : n / i p g t r t i V h f / o y d t i e z s r i t e i i v i g n d U l ( e c g 6 o o k j G e
thetwostructuralcenters.
I
fnowwemaketheassumptionthatall hydrogengroups
inthesameatommustbe atthesamedistancefromtheir
respectivecenters,thenthegermaniumatomcouldnotbe
formedbymerelyaddinganotherhydrogengrouptothe
peripheryofthegalliumatom,butwouldhaveto beanew
typeofstructurewithfourhelium groupsbetweenitstwo
structuralcenters.Twoofthehydrogengroupsof the
germaniumatommayundercertainconditionscombinewith
eachothersoas toleavethegermaniumatomdivalent.The
9 2]
, r i n o a f d m e o t D a r c e i l n b e u G P
TheH eavierE lements
arsenic,selenium,andbromineatomsthenfollowinregular
order.
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