Essential Oils: Extraction Methods and Applications 9781119829355, 1119829356

Table of contents :
Cover
Title Page
Copyright Page
Contents
Preface
Chapter 1 A Methodological Approach of Plant Essential Oils and their Isolated Bioactive Components for Antiviral Activities
1.1 Introduction
1.2 General Chemical Properties and Bioactivity
1.3 Antiviral Mechanisms
1.3.1 Time of Addition Assay
1.3.1.1 Pretreatment of Host Cells
1.3.1.2 Pretreatment of Virions
1.3.1.3 Co-Treatment of Host/Cultured Cells and Virions During Virus Inoculation
1.3.1.4 Post-Entry Treatment
1.3.2 Thermal Shift Assays
1.3.2.1 Viral Attachment Assay
1.3.2.2 Viral Fusion Assay (Entry Assay)
1.3.3 Morphological Study
1.3.4 Protein Inhibition
1.3.5 Other Metabolic Anti-Viral Mechanisms
1.4 Assessment of Antiviral Activities via In Vitro Assays
1.4.1 Determination of Cytotoxicity (Cytopathogenic Reduction Assay)
1.4.2 In Vitro Activities on Different Viruses
1.4.2.1 Human Herpes Virus
1.4.2.2 Influenza Virus
1.4.2.3 Non-Enveloped Viruses
1.4.2.4 Other Viruses
1.5 Activities of Essential Oils in Relation to Their Bioactive Components
1.6 Antiviral Activities as Compared to the Polarity of Bioactive Components
1.7 In Vivo Studies of Essential Oils for its Antiviral Effect
1.7.1 Herpes Simplex Virus
1.7.2 Influenza Virus
1.7.3 West Nile Virus
1.8 Activities In-Respect to the Available Antivirals
1.9 Antiviral Essential Oils and Their Bioactive Components Loaded in Nanosystems
1.10 Conclusion
References
Chapter 2 Essential Oils Used to Inhibit Bacterial Growth in Food
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Chemistry of Essential Oils
2.3 Essential Oils Against Microorganisms in Food Products
2.4 Application of Essential Oils in the Food Industry
2.5 Essential Oil Extraction Techniques
2.6 Conclusions
References
Chapter 3 Industrial Application of Essential Oils
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Essential Oils
3.2.1 Sources and Chemical Composition
3.2.2 Extraction Methods
3.2.2.1 Conventional Extraction Methods
3.2.2.2 Innovative Extraction Methods
3.2.3 Industrial Applications of Essential Oils
3.2.3.1 Food Preservation and Active Packaging Systems
3.2.3.2 Aromatherapy
3.2.3.3 Pharmaceutical and Medicinal Application
3.2.3.4 Biopesticide in Insect Pest Management
Conclusion
Declaration about Copyright
References
Chapter 4 Influence of Biotic and Abiotic Factors on the Production and Composition of Essential Oils
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Essential Oil Characteristics
4.3 Factors Influencing Essential Oils Production and Composition
4.4 Abiotic Factors
4.4.1 Drought
4.4.2 Salinity
4.4.3 Temperature
4.4.4 Light
4.4.5 Nutrients
4.4.6 Heavy Metals
4.5 Biotic Factors
4.6 Concluding Remarks
Acknowledgements
References
Chapter 5 Investigation of Antiviral Effects of Essential Oils
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Viruses: Structure, Characteristics, and Replication
5.3 In Vitro Antiviral Activity and Mechanism of Action Investigations of Essential Oils and Essential Oil Components
5.3.1 Investigation of In Vitro Antiviral Activities
5.3.1.1 Plaque Reduction Assay
5.3.1.2 The Inhibition of Viral Cytopathogenic Effect
5.3.2 Mechanisms of Action
5.3.2.1 Time-of-Drug-Addition Assay
5.3.2.2 Temperature-Shift Assay
5.3.2.3 Morphological Alteration
5.3.2.4 Protein Inhibition
5.3.2.5 Other Mechanisms of Action
5.3.3 Selectivity Index (SI)
5.4 The Antiviral Efficacy of Essential Oils on Viruses Affecting Different Body Systems
5.4.1 Respiratory System
5.4.1.1 Influenza Virus
5.4.1.2 Adenovirus and Rhinovirus
5.4.1.3 Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus 1 (SARS-COV-1)
5.4.1.4 Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus 2 (SARS-COV-2)
5.4.2 GIT System
5.4.2.1 Coxsackie Virus
5.4.2.2 Dengue Virus
5.4.2.3 Yellow Fever Virus
5.4.2.4 Murine Norovirus Type 1
5.4.3 Nervous System
5.4.3.1 West Nile Virus
5.4.4 Immune System
5.4.4.1 HIV
5.4.5 Reproductive System
5.4.5.1 Human Papilloma Virus (HPV)
5.4.6 Other Viruses
5.4.6.1 Human Herpes Virus
5.4.6.2 Orf Virus
5.5 The Antiviral Efficacy of Essential Oils on Phyto-Pathogenic Viruses
5.6 The Antiviral Efficacy of the Essential Oils on Animal.Infecting Viruses
5.6.1 Virus Affecting Cattle (Bovine Viral Diarrhea Virus)
5.6.2 Virus Affecting Cats (Feline Calicivirus F9)
5.6.3 Virus Affecting Pigs (Porcine Parvovirus)
5.7 Synergistic Effect of Essential Oil Components with Known Antiviral Drugs
5.8 Aromatherapy and its Role as an Antiviral Agent
5.9 Route of Essential Oil Administration
5.10 Nano-Formulated Essential Oils: A Promising Approach to Enhance Antiviral Activity
5.11 Safety of Essential Oils
5.12 Antiviral Essential Oils: Drawbacks versus Future Perspectives
5.13 Summary
References
Chapter 6 Mentha sp. Essential Oil and Its Applicability in Brazil
Introduction
6.1 Ethnobotany of the Mentha in Brazil
6.2 Chemical Constituents of Mentha Oil
6.3 Evaluation of Biological Activities of Mentha Essential Oils
6.4 Toxicity of Essential Oils from Mentha Used in Folk Medicine
6.5 Final Considerations and Perspectives
References
Chapter 7 Microbial Influence on Plants for Enhanced Production of Active Secondary Metabolites
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Classes of Plants Secondary Metabolites
7.2.1 Terpenes
7.2.2 Phenolic Compounds
7.2.3 Nitrogen-Containing Secondary Metabolites
7.2.4 Sulphur Containing Secondary Metabolites
7.3 Secondary Metabolites Production from Plants
7.3.1 In Vivo Production of Secondary Metabolites
7.3.2 In Vitro Secondary Metabolites Production
7.4 Interaction of Microorganisms in the Rhizosphere
7.5 Influence of Bacteria and Fungi on Plants
7.5.1 Plant Growth Promoters
7.5.1.1 Plant Growth-Promoting Bacteria (PGPR)
7.5.1.2 Plant Growth-Promoting Fungi (PGPF)
7.5.2 Production of Plant Biomass
7.5.3 Bacteria and Fungus as Biofertilizers
7.5.4 Role of Bacteria and Fungi as a Phytostimulator
7.5.5 Role of Bacteria and Fungi as a Biopesticides
7.5.6 Stress Tolerant Activity of Bacteria and Fungi
Conclusion and Future Perspectives
References
Chapter 8 Valorization of Limonene Over Acid Solid Catalysts
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Limonene Reactions with Alcohols
8.3 Hydration and Acetoxylation
8.4 Conversion of Limonene into p-Cymene
8.5 Conclusions
References
Chapter 9 Elucidating the Role of Essential Oils in Pharmaceutical and Industrial Applications
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Extraction of Volatile Oils from Various Sources
9.2.1 Terpenes
9.2.2 Hydrocarbons
9.3 Role of Essential Oils in Industry
9.3.1 Role in Cosmetics and Aromatherapy
9.3.1.1 Cosmetic Industry
9.3.1.2 Immortelle Essential Oil
9.3.1.3 Lavender Essential Oil
9.3.1.4 German Chamomile Oil
9.3.1.5 Neroli Essential Oil
9.3.1.6 Peppermint Essential Oil
9.3.1.7 Rosemary Essential Oil
9.3.2 Application in Food Industry
9.3.2.1 Food Preservation
9.3.2.2 Food Packaging
9.4 Pharmacological Effects of Essential Oils
9.5 Concluding Remarks
Acknowledgment
References
Chapter 10 Uses of Essential Oils in Different Sectors
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Food and Beverage
10.3 Packaging
10.4 Cosmetic and Perfumery
10.5 Aromatherapy
10.6 Medical
10.7 Agriculture
10.8 Textile
10.9 Cleaning Household
10.10 Safety of Essential Oils
Conclusion
References
Chapter 11 Chemical Composition and Pharmacological Activities of Essential Oils
11.1 Introduction
11.2 Anticancer
11.2.1 Role of Terpenes in Anticancer Activity
11.2.2 Role of Aromatic Compounds in Anticancer Activity
11.2.3 Mode of Action
11.2.4 The Effect of EOs in Different Types of Cancers
11.2.5 Multi-Drug Resistance (MDR)
11.3 Anti-Inflammatory
11.3.1 Terpenoids for Anti-Inflammatory
11.3.2 Phenylpropanoids for Anti-Inflammatory
11.3.3 Role of Essential Oil for Anti-Inflammatory
11.4 Anti-Viral
11.4.1 Terpenoids for Anti-Viral Activity
11.4.2 Essential Oils for Coronavirus
11.4.3 Essential Oil for Anti-Viral Activity
11.5 Anti-Fungal
11.5.1 Mode of Action
11.5.2 Essential Oil for Anti-Fungal Activity
11.6 Antidiabetic
11.7 Larvicidal Activity
11.8 Anti-Bacterial
Conclusion
Conflicts of Interest
Acknowledgements
References
Chapter 12 Augmented Stability and Efficacy of Essential Oils Through Encapsulation Approach
12.1 Introduction
12.2 Various Strategies for Encapsulation of Essential Oils
12.2.1 Essential Oils Encapsulated in Liposomes
12.2.2 Essential Oils Encapsulated in Cyclodextrin Complexes
12.2.3 Essential Oils Encapsulated in Polymeric Complexes
12.2.4 Essential Oils Encapsulated in Electrospun Fibers
12.2.5 Essential Oils Encapsulated in Microemulsion/Nanoemulsions
12.2.6 Essential Oils Encapsulated in Mesoporous Silica Nanoparticles
12.3 Conclusions
References
Chapter 13 Antimicrobial Effect of Essential Oils for Food Application
13.1 Introduction
13.2 Biotechnological Strategies for Extracting Essential Oils for Food Application
13.3 Methods for Evaluating the EO Inhibitory Activity In Vitro
13.3.1 Factors Affecting Method Susceptibility
13.3.2 Resources Used to Improve Halo Diameter Reading in the Agar Diffusion Method
13.4 Influence of Extraction Methods on the Antimicrobial Compounds in Essential Oils
13.5 Inhibition of Bacteria by Essential Oils in Food
13.6 Use of Essential Oils in Packaging or Food Contact Surfaces
13.6.1 Embedded Films of Nanocapsules with EO
13.6.2 Packaging Reinforced with Nano-Incorporations and Added with EO
13.6.3 Bioactive Films Added EO
13.7 Effect of Encapsulation of Essential Oils on the Inhibitory Activity against Bacteria
13.8 Conclusions
References
Chapter 14 Antioxidant or Antimicrobial Nature of Essential Oils to Minimize Food Waste
14.1 Introduction
14.2 Essential Oils Chemical Composition
14.3 Essential Oils: Their Antimicrobial Activity and Mode of Action
14.4 EO Used in Food Packaging
14.5 Application of EO in Different Food Products
14.5.1 Fruits and Vegetables
14.5.2 Meat and Meat Products
14.5.3 Fish
14.5.4 Dairy Products
14.5.5 Bakery Products
14.6 Legal Aspects of the Use of EO in Food
14.7 Conclusion
References
Chapter 15 Application of Essential Oils to Biofilms
15.1 Introduction
15.2 Definition of Biofilm
15.3 Principles of Biofilm Formation
15.4 Benefits of Biofilm to Microorganism
15.5 Mechanisms of Resistance to Antimicrobial Agents
15.6 Global Threat of Biofilms
15.7 Essential Oils
15.8 Antimicrobial and Antibiofilm Effects of EOs
15.9 Antibacterial Mechanism of Action
15.10 Strategies for Improving the Antibiofilm Efficacy of EOs
15.11 Common Methods for Determination of Antimicrobial and Antibiofilm Activities of EOs
15.12 Limitations of EOs Usage
Conclusion
References
Chapter 16 Biological Applications of Essential Oil
16.1 Introduction
16.2 Sources of Essential Oil
16.3 Extraction of Essential Oil
16.4 Phytochemistry of Essential Oil
16.5 Biological Applications
16.5.1 Applications of Essential Oil on the Treatment of Cancer
16.5.2 Applications of Essential Oil on the Treatment of Respiratory Tract Diseases
16.5.3 Applications of Essential Oil on the Treatment of Cardiovascular Diseases
16.5.3.1 Anti-Inflammatory Activity
16.5.4 Applications of Essential Oil on the Treatment of Obesity
16.5.5 Applications of Essential Oil on the Treatment of Diabetes
16.5.5.1 Antioxidant Activity
16.5.6 Applications of Essential Oils Against Infectious Diseases
16.5.6.1 Antibacterial Activity
16.5.6.2 Antifungal Activity
16.5.6.3 Antiviral Activity
16.5.7 Applications of Essential Oil on Dandruff
16.6 Essential Oil Safety Issue
16.7 Conclusion
Acknowledgment
References
Chapter 17 Current Status and Advancement of Biopesticides from Essential Oil for Agriculture, Food Storage, and Household Applications
17.1 Introduction
17.1.1 Essential Oil Extraction
17.2 Application of Essential Oil Biopesticides in Agriculture
17.2.1 Agriculture Pest
17.2.2 Types of Essential Oils for Agricultural Pest Management
17.3 Application of Essential Oil Biopesticides for Food Storage
17.3.1 Food Storage Pests
17.3.2 Types of Essential Oils for Food Storage Pest Management
17.4 Application of Essential Oil Biopesticides for Household Pests
17.4.1 Household Pests
17.4.2 Types of Essential Oils for Household Pest Management
17.5 Delivery of Biopesticides
17.6 Pesticidal Action of Biopesticides
17.7 Conclusion and Constraints
17.8 Acknowledgement
References
Chapter 18 Essential Oil Used as Larvicides and Ovicides
18.1 Introduction
18.2 Important Aspects of Essential Oils
18.3 Larvicides and Ovicides
18.3.1 Larvicides Against Aedes aegypti
18.3.2 Larvicidal Activity Against Anopheles stephensi
18.3.3 Larvicide Against Aedes albopictus
18.3.4 Ovicidal Activity Against Pediculus humanus capitis
18.3.5 Ovicidal Activity Against Haemonchus contortus
18.3.6 Ovicidal Activity Against Helicoverpa armigera Hubner
18.4 Conclusion
References
Chapter 19 Essential Oil-Based Biopesticides
19.1 Introduction
19.2 Phytochemistry and Sources of Essential Oils
19.3 Biological Activity of Essential Oil Biopesticides
19.3.1 Efficacy of Essential Oils to Insects
19.3.2 Essential Oils as Insect Repellents
19.3.3 Bactericidal Properties of Essential Oils
19.3.4 Antifungal and Anti-Oomycete Properties of Essential Oils
19.3.5 Herbicidal/Weedicide Properties of Essential Oils
19.4 Synergistic Formulations of Essential Oils
19.5 Toxic Effects of Essential Oils on Mammals and Non-Target Organisms
19.6 Advantages, Current Constraints and Long-Term Prospects
19.7 Conclusion
References
Chapter 20 Essential Oils Obtained from Algae: Biodiversity and Ecological Importance
20.1 Introduction
20.2 What are Essential Oils?
20.3 Chemical Structure and Biological Activity from Algal Essential Oils
20.4 Ecological Importance of Essential Oils in Marine System
20.5 Conclusion and Future Perspectives
References
Chapter 21 Gas Chromatography-Olfactometry (GC.O) of Essential Oils and Volatile Extracts
21.1 Introduction
21.2 Historical Aspects
21.3 GC-O Methodologies
21.3.1 Detection Frequency Methods
21.3.2 Dilution Analysis
21.3.2.1 Aroma Extraction Dilution Analysis (AEDA)
21.3.2.2 Combined Hedonic Aroma Response Measurements (CHARM Analysis)
21.3.3 Posterior Intensity Methods (PI)
21.3.4 Time-Intensity Methods
21.3.4.1 Odor-Specific Magnitude Estimation (OSME, Direct Intensity)
21.4 Different GC-O Application to Assess for Essential Oilsf Odorants
21.4.1 Citrus spp. (Rutaceae)
21.4.2 Mentha spp. (Lamiaceae)
21.4.3 Thymus spp. (Lamiaceae)
21.4.4 Foeniculum spp. (Apiaceae)
21.4.5 Coriandrum spp. (Apiaceae)
21.4.6 Pinus spp.
21.4.7 GC-O Applied to Characterize Baccharis dracunculifolia DC. Odorants
Acknowledgements
Funding
References
Chapter 22 In Vitro and In Vivo Methods Used to Assess the Biological Potential of Essential Oils
22.1 Introduction
22.2 Chemistry of EOs
22.3 In Vitro Methods Used to Assess the Biological Potential of EOs
22.4 Evaluation of Antioxidant Potential
22.4.1 What are Antioxidants?
22.4.2 Antioxidant Potential of Botanical Materials
22.4.3 Modes of Action
22.4.4 In Vitro Methods for Antioxidant Activities
22.4.5 DPPH Scavenging Assay
22.4.6 2,2-Azinobis-(3-Ethylbenzothiazoline-6-Sulfonate) Assay
22.4.7 Bleachability of â-Carotene in Linoleic Acid System
22.5 Antimicrobial Activities of Essential Oils
22.5.1 Disk Diffusion Assay
22.5.2 Agar Well Diffusion Method
22.5.3 Determination of Minimal Inhibitory Concentration (MIC)
22.6 Essential Oils as Natural Antimicrobial Agents
22.7 Anticancer Activity of Essential Oils
22.8 Cell Culture and Treatment
22.9 Determination of Cell Viability
22.10 Conclusion
Acknowledgement
References
Chapter 23 Biological Potential of Essential Oils: Evaluation Strategies
23.1 Introduction
23.2 Biological Activities of Essential Oils
23.2.1 EOs as Antibacterial Agents
23.2.2 EOs as Antifungal Agents
23.2.3 EOs as Anti-Inflammatory Agents
23.2.4 EOs as Antioxidants
23.2.5 EOs as Anticancer Agents
23.2.6 EOs as Anti-Diabetic Agents
23.2.7 EOs as Antispasmodics
23.3 In Vitro Assessment of Biological Activities
23.3.1 Antimicrobial Assay
23.3.2 Antibacterial Assay
23.3.3 Antifungal Assay
23.3.4 Antioxidant Assay
23.3.5 Anticancer Assay
23.3.6 Anti-Diabetic Assay
23.4 In Vivo Assessment of Biological Activities
23.4.1 Antimicrobial Assay
23.4.2 Antidermatophytic Assay
23.4.3 Antifungal Assay
23.4.4 Anti-Inflammatory Assay
23.4.5 Antioxidant Assay
23.4.6 Anticancer Assay
23.4.7 Anti-Diabetic Assay
23.4.8 Mosquito Repellent Assay
23.5 Conclusion
References
Chapter 24 Algal Essential Oils and Their Importance in the Ecosystem
24.1 Introduction
24.2 Algal Essential Oils
24.3 Factors Affecting Algae Essential Oil Production
24.3.1 Temperature
24.3.2 Light
24.3.3 Nutrients
24.3.4 Chemical Stress
24.4 Ecological Importance of Algal Essential Oils
24.5 Pheromone Properties of Algal Essential Oils
24.6 Algal Essential Oils in “Beach-Odor”
24.7 Algal Essential Oils in “Off-Odor”
24.8 Antibacterial Activities of Algal Essential Oils
24.9 Antifungal Activities of Algal Essential Oils
24.10 Conclusion
References
Chapter 25 Classical Methods for Obtaining Essential Oils
25.1 Introduction
25.2 Classical Methods for Extracting Essential Oils
25.2.1 Maceration
25.2.2 Mechanical Treatment
25.2.3 Hydro Distillation
25.2.4 Water Distillation
25.2.4.1 Steam Distillation
25.2.5 Cold Pressing Method
25.2.6 Solvent Extraction
25.2.7 Soxhlet Extraction
25.3 Chromatographic Technique for Analysis of Essential Oil
Conclusion
Acknowledgement
References
Chapter 26 A Comprehensive Guide to Essential Oil Determination Methods
Abbreviations
26.1 Introduction
26.2 Chemical Composition of EOs
26.2.1 Hydrocarbons Derived from Terpenes
26.2.2 Oxygenated Compounds
26.3 EO and Its Group
26.4 Biological Activity: Pathway Cell
26.4.1 Osmophores
26.4.2 Trichomes
26.5 Classical Methods for Extraction of Essential Oils
26.5.1 Steam Distillation
26.5.2 Hydro-Distillation Method
26.5.3 Steam Explosion Method
26.5.4 Solvent Extraction Method
26.5.5 Cold Press (CP) Method
26.6 Contemporary Extraction Methods
26.6.1 Supercritical Fluid (SCF) Extraction
26.6.2 High Pressure Extraction
26.6.3 Microwave-Assisted Hydro-Distillation
26.6.4 Hydrodistillation with Pretreatment of Enzyme
26.6.5 Microwave-Assisted Steam Distillation
26.6.6 Ultrasound-Assisted Extraction
26.6.7 Solvent-Free Microwave Extraction
26.6.8 Microwave Hydro-Diffusion and Gravity
26.6.9 Oil Extraction by Solar Energy
26.6.10 Pulse Electric Field
26.7 Conclusion
References
Chapter 27 Encapsulation of Essential Oils
27.1 Introduction
27.2 Encapsulation
27.2.1 Chemical
27.2.1.1 Molecular Inclusion Complexation
27.2.1.2 Interfacial Polymerization
27.2.1.3 In Situ Polymerization
27.2.2 Physical-Chemical
27.2.2.1 Coacervation
27.2.2.2 Emulsification
27.2.3 Physical
27.2.3.1 Spray Drying
27.2.3.2 Freeze Drying
27.2.3.3 Electrospraying and Electrospinning
27.2.3.4 Supercritical Technology
27.3 Process Simulation and Economic Evaluation
Concluding Remarks and Prospects
References
Chapter 28 Encapsulated Essential Oils: Main Techniques to Increase Shelf-Life
28.1 Introduction
28.2 Coating Materials
28.3 Techniques for Essential Oil Encapsulation
28.3.1 Coacervation
28.3.2 Extrusion
28.3.3 Nanoprecipitation
28.3.4 Emulsification
28.3.5 Spray Drying
28.3.6 Thin Film Hydration Method
28.3.7 Supercritical Fluid Technology
28.4 Concluding Remarks
Acknowledgment
References
Chapter 29 Encapsulation Technologies of Essential Oils for Various Industrial Applications
29.1 Introduction
29.2 Encapsulation Technique
29.2.1 Essential Oil as the Core Material
29.2.1.1 Chemical Composition and Physical Properties of EOs
29.2.1.2 Biological Activities of EOs
29.2.2 Wall Materials
29.2.3 Encapsulation Method and Release Mechanism
29.2.4 Applications of Encapsulated EOs
29.2.4.1 Preservative in Foods
29.2.4.2 Baked Foods
29.2.4.3 Beverages
29.2.4.4 Fresh Fruit and Vegetables
29.2.4.5 Raw Meat and Meat Products
29.2.4.6 Milk and Dairy Products
29.2.4.7 Cosmetic and Health Care
29.2.4.8 Cotton and Textile
29.2.4.9 Pharmaceutical
29.3 Conclusions
References
Chapter 30 Extraction of Essential Oils with Supercritical Fluid
30.1 Introduction
30.2 Why Use Supercritical Carbon Dioxide to Extract Essential Oils?
30.3 Commercial Equipment Used for Supercritical Fluid Extraction of Essential Oils: Bench and Industrial Scale
30.3.1 Bench Scale
30.3.2 Pilot and Commercial Scale
30.4 Patent Survey
30.5 Economic Evaluation
30.6 Life Cycle Assessment
30.6.1 Goal and Scope Definition
30.6.2 Life Cycle Inventory
30.6.3 Life Cycle Impact Assessment (LCIA)
30.6.4 Interpretation
30.6.5 Recent Studies on LCA of SFE of Essential Oils and the Main Results
30.7 Current Outlook and Prospects
References
Chapter 31 Advantages of Essential Oil Extraction Using Supercritical Fluid: Process Optimization and Effect of Different Processing Parameters on Extraction Efficiency
31.1 Introduction
31.2 Essential Oils
31.3 Supercritical Fluid Extraction
31.4 Superiorities of SFE over Other Extraction Methods
31.5 Extraction of EOs by Supercritical Fluid
31.5.1 Effects of Temperature
31.5.2 Effect of Pressure
31.5.3 Effect of Particle Size
31.5.4 Effect of Flow Rate
31.5.5 Use of a Co-Solvent
31.5.6 Extraction Time
31.6 Antimicrobial and Antioxidant Properties of Essential Oils Extracted via SFE
31.7 Optimization
31.7.1 Optimization Using RSM and BBD, Taguchi Model
31.7.2 Artificial Neural Networks (ANNs)
31.8 Conclusion
References
Chapter 32 Supercritical Fluid Extraction of Essential Oils from Natural Sources: Mathematical Modeling and Applications
32.1 Introduction
32.2 Essential Oils
32.3 Conventional Extraction Methods
32.4 Supercritical Fluid Extraction
32.4.1 Cosolvent Addition
32.5 Typical Behavior and Mathematical Modeling
32.6 Parameters Affecting the CO2-Supercritical Fluid Extraction
32.6.1 Pressure and Temperature
32.6.1.1 Pressure
32.6.1.2 Temperature
32.6.2 Pre-Treatment – Moisture and Particle Size
32.6.3 Extraction Time and Apparent Solubility
32.6.4 Solvent Flow
32.7 Scale-Up and Economic Analysis
32.8 Applications
32.9 Final Considerations
References
Chapter 33 Fundamentals, Mathematical Models, and Extraction Processes with Supercritical Fluids
33.1 Introduction: Background
33.2 Fundamentals of Supercritical Fluid Extraction
33.2.1 Supercritical Fluids
33.2.2 Solubility and Phase Equilibria
33.3 The Extraction Process
33.3.1 Process Scheme
33.3.2 Process Parameters
33.3.2.1 Temperature and Pressure
33.3.2.2 Flow Rate
33.3.3 Mathematical Modeling of the Extraction Process
33.3.4 Scale-Up
33.4 Separation
33.4.1 Extract Recovery Strategies
33.4.2 Essential Oil Fractionation
33.4.3 Solvent Regeneration and Recycling
33.5 Recent Application of Supercritical Extraction of Essential Oils and Industrial Application of Supercritical Fluid Extraction Processes
33.6 Novel and Future Perspectives of Supercritical Fluid Extraction for Essential Oils
33.6.1 Supercritical Fluid Extraction Coupled with Other Green Extraction Technologies
33.6.2 Future Perspectives
References
Chapter 34 Supercritical CO2 Extraction as a Clean Technology Tool for Isolation of Essential Oils
34.1 Introduction
34.2 Essential Oils
34.3 Applications of EOs
34.3.1 Antibacterial and Antifungal Activity
34.3.2 Antioxidant and Anticancer Activity
34.3.3 Antiviral Activity
34.3.4 Food Preservative and Packaging
34.3.5 Aromatherapy
34.3.6 Dairy Products
34.3.7 Biocontrol Agents
34.4 Extraction Methods
34.4.1 Distillation
34.4.2 Cold Pressing/Expression
34.4.3 Hydrodifussion
34.4.4 Solvent Extraction
34.4.5 Microwave-Assisted Extraction (MAE)
34.4.6 Ultrasound-Assisted Extraction (UAE)
34.5 Supercritical Fluid Extraction (SCFE)
34.6 Parameters Influencing SCFE of EOs
34.6.1 Pressure
34.6.2 Temperature
34.6.3 CO2 Flow Rate
34.6.4 Moisture
34.6.5 Cosolvent
34.6.6 Particle Size of Plant Material
34.6.7 Extraction Time
34.7 Optimization of SCFE Process
34.8 Mathematical Modeling of Extraction Curves
34.9 Coupled or Assisted SCFE
34.9.1 Enzyme-Assisted SCFE
34.9.2 Ultrasound-Assisted SCFE
34.10 Conclusion
References
Chapter 35 Classical Techniques for Extracting Essential Oils from Plants
35.1 Introduction
35.2 Market Value of Essential Oils
35.3 Sources of Essential Oils
35.4 Chemical Nature of Essential Oils
35.5 Extraction of Essential Oils
35.5.1 Distillation Methods
35.5.1.1 Hydrodistillation
35.5.1.2 Steam Distillation
35.5.2 Hydrodiffusion
35.5.3 Solvent Extraction
35.5.4 Soxhlet Extraction
35.5.5 Cold Pressing Method/Expression
35.5.6 Cohobation
35.5.7 Enfleurage
35.5.8 Maceration
35.6 Conclusion
References
Chapter 36 Acquisition of Essential Oils Through Traditional Techniques
36.1 Introduction
36.2 Obtaining Essential Oils
36.2.1 Cold Pressing
36.2.2 Steam Distillation
36.2.3 Hydrodistillation
36.2.4 Enfleurage
36.2.5 Solvent Extraction
36.3 Concluding Remarks
Acknowledgment
References
Chapter 37 Essential Oils: Chemical Composition and Methods of Extraction
37.1 Introduction
37.2 Chemical Assemblage of Essential Oils
37.2.1 Terpenes
37.2.1.1 Monoterpenes
37.2.1.2 Sesquiterpenes
37.2.1.3 Diterpenes
37.2.2 Heteroatomic Metabolites
37.2.2.1 Ketones
37.2.2.2 Acids
37.2.2.3 Aldehydes
37.2.2.4 Alcohols
37.2.2.5 Lactones
37.3 Extraction of Essential Oils Key Factors are Involved in Determining the Extraction Method
37.3.1 Conventional Extraction Methods
37.3.1.1 Hydro Distillation
37.3.1.2 Enfleurage Method
37.3.1.3 Hydro Diffusion
37.3.1.4 Cold Pressing
37.3.1.5 Steam Distillation
37.3.2 Green Extraction Methods
37.3.2.1 Supercritical Fluid Extraction (SFE)
37.3.2.2 Microwave-Assisted Extraction (MAE)
37.3.2.3 Ultrasonication-Assisted Extraction (UAE)
37.3.2.4 Conclusion
37.4 Conclusion
References
Chapter 38 Dental Applications of Essential Oils
38.1 Introduction
38.2 Background
38.3 Preparation of Essential Oils
38.4 Mechanism of Action of Essential Oils
38.5 Methods of Application of Essential Oil for Dental Uses
38.6 Therapeutic Actions of Essential Oil for Dental Uses
38.7 Dental/Oral Conditions Treated by Essential Oils
38.8 Dental Applications of Essential Oils
38.9 Safety Issues in Relation to Use of Essential Oils
38.10 Research
38.11 Conclusion
References
Chapter 39 Essential Oil-Based Therapies
39.1 Introduction
39.2 Essential Oil-Rich Plants
39.2.1 Citronella
39.2.2 Peppermint
39.2.3 Lavender
39.2.4 Tea-Tree
39.2.5 Eucalyptus
39.2.6 Chamomile
39.2.7 Patchouli
39.2.8 Ylang-Ylang
39.2.9 Bergamout
39.2.10 Geranium
39.2.11 Lemon
39.3 How Essential Oil Therapy Works
39.3.1 Cosmetic Aromatherapy
39.3.2 Massage Aromatherapy
39.3.3 Medical Aromatherapy
39.3.4 Olfactory Aromatherapy
39.3.5 Psycho-Aromatherapy
39.4 Essential Oil-Based Therapies
39.4.1 Brainstorming Therapies
39.4.1.1 In the Treatment of Dementia
39.4.1.2 Stress Reduces Therapy Among Adolescents
39.4.2 Anti-Microbial Therapy
39.4.3 In Treatment of Eczema
39.4.4 Anti-Hair Fall Therapy
39.4.5 Anti-Tumor Therapy
39.4.6 Chemopreventive Therapy
39.4.7 Coronavirus Therapeutics
39.4.8 Essential Oil Helps in Epilepsy
39.4.9 Treatment of Cardiovascular Disorders
39.5 How to Use EOs?
Conclusion
References
Chapter 40 Clinical Applications of Essential Oils
40.1 Introduction
40.2 Aromatherapy
40.3 Mode of Action of Essential Oils in Aromatherapy
40.4 Classification of Aromatherapy
40.4.1 Cosmetic Aromatherapy
40.4.2 Massage Aromatherapy
40.4.3 Medical Aromatherapy
40.4.4 Olfactory Aromatherapy and Psycho-Aromatherapy
40.5 Essential Oils from Various Parts of the Plants Used in Aromatherapy
40.6 Essential Oil-Based Therapies
40.6.1 Pain and Inflammation
40.6.2 Hemodialysis
40.6.3 Psychological Disorders
40.6.4 Treatment of Nausea and Vomiting
40.6.5 Managing Menopause Symptoms
40.6.6 Treatment of Dermatological Problems
40.7 Safety Issues Related to Essential Oil-Based Therapy
40.8 Conclusion
References
Chapter 41 Therapeutic Role of Essential Oils
41.1 Introduction
41.2 Uses of Essential Oils
41.2.1 Nontherapeutic Uses of EOs
41.2.1.1 Pesticide
41.2.1.2 Food Preservative
41.2.1.3 Cosmetics and Home Care
41.2.1.4 Mosquito Repellent
41.2.1.5 Others
41.3 Classification of Aromatherapy
41.3.1 Cosmetic Aromatherapy
41.3.2 Massage Aromatherapy
41.3.3 Medical Aromatherapy
41.3.4 Olfactory Aromatherapy
41.3.5 Psycho-Aromatherapy
41.4 Role of Essential Oil in Clinical Practice
41.5 Applications of Edible Essential Oil on Therapy
41.5.1 Almond Oil
41.5.2 Avocado Oil
41.5.3 Canola Oil
41.5.4 Coconut Oil
41.5.5 Flaxseed Oil
41.5.6 Groundnut Oil
41.5.7 Sesame Oil
41.5.8 Sunflower Oil
41.6 Risky EOs to Children
41.6.1 Camphor Oil
41.6.2 Wintergreen Oil
41.7 Side Effects of EOs
41.8 Therapeutic Guidelines and Safety Precautions
41.9 Conclusions
Declaration About Copyright
References
Chapter 42 Plant Essential Oils and Their Constituents for Therapeutic Benefits
42.1 Introduction
42.1.1 Concept and Definition
42.1.2 A Journey Through History
42.1.3 Composition
42.2 Biological Activities
42.2.1 Antimicrobial Activities: Mode of Action and Effects
42.2.1.1 Antibacterial Activities
42.2.1.2 Anti-Fungal Activities
42.2.1.3 Anti-Viral Activities
42.2.2 Antioxidant Activities
42.2.3 Antiphlogistic Activity
42.2.4 Anti-Cancer Activities
42.2.5 Miscellaneous Activities
42.2.5.1 Penetration Enhancement
42.2.5.2 EOs in Food
42.2.5.3 Antinociceptive Effects
42.2.5.4 Insect Repellent Activity
42.3 Conclusion
References
Chapter 43 Essential Oils Used in Packaging: Perspectives and Limitations
43.1 Introduction
43.2 Essential Oils: Definition, Preparation, and Composition
43.3 Essential Oils: Medicinal and Biological Functions
43.4 Functional Application of Essential Oils
43.5 Active Packaging Material Based on Essential Oils
43.5.1 Composite and Nanocomposite Materials Based on Essential Oils
43.5.2 Advantages
43.5.3 Limitations
43.6 Conclusion and Future Perspectives
References
Index
EULA