Erectus Walks Amongst Us 1604581212, 9781604581218

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ErectusWalks Amongst Us The evolution of modern humans http://www.erectuswalksamongst.us/index.html

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by

Richard D. Fuerle Spooner Press, NY Copyright © 2008 ISBN 978-1-60458-121-8 Printed in the United States by Lightning Source

Table of Contents Preface v Acknowledgments vi Introduction vii Section I WHAT EVERY PALEOANTHROPOLOGIST SHOULD KNOW 1 Chapter 1 A Story of the Origin of Humans 2 Chapter 2 Early Humans 6 Chapter 3 DNA 12 Chapter 4 Evolution 16 Chapter 5 Selectors 30 Chapter 6 Neoteny 37 Chapter 7 Genetic Distance 41 Chapter 8 Evolutionary Psychology 49 Section II Chapter 9 Chapter 10 Chapter 11 Chapter 12 Chapter 13 Chapter 14 Chapter 15 Chapter 16 Section III

TRAITS OF LIVING POPULATIONS Hard Tissue Soft Tissue Reproductive Strategy Behavior Genes Intelligence Civilizations and Achievements Primitive Traits

56 58 72 84 89 100 106 123 134

THE OUT-OF-AFRICA THEORY

141

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Chapter 17 Chapter 18 Chapter 19 Chapter 20 Chapter 21 Chapter 22

Fossil Skulls Modern Behavior MtDNA Population Differences in MtDNA Nuclear DNA Replacement

144 152 155 160 168 172

Section IV Chapter 23 Chapter 24 Chapter 25 Chapter 26 Chapter 27

THE OUT-OF-EURASIA THEORY The Bipedal Apes The Origin of the Eurasians The Neanderthals The Origin of Africans The Origin of Asian Aborigines

180 186 196 208 218 230

Section V Chapter 28 Chapter 29 Chapter 30 Chapter 31 Chapter 32 Chapter 33 Chapter 34 Chapter 35 Chapter 36 Chapter 37

POLICY Homo africanus Miscegenation Hybrid Vigor Segregation Eugenics Re-Classifying the Left Egalitarianism Individualism Morality Which Way Western Man?

235 236 240 247 256 260 266 272 277 282 288

Appendix (DNA) Glossary Recommended Reading References Index

292 295 299 300 338

This book may be purchased at Amazon, Barnes & Noble, and other online stores.

Other works by the author

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Some articles and poems

Home Page

The Pure Logic of Choice The basis of Austrian Economics A New Theory of Natural Rights

A theory of natural rights deduced from free will

Musical Compositions

A light opera about the Whiskey Rebellion and a few other compositions.

On the Steppes of Central A libertarian novel about a student in Mongolia Asia

Contact the author This HTML version contains updates and corrections made to the original printed version. Some of the pictures did not transfer well and will be improved later. Uploaded July 26, 2008.

[Back Cover]

TAKE THIS TEST! True False 1. Race does not exist - a black person is just a white person with a suntan and wooly hair. 2. All the races are equally intelligent. 3. White racism is responsible for black failures. 4. Africans were the first modern humans. 5. Humans evolved in Africa from an African ape. 6. The people living today who are most closely related to apes live in the Amazon jungle. 7. A woman is always more closely related to her own child than she is to any other child. If you answered “True” to these questions, when you read this book drink a

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glass of wine while listening to a recording of the ocean surf. The author is a retired patent attorney who lives on a small wildlife refuge on an island in upstate of New York. A perpetual student, he has degrees in math (BS), law (JD), economics (MA), physics (BA), and chemistry (BA). He is an amateur composer (www.whiskeyrebellion.us) and has written books on Austrian economics (www.purelogic.us), natural rights (www.naturalrights.us), and anarchy (www.anarchism.net/steppes.htm).

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Preface

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Preface “If you make up your mind about a contentious issue without having heard all sides, you will be wrong at least half the time." 1 Every person is a product of the times he lives in. We all believe that our values are objective and moral, but that cannot be true because every generation believes that, yet they have vastly conflicting values. Only a few hundred years ago our ancestors found nothing objectionable about owning and selling other people, and some millenniums prior to that the main course at dinner might be a member of a neighboring tribe. Had we lived then, there is little doubt we would not have objected. Several hundred years from now a future generation is likely to consider our values to be as ignorant and barbaric as we consider those of our predecessors. I mention this to encourage the reader to jettison, or at least rein in, the opinions, attitudes, and beliefs that he has picked up during his life, because in this book many of them will be disputed. Step out of your times, as though you had just arrived on this planet, and weigh the evidence and reasoning presented. It is nearly impossible to arrive at the truth by listening to only one side of the story, and you are about to hear another side. Much of what people are told in schools and in the media today just isn’t so. There are knowledgeable people who know it isn’t so, but they dare not say anything. The rest of us live in this sea of misinformation. Since almost everyone believes the prevailing misinformation, we assume it must be true. So we act on it, making important decisions about our lives, decisions that all too often are disastrous. Now, in my waning years, I can see no contribution I could make to the next generation more important than to challenge what I believe to be at least some of these erroneous beliefs. To encourage the dissemination of this book, it is being published without royalties and may be copied, with attribution, without liability to the author. I hope to make it available on the internet without charge, as I have done with my other books. Very little is held back in this book. 2 An effort was made to avoid unnecessary insensitivity, but shocking facts, even facts that some will find offensive, are displayed right out in the open where they cannot be missed. I have tried to be as accurate as possible, though I would be amazed if there were no mistakes, as so much ground is covered and speculation was required to fill in gaps in the evidence. Technical language is avoided where possible and explained where used. Large amounts of additional material could have been included, but after working on this almost full time for about four years, I’ve decided it’s time to call it quits. Acknowledgments Table of Contents FOOTNOTES 1. (1) Whenever there is a conflict, there are (at least) two versions. (2) Each side will promote its version and suppress the other versions. (3) The version of the winning side will become the establishment version that most people will accept. (4) If you knew the other versions, in a significant number of cases you would not accept the version of the winning side. (5) Therefore, in order to avoid promoting versions that are against your own interests, you should examine all versions of a conflict before deciding which version to accept. 2. Some information that is highly controversial, but off-subject or difficult to verify, even if it is probably true, was omitted. Back

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Acknowledgments

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Acknowledgments A number of people made suggestions and provided information that was incorporated into this book. Dr. Willard W. Olson deserves thanks for his keen observations and original ideas on the evolution of man. His vast knowledge of biology, and of fossil skulls in particular, was immensely helpful and his blunt and honest opinions are appreciated. A number of people on the “e-l” and “ARlist” Yahoo Groups also made sagacious comments and brought information to my attention. The book had its origin with posts by a self-educated ex-Marine, Ronald A. Fonda, on those two Yahoo Groups, where he repeatedly explained why he believed that the Out-of-Africa theory of human origins was wrong. Although he maintains a web site on that subject which documents his position in detail, I thought it was in rather technical language and difficult for a layman to comprehend. Convinced that he was on to something, though, I encouraged him, and others who agreed with him, to write a book that would make his ideas clear to an ordinary person. When, after several months, I realized that no one was going to start writing that book, I offered to be the editor. I saw myself as making sure that the writing was easy to understand and did not leave any gaps that could undermine the arguments. But still no one produced anything for me to edit, so I began researching and writing myself, first as “editor” then, when I was doing almost all the writing, as co-author with Ron. Ron and I were already sticking our necks out by arguing that modern man did not arise in Africa, but only in Eurasia. That was contrary to both scientific theories of human evolution, the Out-of-Africa (“OoA”) theory and the Multiregional theory. As the book progressed, Ron, somewhat reluctantly, and I agreed that there were good reasons for believing that man’s evolution from a primitive mammal did not occur in Africa either, and that man had descended from a lineage that was closer to the Asian orangutan than to the African chimpanzee. But that was Ron’s limit on taking speculative positions. By the time Chapter 24 was seriously discussed, I had become convinced that biology was not that different from physics in that it, too, was constrained by laws or rules. Genetic and fossil data gave dates for the origin of the races of only about 65,000 years ago (“ya”), but those rules implied that the races began more than 2 million years ago (“mya”). Since Ron and I could not agree on how to resolve these and other difficulties, we amicably parted ways. This book contains material I find absolutely fascinating, especially since one is unlikely to easily find it elsewhere, particularly in a single book. To put it together, widely different specialties had to be studied (e.g., genetics, physical anthropology, sociology, fossils, psychology), digging through controversial and contradictory information, some of it mistaken or even fraudulent. Making sense of it all was so overwhelming a task that many times I was tempted to give up. Fortunately, Ron had already acquired a good knowledge of these disciplines, had thought through the implications of all the information he had gathered, and was able to keep me on track. To Ronald Fonda therefore belongs not only credit for being the impetus of the book, but for many of the ideas scattered throughout the book. Section III is almost entirely based on his web site and he is responsible for many of the ideas in Section IV as well. I am not oblivious to the fact that the theory of human origins proposed in this book contradicts a vast literature supporting the Out-of-Africa (“OoA”) theory. However, there are good reasons for believing that OoA is not correct and that modern man did not evolve in Africa. I hope the reader will impartially judge the case presented while I anxiously remain in the dock, awaiting the verdict. As always, any errors or misstatements are mine. Comments and corrections,

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preferably without cuss words, may be sent to me HERE. Introduction Table of Contents

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Section I

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SECTION I What Every Paleoanthropologist Should Know In order to understand our origins, you are going to have to be familiar with some of the fossil humans that have been found and how evolution “works” to change living things 1 to best fit their environment. Definitions of technical terms can be found in the Glossary; here are a few shorcuts that will be used: Africans or s-S Africans = sub-Saharan Africans. LCA = last common ancestor – the most recent ancestor from which two individuals or groups descended. yr = year. yrs = years. myrs = million years. ya = years ago. kya = thousand years ago. mya = million years ago. BP = before present, taken as 1950. Hs = Homo sapiens – our immediate archaic predecessors. Hss = Homo sapiens sapiens – modern man, us. He = Homo erectus – the species of man just prior to Hs. Hn = Neanderthals. OoA = Out of Africa, the dominant theory of the origin of modern humans. OoE = Out of Eurasia, a theory of human origins put forth in this book. Early man = Homo, but not Homo sapiens. Archaic man = Homo sapiens, but not Homo sapiens sapiens. Modern man = Homo sapiens sapiens. Chapter 1 Table of Contents FOOTNOTE 1. Broadly, a “living thing” could be defined as a mechanism that uses matter and energy from its environment to make copies of itself, e.g. (Lin, 2006). Also see Chemoton Theory. Back

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Chapter 1 - A Story of the Origin of Humans Just so you know where this book is going, here is a short story of the origin of man propounded in this book. Much of it is, admittedly, speculative, but it provides a more-or-less complete story, even if it involves some guesswork, a better read than isolated facts separated by chasms of mystery. I will not endlessly repeat, “according to the author,” and the reader should realize that deductions and explanations are the author’s opinion, supported by the quotations and citations that are given. The story begins about 60 mya in the tropics of SE Asia. Early primates (“prosimians”) chatter in the trees where they are safe from most predators. Some of the prosimians cling to trees vertically and have a vertical posture. They support themselves and climb with their strong back legs and use their front legs to grasp branches and food. Some primates become larger, making it more difficult to walk on top of the branches, so they begin to move by hanging from the branches by their feet and arms, then just by their arms; they are “brachiators.” Arms become longer as those with longer arms can move more efficiently with larger swings, just as longer legs make walking more efficient. Tails are no longer needed for balance and are a waste of the body’s resources, so the brachiators who have shorter tails now have an advantage and tails decrease in size, then disappear entirely. Less mobile in the trees and too heavy to reach fruit on the end of small branches, the tailless brachiators spend more time on the ground, where their size eliminates the threat of small predators and enables them to eat foods, such as underground tubers, unavailable to their tree-bound predecessors. They have not evolved the anatomy needed for efficient walking on two feet so they walked partly bent over supported by palms in Eurasia and knuckles in Africa. The environment on the ground is more complex, giving a survival advantage to those who have larger brains and are more intelligent. It is about 25 mya and the tailless brachiators have become apes. Some of the Eurasian apes live in swampy areas, near lakes or the sea, or in forests near rivers, where they feed on plants and aquatic animals. When they are in the water, they walk on two feet (“bipedalism”). Over time, they become more and more anatomically adapted to bipedalism and venture farther away from the safety of shallow water and nearby trees. This is the first “giant step for mankind” because bipedalism was the single most important adaptation in the evolution of man; man is the only habitually bipedal mammal. It is about 10 million years ago and bipedal apes have arrived. The Eurasian bipedal apes follow the fruiting of trees and bushes and the herds of animals that predators feed on, scavenging the remains. Walking on two feet lets them travel farther and faster and with less energy than the quadrupedal apes, 1 and there are many other significant advantages as well. Their hands are free to carry food and rocks 2 and sticks for weapons, 3 standing upright presented less surface area to the sun, keeping them cooler and able to forage longer 4 and, by standing, they could better spot predators. 5 Weapons and tools improve, as they can now be carried with them instead of being made only when needed, then discarded. Larger brains enabled them to plan better hunting strategies, thereby obtaining more meat to fuel their growing brains, creating a feedback loop of bigger brain better tools and weapons more meat bigger brain (where “ ” means “makes possible” or “goes to”). 6 Because the bipedal apes move about on the ground so much, they are constantly in different environments. They must remember where to go, when to go there, and what dangers and food sources to look for in all the many different locations they visit. A larger brain, despite its high energy requirements and additional weight, becomes worth its high cost. Moving around on two feet means that a mother can hold her baby with one hand and gather food with the other while it nurses. 7 Walking uses less energy if the legs are close

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together (Arsuaga, 2001, p. 92), and women with a narrower birth canal, and therefore closer legs, survive better. But a narrower birth canal means that babies must be born less developed so their brains and skulls can fit through the narrower canal during birth; the growth of the brain is delayed and it has its greatest growth after birth. 8 While that solves one problem, it creates new problems, for now the less-developed baby requires longer care in order to survive. 1 The bipedal ape’s numbers increase rapidly and like his predecessors he, too, migrates into Africa, where he drives all the other great apes to extinction, except for the chimpanzee and the gorilla, who retreat to more isolated and less desirable territories. It is about 4 mya; the bipedal ape has become Australopithecus, the last bipedal ape. While Australopithecus ventured into the subtropics, man could go farther north, into a seasonal and colder climate. Had Australopithecus remained in the tropics, there would today be no men, Homo. But when the tropics were full, some Australopithecines, the losers in the competition for the best territories, were pushed into less desirable territories, one of which was the colder north. A seasonal climate is vastly more mentally challenging than a tropical climate. In the tropics, different types of plant food are available all year long, but in a more seasonal climate, plants begin to limit their edible portions to only the warmer seasons, which also limits the biomass of the animals who eat them. Thus, more skill and intelligence are required than in the tropics. While some species of Australopithecines partially adapted to a cooler climate, they could not go as far north as man, and hibernation was not an option. 9 The seasonal climate strongly selected for the greater intelligence needed to survive in this more mentally challenging environment. Individuals who had it survived and passed their particular genes on to their children; those who lacked it did not. Gradually, they extended their northern range. By about 2½ mya, the combination of efficient bipedal walking, free use of hands, and greater intelligence had paid off big time and the ape had become man. Sometime around 2 mya, a dramatic change began in these more northern Australopithecines – their brains enlarged dramatically, as must have their intelligence. This was the birth of the genus Homo, the first men. For early man, struggling to survive as seasonal differences became ever more severe with each extension to the north, his larger brain, and greater intelligence, was the key to the completely different mindset needed in this environment. Impulsiveness and immediate gratification was out; saving for the future was in. Ignoring the future consequences of actions was out; careful planning became a necessity. Nature’s price for becoming man was high, no more tropical Garden of Eden, but desperate preparation for the trials of winter. The hukana matata (“no worries”) grasshopper, 10 happily singing his days away in the sun, becomes Homo, the hard-working, struggling ant. The relationship between the sexes also changed. In the north, where hunting was a more important source of food, women could no longer gather the provisions needed to sustain themselves and their children throughout the year. Without a man to provide for them, they died and their children died. 11 Men who committed to a single woman and cared for her, the “dads,” passed on their pair-bonding genes; fewer “cads” passed on their philandering genes. An early species of man, Homo erectus, spread into the warmer areas of Africa, Europe, and Asia, as far north as his naked body could tolerate the cold, driving his predecessor, Australopithecus, to extinction. 12 When he had filled all the territory he could, his great expansion stopped. Any further migrations meant moving into territory already occupied by other erectus and fighting and defeating them. That was not easy to do because the resident erectus knew the land, the food sources, and the dangers, and he fiercely defended his homeland. 13 In widely separated and different environments, erectus continued to evolve, each population becoming better adapted to its unique environment; erectus, like Australopithecus

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before him, becomes distinct and genetically different races. 14 In the northern range of Asian erectus, the climate was much colder, so those individuals who had traits that made them better able to endure the cold survived there while others did not. In Europe and western Asia, early erectus eventually evolved into Neanderthals (also spelled “Neandertals”) about 350,000 ya. In East Asia, cold-adapted erectus acquires control of fire, 15 moves still farther north, and evolves into Homo sapiens (Hs), archaic man, about 200,000 ya. Similar changes occurred in West Asia, but without cold adaptations. The last stage before becoming modern, Hs further improved his skills and increased his intelligence, extending his range still further north. By about 150,000 ya, archaic man became Homo sapiens sapiens (Hss), modern man. Where this happened is a major contention that is the subject of much of the rest of this book, but the author believes it happened in East and West Asia. Like his predecessors, the new-found tools, weapon, and intelligence of Hss were an advantage not only in the north, but also in the south, still occupied by Hs and even by some erectus in the tropics. So, when his numbers increased and the climate became colder and winters so severe that the snow no longer melted, he moved south, invading Hs and erectus territory, driving them to extinction, but sometimes interbreeding with them along the way, creating hybrids. The glaciation of the north lowered sea levels and migration to Pacific islands and Australia became feasible. When the ice finally began to melt thousands of years later and the cold retreated, Hss moved north once again. West Asian Hss spread into Europe, where he bred to a limited extent with the Neanderthals, becoming today’s Caucasians. About 50,000 ya, one or more mutations occurred in a Eurasian population that affect the functioning of man’s brain. These mutations were so favorable that they rapidly spread through to Eurasians. Man created an elaborate culture, acquired religious beliefs, and crafts, art, and tools that had to be visualized in his mind. Agriculture and the domestication of animals followed about 10,000 ya and the rest, as they say, is history. This is our origin, according to the author of this book. Those who favor a divine origin for man will not agree, nor will most scientists who believe man’s origins were in Africa. Nevertheless, I hope the reader will carefully consider the evidence that supports this story before making up his mind. Chapter 2 Table of Contents FOOTNOTES 1. (Richmond, 2001). Longer legs use less energy; leg length increased about 2 mya. (Pontzer, 2007). Back 2. Later bipeds carried round rocks (“manuports”) left over from chipping off cutting stones. These were ideal for throwing at predators and scavengers to drive them away from carcasses. Individuals who could throw the manuports hard and accurately, due to a superior brain that could precisely calculate the instant to release the rock, were more reproductively successful. Back 3. A significant advantage as big cats found them quite tasty. (Eppinger, 2006). Back 4. Compared to walking on four limbs, standing upright exposes only 40% of the body to direct sunlight (Haywood, 2000, p. 23). Also, standing reduces the exposure to heat radiating from the

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ground, and exposes the body to cooler breezes, keeping the brain from overheating and shutting down. (Wheeler, 1988). Back 5. Meerkats and other mammals also stand on two feet to watch for predators in the grasses. Back 6. Without meat, it is doubtful that man’s brain could have increased to its present size. (Taylor, 2007). Back 7. This simple act of carrying the baby with one arm may have profoundly affected man’s brain. Because the left ventricle of the heart makes the loudest sound and babies are quieter when they hear the heartbeat they heard in the womb, most women, even today, carry their babies on their left side. Women, like men, used their free right arm to throw stones at prey and predators and those whose left side of the brain (which controls the right arm) was more adept at accurate throwing had an advantage. Thus, man became predominately right handed and his brain became more asymmetrical, making the brain more specialized and sophisticated. (Calvin, 1991). Also, (Donohoe, 2003). Humans are the only primate that is predominately right-handed. (Corballis, 1991). Back 8. The infant brain is about a quarter of the size of the adult brain and grows most after birth, not stopping until about age 30. (Allman, 1994, p. 56; Schwartz, 1999, p. 122). A newborn chimpanzee brain is about 60% of its adult weight and grows 30% to puberty, while a newborn human brain is 24% of adult weight and grows 60% to puberty. (Corballis, 1991, pp. 69-70). Back 9. Even if man could have evolved to hibernate, because of his size he would be competing for suitable quarters with other animals, such as the powerful cave bear. Hibernation can be induced in man, but in nature he would die from hyperthermia. (Stone, A., "Suspended Animation," Discover magazine, May, 2007, p. 43). Back 10. “The Dobe !Kung people of the Kalahari desert, for instance, are able to provide all the basics of life for themselves by about two to three hours work a day, depending on the season. The rest of their time is to be spent at leisure, either gossiping and socializing, telling stories, playing games, or resting.” (Haywood, 2000, p. 82). “In tropical environments where food is available all year round, hunter-gatherers rarely store food even overnight…” (Haywood, 2000, p. 90). Back 11. “…from birth to belated maturity it takes six times as many calories of food per kilogram of adult weight to build a man as to nurture any ordinary mammal to adulthood.” (Coon, 1962, p. 172) Without that greater intelligence, man could not have acquired that amount of food. Back 12. Not only did the brain of erectus jump in size in proportion to his body weight (Boaz, 1997, p. 141), but unlike Australopithecus, erectus could run! Two million year old erectus developed a delicate ridge at the base of his skull where a tendon (the nuchal ligament) was attached to keep his skull steady during running. Erectus may have been able to run down prey, especially in hot weather, giving him a food source unavailable to Australopithecus. (Bramble, 2004). Running down prey is a successful strategy only in high temperatures because, for it to be successful, the prey’s temperature must reach about 105° F, which shuts down its ability to run. Back 13. A successful invasion of occupied territory typically requires at least a 2 to 1 numerical

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superiority or a highly superior technology. Back 14. The large jump in brain size was due to a genetic change, though as yet it has not yet been attributed to any particular gene or genes. It is interesting, though, that chimps, gorillas, and orangutans have 48 chromosomes and humans have 46 chromosomes, due to the fusion of the two chromosomes into Chromosome 2 (Williams, 1999). It is not known, of course, how many chromosomes the Australopithecines had, so this may not have been the change that divided ape and man. The tarsier, an early primate, has 80 chromosomes, suggesting that as primates evolved, chromosomes fused. Back 15. Dragon Bone Hill, China, between 620,000 and 410,000 BP. Back

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Chapter 2

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Chapter 2 - Early Humans Very briefly, we will take a look at a few early humans, just to see the traits that they possessed and how those traits progressively evolved. Keep in mind that the classification of these fossils is somewhat arbitrary as species change gradually and most species live for tens of thousands of years after some of their members have evolved into other species. Nor can early human fossils be placed in the order in which they evolved by relying only on their cranial capacities because cranial capacities vary among individuals and the sexes (males skulls are larger and it is not always possible to determine sex). And the locations where the fossils were found are not proof that they evolved there. Homo habilis The first known member of the Homo genus is Homo habilis ("handy man"), 1 so named because pebble tools were found with his remains. Habilis lived between 2.5 and 1.8 mya. The skull shown in Figure 2-1 was found in Tanzania, East Africa.2 The face is primitive, but the jaw projects forward less than in his simian predecessors, though his arms were long. There are no external nose bones, the eye sockets are large, and the teeth are considerably larger than in modern humans. Cranial capacity varied between 500 and 800 cc (with an average of 650 cc), which is small, considering that habilis was about 127 cm (5'0") tall and weighed about 45 kg (100 lb). Internal markings on the skull indicate that his brain had a humanlike shape. A bulge in the area used for speech on the left side of the brain (Broca's area), suggests that habilis may have been capable of rudimentary speech. He was also “the first hominid to add meat to its vegetarian diet.” (Arsuaga, 2001, p. 157; Haywood, 2000, p. 26). He probably descended from a gracile bipedal ape, such as Australopithecus afarensis or africanus. (Conroy, 1990).

Figure 2-1

Homo ergaster Figure 2-2 3 shows an early Homo erectus from Africa that is now called Homo ergaster and Figure 2-3 4 is a drawing of what ergaster may have looked like. Ergaster had a cranial capacity of 700 to 880 cc, lived about 1.9 to about 0.6 mya in Africa, and may have used fire. 5 Hand axes and cleavers were found with the fossils, but for a million years his tools did not improve. There is some doubt that ergaster originated in Africa as it does not seem to have an immediate ancestor there. (Dennell, 2005). A nearly complete ergaster skeleton, "Nariokotome Boy," (also called “Turkana Boy”) was found in Nariokotome, Kenya, Africa. He lived about 1.8 mya. Only about 10 years old when he died, he was already about five feet tall and would have been over six feet at maturity. Unlike earlier hominids, he could swing his arms when walking or running. Homo erectus Homo erectus, who lived in most of Africa, southern Europe, SW Figure 2-2 Figure 2-3 Asia (the Middle East), SE Asia, Japan, and even some Pacific islands, had fire and systematically made tools. His earliest bones are almost 2 million years old and he did not become extinct until 27,000 ya on the isolated Indonesian island of Java (and perhaps even more recently, as we shall see below). The term “Homo erectus” (“upright man”) is used somewhat broadly and once included some of the prior species, which may be considered to be early erectus. Like habilis, the face has a protruding jaw with large molars, no chin, thick brow ridges, and a long, low, and thick (½ inch in places) skull. But erectus was taller than his predecessors and had a larger brain (750 – 1225 cc), 6 smaller canine teeth, a smaller and less protruding jaw, shorter arms, and an external nose. The cover of this book, minus the suit, tie, and glasses, of course, shows what a tropical erectus may have looked like and Figure 2-4 (by Russell Clochon) depicts a northern >I?erectus. 7. The OoA theory says that it was the African erectus that became modern man, then came the races, so the species Hs (and the subspecies Hss) arose before the races; the Multiregional theory says that there was an Asian erectus race and an African erectus race and they both became modern man, so the races came before the species Hs. And this book says the races arose before erectus, with Australopithecus, so the races came before the genus Homo. Figure 2-4 Homo georgicus Figure 2-5 shows front and side views of an early European erectus, classified as Homo georgicus. 8 The fossils, about 1.8 million years old and consisting of three partial skulls and three lower jaws, were found in Dmanisi, Georgia, of the former Soviet Union. 9 Georgicus has similarities to the habilis, ergaster, and erectus types found in Africa, though he was somewhat more gracile. The brain sizes of the georgicus skulls vary from 600 to 800 cc. The height, as estimated from a foot bone, would have been about 1.5 m (4'11") and the weight about 50 kg (110 lbs), shorter but heavier than the preceding African specimens because he lived in a cooler climate. 10 Note the large teeth (especially the large canines, which are very

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primitive), the sloping forehead, the heavy brow ridges, the projecting jaw, the absence of a projecting nose, and the bulge (“occipital bun”) at the back of the head. Georgicus may have been an ancestor to the African and Asian erectus (Lordkipanidze, 2006) and a predecessor of georgicus may have been an ancestor of the African ergaster and habilis. Homo antecessor Homo antecessor was found in Atapuerca, northern Spain, along with tools; it is dated at about 780,000 to 857,000 ya (Bermúdez de Castro, 1997). The fossils are fragmentary but similar to Nariokotome Boy (Fig. 2-2 & 2-3). The bones show definite signs of cannibalism. Antecessor was robust with an occipital bun, a low forehead, no chin, and a cranial capacity of about 1000 to 1150 cc. He stood 5½ to 6 feet tall, and Figure 2-5 Side View Figure 2-5 Front View males weighed roughly 200 pounds. Antecessor’s lineage is unclear, but he may have been on, or a branch of, the lineage that lead to Heidelberg man and the Neanderthals. Homo heidelbergensis Scientists had trouble classifying many fossils from between about 800,000 and about 200,000 ya because they were not as primitive as Homo erectus, but yet were not really modern either, though somehow they still managed to get to northern England 700,000 ya. 12 Eventually, they were given the name Homo heidelbergensis, 13 aka “Heidi.” The skull capacity of Heidi is larger than erectus but still smaller than most living humans, averaging about 1200 cc, and the skull is more rounded than in erectus. The skeleton and teeth are usually less robust than erectus, but more robust than modern humans. Many still have large brow ridges and receding foreheads and lack chins. Figure 2-6 shows a 450,000 year old skull found in Arago Cave, Tautavel, France. 14 This was a young adult about 1.65 m (5’5”) tall, with a cranial capacity of 1150 cc. Note the receding forehead and the rectangular eye sockets. Heidi has many features that are similar to Neanderthals, such as a wide face, a heavy brow ridge, and a projecting jaw, suggesting that Neanderthals evolved from a European Heidi who, in turn, may have been a descendant of georgicus. Neanderthals 14 Neanderthals, Homo neanderthalensis, lived between 350,000 and 24,500 ya (Finlayson, 2006) throughout Europe and the Middle East but, unlike Heidi, no Neanderthals fossils Figure 2-6 have yet been found in Africa. Neanderthals lived primarily in the cold north; they migrated to lower latitudes (e.g., Portugal, Israel) only during the ice age. Figures 2-7 15 and 2-8 16 show two variations.

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Figure 2-7

Figure 2-8

Note the larger and rounder eye sockets in Figure 2-7. The Neanderthals had an average skull capacity of about 1450 cc, slightly greater than that of modern humans, 17 but this may be due to their greater bulk rather than to their greater intelligence. 18 The skull is longer and lower than that of modern humans, with a marked bulge (“occipital bun”) at the back. Like erectus, Neanderthals had a receding forehead and a protruding jaw. The middle of the face also protrudes, a feature that is not found in erectus or sapiens, a feature that may be an adaptation to cold weather or, more likely, a partial retention of simian prognathism. There is a brow ridge without a gap in the middle, giving them a beetle-browed appearance; a chin is just beginning to appear. Their barrel chests and short, stubby hands, fingers, and feet were adaptations for the cold 19 and, because of the lack of sunlight in the north, they would have had white skin (Arsuaga, 2001, p. 75), though they may have also been hairy. Men averaged about 168 cm (5'6") in height. Their bones were thick and heavy, and show signs that powerful muscles were attached to them, so they would have been extraordinarily strong by modern standards. Western European Neanderthals (sometimes called "classic Neanderthals") were usually more robust than those found elsewhere. 20A large number of tools and weapons have been found with them that are more advanced than those of Homo erectus. Animal bones suggest that Neanderthals were formidable hunters. They are the first people known to have buried their dead, with the oldest known burial site about 100,000 ya. We will return to Neanderthals in Chapter 25. Archaic Man and Modern Man Archaic man, Hs, first appeared about 200,000 ya and modern man, Hss, appeared about 160,000 ya. Modern humans have an average brain size of about 1350 cc. The forehead rises sharply, eyebrow ridges are very small or more usually absent, the chin is prominent with a cleft in the middle, the teeth are small, and the skeleton is gracile (light bones). Even within the last 100,000 yrs, the long-term trends towards smaller molars and decreased robustness can be discerned. Compared to modern Eurasians, humans about 30,000 ya were about 20 to 30% more robust and until about 10,000 ya were about 10% more robust; populations that have used foodprocessing techniques (e.g., cooking) the longest have the smallest teeth. (Brace, 2000). Cro-Magnons The Cro-Magnons were the immediate predecessors of modern Caucasians. They lived in Europe about 40,000 to about 10,000 ya. They were slightly more robust than modern Caucasians and, like Neanderthals, they had brains that were larger (about 4%) than modern Caucasians, 21 though their skulls were thicker and brow ridges heavier. (Howells, 1948, p. 186). With the appearance of the Cro-Magnon culture, tool kits started to become markedly more sophisticated. A wider variety of raw materials, such as bone and antler, were used and specialized tools were made for producing clothing, engraving, and sculpturing. Fine artwork, in the form of decorated tools, beads, ivory carvings of humans and animals, clay figurines, musical instruments, and spectacular cave paintings (Fig. 15-1a, 15-1b, & 25-3) appeared. (Leakey 1994). Figure 2-9 shows a Cro-Magnon skull. 22 This 30,000 year old, fully modern, Cro-Magnon skull was found in Les-Eyzies, France. The skull shows traits that are unique to modern humans, including the high rounded cranial vault, and a nearly vertical forehead. There are no large brow ridges, nor a protruding jaw. Note how the eye sockets are slightly sloped and are flattened far more than in the other fossil skulls, possibly an adaptation to protect the eyes from the cold. 23 The flattened eye

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sockets that are observed in some North African skulls may be the result of Cro-Magnons migrating there during the worst of the last ice age. Figure 2-10 is a graph that will give the reader some perspective on the known life spans of these species. 24

Figure 2-10

Chapter 3 Table of Contents FOOTNOTES Figure 2-9 1. There are no sharp skeletal differences separating early humans from their Australopithecine predecessors. “Whether habilis is in fact man or an advanced australopithecine is a matter of scientific dispute, and largely one of semantics.” (Ardrey, 1966, p. 259). For convenience, early humans can be lumped as stages of Homo erectus. Back 2. (KNM ER 1813). Photo from Wesleyan University Archeology & Anthropology Collections. Back 3. (KNM ER 3733) Picture from Museums Choice Fossils. Back 4. From Transvaal Museum, South Africa. Back 5. Ashes were found in a cave, but could have been carried there by moving mud or earth, or brush that had grown into the cave may have burned. (Arsuaga, 2001, p. 269). Back 6. Early erectus averaged about 900 cc, while late erectus averaged about 1100 cc. Back 7. A parody of a drawing from the University of Minnesota, Duluth, “Prehistoric Cultures.” Back 8. Skull D2700. Back 9. Skull D2282. Back 10. An example of Bergmann’s Rule. Back 11. (Parfitt, 2005). Boxgrove Man, a Heidi found near Chichester in Sussex, England with flint tools, was dated at about 500,000 ya. Back 12. The name is from Heidelberg, Germany, where one specimen was found, but Heidi has also been found in Spain and Africa. Heidi is also classified as Homo erectus heidelbergensis to indicate that it is a sub-species of Homo erectus. Back 13. Photo from the World Museum of Man. (Also see Figure 17-5). Back 14. Named for discoverer Joachim Neumann, who preferred his name in Greek, Neander (“new man”) plus “tal,” which is “valley” in German. Back 15. La Forressie (reconstructed), France. World Museum of Man Back 16. Chapelle-aux-Saints (reconstructed), France. World Museum of Man, a “classic” Neanderthal. Back 17. Wolpoff give a cranial capacity of 1525 cc for a 50,000 year old Neanderthal. (Lee, 2003, Table 1). Back 18. Neanderthals had a brain 4.8 times larger than expected for a mammal of their size, but our brains are 5.3 times larger, i.e., relative to body size, our brains are larger. (Ruff, 1997). Back 19. Bergmann’s Rule and Allen’s Rule, respectively. Back 20. (Trinkaus, 1979). Primates that eat mostly vegetables are robust (e.g., the gorilla) and those that eat mostly meat are gracile, but that does not apply to Neanderthals. (Corballis, 1991, p. 306). Back

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21. The probable reason why we have smaller brains than our immediate ancestors is the change, about 12,000 ya, from hunting and gathering to farming, which selected against a large and costly brain as it was less needed. Back 22. Picture (now deleted) from Pleistocene”). See Figure 17-11 for H. floresiensis skull. Back

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Chapter 3 - DNA In addition to figuring out “Who Done It” on TV crime shows, DNA is also useful in figuring out “Who Begot Whom.” It works like this. All humans have 23 pairs of chromosomes, making the total number of chromosomes equal to 46. One set of 23 chromosomes came from the mother and the other set of 23 chromosomes came from the father. Each of the father’s 23 chromosomes is paired up with the corresponding chromosome from the mother. Each chromosome consists of a long string of DNA entwined with proteins called “histones.” Histones unwind to permit the DNA to be read; the histones are inherited along with the chromosomes. (Segal, 2006). DNA is a chain of chemical units called “nucleotides.” It is like a computer code (… 011000101…), but instead of using only zeroes and ones, each nucleotide uses one of four different chemical bases, which are known by their first letters, A, C, G, and T (… ATTGCATCCA…). A “gene” is a string of DNA that “codes for” a polypeptide, which is just a string of chemically linked amino acids. The order of those A, C, G, and T bases in the coding portion (“exon”) of the DNA sequence of a gene determines which polypeptide is made, and stringing different polypeptides together produces different proteins. 1 (See Appendix). Proteins and other substances are assembled to give various traits, the “phenotype.” Less than 2% of our genome is required to make all the proteins we need to live. All humans have the same genes, 2 but not the same form of those genes. To clarify, we all have the EYC3 gene for eye color, but one A-C-G-T sequence of that gene makes eyes blue and another A-C-G-T sequence of that gene makes eyes brown. Each different A-C-G-T sequence of a gene is called an “allele.” In some populations, a gene may come in only a single allele, so everyone in that population has the same A-C-G-T sequence for that gene and has the same trait, i.e., the allele is “fixed”; genes in other populations come in many alleles, some of which only very few people have. Some alleles are very beneficial and give an individual a highly desirable trait, such as greater intelligence, athletic ability, or good looks, and other alleles may be lethal or debilitating. There is an average of 14 different alleles for each gene. In addition, regulators (the “epigenome”) determine whether or not a string of DNA is 3 read. The epigenome also differs between people and is inherited with the chromosomes. Putting all this together, it is obvious that unless two people are identical twins, it is extremely unlikely that they will be genetically identical, and even “identical” twins, i.e., twins with the same DNA sequences, may differ slightly due to differences in their epigenomes. 4 And, hang on, it gets even more complicated. If two alleles have different A-C-G-T sequences they can nevertheless still code for the same polypeptide (i.e., the two alleles are “synonymous”), or they can code for different polypeptides (“non-synonymous”). 5 Each A-CG-T difference, e.g., a “T” instead of an “A,” is called a “single nucleotide polymorphism” (SNP). The difference between an “A” and a “T” may be only in how difficult it is for a cell to obtain and assemble an “A” instead of a “T,” or the difference may be advantageous, disadvantageous, or even deadly. New alleles Very occasionally, there is a throwback (“atavism”), a can person whose gene regulators have turned on genes that were arise turned off a long time ago in the rest of us. (LePage, 2007). within Figure 3-1 is a picture of Azzo Bassou. Bassou was living ain the Valley of Dades, near the town of Skoura in Morocco in

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population 1936, where the original white population has mixed with blacks. by If he is a throwback, he should express some primitive white mutation and/or African traits, along with his mulatto traits. Some experts or believe that Bassou was a microcephalic (e.g., had a genetic they defect that left him with a small brain), but he was not a drwarf, as can many microcephalics are. (The villagers would not permit an be examination of his body when he died.) His behavior, aside from acquired its primitiveness, was also not that of most microcephalics. by “With arms so long his fingers hang below his knees when interbreeding he stands upright; with massive, bony ridges above his eyes and with a sharply receding forehead; with jaws, teeth, chin, and another cheekbones all showing pronounced ape-like characteristics. He population sleeps in the trees there and subsists on dates, berries, and that insects. He wears no clothes (although he was persuaded to don already a burlap sack for the photograph which appears here), uses no has tools, and speaks only in grunts.” (National Vanguard, Issue No. them. 44, 1976). If Figure 3-1 a new allele increases reproductive success it will spread throughout the population and, if it is reduces reproductive success, it will disappear along with those who had it. 6 Almost all new alleles are detrimental because, after millions of years, almost all the alleles that are possible have already entered the population’s gene pool at one time or another. Since beneficial alleles usually remain in the gene pool once they arise, there are very few new beneficial alleles that could arise and enter the gene pool. But detrimental alleles are eliminated from the gene pool, so they can arise and re-enter it over and over again. (And alleles that are detrimental in one environment may be beneficial years later when a population faces a different environment or has evolved in other ways.) Expanding populations acquire alleles (because there are more people in whom mutations can occur) and contracting populations lose them (because people who have unique alleles, even if they are not detrimental alleles, die without progeny) – an example is the loss of alleles that occurred in Eurasians after vast numbers died during ice ages. Barring such disasters, an allele that increases reproductive success is unlikely to be lost. Indeed, if an allele is widely expressed in a population, one can safely conclude that the allele has increased the reproductive success of that population in its present environment. However, an allele that, for some period of time, has been only sparsely expressed either does not increase reproductive success or increases it only when it is sparsely expressed and is detrimental when it becomes widespread. Because populations can gain and lose alleles, and alleles that are advantageous in one environment can be detrimental in a different environment, determining descent by studying the alleles of different populations can be tricky. Suppose population A has a large number of alleles, such as an average of 20 alleles per gene, while population B has only a few alleles per gene, perhaps an average of only 5, and those 5 are also in population A. Does that mean that population A is older? Not necessarily, because population A may have acquired many of those alleles by interbreeding with other populations, not by mutations occurring over a longer period of time. Also, population B may be older, but may have suffered a catastrophic drop in its numbers, wiping out most of the alleles it had accumulated. Similarly, if population A has old alleles that population B lacks, it is not possible to conclude that population B descended from population A and lost the old alleles. Population A may have old alleles simply because it has stayed in the same, fairly constant, environment

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and has not evolved as much as population B, which has moved to a very different environment. Also, the old alleles may have entered population A because members of population A interbred with population C, which had the old alleles. All DNA in every plant and every animal has the same basic structure. (See Appendix). In all animals with a nucleus (“eukaryotes,” e.g., every living thing other than bacteria, bluegreen algae, and viruses), there are two kinds of DNA in its cells – the DNA in the nucleus (“nuclear DNA”) and the DNA in mitochondria (“mitochondrial DNA” or “mtDNA”). 7 Mitochondria, remnants of bacteria that were captured by cells over three billion years ago, provide energy for the cell. The captured bacteria helped the cells survive and that is why their DNA is still there. Later, some of that mtDNA moved into the nucleus and became nuclear DNA. 8 There are some dramatic differences between nuclear DNA and mtDNA. Nuclear DNA is in the form of a double helix, a twisted ladder whose rungs are an A base on one side weakly bound to a T base on the other side, or a C base weakly bound to a G base. One strand is the “sense” strand that is read to make a polypeptide and the other strand is the “antisense” strand that is a complementary backup copy. Nuclear DNA is a two-strand string with two ends; mtDNA is a one-strand (usually) ring (a “plasmid”) with no ends, except that when it is being read the ring opens. In each cell, there are only two copies of each strand of nuclear DNA, one from the mother and one from the father; 9 there are usually thousands of copies of mtDNA in each cell, almost always only from the mother. 10 There are over 3 billion base pairs (i.e., A, C, G, or T) 11 in 20,488 genes in nuclear DNA, but only 16,569 base pairs in 37 genes in mtDNA. Nuclear DNA is located in 23 pairs of chromosomes; mtDNA has no chromosomes. Nuclear DNA has a number of DNA repair molecules 12 that move along it and correct errors; mtDNA has no way to correct errors, so errors accumulate at about 20 times the rate for nuclear DNA. (Sykes, 2001, p. 55). Nuclear DNA mutates at the rate of once per billion cell divisions; mtDNA mutates about 10 times as fast as nuclear DNA. (Patterson, 1999, p. 152). Nuclear DNA comes in two types – exons, DNA that codes for polypeptides (“genes”), and introns (“junk DNA”) – DNA that does not code for polypeptides; 13 mtDNA has no introns and it codes for RNA as well as for proteins. (RNA is the same as DNA but “U”s replace the “T”s and ribose replaces deoxyribose – see Appendix.) Almost all racial traits are coded for in nuclear DNA; mtDNA only rarely has an effect on racial traits, e.g., respiration at high altitudes and during long distance running and metabolic advantages in the Arctic. A major difference for the purpose of deciphering human origins, however, is that mtDNA is in the sperm’s tail and nuclear DNA is in its head. What does that have to do with human origins, you ask? Well, during fertilization, only the head of the sperm normally enters the egg (Schwartz, 2005, p. 194) and any sperm mtDNA that slips in is tagged and destroyed; therefore, the father’s mtDNA does not normally contribute to the genome of the fertilized egg. 14 (Occasionally, some of the father’s mtDNA slips by (Schwartz, 2002), thereby giving the fertilized egg both the mother’s mtDNA and the father’s mtDNA, confusing the geneticists. 15) This means that a person’s mtDNA, whether that person is male or female, is (almost always) inherited only from the mother. Your mtDNA, even if you are male, came from your mother, hers from her mother, and so on. But there is some DNA that comes only from the father. Normally, the father and the mother each contribute half of their child’s chromosomes. Females have a pair of X chromosomes (XX), so the mother can contribute only an X to her child. Males have an X chromosome and a Y chromosome (XY). If the father contributes an X, the child will have two X chromosomes and will be female (XX). If he contributes a Y, the child will have an X and a Y chromosome and will be male (XY). Thus, (almost always 16) Y chromosomes are inherited

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only from fathers and are inherited only by sons. This means that the DNA in the Y chromosome of a male alive today came from his father, who got it from his father, and so on all the way back. This information is useful in forensics, since a person’s mtDNA will be the same as his mother’s and her other children, and a man will have the same Y chromosomal DNA as his father and his father’s other sons, but it is also useful in paleoanthropology, as we shall see. Chapter 4 Table of Contents FOOTNOTES 1. Because polypeptides can be assembled different ways, humans have over 500,000 proteins but only 20,488 genes, though more genes may be found. Exons are only 1.5% of the human genome. (Carroll, S.B., “Regulating Evolution,” Scientific American, May, 2008). Back 2. There may be a few exceptions. (Miller, 2006; also see gene APOE). Back 3. Epigenetics is an exciting new science with much promise of important discoveries. (Watters, 2006, p. 33; Cropley, 2006). Back 4. (Fraga, 2005). The number of copies of an allele may differ in identical twins. (Bruder, 2008). Back 5. See the Appendix for an explanation. Until recently, it was assumed that synonymous alleles produced exactly the same biological product. Although they do produce the same string of polypeptides, it has been found that they can cause the resulting protein to have different shapes. (Soares, C. “Codon Spell Check,” Scientific American, May, 2007). Back 6. Because reproductive success is a sine qua non for all life, with large numbers of individuals over long time periods, reproductive success determines even the finest details of a species’ traits. (Miller, 2007). Back 7. DNA is also found in the chloroplasts of plants. Inherited RNA is found in centrosomes, which oversee cell division. (Alliegro, 2006; Wikipedia, Extranuclear Inheritance). Back 8. Some other parts of cells (e.g., cilia, flagella, and centrioles) are also believed to be the remnants of captured microbes. (Patterson, 1999, pp. 133-134). In addition to the incorporation of microbe DNA into our own DNA, we have 10 times as many microbial cells in our body as our own cells. Back 9. One parent may contribute more copies of a gene than the other, resulting in greater genetic differences between people, including racial differences. (Redon, 2006). Back 10. The last two sentences explain why it is much easier to find mtDNA than nuclear DNA in fossils. Bones and teeth are made of a hard, calcium-based mineral, hydroxyapatite, that helps preserve DNA by keeping out bacteria and fungi. Although strongly acidic soil can kill the microbes, acid also attacks both the calcium and DNA; heat and temperature fluctuations also destroy DNA. (Sykes, 2001, pp. 171-172). Back

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11. That may seem like a huge number, but the single-celled amoeba, Amoeba dubia, has over 670 billion base pairs. (Wikipedia, “Gene”). Back 12. An example is the UDG (“uracil DNA glycosylase”) enzyme, which latches on to DNA blocks that are the wrong size. (Parker, 2007). (Wikipedia “DNA Repair”). Back 13. Genes account for only 1.2% of our genome's three billion base pairs. (Birney, 2007). Junk DNA can regulate the expression of a gene, e.g., how exons are spliced and folded to make them active. Humans have more junk DNA than other vertebrates. Back 14. Also, the human egg has about 250,000 mitochondria, while the sperm has only a few, just enough to create the energy needed to swim the last few millimeters to the egg. (Sykes, 2001, p. 54). Back 15. Even more confusing, it has just been found that, at least in mice, RNA in the sperm can also enter the egg and affect traits. (Rassoulzadegan, 2006). A similar phenomenon may occur with crosses between wild Mallards and White Pekin ducks, where the color of the duckling is determined by which species lays the egg. Back 16. A female may occasionally have an XY (androgen insensitivity syndrome, "AIS") or three sex chromosomes, an XXY. Thus, if the female gives her male child a Y chromosome and the normal (XY) father gives the male child an X chromosome, then the assumption that the Y came from the father will be false. (A male could also have three sex chromosomes, an YYX, or extremely rarely, even an XX, but that is not important here.) Back

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Chapter 4 - Evolution “Nothing in biology makes sense except in the light of evolution." Geneticist Theodosius Dobzhansky Although about half of all Americans 1 and Britons do not believe in evolution and, in particular, that man and the great apes living today evolved from an ape common ancestor who probably lived between about 4.5 and 8 mya, 2 all of the scientific theories of the origin of man postulate that beginning. It is not the purpose of this book to dispute Creationism or Intelligent Design, but simply to present evolution as scientists understand it. Since that epic separation, the human and ape lineages have diverged genetically, culturally, and intellectually to such an extent that the chasm between us has grown so vast that one could question whether we were ever once the same species. But we were. There are about 3 billion genetic units (base pairs) in the genetic blueprints for chimps and for man and, when they are matched up, only 40 million of them are different. We are therefore genetically 1.3% “not-chimpanzee,” but 98.7% “chimpanzee,” 3 and men and women differ by more than that. 4 Small genetic differences in genetic blueprints (the “genotype”), however, can result in huge differences in the traits (the “phenotype”) of living creatures made using those blueprints, as we shall see. 5 Biologists apply the word “evolution” to two different questions: (1) “Have species changed over time?” and (2) “If they have changed, what caused them to change?” The first question is a question of fact. There is so much evidence that species have changed over time, that scientists say the answer to that question is “Yes, evolution has occurred,” without any doubt. 6 The second question asks for an explanation, a theory that describes the mechanisms that caused those changes. The only theory that scientists believe is valid, however, is Darwin’s theory of evolution, which is today called “neo-Darwinism” because it is confirmed and supported by genetics. As the Creationists love to point out, theories can always be disproved, and certainly neo-Darwinism can be disproved. Indeed, there are all kinds of potential evidence that could refute neo-Darwinism, e.g., dinosaur bones that are only a few thousand years old or fossils organisms in an older rock stratum than their progenitors. But, so far, there is no evidence that refutes the theory and mountains of evidence that is consistent with it. Darwin’s theory can be expressed as a syllogism: Premises: If an individuals in a population have traits that (1) are heritable; (2) and are different; (3) and result in a difference in reproductive success between individuals who have them and individuals who do not have them, then: Conclusion: the frequency of the traits that result in greater reproductive success will increase in that population. There are only two ways that the syllogism can be “wrong”: (1) by showing that it is not relevant because the premises do not apply to a particular population, i.e., in that population all individuals have the same traits or, if their traits are different, the traits are not heritable or, if they are different and heritable, possessing them does not result in differences in reproductive success, or (2) by showing that the conclusion does not follow from the premises. But, given that individuals in a population have such traits, which all populations do, except possibly laboratory organisms (e.g., clones, and animals with medical conditions), the conclusion must

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follow. 7 Traits that increase reproductive success pass on the alleles that code for those traits. Reproductive success alone determines whose lineage continues and whose becomes extinct. Note that the syllogism requires a population from which individuals who have heritable traits that differ in their contribution to reproductive success can be selected, 8 which means that evolution cannot occur if all the individuals in the population have the same heritable traits. 9 In other words genetic equality, egalitarianism, makes evolution impossible. And, without the possibility of evolving, a species can only go extinct when its environment changes, as it inevitably does. Generalized Versus Specialized In this book, generalized and specialized survival strategies play a critical role in deciphering human evolution. A species, individual, or portion of an individual is more generalized if it can perform more functions, and is more specialized if it is limited to a smaller number of functions. A species is more specialized if it has evolved the anatomy (and/or physiology) needed to better exploit a particular niche, e.g., a food source, territory, or reproductive strategy. A generalist is an opportunist, ready to exploit any niche that it happens upon before the specialists find it. Raccoons, rats, and cockroaches are generalized species; the koala eats only eucalyptus leaves and many parasites live off only a single host species, so they are specialized. Humans, omnivores eating a variety of plants and animals and living everywhere on the planet, including under the water, in the air, at the poles, and even in spaceships and on the moon, are by far the most generalized species. Our feet, however, have become specialized, Figure 4-1 since they have lost the ability to grasp things (though I have an ex wife who picks things up with her big toe), but are excellent for bipedal walking, unlike the feet of the great apes, which can also grasp branches, but are poorly constructed for bipedal walking.(Fig. 4-1). 10 The human hand, however, is so generalized that it can thread a needle, swing a bat, or play a piano concerto. Compare your hands to the specialized hands of the baby aye-aye in Figure 4-2. Aye-ayes, an early primate, stick the middle finger of their hand into termite mounds, then withdraw it and eat the disgusting termites clinging to it. 11 Like so much else in biology, there are tradeoffs between generalizing and specializing. A generalized species is like a Swiss army knife – it can do a lot of things, but none of them as well as a tool made to do just one thing. A species that is anatomically more generalized is less vulnerable to changes in its environment because it can

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function in a variety of environments. Specialized species, on the other hand, can exploit a particular environment to the fullest, but when that environment goes, it goes with it. Should a disease kill off the termites, the aye-aye in Figure 4-2 will be hampered by his long, weak fingers. A specialized species bets all its resources on one niche; a generalized species diversifies its investments. Humans are not exempt from the same tradeoffs that other animals face – we, too, could not be Figure 4-2 both specialized and generalized and, for the most part, we stayed generalized. But unlike all other animals, we discovered a way to nevertheless become much more effective at performing almost any task. We lack the anatomy (and physiology) for running as fast as a cheetah, swimming as efficiently as a dolphin, jumping as high as a grasshopper, or flying as acrobatically as a hummingbird, but we can nevertheless out-perform almost any animal at almost any task by means of our technology – we are anatomically generalized, but can be technologically highly specialized. Perhaps counterintuitively, the more adept we become at using technology to enhance our natural abilities, the more “human” we become, as that is a major difference between us and all other species. And, unlike anatomically more specialized animals, our technological specializations have made us less vulnerable to extinction when our environment changes. Rules of Evolution Unraveling the story of man’s evolution is like trying to put together a thousand piece puzzle with only 10 of the pieces. But because certain rules apply as to where the pieces can or cannot be placed, it is still possible to position them, by their straight edges and colors, even when there are no contiguous pieces. Similarly, there are rules that constrain evolution, including the evolution of man. Evolution, because it occurs over great periods of time and large numbers of individuals, is less of a hit-and-miss or random process (“genetic drift”) than it is usually portrayed. 12 Accidents and good and bad luck do happen, of course, but as the amount of time and the number of individuals increase, their importance diminishes. The result is that evolution follows rules as logical as the evolution syllogism itself, not in every instance, of course, but often enough that the rules can usually be relied upon. Here are few rules that will be used to explain the evolution of humans: (1) Evolution is cumulative. The genome of a population, altered by mutations, deaths, and individual differences in reproductive success, is passed on to the next generation, where it is then subjected to additional changes, and so on. (Barkow, 1991, p. 83). Thus, evolution proceeds by changing what is already there; evolution is not God and does not, and cannot, re-design species from scratch. If the environment changes, individuals can evolve only by changing what they already have; if that cannot be done to meet the demands of a new

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environment, they go extinct. For that reason, genomes will more and more come to resemble Rube Goldberg inventions rather than masterpieces of intelligent design. That is one reason why biochemistry is so complicated. MacLean’s triune theory of the human brain is a good example of the additive nature of evolution. To a 500 million year old reptilian brain (midbrain – the interior of the cerebellum), was added the 200 million year old limbic system of lower mammals (amygdala, and hippocampus), then the 500 thousand year old neocortex (outer portion of cerebrum) of higher mammals. (Fig. 43). 13 Another good example of this rule is the Biogenetic Law, originally stated as “ontogeny [fetal stages] recapitulates [repeats] phylogeny [evolutionary stages],” but more accurately stated as “fetal stages repeat evolutionary fetal stages.” 14 In other words, Figure 4-3 later fetal stages are the result of adding additional stages to earlier fetal stages. The additive nature of evolution implies that organisms will almost always become more complex, and that is indeed the case. (Adamowicz, 2008). It also implies that organisms at each step of the way must have traits that enable them to be reproductively successful. In other words A cannot evolve into B unless organisms at all the stages in between A and B survive and reproduce. 15 It also means, to paraphrase the “Law of Storage,” that useless genetic material accumulates to fill space in the genome and is cleaned out only when those who have it die without issue; no icon has been discovered in the genome that is labeled “Empty Spam Folder.” Like a government bureaucracy, the (2) Addition is easier than subtraction. evolution of new traits is more likely to occur by adding alleles, copies, and regulations to an existing genome than by removing them. A new trait can arise either when a new allele is expressed, copied, or gene regulators change the expression of alleles. If the new trait increases reproductive success, it spreads through the population. Losing a trait, on the other hand, implies that a trait that was an asset has become a liability, i.e., the niche made more exploitable by having that trait has disappeared. Fish that get trapped in a cave can no longer exploit a sun-lit niche, so eyes become an unnecessary cost and fish that invest fewer resources in their eyes now have the advantage; eventually cave fish become blind. New traits arise by tinkering with an organism’s alleles, e.g., a DNA mutation or adjusting regulators bit by bit, with each tiny change usually making only a small improvement, if any. But getting rid of that trait means undoing all that tinkering and each step back must also make a small improvement in order to be selected, and it may not. Turning off a key allele may end the trait it coded for, but other alleles and regulators probably changed and were selected because they facilitated the expression of the key allele, and they will be left unchanged, perhaps producing unnecessary, and now deleterious, polypeptides. When a daughter population splits from its parent population to exploits a new niche it will usually acquire new traits that facilitates that exploitation of that new niche. Meanwhile, the parent population does not acquire those new traits, but instead acquires other traits useful in the old niche that the daughter population does not acquire. If the new niche disappears, the new traits become liabilities and the daughter population cannot successfully compete with its parent population in the old niche. Once a fish becomes a land-walker, it cannot again become the fish it evolved from if the land disappears.

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(3) Generalized specialized extinction. Generalized populations tend to 16 evolve into specialized populations, not the reverse. A population becomes more specialized if its traits evolve anatomically (or physiologically) to better perform a function they already perform. Thus, specialization requires changing what is already present, not returning to a previous state and, by Rule 2, it is easier to add an allele or the regulation of an allele, which could produce a new phenotype (the expression of a gene), than it is to lose or change the regulation of an allele to re-acquire a previous phenotype. 17 This rule implies that evolution goes mostly in one direction and ends in extinction when the environment changes and the specializations become liabilities. While specialized populations can evolve from specialized populations and generalized populations can evolve from generalized populations, the dominant generalized-to-specialized directionality of evolution suggests that generalized populations will be the source of most evolutionary changes. If the environment changes, and it always does sooner or later, one of the many functions that the traits of a generalized species can perform, but the specialized species cannot perform as well, is likely to be useful in the new environment; the specialized species, however, is stuck with traits that enable it to perform only one or a few functions well. If the niche the species became specialized to exploit becomes less available, the species can become more generalized only by becoming less efficient at exploiting that niche, which only brings about its extinction sooner. There are several ways a population can avoid this rule and become more generalized. A fetus has less structure than an adult so, if the adults in a species retain their juvenile traits (“neoteny,” Chapter 6), the species can become more generalized. 18 Neoteny played an important role in making man more generalized and thereby more capable of migrating out of the warmer climates. Also, a population could acquire more generalized traits by interbreeding with a more generalized population, thereby becoming more generalized than one of its parent populations. A specialized species can become more generalized by partially changing its behavior and use its existing structure for a different purpose (“exaptation”), e.g., a fish can walk on its fins and still use them to swim, and evolve to walk better on its fins while still retaining the usefulness of the fins for swimming, though it will do neither as well as a fish that can only walk or only swim. Similarly, a portion of an existing structure may remain unchanged, performing its usual function, while another portion of the same structure evolves to perform a different function, e.g., a retina that has only rods for seeing in black and white retains some of those rods while other rods evolve into cones that see in color. Fewer rods mean less definition in black and white, but that was the price for seeing in color; now the retina is more generalized than it was initially. 19 (4) Specialized populations evolve in a stable environment; generalized populations evolve in a changing environment. If the environment is stable, then a population that specializes to exploit a niche in that environment has an advantage over a population that remains more generalized, at least as to that niche, because individuals will be selected for traits that make the exploitation of that niche more efficient. The individuals in any population will vary in their degree of specialization and a plot of degree of specialization versus number of individuals will approximate a normal curve. The average of that curve will be higher for a more specialized population and its standard deviation will be less (Rule 5). The longer an environment is stable (and the more time populations have had to evolve towards equilibrium, Rule 10), the greater will be the ratio of specialized populations to generalized populations in that environment. Conversely, in a changing environment, e.g., a seasonal climate, generalized species will be more likely to evolve. (New Scientist, Apr. 21,

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2007, p. 21). Since tropical and polar climates are more stable than seasonal climates, populations that live in the tropics and at the poles will be more specialized than populations that live in a seasonal climate. 20 A species whose territory encompasses both a changing environment and a stable environment may split, with the more generalized individuals living in the changing environment and the more specialized individuals living in the stable environment, so that two species evolve. In accordance with Rule 3, it is more likely that a generalized population will evolve from another generalized population in a temperate zone than that a specialized population will evolve into generalized population in the tropics or in a polar region, then migrate into a temperate zone and become generalized; and the greater the evolutionary change is, the truer that statement is. (5) Specialized populations have less genetic variation than generalized populations. Individuals who deviate from the most efficient traits in a specialized population are more likely to be selected against than individuals who deviate from the most efficient traits in a generalized population because the specialized population lives in a more stable and less variable environment (Rule 4). 21 Thus, the evolution of a more generalized species, such as man, is more likely to occur in a more variable temperate zone than in the tropics. Although humans are often described as a tropical species because, for example, they sweat to keep cool and cannot survive (naked) in cold weather, the fact that they are so generalized compared to other species suggests that although their lineage began in a warm climate, they either were generalized or became more generalized at some stage in their evolution. 22 (6) Specialized populations evolve less and more slowly than generalized populations. Since a specialized population has less genetic variation than a generalized population (Rule 5), there are fewer alleles and traits that can be selected. Thus, when the environment changes, a specialized population cannot evolve quickly through the selection of alleles that are already present in its gene pool, but must wait until mutations occur. As a result, populations will change more slowly in a stable environment, though a stable environment may still end up with more species (Rule 8). 23 Since man is a relatively generalized species, and generalized species are more likely to arise in a changing climate (Rule 4), man is more likely to have evolved, at least in his later stages, in a temperate zone, not in the tropics. This is especially true of Caucasians, who are more generalized than Africans and Asians. (7) Specialization increases carrying capacity. The carrying capacity (maximum possible biomass or numbers) in a stable environment is greater when populations specialize to exploit slightly different niches, because specialized individuals are more efficient at extracting useable energy; a more generalized population is less efficient at exploiting a niche in a stable environment. Thus, by specializing, a population can increase its numbers and therefore the rate at which mutations enter the population, which may enable it to evolve faster. Here, a caveat is needed. Man, unlike almost all other forms of life, can specialize by using technology instead of by evolving (except the extent needed to create and use the technology). Thus, by creating technology to perform special tasks instead of evolving specialized traits to perform them, e.g., building a sailboat or an airplane instead of evolving flippers or wings, he can increase the carrying capacity of his territory even though he physically remains generalized. Although there is a physical limit to the amount of useful energy that can be extracted from a territory, the carrying capacity of a territory will increase as evolves the traits needed to create and use it; the carrying capacity of a given territory will then depend upon the population living there, and will be greater for some populations than for others.

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(8) More useable energy more biomass and more species. The greater the amount of energy available for life per unit area (or volume), the greater will be the biomass 24 and (usually) the number of species in that area. 25 There is a minimum number of individuals needed to sustain a population (175 to 475 individuals for modern hunter-gatherers; Hoffecker, 2002, p. 10) and, when more individuals can live in the same territory, more populations having that minimum number are possible and, if niches are different so that specialization can occur, those populations will evolve into more species. The tropics receive the most energy as sunlight, so the tropics have the most biomass and, because the tropics are more stable, the greatest number of species (again, per unit area or volume). Although specialization, which evolves in a stable environment (Rule 4), increases the population size of a species by extracting more energy (Rule 7), that effect may be overwhelmed by the splitting of populations into more species (Rule 8), which reduces population size. The number of individuals within northern species tends to be greater than the number within tropical species, probably because they are less concentrated (i.e., their numbers are less per unit area) and they spend less time in any one niche because they migrate more, and therefore specialization is less selected. Note that Rules 7 and 8 somewhat mitigate against Rule 6. That is, specialization reduces evolution due to less variation (Rule 6), but increased carrying capacity (Rule 7) and more useable energy (Rule 8) increase variation, due to the extraction of more energy and the availability of more energy, respectively, and all three are more likely in a stable environment, e.g., the tropics. (9) More biomass a more “r” reproductive strategy. A population that lives in the tropics has more offspring and cares for them less (a more “r” reproductive strategy, Chap. 11) than a population of the same species that lives in a colder climate. The reason is that, due to greater energy and biomass per unit area in the tropics, less care is required in order to raise the young to maturity, so individuals who expend their resources having more offspring with less care on each have greater reproductive success than individuals who expend their resources on extra care for fewer offspring. This would suggest, for example, that mammoth calves received more parental resources than elephant calves, though both receive lots of care compared to other species. (10) A trait evolves until it reaches its optimum, and a population evolves until it reaches equilibrium. The amount of each trait a population has gradually (i.e., asymptotically, because, on average, the additional benefit from each succeeding genetic change decreases) optimizes for that population in that environment. 26 Of course, as a population evolves or its environment changes, the optimums for its traits can also change. All the traits an individual has must work together to ensure its reproductive success, and too much or too little of any one trait will reduce its reproductive success, i.e., plotting reproductive success against amount of a trait will produce a bell-shaped curve. A change in one trait has subtle effects on other traits, as the change may free up or use up resources needed for other traits, facilitate or interfere with reactions, etc. (That is another reason why biochemistry is so complicated.) Thus, the optimum for each trait will change as other traits move towards their optimums; when each trait in each individual is at its optimum, the population is in equilibrium with that environment, a condition that will hardly ever exist. A first important corollary is that the farther a species is away from its optimum, the faster it evolves or the sooner it goes extinct. This is, of course, an approximation as the desperate need for a genetic change does not produce one, but it does spread it around much faster. This corollary suggests that the magnitude of the gap between the traits a species’ genome codes for before the environmental change and the amount the genome must change is achieve equilibrium once again will be somewhat proportional to the rate at which the species

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evolves. Thus, after an environmental change, evolution will be rapid, then will gradually slow down as equilibrium is approached. A second important corollary is that the amount of a trait that a population has, especially if the environment has been the same for a long time (stable or constantly seasonal), is likely to be close to optimum for that population in that environment. 27 (11) The origin of a trait is where it is found. Unless a population has migrated away from the source of a trait, 28 that trait is most likely to have originated in the population that has the highest percentage of it. Over time, the same mutation may occur in individuals living in many different territories, but it is likely to become established only in that territory where it confers a significant reproductive advantage, e.g., if traits adaptive in the tropics arise in the Eskimos, they simply disappear. Interbreeding can, and does, transfer traits, but a population is more likely to acquire a trait by mutation than by interbreeding. 29 (12) Behavior changes before the genome changes. Behavior changes to take advantage of changes in the environment, then individuals who have or acquire the traits that best facilitate that behavior have more reproductive success and the genome changes. First, apes struggled to walk on two feet, then they evolved to walk more facilely. 30 Since reproductive success occurs only when an individual acquires resources and breeds, 31 evolution is driven by changes in the environment and changes in the behavior of individuals in response to those environmental changes. Similarly, individuals can change their behavior to better acquire resources and more and better mates then, if those individuals are more reproductively successful, a sub-set of them who have the anatomy and physiology that best facilitates the new behavior will be selected. (13) Time and population size increases the genetic variability of a population and disasters decrease it. Because mutations occur constantly, the longer a species is around, the more variation, i.e., non-lethal new alleles, it accumulates. Also, populations tend to increase their numbers with time and the larger a population is, the greater is the number of mutations that occur and accumulate. On the other hand, disasters, e.g., accidents, disease, predators, bad luck, etc., remove alleles from the gene pool and reduce variation. Thus, a population with less variability may actually be older, if disasters have reduced its numbers. (14) The longer a population has not interbred with other populations, the more homozygous (inbred) it becomes and the percentage of its alleles that are recessive increases. The more closely two persons are related, the more alleles they share, so the likelihood that they each have a copy of a recessive allele increases with relatedness. Thus, increased inbreeding increases the expression of recessive alleles, whether the recessive alleles are advantageous, disadvantageous, or neutral. If they are advantageous, they spread throughout the population. If they are disadvantageous, they are lost when the individual in whom they are expressed dies before he can breed. Thus, the longer a population has been isolated, the more it will be free of disadvantageous recessive alleles and the greater will be the percentage of its expressed alleles that are recessive; also, the percentage of those expressed recessive alleles that are advantageous or neutral, and not disadvantageous, will be greater. (See Chap. 30). As a corollary, the greater the percentage of a population’s expressed genes that are recessive, the longer a population has been isolated. (And Caucasians may win the prize for having the most expressed recessive alleles.) Note that Rules (13) and (14) work against each other in isolated populations. Over time, mutations occur and an isolated population picks up and retains alleles that do not reduce

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its reproductive success, adding to the variability of the population (Rule 13). On the other hand, the longer a population is isolated, the more likely it is that less advantageous alleles will be lost; even beneficial alleles will be lost if still more beneficial alleles arise (Rule 14). The net result of these two effects is that any increase in variation due to Rule (13) will not be random, but will be an increase in beneficial alleles. There are (at least) six ways that the genome of individuals in a population can be altered (i.e., so that the genome of their descendants is different than it otherwise would have been): mutation, epigenetics, isolation, hybridization, recombination, and selection, but nature has made only one of them fun. Mutation Populations change genetically when their DNA changes. A heritable change occurs only if the DNA in a germline cell (an egg or sperm, or a cell that makes eggs or sperm) changes. 32 Genetic material in sperm and eggs can be changed by, e.g., cosmic rays, high temperatures, misreading the DNA code when sperm and eggs are made, and mutagens, such as certain pollutants. It has recently been discovered that non-coding nuclear DNA (“junk” DNA), which can itself be mutated, can become coding DNA, thus changing the traits of the next generation if it occurs in a germline cell. 33 Additionally, DNA can be altered when a germline cell is invaded by a virus or bacteria and its genetic material is incorporated into the nuclear DNA of that cell. The occasional movement of sections of DNA within a gene, or even between genes, also alters the DNA code. (Patterson, 1999, Chap. 6). The DNA code can also be changed if germline DNA is duplicated not once, but multiple times; it has been estimated that at least 12% of the human genome (about 20,500 genes) differs in the number of copies that people have. (Redon, 2006). Over time, DNA that is least vital accumulates the most mutations, as one would expect. This includes some non-coding DNA (“introns”), 34 genes that have been silenced (“pseudogenes”), and often DNA that codes for the same amino acid (“synonymous DNA”). Epigenetics Since access to the DNA blueprint is controlled by means of gene regulators, if the environment changes the regulators in germ cells (“epigenetic changes”), those changes can be passed on the next generation (Wikipedia, “Epigenetics”), 35 though most are not and epigenetic changes may be lost after a few generations. Regulators determine whether or not DNA is read, what portion of a string of DNA is read, when it is read, how many times it is read, and which sections are spliced together to be read. 36 There are quite a few gene regulators and more are being discovered all the time. Best known are the histones, the proteins that entwine the DNA strands in chromosomes and uncoil to permit DNA to be read. Various chemical groups, such as methyl, phosphate, and acetyl, can be attached to a DNA strand to prevent it from being read. When DNA is being copied, the number of copies made is regulated and differences in copy number can affect susceptibility to disease as well as racial differences. Gene regulators are inherited along with the DNA they are attached to. 37 Regulators are estimated to evolve about 10 times as fast as DNA, so most evolution results from changes in the regulators rather than from changes in DNA itself, 38 though changes in DNA are more fundamental. Changes in the regulators occur more easily because there are no error repair mechanisms for regulators, as there are for DNA, and environmental influences change regulators more readily than they change DNA. 39 The gene regulators of the races are likely to differ by a far greater percentage than the DNA of the races. However, this is a new area, and the study of racial differences in gene regulators is still in its infancy.

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Isolation Isolation changes the genome of populations by increasing inbreeding (Rule 14), which makes it easier for advantageous, but rare, combinations of alleles, especially recessive alleles, to spread through a population when they arise. Since inbreeding enhances the likelihood that an individual will inherit two copies of the same allele, inbreeding can also more quickly eliminate from the gene pool alleles that code for traits that are lethal prior to maturity or that otherwise impair reproductive success. Isolation requires only no interbreeding, not physical separation. People on different Melanesian islands have become genetically different because, despite the closeness of their islands, they were reproductively isolated from each other. (Friedlaender, 2007). Hybridization Hybridization occurs whenever (genetically different) populations interbred. After a population has become isolated from its parent population and genetically different from it, its males, females, or both can interbreed with another population, even its parent population, thereby infusing different alleles into the resulting hybrid population. This can occur when an isolated population simply increases in numbers and expands into the territory of another population or is driven there by climate changes or other factors. Caucasian men were explorers and typically bred with women in the other lands they went to. Africans captured as slaves were brought to other territories in Africa, as well as to India, the Middle East, southern Europe, and the Americas, 40 where they interbred with the populations already there. Early man lived in groups of about 150 people (Arsuaga, 2001, p. 295) and the males in these groups would raid the territory of other groups, killing off the males and taking the women, 41 thus hybridizing their own group. The individuals in the hybrid population will have various combinations of the alleles they received from the two parent populations, with some individuals being better adapted, and others worse adapted, than either parent population. If there is natural selection of the hybrid population (there is little natural selection in the welfare state, where even the poorly adapted can survive and reproduce), the best adapted hybrid individuals form a new population. This is called “adaptive introgression” because new alleles are introduced into the two parent populations and the individuals having the most adaptive combination of alleles in the hybrids are more reproductively successful. Chapter 30 covers hybridization in more detail. Recombination changes populations genetically in Sex, which has been enjoyed for 1.2 billion years, two ways. First, when an egg is made, some of the nuclear DNA in each of a woman’s 23 chromosomes that came from her mother (other than the X chromosome) is exchanged with the corresponding nuclear DNA in each of the 23 chromosomes that came from her father. (Ditto for making sperm, except for the Y chromosome.) This means that the DNA in each chromosome is no longer all from the women’s father or all from her mother, but contains a mixture of DNA from each of her parents; this is called “crossover.” Each egg and each sperm then receives 23 of these mixed chromosomes, not 23 pairs of unmixed chromosomes, as other cells do. When a sperm fertilizes an egg, its unpaired 23 mixed chromosomes pair up with the egg’s corresponding unpaired 23 mixed chromosomes, resulting in 23 pairs once again, a process called “recombination.” Because of crossover, the fertilized egg has DNA from each of the 4 grandparents, rather than from only two of them. Recombination and crossover ensure that the mixture of DNA is different, not only between generations, but also between siblings. 43 Sexual reproduction scrambles alleles so much that everyone except identical twins and clones has a different DNA blueprint, and very likely a 42

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unique combination of traits. If the new mixture results in greater reproductive success, the population changes genetically with each birth. 44 Why did this elaborate scheme to mix up DNA, and thereby make siblings genetically different, evolve? Because it avoids putting all the parents’ fertilized eggs in one basket. If all their offspring were genetically identical they would all have the same vulnerabilities and none might survive. If the environment changes, e.g., a different climate, different predator, different food source, different parasites, etc., that would be the end of their lineage, but if their progeny are different, some might survive. (Zuk, 2007). A trait may not be controlled by a single gene, but by the interactions of several different genes. Many traits, including high intelligence, require the presence in a single individual of particular alleles of a number of different genes. (Lykken,1992). Thus, each time alleles are mixed there is a different collection of alleles for that trait, which can result in more or less of the trait or even in an entirely new trait. Selection Traits that are helpful in achieving reproductive success are “positively selected” 45) or “selected for,” 46 traits that reduce reproductive success are “negatively selected” or “selected against,” and some traits may do neither and be neutral. 47 Traits that are positively selected in one population, or in one environment, may be more or less positively selected, or even negatively selected or neutral, in another population or environment. When the sun is almost directly overhead, dark skin is a life saver as it protects the body from receiving too much ultraviolet light but, if there is little sunlight, it prevents the absorption of enough ultraviolet light to make enough foliate and vitamin D. 48 As selection works its magic, a population becomes more and more adapted to the environment it finds itself in, whether it migrated to that environment or it stayed put while its environment changed. Thus, over time, selection pushes the individuals towards optimal mixes of alleles and traits for their particular environment (Rule 10). If a costly trait (a trait that requires the expenditure of extra resources, e.g., high intelligence) has been present (or absent) in a population for a considerable time, that trait is very likely an advantage (or disadvantage) for that population in that environment (Rule 10 second corollary). And, because traits are not “free,” but must be “paid for” with the body’s resources, more of one trait means less of others, and the others that will be sacrificed are those whose loss reduces reproductive success the least. Some tradeoffs are obvious, e.g., more speed (fast twitch muscles) means less endurance (slow twitch muscles), and other tradeoffs are obscure, e.g., larger testicles means a smaller brain (Note 4 of Table 12-1, p. 90). As in economics, where no voluntary exchange occurs unless both parties believe they will gain from it, so in evolution, sacrificing some of one trait to acquire more of another does not occur unless it increases reproductive success, and trades and tradeoffs will be made until values and reproductive success, respectively, are maximized. More of every desirable trait is not an option. Nor is it true that it is always better to have more of even the most desirable traits – even for those traits, there is an optimal amount at which reproductive success is maximized. Too much brain and too little brain will both bring less reproductive success than somewhere in between. Nor is the optimal amount of a trait the same in every environment. A small brain may be optimal when one is living in technologically simple times, but may not be optimal once the technology becomes complex. Traits need not become more and more complex – they can become simpler and simpler, as a bird, such as the ostrich, that still has wings, but can no longer fly or a snake that still has (vestigial) legs, but can no longer walk. Traits are “lost” when they are no longer positively selected – individuals who lack them reproduce at least as successfully as those who

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have them – the traits are no longer “reproductively profitable,” i.e., they contribute less to reproductive success than do other traits that could be “bought” with those resources. Nietzsche said, “That which does not kill me makes me stronger.” That may or may not be true, but evolution’s version, “Selection that does not kill off an entire population, accelerates its evolution,” is true. And the greater the number of individuals that don’t reproduce, the faster the population will evolve (provided at least the minimum number of individuals required to sustain the population are left). 49 The more that having a particular trait increases the chances of an individual successfully reproducing (or not having it decreases the chances), the faster that trait will spread through the population (or the faster that trait will disappear). Nature has no soft feelings, no empathy for the weak and helpless, and is not trying to make any particular type of individual. The end product is whatever succeeded in reproducing, regardless of how despicable, degrading, or degenerate we find it to be. Reproduce more than others and you stay in the game; otherwise, you’re out. Permanently. Another way to more rapidly evolve is to increase the rate of “turnover,” the replacement of one generation by the next. Aging is a waste of breeding adults and is not a biological necessity as some species live for hundreds or even thousands of years (e.g., bristlecone pines – 5000 yrs). 50 But if individuals do not age and die, freeing up territory and resources for the next generation, there will be less turnover and the species will not be able to evolve quickly should its environment change; that problem is avoided if there is a genetic clock that causes individuals to age. 51 Faster evolution leads to the concept of “selection pressure,” an indication of the magnitude of the “gap” between how successful a population is in its environment and how successful it would be if it could evolve a new trait or traits. A population can be said to have been under great selection pressure when, after acquiring a new trait, the number of its members having that trait increases rapidly. An important consequence of selection pressure is that if an environment is stable and the population has reached, or nearly reached, equilibrium in that environment, it will be under little or no selection pressure and is unlikely to evolve (Rule 10). On the other hand, if the environment changes, the population will be farther away from equilibrium and will be more likely to evolve. Compared to a population that stays put, a population that moves from one climate zone to another, as man’s predecessors did when they migrated north (Section IV), enters a new environment and faces stronger selection pressures, which accelerate its evolution. 52 Selection pressure therefore helps determine where evolution is most likely to occur. Except for occasional drastic changes in the amount of precipitation in Africa, 53 the African and Asian tropics and the Arctic and Antarctic polar regions have a more stable environment than the temperate zones in between, which not only have wide yearly changes in seasons, but have also suffered through several ice ages that lasted thousands of years. As a consequence, selection pressures are greater in the temperate zones, and species, including man’s predecessors, were more likely to have evolved there than in the tropics or the polar regions. 54 Chapter 5 Table of Contents FOOTNOTES 1. Only about 40% of US adults accept the basic idea of evolution, lower than any European country and second only to Turkey. (Michigan State University Press Release, Feb. 15, 2007). About half: (“Who Believes in Evolution,” Half Sigma, Jan. 25, 2008). Back

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2. “It is even harder for the average ape to believe that he has descended from man.” (H. L. Mencken). A recent article says the split occurred 4.1 mya ± 400,000 ya. (Hobolth, 2007). Back 3. (Curnoe, 2003) would even classify chimpanzees in the same genus as man, Homo. A more recent study, however, found only 86.7% genetic similarity, when indels (insertions/deletions), in addition to substitutions, were counted. (Anzai, 2003). Another recent study showed 96% consistency (Mikkelsen, 2005; Redon, 2006) and the most recent “at least 6%” difference” (Demuth, 2006), when the number of copies of genes are included. Also see (Watanabe, 2004). Chimpanzees are genetically closer to humans than they are to gorillas. www.bonobo.org Back 4. Because the male Y chromosome is much smaller than the X chromosome, men and women differ in their DNA by about 1.5%, but one cannot conclude that men and women are more closely related to chimps than they are to each other. Differences in how strings of DNA are read and assembled have a greater effect than differences in the DNA itself. (Schwartz, 2005, p. 241-242). Back 5. “Genetic blueprint” means any inherited information and “DNA blueprint” means just DNA. Back 6. One can actually watch evolution occurring in a Petri dish as mutant bacteria with favorable traits increase in numbers. (Hittinger, 2007; Griffin, 2004; Losos, 2006; Holmes, B. "Bacteria make major evolutionary shift in the lab," New Scientist, June 9, 2008; and Ariza, L.M, "Evolution in a Petri Dish," Scientific American," Nov., 2007, for worms.). Particularly convincing evidence for evolution is that way that single-celled organisms can cooperate, suggesting how even the great leap from single-celled to multi-celled organisms, 600 mya, could have been bridged. (Wingreen, 2006). Also see (Herring, 2006) and the behavior of slime molds. (Ardrey, 1966, p. 202; Navas, 2007). Back 7. “In this sense, natural selection is not a scientific theory but a truism, something that is proven to be true, like one of Euclid’s theorems.” (Patterson, 1999, p. 118). Back 8. “Mutation provides the raw material, but selection will propagate a new mutation only if it is favoured by the environment, and this is most likely in a changed or changing environment.” (Patterson, 1999, p. 78). Back 9. Evolution has been aptly described as “blind variation and selective retention.” (Campbell, cited in Barkow, 1991, pp. 23, 112). In other words, mindlessly create and try a multitude of different solutions, keep whichever one works and throw the rest away. Evolution can also be applied to ideas. A “meme” (Dawkins, 1976) is an idea that is like a germ, e.g., a cold virus that makes a person sneeze and cough to propagate itself, except that a meme is not a physical thing but an idea that gets into people’s minds, then alters their thinking and behavior to make them try to put that idea into the minds of others. The meme evolves because it is modified from time to time, with the more “reproductively successful” memes controlling more minds. Successful religious memes, e.g., Islam, require keeping women subservient and pregnant, justify the forced conversion or death of non-believers (i.e., those not infected with the meme), and make promises of rewards for adhering to the meme and punishment for not doing so, to be redeemed only after death. The free market is also analogous to evolution, with old firms (species) that do not change with the times (evolve) dying (going extinct), releasing their resources (territories, energy sources) to new firms (species), who may grow (achieve

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reproductive success), change (evolve) according to selections made by their customers (the environment), while competing with other firms (species) for profits (stores of energy). Back 10. The human foot has only an arch to remind us that it was once good for something other than walking on. (Howells, 1959, p. 94). Back 11. Picture from National Geographic News, Apr. 20, 2005. Man, no doubt, would find other uses for such a finger. Back 12. There is probably too much reliance upon genetic drift (random changes) to explain evolution. (Kiontke, 2007). Although mutations cannot be made to occur as needed, they do not occur randomly because some are far more likely to occur than others. And, once they do occur, the number of mutations that are truly neutral (and therefore cannot be selected, but proliferate randomly) is likely to be very small. Only a few mutations have a dramatic effect, and those that appear to have no effect may have such a small effect that it is concealed by “noise,” chance events in the environment. A “noiseless” laboratory environment may be required to measure the effect. Even then a great deal of time may be needed before the effect becomes statistically significant. Moreover, in a natural environment there will be infrequent events (e.g., floods, drought) that only then cause selection. There are very few “clean” chemical reactions, where only a single product, and no byproducts, is made; that may be especially true inside a living organism, which would explain why virtually all drugs have side effects. Thus, many seemingly neutral mutations will have subtle effects that are difficult to detect. In math, it is very difficult to generate numbers that are truly random; it is probably even more difficult to generate random or neutral mutations in biology. The egalitarians have exaggerated the role of drift and neutral alleles because those concepts suggest that racial differences are accidental and of little importance, instead of having been selected because they made the difference between reproductive success and failure. Back 13. Illustration from “The Reptilian Brain” by David Icke. Back 14. (Schwartz, 2005, pp. 55-56). A bit of the earlier evolutionary stages can be seen not in the fetus, but in the still-developing infant. "... the newborn infant concords very well with 20 million years ago in the Miocene epoch, when our ancestors were apes of some sort. Newborn infants can often grasp and suspend themselves and even swing enough to suggest brachiation. Their hallux or big toe is often highly movable and the rest of their feet (showing a slope of their curled toes that is virtually tranverse) are apelike." (Swan, 1990). Back 15. It is possible, however, for an organism at a particular stage to do rather poorly, but to still hang on until another mutation occurs that enables it to do better. Back 16. (Howells, 1948, pp. 11-15). Rule 3 is intended to apply to changes in the alleles present in the population’s gene pool, not to their frequency. That is, a population will include both individuals who are more generalized and are more specialized than the average for that population and, depending upon which individuals have more reproductive success, the ratio of more generalized to more specialized individuals can change, thereby changing the average amount of specialization in that population without changing any alleles. Back 17. Even with the selection being made by man instead of by nature, it is doubtful that one could breed a (generalized) wolf from a (specialized) Chihuahua in the same amount of time it took to breed a Chihuahua from a wolf. Another reason for the rule may be “environmental heterogeneity.” In a seasonally-changing environment, a (specialized) population who has traits

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advantageous in only one season may be at a disadvantage relative to a (generalized) population who has traits less advantageous in that season, but more advantageous over the entire year; to become generalized, the specialized population has to acquire the allele(s) of the generalized population but, to become specialized, the generalized population only has to turn off one or more alleles. Back 18. A fetus has some specializations for survival as a baby, e.g., short limbs, subcutaneous fat, epicanthic folds, and round heads, which are lost in Caucasian and African babies when they become adults, but are not lost in East Asians. Thus, neoteny can generalize an adult if the adult remains at a stage after fetal specializations have been lost, but prior to a stage where later specializations were acquired. Back 19. Similarly, a monkey’s tail, used for balance, can evolve to become prehensile, becoming heavier and sluggish, and therefore less useful for balance. Going from specialized to generalized may seem similar to going from a more ordered state to a less ordered state, which should occur spontaneously according to the Second Law of Thermodynamics. However, the generalized state is not necessarily less ordered and may actually be more ordered. Back 20. A good example is the bear. The tropical giant panda bear’s diet is 99% bamboo shoots, the polar bear eats almost entirely marine mammals and, although the American black bear prefers picnic baskets, it will eat a wide variety of foods. However, although polar regions are stable, they support less life and that may limit the niches for specialized species. Back 21. This is not true of Africans, who have more variation, but that will be explained in subsequent chapters. Back 22. That change is believed to have occurred when man became more neotenic. Man’s neoteny can be seen in the loss of primitive features in fossil skulls (Chap. 2), which began slowly with the first Homo species, then gradually accelerated. Back 23. Until recently, biologists have believed that most evolution occurred in the tropics because the tropics had the most species. Now there is support for the idea that not only did man evolve at higher latitudes, so did most other animals. (Weir, 2007). The New Zealand Tuatara is the fastest evolving animal. (Hay, 2008). Back 24. There is more biomass in the tropics (tropical rain forest = 2299 g/m2yr, temperate deciduous forest and grassland = 600 – 1200 g/m2yr.; Hoffecker, 2002, p. 6). Back 25. The amount of energy needed to create a new species is 1023 joules. (Discover, Sept., 2006, p. 14). Back 26. There may be multiple optimums for a species, each for a different combination of traits, even in a single environment. Individuals in a species may even have different optimums for a particular trait, depending upon the other traits they possess. There can also be an optimal percentage of individuals in the population that have a trait. Since catching and repairing all DNA errors would not only be very costly, but would also reduce variability, there will even be an optimal amount of DNA repairing, with the optimum being lower in a more variable environment. (Sniegowski, 2000). Back 27. “… any adaptation exists because it increases the reproduction of the genes encoding it,

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relative to that of the alleles for alternative characters.” (Ridley, 1996, p. 334). Back 28. Some migrants to the Americas were more successful than those they left behind in Asia. (Green in Fig. 21-1). Back 29. Individuals in a population who do not or can not interbreed with individuals in other populations preserve their collection of alleles, which have been selected to work well together in that environment. On the other hand, by not interbreeding they forego the possibility of picking up beneficial alleles that may have arisen in other populations. Thus, even the amount of interbreeding will optimize. But, since beneficial alleles arise rarely, the optimal amount of interbreeding will be low. Back 30. “A bird does not fly because it has wings; it has wings because it flies.” (Ardrey, 1966, pp. 7, 9). Back 31. Up to the Industrial Revolution, the rich had more surviving children than the poor, as one would expect. (Clark, 2007). Also see (Wikipedia, “Baldwin Effect”). Back 32. (Sykes, 2001, p. 55). Even if a mutation occurs in the DNA of a germline cell that makes an egg or sperm, none of the eggs or sperm produced may be fertilized and produce breeding offspring. And, even if a mutation occurs in the mitochondria of a germline cell that makes an egg, the mutated mtDNA may not be part of the mtDNA that ends up in the egg or, if it does, that egg may not be fertilized. On the other hand, the germline divides 24 times between generations. (id., p. 157), increasing the chances that a mutated mitochondria will end up in an egg that is fertilized. Back 33. (Cheng, 2006). “Junk” DNA also performs other useful functions. (Lowe, 2007). Back 34. “We now know that more than 98 per cent of our DNA is of the non-coding variety.” Only 1.2% of our DNA codes for proteins. (New Scientist, July 14-20, 2007, pp. 43, 3). Back 35. (Pray, 2004; Carroll, S.B., “Regulating Evolution,” Scientific American, May, 2008). Here is an excellent four-part video on epigenetics. Note that epigenetic change, i.e., changing regulators, is not the same thing as the inheritance of acquired characteristics, “Lamarckism,” because acquired characteristics do not necessarily change the regulators, i.e., there is no mechanism for an acquired characteristic to change an individual’s genome. “Imprinting” is due to a regulator that silences either the allele from the mother or the allele from the father, so that the sex of the parent determines whether or not a gene is read. (Montgomery, 2005; Goos, 2006; Bereczkei, 2004). A genetic defect inherited from the father causes Prader-Willi syndrome, where the infant eats litte, then becomes voracious when a few years old; the same genetic defect inherited from the mother causes Angelman syndrome, where the child perpetually smiles and laughs, but also has symptoms found in severe autism. (Zimmer, C., "The Brain," Discover, Dec., 2008). Back 36. That is why even though the same DNA is in all the cells, the cells can nevertheless grow into brain cells, liver cells, and so on – the regulators cause different genes to be read; different portions of a gene are read, depending upon the tissue that gene is in at the time. (Wang, 2008). The DNA code for the polypeptides that are assembled into proteins can be in different locations, even on different chromosomes. Back 37. We inherit chromosomes from our parents, not naked DNA. The DNA is only 50% of the

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chromosomes. Back 38. (Choi, “Regulators Evolve Faster Than Genes,” The Scientist, Aug. 9, 2007). Back 39. That is why our DNA can be so similar to chimp DNA, yet we are so different from chimps. (Schwartz, 2005, p. 242). Back 40. “[The] Arabs are known to have taken slaves from Africa to south Arabia, Persia, the Far East, China, and Japan …” Some were even found in Russia. (Eribo, F., In Search of Greatness, 2001, Chapter 1). Back 41. “How could Moses prohibit murder and then, in Numbers 31, fly into a rage because a returning Israelite war party has slaughtered only the adult male Midianites? ‘Now kill all the boys,’ he tells them when he calms down. ‘And kill every woman who has slept with a man, but save for yourselves every girl who has never slept with a man.’ [Numbers 31:17]” (Lazare, 2002). A study of 500 skeletons massacred in North and South Dakota about 1325 A.D. showed “a striking absence of young women.” (Buss, 2005, p. 10). Most murders are by men in their years of reproductive competition. (Buss, 2005, p. 23). Back 42. It’s hard to believe that anyone would give up sex, but some entire species have. (Patterson, 1999, pp. 136-137; "...bdeloid rotifers abandoned sex about 100 million years ago...," Zimmer, C., "What Is A Species?," Scientific American, June, 2008 ). Back 43. Although the progeny have some of the same alleles as each of their parents, crossover may alter traits. Alleles can also move to a different chromosome which may affect traits so much that the species splits. (Masly, 2006). Back 44. On the other hand, “The cost of sex, in terms of fitness, is enormous.” (Patterson, 1999, p. 136). In asexual reproduction 100% of the alleles are passed on; in sexual reproduction, each parent passes on only half of his alleles. Sexual reproduction requires two individuals to produce one offspring; asexual requires only a single individual. Sexual displays also make males more vulnerable, and both sexes are more vulnerable during sex. Back 45. Alleles are inherited in large blocks (“haplogroups,” Chap. 20). If an advantage allele arises, those who have it will have more progeny. Many years later, as mutations accumulate, there will be more variation in other blocks than in the block with the new allele because that block has not been around as long as the other blocks. So, less variation in a block means that the block contains an allele that was positively selected. Back 46. Culture, although it is not inherited behavior, is also subject to selection and can lead to the selection of alleles that accommodate it. (Rogers, 2008; Chap. 4, Rule 12). Anything that can be affected by the genome can be selected and anything that changes the genome can select. Lawnmowers have selected dandelions for low leaves and fast-growing stalks. Back 47. (FN 88, p. 19). Note that traits are selected, not the alleles responsible for the traits. Even synonymous alleles can affect the function of the encoded protein by altering its structure (Goymer, 2007) and “neutral” DNA strings may be lumped with non-neutral strings during crossover, making the combination non-neutral. Back 48. Polar bears’ fur appears white but consists of transparent hollow hairs that conduct light to their heat-absorbing black skin; they also obtain sufficient vitamin D from their food. Back 49. “

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… selection at the rate of .01 can increase a gene’s frequency from 1% to 99% in 1000 generations …” (Levin, 1997, p. 123). Back 50. There is some evidence that women do not die soon after menopause because they help care for their grandchildren, thus increasing the number of them who survive. (Wikipedia, “Grandmother Hypothesis”). Back 51. (Fuerle, 1986, p. 133). This can be accomplished by losing telomeres at the end of chromosomes; when all the telomeres are gone, the chromosome can no longer replicate. Dietary restriction extends life (Bishop, 2007), which reduces the likelihood of extinction during scarcity; this suggests that aging and death are programmed. Back 52. Environmental change, and the resulting increase in selection pressure, can result in “bursts” of evolution separated by periods of little genetic change. “Although each species must have passed through numerous transitional stages, it is probable that the periods, during which each underwent modification, though many and long as measured by years, have been short in comparison with the periods during which each remained in an unchanged condition.” (Darwin, 1859). Back 53. (Lippsett, 1998). The longer the time in between the recurrence of an event, and the faster its effects dissipate, the less alleles for traits that are advantageous during the event will be selected. Back 54. There is evidence that people living in different geographical locations, and therefore usually in different climates, are under different selection pressures, as one would expect. (Voight, 2006). Alleles selected in one racial group were therefore quite different from those selected in other racial groups. Back

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Chapter 5 - Selectors A “selector” is whatever increases or decreases the reproductive success of an individual because he has (or does not have) a particular combination of traits. With modern science and international aid, humans today don’t need to worry too much about selectors other than occasional germs and the whims of the opposite sex, but early humans were mercilessly brutalized by selectors far beyond their control. We should be grateful to them because without the terrible suffering and death they endured from these selectors, we would not have the traits we do today. A selector can be a cold climate that kills off those who lose heat too easily, a warm climate that kills off those who cannot lose heat fast enough, a predator that kills off slow runners, a bacteria that kills off those with weak immune systems, a competitor (perhaps even an individual in the same population) who is better adapted, and so on. If there are two sexes, the selector may be one or both of those sexes, who selects beautiful feathers, lovely songs, or weird appendages in the other sex. Even culture, if it alters reproductive success, can be a selector. Indeed, anything in the environment that affects reproductive success can be a selector, and that includes man, who may select for traits that he finds useful, “cute,” or otherwise attractive. Climate Climate is the strongest selector, not only for humans, but for almost all living things, for the simple reason that it directly affects the amount of food available, which directly affects the number of progeny that can survive. Climate includes temperature, rainfall, sunlight, air pressure, oxygen and carbon dioxide content of the air, and how different the seasons are, all of which, in turn, determine the type and quantity of food that is available, when and where it is available, and how easy it is to obtain it. Humidity, rainfall, and the presence of predators and prey can change for a variety of reasons, but changes in the amount of energy useable by organisms, e.g. as sunlight, food, or heat, is critical. Temperature is a good surrogate for available energy. Temperature is affected by altitude (it decreases about 1°F for every 275 feet you go up) and warm ocean currents (it decreases about 1°F for every 5½° longitude you go east in Europe), 1 but the amount of sunlight striking the earth’s surface has the greatest effect on temperature. The difference in the distance from the sun to the earth between the winter (91,700,000 miles) and the summer (94,800,000 miles) has less effect on the amount of sunlight than does the angle between the sunlight and the earth’s surface. The equator, which is more directly under the sun, receives much more sunlight than the poles, where the sunlight is at a small angle to the surface, if the sun rises at all. The point on the surface of the earth that is perpendicular to the sunlight traces a somewhat sinusoidal path across the surface of the earth that moves from the equator to 23° 26’ 22” north latitude (Tropic of Cancer, Figure 17-6, p. 147) in the northern summer, then back across the equator to the same south latitude (Tropic of Capricorn) in the northern winter. Except for rare catastrophes, the amount of sunlight striking any particular part of the earth has not changed greatly since the beginning of life on this planet, about 3.8 billion ya (Haywood, 2000, p. 13), but migrations from one latitude to another change the amount of sunlight a population receives. The average amount of sunlight over a year decreases with latitude away from the equator (reducing the average temperature about 1°F for every 70 miles you go north in Eurasia). More importantly, however, is the fact that as one moves from the equator to the poles, the difference between summer and winter temperatures increases to a maximum, then decreases again. In the temperate zones, where that maximum difference occurs, food comes

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in abundance at the end of the growing season, but during the winter edible vegetation is hard to find, though herds of large mammals may still be available. Catastrophic climate changes have occurred throughout the history of the Earth, from ice ages to impacts by comets to volcanic eruptions. 2 Most occurred long before humans appeared and some affected only small areas. There were no major disasters due to comets or asteroids during man’s time on Earth, 3 but there were ice ages, glaciers, and rising and falling sea levels that affected the areas our ancestors inhabited. Mount Toba or “Toba,” as it is affectionately known, is a volcano in Sumatra, Indonesia. Today, it is peaceful and shows no inclination to devastate the planet, but 73,000 ya it was an angry beast, blasting 2800 km3 (671 cubic miles) of material into the sky, along with millions of tons of poisonous sulfurous gases, blackening the skies across the northern latitudes of the earth. The ash dropped in a northwest path across India, in places 18 feet deep. (Savino, 2007). Analysis of ice cores indicated the temperature dropped 61 Fahrenheit degrees in Greenland for about six years.4 Since Toba lies only 3 degrees north of the equator, the amount of energy reaching the earth for warmth and photosynthesis was drastically reduced. The resulting “volcanic winter” blotted out the sun, killing vegetation, then herbivores, then carnivores and humans. The effects were more severe in the northern latitudes, where winters already made survival difficult, but Toba did not have much affect on Africa. Some of the people affected by Toba were better able to cope with its effects than others, so Toba not only killed people, it altered the genome of the surviving populations, as we shall see in Chapter 20. There were two ice ages that affected the evolution of modern man, together referred to as the Würm glaciation period. The first ice age began about 73,000 ya, when Toba erupted, and lasted until about 55,000 ya. Although ice ages are attributed to changes in the Earth’s orbit (Hayes, 1976), it is quite likely that Toba triggered or accentuated that ice age by increasing albedo, the reflection of sunlight back into space from snow and ice. Temperatures fell and snow stayed on the ground longer before it melted, until it did not melt at all, but accumulated as thick glaciers that covered the land and inched south, wiping out most of the evidence that man had once lived there. The entire area north of India and most of West Asia north of the Caucasus Mountains was under a sheet of ice, but some of central China remained ice-free, giving East Asians a head start on Caucasians. Water evaporated from the oceans and fell as snow, no longer flowing back into the oceans, so sea levels fell, creating more shoreline and land bridges between continents and former islands. In Africa, however, there was no continental glaciation, 5 even near the southernmost tip of Africa, just “moderate fluctuations in climate” (Howells, 1959, p. 120), though there was drought. The movement of cold air and glaciers down from the north forced Europeans and West Asians to migrate farther south (less so in East Asia), no doubt creating conflicts with the humans already there. The Eurasian population fell drastically 6 and the selection pressure for cold adaptation was severe. 7 Those Eurasians who were better adapted for a colder climate had to migrate less, suffered fewer losses, and passed on their alleles for cold-adaptive traits. When warmer temperatures returned, the glaciers melted and the seas rose. The Bering Strait again separated North America from Asia. Shorelines and low areas were flooded, concealing evidence that man once lived there, and higher grounds again became isolated islands. Eurasians followed the receding ice north, increased their numbers once again, and recolonized Eurasia. The second ice age occurred from about 30,000 ya to about 12,000 ya. It was more severe, but had less effect on man’s physical evolution because by that time man had culturally evolved (e.g., garments, constructed shelters) and was better able to cope with the cold. Sea levels fell again, 130 meters (427 feet) lower than today, giving Eurasians easy access to North America, Australia, 8 Japan, and Africa. The English “Channel” was dry land and one could walk

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from France to England and Ireland. (Sykes, 2001, p. 9). Although both ice ages severely reduced Eurasian populations, when temperatures rose again populations expanded greatly, and the coming of agriculture, about 12,000 ya, produced an even greater population expansion. Figure 5-1 shows volume of ice for the last 450,000 yrs. Note that from about 120,000 ya until about 10,000 ya the temperatures were much colder than they are now; the peaks of the first and second ice ages are indicated by the two arrows.

Figure 5-1 Sexual Selection After climate, sexual selection is the next strongest selector for humans. 9 Sexual selection means that the sexes do not mate indiscriminately, but preferentially select individuals who have certain traits. Because populations that have a more “K” orientated reproductive strategy (fewer children, more child care) pair bond more, they have more stringent requirements for their mates and therefore have more sexual selection than populations that have a more “r” orientated reproductive strategy (more children, less child care). Although both sexes do some selecting, especially in modern times, if the sexes are free to make a selection it will be the sex that has the most to lose by a poor choice that will select most cautiously, and that is usually females. 10 Because women need food not only for themselves, but also for their fetus and then their child, sex, at least until contraceptives came along, was very costly for them. Thus, the balance between male selection and female selection shifts according to how much of the food and other resources each sex provides. In Africa, the women, even today, farm and gather food, so they have more selection power, 11 but in the colder climates more of the food was meat, especially in the winter, and hunting was done by men, shifting some selection power to men. (Miller, 1994a). As a result of selection by men, Eurasian women have become more beautiful 12 and, as a result of selection by women, Eurasian men have become workaholics and slightly more intelligent than Eurasian women (more intelligence = a better provider in Eurasia). African women have become slightly more intelligent than African men, however, who have become the more physically attractive sex. 13 The sex that has evolved a lot of superfluous traits, traits that are not useful in obtaining food, evading predators, and the like, but do appeal to the opposite sex, is certainly being sexually selected. For birds, it is almost always the male that has superfluous traits, as the male often has bright, colorful plumage and lovely songs that attract both females and predators; the superfluous traits tell females that the males must be of really high quality to be able to present such a display and not get eaten. Although the difference in beauty between men and woman is not as stark as between male birds and female birds, it is fair to say that, at least for Eurasians, the ladies have the edge in beauty, suggesting that men are doing some selecting of women, though women still do most of it. As (Coon 1962, p. 86) put it, “all females receive sexual attention. Among primates, [in order to reproduce] it is easier to be a female than to acquire one.” However, once meat became an important component of the human diet, the “meat for sex” trade 14 began to play a greater role and selection by men increased.

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Selection by Women If a woman and her children don’t need a man to survive, she can choose a man who is handsome and charming, but likely to leave after copulation. In other words, she can choose a “cad” and, if she can do so without diminishing the survival chances of herself and her children, she is more likely to do so. The handsome, charming cads then have more offspring and pass their alleles for cad-like behavior on to their sons. 15 On the other hand, if she is not capable of providing for herself and her children, she will have to be more practical and chose a man who is likely to stick around after sex and take care of her and her children, a “dad.” (Chu, 2007). Clark Gable for thrills, Joe Sixpack for bills. Of course, it would be nice if Joe Sixpack were also young, healthy, romantic, and had good genes, 16 but those qualities mean nothing if he does not provide for her and her children. Today, a woman can choose a man who can not, or will not, help her survive and the welfare state will force that man and other people (taxpayers) to provide for her and her children, but before the welfare state a woman who unwisely chose such a man would have a life of poverty and an early death. It has been suggested that women select men for intelligence (Ananthaswamy, 2002), 17 and that may have played a significant role in man’s evolution towards higher intelligence. Intelligence, as we shall see (Chap. 14), correlates well with wealth, so intelligence is a way to identify men who have, or are likely to acquire, the resources needed to care for a woman and her children. 18 High status men are also likely to have access to more resources, and so high status is a strong magnet for the ladies. (Pollet, 2007). But since women today have less need for the resources of men, many women define “high status” less as having money and power 19 and more as being “cool,” i.e., having currently-fashionable clothes, language, and behavior. Selection by Men A man can impregnate many women and have far more children than can a woman, so a reproductively successful man can have a greater effect on the traits of future generations than can a reproductively successful woman. 20 Although a man can rape a woman, thereby eliminating any selection on her part, in most societies rape is not a good reproductive strategy as pregnancy is hit or miss and the penalties for rape may be severe. 21 But for a man with low status and few resources, rape can be worth the risk. 22 Other male strategies include paying for sex (prostitution) and sincere or deceitful courtship. (Shields, 1983, pp. 117-119; Wrangham, 1996, pp. 131-146). If sex is going to cost a man little beyond an ejaculation he won’t be very selective. But if it is going to cost him a lifetime of support for a wife and children and possibly deter him from having sex with other women, 23 he will select much more carefully. (Power, 2006). Since the better providers are desired by more women, but may not be able to support more than one, those men will select the woman they will provide for, and they will make that selection based on which woman they think will make a good wife and mother. 24 If they do not select on that basis, their children are less likely to survive and men who lack alleles for careful selection will be replaced by men who have them. A good future wife and mother must have a pleasant, caring personality, be young (i.e., many years of child-bearing), 25 healthy (i.e., capable of bearing and raising children), likely to be faithful (i.e., his children), and have “good genes.” Since good genes are required to make a face and body that are symmetrical and are not deformed or diseased, physical attractiveness is a good indication not only of health, but also of high quality genes. 26 Paradoxically, Eurasian women owe their beauty not to the choices made by their mothers, but to the choices made by their fathers, grandfathers, etc. 27

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Group Selection A “group animal” is a species whose members live in groups, usually cooperating to obtain food. Wolves are the archetypical group animal, but probably from the first primates and for millions of years thereafter the animals in man’s lineage have been group animals at least as much as those in the wolf lineage. Group behavior is still deeply ingrained in our genes and we see it today in how readily we form groups and how important it is for us to be accepted by others in our groups. Allegiance to a group arose because individuals who acted in concert with their associates for their mutual benefit, especially in conflicts with others, were more reproductively successful than those who did not. For a group animal, and especially for males, high status within the group is the trait most worth having because it is the high-status individuals who mate the most. The importance of status to humans is obvious from the amount of money we spend on clothes, cars, homes, parties, and generally “keeping up with the neighbors.” And, conversely, low status, and expulsion from the group is most feared. 28 Since group animals usually breed more among themselves than with outsiders, 29 they are more closely related to each other and share many of the same alleles and traits. This inbreeding not only enhances the cohesiveness of the group, it also makes the group genetically different from other groups and, if one group is better adapted, its members will have more reproductive success than the members of other groups. Although a group can therefore be selected, 30 it is individuals that biologically reproduce, not groups, and it is the individuals within the group that is positively selected who have greater reproductive success, passing on the traits that enabled their group to be selected. (Levin, 1997, p.167). Even if a member does not himself reproduce, since he is more related to others in his group than he is to outsiders, and his fellow group members therefore carry more of his alleles than do outsiders, he nevertheless also achieves reproductive success because others in his group pass on many of the same alleles that he would pass on. (See Chap. 8). A more reproductively successful group will grow in numbers and will more frequently split into two groups than other groups do, a process somewhat analogous to asexual reproduction. Individuals within a group are permitted to remain in the group provided they can be expected to make a net contribution to the reproductive success of those individuals within the group that produce the next generation. The likelihood of a male successfully reproducing after he is forced out of the group is low, so low status males do their best not to anger the leader. By expelling a member, the remaining members alter the gene pool of the group and, when groups compete against other groups of the same species, those other groups become part of the environment that selects whether a group is successful. 31 If an individual’s alleles cause him to act only for his own reproductive success, even when it is damaging to the reproductive success of his group, and those alleles spread throughout his group, eventually both his group and his own lineage will go extinct. The result is that each individual in a group will carry some “altruism alleles” that code for behavior that increases the group’s fitness, even though that behavior reduces his individual fitness, such as alleles for deferring to the leader for breeding and for caring for the leader’s offspring. Both man and other group animals are normally innately capable of suffering social control emotions, such as guilt, shame, embarrassment, depression, and remorse, in response to communications from others of approval or disapproval of their behavior. 32 These social control emotions are detrimental to the individual, but essential to the successful functioning of the group. 33 Individuals quickly pick up the meaning of facial expressions and other signs of disapproval, and usually end up following the rules to avoid having to endure the unpleasant emotion. 34 The intra-group rules need not be the same for different groups, and behavior that

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produces a devastating social control emotion in an individual in one group may create no emotion or even the opposite emotion in an individual in a different group. 35 The group’s culture (i.e., information that is not inherited) programs and activates these emotions, inducing an individual to alter his behavior so that he benefits others in his group, even though that may reduce his personal fitness. 36 Nevertheless, he accepts, and often vehemently defends, the culture of his group because an attack on his culture threatens his acceptance as a member of the group. 37 If particular cultural rules enable a population to better compete with others populations, then individuals in that population who do not feel guilt, shame, or remorse when they break those rules (i.e., sociopaths) will be eliminated from that population, and the only individuals who remain in that population will be those that inherit the propensity to feel the emotions that induce them to follow the rules. Since survival in the colder north depended more on following rules than in the tropics, individuals in northern populations should have more of those social control emotions. There is some evidence that Africans are less controlled by those emotions, which may contribute to their higher crime rate. Chapter 6 Table of Contents FOOTNOTES 1. The formation of the Isthmus of Panama 3 to 3.5 mya, isolating the Pacific and Atlantic Oceans, changed ocean currents, cooling Europe. (Arsuaga, 2001, p. 115). Back 2. Catastrophes other than climatic catastrophes also changed man’s evolution. A contemporary example is a mutation, the delta 32 deletion of the CCR5 receptor gene, that occurred in some northern Europeans, which enabled them to survive the bubonic plague during the Middle Ages, when hundreds of thousands of their countrymen died; more recently, it offers some protection against AIDS. (Guilherme, 2002). Back 3. The only major one occurred in Siberia in 1908 and it had little effect on humans. Back 4. Temperatures are estimated to have dropped about 30°C (54°F) for weeks or months in the Northern Hemisphere. (Rampino, 1988). During the Ice Age of 30,000 to 12,000 ya, the climate in Germany was quite cold and the Mediterranean Sea had the climate the Baltic Sea has now. Back 5. There were limited glaciers around Kilimanjaro and Mount Kenya. (Hasterath, S., The Glaciers of Equatorial East Africa, 1984). Back 6. (Ambrose, 1998). "The scarcity of artifacts in the loess bed that overlies the [central Asian plain] suggests that much of the plain was abandoned between 73,000-55,000 years ago." (Hoffecker, 2002, p. 19). Back 7. In Asia, the cold selected for neoteny. (Chap. 6). Back 8. Even when sea levels were lowest, there was still at least 50 km (31 miles) of open ocean between Australia and Asia. (Sykes, 2001, p. 285). Back 9. (Weston, 2007). An excellent book on sexual dynamics is The Woman Racket, by Steve

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Moxon. Back 10. The general rule is that the sex that invests less in raising the offspring, usually the male, will pursue the opposite sex, who will do more of the selecting. In some species of seahorses, however, the male incubates the young, a costly investment, and he is pursued by the females and he does the selecting. (Allman, 1994, p. 114). Similarly, female phalaropes (ducks) pursue males because the males brood the eggs. (Rising, G. “Nature Watch,” Buffalo News, Oct. 21, 2007). A man who must spend a lifetime caring for a wife and his children will be more pursued by women, and will do more selecting than a man who incurs no such obligation. Back 11. (Lynn, 2006a, p. 224). “Women perform 80 percent of daily work” in Africa. (Wax, 2003). Polygyny is also common in Africa, with the best men having the most women, but this is mostly economic as the wives do the work and are self-supporting and have access to many other men. “In Africa, feminist groups don't protest that men don't let them do work, they protest that men leave them most of the work.” (Sailer, S. Oct. 9, 2007 comment on Megan McArdle, The Atlantic.com, “Why is Africa So Screwed Up?”). Agriculture made women more self-sufficient, making additional wives affordable, which lead to polygeny. That left many men without women, increasing the selective power of women, resulting in the enhanced physical attractiveness of African men and the diminished attractiveness of African women. "The traditional Zulu does not make physical beauty a first priority or even an important qualification in a wife…" (Vilakazi, 1962, p. 59). Back 12. Women would not spend billions of dollars on clothes and cosmetics if men were not selecting them for beauty. Back 13. "There is some ambivalence in societies where women do most of the agricultural labor. In such a context, wives tend to be chosen for their ability to work outdoors, especially in the sun, and less weight is given to other criteria, like physical beauty. This is true in most agricultural societies of sub-Saharan Africa and in New Guinea." (Frost, 2005). “Among the Nigerian Wodaabes, the women hold economic power and the tribe is obsessed with male beauty; Wodaabe men spend hours together in elaborate makeup sessions, and compete provocatively painted and dressed, with swaying hips, and seductive expressions in beauty contests judged by women.” (Wolf, 1991; also Hunt, 1864, p. 20). Now that white women are becoming financially independent, they are also placing more emphasis on male appearance. (Moore, 2006). In time, if whites survive, white men will also become better looking and white women less attractive. Back 14. In addition to meat, males also provided protection from predators and other males. This implied pair-bonding contract is strongest when women are least capable of acquiring food for themselves, i.e., in the northern climates. When a population is starving, there is a widespread trading of sex for food. (e.g., Keeling, 1947, pp. 57-59). Back 15. Any man besieged by women is likely to find the temptation to be a cad irresistible since the more women he impregnates, the more reproductively successful he is likely to be. Women are enthralled by cads because they seem to be genetically superior, as evidenced by the quality of the music they can create, their athleticism, their looks, confidence, etc. And, if other women want cads, the sons they have with a cad may also be more reproductively successful. Wealth, in addition to providing assurance of support, can be used to create an effective “bluff,” so a man can present himself as being of better genetic quality than he is. Ditto for a woman and her makeup, clothing, and grooming. Back

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16. (Buss, 2008). She can obtain all those qualities in a man and still keep Joe Sixpack’s pay check by successfully cheating, so men select for faithfulness in long term relationships. (Salter, 1996). Back 17. Actually, both sexes select for intelligence, though women more so. (Rosenberg, 2008). That brains increased in size from the beginning of hunting means that the possessors of larger brains were more successful with the ladies, probably because of the additional meat that more intelligent men were able to acquire and trade for sex. (Coon, 1962, pp. 78, 86). Women often say they want a man with a good sense of humor, and humor also correlates well with intelligence. Back 18. It also correlates well with a lower crime rate, less psychopathy, and other traits desired by most females. Back 19. “Power is the ultimate aphrodisiac.” (Henry Kissinger). The drive for status is hard wired into the human brain. (Zink, 2008). Back 20. (Coon, 1962, p. 93). By conquest, Genghis Khan had about 800,000 times the reproductive success of the average man of his age; about 8% of the men (16 million men, 0.5% of all the men in the world) in a large area of Asia carry his Y chromosome. (Zerjal, 2003). Back 21. During war and occupation, there is often no penalty and rape is common. (Keeling, 1947, pp. 49-57). Back 22. The more polygynous a society is, the more men there will be who cannot find a woman. Almost all suicide bombers are single Muslim men because Islam permits polygyny and promises 72 virgins if a believer dies for the faith. The dearth of women caused by polygyny also led to the importation of female African slaves. Back 23. Both sexes may be able to achieve more reproduction success by not putting all their germ cells in one basket, so to speak, but that is usually easier for a man to do. With the courts favoring women much more than they used to (“Why get married? Just find a woman who hates you and give her your house.”), the cost to a man has increased, perhaps discouraging marriage. Back 24. This suggests that the more selective the sexes are, the higher the quality of the population will be and, conversely, the more indiscriminate sexual relations are, the faster the population will degenerate. Back 25. And beauty correlates well with fertility, both tending to maximize at age 24.8. (Johnston, 2006). Since younger women are more fertile and more capable of raising children, men prefer youthful women and most marriages are younger woman – older man. Women are more neotenic than men because men have selected them for youthfulness. Light skin is also associated with youth (and dark skin) with masculinity. In one study, the skin of white women was 15.2% lighter than the skin of white males, and the skin of black women 11.1% lighter than the skin of black men. (Bauman, 2004). Back 26. Good looks are less important to women, provided they need men to provide food and other resources, because their reproductive success is limited if they don’t have access to resources; male reproductive success, however, is limited by access to females. (Lewin, 1998, p. 162; McNulty, 2008). Also see (Etcoff, 1999; Barash, 1997; Small, 1995; Botting, 1995). Fifty-six cell

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divisions are required to go from a human egg to an adult and good genes are required to accomplish that with a minimum number of errors. (Schwartz, 1999). Back 27. (Frost, 2006). Beautiful people have more female children. (Kanazawa, 2007). Why? Because people who carry alleles for both beauty and more female children have greater reproductive success than people who carry alleles for only beauty or only more female children. Women pass on their beauty to their daughters, but men don't pass on their good looks to their sons. Why? Because women select men more for traits other than good looks. (Cornwell, 2008). Back 28. Groups develop rituals, beliefs, customs, language, and apparel to induce individuals to identify with their group and to discourage desertion. Back 29. In group animals, even though the loss of members weakens a group, one or both of the sexes often leaves the group at sexual maturity and joins a different group. This may be to reduce inbreeding, to spread the group’s alleles, or to acquire new alleles that may have arisen in other groups. In most primates that live in groups, it is the adolescent males that leave. Since males compete for females, males leaving reduces intra-group strife, though it means that many young males will never find mates. The absence of a male does not reduce the reproductive success of the group much because a single remaining male can impregnate many females. In gorilla, chimpanzee, and human groups, however, it is the females who leave the group (Allman, 1994, p. 124; Wrangham, 1996, p. 24; Arsuaga, 2001, p. 164; Also see (Bonobo Initiative and De Waal, 1997, p. 60), sometimes by being captured by males from other groups. About 70% of human societies are “patrilocal” (male stays, as opposed to “matrilocal,” female stays). (Burton, 1996). (The fact that humans are patrilocal may help explain the higher miscegenation rate of white females.) The most obvious reason for this difference is that gorillas, chimpanzees, and humans engage in more intense inter-group competition (Van Vugt, 2007), i.e., war, and males are required to defend the group’s territory. Groups without adult males would simply have their females and territory taken by males in other groups. Thus, the success of the group is so important to the survival of humans that the advantages of retaining females in the group are sacrificed to achieve it. (A pecking order (“dominance hierarchy”) reduces male-male competition for females within a patrilocal group; also, males in the group are related and carry many of the same alleles; see Chap. 8). Back 30. (Wikipedia, “Group selection”; Wilson, 2007 & 2008). Groups exist only because they are adaptive (Chapter 4, Rule 10, corollary 1) and, if they are adaptive, they must be selected. Also see “Dual Morality,” p. 284. Back 31. (Levin, 1997, p. 74). Here is a remarkable example of the power of selection on groups: In North America there are southern cicadas that emerge from the ground every 13 years and northern cicadas that emerge every 17 years. Why such weird numbers? Well, they are both prime numbers, which means the southern and northern cicadas will emerge the same year only in once every 221 years (13 x 17 = 221). Thus, any predator that relies upon eating cicadas for survival will have great difficulty increasing its numbers at the same time that the cicadas emerge. (Patterson, 1999, p. 82). In other words, initially there were many cicada groups with many different cycles. Over time, only those groups that had long cycles that did not frequently coincide with the cycles of other groups were able to avoid predators and survive. Back 32. For example, 200 years ago, calling someone a "racist" would have generated no emotional response. Today, the name-caller knows he is being verbally agressive and the other person

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knows he is under attack; their amydalae respond by jacking up their adrenalin. An individual who lacks the capacity for these social control emotions, i.e., a sociopath, can nevertheless pretend to have them and, at the same time, not have his actions impeded by them. (Stout, 2005). Back 33. In addition to reducing intra-group conflict and increasing intra-group cooperation, they also reduce the “tragedy of the commons,” where individuals within a group exploit resources beyond the level at which the resources are self-sustaining, which is detrimental to the group as a whole. (Wilson, 2007). Although Wilson (2007) states, “Selfishness beats altruism within single groups. Altruistic groups beat selfish groups,” this is not always true as other members of the group can and do punish selfish members. Back 34. Guilt is self-punishment for not following the group’s rules and shame induces submission to those rules. See various papers by Robert Trivers. Both are genetically-predisposed emotions. Sociopaths do not feel these emotions, because they lack alleles for them or those alleles have been turned off. Back 35. For example, in “respectable” society, getting drunk is disgraceful, but sailors may take pride in it. Back 36. (Plutchik, 1980). Another group animal, the dog, is also said to have some of those emotions. Back 37. We are the product of our place and time, “imprinted” with the beliefs of those around us. We fear contradictory views because they threaten our acceptance within our group. To avoid expulsion, we sacrifice our objectivity and fervently believe and rationalize obvious falsehoods. Back

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Chapter 6 - Neoteny Biologically, an organism becomes “sexually mature” or an “adult” when it is capable of reproducing. And it becomes “physically mature” when it acquires its adult form. The rate at which an organism matures physically and the rate at which it matures sexually are independently controlled by different genes. 1 A population can evolve so that individuals physically mature faster or slower, while keeping their rate of sexual maturation constant, or it can evolve so that individuals mature sexually faster or slower, while keeping their rate of physical maturation constant, or both can change. A population can evolve so that individuals remain childlike in their adult form (“paedomorphism”) in two ways. It can evolve to speed up physical and sexual maturation so that individuals become both physically and sexually mature while they are still infants (“progenesis,” e.g., newts), or it can evolve to slow down or stop physical maturation so that the age of sexual maturation stays about the same, but individuals are childlike when they reach sexual maturity (“neoteny”). “Neoteny” (new-stretch) refers to a gene-controlled change in the way individuals mature, where they mature sexually at about a normal rate but, although the body grows in size as they become sexually mature, their juvenile features (and their ancestors’ juvenile features) are retained into adulthood and are not replaced by distinctively different adult features; in other words, a child becomes a larger, but sexually-mature, child. The evolution of man was accomplished by a number of genetic changes, but one of the most important was neoteny. Humans are the most neotenic Figure 6-1 of all primates. Notice, in Figure 6-1, 2 the remarkable and important comparison of an adult and baby chimpanzee. The adult chimpanzee did not retain his babyish face, but instead replaced it with a very different face. The more human-looking face of the baby chimp is much flatter, while the adult has a very protruding jaw. 3 Because the adult did not retain the baby’s face, the chimpanzee is not neotenic. Now imagine that the baby chimpanzee grew up to become sexually mature, but his face did not change; then the chimpanzee would be neotenic and would look much more human. Now that you know what neoteny is, it should not be difficult to see that man is neotenic. In fact, man is so neotenic that he has been described as a “sexually mature fetus.” 4 Many of our neotenic traits were vital to our evolution. As in most fetal mammals, including

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humans, the foramen magnum (the opening through which the spinal chord exits the skull) is more in the center of the base of the skull. As quadrupedal animals mature it moves to the rear (Table 9-2), but in humans, who are bipedal, it remains in its infant position (so the eyes are directed perpendicularly to the spine).In embryonic mammals, the vaginal opening is more to the front, and remains so in adult human females (for front-to-front intercourse) and does not move to the rear (for front-to-back intercourse), as in other mammals. Our big toe remains parallel to our other toes (for walking) and does not move to a 90° angle to them (for grasping) as in the great apes. Man’s neotenic traits also include a more gracile (i.e., less robust) skeleton, a skull that is larger (in proportion to body size), rounder, and more spherical with thinner bones, a flatter face with a less protruding jaw (“prognathism”) 5 and smaller teeth, little body hair, smaller arms, legs, fingers, and feet, and more fat under the skin, all traits found in primate babies. 6 Flesh-colored skin may also be neotenic in humans. Newborns of dark-skinned parents are lighter-skinned (Abner, 1998), then their skin darkens as they grow older. 7 It is interesting to note that young chimpanzees have flesh-colored skin which becomes blackish or black between ages 10 and 12 (Baker, 1974, p. 112); that suggests that our last common ancestor (LCA) with chimpanzees may also have had light skin when young. 8 There is some genetic evidence that “the common ancestors of all humans on earth had white skin under dark hair – similar to the skin and hair color pattern of today’s [young] chimpanzees.” 9 The hair of newborns is also straighter, even of African babies, and fetuses have an epicanthic fold (a fatty fold of skin that partially covers and protects the eyes, Figure 10-3), 10 so those traits are also neotenic. A white sclera (eyeball) may be neotenic as “most animals have sclera that darken with age, [but] humans retain white sclera all of their lives.” (Etcoff, 1999, p. 33). What caused man’s neoteny? The obvious answer is that before man became neotenic, individuals differed slightly in how neotenic they were, just as they differ in nearly all traits; man would have stayed non-neotenic forever, but his environment changed. After that change, those individuals who were more neotenic had more reproductive success than those who lacked alleles for neoteny, and the entire population became more neotenic. The next question is, “What environmental changes would make neotenic traits more advantageous?” A smaller, non-protruding jaw and less robustness (smaller bones and muscles) would be a major disadvantage in a fight. But, if man had advanced enough to develop tools and weapons, those traits would be unnecessary, a waste of the body’s resources and energy, and would reduce speed and agility. What other traits do babies have that, if an adult had them, would make that adult more likely to survive? Another possibility is a larger brain. In proportion to body size, babies have larger brains than adults, 11 and more neotenic adults usually have larger brains than less neotenic adults. It is also true that there is a moderate 12 correlation (r = 0.44, Lynn, 2006a, p. 214) between intelligence and brain size. 13 It is not a perfect correlation – people with large brains can still be stupid – but it is still a significant correlation. So it is possible that if the change in the environment required more intelligence to survive, then individuals who were more neotenic and therefore had larger brains and greater intelligence, would be selected. 14 If a population migrated from the tropics, where there is little seasonal change, to the north where there are four distinct seasons, including a long, cold, winter, more intelligence would be an asset in planning for the winter and provisioning food. Thus, seasonal differences in climate would select for more intelligence and therefore for more neotenic individuals. How severe the selection for intelligence would be is hard to estimate. Small brains are, after all, capable of provisioning for the winter – squirrels do it all the time and, in proportion to body size, their brains are far smaller than man’s were. Moreover, the brain is the body’s most

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costly organ, as it requires more energy (per unit weight) than any other organ. 15 An adult brain is about 2% (Leakey, 1994, p. 54) or 3% (Foley, 1995, p 170) of body weight but uses 20% of the body’s energy 16 and the average newborn’s brain consumes an amazing 75% of an infant’s daily energy needs. 17 A bigger brain may help solve more problems, but it is extra weight to carry around and requires extra food to keep it functioning. To see which way the assets and liabilities shifted, it is necessary to see how much intelligence in the north actually increased, which we will examine later in this book. Babies almost anywhere, except possibly in the tropics, must be kept warm to prevent death by hypothermia. Because of their small size (high surface area to mass ratio) they need to conserve heat and minimize the burning of calories. They have many traits that help them do this, which would be useful to adults who migrated north, one of which is baby fat. Babies have extra fat under their skin evenly distributed over their bodies which stores energy for their rapidly-growing brains, provides some protection against bumps, and keeps them warm. Other neotenic traits useful in colder climates include an epicanthic fold and traits that reduce surface area, 18 e.g., a flatter face, small hands and feet (Baker, 1974, p. 307), and a thick trunk, all of which are characteristic of northern Asian populations. This suggests that neoteny could be strongly selected for in a population that migrated into a colder climate. The most neotenic people on the planet are the East Asians and the most neotenic East Asians are the Koreans, who have the most subcutaneous fat, 19 followed closely by the Han Chinese and other Mongoloids. 20 Just like babies, East Asians have a round head with a flat chubby face, a small nose, short arms and legs, very little body hair, and extra fat evenly distributed over their entire body. Their “third eyelid” (epicanthic fold) and smaller eye sockets help to protect their eyes from the cold. Clearly, these people evolved to live in a cold climate and, since they became so neotenic, that suggests that neoteny was advantageous in that climate. (Chap. 4, Rule 11). The European lineage became neotenic as well, but much less so than the Asians. Europeans have longer heads, more hair, longer limbs, and the fat under their skin is less uniformly distributed; instead, it accumulates in unsightly bunches around the abdomen, hips, and thighs, providing a good source of income for the weight-loss industry. Most Africans are still less neotenic, but their lineage is more complicated, giving different African populations some very different traits. (Chap. 26). Chapter 7 Table of Contents FOOTNOTES 1. Sexual and physical maturation rates are controlled by only a few Hox (homeobox) genes, genes that turn on or off a host of other genes, in this case genes that regulate physical and sexual maturation, so genetically changing the physical or sexual maturation rate does not necessarily require a large number of mutations in order to occur. Neoteny may “work” by halting the additive process (Chap. 4, Rule 1) that occurs in the fetus. Back 2. From (Naturwissenschaften, Vol. 14, 1926, pp. 447-448). Figure 6-1 shows common chimpanzees. The differences are less striking for the more-neotenic bonobo chimpanzee. When the smaller baby chimp grew into the larger adult chimp, its skull cap did not enlarge; unlike humans, the chimp brain stops growing at a much earlier age. The difference between the young and adult orangutan is so great that an early naturalist (Saint-Hilaire, in 1836)

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thought they were not even in the same genus. Back 3. The protruding jaw appears by the age of sexual maturity, when males fight for access to females. The absence of this menacing jaw in the baby makes it appear harmless and arouses caring emotions. Back 4. “If I wished to express the basic principle of my ideas in a somewhat strongly worded sentence, I would say that man, in his bodily development, is a primate fetus that has become sexually mature.” Bolk,L.; Bolk, 1926). Back 5. “Young monkeys and young negroes, however, are not prognathous like their parents, but become so as they grow older.” (Cartwright, 1857, p. 45). Back 6. Baker (1974, p. 312) implies that wide-apart eyes are neotenic, though bonobos are neotenic and have eyes close together. (id, p. 113). Back 7. "Negro children and white children are alike at birth in one remarkable particular – they are both born white, … “ (Cartwright, 1857, p. 45). "Apes when new born have very much lighter skins than adults; additional pigment becomes deposited during later development, and the same is true of the Negro. In this respect the white races are neotenous, for they retain the embryonic conditions of other forms. (de Beer, 1951, pp. 58-59). Back 8. "It is likely, then, that the common ancestor of humans and chimpanzees had light skin covered with dark hair, ..." (Jablonski, 2006, p. 26). "Skin color of the infant langur, baboon, and macaque is pink, in contrast to the almost black skin of the older infant or adult." (Frost, P. "Parental Selection, Human Hairlessness, and Skin Color," Evo and Proud, Apr. 1, 2007). Back 9. (Rogers, 2004). “[Chimpanzees] are extraordinarily variable in skin color, running from a grayish pink that is almost white to black, with several yellowish shades between. Their color range is essentially the same as in the races of man …” (Coon, 1962, p. 145). Back 10. Epicanthic folds develop in fetuses of all races during the third to sixth month but disappear in Caucasians. Children with Down syndrome also have them. (Wikipedia, “Down Syndrome”). Back 11. At birth, a baby’s brain is 24% of its adult weight, while its body is only 5% of its adult weight (Coon, 1962, p. 78). Back 12. A “weak” correlation is less than 0.4, a “moderate” correlation is between 0.4 and 0.6, and a “strong” correlation is greater than 0.6. The correlation squared times 100 gives the percentage explained, e.g., a correlation of 0.6 explains 36% of the effect. Back 13. (Witelson, 2006; McDaniel, 2005). Back 14. Genius today is often associated with youthfulness. (Charlton, 2006). Back 15. “Grey matter is the gas-hog of our bodies.” (Sloan, C.P., National Geographic, Nov., 2006, p. 159). Back 16. Compared to 9% for a chimpanzee. (Arsuaga, 2001, p. 38). Back

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17. The acquisition and loss of traits, e.g., brain size, tails, ability to run, behavior (agriculture, seasonal migrations), and reproductive strategy (number, size, and frequency of offspring), can often be best explained in terms of energy expended and energy acquired. (Foley, 1995, p. 171, 176). Back 18. A sphere has the least amount of surface area (for the volume contained) of any threedimensional shape, hence a rounder head retains more heat. Minimizing projections, such as the arms, legs, fingers, and toes, makes a body more spherical and therefore helps to retain heat. (Allen’s Rule). Back 19. From 1910 to 1945, the Japanese used completely naked Korean women, well-insulated by subcutaneous fat, as pearl divers. (Rennie, 1962). Back 20. “…the yellow races are nearest to the infantile condition.” Havelock Ellis. Han Chinese males lack hair on their arms, legs, and chest and also lack beards, having only head hair and some auxiliary and pubic hair. They don’t even have "peach fuzz" on the arms and legs. Most pure Han women have only sparse hair on the mons pubis. Koreans are nearly as hairless. Back

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Chapter 7 - Genetic Distance Populations that are reproductively isolated, usually because they are separated geographically, gradually become genetically different. The principal reason for the differences is that the selectors in different environments (or the selection pressures of those selectors) are different. Also, if a portion of a population moves to a different territory, or becomes isolated from the rest of the population due to waters rising, rivers shifting, glaciers and deserts forming, or other reasons and, if some of those isolated people just happen to be a little genetically different from the remainder of the population, which is probable, the entire isolated population is likely to become even more genetically different, which is called the “Founder Effect.” Chance mutations may also arise in one population that do not arise in another population, or only one of the populations may interbreed with a third population. “Genetic distance” is a way of numerically expressing how genetically different two individuals or two populations are. As explained in Chapter 3, everyone has the same genes, e.g., we all have a gene for eye color, but each gene comes in an average of 14 different A-C-G-T sequences, called “alleles.” To determine the genetic distance between two individuals, the number of alleles that differ between them can be counted; 1 for populations, the number of people in each population who have a particular allele is counted (preferably using a large number of alleles to increase precision), and the results are expressed mathematically. 2 If the other person is your identical twin, all of your alleles and your twin’s alleles will be the same and the genetic distance between you will be zero. 3 If the other person is your child, at least half will be the same. (If his other parent has some of the same alleles that you do, more than half will be the same.) If a mating is incestuous, the number of the child’s alleles that are the same as a parent’s would be higher than if the parents were unrelated. The number of alleles in common is lower between cousins, still lower for people of your own ethny and race, 4 still lower for different races and, for different species, it continues to decrease as the age of the LCA between humans and the other species increases. If we plot your genetic distance (assuming you are Caucasian) from all the other people on the planet, it might look something like Figure 7-1. Figure 7-1 shows, very approximately, how genetic distance increases quickly as one moves away from one’s close relatives. Then a large increase in genetic distance occurs between you and Asians and a much larger increase between you and Africans. 5 It is not yet possible to completely analyze the DNA of every person on the planet 6 and compare any person’s DNA to any other person’s DNA in order to determine how many alleles are identical, but there are some shortcuts that give approximately the same results. The genetic distance (the “variance,” FST) between people and populations can Figure 7-1 be calculated from DNA sampling. 7 By collecting DNA samples from individuals around the world and counting SNPs, scientists have determined the genetic distances between various populations, ethnies, races, and species. The numbers at the top of Figure 7-2 (Cavalli-Sforza, 1991) give the percentage genetic distances (multiplied by 10,000) between various human populations using a modified Nei method of calculating genetic distance.

Figure 7-2 As to the three major races, Figure 7-2 shows that s-S Africans and everyone else are the most unrelated, and North Eurasians and Southeast Asians are the second most unrelated. Note that “Caucasoids” includes North Africans (i.e., around the Mediterranean Sea), S.W. Asians (Middle East), and Indians (from India). Also note that N.E. Asians and American Indians are more closely related to Caucasians than they are to Southeast Asians.

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Figure 7-3 Figure 7-3 is a graph that positions 42 human populations along two axes that measure differences between two highly variable sections of mtDNA. (Cavalli-Sforza, 1994, p. 82). The First PC (Principal Component) and Second PC divide the data into the two halves that have the greatest and second greatest variance, respectively (Wikipedia “Principal Components Analysis”); Africans are on one side of the two PC axes and everyone else is on the other side because Africans differ genetically the most from everyone else. Since some populations (Eurasians) have evolved more than others (Africans), the point where the First and Second PC axes cross is not necessarily at or close to the LCA for the populations on the graph. Mongol: Nomadic people of Mongolia. Tibetan: People of Tibet. Eskimo: People inhabiting the Arctic coastal regions of North America, Greenland, and northeast Siberia. Na-Dene: North American Indian language. Uralic: Language family that comprises the Finno-Uric and Samoyedic subfamilies [named after the Ural Mountains]. North Turkic: Turkey. Ainu: A separate indigenous people that live in Japan. [See p. 206]. South Dravidian: A language spoken by peoples in southern India and northern Sri Lanka. Chukchi: Northeast Siberia. Lapp: Nomadic herding people in northern Scandinavian countries. Basque: A people inhabiting north central Spain [said to be the most homogeneous racial group found by Cavalli-Sforza, early Europeans, with their own unique language].

Sardinian: Sardinia, an island west of Italy. Thai: A people of Thailand. Polynesian: A division of Oceania including scattered islands of the central and southern Pacific Ocean roughly between New Zealand, Hawaii, and Easter Island. Melanesian: Islands northeast of Australia and south of the equator. Khmer: A people of Cambodia. Micronesian: A division of Oceania in the western Pacific Ocean comprising islands east of the Philippines and north of the equator. Malaysian: Southern Malay Peninsula and the northern part of the island of Borneo. Berber: North Africa. San: Nomadic hunting people of southwest Africa. Mbuti: African pygmies. Bantu: linguistically related central and southern Africans. Nilo-Saharan: linguistically related sub-Saharan Africans from Nigeria to Kenya regions of North America, Greenland and northeast Siberia.

As you can see in Figure 7-3, Europeans are in the top right corner, Africans are in the lower right corner, 8 and Asians are on the left side. The Nguni, Sotho, and Tsonga are South Africans, the Blaka (Figure 7-4) are pygmies in Niger, and the Mbuti are pygmies in the NE Congo. Note that the center of the graph is relatively empty, even though it represents the average of these measurements. This is because, although all these populations were once a single population, they have been becoming increasingly genetically different, on their way to becoming different species. Figure 7-5 is a map from the same work and Figure 7-4 shows populations grouped according to genetic Figure 7-5 similarity. Africans are yellow, Caucasoids green, Mongoloids dark blue, and Australian Aborigines brownish-red. There is a Caucasoid component in the people of northern Africa, which does not show up well in the map. The map clearly shows that people who are genetically similar occupy the same geographical area, just as one would expect; 9 in other words, race is real.

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Figure 7-6 compares the genetic distance (numbers at the bottom) between African (blue in A and B and green in C) and European populations (red in A and B and yellow in C). 10 The vertical black lines at the top are the means and the horizontal black lines at the top are the standard deviations. In Figure 7-6, note that when alleles that are common in Africa are compared to alleles that are common in Europe (graph C) the two populations can be separated with close to 100% accuracy. The means are farther apart and the genetic distances are greater in graph C. In graphs A and B the means are close together, the genetic distances are smaller, and there is much more overlapping because far fewer alleles that are unique to those populations were used in the comparison. Returning to numerical genetic distances, CavalliSforza’s team (1994) compiled tables that give the genetic distance separating 2,000 different racial groups from each other. Table 7-1 gives the genetic distance (using the FST method of calculation) between a few selected populations in percent (multiplied by 10,000), e.g., Bantu-Australian aborigine FST = 0.3272%. 11 Figure 7-6

Bantu E. Africa W. Africa San India Near East Korea S. China English Australia

Ban 0 658 188 94 2202 1779 2668 2963 2288 3272

E.Af. W.Af. San Ind. N.E. Kor. S.C. Eng. Aus. 0 697 776 1078 709 1475 1664 1163 2131

0 885 1748 1454 1807 1958 1487 2694

0 1246 0 880 229 0 1950 681 933 0 2231 847 983 498 0 1197 280 236 982 1152 0 2705 1176 1408 850 1081 1534 0 Table 7-1 Note that, of the Africans, the Bantu and San, who live in South Africa, are genetically close. The East Africans, who live in the Horn of Africa, where the Eurasians entered Africa, are closer to non-Africans than any other Africans and are the population that is the most genetically distant from other Africans. Also note that the most unrelated people are the Bantu and the Australian aborigines. Once numerical genetic distance data had been collected, it became possible to calculate other results, some of which are quite startling. For example, we all assume that a mother is more closely related to her own child than she is to anyone else’s child, but that is not always true. For most Asians, and a large (but less than half) percentage of white Europeans, a mulatto child with a Bantu African would be less closely related to them than a randomly-selected child of their own race! 12 The explanation for that strange result is simple – the isolation of the Bantus from the Eurasians has resulted in the two populations becoming so genetically different from each other that, because Eurasians have interbred among themselves for at least tens of thousands of years, the neighbor’s child has more alleles in common with the Eurasian than the Eurasian does to his or her own mulatto child. 13 Compared to all the human genetic variation in the world, people in the same ethnic group can be almost as related to each other as a parent is to his child. (Salter, 2003, pp. 42, 67, 124, 327, 329). “… in most situations individuals have a larger genetic stake in their ethnic groups than in their families.” (Salter, 2003, p. 37). Thus, racism is in everyone’s genetic interest. Genetic distances are useful in trying to figure out man’s genetic tree, which shows how people evolved into their present populations. The less the genetic distance between populations, the more recently they were a single population or, at least, the more recently they interbred. A theory of human origins has to be consistent with, at least approximately, the genetic distances between different populations. The concept of genetic distance has, however, been distorted by the egalitarians to show that everyone is genetically about the same. 14 For example, in his January, 2000, State of the Union address, then President Bill Clinton stated, “We are all, regardless of race, 99.9 percent the same.” The implication is that the remaining 0.1% will produce only trivial differences and can be ignored, but “one-tenth of 1 percent of 3 billion is a heck of a large number -- 3 million nucleotide differences between two random genomes.” (Anthropologist John Hawks ). 15 On the other hand, … “We share 98.4 percent of our genes with chimpanzees, 95 percent with dogs, and 74 percent with microscopic roundworms. Only one chromosome determines if one is born male or female. There is no discernible difference in the DNA of a wolf and a Labrador retriever, [16] yet their inbred behavioral differences are immense. [17] Clearly, what’s meaningful is which genes differ and how they are patterned, not the percent of genes. A tiny number of genes can translate into huge functional differences.” 18 The fact that the percentage difference between populations is small is not the whole story. Although some genes code for very specific traits that are not even easily detected, other genes, such as Hox genes, 19 can turn on or off large collections of genes and thereby have an immense effect on an individual’s traits. (Zimmer, 1996). Another distortion that has been repeated many times in the media is known as “Lewontin’s Fallacy.” (Edwards, 2003; Sarich, 2004, p. 169). Richard Lewontin stated, “nearly 85 per cent of humanity’s genetic diversity occurs among individuals within a single population.” 20 “In other words, two individuals are different because they are individuals, not because they belong to different races.” 21 Therefore, the egalitarians gleefully concluded (e.g., Zimmer, 2001, p. 81), that it is meaningless to classify people in races – biologically, there is no such thing as “race.” 22 Unfortunately, Lewontin made a statistical error because he was comparing differences in the alleles of single genes instead of groups of genes that are unique to each race. If you are told that Al has dark skin, Bob has very curly hair, Carl has short hair, Dave has black hair, Earl has long arms, Frank has a protruding jaw, Garth has a broad flat nose, and Harvey has small ears, you could not correctly identity the race of those people because those traits occasionally appear in people of all races. 23 Lewontin and the egalitarians

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would yell, “See, there is no such thing as race!” But suppose you are also told that those eight people are all the same person. Now you can easily correctly identify his race because having a collection of certain traits, or the alleles that code for those traits, is how we identify a race. (Figure 7-5). Some people become immortal for their discoveries, others for their mistakes. 24

Figure 7-7 Similarities between the original languages spoken in different geographical areas coincide well with genetic similarities, 25 suggesting common ancestral populations. Figure 7-7 presents the results of an analysis of language similarities. In Figure 7-7, the small solid round circles are the locations of the Y chromosomes of populations relative to the two principal coordinate axes and the dotted ellipses enclose populations with similar languages. Note that language similarities coincide well (but not perfectly) with genetic similarities, as one would expect. The “Khoisan” cluster is the Bushmen and Hottentots (pp. 224-226), the “Niger-Congo” cluster is the western s-S Africans, the “AfroAsiatic” cluster is the North Africans, Middle Easterners, and Sephardic and Ashkenazic Jews, and the “Indo-European” cluster is the people from India, the Australian aborigines, and the Europeans. Chapter 8 Table of Contents FOOTNOTES 1. More accurately, the number of differences in the A-C-G-T bases on each allele (the number of SNPs) is counted. If the bases are different, but synonymous (see Appendix), that is still a SNP. However, SNPs are not the whole story. One SNP may make its allele 100% compatible with all the other alleles, while another SNP may make its allele incompatible; counting SNPs does not capture that information, which is relevant to the concept of “genetic distance.” Besides counting SNPs, the number of generations to an LCA could be counted; if you are Caucasian, there are more generations between your LCA with an African than between your LCA with another Caucasian. The number of paths of descent per generation (preferably weighted by relatedness) from you to your LCA with another person also provides an indication of genetic distance; if the other person is the same race as you, that number will be greater than 1, its magnitude increasing with the amount of inbreeding. All races are inbred, and inbreeding reduces the number of ancestors because more ancestors are the same individual, thereby increasing the number of paths of descent. (Sailer, S., “’Pedigree Collapse’ Due to Inbreeding,” iSteve Blog, March 17, 2006). Back 2. The numerical result will depend upon the equations used, but the same relationships are obtained for the major methods. Back 3. Although identical twins have the same alleles, their environment may have altered the expression of those alleles in a way that is heritable so, in that case, one might say that they differ genetically. Also, a process called “random monoallelic expression” causes individual cells to switch off an allele received from one of the parents. (Gimelbrant, 2007). Back 4. “[O]n average, people are as closely related to other members of their subracial "ethnic" group (e.g., Japanese or Italian) versus the rest of the world as they are related to their grandchildren or nephews and nieces versus the rest of their ethnic group.” (Sailer, 2007a). A race is “a partly inbred extended family.” (Sailer, 2002). A race is “a group of persons related by common descent or heredity.” (Webster’s College Dictionary, Random House). Back 5. Within the last 60,000 yrs, the genetic distance between the races has increased due to their more rapid evolution in different directions. (Hawks, 2007; Barreiro, 2008). Back 6. The complete genomes of 2 Caucasians, 1 Asian, and 1 African (Nigerian) have now been sequenced, but only the two Caucasian sequences have been released to the public. (“Illumina unveils genome sequence of African male,” Nature News, Feb. 13, 2008). Back 7. (Salter, 2003; the mathematics of doing this will be omitted). Genetic distance data can be mitochondrial or autosomal; it is not always clear which are being used, but the mitochondrial values are much higher. (John Goodwin, "The Race FAQ"). Back 8. The genetic difference between Africans and Europeans is so distinct that the proportion of European admixture in African Americans can be determined with a margin of error of only 0.02. (Destro-Bisol, 1999). Back 9. This is to be expected because people in the same geographical area face the same selectors and share alleles due to interbreeding. “Racial categorizations have never been based on skin pigment, but on indigenous continent of origin.” (Risch, 2002). Back

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10. (Witherspoon, 2007; graph A compares individual Africans to individual Europeans, graph B compares each individual to the centroid of its population, and graph C compares alleles common in Africa to alleles common in Europe; also see "Italians," excerpted from Rosenberg, 2005). Back 11. Taken from (Salter, 2003, p. 64, based on Cavalli-Sforza, 1994). Comparisons can be made between populations, such as that the South Chinese are about six times as closely related to the Koreans as they are to the Bantu (2963/498 = ~6). Back 12. The statement will therefore be true of any population where the genetic distance, “FST,” between it and Bantus is greater than 0.25%; even if the “FST” of the population is less than 0.25%, the statement will still be true of a percentage of the population, which will increase with its “FST” to the Bantus. (Salter, 2003, pp. 38, 45, 46, 64). Relatedness, r, = (½)n, where “n” is the number of generations between two related people. (Salter, 2003, p. 38). For a parent and his child, n=1 so r = ½. Kinship, f = r/2 (Salter, p. 45), so your kinship to your child is ¼. The local kinship coefficient, fo = FST + (1 – FST)[ –1/(2N – 1)], where “FST” is the genetic distance or variance and “N” is the number of people in the population. (Salter, p. 46). If the population, N, is large, then – 1/(2N – 1) will be close to zero and fo FST. Back 13. In fact, people tend to choose mates who look like their parent of the opposite sex, thereby ensuring that their children will have more of their alleles and that favorable traits will be passed on to their own children. (Bereczkei, 2004). Back 14. Craig Ventor, the “star” of the Human Genome Project, reported the 99.9% figure in 2001, but now admits that it is wrong and the true figure is over 7 times greater. (World Science, “Finding said to show ‘race isn’t real’ scrapped,” Sept. 3, 2007). Back 15. (Tang, 2005) showed that self-described race coincides almost perfectly with genetically-identified race. (Korbel, 2007) found that rearrangement of large chunks of DNA made the differences 2 to 5 times larger than the widely-quoted 0.1%. In addition, large strings of DNA are duplicated, missing, or inverted, and that may be even more important for explaining racial differences. (Lucito, 2003; Eichler, 2006; Nguyen, 2006; Redon, 2006). When those differences are included, people can differ genetically by at least 12%. (Redon, 2006; Komura, 2006). In addition to racial differences in alleles, there are also racial differences in the expression of those alleles. (Spielman, 2007). “The genetic differences between continentally defined groups are sufficiently large that one can accurately predict ancestral continent of origin using only a minute, randomly selected fraction of the genetic variation present in the human genome.” (Allocco, 2007; also see Newsome, M., “The Inconvenient Science of Racial DNA Profiling,” Wired, Oct. 5, 2007). Back 16. Breeds of dogs are vastly more different in appearance than races of people, yet they are so genetically similar that until 2003 geneticists could not distinguish between them using DNA. (Sarich, 2004, p. 185). Back 17. Since behavioral changes drive genetic changes (Chap. 4, Rule 12), one can expect behavior to be vital to reproductive success and therefore to be largely genetically controlled. Back 18. Entine, J., “Demystifying Genetics: What Sydney Can Teach Us About Science,” San Francisco Examiner, Sept. 20, 2000). (“Tiny genetic differences have huge consequences,” PHYSORG.com, Jan. 19, 2008). Back 19. Hox genes are highly conserved, i.e., they don’t mutate much. “It is mind-boggling to realize that, for all intents and purposes, many differences between a fruit fly and a human may lie pretty much in where and when certain homeobox genes are activated.” (Schwartz, 1999, p. 13). “Geneticists believe that just one regulatory gene, the testis determining factor on the Y chromosome, is responsible for all sex differences.” (Salter, 2003, p. 90). Back 20. “Evidence from the analysis of genetics (e.g., DNA) indicates that most physical variation, about 94%, lies within so-called racial groups. Conventional geographic ‘racial’ groupings differ from one another only in about 6% of their genes.” American Anthropological Association Statement on “Race.” Similarly, "Greater mtDNA differences appeared within the single breeds of Doberman pinscher or poodle than between dogs and wolves." (The 85% truism, Evo and Proud, Jan. 4, 2008). Back 21. In a 1972 paper, "The apportionment of human diversity," and again in a 1974 book, The Genetic Basis of Evolutionary Change. Back 22. The popular science magazine, Discover, published (Jan., 2004, No. 25) an article, “Our Genes Prove It: We Are Family,” which asserted “Humans are all so closely related that our entire population shows less genetic diversity than that of a small group of chimpanzees,” a version of Lewontin’s Fallacy. Also see (Jared Diamond, “Race Without Color,” Discover, Nov., 1994). New Scientist (Buchanan, M., "Are we born prejudiced?" Mar. 17-23, 2007) informs us that “… what we recognize as racial markers are biologically next to meaningless,” and Scientific American ( Dec. 2003), published “Does Race Exist?” which denied that genetic information can be used to distinguish human groups that have a common heritage and assign individuals to those groups, even though for about $100 you can have a DNA test done that will do exactly that, though they will tell you it is the “geographical area” your ancestors came from, not your racial makeup; the origin of Europeans can sometimes be determined from DNA to within a few hundred kilometers. None of these magazines apologized to their readers for misleading them. “Repeatable, independent academic research has established that with 100 genetic markers, it is possible to sort people whose known ancestors are from Africa, Europe, Asia, or the Americas with almost 100 percent accuracy.” (Sarich, 2004, p. 21; also, Witherspoon, 2007). Other scientists determined the continent people came with “perfect intercontinental differentiation” using only 14 SNPs; only 50 SNPs were needed to assign people to 9 different populations. (Paschou, 2007). Indeed, in some cases, "DNA could reveal your surname" and, if you are European, your geographic origin "within a few hundred kilometers" of where you were born. (Novembre, 2008 Back 23. See (Witherspoon, 2001, 2007) for a detailed explanation of Lewontin's Fallacy. Actually, for some traits, such as Gm blood type, you could fairly accurately determine a person’s race. A person who is fb1b3 is almost certainly white or who is ab1b3 is almost certainly s-S African. Back 24. To be fair, Lewontin has made important contributions to biology, e.g., the mathematics of population genetics. On the other hand, he has also denied that humans have genetic interests in their ethnies, again revealing his allegiance to politics over science. (Dobzhansky et al., ed., Evolutionary Biology, 1972, Vol. 6., pp. 381-98). Here is another example of Lewontin’s Fallacy by a group that should know better: “Evidence from the analysis of genetics (e.g., DNA) indicates that most physical variation, about 94%, lies within so-called racial groups. Conventional geographic "racial" groupings differ from one another only in about 6% of their genes. This means that there is greater variation

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within "racial" groups than between them.” American Anthropological Association Statement on "Race" (May 17, 1998). Back 25. (Poloni, 1997). “Mex” is Mexican Indians, “Pol” is Polynesians, “Bas” is Basque, and “Chi” is Chinese. Lack of data prevented inclusion of much of Asia in the graph. Back

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Chapter 8 - Evolutionary Psychology 1 “Blood is thicker than water." 2 Heinrich der Glichezaere Where you end up depends upon where you start. In other words, the conclusions reached by correct reasoning are determined by one’s premises. Certainly, someone whose premise is that all people are genetically equal will reach vastly different conclusions than a person who believes there are significant genetic differences. In this chapter, the premise, which is supported by evolution (Chap. 4), selection (Chap. 5), and genetic differences (Chap. 7), is that the alleles, and therefore the traits, that are passed on to and survive in future generations, are those that code for traits that aid in putting those alleles into future generations. That is so obvious, it may seem like a tautology, but it is not. The successful alleles could be those that code for goodness, love, and universal brotherhood, but they are not, because alleles get into the next generation not as a reward for virtue, but as a result of the reproductive success that results from the traits they code for. That premise has profound implications, as the remainder of this book will demonstrate. Not only are there genetic differences between individuals but, as we saw in the previous chapter, entire populations are, on average, genetically different from other populations. In this chapter, we answer the questions, “Are people able to, at least roughly, discern the genetic distance between themselves and others, i.e., whether others carry more of the same alleles that they have?” and, “Do they act on that information to further their own reproductive success?” In other words, are our alleles influencing our behavior to make us favor our own alleles? 3 In this chapter, we examine the evolutionary rationality of inherited behavior; we do not consider learned behavior, i.e., “culture.” Shared Alleles Genes are the unit of inheritance. Other than women nursing infants and organ transplants, we don’t pass our flesh on to our descendants, as an amoeba does when it divides into two amoebae. We don’t even pass on our traits – you cannot “give” your children your red hair or high IQ. What we pass on is a copy of one of our two blueprints, i.e., half our chromosomes, our gene regulators, and our mtDNA if we are female. Each of our 23 pairs of chromosomes contains the same genes that everyone else has, but we will frequently have alleles of those genes that are not the same as the alleles that many other people have. One half of the father’s genes (23 chromosomes) become part of his sperm and one half of the mother’s genes (23 chromosomes) become part of her egg, and the corresponding chromosomes pair up again after fertilization. 4 Since portions of chromosomes are mixed up in forming the 23 chromosomes for each sperm and for each egg (“cross-over,” p. 26), two siblings, other than identical twins, could, theoretically, receive completely different alleles or exactly the same alleles, depending upon luck during crossover and whether the mother and father had no alleles that the other had or had all the same alleles that the other had (both very unlikely). If the parents are 100% heterozygous their two siblings will, on average receive half of the same alleles 5 but, since parents are likely to have some of the same alleles, siblings are likely to have more than half their alleles in common. When the father’s copy and the mother’s copy pair up in their child, only one allele in each pair may be expressed, or each allele may be partly expressed. But alleles that aren’t there cannot be expressed, i.e., you cannot have a heritable trait unless you have the particular alleles that code for that trait. And, even if your child has the alleles for a trait, unless some of his other alleles motivate and enable him to survive and reproduce, all of the alleles in his body

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die when he does. Conversely, if the child does have alleles that motivate and enable him to reproduce, each parent’s alleles in their child have at least a 50% chance of being passed on to the child’s progeny. (If he receives the same allele of a gene from both parents, one of those two alleles is certain to be passed on if he has progeny.) Alleles don’t “want” to survive and get passed on. They are, after all, just strings of DNA in a chromosome. But if they code for traits that motivate and enable the individual to pass them on (alleles A in Figure 8-1), they may be passed on; otherwise, they are not passed on (alleles B in Fig. 8-1). So, as Samuel Butler insightfully put it (Life and Habit, 1877, p. 134), “A hen is only an egg’s way of making another egg.” That is, an individual, with his collection of allele-expressed traits that motivate him to reproduce, can be thought of as his alleles’ way of making more of those same alleles (in other Figure 8-1 individuals). This means that every living thing must be “selfish,” in the sense of placing its own reproductive success first, or it is simply out of the game. A unique collection of alleles in an “unselfish” organism, that makes no effort to achieve reproductive success, lasts only a single generation. To put it more abstractly, a fertilized egg contains a set of instructions that, given the appropriate environment, causes another fertilized egg to be made that contains a copy of at least half of those same instructions. But alleles have another way of getting a copy of themselves into the next generation of eggs, besides making the egg they are presently in become a reproducing hen (or rooster) that makes more eggs. Since alleles are instructions written in DNA, animals don’t need to reproduce the normal way, by putting copies of their DNA into an egg; they are just as reproductively successful if the DNA that is put into the egg is identical to their DNA. Who puts that DNA into the egg is of no biological importance because the next generation is the same either way though, of course, having someone do the putting isn’t nearly as much fun. Thus, if animals don’t reproduce at all, but instead help others of their species to put the same instructions that they have into the eggs, they are just as reproductively successful as if they themselves put a copy of their own DNA into those eggs. Social insects, such as honeybees, are a good example of the “helping-othersreproduce-who-have-my-alleles” reproductive strategy, i.e., “altruism.” 6) The worker bees are females and do not reproduce, but they spend their lives helping the queen, their mother, to reproduce. The resulting siblings carry, on average, three-fourths of the workers’ alleles. 7 Thus, when the workers die of exhaustion without ever reproducing, they still pass on most their alleles to the next generation through the siblings they fed and cared for, any one of which can be fed royal jelly to turn it into another queen with three-fourths of their alleles. Here is an amazing discovery about the relatedness of alleles: if a population is isolated and its members breed among themselves, the relatedness among them can rise to as high as ½, the same as between parents and their children or between siblings! 8 Thus, if that maximum were to be reached, the members of that group could help pass on their unique alleles as much by helping another member of their group as they could by helping their own brother or sister. Indeed, if another member of their group is better positioned to reproduce (younger, healthier, better traits), a member could increase his reproductive success more by helping him than by

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helping his own siblings. 9 Every person therefore has a genetic interest in the welfare of his own group, ethny, and race, and favoring them over others is rational and adaptive. 10 Alleles that code for altruistic behavior are more advantageous in populations where individuals are able to identify and help those who carry their alleles, e.g., where relatives don’t scatter, individuals differ genetically in their appearance, odor, or behavior (so that those having similar traits can be identified), and pair bonding reduces promiscuity (so that men know who their children are). Racial differences in altruism have not yet been quantified, 11 but northern populations, which pair bond more and are more “K” orientated reproductively, should be more genetically altruistic. Like all traits, there is an optimal amount of altruism. Too little or too much means resources are not being used to maximize reproductive success and, as with other traits, populations will tend to evolve towards the optimal amount of altruism. A population that is reproductively isolated, and therefore inbreed and less diverse, will have a higher optimal amount of altruism because the likelihood that others carry the same alleles is higher. If two reproductively isolated populations, one high in altruism and the other low in altruism, are intermixed, they will each continue expressing their differing degrees of altruism, the low altruism population taking advantage of the generosity of the high altruism population. This is the situation that now exists in the multicultural western nations, where genetically different immigrants from the warmer climates, who are less altruistic, have been allowed to move into northern wealthier nations whose populations are genetically closely related and who have a higher optimal amount of altruism. Now that you know the behavior predicted by the logic of our genes, let’s see if real people actually behave that way. Altruism is most commonly seen in animals that live in inbreed groups, such as humans, especially if they care for their young. 12 We make our greatest sacrifices for our children 13) because, unless we have an identical twin, our children carry more of our alleles than any of our other relatives (your parents may carry about the same number as your children but, since they are older, they may be less likely to reproduce and less in need). Your child has at least half of your alleles, 14 so if you help him survive (so that he can reproduce), you are helping at least half of your alleles to survive and, hopefully, make you a happy grandparent. The more related you are to another person, the greater the number of your alleles he is likely to carry, and the more your sacrifice for him increases your fitness, your likelihood of reproductive success. 15 Alleles in common, and therefore altruism, decreases with increasing genetic distance, i.e., from blood family members to blood relatives to ethny to race to species to genus, etc. 16 If you have a will and your wealth goes mostly to your relatives in approximately the order they are related to you, then you behave as predicted. If you have ever been to a funeral, you have probably observed that the amount of grief that you and other mourners feel is proportional to how closely you and they are related to the deceased. Indeed, that is so obvious and normal that people would be puzzled if it were not so. Grandparents grieve more for their daughter’s children than their son’s children, because they are more certain they are related (Littlefield, 1986), i.e., their son’s wife may have cheated on him. And identical twins grieve more for their dead co-twin than do fraternal twins, who sharer fewer alleles. (Rushton, 2005a; Segal, 2002). In general, people grieve more for someone who has more of his alleles (e.g., a child of the same race), as that is a greater genetic loss. 17 Unrelated people living together are more likely to kill each other than are related people. (Daly, 1988). Children in the U.S. are about 100 times as likely to be abused or murdered by a parent if one of the parents is a stepparent. (Schnitzer, 2005; Daly, 1988). We care more about our own children than the children of strangers, we practice nepotism, our charity is greater when we give to our own ethny, and we even care more about how we treat gorillas, chimpanzees, and orangutans than we do about mice, which aren’t as closely related.

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A man will help his sister’s children more than his brother’s children because his brother’s wife may have cuckolded him, but he knows his sister’s children are related to him and carry his alleles. 18 For the same reason, we help our mother’s sister’s children more than our other cousins (Jeon, 2007) and maternal grandparents are more willing to travel to see their grandchildren than paternal grandparents. (Pollet, 2007). “Blood is thicker than water” because our alleles are pulling the strings, and those persons who did not have alleles pulling their strings to induce them to pass on their alleles have long since departed without progeny. 19 And how do we know how closely related another person is to us? It was only recently in man’s history that he kept records of who his relatives were, but there are two methods that can be, and are, used, even by animals: (1) Location – if it is in your nest, it is probably yours. That is why, when cowbirds lay their eggs in the nests of other species, the non-parents feed them even when the rapidly growing cowbird chicks push their own chicks out onto the ground. (2) Traits – the more it looks like you, smells like you, and behaves like you, the more of your alleles it is likely to have. Although humans do smell and behave differently, appearance is more telling. (Rushton, 2005b). A woman knows for certain who her children are, but until DNA analysis came along, a man could never be sure. That is why the first words a new mother says to her mate are, “He looks just like you.” 20 She is reassuring him that he is, indeed, the father, so that he will make sacrifices that will enhance her baby’s chances of surviving. Amazingly, people pick not only spouses (Bereczkei, 2008) and friends (Rushton, 1989) who have similar traits, and are therefore more genetically similar, but even pick pets that look similar to themselves. 21 And the more heritable a trait is, the more it is used to determine how closely related someone is. (Rushton, 2005a). In other words, we are attracted to our own traits in others. 22 We do not have to be consciously aware that we are doing this because our alleles provide us with stimulation to the pleasure centers of our brain if we do it. All we have to do is “act normally” and not consciously resist our desire for that pleasure. 23 Even though we try to treat all our children equally, it is hard to resist favoring those who are most similar to us. And how could it be otherwise? People who favor carriers of dissimilar alleles over carriers of similar alleles are killing off their own alleles. Before a population can be moral, creative, productive, or anything else, it must first survive and pass on its alleles. Inter-Ethny Dynamics Now let us apply the findings of evolutionary psychology to the behavior between ethnies, which are groups of people who are not necessarily close relatives, but are more genetically-related to each other than to people in another group. Nations were first formed from ethnies to reduce internal conflicts and to protect and advance interests of the ethny vis-à-vis other ethnies, just as individuals act to advance their individual interests. Thus, “nations” were, at least in part, founded on genetic similarity. 24 Today, egalitarians promote “concept nations” – politically organized groups of mixtures of ethnies who supposedly share common values, e.g., democracy, Western standards of behavior and justice, etc. Concept nations can not be stable (i.e., long lasting), however, because the individuals within them can advance their own genetic interests more by helping individuals of their own ethny than by helping individuals of other ethnies, and that is exactly what they do, for the simple reason that those who do not do that will have less reproductive success and will eventually go extinct; favoring one’s own ethny can be avoided only if the nation comprises a single ethny, i.e., multiculturalism is not stable. Moreover, the more inbred (i.e., genetically related) people within the ethnies in a mixed ethny concept nation are, the more ethnocentric they will be and the more they will act to advance the interests of their own ethny vis-à-vis other ethnies. When ethnies are in the same territory, they will compete for resources and there will be ethnic conflicts, the severity of which will be roughly proportional to their ethnocentrism and the

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genetic distance between them. 25 A mutually beneficial relationship (“mutualism”) between ethnies living in the same territory is not stable because the carrying capacity of all territories is limited and each ethny either expands its own population or eventually goes extinct. 26 Only if ethnies live in different territories and meet only to trade are stable, mutually beneficial relationships between them possible, 27 and that is the only stable relationship between ethnies. When ethnies live in the same territory, their relationship will not for long be a mutually beneficial one. Instead, one ethny will be a predator and the other its prey, or one ethny will be a parasite and the other its host. In both cases, the prey or host does not consent and therefore neither relationship is stable. In a predator-prey relationship, the predator ethny uses open violence against the prey ethny, e.g., colonialism, slavery, war, local gangs. In a parasite-host relationship, however, open violence by the parasitic ethny is not possible as the host ethny is more numerous and is militarily dominant. 28 Moreover, the host ethny regards the parasitic activities of the parasitic ethny as unfair, unethical, immoral, illegal, or criminal, making it necessary for the parasitic ethny to either (1) conceal its parasitism so that the host ethny is not aware that it is being parasitized or (2) incapacitate its host ethny 29 so that even though its host ethny is aware that it is being parasitized, it is unable to free itself. Both require controlling the media 30 and the government - a “covert coup.” These tactics are major and expensive operations requiring years to put into place. They are therefore available only to a parasitic ethny that has access to a great deal of wealth. When the host ethny discovers that it is being parasitized, and it is able to free itself, the parasite-host relationship ends, perhaps not pleasantly for those in the parasitic ethny. Neither a predator-prey relationship nor a parasitehost relationship is likely to last indefinitely because conflict is inherent in both relationships. There are two possible resolutions of ethnic conflict over territory: (1) one ethny wins and destroys or expels the other or (2) the ethnies interbreed and become a single ethny. Expelling the parasitic ethny preserves the genetic uniqueness both ethnies; interbreeding destroys it. Individuals within the parasitic ethny develop a set of values, even a religion, that justifies their parasitism, simply because those individuals who feel their behavior is their right and feel no remorse, shame, or guilt are more effective parasites and are therefore reproductively more successful. Individuals in the parasitic ethny are therefore selected for a lack of empathy, i.e., for sociopathy; such individuals differ genetically from everyone else in that their mirror neurons, which enable people to empathize with the feelings of others, are absent or turned off. The parasitic ethny will rather quickly achieve a high percentage of sociopaths, people who are charismatic, charming, and often well-liked, but whose only goal in life is winning, i.e., defeating those outside their ethny. 31 The parasitic ethny cannot become less virulent, as microbial parasites do,32 because they are too invested – genetically, socially, religiously, and culturally – in their parasitic lifestyle and less parasitic individuals within their ethny are selected against even by others in their own ethny, i.e., they do not rise to positions of influence within their ethny. Like all parasites, they are specialized and cannot easily become more generalized. 33 Host and parasite ethnies are on a collision course and neither can back down. – – – o0o – – – The evidence that human behavior is so strongly influenced by our genes is disturbing news to the egalitarians, who want man to be brain-washable, 34 so that his behavior can be controlled, which is difficult or impossible if behavior is in our genes, even if the genetic influence is subtle. Now the findings in evolutionary psychology have become even more controversial and abhorrent to the egalitarians because, as we saw in the preceding chapter,

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geneticists have found that individuals of the same ethnicity and/or race share more of the same alleles than do others and, as described in the last few paragraphs, sharing alleles can strongly affect the behavior of genetically cohesive groups as well as individuals. To those of us whose minds are not self-censored, this may seem obvious, but it is an unwelcome truth to the egalitarians, for whom everyone must be genetically the same in order to be genetically equal. And not only are people genetically different, but they are genetically programmed to favor others who are genetically similar 35 – horror of horrors, racism is not only genetic, but it serves our most important biological purpose – the survival of our alleles! 36 Section II Table of Contents FOOTNOTES 1. Scientists who studied the relationship between behavior towards others and possession of similar alleles were initially called “sociobiologists” (Wilson, 1975), but they were so vilified by the egalitarians that they changed the name of their science to “evolutionary psychology.” (Barkow, 1992). Genetic similarity theory (Rushton, 2000a, pp. 69-90), i.e., "birds of a feather flock together," and population genetics are subsets of evolutionary psychology. Back 2. "Verwandschaftsblut wird nicht durch Wasser verdünnt." (c. 1130, “Reynald the Fox”) Back 3. The premise of evolutionary psychology is that inherited behavior, like all inherited traits, is present (barring abnormalities) because it enhanced reproductive success. Back 4. Just to be clear, each parent contributes half of his (or her) child’s chromosomes and therefore half of the child’s alleles, i.e., two alleles for each gene, one from each parent. That does not mean that only half of the child’s alleles are identical to that parent’s alleles. The more of one parent’s alleles that are the same as the other parent’s alleles, the more alleles the child will have that are the same as that parent’s, if the other parent donated the corresponding allele for that gene that is in the chromosome he did not donate (and the probability that he or she will do so is ½). Thus, a person can pass on more of his alleles if he chooses a mate who is genetically more similar to himself and therefore who has more of the same alleles that he has. A child could have 100% of one parent’s alleles if one parent has a set A of alleles in one chromosome and a set B in the other chromosome, the other parent has sets B and C, and the child receives set B from one parent and set C from the other. "Sexually interacting couples who produced a child together are more genetically similar than either randomly paired individuals or sexually interacting couples in which the male is excluded from paternity. The two sexually interacting groups combined share about 50% of measured genetic markers [on average], part way between the mothers and their offspring who share 73%, and the randomly generated dyads [couples] who share 43%. Thus these results demonstrate that successful human mating follows lines of genetic similarity." (Rushton, 1988). Back 5. Each child of 100% heterozygous parents will, on average, share half his alleles with each of his siblings because the probability that any allele he receives from one of his parents will be the same allele that his sibling receives from that parent is ½. It is likely, however, that he will have more alleles in common with some siblings than he will have with other siblings. (Patterson, 1999, p. 59). We feel closer to some of our children, siblings, cousins, etc. than to

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others, perhaps because we share more than the average number of alleles with them for that relationship. It is theoretically possible to list every person on the planet in order according to the number of alleles they have in common with you. Generally, the order would be family at the top, then relatives, ethny, and race. Some children, siblings, etc. would be tied with other children, siblings, etc., but many would not be. Back 6. (Dawkins, 1976). Altruism as a reproductive strategy requires individuals to recognize in others the same traits that they have (and therefore probably the same alleles that they have, though the same traits may be coded for by different alleles that they do not have) and give those others preferential treatment, thereby assisting in the reproduction of copies of their own alleles. An allele may cause not only a noticeable trait but also a predisposition to be favorable to others having that trait, or an allele may be linked to another allele that causes such a predisposition. (Wikipedia, “Green-Beard Effect”; Hamilton, 1964; Dawkins, 1976, p. 89). Altruism, in the sense of putting the values of others ahead of one’s own values, is not possible, since every action we take is to achieve values that we have made our own. Back 7. Since “normal” reproduction passes on only ½ of one’s alleles, not ¾, the worker bees’ altruistic strategy is actually more reproductively successful than normal. The reason it is ¾ for the workers and not ½ is that when a queen lays an egg she can fertilize it, so that it has a full set of 32 chromosomes and become a worker, or she can leave it unfertilized so that it has only 16 chromosomes and becoming a drone. The drone then makes millions of genetically identical sperm, each with the same 16 chromosomes, and mates with a queen from another hive. When that queen uses that sperm to lay a batch of fertilized eggs, all the resulting workers in that batch will receive identical 16 chromosomes from that drone plus 16 chromosomes from their queen, which are only ½ identical (due to crossover). So, of the 32 chromosomes in the eggs that will become workers, three fourths are identical (½ + ¼ = ¾), a strong motivation for their altruistic behavior towards siblings. Even some plants recognize their relatives and act to benefit them. (Yoon, C.K., "Loyal To Its Roots," New York Times, June 10, 2008). Back 8. (Hamilton, 1975; cited in Salter, 2003, p. 54). “Relatedness,” is not the same as “kinship” or “FST genetic distance.” (See Chap. 12, FN 12). Also, since kinship is ½ of relatedness, the kinship between two random persons in the same ethnic group can be greater than the kinship between one of those persons and his grandparent or grandchild. Back 9. Not only that, but if a person is altruistic, then related people are also likely to have his altruistic alleles and may well reciprocate any sacrifices he makes for them. (Gardner, 2007). Back 10. In other words, Mother Nature is a racist! This is bad news for egalitarians but the blow can be softened by seeing genetically-based altruism as creating close, caring, and unselfish relationships with the genetically similar, instead of as hostility towards the genetically distant. Back 11. (Nedelcu, 2006). The genes responsible for altruism are just beginning to be identified. (Knafo, 2007). Back 12. Even microbes, e.g., bacteria, act cooperatively according to relatedness. (West, 2007; Griffin, 2004). Marmoset fraternal twins can be chimeras, each twin having some alleles of the other. Thus, when a chimeric mother has children “her” egg may have been made with the alleles of her twin. If that happens, somehow the parents know it, and the non-chimeric father of her children cares for them more, but the chimeric mother cares for them less as they have

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fewer of her alleles. (Ross, 2007). Back > 13. “Raising Your $290,000 Dollar Baby,” MSN Money, Aug. 10, 2007. Back 14. Your spouse may have given your child other alleles that you also have but did not pass on to your child. Back 15. If you help a person who is genetically distant from you, you may decrease your reproductive success if persons who do share your alleles have to compete with the person you help, e.g., you help genetically-distant immigrants enter the country. Similarly, if you mate with a genetically-distant person, your child may carry fewer of your alleles than a person your child competes with; in that case, you would be more reproductively successful if you had not had the child. Back 16. That ordering suggests a preference in the opposite direction, i.e., for one’s own species over other species, one’s own race over other races, etc. This is the basis for nepotism, favoring relatives over non-relatives. For the same reason, one favors those of his own ethny and race over those of other ethnies and races. Back 17. (Littlefield, 1986). One sees this even in the news and television crime shows, where white victims, especially children and women, draw more interest from white viewers than shows with black victims. Back 18. The extent of a male’s inborn cuckold-preventing behavior is surprising. It includes jealous rage and deeper thrusts during intercourse after a long absence to “vacuum out” the sperm of other men. (Shackelford, 2007; Baker, 2006). It is so important to a male that his alleles be passed on, even versus those of a closely related male, that even circumcision (Wilson, 2008) and infanticide (DeWaal, 1997, pp. 118-123) have been attributed to it. Back 19. Another good example is the Moslem countries in the Middle East, such as Iraq, where nearly half of the married couples are first or second cousins. This creates an intense genetic interest in members of one’s own clan, as they share so many of a person’s alleles, which makes democracy difficult (Sailer, 2003) because democracy is clan against clan for the spoils of the state. Back 20. Because of this “parental uncertainty,” men are much more concerned that their children look like them, which may be one reason why there is more miscegenation by white women than by white men. It is a common belief that children do look more like their fathers, especiallly when the the children are very young; evolutionary psychology implies that children who look like their fathers would receive more support from their fathers and would therefore have greater reproductive success. Back 21. (Rushton, 2005a & 2005b). Rushton has a hilarious collection of slides of people and their very similarly-appearing pets. Men are attracted to women who look like their mother, and women to men who are similar to their father (Bereczkei, 2008), thereby increasing the number of their own alleles in their children. Back 22. A person rates his own face, morphed into the opposite sex, as most attractive, even when he doesn’t know it is his morphed face. (Penton-Voak, 1999). Back 23. The nucleus accumbens in our brain gives us pleasure to induce us to increase our fitness,

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e.g., at the prospect of obtaining sex or money; conversely, we feel discomfort at the prospect of our fitness being reduced. (Knutson, 2008). Of course, sometimes maladaptive culture or psychopathology interferes with our programming, and we act contrary to our programming. Back 24. A “nation” was originally synonymous with an ethny; American Indian “nations” are good examples. Indeed, the word "nation" comes from the Latin "nationem," which meant an ethny or race. People in an ethny are not only genetically related, but are culturally similar, e.g., in language, religion, and traditions. “[A people constitute] a nation because they are conscious of being ‘members one of another’ and of being different from the peoples of other lands. They are, and always have been, an inbreeding people. They have a particular affection for their native land. . . . If their country or its people are in jeopardy . . . they rally to its defense; they would give their lives freely to preserve the integrity of the land and the liberty of its people... They are sharers in a common interest and in a common destiny; they hope and believe that their stock will never die out. They inhabit a sharply delimited territory and claim to own it.” (Salter, 2002a, quoting Keith, A., A New Theory of Human Evolution, 1968/1947, pp. 316– 17). Note that countries whose boundaries were not ethnically demarcated, e.g., the U.S.S.R., Yugoslavia, Iraq, and many African countries, are mired in violent conflicts. The genetic distance between races is greater than the genetic distance between ethnies within a race, so much of what applies to ethnies will also apply to races. Back 25. The reader who is interested in the evolutionary psychology of ethnic conflict dynamics is referred to the trilogy of Kevin MacDonald, his magnum opus, A People That Shall Dwell Alone (1994), Separation and Its Discontents (1998), and especially The Culture of Critique (1998). Back 26. See the discussion of Gause’s Law of Competitive Exclusion. Back 27. In a symbiotic relationship, individuals of different species cooperate for their mutual benefit, e.g., a clown fish and an anemone or us and the bacteria in our gut, but that occurs only because each species supplies to the other something that it cannot provide for itself. But within the same species, e.g., two human ethnies, it is difficult to think of a needed good that each ethny can supply to the other, but cannot make itself. The closest approximation might be manual labor, supplied by blacks, and intellectual labor, supplied by whites, but that was tried in slavery and apartheid and was not stable. Back 28. (William Engdahl) calls Great Britain a parasitic country because, when it was an empire, it exploited other countries (e.g., India, China, South Africa, the Middle East, and the United States), but it was militarily dominant and did not have to conceal its exploitation, so it was mostly a predator. Because a parasitic ethny has interests that conflict with the interests of its host ethny, a parasitic ethny-host ethny relationship can be considered to be "a nation within a nation." Although the parasitic ethny is a net parasite, not every individual in a parasitic ethny is parasitic; indeed, since there is a range of traits within an ethny, some members of a parasitic ethny may be very productive and beneficial to the host ethny. Nevertheless, productive members will sympathize and usually support parasitic members because they are more closely related to them than they are to members of the host ethny. Parasitic ethnies will also differ in their degree of parasitism. The degree of parasitism could be determined by the net transfer of wealth, in dollars, between the two populations, but dollars do not capture the entirety of what individuals value (Fuerle, 1986, 2003) and the harm done to the host ethny by parasitism can far exceed the benefit to the parasitic ethny. That is why stopping the parasitism can cause an economic boom for the host ethny, e.g., Germany

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and Japan in the 1930’s. Like a thief who steals $100 worth of copper piping from a house, causing $40,000 in damage, the "parasite load" can cost the host ethny much more than the benefit the parasitic ethny obtains. That is why, when the parasite is removed, the recovery of the host can be dramatic. Germany and Japan boomed after they freed themselves of the Jewish-controlled usury banking system (i.e., a central bank creates money out of thin air, then loans it to the government, charging the government interest on their debt). The degree of parasitism could also be determined by exposing all the activities of the parasitic ethny, including wealth transfers, then observing the extent of the action by the host ethny against them. Gypsies are usually expelled, though Great Britain has foolishly welcomed them. And if Jews were assets, they would not have been expelled from almost all European countries, sometimes more than once. (F. Roderich-Stoltheim, The Riddle of the Jews Success, pp. 25-28, translated from German in 1927 by C. Pownall). Blacks have so far been expelled only from England (edicts by Queen Elizabeth I in 1596 and 1601), though Lincoln wanted to send them back to Africa (Peoria, Illinois, Oct. 16, 1854), as did Francis Scott Key, John Randolph, Andrew Jackson, Daniel Webster, and Henry Clay. (Putnam, 1961, p. 62). Wealth transfers and “white flight” clearly show that the white-black relationship is host-parasite. It is not the white population as a whole that desires the presence of other ethnies in its midst, but individuals within the white population who benefit at the expense of the remainder of the white population. In the U.S., businesses benefit from low wage workers and the federal government has created a “refugee industry” that profits from subsidies for refugees. (Allen, T., “Time to Cap the Refugee Industry,” VDARE.com, May 6, 2003). Back 29. A parasitic ethny gaining control of the government and media of the host ethny is analogous to animal parasites that gain control of nervous system of its host and cause the host to behave in ways that benefit the parasite, but are detrimental to the host. Here are a few examples: the Lancet liver fluke in ants; the Toxoplasma protozoa in rats and mice; "brainjacking" in crustaceans by the thorny-headed worm; and a parasitic wasp that turns its host into a bodyguard. Back 30. The uncontrolled internet is now the primarily source of what is really going on, while the controlled media (TV, movies, big newspapers, magazines, and book publishers) is like a magician's beautiful assistant, distracting you so you don't look behind the curtain. Back 31. (Stout, 2005). Nor do sociopaths have any compunctions about defeating those within their own ethny, but sociopaths are intelligent enough to realize that they need their co-ethnics. Worse, although frustration creates anger in all of us, in a sociopath, whose goal is winning over and defeating others, frustration creates an intense need for revenge against and humiliation of the host ethny – it is not enough to just defeat the enemy. (Keeling, 1947). Conversely, a host ethny is selected by the parasitic ethny for the opposite qualities – wealth creating, trusting, altruistic, welcoming, and decent. Back 32. While a natural parasite that needs its host to infect another host usually become less deadly, because deadly parasites perish with their host (Ewald, 1996), for a parasitic ethnic group that would require restraint from their most sociopathic members out of concern for others in their ethny, behavior that requires the empathy they lack. Back 33. (Chap. 4, Rule 3). Virtually all large species have parasites that are specialized to that species, and there are even some species of parasites are specialized to live off another species of parasite. One may well expect that, like other parasites, a parasitic ethny will be too specialized to be successful once it is separated from its host ethny and, indeed, that is the case; all black-run territories are economic and political disasters (Chapter 15) and Israel

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requires massive military and economic aid from the U.S. and Europe to stay afloat. Back > 34. The Student Accountability in Community (SAC) program at Michigan State University forced students to pay for, attend, and “pass” brainwashing sessions if they make “sexist, homophobic, or racist remarks at a meeting” or else be kicked out of the University. (Lukianoff, G., "Thought Reform and Compelled Speech at Michigan State, Foundation for Individual Rights in Education, Dec. 14, 2006). In 2007, the University of Delaware had a “treatment” program for students with “incorrect” beliefs. A "racist" was defined as "one who is both privileged and socialized on the basis of race by a white supremacist (racist) system. The term applies to all white people (i.e., people of European descent) living in the United States. . . . By this definition, people of color cannot be racists,..." and two of the requirements were: "Students will recognize that systemic oppression exists in our society." and "Students will recognize the benefits of dismantling systems of oppression." (Unruh, B., “University defends teaching students all whites ‘racist’,” World Net Daily, Nov. 1, 2007). Back 35. Even different areas of the brain are used for people who are different and who are similar. (Mitchell, 2006). Back 36. Xenophobia and the avoidance of people outside one’s own group may be an instinctual disease-avoidance mechanism as a person is likely to have antibodies to the diseases in his own population, but not to the diseases of other populations. (Navarrete, 2006; Fincher, 2008; Faulkner, 2004). Note how Native Americans in both North and South America were decimated by diseases brought over by the Europeans. (The reverse did not happen because the Indians were less concentrated and more migratory, making it more difficult for contagious diseases to become established.) Nevertheless, the most compelling reason for zenophobia and racism is that the "other" is a competitor who carries fewer of one's alleles than those in one's own ethny. Back

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SECTION II Traits of Living Populations “Who are you going to believe, me or your lying eyes." Chico Marx, in Duck Soup This section presents the case for race-realism, that there are real and important racial differences. The race-deniers insist that we believe “there is no such thing as ‘race’,” but in this section we examine what our lying eyes tell us. 1 Sergeant Friday, on the old TV show “Dragnet,” always wanted “Just the facts, ma’am,” so let us examine the facts, as best they can be found, about living human populations, particularly the three major races. 2 Egalitarians do not take kindly to this information, but no progress can be made without facing the facts and dealing with them. 3 Racial differences arise for the same reasons that different species do – populations become isolated and gradually change, and there is little or no inflow of alleles from other populations. Although it is widely taught and accepted that “’race’ is just a social construct,” 4 the scientific evidence tells a different story. 5 The egalitarians may insists that a black person is no different than a white person with nappy hair and a sun tan 6 but, as this Section will document, there are actually hundreds (if not thousands) of racial differences besides skin color and hair and, to a scientist who studies racial differences, those are not even the most important differences. The focus of the race-deniers solely on skin color is an attempt to trivialize racial differences. Of far greater importance than skin color are differences in bone and tooth shape and structure, muscle size, brain size and intelligence, and behavior. All of the traits discussed in this section are heritable, which means that they are largely controlled by genes, not the environment. Since any theory of human origins must account for the presence of living ethnic and racial groups and the differences between them, it is important to know exactly what those differences are. First, we will examine the three principal populations (races) indigenous to Africa, Europe, and Asia. Since races have mixed somewhat almost everywhere, we will limit the discussion primarily to those populations that have mixed less and better epitomize the three major races. There are genetically different populations within each of those three races, 7 but the populations in s-S Africa (“Negroids”) differ the most. For example, in the s-S Africans, 8 there are Capoids (Bushmen and Hottentots, who live around the Cape), Nilotids, who live around the Nile River basin, and the Congoids, who live around the Congo and Niger River basins (West Africa). The Capoids and Nilotids have some Asian and Caucasian features due to interbreeding, but the Congoids are less hybridized so they will be used as the prototypical s-S Africans (Fig. II-1; Coon, 1962, plate IV). Most African Americans came from the Slave Coast of West Africa 9 and their African ancestors were Congoids. Africans living north of the Sahara Desert will be Figure II-1 “North Africans.”

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“Blacks” will mean people of noticeable African heritage (e.g., tightly curled black hair, broad nose, large lips), regardless of where they are living or their degree of admixture with other races. “Europeans” or “whites” will mean Caucasoids who are of European heritage and have no obvious mixed heritage. “Mongoloids” or “East Asians” will refer to NE Asians who are at least somewhat cold-adapted. Chapter 9 Table of Contents FOOTNOTES 1. “[T]he various [human] races, when carefully compared and measured, differ much from each other,—as in the texture of hair, the relative proportions of all parts of the body, the capacity of the lungs, the form and capacity of the skull, and even the convolutions of the brain. But it would be an endless task to specify the numerous points of difference. The races differ also in constitution, in acclimatization and in liability to certain diseases. Their mental characteristics are likewise very distinct; chiefly as it would appear in their emotional, but partly in their intellectual faculties.” (Darwin, 1871, pp. 461-474). “[T]he people in 'race denial' are in 'reality denial' as well. … Numerous individual methods involving midfacial measurements, femur traits, and so on are over 80 percent accurate alone [in determining race], and in combination produce very high levels of accuracy. … I am more accurate at assessing race from skeletal remains than from looking at living people standing before me. …The idea that race is 'only skin deep' is simply not true, as any experienced forensic anthropologist will affirm.” (Gill, G.W., “Does Race Exist?,” 2000). “In the context of forensic anthropology, the term race is unambiguous.” (Rhine, S. "Forensic Anthropology"). Back 2. The egalitarians, who insist that we “celebrate diversity,” have done their best to prevent anyone from determining just what that diversity is so that it can be celebrated. Thus, the reader will find that for many traits older data had to be used, if any data at all could be found. Back 3. Physical anthropology, the science which initially studied racial differences, has surrendered to the Equality Police and abdicated that role. Fortunately, the egalitarians have not yet persuaded the public that murderers should go free rather than admit that bones and other remains can be identified by race, and forensic science has filled in some of the gap. Forensic manuals and journals (e.g., The Journal of Forensic Sciences) provide techniques for determining what egalitarians insist does not exist – race. Back 4. One might wonder how adults can think race is just a social construct when babies as young as 3 months old prefer faces of their own race (Bar-Heim, 2006; Kelly, 2005), genetic analysis can identify the (self-identified) race of people with nearly 100% accuracy (Tang, 2005), and pathologists and forensic anthropologists can easily tell the race of a person from examining only a fleshless skull. Some egalitarians are even farther from reality: “Many social scientists have gone so far as to claim that kinship is a social construction with no connection to biology." (Steven Pinker, “The Genealogy Craze in America: Strangled by Roots,” The New Republic, Aug. 6, 2007). Back 5. “Races differ in the extent and manner in which the fine subcutaneous muscles of the lips and cheeks have become differentiated from the parent mammalian muscle body; in the chemical composition of hair and of bodily secretions, including milk; in the ways in which different muscles are attached to bones; in the sizes and probably secretion rates of different

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endocrines; in certain details of the nervous system, as, for example, how far down in the lumbar vertebrae the neural canal extends; and in the capacity of individuals to tolerate crowding and stress.” (Coon, 1962, p. 662). Back 6. The fact that many whites want darker skin, but do not want to be black, shows that race is not skin deep. Back 7. Europeans are sometimes divided into Nordic (northwestern Europe), Alpine (central and eastern Europe), and Mediterranean (southern Europe and northern Africa). (Boyd, 1955). Back 8. North Africans (north of the Sahara) have so much Caucasian heritage that they are usually classified separately from the s-S Africans. Back 9. See “Forest Negroes” in Figure 26-2. The Slave Coast is present day Togo, Benin, and western Nigeria. Slavery began on the east Coast of Africa, where Arabs went deep into the continent capturing mostly female slaves. On the Slave Coast, Europeans traded goods for slaves captured by other Africans and wanted workers, not concubines. (Wikipedia, “History of Slavery”). Back

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Chapter 9 - Hard Tissue First, let’s look at skulls from different races of man. Although no two skulls are identical, here are skulls that are typical of the races; first an Asian skull (Figure 9-1) and a Caucasian skull. (Figure 9-2). 1

Figure 9-1

Figure 9-2

Overall, the dome of the Asian skull is round and the face is flat. 2 Although the Caucasian skull is a bit longer (top to bottom), it is very similar to the Asian skull, indicating that the Asians and Caucasians did not separate into two races all that long ago, or that there was interbreeding between their lineages. Figure 9-3 shows a male African-American skull. 3 Although this skull is described as being of an African-American, it has many African features. (The drawing of the “Negro” skull in Figure 9-9 may better epitomize the Congoid skull.) The African skull is quite different from the Asian and Caucasian skulls, indicating a much greater genetic distance between Eurasians and Africans than between Europeans and Asians. Compared to Asian and Caucasian skulls, the African skull is narrower. The bones of the skull (and the rest of the body) are denser and thicker. The eye sockets are rounder and proportionately larger and the distance between them is greater. The slight bump at the top of the head suggests a “saggital keel,” a ridge along the top of the head from the forehead to the back of the skull for attaching chewing muscles and strengthening the skull from blows received in fighting. 4 The opening for the nose is wider, the nose bones protrude less, and the teeth more massive, with the incisors meeting at an angle (also see Figure 26-11). The most noticeable difference, however, is the protruding jaw, a condition known as “prognathism,” a trait found in apes and in ancient human fossil skulls, even those not from Africa. The considerable gap between the cheekbones (“zygomatic arches”) and the indentation on the sides behind the eye sockets (“post-orbital constriction”) indicate that the more massive jaw was Figure 9-3 serviced by powerful chewing muscles that passed through the gap. Figures 9-4 and 9-5 provide a side-by side comparison of the skulls of an African of the Manbettu tribe in the northern Congo basin and an Englishman. 5 The African skull has less prominent nose bones and chin, a deeper jaw and the bone that supports the jaw (the “ascending ramus”) is wider; the shape of the skulls is also different.

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Figure 9-4

Figure 9-5

Table 9-1 lists a number of the more significant hard tissue traits that differ between the races, including a few in Australian aborigines (AA), Homo erectus (He), Neanderthals (Hn), chimpanzees (C), and gorillas (G). A hyphen indicates no data and the notes after the table explain the differences more fully. Trait

Asians

Europeans

Africans

AA, He, Hn, C, & G AA: 1290 cc He: 1000-1200 cc C: 500 cc

Skull Endocranial Volume 6 Cranial bones (1) Cranial sutures (2)

1491 cc

1441 cc

1338 cc

Thinner and lighter (gracile)

Thin and light (less gracile)

Thick and dense (robust)

AA&He: Thickest and densest

Complex

Complex

Simpler

Permanently unclosed sutures (3)

1/13

1/7

1/52

Skull shape (Cephalic Index) (4)

>80 (brachycephalic)

75 (mesocephalic)

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