Environmental Health - Theory and Practice: Volume 2: Coping with Environmental Health 3030644839, 9783030644833

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Ramesha Chandrappa Diganta Bhusan Das

Environmental Health Theory and Practice Volume 2: Coping with Environmental Health

Environmental Health – Theory and Practice

Ramesha Chandrappa • Diganta Bhusan Das

Environmental Health – Theory and Practice Volume 2: Coping with Environmental Health

Ramesha Chandrappa Environmental Management Policy Research Institute Bangalore, India

Diganta Bhusan Das Department of Chemical Engineering Loughborough University Loughborough, Leicestershire, UK

ISBN 978-3-030-64483-3    ISBN 978-3-030-64484-0 (eBook) https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-64484-0 © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed. The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use. The publisher, the authors, and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the authors or the editors give a warranty, expressed or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been made. The publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. This Springer imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature Switzerland AG The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland

The authors dedicate this book to Corona Warriors, which include, but not restricted to, frontline doctors, paramedical staff and waste management personnel, who worked tirelessly despite imminent dangers to their lives during the COVID-19 outbreak. Our sincere condolences go to all those who lost their lives in the battle against the virus.

Preface

While we were working on this two-volume book for the last 2 years, sitting in two opposite hemispheres of the world and were moving towards completing it, COVID-19 shook the world. As authors, we have now suddenly learnt a great many thing in just a few months while being locked down in our respective countries. Diseases do not simply search for people and attack them. We, as human beings, invite them to us by producing chemicals and releasing them into our environments or invading forests and wild landscapes, which harbor viruses that jump to new hosts – humans – from the conventional hosts – wild animals. However, it was great to see most of the civic society across the world self-distancing or self-quarantining themselves as the case may be and stayed wherever they could to tackle the COVID-19 pandemic. Vested interest and corruption are some of the reasons why pollution goes unabated, waste goes unmanaged and the environment goes unprotected. As natural forests become fragmented, urban settlements integrate, bringing people closer, thereby increasing the risk of infection and other ailments. Bush meat and wet markets act as springboards to pass on the pathogens in the wild to civic society. Destruction of biodiversity creates the conditions for new diseases with profound economic and health impacts. Species in degraded habitats infect humans, and when they reach urban ecosystems, the systems get an amplified effect. With the destruction of landscapes and the wild species, humans get the diseases. Like all living beings, pathogens also grow and reproduce, which require energy from food. They are mobilized from one species to another either through the food chain or social activity or accidental contacts. When the pathogens reach humans, their biological activity (e.g., spreading and transmission) flourish as humans live in closely packed environments. Diseases spring up in the urban environment as humans have created densely packed settlements for themselves with rodents and pets, facilitating the spread of pathogens from species to species due to close interaction.

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Indeed, pollution and pathogens do not respect political boundaries. Humans are creating channels for the spread of diseases by decreasing the natural barriers between themselves and usual hosts, that is, animals in which pathogens are naturally circulating. Consequences of environmental alterations are different at different scenarios. After going through many literatures and walking through many countries, cities, and streets, we would like to share our learning in the form of this book so that the knowledge baton can be passed on to future generations. The general saying “one solution does not suit all circumstances” holds well for environmental health also. Furthermore, with the changing scenarios new solutions would arise. At the time of completion of this book, the world was facing a severe challenge from COVID–19, imposing restrictions and declaring self-quarantine to safeguard millions from the invisible virus. This situation has reduced air pollution, noise pollution, and to some extent water pollution due to reduction in manufacturing as well as trade activity. The COVID-19 pandemic resulted in the reduction in other diseases related to the environment! Traffic accidents have reduced, social distancing has reduced spreading of other infectious diseases, closure of pubs has reduced alcoholism, and travel restriction has helped to reduce waste burden in tourist places. People around the world have reacted to the situation and old theories have been tested with new theories and practices. COVID-19 has surprised the world wherein the developed countries, which have better built environment and medical infrastructure along with strong knowledge base, have suffered more compared to the developing ones. That means we need to learn much more than what we already know and respond to many such problems that humankind may face in the future. We envisage that this book will catalyze success wherein people at different capacities can take better decisions or recommend a better possible solution to decision makers for betterment of human lives. To help readers understand the interrelated concepts of fundamental science to that of many applied solutions, the book is written in two volumes. Volume I concentrates on fundamentals of sciences related to environmental health while Volume II concentrates on coping with environmental health by mitigation and adaptation strategy. We would like to thank all past authors whose work is cited in this book apart from anonymous proposals and book reviewers who showed us the way we travelled over the last 2 years. The preface would be incomplete without our acknowledgment to Springer Nature Switzerland AG whose continued encouragement and guidance have made us work towards this book. Bangalore, India  Ramesha Chandrappa Loughborough, Leicestershire, UK  Diganta Bhusan Das September 2020

Contents

Part I Avoidance 1 Environmental Legislation����������������������������������������������������������������������    3 1.1 Introduction��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������    3 1.2 Principles of Environmental Legislation������������������������������������������    4 1.3 International Legislation ������������������������������������������������������������������    6 1.3.1 Economic Instruments����������������������������������������������������������    9 1.4 National and Local Legislation ��������������������������������������������������������   10 1.4.1 Economic Instruments����������������������������������������������������������   12 1.4.2 Institution Arrangement and Enforcement Mechanism��������   15 References��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������   17 2 Health Impact Assessment (HIA) ����������������������������������������������������������   21 2.1 Introduction��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������   21 2.2 Baseline Data Collection������������������������������������������������������������������   30 2.3 Impact Prediction������������������������������������������������������������������������������   33 2.4 Ad Hoc Method��������������������������������������������������������������������������������   34 2.5 Checklist ������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������   34 2.6 Matrix������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������   35 2.7 Network��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������   35 2.8 Overlays��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������   35 2.9 Health Management Plan������������������������������������������������������������������   41 2.10 Health Monitoring Plan��������������������������������������������������������������������   42 References��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������   44 3 Environmental Impact Assessment��������������������������������������������������������   47 3.1 Introduction��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������   47 3.2 Baseline Data Collection and Analysis ��������������������������������������������   49 3.3 Impact Prediction������������������������������������������������������������������������������   52 3.3.1 Ad-Hoc Method��������������������������������������������������������������������   52 3.3.2 Checklist ������������������������������������������������������������������������������   53

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3.3.3 Matrix������������������������������������������������������������������������������������   53 3.3.4 Network��������������������������������������������������������������������������������   53 3.3.5 Overlays��������������������������������������������������������������������������������   54 3.4 Environmental Management Plan����������������������������������������������������   62 3.5 Environmental Monitoring Plan��������������������������������������������������������   62 3.6 Public Participation��������������������������������������������������������������������������   62 References��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������   67 4 Environmental Health Planning ������������������������������������������������������������   69 4.1 Introduction��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������   69 4.2 Governing Principle��������������������������������������������������������������������������   73 4.3 Environmental Psychology ��������������������������������������������������������������   84 4.4 Disease Surveillance ������������������������������������������������������������������������   87 4.5 Analysing Environmental Health Status ������������������������������������������   93 4.6 Planning Urban Health Governance ������������������������������������������������   94 4.7 Planning Rural Health Governance��������������������������������������������������   95 References��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������   97 Part II Mitigation 5 Water and Wastewater Treatment����������������������������������������������������������  101 5.1 Introduction��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������  101 5.2 Engineering Control��������������������������������������������������������������������������  103 5.2.1 Water Treatment��������������������������������������������������������������������  106 5.2.2 Wastewater Treatment����������������������������������������������������������  111 5.3 Administrative Control ��������������������������������������������������������������������  124 References��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������  125 6 Air Pollution Control ������������������������������������������������������������������������������  127 6.1 Introduction��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������  127 6.2 Engineering Control��������������������������������������������������������������������������  128 6.3 Administrative Control ��������������������������������������������������������������������  137 References��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������  140 7 Noise Pollution������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������  141 7.1 Introduction��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������  141 7.2 Engineering Control��������������������������������������������������������������������������  143 7.3 Administrative Control ��������������������������������������������������������������������  146 References��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������  147 8 Solid and Semi-Solid Waste Management ��������������������������������������������  149 8.1 Introduction��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������  149 8.2 Storage����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������  154 8.3 Transportation ����������������������������������������������������������������������������������  161 8.4 Treatment������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������  166 8.5 Disposal��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������  170

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8.6 Contaminated Site Remediation ������������������������������������������������������  177 References��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������  178 9 Building and Changing Infrastructure��������������������������������������������������  181 9.1 Introduction��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������  181 9.2 Transportation ����������������������������������������������������������������������������������  183 9.3 Communication��������������������������������������������������������������������������������  190 9.4 Housing ��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������  191 9.4.1 Personal Hygiene������������������������������������������������������������������  197 9.4.2 Clean Domestic Environment ����������������������������������������������  197 9.4.3 Clean External Environment������������������������������������������������  198 9.5 Industry ��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������  202 9.6 Energy ����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������  205 References��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������  206 10 Emergency Preparedness and Disaster Management��������������������������  209 10.1 Introduction������������������������������������������������������������������������������������  209 10.2 Mitigation Strategy ������������������������������������������������������������������������  212 10.3 Preparedness ����������������������������������������������������������������������������������  214 10.3.1 Communication Systems����������������������������������������������������  216 10.3.2 Emergency Resources ��������������������������������������������������������  216 10.3.3 Training and Updating��������������������������������������������������������  217 10.3.4 Business Continuity and Contingency��������������������������������  218 10.3.5 Onsite Emergency Plan������������������������������������������������������  218 10.4 Response ����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������  221 10.5 Recovery ����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������  221 References��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������  223 Part III Adaptation 11 Living with Environmental Diseases������������������������������������������������������  227 11.1 Introduction������������������������������������������������������������������������������������  227 11.2 Improving Basic Public Health and Healthcare Services ��������������  228 11.3 Health Adaptation Policies and Measures��������������������������������������  230 11.3.1 Vulnerability Mapping��������������������������������������������������������  230 11.3.2 Early Warning Systems ������������������������������������������������������  230 11.4 Personal Protective Equipments (PPEs) ����������������������������������������  231 11.5 Social Distancing, Lockdown and Change in Lifestyle������������������  232 References��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������  234 Part IV Restoration 12 Restoration������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������  239 12.1 Introduction������������������������������������������������������������������������������������  239 12.2 Restoring Clean Air������������������������������������������������������������������������  239 12.3 Restoring Water Bodies������������������������������������������������������������������  241

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12.4 Restoring Contaminated Land Sites������������������������������������������������  247 References��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������  252 Glossary������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������  255 Index������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������  277

Abbreviations

3R Reduce, Recycle, and Reuse ABS Australian Bureau of Statistics AC Alternating Current ACM Asbestos Containing Material ADP Air-Dried Pulp AFO Amorphous Ferric Oxide AIDS Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome ANN Artificial Neural Networks AOP Advanced Oxidation Process As Arsenic ASP Activated Sludge Process BaO Barium Oxide BF Blast Furnace BFS Blast Furnace Slag BMW Biomedical Waste BOD Biochemical Oxygen Demand BOF Basic Oxygen Furnace Br− Bromide BrO3- Bromate Ion C and D Construction and Demolition C&D Construction and Demolition C4H10 Butane CaCl2 Calcium Chloride CaCO3 Calcium Carbonate CaO Calcium Oxide CBA Cost Benefit Analysis CCl4 Calcium Tetra Chloride Cd Cadmium Ce Cerium CEA Cost Effectiveness Analysis CETP Common Effluent Treatment Plant xiii

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Abbreviations

CFC ChloroFlouro Carbon CFL Compact Fluorescent Lamp CH3COOH Acetic Acid CH4 Methane CHNS Carbon, Hydrogen, Nitrogen, Sulfur CN Cyanide CN− Cyanide Ion CNCl Cyanogen Chloride CNS Central Nervous System CO Carbon Monoxide Co Cobalt CO2 Carbon Dioxide COD Chemical Oxygen Demand CP Cleaner Production Cr Chromium Cr2(SO4)3 Chromium Sulfate CRED Centre for Research on the Epidemiology and Disaster CRT Cathode Ray Tube CTC Carbon Tetra Chloride CTMP Chemithermal Mechanical Pulping Cu Copper DBP Disinfection Byproduct Control DC Direct Current DCB Dichlorobenzine DDD Dichlorodiphenyldichloroethane DDT Dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane DMP Disaster Management Plan DWAF Department of Water Affairs and Forestry Dy Dysprosium EAF Electric Arc Furnace ECF Elemental Chlorine Free EEA European Environment Agency EEE Electrical and Electronic Equipment EH&S Environment Health and Safety EIA Environmental Impact Assessment ELV End of Life Vehicle EMF Electro Magnetic Fields EMP Environment Management Plan EMPRI Environmental Management and Policy Research Institute EoL End of Life EPA Environment Protection Agency of the USA EPP Emergency Preparedness Plan EPR Extended Producer Responsibility Er Erbium EU European Union

Abbreviations

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FAO Food and Agriculture Organization FDI Foreign Direct Investment Fe Iron FMD Floating Marine Debris FML Flexible Membrane Liners FOG Fat, Oil, Grease FTW Floating Treatment Wetland GCL Geosynthetic Clay Liner Gd Gadolinium GDP Gross Domestic Product GFCI Ground-Fault Circuit-Interrupters GHG Greenhouse Gases GI Gastro-intestine GPP Green Public Procurement GPS Global Positioning System GTZ Deutsche Gesellschaft fürTechnischeZusammenarbeit (German Technical Cooperation) H2CO3 Carbonic Acid H2CrO4 Chromic Acid H2O Water H2S Hydrogen Sulfide H2SO4 Sulfuric Acid Hb Hemoglobin HC Hydrocarbons HCB HexoChloroBenezenes HCl Hydrochloric Acid HEX-BCH Hexachlorobicycloheptadiene, Bicyclo(2.2.1)hepta-2,5-diene Hg Mercury HgCl2 Mercury Chloride Mercury Sulfate HgSO4 HHP Household Hazardous Product HHV Human Herpesvirus HHW Household Hazardous Waste HIV Human Immunodeficiency Virus HLW High-Level Wastes HSLT High Speed Low Torque IAEA International Atomic Energy Agency IARC International Agency for Research on Cancer IATA International Air Transport Association ICLEI International Council for Local Environmental Initiatives ICT Information Communication Technology IFC International Finance Corporation IFRC International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent IGES Institute for Global Environmental Strategies ILO International Labour Organisation

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ILW Intermediate Level Waste IMDG International Marine Dangerous Goods IPCC Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ISL In Situ Leach ISWA International Solid Waste Association ISWM Integrated Solid Waste Management IUCN International Union for the Conservation of Nature IUPAC International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry IWRM Integrated Water Resource Management K2Cr2O7 Potassium Dichromate K2O Potassium Oxide KCl Potassium Chloride KOH Potassium Hydroxide kVA Kilovolt-Ampere kWh Kilowatt Hour L Liter La Lanthanum LCA Life Cycle Assessment LCD Liquid Crystal Display LDAR Leak Detection and Repair LDC Least Developed Countries LFG Land Fill Gas LILW Low and Intermediate Level Wastes LILW-LL Low and Intermediate Level Wastes-Long Lived LILW-SL Low and Intermediate Level Wastes-Short Lived LLW Low Level Waste LNWT Low or No Waste Technology lpd Liters per Day LSHT Low Speed High Torque Lu Lutetium LWD Large Woody Debris LWP Limited Work Permit MCB Monochlorobenzene MCi Megacurie, 1,000,000 times a curie mCi Millicurie, 1/1000 of a curie MCM Million Cubic Meters MDG Millennium Development Goal MED Multi-effect Distillation MEIP Metropolitan Environmental Improvement Programme metHb Methomoglobin MgO Magnesium Oxide MLD Million Liters per Day MLSS Mixed Liquor Suspended Solids Mn Manganese MRF Material Recovery Facility

Abbreviations

Abbreviations

MRI Magnetic Resonance Imaging MSDS Material Safety Data Sheet MSEW Mechanically Stabilized Earth Wall MSF Multistage Flash Distillation MSW Municipal Solid Waste N2O Nitrous Oxide NA Not Applicable Na2S2O5 Sodium Metabisulfite NaCl Sodium Chloride NaHSO3 Sodium Bisulfite NaO Sodium Oxide NaOH Sodium Hydroxide NAPL Nonaqueous Phase Liquid Nb Niobium Nd Neodymium NDMA N-nitrosodimethylamine NF Nanofilter NFC Nuclear Fuel Cycle NGO Nongovernmental Organization NH4OH Ammonium Hydroxide Ni Nickel Ni(NO3)2 Nickel Nitrate Ni-Cd Nickel-Cadmium Ni-Cr Nickle-Chromium NiMeH Nickel Metal Hydride NIOSH National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health NMRS Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Spectrometer NO2 Nitrogen Dioxide NO3 Nitrate Nitrate Ion NO3− NORM Naturally Occurring Radioactive Materials NOx Oxides of Nitrogen NTO Nanocrystalline Titanium Dioxide NTUA National Technical University of Athens NWM Nuclear Waste Management O3 Ozone o C Degree Celsius ODS Ozone Depleting Substance OECD Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development OF Overflow OPC Ordinary Portland Cement OPCW Organization for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons OSHA Occupational Safety and Health Administration P&T Partitioning and Transmutation PAH Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbon

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PAHs Polynuclear Aromatic Hydrocarbons PAN Peroxy Acetyl Nitrates Pb Lead PBDE Poly-brominated Diphenyl Ethers PbO Lead Oxide PCB Polychlorinated Biphenyl PCDD Polychlorinated Dioxins PCDF Polychlorinated Dibenzofurans PCP Pentachlorophenol PDF Plastic Derived Fuels PDR Peoples Democratic Republic PEF Process Engineered Fuel PFA Pulverized Fly Ash PFOA Perfluorooctanoic acid PFT Permission to Test PIM Potentially Infectious Material PMF Powder Metal Fuel PO4 Phosphate POHC Principal Organic Hazardous Constituents POP Persistent Organic Pollutant POST Parliamentary Office of Science and Technology POTW Publicly Owned Treatment Works PP Polypropylene PPE Personal Protective Equipment PRB Permeable Reactive Barriers PRC Pneumatic Refuse Collection PS Polystyrene PTW Permit to Work Pu+3 Plutonium (III) Plutonium (IV) Pu+4 PVC Polyvinyl Chloride RA Risk Assessment RBC Rotating Biological Contactors RCT Reinforced Concrete Trenches RDF Refuse Derived Fuel RDW Reactor Decommissioning Waste REF Recovered Fuel RFB River Bank Filtration RFID Radio Frequency Identification RI Rapid Infiltration RO Reverse Osmosis RSS Royal Scientific Society RTS Reservoir Triggered Seismicity RWI Recreational Water Illnesses SA Sustainable Assessment

Abbreviations

Abbreviations

SARS Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome SAT Soil-Aquifer Treatment Systems Sb Antimony SBA Sustainable Business Associate SBR Sequential Batch Reactors SCE Snow Cover Extent SCN Safety Clearance Notice Se Selenium SEA Strategic Environmental Assessment SHG Self Help Group SIDS Small Island Developing States SiO2 Silicon Dioxide SLF Substitute Liquid Fuel SLT Stone-Lined Earth Trenches Sm Samarium SMS Steel Melting Shop SMZ Surfactant Modified Zeolite Sn Tin SNF Spent Nuclear Fuel SO4 Sulfate SOC Synthetic Organic Compound SoEA Socioeconomic Assessment SOP Standard Operating Procedure SPW Solid Petroleum Waste SR Slow Rate SRS Sealed Radioactive Sources SST Sea Surface Temperature STP Sewage Treatment Plant SWM Solid Waste Management TA Technology Assessment Tb Terbium TBBPA Tetra Bromo Biphenol-A Tc Technetium TCF Total Chlorine Free TCU True Color Units Th Thorium TH Tile Hole THMs Triholomethanes Ti Titanium TKN Total Kjedal Nitrogen Tm Thulium TOC Total Organic Compound TRU Transuranic TRUW Transuranic Waste TSDF Treatment, Storage, and Disposal Facility

xix

xx

Abbreviations

TTD Tirumala Tirupathi Devastanam TWRF Tsunami Waste Recovery Facilities U Uranium UC European Community UDDT Urine Diversion Dehydrating Toilets UFW Unaccounted-for Water UK United Kingdom ULB Urban Local Body UN United Nations UNDRR United Nations Office for Disaster Risk Reduction UNECA United Nations Economic Commission for Africa UNECE United Nations Economic Commission for Europe UNEP United Nations Environment Protection Agency UNESCO United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization UNICEF United Nations Children Fund UNISDR United Nations International Strategy for Disaster Risk Reduction UNU United Nations University UPS Uninterrupted Power Supply USA United States of America USEPA United States Environmental Protection Agency USFA United States Fire Administration VFA Volatile Fatty Acid VLH Volatile Liquid Hydrocarbons VLLW Very Low Level Waste VOC Volatile Organic Compounds VRF Volume Reduction Factor WCED World Commission on Environment and Development WEEE Waste from Electrical and Electronic Equipment WHO World Health Organization WTE Waste to Energy WWF World Wide Fund for Nature WWTP Wastewater Treatment Plant Y Yttrium Yb Ytterbium Zn Zinc ZnO Zinc Oxide Zr Zirconium

List of Figures

Fig. 2.1 Accumulation of pollutants due to temperature inversion����������������   22 Fig. 2.2 Lung space adjacent to a monument�������������������������������������������������   23 Fig. 2.3 Water flowing in road due to damage of drinking water supply network���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������   24 Fig. 2.4 Accumulation of nitrate and phosphates in surface water body which has led to eutrophication��������������������������������������������������������   25 Fig. 2.5 Poor water supply and weak structure in poor locality���������������������   26 Fig. 2.6 Narrow roads and absence of parking area���������������������������������������   27 Fig. 2.7 Theory and practice of a health impact assessment (HIA) process�����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������   30 Fig. 2.8 Health impact network for operation stage of thermal power plant���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������   41 Fig. 3.1 Key steps followed by an EIA reviewing agency�����������������������������   48 Fig. 3.2 An example of a network methodology for impact assessment��������   61 Fig. 4.1 Driving forces, pressure, and exposure effect that affect environmental health�������������������������������������������������������������������������   70 Fig. 4.2 Principles of health planning������������������������������������������������������������   74 Fig. 4.3 Building blocks and planning steps��������������������������������������������������   76 Fig. 4.4 Governing principle of environmental health planning��������������������   77 Fig. 4.5 In spite of legislation and education, the family is on a ride without helmet����������������������������������������������������������������������������������   80 Fig. 4.6 Encroachment of footpaths forcing pedestrians to walk on roads���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������   81 Fig. 4.7 Parking on footpaths�������������������������������������������������������������������������   82 Fig. 4.8 Waste burning in residential area������������������������������������������������������   83 Fig. 4.9 Public waiting for water��������������������������������������������������������������������   84 Fig. 4.10 Public waiting for mass transportation���������������������������������������������   85 Fig. 4.11 Risk of injury due to fall of dead tree on pedestrians/vehicle riders�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������   86 Fig. 4.12 Waste burning in residential area������������������������������������������������������   87 xxi

xxii

List of Figures

Fig. 4.13 Risk of injury due to occupying road for constructions without safety signage and closing the road��������������������������������������������������   88 Fig. 4.14 Income of taxpayers and population in India������������������������������������   88 Fig. 4.15 Income taxpayers and population in the United States���������������������   89 Fig. 4.16 Haphazardly laid cables, poor parking facility���������������������������������   89 Fig. 4.17 Labourers with personnel protective equipment in India������������������   90 Fig. 4.18 Unsafe water resources���������������������������������������������������������������������   90 Fig. 4.19 Unsafe building and parking�������������������������������������������������������������   90 Fig. 4.20 Unsafe transportation������������������������������������������������������������������������   91 Fig. 5.1 Current in water will help self-purification by exchange of gases between water and air in addition to the dilution of pollutants���������   102 Fig. 5.2 Stagnation of water or lower velocity in nature will settle solid particles���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������   104 Fig. 5.3 Water-tolerant crops that flourish forming wetland due to presence of nutrient will reduce concentration of nutrients, which have detrimental effect on other organisms�����������������������������������������������   104 Fig. 5.4 Another example of self-purification by water-tolerant plants forming wetland, thereby absorbing chemicals like nitrates and phosphates that provide surplus nutrients to plants and affect the health of the fauna�����������������������������������������������������������������������   105 Fig. 5.5 View of screen in a wastewater treatment plant��������������������������������   115 Fig. 5.6 View of empty grit chamber��������������������������������������������������������������   115 Fig. 5.7 View of primary sedimentation tank�������������������������������������������������   116 Fig. 5.8 View of waste stabilization ponds�����������������������������������������������������   117 Fig. 5.9 Aeration tank with surface aerator����������������������������������������������������   119 Fig. 5.10 Schematic diagram of SBR cycle�����������������������������������������������������   120 Fig. 5.11 Simplified conceptual diagram of nitrification and denitrification�����������������������������������������������������������������������������   121 Fig. 5.12 Pressure sand filter and activated carbon filter����������������������������������   122 Fig. 5.13 Sludge-drying beds unused for long period��������������������������������������   124 Fig. 6.1 Fig. 6.2 Fig. 6.3 Fig. 6.4 Fig. 6.5 Fig. 6.6 Fig. 6.7

Lung space preserved at the centre of New Delhi, India������������������   128 Water sprinkling in a mining area�����������������������������������������������������   129 Photo of a stack���������������������������������������������������������������������������������   130 Poorly maintained ID fan������������������������������������������������������������������   130 Classification of internal combustion engines����������������������������������   135 Crusher feed provided with windscreen�������������������������������������������   136 Large construction area���������������������������������������������������������������������   136

Fig. 7.1 Highway noise barrier�����������������������������������������������������������������������   143 Fig. 7.2 Enclosure for diesel generator����������������������������������������������������������   144 Fig. 8.1 Fig. 8.2 Fig. 8.3 Fig. 8.4

Food items being dried with wastes surroundings����������������������������   150 Hierarchy of environmental policy and economic burden����������������   151 Waste dumped adjacent to street�������������������������������������������������������   152 Stages of solid waste management���������������������������������������������������   153

List of Figures

xxiii

Fig. 8.5 Hazardous waste storage shed����������������������������������������������������������   154 Fig. 8.6 Biomedical waste stored at common biomedical waste treatment facilities prior to treatment����������������������������������������������������������������   155 Fig. 8.7 Waste segregation������������������������������������������������������������������������������   156 Fig. 8.8 Dry waste stored at primary waste buyers before handing over to secondary buyers or processor����������������������������������������������������������   157 Fig. 8.9 E-waste drop box������������������������������������������������������������������������������   158 Fig. 8.10 Radioactive waste being stored in a hospital before handing over for disposal����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������   159 Fig. 8.11 Unscientific storage of hazardous waste�������������������������������������������   159 Fig. 8.12 Unscientific storage of e-waste���������������������������������������������������������   160 Fig. 8.13 Unscientific storage of hazardous liquid waste���������������������������������   160 Fig. 8.14 Storage of empty chemical containers����������������������������������������������   161 Fig. 8.15 Nodes and paths in waste transportation�������������������������������������������   162 Fig. 8.16 Labelling of biomedical waste bag���������������������������������������������������   163 Fig. 8.17 Vehicle with biomedical waste����������������������������������������������������������   163 Fig. 8.18 Biomedical waste collection vehicle�������������������������������������������������   164 Fig. 8.19 Residents picking trash thrown by non-patriotic citizens that was not collected by local body due to mafia and corruption������������������   165 Fig. 8.20 Recycling of waste material by filling contaminated waste into toys����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������   166 Fig. 8.21 Waste shredder����������������������������������������������������������������������������������   167 Fig. 8.22 Immobilization of syringes and other sharp waste by cement����������   168 Fig. 8.23 Chemical disinfection of biomedical waste��������������������������������������   169 Fig. 8.24 Biomedical waste autoclave��������������������������������������������������������������   170 Fig. 8.25 Waste at construction site generated due to construction activity�����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������   171 Fig. 8.26 Waste at demolition site generated due to demolition activity���������   172 Fig. 8.27 Waste dumped in water body������������������������������������������������������������   172 Fig. 8.28 Waste dumped on land����������������������������������������������������������������������   173 Fig. 8.29 Waste incinerator������������������������������������������������������������������������������   175 Fig. 8.30 Important stages of monitoring radioactive wastes���������������������������   176 Fig. 9.1 Increase in sand mining due to rise in demand can deteriorate the environment��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������   182 Fig. 9.2 Passengers pushing a bus which has halted due to problem in the engine��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������   185 Fig. 9.3 Passengers riding on the roof top of public transport operated by a private agency putting themselves at risk�����������������������������������������   185 Fig. 9.4 Private vehicle parked on roads without footpaths���������������������������   186 Fig. 9.5 Sufficient cars on road in spite of sufficient mass transportation and poor road-crossing infrastructure�����������������������������������������������   186 Fig. 9.6 Poor people sleeping on footpaths����������������������������������������������������   187 Fig. 9.7 Footpaths used for selling animals����������������������������������������������������   187 Fig. 9.8 Metro train infrastructure under construction�����������������������������������   188

xxiv

List of Figures

Metro train arriving at station�����������������������������������������������������������   189 View of an airport�����������������������������������������������������������������������������   189 Crowding due to population concentration���������������������������������������   191 Poor solid waste collection���������������������������������������������������������������   192 Houses near a solid waste collection centre��������������������������������������   192 Housing in outskirts where proper amenities may not be accessible������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������   193 Fig. 9.15 House with small windows���������������������������������������������������������������   194 Fig. 9.16 Labour colony at a construction site�������������������������������������������������   194 Fig. 9.17 Houses without proper spacing���������������������������������������������������������   195 Fig. 9.18 High-end houses with club house and open spacing������������������������   196 Fig. 9.19 Houses without proper spacing���������������������������������������������������������   196 Fig. 9.20 Makeshift houses������������������������������������������������������������������������������   198 Fig. 9.21 Water stagnated and waste unpicked in an urban set-up�������������������   199 Fig. 9.22 Makeshift market������������������������������������������������������������������������������   199 Fig. 9.23 Person engaged in cleaning cloths in river����������������������������������������   200 Fig. 9.24 Person engaged in picking waste in river������������������������������������������   201 Fig. 9.25 Cracker residue���������������������������������������������������������������������������������   201 Fig. 9.26 Limestone mining�����������������������������������������������������������������������������   202 Fig. 9.27 Paper factory�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������   203 Fig. 9.28 Cement factory����������������������������������������������������������������������������������   203 Fig. 9.29 Small-scale industry with construction going on in the background�������������������������������������������������������������������������   204 Fig. 9.30 Inside view of a small- scale industry�����������������������������������������������   204 Fig. 9.9 Fig. 9.10 Fig. 9.11 Fig. 9.12 Fig. 9.13 Fig. 9.14

Fig. 10.1 Fig. 10.2 Fig. 10.3 Fig. 10.4

Measures required for disaster prevention and mitigation����������������   213 Sea dikes�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������   214 Demonstration of drop, cover and hold��������������������������������������������   215 Views of landslides���������������������������������������������������������������������������   222

Fig. 11.1 Lockdown of street in response to identification of COVID-­19 case����������������������������������������������������������������������������   232 Fig. 11.2 Fall of tree branches due to heavy rain���������������������������������������������   233 Fig. 12.1 Fig. 12.2 Fig. 12.3 Fig. 12.4

Some of the reasons for air pollution������������������������������������������������   240 Ambient air filter installed in Bengaluru������������������������������������������   241 Permeable reactive barrier����������������������������������������������������������������   242 Lowering a water table to eliminate contact with contaminated soil�����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������   244

List of Tables

Table 2.1 Table 2.2 Table 2.3 Table 2.4 Table 2.5 Table 2.6 Table 2.7 Table 2.8 Table 2.9 Table 3.1 Table 3.2 Table 3.3 Table 3.4 Table 3.5 Table 3.6 Table 4.1

The culture of an area which would affect the health of citizens��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������   28 Example of stress on environment and counter-stress by environment�����������������������������������������������������������������������������   33 Examples of simple checklist with respect to a thermal power plant during an operation phase����������������������������������������������������   35 Example of descriptive checklist with respect to thermal power plant at operation phase����������������������������������������������������������������   36 Example of scaling checklist with respect to thermal power plants at operation phase���������������������������������������������������������������   37 Example of descriptive checklist with respect to thermal power plant at operation phase����������������������������������������������������������������   38 Health impact matrix for operation stage of thermal power plant����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������   39 Example of advantages and disadvantages of different modes of public consultations������������������������������������������������������������������   43 Example of monitoring plan after implementation of transportation project����������������������������������������������������������������   44 Example of a simple checklist for impact assessment of an industry at construction phase���������������������������������������������   53 Example of checklist for scaling weighing impact assessment of thermal power plant at operation phase������������������������������������   54 Example of cumulative impact analysis matrix drinking water project at construction stage���������������������������������������������������������   55 Example of cumulative impact analysis matrix at operational stage of all ongoing and yet-to-start project���������������������������������   58 An example of EMP���������������������������������������������������������������������   63 Environmental monitoring plan����������������������������������������������������   66 Examples of stress on environment and counter-stress by environment�����������������������������������������������������������������������������   71 xxv

xxvi

List of Tables

Table 4.2 Table 4.3

Principles related to health needs and action��������������������������������   75 Environmental issues pertaining to different themes��������������������   92

Table 5.1 Table 5.2

Pore size in membrane filtration���������������������������������������������������   108 Typical transmembrane pressure for various membranes used in water treatment�������������������������������������������������������������������������   110 Typical cause for fouling of reverse osmosis membrane��������������   110 Primary, secondary and tertiary treatment������������������������������������   112 Example of unit operation and unit process���������������������������������   113

Table 5.3 Table 5.4 Table 5.5 Table 6.1 Table 6.2

Summary of air pollution control equipment��������������������������������   132 Examples of strategy for curbing air pollution at city/town level�����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������   139

Table 8.1 Table 8.2

Common terms used in solid waste management�������������������������   153 Advantages and disadvantages of some waste management options�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������   154 Terms related to waste disposal����������������������������������������������������   174 Types of radioactive waste and usual source��������������������������������   175

Table 8.3 Table 8.4

Table 12.1 In-lake techniques to restore lakes������������������������������������������������   245 Table 12.2 Outside-lake techniques to restore lakes���������������������������������������   246 Table 12.3 Sources and known impact on health due to chemicals����������������   248

List of Boxes

Box 1.1 Trail Smelter Case�����������������������������������������������������������������������������    6 Box 1.2 Tradable Emission�����������������������������������������������������������������������������    9 Box 1.3 Article 4 of the London Dumping Convention���������������������������������   12 Box 1.4 Principle 16 of Rio Declaration on Environment and Development�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������   13 Box 2.1 HIA sample outline���������������������������������������������������������������������������   29 Box 4.1 Agenda 21�����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������   71 Box 4.2 REDD and REDD+���������������������������������������������������������������������������   73 Box 5.1 Hydraulic Detention Period��������������������������������������������������������������   113 Box 5.2 Food to Microorganism Ratio�����������������������������������������������������������   121 Box 5.3 Mean Cell Residence Time���������������������������������������������������������������   121 Box 8.1 Units of radiation������������������������������������������������������������������������������   157 Box 10.1 Table of Content on Site Emergency Plan����������������������������������������   218 Box 10.2 Table of Content: Offsite Emergency Plan���������������������������������������   219

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Part I

Avoidance

Chapter 1

Environmental Legislation

Abstract  Protection of the environment would have not been a major concern if it was not related to human health. Technology does not come free of cost and so the enforcement of law. Mere adoption of laws without the use of technology would not fulfil the objectives of the environmental laws. Therefore, modern environmental law has been shaped keeping in mind the precautionary principle, the prevention principle, the “polluter pays” principle, the integration principle, the public participation principle and sustainable development principle. These are discussed in detail in the chapter in the context of international and domestic environmental laws. Global health is imparted by the value of social justice intended to address health difference within and among nations. It attempts to understand the universal right to health, vested in international human rights. The chapter discusses the key case studies apart from the current trends and prospects, as well as dispute settlement mechanisms, along with some of the reasons for failure of enforcement of environmental laws.

1.1  Introduction Health risks are beyond the control of any nation and government in the twenty-first century. Promoting public health and equity in an era of globalization needs cooperation and coordination both among and within states (Gostin et al. 2019). Actions to handle emergency response in a health crisis are only one face of public health law (Géraldine et al. 2016). The law is also an important tool to promote and protect health (Burris and Anderson 2013). Laws are binding norms, which are accepted by Community specific procedures suitable for their formation and imposed by public authorities. Global health hazards share four significant features (Kickbusch 2006; Arrow et al. 2019; Jamison et al. 2013; Ottersen et al. 2014) as follows: (i) Health hazards are not bound by borders. (ii) They have common fundamental causes, unhealthy behaviours like pathogens, or unsafe environments. (iii) They are aggravated by inequities associated with the socio-economic determinants of health. (iv) They require a synchronized, multi-sectoral global response. © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 R. Chandrappa, D. B. Das, Environmental Health - Theory and Practice, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-64484-0_1

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Environmental laws aim to: • Control pollution • Conserve resource Both aims are directly linked to the health of humans. Protection of environment would have not been a major concern if it was not related to human health. Had pollutants not affected human health, then obviously, the nations would have not taken the issue seriously to curb it by either technology or law. Technology does not come free of cost and so enforcement of law. Mere adoption of law without compelling to use technology would not fulfil the objectives of the environmental laws. People and business entity hardly abide by the laws without enforcement and imposing punishment. But non-binding international regulations formulated by international conference or conferences play a major role in the field of environmental protection. The belief that environmental laws can resolve environmental problems is not realistic. Total elimination of legislation for environmental protection would result in failure of protection. Proper understanding of the location as well as the role of legislation will help to keep proper balance amongst various extremes. Furthermore, mere passing of legislation would not set right the situation. Many countries do not consider the actual capacity of enforcing agencies. The concepts of framing international laws involve: • • • • •

Common but differentiated responsibilities (CDR) Common concern of humanity (CCH) Common heritage of mankind (CHM) Rights of future generations(RFG) Sustainable development (SD)

CCH provides a structure for way to resolve global problems and is well suited for environmental problems that do not honour national boundaries. As per Dinah Shelton (2009),“issues of common concern are those that inevitably transcend the boundaries of a single state and require collective action in response”. The concept of the CHM normally applies to geographic resources or areas, whereas the CCH concept is applicable to specific issues to address concerns that will otherwise have long-lasting undesirable effects, significantly overshelming future generations. Global health is imparted by the value of social justice intend to address health difference within and among nations (Goldie et al. 2014). It attempts to understand the universal right to health, vested in international human rights (Gostin et al. 2019).

1.2  Principles of Environmental Legislation Even though the preceding decades have seen a considerable decline in major global risk factors like malnutrition and unsafe sanitation, new threats have come out (GBD 2015 Risk Factors Collaborators 2016), making it necessary for formulating new principles in changing scenario.

1.2  Principles of Environmental Legislation

5

Modern environmental laws have been shaped by the following principles: The Precautionary Principle This principle states that if there is a suspicion that if an activity is likely to have environmentally negative impact, the activity needs to be controlled now instead of waiting for indisputable scientific evidence. The Prevention Principle Preventing environmental harm is economical, easy, and will have lesser negative environmental impact instead of reacting to environmental issues after damage has occurred. The “Polluter Pays” Principle This principle insists that “polluters” should pay instead of leaving the burden on non-polluters to take up the expenses of the following: • Remediation of pollution already caused • Abatement of pollution from source In these ways, manufactures can add pollution control expenses to their product and transfer to their customers. If the customer is not willing to buy the product without paying pollution prevention cost, obviously, the market mechanisms will stop the production of polluting activities. The Integration Principle Under this principle, it becomes mandatory to obtain permits under environmental laws prior to obtaining other permits and connections to supply basic necessities like water and electricity apart from funding opportunity in the form of loan, grant, etc. The Public Participation Principle Environment is not owned by individuals, but shared by community. Pollution does not honour political and statutory boundary, and the environmental impact due to activity may have impact in terms of decline in the quality of environment by • • • •

Endangering species Reducing natural resources Causing pollution Spreading sickness, etc.

Under this principle, public shall have the opportunity to influence the decision by written comments or hearings. Sustainable Development Sustainable development is a move towards economic planning that attempts to promote economic growth whilst conserving the environmental quality for future generations. Biological and physicochemical environment cannot be seen in isolation of socio-economic environment in the context of sustainable development.

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1.3  International Legislation Accomplishing global health with justice requires interdisciplinary and international cooperation, and leadership at all levels. International law can be classified into private international law and public international law. Public international law administers relations not only between different nationals but also amongst states as well as international organizations like Council of Europe, the United Nations Educational Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO), and the United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), as these international organizations are created by international laws. Private international law governs between non-state entities like individuals, associations or corporations. Following are the examples wherein international pollution was governed in early stages: • International agreements such as the treaty between Canada and the USA in 1909 • Arbitration in the 1941 award between Canada and the United States in case of Trail Smelter case (Box 1.1). Box 1.1 Trail Smelter Case The Trail Smelter is an integrated smelting as well as refining complex in Trail, British Columbia. The smelter fumes from Trail affected Farmers in Stevens County, Washington. Some farmers petitioned the local and federal governments for assistance. After diplomatic discussion, the United States and Canada agreed to have the International Joint Commission (IJC) review the matter (Sullivan 2018). IJC gave partial decision in 1938 and final decision in 1941 (Catherine 2014). The tribunal declared that “no state has right use or permit the use of its territory in such a manner as to cause injury fumes in or to the territory of another or the properties or persons therein, when the case is of serious consequences”. The early international legislations include the following: • • • • • • • •

London Convention to Preserve Fauna and Flora in their Natural State in 1933 London Convention for the Prevention of the Pollution of the Sea by Oil in 1954 Antarctic Treaty forbidding all nuclear activities on the sixth continent in 1959 Moscow Treaty regarding military uses and ban on nuclear weapons testing in the atmosphere in outer space and under water in 1963 Treaty on the Principles Governing the Exploration and Use of Outer Space in 1967 European Water Charter adopted by Council of Europe in 1968 Ramsar Convention on Wetlands of International Importance in 1971 London Convention for the Conservation of Antarctic Seals in 1972

The late 1800s as well as the 1900s saw the invention of vaccines for cholera, combined measles, mumps, and rubella, diphtheria, Haemophilus influenzae type B,

1.3  International Legislation

7

hepatitis A, hepatitis B, influenza, measles, pertussis, plague, polio, rotavirus, tetanus, tuberculosis, typhoid, varicella and yellow fever (Orenstein et al. 2010; Reyes et al. 2013). Non-pharmacological interferences to decrease spread of influenza were based on decreasing the points of contact amongst non-infected and infected people by “social distancing” apart from closings of churches, theatres, schools, besides prohibitions on large public gatherings (Reyes et al. 2013). Such interventions, when implemented early, can lower cumulative excess mortality and reduce about 50% lower peak death rates (Hatchett et al. 2007). The morbidity and mortality rebound when cities relaxed these restrictions (Morse 2007; Markel et al. 2007; Paulo et al. 2010). The Spanish influenza pandemic of 1918–1919 led to the death of around 50 million people with higher mortality in urban area (Johnson and Mueller 2002). Quarantine was the foundation of prevention for the period of influenza outbreaks, as the influenza vaccine was not developed until 1945 (Nelson and Williams 2007). The First International Sanitary Conference organized in Paris in 1851 by the European countries recognized that free movement of goods as well as people will enhance the risk of transmission across the border (WHO 2020). The International Sanitary Conferences was a series of 14 conferences from 1851 to 1938 that played a major role in the creation of the World Health Organization in 1948. International Sanitary Regulations was revised and renamed as the International Health Regulations (IHR) in the 22nd World Health Assembly, 1969. The IHR encourages state parties to help build health system ability in lower income states. In 2007, Indonesia claimed sovereignty over the H5N1 influenza virus samples isolated within Indonesia’s territories (Rourke 2020). The conflict was resolved in 2011 with the introduction of the WHO’s Pandemic Influenza Preparedness (PIP) Framework that requires parties to share novel flu virus specimens and provide reciprocal benefits to other states. Article 12 of the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (ICESCR) from 1966 includes the fundamental concepts of the right to health. The world conference organized in Stockholm by the UN in 1972 adopted a Declaration on the Human Environment that originated several principles that exercised a key role in the shaping international environmental law. The first principle emphasized the fundamental human rights to freedom, equality besides sufficient situation of life in an environment of a quality that allows a life of pride as well as well-being. Further, it appended that humans bear important responsibility to guard as well as advance the environment for upcoming as well as present generations. Principles 18–20 point out the instruments of global environmental policy planning in addition to management by national institutions, alternative to science and technology, information exchange, and teaching, as well as information in environmental matters. Principle 21 confirms, beside developing, the previous legal system, declaring the accountability of countries, that to make sure the actions within their command or control do not cause harm to the environment of other countries or of region outside the limits of a country’s jurisdiction. The declaration also confirms that countries should collaborate to develop international law concerning legal responsibility along with reparation for victims of pollution as well as other environmental d­ amage

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beyond their borders. They also should describe criteria as well as standard in environmental issues, taking into concern the system of values existing in every nation, particularly in developing nations. Nations should assist to protect as well as develop the environment and make sure that international organizations play a harmonized, effective, as well as active role in this field. The final principle criticizes nuclear weapons as well as all other ways of mass destruction. An additional key consequence of the Stockholm Conference in 1972 was the “Action Plan for Human Environment” comprising 109 resolutions covering the various fields of environmental studies. The conference also suggested the formation of an organization to be charged with environmental matters. In response, the UN General Assembly created the United Nations Environment Program (UNEP) in 1972. The developments after 1972 include the following: • Adoption of convention covering Europe, Canada and the US on principles of long-range transboundary air pollution control in 1979 • Adoption of the world charter for Nature by The UN General Assembly in 1982 • Adoption of the UN Convention on the Law of the Sea in 1982 • Vienna Convention on Ozone depleting substance in 1985 was complemented by Montreal Protocol in 1987 • Adoption of General rules based on the principle that river states should cooperate by the UN Economic Commission for Europe in 1992 • Convention on Climate Change in 1992 The international environmental law adopts the following principles: A. State Sovereignty: State is the only authority for its territory. B. Cooperation: External relations in accordance with its interest. C. CPreservation and Protection of the Environment: This principle is one more crucial basis of international environmental law. Article 192 of the UN Convention on the Law of the Sea states that: States have the obligation to protect and preserve the marine environment.

D. Prevention: Prevention of Environmental degradation. E. Precautionary Principle: Precaution seeks to avoid environmental harm. F. The Polluter Pays Principle: Polluter who harms environment is responsible to pay compensation and the expenses to remedy that harm. G. Information and Assistance in Environmental Emergencies: It is a customary duty for countries to share information as well as assistance in environmental emergencies. As per Principle 18 of the Rio Declaration: States shall immediately notify other States of any natural disasters or other emergencies that are likely to produce sudden harmful effects on the environment of those States.

1.3  International Legislation

9

According to Article 198 of United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea: When a State becomes aware of cases in which the marine environment is in imminent danger of being damaged or has been damaged by pollution, it shall immediately notify other States it deems likely to be affected by such damage, as well as the competent international organization.

H. Information and Consultation in Cross-Boundary Relations: Besides emergency situations, a country that plans to take up or authorize activities likely to impact environment of other country must inform the latter. Furthermore, it must convey the relevant details of the project to the other country. I. The Rights of Individuals: If the activities in the jurisdiction or control of one state impact environment of other country, the individuals who are at risk must have the right to judicial or administrative procedures in the country causing the harm to environment.

1.3.1  Economic Instruments Economic incentives in the context of environmental law can provide incentives, pressurize or apply disincentives, and/or permit participants to negotiate the benefits by instruments like tradable emissions (Box 1.2). Box 1.2 Tradable Emission Emissions trading is a market-based approach to manage pollution wherein pollution emission is reduced where it is most economical and ‘Certified Emission Reduction (CER) certificates’ are generated. The effluent polluter will buy the CER certificate, thereby encouraging others to reduce emission and generate tradable CERs. Reduced emission

Sell

Buy

Excess Emission

Emission Cap

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Joint implementation is an idea connected with negotiable permits that permits industrialized countries to meet their obligations by undertaking or financing activities in other nations. Current Trends and Prospects Although many international environmental treaties have been done, effectual agreements are difficult to accomplish for a range of reasons. Since environmental problems pay no attention to political boundaries, they can be effectively dealt only with the mutual aid of many countries, among which there could be grave disagreements on environmental matters. Furthermore, since the actions required to deal environmental issues usually end up in social and economic hardship in the nations that accept them, many nations, predominantly in the developing countries, have been unwilling to enter into environmental treaties. Dispute Settlement Mechanism As per to Article 33(1) of the UN Charter: The parties to any dispute, the continuance of which is likely to endanger the maintenance of international peace and security shall, first of all, seek a solution by negotiation, enquiry, mediation, conciliation, arbitration, judicial settlement, resort to regional agencies or arrangements, or other peaceful means of their own choice.

This provision is applicable to international environmental disputes as well. Other means of environmental dispute settlement are: • Approach to regional agencies or arrangements • Judicial settlement Judicial settlement in the context of international dispute means a decision by the International Court of Justice, which is the chief judicial organ of the UN, the decree annexed to the UN Charter (Article 92).

1.4  National and Local Legislation International environmental law is characterized by the propagation as well as interaction of legal rules at all levels of governance. Policies and laws adopted at the global, regional, national, as well as local levels influence each other. National and local legislations are documents in the form of constitution, act, rules, bylaws, notification, directives, and directions, which are explained below. Constitution:  Constitutions are the highest law of the land. A constitution of a country is a collection of basic principles or established precedents that constitute the legal basis of the country that determines how the country is to be governed. Acts, rules and regulations, must conform to norms and principles of constitution. Rules:  A set of clear procedures laid down under the act following procedures adopted by the country. In the context of health, the rules should seek to decrease or prevent risks of injury and ailment equitably across populations (Reynolds 2011).

1.4  National and Local Legislation

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Act:  An act is formed by enactment (the process of passing legislation) required for Rules. By laws:  Regulations made by a local authority. Notification:  A legal notification is an official announcement made by a government following formal procedures. Directive Order/Direction:  Since it is not possible to bring out act, rules and notification at each circumstance, the authority empowered by act, rule and notification is entitled to issue official or authoritative instructions on a case-to-case basis. The example includes cutting power and water supply by a polluting industry. Act and rules are usually published in the gazette (official publications by a government) of a country/state. Permits, consent order, authorization, registration, certification, or licensing are predominating tools for activity or establishment considered environmentally hazardous. The list is defined or listed and people are compelled to obey formal licensing procedures. Numerous international texts need states to license potentially harmful activities. Some of them are listed below: • Whaling Convention, 1946 • Antarctic Treaties, 1959 • The Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora, 1963 • African Convention on the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources, 1968 • Convention for the Prevention of Marine Pollution by Dumping from Ships and Aircraft, 1972 • London Dumping Convention, 1972 • Paris Convention for the Prevention of Marine Pollution from Land-Based Sources, 1974 • Bonn Convention on Protection of the Rhine against Chemical Pollution, 1963 supplemented in 1976 • ​​​Regional Seas Agreements, 1976 • The International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships (abbreviated as MARPOL shot form for Maritime Pollution), 1973 modified in 1978 • United Nations Convention for the Law of the Sea, 1982 • ASEAN Agreement on the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources, 1985 • Basel Convention on Hazardous Waste, 1989 • Bamako Convention on Hazardous Waste in Africa, 1991 The majority of licensing controls are not intended to remove all pollution or hazard of resource reduction, but somewhat to conserve resources and control grave pollution as far as possible. Pollution control licenses symbolize a midway among absolute prohibition and unregulated industrial practices. They are substituted to allow experimentation by granting temporary licenses and zoning as a way to site installations.

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Where environmentally hazardous activities need to be carried out, taking permits allows the government to control the operation. Box 1.3 briefly explains Article 4 of the London Dumping Convention. Box 1.3 Article 4 of the London Dumping Convention Permits to Control Pollution: As per the provisions of this Convention, Contracting Parties must forbid the dumping of wastes/material, except as otherwise specified in convention with special/general permit as specified in convention. The permit shall be issued only after cautious consideration of all the factors specified in convention. Public health legislations play a significant role in the suppression of any pandemic or epidemic (Sahoo et al. 2020). Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) infection that led to the outbreak of Coronavirus pandemic coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) was first recognized in Wuhan, Hubei, China, in December 2019. A total of 4,14,179 cases and 18,440 deaths of COVID-19 were reported as of 25 March 2020 in more than 190 countries and territories (WHO 2010). Following are some of the laws made in response of COVID-19: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

The UK Coronavirus Act, 2020 in United Kingdom The Health Protection (Coronavirus) Regulations 2020 in United Kingdom The COVID-19 (Temporary Measures) Act, 2020 in Singapore The COVID-19 Accountability Act. 2020 in United States of America COVID-19 Emergency response act 2020 in Australia The Karnataka Epidemic Diseases (Covid-19) Regulations. 2020 in Karnataka State, India 7. COVID-19 Regulations, 2020 in Nigeria 8. The COVID-19 Public Health Response Act 2020 in New Zealand Efforts to stop the pandemic included restrictions on travel, curfews, quarantines, facility closures and event postponements/cancellations, border closures or incoming passenger restrictions, screening at airports and train stations, beside outgoing passenger travel bans, closure of schools and universities. The pandemic resulted in stern global socio-economic disruption apart from the postponement or cancellation of religious, cultural and sporting events.

1.4.1  Economic Instruments Command-and-control approach is conventionally favoured in national and local legislations, which may prohibit or license, directly control by bans, standards, zoning, permits, use restrictions, quotas, etc.

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The second choice leads to economic instruments as incentives to behaviour, which is outlined in Principle 16 of Rio Declaration on Environment and Development (Box 1.4). A third way is information, education, social pressure, training, negotiation, as well as moral arguments. Box 1.4 Principle 16 of Rio Declaration on Environment and Development “National authorities should endeavour to promote the internalization of environmental costs and the use of economic instruments, taking into account the approach that the polluter should, in principle, bear the cost of pollution, with due regard to the public interest and without distorting international trade and investment”. Following paragraphs discuss several economic instruments in environmental laws: 1.4.1.1  Taxation Environmental taxation is based on the principle ‘polluters have to pay for their implied claim on environmental services’. Taxes may have a revenue-raising impact that aims for collective treatment, instead of being too high to be a discouragement. Taxes can sponsor environmental investments besides providing incentives to decrease waste and pollution. Taxation can be in the following forms: (a) Effluent Charges: Effluent charges are monitory charges that are levied based on the quality and/or quantity of discharge of polluting substance. (b) Product Charges: Monitory charges levied on products that generate pollution during manufacturing/consumption. (c) Tax differentiation: Tax differentiation is a term used to levying different taxed for eco-friendly manufacturing/product. (d) Administrative Charges: Administrative charges are fees, paid to the enforcing agencies towards permits.

1.4.1.2  Loans Loans in the context of economic instruments for safeguarding environment are given by government towards product manufacturing with clean technology.

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1.4.1.3  Insurance Governments take the obligation of insurance towards the risk for the environment and responsibility for third-party damage, which may arise from an ecological accident. 1.4.1.4  Grants and Subsidies Grants and subsidies as economic instruments for pollution control can be used to set up waste treatment/disposal facilities, which do not attract private participation for investment. Subsidies to new polluting activities are usually prohibited. Public authorities may provide grants for the purpose of developing new pollution abatement equipment. 1.4.1.5  Negotiable Permits A negotiable permit fixes the entire quantity of pollution permissible within an area. Polluter in the area is required to get an emission permit from local authorities compliant with emission standards. Polluter investing in processes that reduce pollution may sell or exchange their permits to other polluters in the same geographic area. 1.4.1.6  Deposits Another economic instrument is mandatory deposits on items such as plastic/glass containers to persuade their return for recycling. This instrument adds a surcharge to the price of polluting products. The surcharge is refunded when the residual/ product is returned to a collection agent. 1.4.1.7  Labelling Environmental labelling involves a private or public body issuing labels to inform consumers about products that are deemed to be less harmful to the environment. 1.4.1.8  Standard Setting (a) Process Standards: These standards specify operating procedures or design requirements applicable to manufacturer’s means and methods of activities. (b) Product Standards: These types of standards are used for goods that are made or manufactured for distribution. (c) Emission Standards: These standards specify the concentration or quantity of pollutants that can be emitted from their operations.

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(d) Quality Standards: These types of standard fixe the maximum permissible level of pollution from an operation. (e) Best Environmental Practice/Best Available Technology: This insists on adopting the best amongst the available technologies to produce a product. 1.4.1.9  Restrictions and Prohibitions Restrictions and prohibitions can be done by enactments, rules, notifications, directions, policy or court judgements. Such restrictions can be for materials, activities or area. Many substances have been banned across the world for environmental concerns which include crackers, single-use plastics, certain pesticides, surfactants, asbestos products, leaded paints and others. Examples of restriction of activity include the following: 1. Solid waste treatment and disposal facility around airports 2. Restriction of industries and fuel-driven vehicles around Taj Mahal, India 3. Restriction of usage of horns around hospitals Examples of prohibition include the following: • • • •

Export/import of e-waste, plastic waste, hazardous waste, etc. Prohibition of hunting Prohibition of fishing during breeding season Dumping of waste into water bodies

1.4.2  Institution Arrangement and Enforcement Mechanism Intuitional arrangements for enforcement of environmental law vary from country to country. It mainly comprises the following wings. 1. Legislative, for forming legislation 2. Executive, for enforcing legislation 3. Judiciary, for dispute resolving The executive arrangement can have a national-level authority with network of regional offices or array of institutions with varying authority and administrative jurisdictions. Enforcement of domestic environmental law follows the principle of natural justice wherein violator is heard before taking action by enforcing institutions. Principle of natural justice has two principles: Nemo judex in causa sua: No man shall be a judge in his own cause. Audi Alteram Partem: To hear the other side. Hence, violators are often issued notices and called for hearing under the principle of natural justice. But there are exceptions to the principle of natural justice:

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1  Environmental Legislation

Doctrine of necessity Doctrine of absolute necessity Emergency Impracticability Useless formality Government policy decision

To maintain and earn the trust of the people, international bodies, legislatures, administrative agencies and courts must create, enforce and interpret the legislation impartially. In spite of developing laws, their implementation is not fool-proof and 100% efficient (Chandrappa et al. 2011; Chandrappa and Das 2012; Chandrappa and Das 2014; Chandrappa and Kulshrestha 2016). Laws can become a barrier to achieving global health and equity due to arbitrary, misguided, outdated or discriminatory laws that have become source of corruption and caused great harm. Some of the reasons for failure of enforcement of environmental law are as follows: • No synchronization between political priority and environmental goals –– Political priority to employment generation, boost in economy, foreign exchange, national security –– Pleasing vote bank –– Pleasing donors of party fund • • • •

Terrorism Political instability Political interference Lack stakeholder support –– Lack of support from users of non-environmental products and –– Lack of support from manufactures of non-environmental products

• Institutional barriers and conflicts of interest –– Low manpower –– Corruption Bribery Graft Nepotism Backdoor deals Patronage Falsification of statistics Embezzlement –– Deviation of manpower for other responsibility like the following: Election duty Disaster management District/departmental sports duty

References

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Political security Entertaining state delegation –– –– –– –– –– ––

Too many national holidays and leave eligibility to enforcing officers Additional charges held by enforcing officer Unequal distribution of work Disappoint of staff due to restricted growth opportunity Lack of resources Misuse of resources Time (e.g. late coming and early going, watching cricket during office hours, attending marriages during office hours) Money (e.g. use of money for personal purpose by producing fake bills) Manpower (e.g. use of official staff for personal use) Equipment (e.g. use of official vehicle for personal use)

–– –– –– –– –– –– –– –– –– ––

Improper delegation of work Lack of action against non-performing enforcing officers Office politics Inability to interpret and understand law Inability to cope with fast-changing laws, policy and judgements Frequent transfer of enforcing officers Unhealthy staff Absence of sophisticated laboratory Low salary Family problems of staff

References Arrow KJ, Berkley S, Binagwaho A, Bustreo F, Evans D, Feachem RGA, Frenk J, Ghosh G, Gostin LO, Meier BM, Thomas R, Magar V, Ghebreyesus TA (2019) 70 years of human rights in global health: drawing on a contentious past to secure a hopeful future. Lancet 392:2731–2735 Burris S, Anderson E (2013) Legal regulation of health-related behavior: a half century of public health law research. Annu Rev Law Soc Sci 9(1):95–117. https://doi.org/10.1146/ annurev-­lawsocsci-­102612-­134011 Catherine P (2014) An International Environmental Law Case Study: The Trail Smelter Arbitration (2014) International Pollution Issues, December 2014. https://intlpollution.commons.gc.cuny. edu/. Accessed on 16th June 2019 Chandrappa R, Das DB (2012) Solid waste management: principles and practice. Springer, New York, ISBN-13: 978-3662521823 Chandrappa R, Das DB (2014) Sustainable water engineering theory and practice. Wiley, West Sussex, ISBN – 978-1118541043 Chandrappa R, Kulshrestha UC (2016) Sustainable air pollution management, theory and practice. Springer, New York, ISBN-13: 978-3319372242 Chandrappa R, Gupta S, Kulshrestha UC (2011) Coping with climate change: principles and Asian context. Springer, New York, ISBN-13: 978-3642196737 Dinah Shelton (2009) Common Concern of Humanity, Environmental Law and Policy 39/2, 83

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GBD 2015 Risk Factors Collaborators (2016) Global, regional, and national comparative risk assessment of 79 behavioural, environmental and occupational, and metabolic risks or clusters of risks, 1990–2015: a systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2015. Lancet 388:1659–1724 Géraldine M, Feng-jen T, Evan A, Florian K, Dominique S, Scott B (2016) National public health law: a role for WHO in capacity-building and promoting transparency. Bull World Health Organ 94:534–539. https://doi.org/10.2471/BLT.15.164749 Goldie SJ, Guo Y, Gupta S, Horton R, Kruk ME, Mahmoud A, Mohohlo LK, Ncube M, Gostin L (2014) Global health law. Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA Gostin LO, Monahan JT, Kaldor J, DeBartolo M, Friedman EA, Gottschalk K, Kim SC, Alwan A, Binagwaho A, Burci GL, Cabal L, DeLand K, Evans TG, Goosby E, Hossain S, Koh H, Ooms G, Roses Periago M, Uprimny R, Yamin AE (2019) The legal determinants of health: harnessing the power of law for global health and sustainable development. Lancet (London, England) 393(10183):1857–1910. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-­6736(19)30233-­8 Hatchett RJ, Mecher CE, Lipsitch M (2007) Public health interventions and epidemic intensity during the 1918 influenza pandemic. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 104:7582–7587 Jamison DT, Summers LH, Alleyne G, Arrow KJ, Berkley S, Binagwaho A, Bustreo F, Evans D, Feachem RGA, Frenk J, Ghosh G, Goldie SJ, Guo Y, Gupta S, Horton R, Kruk ME, Mahmoud A, Mohohlo LK, Ncube M, Pablos-Mendez A, Srinath Reddy K, Saxenian H, Soucat A, Ulltveit-Moe KH, Yamey G (2013) Global health 2035: a world converging within a generation. Lancet 382:1898–1955 Johnson NP, Mueller J (2002) Updating the accounts: global mortality of the 1918–1920 “Spanish” influenza pandemic. Bull Hist Med 76:105–115 Kickbusch I (2006) Mapping the future of public health: action on global health. Can J Public Health 97:6–8 Markel H, Lipman HB, Navarro JA et al (2007) Nonpharmaceutical interventions implanted by US cities during the 1918–1919 influenza pandemic. JAMA 298:644–654 Morse SS (2007) Pandemic influenza: studying the lessons of history. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 104:7313–7314 Nelson KE, Williams CM (2007) Early history of infectious disease: epidemiology and control of infectious diseases. In: Infectious disease epidemiology: theory and practice. Jones and Bartlett Publishers Inc, Sudbury, pp 3–23 Orenstein WA, Pickering LK, Mawle A, Hinman AR, Wharton M (2010) Immunization. In: Mandell GL, Bennet JE, Dolin R (eds) Principles and practice of infectious disease, 7th edn. Churchill Livingstone Elsevier, Philadelphia, pp 3917–3946 Ottersen OP, Dasgupta J, Blouin C, Buss P, Chongsuvivatwong V, Frenk J, Fukuda-Parr S, Gawanas BP, Giacaman R, Gyapong J, Leaning J, Marmot M, McNeill D, Mongella GI, Moyo N, Møgedal S, Ntsaluba A, Ooms G, Bjertness E, Lie AL, Moon S, Roalkvam S, Sandberg KI, Scheel IB (2014) The political origins of health inequity: prospects for change. Lancet 383:630–667 Paulo A, Correia-Neves M, Domingos T, Murta A, Pedrosal J (2010) Influenza infectious dose may explain the high mortality of the second and third wave of 1918–1919 influenza pandemic. PLoS One 5:e11655 Reyes R, Ahn R, Thurber K, Burke TF (2013) Urbanization and infectious diseases: general principles, historical perspectives, and contemporary challenges. In: Fong I (ed) Challenges in infectious diseases. Emerging infectious diseases of the 21st century. Springer, New York, NY Reynolds C (2011) Public and environmental health law. Federation Press, Annandale, NSW Rourke MF (2020) Restricting access to pathogen samples and epidemiological data: a not-­ so-­brief history of “viral sovereignty” and the mark it left on the world. In: Infectious diseases in the new millennium: legal and ethical challenges, vol 82, pp  167–191. https://doi. org/10.1007/978-­3-­030-­39819-­4_8 Sahoo DP, Alekhya G, Bhatia V, Parida SP (2020) COVID-19 pandemic: a narrative review on legislative and regulatory framework in India for disaster and epidemic. Int J Res Med Sci 8:2724. https://doi.org/10.18203/2320-­6012.ijrms20202926

References

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Sullivan RK (2018) Environmental law—how it got there matters: trail smelter evades Cercla responsibility for the aerial deposition of hazardous waste, 40 W. New Eng L Rev 299(2018). http://digitalcommons.law.wne.edu/lawreview/vol40/iss2/5 WHO (2010) Global tuberculosis control: WHO Report 2010. World Health Organization, Geneva WHO (2020) International health regulations and epidemic control. https://www.who.int/trade/ distance_learning/gpgh/gpgh8/en/index7.html. Acessed on 26th Mar 2020

Chapter 2

Health Impact Assessment (HIA)

Abstract  Health impact assessment (HIA) is a process to evaluate the health impacts of plants, policies, as well as projects quantitatively and qualitatively. HIA assists the decision-makers to formulate decisions regarding alternatives; unlike the past, decisions cannot be taken by sacrificing the capacity of the environment to provide its ecological services. Like the resource, ecological services of any ecological set-up are limited and cannot take pressure beyond their capacity. Any stress beyond the capacity of nature will result in counter-stress by nature to eliminate the stress to upkeep nature’s health. This chapter discusses the theory and practice of HIA along with the relevant methodologies supported by case studies.

2.1  Introduction Economic sectors like agriculture, transport, trading, entertainment, and housing have huge impacts on health. Transport is a key factor that causes air pollution, traffic injuries and noise pollution (Fig. 2.1). But “healthy transport policies” such as use of electric motors, walking and cycling can reduce these risks. In agriculture, agrochemicals may boost crop yields. But farm workers as well as consumers will be affected due to excessive chemical exposure. Increasing recognition of the impacts of human-induced programmes, policies, plans or projects on the environment resulted in the development of the environmental impact assessment (EIA) in the 1960s (Burton and Wilson 1983; Bond and Wathern 1999), and in 1969, the United States became the first country to establish the basis for EIA. While most other nations followed the example of the United States (Morgan 2012), it took three decades till HIA was formulated as a separate form of impact assessment with focus on human health (Scott-Samuel 1996; Birley and Peralta 1995). Since then, HIA practice has grown and diversified in the United Kingdom, Canada, Australia, the United States, and several European countries pioneering in this evolving discipline (Erlanger et al. 2008; Winkler et al. 2020). HIA is a process to evaluate the health impacts of plans, policies, as well as projects quantitatively and qualitatively. HIA is a means of policy-making for improvement based on social, psychological, economic, political, and environmental factors © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 R. Chandrappa, D. B. Das, Environmental Health - Theory and Practice, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-64484-0_2

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2  Health Impact Assessment (HIA)

Fig. 2.1  Accumulation of pollutants due to temperature inversion

that determine population health (Lock 2000). HIAs can be useful in promoting community health besides reducing unfavourable impacts of decisions made by proponents of project (Gwimbi et al. 2020). Factoring in HIAs of local communities in environmental impact statements (EISs) can have a considerable impact on public health (Richter et al. 2010; Veronez et al. 2018). However, the extent to which recommendations of HIA are translated into obligations of planning remains questioned (Davenport et al. 2006; Dannenberg 2016). Although HIA is a part of the EIA system, a study on 42EISs in China demonstrated that HIA is not implemented in most of the cases. Following are some of the examples across sectors which need HIA: • • • • • • • •

Agriculture Air Communications Culture Development Energy Housing Mining

2.1 Introduction

• • • • •

23

Social welfare Tourism Transportation Waste Water

HIA assists decision-makers to make decisions regarding alternatives (no project, take up partial project, take up different project and modify the existing project) as well as improvements to prevent disease/injury besides promoting health. The environment being the sum total of physical, chemical and biological components in a given region, the temperature and wind humidity may affect concentration of air pollutants due to temperature inversion (warmer air held above cooler air). Project-related activities may indirectly, directly or cumulatively alter community exposures to health risks like communicable/non-communicable diseases, accidents as well as exposure to hazardous conditions/materials (IFC 2018). Environmental issues (such as presence/absence of lung spaces (Fig. 2.2), damage of drinking water network (Fig. 2.3), accumulation of nutrient in surface water body (Fig. 2.4), poor water supply (Fig. 2.5), narrow roads (Fig. 2.6)) affect the environmental health of the people in the region. Health impact assessment (HIA) has been promoted as a major instrument to protect public health (WHO 1999, Osofsky and Pongsiri 2018), but their implementation worldwide remains weak due to the difference in practices between high-­ income counties (HICs) and low- and middle-income countries (LMICs) (Erlanger et al. 2008).

Fig. 2.2  Lung space adjacent to a monument

24

2  Health Impact Assessment (HIA)

Fig. 2.3  Water flowing in road due to damage of drinking water supply network

Compared to HICs, LMICs are disproportionately exposed to modern health hazards like deforestation, waste management, pollution, land degradation and climate change (Corvalán et al. 1999). More than 92% of all people dying due to air pollution exposure across the world live in LMICs. The same nations also claim 90% of traffic-related deaths besides 80% deaths due to non-communicable ailments each year (WHO 2016; Alwan 2011; UNEP 2011; Landrigan et al. 2017). However, just 6% of all HIAs are conducted in LMICs (Erlanger et al. 2008). A sudden increase in job in a region may lead to migration, thereby increasing demands on existing health as well as sanitation infrastructure. Introduction of slaughter houses may enhance infectious diseases. Poor solid waste management may increase dog bites. Developments adjacent to forest may result in man–animal conflicts. These types of indirect/direct impacts may increase legal liabilities, cause delay in project completion, damage relationships with communities or government besides demanding additional financial burdens. With proper management of projects and programmes, community health impacts may reduce financial burden besides helping to create positive attitude (IFC 2018).

2.1 Introduction

25

Fig. 2.4 Accumulation of nitrate and phosphates in surface water body which has led to eutrophication

Numerous health issues can be solved with simple, cost-effective public health interventions like the following: • • • •

Proper housing design Sprinkling water on roads Good water access and supply Appropriate solid waste management

There are many links between health and housing. Housing-related health risks include the following: • • • •

Cardiovascular and respiratory diseases due to indoor air pollution Sickness along with deaths from temperature extremes Communicable diseases spread because of poor sanitation Risks of home injuries

Inadequate ventilation is linked with a higher risk of transmission of airborne diseases like tuberculosis, allergies and asthma. Improper design as well as housing quality also can worsen the health impacts due to exposure to temperature extremes or entry of flood water. Governance cannot operate in a vacuum. It must have guidance from the people it serves. All agencies need to know what information to collect besides when it is

26

2  Health Impact Assessment (HIA)

Fig. 2.5  Poor water supply and weak structure in poor locality

required to protect and conserve environment. They are required to know if their services are useful besides how they can be improved to protect environment. Decision maker’s direction should be both a catalyst and foundation for the work of the governing agency from which laws, guidelines and state budget would arise. Like resources, ecological services of any ecological set-up are limited and cannot take pressure beyond its capacity. Any stress beyond capacity of nature will result in counter-stress by nature to eliminate the stress to upkeep nature’s health. Some of the examples of stress on environment and counter-stress by environment is given in Table 2.1. The health, as well as well-being, of citizens is determined by a broad array of social, economic, as well as environmental influences. HIA process shall identify the relevant stakeholders and consult them prior to finalizing an assessment. Significant impact of project and policy on health varies from case to case. HIA quantification for expansion of Stansted airport – second runway calculated health effects of air quality, noise and road traffic accidents. The construction of a waste to energy plant proposed in London, UK, located next to the river Thames anticipated 85% of the waste delivery by barge with the rest

2.1 Introduction

27

Fig. 2.6  Narrow roads and absence of parking area

being delivered by road. HIA quantification included calculation of health effects on the population within a 20-km radius for air pollution based on the dispersion mapping available, inferring exposed population to be over five million people. HIA conducted to assess the policy for increased funding of before- and after-­ school programmes estimated health impacts by extrapolating from the outcomes of published evaluations of after-school programmes. The outcomes of the assessment were the following: (1) programmes are not likely to attract high-risk or eligible low-income youth; (2) academic gains are likely to be not significant due to subsequent health status and earning potential; and (3) risk of fund diversion from other health programmes (Phillips et al. 2010). Stakeholders commonly include the following: • Developers • Employers and unions • Health workers at local, national or international levels, Local/national governments • Planners • The decision-makers • The local community/public, predominantly vulnerable groups

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2  Health Impact Assessment (HIA)

Table 2.1  The culture of an area which would affect the health of citizens Sl. No. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9.

Culture Alcoholism Spitting on roads Open defecation and urination Not washing hand Ignorance of hygiene Indiscriminate use of agrochemicals Absence of social etiquette and frequent road ravage Rearing cattle in urban area Presence of stray animals (snakes, dogs, rodents, and cattle) on streets

10.

Congested roads

11.

Congested mass transport system

12. 13. 14.

Food adulteration Ignorance of balanced diet Consumption of untreated/poorly treated water Discharge of untreated/poorly treated wastewater Noisy and dusty construction operation Frequent/continuous conflict

15. 16. 17.

Possible effect on public health Liver damage and psychological issues Communicable diseases Communicable diseases, transmission of helminths parasites Communicable and non-communicable diseases Communicable and non-communicable diseases Non-communicable diseases Injury, psychological issues Communicable diseases Communicable diseases(such as plague and rabies), transmission of helminths parasites, animal bites and injury Injury, psychological issues, spread of airborne diseases like SARS, COVID 19 etc., Injury, psychological issues, spread of airborne diseases like SARS, COVID 19 etc., Malnutrition and related issues Malnutrition and related issues Communicable and non-communicable diseases Communicable and non-communicable diseases Injury, psychological issues, communicable and non-communicable diseases Injury, psychological issues, communicable and non-communicable diseases

• The network of people as well as organizations that will carry out the HIA • Voluntary agencies and non-governmental organizations Community engagement and stakeholder interactions are important in assessing health impacts (Dannenberg 2016; Haigh et al. 2015) even though stepwise process, and evidence-based approach is essential in HIAs (Dannenberg 2016). The theory and practice of a health impact assessment process are pictorially represented in Fig. 2.7. Even though in theory the approach seems to be nice, its practice is not fool-proof. Public participation is diluted by project proponent by providing a rosy picture. Sample of a HIA outline is provided in Box 2.1. The outline is only an illustration. It is neither final nor comprehensive. The content of the HIA can be modified depending on the project outline and geological location.

2.1 Introduction

Box 2.1 HIA sample outline Executive Summary   1.0 Introduction    1.1 Project Background    1.2 Objectives and Scope   2.0 Project Description   2.1 Location    2.2 Key Operational Aspects of the Proposed Project    2.2.1 Site Access    2.2.2 Operational Support    2.2.3 Project Timing/Schedule   3.0 Legal, Administrative, and Legislative Framework    4.0 HIA Framework and Methodology    4.1 HIA within the Proposed Project     4.1.1 Scope of the HIA    4.2 Impacts Categorization     4.2.1 Direct Versus Indirect Effects    4.2.2 Cumulative Effects     4.2.3 Specific Comprehensive HIA Methodology—Sectoral Approach     4.2.3.1 Housing      4.2.3.2 Water Supply, Sanitation, and Food     4.2.3.3 Transportation     4.2.3.4 Communications, Information Distribution     4.2.4 Environmental Health Areas (EHAs)     4.2.5 Potentially Affected Communities (PACs)   5.0 Baseline Analysis    5.1 Baseline Data of Health at the National, Regional, and Provincial Levels    5.2 Baseline Data of Health at the District Level    5.3 Baseline Data of Health at project location   6.0 Stakeholder Analysis   7.0 Risk Analysis   7.1 Analysis    7.2 Overall Summary Analysis   8.0 Mitigation   9.0 Monitoring and Evaluation (M&E)   10.0 Summary   11.0 Bibliography

29

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2  Health Impact Assessment (HIA)

Screening Theory: Determine wheather HIA is required

Prac ce: Try to avoid preparing HIA by looking into flaws of laws

Scoping Theory: Set geographical, me scale and popula on boundaries to the assessment

Prac ce: Preapres rotean stnadard scope for all type of project/loca on/popula on

Baseline data Prac ce: Collec on and compila on of data by consultants roteanly avoiding documen ng data which could detremental to project

Theory: Seconday/primary data collec on

Risk Assessment Theory: Iden fy prossible risk per nant to loca on and popula on

Prac ce : Manupulate risk assessment as payment to consulatant depends on posi ve out come and acceptance by statutory/funding agency

Health Action Plan

Theory: Chart out ac on plan, elobora ng resopnsibli es of different stake holders

Pracitce: Copy ac on plan from some other similar project which is either irrelavant or too costly to help associate organisatoin of consultant/decision makers

Monitoring and Evaluation Theory: Monitor and evaluate ac on plan chaed out

Prac ce: Monitoring and evalua on is either delayed /forgoen or manupulated to avoid publicity of wrong dcisions

Fig. 2.7  Theory and practice of a health impact assessment (HIA) process

2.2  Baseline Data Collection Baseline data collection shall need to be done at different geographical levels to assess overall health status of set-up at different hierarchies: • Baseline data of health at the national, regional, as well as provincial levels • Baseline data of health at the district level • Baseline data of health at project location Considering varying geographical areas of different countries, the hierarchy can be clubbed in the case of small countries where the difference of health scenario is insignificant. Human health is linked to “determinants”, which are a range of personal, cultural, social, institutional, economic and environmental factors that establish the health of populations or individuals. Environmental health concerns in a region include the following: • Air quality

2.2 Baseline Data Collection

31

• Bio safety Climate change • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •

Disaster Food safety Hazardous materials management Hazardous waste management Contaminated site remediation Leaks from underground storage tanks Release of hazardous material to the environment Housing Land-use planning, Liquid waste disposal Noise pollution Occupational health as well as workplace hygiene Exposure to ionizing radiation from X-rays or radioactive isotopes Recreational water illness from swimming pools, spas, as well as ocean and freshwater bathing places Safe drinking water Solid waste management Toxic chemical exposure Vector Animal–human conflict

The culture of an area which would affect the health of citizens is given in Table 2.1. Some of the more specific diseases pertinent to developing countries are discussed in the following paragraphs: Leprosy: Leprosy is a progressive, chronic bacterial infection which primarily affects the lining of the nose and nerves of the extremities, in addition to the upper respiratory tract. It produces sore skin, muscle weakness and nerve damage. If it is not treated, it can cause significant disability as well as severe disfigurement. Leprosy is common in many countries but not common in the developed countries. It spreads through contact with the mucus of an infected person which occurs when the infected person coughs or sneezes. Unplanned urban growth, migration and increasing population density are the main factors that spread this disease in the developing world. Tuberculosis (TB): TB is an infectious ailment that chiefly affects human lungs. The microbes that cause TB are spread through droplets released in the air via sneezes and coughs. Another reason TB remains a main killer is the rise in drug-resistant strains of the bacterium. Tobacco/drug use or alcohol abuse weakens immune system and makes humans more vulnerable to TB. Unplanned urban growths, migration, in addition to increasing population density, are the main factors that spread this disease.

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2  Health Impact Assessment (HIA)

Influenza A: Influenza A is caused by a type of virus. It was the most common cause of human influenza in 2009. Unplanned urban growth, migration, unhygienic animal husbandry and slaughtering, and poor waste management are the major factors that spread this disease. Helminthiasis: Helminthiasis includes soil transmitted helminthiasis in children which interfere with nutrient uptake of host leading to anaemia, malnourishment and impaired mental and physical development. Helminth eggs remain viable for 1–2 months in crops and for several months in fresh water, soil and sewage. Helminth eggs remain for several years in faecal sludge and sewage sludge. Poor sanitation, sewage treatment and faecal contamination of soil/food/water due to open defecation by humans and animals are major causes for spread of helminths parasites. Malaria: Malaria is a parasitic infection spread by Anopheles mosquitoes. Poor sewage treatment, sanitation and stagnant water without mosquito predators like frog/fish are main causes of mosquito breeding as well as spread of malaria. Filaria: Filaria is an infection caused by parasite spread by blood-feeding vectors like black flies as well as mosquito. Poor sewage treatment, sanitation and stagnant water without mosquito predators like frog/fish are main causes of mosquito breeding as well as spread of filaria. Dengue: Dengue fever is spread by mosquito due to stagnant water bodies as well as decline in population of mosquito predators like frogs, wall lizards and fishes. Chikungunya: Chikungunya caused by Chikungunya virus (CHIKV) spread among people by vectors Aedes albopictus as well as Aedes aegypti. These vectors multiply due to stagnant water bodies and decline in population of predators like frogs, fishes and wall lizards. Kyasanur Forest Disease (KFD): KFD a viral haemorrhagic fever spread by tick which is endemic to South Asia. It was first reported from Kyasanur Forest of Karnataka, India, during the year 1957. KFD was responsible for the death of many monkeys. Hence, the ailment is also called Monkey Fever or Monkey Disease. Many animals are thought to be reservoir hosts for this ailment, including rats, squirrels porcupines, mice and shrews. Humans catch infection by the bite of nymphs of Haemaphysalis spinigera, a type of forest the tick. In low human development index (HDI) nations, people both as individuals and in population suffer from high rates of illness due to improper housing, inadequate food sources, low levels of sanitation, poor water access/supply of quality water, lack of appropriate medical care and poor environmental conditions. The role of the HIA is to unscramble the cause of health that are affected by the proposed project in order to permit proper management of the risks. The relationship between the individual determinants and a project is multifaceted and often divisive. Individual determinants like age, gender, dietary intake, alcohol, tobacco use, exercise and educational attainment, as well as employment, determine the health of citizens in a given area.

2.3 Impact Prediction

33

2.3  Impact Prediction The underlying principle of HIA is that several risk factors with respect to health are influenced by development projects. HIA is used to integrate health considerations into the decision-making process of such projects (Watterson et al. 2008) and aims to estimate the health effects of programmes, projects, and policies to minimize significant negative impacts and maximize significant positive impacts (Dannenberg 2016; Pereira et al. 2017). Different projects pose different impacts on the environment and health. Table 2.2 provides typical examples of key stresses on the environment as well as counter-­ stress by the environment due to various activities along with impacts of health. It is often difficult to predict health impact considering emerging infectious diseases (EIDs) and evolving toxic substances introduced to environment. EIDs are a considerable burden on global economies as well as public health and their emergence is considered to be driven by ecological, socio-economic and environmental factors.

Table 2.2  Example of stress on environment and counter-stress by environment Sl. No. Stress 1. Migration and urbanization 2. 3.

4. 5.

6. 7.

Counter stress Increase in weight on the earth resulting in change in pressure on soil and underground rock which may lead to earthquake Deforestation Decrease in oxygen content in atmosphere and soil erosion Mining and depletion Decrease in soil stability of non-renewable resource from earth Hindrance to natural Increase in vector-borne diseases, stability water flow of earth Loss of biodiversity Impact on health due to destruction of predators of vectors; loss of pollinating insects; unchecked dominance of destructive species Depletion of water in Forest fire, extinction of fauna forest Impact on health Pollution and poor waste management

8.

Increase in greenhouse gases (GHGs)

Climate change and increase in sea level

9.

Land degradation

Reduction in crop

10. Depletion of ground water resources

Loss of trees/forest and change in soil stability

Impact on health Injury, communicable diseases Non-communicable diseases Injury, non-­ communicable diseases Communicable diseases Communicable diseases

Injury, non-­ communicable diseases Injury, communicable diseases, non-­ communicable diseases Injury, communicable diseases, non-­ communicable diseases Non-communicable diseases Non-communicable diseases

34

2  Health Impact Assessment (HIA)

Like Environmental Impact Assessment, HIA can be made by the following methodologies: (i) Ad hoc method (ii) Checklist (iii) Matrix (iv) Network (v) Overlays The list of these methods is neither complete nor final. Different methods used in risk analysis, vulnerability mapping, environmental impact assessment, social impact assessment, etc., can be used or modified for predicting. The quality of impact prediction depends on the ethics, value and knowledge of analysis team and reviewing team. The public participation of the risk exposed area/ community is essential to come out with good management plan. Public participation also depends on knowledge, economic status, social status of the participating group as different people will have differing status and all are provided with equal opportunity to express their opinion.

2.4  Ad Hoc Method In this method, broad areas of health impacts are identified; besides, the nature of the impacts is qualitatively grouped and explained. Even though this method can be easily applied, the consultant or the report-preparing personnel can intentionally hide facts. If the report preparer is not knowledgeable, he/she would usually refer and reproduce the same facts which he/she is refereeing to.

2.5  Checklist Checklists identify heath impacts of development activities on selected parameters. Check lists can be broadly classified into four types: A. The simple checklist (Table 2.3): This type of checklist is merely a list of parameters and nature of impacts. B. The descriptive checklist (Table 2.4): This type of checklist contains guidance on evaluation of the parameters. C. The scaling checklist (Table 2.5): This checklist is similar to the descriptive but with supplementary information on the scaling of the parameters. D. Scaling-weighting (Table 2.6): This type of checklist is similar to scaling checklist but with supplementary information on the subjective evaluation of parameter.

2.8 Overlays

35

Table 2.3  Examples of simple checklist with respect to a thermal power plant during an operation phase Sl. No. (a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f) (g) (h) (i) (j) (k) (l) (m) (n) (o)

Parameter Transportation of coal Grinding coal Feeding coal to boilers Electricity transmission Operation of cooling towers Withdrawal of water from water source Discharge of waste water Waste management Ash management Air pollution Providing subsidised nutritious food to workers Maintenance of green belt Extending hospital of thermal plants to nearby villages towns Extending healthcare activity to faraway settlements by mobile clinics under corporate social responsibilities Distribution of free nutritious food to nearby school children

Nature of impact Negative Negative Negative Negative Negative Negative Negative Negative Negative Negative Positive Positive Positive Positive Positive

2.6  Matrix This method can be considered to be an extension of checklist. The rows of a matrix (Table 2.7) indicate impact, while the columns indicate the project activities. Impact prediction using two dimensions will improve the quality of prediction and help to design mitigation plans. −

2.7  Network The network method (Fig. 2.8) is a pictorial attempt to analyse the series of impacts that might have been triggered by project activities. The network method is best suited for single-project assessments, but not for cumulative assessments.

2.8  Overlays This method relies on a set of maps (prevailing waterborne diseases, airborne diseases, healthcare facility, air quality, water quality, etc.) of a project area. Overlay of existing and projected impact using geographic information system (GIS) would provide an idea of population exposed to different types of risk like the following:

36

2  Health Impact Assessment (HIA)

Table 2.4  Example of descriptive checklist with respect to thermal power plant at operation phase Sl. No. Parameter (a) Transportation of coal

Nature of impact Respiratory and related diseases expected due to loading, unloading and transportation activities (b) Grinding coal Respiratory and hearing-related diseases expected due to grinding activities (c) Feeding coal to boilers Respiratory and hearing-related diseases expected due to grinding activities (d) Electricity transmission Energy loss and high transition may lead to heat highland and accidents due to shocks (e) Operation of cooling towers Increase in heat and pollution of water bodies may lead to waterborne diseases due to discharge of trace additives to water (f) Withdrawal of water from water Water shortage from water source may lead to health source impact of citizens who depend on this water source (g) Discharge of waste water Pollution of water bodies and soil may lead to waterborne diseases due to discharge of pollutants (h) Solid waste management Activity may increase injury and other health issues depending on nature of solid waste (municipal, e-waste, silicon waste, slaughter waste, garden trimming, hazardous waste, construction and demolition waste, plastic waste, biomedical waste, etc.) (i) Ash management Fly ash may result in pollution of air and water. Ash in ash-pond and bottom ash may led to water pollution (j) Providing subsidised nutritious Health of employees would increase food to workers (k) Maintenance of green belt Health of employees and nearby human settlement will increase (l) Extending hospital of thermal Health of nearby human settlement will increase plants to nearby villages towns (m) Extending healthcare activity to Health of faraway human settlement will increase faraway settlements by mobile clinics under corporate social responsibilities (n) Distribution of free nutritious Health of nearby school children will increase food to nearby school children

1. Risky area due to transmission lines would be in the orientation of transmission line. 2. Risk due to transportation of coal will be beside roads/railways/ports. 3. Air pollution risk will be in the area where nigh air pollutant concentrations are predicted by a mathematical model. 4. Waterborne diseases can be marked on map using water quality modelling and people who get water from downstream of river. The overlay methods are useful in screening alternative project sites. The impact would be different at different sites based on wind speed, wind direction, socio-­ economic set-up of the area and hereditary diseases of the people in the area.

2.8 Overlays

37

Table 2.5  Example of scaling checklist with respect to thermal power plants at operation phase Sl. No. Parameter (a) Transportation of coal

(b)

Grinding coal

(c)

Feeding coal to boilers

(d)

Electricity transmission

(e)

Operation of cooling towers

(f)

Withdrawal of water from water source

(g)

Discharge of wastewater

(h)

Solid waste management

(i)

Ash management

(j)

Providing subsidised nutritious food to workers Maintenance of green belt

(k) (l) (m)

(n)

Nature of impact Respiratory and related diseases expected due to loading, unloading and transportation activities Respiratory and hearing-related diseases expected due to grinding activities Respiratory and hearing-related diseases expected due to grinding activities Energy loss and high transition may lead to heat island and accidents due to shocks Increase in heat and pollution of water bodies may lead to waterborne diseases due to discharge of trace additives to water Water shortage from water source may lead to health impact of citizens who depend on this water source Pollution of water bodies and soil may lead to waterborne diseases due to discharge of pollutants Activity may increase injury and other health issues depending on nature of solid waste Fly ash may result in pollution of air and water. Ash in ash-pond and bottom ash may led to water pollution Health of employees would increase

Scaling −3 −1 −1 −1 −2

−2 −2 −2 −4 +4

Health of employees and nearby human +1 settlement will increase Health of nearby human settlement will +4 increase Health of faraway human settlement will +4 increase

Extending hospital of thermal plants to nearby villages towns Extending healthcare activity to faraway settlements by mobile clinics under corporate social responsibilities Distribution of free nutritious food to Health of nearby school children will nearby school children increase

+4

Descriptors +: Positive; −: Negative; 0: Nil impact; 1: Very low impact; 2: Low impact; 3: High impact; 4: Very high impact

38

2  Health Impact Assessment (HIA)

Table 2.6  Example of descriptive checklist with respect to thermal power plant at operation phase Sl. No. Parameter (a) Transportation of coal

Nature of impact Respiratory and hearing-related diseases expected due to loading, unloading and transportation activities. (b) Grinding coal Respiratory and hearing-related diseases expected due to grinding activities (c) Feeding coal to boilers Respiratory and hearing-related diseases expected due to grinding activities (d) Electricity transmission Energy loss and high transition may lead to heat highland and accidents due to shocks (e) Operation of cooling towers Increase in heat and pollution of water bodies may lead to waterborne diseases due to discharge of trace additives to water Water shortage from water source may lead to (f) Withdrawal of water from water source health impact of citizens who depend on this water source (g) Discharge of wastewater Pollution of water bodies and soil may lead to waterborne diseases due to discharge of pollutants (h) Solid waste management Activity may increase injury and other health issues depending on nature of solid waste (municipal, e-waste, silicon waste, slaughter waste, garden trimming, hazardous waste, construction and demolition waste, plastic waste, biomedical waste, etc.) (i) Ash management Fly ash may result in pollution of air and water. Ash in ash pond and bottom ash may lead to water pollution. (j) Providing subsidized Health of employees would increase nutritious food to workers (k) Maintenance of green belt Health of employees and nearby human settlement will increase Health of nearby human settlement will (l) Extending hospital of increase thermal plants to nearby villages towns Health of faraway human settlement will (m) Extending healthcare increase activity to faraway settlements by mobile clinics under corporate social responsibilities Health of nearby school children will increase (n) Distribution of free nutritious food to nearby school children

Scaling and weighting −3S −1S −1S −1 L −2 L −2 L −2 L −2 L

−4 L +4 L +1 L +4 L

+4 L

+4 L

Descriptors +: Positive; −: Negative; 0: Nil impact; 1: Very low impact; 2: Low impact; 3: High impact; 4: Very high impact; S: Short term; L: Long term

Transportation of coal Grinding coal Feeding coal to boilers Electricity transmission Operation of cooling towers Withdrawal of water from water source Discharge of waste water Solid waste management Ash management Diseases and related health problems

Table 2.7  Health impact matrix for operation stage of thermal power plant

Certain infectious and parasitic diseases Neoplasms Diseases of the blood and bloodforming organs and certain disorders involving the immune mechanism Endocrine, nutritional and metabolic diseases Mental and behavioural disorders Diseases of the nervous system Diseases of the eye and adnexa Diseases of the ear and mastoid process Diseases of the circulatory system

−2 L −2 L −2 L

−2 L −2 L

−2 L −2 L −2 L

−2 L −3S −3S −1S

−4 L −4 L −4 L −4 L

−3S −3S −1S

Diseases of the respiratory system Diseases of the digestive system Diseases of the skin and subcutaneous tissue Diseases of the musculoskeletal system and connective tissue Diseases of the genitourinary system Pregnancy, childbirth and the puerperium Certain conditions originating in the perinatal period Congenital malformations, deformations and chromosomal abnormalities Symptoms, signs and abnormal clinical and laboratory findings, not elsewhere classified

(continued)

−2 L

−1 L

Injury, poisoning and certain other consequences of external causes External causes of morbidity and mortality

2.8 Overlays

39

Diseases of the ear and mastoid process

Diseases of the eye and adnexa

Diseases of the nervous system

Neoplasms Diseases of the blood and bloodforming organs and certain disorders involving the immune mechanism

Certain infectious and parasitic diseases

+4 L +4 L +4 L +4 L +4 L +4 L +4 L +4 L +4 L +4 L +4 L +4 L +4 L +4 L +4 L

Diseases of the circulatory system

+4 L +4 L +4 L

Diseases of the respiratory system

+4 L +4 L +4 L +4 L +4 L +4 L +4 L +4 L +4 L +4 L +4 L +4 L +4 L +4 L +4 L

Diseases of the digestive system

+4 L +4 L +4 L

Diseases of the skin and subcutaneous tissue

+4 L +4 L +4 L +4 L +4 L +4 L +4 L +4 L +4 L +4 L +4 L +4 L +4 L +4 L +4 L

Diseases of the musculoskeletal system and connective tissue

+4 L +4 L +4 L

Diseases of the genitourinary system

+1 L +1 L +1 L +1 L +1 L +1 L +1 L +1 L +1 L +1 L +1 L +1 L +1 L +1 L +1 L

Pregnancy, childbirth and the puerperium

+1 L +1 L +1 L

Certain conditions originating in the perinatal period

+4 L +4 L +4 L +4 L +4 L +4 L +4 L +4 L +4 L +4 L +4 L +4 L +4 L +4 L +4 L

Congenital malformations, deformations and chromosomal abnormalities

+4 L +4 L +4 L

Symptoms, signs and abnormal clinical and laboratory findings, not elsewhere classified

Descriptors +: Beneficial; −: Detrimental; 0: Nil impact; 1: Very low impact; 2: Low impact; 3: High impact; 4: Very high impact; S: Short term; L: Long term

Providing subsidized nutritious food to workers Maintenance of green belt Extending hospital of thermal plants to nearby villages towns Extending healthcare activity to faraway settlements by mobile clinics under corporate social responsibilities Distribution of free nutritious food to nearby school children

Endocrine, nutritional and metabolic diseases

Diseases and related health problems

Mental and behavioural disorders

Table 2.7 (continued)

Injury, poisoning and certain other consequences of external causes +4 L

+4 L

+4 L

+1 L

+4 L

External causes of morbidity and mortality +4 L

+4 L

+4 L

+1 L

+4 L

40 2  Health Impact Assessment (HIA)

2.9 Health Management Plan

41

Transportation of coal

Grinding coal

Feeding coal to boilers

Electricity transmission

Operaon of Thermal Power plant

Operation of cooling towers

Respiratory diseases

Withdrawal of water from water source

Injury

Discharge of waste water

Water borne diseases

Solid waste management

Improvement in health

Ash management

Providing subsidized nutritious food to workers

Maintenance of green belt

Extending hospital of thermal plants to nearby villages towns Extending health care activity to far way settlements by mobile clinics under corporate social responsibilities

Distribution of free nutritious food to nearby school children

Fig. 2.8  Health impact network for operation stage of thermal power plant

2.9  Health Management Plan Following measures may be required for amelioration of the environment to improve the health and well-being of both humans and livestock: 1. Occupational health is one of the main causes for loss of manpower and loss of revenue to state. Hence, Hazard Identification and Risk Analysis (HIRA) shall be made and corrective action taken. 2. Environmental degradation has been a major reason for burden of diseases. Hence, it would be required to identify significant aspects of the organization which are causing environmental degradation and take corrective actions. 3. Encourage green procurement in government and private organizations. 4. Environmental, demographic as well as lifestyle changes contribute to main health challenges. Hence, vulnerability maps may be prepared and published so that people can choose safe environment. 5. Sewage treatment plants should be built in all local bodies so as to treat all the sewage generated from these local bodies. 6. Fresh water or treated sewage may be sprinkled on dusty roads to reduce burden on health due to air pollution. 7. Following precautions need to be taken during noisy operations like drilling borewell, demolition activity:

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2  Health Impact Assessment (HIA)

(a) Temporary perimeter sound walls (b) Temporary drilling rig generator sound control systems (c) Drilling rig floor, derrick and sub-structure sound blanket barrier panels (d) Production equipment acoustical enclosures and sound control systems (e) Gas compressor sound walls, acoustical enclosures and acoustical buildings

8. Urban systems have multiple exposure patterns. Hence, detailed research regarding multiple exposure patterns (diet and nutrition, sexual transmission, man–animal conflict, smoke due to forest fire, hereditary prevalence of diseases, alcohol consumption, smoking, fuel adulteration and use of agrochemicals) should be conducted. 9. Health impacts due to climate change need adaptation at various scales. 10. Risk management requires to be adapted to emerging health and environment issues. 11. Poor management of food waste, slaughter waste and municipal solid waste results in the menace of vectors, rodents and street dogs. Urgent attention is required to reduce vector/rodent/dog menace. 12. Use of zoning regulations as well as taxes to discourage huge concentrations of industries close to cities. 13. Enforcing of standards for effluent discharge and recycling. 14. Giving incentives for reducing pollution.

2.10  Health Monitoring Plan Post project health monitoring and evolution should be integral as part of HIA, which should elaborate information about: • Monitoring programme • Methodology for evaluation as well as reporting results of monitoring Monitoring is an incessant process of gathering information to gauge the outcomes of the activity. Evaluation uses the information collected from monitoring to identify opportunities for improvements. Monitoring programmes should identify the following: • What needs to be monitored? • How it should be monitored? • When it should be monitored? The question of what needs to be monitored can be decided by project implementing authority. It can be done by established authorities of a government or it can be outsourced to private agency or research/academic institute. Stake holder consultancy can be done by: • Calling stakeholder for open discussion or • By advertising and corresponding

2.10 Health Monitoring Plan

43

Both methods have advantage and disadvantages (Table 2.8). Developing monitoring plan shall consider following points: • Be systematic: Information needs to be collected in the same manner over a period of time for easy comparison. • Ease of collection: It is prudent to avoid information that is difficult to collect like satellite images of restricted and sensitive such as military establishment. • Partnerships: Monitoring partners and their service charges like government authority, government and academic institutions. Table 2.9 shows examples of monitoring plans for evaluating HIA of transportation projects. Evaluation of HIA should address the following questions: 1. Whether HIA recommendations are implemented or not 2. Whether HIA recommendations are accomplishing the expected results or not The evaluations can be done with a pre-determined checklist, form, matrix, etc. The evaluated results shall be informed to concerned authority to take corrective action. Table 2.8  Example of advantages and disadvantages of different modes of public consultations Open discussion Particular Advantage Disadvantage Due to limited time, Participation Will have opportunity presentation of issues elaborately to discuss may not be possible

Law and order

–

Logistics

–

Advertise and correspond Advantage Disadvantage Will not have Stakeholder can submit an elaborate opportunity to discuss ambiguity opinion instantaneously. May demand further correspondence – May lead to public Will not have problem of public strike, demonstration at the agitation, strike, demonstration stake-holder consultancy location during the stakeholder consultancy – Do not need May result in elaborate logistics confusion if the arrangement like number of people  Making seating who attend the arrangement to consultation stakeholders exceeds expectation  Writing minute dog meeting  Parking arrangement  Arrange sufficient toilets, drinking water, first aid, etc.

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2  Health Impact Assessment (HIA)

Table 2.9  Example of monitoring plan after implementation of transportation project

Health Determinants Physical environment Built environment Community and social factors Lifestyle factors

Respiratory disease

Desired health related outcome Improvement in ambient air quality Reduction in accidents Increase in affordable houses in the area Increase in use of public transportation Reduction in respiratory disease

Baseline condition SPM: 183 mg/nM3 SO2: 161 mg/nM3 NOx: 172 mg/nM3 Accidents:100 Mortality: 10 Number of affordable houses: 434 Number of people using public transportation: 173 person per day Respiratory disease: 193

Post-project monitoring plan for first year after completion of project Continuous monitoring of SPM, SO2, NOx Monitoring of accidents Monitoring of change in affordable houses

Post-project monitoring for second year after completion of project Continuous monitoring of SPM, SO2, NOx Monitoring of accidents Monitoring of change in affordable houses

Monitoring of usage of public transportation

Monitoring of usage of public transportation

Monitoring respiratory disease of people in the locality

Monitoring respiratory disease of people in the locality

References Alwan A (2011) Global status report on noncommunicable diseases 2010. World Health Organization, Geneva Birley MH, Peralta G (1995) Health impact assessment of development projects. In: Vanclay F, Bronstein D (eds) Environmental and social impact assessment. Wiley, Hoboken, NJ, pp 153–170 Bond AJ, Wathern P (1999) Environmental impact assessment in the European Union. Blackwell Science, Hoboken, NJ, pp 223–249 Burton I, Wilson J (1983) Munn R.E. Environmental impact assessment national approaches and international needs. Environ Monit Assess 3:133–150. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00398843 Corvalán CF, Kjellstrom T, Smith KR (1999) Health, environment and sustainable development: identifying links and indicators to promote action. Epidemiology 10:656–660 Dannenberg AL (2016) Effectiveness of health impact assessments: a synthesis of data from five impact evaluation reports. Prev Chronic Dis 13:E84. https://doi.org/10.5888/pcd13.150559 Davenport C, Mathers J, Parry J (2006) Use of health impact assessment in incorporating health considerations in decision making. J Epidemiol Commun Health 60:196–201 Erlanger TE, Krieger GR, Singer BH, Utzinger J (2008) The 6/94 gap in health impact assessment. Environ Impact Assess Rev 28:349–358. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eiar.2007.07.003 Gwimbi P, Lebese P, Kanono K (2020) Mainstreaming health impact assessments in environmental impact statements into planning obligations in post dam construction in Metolong, Lesotho: a qualitative investigation. Heliyon 6(7):e04362. Published 2020 Jul 2. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. heliyon.2020.e04362

References

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Haigh F, Harris E, Harris-Roxas B, Baum F, Dannenberg AL, Harris MF, Keleher H, Kemp L, Morgan R, Chok HNG, Spickett J (2015) What makes health impact assessments successful? Factors contributing to effectiveness in Australia and New Zealand. BMC Public Health 5:1009. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-­015-­2319-­8 International Finance Corporation (2018) Introduction to health impact assessment. www.ifc.org. Accessed on 8 Feb 2018. Landrigan PJ, Fuller R, Acosta NJR, Adeyi O, Arnold R, Basu N, Baldé AB, Bertollini R, Bose-­ O’Reilly S, Boufford JI, Breysse PN, Chiles T, Mahidol C, Coll-Seck AM, Cropper ML, Fobil J, Fuster V, Greenstone M, Haines A, Hanrahan D, Hunter D, Khare M, Krupnick A, Lanphear B, Lohani B, Martin K, Mathiasen KV, McTeer MA, Murray CJL, Ndahimananjara JD, Perera F, Potočnik J, Preker AS, Ramesh J, Rockström J, Salinas C, Samson LD, Sandilya K, Sly PD, Smith KR, Steiner A, Stewart RB, Suk WA, van Schayck OCP, Yadama GN, Yumkella K, Zhong M (2017) The Lancet Commission on pollution and health. Lancet 391:462–512 Lock K (2000) Health impact assessment. BMJ (Clinical research ed.) 320(7246):1395–1398. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.320.7246.1395 Morgan RK (2012) Environmental impact assessment: the state of the art. IAPA 0:5–14. https:// doi.org/10.1080/14615517.2012.661557 Osofsky SA, Pongsiri MJ (2018) Operationalising planetary health as a game-changing paradigm: health impact assessments are key. Lancet Planet Health 2:e54–e55 Pereira CAR, Perisse ARS, Knoblauch AM, Utzinger J, de Souza Hacon S, Winkler MS (2017) Health impact assessment in Latin American countries: current practice and prospects. Environ Impact Assess Rev 65:175–185 Phillips C, McCarthy M, Barrowcliffe R (2010) Methods for quantitative health impact assessment of an airport and waste incinerator: two case studies. Impact Assess Project Appraisal 28(1):69–75. https://doi.org/10.3152/146155110X488808 Richter BD, Postel S, Revenga C, Scudder T, Lehner B, Churchill A, Chow M (2010) Lost in development’s shadow: the downstream human consequences of dams. Water Altern. 3(2):14–42 Scott-Samuel A (1996) Health impact assessment: an idea whose time has come. Br Med J 313:183–184. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.313.7051.183 UNEP (2011) Towards a green economy: pathways to sustainable development and poverty eradication. Inner Robbie, Kenya, United Nations Environment Programme Veronez DV, Abe KC, Georges S, Miraglia EK (2018) Health impact assessment of the construction of hydroelectric dams in Brazil. Chronicles Health Impact Assess 3(1):11–32 Watterson A, Little D, Young JA, Boyd K, Azim E, Murray F (2008) Towards integration of environmental and health impact assessments for wild capture fishing and farmed fish with particular reference to public health and occupational health dimensions. Int J Environ Res Publ Health 5:258–277 WHO (1999) Gothenburg consensus paper. Brussels, Belgium, European Centre for Health Policy WHO WHO (2016) Global report on urban health: equitable, healthier cities for sustainable development. World Health Organization, Geneva, Switzerland, p 242 Winkler MS, Furu P, Viliani F, Cave B, Divall M, Ramesh G, Harris-Roxas B, Knoblauch AM (2020) Current global health impact assessment practice. Int J Environ Res Public Health 17(9):2988. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17092988

Chapter 3

Environmental Impact Assessment

Abstract  Environmental impact assessment (EIA) is a process to ensure early and adequate information on the likely impact on environment due to the development projects. EIA was formally established in the USA in 1969. It received a significant boost in Europe after the EC Directive on EIA was introduced in 1985 and since then the scope of EIA has developed and changed continually. EIA evaluates both the beneficial and adverse environmental impacts of a proposed development/project, along with the interrelated socio-economic, human-health and cultural impacts. In addressing the above points, this chapter discusses the theory and practice of EIA in detail with relevant examples.

3.1  Introduction Environmental impact assessment (EIA) is a process to ensure early and adequate information on the likely impact on environment due to development projects. During the 1970s and early 1980s, international law started imposing EIA requirements. For example, Article 11 of Kuwait Regional Convention for Cooperation on the Protection of the Marine Environment from Pollution, 1978, provides that each contracting country shall attempt to include an evaluation of the possible environmental effects in planning activity involving projects within its territory, especially in the coastal areas. As on date, EIA is practiced in more than 100 nations (Petts 1999; Wood 2003), including developing as well as transitional economies (Lee and George 2000). EIA was formally established in the USA in 1969. It received a significant boost in Europe after the EC Directive on EIA was introduced in 1985 (Glasson et  al. 1999) and since then the scope of EIA has developed and changed continually (Morgan 1998; Stephanie et al. 2012). The link between the project implementation stage and EIA process is often weak (Welford 1996) and many environmental impact statements fail to meet even the minimum standards (Glasson et al. 1999; Jones et al. 1991). Multilateral and bilateral lenders have incorporated the requirements of the EIA in their project eligibility criteria (OECD 1996) with interests in ensuring public participation in the EIA process (Mutemba 1996). © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 R. Chandrappa, D. B. Das, Environmental Health - Theory and Practice, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-64484-0_3

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3  Environmental Impact Assessment

EIA evaluates both beneficial and adverse environmental impacts of a proposed development/project, along with interrelated socio-economic, human-health and cultural impacts. The EIA documentation submitted by the originator (project proponent) should contain as a minimum the following information to help decision-­ maker take appropriate decisions, for example, 1. Description of the proposed activity and its purpose 2. Statement of the alternatives that include a no-action alternative 3. Information on the environment that is likely to get affected 4. Prediction of significant environmental impact of the upcoming activity besides its alternatives 5. Outline for environmental monitoring as well as management programs Reviewing an agency, whether it is a statutory or funding agency, will usually follow the steps given in Fig. 3.1. The term screening in the context of EIA refers to the procedures which determine EIA for a particular activity is required or not. The procedure could be as simple as a list of activities which require EIA for funding approval or statutory clearance or a complex procedure wherein a preliminary application is reviewed by a reviewing committee. Any mega project needs both funding and statutory clearance, without which project cannot take off. In order to avoid EIA process project proponents usually split the projects into smaller projects. A classic example would be the reduction in the capacity of hydro-electric power project to less than the capacity that requires an EIA procedure. Scoping in the context of EIA is a procedure wherein reviewing authority would fix the scope of EIA like: • • • •

Extent of area to be assessed Number of air/water/soil/noise monitoring stations Parameters to be monitored Duration of monitoring

1

2 3 4

• Screening • Scoping • EIA preparation (usually done by project propnent) • Evaluation

Fig. 3.1  Key steps followed by an EIA reviewing agency

3.2 Baseline Data Collection and Analysis

49

• Any specific information with respect to endangered species or monument in the vicinity EIA preparation is usually consultant commissioned by originator. The exercise involves the following steps: • • • •

Baseline study Impact prediction Preparation of an Environmental Management Plan Preparation of a monitoring plan

The activity/study is done to forecast possible positive and negative impact and take decision to: • • • • •

Cancel project Choose alternative site Choose alternative technology/project Change in project component Make environmental management plan or monitoring plan

3.2  Baseline Data Collection and Analysis This activity is carried out for the collection of information about physico-chemical, biological as well as socio-economic status of the environmental locations where upcoming project/development is envisaged. Baseline data are of two types: secondary and primary. Secondary data are the data which are already available in different institutions and published literature. Primary data are the data collected in the field. Examples of secondary data include: • Physico-chemical –– Maps Drainage Soil Transportation Settlement Monuments Hydrology • Surface water • Groundwater Land use Power grid Irrigation Topography

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3  Environmental Impact Assessment

–– Historic meteorological data • Socio-economic –– Demography of the area Population Sex ratio Age distribution Literacy Income Occupation –– Economy Gross Domestic Products of the area Primary industry Secondary industry Tertiary industry –– Infrastructure Transportation • Air • Water • Land Education • • • •

Schools Collages Universities Vocational training

Health • • • •

Hospitals Clinics Blood banks Veterinary institutions

Religions • • • •

Temples Mosque Church Others

• Biological –– Reserved/notified forest –– Dominant flora as well as fauna in the area

3.2 Baseline Data Collection and Analysis

51

–– Endangered as well as endemic species in the area Examples of primary data include: • Physico-chemical –– –– –– –– ––

Meteorology Air Water Noise Soil

• Biological –– Enlisting species –– Biological index in the area –– Species diversity • Socio-economic –– Perception of the project for which EIA is carried out Quality of baseline data is of prime importance as any compromise to collection of data would affect quality of impact prediction. Poorly trained and innocent consultants can often become source of erroneous baseline data. The common errors that can occur during collection of physico-chemical samples are: • • • • •

Not adding preservatives Not preserving in required storage temperature Storing beyond required storage time Collecting of non-isokinetic samples at flowing stream Collection of samples at the surface water bunds rather than middle of surface water bodies • Not collecting at water/soil sample at required depth • Collecting sample in contaminated containers The common errors that can occur during collection of microbial samples are as follows: • • • • •

Not disinfecting the sampling containers Not preserving in required storage temperature Storing beyond required storage time Not collecting at water/soil sample at required depth Collecting sample in contaminated containers

The common errors that can occur during collection of socio-economic sample are: • Not designing sample size based on number of people in study area • Not designing the questionnaire relevant to the projects

52

3  Environmental Impact Assessment

The common errors that can occur during collection of flora fauna sample are as follows: • Not collecting sample in all the major ecosystem (e.g. agricultural, forest, built, coastal) • Collection of samples in a single season during daytime • Neglecting species that are often difficult to search and identify (e.g. insects and annelids)

3.3  Impact Prediction The EIA exercise is about prediction of a project (Glasson et al. 1999) but uncertainty is not avoidable in EIA predictions due to the complex and several reasons that have been confirmed by post-audit studies (Flyvbjerg et al. 2003; Wood et al. 2000; Buckley 1992). Tenney et al. (2006) have highlighted key causes for uncertainty in assessing environmental impact that include modelling errors, project changes, bias introduced and errors in data. Studies conducted by Teigland (2000), Dipper et  al. (1998), Bisset and Tomlinson (1988), and Almeida and Montaño (2017) revealed inaccuracy in many of the cases. The shortcomings of EIA should not become total elimination of the process from decision-making with respect to major projects, but the assessor shall be well aware of possible reasons for causes of uncertainty. Environmental impact assessment methods can be categorized as follows: (i) Ad-hoc method (ii) Checklist (iii) Matrix (iv) Network (v) Overlays (vi) Environmental Index (vii) Cost–Benefit Analysis Appropriate method depends on the judgement and experience of the analyst.

3.3.1  Ad-Hoc Method In this method, areas of expected impacts are identified and are qualitatively grouped.

3.3 Impact Prediction

53

Table 3.1  Example of a simple checklist for impact assessment of an industry at construction phase Impact Sl. No. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8.. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18.

Attribute Clearing Marking Excavation Scaffolding Mixing Movement of vehicles Blasting Crushing Operation of diesel generator Water supply Pumping Labour camps Electrification Painting Riveting Welding Installation of machinery Testing

Flora/ Land Air Water Noise Fauna Socio-economic ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓

3.3.2  Checklist Checklists are used to identify the effects on environmental impacts due to development activities on selected parameters. A sample checklist is given in Table 3.1.

3.3.3  Matrix Matrix method is an extension to the use of checklist. There are numerous versions of the matrix method, which assign type/magnitude of impact or description. Sample matrix is given in Tables 3.2, 3.3 and 3.4.

3.3.4  Network The network method is an effort to analyse the sequences of environmental impacts that may be caused by proposed project activities (Fig. 3.2).

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3  Environmental Impact Assessment

Table 3.2  Example of checklist for scaling weighing impact assessment of thermal power plant at operation phase Impact Sl. No. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8.. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19.

Attribute Resource depletion Coal transportation Receiving coal Crushing coal Feeding coal to boiler Combustion of coal Water treatment Supply of water to boiler Water pumping Water storage Operation of turbine Use and maintenance of transformer Bottom ash management Ash pond management Use and maintenance of township Maintenance of greenbelt Power generation Employment opportunity Local economy

Land −4LI −2LR −1LR −1LR −1LR −1LR −1LR −1LR −1LR −1LR −1LR −1LR

Flora/ Fauna −2LR −2LR −1LR −1LR −1LR −1LR −1LR −1LR −1LR −1LR −1LR −1LR −1LR −1LR −1LR −1LR −1LR −1LR −1LR −1LR Air −3LR −2LR −1LR −1LR −1LR −4LR

Water −3LR −2LR −1LR −1LR −1LR −3LR

Noise −2LR −2LR −1LR −1LR −1LR −1LR

Socio-economic +2SR +2SR +1SR +1SR +1SR +1SR +1SR +1SR +1SR +1SR +1SR +1SR

−1LR −1LR −1LR −1LR +1SR −1LR −1LR −1LR +1SR −1LR −1LR −1LR −1LR −1LR +2SR +4LR +4LR +4LR +4LR +4LR +1SR +4LR +4SR +4LR +4LR

Note: + : Positive, − : Negative, 1: Low, 2: Average, 3: High, 4: Very high, S: Short term, L: Long term, R: Reversible, I: Irreversible

3.3.5  Overlays In this method, maps depicting environmental characteristics of a project area with and without project will be superimposed. The maps would be self-explanatory depicting places and impacts such as: 1. Area of deforestation due to the project 2. Area of possible flooding 3. Area of possible soil erosion 4. Area of water bodies likely to get polluted 5. Location of wildlife corridor, which is likely to be blocked 6. Area likely to get affected by air pollution after project 7. Area where noise levels are likely to increase 8. Location likely to be affected by land slide 9. Area where people are likely to get jobs 10. Area where people are likely to get water/electricity due to project

Land

Noise

Air

Land preparation, sowing, application of water, application of agrochemicals, harvesting, processing harvest and transportation Land preparation, sowing, application of water, application of agrochemicals, harvesting, processing harvest and transportation Land preparation, sowing, application of water, application of agrochemicals, harvesting, processing harvest and transportation

Environmental Agriculture Component

Activities Existing

Earthwork, construction activity and transportation

Operation of DG sets

Fuel consumption; process emission; operation of machineries and loudspeakers Coffee bean pulping Land use change for and generation construction sewage/sanitation from workers. The discharge of wastewater and solid waste from pulping

Operation of machine and DG sets

Operation of DG sets

Fuel Operation of machine and diesel consumption, generator (DG) sets. process emission, operation of machineries

Industrial and Coffee bean pulping other activity and related activity in local body Construction activity is not likely to coincide with that of currently ongoing project Construction activity is not likely to coincide with that of currently ongoing project Earthwork, construction activity and transportation Earthwork, construction activity and transportation

Construction activity is not likely to coincide with that of currently ongoing project Construction Earthwork, Earthwork, construction construction activity is not likely to activity and activity and transportation transportation coincide with that of currently ongoing project Earthwork, Earthwork, Earthwork, construction construction construction activity and activity and activity and transportation transportation transportation Earthwork, construction activity and transportation

Construction of Bridge

Drinking water Project

Yet to start Development of basic tourist facilities

On-going Generation and transmission of hydroelectric Road power plants Widening

Table 3.3  Example of cumulative impact analysis matrix drinking water project at construction stage

(continued)

70.618 ha forest land is diverted for road widening and 195 ha of land is diverted for drinking water project

Insignificant

Insignificant

Potential Cumulative Impact

Groundwater

Surface water

Activities Existing

Land preparation, sowing, application of water, application of agrochemicals, harvesting, processing harvest and transportation Land preparation, sowing, application of water, application of agrochemicals, harvesting, processing harvest and transportation

Environmental Agriculture Component

Activities Existing

Table 3.3 (continued)

Yet to start

Likely to affect Earthwork, construction groundwater surrounding tunnel activity and transportation Earthwork, construction activity and transportation

Earthwork, tunnelling, construction activity

Earthwork, construction activity and transportation

Diversion of water, discharge of silt, electricity generation, maintenance

Use of water for processing and domestic activity

Coffee bean pulping and generation sewage/sanitation from workers. The discharge of wastewater and solid waste from pulping

On-going

Marginal Earthwork, construction activity and transportation

Earthwork, construction activity and transportation

Earthwork, Tunnelling, construction activity and transportation

Earthwork, construction activity

Potential Cumulative Impact

Diversion of water, discharge of silt, electricity generation, maintenance

Construction of Bridge

Drinking water Project

Use of water for processing and domestic activity

Development of basic tourist facilities

Yet to start

Coffee bean pulping and generation sewage/sanitation from workers. The discharged of wastewater and solid waste from pulping

Industrial and Coffee bean pulping other activity and related activity in local body

On-going Generation and transmission of hydroelectric Road power plants Widening

Land preparation, sowing, application of water, application of agrochemicals, harvesting, processing harvest and transportation

Tea leaves plucking, employment, coffee seed plucking, other allied activity. Settlement of workers. Local economy

Biological

Socio-­ economic

Environmental Component Agriculture Land preparation and construction

Employment opportunity, migration, economic activity related to tourism

Land preparation and construction

Employment opportunity, migration, economic activity related to tourism

Land preparation and construction

Employment opportunity, migration, economic activity due to improved water availability in beneficiary districts

Land preparation and construction

Employment opportunity, migration, economic activity, connectivity

Power generation and use, employment, local economic activity, improved economic activity in beneficiary area

Trading, employment, manufacturing and service

Trading of coffee bean. Employment opportunity. Settlement of workers. Local economy

Construction of Bridge

Drinking water Project

Diversion of water and occasional discharge of silt. Electricity generation. Hindrance to fish movement

Development of basic tourist facilities

Manufacturing and transportation leading to discharge of wastewater, solid waste and emissions

Generation and transmission of hydroelectric Road power plants Widening

Coffee bean pulping and generation sewage/sanitation from workers. The discharge of wastewater and solid waste from pulping

Industrial and Coffee bean pulping other activity and related activity in local body For national high way in the project area 8996 and 15,361 trees shall be affected and 54,921 small shrubs, young trees less than 16 cm girth, canes and bamboo clumps are also likely to be affected. Due to drinking water project 1977 trees were cut in private land and 4749 trees were cut in Forest land Marginal benefit to project site. Significant benefit to construction companies/ contractors

Potential Cumulative Impact

Land

Noise

Air

Activities

Land preparation, sowing, application of water, application of agrochemicals, harvesting, processing harvest and transportation Land preparation, sowing, application of water, application of agrochemicals, harvesting, processing harvest and transportation Land preparation, sowing, application of water, application of agrochemicals, harvesting, processing harvest and transportation

Environmental Component Agriculture

Existing

Activities

Land use change

Land use change

70.618 ha forest land is diverted for road widening 13.93 ha of forest land out of 195 ha total land are required of drinking water project

Land use change

Land use change

Land use change

Transportation Transportation Insignificant

Transportation Transportation

Operation of diesel generator

Fuel consumption; process emission; operation of machineries and loudspeakers Land use change for construction

Operation of machine and diesel generator

Coffee bean pulping and generation sewage/sanitation from workers. The discharge of wastewater and solid waste from pulping

Transportation Transportation Insignificant

Transportation Transportation

Operation of diesel generator

Fuel consumption; process emission; operation of machineries

Development of basic tourist Potential facilities cumulative impact

Operation of machine and diesel generator

Construction of Hanging Bridge

Industrial and other activity in local body Drinking water Project

Yet to start project that would be operational

Coffee bean pulping and related activity

Generation and transmission of hydroelectric Road power plants widening

Currently ongoing projects will be operational

Table 3.4  Example of cumulative impact analysis matrix at operational stage of all ongoing and yet-to-start project

Drinking water Project

Land Land preparation and preparation and construction construction Land preparation and construction

Diversion of water, discharge of silt, electricity generation, maintenance

Diversion of water and occasional discharge of silt. Electricity generation. Hindrance to fish movement

Use of water for processing and domestic activity

Manufacturing and transportation leading to discharge of wastewater, solid waste and emissions

Coffee bean pulping and generation sewage/sanitation from workers. The discharge of wastewater and solid waste from pulping Coffee bean Land preparation, sowing, application pulping and generation of water, sewage/sanitation application of from workers. The agrochemicals, discharge of harvesting, processing harvest, wastewater and and transportation solid waste from pulping

Groundwater

Biological

Earthwork, tunnelling, construction activity

Earthwork, construction activity and transportation

Diversion of water, discharge of silt, electricity generation, maintenance

Use of water for processing and domestic activity

Land preparation, sowing, application of water, application of agrochemicals, harvesting, processing harvest, and transportation

Development of basic tourist Potential facilities cumulative impact

Land preparation and construction

(continued)

Would affect movement of fish and aquatic organisms

Transportation Transportation Reduce water pollution due to soil and and erosion. Accidental maintenance maintenance and intentional release of wastewater from local bodies, industries and coffee bean purpling units will enhance pollution in downstream of weirs due to reduction in dilution Reduce affect Earthwork, Earthwork, groundwater construction construction surrounding tunnel activity and activity and transportation transportation at weir 2. The groundwater table would increase considerably in beneficiary districts

Construction of Hanging Bridge

Coffee bean pulping and generation sewage/sanitation from workers. The discharge of wastewater and solid waste from pulping

Transportation Diversion of water, and pumping, maintenance operation of DG set, transportation, maintenance

Generation and transmission of hydroelectric Road power plants widening

Yet to start project that would be operational

Land preparation, sowing, application of water, application of agrochemicals, harvesting, processing harvest, and transportation

Industrial and other activity in local body

Coffee bean pulping and related activity

Currently ongoing projects will be operational

Surface water

Environmental Component Agriculture

Existing

Socioeconomic

Tea leaves plucking, employment, coffee seed plucking, other allied activity. Settlement of workers. Local economy

Environmental Component Agriculture

Existing

Activities

Table 3.4 (continued)

Industrial and other activity in local body Trading, employment, manufacturing, and service

Coffee bean pulping and related activity

Trading of coffee bean. Employment opportunity. Settlement of workers. Local economy

Power generation and use, employment, local economic activity, improved economic activity in beneficiary area

Employment opportunity, migration, economic activity, connectivity

Generation and transmission of hydroelectric Road power plants widening Employment opportunity, migration, economic activity due to improved water availability in beneficiary districts

Drinking water Project

Currently ongoing projects will be operational

Employment opportunity, migration, economic activity related to tourism

Construction of Hanging Bridge Employment opportunity, migration, economic activity related to tourism

6.83 million people will be served the water diverted from the project

Development of basic tourist Potential facilities cumulative impact

Yet to start project that would be operational

Selling

Stock piling

Fig. 3.2  An example of a network methodology for impact assessment

Mining

Transportation

Blasting

Drilling

Site clearance Soil erosion

Tree cutting

Improvement in economy

Loss of flora/fauna, transfer of zoonotic diseases to urban area from forest

Employment

Noise pollution

Air pollution

Water pollution

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3  Environmental Impact Assessment

3.4  Environmental Management Plan Once the type and quantum of an environmental impact are predicted, the project proponent shall chart out an Environmental Management Plan (EMP) to reduce the environmental impact. An example of EMP is summarized in Table 3.5.

3.5  Environmental Monitoring Plan Environmental monitoring is essential to evaluate whether predicted impact is correlating with the actual impact. An example of environmental monitoring plan is given in Table 3.6. Since nearly half century, EIA has become an established tool for environmental management. But effectiveness of the environmental impacts forecasted can be ascertained only after monitoring. In the case where the impact exceeds the prediction or legal consideration, then the situation demands corrective action which includes: 1. Avoiding further development in the area, which is likely to deteriorate environment 2. Changing environmental management plan

3.6  Public Participation The consequence of the theoretical awakening of EIA has been seen in the 1990s in the area of public participation (Richard 2012). Daneke et al. (1983) and Hartley and Wood (2005) have identified several barriers in public participation such as poor public knowledge of planning, legal as well as waste licensing issues besides mistrust of the waste disposal industry and ‘not in my back yard’ (NIMBY) syndrome apart from poor information dissemination and failure to influence the process of decision-making. Public participation in EIA is usually believed to promote democratic policymaking and to provide EIA more effective (Glucker et al. 2013). But public participation is often used as a platform for protest to new projects. Residents of 56 villages protested against proposed coal projects in Chhattisgarh as the three coal projects in the region will impact these villages, requiring a diversion of 6802 hectares of land (Agarwal 2019). Opponents of the Chana industrial estate project, Thailand staged a protest in the public hearing with respect to project (Thai pbsworld 2020).

3. Air environment Excavation, movement of vehicles, loading and unloading of sand, aggregates, etc., operation of DG set

Construction of labour camps

2. Water environment Construction canal, weirs, etc.

Excavation, heavy earth moving vehicles, muck disposal Use of DG sets, solid waste generation from labour camps, construction of labour camps

Project activities I. Construction phase 1. Land environment Site clearance, vehicular movement, excavation, muck disposal, loading and unloading of sand, and aggregates

Table 3.5  An example of EMP

The domestic solid waste will be disposed in nearby municipal landfills Oil spillages from DG sets will be collected and handed over to authorized recyclers

Decline of soil quality

Fugitive dust emission, wilting of plants

Deterioration surface and groundwater quality

Pollution of streams

(continued)

The vehicles and DG set using petrol or diesel will be properly maintained to avoid air pollution All roads to be used by the vehicles for project authorities shall be paved/ sprinkled The workers shall be provided with PPE such as nose masks and goggles to reduce impact on health A greenbelt shall be developed in and around the boundary of the project

The project envisages lifting of water from streams for drinking water and underground recharge purpose. Summer season is selected for the construction of weir and the water can be stopped by using sand bags to avoid carry forward of pollutants The sewage from labour camps will be treated in septic tank and soak pits

Provide vegetative cover to reduce soil erosion Sprinkle water to reduce dust emission Provide personnel protective equipment (PPE) Regulate vehicular movement Provide separate paved road for heavy vehicles

Soil erosion, dust generation

Soil compaction

Mitigation measures

Environmental impact

3.6 Public Participation 63

2. Air environment

II. Operation phase 1. Water environment Operation of pump house, diversion of stream water

4. Socio-economic environment Excavation, land acquisition

5. Biological environment Site clearance, excavation

Operation of diesel generator (DG) sets

Table 3.5 (continued) Project activities Burning of fuel for cooking from labour camps 4. Noise environment Construction activity, excavation and vehicular traffic Mitigation measures Clean fuel shall be provided for the construction workers for domestic purpose

Change in the hydraulic regime, down stream flow, water logging

Health workers, resettlement and rehabilitation

Aquatic ecology

Loss of greenery

The downstream users will not be affected significantly due to the shortage of water as the project will be in operation only during monsoon seasons, when water is in excess

The health check-ups (diagnostic) shall be made for all regular employees Safety training shall be provided to all construction workers on

Providing clean fuel for the labour force will be to avoid tree felling in the project area Fast-growing trees will be planted along the periphery of the project area Excavated soil shall be used for making roads, inspection paths, etc., to avoid silting or drop down to rivers

Disturbance to construction The noise pollution shall be checked and maintained by providing sound workers, technical staff and barricades around crushing plants and by taking up regular maintenance of vehicles locality Noise-absorbing plant species shall be planted along the roads To the workers and Acoustic enclosures for DG sets shall be provided technical staff

Environmental impact Emission of SO2, NO2, SPM

64 3  Environmental Impact Assessment

4. Socio-economic environment Implementation of drinking water scheme

3. Noise environment Operation of pumps and Jack well, vehicular movement

Project activities Vehicular movement and DG sets

Mitigation measures The power to project site is supplied by a state grid. In the case of backup, DG sets will be used, which will be provided by appropriate pollution control measures such as stacks of adequate height

Health status of the people

Project authority will have a discussion with PHCs in the area, so that water borne diseases shall be avoided

To the locals in the vicinity Acoustic enclosures will be provided for the pumps operating in the Jack well Regular check-up and maintenance of the operating equipment and machines will be done Planting noise attenuating species to reduce noise pollution shall be carried out

Environmental impact Emission of SO2, NO2, SPM

3.6  Public Participation 65

Health impact

Noise levels

Air quality

Soil quality

Leq Day, Leq Night in dB(A) As specified by near PHC

Twice a year for 3 years Thrice a year for 5 years Twice a year

Construction Detection of water-related ailments, sites, adequacy of local vector control as well as curative measures, etc. Operation

Leq Day, Leq Night in dB(A)

Leq Day, Leq Night in dB(A)

24 hours sampling

Operation

Twice a year for 5 years Twice a year for 3 years

PM10, PM2.5, NO2, and SO2

24 hours sampling

Composite sampling

Duration Composite sampling

Construction Leq Day, Leq Night in dB(A)

Operation

Frequency of monitoring Twice a year for 5 years Twice a year Construction Physico-chemical, bacteriological and irrigation Twice a year properties for 5 years Operation Twice a year Construction PM10, PM2.5, NO2, and SO2 Twice a year for 5 years

Environmental monitoring plan as per the detailed project report Environmental parameters Project stage Parameters to be monitored Water quality Construction Physico-chemical and bacteriological analysis for surface water and groundwater, groundwater table assessment Operation

Table 3.6  Environmental monitoring plan

Location shall be specified after careful consideration of location likely to be affected by project Location shall be specified after careful consideration of location likely to be affected by project Location shall be specified after careful consideration of location likely to be affected by project Location shall be specified after careful consideration of location likely to be affected by project Location shall be specified after careful consideration of location likely to be affected by project

Location shall be specified after careful consideration of location likely to be affected by project

Location Location shall be specified after careful consideration of location likely to be affected by project

66 3  Environmental Impact Assessment

References

67

References Agarwal K(2019) Thousands hHold ‘Coal Satyagraha’ in Chhattisgarh, Say Public Hearing Was Staged, The Wire, 09/OCT/2019. https://thewire.in/rights/coal-satyagraha-chahattisgarhmahagenco-coal-adani-enterprises. Accessed on 23rd July 2020 Almeida MRRE, Montaño M(2017) The Effectiveness of environmental impact assessment systems in São Paulo and Minas Gerais States, Ambient. soc. vol.20 no.2 SãoPaulo Apr./June 2017 https://doi.org/10.1590/1809-4422asoc235r2v2022017 Bisset R, Tomlinson P (1988) Monitoring and auditing of impacts. In: Wathern P (ed) Environmental impact assessment. Theory and practice. Routledge, London Buckley R (1992) How accurate are environmental impact predictions? Ambio 20(3–4) Daneke GA, Garcia MW, Priscoli JD (eds) (1983) Public involvement and social impact assessment, Social impact assessment series no. 9. Westview Press, Boulder, USA Dipper B, Carys J, Christopher W (1998) Monitoring and post-auditing in environmental impact assessment: a review. J Environ Plan Manag 41(6):731–748 Flyvbjerg B, Nils B, Werner R (2003) Megaprojects and risk. An anatomy of ambition. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge Glasson J, Therivel R, Chadwick A (1999) Introduction to environmental impact assessment, principles and procedures, process, practice and prospects. UCL Press, London, ISBN:0-203-97960-5 Hartley N, Wood C (2005) Public participation in environmental impact assessment – implementing the Aarhus Convention. Environ Impact Assess Rev 25(4):319–340 Jones C E, Lee N, Wood CM (1991) UK environmental statements 1988–1990: an analysis. Occasional Paper 29, Department of Planning and Landscape, University of Manchester Lee N, George C (eds) (2000) Environmental assessment in developing and transitional countries. Wiley, Chichester Morgan RK (1998) Environmental impact assessment: a methodological perspective. Kluwer Academic, Dordrecht Mutemba S (1996) Public participation in environmental assessment for banks supported projects in sub-Saharan Africa, in Environmental Assessment in Africa: a World Bank commitment, Environmental Department, World Bank Washington DC Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (1996) Coherence in environmental assessment: practical guidance on development cooperation projects. OECD, Paris Petts J (ed) (1999) Handbook of environmental impact assessment. Blackwell, Oxford Stephanie NT, Landim, Luis ES (2012) The contents and scope of environmental impact statements: how do they evolve over time? Impact Assess Project Appraisal 30(4):217–228. https:// doi.org/10.1080/14615517.2012.746828 Teigland J (2000) Impact assessments as policy and learning instrument. Why effect predictions fail, and how relevance and reliability can be improved. PhD thesis, Roskilde University Tenney A, Kværner J, Gjerstad KI (2006) Uncertainty in environmental impact assessment predictions: the need for better communication and more transparency. Impact Assess Project Appraisal 24(1):45–56. https://doi.org/10.3152/147154606781765345 Thaipbsworld (2020) Protests at Chana industrial estate project public hearing, Thaipbsworld, July 11, 2020. https://www.thaipbsworld.com/protests-at-chana-industrial-estate-project-publichearing/. Accessed on 23rd July 2020 Welford R (1996) Corporate environmental management. Earthscan, London Wood C, Ben D, Carys J (2000) Auditing the assessments of the environmental impacts of planning projects. J Environ Plan Manag 43(1):23–47 Wood CM (2003) Environmental impact assessment: a comparative review, 2nd edn. Prentice Hall, Harlow

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Glucker NA, Driessen PPJ, Kolhoff A, Runhaar Hens AC (2013) Public participation in environmental impact assessment: why, who and how? Environ Impact Assess Review 43:104–111. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eiar.2013.06.003 Richard KM (2012) Environmental impact assessment: the state of the art. Impact Assessm Project Appraisal 30(1):5–14. https://doi.org/10.1080/14615517.2012.661557

Chapter 4

Environmental Health Planning

Abstract  Governance cannot operate in a vacuum. Governing organizations should have guidance from the citizens they serve. Environmental health is driven by several driving forces and exposures and effects. Environment and health are also closely related. The human health cannot be improved or assured without a healthy environment. The plan shall aim to achieve the maximum reduction of illness as well as injury from all causes and consider analysis of environmentally induced illnesses/injuries. The planning exercise shall assess existing environmental conditions that affect the health of the population in areas of concern. The planning shall not just aim to cater demand for treatment-oriented services but should also look into preventive activities and reduction of environmentally induced illnesses/injuries in the home, recreational besides work environments. Environmental factors that intrude upon human health shall be given consideration in the master plans. This chapter discusses the principles of health planning and many usual deviations observed in practice.

4.1  Introduction Governance cannot operate in a vacuum. Governing organizations should have guidance from the citizens they serve. All agencies need to know information that needs to be collected to protect and conserve environment. Policymaker direction should provide foundation as well as catalyst for the work of the governing agency from which laws, guidelines and state budget would arise. Figure 4.1 shows the driving forces, pressure exposures and effects that affect environmental health. Environmental health is affected by a series of driving forces (WHO 1997) such as population, urbanization, poverty, technology and scientific development. The population multiplies the environmental impact due to consumption of natural resources besides generation of wastes. The migration due to various reasons from rural to urban settings as well as semi-­ urban to metropolitan cities augments stress on the environment. Poverty influences on the environmental and living conditions. Technological or scientific developments may bring a new set of environmental health hazards. In reality, decisions are

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 R. Chandrappa, D. B. Das, Environmental Health - Theory and Practice, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-64484-0_4

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70

4  Environmental Health Planning

•Population •Urbanisation •Poverty Driving force •Technology and sceintific development

Pressure

•Productoin •Consumption •Waste release •Resource depletion

•Pollution •Hazard

Exposure

•Mortality •Morbidity

Effect

Fig. 4.1  Driving forces, pressure, and exposure effect that affect environmental health

still being taken for development by sacrificing capacity of the environment to ­provide its ecological services. The practice should stop to safeguard the ­environment and health of the citizens. Public health programs survive and succeed if organizations as well as coalitions address six key areas (Frieden 2014). 1. Innovation to develop the evidence base for action 2. A technical package of a limited number of high-priority, evidence-based interference that together will have a major key impact 3. Effective performance management 4. Partnerships and coalitions and partnerships with public- as well as private-­ sector organizations 5. Communication of accurate and timely information to the healthcare community, decision-makers, and the public to effect behaviour change and engage civil society 6. Political commitment to obtain resources and support for effective action Like resources, ecological services of any ecological setup are limited and cannot take pressure beyond their capacity. Any stress beyond the capacity of nature will result in counter-stress by nature to eliminate the stress to upkeep nature’s health. Some of the examples of stress on the environment as well as counter-stress by environment are given in Table 4.1.

4.1 Introduction

71

Table 4.1  Examples of stress on environment and counter-stress by environment Sl. no. Stress 1 Migration and urbanization

2 3

4 5

6 7 8 9 10

Deforestation Mining and depletion of non-renewable resource from earth Hindrance to natural water flow Loss of biodiversity

Depletion of water in forest Pollution and poor waste management Increase in GHGs Land degradation Depletion of groundwater resources

Counter stress Increase in weight on the earth resulting in change in pressure on soil and underground rock which may lead to earthquake, speedy spread of infectious diseases resulting in population reduction Decrease in oxygen content in atmosphere and soil erosion Decrease in soil stability

Increase in vector-borne diseases, stability of earth Impact on health due to destruction of predators of vectors; loss of pollinating insects; unchecked dominance of destructive species Forest fire extinction of fauna Impact on health Climate change and increase in sea level Reduction in crop Loss of trees/forest and change in soil stability

Agenda 21 proposed by the UNEP as the blueprint for the development for the twenty-first century gave birth to numerous local Agenda 21 initiatives (Box 4.1). As per the International Council for Local Environmental Initiatives (ICLEI) (1997) more than 1300 local bodies in 31 nations across the world have established their own action plans responding to the local Agenda 21 since 1992 to 1997. Box 4.1 Agenda 21 Agenda 21 is a product of the UN Conference on Environment and Development (Earth Summit) held in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil in 1992. It is a non-binding action plan of the UN with respect to sustainable development. The “21” in Agenda 21 refers to the twenty-first century. One of the major objectives of the Agenda 21 initiative is that the local government is supposed to draw its own local Agenda 21.

Subsequent to the Millennium Summit of the UN in 2000, the UN adopted the Millennium Declaration. Afterwards, all UN member states and at least 22 international organizations committed to assisting accomplish the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) by 2015 listed below (UN 2015; WHO 2019): 1. Eradicate extreme poverty and hunger 2. Achieve universal primary education

72

4  Environmental Health Planning

3. Promote gender equality and empower women 4. Reduce child mortality 5. Improve maternal health 6. Combat HIV/AIDS, malaria and other diseases 7. Ensure environmental sustainability 8. Develop a global partnership for development All the MDGs influence health, and vice versa. Following the United Nations Sustainable Development Summit in 2015, the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) were adopted till the year 2030 (UN 2019). The SDGs are as follows: 1. No poverty 2. Zero hunger 3. Good health and well-being 4. Quality education 5. Gender equality 6. Clean water and sanitation 7. Affordable and clean energy 8. Decent work and economic growth 9. Industry, innovation, and infrastructure 10. Reducing inequality 11. Sustainable cities and communities 12. Responsible consumption and production 13. Climate action 14. Life below water 15. Life on land 16. Peace, justice and Strong institutions 17. Partnerships for the goals Environment and health are closely related. The human health cannot be improved or assured without a healthy environment. For example, about 25 million hectares of peat land in Southeast Asia is important for livelihood support, economic growth and ecosystem health. They play key roles in the hydrological system and are significant for agriculture purpose. But, uncontrolled drainage as well as overall poor management practices have made them susceptible to fire with impacts on food security as well as the health of humans and ecosystem. Numerous initiatives at regional level aim to promote prudent use of peat land and to prevent fires, thereby, accelerating the restoration of these ecosystems. Some of the initiatives include the ASEAN peat land Management Strategy 2006–2020, the ASEAN peat land Management Initiative, and the ASEAN programme on Sustainable Management of Peat land Ecosystems 2014–2020. The government of Indonesia formed the National Peat land Restoration Agency in 2016 to focus on improving the management of peat lands to restore about two million hectares of degraded peat land within 5 years.

4.2 Governing Principle

73

The Indonesian government has temporarily banned on new forest concessions as well as all land-clearing operations by palm oil companies which is likely to reduce pressure on peat lands. The UN Environment is working with Indonesia as well as other nations with major peat lands through the Global Peat land Initiative Programme, to develop options for sustainable peat land management and build the knowledge base. The UNs Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation (REDD) and REDD+ programme (Box 4.2) are exploring the means to decrease the impact of the palm oil industry on peat land using fiscal incentives as well as forests (UNEP 2018). Box 4.2 REDD and REDD+ The Collaborative Programme of the UN on REDD in developing nations was launched in 2008 and builds on the convening role as well as technical expertise of UNDP, FAO and the UNEP (UN-REDD Programme 2019). The UN-REDD Programme supports nationally led REDD+ processes and supports the meaningful and informed involvement of all stakeholders, including indigenous peoples as well as other forest-dependent communities in national as well as international REDD+ implementation (UN-REDD Programme 2019). REDD+ is a mitigation solution for climate change being developed by parties to UNFCCC. The UN-REDD programme assists nations to develop the capacities required to meet the UNFCC’s REDD+ requirements, so that they can qualify to get result-based payments under the convention (UN-REDD Programme Collaborative workspace 2019).

4.2  Governing Principle Seven governing principles (MacArthur 2002) of health planning are given in Fig. 4.2. On the other hand, the major issues which would affect the environment and health demanding corrective actions have been listed in Table 4.2 (WHO 1989). In reality, there is however always a shadow between the aspirations and the actual. Bengaluru (Formerly Bangalore) city which was planned without slums has 500+ slums as of 2018 accommodating more than 10% of the population which is still growing. The scenario is not different in most of the developing world which does not design and accommodate people who migrate to urban areas due to natural disaster, low income and family negligence. Such economic refugees often make their way to roadside camp, below flyover and adjacent to railway track. The association and welfare unions of this unauthorized settlement will often lobby to regularize irregularity, which beats the main aim of urban development. Conventionally, government all over the world provide major portion of their budget for national security and health. But, the financial support extended to health

74

4  Environmental Health Planning

Fig. 4.2  Principles of health planning

department will be used to create healthcare establishments and treatment rather than investing on clean and green environment. As a result, the burdens of diseases are continually increasing instead of the quality of life. Planning within a country is done at different levels: 1. Rural 2. Urban 3. Sub-national (state, county, district) 4. National

4.2 Governing Principle

75

Table 4.2  Principles related to health needs and action Part PART I. Principles related to health needs

PART II. Principles related to health action

Principle 1. Protection against communicable diseases

Sub-principle 1.1 Safe as well as adequate water supply 1.2 Sanitary disposal of excreta 1.3 Disposal of solid wastes 1.4 Drainage of surface waters 1.5 Personal as well as domestic hygiene 1.6 Safe food preparation 1.7 Structural safeguards against disease transmission 2. Protection against injuries, 2.1 Structural features and chronic diseases and poisoning furnishing 2.2 Indoor air pollution 2.3 Chemical safety 2.4 The home as a workplace 3. Reducing social and psychological stresses to a minimum 4. Improving the housing environment 5. Making informed use of housing 6. Protecting populations at special risk 7. Health advocacy 7.1 Role of the health authorities 7.2 Role of related groups 7.3 Communicating health messages 8. Economic and social policies 9.1 Development planning as 9. Intersectoral action for well as management development, planning and management 9.2 Urban as well as land-use planning 9.3 Housing legislation, standards as well as enforcement 9.4 Design and construction of housing 9.5 Provision of community services 9.6 Monitoring as well as surveillance 10. Education on healthy housing 11. Community cooperation as well as self-help

Environmental health issues are complex and multispectral. They require involvement of professionals from several sectors apart from the environment and health professionals from agencies, at all levels. Local environmental health action plan should not be done in isolation to national environmental health action plan. Local and national plan should be integrated with proper flow of information

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4  Environmental Health Planning

between local and national agencies. Figure 4.3 gives building blocks and planning stages in planning process. The steps in local planning process comprise of: 1. Increasing awareness 2. Reviewing as well as managing municipal environmental health performance 3. Reviewing present municipal policies that affect environmental health 4. Making as well as reporting a local situation analysis 5. Building efficient public participation 6. Setting priorities for feasible action 7. Preparation of the local environmental health action plan 8. Getting support from other levels The planning at national land part of nation is influenced by international laws. The regional haze action plan adopted in ASEAN region encouraged formulation of policies for enforcing strict control of slash-and-burn practices as well as forbidding open burning during dry period. The policy on zero burning forbids open burning, especially among the timber and plantation companies in the region but permits a controlled burning to some extent as a complete ban may not be practicable among the smallholder farmers (UNEP 2018). Complexity of human–environment interaction is increasing with time (American Public Health Association 1976). Social costs, lifestyle and environmental standards shall govern the principles for environmental health planning (Fig. 4.4). The plan shall aim in the maximum reduction of illness as well as injury from all causes and consider analysis of environmentally induced illnesses/injuries. The planning exercise shall assess existing environmental conditions that affect the health of the population in areas of concern. The planning shall not just aim to cater demand for treatment-oriented services but should also look into preventive ­activities and reduction of environmentally induced illnesses/injuries in the home, recreational beside work environments. Environmental factors that intrude upon human health shall be given consideration in the master plans. Components to be considered in environmental health planning include but are shall not restrict to the following:

Planning steps

Building blocks • • • • • •

Leadership and Governance Service delivery Financing Workforce Medicines and other consumables Information

Fig. 4.3  Building blocks and planning steps

• • • • • • •

Situation assessment Priority setting Identify strategies Costing Resource planning and budgeting Programming and implementaiton Monitoring and evaluation

77

4.2 Governing Principle

Social costs • Environmental health planning should examine the economic system to identify suitable relationships based on gains in people health.

Life style • Environmental health plannig must consider the life-styles of people and itd relation to living patterns that affect health

Environmental standards • Environmental standards shall become part of plan

Fig. 4.4  Governing principle of environmental health planning

1. Air quality 2. Animal control 3. Food protection 4. Hazardous substance control 5. Human–animal conflict 6. Injury control 7. Liquid waste management 8. Noise control 9. Occupational health 10. Radiological health 11. Recreational safety and health 12. Rural and urban planning 13. Shelter 14. Solid waste management 15. Vector control 16. Water quality Health advocacy needs to become integral part of health planning to help individuals as well as communities improve their health, by enhancing their knowledge or influencing their attitudes. Principles of health promotion are (Mahajan and Gupta 2013): • • • •

Shall involve the population as a whole rather than specific group Shall be directed towards causes of health Shall combine diverse and complementary methods/approaches Shall aim at effective public participation

Considering the above aspects, health education ideally shall cover following information: 1. Disease information

(a) Types of disease (i) Communicable diseases

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(ii) Non-communicable diseases (iii) Injury (b) Causes of disease (c) Symptoms of diseases (d) Consequences of disease (e) Benefits of treatment

2. Service information

(a) Location of healthcare facilities (b) Skills and facilities available in healthcare facilities (c) Costs of service (d) Success rate of the healthcare facilities (e) Quality and safety of healthcare facilities (f) Benefits and detriments on health of various services available in the market

3. Product information (a) Effects and side effects of medicines (b) Benefits and detriments on health of various products available in the market 4. Information on environment

(a) Quality of water, air and soil (b) Entry of contaminants and toxic substances into food/water/air (c) Radiation in the environment (d) Noise in the environment (e) Effects of pollution on health (f) Climate change and its impact on health (g) Natural disasters (h) Human–animal conflicts

5. Information on law

(a) Existing laws with respect to environment, health and safety (b) Strengths and weakness of laws and regulatory system (c) Enforcing agencies and penal actions

6. First aid and home remedy 7. Health issues related to old age Health education can be attained by any method which is used for education. Health education can be achieved by any of but not restricting to the following methods: • Books • Brainstorming

4.2 Governing Principle

• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •

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Broadcasting Buzz group Case studies Conference Demonstration Discussion Documentaries Drama Exhibitions Group discussion Guerrilla advertising Handouts Health talk Hoardings Lecture Mobile applications Newspaper Panel discussions Posters Recorded message Role play Seminar Short message service (SMS) of mobile phones Social media Symposium Television shows Traditional media Video games Wall painting Website Word of mouth Workshop

In spite of these many options, people lead unhealthy lifestyles and they are exposed to unhealthy environment due to the following reasons: • • • • • • • •

People do not put effort to get educated Lack of option – they have to live in unhealthy environment to survive Lack of time Illiteracy May not agree with knowledge dissipated Lack of resources Addiction to unhealthy habits Carelessness

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In spite of legislation and education, overconfidence and disrespect to law of land often results in unhealthy lifestyle like riding a scooter without a helmet (Fig. 4.5). Health education is one way to improve the health of society. Term health education is not confined to future doctors or paramedical staff. In spite of sufficient resources freely available in the internet people do not put effort to educate themselves. Some people do not have any other option other than to live in unhealthy environment like slums/cities/risky workplace/disaster-prone areas as the population depends on income, family/social support, job, education at these places. Some people may not have resources for enhancing knowledge. People may be innocent about healthy lifestyle as they may be illiterate. Some people would have addiction to unhealthy habits like smoking, drug addiction, and alcohol consumption exposing them to sickness while encroaching footpaths may expose others to injury (Figs. 4.6 and 4.7). Definition of Information Education Communication (IEC) with respect to health refers to communicating information aiming at reinforcing or changing health-related behaviours. Countries often develop posters, leaflets, flyers, brochures, booklets, radio broadcast or TV spots, etc., as a means to promote the required, positive behaviours in the community. IEC activities should have a target of a specific audience; clear objective; address a specific problem; set a timeframe within which the end results shall occur. In reality, the information may reach beyond target audience even without achieving any result as in spreading ill effect of alcohol/tobacco. In other instances, Fig. 4.5  In spite of legislation and education, the family is on a ride without helmet

4.2 Governing Principle

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Fig. 4.6  Encroachment of footpaths forcing pedestrians to walk on roads

problem itself may not come to notice of decision-maker at early stage like ill effect of chemicals released to groundwater from solid waste dumping. Improper planning often makes safety to take back seat. The demand for shelter, waste management (Fig.4.8), water (Fig. 4.9), public transportation (Fig. 4.10), and lung space demands taxpayers’ money or national/international funding/lending which would impose tax burden on taxpayers leading to unhappy situations. Improper planning, poor legislation and improper enforcement of existing legislation may lead to: • Risk of injury due to fall of dead tree on pedestrians/vehicle riders (Fig. 4.11) • Risk of air pollution due to waste burning (Fig. 4.12) • Risk of injury due to occupying road for constructions without safety signage and closing the road (Fig. 4.13) Most of the slums are formed in the heart of city by encroaching green space, playground, natural drains resulting in floods, stagnation of air pollutants, and accumulation of solid waste and resource diversion of funds for welfare of slum dwellers. Urbanization is not unexpected and in the absence of planning the cities will attract more people. Bigger cities will attract major portion of migrants.

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Fig. 4.7  Parking on footpaths

The resource towards the unexpected accidents/incidents like compensation to dog bites, snakebites, flood, vehicular accidents and epidemics can be reduced by proper planning. In the United States, nearly 45% of the population pays taxes, compared to which it is only about 3% of population in India (Manshu 2011) as depicted in Figs. 4.14 and 4.15. The reduction in tax collection often leads to narrow street, unpaved road, haphazardly laid cables and poor parking facility (Figs. 4.16 and 2.6). In addition, there is also polarization of native non-taxpayers and immigrant taxpayers. An adult at rest breathes 0.5 m3/h while at working hard, breaths 1.5–3 m3/h. This adds up to 11,000 litres of air in a day using about 550 litres of pure oxygen per day. With increase in migration, fuel combustion and reduced green cover have led to reduction in per capita availability of oxygen and increase in exposure to polluted air in many developed countries. Apart from human excreta, per capita values of solid waste generation in south Asia range from 0.12 to 5.1 kg per person per day 0.45 kg/capita/day (World Bank 2012). This means immigrants are the source of demand for energy, food, air, water and sanitation which were taken care by ‘free ecological solutions’ provided by nature’s dilution and self-­purification. While tax-

4.2 Governing Principle

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Fig. 4.8  Waste burning in residential area

paying immigrants demand service as they have paid tax the native people often see newcomer as uninvited burden to already depleting resources. Safety has been a neglected issue in many developing countries. Safety includes workplace safety (Fig. 4.17), water safety (Fig. 4.18), food safety, electrical safety, road safety (Figs. 4.19 and 4.20), healthcare establishment safety, drug safety, cosmetic safety, fire safety and radioactive safety, to name a few. Hazard identification and risk analysis (HIRA) is often overseen by town planners. Even though jargons like disaster management and emergency preparedness plan is often heard and read in public documents, due to international interference, in reality the choking roads and faulty building often leave no space for escape routes during disasters. International cooperation is materializing with respect to environment and disaster management and will continue to happen as pollution and risk do not respect international boundary and jump from one country to other country. Without international health surveillance, knowledge transfer and international financial assistant health of global citizens will be difficult to achieve. Sustainable futures will become distant reality if the governments always look out for external financial support. The developing world either looks out for assistance in terms of loan or grant without aiming to create their own resources generation or cost cutting. As a result, they end up spending on international consultancy and in bulky report which is often unread and left in racks. Intersectoral action for development, planning and management cannot be expected in the absence of situational leadership. The committees, meeting and ­discussions would be often led by a few influential individuals without much scope

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Fig. 4.9  Public waiting for water

for discussion and opinion of others. In such scenario the decisions are usually ­predetermined. Committees and meeting often become platform to distribute risks that may arise due to the decision taken. Table 4.3 provides some glimpses of environmental issues pertaining to different themes which could be observed in most of the countries. These issues often contribute to health risk due to communicable diseases, non-communicable diseases or injury. Table 4.3 is neither ultimate nor final. It is only indicative, and the issues may change or add from region to region. Prioritizing the aspect and setting goals often do not get practiced leading to expenditure on insignificant aspects without any resource allocation to significant aspects.

4.3  Environmental Psychology Environmental psychology deals with the interplay between individuals and their surroundings (Stern 2000). Studies from China revealed a wide array of psychological distress during COVID-19 crisis (Qiu et al. 2020).

4.3 Environmental Psychology

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Fig. 4.10  Public waiting for mass transportation

As the scope of the Environmental Sciences continued to develop, it blended with other fields. Environmental Psychology concerns the interaction between the environment and public perception of those spaces. Psychology plays a major role in the health of citizens. Public spaces like parks, civic centres, public markets, downtowns, and campuses affect psychology as well as the health of citizens. But the decision-makers are yet to seriously incorporate the topic in decision-making. Environmental psychology covers all aspects of human behaviour as well as mental life in relation to the socio-physical environment. The psychological domains, (1) anxiety, (2) depression, (3) social isolation, (4) personality factors and character traits, as well as (5) chronic life stress, depend on environment (natural and built). Hence, health planning should be such that it invariably avoids the following: 1. Slums 2. Traffic congestion 3. Absence of parks 4. Uncomfortable noise 5. Poor lighting 6. Littering/spitting 7. Too many posters/bills on walls 8. Garbage piles 9. Street dogs 10. Rodents

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Fig. 4.11  Risk of injury due to fall of dead tree on pedestrians/vehicle riders

1 1. Absence of birds 12. Vectors 13. Dirty footpaths/streets/walls 14. Haphazard parking 15. Open sewers 16. Occupied roads/footpaths by stray animals, beggars and street vendors 17. Potholes and open pits in roads and footpaths 18. Overlapping cables, buntings and banners 19. Storage of construction materials on roads and footpaths 20. Open sanitation 21. Dirty smell/dust/smoke 22. Uncomfortable temperature 23. Crowding Health planning should invariably include the following: 1. Water bodies 2. Proper landscaping with lawns, bushes and trees 3. Proper waste management

4.4 Disease Surveillance

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Fig. 4.12  Waste burning in residential area

4. Broad footpaths 5. Clean street/walls 6. Comfortable temperature 7. Underground sewage 8. Parks/playground/breathing spaces 9. Comfortable noise/silence 10. Habitats for birds

4.4  Disease Surveillance Disease surveillance is a continuous, systematic collection, analysis as well as interpretation of health-related data. Surveillance is needed to: 1. Serve as an early warning system 2. Guide public health policy and strategies

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Fig. 4.13  Risk of injury due to occupying road for constructions without safety signage and closing the road

Fig. 4.14  Income of taxpayers and population in India

Income tax payers: 35,000,000

Populaon: 1,155,347,6 78

4.4 Disease Surveillance

89

Income tax payers: 144,103,375

Population: 307,006,550

Fig. 4.15  Income taxpayers and population in the United States Fig. 4.16 Haphazardly laid cables, poor parking facility

90 Fig. 4.17  Labourers with personnel protective equipment in India

Fig. 4.18  Unsafe water resources

Fig. 4.19  Unsafe building and parking

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4.4 Disease Surveillance

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Fig. 4.20 Unsafe transportation

3. Identify public health emergencies 4. Document impact of an intrusion or progress towards specified public health goals 5. Understand/monitor the epidemiology of a condition to set priorities An effective surveillance system has the following events: • • • • • •

Case detection Reporting Investigation and confirmation Analysis and interpretation Control/response Feedback

Difficulties in health surveillance in a developing world including but not restricted to: • Fake doctors • Home remedies • Non-reporting and erroneous reporting Healthcare fraud can be doctor/patient/drug fraud for profit (Stan Mack 2018). Unethical doctors can take benefit of the complexity of health diagnoses to increase their revenues. Patient fraud typically involves fraud committed by drug-seeking patients or abuse of insurance ID cards. Workers in healthcare sometimes might obtain subsidized prescription drugs and then resell them on the black market.

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Table 4.3  Environmental issues pertaining to different themes Theme Forest and wildlife

Issues Depleting groundwater level Recurring drought Repeated forest fires Biodiversity Increase in population due to migration Increase in factory farming, grazing to fulfil the growing population Planning and execution of projects which will have implication of biodiversity by pollution; infection spreading; destruction of habitat, water/food source. Poor waste disposal and pollution control Introduction of alien species Homogenization and change in ecosystem functioning Invention and use of eco-unfriendly products Fragmentation of habitats Soil degeneration Competition and predation on native species Coastal environment Poor monitoring and information dissemination of underground water quality Absence of proactive measures to control erosion in existing and proposed ports and harbours Loss of mangroves Impact on estuaries due to expansion of existing and proposed ports Sparse monitoring of estuaries and coastal waters Absence of wastewater treatment plants Need of awareness among local people and management of coastal/ estuarine resources Absence of ready updated information on carrying capacity Land degradation-­ Rocks and minerals are non-renewable resources. Once consumed it need to be imported. Hence mining may be restricted to fulfil the demand in mining and the state/country so that rocks and minerals will be available for the quarrying generations to come Sand has been over mined and there is acute shortage of sand Pollution Exponential growth of vehicle Absence of green tax Unaffordable/uncomfortable public transport Traffic congestion Absence of trees around industries Absence of restrictions on traffic hours Absence of buffer zone around residential activity Agriculture and Food waste allied sector Impact due to invasive and native pests Unsustainable use of agrochemicals Combustion of agricultural residue/waste Decline in soil fertility and water availability Change in consumption pattern leading to increase in meat consumption has resulted in greater water footprint Absence of awareness with respect to high price low risk crop which can be grown in climate of Karnataka like dates, dragon fruit Inability to self-sustain during unproductive period with respect to long term low water consuming crops like tamarind, cashew, dates, dragon fruit, horticultural crops (continued)

4.5 Analysing Environmental Health Status

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Table 4.3 (continued) Theme Water resources and irrigation management

Energy

Waste management Industry

Transport

Climate change

Issues Migration Industrialization Increase in water footprint due to water intense activity Need of awareness about water conservation methods Water loss due to unsustainable practices Absence of closer institutional links energy and environmental policy makers Absence of environmental costs in energy pricing Waste of energy for unproductive entertainment at the cost of non-­ availability of energy to farmers and small enterprisers Energy inefficient agriculture pumps Pollution due to energy consumption Absence of energy audit at local bodies Absence of integration between industrial growth and energy efficiency during formulation of policies Shortage of staff in enforcing agency Absence of treatment, storage and disposal facilities Most of the micro, small and medium industries are set up as soon as finance and electric supply are arranged without waiting for required environmental approval There is urgent need to estimate the quantities of sulphur dioxide, oxides of nitrogen and other pollutants emanating from various sources so that action plans to curb pollution from these pollutants can be charted out Currently there is no transparent mechanism to track waste and effluents Absence of ease of business with respect to waste laws High fuel demand Unsustainable/unnecessary transportation for jobs, meeting and entertainment Variable quality with respect to health, education, goods and service often compel people to move in search of quality goods and services Fragmentation of wildlife corridors in water, air and land Decreasing carrying capacity of the nature to host increasing population Decrease in climate adaptation capacity due to demand for food/goods and service by ever increasing population Threat to ecological setup due to stress from changing consumption pattern and urbanization Burden of diseases due to poor environmental condition which favour vectors, rodents and pathogens

4.5  Analysing Environmental Health Status The environmental burden of ailments quantifies the quantity of disease caused by environmental risks. The understanding of how much sickness can be attributed to changeable environmental risks can contribute to identifying opportunities for avoidance of ill health.

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Modifiable environment that influent health includes the following: • • • • • • • • • • • • •

Air, soil and water pollution Urban heat island Ultraviolet and ionizing radiation Hazardous substance in consumable products Built environment Exposure to hazardous substance in building material Noise, electromagnetic fields Lighting Occupational risks Solid waste management Agricultural methods, irrigation schemes Wastewater management and Anthropogenic climate changes, ecosystem degradation

In 2012, 12.6 million people passed away due to working/living in an unhealthy environment which represented 23% of all deaths. The portion of the global burden of disease due to the environment with respect to both death and disability is 22% (WHO 2017). This means that 22% of sickness can be avoided by maintaining proper environment. Proper environmental management is cheaper compared to curing unless environmental managers do not boost up costs like – (1) high consultancy charges to the tune of 10–20% of total project cost, (2) unnecessary material and specification to boost up the project cost, and (3) unskilled unproductive manpower whose salaries are mere waste.

4.6  Planning Urban Health Governance The speedy urbanization across the world poses immense challenges in urban planning. The swift migrations of people can result in overcrowding besides governments may not be able to give adequate sewerage, safe drinking water, transportation, as well as housing. As of 2015 more than half of the global population has access to piped water connection to their residences. Since 1990, about 2 billion urban inhabitants have access to better sanitation and over 2 billion persons have access to better drinking water facilities. On the other hand, more than 700 million people are still devoid of access to safe drinking water with half the population in sub-Saharan Africa lacking such facilities. Between 1990 and 2012, the people who were devoid of sanitation raised from 215 to 756 million (WHO 2014). Worldwide there was decrease in open defecation from 24% to 14% between 1990 and 2012. But, 1 billion people across the globe still practiced open defecation as on 2015.

4.7 Planning Rural Health Governance

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Citizens who lack proper sanitation and access to safe drinking water and subject to overcrowding can be more vulnerable to soil-transmitted helminths (de Silva et al. 2003). The other key players upon whom health of people depends on are: (1) people’s representatives, (2) urban planners, (3) garbage collector, (4) water treatment plant operators, (5) wastewater treatment plant operators, (6) safety officers, (8) police, (9) fire brigade and (7) enforcing officers. Underperformance of these would result in health burden on the state and not welcome by citizens even though expenditure towards curing diseases increase gross domestic product. The planning should be steered by eliminating unhealthy chemicals by banning eco-unfriendly products for which substitutes are available or without which people can survive. Some of such products are: 1. Non-biodegradable detergent 2. Lead-based paint 3. Cadmium pigments 4. Disposable plastic carry bag 5. Disposable plastic spoons, cutleries, plates and cups 6. Flex 7. Cling films 8. Crackers COVID-19, first identified in December 2019 in China, resulted in travel restrictions and quarantines in over 90 countries at the time of writing. Similarly, 1918 “Spanish flu,” had affected 27% of the world’s population. COVID-19 has changed the face of cities in many countries world over. By 2050 it is projected that world will have 43 megacities, with more than two-thirds of the world population living in urban areas. Hence managing epidemics in an urbanizing world is important (Acuto 2020). After lockdown was implemented in India on March 25, 2020, more than 4 crore (40 million) migrant labourers headed back home resulting in temporary deurbanization. While it is imperative that urbanization has been one of the causes of speedy spreading of infectious diseases including COVID-19, it may be too early to forecast whether governments promote de-urbanization as one of the solutions to curb spreading of infectious diseases.

4.7  Planning Rural Health Governance In spite of the huge differences among developing and developed nations, access is the key issue in rural health across the world due to concentration of resources in the cities, difficulties with transport and communication, in rural and remote areas (Strasser 2003). Rural populations will have poorer levels of health status compared to their urban counterparts in Canada (Fertman et al. 2005; Romanow 2002). Compared to urban areas, rural areas are likely to have shorter life expectancy, higher infant mortality

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rates, higher disability rates, and higher death rates circulatory and respiratory ailment, due to injuries, diabetes and suicide (White 2013). Challenges related to low income, lower levels of education, poverty and higher unemployment affect health status negatively in Canada (Hart et al. 2005; Romanow 2002; Smith et al. 2008). Issues affecting health of people in rural Americans include declining population, economic stagnation, a disproportionate number of elderly, shortage of healthcare professionals, poverty, high rates of chronic illness and underinsured residents (Weisgrau 1995). Critical factors in the relationship between health and poverty are population and environmental issues. 80% of the poor in Latin America, 60% in Asia and 50% in Africa live on marginal lands of stumpy productivity and high susceptibility to ­degradation (Strasser 2003). This tends to support migration from rural to urban areas. However, in the world’s cities, more than one billion people live without facilities for water drainage, or garbage disposal and breathe polluted air (WHO 1999). No low-income countries have long life expectancy and no high-income countries have short life expectancy. Poor housing condition, lack of sanitation, exposure to environmental odds, unsafe drinking water and use of biomass fuels often increase the risk of many health problems (Barik and Thorat 2015). Desai et al. (2010) noted a very high occurrence of minor diseases like cough, fever and diarrhoea (124 per 1000 individuals) among Indian population. The major challenges in rural set-up are: • • • • • • • • • • • •

Proximity to healthcare establishment Poor housing condition Unsafe drinking water Use of biomass fuels Willingness of doctors and other healthcare workers to work in rural hospitals Poor sanitation Education Economic stagnation Disproportionate number of elderly Safety against snakes and wildlife Exposure to agrochemicals Contamination of drinking water source by human/animal waste and agrochemicals

A study by Goel and Khera (2015) noted that provision of free diagnostic facilities and medicine have benefitted people in the state of Rajasthan, India. Early detection of disease conditions and augmented coverage of health insurance can add an additional protection from the health risks besides helping in achieving good health as well as lower treatment cost (Barik and Thorat 2015).

References

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References Acuto M (2020) COVID-19: lessons for an urban(izing) world. One Earth 2(4):317–319. https:// doi.org/10.1016/j.oneear.2020.04.004 American Public Health Association (1976) Environmental health planning, policy statement, 01 Jan 1976, Policy Number: 7629(PP). https://www.apha.org/policies-­and-­advocacy/public-­ health-­policy-­statements/policy-­database/2014/07/15/09/10/environmental-­health-­planning. Accessed on 31 July 2019. Barik D, Thorat A (2015) Issues of unequal access to public health in India. Front Public Health 3:245. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpubh.2015.00245 de Silva NR, Brooker S, Hotez PJ, Montresor A, Engels D, Savioli L (2003) Soil-transmitted helminth infections: updating the global picture. Trends Parasitol 19:547–551 Desai SB, Dubey A, Joshi BL, Sen M, Shariff A, Vanneman R (2010) Human development in India: challenges for a society in transition. Oxford University Press, New Delhi Fertman CI, Dotson S, Mazzocco GO, Reitz SM (2005) J Allied Health 34(3):163–168 Frieden TR (2014) Six components necessary for effective public health program implementation. Am J Public Health 104(1):17–22. https://doi.org/10.2105/AJPH.2013.301608 Goel K, Khera R (2015) Public health facilities in North India. Econ Polit Wkly 50(21):53 Hart LG, Larson EH, Lishner DM (2005) Am J Public Health 95(7):1149–1155 ICLEI (1997) Local Agenda 21 survey: a study of responses by local authorities and their national and international associations to Agenda 21. Freiburg MacArthur ID (2002) Local environmental health planning, guidance for local and national authorities, WHO European series No.95. World Health Organization, Copenhagen Mahajan BK, Gupta MC (2013) Textbook of preventive and social medicine. Jaypee Brothers Medical Publishers (P) Ltd, New Delhi Manshu (2011) Number of income tax payers in India and US, January 19, 2011. http://www.onemint.com/2011/01/19/number-­of-­income-­tax-­payers-­in-­india-­and-­us/. Accessed on 1 Jan 2018 Qiu J, Shen B, Zhao M, Wang Z, Xie B, Xu Y (2020) A nationwide survey of psychological distress among Chinese people in the COVID-19 epidemic: implications and policy recommendations. Gen Psychiatr 33. https://doi.org/10.1136/gpsych-­2020-­100213 Romanow R (2002) Building on values: the future of health care in Canada. Commission on the Future of Health Care in Canada, Saskatoon Smith KB, Humphreys JS, Wilson MG (2008) Aust J Rural Health 16(2):56–66 Stan Mack (2018) What is the concept of fraud in the healthcare industry? http://smallbusiness. chron.com/concept-­fraud-­healthcare-­industry-­71970.html. Accessed on 16 Jan 2018 Stern PC (2000) Psychology and the science of human-environment interactions. Am Psychol 55(5):523–530 Strasser R (2003) Rural health around the world: challenges and solutions. Fam Pract 20(4):457–463 UN (2015) The Millennium Development Goals Report 2015. https://www.un.org/millenniumgoals/2015_MDG_Report/pdf/MDG%202015%20rev%20(July%201).pdf. Accessed on 28 July 2019 UN (2019) Sustainable development goals. https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/?menu=1300. Accessed on 28 June 2019 UNEP (2018) Smoke-haze: a transboundary air pollution issue in Southeast Asia, Early warning; emerging issues and futures; FORESIGHT Brief. http://environmentlive.unep.org/foresight. Accessed on 27 Apr 2019. UN-REDD Programme (2019) About UN-REDD programme. https://www.un-­redd.org/. Accessed on 21 July 2019. UN-REDD Programme Collaborative workspace (2019) About REDD+. https://www.unredd.net. Accessed on 21 July 2019. Weisgrau S (1995) Issues in rural health: access, hospitals, and reform. Health Care Financ Rev 17(1):1–14

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White D (2013) Development of a rural health framework: implications for program service planning and delivery. Healthc Policy 8(3):27–41 WHO (1989) Health principles of housing. World Health Organization, Geneva WHO (1997) Health and environment in sustainable development: five years after the Earth Summit. Geneva, World Health Organization (documentWHO/EHG/97.8). WHO (1999) Global forum for health research.10/90 report. WHO, Switzerland, p 1999 WHO (2014) Progress on drinking water and sanitation _ Joint Monitoring Programme update 2014. World Health Organization, Geneva WHO (2017) Public health and environment. http://www.who.int/gho/phe/en/. Accessed on 19 Jan 2019 WHO (2019) Millennium Development Goals (MDGs). https://www.who.int/topics/millennium_ development_goals/about/en/.Accessed on 28 July 2019 World Bank (2012) What a waste, A global review of solid waste management. World Bank, Washington DC

Part II

Mitigation

Chapter 5

Water and Wastewater Treatment

Abstract  Water is essential for life and millions of plants and animals live in it. Our food cannot grow without water. Similarly, humans cannot survive without water. The human population has augmented enormously, and the freshwater species are threatened by human activities. The decline in the abundance of freshwater species itself is evidence that all is not well with respect to water quality and quantity. Effluents discharged from wastewater treatment plants are probable sources of pathogenic bacteria in the freshwater environment. Environmental protection requires the use of suitable purification systems. As it is not possible for the composition of wastewater treatment plant effluent to match the water quality of the receiving system, effluent is likely to significantly impact the biological and chemical characteristics of the receiving ecosystem. In addressing these issues, this chapter discusses common engineering technologies for treating water and wastewater along with theory of natural purification.

5.1  Introduction Water is essential for life and millions of plants and animals live in it. Our food cannot grow without water. Similarly, humans cannot survive without water. The human population has augmented enormously, and the freshwater species are threatened by human activities (Chandrappa and Das 2014). On average, the proportion of population monitored in the freshwater system has reduced overall by 81% from 1970 to 2012 (WWF 2016). The decline in the abundance of freshwater species itself is evidence that all is not well with respect to water quality and quantity. Unlike humans, other species do not treat water before consumption and so as many poor people. Intervention of government and donor agencies is very much essential to ensure clean water of potable quality for drinking and cooking. In the absence of desired water quality, food would get contaminated with undesirable chemicals that would be biomagnified before it is consumed by humans.

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 R. Chandrappa, D. B. Das, Environmental Health - Theory and Practice, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-64484-0_5

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Pathogens and undesirable chemicals would encourage waterborne diseases when ingested or when they come in contact with the skin. Stagnant water would proliferate vectors in the absence of predators like fish, lizard and frog. Nature can purify pollutants entering water and to some extent by self-­purification by following methods: 1. Dilution: Pollutants are diluted by water by dispersion to an extent wherein pollutants will not harm environment. 2. Current: Pollutants will be thoroughly mixed, thereby minimizing the effect of pollutant on the environment due to the accumulation of pollutants locally. Turbulence in the current will also increase aeration that will help transfer of oxygen to water and volatile pollutant to air (Fig. 5.1). 3. Reaction: Environment is a host of different chemicals at different places, which may react with pollutants, thereby reducing the effect of pollutant on the environment. 4. Bioassimilation: Some of the pollutants are absorbed by living organisms without harming themselves. 5. Biodegradation: Some of the pollutants will be degraded by living organism, especially microorganisms. 6. Temperature: Reducing the temperature of hot wastewater stream to that of receiving environment will reduce the impact on receiving environment. Activity of microorganisms is more at the higher temperature, thereby enhancing microbial decomposition of bio-degradable pollutants. Further the volatile pollutants will leave water and enter air. Temperature will also affect the rate of reaction.

Fig. 5.1  Current in water will help self-purification by exchange of gases between water and air in addition to the dilution of pollutants

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7. Sunlight: Sunlight helps in the purification of surface water body by adding oxygen through photosynthesis. Besides this, the UV rays from the sun can disinfect the water to some extent. 8. Adsorption: Solid surface of soil, rock, mineral, vegetation can adsorb pollutants depending on the chemical properties of solids. 9. Absorption: Some pollutants will be absorbed by abiotic component of environment and some others may be absorbed by living organism. 10. Biogeochemical cycles: Complex biogeochemical cycles through series of physical, chemical and biological activity would change the pollutants to an extent wherein pollutants will not harm environment. 11. Sedimentation: Some pollutants may settle in water body without further travelling in the environment. 12. Filtration: Filtration in natural set-up can occur when water infiltrates through soil strata vertically and moves through voids in soil horizontally. Worldwide, numerous regions suffer from water shortage, as well as contamination. The infiltration and subsurface storage of river and rainwater can decrease water stress. Artificial groundwater recharge, combined with plant purification, bank filtration and/or the use of subsurface dams, as well as artificial aquifers, is especially beneficial in areas where layers of gravel and sand exist below the surface of earth (Balke and Zhu 2008). The nature is so diverse that it provides the needs of all living organisms. Different organisms have different requirements with respect to habitat, nutrient requirement, temperature, light, oxygen, etc. The organisms have flourished and colonized according to environmental set-up. The nutrition of one animal may be poison to another. The nitrate which is very much essential for plant growth may lead to health hazard in case of humans. Hence, wetlands formed in plant-nutrient-­ rich (e.g. nitrate, phosphate and so on) slow-flowing or stagnant water will help wetland plants to get their nutrition, while the other organisms on downstream get relatively pure water for their survival (Figs. 5.2 and 5.3). Varying flow either due to change in seasons or flow gradient would make settleable solids settle making the rest of relatively pure water flow further. Wetlands which are referred as kidneys of nature are identified late by humans for usefulness. Wetlands adjacent to water bodies were occupied by humans for building civilization, thereby sacrificing self-purifying system established by nature over the period of time. The wetland which was not occupied for building structures became dump yard for wastes generated by humans (Fig. 5.4).

5.2  Engineering Control Water and wastewater treatment in engineering control is similar to what happens in self- purification process of water in nature; but the treatment happens in engineered structures. The time and space required for the treatment depends on energy input to

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Fig. 5.2  Stagnation of water or lower velocity in nature will settle solid particles

Fig. 5.3  Water-tolerant crops that flourish forming wetland due to presence of nutrient will reduce concentration of nutrients, which have detrimental effect on other organisms

the treatment system. Greater the energy, lesser the time and space required for bringing the concentration of pollutants to desired level. The water and wastewater treatment methods mainly contain unit operations and unit processes. Methods that bring physical changes such as sedimentation, floatation, crystallization, and filtration are called unit operations. Unit processes involve removal of pollutants by chemical reactions and/or biological processes.

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Fig. 5.4  Another example of self-purification by water-tolerant plants forming wetland, thereby absorbing chemicals like nitrates and phosphates that provide surplus nutrients to plants and affect the health of the fauna

Water or wastewater treatment system comprises of combination of the treatment unit/process designed to reduce concentration of pollutant to the desired level. Water treatment comprises of only unit operations and chemical process. While the wastewater treatment uses wide array of biological processes to remove bio-­ degradable pollutants. Economics, aesthetics and availability of space/energy determine the choice of unit operation and process. In practice, consultants and designer may choose costly operation/process to make more profit. Wastewater can arise from domestic activity, industry, intensive animal farming, waste leaching, urban runoff, agricultural runoff or any other activity. But wastewater treatment as the end of pipeline solution is usually adopted where wastewater can be trapped economically. Wastewater treatment is done by the same principle and phenomena that are observed in the nature during natural purification even though there are many technologies available, which demands investment.

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All treatment systems need not have all the primary, secondary, and tertiary t­ reatment. In the absence of suspended solids, which do not settle by reducing flow, one can directly adopt secondary treatment. This is the case in many of the industries. Still in this case, some of the problematic wastewater streams like waste arising from pharmaceutical industry, distillery, or other complex chemical incineration (controlled combustion) of wastewater work out to be the most economical and eco-­ friendly solution.

5.2.1  Water Treatment The objective of water treatment is to remove constituents in naturally available water pollutants, which would affect its proposed use. Different uses demand different quality. Water that is fit for drinking may not be suitable for diluting laboratory reagents. Water used far bathing may not be used for boiler feed for generating steam in industries. Pure water from distillation is not good for human consumption as human body demands some minerals. In a nutshell, potable water should have constituents in concentration required by healthy body and at the same time should not have constituents in excess of concentration beyond which it is harmful to health. Hence, drinking water standard stipulates: • Limits to some constituents like iron, magnesium as concentration of these constituents would result in abnormality to health or aesthetically not acceptable • Range to some constituents like fluorine as health will be affected above the stipulated concentration and so as below these concentrations • Nil to some constituents like E. coli, which is indicator of human faeces contamination Drinking water standards in all the countries will not have limits or range for all the chemicals in the world and the entire microorganism in the world. The limits are fixed to establish potable water quality within a practical time limit. Water treatment plants including that of bottled premier brands would compare the water supplied or sold with stipulated standards applicable to country or customer. The complex constituents like dioxins, furans and other persistent organic pollutants may still be present in water supplied/sold but qualify for the quality requirement. With time, understanding of science has improved, and so as the water quality standards adopted by various countries. That means quality standards are not ultimate, and there are still scope for change. The following sections briefly explain common treatment methods adopted in drinking Water Treatment Plants (WTP).

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5.2.1.1  Aeration Aeration is a process that brings water and air by introducing small bubbles of air or thin sheets of water to the air or exposing drops of water in air. Aeration is done to remove dissolved gases (such as carbon dioxide, ammonia, chlorine, hydrogen sulphide, methane and volatile organic chemicals) and oxidizes dissolved metals like iron and manganese. 5.2.1.2  Sedimentation Sedimentation is the process of settling suspended solids in the water. It is used for when surface water bodies are chosen as the drinking water sources. 5.2.1.3  Flocculation Some of the light and minute suspended solids will not settle easily due to buoyancy, electrical charges possessed by particles and turbulence. Hence, sedimentation is augmented with another process called flocculation wherein light-weight suspended solids are clumped together to form flock using flocculating agents. The coagulants include sodium aluminate, aluminium chloride, aluminium sulphate, ferric sulphate, ferrous sulphate, ferric chloride sulphate, ferric chloride, magnesium carbonate, hydrated lime, pre-polymerized inorganic coagulants, pre-­ hydrolysed inorganic coagulants and polymers. 5.2.1.4  Filtration Filtration in the context of water treatment is a process to separate particles larger than the pore size of the filtering media. The process is augmented by electrostatic forces and adhesion that help the filter to remove particles bigger than pore size. Filters are made up of normally sand, gravel and anthracite. But filtration by members is favoured where space is constrained. Filtration is used for physical removal of suspended solids through a membrane. An ultrafiltration filter has a pore size of about 0.01 micron. A microfiltration filter has a pore size of about 0.1 micron. Nanofiltration membranes have pore sizes between 1 and 10 nanometres. The term reverse osmosis in Table 5.1 is discussed in Chapter 1 of Volume 1 and process is explained in Sect. 5.2.1.8.

Membrane Micro- filtration

Ultra- filtration

Nano-filtration

Reverse osmosis

Sl. No. 1

2

3

4

0.0005–0.02

0.001–0.05

0.005–0.1

Pore size (nm) 0.05–2

Table 5.1  Pore size in membrane filtration

Monovalent Water molecules ions

Monovalent Water molecules ions

Monovalent Water molecules ions

Monovalent Water molecules ions

Mulvalent ions

Mulvalent ions

Mulvalent ions

Mulvalent ions

Small Organic molecule

Small Organic molecule

Small Organic molecule

Small Organic molecule

Large Organic molecule

Large Organic molecule

Large Organic molecule

Large Organic molecule

Viruses

Viruses

Viruses

Viruses

Pictorial representation of substance filtered

Virus

Virus

Virus

Virus

Bacteria

Bacteria

Bacteria

Bacteria

Suspended solids larger than pore size

Suspended solids larger than pore size

Suspended solids larger than pore size

Suspended solids larger than pore size

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5.2.1.5  Disinfection Deactivation, removal or killing of pathogenic microorganisms is called disinfection. Following disinfectants are dominantly used for disinfection of water. Chlorine 0.5 mg/l of residual residual-free chlorine at a pH of less than 8 and contact period of 30-minutes will eliminate pathogenic bacteria, but there is a risk of generating generation of trihalomethanes, which is a class of known carcinogens. Chlorine Dioxide Even though an effective level of protection is achieved at 0.2 mg/l for 15 minutes, the CℓO2 oxidising action on organic matter releases the CℓO2− ion, which is toxic and generates an unpleasant taste to water. Ozone 0.4 mg/l and a contact period of 4 minutes are recommended to eliminate pathogenic bacteria. Presence of free of soluble manganese will result in pink tint which will then develop into a brown coloured MnO2 precipitates. Chloramines Chloramines are weak disinfectants but have strong persistent residual effect. In nations where a high level of residual disinfectant is needed, the use of chloramines is made after disinfection with chlorine or ozone. UV Radiation UV disinfection is widely used in portable treatment units just before consumption as it will not remain in water like chemicals. It is the only disinfectant that does not create by-products. Since UV does not have residual effect, another disinfectant with residual effect must be used before releasing water into distribution network. 5.2.1.6  Ion Exchange Ion exchange is a process of exchange of ions among two electrolytes or an electrolyte solution that is complex. Typical anthropogenic ion exchangers are functionalized porous or gel polymers. Ion exchanges are used to remove hardness from water. Ion exchangers are of three types: • Cation exchangers that exchange cations • Anion exchangers that exchange anions • Amphoteric exchangers that exchange both cations and anions simultaneously Mixed beds of cations and anions can also be used for simultaneous exchange of anions and cations. Deionization process involves using hydrogen-cation and hydroxide-anion resins, thereby replacing all anions in water with OH− ions and all cations with H+ ions.

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5.2.1.7  Activated Carbon Filter Activated carbon filters are used for removing chlorine and organic compounds from water. Eliminating organic matter in potable water prevents formation of trihalomethanes. Activated carbon filtration is not capable of all contaminants. Contaminants such as microbes, sodium, fluoride, as well as nitrates, cannot be removed with activated carbon filter. 5.2.1.8  Reverse Osmosis Reverse osmosis is a water purification process with special partially permeable membrane at a pressure more than osmotic pressure. The typical transmembrane pressure for various membranes used in water treatment is given in Table  5.2. Reverse osmosis membrane permits only water molecules to pass through membranes due to its small pore size and application of high pressure. Reverse osmosis membranes are costlier than any other type of membrane and hence need to be used to a maximum extent possible in its life span. But, the reverse osmosis membranes are subject to fouling. Table 5.3 gives typical causes for fouling and appropriate pre-treatment method. Table 5.2 Typical transmembrane pressure for various membranes used in water treatment

Typical transmembrane pressure Membrane Micro-filtration 0.2–3.0 Ultra-filtration 2.0–10.0 Nano-filtration 10.0–27.0 Reverse osmosis 15.0–83.0

Table 5.3  Typical cause for fouling of reverse osmosis membrane Type of fouling Biological Particle Colloidal Organic

Cause Microorganisms Suspended solids Colloidal particles including micro-algae Organic molecules

Mineral Oxidant

Mineral salts Chlorine, ozone, KMnO4

Appropriate pre-treatment Chlorination Filtration Coagulation + filtration Coagulation + filtration + activated carbon adsorption or Coagulation + ultrafiltration Antiscalant dosingacidification Oxidant scavenger dosing: Sodium (meta) bisulphite, granulated activated carbon

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5.2.2  Wastewater Treatment Conventionally wastewater is the used water. The use of water adds additional ­constituents making it useless for same purpose. Polluted water is abandoned in surface water bodies such as ponds, wastewater tanks, ditches and so on stabilize the wastewater, but supply of oxygen limits the biodegradation process (Saito et al. 2002). Effluents discharged from wastewater treatment plants are probable sources of pathogenic bacteria in the freshwater environment (Frigon et al. 2013). Environmental protection requires the use of suitable purification systems (Aghalari et al. 2020). As it is not possible for the composition of wastewater treatment plant effluent to match the water quality of the receiving system, effluent is likely to significantly impact the biological and chemical characteristics of the receiving ecosystem (Drury et al. 2013). Hospitals are important sources of pollutants, which include residues of pharmaceuticals, active component of drugs and metabolite, iodinated contrast media, chemicals, radioactive markers, etc. The discharge of hospital wastewater, without appropriate treatment would expose the public in danger of infection (Wang et al. 2020). Sources of wastewater include the following: • • • • •

Human excreta often mixed with toilet paper Washing water (clothes, dishes, vehicle, etc.) Discarding surplus liquids (cool drinks, cleaning liquid, cooking oil, etc.) Industrial process Industrial cooling

The constituents picked by water to wastewater depend on the use it has been put to. Letting the wastewater without treating would result in pollution of water bodies, soil, and air and contamination of food, which has historically happened in many instances and discussed in Vol I. That means humans are left with three options: 1. To treat water before use 2. To treat wastewater 3. To treat water and wastewater Historically, civilization started adopting first choice, which is treating before use. But later onwards humans started adopting second option also. Furthermore, currently there is no alternative to the third option even though many developing countries do not treat wastewater generated by local bodies and are yet to strictly enforce the laws against private polluters. It is uneconomical for a country to let a polluter to allow contaminants and build the contamination in food, air, natural water resources and treat the water by user every time it is required. The reasons are many that include the following: 1. Country has to bear the cost of treatment of humans who have gone sick due to consumption of polluted water and contaminated food. 2. Country will also lose a good proportion of working hours due to sick people.

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3. Country and private user have to invest huge amount to get rid of higher ­pollution concentration in natural water resources. 4. There would be decrease in crop production due to contamination as all the contaminants need not be plant nutrients. 5. In its complexity, the deterioration of health of medical and paramedical staff due to pollution may just destroy fragile health system in any country. 6. The impact of pollution on military and police may also pose threat to national security and law and order. But in the reality, many developing countries where only a fraction of wastewater is treated, the economic burden of the treatment is borne by the country and in some cases international agencies that are providing financial assistance to treat unhealthy people. Wastewater treatment systems comprise of primary, secondary and tertiary treatment, which use combination of different treatment units/process as explained in Table 5.4. Table 5.5 provides example of unit operation and unit processes. Some of the terms are new and explained in subsequent paragraphs.

Table 5.4  Primary, secondary and tertiary treatment Type of treatment Primary treatment

Aim Aims to remove solids and/or reduce size of solids

Secondary treatment

Aims to remove solids and biochemical oxygen demand

Tertiary treatment or advanced treatment

Aims to bring down concentration of pollutants that cannot be removed in secondary treatment

Conventional example Grinding Grit chamber Primary sedimentation Screening Activated sludge process Aerated lagoon Anaerobic pond Bio disc Facultative pond Oxidation pond Rotating biological contactor Sequential batch reactor Trickling filter Activated carbon filter Air stripping Chemical precipitation Electrodialysis Ion exchange Nitrification– denitrification Reverse osmosis Water filtration

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Table 5.5  Example of unit operation and unit process Examples

State of pollutant Pollutants Solids Suspended Biodegradable organics Pathogens

Dissolved

Non-biodegradable/ inorganic organics Nitrogen

Unit operation Incineration Ultraviolet radiation Adsorption

Unit process Chemical reaction Chemical oxidation Chlorination

Biological process Activated sludge process

Flocculation Nitrification and de-nitrification

Phosphorus

Chemical precipitation

Refractory organics Heavy metals

Adsorption

Liquid Emulsion Dissolved

Oil and grease Liquid chemicals

Floatation Adsorption

Gases Dissolved

Dissolved gases Air stripping (H2S, NH3, CO2, etc.)

Chemical precipitation Chemical reaction

The following sections briefly explains common treatment methods adopted in Wastewater Treatment Plants (WWTP). 5.2.2.1  Septic Tank A septic tank is a tank usually built underground that treats sewage by settling and anaerobic processes. The overflow of the tank is usually discharged by subsurface method like soak pit or soak trench. Septic tanks are used to treat sewage generated by small populations like individual residences, officers, schools, etc. They are designed to hold sewage under anaerobic conditions at low velocities, with hydraulic detention period (Box 5.1) of at least of 36 hours during which settleable solids are settled and decompose at the bottom of the tank. These tanks require a minimum attention, and the removal of sludge and scum accumulations once in 3–5 years. Box 5.1 Hydraulic Detention Period The hydraulic detention period, hydraulic residence time or hydraulic retention time of a treatment unit/operation is the average time water is staying in a treatment unit/operation. (continued)

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Box 5.1 (continued)

Mathematically HRT = V / Q

Where

V = volume of treatment unit/operation Q = volumetric flow rate All treatment units/operations will have optimum HRT. Higher HRT will not guarantee better performance due to various reasons linked to the concerned treatment unit/operation. In theory, each water molecule of substance entering the treatment unit/ operation will stay in the unit/operation for a period of HRT. But in practice, the treatment units/operation will have some dead zones (where molecules will be relatively stagnant and stay for a period more than HRT) and short circuits (where molecules will pass out of the reactor comparatively earlier than HRT). A good design, construction, erection, commissioning and operation should avoid dead zones and short cuts. 5.2.2.2  Sewage Farming Sewage farms use sewage for farming for crop growth. Even though farming is practiced without any treatment, it is advisable to treat sewage to some extent to reduce pathogens, odour and avoid vector nuisance. In the absence of pre-treatment, the crops may get contaminated with pathogens and farm may become breeding ground of vectors and odour, besides contaminating ground water. 5.2.2.3  Screening Screening (Fig. 5.5) is the first unit operation used in WWTPs for the removal of course objects like leaves, cigarette butts, rags, paper, plastics, etc., to prevent clogging/damage downstream pining, equipment and appurtenances. 5.2.2.4  Grit Removal Grit is conventionally defined as particles greater than 0.21 mm with a specific gravity more than 2.65. Grit removal is achieved by grit chamber prior to sedimentation tank. Figure 5.6 shows the view of empty grit chamber.

5.2  Engineering Control

Fig. 5.5  View of screen in a wastewater treatment plant

Fig. 5.6  View of empty grit chamber

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5.2.2.5  Grinding Grinding, even though not common, can be used for grinding larger matter in the sewage to safeguard the treatment units and operations in treatment system. 5.2.2.6  Flocculation Flocculation in WWTP is essentially the same as that explained in WTP. Flocculation is done where wastewater stream has suspended solids that cannot be removed by plain sedimentation. 5.2.2.7  Primary Sedimentation Primary sedimentation is required when the wastewater is having sufficient settleable suspended solids as in sewage. This operation can be excluded in streams from industries like confectionary manufacturing units, which have more of dissolved/ colloidal solids. The settled solids will be removed continuously to make space for newly entered solids and to avoid creation of anaerobic conditions that make the settled solids shoot up. Figure 5.7 shows a view of primary sedimentation tank.

Fig. 5.7  View of primary sedimentation tank

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5.2.2.8  Oxidation Pond Oxidation ponds, or stabilization ponds, are shallow and large ponds with hydraulic detection period of 10–20 days depending on the solar radiation they receive. The greater the solar flux, the lesser is the detention period as the oxidation pond allows growth of more algae, thereby releasing more oxygen. The purification occurs in natural set-up through symbiotic relationship of bacteria and algae. Algae grow by utilizing solar energy and carbon dioxide, as well as other inorganic compounds released by decomposition of organic matter by bacteria in water. Oxidation pond cannot treat all types of wastewater and in all climatic conditions. Oxidation pond is suitable for sewage at the climatic regions that favour growth of algae and bacteria. The disadvantages like odour nuisance and mosquito menace due to stagnation of water cannot be ruled out. 5.2.2.9  Waste Stabilization Ponds Waste stabilization ponds (or waste stabilization lagoons or stabilization ponds) are ponds designed to decrease the organic content, as well as eliminate pathogens from wastewater (Fig. 5.8). Waste stabilization ponds are man-made basins with a single or many series of ponds. Anaerobic waste stabilization ponds will have very little dissolved oxygen,

Fig. 5.8  View of waste stabilization ponds

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whereas facultative stabilization ponds maintain an aerobic surface habitat above an anaerobic zone. Maturation ponds have aerobic conditions from the bottom to the surface. Facultative Pond Facultative ponds or lagoons are designed in such a way that it favours growth of facultative bacteria that are capable of living in both aerobic and anaerobic conditions. The upper portion of facultative pond will be dominated by aerobic bacteria, while the bottom portion is dominated by anaerobic bacteria. The depth of the pond will be more than that of oxidation pond to reduce space requirement. A series of ponds connected in series and parallel will be built so that the wastewater will undergo changes in each stage. This method can be used in frost-free area with consistently cool climate. The settled solid will not be removed continuously as in primary sedimentation tank and hence required periodic maintenance to remove accumulated sludge. Anaerobic Pond Anaerobic ponds will usually have a depth of 3.0–5.0 m. Depending on the climatic condition and loading these ponds can remove between 50% and 60% of the influent organic load. Sludge gathered at the bottom needs to be removed periodically every few years. 5.2.2.10  Aerated Lagoon An aerated lagoon consists of a pond with artificial aeration to enhance the biological oxidation of wastewaters. 5.2.2.11  Activated Sludge Process The activated sludge process contains an aeration tank (Fig. 5.9) followed by a settling tank. Part of sludge separated in sedimentation tank is recycled to aeration tank to maintain active biomass (microorganism, which have been acclimatized and active to disintegrate the organic matter entering the system). 5.2.2.12  Trickling Filter A trickling filter consists of a fixed bed of porous media over which wastewater is sprinkled to form layer of microorganism on media followed by settling tank to settle the pealed biomass that enters outgoing effluent.

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Fig. 5.9  Aeration tank with surface aerator

5.2.2.13  Rotating Biological Contactor A rotating biological contactor process contains series of closely spaced, parallel discs on a rotating shaft that is partially submerged in wastewater tank where steady flow is maintained. Microorganisms grown on the discs will absorb pollutants and peels off, which are removed in secondary clarifier (or sedimentation tank). 5.2.2.14  Sequential Batch Reactor Sequencing batch reactor (SBR) process has been used widely over the past few decades due to its cost-effectiveness and simplicity for treatment of domestic and industrial wastewater (Ghazani and Taghdisian 2019). Sequential batch reactors (SBRs) contain a single tank where in treatment is done by repetitive cycles of aeration and sedimentation. The cycle in SBR is shown in Fig. 5.10. The fill operation is followed by a react operation where the microorganisms react on organic matter in the wastewater. The biological flocs formed in the reaction phase are separated during a settling operation, and clear water is let out. During the idle period, excessive settled sludge is removed from tank.

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Fig. 5.10 Schematic diagram of SBR cycle

Fill Idle

React Sele

5.2.2.15  Constructed Wetland Constructed wetlands are long thin beds of reeds (wetland plants) planted in soil/ gravel bed. The constructed wetland with open water surface can promote breading of mosquitoes and hence it is recommended to avoid open water surface. But since it is constructed wetland do not consume anthropogenic energy, wetlands are designed using gravel or inside glass house, poly house, shade house. 5.2.2.16  Nitrification–Denitrification Organic matter will have carbon and nitrogen. Microorganisms in biological process will prefer to consume carbon compound and use it for their growth after disintegration of organic matter leaving behind most of the nitrogen in treated effluent from secondary treatment. Nitrogen content if not removed will pose eutrification in water body and health issues in humans and animals that consume water with nitrogen content (Fig. 5.11). Nitrification and denitrification comprise of three steps: 1. Ammonification 2. Nitrification 3. Denitrification During ammonification, the nitrogen in the organic matter is transformed to ammonia or ammonium by some type of bacteria. During nitrification, ammonium is converted into nitrate by biological action. Ammonia is oxidized to nitrite by nitrifying bacteria called Nitrosomonas, which is then oxidized into nitrates by the bacteria called Nitrobacter. Nitrification occurs at dissolved oxygen levels of 1.0 mg/l or more and requires a long hydraulic residential time compared to activated sludge process, trickling

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Nitrogen gas

Nitrite and Nitrate

Organic Matter

Ammonium

Fig. 5.11  Simplified conceptual diagram of nitrification and denitrification

filter and SBR. Nitrification is also required for a low food-to-microorganism ratio (Box 5.2), and high mean cell residence time (Box 5.3). Box 5.2 Food to Microorganism Ratio The term food-to-microorganism ratio is ratio of microbial food entering a treatment system divided by the weight of the microorganisms in the treatment system.

Box 5.3 Mean Cell Residence Time Mean cell residence time is the average time that a population of microorganism will reside in a treatment system. The nitrification process generates acid that lowers the pH in the aeration tank and can inhibit growth of nitrifying bacteria. Nitrification stops at a pH below 6.0. The biological reduction of nitrate to nitrogen is called denitrification. The process is performed at dissolved oxygen concentration below 0.5 mg/l, ideally below 0.2 mg/l.

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5.2.2.17  Chemical Precipitation Chemical precipitation is used for removal of organic compounds, phosphorous, as well as nitrogen using precipitating agents. Electrocoagulation is achieved to remove impurity by precipitation by passing ions into water from a dissolving anode (typically iron or aluminium) with application of electric current. Chemical precipitation normally involves the following steps: 1. Addition of reagents and adjustment of pH 2. Flocculation 3. Sedimentation 4. Solid–liquid separation

5.2.2.18  Filtration Wastewater treated up to secondary stage will still have suspended solids and needs further treatment if it needs to be reused. The wastewater treated in secondary stage is filtered to remove suspended solids. Filtration is explained in Sect. 5.2.1.4. Figure 5.12 shows examples of pressure sand filter and activated carbon filter. 5.2.2.19  Activated Carbon Filter The wastewater after filtration is passed through activated carbon filter if the standard demands further reduction in organic content for reuse or as a pretreatment before reverse osmosis. Proper granular activated carbon selection can

Fig. 5.12  Pressure sand filter and activated carbon filter

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improve the efficiency of biological-activated carbon filters through a combination of biodegradation and adsorption (Lu et al. 2020). 5.2.2.20  Reverse Osmosis The wastewater after the secondary treatment, filtration and activated carbon filter is further treated with reverse osmosis based on end-use requirement. Reverse osmosis is already explained in Sect. 5.2.1.8. 5.2.2.21  Electrodialysis Electrodialysis is a separation process in which ions move through an ion-selective membrane under the influence of an electric field. 5.2.2.22  Air Stripping Air stripping is a process in which volatile compounds in a liquid is driven into air. The contaminants stripped include ethylbenzene, xylene, benzene, toluene and ammonia. In this process, water contaminated with volatile pollutants are sprayed in a tower where in volatile contaminants move out of contaminated water. 5.2.2.23  Ion Exchange Ion exchange is done after secondary treatment and removal of suspended solids in filtration and organic matter in activated carbon filter. The process is already briefly explained in Sect. 5.2.1.6. 5.2.2.24  Sludge-Drying Beds Sludge-drying beds are provided to allow excess sludge that is removed from the process to dry for easier handling. Improper operation often leads to poor sludge handling that leads to non-usability of sludge drying beds making them hard with plants growing on it (Fig. 5.13). 5.2.2.25  Sludge Thickening Sludge thickening is a process of reducing the volume of sludge by removal of free water in sludge. Thickening is done by vacuum filtration, centrifugation, gravity and floatation.

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Fig. 5.13 Sludge-drying beds unused for long period

5.2.2.26  Aerobic Sludge Digestion Digestion is done to convert organic sludge to make it inert before disposal. Aerobic sludge digestion is a process carried out in the presence of oxygen that reduces the solid concentration of the sludge. 5.2.2.27  Anaerobic Sludge Digestion Anaerobic sludge digestion is done in the absence of air. The process produces mixture of carbon dioxide, methane and traces of other gases that can be used as fuel. 5.2.2.28  Disinfection Disinfection is carried out prior to discharge or reuse of wastewater. The process is already explained in Sect. 5.2.1.5.

5.3  Administrative Control Potable drinking water is necessary to public health; there were many case reports documenting a short of serious water quality or piped water in low-income and minority communities (VanDerslice 2011). Rural water supplies have conventionally been less prioritized by urban ones (Omarova et al. 2019). Administrative control of water treatment is done as a responsibility of government to supply water in many parts of the world, whereas it is privatized and controlled by enforcing law in some other parts of the world.

References

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This goal is a huge challenge for all countries, not only for low- and middle-­ income ones (Omarova et  al. 2018). The commitment to “leave no one behind” requires a focus on rural areas, which is typically neglected (Kabeer 2016; Satterthwaite 2016). Wastewater treatment is essentially controlled by laws by introducing discharge/reuse standards and verifying the same for adherence by enforcing authority.

References Aghalari Z, Dahms HU, Sillanpää M, Sosa-Hernandez JE, Parra-Saldívar R (2020) Effectiveness of wastewater treatment systems in removing microbial agents: a systematic review. Glob Health 16(1):13. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12992-­020-­0546-­y Balke KD, Zhu Y (2008) Natural water purification and water management by artificial groundwater recharge. J Zhejiang Univ Sci B 9(3):221–226. https://doi.org/10.1631/jzus.B0710635 Chandrappa R, Das DB (2014) Sustainable water engineering theory and practice. Wiley, West Sussex Drury B, Rosi-Marshall E, Kelly JJ (2013) Wastewater treatment effluent reduces the abundance and diversity of benthic bacterial communities in urban and suburban rivers. Appl Environ Microbiol 79(6):1897–1905. https://doi.org/10.1128/AEM.03527-­12 Frigon D, Biswal BK, Mazza A, Masson L, Gehr R (2013) Biological and physicochemical wastewater treatment processes reduce the prevalence of virulent Escherichia coli. Appl Environ Microbiol 79(3):835–844. https://doi.org/10.1128/AEM.02789-­12 Ghazani MT, Taghdisian A (2019) Performance evaluation of a hybrid sequencing batch reactor under saline and hyper saline conditions. J Biol Eng 13:64. https://doi.org/10.1186/ s13036-­019-­0192-­1 Kabeer N (2016) World social science report: challenging inequalities, pathways to a just world. In: “Leaving no one behind”: the challenge of intersecting inequalities, vol 1. UNESCO and The ISSC, Paris, France, pp 55–58 Lu Z, Sun W, Li C, Cao W, Jing Z, Li S, Ao X, Chen C, Liu S (2020) Effect of granular activated carbon pore-size distribution on biological activated carbon filter performance. Water Res 177:115768. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.watres.2020.115768 Omarova A, Tussupova K, Berndtsson R, Kalishev M, Sharapatova K (2018) Protozoan parasites in drinking water: a system approach for improved water, sanitation and hygiene in developing countries. Int J Environ Res Public Health 15:495. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph15030495. Omarova A, Tussupova K, Hjorth P, Kalishev M, Dosmagambetova R (2019) Water supply challenges in rural areas: a case study from Central Kazakhstan. Int J Environ Res Public Health 16(5):688. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph16050688 Saito M, Magara Y, Wisjnuprapto (2002) Study on self-purification capacity for organic pollutants in stagnant water. Water Sci Technol 46(9):137–145 Satterthwaite D (2016) Missing the Millennium Development Goal targets for water and sanitation in urban areas. Environ Urban 28:99–118. https://doi.org/10.1177/0956247816628435 VanDerslice J (2011) Am J Public Health 101(Suppl 1):S109–S114. https://doi.org/10.2105/ AJPH.2011.300189 Wang J, Shen J, Ye D, Yan X, Zhang Y, Yang W, Li X, Wang J, Zhang L, Pan L (2020) Disinfection technology of hospital wastes and wastewater: suggestions for disinfection strategy during coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic in China. Environ Pollut (Barking, Essex: 1987) 262:114665. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2020.114665 WWF (2016) Living Planet Report 2016. Risk and resilience in a new era. WWF International, Gland

Chapter 6

Air Pollution Control

Abstract  Atmosphere is a complicated reactive system. The pollution spreads due to a combination of chemical, physical and biological processes, which typically occur simultaneously. Air pollution control requires intervention of science, law and policy. Intervention of knowledge of science is required to control air pollution at the pollution source such as industry, automobile, mining and farming. Policy interventions need to be enforced by law to discipline few polluters for the benefit of many who are exposed to pollution. This chapter discusses the common engineering technologies along with administrative interventions for air pollution control.

6.1  Introduction Atmosphere is a complicated reactive system. The pollution spreads due to a combination of chemical, physical and biological processes, which typically occur simultaneously. In recent years, a number of epidemiological studies have established that exposure to air pollution is linked with numerous adverse outcomes, such as chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, acute lower respiratory infections, cardiovascular diseases, asthma and lung cancer among other serious diseases (Domingo et al. 2020). Models have been developed, which use existing data to forecast air pollution dispersion in the future. Air pollution modelling helps policymakers to take decisions to protect public health by forecasting possible pollution level due to the changing emission levels, alteration of terrain, new construction activities, change in transportation infrastructure, and increase in traffic and fuel quality. Models can be based on a purely mathematical or physical principle. In a mathematical model, governing equations are used to simulate the processes in a region of interest. In a physical model, an imitation of an area of interest can be formed, for example, within a wind tunnel. The domains of the atmospheric model vary from global scale to micro scale. Mathematical models can be used for EIA and HIA.

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6.2  Engineering Control Air pollution control requires intervention of science, law and policy. Intervention of knowledge of science is required to control air pollution at the pollution source such as industry, automobile, mining and farming. Policy interventions need to be enforced by law to discipline few polluters for the benefit of many who are exposed to pollution. Science/technology intervention for pollution control includes: 1. Change in manufacturing process 2. Installation of pollution control equipment at the point of emission 3. Location of stationary air pollution sources like industry, and power plant away from major towns/cities/settlements 4. Banning old vehicles 5. De urbanization 6. Providing lung spaces (Fig. 6.1) 7. Sprinkling water to suppress dust (Fig. 6.2) 8. Alignment of linear air pollution sources like roads, railways so as not to affect major towns/cities/settlements 9. Change in fuel and/or fuel quality

Fig. 6.1  Lung space preserved at the centre of New Delhi, India

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Fig. 6.2  Water sprinkling in a mining area

Air pollution control at the end of process at emission point in industries and vehicle often demand air pollution control equipment followed by flue-gas stack (smoke stack, chimney stack or simply referred as stack). The air pollution equipment selection and design depend on the following (Chandrappa and Kulshrestha 2016): 1. Abrasiveness, conductivity, corrosivity, density, flash point, humidity, particulate shape, particle size distribution, pressure, resistivity, temperature, volumetric flow rate, viscosity, reactivity, toxicity and vapour point of air stream 2. Aesthetic considerations 3. Ambient conditions 4. Available space 5. Concentration of pollutants 6. Contribution of air pollution control system to wastewater and land pollution 7. Equipment location 8. Physical and chemical properties of pollutants 9. Quantity of emissions 10. Statutory requirements Stack is provided for easy dispersion of air pollutants at a height where the emissions would not harm the people on the ground. The height of the stack varies from few meters to several hundred of meters above the roof of emission emitting source. Sources of higher emission such as thermal power plant and atomic power plant would require chimney as high as 250 m (Fig. 6.3). What feeds into chimney is important apart from the chimney height. Poor maintenance of air pollution equipment and induction draft (ID) fan (Fig. 6.4) can hardly contribute to objection of pollution reduction at ground level by dispersion. Conventional air pollution equipment for controlling particulate matter from stationary sources include:

130 Fig. 6.3  Photo of a stack

Fig. 6.4 Poorly maintained ID fan

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1. Settling chamber 2. Cyclone separator 3. Filter

(a) High-efficiency particulate air (HEPA) filter (b) Drum filter (c) Bag filter

4. Electrostatic precipitator (ESP) 5. Wet scrubber Conventional air pollution technique for controlling gaseous pollution from stationary sources includes: 1. Adsorption of pollutants 2. Catalytic system 3. Condensation, refrigeration of pollutants 4. Thermal oxidation or combustion of pollutants 5. Bio-filter 6. Sieve plate tower 7. Scrubber Settling chamber in the context of air pollution is a chamber provided at the end of pipe to reduce the velocity of air flow to achieve settling of particles in the air stream. Cyclone separator is used to separate particulate matter with the help of centrifugal force. Filters predominantly use physical strain to tap particles with size more than pore size of filter media even though diffusion, interception, inertial impaction, electrostatic forces also play role to some extent. HEPA filters are made up of mat of randomly arranged fibres. Drum filters are made up of perforated rotating drum with filter media. Bag filters are made up of fabric bag usually woven. Several bags are placed in a cabin (called bag house) depending on the volume of the gas to be cleaned. ESP use electric charges to charge the particles which are then removed by plates that are earthed. Wet scrubber uses liquid to trap the particle present in the polluted air stream with co-benefit of removing gaseous pollutants as well. Table 6.1 gives a summary of air pollution control equipment with respect to the types of pollutants removed, examples of pollutants, control efficiency, device considerations and restrictions, common applications. Mobile air pollution sources include vehicles in land, air and water The key pollutants from automobile vehicle are as follows: • • • • • •

CO2 CO Methane NOx Non-methane VOC PM

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Table 6.1  Summary of air pollution control equipment Type of control equipment Settling chamber

Types of pollutants removed Particle matter

Scrubbers Dry scrubbers

– Gaseous compounds

Wet scrubbers

Air filters HEPA filters

Examples of pollutants PM

– Acid gases (hydrofluoric acid, hydrochloric acid etc.), hydrocarbon compounds, heavy metals, sulphur dioxide, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) PM; gaseous Water-soluble compounds compounds, acid and PM

– – PM ≥0.3 μm Dust equivalent spherical diameter (ESDa)

Control efficiency 80% (for PM, depending gas, equipment, absorbents, operating conditions. Model, PM size)

Device considerations and restrictions Requires larger area compared to other air pollution control equipment

Common applications Rice dehiscing process

Up to 99% (for gas, depending gas, equipment, absorbents, operating conditions. model), e.g., 95% for sulphur dioxide, 50% for mercury 70–99% (for gas, depending gas, equipment, absorbents, operating conditions. Model) 99% (for PM, depending gas, equipment, absorbents, operating conditions. Model, PM size)

Gas streams should be diluted and cooled to attain optimal efficiency

Combustion processes, oil refineries, painting, powder coating, and finishing shops

Required treatment of scrubbing liquid for reuse

Combustion processes, fertilizer manufacturing, power plants

99.97% (for particulates ≥0.3 μm diameter)

High humidity/ temperatures or can damage filter media

Research facilities, electronics manufacturing, (continued)

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Table 6.1 (continued) Type of control equipment Bag filters

Types of pollutants removed PM

Cartridge dust collectors

PM

Dust, smoke, fumes

Cyclone separators

PM ≥10– 20 μm

Dust, ash, fragments of material

ESP

PM

Dust, smoke, fumes (for wet ESPs)

Examples of pollutants Dust, cement, fine powders, abrasives

Incinerators – – VOCs Thermal Gaseous oxidizers compounds; PM

Catalytic oxidizers

VOCs Gaseous compounds; PM

Device considerations and restrictions Abrasion, corrosive chemicals, high temperatures (>290 °C) can damage fabric of bag 99.99+% Required periodic cleaning. Filtration media is affected by high humidity Not suitable 90% (for for particulates PM 1000 μg/m3 and PM2.5 >600 μg/ m3) (a) All the strategy under category I, II and III, respectively, shall be enforced (b) There shall be complete prohibition and ban on lifting, transportation and generation of fly ash (c) There shall be complete prohibition on use of diesel generator sets (d) Consider and pass appropriate orders in regard to closure of the schools for that period (e) Ban bursting of crackers

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References CDC (2020) Confirmed 2019-nCoV cases globally, 4 Feb 2020. https://www.cdc.gov/ coronavirus/2019-­ncov/locations-­confirmed-­cases.html. Accessed on 8 Feb 2020 Chandrappa R, Kulshrestha UC (2016) Sustainable air pollution management theory and practice. Springer International Publishing Switzerland, Cham Domingo JL, Marquès M, Rovira J (2020) Influence of airborne transmission of SARS-CoV-2 on COVID-19 pandemic. A review. Environmental Research 188:109861. https://doi. org/10.1016/j.envres.2020.109861 Gautam S (2020) The influence of COVID-19 on air quality in India: a Boon or nutile. Bulletin of environmental contamination and toxicology 104(6):724–726. https://doi.org/10.1007/ s00128-­020-­02877-­y Mahato S, Pal S, Ghosh KG (2020) Effect of lockdown amid COVID-19 pandemic on air quality of the megacity Delhi, India. Sci Total Environ. 730:139086. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. scitotenv.2020.139086 Nanshan C, Min Z, Xuan D, Jieming Q, Fengyun G, Yang H, Yang Q, Jingli W, Ying L, Yuan W, Jia’an X, Ting Y, Xinxin Z, Li Z (2020) Epidemiological and clinical characteristics of 99 cases of 2019 novel coronavirus pneumonia in Wuhan, China: a descriptive study, www.thelancet.com. Published online 29 Jan 2020. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-­6736(20)30211-­7. Accessed on 2 Feb 2020 Nieuwenhuijsen MJ, Khreis H (2016) Car free cities: pathway to healthy urban living. Environment International 94:251–262. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envint.2016.05.032 Roujian L, Xiang Z, Juan L, Peihua N, Bo Y, Honglong W, Wenling W, Hao S, Baoying H, Na Z, Yuhai B, Xuejun M, Faxian Z, Liang W, Tao H, Hong Z, Zhenhong H, Weimin Z, Li Z, Jing C, Yao M, Ji W, Yang L, Jianying Y, Zhihao X, Jinmin M, William J L, Dayan W, Wenbo X, Edward C H, George F G, Guizhen W, Weijun C, Weifeng S, Wenjie T (2020) Genomic characterisation and epidemiology of 2019 novel coronavirus: implications for virus origins and receptor binding. www.thelancet.com. Published online 29 Jan 2020. https://doi.org/10.1016/ S0140-­6736(20)30251-­8. Accessed on 2 Feb 2020 Science for Environment Policy (2016) Car-free cities: healthier citizens, European Commission DG Environment News Alert Service, 11 November 2016 Issue 476, edited by SCU, The University of the West of England, Bristol. http://ec.europa.eu/environment/integration/ research/newsalert /pdf/car_free_cities_healthier_citizens_476na1_en.pdf. Accessed on 9 Sept 2018

Chapter 7

Noise Pollution

Abstract Noise is defined as any unwanted sound and its pollution is the ­transmission of noise with negative impact on the human or animal. Noise pollution has multiple health effects mainly attributed to anthropogenic activity, even though the noise from natural sources like waterfalls, wildlife, frogs may exceed the stipulated legal standard of any given country/place. Noise pollution is an environmental nuisance and stressor. It affects both the auditory and non-auditory health. It modifies social behaviour, interferes in complex task performance and causes irritation. This chapter discusses common engineering technologies along with administrative interventions for noise pollution control.

7.1  Introduction Noise is unwanted sound and its pollution is the transmission of noise with negative impact on the human or animal. Noise pollution has multiple health effect (Das et al. 1999) and is mainly attributed to anthropogenic activity even though the noise from natural sources like waterfalls, wildlife, frogs may exceed the stipulated legal standard of any given country/place. Anthropogenic noise sources can arise but not restricted to: 1. Transportation (a) Airways (b) Waterways (c) Road ways 2. Industrial activity (a) Machineries (b) Material handling (c) Sirens 3. Construction activity (a) Blasting (b) Mixing (c) Piling © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 R. Chandrappa, D. B. Das, Environmental Health - Theory and Practice, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-64484-0_7

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4. Riots 5. Wars 6. Crackers 7. Procession and celebrations 8. Religious activity (a) Prayers using loudspeakers (b) Processions Natural sources of high-level noise include but not restricted to 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

Water fall Wind Wild life Rain Sea breeze Natural disasters



(a) Earthquake (b) Landslide (c) Flood (d) Tsunami (e) Cyclone (f) Hurricane

Noise pollution is an environmental nuisance and stressor. It affects both the auditory and non-auditory health (Smith and Broadbent 1992). It modifies social behaviour, interferes in complex task performance and causes irritation. Studies have suggested an association between noise pollution and hypertension, but community studies have shown weak relationships between noise and cardiovascular ailment. Aircraft and road traffic noise pollution are linked with psychological symptoms but not with clinically defined psychiatric disorder. Studies revealed noise exposures are related to increased catecholamine secretion. Prolonged aircraft noise exposure harms long-term memory, as well as reading comprehension in children, and may be related with raised blood pressure (Stansfeld and Matheson 2003). In human beings, high noise levels can contribute to the following (Münzel et al. 2018; Hoffmann et al. 2006, WHO 2018; NIDCD 2018): 1. Annoyance 2. Cardiovascular disease 3. Cognitive impairment among children 4. Coronary artery disease 5. Noise induced hearing loss 6. Sleep disturbance 7. Stress-related mental health risks

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In animals, noise can have the following impact (FHWA 2018): 1. The risk of loss of life by changing predator or prey detection/avoidance 2. Interfere with reproduction besides navigation 3. Contribute to hearing loss

7.2  Engineering Control Poor maintenance of machine can result in noise. Hence, regular maintenance by providing lubrication, alignment, tightening vibratory parts can help in mitigating noise. Further optimal loading of some machines can also reduce noise. Where noise cannot be controlled by maintenance and operation, use of sound insulation/barriers is advisable. Insulation and barriers include the following: 1. Walls 2. Silencers 3. Machine enclosures 4. Trees/shrubs around noisy area Wall can play a major role in controlling noise pollution within an industry by restricting noisy machine within walls. Similarly, noise barriers are used adjacent to roads to reduce noise levels (Fig. 7.1). Silencers are provided to automobile exhaust

Fig. 7.1  Highway noise barrier

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to reduce noise levels. Machine enclosures are provided in machine shops to curb noise levels (Fig.  7.2). Correctly designed, vegetation barriers can be used to enhance near-road air quality, either alone or along with solid noise barriers (Baldauf 2017). Tree shrubs around industries would reduce the noise levels at the boundary of industries. Road traffic noise is one of the main noise pollution problems worldwide. Even though the problem has the same magnitude worldwide, developed countries have adopted the method of providing noise barrier between road and residential area to curb noise pollution arising from road traffic. Since reflective material like concrete or brick bounces sound waves, sound absorptive barriers are now used in many places to reduce overall noise. Apart from road condition, the noise in vehicle depends on engine speed and vehicle speed besides how the vehicle is used (Vibha 2019). 1. Engine speed effects:

(i) Intake and exhaust noise (ii) Fan noise (iii) Engine noise

2. Vehicle speed effects:

(i) Transmission noise (ii) Tyre noise

3. Operational factors:

1. Load on vehicle 2. Fuel used

Fig. 7.2  Enclosure for diesel generator

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Engine noise is primarily determined by three parameters: (a) Engine size (b) Engine speed (c) Engine load Noise reduction in vehicles can be achieved by 1. Choice of engine design parameters 2. Control of noise due to combustion 3. Turbocharging (using the exhaust gases to rotate turbine that drives a compressor to move more air into cars engine) 4. Cover design 5. Engine shielding and enclosure 6. Choice of proper tyres Railway operations have been one of the major sources that need to be curbed. The solutions include noise barriers at railway yards, railway station and populated area. As per Civil Air Navigation Services Organisation (CANSO) and Airport Council International (ACI) (2015), improvements and inversion have resulted in aircrafts that are 55 decibel (dB) silent compared to models manufactured in the 1960s. Machine enclosure with acoustic enclosures like diesel generator is widely used to curb noise pollution. But the noise abatement in mining operation is challenging as the noise nuisance is coupled with problem associated with vibration. The most noise-producing equipment under the ground are the ventilators. Air blast due to explosive energy inefficiency can cause structural damage around the vicinity of operation. Noise, originated by airblast, becomes a social issue if unregulated. Factors associated with noise and airblast are as follows: 1. Improper blast geometry 2. Overcharging of blast holes 3. Poor stemming 4. Uncovered detonating cord 5. Variation of burden on blasting explosive at site Blasting of explosives are linked to noise, fly rock and/or airblast. Improper blasting operation will result in use of less than 25% explosive energy rock breaking and rest contributing to shock waves resulting in noise, flying of rocks besides vibration of ground structures. Atmospheric wind velocity, temperature, clouds/fogs can cause reflection of explosion pressure wave reverse to the ground. Blasting-related noise and vibration issues may be reduced by (i) Firing maximum of two holes on the first and the subsequent delays (ii) Selection of

(a) Burden and spacing of blastholes

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(b) Delay intervals (c) Proper firing sequence

7.3  Administrative Control Places like residential area, school and hospitals demand lower noise level. On the other hand, essential services like airport, ports/harbours/railway station do generate noise beyond comfortable level. Planning developmental activity at planning stage like determining location of airport and industries away from sensitive area (like hospitals and schools) can help in maintaining sound level. Awareness to citizens to adopt low noise activity as etiquette and behave accordingly can lead to reduce long way by avoiding/reducing: 1. Volume of TV, radio and other audio loud speakers 2. Making noisy horn at traffic and during driving 3. Using loudspeakers in public places 4. Product disclosure 5. Bursting crackers 6. Noisy conversation in public places Labels that reveal the noise emitted from goods promote informed consumer choice (Hammer et al. 2014). Labelling of noise emissions is mandatory for certain products in Argentina, Brazil, China and the European Union (NAE 2010). Imposing law can happen in many ways, which includes but not restricted to 1. Banning noisy sources like crackers or noisy horns 2. Impose restriction in consents/license with respect time and level of noise 3. Declare noise free 4. Compel use of PPE 5. Punish defaulter 6. Impose restriction on

(a) Operation of airport (b) Bore well drilling (c) Noisy construction activity during night Reduction of noise at source can be achieved by

1. Land-use planning/management 2. Noise reducing operational procedures 3. Operating restrictions 4. Reduction of noise at source

References

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Airport operators, as well as Air Navigation Service providers (ANSPs), can reduce aviation noise levels. While ANSPs can specify aircraft flight paths, airport operator coordinate and align operations to achieve noise mitigation measures. Noise abatement solutions for aviation operation include: • Adopting procedures like continuous descent operations and low drag, low-­ power techniques • Associating noise with landing fees (reduced landing fee for quite air craft, and/ or higher fees for operations during night) • Concentrating flights over areas that are less sensitive to noise or unpopulated areas • Flying over some areas on certain days and other areas on other days • Noise preferred routes (NPR) • Noise reduction take-off procedures like management of engine power at the time of departure • Restrictions on use of ground equipment and/or engine run-ups

References Baldauf R (2017) Roadside vegetation design to improve local, near-road air quality. Transp Res Part D Transp Environ 52(11):354–361. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.trd.2017.03.013 CANSO and ACI (2015) Managing the impacts of aviation noise, a guide for airport operators and air navigation service providers. https://www.canso.org/sites/default/files/Managing%20 the%20Impacts%20of%20Aviation%20Noise_HQ.pdf. Accessed on 15 Sept 2019 Das DB, Arya P, Bakre PP (1999) Environmental noise: a, psychological and ambient assessment at industrial and commercial places of an urban area in Rajasthan. Indian J Environ Prot 19(7):481–487 Federal Highway Administration (2018) Noise effects on wild life. https://www.fhwa.dot.gov/ environment/noise/noise_effect_on_wildlife/effects/wild04.cfm. Accessed on 12 Aug 2018 Hammer MS, Swinburn TK, Neitzel RL (2014) Environmental noise pollution in the United States: developing an effective public health response. Environ Health Perspect 122(2):115– 119. https://doi.org/10.1289/ehp.1307272 Hoffmann B, Moebus S, Stang A, Beck E, Dragano N, Möhlenkamp S, Schmermund A, Memmesheimer M, Mann K (2006) Residence close to high traffic and prevalence of coronary heart disease. Eur Heart J 27(22):2696–2702. https://doi.org/10.1093/eurheartj/ehl278. ISSN 0195-668X. PMID 17003049 Münzel T, Schmidt FP, Steven S, Herzog J, Daiber A, Sørensen M (2018) Environmental noise and the cardiovascular system. J Am Coll Cardiol 71(6):688–697. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. jacc.2017.12.015. ISSN 0735-1097 NAE (National Academy of Engineering) (2010) Technology for a quieter America. National Academies Press, Washington, DC National Institute of Deafness and Other Communication Disorders (NIDCD) (2018) Noise-­ induced hearing loss. https://www.nidcd.nih.gov/health/noise-induced-hearing-loss. Accessed on 12 Aug 2018 Smith AP, Broadbent DE (1992) Non-auditory effects of noise at work: a review of the literature, HSE Contract Research Report No 30. HMSO, London

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Stansfeld SA, Matheson MP (2003) Br Med Bull 68:243–257. https://doi.org/10.1093/bmb/ldg033 Vibha D (2019) How to reduce and control automobile noise? Environmental Pollution. http:// www.environmentalpollution.in/noise-pollution/control/how-to-reduce-and-control-automobile-noise/5991. Accessed on 19 Sept 2019 WHO (2018) Noise, health and sustainable development. http://www.who.int/sustainable-development/transport/health-risks/noise/en/. Accessed on 12 Aug 2018

Chapter 8

Solid and Semi-Solid Waste Management

Abstract  Generation of solid and semi-solid waste is part of any civilization. The positive or negative impacts of solid waste management on health, as well as the resultant disposal activities, are only partly understood at the moment. Apart from diseases, a poor solid waste management can result in other issues, for example dogbites and snakebites in developing countries. Solid waste management can be integrated with other services or can be tackled discretely. This chapter discusses common engineering technologies along with administrative interventions for solid and semi-solid waste management.

8.1  Introduction Solid and semi-solid waste is part of any civilization. Mismanagement would lead to multiple problems already discussed in Vol. 1. The impact of solid waste management on human health and disposal activities is partly understood. Living near landfill and incinerator can affect the health of people through inhalation, contact with polluted water/soil, and consumption of contaminated food. Contamination of food traded in unsanitary conditions near waste in developing countries causes major health hazards since food is piled and handled on the ground. Several papers mainly concern birth outcomes, cancer, respiratory diseases, as well as annoyance (Vrijheid 2000; Hu and Shy 2001; Jarup et al. 2002; Rushton 2003; DEFRA 2004; Dolk et al. 1998; Franchini et al. 2004; WHO Regional Office for Europe 2007; Russi et al. 2008; Giusti 2009; Porta et al. 2009;Mattiello et al. 2013; Ashworth et al. 2014; WHO 2015). Apart from diseases, poor solid waste management practices can result in dogbites and snakebites in developing countries (Chandrappa and Das 2012; EMPRI 2018a, 2018b). Solid waste management can be integrated with other services or can be tackled discretely. The hierarchy of environmental policy and economic burden is shown in Fig. 8.1. Environment is spoiled due to actions and products which are not compatible with environment. But due to the profitability and convenience of few people, the world is flooded with products which are both toxic and detrimental to living beings. Humans have invented many chemicals such as agrochemicals, which intend to kill living organisms. The process of ­manufacturing,

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Fig. 8.1  Food items being dried with wastes surroundings

storage, transportation and use are detrimental to human health and environment. Similarly, many chemicals used in electronic goods, cosmetics, life-saving drugs, toilet cleaners, paints, ammunition, crackers, etc., may also pose threat to human health when used/discarded at wrong place or at wrong quantity. Different regions and groups across the world will have different priorities. Even though humans are different from other species in terms of behavior and take consideration of long-term implications like the education to next generation, some activities (such as use of chemicals, disposal of waste, fighting wars) are shortsighted. Wars are made, chemicals are used and waste is thrown to resolve and fulfil many immediate problems. Such action by some people at some point of time will have social and international implications resulting in economic, environmental and health burdens on people who are not responsible for the situation. Example for policies avoiding goods under precautionary principle include phasing out of single-use plastic goods like carry bag, cling film, straws, plastic spoons, plastic cups, paper cup, etc. Disposing these items costs more than the cost of the items themselves, and it has been established what the ill effects of these items are on the environment and health. Since these items will be soiled, recycling them is neither feasible nor economical. Examples for mitigating solid waste from product production include use of fly ash and slag from steel manufacturing in cement. The highly efficient air pollution equipment has been successful in recovering cement, which otherwise would have entered into the environment. Community or society, which cannot avoid and mitigate, has to bear the cost of health which has to be borne individually or by government. Failing to mitigate and avoiding environmentally detrimental goods and services will result in burden to

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economy and burden to taxpayer. Figure 8.1 shows the food items being dried with waste surrounding, which is likely to affect health of consumer. Figure 8.2 shows the hierarchy of environmental policy and economic burden. Figure 8.3 shows the waste dumped adjacent to street, which is likely to affect the health of people. But still many goods, services and activities without which humans can survive (like alcoholic drinks, gambling, crackers and tobacco products) have not been banned for different reasons whatsoever. Nevertheless, they are costing the society significantly, for example in terms of use of food grains to make alcohol, which

Fig. 8.2  Hierarchy of environmental policy and economic burden

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Fig. 8.3  Waste dumped adjacent to street

otherwise would have been food to many. Tobacco comes with the destruction of trees used for curing tobacco leaves and energy used for gambling comes at the cost of environment. An approach to an integrated solid waste management plan comprises the following: (i) Creating mass awareness. (ii) Formulation of rational basis for setting up a waste processing and disposal facility. (iii) Identifying and coordinating with stakeholders. (iv) Identifying budget needs. (v) Recognizing waste management needs. (vi) Setting targets for required actions. (vii) Understanding several waste management practices. Figure 8.4 shows the stages of solid waste management. Table  8.1 shows the common terms used in solid waste management.

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153

Generation

Onsite storage

Collection

Processing

Transport

Transfer

Disposal Fig. 8.4  Stages of solid waste management Table 8.1  Common terms used in solid waste management Sl. No. 1. 2. 3.

4. 5. 6. 7. 8.

Term Waste collection points/ centres Waste treatment storage disposal facility (TSDF) Waste dismantling facility

Definition Place where waste is collected before sending for processing/disposal Facility which has capacity to store, treat, dispose waste

Facility which has capacity to dismantle waste (such as end-of-life vehicle or electronic equipment) but does not has capability to recycle Waste recycling facility Facility which has the capacity to recycle waste Waste to energy facility Facility which has capacity to generate energy from waste Common biomedical waste Facility that collects biomedical waste from generators of treatment and disposal facility such waste for treatment and disposal Co-processing units Units where waste is used as a source of energy, or as raw material, or both Waste transfer stations Location where local waste collection vehicles accumulate waste before to loading into bigger vehicles

Similar to other environmental problems, solid waste has also multiple solutions. But the solution to one problem should not end up in another problem. Table 8.2 provides a list of advantages and disadvantages for some of waste management options.

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Table 8.2  Advantages and disadvantages of some waste management options Sl. No. Option 1. Recycling

2.

Description Segregation and processing of waste component. This can be achieved by combination of manual and automated process Composting Degradable organic components are allowed to decompose. The process may be intervened to optimize decomposition by shredding waste; maintaining pH, humidity, oxygen supply, and temperature

3.

Incineration Controlled combustion of waste in incineration chamber of kilns

4.

Landfill

Waste is filled in pit and trenches of land and covered

Risk Diverse range of processes Emissions from recycling process May result in odours, noise, vermin and rodent nuisance Likely to emit microbial particulate matter; may result in emission of volatile organic compounds Discharges polluted wastewater and toxic air pollutants May result in water and air pollution

Fig. 8.5  Hazardous waste storage shed

8.2  Storage Storage of solid waste can be done at the point of generation or at the point of treatment/processing (Fig. 8.5). Segregation of the waste is important components of waste management, which needs to happen at the source. While it is preferred that components be segregated at the point of generation (Fig. 8.6), it may require further segregation at the point of processing (Fig. 8.7). Segregation of waste is in the culture and etiquette in many developed countries making it a part of the civilization, whereas in the developing world, waste segregation at the source is still at a preliminary stage.

8.2 Storage

155

Fig. 8.6  Biomedical waste stored at common biomedical waste treatment facilities prior to treatment

Non-segregation adds to the cost of solid waste management besides adverse health impact. Wet waste in household primarily contains food that is easily degradable with considerable microorganism. Mixing of household wet waste and dry waste would increase quantity of wet waste increasing the risk of diseases. Similarly mixing household toxic/hazardous waste such as paints/varnishes, pesticides and cleaning agents would increase quantity of toxic/hazardous waste. The waste can be directly picked by local body for further processing or disposal or it can pass multiple agencies or people who make it lively hood. Figure 8.8 shows some wastes stored by a primary waste buyer who purchased them from waste ­pickers or waste generators. Figure 8.9 shows a waste collection centre for collecting e-waste.

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Fig. 8.7  Waste segregation

Apart from households, the waste generating from commercial, research, healthcare, industry operations generates a variety of wastes that need different setup as government cannot take responsibility of all wastes. Instead, the government can facilitate setting of array of waste management centres that include: • • • • • • • •

Waste collection points/centres. Treatment storage disposal facility (TSDF). Waste dismantling facility. Waste recycling facility. Waste to energy facility. Common biomedical waste treatment and disposal facility. Co-processing units. Waste transfer points.

In recent years, many governments across the world are promoting private investors to set up waste management facility by providing land, grant, soft loans and subsidy. Figure 8.10 shows radioactive waste stored in hospital before handing over for disposal to overcome health impact to patients, hospital staff and general public.

8.2 Storage

157

Fig. 8.8  Dry waste stored at primary waste buyers before handing over to secondary buyers or processor

Radiation exposures of 5–10 rem normally are not harmful to health. Acute radiation syndrome occurs at radiation more than 75 rad (0.75gray) in a small time span (minutes to hours). Foetuses and children are sensitive to radiation exposure as the cells in foetuses and children divide rapidly, giving further opportunity for radiation to cause cell damage. Box 8.1 Units of radiation Unit used to measure radiation absorbed by a personor object. 100 rads = to 1 gray. Rem is a unit used to measure effective dose in the USA. The international equivalent unit is sieverts (Sv). 1Sv = 100rem (Rem is the U.S. unit to measure effective dose. The international unit is sieverts (Sv).) 1Sv = 100rem

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Fig. 8.9  E-waste drop box

Many instruments, clinical laboratory chemicals, batteries, fluorescent lamps and cleaning solutions in healthcare facilities contain mercury products. Breakage of instruments with mercury can result in health hazard. Storage of waste demands safety precautions that include the following: • • • • • • • • • • • • •

Labelling. Lighting of storage area. Restricted access. Fire safety measures. Proper flooring. Signage. Spacing between containers. Separation between non-compatible wastes. Adequate openings in storage shed. The storage shed shall have minimum two routes. Provide spark arrester to vehicles operated in hazardous waste storage area. Arrangements to avoid entry of rainwater. Height of floor of the storage area shall be sufficiently above maximum flood level.

8.3 Transportation

Fig. 8.10  Radioactive waste being stored in a hospital before handing over for disposal

Fig. 8.11  Unscientific storage of hazardous waste

159

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Fig. 8.12 Unscientific storage of e-waste

Fig. 8.13  Unscientific storage of hazardous liquid waste

• • • •

Provide secondary containment to the storage area floor. Proper peripheral drainage with the sump to collect accidental spills. Compatibility between the container and waste. Precaution to avoid stack collapse.

But in reality, the storage may not be adhered to required precautions as shown in Figs. 8.11, 8.12, 8.13, and 8.14.

8.3 Transportation

161

Fig. 8.14  Storage of empty chemical containers

8.3  Transportation Transportation of waste is required where in situ processing and disposal are not done. The waste from the point of generation to waste collection point/centre to processing/treatment to disposal can be done by many combinations. Figure 8.15 shows the nodes and paths in waste transportation. The nodes 2 and 3 being optional, solid waste generated needs to be disposed to avoid negative consequences of accumulation at the point of generation. Waste transportation can be done via the following: • Air. –– Aircrafts. • Water. –– Ships. –– Boats. • Land. –– Animal-driven cart. –– Bicycle. –– Bus.

162

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Generatoin

2

•Collection point/cen tre •Transfer station

3

Treatment

4

Disposal

Fig. 8.15  Nodes and paths in waste transportation

–– –– –– –– –– –– –– ––

Car. Jeep. Manual carrying. Pneumatic conveyor. Push cart. Train. Tricycle. Trucks.

The types of vehicle used depend on the quantity and type of waste. While general uncontaminated, nontoxic, non-hazardous, nonradioactive, non-infectious waste do not require special precautions, others do demand precautions based on type of waste. The precautions with respect to hazardous/biomedical/hazardous waste include the following” • Labelling (Fig. 8.16). • Not mixing non-compatible waste (waste that reacts with each other leading to hazard). • Segregation of waste based on facility available to dispose (if country/region has facility to incinerate and recycle, emphasis should be given to reduce burden on land fill, which demands land resources). • Transport the waste in special vehicle (Fig. 8.17 and 8.18), which means transportation of waste with all safety precautions to handle hazardous situation. • Driver of waste transport vehicle shall be aware of applicable laws and action to be taken during emergency. Waste transportation can happen in planned or unplanned routes. Operation 30  Days of Action by Interpol in June 2017 against waste crimes involving 43 countries resulted in the discovery of 664 cases, out of which 238 were of illegal waste sites besides 423 illicit waste trade cases (Interpol 2017). The key outcomes of the operation were (Interpol 2017) as follows: • • • •

Hazardous waste was found in 30% of all cases. About 483 individuals and 264 companies were reported for waste crimes. More than 1.5 million tons of illicit waste was detected. Administrative violations and waste crimes were observed in 84 nations and territories globally.

8.3 Transportation

Fig. 8.16  Labelling of biomedical waste bag Fig. 8.17  Vehicle with biomedical waste

163

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Fig. 8.18  Biomedical waste collection vehicle

• Sixty-two per cent of illegal waste trade cases happened in trans boundary routes. • Developed countries appeared at the core of the illegal waste management business. • Most of the illegal waste disposal sites were identified in Europe. • About 134 routes of trans boundary illegal waste trade were identified. • Sixty percent of 134 trans boundary illegal wastes trade routes were interregional movements. • The majority of these illicit trade corresponded to exports from Europe to developing nations besides nations with economies in transition. • Emerging trends included the increase in the Middle East and Latin America as export, import regions and intraregional waste trafficking. But in the reality, in spite of availability of funding, scams and mafia pose hurdles to effective waste management. Chennai Corporation, India, tied up with private contractors to clear the waste from parts of the city with payment modality based on every ton of municipal solid waste collected. But in many instances, construction debris was collected to boost the weight and the compensation owed to them (Lopez 2017). In another scam, the officials of Bengaluru (formerly Bangalore) utilized Rs. 5500 million in the name of salaries and other benefits to 6600 waste collectors who existed only on paper (Kulkarni 2019). The city has at least 100 illegal waste dump-

8.3 Transportation

165

Fig. 8.19 Residents picking trash thrown by non-patriotic citizens that was not collected by local body due to mafia and corruption

ing sites, due to contractor mafia that has weakened the efforts towards effective solid waste management. Such mafia and corruption would lead to burden on the society wherein the group of citizens (Fig. 8.19) has to pick the trash thrown by others even after paying tax. The illegal movement of e-waste from the EU to developing nations is a complex and serious environmental crime with around two million tonnes of WEEE being illegally shipped out of Europe each year (Geeraerts et al. 2015). According to the UNODC (2013), about 80% of global e-waste ends up in Asia out of which nearly 90% shipped to China. The involvement of multiple organizations like police services, customs, environmental inspectorates, environmental agencies etc. creates challenges (Geeraerts et al. 2015). In 1957, the municipal authorities of New York city stopped collecting commercial waste, and instead commercial establishments to hire private companies collect waste. As per the Congress report, Organized Crime’s Involvement in the Waste Hauling Industry, the racketeers charged fees to dispose toxic and hazardous waste, then mix them with regular garbage besides dumping them into landfills (Gupta 2015). Research on behalf of the INTERPOL has exposed the huge scope for criminals to profit from the illegal export of “e-waste” to developing nations. As per the report, • More than four million tonnes of e-waste are produced internationally every year. • People involved in the trade are usually associates based in the source countries or based overseas and operate in the European countries and the UK while visiting as tourists. • The most common practice of illicit export are: –– Mislabelling containers. –– Mixing waste with other consignments.

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Fig. 8.20  Recycling of waste material by filling contaminated waste into toys

8.4  Treatment “Reduce”, “recycle”, “reuse,” besides “recover,” are preferred solid waste management principles. Material recovery practice depends on the type of waste. Waste recycling need not be the best solution if it is harmful to society. Recycling of waste material by filling contaminated waste into toys (Fig. 8.20) will not solve the problem of society. Solid and semi-solid waste treatment includes: • Segregation. –– –– –– –– –– –– –– –– –– –– ––

Hand sorting. Screens. Air classifiers. Sink/float separators. Inclined tables. Shaking tables. Optical sorting. Sorting by differential melting temperature. Sorting by selective dissolution. Magnetic separation. Eddy current (a localized electric current stimulated in a conductor by a changing magnetic field) separators. –– Electrostatic separators. • Shredding (Fig. 8.21). • Pulping.

8.4 Treatment

167

Fig. 8.21  Waste shredder

• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •

Crushing. Baling. Ballistic separators. Reuse and recycle. Aerobic and anaerobic treatment. Composting. Road making. Stabilization (making physically more secure or stable by mixing with solidification agent before disposal). Deactivation (blending corrosive and explosive wastes with suitable chemicals before disposal). Metal removal and recovery. Aqueous treatment. Immobilization/encapsulation (physically immobilizable waste by cementing material) (Fig.8.22). Chemical disinfection (Fig. 8.23). Thermal disinfection (Fig. 8.24). Plastic granulating. Methenization (process of converting biodegradable waste into methane).

Some of the waste from industry poses the greatest challenge as some of the industrial operation generates huge quantity of hazardous waste that demands high safety precaution. The international laws have led to stringent laws at national level making new ventures in waste management sectors. While there is increase in new waste management facilities, there is also increase in co-processing of waste in existing cement kilns making the cement production profitable due to reduction in raw material procurement by feeding high calorific

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Fig. 8.22  Immobilization of syringes and other sharp waste by cement

waste instead of coal. The invention of use of fly ash to manufacture pozzolana cement has reduced waste management problem at thermal power plant besides decreasing burden on natural resources. Treatment and disposal can be done off site or at the point of generation. In many countries where common co-processing, treatment and/or disposal facilities are not established, waste is processed at the point of generation or disposed illegally/ unscientifically. Solid hazardous wastes are treated/disposed using following methods: 1. Stabilization and solidification. 2. Incineration and co-incineration. 3. Landfill.

8.4 Treatment

169

Fig. 8.23  Chemical disinfection of biomedical waste

Semi-solid waste includes slurries waste lube oil and used motor oil. The slurries are treated to remove moisture and make it solid, which is then treated in par with hazardous solid waste. Used oil can be recycled or refined. Recycled used oil is filtered to remove insoluble impurities. Impurities removed do not include chemical contaminants; however, they can be reused. Re-refined oil is recycled oil that goes through the distillation stack to remove water molecules besides other contaminants. Safe and cost-effective management of solid waste is a significant health challenge. The annual Construction and Demolition (C&D) waste (Fig. 8.25 and 8.26) generation in 40 countries globally was more than 3.0 billion tonnes until 2012 (Akhtar and Sarmah 2018). C&D wastes that comprises building materials, debris, as well as rubble resulting from re-modelling, construction, demolition and repair of any civil structure are generated mainly from following activities (CPCB 2017): (i) Demolition of existing, old dilapidated structures. (ii) Renovation of existing buildings. (iii) Construction of new buildings. (iv) Excavation/reconstruction of roads. (v) Construction of new infrastructure like over bridges/under bridges/subways, etc. (vi) Renovation/installation of water/telephone/internet/sewer pipelines, etc. Developing countries need to develop comprehensive system to utilize their huge C&D waste (Akhtar and Sarmah 2018). As per a case study in Bengaluru, approximately 30% of the C&D waste are used at numerous sites for levelling low-lying areas besides land reclamation. The remaining C&D waste is dumped illegally in or around highways, roads, old lakes, waste lands and valleys (Venkatesh et al. 2016).

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Fig. 8.24  Biomedical waste autoclave

8.5  Disposal In the context of solid waste management, the term disposal means the process of finally disposing a solid waste. The solid waste can be disposed of as it provides post-recovery of material and energy to extent possible. The disposal method depends on many factors that includes: • Types of waste (radioactive, hazardous, bio-medical, construction and demolition etc.) • Availability of fund. • Access to technology.

8.5 Disposal

171

Fig. 8.25  Waste at construction site generated due to construction activity

• • • • •

Availability of skilled manpower. Integrity of the government. Weather condition of the regions. Ecological sensitivity of the regions. Geophysical conditions of the region (ground water table, permeability of soil, topography of the regain, etc.) Modes of disposal include unscientific and scientific disposal methods.

• Unscientific disposal. –– Dumping in water bodies or on land (Fig. 8.27 and 8.28). –– Putting fire to waste heaps. • Scientific disposal. –– –– –– ––

Incineration. Engineered/sanitary land fill. Co-incineration. Pyrolysis.

172 Fig. 8.26  Waste at demolition site generated due to demolition activity

Fig. 8.27  Waste dumped in water body

8  Solid and Semi-Solid Waste Management

8.5 Disposal

173

Fig. 8.28  Waste dumped on land

–– –– –– –– ––

Deep burial. Gasification. Waste to energy process. Plasma technology. Emplacement.

The terms with respect to disposal are briefly explained in Table 8.3. Management of mercury-containing waste should include: 1. Proper disposal/handling of mercury as well as mercury contaminated waste. 2. Recycling mercury-containing goods. 3. Separation of reusable and non-reusable mercury-containing products. 4. Using alternatives for products that contain mercury. In order to protect public health, waste transportation should have proper vehicles with good tracking system operated by trained personnel. The community should have emergency management plan and system to respond to emergencies in case of emergencies. Incineration is one of the most extensively used methods adopted to dispose combustible waste. But the process results in air pollution and needs to be controlled. While the incineration is being phased out or used as source of energy in some countries, the process is less practiced in the developing nations due to high operating/capital costs. Incineration (Fig.8.29) is a waste disposal/treatment wherein waste is burnt in specialized engineered set up. The gas generated is likely to have dioxins and furans, which are persistent organic pollutants (POP) and known carcinogens. POPs remain in environment for long period without getting altered into innocuous compounds/ elements. POPs can also enter into food chain through water/air. Hence, it is desirable to maintain high temperature in incinerator or use dual chamber incinerators

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Table 8.3  Terms related to waste disposal Sl. No. Term 1. Incineration

2.

Engineered/ sanitary land fill

3.

Co-incineration

4.

Pyrolysis

5.

Deep burial

6.

Gasification

7.

Waste to energy process Plasma technology

8.

9.

Emplacement

Definition Remarks Waste destruction by controlled burning at Suitable for combustible high temperatures waste. Economical for waste with calorific value more than that of fuel Designed, controlled and managed waste Suitable for inert that disposal sites cannot be recycled, reused and incinerated Examples of Facility whose main purpose is the generation of product or energy in which co-incineration include cement kilns and thermal waste is incinerated for the purpose of power plats disposal Combustion of an organic matter in the absence of oxygen to convert wastes to gaseous and liquid fuel Disposal method wherein solid waste is Used for disposal of buried at a depth of two to three meter biomedical wastes where incineration facility is not accessible Process of converting organic matter into gaseous fuel by reacting material at high temperature (>700° C) Burning of waste to generate heat/ electrical energy Plasma technology involves destruction or organic waste by the passing electric current to generate significant heat. The heat separates electrons from the gas molecules, thereby forming ionized gas stream or plasma Structure or facility in which material is firmly placed

where in gases from first chamber gets into second chamber wherein temperature is maintained to disintegrate POPs. The flue gases have to be fitted with air pollution control equipment in order to avoid impact of air pollution on human health and environment. Radioactive wastes are generated by the nuclear power industry, universities, hospitals, as well as non-nuclear industries. Radioactive waste emits radiation, and hence, they are hazardous to human health and the environment. Therefore, it must be managed with special care. Finding appropriate waste disposal solutions is a main challenge for all stakeholders (Institut de Radioprotection et de Sûreté Nucléaire (IRSN) 2013). Radioactive wastes in health care establishments are produced due to procedures in various investigative, as well as therapeutic practices. Radioactive wastes are divided into very low, low, intermediate and high-level waste (Table 8.4).

8.5 Disposal

175

Fig. 8.29 Waste incinerator

Table 8.4  Types of radioactive waste and usual source Sl. No. 1. 2. 3. 4.

5. 6.

Types of radioactive waste Very short-lived waste Very low-level waste Low- and intermediate-­ level short-lived waste Low-level long-lived waste Intermediate-level long-lived waste High-level and long-lived waste

Usual source Medical applications of radioactivity (diagnoses and therapy) Facility decommissioning operations of nuclear industry Nuclear industry and a few research laboratories Waste contaminated by radium from industry and the clean-up of contaminated sites, or graphite waste, decommissioning of old gas-cooled reactors Spent fuel reprocessing and nuclear facility maintenance work Spent fuel reprocessing

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1

• Charecterisation

2

• Pretreatment

3

• Treatment

4

• Predispoal Storage

5

• Disposal

6

• Survellance and monitoring

Fig. 8.30  Important stages of monitoring radioactive wastes

If radioactive waste contains only radionuclides with a half-life of less than 31 years, it is said to be “short-lived”. It is said to be “long-lived” if it has a large quantity of radionuclides with more than 31 years of half-life (IRSN 2013). Radionuclides used in health care are sealed sources or unsealed sources. Sealed sources are radioactive substances enclosed in parts of equipment or encapsulated in impervious or unbreakable objects, such as “seed” pins, or needles. Unsealed sources are normally liquids that are applied directly (WHO 2014). Radioactive wastes are dangerous as they emit ionizing radiation. Radioactive wastes are characterized based on the chemical, physical, as well as radiological properties. The key stages of managing radioactive waste are shown in Fig. 8.30. The radioactive waste storage is done to ensure isolation and monitoring to protect environment. Treatment of radioactive waste is carried out to attain the following key objectives: 1. Change of chemical composition and physical state. 2. Reducing volume. 3. Removal of radionuclides. The common methods adapted for the treatment of radioactive waste are: 1. Compaction and super-compaction. 2. Incineration. 3. Chemical and thermochemical decomposition. 4. Partitioning and transmutation. 5. Conditioning. 6. Immobilization. Disposal of radioactive waste include of emplacement of radioactive waste to achieve safety by placing engineered/natural barriers around the waste.

8.5 Disposal

177

8.6  Contaminated Site Remediation Environmental remediation is reversing or stopping environmental damage caused to soil/groundwater/sediment/surface water. It is a costly option as society or community pays when it makes a series of wrong decisions or due to disaster or due to environmental crime. Some of the methods used in environmental remediation are given below. Thermal Desorption In this process, a desorber volatilizes the pollutants to separate them from sludge/ soil. The contaminants can be destroyed/collected in at site or offsite. Excavation or Dredging This process involves excavation and transportation of contaminated soil to a regulated landfill. The process may involve aeration/bio-augmentation/bio-stimulation of contaminated material to remove contaminants. Pump and Treat Pump and treat involves pumping out polluted groundwater and treatment. Surfactant-Enhanced Aquifer Remediation (SEAR) Remediation with pump-and-treat methods may require years to decades to reach treatment goals with respect to non-aqueous-phase liquid (NAPLs), which are trapped in the subsurface due to capillary forces. Since many NAPLs have low aqueous solubility and are biologically unmanageable, mass removal from the dissolved phase is slow (Battelle and Duke Engineering and Services 2002). In this method, surfactant solution is pumped through a contaminated zone by introducing an injection point and removing from an extraction point. Surfactants are surface-active agents that exhibit solubility in both water and oil and help to improve NAPL recovery. SEAR has been used to remove contaminants such as creosote, gasoline, jet fuels, besides polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) (Lowe et al. 1999). Solidification and Stabilization In this method, stabilization is done by addition of reagents to a contaminated material to get more chemically stable constituents. Solidification is done by the addition of reagents to a contaminated substance to impart physical/dimensional stability. In Situ Oxidation This method involves the injection of strong oxidants (like hydrogen peroxide, potassium permanganate, ozone gas or persulfates) or oxygen gas or ambient air. Soil Vapour Extraction In this method, contaminant from the solid (sorbed) and liquid (aqueous or non-­ aqueous) phases is converted into a gas phase and collected in extraction wells. Contaminant thus extracted in the gas phase is treated in treatment systems above ground.

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Nanoremediation In this method, nanoparticles are brought into contact with the contaminants for decontamination by a pump-and-treat processor in situ injection. Bioremediation In this method, polluted area is treated either by natural microorganism activity or by altering environmental conditions to encourage growth of microorganisms resulting in the degradation of the target pollutants.

References Akhtar A, Sarmah AK (2018) Construction and demolition waste generation and properties of recycled aggregate concrete: a global perspective. J Clean Prod 186:262–281 Ashworth DC, Elliott P, Toledano MB (2014) Waste incineration and adverse birth and neonatal outcomes: a systematic review. Environ Int 69(August):120–132. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. envint.2014.04.003 Central pollution Control Board (2017) Guidelines on environmental management of construction & demolition (C & D) Wastes, Delhi Chandrappa R, Das DB (2012) Solid waste management: principles and practice. Springer, Heidelberg DEFRA (2004) Review of environmental and health effects of waste management: municipal solid waste and similar wastes. Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs, London, UK Dolk H, Vrijheid M, Armstrong B, Abramsky L, Bianchi F, Garne E et al (1998) Risk of congenital anomalies near hazardous-waste landfill sites in Europe: the EUROHAZCON study. Lancet 352(9126):423–427 Environmental Management Policy Research Institute (2018a) Health, State of Environment Karnataka 2015, Bengaluru Environmental Management Policy Research Institute (2018b) Waste Management, State of Environment Karnataka 2015, Bengaluru Franchini M, Rial R, Buiatti E, Bianchi F (2004) Health effects of exposure to waste incinerator emissions:a review of epidemiological studies. Ann Ist Super Sanita 40(1):101–115 Geeraerts K, Illes A, Schweizer J-P (2015) Illegal shipment of e-waste from the EU: a case study on illegal e-waste export from the EU to China. A study compiled as part of the EFFACE project. London: IEEP Giusti L (2009) A review of waste management practices and their impact on human health. Waste Manag 29(8):2227–2239. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wasman.2009.03.028 Gupta KD (2015) Trash kings, The mafia’s control of garbage business Down to Earth. https:// www.downtoearth.org.in/coverage/trash-­kings-­7828. Accessed on 9th Oct 2019 Hu SW, Shy (2001) Health effects of waste incineration: a review of epidemiologic studies. J Air Waste Manag Assoc 51(7):1100–1109 Interpol (2009) Electronic waste and organic crime assessing the links. Phase II Report for Interpol Pollution Crime Working Group, Interpol. https://www.interpol.int/content/download/5174/ file/Electronic%20Waste%20and%20Organized%20Crime%20-­%20Assessing%20the%20 Links.pdf. Accessed on 12th Oct2019 Interpol (2017) Operation 30 Days of Action Final report. https://www.interpol.int/ar/content/ download/5168/file/Operation%2030%20Days%20of%20Action%20Final%20Report.pdf. Accessed on 12th Oct 2019 IRSN (2013), Radioactive waste management, collecting, sorting, treating, conditioning, storing and disposing safely radioactive waste. Thematic series, Thematic series, Fontenay-aux-Roses

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Jarup L, Briggs D, de Hoogh C, Morris S, Hurt C, Lewin A, Maitland I, Richardson S, Wakefield J, Elliott P (2002) Cancer risks in populations living near landfill sites in Great Britain. Br J Cancer 86(11):1732–1736. https://doi.org/10.1038/sj.bjc.6600311 Kulkarni C (2019) ACB to probe Rs 384-crore garbage scam, Decccan Herald, Jun 29 2019. https:// www.deccanherald.com/city/bengaluru-­c rime/ima-­f ounder-­t o-­s tay-­i n-­j ail-­u ntil-­o ctober-­ 14-­765344.html. Accessed on 1st Oct 2019 Lopez AX (2017) Chennai's garbage scam: making wealth out of waste, June 11, 2017. https:// www.thehindu.com/news/national/tamil-­nadu/ill-­gotten-­gains-­making-­wealth-­of-­waste/article18957348.ece. Accessed on 1st Oct 2019 Mattiello A, Chiodini P, Bianco E, Forgione N, Flammia I, Gallo C, Pizzuti R, Panico S (2013) Health effects associated with the disposal of solid waste in landfills and incinerators in populations living in surrounding areas: a systematic review. Int J Public Health 58(5):725–735. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00038-­013-­0496-­8 Porta D, Milani S, Lazzarino AI, Perucci CA, Forastiere F (2009) Systematic review of epidemiological studies on health effects associated with management of solid waste. Environ Health 8:60. https://doi.org/10.1186/1476-­069X-­8-­60 Rushton L (2003) Health hazards and waste management. Br Med Bull 68(1):183–197. https://doi. org/10.1093/bmb/ldg034 Russi MB, Borak JB, Cullen MR (2008) An examination of cancer epidemiology studies among populations living close to toxic waste sites. Environ Health 7:32. https://doi. org/10.1186/1476-­069X-­7-­32 Times of India (2017) The city has at least 100 illegal garbage dumping sites: study. http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/articleshow/57582736.cms?utm_source=contentofinterest&utm_ medium=text&utm_campaign=cppst. Accessed on 2nd Oct 2019 UNODC (2013) Transnational organized crime in East Asia and the Pacific – A threat assessment. https://www.unodc.org/res/cld/bibliography/transnational-­organized-­crime-­in-­east-­asia-­and-­ the-­pacific-­a-­threat-­assessment_html/TOCTA_EAP_web.pdf. Accessed on 2nd Oct 2019 Venkatesh V, Mohd S A, Abhimanyu S, Jai A (2016) Construction and Demolition WasteUtilisation for Recycled Products in Bengaluru: Challenges and Prospects Published by Deutsche Gesellschaftfür Internationale Zusammenarbeit (GIZ) GmbH, July 2016, Bonn and Eschborn, Vrijheid M (2000) Health effects of residence near hazardous waste landfill sites: a review of epidemiologic literature. Environ Health Perspect 108(Suppl 1):101–112 WHO (2014) Safe management of wastes from health-care activities, 2nd edn. Geneva WHO (2015) Waste and human health: evidence and needs, WHO Meeting Report 5–6 November 2015 Bonn, Germany. http://www.euro.who.int/__data/assets/pdf_file/0003/317226/Waste-­ human-­health-­Evidence-­needs-­mtg-­report.pdf?ua=1. Accessed on 15th Dec 2018 WHO Regional Office for Europe (2007) Population health and waste management: scientific data and policy options. WHO Regional Office for Europe, Copenhagen

Chapter 9

Building and Changing Infrastructure

Abstract  nvironmental health of a region depends on the infrastructure of the region. Human health depends on the built environment. The absence of suitable infrastructure has been the cause of many diseases due to pollution, contamination and injury. However, the acceleration of infrastructure development can accelerate resource consumption, land degradation and pollution. The effect of urbanization includes violent crimes, infectious diseases and drug abuse, in addition to motor vehicle accidents. Urban centres can act as catalysts for speedy increase of infectious ailments due to large population in a limited area that give the ideal conditions for various epidemics. Poor urban planning and limited capacity to meet the needs and expectations of a fast-growing population result in the development of shantytowns and slums. This chapter discusses the theory and practice of environmental health outcomes associated with building and changing infrastructure.

9.1  Introduction Environmental health of a region depends on the infrastructure of the region. Human health depends on the built environment, which determines the following: • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •

Access to health Air quality Bio-safety Climate change adaptation Disaster preparedness Exposure to ionizing radiation Food safety Hazardous materials Housing Land-use planning Noise pollution Occupational health Recreation Safe drinking water Soil pollution

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 R. Chandrappa, D. B. Das, Environmental Health - Theory and Practice, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-64484-0_9

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Transportation Vector control Waste disposal Water pollution

Geophysical disasters –mainly the earthquakes all over the world  – were the cause of death of more people compared to other natural hazards from 1997 to 2017 with a death toll of 747,000, aggravated by the vulnerability to the Haiti earthquake of 2010 besides the Indian Ocean tsunami of 2004 (CRED and UNISDR 2018). In contrast, the earthquake in New Zealand in 2010, which had a scale similar to that of the earthquake in Haiti, affected 300,000 people without loss of human life due to New Zealand’s high levels of preparedness and strict building codes. Investment in seismic risk reduction in Iran, particularly in safe school buildings, has also resulted in the reduction in the nation’s mortality due to earthquake, in spite of the country being located in an active seismic zone (CRED and UNISDR 2018). The absence of suitable infrastructure has been the cause of many diseases due to pollution, contamination and injury. However, the acceleration of infrastructure development can accelerate resource consumption, land degradation and pollution (Fig. 9.1). Sand mining in the river and flood plain can result in bank erosion and adjoining ground water system. The effect of urbanization includes violent crimes, infectious diseases and drug abuse in addition to motor vehicle accidents. Urban centres can act as catalysts for speedy increase of infectious ailments due to a large population in a limited area that give the ideal conditions for various epidemics. Poor urban planning and a limited capacity to meet the needs and expectations of a fast-growing population result in the development of shantytowns and slums. Sixty-two percent of the urban people

Fig. 9.1  Increase in sand mining due to rise in demand can deteriorate the environment

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lived in shanty towns in sub-Saharan Africa in 2012 (WHO 2010), 96% of the urban people in the Central African Republic were in slums in 2009 (UN Habitat 2013) and 60% of the population in Nairobi live in slums (WHO 2008). Urbanization is a continuing process, but the speed of the process is not uniform across the globe. The high-income nations are previously urbanized, and rapid urbanization is taking place in developing countries with diseases having a big impact on global health. Deforestation creates close contact between humans and animals who can be the host for viruses that were hosted in wildlife. Urbanization has also impeded the unaffected ecosystems, creating new as well as closer conflict with wildlife, which is a potential source of zoonotic diseases that make the shift to humans from animal hosts (Neiderud 2015). Out of 335 emerging infectious ailments, recognized from 1940 to 2004, greater than 60% were zoonotic diseases with human population density being the common major independent forecaster of Emerging Infectious disease (Jones et al. 2008). Bacterial airborne disease tuberculosis (TB) has been the cause of death of 1.7 million people in 2009, with 85% global TB cases occurring in the Asian and African continents (WHO 2010) with high rates of TB in large cities (Lonnoth et al. 2009; Wood et al. 2010). Among the 2.6 million new cases of HIV infection in 2009 across the globe, 1.8 million were in sub-Saharan Africa. In several sub-Saharan African nations such as Zambia and Kenya, HIV prevalence rates among 15- to 49-year-olds were more in urban areas compared to rural areas (UNAIDS 2008).

9.2  Transportation Transportation is a key part of the performance of society. In spite of several measures taken in the past, transportation has been a major cause of deaths due to accidents. Accidents are the third leading reason of loss of life in the United States. Apart from accidents, transportation can affect health due to the following: • • • •

Air pollution Spread of infection Noise pollution Emission of GHGs

In 2009, the bulk of the global population settled in cities compared to countryside and towns (Reyes et al. 2013). Since the 1920–1950s, urban areas in the more developed countries of the world experienced earlier growth, followed by developing nations (UNSDA 2010). The rate of entry as well as exit from the community and the relocation of people to urban areas from rural areas can allow for the importation of diseases and allow for augmented opportunity to spread globally by international travelling. Travel by

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train or boat has resulted in spreading of endemic diseases to disease outbreak like smallpox and measles (Reyes et al. 2013), air travel has accelerated the progress of airborne pathogens (Fenner 1971; Mangili and Gendreau 2005) and viruses can spread across the globe within a few hours instead of days. International tourist arrivals grew to 1087 million in 2013 from 25 million in 1950 (Jones et al. 2008). Leisure travel is the key purpose of visit all over world with the share of leisure travel growing from 50% in 2000 to 56% in 2018. According to the World Tourism Organization, international tourist arrivals touched 1.4 billion (World Tourism Organization 2019). About 50–75 million people globally succumbed to the plague (Herlihy and Cohn Jr 1997) that was transmitted along trade routes (Reyes et al. 2013). Trade routes from China into Europe as well as other seaports resulted in spreading of infection to thousands of people daily, leading to early efforts at outbreak control that included movement as well as closure of ports to ships arriving from affected nations, restriction and quarantines (Sloan 1973). Land, sea and air transport networks have led to the spread of pathogens and vectors further, faster as well as in large numbers (Tatem et al. 2006). Poor transportation network can lead to delay in moving citizens requiring health attention at health-care facilities besides transporting life-saving drugs, food and water. Transport strategies that give preferences to safe walking, rapid transit/public transport and cycling networks can support physical activity, reduce traffic injuries and reduce emissions of GHGs. A healthier transport policy can also result in health equity gains by giving vulnerable people’s groups higher access to social as well as economic opportunities, especially for lower income earners, women and the elderly. Transport affects the environment and health through numerous pathways. Lower-carbon transport strategies are cost-effective investments for societies and individuals. The costs of infrastructures for walking and cycling, or locating schools nearer to residential places, are modest compared to developing new vehicle technologies. Effective public transport and safer cycling/walking routes can result in reduction in travel time and expense and preventing disease, besides promoting better health, particularly among the poor. Good design and investment in sustainable public transport can help increase physical activity besides reducing urban air pollution as well as traffic injuries. Sustainable transport can also increase health equity by enhancing access to food education, markets, services and social and recreational places for people without cars (WHO 2009). In practice, good design and investment may not always end up in a healthy scenario. Poor-quality engines of old, improperly unserviced vehicles may put the passengers in a difficult scenario (Fig. 9.2). In the absence of affordability to private transportation, people in developing countries tend to overuse public transportation, which may be risky in case of accidents (Fig. 9.3). This may be due to a gap in supply–demand of good service to poor passengers, while affordable community, including people representatives and public servants, travel in private transport.

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Fig. 9.2 Passengers pushing a bus which has halted due to problem in the engine

Fig. 9.3  Passengers riding on the roof top of public transport operated by a private agency putting themselves at risk

Transport-related health risks in the present scenario are resulting in loss of millions of human life annually. About 1.3 million people lose their lives every year due to air pollution in urban areas (much of it generated by transportation) (WHO 2011a, 2011b). In addition, traffic injuries contribute to death of nearly 1.3 million people every year, most of which occur in the middle- and low-income countries. As per the WHO (2009), nearly 3.2 million lose their life every year due to physical inactivity (WHO 2009). The reason for accidents and death could be due to the following: 1. Private vehicle parked on roads without footpaths (Fig. 9.4) 2. Private transportation used by wealthy people in spite of providing sufficient mass transportation (Fig. 9.5) 3. Poor road-crossing infrastructure (Fig. 9.5) 4. Poor people sleeping on footpaths (Fig. 9.6) 5. Footpaths used for other purposes (Fig. 9.7)

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Fig. 9.4  Private vehicle parked on roads without footpaths

Fig. 9.5  Sufficient cars on road in spite of sufficient mass transportation and poor road-crossing infrastructure

9.2 Transportation Fig. 9.6  Poor people sleeping on footpaths

Fig. 9.7  Footpaths used for selling animals

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In a society with huge gap between the rich and poor, roads will be filled by private vehicles and footpaths will be used by poor people, making transportation inconvenience for both. Theoretically, potential health gains can be expected with a shift from private motorized transport to public transportation or cycling/walking by reduced respiratory disease and cardiovascular from air pollution, lower noise-related stress besides less traffic injury. However, in the actual scenario, construction processes (Fig. 9.8) will choke the roads and increase the burden on citizens’ health. Theoretically, mass transportation would enhance health benefits. However, practically, the people in transition and the developing world aspire to own cars to register their status in the society. Situations like spread of SARS and COVID-19 would also promote private transportation. Poor punctuality, absence of end-mile connectivity, pick pocketing, lack of women’s safety, absence of service in night-­ time and sexual harassment in the mass transportation system often discourage people to adopt mass transportation unless mass transportation is the only option due to financial reasons. In another scenario, affordable people have opted for metro trains (Fig. 9.9) in Bengaluru (formerly Bangalore) with two cars serving last mile connectivity at the beginning and end of the journey. Boom in the aviation sector has resulted in a rise in air traffic and infrastructure for airports (Fig.9.10). However, absence of round-the-clock connectivity has resulted in the increase in taxi and road traffic in the roads connecting airports to cities. Beside air pollution, due to increase in road traffic, increase in air traffic has resulted in noise pollution in the vicinity of airports.

Fig. 9.8  Metro train infrastructure under construction

9.2 Transportation

Fig. 9.9  Metro train arriving at station

Fig. 9.10  View of an airport

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Transportation has both health costs and benefits. The health benefits of a good transportation infrastructure include minimizing accidents, connecting sick people to health care establishments and shipping medical aid. The health impact from ineffective and faulty transportation can result in accidents besides pollution. A benefit of transportation on health needs to be judged by assessment beyond cost-­ effectiveness comparisons.

9.3  Communication Communication technology has seen a paradigm shift over the years. The requirement for information technology for enhancing the safety and quality of health care is massive (Institute of Medicine 1991, 1997, 2001). A good communication infrastructure can reduce the need for transportation and the related pollution. The proper use of information and communications technology (ICT) can benefit human health within a community by providing updated information of waste generation, pollution, spatial distribution of health-care establishments, weather forecasting and others, to make necessary decisions and provide warning to public in case of emergencies and awareness to enhance the quality of human health. The health-care management within a health-care establishment and network comprises complex processes that include the following: • Treating or diagnosing a patient’s problem • Receiving as well as acting on the results of diagnosis from: –– Laboratory –– Radiology –– Other diagnostic tests • Communicating to patients about the results • Monitoring patient progress and follow-up Communication among clinicians and patients is critical and also public health administrators and citizens. The need for proper communication infrastructure should include communication for the following: • • • • •

Making ambulances available to help critically ill patients Enforcing agency in case of fire and other disasters Mobilizing of resources by the concerned authorities at the time of disasters Providing warning to citizens at the time of natural calamities Warning citizens about the pollution level in the environment

Communication has both health costs and benefits. The health benefits of a good communication infrastructure include information on health care and emergency preparedness. Health impacts from an ineffective and faulty communication ­infrastructure can result in loss of life. The benefit of communication on health needs to be judged by assessment beyond cost-effectiveness comparisons.

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9.4  Housing The quality of housing plays a major role in people’s health. A good house will provide optimum living conditions. To provide proper housing, strategies need to be developed and implemented to reduce and prevent household crowding (WHO 2018). Crowding due to population concentration (Fig. 9.11) may lead to several problems such as traffic congestion (Fig. 9.12), air pollution, water shortage, accumulation of solid wastes (Figs. 9.12 and 9.13) and infection spreading. Temperatures inside houses should be optimum to guard people from cold and heat. Housing should have safety devices (such as CO and smoke alarms, window guards and stair gates) (WHO 2018). Poor housing as well as overcrowding can contribute to vector propagation. Chagas disease, caused by the protozoan Trypanosoma cruzi, is spread by vectorial infected bites of triatomine bugs. Living with domestic animals and poor hygienic lifestyle have been recognized as risk factors (Ventura-Garcia et al. 2013). Even though job opportunities are better in urban environments, better housing, ventilation, sanitation and social services are not uniform, which determine the health apart from other issues such as heredity and mental stress. Since some nations do not have the resources to address proper issue of housing, diseases can be of worldwide concern. Everybody wants to live in a good house. However, the choice of the house that a person gets to live in depends on the wealth/property the person inherits/earns besides geological location, availability of skilled labour to build the house and

Fig. 9.11  Crowding due to population concentration

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Fig. 9.12  Poor solid waste collection

Fig. 9.13  Houses near a solid waste collection centre

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Fig. 9.14  Housing in outskirts where proper amenities may not be accessible

community services. The job the person performs may require moving to a new location wherein the person may not get a good house for his budget. Sometimes even if the person can afford it, the owner of the house may not rent the property due to religion, colour and ethnic reasons. Demand for budget housing may urge property developers to build houses in city outskirts where proper amenities may not be accessible (Figs. 9.13 and 9.14). To ensure good lighting, a room must have a glass door or window that is at least 10% of the room’s floor area, and natural ventilation must be at least 5% of the floor area. However, such guidelines are a distant dream in many developing countries where people live in houses with small windows (Fig.  9.15) or no windows (Fig. 9.16) at all. Apart from just physical setting, a good housing shall ensure adequate water supply and electricity and be away from noise, street dogs, snakes, vectors, odour nuisance and so on. The houses shall be earthquake-resistant and flood water during heavy rain should not get into houses or wash away the house. However, labour colonies in many construction sites hardly fulfil these requirements of quality housing (Fig. 9.16). Many local bodies in developed countries permit house extensions provided that they enhance the appearance of the adjoining property, the existing property and their setting. The local bodies of the developing countries insist on the following:

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Fig. 9.15  House with small windows

Fig. 9.16  Labour colony at a construction site

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Fig. 9.17  Houses without proper spacing

• • • •

Minimum usable private garden space. Extension of houses should not lead to loss of parking area. Efforts should be made to retain trees within or adjacent to the property, and Extension should not lead to loss of privacy.

However, such norms do not exist in developing countries and houses cannot be built without proper spacing between houses (Fig. 9.17). Not everyone in developing countries end up living in poor housing. The divide between the rich and the poor has also resulted in affluent families that can afford good houses (Figs. 9.18 and 9.19). Houses in flood-prone areas should be built on an elevated column or plinth beam foundation. The space underneath the houses needs to be left to facilitate flow of water. However, with the changes in climate, floods are occurring in unpredicted areas. Besides, the changes in land use also have obstructed natural drainage without making alternative arrangement for draining rainwater, thereby making the area surrounding the blocked drainage prone to flood. Housing has both health costs and benefits. The health benefits of a good housing infrastructure include protection from heat, cold, rain, disasters, animals, radiation and micro-organisms. Health impacts from ineffective and faulty houses can result in loss of life. A benefit of housing on health needs to be judged by assessment beyond the cost-effectiveness comparisons.

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Fig. 9.18  High-end houses with club house and open spacing

Fig. 9.19  Houses without proper spacing

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9.4.1  Personal Hygiene Hygiene is a set of practices carried out to safeguard health. It refers to practices and conditions that help to prevent the spread of diseases as well as maintain health. Personal hygiene refers to preserving the body’s cleanliness. Environment plays a major role in personal hygiene. Contaminated water may not clean the hand and body during hand washing and bathing. Personal hygiene includes, but is not restricted, to hand washing, respiratory hygiene, hygiene in the kitchen, food hygiene, hygiene in the bathroom and toilet, oral hygiene and laundry hygiene.

9.4.2  Clean Domestic Environment People spend the bulk of their time in homes. Hence, the choices they make about houses influence the health of residents and neighbours. However, not all will a have a choice to choose a good house due to financial constraints, distance between workplace and home, distance between children and home, homes inherited, etc. Health is affected by: 1. Contaminants in water 2. Indoor air pollution 3. Injurious radiation 4. Noise 5. Rodents 6. Solid waste 7. Vectors These could be present in domestic environments due to: 1. Chemicals in battery/paint/detergents 2. Noise in the house/neighbourhood 3. Poor household ventilation 4. Poor solid waste management inside the house or in the neighbourhood 5. Radiation source in the ground/neighbourhood 6. Chemicals used in the home and garden 7. Combustion of fuel 8. Entry of contaminants into the water source and treated water 9. However, slums and makeshift houses often push the people to an unhealthy environment (Fig. 9.20). 10. Emission of specific pollutants either directly or through chemical reactions and transformations affects health. Many of the problems in attaining a clean domestic environment can be resolved by money if the resident can afford it. The entry of pollution can be filtered by an air conditioner, at the same time ensuring a comfortable temperature. Dirty water supplied by

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Fig. 9.20 Makeshift houses

local bodies can be cleaned by point-of-use water purifiers. Noise can be controlled by acoustic measures or personnel protective equipment and rodents and vectors can be controlled by pest control activity. Wherever residents cannot afford expensive resources, for example, slum dwellers and tribes in forest areas and rural areas, poor health may need to be compromised with. Furthermore, in areas of ­conflict (war, sabotage, strike and communal violence), financial resources may not be of much use.

9.4.3  Clean External Environment The external environment is affected by multiple factors. The environment we live in is shared by biotic components of the ecosystem that we are a part of. Pollutants do not respect political boundary and air exhaled by one animal is inhaled by another animal, which holds good for humans as well. The external environment (Figs. 9.21, 9.22, 9.23, 9.24, and 9.25) affects water, food, air, light and noise, which dictate health of humans and animals. Many

9.4 Housing

Fig. 9.21  Water stagnated and waste unpicked in an urban set-up Fig. 9.22 Makeshift market

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Fig. 9.23  Person engaged in cleaning cloths in river

c­ hemicals in the environment are mutagens and carcinogens. The pathogens in the environment are responsible for communicable diseases and animals/insects may cause injury by biting. Clean external environment is affected by solid waste, water pollution, air pollution, noise pollution and soil pollution. These pollutions are controlled by hard laws within a country. In order to manage trans-boundary movements of waste and pollution, some nations may come together and make soft laws to agree upon mutually agreeable conditions to safeguard the environment of those nations. Violation of hard law attracts penal action on violators while violation of soft law will affect international relationships. Laws themselves cannot control the environmental pollution. Instead, they aspire to protect the environment by compelling suitable administrative and engineering solutions.

9.4 Housing Fig. 9.24  Person engaged in picking waste in river

Fig. 9.25  Cracker residue

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9.5  Industry Industry helps the creation of jobs for livelihood and offers more benefits for ease of life (Figs. 9.26, 9.27, 9.28, 9.29, and 9.30). However, it is also the source of resource depletion, pollution, industrial accidents and anthropogenic disasters. Depending on the size, nature and practices of the industry, the health of people in the immediate vicinity would be affected positively or negatively. However, various emissions and discharges could affect the quality of the environment across the trans-boundary of international territories. On the other hand, life-saving drugs, food and medical equipment manufactured in the industry can save the lives of millions. Industrialization is one of the key causes for changing the rural areas into urban areas. Hence, zoning is required to restrict areas for dedicated activities so that sensitive people can stay away from industrial and commercial areas. Apart from zoning within the city, polluting activities need to be kept away from reserved forests, human settlements, prime agricultural land, monuments, water bodies, interstate/international borders, hills and valleys as well as zoos. Resource scarcity, pollution, inefficient use of resources, inefficient energy consumption and hazardous substances have been the cause of adverse health effects on humans. Green manufacturing is the new mantra, even though it is not well accepted in developing countries. Green technology aims to decrease the quantity of natural

Fig. 9.26  Limestone mining

9.5 Industry

Fig. 9.27  Paper factory

Fig. 9.28  Cement factory

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Fig. 9.29  Small-scale industry with construction going on in the background

Fig. 9.30  Inside view of a small- scale industry

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resources needed to manufacture goods by efficient manufacturing processes and decrease waste/pollution by efficient logistics as well as transport (Chandrappa and Kulshrestha 2016). Industrialization has both health costs and benefits. Proper planning, law, enforcement and supporting infrastructure like common waste disposal facility is required to dispose waste generated from an individual industry. In the absence of a proper supporting infrastructure, manufacturers are likely to choose unhealthy practices to cut expenditure and increase profits.

9.6  Energy Supply of energy is the main feature of the urban ecosystem. Energy use is essential to human activity for preparing food, warming homes, producing goods besides powering transport, among numerous other purposes (Kirk et  al. 2019). Except solar energy, other forms of energy are imported to the urban ecosystem in the form of electric power or fuel. Anthropogenic energy is coupled with pollution, ill health, loss of ecosystem as well as climate change. The energy used in different parts of world is not uniform and so is the impact. Investment in clean energy is also an investment in public health. Smokey vehicles and coal- based power plants do harm the environment and the public, most of which are irreversible. Dependence on fuel wood would lead to destruction of carbon sink beside emission of pollutants. Investment in clean energy resources like solar, bio-fuel, wind energy and tidal energy can make a significant shift in the life expectancy and health index of the community. The history of human culture may be seen as the development of new energy sources as well as their connected conversion technologies (Hill et al. 2003). The control of fires for preparing food is the basic change that made humans different from other animals (Wrangham 2010). Today’s energy sources vary from harvested/ scavenged biomass, animal power (dung, wood, peat), to commercial fossil fuels, to processed biofuels as well as electricity (GEA 2012). The utilization of fossil fuels has been a main element of the speedy social, technological as well as cultural changes and is integral to modern living. Energy security is also a growing concern to a number of governments and a source of international conflict and tension (Paul et al. 2007). The use of energy sources for human needs protects and enhances human health in several ways. One of the reasons why poor people are less healthy compared to rich people is due to a shortage of access to energy. Poorer parts of the society have problems by paucity of affordable fuel due to increasing energy prices, inefficient heating/cooling appliances and low thermal insulation of the home. This fuel poverty has been aggravated by the sudden increase in energy prices (Wilkinson et al. 2003; Healy 2003). Apart from these direct effects,

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the modern lifestyle influences energy use by encouraging sedentary living (Hill et al. 2003). In the near future, energy supply may not reduce at a global level but prices would probably increase and changes in markets over time may result due to international tensions besides temporary imbalances of demand and supply. Fossil fuels could continue to be used far beyond because unconventional forms of gas as well as oil will become more economically feasible due to technological viability (Rogner 2000; Jaccard 2005). As per Cassidy (2000), renewable energy is theoretically attractive but at unacceptable costs at the time of publication. As per the publication, less than 2% of the USA’s land area can provide all the nation’s primary energy supplies from solar sources without contributing substantially to climate change or air pollution. However, the situation is improving with the cost of solar energy production decreasing over the period of time. Nuclear power contributes to the lowest levels of GHG emissions per unit power generation besides having low direct health effects. However, there are fears regarding nuclear weapons accidents and storage of waste. The production of electricity has both health benefits and costs. The health benefits of use of fuel to electricity generation are evident. Health impacts from efficient lighting and electric appliance are much smaller compared to indoor air pollution from combustion of fuels in homes. The benefits of investment on clean energy cannot be judged only on cost-­ effectiveness comparisons (Markandya and Wilkinson 2007).

References Cassidy E (2000) Prospects for sustainable energy. A critical assessment. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge Centre for Research on the Epidemiology of Disasters (CRED) and UN Office for Disaster Risk Reduction (UNISDR) (2018) Economic losses, poverty and disasters 1998–2017, Brussels Chandrappa R, Kulshrestha UC (2016) Sustainable air pollution management, theory and practice. Springer, Heidelberg, ISBN 978-3-319-21595-2 Fenner F (1971) Infectious disease and social change: part 2. Med J Aust 1:1099–1102 Global Energy Assess (GEA) Writing Team (2012) Global energy assessment: toward a sustainable future, eds. TB Johansson, N Nakicenovic, A Patwardhan, L Gomez-Echeverri. Cambridge Univ. Press/Laxenburg, Austria, Cambridge, UK/New York: Int. Inst. Appl. Syst. Anal Healy JD (2003) Excess winter mortality in Europe: a cross country analysis identifying key risk factors. J Epidemiol Community Health 57:784–789 Herlihy D, Cohn SK Jr (1997) The black death and the transformation of the west. Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA Hill JO, Wyatt HR, Reed GW, Peters JC (2003) Obesity and the environment: where do we go from here? Science 299:853–855 Institute of Medicine (1991) The computer-based patient record: an essential technology for health care, eds. R.S.Dick and E.B.Steen. National Academy Press, Washington, DC

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Institute of Medicine (1997) The computer-based patient record: an essential technology for health care (Revised Edition), eds. R.S. Dick, E.B. Steen, and D.D. Detmer. National Academy Press, Washington, DC Institute of Medicine (2001) Crossing the quality chasm: a new health system for the 21st century. National Academy Press, Washington, DC Jaccard M (2005) Sustainable fossil fuels. Cambridge University Press, The unusual suspect in the quest for clean and enduring energy. Cambridge Jones KE, Patel NG, Levy MA, Storeygard A, Balk D, Gittleman JL, Daszak P (2008) Global trends in emerging infectious diseases. Nature 451:990–994 Kirk RS, Howard F, Kalpana B, Colin DB, Zöe AC, Ian F, Patrick K, Tord K, Denise LM, Thomas EM, Anthony JKKD, Murphy SL, Xu JQ, Arias E (2019) Deaths: Final data for 2017. National Vital Statistics Reports; vol 68 no 9. National Center for Health Statistics, Hyattsville, MD Mangili A, Gendreau MA (2005) Transmission of infectious disease during commercial air travel. Lancet 365:989–996 Markandya A, Wilkinson P (2007) Electricity generation and health. Lancet 370:979–990. https:// doi.org/10.1016/S0140-­6736(07)61253-­7 Neiderud CJ (2015) How urbanization affects the epidemiology of emerging infectious diseases. Infect Ecol Epidemiol 5:27060. https://doi.org/10.3402/iee.v5.27060 Paul W, Kirk RS, Michael J, Andrew H (2007) A global perspective on energy: health effects and injustices. Lancet 370:965–978. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-­6736(07)61252-­5 Reyes R, Ahn R, Thurber K, Burke TF (2013) Urbanization and infectious diseases: general principles, historical perspectives, and contemporary challenges. In: Fong I (ed) Challenges in infectious diseases. Emerging infectious diseases of the 21st century. Springer, New York, NY Rogner H-H (2000) Energy resources. In: Goldenberg J (ed) World energy assessment: energy and the challenge of sustainability. United Nations Development Programme, New York Sloan AW (1973) History of medicine: medical and social aspects of the great plague of London in 1665. S Afr Med J 47:270–276 Tatem AJ, Rogers DJ, Hay SI (2006) Global transport networks and infectious disease spread. Adv Parasitol 62:293–343. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0065-­308X(05)62009-­X UN Habitat (2013) State of the world’s cities 2012/2013. United Nations Human Settlements Programme (UN-Habitet), New York UNAIDS (2008) Report on the global AIDS epidemic. UNAIDS, Geneva Ventura-Garcia L, Roura M, Pell C, Posada E, Gascòn J, Aldasoro E, Muñoz J, Pool R (2013) Socio-cultural aspects of Chagas disease: a systematic review of qualitative research. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 7:e2410 WHO (2008) Our cities, our health, our future _ acting on social determinants for health equity in urban settings. World Health Organization, Kobe, Japan WHO (2009) Global health risks: mortality and burden of disease attributable to selected major risks. World Health Organization, Geneva WHO (2010) Hidden cities: unmasking and overcoming health inequities in urban settings. World Health Organization, Kobe, Japan WHO (2011a) Health in the green economy, health co-benefits of climate change mitigation  – transport sector. WHO, Geneva WHO (2011b) Air quality and health. Fact sheet. No. 313. Geneva, World Health Organization. September 2011. http://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs313/en/index.html WHO (2018) Housing and health guidelines. World Health Organization, Geneva, p 2018 Wilkinson P, Landon M, Armstrong B, Stevenson S, McKee M (2003) Cold comfort: the social and environmental determinants of excess winter death in England, 1986–1996. Joseph Rowntree Foundation, 2001, New York

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Wood R, Liang H, Wu H, Middelkoop K, Oni T, Rangaka MX, Wilkinson RJ, Bekker LG, Lawn SD (2010) Changing prevalence of tuberculosis infection with increasing age in high-burden townships in South Africa. Int J Tuberc Lung Dis 14:406–412 World Tourism Organization (2019) International Tourism Highlights 2019 Edition. https:// www.e-­unwto.org/doi/pdf/10.18111/9789284421152. Accessed on 28th Mar 2020 Wrangham R (2010) Catching fire: how cooking made us human. Basic Books, New York

Chapter 10

Emergency Preparedness and Disaster Management

Abstract  A disaster is a significant disturbance that occurs in a short span of time. Emergency is an unforeseen situation that calls for actions immediately. A disaster is likely to have more overwhelming consequences and/or affect more people compared to an emergency. An emergency may turn into a disaster, whereas a disaster is innately an emergency situation. A disaster could be anthropogenic or natural. The disaster affects health and environment in many ways resulting in injury, epidemic, death and pollution. Due to the significance of the above issues, this chapter discusses the theory and practice of emergency preparedness and disaster management along with case studies.

10.1  Introduction A disaster is a significant disturbance occurring in a short span of time. Emergency is an unforeseen situation that calls for actions immediately. A disaster is likely to have more overwhelming consequences and/or affect more people compared to an emergency. An emergency may turn into a disaster, whereas a disaster is innately an emergency situation. Disaster could be anthropogenic (industrial accidents, transportation accidents etc.) or natural (earthquakes, floods, hurricanes, tornadoes, volcanic eruptions, tsunamis etc.). The disaster affects the health and environments in many ways resulting in injury, epidemic, death and pollution. Each location on the earth is unique in terms of weather, geography, topography, biodiversity, infrastructure, language, culture, demography, literacy, health and many more variables. Disasters affect different places with different magnitude of vulnerability with respect to distinct social, health and economic conditions. Earthquakes cause numerous injuries demanding medical care compared to floods, as well as tidal waves. Population movement and environmental changes may result in higher risk of disease transmission. Health risks following a disaster occur at various times and differ within a disaster-affected area. Casualties occur mostly at the place and time of impact, while the risks of augmented disease transmission are the greatest due to overcrowding and decline in the standards of sanitation and other hygiene. Disaster-created demands for food, shelter, as well as primary health care (Pan American Health Organization 2000). © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 R. Chandrappa, D. B. Das, Environmental Health - Theory and Practice, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-64484-0_10

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Hydro-meteorological hazards like cyclones, floods, drought and storms account for about 90% of all global natural disasters. Geophysical hazards like volcano eruptions, landslides and earthquakes account for remaining 10%. Factors likely to augment the frequency of natural hazards include environmental degradation, climate change and rise in the number of people living in flood-prone river basins and coastlines exposed to cyclones. With the global urban population set to increase from 3.6 billion to 5.6 billion between 2010 and 2040, the risk of fatal disasters is expected to augment accordingly (Maurice 2013). Delay or inability to curb hazards at the initial stage can affect all global citizens. After the first case of infection with a SARS-CoV-2 (novel coronavirus) was notified in December 2019 in Wuhan (China) (WHO 2020a) and spread across many countries, the WHO announced COVID-19 as a pandemic on 11 March 2020 (2020b). The zoonotic disease that started in a wet market of Wuhan was the cause for economic hardship and 12,79,722 confirmed cases of COVID-19 (in more than 100 countries) with 72,614 deaths as on 7 April 2020 (2020c). To combat COVID-19, India invoked the National Disaster Management Act and placed the whole country under lockdown for 21 days from 25 March 2020. The lockdown sealed the state borders halting transport services that affected the livelihoods of millions of workers and many were left stranded without source of income (Business Standard 2020). The epidemic also demanded international effort to suppress the effect with the Operations Support and Logistics (OSL) unit at WHO has shipped more than 900,000 surgical masks, 62,000  N95 masks, one million gloves, 115,000 gowns, 17,000 goggles and 34,000 face shields to 133 countries. OSL has also shipped COVID-19 testing kits to 126 countries since the start of the outbreak (2020c). The lockdown in India left thousands of migrant labourers across India hit the roads on foot to reach their homes hundreds of kilometres away resulting in many deaths (Telegraph 2020; Joy 2020; India Today 2020). After a nationwide lockdown to combat with COVID-19 in last week of March, the jobless rates reached 23.4% for the week ended April 5 (Nag 2020). The pandemic that started in China affected the harvesting and marketing of agricultural crops in India due to shutdowns in the retail markets, disturbance in the transportation, trading apart from shortage of labours and truck drivers. The pandemic resulted in fall in prices of fruits and vegetables due to its low shelf life. Labour shortages affected cold storage units, milk processing plants and warehouses. Large-scale return of migrant workers affected harvest operations with farmers leaving the crop in the fields. Shutdown of rice mills lead to reduction in purchase of paddy from farmers. Supply chains were disrupted across India as about 5,00,000 trucks were reportedly stranded on roads and state borders. The supply disruptions and global trade shrinks resulted in the rise of food prices in western world due to panic buying while the decrease in food price in India due to severe decline in food consumption by the poor and falling farm gate prices besides lack of access to markets (Ramkumar 2020). Disaster management has four phases: preparedness, mitigate, respond and recover. Any community that is not prepared for disaster will suffer damage of

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human and monitory resources apart from natural resources. Disaster happens at unexpected time and at unexpected magnitude. A small investment towards preparedness will save human/monitory/natural resources of the community. The involvement of the community is necessary for reducing vulnerability to disasters, which result in outbreak of communicable diseases and injury. The country with poor international cooperation often suffers during disasters. The limited resource, knowledge, experience will always be disadvantageous to any community. A 7.8 magnitude earthquake that occurred on 25 April 2015 in Nepal resulted in about 7400 deaths and more than 14,000 injuries in eight million persons in 39 districts. Nearly 1.4 million people in the affected districts required immediate assistance for food. In most of the affected villages, more than 90% of homes were collapsed. The villages did not have young people to volunteer as many of them had migrated for work. More than 80 overseas medical teams had arrived in Nepal by 2nd May (Sharma 2015). Emergency could be intentional or accidental. Ahead of the Indian Supreme Court verdict on the Ayodhya dispute case, political leaders appealed for maintaining harmony in India (India Today 2019), besides deploying more than 5000 paramilitary force members and police in the town of Ayodhya, India, where an ancient mosque was demolished in 1992 and which was believed to be the birthplace of Lord Ram (Jain 2019). Apart from preparing for emergency in Ayodhya, precautionary measures were taken all over India. All educational remained institutes closed in many states of India on the day of the verdict (Times Now News 2019). Apart from declaring holiday on the day of verdict, sale of liquor and processions were banned in Bengaluru, India, which is far away from Ayodhya (the Times of India 2019). Before removing the provisions of Article 370 of constitution of India that provides special status to Jammu and Kashmir, many political leaders were kept in house arrest apart from restrictions under the Section 144 of code of criminal procedure. The emergency preparedness included distribution of satellite phones and closed-group mobile phone sets to central, north and south Kashmir among the security officials, and travel advisory was given to pilgrims, tourists and students to leave the place. Mobile internet services were snapped in entire Jammu and Kashmir. Several thousands of security personnel were deployed as precautionary measure (The Hindu 2019). After a natural disaster, survivors tend to recover speedily from their initial shock. However, the disaster may raise the potential for transmission of disease due to faecal contamination of food and water. The risk of communicable diseases epidemic outbreaks is proportional to the population displacement and density. An increase in vector-borne ailments occurs in the longer term, in some areas due to disturbance of vector control efforts. Displacement of domestic or wild animals brings risk of zoonotic infections. Other challenges due to disaster include population displacement, climatic exposure, loss of food and nutrition, damage to water supply and sanitation, impact on meta health and damage to health infrastructure (Pan American Health Organization 2000).

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Emergency could lead to physical exposure (e.g. flood, earthquake, riots), c­ hemical exposure (e.g. release of agro-chemicals, accidental explosion of chemical storage), biological exposure (e.g. contamination of water supply by sewage, accidental release of hazardous micro-organisms from laboratory) in summary emergency preparedness involve following key steps. • • • • • •

Evaluation of risks Identification of risks Monitoring risk performance Resourcing controls and planning Responding to major risks Reviewing the risk management Principles of Emergency Management (FEMA 2007) are:

1. Comprehensive – should consider account of all phases, all hazards, all impacts and all stakeholders relevant to the disasters. 2. Progressive – should anticipate future disasters. 3. Risk-driven  – should identify hazard, analyse risk and impact in assigning resources and priorities. 4. Integrated – should ensure integration among all levels in governance, as well as all elements of a community. 5. Collaborative –should create and sustain relationships among individuals and organizations. 6. Coordinated – should synchronize the activities of all relevant stakeholders. 7. Flexible – should use creative and innovative approaches. 8. Professional – should value a science and knowledge-based approach.

10.2  Mitigation Strategy People should be encouraged to identify the hazards, their vulnerability and in planning their preparedness for a disaster (Wisner and Adams 2002). Ninety-five of all loss of life caused due to disasters in 1993–2013 have occurred in developing nations. From 1982 to 2012, disasters killed 1.3 million people, affected 4.4 billion people and resulted in material losses to the tune of $2 trillion (Maurice 2013). Considering the past episodes, the objectives of disaster prevention and mitigation strategy should be to (Fig. 10.1): • • • •

Decrease economic disturbance Reduce probability/intensity of conflict Reduce susceptibility/raise capacity Save life of people

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Disaster Prevention and Mitigation Physical Planning Measures •Decentralizaon of elements at risk •Control of populaon density •Design of services and roads •Land use regulaon

Economic Measures

Societal Measures

•Diversificaon of economic acvity •Economic incenves •Insurance

•Public informaon campaigns •Educaon •De-sensaonalize hazards •Community involvement •Drills

Management and Instuonal Measures

Engineering and Construcon Measures

•Educaon and training •Research •Technical experse •Strengthening the capability of local authories

•Stronger individual structures •Hazard control structures

Fig. 10.1  Measures required for disaster prevention and mitigation

Hurricane Luis in September 1995 hit the Caribbean Island of Saint Martin, in which the northern part belonged to the French and the southern part was governed by the Dutch. The southern area suffered catastrophic damage compared to the northern part. Subsequent studies revealed that the structures on the French side were designed better to withstand hurricanes and earthquakes (Maurice 2013). Countries that strengthened existing structures, adopted strict building codes with respect to earthquake and took measures to amplify the population’s preparedness suffered lesser consequences compared to those that did not. Earthquake that occurred in New Zealand and Haiti in 2010 had a magnitude of 7.0. But the earthquake in New Zealand injured only two individuals with no fatalities, whereas the Haiti earthquake resulted in more than 300,000 fatalities besides injuries with similar number (Shapira et al. 2018a, b). The disaster mitigation programme shall direct the following activities with respect to health (Pan American Health organization 2000): 1. Recognize areas exposed to hazards and identify the vulnerability of key water systems and health facilities. 2. Hospital building standards are more stringent compared to that of other buildings, as they must stay operational to attend to disaster victims. 3. Include disaster mitigation measures construction materials, choosing the site, equipment, as well as type of maintenance and administration at the facility. Figure 10.2 shows sea dike built on beach to protect low-lying areas against flooding and mitigate effect of sea flooding. Still better structures can be built as a seawall.

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Fig. 10.2  Sea dikes

10.3  Preparedness An emergency is an unplanned event that may result in the risks to human property, health or the environment, within a facility or in the local community. There is no uniform recommendation regarding the suitable behaviour during an earthquake. Two different behavioural strategies are suggested across the globe to the people inside buildings during earthquake: (a) evacuate the building and move to an open area or (b) stay inside the building and “drop, cover and hold” (Fig. 10.3). The reasons for such deviations are due to the disparity in the vulnerability of building to earthquake and threats to occupants. In places where the buildings can withstand earthquakes, the main hazard to inhabitant is due to falling objects (Miranda et al. 2012; Ramirez and Peek-Asa 2005; Inel et al. 2013). In such situation, the “drop, cover and hold” strategy (Fig. 10.2) is preferable as it gives protection from hazard. If the buildings are not reinforced to comply with seismic codes, the key threat to occupants is due to the possible collapse of the building (Inel et al. 2013). Projects/facility and community should have an Emergency Preparedness and Response Plan that is compatible with the risks of the project/facility/community and that includes the following fundamental elements: • • • • •

Administration Business continuity in addition to contingency Checklists (role, action, equipment etc.) Communication systems Emergency resources

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Fig. 10.3  Demonstration of drop, cover and hold

• • • •

Emergency response procedures Organization of emergency places Roles as well as responsibilities Training and updating

More than 50,000 deaths occurred in Bangladesh from 1970 to 1991 due to two cyclones. Subsequently, three-storied cyclone shelters were built by government along the nation’s south-western coast besides setting up an early warning system. On 15 Nov 2007, when Cyclone Sid ravaged India, and around three million people took shelter in cyclone shelters resulting in 4200 deaths, which was meagre compared to many previous disasters (Maurice 2013). The following guidelines need to be considered while preparing health sector disaster plans (Pan American Health organization 2000): 1. Include exercises to test the plan once in a while 2. Include systems for early warning 3. List all possible events, as well as health requirements, due to different situations 4. Plan for the key features of administrative response, like the location, as well as general responsibilities of important officials 5. Publicize the plan widely 6. Recognize probable health scenarios and use the knowledge as a base for creating a disaster plan 7. Subdivide plans into self-sufficient units The following factors are considered while carrying vulnerability analysis, as well as preparing mitigation plans for health care facilities (Pan American Health organization 2000): 1. Structural elements, such as walls, columns and beams 2. Non-structural elements, such as non–load bearing walls, windows, partition, lighting fixtures, power, water, communication systems, supplies, equipment, medicines, and furnishings. 3. Functional elements, such as site, access routes.

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10.3.1  Communication Systems Communicating disaster to vulnerable community is a major challenge. Depending on the vulnerable group, an upcoming disaster needs to be communicated, so that the groups can escape the hazard. Visual alarms, alarm bells or other forms of communication shall be used to alert workers in a workplace to an emergency. Floods in China resulted in 3.7 million deaths in 1931 and 2 million deaths in 1959. After these episodes, the nation has introduced an early warning, as well as evacuation system, on scientific evidence. After taking these measures, victims of flood have reduced to less than 2000 per year (Maurice 2013). If a local community is at risk due to a potential emergency, the local administration should communicate to alert the community by following ways: • • • • •

Communicating details of the nature of the emergency Communicating protection options Providing advice on selecting a suitable protection option Using audible alarms Using vehicle mounted speakers

If the emergency is due to natural disasters, then possibly communication needs to be at a larger dimension to reach the community quickly and effectively wherein emergency information shall be communicated to the media with the help of local spokesperson or written press release. Some of the emergency situations may demand curtailing all communications in the area to avoid spreading of rumours and provoking messages, which may threaten the law and order.

10.3.2  Emergency Resources Emergency resources required depend on geographic location and possible emergency anticipated/occurred. A mechanism shall be given to fund emergency activities such as: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

Emergency food Emergency shelter Evacuation services Fire services Medical services Mutual aid

As a precautionary measure, an elaborate security involving police and armed forces are arranged in India, which may not be required in other countries. Deployment of bouncers and security guards in casinos and night clubs is common observation all over the world.

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Unexpected emergency could end up in utilization of a major share of GDP of country towards rehabilitation and reconstruction of affected areas. More than 700 were killed, which also left more than 5,00,000 homeless due to a flooding in 2000 in Mozambique. Subsequently, the government-built shelters in flood-prone areas introduced hydrological monitoring and early warning systems. The measures resulted in the reduction in toll number to 29 and displaced 165,000 during 2007 floods (Maurice 2013). Emergency preparedness can be at different levels ranging from individual to family to national level. Emergency preparedness at different organization/activity depends on the nature of the organization. Resources required at an atomic power plant is totally different compared to a religious worshipping place. Decisions about medical resource at the time of disasters need a structured approach. Emergency physicians often should modify their decision to use resources to accomplish “greatest good for the greatest number”. Incidents may require a maximal use of usual supplies, staff and space (Hick et al. 2012). The following principles concerning humanitarian relief materials need to be kept in mind: • Identify sources for emergency supplies. Ideally, there needs to be a national inventory of resources for use during disaster • Carry out rapid damage assessment when a disaster occurs • If external assistance is required, requests shall be limited to resources not accessible in the affected zone. A supply management system (acquisition, transportation, storage and distribution) should resolve the following issues: • Scarcity of space and transport • Shortage of time • No uniformity in receipt of supplies

10.3.3  Training and Updating The emergency preparedness required to review, training programmes and practice exercises to test systems to make sure level of emergency preparedness. Flash floods in the midnight of 6 August 2010 in Leh in Ladakh regions of India resulted in the death of 234 persons and collapse of more than 1000 houses affecting local transportation and communication network. Being at the line of control with China, as well as Pakistan, the disaster has a high strategic importance. The rescue and relief operations could began within one hour of disaster the army had plans and protocols for emergency and disaster preparedness in place; stocks of medicines and relief supplies were available; and periodic drill and training of the medical corps and army personnel were undertaken routinely. Training and updating programmes should:

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• Identify training needs depending on the roles and responsibilities • Develop a training plan • Conduct periodic training

10.3.4  Business Continuity and Contingency Business continuity and contingency shall address: • Identification of replacement and of supplies or facilities to ensure business continuity following an emergency • Maintaining back-ups of critical information

10.3.5  Onsite Emergency Plan Emergency in a site such as an industry, facility or construction location is called onsite emergency. A major emergency in facility may cause injury, death, extensive damage to property besides serious disruption to work inside, as well as outside, the premises. A typical table of content of onsite and offsite emergency plan is given in Boxes 10.1 and 10.2. Box 10.1 Table of Content on Site Emergency Plan 1. Description of site 2. Hazard Vulnerability Analysis 3. Community Emergency Telephone Numbers 4. Emergency Water Supply 5. Emergency Electrical Power 6. Roles and Responsibilities 7. Evacuation Routes 8. Emergency Preparedness Evacuation 9. Emergency Preparedness Staff Training 10. Emergency Preparedness Plan Drills 11. Emergency Preparedness Plan Activation – Evaluation Form (a) Annexures

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Box 10.2 Table of Content: Offsite Emergency Plan 1. Statutory Aspects, Objectives & Action Plan 1.1 Objective of the plan 2. Disaster and Its Management 2.1 Causes for Disaster 2.2 Objective of the Crisis Group 2.3 Action Plan of the Crisis Group 2.3.1 Pre-disaster Plan 2.3.2 During disaster plan 2.3.3 Post disaster planning 2.4 Emergency Control Centre 2.5 Assembly Points 2.6 Evacuation 2.7 Exercises 2.8 Repairing and Restarting 2.9 Information for Public 3.0 Disaster Preparedness 3.1 Land Use Pattern 3.2 Drinking Water Sources/Status 3.3 Carrying Capacity of the surface water bodies 3.4 Availability of Irrigation Facility 3.5 Infrastructure 3.5.1 Communication Facilities 3.5.2 Railways 3.5.3 Road network 3.5.4 Internet facilities 4.0 Role and Responsibitity of Various Departments 4.1 Preliminary Considerations 4.2 Making the emergency known 4.3 Role of various departments 4.3.1 Public Relation Department 4.3.2 Police Department 4.3.3 Fire Service Department 4.3.4 Health Department 4.3.5 Motor Vehicle Department 4.3.6 Public Health Department 6.0 Potential Hazards in the District 6.1 Identified hazards (continued)

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Box 10.2 (continued)

6.1.1 Fire due to various reasons 6.1.2 Explosion due to various reasons 6.1.3 Chemical and Gas Hazards 6.1.4 Electrical Hazard 6.1.5 Collapse of structures and equipment 6.1.6 Major accidents during transportation 7.0 Structure, Role & Responsibility During Disaster 7.1 District structure 7.2 Role of the officers 7.3 Responsibility of the officers 8.0 Infrastructure for Emergency Situations 8.1 Disaster Code 8.2 Communication during Emergency 8.3 Infrastructure available and procedural activities 8.4 District Health Department 8.5 Fire Services 8.6 Police 8.7 District Welfare & Public Relation Department 9.0 Communication and Evacuation During Disaster 9.1 Mass Communication 9.2 Emergency Control Room 9.3 Evacuation 9.4 Assembly Points 9.5 Rescue Routes Annexures

1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

6. 7. 8.

Factories Involving Hazardous Process in the area Telephone Directory Format for Recording Essential Information About the Incident Web Resources Anticipated Hazards and Their Management A) Fire Due to Various Reasons B) Explosion Due to Various Reasons C) Chemical and Gas Hazard D) Electrical Hazard E) Collapse of Structures & Equipment F) Major Accidents of Transport Facilities Resource Inventory/Capacity Analysis Block Wise Medical Institutions Crisis Response Structure of the District

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10.4  Response Disaster response consists of numerous elements such as search and rescue, w ­ arning/ evacuation, assessing damage, continuing assistance, providing immediate assistance as well as the immediate restoration. The purpose of the emergency response is to give immediate help to maintain life, recover health and sustain the confidence of the affected people that include: • • • • • • • • •

Containing the emergency Facilitating and promoting self-help in affected communities Facilitating inquiries, investigations and recovery of the community Protecting and saving human life Protecting property as far as reasonably practicable Providing the businesses and public with advice, warnings and information Relieving suffering Restoring/critical activities, normal services Safeguarding maintaining the environment

Such assistance ranges from giving specific but limited help like assisting refugees with temporary shelter, transport, food, establishing semi-permanent settlements and repairs to damaged infrastructure.

10.5  Recovery Recovery after emergency/disaster depends on the type and magnitude of emergency/disaster in many ways: • Aftershocks may disturb operations. • Collapsing buildings may kill many people. • Create large quantity of rubble, which required to be cleared before reconstruction. • Destruction of infrastructure (Fig.  10.4) makes communication and access difficult. • High levels of fractures as well as crush injuries. • The effects are concentrated, compared to other natural disasters. Agencies need to concentrate on the recovery phase as gap between relief and recovery do not exist. The difference between relief and recovery in the field is more difficult. Affected populations after the 2005 Pakistan earthquake and the 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami have showed more dissatisfaction with respect to recovery efforts compared to relief efforts. Observation by the Fritz Institute (2005) after the tsunami revealed that livelihood restoration programmes did not get elevated satisfaction scores. As per Bliss and Larsen (2006), 80% of the households identified that

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Fig. 10.4  Views of landslides

recovery as great or very great requirement after 10  months. Even with a good recovery in many sectors, help to restore economic livelihoods was a requirement more than a year subsequent to the earthquake (Wilson et al. 2007).

References

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References Bliss D, Larsen L (2006) Surviving the Pakistan earthquake: perceptions of survivors one year on. Fritz Institute, San Francisco. http://www.fritzinstitute.org/PDFs/findings/PakistanEarthquake_ Perceptions.pdf. Accessed on 8 June 2008 Business Standard (2020) Covid-19 lockdown: millions stranded and vulnerable; burdening healthcare. Business Standard, 5 Apr 2020. https://www.business-standard.com/article/politics/covid19-lockdown-millions-stranded-and-vulnerable-burdening-healthcare-120040500863_1.html. Accessed on 8 Apr 2020 Federal Emergency Management Agency (2007) Principles of emergency management supplement. https://www.fema.gov/media-library-data/20130726-1822-25045-7625/principles_of_ emergency_management.pdf. Accessed on 11 Nov 2019 Fritz Institute (2005) Recipient perceptions of aid effectiveness: rescue, relief and rehabilitation in tsunami affected Indonesia, India and Sri Lanka. San Francisco: Fritz Institute. http://www. fritzinstitute.org/PDFs/findings/NineMonthReport.pdf. Accessed on 8 June 2008 Hick JL, Hanfling D, Cantrill SV (2012) Allocating scarce resources in disasters: emergency department principles. Ann Emerg Med 59(3):177–187 India Today (2019) Ayodhya countdown begins: political leaders appeal for peace, security measures stepped up. India Today, 5 Nov 2019. https://www.indiatoday.in/india/story/ayodhyasupreme-court-verdict-peace-security-1616570-2019-11-07. Accessed on 9 Nov 2019 India Today (2020) Hit by lockdown, stranded on roads: migrant labourers walk for days to reach home. India Today, 26 Mar 2020. https://www.indiatoday.in/india/story/coronavirus-outbreaklockdown-migrant-workers-condition-1659868-2020-03-26. Accessed on 8th March 2020 Inel M, Ozmen HB, Akyol E (2013) Observations on the building damage after 19 May 2011 Simav (Turkey) earthquake. Bull Earthq Eng 11:255–283 Rupam Jain (2019) India tightens security ahead of verdict on contested religious site. Reuters, 5 Nov 2019. https://in.reuters.com/article/india-religion-temple/india-ramps-up-security-aheadof-verdict-on-ayodhya-idINKBN1XI0SR. Accessed on 9 Nov 2019 Joy S (2020) Migrant labourers bear the brunt of the coronavirus lockdown. Deccan Herald, 5 Apr 2020. https://www.deccanherald.com/specials/insight/migrant-labourers-bear-the-bruntof-the-coronavirus-lockdown-821525.html . Accessed on 8 Mar 2020 Maurice J (2013) Mitigating disasters—a promising start. Lancet 381:1611 Miranda E, Mosqueda G, Retamales R, Pekcan G (2012) Performance of nonstructural components during the 27 February 2010 Chile erathquake. Earthquake Spectra 28:S453–S471 Nag A (2020) India jobless rate swells above 23% amid coronavirus lockdown, survey shows. Economics Times, 7 Apr 2020. https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/jobs/india-joblessrate-swells-above-23-amid-coronavirus-lockdown-survey-shows/articleshow/75023958.cms. Accessed on 8 Mar 2020 Pan American Health Organization (2000) Natural disasters: protecting the Public’s Health, Scientific Publication No. 575. Pan American Health Organization, Washington, ISBN 9275315752 Ramirez M, Peek-Asa C (2005) Epidemiology of traumatic injuries from earthquakes. Epidemiol Rev 27:47–55 Ramkumar R (2020) Farmers are at their wits’ end. The Hindu, 7 Apr 2020. https://www.thehindu.com/opinion/op-ed/farmers-are-at-their-wits-end/article31273857.ece. Accessed on 8 Feb 2020 Shapira S, Aharonson-Daniel L, Bar-Dayan Y (2018a) Anticipated behavioral response patterns to an earthquake: the role of personal and household characteristics, risk perception, previous experience and preparedness. Int J Disaster Risk Reduct 31:1–8 Shapira S, Levi T, Bar-Dayan Y, Aharonson-Daniel L (2018b) The impact of behavior on the risk of injury and death during an earthquake: a simulation-based study. Nat Hazards 91, 1059–1074. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11069-018-3167-5 Sharma DC (2015) Nepal earthquake exposes gaps in disaster preparedness. Lancet 385:1819

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Telegraph India (2020) Coronavirus: with 17 migrant workers dead, lockdown and not Covid-19 claims 20 lives. Telegraph India, 30 Mar 2020. https://www.telegraphindia.com/india/coronavirus-with-17-migrant-workers-dead-lockdown-and-not-covid-19-claims-20-lives/cid/1760595. Accessed on 8 Mar 2020 The Hindu (2019) Jammu and Kashmir: a timeline of recent events. The Hindu, 5 Aug 2019. https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/jammu-and-kashmir-a-timeline-of-events-leadingto-imposition-of-144-crpc-and-house-arrest-of-leaders/article28819542.ece. Accessed on 11 Nov 2019 The Times of India (2019) Ayodhya verdict: schools & liquor shops shut in Karnataka. The Times of India, 5 Nov 2019. https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/bengaluru/ayodhya-verdictschools-liquor-shops-shut-in-karnataka/articleshow/71978358.cms. Accessed on 9 Nov 2019 Times Now News (2019) All schools, colleges in UP, MP, Delhi, Karnataka, Jammu, Rajasthan to remain closed today. Times Now News, 5 Nov 2019. https://www.timesnownews.com/education/article/all-schools-colleges-in-uttar-pradesh-to-remain-closed-till-nov-11-as-sc-set-todeliver-ayodhya-verdict/513212. Accessed on 9 Nov 2019 WHO (2020a) Report of the WHO-China Joint Mission on Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19). Geneva, Switzerland: WHO. https://www.who.int/docs/default-source/coronaviruse/whochina-joint-mission-on-covid-19-final-report.pdf. Accessed on 8 Apr 2020 WHO (2020b) WHO Director-General’s opening remarks at the media briefing on COVID-19 11 March 2020. https://www.who.int/dg/speeches/detail/who-director-general-s-openingremarks-at-the-media-briefing-on-covid-19%2D%2D-11-march-2020. Accessed on 8 April 2020 WHO (2020c) Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) situation report  – 78. https://www. who.int/docs/default-source/coronaviruse/situation-reports/20200407-sitrep-78-covid-19. pdf?sfvrsn=bc43e1b_2. Accessed on 8 Apr 2020 Wilson P, Reilly D, Russell R, Wright M, Arini A, Cempaka D, Diastami E, Narulita L, Anindita MA, BowoSantosa YJD, Handani Y, Wahyuningsih YT (2007) Joint evaluation of their responses to the Yogyakarta earthquake. Jakarta: CARE, Catholic Relief Services, Save the Children and World Vision Indonesia. http://crs.org/publications/pdf/M&E200707_e.pdf. Accessed on 8 June 2008 Wisner B, Adams J (eds) (2002) Environmental health in emergencies and disasters: a practical guide. WHO, Geneva

Part III

Adaptation

Chapter 11

Living with Environmental Diseases

Abstract  Many illnesses may not respond to preventive actions and will be d­ ifficult to anticipate. When the community, nation or world fails to get rid of a health risk, then people need to live with the disease causative agents and the disease itself. Effective adaptation methods can greatly help to keep infected and non-infected people apart, thereby reducing the spread of diseases in the environment. This chapter discusses some of the adaption ideas, practices and strategies the world has witnessed to live with environmental diseases.

11.1  Introduction Adaptation means getting adjusted to varying circumstances. Many illnesses may not respond to preventive actions and will be difficult to anticipate (Patz 1996). When a community, a nation or the world fails to get rid of a health risk, then people need to live with the disease. The COVID-19 pandemic created huge personal, economic, as well as social damages. It has also ended many lives. COVID-19 pandemic introduced many adaptation techniques to be followed live with disease that include the following: • Carry out only urgent work and postpone some work to future, that is when the risk is lower • Deliver services by phone or video instead of in person • Ensure only essential workers at the workplace • Minimize the presence of third parties • Reduce physical contact between workers during meetings/breaks • Eliminate physical interaction with customers • Place an impervious barrier between workers • Provide soaps and hand sanitizers at workplace • Provide all necessary PPE • Place posters to encourage staying home when sick • Encourage work from home wherever possible • Introduce online classes in schools

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 R. Chandrappa, D. B. Das, Environmental Health - Theory and Practice, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-64484-0_11

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11.2  Improving Basic Public Health and Healthcare Services Undisputedly, we live in a world of limited resources. There are limitations with respect to money available in the world around which economics revolves. Individuals, organizations and government have to allocate and spend the available resources. Countries all over the world want to increase their GDP, but certainly no individual wants to lose his/her health and become hospitalized so as to increase the GDP of his/her country no matter how patriotic he/she may be. The health expenditure varies from year to year and from country to country. However, the healthcare sector provides wide opportunities, which include health educators, doctors, paramedical staff, drug manufacturers, ambulance drivers/operators, staff in medical and paramedical institutions, medical equipment manufacturers, staff in medical establishments, researchers and staff in pharmaceutical and medical equipment manufacturing company, etc. In addition, health care also supports the livelihood of people who work in packaging, transportation, linen/bed/furniture/stationary manufacturing and construction sectors, fruit/vegetable/food vendors, etc., whose services revolve around health care. The additional health expenditure varied from 1.9% of GDP (Lao PDR) to 17.1% of GDP (Marshall Islands and USA) in the year 2014. Health economics in a government is required: • • • • • •

To make budgetary allocation To estimate probable expenditure to be incurred in next financial year/years To evaluate the relative costs as well as benefits of particular policy options To find out the source of healthcare financing To formulate health services To request/accept international financial aid The four major types of economic analysis in health are as follows:

1. Cost-minimization: In this type of analysis, only the inputs are compared, and outputs are considered to be equal. 2. Cost–benefit: Here, all outputs are measured in monetary terms. 3. Cost-effectiveness: In this type of analysis, a clinical output such as mortality, morbidity, reduction in blood pressure or quality of life, etc., is measured as a measure of the effectiveness. 4. Cost utility: This measure to allocate a quality of life value. Considerable skills are required in management of health resources so as to support, supervise and evaluate health activities in an area. Health services need to be organized in a way that they meet the health needs, as well as the people’s demands. Healthcare personnel management is required to use the human resources skilfully and efficiently apart from a management information system. An efficient management information system would include easy collection as well as timely, regular update and utilization of data.

11.2 Improving Basic Public Health and Healthcare Services

229

Emergency health infrastructure plays major role in combating health e­ mergencies. Wuhan, China, where novel corona virus outbreak started and spread across the world started to construct makeshift hospitals that included transforming local exhibition centre, sports stadium and cultural complex into hospitals. As of 28 February 2020, 16 temporary hospitals were constructed in Wuhan, China, adding 13,000 beds, that treated 12,000 people. These hospitals were closed after the cases of novel corona virus disease declined (India today 2020). Even though primary health care aims to ensure health of citizens in the community, disposal of biomedical waste unscientifically can induce spread of diseases. Utmost care is required to dispose the biomedical waste. A robust health infrastructure shall include but not restricted to the following: • Network of well-equipped healthcare establishment sufficient to cater for the need of society • Ambulances to reach patient within a short span of time and transfer patient before his/her condition deteriorates • Sufficient number of life-saving drug manufacturing factories and network of dealers/distributors so as to reach the needy in time • Waste collection and disposal facility that is generated in healthcare sector • Health surveillance Most health adaptation focus on enhancement in public health functions to decrease the current adaptation deficit like monitoring environmental exposures, enhancing ailment surveillance, facilitating coordination between health and other sectors, as well as improving disaster risk management (Woodward et  al. 2011). This is significant because the present health status of a community might be the single most significant predictor of both the future health impacts of climate change and the expenses of adaptation (Pandey 2010). Examples of health adaptations include beginning of vaccination programmes in the United States (Tate et al. 2009), improving the resilience of susceptible populations to heat waves by cooling of healthcare facilities, monitoring those in the highest risk population, training staff to recognize and treat heat strain (WHO Regional Office for Europe 2009) and expanding health insurance arrangements, so that diseases can be treated promptly and effectively (Dossou and Glehouenou-­ Dossou 2007). Failure of hospital quality assurance will result in failure to influence physicians’ therapeutic decisions (Restuccia and Holloway 1982). As observed by the literature, even though quantitative improvement is achieved in majority of states of India, the quality needs scrutiny (Sharma 2012). Quality control should not be restricted to boundaries of hospital. The hospitals procure many medicines, equipment and consumables, and the cure or recovery of patient depends on quality of these items too. Lack of quality control in manufacture of equipment, drugs, and consumables invariably reflects on recovery of patient. The issue is true in many parts of the world. Adaptation strategy should ensure quality of healthcare service besides increasing number of healthcare establishment and professionals. Clinical governance and better human resource management practices

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are important in quality assurance to patient care. Poor quality healthcare service will do more harm to patient instead of helping him to recover. Hence, adaptation strategy for environmental health should aim to invest in quality management programme.

11.3  Health Adaptation Policies and Measures Ailment related to health can happen due to many reasons. Communities that do not decrease the urban heat island effect may be forced to depend on air-conditioning to reduce heat stress (Health Canada 2012). Communities that do not lessen contamination of drinking water recourse may be forced to depend on water purifier at the point of use. Communities that do not lessen air-borne disease may be forced to wear PPEs and impose community lockdown. Absence of vaccine for tackling this COVID19 relayed upon preventing or slowing using PPEs (Rowan and Laffey 2020). Telemedicine (TM) became one of the adaptation strategies of communities to live with the disease. In 2013, 75 million E-Visits out of 600 million appointments occurred in the United States and Canada (Voran 2015). Mobile videoconferencing applications enable consultations between patients and healthcare providers from any location (Zhang et al. 2016). From 2 March 2020 to 14 April 2020, telemedicine visits at NYU Langone Health in the United States increased from 102.4 to 801.6 daily in response to COVID-19 (Mann et al. 2020). TM has the potential to help by allowing mildly sick patients to get the helpful care at the same time as reducing their exposure to other acutely sick patients (Portnoy et al. 2020).

11.3.1  Vulnerability Mapping Technologies can be used to map urban heat island and alert public health authorities to populations that may be at risk of heat waves (Luber and McGeehin 2008). Spatial modelling of geo-referenced climate and environmental information was used to identify characteristics of domestic malaria transmission in 2009–2012 in Greece to guide malaria control efforts (Sudre et al. 2013). In Portugal, modelling of Lyme disease indicated that future conditions more favourable in the centre and northern parts of the country but will be less favourable for disease transmission in the south (Casimiro et al. 2006).

11.3.2  Early Warning Systems Early warning systems have been developed in many areas to prevent negative health impacts through alerting public health authorities and the general public about climate-related health risks. COVID-19 apps – mobile software applications

11.4 Personal Protective Equipments (PPEs)

231

that use digital contact tracing – were encouraged by governments across the world. Effective early warning systems take into consideration the range of factors that can drive risk and are developed in collaboration with end users (Smith et al. 2014).

11.4  Personal Protective Equipments (PPEs) PPEs are the last safety barriers with respect to hazard. PPEs took high importance among people across the world to safeguard themselves from virus. The abrupt outbreak of COVID-19 led to a shortage in PPE. The published studies concluded that rational use and successful reuse of PPEs can help in the shortage of PPE at the time of pandemic (Boškoski et  al. 2020). But studies by revealed that frontline healthcare workers had a significantly increased risk of COVID-19 infection, and adequate supplies of PPE did not totally mitigate high-­risk exposures. Failure to curb ambient noise compels people to use hearing protectors to live with the noise. The choice of hearing protectors depends on a number of factors that include the level of noise, comfort, as well as the suitability of the PPEs for the worker/environment. The temporary threshold shifts observed in experiments with perforated earplugs for exposures to the high-level impulses indicated no significant hazard for hearing (Dancer et al. 1992). Studies by Ramakers et al. (2016) reveal that earplug use is effective in preventing temporary hearing loss following loud music exposure. Hence, the PPEs for noise, such as ear plugs and war muffs, are used at workplace by few individuals who are expected to work in noisy places where insulators/barriers and suppression at source are not feasible. Air pollutants can come in contact with any body part that is exposed to air apart from the internal epithelial tissue that comes in contact with air when inhaled. The air pollutants include acid mist and radioactive substances. PPEs to cope with air pollution include goggles, protective cloths, respirator, shoes and gloves depending on the severity of air pollutant the person is likely to be exposed. Wastewater workers are exposed to various occupational hazards such as gases, viruses, chemicals and bacteria. Personal protective equipment (PPE) can reduce the probability of an accident from exposure to hazardous chemicals and microbial contaminants (Wright et al. 2019; Malakahmad et al. 2012). Personnel at water and wastewater treatment plants are subjected to various occupation all health hazards during operation, monitoring, material handling etc. Using the following personal protective equipment (PPE) prevents needless injuries when manually moving materials: • • • •

Gloves for hand protection Goggles for eye protection Steel-toed safety shoes or boots for foot protection Protective clothing like flame-resistant suits, aprons, leggings, leather sleeves/ shoulder capes, and caps for exposure to chemicals, heat, sparks etc. • Helmet for head protection

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• Ear muffs or plugs for ear protection

11.5  Social Distancing, Lockdown and Change in Lifestyle Social distancing and lockdown (Fig. 11.1) have been used for mitigating the spread of COVID-19, but they soon become an adaptation strategy to live with the disease. Under-investment in public healthcare system posed a challenge to COVID 19 containment plans in many countries across the globe. The death toll due to COVID-19 in India reached 72,775 as on 8 September 2020 (Shoury 2020). The nation extended lock-down from March 24th 2020 to May 3rd 2020 to curb the spread of COVID-19 virus. Even though India was not among the worst-hit countries at that time, experts felt that grossly under-funded, patchy public health system, with vast variations among different states, posed unusual challenges for the nation’s disease containment strategy (Chetterje 2020). On the other hand, the United States passed Coronavirus Aid, Relief, and the Economic Security (CARES) Act 2020 on 27 March, incorporating numerous public health provisions that included $945 million for the National Institutes of Health (NIH) (Redeker 2020). The problem was not first of its kind faced by the world. In the spring of 1918, when the Spanish Flu (H1N1) first appeared in the United States, the nation’s nursing resources were spread thin due to deployments linked with World War I (Redeker 2020). The COVID-19 pandemic which was cause of 4.3 million confirmed cases besides more than 290,000 deaths worldwide just did not affect the health of human life. The pandemic sparked fears of an impending economic crisis as well as ­recession. Self-isolation, social distancing and travel restrictions led to a decreased Fig. 11.1  Lockdown of street in response to identification of COVID-­19 case

11.5 Social Distancing, Lockdown and Change in Lifestyle

233

workforce across all economic sectors and linked to several job losses. Schools were closed down, and the requirement for commodities and manufactured products has reduced. But the demand for medical supplies significantly increased (Nicola et al. 2020). There are considerable gaps in our knowledge of zoonotic pathogens (Cantlay et al. 2017). Avoiding bush meat and wet market as source of food will not only promote it as mitigation strategy, but it will also qualify as adaptation strategy wherein people live with pathogens within the locality but sufficiently away from them to get into body. Similarly, avoiding fish will prevent people from consuming food with bio-­accumulated toxic substance. In many cases, it is totally unavoidable to eliminate disaster-related damage to property, obstruction to road (Fig.  11.2), flooding in street and injury to human beings. Community shall live with such situation if it is not prepared for mitigating such situations. When community as a whole is not able to control/eliminate mosquito, individuals have to adapt to the situation by using mosquito net/repellents. Establishments Fig. 11.2  Fall of tree branches due to heavy rain

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and houses may have to install insect killing device to protect the people in establishment/houses. Virtual tourism, home entertainment and distant learning were one of the adaptation strategy world adapted at the time of COVID-19. This adaptation method can greatly help to keep infected and non-infected person apart, thereby reducing spreading of disease in environment. Online learning has become the norm, and many academic societies have combined resources to ensure continuing medical education at the time of COVID-19 pandemic (Schneider and Council 2020; Kanneganti et al. 2020; Woolliscroft 2020).

References Boškoski I, Gallo C, Wallace MB, Costamagna G (2020) COVID-19 pandemic and personal protective equipment shortage: protective efficacy comparing masks and scientific methods for respirator reuse. Gastrointest Endosc, S0016-5107(20)34247-4. Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gie.2020.04.048 Cantlay JC, Ingram DJ, Meredith AL (2017) A review of zoonotic infection risks associated with the wild meat trade in Malaysia. EcoHealth 14(2):361–388. https://doi.org/10.1007/ s10393-­017-­1229-­x Casimiro E, Calheiros J, Santos FD, Kovats RS (2006) National assessment of health effects of climate change in Portugal: approach and key findings. Environ Health Perspect 114(12):1950–1956 Chetterje P (2020) Gaps in India’s preparedness for COVID-19 control. Lancet Infect Dis 20(5):544. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1473-­3099(20)30300-­5 Dancer A, Grateau P, Cabanis A, Barnabé G, Cagnin G, Vaillant T, Lafont D (1992) Effectiveness of earplugs in high-intensity impulse noise. J Acoust Soc Am 91(3):1677–1689. https://doi. org/10.1121/1.402447 Dossou K, Glehouenou-Dossou B (2007) The vulnerability to climate change of Cotonou (Benin): the rise in sea level. Environ Urban 19:65–79 Health Canada (2012) Heat alert and response systems to protect health: best practices guidebook. Health Canada, Ottawa India Today (2020) Wuhan closes makeshift hospital as new coronavirus cases in China drop sharply, 2 Mar 2020. https://www.indiatoday.in/world/story/wuhan-­coronavirus-­makeshift-­ hospital-­1651585-­2020-­03-­02. Accessed on 16 Mar 2020 Kanneganti A, Lim K, Chan G, Choo SN, Choolani M, Ismail-Pratt I, Logan S (2020) Pedagogy in a pandemic  - COVID-19 and virtual continuing medical education (vCME) in obstetrics and gynecology. Acta Obstet Gynecol Scand 99(6):692–695. https://doi.org/10.1111/ aogs.13885 Luber G, McGeehin M (2008) Climate change and extreme heat events. Am J Prev Med 35(5):429–435 Malakahmad A, Downe AG, Fadzil SD (2012) Application of occupational health and safety management system at sewage treatment plants. IEEE Bus Eng Ind Appl Colloq 2012:347–350. https://doi.org/10.1109/BEIAC.2012.6226080 Mann DM, Chen J, Chunara R, Testa PA, Nov O (2020) COVID-19 transforms health care through telemedicine: evidence from the field. J Am Med Inform Assoc 27(7):1132–1135. https://doi. org/10.1093/jamia/ocaa072

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Nicola M, Alsafi Z, Sohrabi C, Kerwan A, Al-Jabir A, Iosifidis C, Agha M, Agha R (2020) The socio-economic implications of the coronavirus pandemic (COVID-19): a review. Int J Surg (London, England) 78:185–193. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijsu.2020.04.018 Pandey K (2010) Costs of adapting to climate change for human health in developing countries. Discussion Paper No. 11, Economics of Adaptation to Climate Change (EACC) study, The International Bank for Reconstruction and Development/The World Bank, Washington, DC, USA, 19 pp Patz JA (1996) Health adaptations to climate change: need for farsighted, integrated approaches. In: Smith JB et  al (eds) Adapting to climate change. Springer, New  York. https://doi. org/10.1007/978-­1-­4613-­8471-­7_39 Portnoy J, Waller M, Elliott T (2020) Telemedicine in the era of COVID-19. J Allergy Clin Immunol Pract 8(5):1489–1491. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaip.2020.03.008 Ramakers GG, Kraaijenga VJ, Cattani G, van Zanten GA, Grolman W (2016) Effectiveness of earplugs in preventing recreational noise-induced hearing loss: a randomized clinical trial. JAMA Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg 142(6):551–558. https://doi.org/10.1001/jamaoto. 2016.0225 Redeker NS (2020) Advancing the NIH strategic plan and health care needs during the COVID-19 pandemic. Nurs Outlook 68(3):371–373. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.outlook.2020.04.006 Restuccia JD, Holloway DC (1982) Methods of control for hospital quality assurance systems. Health Serv Res 17(3):241–251 Rowan NJ, Laffey JG (2020) Challenges and solutions for addressing critical shortage of supply chain for personal and protective equipment (PPE) arising from Coronavirus disease (COVID19) pandemic - Case study from the Republic of Ireland. Sci Total Environ 725:138532. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.138532 Schneider SL, Council M L (2020) Distance learning in the era of COVID-19. Arch Dermatol Res:1–2. Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00403-­020-­02088-­9 Sharma KD (2012) Implementing quality process in public sector hospitals in India: the journey begins. Indian J Community Med 37(3):150–152. https://doi.org/10.4103/0970-­0218.99909 Shoury S (2020) COVID-19 India updates: 75,809 cases, 1,183 death in last 24 hours | Total Tally Stands at 42,80,423, india.com, https://www.india.com/news/india/covid-­19-­india-­updates-­ 75809-­cases-­1183-­death-­in-­last-­24-­hours-­total-­tally-­stands-­at-­4280423-­4134972/. Accessed on 25 Sept 2020 Smith KR, Woodward A, Campbell-Lendrum D, Chadee DD, Honda Y, Liu Q, Olwoch JM, Revich B, Sauerborn R (2014) Human health: impacts, adaptation, and co-benefits. In: Field CB, Barros VR, Dokken DJ, Mach KJ, Mastrandrea MD, Bilir TE, Chatterjee M, Ebi KL, Estrada YO, Genova RC, Girma B, Kissel ES, Levy AN, MacCracken S, Mastrandrea PR, White LL (eds) Climate Change 2014: Impacts, Adaptation, and Vulnerability. Part A: Global and Sectoral Aspects. Contribution of Working Group II to the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK/ New York, pp 709–754 Sudre B, Rossi M, Van Bortel W, Danis K, Baka A, Vakalis N (2013) Mapping environmental suitability for malaria transmission, Greece. Emerg Infect Dis 19(5):784–786. https://doi. org/10.3201/eid1905.120811 Tate JE, Panozzo CA, Payne DC, Patel MM, Cortese MM, Fowkes AL, Parashar UD (2009) Decline and changes in seasonality of US rotavirus activity after the introduction of a rotavirus vaccine. Pediatrics 124(2):465–471 Voran D (2015) Telemedicine and beyond. Mo Med 112(2):129–135 WHO Regional Office for Europe (2009) Improving public health responses to extreme weather/ heat-waves  – EuroHEAT: technical summary. World Health Organization (WHO) Regional Office for Europe, Copenhagen,60 pp Woodward A, Lindsay G, Singh S (2011) Adapting to climate change to sustain health. WIREs Clim Change 2(2):271–282

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Woolliscroft JO (2020) Innovation in response to the COVID-19 pandemic crisis. Acad Med. https://doi.org/10.1097/ACM.0000000000003402. Advance online publication Wright T, Adhikari A, Yin J, Vogel R, Smallwood S, Shah G (2019) Issue of compliance with use of personal protective equipment among wastewater workers across the southeast region of the United States. Int J Environ Res Public Health 16(11):2009. https://doi.org/10.3390/ ijerph16112009 Zhang K, Liu WL, Locatis C, Ackerman M (2016) Mobile videoconferencing apps for telemedicine. Telemed J E Health 22(1):56–62. https://doi.org/10.1089/tmj.2015.0027

Part IV

Restoration

Chapter 12

Restoration

Abstract  Restoration of any degraded environment needs policy coordination, infrastructure development, control of trade, financial integration into environmental policy, cultural exchanges and enhancing skill and knowledge apart from in situ and ex situ technical interventions. For example, the approaches to restore air and soil are not same for all regions and situations. Restoration may need policy intervention of technical intervention depending on which one is more suitable to the situation. In addressing these points, this chapter discusses the theory and practice of environmental restoration along with relevant case studies.

12.1  Introduction Restoration means bringing back to a former condition. In the case of restoration of environmental components like air, water and soil, various countries can adopt policy coordination, infrastructure development, control of trade, financial integration into environmental policy, cultural exchanges and enhancing skill and knowledge. But technical intervention may happen in situ (at the site) or ex situ (away from site). Ex situ is an option to transfer smaller quantity of contaminated soil/waste and return it after treatment wherever the practice proves economical. But, in the case of air and water, in situ restoration is practised.

12.2  Restoring Clean Air Restoration of clean air may need policy intervention of technical intervention depending on which one is more suitable to the situation. Figure 12.1 shows some of the reasons for air pollution. Sprinkling may be one of the options in places like mines and quarries to suppress the dust at ground level. But in case of air pollution in a city, the option could be installing air purifier or restricting polluting operation. Trial operations in Xi’an, China, revealed 80% air filtering efficiency of the 100-metre-tall ‘anti-smog tower’ with filtration capacity of 8,000,000 m3/d during the winter and 16 million m3/d in the summer. The device invented by Dutch startup is capable of removing up to 95% of ultrafine particles (particles with 50 μg/l to about 21 μg/l over the 7 years (Barry and David 2009). Biomanipulation by eliminating benthivorous along with zooplanktivorous fish has been used to improve in addition to restore lake water quality since several years (Shapiro and Wright 1984; Jeppesen et al. 1990a, 1990b; Moss et al. 1996; Perrow et al. 1997; Martin et al. 2017).

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CONTAMINATION SOURCE

GROUND WATER TABLE

To Pump

CONTAMINATION SOURCE

To Pump

GROUND WATER TABLE

Fig. 12.4  Lowering a water table to eliminate contact with contaminated soil

The aim of reducing the fish is to increase the zooplankton population that feeds on phytoplankton to create clearer water. Elimination of benthivorous fish species also enhances quality of lake water in shallow lakes by decreasing the resuspension of sediment as well as nutrient recycling caused due to activity of fishes (Jeppesen et al. 2012; Fulton et al. 2015) and reducing the quantity of loose sediment (Scheffer et  al. 2003). Many biomanipulation examples have been recorded in the past (Jeppesen et al. 2012; Hansson et al. 1998; Søndergaard et al. 2008; Peretyatko et al. 2012; Meijer et al. 1999), and the effects have sometimes been weak (Gulati and van Donk 2002; Søndergaard et al. 2007). In some biomanipulation projects, a tendency to return to the earlier turbid conditions after 5–10 years has been noticed (Søndergaard et al. 2008). Adequate decrease of the

12.3 Restoring Water Bodies

245

Table 12.1  In-lake techniques to restore lakes Type of S. in-lake No. action 1 Physical action

2

Chemical measures

3

Biological measures

Method Aeration and circulation Dredging

Description Techniques involve transferring oxygen to water to enhance dissolved oxygen levels in water This method involves removing sediment to remove nutrients and toxic sediments Dilution and In this method, nutrient-poor water is introduced to flushing lake to flush out polluted water. Dilution and flushing results in reducing concentration of nutrient and washout of algal cells On-shore treatment These methods involve pumping water onshore, techniques treating it and then allowing it to re-enter the lake Harvesting This method involves removing nutrients from the system by harvesting plants and animals This method is adopted to prevent/reduce the nutrient Lake bottom sealing release from bottom of lake by covering with plastic sheets, usually 0.1-mm thick (Krishan 1982) Phosphorus This method involves the use of chemicals such as precipitation alum to precipitate phosphorus in water Use of herbicides This method involves the treatment of chemical for and algaecides control of macrophytes as well as algal blooms. Copper sulphate has been extensively used for controlling blue–green algae in water bodies (Janik et al. 1980) Bottom sealing This method is used to cut off sediment as a source of nutrients by the application of chemicals like calcium nitrate or alum Direct nutrient This method involves reducing the effect of control phosphorus by binding with chemicals such as ferric chloride, alum or calcium nitrate Fish control This method uses pesticides that are toxic to Specific undesirable fish Biomanipulation In this technique, fish species that feed on zooplankton is removed from water bodies to encourage the growth of the zooplankton Population Introduction of This method has been used to manage exotic plant control species species. For example, control purple loosestrife by the use of the Galerucella beetles that feed on the leaves

nutrient loading from external sources is critical to get permanent effects (Jeppesen et al. 1990a; Moss et al. 1996; Benndorf et al. 2002; Mehner et al. 2002). In shallow lakes, total phosphate concentrations less than 0.05 mg/l have been suggested as a pre-requirement for biomanipulation (Jeppesen et  al. 2000) and adequate number of fish has to be removed, based on phosphate concentrations (Jeppesen and Sammalkorpi 2002).

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Table 12.2  Outside-lake techniques to restore lakes S. Type of No. in-lake action 1 Physical action

2

Chemical measures

Method Treatment of inflowing water Reduction in sediment input Chemical clarification

Ammonia stripping Nutrient and ion removal Active carbon adsorption Disinfection 3

4

Biological measures

Watershed management

Secondary biological treatment Wetland protection/ restoration Controlling, agricultural pollutants

Description This involves a physical treatment such as primary sedimentation and filtration This method involves the formation of check dams upstream of the reservoir, the diversion of sediment-­ laden bottom water and the use of sediment pools This method involves clarification with coagulants and precipitants. Properly conducted chemical clarification can reduce concentrations of organic matter, phosphorus and metals (Cohen and Westrick 1975, Burns and Shell 1973) Ammonia stripping is achieved by spraying/sprinkling ammonia containing polluted water so that ammonia in the water moves out This technique involves the treatment methods like alumina adsorption, alum/polyelectrolyte coagulation The method involves the treatment using activated carbon for adsorbing pollutants The method involves the disinfection by chemicals such as chlorine and ozone The method involves biological treatment such as activated sludge process and sequential batch reactor This method uses wetland which settles suspended solids and absorbs the nutrients The practices in this method include:  Agrochemical management  Animal feedlot runoff controls  Conservation tillage  Contour farming  Crop rotations  Fencing  Filter strips and vegetated buffers  Grassed waterways  Livestock exclusion  Manure management  Nutrient management  Rotational grazing  Terracing  Water and sediment control basin (continued)

12.4 Restoring Contaminated Land Sites

247

Table 12.2 (continued) S. Type of No. in-lake action

Method Urban pollutants

Erosion and sedimentation

Description The practices in this method include:  Catch basin filters  Cleaning storm sewer as well as catch basins  Impervious surface reduction  In-line storm water treatment devices  Introduction of detention/infiltration basins to collect  Lawn aeration  Low impact development  Pet waste clean-up  Rain gardens or native plantings  Septic system upgradation  Yard waste clean-up The practices in this method include:  Erosion control practices on construction sites  Covering exposed area with plants  Directing runoff to holding areas to prevent pollutants from leaving the site

In shallow lakes, widespread cover of submerged macrophytes is imperative for maintaining beside stabilizing clear water conditions (Jeppesen et al. 1998), and the complete biomanipulation success might depend on the nutrient loading internal sources as well as the activities of fish recolonization, macrophyte abundance and nutrient concentrations (Peretyatko et al. 2012; Søndergaard et al. 2007; Gulati et al. 2008). If a biomanipulation carried out for the first time is not positive in the long term, a second biomanipulation requires less effort (Jeppesen et al. 2012).

12.4  Restoring Contaminated Land Sites Introduction of new chemicals has caused significant soil contamination across the world. Table 12.3 lists some of the sources and known impact on the health due to chemicals. Soil pollution/contamination can occur due to, but not restricted to, the following: 1. Settlement of air pollutants 2. Oil/chemical spillage 3. Use of agro chemicals 4. Solid waste disposal 5. Water pollution 6. Open defecation 7. Construction activity and 8. Mining

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Table 12.3  Sources and known impact on health due to chemicals Chemical of concern Source Known impact on health Bone marrow and blood diseases Arsenic Agrochemicals Can lead to chronic arsenicosis Antifouling paint Cardiovascular disease Coal burning Causes cancer and diabetes Electronics industry Gold/lead/copper/nickel/iron as well Gastrointestinal tract, skin, heart and liver diseases as steel mining and/or processing Increased risk of miscarriage, stillbirth and Leather preservatives pre-term birth Pharmaceutical and glass industries Neurological damage Pigments Poison bait Sheep dip and Wood preservatives Asbestos-related pleural abnormalities Asbestos Building demolitions Lung carcinoma Factories handling asbestos Parenchymal asbestosis Mining and milling of raw asbestos Pleural mesothelioma Repair, renovation, removal or maintenance of asbestos Shipyards Benzene Benzene either gets degraded by bacteria or volatilizes back to air unless present in extremely high quantities Carcinogenic (by inhalation) Cadmium Burning coal or garbage containing Kidney and liver damage cadmium Low bone density Electronic goods Metal plating Mine tailings Phosphate fertilizer Pigments Rechargeable batteries Sewage sludge Solar cells Steel Water pipes Zinc smelting Cause cancer Dioxin Contaminated herbicides (a major Cause reproductive as well as source) developmental problems Paper and pulp industry Damage the immune system Reprocessing metal industry Interfere with hormones Stored PCB-based industrial waste oils Waste incineration Fluoride Present in geological strata Skeletal fluorosis (continued)

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Table 12.3 (continued) Chemical of concern Source Lead Ammunition Batteries Ceramic glaze Coal burning Fishing equipment Hair colour Leaded gasoline Mining Paint Pigments Plumbing Solder Water pipes Mercury Batteries Burning coal and fuel oil Chloralkali industry Dental fillings Electrical switches Fluorescent light bulbs Lamps Medical waste Mining Pesticides Thermometers Hazardous Herbicides derived from pesticides trinitrotoluene might have the impurity dioxin Synthetic insecticides, like DDT (which is now banned in many parts of world), can still be found in the environment across world

Known impact on health Bone deterioration Encephalopathy Hand–eye co-ordination impaired Hypertension Kidney disease Lowers IQ and attention Neurological damage

Affects development of brain resulting in a lower IQ Affects co-ordination, sense and eyesight of touch Central nervous system (CNS) and gastric system damage Heart, liver and kidney damage Teratogenic

Conclusive proof of cause as well as effect in humans is challenging. Humans and animals tend to be exposed to a mixture of these chemicals at low levels

Source: Science Communication Unit, University of the West of England, Bristol (2013).

Each of the above reasons will have multiple subcomponents. Solid waste is mixture of reacted and unreacted chemicals which arise from paints, cosmetic, kitchens, toilet cleaning agents and raw material/products/waste from industries. Many of the components and chemicals in waste streams are not fully understood and so as their effects on the environment. Despite its importance and unlike water and air, there is no law for the protection of soil in many parts of the world. Due to several years of industrialization, contamination of soil is a prevalent problem in Europe with mineral oil and heavy metals being most frequent contaminants (Science Communication Unit, University of the West of England, Bristol 2013). According to the European Environment Agency (EEA 2007), the number of locations where significant polluting activities have been done in EU is about three millions out of which about 250,000 sites may need

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immediate remediation. Such estimations are not easily available for other countries because the countries neither have capacity/capability or it is not a priority. Many nations do have detailed soil monitoring programme to measure soil quality, but industrial and urban area are hardly monitored. Soils vary considerably with respect to chemical and physical properties across the globe that are significant to human health, since parent material, climate, organisms, topography as well as time will lead to soils with different chemical and physical properties. Soil properties will affect the water-holding capability and chemical reactions are likely to occur in soil. These factors will decide what happens to contaminants in soils. Some key points with respect to the effects of soil contamination on health (Van-­ Camp et al. 2004) are as follows: • Soil pollution from point sources is unintentional. It occurs due to insignificant but continual losses/emissions or handling spills or accidents. • Consumer behaviour as well as the industrial sector is causative to the raise in the number of potential sources of contamination. • In Central as well as Eastern Europe, numerous problems arise from past activities as well as poor management practices. Problem areas include former abandoned industrial facilities, as well as storage sites (Andersen 2000). Soil can enter our bodies via inhalation and the foods we eat and through the skin. Children are very likely to consume soil while playing, while adults may consume soil by eating fruits/vegetables with soil attached. When consumed, some chemicals are absorbed into the body and bloodstream, whereas some chemicals are disintegrated to some extent and others may remain in the gut. While in the gut they may not result in adverse health impact, unless these chemicals have direct toxicity on the gut lining. Working with soil and rocks (Das et  al. 1998) releases particles which when inhaled would affect health of workers and others nearby. Particles may stay in the lungs, and pollutants might be absorbed into the bloodstream. Contaminants in soil can enter food chain. Biomagnifications at different levels of food chain can end up in multiplication of concentration of toxic contaminants. Cadmium enters agricultural soils due to air pollution and from application of phosphate fertilizers as well as sewage sludge. Re-suspension of dust in heavily contaminated areas can cause a considerable crop contamination as well as human exposure via ingestion as well as inhalation (WHO/UNECE 2006). Lead exposure to children in the early stages of their development is connected to a decrease in intelligence. Studies propose that intelligent quotient is reduced by at least 1–3 points for each 10 μg/dl of blood lead (Canfield et al. 2003; Chen et al. 2005; Morgan 2013). This small effect on many individuals could be a significant burden to the society, with reduced overall intellectual performance and resulting economic losses.

12.4 Restoring Contaminated Land Sites

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According to UNEP (2013), considerable knowledge gaps exist about behaviour of mercury in the environment. Rice grown in areas having many mining, coal-­ ­ powered industry or smelting have shown to be affected (Science Communication Unit, University of the West of England) Bristol (2013). Dioxins (family of structurally as well as chemically related polychlorinated dibenzofurans (PCDFs) as well as polychlorinated dibenzo para dioxins (PCDDs)) are highly toxic besides they can result in damage to the immune system, reproductive and developmental problems interfering with hormones besides causing cancer. Humans have exposure of dioxins resulting in body burden of these chemicals at higher concentrations. Once dioxins enter the body, they stay for a long time due to their chemical stability as well as their capability to be stored in fat of body (WHO 2010a, b). Proven principles hold good for soil pollution control, such as the following: 1. Common but differential responsibility 2. Integration of environmental considerations in processes of decision-making 3. Precautionary principle 4. Polluters pay principle 5. Public participation 6. Sustainable development Control of soil pollution involves the control of air/water pollution which is the main routes of pollutants to soil. Other source of soil pollution  – improper solid waste disposal and accidental/intentional dumping of hazardous chemicals – also addressed. Failure to mitigate environmental damage necessitates remediation followed by adaptation (medical treatment, living with disease, making changes in lifestyles, etc.). The economic burden for mitigation is minimal and adaption would be costlier. Remediation is required if the society fails to mitigate environmental damage and the adaptation is required when society fails to take up remedial measures to set the right damaged environment. Soil pollution control aims at reducing/preventing/cutting off of contamination/pollution, whereas soil remedial measures should aim at removing contamination. The remediation can be achieved by in situ, off-site (ex-site) and on-site methods listed below: • • • • •

Excavation and disposal of soil to central treatment facilities (ex-site) Excavation and soil disposal at landfills (ex-site) Excavation and soil disposal at treatment facilities (on-site) Forced leaching (in situ) Methods using construction of equipment as well as techniques (on-site, in situ) and • Soil vapour extraction (in situ) The remedial techniques include the following:

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Biological soil treatment (inoculation technique) Bioventilation Chemical treatment Electrokinetics Immobilization (vitrification, stabilization) Leaching of detergents Pneumatic fracturing Steam stripping Method selection depends on numerous factors such as the following:

• • • • • • • • • • • • •

Availability of skilled manpower Costs of the methods Documentation of the methods application Effect of clean-up as well as acceptable residual contamination Geology as well as hydrogeology Land use and layout Legal requirement Location of contamination Resource available Soil type Time available for clean-up Type of contamination Working environment during remedial measures

References Andersen JN (2000) Management of contaminated sites and land in central and Eastern Europe: ad hoc international working group on contaminated land. Danish Environmental Protection Agency, Copenhagen Barry CM, David C (2009) Newman Lake restoration: a case study. Part I. chemical and biological responses to phosphorus control. Lake Reservoir Manag 25:337–350. ISSN: 0743-8141 print/1040-2381. https://doi.org/10.1080/07438140903172907 Benndorf J, Boing W, Koop J, Neubauer I (2002) Topdown control of phytoplankton: the role of time scale, lake depth and trophic state. Freshw Biol 2002(47):2282–2295 Burns DE, and Shell GL(1973) Physical-chemical treatment of a municipal wastewater using powdered carbon. USEPA-R2-73-264. Canfield RL, Henderson CR Jr, Cory-Slechta DA, Cox C, Jusko TA, Lanphear BP (2003) Intellectual impairment in children with blood concentrations below 10 μg per deciliter. N Engl J Med 348:1517–1526 Chandrappa R, Das DB (2012) Solid waste management, principles and practice. Springer, Heidelberg, ISBN 978-3-642-28680-3 Chandrappa R, Das DB (2014) Solid Water Engineering, Theory and Practice. Wiley, West Sussex, ISBN 978-1-118-54104-3 Chen A, Dietrich KN, Ware JH, Radcliffe J, Rogan WJ (2005) IQ and blood lead from 2 to 7 years of age: are the effects in older children the residual of high blood lead concentrations in 2-year-­ olds? Environ Health Perspect 113:597–601

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Cohen JM, Westrick JJ (1975) Overview of physical-chemical treatment. Symposium on Physical-­ Chemical Treatment from Municipal and Industrial Sources, USEPA Das DB, Bhargave A, Kushwaha R, Gupta AB, Pandit MK (1998) Quarrying induced particulate air pollution in Jaipur City, western India. J Nepal Geolog Soc 18:369–378 EEA (2007) Progress in management of contaminated sites (CSI 015). Copenhagen: European Environment Agency. Available at: www.eea.europa.eu/data-­and-­maps/indicators/progress-­in-­ management-­ofcontaminated-­sites/progress-­in-­management-­of-­contaminated-­1. Accessed on 23 Sept 2018 Fulton RS, Godwin WF, Schaus MH (2015) Water quality changes following nutrient loading reduction and biomanipulation in a large shallow subtropical lake, Lake Griffin, Florida, USA. Hydrobiologia 2015(753):243–263 Gulati RD, van Donk E (2002) Lakes in the Netherlands, their origin, eutrophication and restoration: state-of-the-art review. Hydrobiologia 2002(478):73–106 Gulati RD, Pires LMD, van Donk E (2008) Lake restoration studies: failures, bottlenecks and prospects of new ecotechnological measures. Limnologica 2008(38):233–247 Hansson LA, Annadotter H, Bergman E, Hamrin SF, Jeppesen E, Kairesalo T, Luokkanen E, Nilsson P-Å, Søndergaard M, Strand J (1998) Biomanipulation as an application of food-­ chain theory: constraints, synthesis, and recommendations for temperate lakes. Ecosystems 1:558–574 Janik JJ, Taylor WD, Barks JW (1980) A compilation of common algal control and management techniques. U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Washington, DC, p 53 Jeppesen E, Sammalkorpi I (2002) Lakes. In: Perrow MR, Davy AJ (eds) Handbook of ecological restoration, Restoration in practice, vol 2. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK, pp 297–324 Jeppesen E, Søndergaard M, Mortensen E, Kristensen P, Riemann B, Jensen HJ, Müller JP, Sortkjær O, Jensen JP, Christoffersen K, Bosselmann S, Dall E (1990a) Fish manipulation as a lake restoration tool in shallow, eutrophic temperate lakes 1: cross-analysis of three Danish case-studies. Hydrobiologia 1990(200/201):205–218 Jeppesen E, Jensen JP, Kristensen P, Søndergaard M, Mortensen E, Sortkjær O, Olrik K (1990b) Fish manipulation as a lake restoration tool in shallow, eutrophic, temperate lakes 2: threshold levels, long-term stability and conclusions. Hydrobiologia 1990(200/201):219–227 Jeppesen E, Søndergaard M, Søndergaard M, Christoffersen K (eds) (1998) The structuring role of submerged Macrophytes in lakes, ecological studies 131. Springer, New York, NY, USA Jeppesen E, Jensen JP, Søndergaard M, Lauridsen T, Landkildehus F (2000) Trophic structure, species richness and biodiversity in Danish lakes: changes along a phosphorus gradient. Freshw Biol 2000(45):201–213 Jeppesen E, Søndergaard M, Lauridsen TL, Davidson TA, Liu Z, Mazzeo N, Trochine C, Özkan K, Jensen HS, Trolle D, Starling F, Lazzaro X, Johansson LS, Bjerring R, Liboriussen L, Larsen SE, Landkildehus F, Egemose S, Meerhoff M (2012) Biomanipulation as a restoration tool to combat eutrophication: recent advances and future challenges. Adv Ecol Res 2012(47):411–487 Juan W, Shuiping C, Zhu L, Weijie G, Fei Z, Daqiang Y (2012) Case study on rehabilitation of a polluted urban water body in Yangtze River Basin. Environ Sci Poll Res Int 20. https://doi. org/10.1007/s11356-­012-­1351-­9 Krishan P S (1982) Lake restoration methods and feasibility of water quality management in Lake of the woods, State Water Survey Division Surface Water Section At The University Of Illinois, State Water Survey Division Surface Water Section At The University Of Illinois, Prepared for the Illinois Environmental Protection Agency Martin S, Torben LL, Liselotte SJ, Erik J (2017) Repeated fish removal to Restore Lakes: case study of Lake Væng, Denmark—two biomanipulations during 30 years of monitoring. Water 9:43. https://doi.org/10.3390/w9010043 Rajeev Mathew (2020) Startup Reveals ‘The World’s Largest Air Purifier’ To Curb Delhi’s Air Pollution. https://www.mansworldindia.com/more/news/startup-­reveals-­worlds-­largest-­air-­ purifier-­curb-­delhis-­air-­pollution/. Accessed on 22nd Mar 2020

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Mehner T, Benndorf J, Kasprzak P, Koschel R (2002) Biomanipulation of lake ecosystems: successful applications and expanding complexity in the underlying science. Freshw Biol 2002(47):2453–2465 Meijer ML, de Boois I, Scheffer M, Portielje R, Hosper H (1999) Biomanipulation in shallow lakes in the Netherlands: an evaluation of 18 case studies. Hydrobiologia 1999(409):13–30 Morgan R (2013) Soil, Heavy Metals, and Human Health. In: Brevik EC, Burgess LC (eds) Soils and human health. CRC Press, Boca Raton. FL, pp 59–80 Moss B, Madgwick J, Phillips G (1996) A guide to the restoration of nutrient-enriched Shallow Lakes. Norwich, UK, Broads Authority Peretyatko A, Teissier S, de Backer S, Triest L (2012) Biomanipulation of hyper-eutrophic ponds: when it works and why it fails. Environ Monit Assess 2012(184):1517–1531 Perrow MR, Meijer ML, Dawidowicz P, Coops H (1997) Biomanipulation in shallow lakes: state of the art. Hydrobiologia 1997(342):355–365 Santisukkasaem U, Das DB (2018) A non-dimensional analysis of permeability loss in zero-­ valent Iron permeable reactive barrier (PRB). Transp Porous Media. https://doi.org/10.1007/ s11242-­018-­1096-­0 Scheffer M, Portielje R, Zambrano L (2003) Fish facilitate wave resuspension of sediment. Limnol Oceanogr 2003(48):1920–1926 Science Communication Unit, University of the West of England, Bristol (2013). Science for Environment Policy In-depth Report: Soil Contamination: Impacts on Human Health. Report produced for the European Commission DG Environment, September 2013. http://ec.europa. eu/science-­environment-­policy. Accessed on 23 Sept 2018 Shapiro J, Wright DI (1984) Lake restoration by biomanipulation: round Lake, Minnesota, the first 2 years. Freshw Biol 1984(14):371–383 Søndergaard M, Jeppesen E, Lauridsen TL, Skov C, van Nes EH, Roijackers R, Lammens E, Portielje R (2007) Lake restoration: successes, failures and long-term effects. J Appl Ecol 2007(44):1095–1105 Søndergaard M, Liboriussen L, Pedersen AR, Jeppesen E (2008) Lake restoration by fish removal: short- and long-term effects in 36 Danish lakes. Ecosystems 2008(11):1291–1305 Tereza P (2016) Outdoor vacuum cleaner promises to remove lethal exhaust particles from air, E&T, October 26, 2016. https://eandt.theiet.org/content/articles/2016/10/outdoor-­vacuum-­ cleaner-­promises-­to-­remove-­lethal-­exhaust-­particles-­from-­air/. Accessed on 17 Nov 2019 Van-Camp L, Bujarrabal B, Gentile A-R, Jones RJA, Montanarella L, Olazabal C, Selvaradjou S, K (2004) Reports of the technical working groups established under the thematic strategy for soil protection. Luxembourg: Office for Official Publications of the European Communities WHO (2010a) Exposure to arsenic: a major public health concern. World Health Organization, Geneva. Available at: www.who.int/ipcs/features/arsenic.pdf. WHO (2010b) Fact sheet N°225. Dioxins and their effects on human health. World Health Organization, Geneva. Available at: www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs225/en/index.html WHO/UNECE (2006) Health risks of heavy metals from long-range transboundary air pollution. Draft of May 2006. Copenhagen: World Health Organization Regional Office for Europe and Geneva: United Nations Economic Commission for Europe (UNECE). Available at: www. euro.who.int/__data/assets/pdf_file/0007/78649/E91044.pdf

Glossary

Abandoned  Material that is disposed off or incinerated or burnt Absorbent  Material that is able to absorb a gas/liquid Absorbate  Material which has ability to get absorbed Absorption capacity  Extent to which material can be absorbed by other material Absorption  Incorporation of molecules of a matter into the physical arrangement of a solid with no chemical reaction Absorption spectrum  Part of electromagnetic wavelength that is absorbed by a substance Acceleration  Rate of change of velocity is called acceleration Acclimatization  Physiological adaptation of living beings to changing environment and climate Accountability  Liable or responsible for wrongdoing Acid deposition  Atmospheric precipitation of acidic compounds Acid rain  Atmospheric precipitation with low pH Acid  Substance that releases hydrogen ions in water Acquired disease  Disease that begins at some point during lifetime Actinide  Element with an atomic number from 89 to 103 inclusive Action plan  Comprehensive programme of completion of an activity with a time frame Activated carbon  Processed carbon with minute pores that increases surface area which can adsorb molecules coming in contact Activated sludge  Microorganism-laden sludge produced activated sludge process Activated sludge process  A type aerobic wastewater treatment Activation (in the context of radio activity)  Process of inducing radioactivity Activation energy  Preliminary energy needed to start the chemical reaction Activation product (in the context of radio activity)  Radionuclide generated by activation Active landfills  Landfills that are receiving solid waste Acute disease  Disease that lasts for a short time

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 R. Chandrappa, D. B. Das, Environmental Health - Theory and Practice, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-64484-0

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Glossary

Acute effect A physiological reaction in a body of living organism resulting in serious symptoms that develop quickly during short-term exposure to toxic substances Acute exposure  Short-term exposures to toxic substances normally lasting less than 24 hours Acute  Happening over a short time Acute health effect  Health effect that happen over relatively short period of time Acute myocardial infarction (AMI)  Heart attack Acute toxicity  A level of toxicity due to which can lead to rapid detrimental effects on biological systems within days/hours which is not greater than 2 weeks following a multiple/single brief acute exposures Adaptation  Getting adjusted to varying circumstances Adhesion The force of attraction among molecules of a liquid and a solid or between the molecules of different liquids Adiabatic lapse rate  Change in temperature with altitude of an air parcel due to the change in volume associated with elevation change, with an assumption that no heat exchange will happen between the air parcel and its surroundings Adiabatic process  A process in which no heat exchange take place between initial and final states Adoption  Acceptance of changing circumstances Adsorbate  Substance adsorbing to a substance Adsorbent  Substance used to adsorb substance Absorber  Equipment that adsorbs substance Adsorption Attachment of molecules of a substance to the surface of a solid material Advection  Transport mechanism of a preserved property (like cold/heat) or substance by a fluid due to its bulk motion Aerobic  Absence of oxygen Aerobic process  A process carried out in aerobic condition Aerodynamics  Dynamics with respect to movement of air Aerosol  Particles with size from 0.01 to 10 mm in the atmosphere Afforestation  Anthropogenic forest plantation Agricultural burning  Intentional combustion of agricultural residue Agricultural waste  Waste generated during an agriculture practice Air basin  Land area with similar geographic/meteorological conditions Air pollutant  Substance that may lead to undesirable effects on biotic and biotic components of ecosystem when present in air Air pollution  Presence of pollutants in air Air quality  A measure of atmospheric air pollution Air quality index (AQI)  Number derived from series of calculation based on the presence of air pollutants that indicates the air quality in a specific area at a specific time Air shed  Part of air basin that shares the air with similar meteorological, topographical and climatological parameter Air toxins  Harmful chemicals in the air

Glossary

257

Albedo  Portion of solar radiation reflected by an object or surface Algae  A variety of plant without distinguishable tissues Algal bloom  Sudden rise algal growth Alkali rain  Atmospheric precipitation with elevated pH Allergen  Material that cause an allergic reaction Alpha particle  A particle charged positively released by atoms undergoing radioactive decay Alternating electric current (normally termed as alternating current) Electric current that reverses its direction numerous times a time period Ambient air quality  Outdoor air quality in the environment Ambient air  Any unconfined part of the atmosphere Amensalism  Interaction in which one organism has a negative effect on another, while another organism species is unaffected Ampere  Unit of electric current Amplitude of wave  The maximum displacement of a vibrating particle Anaerobic  Absence of oxygen Anaesthesiology  Science as well as practice of giving anaesthetics (substances to stop patients feeling pain) Anatomy  Specialty of medical science which deals with the bodily structure of living beings Animalia (animals)  Eukaryotic multicellular organisms that obtain nutrition from organic sources Anion  Negatively charged ions Anthropogenic  Anything consequential from human activity Anthropogenic emissions  Emissions due to human activity Aquifer  A geological formation which has ability that can transmit/store water Archaebacteria/Archaea Group of prokaryotic organisms that have different molecular characteristics making them different from bacteria and eukaryotes Archipelago  Cluster of islands formed tectonically Arid region  Area with low rainfall (usually less than 250 mm per year) Arithmetic mean  An average of values in a dataset Ash  Non-combustible residue generated in combustion process Asthma  A lung disease that causes the bronchial tubes of lungs narrow and making it difficult to breathe Atmosphere  The layer of gas surrounding the Earth Atom  Smallest component unit of matter that has the same properties of a chemical element Atomic mass number  Sum of the numbers of protons and neutrons Atomic number Atomic number is the number of protons in the nucleus of an atom of the element Avalanche  Snow ice that slides down a mountainside due Avogadro’s number (Avogadro’s constant)  Each mole will have approximately the same number of elementary entities which is called Avogadro’s number Background level  Concentration of a chemical in the environment Bacteria  A type of unicellular microscopic living organisms

258

Glossary

Bag filter  A type of air pollution control equipment that uses bags of fabric Bauxite  Aluminium ore Beach litter  The trash washed aground on beach Benthic community  The community of organisms living on or near the bottom of a surface water body Bio-accumulation  Accumulation of chemicals in tissues of living organisms Biodegradable  Able to be degraded by microorganisms Biodiversity  Overall diversity of living being and ecosystems Bioenergy  Energy produced using biomass Biofilter  Filter made up of filter-media with biomass attached to it Biofluid dynamics Discipline of science concerned with motion of biological fluids Biofuel  Fuel made from organic matter Biogeochemical cycles  The movement of chemicals through the biotic and abiotic components of an ecosystem Biological disasters  Disaster due to exposure of living beings to germs Biological treatment (in the context of waste)  A treatment method to treat waste with microorganism Biomass  The total mass of living organisms in the area/volume of interest Biome  Distinct and major regional element of the biosphere Biomedical waste  The waste produced involving biological and medical activity like research and healthcare Bioreactors  Device with biologically active environment Bio-reclamation  Treating contaminated sites with microorganism Bio-remediation Process in which waste in contaminated place is seeded with microorganisms to destroy/alter the waste Biosphere  Global ecological system combining all living beings as well as their relationships Biota  All living organisms of an area Blizzard  Snowstorm accompanied by strong winds Biochemical oxygen demand (BOD)  Difference in oxygen concentration prior to and after a period Body burden  The total quantity of a chemical in the body Boiling point  Temperature at which liquid is transformed into its vapour without raising the temperature Borehole  A hole drilled in the ground Bottom ash  The ash that falls to the base of combustion chamber Bottom-up approach  Study done starting from subordinate units to higher units Breakwater  Human-made structure for the purpose of breaking waves built in the sea BTEX  An acronym for benzene, toluene, ethylbenzene and xylene Budget  Estimate of expenditure and revenue of an organization Buoyancy  Force applied on a body that is wholly or partly immersed in a fluid Burner  An equipment that burns a fuel in a controlled manner Bushmeat  Meat from wild animals for human consumption

Glossary

259

By-laws  Subordinate legislation enforced and applicable within the legal borders Calcareous organisms  Organisms that use calcite or aragonite to form skeletons or shells Calorie  The energy required to raise the temperature of 1 gram of water by 1° Celsius Cancer  Growth of abnormal cells in a body Canister  A sealed/closed container for radioactive material Capacitor  Electronic devices that store electrons Capillary action  Ability of a liquid to flow against gravity in a narrow channel Capital cost  Cost incurred towards investment Capsule  Cell organelle in some species of bacteria that keep the bacterium from drying besides protecting from engulfing by bigger microorganisms Carbon cycle  Circulation of carbon atoms between abiotic and biotic components of the Earth Carbon dioxide (CO2) Gaseous chemical compound with one carbon and two oxygen atoms Carbon dioxide equivalent  Concentration of GHG with same CO2 global warming potential Carbon footprint  The amount of GHG emissions generated by an event, product, individual, or organization Carbon intensity  Amount of carbon emitted per unit of energy produced Carbon monoxide (CO)  A odourless, colourless gas made up of one carbon and one oxygen atom Carcinogen  An agent capable of causing cancer Carcinogenesis  The production of cancer Cardiovascular disease  Group of diseases affecting the heart and blood vessels Catalyst  Chemical that influences the rate of chemical reaction by declining its activation energy Catchment  Area that collects and drains rainwater through a given point Cation  Positively charged ions Cell wall  Rigid cell organelle in plant/fungi cell composed of polysaccharide that surrounds the cytoplasmic membrane Centrifugal force  The force away from the axis of rotation of a body is moving in circular motion Centripetal force  The force towards the axis of rotation of a body is moving in circular motion CFCs  Chlorofluorocarbon compounds Chemical bond  Force that holds atoms together in a chemical compound Chemical formula A mathematical relationship between elements that builds a compound Chemical spill  Accidental release of chemicals Chemical symbol  Symbol is a code for a chemical element usually derived from the name of the element Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs)  Chemical compounds with chlorine, fluorine and carbon

260

Glossary

Cholera  Waterborne intestinal infection caused by a bacterium – Vibrio cholerae Chronic condition or chronic disease  Disease that persists over long period of time (lasting 3 months or more) Chronic effect  An adverse effect on a living being in which symptoms recur frequently or develop slowly over a long period of time spanning several weeks, months or years Chronic  Occurring over a lengthy period of time Chronic toxicity  Toxicity wherein adverse effects occur after a lengthy period of exposure Cirrus clouds  Atmospheric clouds that are characterized by thin strands Climate  Average weather; usually for a period of time of 30 years Climate change  Variation in climate over time Climate system Dynamics and interactions of atmosphere, cryosphere, hydrosphere, land surface and biosphere Climatological disasters  Events caused due to climate variation Clinical disease  Disease that has identifiable clinical signs/symptoms CO2 equivalent concentration Concentration of a GHG that would cause the same quantity of radiative forcing as that of GHG Coastal erosion  Landward progress of the coast Coastline  Place where ocean or sea meets land Co-disposal (in the context of solid waste)  Disposal of wastes in one disposal facility Cogeneration  Generation of heat and electricity from same fuel source Cohesion  Inter-molecular attraction between molecules of the same liquid Collection vehicle (in the context of solid waste)  Vehicle used to collect waste Commensalism Interaction wherein one organism is benefited while another organism is neither benefited nor harmed Community medicine  Branch of medicine concerning healthcare issues affecting entire community Compaction  Operation used to increase the density of waste materials Compactor  Machine used for compaction Competition  Interaction between organisms for same resource Compost  Humus material generated from composting process Composting  Process of generating compost Compound An entity comprising two or more different atoms connected with chemical bonds with a fixed ratio among constituent elements Concentration  The quantity of one substance contained in another substance or medium Concurrent force  Forces whose lines of action of forces pass through a common point Condensation  The change of the water vapour in the air into liquid water on cool surfaces Congenital disorder or congenital disease  Disease that is present at birth Construction and demolition waste Waste produced from construction and demolition activities

Glossary

261

Contaminant  Material that has an adverse effect on environment Contamination  The degradation of environment by contaminant Convex lens  Lenses which are thinner at edges and thicker at the middle Convex mirror  Mirror with reflective surfaces that curve outward Coplanar forces  Forces acting in the same plane are called coplanar forces Co-processing (in the context of solid waste) Units where waste is used as a source of energy, or raw material, or both Coral bleaching  The paling of colour of coral organisms which have hard external limestone skeletons Coral reefs  Structures built by corals Coulomb  SI quantity of electricity transported in 1 second by a constant current of 1 ampere Criteria air pollutant Air pollutants for which ambient air quality standard has been fixed Crusher  Equipment to break solid substance Curb-side collection  Method of accumulating waste on curb side Cyclone  Large-scale circulation of air in the atmosphere on top of the South Pacific and Indian Oceans Cyclone separator  Air pollution control equipment used to separate particles by centrifugal force Cytoplasm Gel-like matrix present inside cell membrane containing nutrients, water, wastes, enzymes, gases and cell structures Decomposition  The breakdown of complex organic substance by microorganisms Deforestation  Removing forest Dengue fever  An infectious viral disease spread by mosquitoes Density  Mass of fluid per unit volume Dermal  Referring to the skin Dermatology  Branch of study that deals with all the disorders of the inner mucous membranes as well as outer skin Desert  A region of very low rainfall (