Environmental Aspects of Coasts and Islands 9780860541103, 9781407352985

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Environmental Aspects of Coasts and Islands

edited by

Don Brothwell and Geoffrey Dimbleby

Symposia of the Association for Environmental Archaeology No.

BAR International Series 94 . 1981

Brothwell, Don, and Geoffrey Dimbleby. Environmental Aspects of Coasts and Islands. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1981, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541103. Downloaded on behalf of 38.67.221.43

1

B.A.R.

B.A.R., 122 Banbury Road, Oxford OX2 7BP, England

GE ;,,"'ERAL EDITORS A. R. Hands, B.Sc., ='I.A., D.Phil. D. R. Walker, :.I. A.

B.A.R.-S94: "Environmental Aspects of Cofists and Islands".

© The Individual Authors, 1981. The authors’ moral rights under the 1988 UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act are hereby expressly asserted. All rights reserved. No part of this work may be copied, reproduced, stored, sold, distributed, scanned, saved in any form of digital format or transmitted in any form digitally, without the written permission of the Publisher. ISBN 9780860541103 paperback ISBN 9781407352985 e-book DOI https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541103 A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library This book is available at www.barpublishing.com

Brothwell, Don, and Geoffrey Dimbleby. Environmental Aspects of Coasts and Islands. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1981, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541103. Downloaded on behalf of 38.67.221.43

CONfEN;IS Page Environmental aspects of coasts and islands: a justification. D. Brothwell and G. Dimbleby

1

Archaeology and the Holocene evolution of coastal plains in the Aegean and circum- Mediterranean. J. Bintliff

1J

The interpretation o f stability and instability in a major coastal dune system. D. Gilbertson

32

Coastal resources and the changing environment. K. Thomas

49

The Birsay Bay project. Preliminary investigations into the past exploitation of the coastal environment at Birsay, Mainland, Orkney. A. Donaldson, C. Morris and J. Rackham The palaeoecology of estuarine deposits associated with archaeological sites with particular reference to the City of London. P . Boyd Adaptation to a desert coast: subsistence changes through time in coastal Peru. B. Pickersgill and R. Smith Seaweed as a prehistoric resource. M. Bell Vegetational history of the Isles of Sc illy. G. Dimbleby, J. Greig and R. Scaife

65

87.

89

117 127

Diatom analysis from coastal sites in the Netherlands. M. J. Jansma

145

Mammals and man on Oronsay: some preliminary hypotheses concerning mesolithic ecology in the Inner Hebrides. C. Grigson

163

The use of fish in resource scheduling and seasonality studies in temperate latitudes. M. Wilkinson

181

The relevance of birds from coastal and island sites. D. Brothwell, D. Bramwell and G. Cowles

195

Brothwell, Don, and Geoffrey Dimbleby. Environmental Aspects of Coasts and Islands. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1981, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541103. Downloaded on behalf of 38.67.221.43

Brothwell, Don, and Geoffrey Dimbleby. Environmental Aspects of Coasts and Islands. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1981, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541103. Downloaded on behalf of 38.67.221.43

LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS

M. Bell, Department of Geography, University of Bristol, University Road, Bristol BS8 lSS. J. Bintliff, School of Studies in Archaeological Sciences, University of Bradford, Bradford BD7 lDP. P. Boyd, Department of Human Environment, Institute of Archaeology, Gordon Square, London WClH 0PY. D. Bramwell, Fulwood, Baslow Road, Bakewell, Derbyshire DE4 lAA. D. Brothwell, Department of Human Environment, Institute of Archaeology, Gordon Square, London WClH 0PY. G. Cowles, Sub-Department of Ornithology, British Museum (Natural History), Tring, Herts. G. Dimbleby, Department of Human Environment, Institute of Archaeology, Gordon Square, London WClH 0PY. A. Donaldson, Department of Archaeology, University of Durham, 46 Saddler Street, Durham DHl 3NU. D. Gilbertson, Department of Prehistory and Archaeology, University of Sheffield, Sheffield Sl0 2TN. J. Greig, Department of Botany, University of Birmingham, Birmingham. C. Grigson, Odontological Museum, Royal College of Surgeons of England, Lincoln's Inn Fields, London WC2A 3PN. M. Jansma, Albert Egges van Giffen Instituut voor Prae- en Protohistorie, University of Amsterdam, Singel 453, Amsterdam, Netherlands. C. Morris, Department of Archaeology, University of Durham, 46 Saddler Street, Durham DHl 3NU. Brothwell, Don, and Geoffrey Dimbleby. Environmental Aspects of Coasts and Islands. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1981, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541103. Downloaded on behalf of 38.67.221.43

B. Pickersgill, Department of Agricultural Botany, University of Reading, Whiteknights, Reading RG6 2AS. J. Rackham, Department of Archaeology, University of Durham, 46 Saddler Street, Durham DNl 3NU. R. Smith, School of Geography, University of Leeds, Leeds LS2 9JT. R. Scaife, Department of Human Environment, Institute of Archaeology, Gordon Square, London WClH OPY. K. Thomas, Department of Human Environment, Institute of Archaeology, Gordon Square, London WClH OPY. M. Wilkinson, Department of Prehistory and Archaeology, University of Sheffield, Sheffield SlO 2TN.

Brothwell, Don, and Geoffrey Dimbleby. Environmental Aspects of Coasts and Islands. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1981, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541103. Downloaded on behalf of 38.67.221.43

ENVIRONMENTA.L ASPECTS OF COASTS AND ISLANPS:

A JUSTIFICATION

Don Brothwell and Geoffrey Dimbleby This is the first symposium in what we hope will become a series of established annual meetings to consider topics in environmental archaeology. We would define environmental archaeology as that branch of the study of past human populations which is concerned with evaluating the relationships between the mttural environment and Man himself. Broadly viewed, it i$ human palaeoecology, witp all its ramifications, from environmental determin­ ants of early hominid evolution, to Man's impact on the world around h�, and even to patterns of disease. The Association, we hope, will emphasise the breadth, but at the same time the integrity, of the subject, and perhaps humble us all to the fact that not only is it a relatively young part of archaeology but that none of us as yet can claim to be conversant with more than a part of the subject. So our ses­ sions will not only be a means of meeting and talking with one another . and hearing something of the work being undertak�n in different laboratories, but should also be a continuous process of education for us all, and a means of presenting a united front to archaeology as a whole. The selection of a topic for this first symposium was not born pf :;l.lly re­ alisation that subsequent meetings might be all at sea if this one was a failure; rather that the maritime area, and the small islands surrounded by sea, are as yet unexplored by the various societies and other bodies wh_ich most of us are likely to belong to. Moreover, some of us have had an interest in the bi­ ology of islands or coasts in. recent years, as the range of contributions demonstrates. But to return to the title of this meeting, we have been particularly con­ cerned not to be narrow in how we view the c d c) • G 31 C . c l c l . )

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d ue t o many c o mp lex f ac tors i nc lud ing s ea l eve ls , c urren ts , wave a c t ion a nd t he s ed i men t l oads c arr ied b y r un-o f f f rom t he l and . Where many r ivers r un i n to a r e la t ive ly l and-locked s ea we may g et d ecreases i n s a l in i ty.

D eg lac ia t ion o n t he l ands a round t he Ba l t ic h as l ed

t o a n i ncreased f reshwa ter i npu t i n to t he Ba l t ic S ea ( Segers trä le , 1 957) . T he s ubsequen t d ec l ine i n s a l in i ty h as r esu l ted i n af auna o f l ow d ivers i ty w h ich may n ot h ave b een wor th e xp lo i t ing b y h uman p opu la t ions i n t he p as t . On r ocky s hores l oca l c hanges i n c oas ta l morpho logy i n a ssoc ia t ion w i th c hanges i n t he r e la t ive l eve ls o f l and a nd s ea , o r b y t ec ton ic u p l i f t o r t i l t ing , o r b y v ir tue o f d i fferen t ia l wea ther ing o f s o l id r ocks , may l ead t o marked c hanges i n t he s lopes o f t he s hore l ine . T h is h as a g rea t i n f luence o n t he i n ter-t ida l f auna a nd f l ora , a nd o n t he w id th o f t he i n tert ida l z one ( and h ence t he t o ta l b io mass o f i n tert ida l l i fe t ha t c an b e s us ta ined a nd e xp lo i ted ). T h is i s s hown i n F ig . 1f or t wo h ypo the t ica l c oas t l ines s ub jec t t o t he s ame l eve ls o f t i da l r ise a nd f a l l . R ocky s hores w i th s teep p rof i les a re more e xp osed t o t he b a t ter ing e f fec ts o f waves a nd h ave a n arrow i n ter-t ida l z one . T he ir f aunas a re o f l ow d ivers i ty , a nd t he a n i ma ls a re v ery s pec ia l ised a nd o f ten sma l l . C onverse ly , s hores w i th g en t le p ro f i les a re g enera l ly washed b y t he waves o f t he t i da l f l ow , t end t o h ave a bundan t p oo ls r e ma in ing a t l ow t i de , a nd h ave a w ide i n tertida l z one . T hey s uppor t ar ich a nd d iverse f auna a nd make g ood c o l lec t ing g rounds f or s trandloopers . Qu i te s udden c hanges i n t e mpera ture d ue t o l oca l wea ther c ond i t ions may h ave a g rea t i mpac t o n i n tert ida l f aunas b u t l ess s o o n s ubl i t tora l f aunas b ecause s ea-wa ter t e mpera tures a re r a ther l ess s uscep t ible t o s hor t-term c hange t han a ir t e mpera ture. An i ma ls wh ich l i ve i n t he i n tert ida l z one t end t o b e s eden tary ( s teno top ic ) a nd u sua l ly h ave p hys io log ica l a dap ta t ions wh ich e nable t he m t o w i ths tand t he t erres tr ia l c ond i t ions a t l ow t i de l eve ls .

B eing

e c to ther ms t hey a re p ar t icu lar ly s ens i t ive t o e x terna l t e mpera tures .

F or

e xamp le , S ou thward a nd C r isp ( 1 954 ) r ecord a g rea t r educ t ion i n t he a bundance o f t he a rct ic-borea l b arnac le B a lanus b a lano ides i n t he P ly mou th a rea o ver t he p er iod f ro m 1 934 ( based o n t he d a ta o f Moore , 1 936 ) t o 1 951. T hey a t tr ib u te t h is t o as l igh t r ise i n mean t e mpera ture o ver t h is p er iod . S ou thward ( 1 958 ) r ecorded l ower l e tha l t e mpera tures f or a n umber o f i n tert ida l a n ima ls . H e s howed t ha t s ess i le f orms a re t o leran t o f v ery l ow a ir t e mpera tures ( o f ten t o 10 0 C ) wh i le more a c t ive f or ms were l ess t o leran t ;

t hese l a t ter a n i ma ls

a re p robably c apab le o f mov ing i n to warmer micro-hab i ta ts . A dd i t iona l ly , i n ter-t ida l s pec ies l i v ing n ear t he h igh-wa ter l eve l were more t o leran t o f l ow a ir t e mpera tures t han t hose s pec ies u sua l ly f ound n ear t he mean t i de o r l owwa ter l eve ls . O bv ious ly , t he f ormer s pec ies a re e xposed t o a ir t e mpera tures f or much l onger p er iods e ach d ay t han t hose l i v ing f ur ther d own t he s hore . I n g enera l i n ter-t ida l s teno topes a re more e urytherma l a nd e uryha l ine t han e i ther t he ir e urytop ic o f t he ir s ubl i t tora l c oun terpar ts . C r isp ( 1 965 , a nd e lsewhere ) d iscusses t he e f fec ts o f t he e x tre me ly c o ld w in ter o f 1 963 o n t he i n tertida l f auna o f B r i ta in . I n g enera l t he s ou thern e le men ts were mos t a f fected ( b u tn o t a l l o f t he m ) a nd t he a rct ic-borea l s pecies t he l eas t . F ew s pec ies s u f fered marked c hanges i n g eograph ica l d is tr ibu t ions , b u t many o f t he n on-sess i le i n ter-t ida l f or ms e i ther r e trea ted i n to s ub-l i t tora l h abi ta ts o r were d ec ima ted .

S low- mov ing f orms , e spec ia l ly many mo l luscs ,

were p ar t icu lar ly a f fected b y s evere f ros ts . Brothwell, Don, and Geoffrey Dimbleby. Environmental Aspects of Coasts and Islands. 5 5 E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1981, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541103. Downloaded on behalf of 38.67.221.43

S o me s pecies o f t op s he l ls

( G ibbu la umbi l ica l is a nd Monodon ta l i nea ta ) w ere r educed g rea t ly i n a bundance o n many r ocky s hores a nd b ecame l oca l ly e x t inc t o n af ew .

I ti s c lear t ha t

s evere b u t s hor tterm c hanges o f wea ther c an h ave a d ras t ic impac t o n i n tert i da l a n i ma ls a nd may , i n t urn , i n f luence t he c o l lec t ing a c t iv i t ies o f h u man p opu la t ions e xp lo i t ing t hese a n i ma ls . T h is may a f fect b o th t he amoun t o f s uch a n i ma l f ood wh ich c an b e c o l lec ted a s we l l a s t he r ange o f s pec ies wh ich may b e a va i lable f or e xp lo i ta t ion . T hese a f fec ts o n t he f auna may p ersis t f or many y ears . C hanges i n wea ther ,

o r s hor tterm c l ima t ic t rends , may a lso i n f luence

s ea-sur face t e mpera tures a nd , where t here a re s ys te ma t ic t rends , e ven s ubs ur face t e mpera tures .

B ever ton a nd L ee ( 1 965 ) c ons ider t he p oss ib le h ydro-

g raph ic f luc tua t ions wh ich may h ave o ccurred i n r esponse t o c l i ma t ic v ar iat i ons i n t he N or th A t lan t ic O cean o ver t he l as t 1 00 y ears . T here a ppears t o h ave b een a s l igh t war m ing o f s ea t e mpera tures a nd t h is i s r ef lec ted b y t he i ncreased a bundance o f c od ( Gadus morhua ) o n t he c on t inen ta l s he lf o f Wes t G reen land s ince 1 920 .

F isher ies s ta t is t ics f or t he c a tches o f c od b y G reen-

l anders s how a marked i ncrease f ro m s ome o ne t housand t ons i n 1 920 t o n ear ly 4 0 ,000 t ons i n 1 960 . Ear ly c od f i sher ies i n G reen land were d ependen t o n migra tory c od f ro m I ce land b u t i n t he 1 920s b reed ing p opu la t ions o f c od were e s tabl ished o f f G reen land a nd b y t he mid 1 940s i n terchange w i th t he I ce land ic p opu la t ions d ec l ined i n p ara l le l w i th r educed f l ow i n o cean c urren ts b e tween t hese l oca l i t ies . I n t he N or th S ea , l and ings o f s ole ( So lea s o lea ) i ncreased i n t he p er iod 1 946-1960 wh i le t hose o f h addock ( Me lanogrammus a eg le f inus ) d ecl ined .

Th is a ga in i s c ons is ten t w i th warm ing ;

t he s o le i s a t

i t s n or thern l im i t i n t he N or th S ea wh i le h addock i s a t i t s s ou thern l im i t . C hanges o f t h is s or t i n t he p as t may h ave h ad a n i mpac t o n p opu la t ions d epend en t u pon f i sh ing , o r u pon c er ta in me thods o f c a tch ing f i sh ;

i n t he a bove c ase

t here h as b een a n i ncrease i n s o le ( ab en thon ic s pec ies ) a nd a d ecrease i n h addock ( ap e lag ic f orm ) ; t hese a re s pec ies wh ich r equ ire d i f feren t f i sh ing me thods f or t he ir c ap ture . We h ave s een a bove t ha t c hanges i n t he e nv ironmen t may h ave a dverse o r b enef ic ia l e f fec ts o n s o me s pecies , wh i le o thers may b e u na f fected . I n t he l i t tora l z one , h owever , t he r e la t ive s uccess o f s o me s pec ies may h ave a n i mpac t o n o thers a s ar esu l t o f c o mpe t i t ive i n terac t ions . Two d om inan t e co log ica l f orces i n t he i n tert ida l z one a re t he i ncreased p ressures o f t err es tr ia l l i fe a s o ne g oes u p t he s hore , a nd t he i ncreased p ressures o f c o mpet i t ion ( f or f ood a nd , e spec ia l ly , s pace ) a nd p reda t ion a s o ne g oes d own t he s hore . C hanges i n t hese b iolog ica l i n teract ions , a s ar esu l t o f c hanges i n t he r e la t ive a bundance o f c er ta in s pecies , c an h ave d rama t ic e f fec ts o n t he f or tunes o f o ther s pec ies . T h is i s we l l i l lus tra ted b y t he work o f C onne l l ( 1 961 ) o n t he p opu la t ion b io log y o f t he b arnacle B a lanus b a lano ides i n r e la t ion t o c o mpe t i t ion w i th t he b arnacle C h thama lus s te l la tus a nd p reda t ion b y N uce l la l api l lus . C hang ing Human S ubs is tence P a t terns We h ave n o ted a bove t ha t i n s o me p ar ts o f t he wor ld t here was a c hange i n s ubs is tence p a t terns i n t he H o locene t owards a more b road ly-based e cono my wh ich s o me t imes i nvo lved t he e xp lo i ta t ion o f mar ine r esources ( see , f or e xamp le , E vans , 1 969 ) .

I n mos t o f t hese a reas t h is mode o f l i fe was l a ter r e-

p laced b y s e t t led f arming .

Dur ing t he p hase o f h un ter-ga ther ing s ubs is tence

Brothwell, Don, and Geoffrey Dimbleby. Environmental Aspects of Coasts and Islands. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1981, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541103. 5 6 Downloaded on behalf of 38.67.221.43

+ Ostrea e du l is

+P ecten max i mus

Myt i lus e du l is

N uce l la l ap i l lus

Card iu m e du le

P ate l la v u lgata

C ard ium

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C hanges i n t he r e la t ive a bundance o fv ar ious f ood mo l luscs i n a p reh istor ic s he l l midden a t N or th ton , I s le o f Harr is , S cot land ( modif ied f ro m E vans 1 969 ) , w i th p erm iss ion ) .

Brothwell, Don, and Geoffrey Dimbleby. Environmental Aspects of Coasts and Islands. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1981, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541103. Downloaded on behalf of 38.67.221.43

5 7

t here mus t h ave b een v ar ious f actors c aus ing c hange , b o th e x terna l o nes a nd i n terna l f ac tors a ssoc ia ted w i th h uman p reference , t echno log ica l a dvance , e tc .

S o me o f t hese w i l l b e c ons idered b e low , i nsofar a s t hey a f fec t t he o ccur-

r ence o f mar ine a n i ma l r e ma ins i n a rchaeo log ica l c on tex ts . We h ave a lready s een h ow c l ima te may i n f luence g eograph ic d is tr ibu t ions o f mar ine s pec ies a nd , h ence , t he ir a va i labi l i ty f or h uman e xp lo i ta t ion . T h is i s c lear ly s hown i n V o ig t 's s tudy ( 1 975 ) o f t he K las ies R iver Mou th C ave s he l l m iddens where P a tel la g rana t ina o ccurs o n ly i n c er ta in o f t he p re-La ter S tone Age l eve ls a nd was p robably a va i lab le o n ly a t t hose t imes b ecause o f l ower t e mpera tures .

H owever , t he r esu l ts a re n o t a lways s o c lear .

S hor tter m

c hanges o f t e mpera ture may l ead t o ar educ t ion i n a bundance o f s o me mar ine f or ms ( f ish a nd i n tert ida l a n i ma ls ) b u t we c anno t b e s ure t ha t ac hange i n a bundance o f as pecies i n a midden r ef lects t h is t ype o f c hange , o r s o me o ther c hange a ssoc ia ted w i th p a t terns o f h uman e xp lo i ta t ion .

On ly w here

d is t inc t ive a nd d iagnos t ic s pec ies o ccur i n ad epos i t may we s a fe ly a ssume c l i ma t ic c hange . C hanges i n l oca l mar ine a nd l i t tora l e nv ironmen ts may a lso l ead t o c hanges i n t he a va i labi l i ty o f s pecies , wh ich may b e r ef lec ted i n t he ir a bundance t hrough a midden d epos i t . E vans ( 1 969 ) h as p ub l ished t he r esu l ts o f t he a na lys is o fa midden a t N or th ton , I s le o f H ar i r is , i n S co t land ( Fig . 2 ) . The d om inan t f ood s pec ies a re l impe ts ( Pa tel la v u lga ta ) a nd c ock les ( Ceras toderma e du le ) ; t he f or mer a re mos t a bundan t i n t he B eaker p er iod l eve ls , t he l a t ter i n t he e ar lier N eo l i th ic a nd l a ter I ron Age l eve ls .

T h is may r epresen t a va i labi l i ty d ue t o

ac hange i n e nv ironmen t , s ince P a te l la i s c o mmon o n r ocky s hores a nd C eras toder ma o n s andy a nd muddy s hores . T h is e xp lana t ion , o n i t s o wn , i s n o t s u f f ic ien t s ince t he c hanges i n t he h is togram f or C eras toderma a re p ara l le led b y c hanges i n N uce l la l api l lus ( dog whe lk ) , L i t tor ina l i t torea ( w ink le ) a nd Myt i lus e du l is ( musse l ) , a l l o f wh ich l i ve o n r ocks o n t he s hore . T here may h ave b een s o me e nv ironmen ta l s h i f t wh ich was p ar t icu lar ly d e tr i men ta l t o Pa te l la ; a l terna t ive ly t hese c hanges may b e d ue t o f ac tors a ssocia ted w i th h uman e xp lo i ta t ion ( such a s p referred a reas o f c o l lect ing , f ood p references , o r o ver-exp loi ta t ion o f p ar t icu lar s pec ies ) . V o ig t 's s tudy ( 1 975 ) d iscussed a bove s hows q u i te c lear ly h ow d i f feren t z ones o n t he s hore may b e e xp lo i ted a t d i f feren t t imes ; s he f ound t ha t i n t he e ar l ies t p er iods c o l lec t ing was d one o ver a l l z ones b u t i n t he l a ter p er iod i t was p rogress ive ly r es tr icted t o t he h igher i n tert ida l z ones . T he r easons f or t h is a re o bscure — they may b e d ue t o e x terna l f actors o f t he e nv iron men t o r t o f ood c o l lect ing t rad i t ions o r e ven t he d ec l ine i n i mpor tance o f t hese i n tert ida l f ood r esources ( a t t he p resen t d ay i n t he Transke i s hel l f ish a re o n ly e a ten b y f e ma les a nd v ery y oung b oys ). T h is e v idence f or i ncreas ing c o l lec t ion i n t he h ighes t z ones o f t he s hore i s t o b e c on tras ted w i th t he d a ta c o l lec ted b y F ow ler ( quo ted b y Me l lars , 1 978 ) o n t he l impe t s he l ls f ro m Meso l i th ic middens o n O ronsay , I nner H ebr ides . H ere i t was s hown t ha t t he w id th/dep th r a t io o f t he c o l lec ted s he l ls was g ene ra l ly h igh ( i .e . t he s he l ls were r a ther f la t ) . I n many modern i n tert ida l e nv ironmen ts l impet s he l ls t end t o b eco me more c on ica l a s o ne p rogresses u p t he s hore , s o t he d a ta f ro m t he middens wou ld s ee m t o i nd ica te c o l lect ion f ro m t he l owes t o f t he i n ter-t ida l l eve ls . Brothwell, Don, and Geoffrey Dimbleby. Environmental Aspects of Coasts and Islands. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1981, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541103. 5 8 Downloaded on behalf of 38.67.221.43

T h is may h ave b een d ue t o d ie tary

p references f or t hese a nd o ther a n i ma ls i n t he l ower z ones o r t o e ar l ier o ver-exp lo i ta t ion o f l impe ts i n t he h igher a nd more a ccess ib le z ones o f t he s hore . Many middens i nclude t he r e ma ins o f o ther a n i ma ls a s we l l a s mo l luscs . F ish may b e a bundan t a nd c hanges i n t he r e la t ive impor tance o f t hese i n c o mp ar ison w i th t he more s eden tary i n tert ida l r esources , a s we l l a s c hanges i n t he r epresen ta t ion o f d i f feren t f ish s pec ies , may b e r e la ted t o e nv ironmen ta l c hanges .

E qua l ly , h owever , t hey may b e d ue t o f ood p references o r t o

t echno log ica l a dvances —such a s t he u se o f b oa ts , f ish ing n e ts o r t raps , f ish h ooks a nd s o o n .

S hor tterm c hanges may r e f lec t s easona l i ty o f e xp lo i ta t ion ,

o r o f a va i labi l i ty , o r b o th ( see , f or e xamp le , L each , 1 979 ) . o ne ma jor f ood r esource w i l l b e r epresen ted ;

S o me t i mes o n ly

s tud ies o n t he O ronsay middens

( Me l lars , 1 978 ) h ave r evea led t ha t o ver 9 0% o f t he f ish b ones b e long t o t he s a i the o r c oaU ish ( Po l lach ius v irens ) wh ich i s v ery c o m mon i n i nshore wa ters . We h ave a lready men t ioned t he p oss ibi l i ty o f t he p as t o ver-exp loi ta t ion o f r esources wh ich may l ead t o ac hange i n t he r epresen ta t ion o f s pecies i n midd ens .

I n ter-t ida l mo l luscs a re r a ther s teno topic a nd t here fore a re e as i ly

c o l lec ted ( espec ia l ly t hose l i v ing e xposed o n r ocky s hores ).

O ver-exp lo i ta t ion

b y man i s ad is t inc t p oss ibi l i ty a nd may b e r e f lec ted i n midden d epos i ts b y c hanges i n s pecies r epresen ta t ion , c hanges i n mean s he l l s ize o r c hanges i n t he e nv ironmen ts o r l i t tora l z ones e xp loi ted . N one o f t hese c hanges c an b e e as i ly i n terpre ted a s b e ing t he r esu l t o f a ny s ing le f ac tor ; h owever , s o me d a ta may b e v ery c o mpe l l ing .

F or e xamp le E vans ( 1978 , 5 3-4 ) d escr ibes

c hanges i n a midden f ro m Buckquoy , Orkney , i n wh ich a g enera l d ec l ine i n t he f requency o f l impets i s ma tched b y af a l l i n t he mean s ize o f t he l impe t s he l ls .

Un for tuna te ly , d a ta o n t he w idth/dep th r a t ios a re n o t p resen ted s o

we d o n o t h ave e v idence f or s h i f ts i n z ones o f c o l lec t ion .

H owever , e v idence

f or d ec l ine i n a bundance a nd s ize may t oge ther i nd ica te o ver-exp lo i ta t ion . O kera ( 1976) h as r ecorded t ha t s tocks o f e xp lo i ted ( Sen i l ia s en i l is ( L ) , as he l lf ish c o m mon o n muddy s hores i n S ierra L eone , t end t o b eco me d om ina ted b y t he y ounger y ear-c lasses a s ar esu l t o f t he c o l lec t ion o f t he l arger s he l ls . Branch ( 1975 ) h as r ecorded s im i lar e f fec ts f or r ecen t ly e xp lo i ted p opul a t ions o f t he l impet Pa tel la c onco lor i n t he Transke i .

H e s howed t ha t n o t

o n ly were t he l impe t s he l ls i n e xp lo i ted p opu la t ions much sma l ler t han i n o ther p opu la t ions b u t t he b io mass ( body , o r f lesh , we igh t ) o f t he l impe ts was d ecreased b y ap ropor t iona te ly e ven g rea ter amoun t .

A r educt ion i n s he l l

l eng th o f s o me 1 5 t o 2 0 mm ( as r ecorded f or t he s ize o f t he l arges t s he l ls t o b e f ound i n e xp lo i ted p opu la t ions o ver a p er iod o f f i ve y ears ) wou ld r esu l t i n ar educ t ion o f max i mum b ody we igh t f ro m 5 .4 t o 1 .5 g ra m mes .

Thus , many

more a n i ma ls w ou ld h ave t o b e c o l lec ted t o o bta in a c o mparab le amoun t o f mea t .

Branch f ur ther r e la ted t he b ody we igh t o f t hese l impe ts w i th t he we igh ts

o f t he ma ture , a nd c o mbined we igh ts o f t he i m ma ture a nd s pen t g onads .

The

d i f ferences b e tween t hese we igh ts g ive a n e s t i ma te o f g ame t ic o u tpu t ( i .e . r ough ly h ow many o f fspr ing c ou ld b e p roduced p er i nd iv idua l ).

A r educ t ion

o f b ody we igh t f ro m 5 .4 t o 1 .5 g ra m mes ( f o l lowing a r educt ion i n s he l l s ize ) wou ld l ead t o a9 0% r educ t ion i n g a met ic o u tpu t .

C lear ly , s e lect ion o f l arge-

s he l led l impe ts f or h uman c onsump t ion h as a n e nor mous impact o n t he l impe t p opu la t ions n o t o n ly i n t er ms o f i m med ia te r educt ion i n n umbers b u t a lso i n t he b io mass a nd f u ture r eproduc t ive p o ten t ia l o f t he p opu la t ion . Brothwell, Don, and Geoffrey Dimbleby. Environmental Aspects of Coasts and Islands. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1981, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541103. Downloaded on behalf of 38.67.221.43

5 9

C hanges i n t he o ccurrence a nd t he f requency o f o ccurrence o f s pec ies may b e r e la ted t o c hanges i n d ie tary p re ferences .

Vo ig t ( 1975 ) h as s hown

f or a modern midden i n t he Transkei t ha t t he c o mpos i t ion o f t he midden c lose ly r ese mbles t he c o mpos i t ion o f modern s he l l f ish mea ls , b u t i s q u i te d i f feren t t o t he f auna l c o mpos i t ion o f t he l oca l s ea-shore .

Th is may imp ly t ha t t he

l oca l s hore h as b eco me d ep le ted i n t he p re ferred s pec ies , o r t ha t o ther c o mmon s pec ies a re i gnored when t he s he l lf ish a re c o l lec ted . c hange w i th t ime ;

Pre ferences may

ag ood e xamp le h ere i s t he e xp lo i ta t ion o f t he o ys ter

( Os trea e du l is ) i n Br i ta in .

T h is s pec ies was n o t p ar t icu lar ly f avoured i n t he

p reh is tor ic p er iods , j udg ing b y i t s l ow f requency i n midden d epos i ts , b u t was a g rea t d e l icacy i n t he R o man p er iod .

Mos t Ro man s e t t le men ts i n

Br i ta in y ie ld l arge n umbers o f o ys ter s hel ls .

I n t he M idd le Ages i tf e l l f ro m

f avour w i th t he a r is tocracy a nd u pper c lasses a nd was g enera l ly o n ly c ons u med b y t he p easan ts .

I n r ecen t y ears i th as a ga in b eco me a d e l icacy a nd

i s , o f c ourse , v ery e xpens ive . Ano ther a spec t o f c hang ing e xp lo i ta t ion p a t terns i s t he e f fec t o f s easona l i ty. Th is may b e d ue t o s easona l o ccupa t ion o f s i tes , t o s easona l e xp lo i ta t ion o f c er ta in mar ine r esources o r t o t he s easona l a va i labi l i ty o f c er ta in s pec ies . I n ad e ta i led a nd i mpor tan t s tudy o f as he l l mound i n Aus tra l ia , Ba i ley ( 1975 ) s howed t ha t s he ll f ish c ou ld n o t h ave b een a ma jor s ource o f e nergy o n a n a l ly ear-round b as is .

T he d a ta s ugges ted e i ther t ha t s he l l f ish f or med a v ery

minor p ar t o f t he d ie t o r t ha t t hey were c onsumed i n l arge n umbers o n ly a t c er ta in t imes o f t he y ears .

T hus s he l l mounds may r epresen t s easona l ly

o ccup ied s i tes o r p ermanen t ly o ccup ied s i tes wh ich h ave e v idence f or s eas ona l c hanges i n r esource e xp lo i ta t ion . S tud ies o n s he l l g row th r ings ( e .g . Ko ike , 1 975 ) , o n g row th r ings i n f ish o to l i ths a nd s ca les ( e .g . Cas tee l , 1 976 ) a nd o xygen i so tope a na lyses o f s he l ls ( Shack le ton , 1 969 ) may a l l c as t l igh t o n s easona l e xp lo i ta t ion .

T he a na lys is o f r e la t ive ly s eden tary r esources

( such a s s he l ls ) may y ie ld e v idence o f s easona l o ccupa t ion a s may t he o ccurr ence o f o n ly c er ta in t ypes o f s easona l ly a va i lab le f ish .

On s i tes o ccup ied

p er manen t ly , c hanges i n r esources ( e .g . c hanges i n f ish s pecies a va i lab le a t d i f feren t s easons ) may i nd ica te s easona l c hanges i n e xp lo i ta t ion ( Leach , 1 979 ). O ther f acu l ta t ive c hanges i n e xp lo i ta t ion may o ccur , b u t n o t n ecessar i ly o n as easona l b as is . B ranch ( 1 975 ) d escr ibes h ow f ar mers i n t he Transke i h ave s upple men ted t he ir d ie t w i th i n tert ida l mo l luscs a f ter b ad c rop f a i lures i n t he e ar ly 1 970s . I n t he l a ter H o locene , e xp lo i ta t ion o f i n ter-t ida l r esources b eco mes o f s econdary i mpor tance a f ter t he a rr iva l o f a gr icu l ture b u t , i n s o me c ases , i tp ers is ted a long w i th a gr icu l ture ( e .g . t he Er teb e le Cu l ture , Tr i de lsSm i th , 1 967). P erhaps i n ter-t ida l a n i ma ls were u sed a s as upp le men t when c rop y ie lds o r o u tpu t b y d o mes t ica ted a n i ma ls w ere l ow . S he ll f ish may a lso h ave b een u sed f or a n i ma l f eed i n s o me c ases ; f or e xamp le , l arge n umbers o f l impe t s he l ls a ssoc ia ted w i th a med ieva l f arms tead n ear B eachy H ead , S ussex , may r epresen t f eed ing o f l impe ts t o p igs ( Drewe t t , e t a l ., 1 978 ). I n t he l a ter p er iods i n many , b u t b y n o means a l l , r eg ions s o me s hel l f ish were v iewed a s l uxury f ood i t e ms a nd were t raded o ver w ide a reas ( e .g . s ee Me ighan , 1 969 ) ; we h ave a lready s een t h is f or t he o ys ter i n Ro man Br i ta in . Throughou t p reh is tory a nd t he h is tor ic p er iods mar ine s he l ls h ave b een p r ized a s o rna men ts , c urrency , o r f or r e l ig ious a nd r i tua l p urposes a s we l l a s b e ing Brothwell, Don, and Geoffrey Dimbleby. Environmental Aspects of Coasts and Islands. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1981, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541103. Downloaded on behalf of 38.67.221.43 6 0

u sed a s t ools a nd f or o ther a r te fac ts .

Trade may b e a t tes ted b y t he o ccur-

r ence o f mar ine s hel ls o n i n land s i tes o r i n a reas we l l o u ts ide t he ir k nown g eograph ic r ange ( e .g . J ackson , 1 917 ). S tud ies o n t he s hel l b eads f ro m t he N eo l i th ic s i te o f Um m D abagh iyah i n n or th c en tra l I raq ( Tho mas , u npubl ished d a ta ) s howed e v idence o f t rade w i th t he G ul fb ecause o f t he p resence o f v ar ious mar ine s he l ls i nc lud ing t hose o f Para c ien tanum n exagonum ( Gou ld ) , C ypraea moneta L inn . a nd C . a nnu lus L inn . F ina l ly , man may h ave h ad a n e f fec t o n mar ine r esources b y t he a cc iden ta l i n troduc t ion o f n ew s pecies , o rb y t he p urpose fu l c u l tur ing o f o thers .

O ysters

a re , y e t a ga in , ag ood e xamp le o f b o th t hese a spec ts . De mands f or o ys ters i n Br i ta in a t t he p resen t d ay o u ts tr ip t he r a tes a t wh ich b eds o f t he n a t ive o sy ter ( Os trea e du l is ) c an mee t t he s upp ly; mos t o ys ters c onsumed i n r est auran ts a re c arefu l ly c u l tured i n o ys ter f arms a nd a re t he P or tuguese o ys ter ( Crassos trea a ngu la ta ) . N a tura l o ys ter b eds h ave l ong b een c om merc ia l ly e xhaus ted b y o ver-exp lo i ta t ion , a nd were f ur ther d ec i ma ted b y i n troduced c o mpe t i tors a nd p reda tors ( wh ich c an a lso b e a menace i n man- made o ys ter b eds ) . A t te mp ts i nt he l a t ter p ar t o f t he 1 9th C en tury t o i n troduce t he Amer ican o ys ter ( Crassos trea v irg in ica ) i n to Br i ta in l ed t o t he a cciden ta l i n troduc t ion o f t wo s er ious p es ts o f o ys ter b eds ; t he s l ipper l impe ts ( Crep idu la f orn ica ta ) , wh ich c o mpe tes s uccess fu l ly w i th o ys ters f or f ood a nd s pace , a nd t he o ys terd r i l l ( Urosa lpinx c inerea ) , wh ich i s ag as tropod wh ich p reys u pon l impe ts ( Yonge , 1 966 ). S um mary T h is e ssay h as c overed s o me w ide-rang ing a spec ts o f e nv ironmen ta l c hange i n r e la t ion t o t he a va i labi l i ty o f c oas ta l r esources , e spec ia l ly o f t hose i n t he l i t tora l z one .

The d iscuss ion h as mos t ly b een c oncerned w i th t he

Mo l lusca a s t hey a re among t he mos t c o mmon ly p reserved a nd mos t e as i ly i den ti f ied o f t he mar ine r esources e xp lo i ted b y man .

T he ir n umer ica l d om i-

n ance v as t ly o ver-es t i ma ted t he ir d ie tary s ign i f icance a s mos t s pec ies h ave al ow mea t :s he l l w e igh t r a t io .

Ih ave c ons idered i n s o me d e ta i l t he e v idence

wh ich may a l low u s t o c onc lude t ha t as hel l was c o l lec ted when i t s o ccupan t was a l ive a nd t herefore p robab ly r epresen ts f ood d ebr is . I n many c ases , s uch a s where we h ave h uge man- made s he l l mounds , t he e v idence o f e xp lo it a t ion f or f ood i s u nequ ivoca l ;

i n o ther c ases we may n o t b e s o s ure .

A spects o f e nv ironmen ta l c hange h ave b een c ons idered i n t erms o f wor ldw ide c l i ma t ic c hange , o f l oca l ised e nv ironmen ta l a nd s hor t-term c hanges , a nd o f c hang ing h uman s ubs is tence p a t terns a nd t he ir p oss ib le i mpac t u pon mar i t i me r esources . T he emphas is t hroughou t h as b een o n t he e f fect o f t hese v ar ious f actors u pon t he r epresen ta t ion o f mar ine a n ima ls i n s he l l a ccumul a t ions a nd i n o ther a rchaeo log ica l c on tex ts .

Wor ld-w ide c l ima t ic c hanges

were s hown t o h ave a n i mpor tan t impac t o n t he g eograph ica l d is tr ibu t ion o f mar ine s pec ies , n o t o n ly i n r e la t ion t o a ir a nd s ea t e mpera tures b u t a lso t hrough o ther f ac tors s uch a s t he amoun t o f s eaice , t he c ircu la t ion o f o cean c urren ts , a nd t he p reva i ling w ind d irec t ions i n c oas ta l a reas . G lacia l a dv ances a nd r etrea ts h ave l ed t o c hanges i n s ea-leve ls a nd t o i sos ta t ic c hanges i n t he l and ;

t hese e f fec ts h ave p robab ly h ad a n i mpac t o f h uman s e t t le men t

p a t terns . A dd i t iona l ly , H o locene r ises i n s ea l eve l h ave o b l i tera ted many c oas ta l a rchaeo log ica l s i tes . Brothwell, Don, and Geoffrey Dimbleby. Environmental Aspects of Coasts and Islands. 6 1 E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1981, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541103. Downloaded on behalf of 38.67.221.43

L oca l e nv ironmen ta l c hanges a re o f ten c o mp lex a nd c orrela ted w i th g loba l c l i ma t ic c hanges .

C hanges i n c oas ta l a ggrada t ion , t he s lopes o f s hore l ines ,

e xposure , s a l in i ty , a nd l oca l wea ther c ond i t ions may h ave p rofound e f fec ts u pon t he i n ter-t ida l b io ta a nd w i l l i n f luence t he a va i labi l i ty o f v ar ious r esources f or h u man e xp lo i ta t ion .

T he i n terpre ta t ion o f t he s ign i f icance o f c hanges i n

t he a bundance , a nd e ven o ccurrence , o f s pecies t hrough a midden d epos i t i s made e ven more d i ff icu l t b y t he e f fec t o f man 's a c t iv i t ies .

S e lec t ive c o l lec t ing

i n d i f feren t h ab i ta ts o r s hore z ones , o ver-exp lo i ta t ion o f r esources , c hanges i n d ie tary p re ferences , a nd s easona l e xp lo i ta t ion a re a l l f actors wh ich c an i n f luence t he c o mpos i t ion o f m idden d epos i ts . B IBLIOGRAPHY Ba i ley , G . N ., 1 975 .

T he r o le o f mo l luscs i n c oas ta l e cono m ies :

o f midden a na lys is i n A us tra l ia .

J . Arch . S ci ., 2 :

B ever ton , R . J . H . a nd L ee , A . J ., 1 965 .

T he r esu l ts

4 5-62 .

H ydrograph ic f luc tua t ions i n t he

N or th A t lan t ic O cean a nd s o me b io log ica l c onsequences .

I n :

C . G .

J ohnson a nd L . P . Sm i th ( eds .) , The B io log ica l S ign i f icance o f C l i ma t ic C hange i n Br i ta in , p p. 7 9-107.

S y mp. I ns t . B io l . N o . 1 4 , A cade mic

P ress , L ondon . B o je , R . a nd T o mczak , M. ( eds .) , 1 978 .

U pwe l l ing E cosys te ms .

S pr inger-

Ver lag , B er l in . Branch , G . M., 1 975 .

N o tes o n t he e co logy o f P a te l la c onco lor a nd C e l lana

c apens is , a nd t he e f fects o f h u man c onsump t ion o n l impe t p opu la t ions . Z oo log ica A fr icana , 1 0 : Broadben t , N . D ., 1 978 .

7 5-85 .

Preh is tor ic s e t t le men t i n n or thern S weden :

b r ie f s urvey a nd a c ase s tudy .

I n :

g lac ia l S et t le men t o f N or thern Europe , p p . 1 77-204 . Bu tzer , K . W., 1 975 . r anean b as in :

A

P . Mel lars ( ed .) , The Ear ly P os tDuckwor th , L ondon .

P le is tocene ' l i t tora l-sed imen tary c ycles o f t he Med i ter-

A Ma l lorqu in v iew .

I n :

K . W. B u tzer a nd G .

I saac ( eds .) ,

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a nd o ther f actors o n n a tura l p opu la t ions o f t he b arnacle Ba lanus b a lanoides . E co l . Monogr . 3 1: 6 1-104 . Cr isp , D . J ., 1 965 . O bserva t ions o n t he e f fec ts o f c l i ma te a nd wea ther o n mar ine c o m mun i t ies . I n : C . G . J ohnson a nd L .P. Sm i th , ( eds .) , The B io log ica l S ign i f icance o f C l ima t ic C hanges i n B r i tain , p p. 6 3-77.

S y mp .

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Af our th p rogress r epor t o n t he S ussex A rch-

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Brothwell, Don, and Geoffrey Dimbleby. Environmental Aspects of Coasts and Islands. 6 2 E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1981, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541103. Downloaded on behalf of 38.67.221.43

4 9-72.

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G . W. D i mbleby ( eds .) , The Do mes t ica t ion a nd E xp lo i ta t ion o f P lan ts a nd An i ma ls , p p . 4 79-484 . E vans , J . G ., 1 978 .

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I n troduc t ion t o Env ironmen ta l Archaeo logy.

E lek ,

L ondon . J ackson , J . W., 1 917 .

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T he u se o f d a i ly a nd a nnua l g row th l i nes o f t he c lam

Mere tr ix l usor ia i n e s t i ma t ing s easons o f J o mon P er iod s he l l g a ther ing . I n :

R . P . S ugga te , a nd M . M . C resswe l l ( eds .) , Qua ternary S tud ies ,

p p . 1 89-193 . K o ike , H„ 1 979.

R oya l S ociety o f N ew Z ea land , We l l ing ton . S easona l d a t ing a nd t he v a lve-pa ir ing t echn ique i n s he l l-

midden a na lys is .

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6 3-74 .

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T he ir u se i n d e ter m in ing s eason o f o ccupa t ion a nd p re-

h is tor ic f ish ing me thods . L ew is , J . R ., 1 964.

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1 09-126.

T he E co logy o f Rocky S hores .

Eng l ish Un ivers i t ies

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p p. 4 15-422.

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middens o n t he I s land o f Oronsay ( I nner H ebr ides ).

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The E ar ly P os tg lacia l S e t t le men t o f N orthern Europe , p p. 3 71-396. Duckwor th , L ondon . Moore , H . B ., 1 936.

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i n t he P ly mou th a rea . Odu m , E . P ., 1 971.

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D is tr ibu t ion

7 01-706.

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2 17-229.

Ruddi man , W. F . a nd G lover , L . K ., 1 975 . l a t ion a t 9 ,300 y ears BP :

S ubpo lar N or th A t lan t ic c ircu-

Fauna l e v idence.

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3 61-389. S ch ledermann , P ., 1 976.

The e f fec t o f c l i ma t ic/eco log ica l c hanges o n t he

s tyle o f Thu le C u l ture w in ter dw d l ings .

Arc t ic a nd A lpine Res ., 8 :

3 7-47. S egers trä le , S . A ., 1 957. Me m ., 6 7:

Trea t ise o n Mar ine E co logy .

G eo l . S oc . Am .

V o l . 1 .

S hack leton , N ., 1 969 .

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I n :

D . R . Bro thwe l l

a nd E . S . H iggs ( eds .) , S c ience i n Archaeo logy , p p . 4 07-414. a nd H udson , L ondon .

Brothwell, Don, and Geoffrey Dimbleby. Environmental Aspects of Coasts and Islands. 3 E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1981, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541103. 6 Downloaded on behalf of 38.67.221.43

T ha mes

S i monsen , P ., 1 972 .

The t rans i t ion f ro m f ood-ga ther ing t o p as tora l is m i n

n or thern S cand inav ia a nd i t s impac t o n s e t t le men t p a t terns .

I n :

P . J .

U cko , R . Tr ingha m a nd G . W. D i mb leby ( eds .) , Man , S e t t lemen t a nd U rban is m , p p . 1 87-192 .

Duckwor th , L ondon .

S ou thward , A . J ., 1 958 . N o te o n t he t e mpera ture t o lerances o f s o me i n tert ida l a n ima ls i n r e la t ion t o e nv ironmen ta l t e mpera tures a nd g eograph ica l d is tr ibu t ion .

J . Mar . B io l . A ss . U .K ., 3 7 :

S ou thward , A . J ., a nd C r isp , D . J ., 1 954 .

4 9-66.

R ecen t c hanges i n t he d is tr ibu t ion

o f t he i n ter-t ida l b arnacles C h thama lus s te l la tus ( Po l l ) a nd Ba lanus b a lanoides ( L.) i n t he Br i t ish I s les . Ta i t , R . V ., 1 972 .

J . A n im . E co l ., 3 :

E le men ts o f Mar ine B io logy .

2 nd e d .

1 63-177.

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L ondon . T ho mas , K . D ., 1 978 . B oa t :

The Mo l luscs .

I n :

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AT en th C en tury f ind f ro m K en t , p p . 1 55-160 .

B .A .R . B r i t ish

S er ies , N o . 5 3. T ho mas , K . D ., n .d . I raq .

The s he l l a nd s tone b eads f ro m Um m Dabagh iyah ,

U npub l ished m. s .

Thorson , G ., 1 962 .

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N or th-eas t A t lan t ic s hel f f ro m G ibra l tar t o Mur mansk . European Ma laco log ica l C ongress Troe ls-S m i th , J ., 1 967. Pa laeoh is tor ia , 1 2 : Vo ig t , E . A ., 1 975 .

Proc . F irs t

5 -23 .

The E r tebe l le Cu l ture a nd i t s b ackground . 5 05-528 .

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D ie tary p re ferences , e nv ironmen ta l r econs truc t ions a nd e thno log ica l p ara l le ls .

I n :

A . T . C lason ( ed .) , A rchaeozoo log ica l S tud ies , p p . 8 7-98 .

N or th H o l land , Ams terdam . Yonge , C . M., 1 966 . Z ve lebi l , M., 1 978 . I n :

T he S ea S hore .

C o l l ins , L ondon .

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P . Me l lars ( ed .) , The E ar ly P os tg lac ia l S e t t le men t o f Nor thern Europe i

p p . 2 05-241.

Duckwor th , L ondon .

Brothwell, Don, and Geoffrey Dimbleby. Environmental Aspects of Coasts and Islands. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1981, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541103. 6 4 Downloaded on behalf of 38.67.221.43

S HETLAND

C ?

_

Brothwell, Don, and Geoffrey Dimbleby. Environmental Aspects of Coasts and Islands. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1981, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541103. 6 5 Downloaded on behalf of 38.67.221.43

F igure 2 . Contour map o f B irsay r egion w ith l ocation o f e arly e xcavations .

Brothwell, Don, and Geoffrey Dimbleby. Environmental Aspects of Coasts and Islands. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1981, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541103. Downloaded on behalf of 38.67.221.43

6 6

THE B IRSAY BAY PROJECT Prel im inary i nves t iga t ions i n to t he p as t e xp lo i ta t ion o f t he c oas ta l e nv ironmen t a t B irsay , Ma in land , Orkney A . M. D ona ldson , C . D . Morr is* a nd D . J . Rackha m

T he Bay o f B irsay i s s i tua ted i n t he e x tre me n or th-wes t o f Ma in land , t he l arges t i s land o f t he O rkney g roup , a nd i s e xposed t o t he N or th A t lan t ic e xcep t f or t he p ro tect ion a f forded b y t he Brough o f B irsay , at i da l i s land f or m ing , w i th t he P o in t o f B uckquoy , t he n or thern e dge o f t he b ay ( Figs . 18 22 ). T he c oas t t o t he n or th-eas t a nd s ou th h as h igh c l if fs a nd t he b ay f or ms t he mos t n or ther ly o f t he o n ly t hree s he l tered l and fa l ls o n t he wes t c oas t o f t he i s land . T he l andward a rea o f t he b ay i s r e la t ive ly f la t w i th h igh g round r is ing u p t o 1 00 m t o t he s ou th a nd wes t .

B oardhouse B urn f lows i n to t he b ay t wo h undred

me tres n or th o f t he P o in t o f S nushan a nd i s f ed b y t he L och o f B oardhouse o ne k i lo me tre t o t he s ou th-eas t ( Fig . 2 ) . T he c oas ta l f r inge o f t he ma in land a rea o f t he b ay i s c haracter ised b y d epos i ts o f w ind-b lown s he l l-sand c apped b y ag rass s ward .

These d eposi ts

v ary i n t h ickness w i th t he f a l l a nd r ise o f t he u nder lying d r f i t d epos i ts , s o me t i mes r each ing d ep ths o f t hree me tres o r more .

The w ind-b lown

s and d epos i ts a re u nder la in b y b ou lder c lay wh ich l i es o n t he S tro mness F lags o f t he Midd le O ld R ed S ands tone ( Mykura , 1 975 ). These g en t ly i ncl ined s ands tones a re v is ib le a round v ir tua l ly t he who le o f t he b ay a t l ow wa ter a nd f or m ac ons iderab le h azard f or a ny b u t sma l l b oa ts t ry ing t o b each . b e low t he r ecen t

T he s ands tone ,

d r i f t d epos i ts , i s p resen t i n l ow c l i f fs f or p ar ts o f t he b ay

a nd r ises s harp ly t o t he s ou th a nd n or th , f or m ing c l i f fs o ver s even ty me tres h igh wh ich a ct a s ah aven f or t housands o f s ea b irds . T he e ar l ies t a rchaeo log ica l h or izon o n t he b ay i s r epresen ted b y ab ur ied s o i l p rof i le f or m ing a g round s ur face , p oss ibly t runca ted , a t t he j unc t ion b et ween t he b ou lder c lay a nd t he s he l l s and a round much o f t he b ay.

A mono l i th

o f t h is p ro f i le , c o l lec ted f ro m t he wes t s ide o f t he P oin t o f Buckquoy , s ugges ted u pon a na lys is ab ur ied h um ic h or izon w i th in t he p rof i le, 0 .1 m b e low t he b ase o f b lown-sand i ncorpora t ion i n t he s oi l .

S uper f icia l d is turbance , p oss ibly

c u l t iva t ion , c ou ld a ccoun t f or t he s o i l s equence ( L i mbrey , p ers . c omm .). The l ower p ar t o f t he b lown s and h as b eco me mixed w i th t he u nder lying s o i l whe ther b y worm a c t ion o r ' con t inued c u l t iva t ion ' d ur ing t he e ar ly p ar t o f t he s and b low i s n o t k nown a l though S pencer ( Evans a nd S pencer , 1 979 ) h as s ugg es ted t he f or mer .

Th is s ec t ion was s ampled f or t erres tr ia l mo l luscs i n 1 971

( Evans a nd S pencer , 1 979 ) a nd t he f auna f ro m t he b ur ied s oi l i nd ica tes a woodl and e nv iron men t .

E vans ( 1979 ) C ommen ts o n t he a bsence o f o pen c oun try

s pecies a nd h as p resen ted t he v iew t ha t t he f auna i s " ind ica t ive o f t he p resence o f t rue wood land p r ior t o s and d epos i t ion" . * C . D . Morr is i s p repar ing a n a rchaeo log ica l r ev iew o f t h is B irsay work . Brothwell, Don, and Geoffrey Dimbleby. Environmental Aspects of Coasts and Islands. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1981, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541103. Downloaded on behalf of 38.67.221.43

6 7

B ROUGH O F B IRSAY E xcava t ion t o We s t o fC hu rchya rd 1 97 4 -1 977 [

S i te I

CDM ,F B ,NE ,Y B

F ig . 3

Areas e xcava ted o n t he Brough S e t t le men t ( ha tched ) .

Brothwell, Don, and Geoffrey Dimbleby. Environmental Aspects of Coasts and Islands. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1981, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541103. Downloaded on behalf of 38.67.221.43

F igure 4 . Birsay Bay .

Recen t e xcavations ( since 1 970) .

Brothwell, Don, and Geoffrey Dimbleby. Environmental Aspects of Coasts and Islands. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1981, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541103. Downloaded on behalf of 38.67.221.43

6 9

S evera l p o l len d iagra ms f ro m ma in land O rkney ( e .g . K ea t inge a nd D ickson , 1 979 ; Dav idson e t a l . 1 976; Moar , 1 969 ) s how v ery l ow p ercent ages o f t ree a nd s hrub p o l len t hroughou t t he p reh is tor ic a nd h is tor ic p er iods , a nd mos t a u thors s ugges t t ha t Orkney was n ever f ores ted o r wooded i n t he c onven t iona l s ense .

T hese d iagra ms h owever t end t o b e f ro m r a ther e xposed

a reas w i th l arge e xpanses o f p ea t a nd t he p oss ibi l i ty o f l oca l s hrub w ood land i n t he more s he l tered a reas h as o f ten b een o ver looked .

A s hor t d iagra m

f ro m a sma l l p ea t d epos i t i n D eerness ( Dona ldson , u npubl ished ) s hows a p er iod w i th c ons is ten t ly 2 8-50% t ree p o l len a nd 1 4-22% s hrub p o l len .

B irch ,

w i l low , h aze l a nd p ine f or m a c ons iderab le p ropor t ion o f t he p o l len s um a nd mus t s ure ly i nd ica te l oca l n a t ive wood land o r s crub d ur ing s o me p ar t o f t he P os t-g lac ia l . R e l ic t b irch wood land o ccurs t oday i n p ar ts o f H oy ( Pren tice a nd P ren t ice , 1 975 ) a nd t here i s n o d oubt t ha t e ven sma l l p ocke ts o f w ood land wou ld h ave a f fected a nd i n f luenced l oca l s e t t le men t a nd e cono my Archaeo log ica l I nves t iga t ions A rchaeo log ica l i nves t iga t ion i n t he a rea o f B irsay b egan i n t he n ine teen th c en tury , w i th work c arr ied o u t a t S averough ( Saevar H owe ) al arge s and mound o n t he c oas t , O x tro B roch n ear t he wes tern e dge o f t he L och o f B oardhouse a nd t he B rough o f B irsay ( s ee F ig . 2 ) .

When t h is l a t ter s i te c a me i n to

G uard iansh ip i n t he 1 930s , ar enewed e xcava t ion p rogram me b egan b y t he t hen O f f ice o f Works , a nd , f o l lowing i n terrup t ion d ue t o t he S econd Wor ld War , was r esumed f ro m 1 956 t o 1 964 .

I n t he mean t i me i nves t iga t ions h ad a lso

t aken p lace a t t he Knowe o f Buckquoy a nd o n t he t i p o f t he P oin t o f Buckquoy ( see F ig . 2 ).

I n 1 970-71 D r Anna R i tch ie u nder took t he e xcava t ion o f as i te

t hrea tened b y c oas ta l e ros ion i n t he n or thern p ar t o f t he b ay , a nd t h is h as r ecen t ly b een p ub l ished ( R i tch ie , 1 979 ) , a nd i n 1 973 a sma l l e xcava t ion was u nder taken o n t he B rough o f B irsay b y Mrs C . L . C ur ie i n a ssoc ia t ion w i th Durham U n ivers i ty .

T h is work was c o mp le ted i n 1 974 a nd a l arge s ca le

e xcava t ion p rogram me i n i t ia ted o n t he Brough .

1

I n 1 976 mon i tor ing b egan o f

t hrea ts t o a rchaeo log ica l s i tes a round t he b ay f ro m c oas ta l e ros ion a nd o ther a genc ies , w i th s o me s a lvage e xcava t ion . o f s i tes o n t he ma in land s ide o f t he b ay ,

2

I n 1 978 e xcava t ions b egan o n ar ange a nd i n 1 977 J . W. H edges u nder took

af ur ther e xcava t ion a t S aevar H owe ( see F ig . 4 ) .

Work o n b o th t he B rough

a nd t he ma in land s i tes i s c on t inu ing . I n t he c urren t e xcava t ions o n t he Bay o f B irsay , t he a rchaeo log ica l r es earch h as b een c oncen tra ted o n t he p re-Norse a nd N orse p er iods , b u t t he k nown s i tes s pan t he p er iod o f t ime f rom t he Bronze Age o nwards .

I n 1 978 ,

t r ia l work a t C u t t ings 5 a nd 6 ( Fig . 4 ) o n p u ta t ive b oa t-nous ts , r evea led a b u i ld-up b e low.

I ndeed t h is s i te , o n t he wes t s ide o f t he P o in t o f Buckquoy ,

o ver lying t he s o i l p rof i le d escr ibed a bove , c on ta ins a s tone f ea ture v is ib le i n t he c l i f f s ec t ion w i th wh ich a midden i s a ssoc ia ted .

T h is i s t he e ar l ies t

a rchaeo log ica l f ea ture k nown i n t he b ay , a nd a ppears t o b e c on te mporary w i th t he o nse t o f s and-blow i n t he a rea .

A l though e xcava t ion was n o t p oss ib le a

s a mp le o f 8 0 k g o f t he m idden was t aken .

Th is p roduced a n a bundance o f

b io log ica l r e ma ins i nc lud ing c arbon ised n aked b ar ley t ha t h as s ince b een r ad iocarbon d a ted t o 3 260 ± 1 80 b p ( GU-1222 ) .

The i nhabi tan ts o f t h is p er iod

e xp lo i ted a w ide r ange o f a n i ma ls t yp ica l o f t he c oas ta l s i tua t ion , a nd i n p art i cu lar t he f i sh a sse mblage s ugges tes t ha t t he ma jor f i sh ing e f for t was o n t he s hore o i c lose i nshore .

S evera l s pec ies c ou ld h ave b een c augh t a t l ow t i de

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F ig . 5

K nown a rchaeo log ica l s i tes o n t he B ay o f B irsay .

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i n r ock p oo ls ( A lvey e t a l ., u npub l . r epor t ).

Fa l l ing w i th in t he c hrono logy

o f t he B ronze Age , f or wh ich f ew e nv ironmen ta l d a ta a re a va i lable f or O rkney , t h is sma l l s amp le i n teres t ing ly s ugges ts a ma jor d ependence u pon t he l oca l e nv iron men t f or f ood . T he ma m ma l ian f auna i s d om ina ted b y r ed d eer , o f wh ich a t l eas t f our i nd iv idua ls a re p resen t , a nd t he w i ld b irds , f ish a nd mar ine mo l luscs f or m a ma jor p ar t o f t he f auna , wh ich o r ig ina l ly l ed t o t he h ypo thes is t ha t t he s i te was o f N eo l i th ic d a te .

On ly t wo o x b ones were i den ti f ied , b u t

t he p resence o f o ver t wo h undred c arbon ised g ra ins o f n aked b ar ley , a nd t he p oss ible c u l t iva t ion o f t he s o i l n o ted a bove , d o i nd ica te a gr icu l ture a s as ign i f ican t p ar t o f t he e cono my o f t he s i te . T he l and s na i l f auna a ssoc ia ted w i th t he s he l l-sand c over ing t hese d epos i ts ( Evans a nd S pencer , 1 979 ) c on ta ins t he g rass land s pec ies Va l lon ia e xcent r ica a nd may i nd ica te t he c learance o f t he wood land o r s crub ; t o t he a c t ion o f s and-blow o r man i s u nde term ined .

whe ther d ue

The a ccu mu la t ion o f s and

d unes o ver t h is a rea mus t r epresen t a ma jor c hange i n t he c oas ta l e nv ironmen t a t t h is t ime , p robably r educ ing t he c oas ta l a gr icu l tura l z one . N e i ther o f t he e xcava t ions a t S aevar H owe a nd Ox tro h ave l e f t a ny d e ta i ls o f t he e nv ironmen ta l r e ma ins , b u t t he i den t i f ica t ion o f Ox tro a s ab roch w i th l a ter p hases a nd t he f ind ing o f p robable e ar ly C hr is t ian ( i .e . p re-Norse ) g raves i n t he s and c over ing a ma jor s truc ture a t S aevar H owe i nd ica te h abit a t ion i n t he a rea d ur ing t he f irs t mi l lenn ium B .C . a nd t he e ar ly p ar t o f t he f irs t mi l lenn iu m A .D.

T hese a re c lear ly ma jor mu l t i-per iod s i tes , a nd a

t h ird h as b een i den ti f ied i n t he c urren t work a t B eachv iew ( Burns ide s i te 2 ) where a s equence o f ma jor s tructures u nder l ies d epos i ts b road ly d a ted t o t he N orse p er iod .

N o work h as y e t b een u nder t aken o n t hese s tructures , a nd

t herefore n o e nv ironmen ta l d a ta a re y e t a va i lab le , b u t i n t ime i t may b e h oped t ha t ma ter ia l d er iv ing f ro m c on tex ts o f t he I ron A ge e x tend ing t hrough t o t he i m med ia te ly p re-Norse p er iod may b e a na lysed . I nves t iga t ions t h is c en tury h ave b een l arge ly c oncerned w i th t he l as t t wo mi l lenn ia , p ar t icu lar ly t he p re-Norse ( a lso t ermed Ear ly C hr is t ian a nd P ict ish , s ee R i tch ie , 1 975 ) a nd N orse r e ma ins a t an umber o f s i tes a round t he b ay . T he b ay a nd a d jacen t l and h as a wea l th o f a rchaeo log ica l r e ma ins , - many o f wh ich d a te f ro m t he V ik ing a nd l a ter N orse /Med ieva l p er iods .

I ndeed o ne

i s c on t inua l ly r em inded o f t he N orse i n f luence i n t he many p lace n ames o f O ld N orse o r ig in ( Marwick , 1 970 ).

The Orkneyinga S aga i nd ica tes t ha t i n t he

e leven th a nd t we l f th c en tur ies t he b ay was t he h o me o f t he E ar ls o f O rkney : f or i ns tance Ear l Thor f inn " had h is p er manen t r es idence a t B irsay , where h e b u i l t a nd d ed ica ted t o C hr iEt af ine mins ter , t he s ea t o f t he f irs t b ishop o f O rkney" ( Pa lsson a nd E dwards , 1 978 , 7 1) .

Par ts o f t he wa l ls o f t he l a ter

S tewar t Ear ls ' Pa lace s t i l l s tand t o o ver t wen ty f ee t i n h e igh t i n t he v i l lage , a nd t h is a rea , w i th t he p ar ish c hurch

h as b een c la i med b y s o me a s t he f ocus

o f s e t t lemen t i n t hese p er iods ( Lamb , 1 975 ) . A t t h is s tage o f a rchaeolog ica l a na lys is i ti s n o t p oss ib le i n a l l c ases t o c lear ly d is t ingu ish t he p re-Norse a nd N orse ma ter ia l :

s o me e xcava t ions a re

o n-go ing , o thers a wa i t r ad iocarbon d e term ina t ions a nd o ther work .

E qua l ly ,

t he a na lys is o f t he e nv iron men ta l d a ta f ro m r ecen t e xcava t ions i s i nco mp le te a nd o n-going . Env ironmen ta l ma ter ia l f ro m e xcava t ions c onducted b e fore t he p resen t d ecade a re e i ther l os t o r u nrepor ted , a nd a par t f ro m i n for ma t ion Brothwell, Don, and Geoffrey Dimbleby. Environmental Aspects of Coasts and Islands. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1981, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541103. 7 2 Downloaded on behalf of 38.67.221.43

r e la t ing t o t he s tructures , a ge a nd t he sma l l f inds t he mse lves , f ew d a ta a re l e f t t o u s .

O f ma ter ia l f ro m e xcava t ions b y o ther a rchaeo log is ts , t ha t f ro m

Buckquoy i s n ow p ub l ished ( R i tch ie , 1 979 ) , b u t a l though r ecen t e xcava t ions b y H edges ( Webs ter a nd C herry , 1 978 ) o n t op o f S aevar H owe h ave s hown s evera l s uper i mposed p hases o f t he p re-Norse a nd N orse p er iods w i th a n a bundance o f a n ima l r e ma ins , t hese h ave y e t t o b e a na lysed .

The f o l low ing o bserva t ions

a re b ased o n p re l im inary a na lys is o f t he ma ter ia l f ro m e xcava t ions b y Durha m Un ivers i ty o n t he B rough o f B irsay u p t o a nd i nclud ing 1 976 , a nd f ro m s i tes e xcava ted o n t he ma in land s ide o f t he b ay , r e la ted t o t he p ub l ished ma ter ia l f ro m Dr R i tch ie 's s i te o f B uckquoy.

On ly where i t c an b e c lear ly e s tabl ished

o n a rchaeo log ica l g rounds , w i l l d is t inct ions b e tween t he p re-Norse a nd N orse p er iods b e made . An u n for tuna te a spect o f s o me o f t he e xcava t ions o n t he Brough i s t he v ery p oor s ta te o f p reserva t ion o f t he b one a nd s he l l .

Un l ike t he ma in land e dge o f

t he b ay , t he Brough h as n o s he l l-sand d epos i ts a nd a rchaeo log ica l l ayers h ave b een b ur ied i n p ea t o r a n a c id t ur f . The s o i ls h ave d eve loped o n b ou lder c lay , d ra inage i s p oor , a nd t he s o i l a c id i n p laces p er iod ica l ly s a tura ted . H owe ver e xcava t ions i n R oo m 5 i n t he c o mp lex o f s tand ing s truc tures o n t he e as tern c l if f a rea o f t he B rough , were i n a n a rea w i th g ood p reserva t ion , a nd much o f t he p re l im inary a na lys is o f t h is ma ter ia l i s c o mp le te .

T he s i te h as

a t l eas t f our s tructura l p hases a nd wood c harcoa l o f w i l low o r p op lar f ro m t he t h ird p hase h as b een g iven a r ad iocarbon d e term ina t ion ( unca l ibra ted ) o f 9 55 + 6 0 a d ( GU-1193 ). A par t f ro m e v idence f or minor i ndus tr ia l a c t iv i t ies o n t he s i te i nc lud ing b ronze work ing a nd i ron work ing , t he ma in i n teres t o f t he s i te l i es i n e nv ironmen ta l d a ta .

T he a n i ma l b ones a nd s he l l p erm i t s o me c o m-

men t o n t he s ubs is tence e cono my o f t he s i te .

T o t he wes t a nd s ou th-wes t o f

t he c e me tery a re a pparen t ly s ca t tered r ec tangu lar a nd s ub-rec tangu lar b u i ld ings ( see F ig . 3 ) .

S i te L , e xcava ted i n 1 975 , was a d we l l ing w i th a t l eas t t wo , i f

n o t t hree , ma jor p hases ( as r epresen ted b y t he r ep lace men t e as t wa l l ) s urrounaed b y a n o pen a rea t raversed b y g u l leys a nd d ra ins a nd s o me sma l l a rchaeo log ica l f ea tures , s uch a s ap i t w i th r e ma ins o f i ron-s m i th ing , t o t he e as t o f i t . S i te N , t o t he e as t , a ppeared i n 1 974 t o h ave n o s urv iv ing i n terna l f ea tures t o s ugg es t af unc t ion o ther t han t ha t o f as tore-house .

H owever , s ubsequen t e xca-

v a t ion s howed t ha t i to ver lay e ar l ier f ea tures , p oss ibly e ven ab u i ld ing , a nd c er ta in ly p i ts a ssoc ia ted w i th minor i ndus tr ia l a c t iv i ty a nd a g u l ley.

Three

r ad iocarbon d e termina t ions o n t hese l ayers g ave u nca l ibra ted d a tes o f 8 15 + 5 5 a .d . ( GU-1192 & 195 ) a nd 7 50 ± 8 5 a .d . ( GU-1194 ).

F inds i n a nd a round

t hese b u i ld ings were f ew i n n umber , a nd n o middens were f ound i n a ssoc ia t ion w i th t he m .

S i tes E a nd S , o n t he o therhand , h ave , i n t hree s easons o f e xcava-

t i on , d isp layed a s omewha t b"M ing s truc tura l h is tory , w i th s evera l p hases a nd s ub-phases o f c learance a nd r e-bu i ld ing .

On S i te E , t he l a tes t l eve ls o f

o u thouses a ssoc ia ted w i th a sma l l b u i ld ing h ave a t er m inus p os t q ue m o f t he f irs t p ar t o f t he E leven th c en tury o n t he b as is o f ac o in f ound b e low o ne o f t he wa lls , a nd a ppear t o l i e o n c learance , l ayers w i th e ar l ier ma ter ia l s uch a s a b ronze moun t w i th a f ine i n ter lace p a t tern o n i to f p re-Norse I nsu lar t ype. These c learance l ayers i nclude a n amoun t o f ma m ma l b one , b u t i t s s urv iva l a nd c ond i t ion i n ac lay ma tr ix i s p oor , a nd d ry a . nd we t-s iev ing h as s o me t imes p roved e i ther n ega t ive o r c oun ter-produc t ive ( because o f t he t o ta l c o l lapse o f t he b one ) .

B enea th t hese l ayers a re r e ma ins o f e ar l ier b u i ld ings , b u t e xami-

n a t ion o f t hese i s n o t y et c o mp le te .

S i te S i s p ar t icu lar ly c o mp lex , a nd r ich

Brothwell, Don, and Geoffrey Dimbleby. Environmental Aspects of Coasts and Islands. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1981, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541103. Downloaded on behalf of 38.67.221.43

7 3

i nb o th s tructura l f ea tures a nd a r tefac ts .

The mos t c haracter is t ic V ik ing

p er iod a r tefacts h ave b een r ecovered f ro m t h is a rea , i nc lud ing s tea t i te b ow l f ragmen ts , n e t- s inkers , a nd b one-co mb f ragmen ts .

Env iron men ta l d a ta

h ave b een c o l lec ted , b u t o f ten t he p rob le ms a re t he s ame a s t hose f or S i te E .

3

T he b as ic s ubso i l o f t he l andward s ide o f B irsay Bay i s l arge ly s and r a ther t han c lay , a nd t herefore more c onducive t o e nv ironmen ta l p rocess ing .

S o me

f ine mesh s iev ing a nd f lo ta t ion h as b een c arr ied o u t o n ma ter ia l f ro m A reas 1a nd 2 , b es ide t he Brough R oad ( see F ig . 4 ).

T hese a reas were e xcava ted

b ecause o f d ep le t ion o f t he s and-c l i f fs b y w in ter s torms , a nd t he o bv ious e x ist ence o f e x tens ive midden ma ter ia l .

T h is midden c lear ly c on ta ined V ik ing

p er iod a r tefacts a nd i ndeed h ad o ne o r t wo g raves w i th s uch a r tefacts d ug i n to i t .

I ta lso o ver lay t he r e ma ins o f b o th f lagged a reas a nd wa l ls o f b u i ld ings ,

l argely u nder t he a d jacen t r oad a nd f i e ld .

Ac is t g rave w i th t he p ar t ia l r e-

ma ins o f t wo s ke le tons was s a lvaged i n 1 976 , a nd p robably s tra t igraph ica l ly p reda tes t h is midden .

I ta lso p robably i s c on te mporary w i th a s econd c is t-

g rave , a ga in w i thou t g rave-goods , f ound b e low amound o f s and u nder a s tone c a irn , w i th c arefu l ly c ons tructed k erb .

Th is c a irn c er ta in ly p re-da tes t he

midden , a nd s o i s t en ta t ive ly t hough t o f a s p re-Norse , p end ing r ad iocarbon d e ter m ina t ions o n t he b one . A lso p oss ibly p re-Norse were b u i ld ings l oca ted a pprox i ma te ly 1 00 m a way a nd a lso b eing .e roded . I n Areas 3 , 4a nd 5 a c omp le te f igure-o f-e igh t s haped b u i lding was e xposed , p robab ly w i th a d orbe l led r oof ( f ro m t he p os i t ion o f t he r ubb le c o l lapse , e n t ire ly i n terna l ) , a nd a d jacen t c ircu lar e nd o f ab u i ld ing , n ow l os t t o t he e le men ts .

T he s tructura l p o in ts o f c o mpar ison o f t h is l a t ter

b u i ld ing t o t he e nd o f Dr R i tch ie 's ' La ter P ic t ish ' b u i ld ing ( a mere 9 0 m a way ) s ugges ts a s im i lar d a te , b u t a ga in a bso lu te d a tes a re a wa i ted .

I n t h is c ase

t he c arbon ised g ra in f rom p i ts c u t i n to t he n a tura l c lay b e low a h ear th i n o ne o f t he r oo ms o f t he f igure-of-e igh t h ouse s hou ld p rov ide a f i xed p o in t . I n t he v i l lage o f B irsay i t se l f , t he s i te o f B eachv iew i s b e ing e xcava ted , p ar t ia l ly b ecause o f b u i ld ing p roposa ls a nd p ar t ia l ly b ecause o f w in ter f l ood ing b y t he Burn o f Boardhouse .

T he Burns ide s i tes i nc lude a s equence b eg inn ing

w i th a s tructure r epresen ted b y t wo wa l ls d ug i n to a nd b edded o n to t he n a tura l c lay a nd f lags tone .

S and l ayers a bove s ea l t h is s tructure f ro m t he d es troyed

r e ma ins o f a no ther , i t se lf s ea led b y al arge b and o f s and b e low midden-l ike d epos i ts , p ar t ia l ly e xcava ted i n 1 979 .

Fur ther a long t he Burn-s ide t o t he

e as t a re e xposed f ur ther r ubb le s preads , b urn t c lay l ayers a nd midden ma ter ia l . To t he s ou th-wes t , h owever , o n t he ' S tud io ' s i te a ma jor r ectangu lar b u i ld ing i s n ow b e ing r evea led .

Pre l im inary i nd ica t ions a re t ha t i t may b e C . 5m

w ide a nd u p t o 1 5 o r 2 0 m l ong .

A bove i tt he p ar t ia l ly d es troyed r e—ma ins o f

a sma l l c ircu lar b u i ld ing w i th a c en tra l s lab-l ined h ear th a re i n terest ing , p ar t icu lar ly b ecause t hey c on ta ined many c arbon ised g ra ins ;

t he midden

ma ter ia l was d iscovered s pread ing d own i n to t he r ec tangu lar b u i ld ing , b e low t he l a ter r ubble c o l lapse .

Ar tefacts i n t h is midden l ayer s ugges t al a te

N orse ( V ik ing/ Med ieva l ) d a te o n a na logy w i th ma ter ia l f ro m t he s i te o f Fresw ick , C a i thness ( Cur ie , 1 939 ; C h i lde , 1 943 )— indeed Freshw ick-type g rasst e mpered p o t tery h as b een f ound , a nd p ar ts o f c o mbs s im i lar t o t hose f ound a t Freshw ick .

A r ad iocarbon d e ter m ina t ion o f 1 010 + 5 5 a .d . ( GU-1191) o n

c arbon ised g ra in a nd c harcoa l h as b een r ece ived .

The wa l ls o f t he b u i ld ing

a re s tand ing c . 1m h igh , w i th s even o r e igh t c ourses o f s tone , b u t t he f l oorl eve l i s n o t y e t r eached .

E xcava t ion w i l l c on t inue o n t he s i te .

Brothwell, Don, and Geoffrey Dimbleby. Environmental Aspects of Coasts and Islands. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1981, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541103. 7 4 Downloaded on behalf of 38.67.221.43

Env ironmen ta l Ev idence ( a )

Ver tebra tes Turn ing t o t he e nv ironmen ta l d a ta a s s uch f ro m t he v ar ious s i tes , o f

t hese l a ter p er iods , a round t he b ay , S e l ler 's a na lys is o f t he a n i ma l b one f ro m Roo m 5 o n t he Brough ( unpubl ished ) h as i nd ica ted a c hange i n t he d o mes t ic h usbandry o f t he s i te f ro m t he e ar l ies t p re-Norse p hase t o p hase 4 i n t he N orse p er iod .

T h is i nvo lves a n i ncrease i n t he s laugh ter o f y oung a n i ma ls

i n t he l a tes t p hase ( 65% o f t he c a t t le were o lder t han 2 - y ears i n p hase 4 ) a nd a much l ower p ercen tage o f a du l t a n i ma ls i n c o mpar ison w i th p hase 1 ( 80% o f c a t t le o ver 3 :, 1 -y ears i n p hase 1 ) .

Th is i s s o mewha t i n c on trad ic tion

t o t he s i te o f Buckquoy s pann ing a s im i lar p er iod o f t ime ( Nodd le , 1 979 ) . Ana lys is o f t ha t ma ter ia l i nd ica ted t ha t i n g enera l at h ird o f t he a n ima ls h ad d ied i n t he ir f irs t y ear a nd t wo t h irds b y t he f our th y ear , w i th a h igher p rop or t ion o f c a t t le a nd s heep r each ing ma tur i ty i n t he l a ter p er iods .

Af ur ther

d i f ference b e tween t he t wo c o l lec t ions i s t ha t s heep a re t he mos t n u merous b ones i n a l l p hases a t R oo m 5 ( a l though n o t t he mos t impor tan t ) whereas c a t t le a re c ons is ten t ly t he mos t f requen t f ragmen ts a t Buckquoy.

A more d e ta i led

a na lys is o f t hese d i f ferences mus t a wa i t t he c o mp le t ion o f t he c urren t a na lyses o n t he s i tes a d jacen t t o b o th o f t hese .

H owever , t he l a t ter d i f ferences may

i n p ar t b e a ccoun ted f or b y t he d i f feren t c o l lect ion t echn iques :

t he R oo m 5

s i te was w e t-s ieved o n t he l ines o f t hose p u t f orward b y t he " Ca mbr idge S choo l" u s ing a mesh s ize o f 5m m ; ( R i tch ie , 1 979 , 1 91) .

whereas n o s iev ing was c arr ied o u t a t Buckquoy ;

B es ides d o mes t ic a n i ma ls , r e ma ins o f w i ld s pec ies

s uch a s d eer o ccur o ccas iona l ly i n d epos i ts o ft h is p er iod i n t he b ay ( Nodd le , 1 979 ;

Rackha m , u npub l .) .

A l though i ti s o f ten i n t he f or m o f a n t ler , a

ma ter ia l q u i te l i ke ly t o h ave b een i mpor ted f or t he manu fac ture o f a r t ic les ( a n u mber o f wh ich h ave b een f ound o n e xcava t ions a t B irsay ) , o ther b ones a re f ound . Mar ine mam ma ls t end t o o ccur more a bundan t ly t han t he t erres tr ia l w i ld f ood s pecies .

Wha lebone h as b een f ound a t Buckquoy ( Nodd le , 1 979 ).

a nd e xcava t ions b y t he p ro jec t i n 1 976 o n t he Brough , a nd i n 1 978/9 a t t he B eachv iew S tud io s i te p roduced f ur ther f inds f ro m t he N orse p er iod .

Un for-

t una te ly many o f t hese p ieces a re f ragmen ts s o t ha t s pec ies d e ter m ina t ion i s n o t p oss ible , o r i ti s made more d i f f icu l t b y t he f act t ha t an umber a re ' worked '.

N odd le ( 1979 ) h as s ugges ted t ha t s uch r e ma ins c o me f ro m washed

u p s pec i mens , a nd t he e xamp le o f ad o lph in washed u p i n t he b ay d ur ing t he e xcava t ion s eason i n 1 979 i l lus tra tes t he p o in t .

T he p i lo t wha le , G lobiocepha la

me laena , k nown l oca l ly a s t he B lack f ish o r c a 'in wha le i s t he c o m mon wha le o ff t he N or thern I s les , a nd F en ton ( 1 978 ) n o tes t ha t s choo ls o f t hese wha les were d r iven a shore b y t he i nhabi tan ts o f t he i s lands .

T he i mpor tance o f t he

a n i ma ls a s as ource o f o i l ( worked b ones o f wha le h ave b een f ound , c o incid en ta l ly , a ssoc ia ted w i th a s tea t i te l a mp i n o ne c on tex t o n S i te S o n t he Brough ) i s n o ted a s e ar ly a s t he s ix teen th c en tury , a nd p resu mably l oca l i nhabi tan ts wou ld h ave t aken a dvan tage o f s porad ic s choo ls b y d r iv ing t he m a shore e ven i n t he N orse p er iod .

Oh there 's r epor t t o K ing A lfred o f h ow w i th f ive c o m-

p an ions h e h ad k i l led 6 0 wha les i n t wo d ays ( Ross , 1 940 ) i s r em in iscen t o f s uch a n o ccas ion a l though t he s izes h e g ives f or t hese a n i ma ls a re , a s f ar a s we u nders tand h is u n i ts , f ar t o l arge f or t he p i lo t wha le . T he i mpor tance o f wha les i n p reh is tor ic Europe h as b een d iscussed b y C lark ( 1947) a nd i n Brothwell, Don, and Geoffrey Dimbleby. Environmental Aspects of Coasts and Islands. 5 E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1981, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541103.7 Downloaded on behalf of 38.67.221.43

Preh is tor ic Europe ( C lark , 1 952 ) h e n o tes " O laus Magnus ma in ta ined t ha t t he p roceeds o f as ing le wha le m igh t f i l l b e tween 2 50 a nd 3 00 waggons a nd y ie ld mea t f or s a l t ing , b lubber f or l i gh t ing a nd h ea t ing , sma l l b ones f or f uel , l arge o nes f or h ouse-bu i ld ing a nd h ide s u f f icien t t o c lo the f or ty men" .

An i ma ls

s laugh tered a nd b u tchered o n t he b each a re l i ke ly t o l eave o n ly t hose b ones s aved f or a p urpose o n ah abi ta t ion s i te , a nd t herefore c annot r e f lec t t he im.. p or tance o f t he c a tch . T he l arge s per m wha le , Physe ter macrocepha ws , was i den t i f ied a t J ar lsho f ( P la t t , 1 956) a nd t he s a l t ing o f s uch wha lemea t , n o ted b y E vans ( 1957) a s b e ing p rac t ised i n I re land , wou ld b e ac ons iderab le s ource o f f ood a s O laus Magnus ma in ta ined . T he g rey s ea l , Ha l ichoerus g rypus , a nd t he c o m mon s ea l , Phoca v i tu l ina , a re o ur mos t c om mon P inn iped ia a nd b o th s pec ies c urren t ly b reed i n Orkney. B o th s pec ies h ave b een i den t i f ied f ro m N orse s e t t le men ts i n t he N or thern I s le a nd a t J ar lshof t he g rey s ea l , a t l eas t , was a s f requen t a n o ccurrence a s t he b ones o f d o mes t ic a n i ma ls i n s o me l ayers o f n in th t o e leven th c en tury d a te ( P la t t , 1 956).

A l though s pec ies i den t i f ica t ion h as n o t b een made , s ea l b ones

h ave b een f ound o n a l l t he s i tes s o f ar s tud ied i n B irsay Bay.

However t hey

d o n ot s ugges t a ny g rea ter i mpor tance t ha t t hose r ecovered f ro m t he e xcava t ions a t Buckquoy , where t hey were a n i n frequen t o ccurrence i n mos t p hases ( Nodd le , 1 979 ).

F en ton ( 1978 ) n o tes t he e xp lo i ta t ion o f t hese a n ima ls f or f a t , mea t a nd

s k ins , a nd E vans ( 1957) h as n o ted t he s k ins a s b e ing u sed i n I re land f or mak ing t he s hoes r ock c l i mbers u sed , p resumably when c l i mbing t he c li f fs f or w i ldf ow l e ggs a nd y oung . T he o t ter was a n i nc iden ta l f ind i n a l l p hases o n t he R oo m 5 s i te , a nd i n o ne d epos i t ap ar t ia l s ke le ton i s p robably p resen t s ince f or ty-n ine b ones were i den t i f ied ( Se l ler , u npubl .).

The o t ter i s s em i- mar ine i n t he n or thern p ar ts

o f i t s r ange i n t he Br i t ish I s les , b e ing s een f requen t ly i n c oas ta l wa ters . T hey h ave b een s u f f ic ien t ly c o m mon i n t he Nor thern I s les i n t he p as t f or s ubs tan t ia l s tone t raps ,

o t ter-hooses , t o b e b u i l t a cross o t ter 's t racks .

T he

s k in 's , av a lued c o m mod i ty , were b e ing e xpor ted f ro m O rkney i n t he s even teen th c en tury ( Fen ton , 1 978 ) a nd i ti s p oss ible t ha t s uch p e l ts were c o l lec ted a nd t raded i n p re-Norse a nd N orse t imes . An i mpor tan t a spec t o f t he c oas ta l e xp loi ta t ion , f or wh ich we a s y e t h ave l i t t le s pec i f ic d a ta , i s w i ld fow l .

T he b ones o f g anne t a nd o ther w i ld b ird s pecies

a re a bundan t o n t he e xcava t ions b e ing c arr ied o u t b y t he p ro jec t b u t t he a na lys is o f t hese i s s t i l l i n i t s e ar ly s tages .

The s pecies i den ti f ied f ro m t he p reh is tor ic

s i te o n t he Po in t o f Buckquoy men t ioned a bove i nc luded b irds o f marsh , mead ow a nd f reshwa ter a s we l l a s c oas ta l h abi ta t .

Waders a re t he mos t a bundan t

a nd i nc lude g o lden p lover , s andp iper a nd r edshank .

The p ubl ished s pec ies

f ro m Buckquoy ( Bramwe l l , 1 979 ) s how t ha t aw ide r ange o f w i ld b irds were e xp lo i ted f ro m a v ar ie ty o f h abi ta ts , a l l o f wh ich a re l oca l t o B irsay .

There

i s s o me i nd ica t ion t ha t t h is e xp lo i ta t ion i s more marked a nd v ar ied i n t he l a ter N orse p hases b u t i th is .may v ery we l l b e af ea ture o f s a mp le s ize . A n u mber o f s pec ies p resen t t oday o n t he c l i f fs a nd r ocks im med ia te ly n or th a nd s ou th o f t he b ay were f ound , i nc lud ing r azorbi l l a nd g u i l le mo t , b o th p resen t i n t he ir t housands o n t he c l i f fs , b u t a lso p u f f in , f u l mar , c or moran t , s hag a nd g anne t . T he l as t s pecies was t he mos t f requen t f ind i n a l l p hases o f t he s i te .

Wi ld-

f ow l ing h as a d ocumen ted h is tory i n Orkney s ince t he s even teen th c en tury ( Fen ton , 1 978 ) a nd i t s a n t iqu i ty i s i nd ica ted b y t he f inds f ro m Buckquoy a nd Brothwell, Don, and Geoffrey Dimbleby. Environmental Aspects of Coasts and Islands. 6 E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1981, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541103.7 Downloaded on behalf of 38.67.221.43

C u t t ing 6 .

T he c o l lec t ion o f e ggs a nd j uven i le b irds f ro m i naccess ible c l i f fs

b y l e t t ing o nesel f d own o r b eing l e t d own , b y ar ope i s t rad i t iona l a nd o n s o me o f fshore i s lands s uch a s Fou la i n S he t land , were a ma jor o r t he ma jor s uppor t f or t he i nhabi tan ts .

The c l i f fs a round t he b ay a t B irsay a re i dea l f or s uch a

h arves t a nd t he f ood , o i l a nd f ea ther were n o d oub t i mpor tan t r esources i n t he p as t . P robab ly t he mos t impor tan t mar ine r esource o f t he s i tes o f t he N orse p er iod i n t he b ay a nd e lsewhere i n t he n or thern i s lands a nd c oas ta l l ands o f n or thern S co t land i s f ish .

We h ave n o ted a bove t he e xp lo i ta t ion o f t h is r e-

s ource i n t he p reh is tor ic p er iod i n t he b ay when c od , s a i the , mackere l , r ock l ing a nd wrasse were among t he f ish c augh t mos t p robably f ro m i nshore o r o nshore f i sh ing .

T h is r esource h as b een e xp lo i ted i n O rkney s ince t he

e ar l ies t t imes o f k nown h u man o ccupa t ion ( C larke , 1 976 ;

Whee ler , J9 79a ).

B o th S e l ler 's u npubl ished r epor t o f t he Roo m 5 g roup a nd Whee ler 's r esu l ts f ro m B uckquoy ( Whee ler , 1 979b ) i l lus tra te t he e xp lo i ta t ion o f t hese a n i ma ls d ur ing p re-Norse a nd N orse t imes .

S e l ler 's work h as s ugges ted a ma jor

c hange i n t h is a spect o f t he e cono my d ur ing t he p er iod o f o ccupa t ion o f R oo m 5a nd t he f igures g iven b y Whee ler s ee m t o r ef lec t t h is c hange .

I n p hase 4

a t R oo m 5 , c od c ons t i tu te o ver 2 5% o f t he i den t i f ied b ones , a n i ncrease o f o ver 2 0% o n t he e ar ly p hases o f o ccupa t ion , a nd S e l ler h as s ugges ted t ha t t he mar ine r esource d ur ing t h is p er iod was a t l eas t a s i mpor tan t a s t he s heep f lock . O ther s pec ies i ncluded mackere l a nd r ay. A t B uckquoy , d esp i te t he a bsence o f s iev ing o n t he s i te , Whee ler ( 1979b ) h as i den ti f ied a w ider r ange o f s pec ies , c onger e el , c od , s a i the , h addock , l i ng , h ake , wrasse , s eabream , mackere l a nd g urnard .

There i s s o me e v idence f ro m t he r e la t ive a bundance

o f t he r ema ins a t B uckquoy t ha t f i sh b ecame a more s ign i f ican t e le men t o f t he e xcava ted f auna i n t he l as t t wo N orse p hases o f o ccupa t ion a t t he s i te .

The

d i fference i n s pec ies a nd s ize o f t he f i shes c augh t h as s ugges ted t o Whee ler t ha t improved f ish ing t echn iques p rosecu ted i n d eeper wa ter , u s ing many h ooked l i nes , wou ld a ccoun t f or t he o bserved d i f ferences .

Th is i s v ery much

at rad i t iona l me thod , t ha t o f h ad f ish ing , i n Orkney ( Fen ton , 1 978 ).

An i m-

p roved mar i t i me t echno log y o f t he N orse men o ver t ha t o f t he n a t ive p opu la t ions o f t he N or thern I s les may we l l a ccoun t f or s uch a c hange , a nd i s a lso s ugges ted b y an u mber o f o ther s i tes i n t he n or th .

T he r e ma ins f ro m t he e ar ly n in th

c en tury m idden o f t he N orse s e t t le men t a t J ar lsho f ( P la t t , 1 956) i nc luded c od , s a i the a nd l i ng , ma in ly f ish o f v ery l arge d i mens ions w i th s ku l ls a lone meas ur ing o ver 0 .3 m ;

a l though b o th c od a nd l i ng a re i den t i f ied f ro m t he e ar l ier

l eve ls a t t he s i te , t he p ubl ished r epor t s ugges ts t ha t t hese s pec i mens a re n o t o f n o table s ize .

T his c hange h as a lso b een s ugges ted o n a r te fac tua l g rounds

a t b o th Underhou l l , U ns t ( Sma l l , 1 966 ) a nd J ar lsho f ( Ha m i l ton , 1 956).

Work

i n r ecen t s easons a t t he l a te-Norse s e t t le men ts o f S andwick , S he t land ( B ige low a nd McGovern , 1 979 ) a nd

Fresw ick , Ca i thness ( Rackham , u npub l ished r epor t )

h as a lso p roduced a v ery h igh p ercen tage o f f i sh b ones i n midden ma ter ia l , i n p laces f orm ing a l mos t c on t inuous l ayers , i n c on junct ion w i th w ink le a nd l impe t s hel ls a t t he f or mer s i te .

T he a na lys is o f t he p re l im inary s amples

f ro m Fresw ick a nd t he f i nds f ro m t he 1 979 s eason a t B eachv iew , B irsay ( Co l ley , p ers . c omm .) b o th i nd ica te c od a nd l i ng b ones f ro m l arge f i shes : many a t B eachv iew were o ver 1 m l ong a nd a l l a t Fresw ick .

T he e v idence

f ro m R oo m 5 a nd Buckquoy i n t he b ay s ugges ts t ha t t h is c hange i s n o t c o inc iden t w i th t he o nse t o f N orse o ccupa t ion , b u t r a ther t v i th l a ter p hases o f t he r ecogn ised o ccupa t ion .

Brothwell, Don, and Geoffrey Dimbleby. Environmental Aspects of Coasts and Islands. 7 7 E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1981, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541103. Downloaded on behalf of 38.67.221.43

( b )

I nver tebra tes T he s eashore a nd l i t tora l z ones h ave t rad i t iona l ly b een a reas o f r esource

i n O rkney. A c ons iderab le n umber o f t he s ubs is tence a c t iv i t ies c arr ied o u t b o th i n t he p as t a nd more r ecen t ly h ave r e l ied o n t he p roduce o f t hese e le men ts o f t he c oas ta l e nv ironmen t . T he s he l l f ish a nd c rus taceans f requen t o nb o th s andy a nd r ocky s hores a long t he c oas ts o f t hese i s lands h ave b een a c on t inua l s ource o f f ood s ince N eo l i th ic t imes ( C larke , 1 976) . I ti s p robab ly wrong t o a ssume t ha t a l l t he s he l l f ish , o r e ven t he ma jor i ty, f rom t he p re-Norse a nd N orse d epos i ts i n t he b ay were u t i l ised f or f ood . E vans ( Evans a nd S pencer 1 979 ) h as s hown t ha t t he t o ta l f l esh f ro m t he 1 00 , 0 68 mo l lusc s he l ls f ro m Buckquoy , t he ma jor i ty o f wh ich w ere l impe ts a nd w ink les , w ou ld h ave b een o n ly s u f f ic ien tt o s uppor t o ne man f or t en d ays .

E ven a s as porad ic a dd i t ion

t o t he d ie t , s uch a r e turn o f n u tr i t ion f or l abour o f c o l lec t ion i s n o t e ncourag ing . H owever , a l though s ome t imes u sed a s af ood b y t he p oor a nd i n t imes o f h ards h ip ( Fen ton , 1 978 ) , a l l manner o f s he l l f ish , a nd p ar t icu lar ly t he l impe t a nd p er iw ink le , wh ich a re t he mos t c o m mon i hhabi tan ts o f t he r ocky s hores o f B irsay t oday , h ave b een t rad i t iona l ly u sed a s b a i t . T he l impe t , p arbo i led , f ormed t he mos t c o mmon b a i t f or c ra ig-f ish ing ( f rom t he r ocks ) ( Fen ton , 1 978 ) , b eing c hewed t o ap u lp a nd s pa t o u t t o f orm a n o i ly f i lm o n t he wa ter t ha t a t tracted t he f i sh . T he v ery h igh n umber o f w ink les a nd l impe ts c o l lec ted a t t he e xcava t ions a t Buckquoy f ro m N orse p hases I V a nd V i n c o mpar ison w i th t he n umber f ro m e ar l ier p hases ( Evans a nd S pencer , 1 979 ) may b e r e la ted t o t he s ugges ted i ncrease i n t he i mpor tance o f f ish ing a nd t he c hange i n t echn iques . T he l impe ts a re u sed a s b a i t t o c a tch t he s a i the a nd h addock wh ich f orm t he t rad i t iona l b a i t f or h aa f ( o cean ) f i sh ing , w i th d eep l i nes a nd many h ooks , f or c od a nd l i ng ( Fen ton , 1 978 ).

As im i lar a bundance o f l impe t a nd w ink le h ave

b een i den t i f ied b y Woodward ( unpub l ished d a ta ) f ro m t he mo l luscs f ro m R oom 5 , a nd , t hough s t i l l t o b e a na lysed , mo l luscs a re more a bundan t t han b ones f ro m a l mos t a l l t he e xcava t ions s ince 1 975 t ha t h ave b een c arr ied o u t i n t he b ay . S ome s he l lf ish we a ssume mus t h ave b een u sed f or f ood , p ar t icu lar ly t he o ys ter , c ock le , s ca l lop a nd p robab ly musse l a nd h orse- musse l : s o me o f t hese may h ave b een d redged f or , a nd a l l o ccur o n t hese s i tes i n B irsay b ay. T he a rea o f c o l lec t ion a ppears t o h ave i nc luded t he s ubl i t tora l a s we l l a s t he l i t tora l z one . ( c )

S eaweed

Af urther a spect o f t he mo l lusc r e ma ins l i t t le c ons idered u n t i l r ecen t ly ( Evans , 1 979 ; E vans a nd S pencer , 1 979 ; B e l l , t h is v o lume ) , i s t he p oss ible l i gh t t hey may s hed o n t he e xp lo i ta t ion o f s eaweed . An umber o f t he sma l ler s pecies o f mo l lusc ( un l ikely t o h ave b een c o l lec ted f or f ood o r b a i t ) f eed o n , o r a re c o m mon ly f ound b rows ing o ver , t he f ronds o f s eaweed , wh i le o thers h ave a t endency t o a t tach t he mse lves t o t he h o ld fas ts o f t he l arger s eaweeds s uch a s L am inar ia s pec ies ( S tep , 1 945 ; F re t ter a nd G raham , 1 962 ). O f t hese s pecies a n umber were f ound i n Room 5 ( Woodward , u npubl ished l i s t ) , a nd f our s pec ies o ccurred a t Buckquoy ( Evans a nd S pencer , 1 979 ); t hey i nc lude G ibbu la c inerar ia , C a l l ios to ma z izph inum , P a t ina p e l lucida , C h lamys d is tor ta , H ia te l la a rct ica , L i t tor ina n eri to ides , L . s axa t i l is a nd L . l i t tora l is , wh ich i s u sua l ly f ound o n A scophyl lum n odosum , t he k no t ted wrack , o r Fucus v es icu losus , t he b ladder wrack . F . v es icu losus h as b een i den t i f ied f ro m a p robab le N orse c on tex t i n S i te S o n t he B rough o f B irsay . T he c on tex t c on ta ined Brothwell, Don, and Geoffrey Dimbleby. Environmental Aspects of Coasts and Islands. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1981, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541103. Downloaded on behalf of 38.67.221.43

7 8

ac ons iderable v o lume o f f ragmen ts o f c arbon ised s eaweed , mos t ly o f t he f la t tened f ronds w i th n o d iagnos t ic f ea tures , b u t s wo l len , g ranu lar f rond f ragmen ts , f rond t i ps a nd a n a ir b ladder were i den ti f ied a s b ladder wrack a nd a l l t he ma ter ia l c ou ld b e r e ferred t o t h is s pec ies ( see P la te 1 ) .

Af ew f rond f rag-

men ts a lso r e ferrable t o t he b ladder wrack were f ound i n t he p robable N orse midden o f A rea 2b es ide t he B rough R oad . S eaweed h as a lso b een r ecogn ised among c arbon ised ma ter ia l i n p i ts i n as upposed c ook ing a rea a t T he B igg ings , Papa S tour , S he t land ( Crawford , 1 979a ) .

S eaweed h as b een , a nd s o met i mes

s t i l l i s , p u t t o av ar ie ty o f u ses i n O rkney , p ar t icu lar ly manur ing b u t a lso , f ue l a nd f ood . Muci lag inous s eaweed h as b een u sed f or c au lk ing b oa ts , i t s h ygroscop ic p roper t ies p reven t ing t he s eams d rying o u t , e ven when t he b oa t i s o u t o f t he wa ter ( D imb leby , 1 978 ). The b ladder wrack i den t i f ied f ro m t he Brough i s a n e d ib le s pec ies a nd c er ta in s pec ies a re s t i l l g a thered f or h uman c onsump t ion i n I re land , i .e . C hondrus c r ispus , P orphyra s p . a nd R hody men ia s p. ( Evans , 1 957 ) .

I n Orkney i t was a lso u sed s o me t imes a s c a t t le f odder :

A lar ia e scu len ta w as p arbo i led b e fore b e ing f ed t o t he a n ima ls , a nd t here i s t he we l l k nown s i tua t ion o n N or th Rona ldsay where t he s heep g raze o n s eaweed f or t he who le y ear ( Fen ton , 1 978 ) . A more r ecen t u se o f s eaweed , t he b urn ing o f k e lp o n al arge s ca le t o p roduce a r es idue r ich i n p o tass ium a nd i od ine s a l ts , i s a lso e v iden t i n t he a rchaeo log ica l r ecord a round t he b ay.

T he a sh o f wracks s uch a s F ucus a nd

Ascophyl lum was u sed i n t he p as t f or t he p roduc t ion o f g lass a nd i od ine ( Fen ton , 1 978 ). I n t he f i eld s ou th o f t he B eachv iew S tud io S i te , t wo k elp p i ts a re v is ible , i f al i t t le o vergrown b y t ur f , a nd c lose ly r ese mble t he k i ln e xcava ted b y Fen ton ( 1 978 ) o n N or th R ona ldsay.

One o r t wo s im i lar d epress ions , b u t

much o vergrown , t ha t o ccur n earby o n B irsay L inks a s we l l a s s o me b es ide t he r oad t o t he B rough a re a l mos t c er ta in ly s im i lar f ea tures . Two f ea tures i n terpre ted a s k e lp k i lns were o bserved i n t he d unes n or th o f S aevar H owe where t hey h ad b een e xposed b y q uarrying .

The b e t ter p reserved o f t hese

c ons is ted o f an umber o f s tones a nd b urn t ma ter ia l l y ing b elow a 0 .1 m t h ick t ur f l ayer a nd a l ower 0 .5 m d ep th o f w ind-blown s he l l-sand . T he b urn t ma ter ia l was s pread u p t o s ix u pr igh t b urn t s tones wh ich f ormed t he c orner o f ad is turbed f ea ture .

A l though sma l ler t han t he N or th Rona ldsay e xamp le ,

measur ing i n terna l ly 0 .87 m b y 0 .76 m , w i th u pr igh t s tones v arying f ro m 0 .01 m t o 0 .08 m t h ick , t he s truc ture i s s im i lar i n f orm . S amp les t aken f ro m t he s pread o f c arbon ised ma ter ia l h ave s t i l l b e t o a na lysed . A s y e t n one o f t hese p i ts c an b e d a ted , b u t t he i ndus try was ma in ly a n 1 8 th a nd 1 9th c en tury o ne w i th s o me r ecords f ro m t h is c en tury a lso ( Fen ton , 1 978 ). ( d )

Agr icu l ture An a spec t o f t he c oas ta l e nv ironmen t o f i mpor tance i n t he a gr icu l tura l

e cono my o f t he b ay , a nd c onc ievab ly a lso i n t he p re-Norse a nd N orse p er iods , i s t he q uarrying a nd s pread ing o f s he l l-sand o n t he l and a s af er t i l iser . T he s oi ls a t B irsay a re b y t rad i t ion t he mos t f er t i le o n t he i s land ( R i tch ie , 1 975 ) a nd n o d oub t w ind-blown a nd c ar ted s he l l-sand h ave b een impor tan t e lemen ts , a long w i th t he r eady s upply o f s eaweed a s manure , i n t he e s tab l ish men t o f t h is t rad i t ion .

T he a n t iqu i ty o f t he t rad i t ion , wh ich i nciden ta l ly h as b een c aus ing

s evere e ros ion i n t he b ay i n r ecen t y ears ( Ma ther e t a l . 1 974 ) , i s u nknown , a nd F en ton makes n o men t ion o f i t . T he manur ing o f f i e lds wou ld h ave a ss is ted t he g rowing o f c erea l c rops i fc arr ied o u t d ur ing t he p re-Norse a nd N orse o ccupa t ion o f t he b ay. Brothwell, Don, and Geoffrey Dimbleby. Environmental Aspects of Coasts and Islands. 7 9 E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1981, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541103. Downloaded on behalf of 38.67.221.43

L i t t le g ra in h as s o f ar b een r ecovered f ro m t he s amp les t aken f ro m t he B rough s i tes , b u t t he middens a nd f l oor l eve ls o f t he t wo ma jor a reas e xcava ted b y t he s ide o f t he B rough r oad ( Areas 1 a nd 2 , a nd 3 a nd 4 ) a s we l l a s t he B eachv iew s i te , h ave y ie lded a c ons iderable v o lume o f g ra in a nd a f ew o ther c arbon ised s eeds . Ah ear th i n t he f igure-o f-e igh t h ouse i n A rea 3 c on ta ined o ver t hree t housand g ra ins o f b ar ley : af ew e xcep t iona l ly we l l p reserved g ra ins a nd a r ach is e nabled i den t i f ica t ion a s H ordeum v u lgare L . ( bere ) , t he h u l led 6 -row v ar ie ty wh ich was t he p r imary c rop i n O rkney u n t i l a t l eas t t he e igh teen th c en tury. I ti s s t i l l g rown , o n ly i n Orkney , t o av ery l im i ted e x ten t , b u t h as e lsewhere b een s uperceded b y 2 -row v ar ie t ies ( H . d is t ichon L .) G ra in f ro m t he midden d epos i ts i n A reas 1 a nd 2 , t hough l ess we l l p reserved , i s a lso r eferable t o b ere . A sma l l amoun t o f o a ts was a lso p resen t i n Area 3i n t he f i gure-of-eigh t h ouse . A l though g ra in a lone i s n o t s u f f icien t f or s peci f ic i den ti f ica t ion , f our f l ower b ases w ere i den t i f ied a s A vena f a tua ( wi ld o a t ). G enera l ly a c o m mon weed o f c erea l c rops , i ti s a lso a n i n troduced s pec ies w i th r ecorded o ccurrences d a t ing f ro m t he I ron Age , a nd i ti s t hough t t o h ave b een i n troduced w i th g ra in s eed ( Jessen a nd H elbaek , 1 944 ) . The s upposed N orse m iddens o f A reas 1 a nd 2 a lso c on ta ined a sma l l p ropor t ion o f o a ts : t he o n ly f l ower b ase r ecovered was i den ti f ied a s A vena s a t iva , t he c o m mon c u l t iva ted o a t , t hough t t o b e d er ived f rom A . f a tua , a lso a h exap lo id . T he g ra in i n t hese middens h as a s l igh t ly l arger s ize r ange a lso p o in t ing t o A . s a t iva , t hough A . f a tua i s p robab ly s t i l l p resen t . A . s a t iva i s a lso r ecord ed f ro m t he I ron Age o nwards a nd p robab ly o r ig ina l ly g rew a s a weed i n c u lt i va ted f i e lds , w i th i t s p o ten t ia l a s ac rop i n i t s o wn r igh t b e ing r eh l ised i n t he more n or ther ly l a t itudes .

A s R i tch ie ( 1 979 ) p o in ted o u t , a ccord ing t o t he

S ta t is t ica l A ccoun ts o f 1 795 , b ere a nd o a ts h ave b een t he mos t i mpor tan t c rops i n B irsay s ince t he med ieva l p er iod . V ery f ew s eeds o ther t han g ra in h ave b een r ecovered a nd t hey a dd l i t t le t o t he e nv ironmen ta l p ic ture . C arbon ised s eeds o f s edges , d ocks , g rasses a nd g oose foot h ave b een f ound s porad ica l ly t hroughou t t he p er iods r epresen ted , a nd a re p robab ly f ro m t he l oca l f i e lds , d unes a nd b eaches . One s amp le wh ich c on ta ins much g ra in , y ie lded s evera l s eeds o f t he c orn s purrey , af requen t weed o f c rops o n s andy s o i l , a nd wh ich was c er ta in ly u sed i n i t s o wn r igh t w i th t he s eeds o f o ther weeds f or mak ing b read ( Fen ton , 1 978 ). ( e )

O ther R esources Among t he o ther c arbon ised r e ma ins o bta ined f ro m t he p re-Norse a nd

N orse e xcava t ions o n t he Brough a nd b es ide t he B rough r oad , a re c ons iderable amoun ts o f c harcoa l , o f ten a longs ide b urn t p ea t . Wi l low o r p oplar , b irch , h aze l , p ine a nd o ak h ave b een d en ti f ied . A l though t here i s s ome d oubt a bou t t he s ta tus o f p ine , o ak i s a l mos t c er ta in ly n o t n a t ive t o t he i s lands .

T he

sma l l amoun t o f t hese t imbers c ou ld h ave b een i mpor ted o r c o l lec ted a s d r i f twood , b u t t he l arge amoun t o f b ranches a nd t wigs o f t he o ther s pec ies s ugges ts t he u se o f l oca l ma ter ia l , a nd may b e e v idence f or t he p resence o f s o me s er e wood land i n B irsay a t l eas t u p t o t he N orse p er iod . A l though d r i f twood may h ave b een a u sefu l r esource i n t he p as t , w ith q u i te l arge t ree t runks washed u p , t he p oss ibi l i ty o f impor ted t imber i n t his p er iod , f ro m S cand inav ia o r S co t land , c anno t b e f orgo t ten . T he f ind f ro m t he B igg ings , Papa S tour , o f ap lanked f l oor o f p ine i n al a te-Norse b u i ld ing h as a lready l ed t o t he s ugges t ion t ha t t he t imber c ame f ro m N orway ( Crawford , 1 979b ) , • Brothwell, Don, and Geoffrey Dimbleby. Environmental Aspects of Coasts and Islands. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1981, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541103. 8 0 Downloaded on behalf of 38.67.221.43

a nd t he r oo f s uppor ts t ha t a re s uggested b y t he s truc tura l r ema ins a t Buckquoy may p erhaps h ave n ecess i ta ted i mpor t f ro m S co t land ( R i tch ie , 1 975 ). Af ur ther , a l mos t t oo o bv ious , r esource o f t he f oreshore a nd b each i s s tone . F ire f ractured b each p ebbles a re a c om mon f ind , o ccurr ing e specia l ly a t B eachv iew i n B irsay b u t a lso a t o ther s i tes o f t he N orse a nd l a te-Norse p er iod i n t he b ay a nd a lso a t F resw ick . T he u se o f s uch s tones a t P apa S tour f or ' parch ing ' g ra in h as b een s ugges ted b y t he f ind ing o f l arge s tone h ear th s labs u pon wh ich g ra in migh t h ave b een l a id t o d ry ( Craw ford , 1 979b ) , a nd F en ton ( 1978 ) h as s ugges ted t h is u se a s a n a l terna t ive t o t he more t rad i t iona l v iew o f t he s tones a s ' po t b oi lers '. T he ir u se a s as ource o f h ea t i n s teamc ook ing i n s ea led p i ts h as b een s uggss ted a t P apa S tour ( Crawford , 1 979a ) . T he f oreshore i n B irsay b ay , o f g en t ly i nc l ined f lags tones , i s a lso a n i dea l s ource o fb u i ld ing s tone ( R i tch ie , 1 975 ) a nd wou ld f orm t he c loses t a nd mos t e as i ly worked q uarry . These r ocks a re r ead i ly s p l i t w i th h ammers a nd wedges ( Fen ton , 1 978 ) a nd t here i s n o r eason t o s uppose t ha t t h is s imp le q uarry ing was n o t w i th in t he t echno log ica l c apabi l i t ies o f t he p re-Norse a nd N orsemen . C onclus ions T he emphas is i n t h is p aper , a s i n t he c on ference , h as b een u pon mar ine a nd c oas ta l r esources . H owever , i t wou ld b e am isrepresen ta t ion t o s ugges t t ha t t he e cono my d ur ing t he p re-Norse a nd N orse p er iod was e i ther b ased o n , o r l arge ly d ependen t u pon , t hese r esources . T he impor tance o f a gr icu l ture a nd a n ima l h usbandry , i fn o t d iscussed a t l eng th a bove , s hou ld n o t b e u ndere s t i ma ted :

t he p ara l le l e v idence f ro m J ar lshof a nd U nderhou l l , i n S he t land

( Ha m i l ton , 1 956; Sma l l , 1 966) s ugges ts i t was b as ic . E qua l ly , a l though f ro m t he c oncen tra t ion o f k nown N orse s e t t le men ts i n Faroe a nd S he t land a long t he c oas t , i th as b een c onc luded ( Sma l l , 1 968 ) t ha t t hey a ppear t o h ave b een a rranged w i th r espec t t o t he n eed f or a ccess t o t he s ea a s we l l a s l and f or c rops a nd a n i ma ls , i ti s d i f f icu l t a nd d ubious t o d raw a s imi lar c onc lus ion f or O rkney .

I ti s a n o bservable f ac t t ha t t he l andscape o f t he O rkney I s lands i s

v ery d i f feren t f ro m t ha t o f t he o ther A t lan t ic I s land g roups , a nd much more a rchaeo log ica l a nd e nv ironmen ta l i nves t iga t ion mus t t ake p lace b efore f i rm c onclusions a bou t p a t terns o f s e t t le men t i n t hese i s lands c an b e made . T h is p aper mus t b e s een a s ap re l im inary r ev iew o f work i n p rogress , a nd a n i nd ica t ion o f t he f u ture p oss ib i l i t ies f ro m t he work o f t h is p ro jec t . O ther a spec ts , s uch a s t hose o f t he r e la t ionsh ip o f a r tefac tua l a nd e nv ironmen ta l ma ter ia l , a nd t he p oss ibi l i t ies o f e v idence f or t rad ing , w i l l n eed t o b e c ons idered i n f u ture work . Much more s or t ing a nd a na lys is o f ma ter ia l r ecovered s o f ar , a s w e ll a . ; _ L ha t f ro m f u ture e xcava t ions , n eeds t o b e d one . I n t ime f or i ns tance t he s tea t i te l a mp a nd t he l i ne o r n e t-s inkers f or f i sh ing f ro m p robab le N orse c on tex ts o n t he B rough w i l l h ave a c learer c on tex t i n a p a t tern o f l i fe , wh ich a t p resen t we c an s imp ly g l impse o r g uess a t . A lso , a s t ime g oes o n , r ecovery me thods b eco me more e f f ic ien t .

The

mo l luscan a nd a n i ma l b one ma ter ia l f rom R oo m 5 o n t he Brough a nd Dr R i tch ie 's e xcava t ion a t B uckquoy h ave y ie lded v a luable r esu l ts , b u t more s ys te ma t ic a nd a dequa te r ecovery me thods t han were a t te mp ted o n t hose s i tes a re n ece ssary f or o ther d a ta .

T he e v idence o f f i sh , b ird , c erea ls a nd w i ld p lan ts i s ,

a s i nd ica ted a bove , o bv iously impor tan t f or t he l i gh t t hey t hrow u pon t he u t i l is a t ion a nd e xp lo i ta t ion o f t he e nv ironmen t a t B irsay ; a nd t hese f i e lds o f e v ie nc e d ep end v ery muc h u pof oCoasts n a d eqIslands. ua te r ecovery f or a ny r easoned a ssess men t Brothwell, Don,d and Geoffrey Dimbleby. Environmental Aspects and E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1981, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541103. f t he i i mpor tance. 8 1 Downloaded ono behalf ofr 38.67.221.43

Th is y ear o n t he B eachv iew S tud io S i te a sma l l t eam e xcava ted t he midden w i th in t he l onghouse o f N orse d a te .

R ecovery was e f fec ted b y t he t o ta l we t-

s iev ing , t hrough 2 m m a nd 0 .895 m m mesh s ieves , w i th t he a id o f wa ter p u mped f ro m t he b urn .

S o me a t te mp t was made t o measure t he v o lu me o f t he ma ter ia l

s ieved a nd t he f ine f rac t ion ( grea ter t han 0 .895 m m ) was f loa ted a nd s tored s epara te ly.

T he r ecovery o f l arge n umbers o f c arbon ised c erea l g ra ins ,

l arge ly u nno t iced d ur ing e xcava t ion , a nd t he e f f icien t r ecovery o f f ish b ones , was i m med ia te ly a pprec ia ted , a nd i ti s t o b e h oped t ha t t hese r ecovery met hods w i l l e nable a much more d e ta i led a na lys is , o f c ons iderab ly l arger s amp les , t o b e made o n t he ma ter ia l f ro m t he mos t r ecen t e xcava t ions a nd t hose o f t he f u ture w i th in t he p ro jec t . F ina l ly , i ts hou ld b e n o ted t ha t i n ap ro jec t o f t h is n a ture , t he w ider c ont ex t o f t he b ay h as t o b e c ons idered a longs ide t he s peci f ic d e ta i led e v idence o f p ar t icu lar e xcava t ions .

The p o ten t ia l f or e n larg ing u nders tand ing o f t he n a ture ,

r ange a nd mechan is ms o f s e t t le men t f ro m sma l l-sca le s a mp l ing h as a lready b een d e mons tra ted b y t he r esu l ts f ro m C u t t ing 6 .

T he p rocess ing o f f ur ther

midden s amp les f ro m o ther e xposed , u nexcava ted , s i tes , i s b eing u nder taken , a nd may c on f iden t ly b e e xpected t o s upp le men t a nd e xpand e x is t ing i n for ma t ion , a nd i ndeed g ive a n i nd ica t ion o f t he a rchaeo log ica l p o ten t ia l o f t hese s i tes . S evera l o f t he s i tes men t ioned a bove were e xposed b y w in ter s tor ms i n 1 976 , a nd f ur ther a rchaeo log ica l f ea tures were n oted f o l low ing w idespread d es truct i on o f s andc li f fs b y ah urr icane i n 1 978 .

A l l s i tes e xcava ted , s amp led , o r

s i mp ly n o ted , t o d a te a re i ncluded o n t he a cco mpanying map o f t he Bay ( F ig . 5 ) , a nd i tc anno t b e r egarded a s i n a nyway a c omp le te r epresen ta t ion o f t he a rchaeo logy o f B irsay: f ur ther work h as t o b e d one i n land , a nd i n t he s ou thern p ar t o f t he b ay.

I tc anno t b e c la i med t ha t t he s i tua t ion i s u n ique , b u t p erhaps

t he c oncen tra t ion o f r esources i n t h is a rea i s u nusua l , a nd t he p oten t ia l g rea t . A s t he p ro jec t d eve lops , i ti s a lso h oped t o c o mpare t he ma ter ia l f ro m t h is a rea o f O rkney w i th t he e qua l ly r ich , a nd e qua l ly t hrea tened , ma ter ia l i n t he a rea o f Freswick , Ca i thness , a nd t he p ara l lel p ro jec t a t S andwick , Uns t , S he t land ( B ige low a nd McGovern , 1 978 ) .

S uch c oncen tra ted a rchaeo log ica l

a nd e nv ironmen ta l p ro jec ts s ee m t o o f fer a n e xc i t ing p rospec t f or e n larg ing o ur u nders tand ing o f t he i n teract ion o f man a nd t he e nv ironmen t i n t he p as t . NOTES 1 .

The e xcava t ion i n 1 973 , b y Mrs C ur ie a nd a ss is ted b y J . R . Hun ter , o f R oo m 5 i n t he Eas tern C l i f f S e t t le men t , was c o mp le ted b y J . R . H un ter a nd C . D . Morr is i n 1 974 .

F ro m 1 974 w ork b y Durha m U n ivers i ty u nder

t he d irect ion o f C . D . Morr is h as t aken p lace o n a n a rea t o t he wes t o f t he c hurchyard ( S i tes L , N , Ea nd S ) a nd o n t he S ou thern C l i f f Area . S ince 1 975 Dr Hun ter , n ow o f Brad ford U n ivers i ty , h as u nder taken e xcav a t ions o n t he N or thern C li f f Area ( S i tes , F , P a nd R ) a nd t he a rea immed ia te ly s ou th o f t he G uard iansh ip Area . A l l work h as b een f inanced b y t he Ancien t Monumen ts I nspec tora te o f t he S co t t ish Deve lop men t Depar t men t ( f or mer ly D .o .E ) , a nd Durha m a nd Brad ford Un ivers i t ies . 2 .

These e xcava t ions b y Durham Un ivers i ty , d irected b y C . D . Morr is , a ss is ted b y N . Emery a nd N . F . P earson , were f inanced b y t he A ncien t Monumen ts Branch o f t he S . D. D. a nd Durha m Un ivers i ty.

2 Brothwell, Don, and Geoffrey Dimbleby. Environmental Aspects of Coasts and Islands. 8 E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1981, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541103. Downloaded on behalf of 38.67.221.43

3 .

S ince t he o bserva t ions o n t he e nv ironmen ta l d a ta a re c on f ined t o ma ter ia l f ro m R oo m 5 a nd t he a rea t o t he wes t o f t he c hurchyard , n o d escr ip t ion i s h ere g iven o f t he o ther a reas o n t he Brough u nder e xcava t ion e i ther b y C . D . Morr is o r Dr . J . R . Hun ter .

A cknow ledge men ts Ac ons iderab le n umber o f p eop le a re c on tr ibu t ing t o t he work o f t he p ro jec t a nd we s hou ld l i ke t o t hank t hose t ha t h ave p er m i t ted t heir d a ta o r r esu l ts t o b e u sed i n t h is p aper .

T hese i nc lude Dr S . L i mbrey , A . K . G .

J ones , N . Emery a nd D r F . R . Woodward , a nd i n p ar t icu lar we a re g ra tefu l t o Dr T . J . S e l ler f or p ermiss ion t o u se h is r epor t p r ior t o p ubl ica t ion . The ma ter ia l f ro m t he f o l low ing u npub l ished r epor ts h as a lso b een u t i l ised : A lvey , B . A . P ., B ramwe l l , D ., Dona ldson , A . M., Rackha m , D . J . a nd Whee ler , A . ' Pre l im inary S tudy o f ap reh is tor ic s i te a t B irsay , Orkney ;

i n a dvance o f e xcava t ion '.

Rackham , D . J .

' Freswick :

ar eco m menda t ion f or e xcava t ion '.

We wou ld a lso l i ke t ot hank N . Emery f or t he d raw ings a nd t he P ho tograph ic Dep t ., D epar tmen t o f A rchaeo logy , Un ivers i ty o f Durham f or t he p la tes . Thanks a re d ue t o Dr D . J . Breeze a nd P . J . A sh more , I nspec tors o f Ancien t Monumen ts , S . D.D., f or t he ir h e lp a nd s uppor t . ( A l l i l lus tra t ions a re C rown C opyr igh t ).

B IBLIOGRAPHY B e l l , M ., ( t h is v o lu me ). B ige low , G . F . a nd McGovern , T . H ., 1 978 .

Pre l im inary r epor t o f t he

1 978 Excava t ions a t S andw ick , Uns t , S he t land I s lands . E cono m ic R esearch P ro jec t . Bramwe l l , D ., 1 979 .

A ppend ix 2 .

N orse S he t land

P r iva te ly c ircu la ted . B ird a nd v o le b ones f ro m Buckquoy ,

Orkney i n R i tch ie , A . ( 1979 ) s ee b e low . C h i lde , V . G ., 1 943 .

Ano ther l a te V ik ing h ouse a t Freswick , C a i thness ,

Pr oc . S oc. An t iq . S co t ., LXXV I I : C lark , J . G . D ., 1 947.

5 -17.

Wha les a s a n e cono m ic f ac tor i n P reh is tor ic Europe

An t iqu i ty , 1 947: 8 4-104 . C lark , J . G . D ., 1 952 .

P reh is tor ic Europe , T he e cono m ic b as is , Methuen ,

L ondon . C larke , D . V ., 1 976. 7 3 Excava t ions : Crawford , B ., 1 979a .

The N eo l i th ic V i l lage a t S kara Brae , Orkney: a n i n ter im r epor t .

1 972-

E d inburgh .

Ap rogress r epor t o n e xcava t ions a t ' Da b igg ins ' ,

Papa S tour , S he t land , 1 978 .

N or thern S tud ies , 3 : 3 7-41.

Crawford , B ., 1 979b. T h ird I n ter i m Repor t o f t he Excava t ions a t The B igg ings , Papa S tour , S he t land , 1 979 . Pr iva tely c ircu la ted . Cur ie , A . 0 ., 1 939 .

AV ik ing s e t t le men t a t Freswick , Ca i thness .

S oc. An t i q . S co t . , LofXX I I I : 1 -110 . Brothwell, Don, and Geoffrey Dimbleby. Environmental Aspects Coasts and7 Islands. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1981, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541103. 8 3 Downloaded on behalf of 38.67.221.43

Proc.

Dav idson ,

D . A ., J ones , B . L . a nd Ren frew , C ., 1 976.

r econs truc t ion a nd e va lua t ion :

Pa laeoenv ironmen ta l

ac ase s tudy f ro m O rkney .

Transact ions

o f t he I ns t i tu te o f B r i t ish G eographers , 1 : 3 46-361. D i mbleby , G ., 1 978.

P lan ts a nd Archaeo logy .

Evans , E . E ., 1 957.

I r ish F o lk Ways .

Evans , J . G ., 1 979 .

T he p a laeoenv iron men t o f c oas ta l b lown-sand d epos i ts

i n wes tern a nd n or thern Br i ta in .

Baker , L ondon .

2 nd e d .

RK -P .

Ear ly man i n t he S co t t ish Landscape ,

S co t t ish A rchaeo log ica l F oru m , 9 , 1 6-26. Evans , J . G . a nd S pencer , P ., 1 979.

A ppendix 4 .

e nv ironmen t , Buckquoy , Orkney . F en ton , A ., 1 978 .

I n R i tch ie , ( 1979 ).

T he N or thern I s les .

Fre t ter , V . a nd G raha m , H ., 1 962 .

T he mo l lusca a nd

Dona ld , E d inburgh .

Br i t ish P rosobrach Mo l luscs , Ray

S oc ie ty , L ondon . Ham i l ton , J . R . C ., 1 956.

Excava t ions a t J ar lsho f , S he t land , H . M.S .O .

E d inburgh . J essen , K . a nd H e lbaek , H ., 1 944.

C erea ls i n G rea t Br i ta in a nd I rb land i n

p reh is tor ic a nd e ar ly h is tor ic t ime .

K . Danske V idensk . S elsk ., 3 :

1 -65 . K ea t inge , T . H . a nd D ickson , J . H ., 1 979 . v ege ta t ion o n Ma in land Orkney.

Mid-Flandr ian c hanges i n

N ew P hyto l ., 8 2: 5 85-612 .

L a mb , R . G ., 1 975 . B irsay , Orkney.

T he Ca thedra l o f C hr is tchurch a nd t he monas tery o f Proc. S oc . An t iq . S cot , 1 05 : 2 00-205 .

Marw ick , H ., 1 970 .

T he p lace-names o f B irsay .

A berdeen .

Ma ther , A . S ., R i tch ie , W., a nd Sm i th , J . S ., 1 974 .

B eaches o f Orkney.

R epor t f or C oun trs ide C omm iss ion f or S co t land , p p . 1 68 , Depar t men t o f G eography , Un ivers i ty o f A berdeen . Moar , N . T ., 1 969. I s lands .

Two p o l len d iagra ms f ro m t he Ma in land , Orkney

N ew P hyto l ., 6 8 : 2 01-208 .

Mykura , W., 1 975 .

T he G eo log ica l Bas is o f t he O rkney Env iron men t .

i n T he Na tura l Env ironmen t o f O rkney , e d . R . G ood ier , Na ture C ons ervancy C ounci l , E d inburgh . N odd le , B ., 1 979 .

A ppend ix 1 .

The a n i ma l b ones f ro m Buckquoy , Orkney.

i n R i tch ie , A . ( 1 979 ). O laus , Magnus 1 555 .

H is tor ia d e g en t ibus .s ep ten tr iona l ibus .

Pa lsson , H . a nd E dwards , P . ( t rans .) , 1 978 . o f t he Ear ls o f O rkney. E d inburgh . P la t t , M. I . , 1 956. ( 1956 ).

A ppend ix I V .

H oy , Orkney.

Orkneyinga S aga .

The An ima l B ones .

Pren t ice , H . C . a nd Pren t ice , I . C ., 1 975 .

The H is tory

i n Hami l ton , J . R . C .

T he H i l l v egeta t ion o f N or th

N ew Phyto l ., 7 5 : 3 13-367.

Brothwell, Don, and Geoffrey Dimbleby. Environmental Aspects of Coasts and Islands. 8 4 E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1981, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541103. Downloaded on behalf of 38.67.221.43

Ro me .

Ren frew , C ., 1 979 .

I nves t iga t ions i n Orkney.

R epor ts o f t he Research

C omm i t tee o f t he S ocie ty o f An t iquar ies o f L ondon , N o . ) (XXVI I I , p p. 2 34 R i tchie , A ., 1 975 .

P ict a nd N orse man i n N or thern S cot land .

S cot t ish Arch-

a eo log ica l F oru m , 6 : 2 3-36. R i tch ie , A ., 1 979 .

Excava t ion o f P ict ish a nd V ik ing-age f ar ms teads a t

Buckquoy , Orkney. Ross , A . S . C ., 1 940 . 966. Sma ll , A ., 1

Proc . S oc. An t iq . S cot ., 1 08 : 1 74-227. The Ter f innas a nd Beor mas o f Oh there .

Excava t ions a t Underhou l l , Unst , S het land .

Leeds .

Proc. S oc.

An t iq . S co t ., XCV I I I : 2 25-248 . 968 . Sma l l , A ., 1 imes . V ik ing t S tep , E ., 1 945.

T he d is tr ibu t ion o f s et t le men t i n S het land a nd Faroe i n S aga Book , XV I I : 1 45-55 . S he l l L i fe

Warne.

Webster , L . E . a nd C herry , J ., 1 978 .

Med ieva l Br i ta in i n 1 977.

Med .

Arch ., XX I I ; 1 52. Wheeler , A ., 1 979a .

Appendix G :

The f ish b ones .

i n Ren frew , C ., ( 1979 ) .

C h . I X , 1 44-149 . Wheeler , A ., 1 979b.

A ppendix 3 :

The f ish b ones f ro m Buckquoy , Orkney ,

i n R i tch ie , A . ( 1 979 ).

Brothwell, Don, and Geoffrey Dimbleby. Environmental Aspects of Coasts and Islands. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1981, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541103. 8 5 Downloaded on behalf of 38.67.221.43

a

M M

P la te I C arbon ised f ragmen ts o fb ladder wrack , F ucus v es icu losus , f ro m ap robab le N orse c on tex t o n t he B rough o f B irsay . a )

N ode b ) F rond t i p

c ) B ladder d ) Swo l len , g ranu lar f ru i t ing b ody

Brothwell, Don, and Geoffrey Dimbleby. Environmental Aspects of Coasts and Islands. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1981, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541103. Downloaded on behalf of 38.67.221.43

THE PALAEOECOLOGY OF ESTUAR INE DEPOS ITS A SSOC IATED WITH ARCHAEOLOG ICAL S ITES WITH PARTICULAR REFERENCE TO THE C ITY OF LONDON B y P eter D . A . B oyd

S YNOPS IS T he r ange o f a rchaeo log ica l s i tes s i tua ted o n e s tuar ies i s l arge .

E s tu-

a r ies h ave f or med a r ou te f or t raders a nd i nvaders e ncourag ing t he d eve lopmen t o f t rad ing s e t t le men ts a nd d efens ive i ns ta l la t ions .

The a bundance o f

f ish , s he l l f ish a nd b ird l i fe s uppor ted b y e s tuar ies h as e ncouraged t he d eve lopmen t o f c o m mun i t ies b ased o n t he c ropp ing o f t hese n a tura l p roducts .

S a l t-

mak ing h as a lso b een a n impor tan t a c t iv i ty o n t he b anks o f e s tuar ies a s s hown b y t he o ccurrence o f n umerous ' Red H i l ls '.

Many o f t he wor ld 's ma jor c i t ies

h ave t here fore d eve loped o n e s tuar ies . The C i ty o f L ondon was f ounded o n t he n or th b ank o f t he R iver Tha mes i n t he f irs t c en tury A .D . a t ap o in t wh ich was p robably c lose t o b u t a bove t he l im i t o f t i da l i n f luence a t t ha t t ime . a nd c on t inues t o r ise .

The mean s ea-leve l h as r isen s ince t hen

The e rect ion o f s uccess ive wa ter fron ts c o mbin ing t he

n eed f or h igher r eve tmen ts w i th r eclama t ion h as n arrowed t he c hanne l a nd e xaspera ted t he p rob le m o f f lood ing . The D epar t men t o f U rban Archaeo log y o f t he Museum o f L ondon h as p ioneered work o n wa ter fron t a rchaeo logy s ince i t s f orma t ion i n 1 973 a nd a t te mp ts h ave b een made t o e s t i ma te t he ' sealeve l ' a t v ar ious t imes u s ing t he h e igh t o f e xcava ted wa ter fron t s truc tures r e la t ive t o o rdnance d a tu m . However , l i t t le work was d one o n t he b io log ica l r e ma ins f ro m e s tuar ine d ep os i ts a ssoc ia ted w i th t hese wa ter fron ts e xcep t t hose r e ma ins o f ' cu l tura l ' i n teres t d u mped t here .

An i n terna t iona l c on ference o n t he A rchaeo logy o f

Wa ter fron ts i n Nor th-European Towns h e ld i n L ondon i n 1 979 s howed t h is t o b e s o e lsewhere a s w e l l . T herefore t he a u thor was a sked t o c arry o u t ap re l im inary e xa m ina t ion o f t hese e s tuar ine d epos i ts t o a ssess t he ir p o ten t ia l a s s ources o f e nv ironmen ta l i n forma t ion ( b io log ica l a nd s ed i men to log ica l ). Al arge v ar ie ty o fb io log ica l r e ma ins i s r ecoverab le i f s u i table t echn iques a re a dop ted .

Mos t r e ma ins a re o rgan ic , c a lcareous o r s i l iceous b u t ' t race-

f oss i ls ' a re a lso f ound .

T he r e ma ins r ecovered f ro m London wa ter logged

d epos i ts i nc lude o rgan ic-wa l led ' r n icrop lank ton , d ia to ms , c harophytes , s eeds , p o l len , t es ta te r h izopods , f oram in i fera , s ponge s p icu les , b ryozoan s ta toblasts , p aras i t ic wor m e ggs , c ladoceran e ph ipp ia , o s tracods a nd mo l luscs .

Many o f

t he o rgan is ms f ro m wh ich t hese r e ma ins a re d er ived a re s ens i t ive t o sma l l c hanges i n s a l in i ty , p o l lu t ion a nd o ther e nv iron men ta l p ara me ters . Brothwell, Don, and Geoffrey Dimbleby. Environmental Aspects of Coasts and Islands. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1981, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541103. 8 7 Downloaded on behalf of 38.67.221.43

S a l in i ty , p o l lu t ion , t i da l amp l i tude , c urren t v e loc i ty a nd s ubs tra te were t he ma in f ac tors wh ich , i n f luenced b y l ong-term e nv ironmen ta l c hanges , c iv i l e ng ineer ing p ro jec ts a nd was te-d isposa l p ract ices , d e term ined t he c o mpos i t ion o f t he e s tuar ine b iocoenoses . H owever , p os t- mor tem t ranspor t o f s ubfoss i l r e ma ins , r ework ing o f T er t iary a nd Mesozo ic m icro foss i ls a nd p os t-depos i t iona l p rocesses h ave a lso a f fec ted t he c ompos i t ion o f t he a ssemblages o f b io log ica l r e ma ins p reserved . T he T hames was a ma jor s ource o f wa ter f or d r ink ing a nd o ther d o mes t ic u ses u n t i l med ieva l t imes when a c ombina t ion o f h igh s a l in i t ies a nd p o l lu t ion e ncouraged t he C i ty a u thor i t ies t o p ipe f resh wa ter i n f ro m we l ls a nd s pr ings o n t he o u tsk ir ts o f L ondon . S a l in i ty c hanges a nd p o l lu t ion a lso a f fec ted o ther a ct iv i t ies b ased o n t he T hames a nd i t s t r ibu tar ies a nd i tb ecame a s er ious h ea l th h azard . D ocumen tary r ecords g ive p ar t o f t he s tory b u t i ti s o n ly t hrough s cien t i f ic s tud ies o f t he s ed i men tary d epos i ts t ha t i tw i l l b e p oss ible t o e xam ine t he ways i n wh ich t he e s tuary h as a f fec ted h uman a c t iv i t ies d ur ing i t s h is tory a nd t he e f fec ts wh ich Man h as h ad o n t he e s tuary a nd i t s f l ora a nd f auna . The c on ten ts o f t h is p aper a re b e ing p ubl ished i n a much e x tended f orm e lsewhere .

Brothwell, Don, and Geoffrey Dimbleby. Environmental Aspects of Coasts and Islands. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1981, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541103. 8 8 Downloaded on behalf of 38.67.221.43

ADAPTATION TO A DESERT COAST : S UBS ISTENCE CHANGES THROUGH T I ME I N COASTAL PERU Barbara P ickersg i l l a nd R ichard T . Sm i th

I NTRODUCT ION T he I ncas r eferred t o t he ir emp ire a s Tahuan t insuyu , l and o f t he f our q uar ters .

A l though c on tras ted e nv ironmen ts o f t he Andes ( s ierra ) , e qua tor ia l

r a in f ores t ( mon tana a nd s e lva ) a nd d eser t c oas t ( cos ta ) c o me i m med ia te ly t o mind , t he f our q uar ters were a c tua l ly a d min is tra t ive p rov inces e qu iva len t t o t he f our s ec tors o f t he c o mpass .

I n I nca t imes t he who le a rea f unct ioned

a s ap o l i t ica l a nd e cono m ic e n t i ty ( e .g . Rowe , 1 948 ) a nd t he f ac t t ha t I nca r u le h ad c o me a bou t l arge ly b y c onques t o f n eighbour ing p eop les d oes n ot p rec lude s ubs tan t ia l i n terac t ion b etween t he v ar ious e co log ica l z ones i n e ar l ier p er iods ( see f or e xamp le A da ms , 1 960 ).

T h is s hou ld b e emphas ised , f or i n t rea t ing

as ing le z one o ne h as t o a vo id t he t endency t o t h ink o f i ti n i so la t ion .

E qua l ly

t he word s ubs is tence s hou ld n o t b e e qua ted w i th t he n o t ion o f s e l f-suf f iciency w i th i t s i mp l ica t ion o f l im i ted e x terna l c on tact .

I tt hus b eco mes l ess e asy t o

d e l inea te t he P eruv ian c oas t i n a rchaeo log ica l t erms , f or we mus t c ons ider n o t s imp ly t he P ac if ic l i t tora l b u t a lso t he d eser t h in ter land a nd , a bove a l l , t he c anyonl ike r iver v a l leys wh ich p rov ide n a tura l l i nks w i th t he who le Andean wor ld . B e fore embark ing o n ar ev iew o f c oas ta l a dap ta t ion t hrough t ime i ti s a ppropr ia te t o n o te t he ma jor p hys ica l a nd b io log ica l r ea l i t ies o f t he c oas ta l l andscape a nd , w i th in t he l im i ta t ions o f a va i lable s ource ma ter ia l , t o a t te mp t t o i den t i fy e nv ironmen ta l c hanges wh ich c ou ld h ave h ad ab ear ing o n man 's a c t iv i t ies .

F ig . 1s hows t he p r incipa l c oas ta l v a l leys a nd h igh land moun ta in

c ha ins , wh i le F ig . 2g ives t he l oca t ion o f t he a rchaeo log ica l s i tes men t ioned i n t he t ex t . COASTAL P HYS IOGRAPHY AND B IOLOG ICAL RESOURCES The P eruv ian c oas ta l d eser t p resen ts a n a l mos t l unar l andscape , wh ich s tar ts f rom a bou t 40 s ou th o f t he e qua tor i n s ou thern E cuador a nd e x tends s ou thwards more t han 1 700 mi les i n to n or thern C h i le .

A l though t here a re c oas ta l

d eser ts i n o ther p ar ts o f t he wor ld , t he Peruv ian d eser t i s u n ique i n e x tend ing s o n ear t o t he e qua tor .

A s w i th o ther c oas ta l d eser ts , t he b as is o f t he a r id i ty

i s t he p resence o f c o ld o ffshore wa ter , c rea ted h ere b y t he n or thward d r if t o f t he P e ruv ian o r Humbo ld t c urren t a nd a ugmen ted b y l oca l u pwe l l ing .

Onshore

a ir f low i s t here fore c oo led i n i t s l ower l ayers , c rea t ing a t e mpera ture i nvers ion .

The a ir b e low t he i nvers ion i s g enera l ly c h i l led t o i t s d ew p o in t s uch

t ha t a dvec t ive s tra tus may p ers is t f or l ong p er iods ( Eid t , 1 968 ) .

Th is i s t he

f og o r g arua wh ich i s r espons ib le f or p ers is ten t g loo m i n t he s ou thern h em is phere w in ter .

S o s tab le a re t hese c oas ta l a t mospher ic c ond i t ions t ha t e ven

i n s u m mer , r a in i s u nknown i n n or ma l y ears . f rom f og i s 3 0-50 m m .

L i ma 's a nnua l p recip i ta t ion

The f og a lso s ubs tan t ia l ly r educes t e mpera tures , t o

Brothwell, Don, and Geoffrey Dimbleby. Environmental Aspects of Coasts and Islands. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1981, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541103. Downloaded on behalf of 38.67.221.43

8 9

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Brothwell, Don, and Geoffrey Dimbleby. Environmental Aspects of Coasts and Islands. 1 E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1981, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541103.9 Downloaded on behalf of 38.67.221.43

t he u ndoubted b ene f i t o f a gr icu l ture u nder c ond i t ions where wa ter i s f requen t ly l im i t ing .

L ima 's mean a nnua l t e mpera ture o f 1 9 ' DC i s t here fore d is t inc t ly

t e mpera te d esp i te max i ma o f 2 5-30 0 C f ro m J anuary t o A pr i l ( Me igs , 1 966 ). Much o f t he d eser t i s d evo id o f v ege ta t ion , a par t f ro m s ca t tered d rough ta dap ted p lan ts s uch a s T i l lands ia a nd c ac t i . H owever , i n c er ta in a reas where t he f og i s more d ense o r l i es f or l onger , c ondensed mo is ture f ro m t he f og i s s u f f ic ien t t o p erm i t t he g row th o f ad ense a sse mb lage o f p lan ts k nown l oca l ly a s t he l o ma o r l o mas .

T he f og b lanke t i s g enera l ly

a bou t 3 00 m t h ick a nd

h as i t s b ase 3 00-1000 m a bove s ea l eve l , s o l o mas v ege ta t ion i s b es t d eve loped a long t he f oo th i l ls a nd a round t he c anyon-heads o f sma l l v a l leys , af ew mi les i n land f ro m t he s eashore .

T he b o tan ica l c o mposi t ion o f t he l omas v ege ta t ion

v ar ies g rea t ly f ro m o ne p a tch t o t he n ex t , b u t l o mas p lan ts a l l h ave c er ta in f ea tures i n c o m mon .

F irs t ly , g row th i s s tr ict ly s easona l , r es tr icted t o t he

f oggy mon ths f ro m J une t o O c tober .

Annua l p lan ts s urv ive t he d ry s eason a s

s eeds i n t he s o i l , p erenn ia l p lan ts d ie b ack t o u nderground t ubers , b u lbs , c orms o r f l eshy r oo ts .

S econd ly , t he l o mas p lan ts d o n o t s how t he x erophyt ic a dap-

t a t ions c haracter is t ic o f t he t rue d eser t p lan ts .

I ns tead o f t ough f i brous o r

s p iny f o l iage wh ich c on ta ins l i t t le mo is ture , t he l omas p lan ts p roduce b r igh t g reen , j u icy o f ten h igh ly p a la tab le f o l iage .

I n t he p as t , t he l o mas t here fore

p rov ided s easona l g razing f or a n ima ls o f a l l s izes , f ro m s na i ls t o d eer a nd c a me l ids .

Man w ou ld h ave b een a t tracted t o t he l o mas a s as easona l h un ting

g round a nd a s as ource o f e d ible r oo ts , t ubers , b u lbs a nd s eeds .

H owever ,

a s we l l a s b e ing s easona l , t he l o mas a re d iscon t inuous ly d is tr ibu ted , s epara ted b y s tre tches o f t o ta l ly i nhosp i tab le d eser t .

Moreover , t he e x ten t t o wh ich

p ar t icu lar p a tches o f l omas d eve lop i s n o tor ious ly v ar iable f ro m y ear t o y ear ( Parsons , 1 970 ).

The l o mas t here fore c ons t itu ted a s upp le men tary s ubs is tence

r esource , n o t a n e co log ica l n iche wh ich man c ou ld o ccupy y ear-round o r f ro m o ne y ear t o t he n ex t . Wh i le t he o cean wa ter t e mpera ture i s r espons ible f or t he r a in less d eser t o n l and , i ti s a lso t he b as is o f ap ro li f ic f ish ing r esource a nd a ssocia ted b ird l i fe , a nd t h is u ndoubted ly a t tracted e ar ly p eop les t o t he Peruvian c oas t . T he u pwe l ling wa ters a re p ar t icu lar ly r ich i n n u tr ien ts a nd p ro mo te a n a bundan t g rowth o f p lank ton o n wh ich i n t urn f eed s he ll f ish , v er tebra te f ishes a nd b irds . T he b irds i n t urn l eave e xcre ta ( guano ) , r ich i n p hospha te , wh ich b ecause o f t he r a in less c l i ma te h as r e ma ined a s t h ick a ccumu la t ions p ar t icu lar ly o n o f fs hore i s lands ( Reparaz , 1 958 ). Par ts o f t he c oas t c ons is t o f r ocky b ays a nd h ead lands , f ro m wh ich l i ne f ish ing c ou ld b e p ract ised ;

e lsewhere t here a re s andy b eaches , where f i sh ing

n e ts c ou ld b e s taked o u t , a s i s t i l l d one t oday ( Lann ing , 1 967).

B o th r ocky

a nd s andy l i t tora ls s uppor t av ar ie ty o f e d ible s he l lf ish , whose s he l ls a re t he mos t a bundan t c ons t i tuen t o f many p reh is tor ic m iddens .

Par ma lee a nd K l ippel

( 1974 ) h ave c a lcu la ted t ha t s hell f ish a lone wou ld n o t p rov ide s u f f icien t c a lor ies t o s uppor t ap opu la t ion o f a ny s ize f or v ery l ong , b u t t here i s a bundan t e v idence t ha t p reh is tor ic i nhab i tan ts o f t he c oas t u t i l ised a l l t he a va i lable mar ine r es ources , n o t j us t s he l l f ish .

F ish b ones , t hough l ess o bv ious i n t he middens

t han mo l lusc s he l ls , a re b e ing r ecovered i n i ncreas ing q uan t i t ies w i th i mproved a rchaeo log ica l t echn iques .

S ea b irds a nd s ea ma m ma ls , i nc lud ing s ea l i ons ,

e lephan t s ea ls a nd s ea o t ters were a lso c augh t a nd e a ten .

S eaweed h as b een

f ound a rchaeolog ica l ly , n o t o n ly i n middens b u t a lso i n a mum my b und le a nd Brothwell, Don, and Geoffrey Dimbleby. Environmental Aspects of Coasts and Islands. 9 2 E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1981, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541103. Downloaded on behalf of 38.67.221.43

r epresen ted o n p o t tery ( Tow le , 1 961) , t hough i ti s n o t c lear f ro m t hese c on tex ts wha t , o r h ow much , u se was made o f i tp reh is tor ica l ly.

T oday s eaweed i s

p rocessed , d r ied a nd s o ld i n c oas ta l c i t ies f or u se i n c ook ing .

I ti s a lso f ed

t o a n i ma ls , p ar t icu lar ly p igs , b u t t he o n ly d o mes t ica ted a n ima ls p resen t o n t he Peruv ian c oas t i n p re-European t imes w ere g u inea p igs ( wh ich p robab ly l i ved ma in ly o n h ouseho ld s craps ) a nd l amas .

S eaweed c ou ld h ave b een u sed

a s af er t i l iser o r mu lch i n f i e lds o r g ardens , t hough d irec t e v idence o f t h is p rac t ice i s a t p resen t l ack ing . T he o cean t hus p rov ided a s ubs is tence r esource wh ich was a va i lable t hroughou t t he y ear a nd f ro m o ne y ear t o t he n ex t .

O ccas iona l ly , h owever ,

t h is r esource f a i ls , d ue t o t he a c t iv i t ies o f E l N ino .

I ft he p reva i l ing t rade

w inds w eaken o r f a i l , t he n or thward f l ow o f t he c o ld P e ruv ian c urren t a lso weakens a nd t he warm E qua tor ia l c oun ter-curren t s weeps s ou thwards , b r ing ing t orren t ia l r a ins t o t he u npro tec ted d eser ts , r a is ing t he o ffshore wa ter t e mperat ures b y u p t o 7 °C a nd r educ ing t he ir s a l in i ty.

T he u pwe l l ing o f n u tr ien t-r ich

s ubsur face wa ters a lso d ec l ines , a nd t he c omb ina t ion o f d im in ish ing n u tr ien t s upp ly a nd i ncreas ing t e mpera ture c auses f i rs t ad ecrease i n p lank ton , t hen d ras t ic e f fec ts o n t he e n t ire mar ine f ood c ha in ( I dyl l , 1 975 ).

E l N ino y ears

o ccur a t i rregu lar a nd u npred ic tab le i n terva ls , p erhaps t wo o r t hree t imes a c en tury. O f t he f i f ty o r s o r iver v a l leys wh ich o pen o n to t he P a ci f ic c oas ta l p la in o n ly a bou t t we lve h ave p erenn ia l f l ow , t he ma jor i ty r e ma in ing a s d ry c anyons ( quebradas ) f or v arying p er iods d epend ing o n t he e x ten t a nd e leva t ion o f t he ir c a tch men ts ( Reparaz , 1 958 ) .

T he r a iny s eason i n t he h igh lands i s t he s u m mer ,

wh ich i s t he s unny s eason o n t he c oas t , wh i le d ur ing t he w in ter , when t he c oas t i s s hrouded i nf og ,

t he h igh lands a re d ry a nd s unny.

T he f l ow o f wa ter i n t he

r ivers i s t herefore g rea tes t , a nd t he v a l ley wa ter t ables a re a t t heir h ighes t , d ur ing t he c oas ta l s um mer when t he l o mas h as d r ied u p .

The p ermanen t wa ter-

c ourses p rov ide s u f f icien t mo is ture t o s us ta in ab and o f wood land a long t he r iver marg ins .

T hese t rees i nc lude a lgarrobo ( Prosop is s pp .) , whose f ru i ts

a nd s eeds were a s tap le f ood f or i nhabi tan ts o f v ar ious d ry r eg ions o f S ou th Amer ica ( D 'An ton i a nd S o lbr ig , 1 977 ) .

Pacae ( I nga f eu i l le i ) a nd p epper t ree

( Sch m us mo l le ) a lso h ave e d ible f ru i ts , wh i le o ther t rees were u sed f or f ue l o r c ons truct ion .

O ther v a l ley p lan ts h ave e d ib le s eeds , f ru i ts o r r oo ts .

C a t ta i l ( Typha ) , t o tora ( Sc irpus ) a nd C yperus h ave a l l b een f ound a rchaeolog ica l ly ( Tow le , 1 96]) .

I n a dd i t ion , t he r iver v a l leys s uppor ted a v ar ied f auna ,

a f ford ing p oss ib i l i t ies f or h un t ing .

Va l leys w i thou t ap ermanen t wa ter s upp ly

a re , l i ke t he l o mas , as easona l r esource , b u t o ne wh ich c o mple men ts t he l o mas i n t er ms o f s easona l a va i labi l i ty . u t i l ised y ear-round .

Va l leys w i th p er manen t wa ter c ou ld b e

T he a va i lab i l i ty o f wa ter a lso a f fec ts t he a gr icu l tura l

p o ten t ia l o f t he v a l leys .

O ne c rop p er y ear c ou ld b e o b ta ined f ro m re s idua l

mo is ture o n t he v a l ley f l oodp la ins a f ter t he a nnua l f l oods h ad s ubs ided . H owever , o nce i rr iga t ion was a va i lab le , s evera l c rops p er y ear c ou ld b e p rod uced f or a s l ong a s t he wa ter s upp ly a nd s o i l f er t i l i ty a l lowed . T he c oas ta l t rac t i t sel f c o mpr ises r iver f l ood p la ins a nd d e l ta s preads w i th mar ine a nd a l luv ia l t erraces a t h igher l eve ls ( Garner , 1 959 ).

B e tween

t he z one o f c on te mporary b each d epos i ts a nd t hese h igher s ur faces i ti s c o mmon t o f ind s a l t marsh d eve lop men t , wh i le i n t he v ic in i ty o f ma jor v a l leys

Brothwell, Don, and Geoffrey Dimbleby. Environmental Aspects of Coasts and Islands. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1981, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541103. Downloaded on behalf of 38.67.221.43

9 3

t h is z one was e xp lo i ted f or wa ter t ab le a gr icu l ture ( Parsons a nd P su ty , 1 975 ; R . T . Sm i th , 1 979 ). R a ised s hore p la t for ms a nd f oss i l c li f fs p rov ide e v idence o f r ecen t c oas ta l u p l i f ts , t hough s uch f ea tures a re n o t a s we l l d eve loped h ere a s i n t he z one o f s tronger wes ter ly w inds o n t he C h i lean c oas t ( Fuenza l ida e t a l . 1 965 ) . 1 970 ;

E ar ly s he l l middens o n a nc ien t b eaches a t C h i lca ( M. H . Parsons ,

Parsons a nd P s u ty , 1 975 ) ,

O tuma ( Cra ig a nd P s u ty , 1 97]) , a nd o n t he

n or th c oas t o f Peru ( R ichards a nd Broecker , 1 963 ) s how t ha t t he s ea l eve l h as f a l len r e la t ive t o t he l and a long much o f t he P e ruv ian c oas t s ince a bou t 3 500 BP.

I ti s t herefore e v iden t t ha t ma jor a reas o f l ow land c oas t u t i l ized f or b o th

i rr iga ted a nd s unken f i e ld a gr icu l ture a re c o mpara t ive ly r ecen t i n o r ig in a nd may n o t h ave e x is ted much b e fore 2 000 BP. T he s oi ls o f t he c oas ta l b e l t v ary b e tween t hose w i th c arbona te a nd s u lp ha te s tra t i f ica t ion o n more e leva ted l and , t o s o lonchaks o n t he l i t tora l where wa ter t ab le i n f luence o ccurs ( Beek a nd Bra mao , 1 968 ; Z ava le ta , 1 965 ) .

Drosdo ff e t a l . 1 960 ;

Many s o i ls o n t he c oas ta l p la in e xh ibi t mu l t ip le l ayer ing

o f d i f feren t s a l ts i nclud ing f errug inous b and ing , s o me t i mes i nd ica t ive o f f ormer r a ther t han p resen t wa ter t able i n f luence . I n s a l t marsh c ond i t ions s u lp h id ic muds w i th s a l t e f f lorescence a re t o b e e ncoun tered wh i le s o me p rof i les t hrough b each ma ter ia ls , a s a t C h i lca , r evea l t h in p ea ty b ands i l lus tra t ing f or mer s a l t marsh l oca t ions .

Mos t p rof i les i n a dd i t ion t o h a l lmarks o f p edo-

g enes is i nd ica te t he t ranspor ted o r ig in o f t he ir p aren t ma ter ia ls , t he l i t tora l z one a round r iver d e l tas b e ing p ar t icu lar ly p rone t o a ccumu la t ing s uccess ions o f s ands a nd s i l ts . T hese r iver ine s i l ts a nd s ands a re u sed f or t he manu fac ture o f a dobe , wh ich was a n i mpor tan t b u i ld ing ma ter ia l p reh is tor ica l ly a nd i s s t i l l u sed t oday. Ear ly h ouses o n t he c oas t s ee m t o h ave b een r e la t ive ly i mper manen t s truc tures r equ ir ing c o mpara t ively l i t t le i nves t men t o f l abour . Enge l ( 1976) a nd Lann ing ( 1 967 ) d escr ibe h u ts f ro m p er iods b e fore 4 000 BP a s h av ing wa l ls o f s edge o r ma t t ing s uppor ted b y c anes , w i l low s ap l ings o r wha le r ibs ( presumab ly d er ived f ro m a n i ma ls o ccas iona l ly s tranded o n t he b eaches ) .

L a ter h ouses were more

p er manen t s tructures , w i th wa l ls o f c obb les tones o bta ined f ro m r iver b eds o r b locks o f c ora l f rom t he b each , s o me t imes s urmoun ted b y a dobe b r icks a nd w i th wood a lso u sed i n t he ir c ons truct ion ( Enge l , 1 976;

L ann ing , 1 967).

CL I MAT IC CHANGES I ti s a s y e t d i f f icu l t t o p rov ide a n i n tegra ted a ccoun t o f c l i ma t ic c hanges i n wes tern S ou th Amer ica d ur ing t he l a te P le is tocene a nd H o locene . G eo morp ho log y , p o l len a na lys is a nd p as t d is tr ibu t ions o f mar ine a n i ma ls a nd l and p lan ts h ave a l l p roduced r e levan t d a ta b u t c 6 mparab le s tud ies a re n o t a va i lable f ro m a l l p ar ts o f t he r eg ion a nd d if feren t i nves t iga t ions h ave s o met i mes p roduced r esu l ts wh ich a re d i f f icu l t t o r econc i le o ne w i th a no ther . T he e x is tence o f f ossi l r iver v a l leys i n al andscape n ow s wa thed i n d unes , t oge ther w i th e x tens ive s preads o f t orren t g rave ls , a re p o ten t i nd ica tors o f e nv ironmen ta l c hange . Ye t v igorous s tream f l ow a t t he c oas t mos t c er ta in ly n eed n o t i mp ly a f or mer ly mo is t c oas ta l c l ima te . F or e xamp le , a t t he e nd o f t he P le is tocene , much o f t he f l ow i n t he r ivers wou ld h ave d er ived f ro m g lacia l me l t .

Brothwell, Don, and Geoffrey Dimbleby. Environmental Aspects of Coasts and Islands. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1981, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541103. 9 4 Downloaded on behalf of 38.67.221.43

B ow man ( 1 916 ) was f irs t t o c ons ider t he c u t t ing o f t he p resen t r iver v a l leys a nd q uebradas t oge ther w i th t he ir a ggrada t ion a s b e ing d ue t o t he e x is tence o f t orren t ia l s treams o f g lac ia l o r ig in . s uppor ted t h is g enera l v iew .

F enner ( 1948 ) a nd G arner ( 19 59 ) b o th

H owever , g lac ia l me l t wou ld h ave d ecl ined p ro-

g ress ive ly a l mos t t o t he p resen t , w i th minor r eversa ls , a nd t he ma in s ource o f wa ter i n t he c oas ta l r ivers i s , a s i th as a lways b een , s easona l p recip i ta t ion . Many c oas ta l v a l leys t oday h ave o n ly t e mporary s treams a nd a re c haracter ised , i n t he ir l ower r eaches e specia l ly , b y b road f la t f l oors wh ich h ave b een s ub ject t o h eavy a l luv ia t ion , e nhanced n o d oub t b y t he e f fec ts o f e ar ly r e mova l o f woodl and a t h igher l eve ls .

Bu t r is ing f l ood p la ins a nd r educed f lows wou ld b e e x-

p ec ted t o l ead t o s hor ter o ver land f l ow.

I ti s t here fore p oss ible t ha t v a l leys

wh ich h ad e ar l ier b een a dequa te ly wa tered b ecame l ess h osp i table i n t he ir l ower c ourses s o t ha t p eop le g rav i ta ted more t o t he l i t tora l z one a nd t o v a l leys w i th p er manen t s treams .

T h is p rocess i s e nde m ic t o s treams i n s uch a n

e nv ironmen t a nd t he e f fec ts o f mo is ture f luc tua t ions i n t he Andes wou ld b e e i ther t o a l lev ia te o r e xacerba te t h is p rob le m . Has tenra th

9 71) r epor ts o n g eo morph ic e v idence f or a d ispropor t iona te ly

l owered P leis tocene s now l ine o n t he wes t-facing Andes s lopes , wh ich i n a dd it i on t o g lacia l ly l owered t e mpera tures a rgues s trong ly f or i ncreased p rec ip i tat i on o f w es ter ly o r ig in .

Pa radox ica l ly t here i s e v idence t ha t a t t h is t ime u pper

e leva t ions i n t he G a lapagos I s lands were r e la t ive ly d ry c o mpared t o t he p resen t ( Co l invaux , 1 972 ) a nd t ha t v ery l arge a reas o f t rop ica l r a in f ores t were a lso r e la t ive ly d ry ( Bryan , 1 973 ; 1 977;

CLIMAP, 1 976;

v an d er Hammen , 1 974 ;

G a tes , 1 976;

Wi l l iams , 1 975 ).

Manabe a nd Hahn

T he C en tra l a nd S ou thern

c oas ts o f P eru a lso s ee m t o h ave b een c on t inuous ly a r id t hrough t t he P le is toc ene a nd H o locene ( Garner , 1 959 ;

T r icar t , 1 963 ) .

Dur ing t he l as t c o ld p hase

o f t he P le is tocene , d ry c ond i t ions mus t h ave b een w idespread a cross t he e as tern e qua tor ia l Pa cif ic , d e mons tra ted v ery c lear ly b y t he work o f C o l invaux ( 1972 ) a nd Qu inn ( 1 971) a nd c orrespond ing t o i ncreased d eve lop men t o f t he P eruv ian c urren t a nd i ncreased u pwe l l ing a long t he e qua tor ia l d ivergence .

T he mois t

Andes s eem t herefore t o h ave b een s tranded am id a r id i ty a nd o ne wonders b y wha t mechan is m t he ir h um id i ty was ma in ta ined . B ery l S i mpson ( 1975 ) h as d isc ussed t h is p roble m a nd r eso lved i to n t he b as is o f t e mpera ture d i f ferences b e tween t he a ir o ver t he c o ld o f fshore wa ter a nd t he l and s ur face .

S he a rgues

t ha t , d ue t o g lacia l ly a l tered t e mpera tures i n t he P leis tocene c o ld p er iods , c ond i t ions s im i lar t o t hose g enera t ing p resen t s um mer p rec ip i ta t ion i n t he S ierra wou ld h ave p ers is ted f or much o f t he y ear .

T h is wou ld c er ta in ly p ro-

d uce t he c ond i t ions f or wh ich t here i s s uch a bundan t emp ir ica l e v idence a nd a rgues f or t he p ers is tence o f t he s ub-trop ica l a n t icyclones i n g lacia l t imes d esp i te c o mpu ter mode ls wh ich a ppear t o s ugges t o therwise ( Manabe a nd H ahn , 1 977) . S ince t he e nd o f t he P le is tocene , t here s ee m t o h ave b een f luc tua t ions i n t he o f fshore wa ter t e mpera tures a long much o f t he P a cif ic c oas t o f S ou th Amer ica , p robably c orrespond ing t o a l tera t ions i n t he s treng th o f t he P e ruv ian c urren t a nd i n t he amoun t o f u pwe l l ing t ak ing p lace . p os i t ion o f t he e qua tor ia l c onvergence .

T h is wou ld a l ter t he

A s ou thward s h i f t i n t he l a t ter wou ld

i ncrease t he r a in fa l l o n t he Nor th c oas t o f P eru , c aus ing t he c oas ta l d eser t t o r e trea t s ou thwards .

F ur ther s ou th , war m o f fshore wa ters wou ld r educe t he

amoun t o f f og , b r ing ing a bou t ad ecrease i n l o mas v ege ta t ion . Brothwell, Don, and Geoffrey Dimbleby. Environmental Aspects of Coasts and Islands. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1981, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541103. 9 5 Downloaded on behalf of 38.67.221.43

C onverse ly ,

c o ld wa ters o f fshore wou ld c rea te a r id i ty f ur ther n or th , e x tend ing a t t imes i n to t he S an ta E lena p en insu la o f E cuador , a nd wou ld c ause h eavy f ogs a t l ow l eve ls a long much o f t he P eruv ian c oas t , w i th c orrespond ing ly g rea ter d eve lopmen t o f t he c oas ta l l omas . T here i s e v idence t ha t t he N or th c oas t o f Peru w as c o mpara t ively h um id a round 8 000 BP. Mangroves t hen e x tended 2 00 mi les s ou th o f t he ir p resen t l im i ts w i th d enser v ege ta t ion t han a t p resen t i n land ( R ichardson , 1 973 ; L ann ing , 1 967 ) . Th is p ar t icu lar p hase o f warmer o f fshore wa ters s eems t o b e d e tect ab le a long a c ons iderab le l eng th o f t he Paci f ic c oas t , f or r ema ins o f f i sh wh ich t oday d o n o t e x tend s ou th o f t he c oas ta l r eg ions o f P eru a nd E cuador h ave b een r ecovered f rom l eve ls d a t ing a round 9 500 BP f ro m Q uebrada L as C onchas , n ear An tofagas ta i n C hi le ( L lagos tera M ., 1 979 ) . L a ter l eve ls o f s i tes i n t he An tofagas ta a rea , d a ted a round 5 350 BP, y ie lded a bundan t r e ma ins o f t he mo l lusc C horo my t i lus , wh ich t oday i s f ound o n ly i n t he f ar s ou th o f C h i le a nd wh ich t here fore i nd ica tes o f fshore wa ters c o lder t han a t p resen t ( L lagos tera M ., 1 979 ). P o l len d a ta f ro m C h i le c i ted b y L lagos tera M . ( 1 979 ) a lso i nd ica te a c oo l h um id p er iod f ro m 6 500-4500 BP. I n n or thern P eru , s he l ls o f mangrove-dwe l l ing mo l luscs , p resen t i n a bundance i n S iches p hase s i tes ( 8000-6000 BP) , a re a bsen t f ro m t he s ucceed ing H onda p hase s i tes ( 5 101 + 1 00 BP) a l though H onda s i tes , l i ke S iches s i tes , a re l oca ted o n t he c oas t a nd t he ir i nhabi tan ts c o l lec ted mo l luscs f ro m t he i n ter t ida l z one ( R ichardson , 1 973 ) . Th is a bsence o f mangrove mo l luscs s ugges ts t ha t t he mangroves h ad r e trea ted n or th , p oss ibly i n r esponse t o ac oo l ing o f t he c oas ta l wa ters a nd a c orrespond ing r educ t ion i n c oas ta l p rec ip i ta t ion . H owever , s l igh t ly warmer o f fshore wa ters a pparen t ly s oon r e turned , i nd ica ted b y b ones o f t he war mte mpera te f i sh T rachurus i n o ccupa t ion l eve ls d a ted 4 000-3550 BP n ear An to fagas ta ( L lagostera M ., 1 979 ). Fur ther n or th , d a ta f ro m t he S an ta E lena p en insu la o f E cuador s ugges t ap luv ia l p er iod f rom 5 000-3600 BP , s ucceeded b y a n a r id p er iod b e tween 3 600 a nd 3 000 BP . T hese d a ta a lso c orrela te w i th s uccess ive p luv ia l a nd d ry p er iods s hown i n p o l len p rof i les f ro m v ar ious l oca l i t ies i n C o lo mbia ( Sarma , 1 974 ) . P au lsen ( 1976) h as v isua l ised c l i ma t ic f luc tua t ions i n c oas ta l E cuador a s i nd ica t ing p ara l le l we t a nd d ry p hases i n t he S ierra . Wh i le i ti s t e mp t ing t o f i t a l l a reas i n to a u n i f ied p a t tern o f g enera l c l i ma t ic c hange , t here i s c ons iderable n eed f or c au t ion b ecause o f t he c o mp lex n a ture o f t he f actors c ont ro l l ing t he l oca l c l i ma tes .

I n t he n or th o f P eru a nd i n E cuador , r a in fa l l

p a t terns w i l l r ela te more c lear ly t o t he e qua tor ia l c onvergence b u t i n t he c ent ra l a nd s ou thern h igh lands t he i n f luence o f t he e qua tor ia l c onvergence i s v ery much r educed s o t ha t o ne i s l e f t s i mp ly w i th v ar ia t ions i n t e mpera ture o f o f fs hore wa ter a s t he mos t o bv ious f actor a f fec t ing r a in fa l l a t h igh l eve ls .

More

r a in i n t he h igh lands wou ld h ave mean t more a nd l onger f l ows o f wa ter i nt he c oas ta l r iver . v a l leys , wh ich wou ld p resumab ly make t hese s u i table h ab i ta ts f or more mon ths o f t he y ear b o th f or man a nd f or t he a n i ma ls h e h un ted . H igher wa ter t ables migh t l i kew ise -encourage t he d eve lop ing t echn iques o f p lan t c u l t iva t ion . C l i ma t ic c hanges s ince t he e nd o f t he P le is tocene a re t here fore l i ke ly t o h ave a f fec ted man 's e xp lo i ta t ion o f t he b iolog ica l r esources o f t he c oas t i n t hree ma in ways . F irs t ly , s hor ter o ver land f l ow o f s ome a t l eas t o f t he Brothwell, Don, and Geoffrey Dimbleby. Environmental Aspects of Coasts and Islands. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1981, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541103. 9 6 Downloaded on behalf of 38.67.221.43

wes tward-dra in ing r ivers wou ld r esu l t f ro m h eavy a l luv ia t ion b rough t a bou t i n i t ia l ly a s g lac ia l me l t wa ter d rained a way a nd l a ter a s h u man c learance o f n a tura l t ree c over i ncreased e ros ion .

S o me o f t he c oas ta l q uebradas

wou ld t here fore b eco me d ry i n t heir l ower r eaches , n ecess i ta t ing a s h i f t o f p opu la t ion t o b e t ter-wa tered v a l leys o r t o t he c oas t i t se l f .

S econd ly , f luc tua-

t ions i n o f fshore wa ter t e mpera tures wou ld b r ing a bou t e xpans ion o r r etrea t o f t he l o mas v ege ta t ion , a f fec t ing t he s ize o f h u man o r a n i ma l p opu la t ions t ha t t h is r esource c ou ld s uppor t .

T h ird ly , f luc tua t ions i n t he amoun ts o f

r a in fa l l i n t he h igh lands , p oss ib ly c orre la ted w i th c hanges i n o f fshore wa ter t e mpera tures , wou ld a f fec t t he f low o f wa ter i n t he r ivers a nd t he h e igh t o f t he wa ter t ables i n t he c oas ta l v a l leys , w i th c onsequences f or b o th n a tura l v egeta t ion a nd p lan ted c rops . S UBS ISTENCE CHANGES THROUGH T I ME G iven t he g enera l ly i nhosp i table e nv ironmen t o f t he P eruv ian c oas ta l p la in , i t wou ld n o t b e s urpr is ing t o f ind t ha t h uman o ccupa t ion o f t he c oas t i s more r ecen t t han t ha t o f t he h igh lands .

E ar ly d a tes f or man i n Pe ru a re a s c on tro-

v ers ia l a s t hose f ro m o ther p ar ts o f t he Amer icas .

Two wh ich h ave b een

w ide ly q uo ted a re a round 1 9 ,000 BP f or t he Pacca icasa c o mp lex f ro m t he A yacucho b as in o f h igh land Peru ( MacNe ish , 1 977) a nd a round 1 4 ,000 BP f or t he b o t to m o f t he R ed Z one a t t he q uarry s i te o f C h iva teros o n t he c oas t ( Lann ing a nd Pa t terson , 1 967 ) .

H owever , L ynch ( 1974 ) h as p roduced s o me

c ogen t r easons f or r egard ing b oth o f t hese o ccupa t ions , a nd a lso t he A yacucho c o mp lex wh ich s ucceeds Pacca icasa i n t he h igh lands , w i th c ons iderable r eserv a t ions .

T he e ar l ies t s i tes wh ich a re s tra t igraph ica l ly s ound , h ave a n a ccep-

t able s tone i ndus try a nd h ave b een d a ted b y C 14 a na lys is o f a ssocia ted c harcoa l a re Gu i tarrero Cave ( 12 ,610 + 3 60 BP ) , Tres Ven tanas a nd Qu iqche C aves ( 10 ,080 + 1 70 BP a nd 9 990 + 2 00 BP ) , Laur icocha ( 9575 ± 2 50 BP ) a nd J aywamachay C ave ( 9 510 + 1 60 BP ;

8 695 + 1 40 BP )( Lynch , 1 974 ).

A l l t hese

a re h igh land s i tes . On t he c oas t , s i tes d a t ing t o a round 9 000 BP o ccur v irt ua l ly a l l a long t he a r id p la in : Quebrada Las C onchas , n ear An tofagas ta i n wha t i s t oday C h i le ( 9 400 + 1 60 BP , 9 680 + 1 60 BP ; v i l lage 9 6 o n t he Paracas p en insu la ( . 9 000 BP ;

L lagos tera M., 1 979 ) ;

Enge l , 1 976 ) ;

c o mplex f rom l o mas s i tes a round Ancön ( 9000-8000 BP ; S iches p hase o f n or thern P eru ( s tar t ing d a te C . 8 000 BP ;

t he Arena l

L ann ing , 1 965 ) ;

t he

R ichardson , 1 973 )

a nd t he Vegas p er iod o n t he S an ta E lena p en insu la o f E cuador ( s tar t ing d a te 8 850 BP ;

S ar ma , 1 974 ).

Regard less o f wha t s tar t ing p o in t o ne a ccep ts f or

P eruv ian p reh is tory, i td oes t herefore s ee m t ha t e x tens ive h uman s e t t le men t o n t he c oas t o ccurred a mi l lenn ium o r s o l a ter t han o ccupa t ion o f t he h igh lands . On t he c oas t , i ti s o n ly a f ter a bou t 9 000 BP t ha t t here a re s u f f ic ien t d a ta t o e nab le t en ta t ive r econs truct ion o f s ubs is tence p a t terns .

Pr eserva t ion c on-

d i t ions a re g enera l ly g ood , a nd b o th l o mas a nd s hore a re l ess i n tens ively o ccup ied n ow t han t hey were , a t l eas t d ur ing c er ta in p er iods o f t he p as t , s o a rchaeo log ica l s urveys o f t hese z ones p robably d o g ive a r easonab ly a ccura te p ic ture o f t he n u mber a nd d is tr ibu t ion o f s i tes o f d i f feren t p er iods .

T he r iver

v a l leys , h owever , h ave b een , a nd a re , i n tens ive ly c u l t iva ted , r esu l t ing i n l oss o r b ur ia l o f many s i tes i n t h is z one . Archaeo log ica l work h as c oncen tra ted o n t he C h i l lön , Lur in a nd C h i lca v a l leys o f t he C en tra l c oas t , b u t t he more l im i ted d a ta f ro m s ou th a nd n or th Brothwell, Don, and Geoffrey Dimbleby. Environmental Aspects of Coasts and Islands. 7 E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1981, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541103.9 Downloaded on behalf of 38.67.221.43

o f t h is a rea f i t t he s ame g enera l p a t tern .

Three d i f feren t modes o f e xp lo i-

t a t ion o f t he a va i lable r esources c an b e d is t ingu ished , a nd o n t he who le s ucceed o ne a no ther c hrono log ica l ly.

Dur ing t he L i th ic S tage ( . 9 _ . 9 000-4500 BP ) p op-

u la t ions were s easona l ly n o mad ic , mov ing b e tween l o mas a nd r iver v a l leys a nd u s ing t he s ea a s as ubs id iary r esource o n ly. Dur ing t he C o t ton P receram ic ( 4500-c . 3 800 BP ) mar ine p roduc ts f or med t he b u lk o f t he d ie t , a nd c u l t iva t ion o f p lan ts b ecame w idespread .

F o l low ing t he i n troduc t ion o f p o t tery ( . 9 _ . 3 800

BP o nwards ) much o f t he c oas ta l p opu la t ion moved i n land a nd b eca me f u l lt ime f ar mers . 1 .

L i th ic S tage

( Preceram ic P er iods I -V ) C . 9 000-4500 BP

C u l tures f ro m t h is p er iod a re b es t k nown f rom s i tes i n t he l o mas .

S ince

t he l o mas i s as tr ict ly s easona l r esource , t hese s i tes a re p resu med t o r epr esen t w in ter c a mps o f n o mad ic o r s em i-no mad ic p eoples . i nd ica te a h un t ing a nd g a ther ing e cono my.

Ar t ifac ts f ound

T hey i nclude p ro ject i le p o in ts ,

g r ind ing t oo ls a nd c obble f lakes , wh ich migh t h ave b een u sed a s s ick les . B o th g r ind ing t oo ls a nd c obble f lakes a re r are o r a bsen t a t f irs t b u t i ncrease i n f requency f ro m a bou t 7 000 BP o nwards ( Cohen , 1 977).

D e ta i led r epor ts

o f f auna l a nd f l ora l r e ma ins f ro m l o mas s i tes a re n o t a va i lable , p robably i n p ar t b ecause o f t he d i f f icu l ty o f i den t i fying r oo ts , t ubers o r s eeds f ro m t he p oor ly k nown l o mas f l ora .

A ccord ing t o Enge l ( 1 976 ) , c opro l i tes f ro m l o mas

s i tes c on ta ined r e ma ins o f g rass s eeds , c ac tus f ru i ts a nd b egon ia t ubers . L ann ing ( c i ted i n C ohen , 1 977) f ound t ha t t he amoun t o f s eed i n r e fuse o f l o mas s i tes i ncreased t hrough t ime u n t i l , a t t he e nd o f t he L i th ic s tage , t he q uan t it i es o f g rass s eed were s uch a s t o s ugges t s ys te ma t ic h arves t ing a nd s torage . T h is i ncreas ing r e l iance o n s eed c orre la tes w i th t he i ncreas ing f requency o f g r ind ing t oo ls a nd c obble f lakes , a nd w i th a d ecrease i n t he b ones o f l and v er tebra tes .

T he r educ t ion i n p ro te in d er ived f ro m d eer a nd o ther a n i ma ls

was i n p ar t c o mpensa ted b y g rea ter u se o f mar ine r esources , s hown b y i nc reas ing amoun ts o f s he l l i n t he r efuse . S u m mer c a mps o f t he l o mas dwe l lers were p resumab ly l oca ted i n t he r iver v a l leys , wh ich wou ld h ave t he ir max i mum f l ow o f wa ter d ur ing t h is s eason .

S uch a s u m mer c amp h as b een r epor ted f ro m t h e C h i lca v a l ley

( Pa t terson , 1 971a ) .

H ere s ubs is tence i nvo lved p r i mar i ly p lan t c o l lect ing

a nd h un t ing i n t he v a l ley-f loor h abi ta t , w i th s he l lf ish p rov id ing a s econdary r esource .

T he s i te i s p resu med t o h ave b een o ccupied d ur ing t he s um mer

o n ly b ecause , a l though i ti s l oca ted n ear a n e x tens ive l o mas , n o l o mas p rod uc ts were f ound among t he r efuse . I n t he Lurfn v a l ley , aL i th ic s i te h as b een e xcava ted wh ich was a pparen t ly o ccup ied y ear-round , s ince mar ine , r iver ine a nd l o mas p roduc ts a l l a ppear i n t he d ebr is ( Pa t terson , 1 971a ) . U n l ike t he s easona l c amps , i n wh ich h un t ing a nd g a ther ing p redo m ina ted , a t t h is p ermanen t s i te f ish ing a nd s he ll f ish c o llect ing were mos t i mpor tan t , w i th l o mas a nd r iver v a l ley p rov id ing s easona l s upple men ts t o ab as ica l ly mar ine d ie t .

On t he Paracas p en insu la o n t he S ou th

c oas t , v i l lage 9 6 s ee ms t o h ave f o l lowed a s im i lar mar ine-or ien ta ted mode o f s ubs is tence . E xcava t ion o f t h is v i l lage h as p roduced t he e ar l ies t f i sh ing n e t y e t k nown , d a ted t o a bou t 9 000 BP a nd made o f af i bre o ther t han c o t ton ( Enge l , 1 976) .

Enge l ( 1976 ) c ons iders t ha t f i sh ing mus t h ave b een d one f ro m t he s hore ,

p oss ib ly b y f isher men s wi m m ing w i th n e ts i n t he ir h ands a s s hown o n t he p a in ted Brothwell, Don, and Geoffrey Dimbleby. Environmental Aspects of Coasts and Islands.9 8 E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1981, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541103. Downloaded on behalf of 38.67.221.43

p o t tery o f l a ter S ou th c oas t c u l tures ; s hore ( Lann ing , 1 967 ) .

p oss ib ly b y s tak ing o u t n ets o n as andy

There i s n o e v idence o f r af ts o r a ny o ther s or t o f

b oa t i n Andean S ou th Amer ica a s e ar ly a s t h is . Fur ther s ou th s t i l l , i n C h i le , a na lys is o f f i sh b ones f ro m Quebrada L as C onchas h as s hown t ha t t he ma jor i ty o f b ones r epresen t b o t to m d we l lers a nd o ne , C ynosc ion , mus t h ave b een c augh t b y n et s ince i td oes n o t f eed o n a nyth ing wh ich c ou ld b e u sed t o b a i t ah ook ( L lagos tera , M ., 1 979 ) . F ish h ooks made o f s he l l , b one o r b en t c actus s p ines were , h owever , u sed d ur ing t he L i th ic s tage i nb o th Peru a nd C h i le . Two p lan ts o f ten c i ted a s c u l t iva ted a ppear o n t he c oas t d ur ing t he L i th ic s tage; t he b o t t le g ourd ( Lagenar ia s icerar ia ) a nd o ne o r more s pec ies o f s quash ( Cucurbi ta ) . B o t t le g ourd f ru i ts were v ery v a luable t o p re-po t tery c u l tures a s c on ta iners a nd a lso s erved a s f i sh-ne t f l oa ts . T he s quash h as b een v ar io us ly i den t i f ied a s C . f i ci fo l ia ( Cohen , 1 977 ) a nd C . e cuadorens is ( Cu t ler a nd Wh i taker , 1 969 ) .

I ti s s o me t imes c la i med a s t he f irs t f ood p lan t c u l t i-

v a ted o n t he c oas t o f P eru . T h is may b e s o , b u t t he p lan t i s l i ke ly t o h ave b een g rown f or i t s e d ible o i l- a nd p ro te in- r ich s eeds r a ther t han f or i t s f ru i t . Wi ld c ucurbi ts s uch a s C . e cuadorens is , a nd a lso C . f i ci fo l ia ,have c o mparat i vely l i t t le f l esh , wh ich i s c oarse a nd s tr ingy a nd , i n t he w i ld s pec ies , o f ten b i t ter . S eeds , o n t he o ther h and , s eem t o d evelop b i t ter p r incip les o n ly o n g er m ina t ion ( Wh i taker a nd Dav is , 1 962 ) , s o s eeds e ven o f w i ld c ucurbi ts wou ld b e e d ib le . B o th C . e cuadorens is a nd C . f i ci fo l ia h ave h ard-she l led f ru i ts a nd i ti s c onceivab le t ha t t hey were u sed , l i ke L agenar ia g ourds , a s f i sh-net f l oa ts a nd c on ta iners r a ther t han a s f ood .

C ucurbi ts i n g enera l a re c apab le o f e x-

t re me ly r ap id g row th ( prov id ing t hey h ave a ccess t o a dequa te wa ter ) a nd c an smo ther c o mpe t ing w eeds . T hey c an g row a nd ma in ta in t he mse lves w i th m in i ma l , i fa ny , a t ten t ion f ro m man , a s w i tnessed b y t he o bserva t ions o f o ne o f u s ( B.P.) o n f era l C . f i ci fo l ia g row ing o n s crub-covered s lopes i n t he Andean h igh lands a nd f era l L agenar ia o n l ake marg ins a nd a long d i tches i n t he d ry l ow lands o f n or th-eas t Brazi l .

C ucurb i ta a nd Lagenar ia may b o th h ave b een

i n troduced b y man t o t he P eruv ian c oas t , b u t t h is d oes n o t p resuppose much a gr icu l tura l s k i l l a nd p oss ibly n o t e ven d e l ibera te p lan t ing . L i th ic s i tes o n t he N or th c oas t a lso p robab ly r epresen t s easona l c amps , l oca ted i n t he r iver v a l leys d ur ing t he s um mer a nd o n t he c oas t d ur ing t he w in ter ( Lann ing , 1 967 ).

N o p ro jec t i le p o in ts h ave b een f ound a nd h un t ing d oes

n o t s ee m t o h ave b een i mpor tan t .

C oas ta l c amps i nc lude a bundan t r e ma ins

o f mangrove mo l luscs , f i sh a nd b ones o f s ea mam ma ls , wh i le mor tars may i nd ica te s o me u se o f w i ld s eeds . S ummer s eason s i tes h ave n o t b een e xcava ted , s o i ti s n o t c lear wha t were t he ma in f ood r esources d ur ing t h is s eason . On t he S ou th c oas t , t oo , t here i s e v idence o f w in ter c amps i tes i n t he l o mas , b u t t he s ummer c amps s eem t o h ave b een i n t he u pper h eadwa ters o f t he v a ll eys . H un t ing was o f ma jor i mpor tance , t o j udge f ro m t he n umerous p ro ject i le p oin ts , b u t t he a r t i facts i mp ly t ha t t here was l i t t le u se o f p lan ts . Lann ing ( 1 967) s ugges ts t ha t t he e x tens ive a nd l uxur ian t l o mas o f t he s ou th s uppor ted ad enser p opu la t ion o f g ame t han o ccurred e lsewhere o n t he c oas t , a nd t he L i th ic h un ters f o l lowed t h is g ame o n i t s s easona l r ounds f ro m l o mas t o h ighl ands a nd b ack a ga in . A t t he L i th ic l eve l o f t echno logy , t here fore , a dequa te s ubs is tence c ou ld h ave b een a ch ieved b y s eden tary l i fe i n as tra teg ica l ly s i tua ted s i te wh ich h ad

Brothwell, Don, and Geoffrey Dimbleby. Environmental Aspects of Coasts and Islands. 9 9 E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1981, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541103. Downloaded on behalf of 38.67.221.43

a ccess t o b o th mar ine r esources a nd t o t he more s easona l r esources o f l o mas a nd r iver v a l leys .

T he a l terna t ive was s easona l n o mad is m , w i th t e mporary

c amps s h i f t ing f ro m l o mas t o r iver v a l ley a nd b ack a ga in . n o mad is m o ver l onger d is tances a lso o ccurred .

I ti s p oss ible t ha t

T he c o mp le men tary s eason-

a l i ty o f c oas t a nd h igh lands p roduced a migra t ion o f g a me f ro m w in ter g razing g rounds o n t he l o mas u p t o t he h igh lands f or t he s u m mer r a iny s eason a nd d own t o t he c oas t a ga in when p as tures i n t he h igh land b as ins d r ied u p . may h ave f o l lowed t he g a me a n i ma ls o n t h is s easona l r ound .

Man

There were

c er ta in ly c on tac ts b e tween c oas t a nd h igh lands d ur ing t he L i th ic S tage , a s e v idenced b y t he p resence o f h igh land o bs id ian i n c oas ta l s i tes ( MacNe ish , 1 977) , p resence o f b lue musse l s he l ls i n c aves a t 3 600 m 6 0 mi les f ro m t he s ea i n t he C h i lca v a l ley ( Enge l , 1 970 , 1 976 ) a nd t ypo log ica l s im i lar i t ies i n p ro jec t i le p o in ts f ro m s i tes i n t he h igh lands a round A yacucho a nd l o mas c amps i tes a round Anc i 5n ( Cohen , 1 977;

MacNe ish , 1 977).

Whe ther t h is

r epresen ts p hys ica l move men t o f p eop le o r aw e l l-deve loped t rad ing n e twork i s , h owever , n o t y e t c lear . 2 .

C o t ton P recera m ic ( Preceram ic P er iod V I ) 4 500-c . 3 800 BP Dur ing t he C o t ton P receram ic man a bandoned much o f t he l o mas a nd mar ine

p roduc ts b ecame o f p r i mary i mpor tance i n s ubs is tence .

Mar ine r esources

a re a va i lable t hroughou t t he y ear , s o t he n o mad ic o r s em i-no mad ic way o f l i fe c ou ld b e d iscarded a nd p er manen t s e t t le men ts b u i l t o n t he c oas t , o f ten a t t he v a l ley mou ths .

S ome o f t hese s e t t le men ts a re v ery l arge , f or e xamp le

C huqu i tan ta ( El Para rso ) i n t he C h i I lön v a l ley , wh ich e x tends o ver 5 0 h ec tares a nd p resumably h oused a s izeable p opu la t ion .

T he L i th ic p a t tern o f s easona l

n o mad is m d oes , h owever , s ee m t o h ave p ers is ted a long t he S ou th c oas t ( Lann ing , 1 967 ). There were p robab ly s evera l r easons f or t he a bandonmen t o f t he l omas a nd t he c orrespond ing c hanges i n s e t t le men t p a t terns .

L a m ing ( 1963 ) s uggests

t ha t c l i ma t ic c hange l ed t o ag radua l d es icca t ion a nd r e trea t o f t he l o mas . H e o bserved t ha t n a tura l ly-occurr ing b eds o f l and s na i ls a re l oca ted i n a reas where t here i s n o v ege ta t ion t oday a nd h ence h e c ons idered t he s na i l b eds t o i nd ica te p as t a reas o f l o mas .

H owever , Mose ley ( 1975 ) p o in ts o u t t ha t modern

l and s na i ls e x tend we l l b eyond t i nd b e low e x tan t a reas o f l o mas , a nd Parsons ( 1970 ) a rgues c onv inc ing ly t ha t t e mporary e xpans ion o f t he l o mas d ur ing E l N ino p er iods wou ld l eave r e l ic t b eds o f s na i ls i n wha t , i n n on-N ino y ears , i s a r id d eser t . O ther e v idence f or c l i ma t ic c hanges wh ich wou ld a f fec t t he l o mas h as a lready b een d iscussed .

War mer o f fshore wa ters a round 4 500-3500 BP c ou ld

h ave r educed t he e x ten t a nd d ura t ion o f t he c oas ta l f ogs w i th d ele ter ious e f fec ts o f t he l o mas v ege ta t ion .

T h is migh t h ave t r iggered a s w i tch i n s ubs is tence

a way f ro m t he l o mas a nd t owards g rea ter u se o f mar ine r esources . c l i ma t ic c hange i s u n l ike ly t o b e t he who le e xp lana t ion .

H owever ,

I n p ar t icu lar , h ypo-

t heses o f ar educt ion i n t he l o mas d o n o t f i t v ery we l l w i th C ohen 's ( 1977 ) o bserva t ion t ha t t he d is tance o f t he l o mas s i tes f ro m t he r iver v a l leys i ncreases g radua l ly t hroughou t t he L i th ic , s ugges t ing t ha t t he n earer l o mas h ad b een o vere xp loi ted a nd t he p opu la t ion was h av ing t o t rave l f ur ther f or i t s w in ter r esources . C ohen ( 1977) a rgues c onv inc ing ly t ha t t h is c hang ing d is tr ibu t ion p a t tern o f l o mas s i tes wou ld n o t b e p roduced b y c l i ma t ic c hange . Brothwell, Don, and Geoffrey Dimbleby. Environmental Aspects of Coasts and Islands. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1981, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541103. 1 00 Downloaded on behalf of 38.67.221.43

H e a nd Pa t terson ( 1971b ) s ee

t he s w i tch a way f ro m t he l o mas t o o ther f orms o f s ubs is tence a s an ecessary r esponse t o a n i ncrease i n p opu la t ion a bove t he c arry ing c apaci ty o f t he l o mas . Pa t terson ( 1 971b ) e s t ima tes t h is p opu la t ion i ncrease a s s ix fo ld a long t he C en tra l c oas t a nd s ugges ts t ha t i t migh t h ave b een t r iggered b y d ie tary i mp rove men ts l a te i n t he L i th ic S tage , p ar t icu lar ly i ncreased u se o f mar ine p ro te in a nd u se o f s eeds i ns tead o f h igh-s tarch , l ow-prote in v ege ta t ive s torage o rgans o f p lan ts . T uberous o rb u lbous p lan ts may we l l h ave b een e x term ina ted b efore p lan ts w i th e d ible s eeds i f man was i ndeed o ver-exp loi t ing t he l omas . P lan ts w i th u nderground s torage o rgans a re p erenn ia ls , h ence o f ten t ake l onger t o r each r eproduc t ive ma tur i ty t han s eed-reproduc ing a nnua ls .

T he ir s eed

o u tpu t p er y ear i s a lso u sua l ly l ower t han t ha t o f a nnua ls , a nd t hese t wo f actors mean t ha t t he a bi l i ty o f t he ir p opu la t ions t o c ompensa te f or l oss o f i nd iv idua ls t hrough o ver-harves t ing b y man i s more l im i ted . Fur thermore , s ince s eeds a re sma l ler t han t ubers o rb u lbs a nd more r ead i ly d ispersed , more s eeds w i l l e scape t he h arves t ing p rocess a nd s urv ive t o r egenera te t he p opu la t ion . O vere xp loi ta t ion o f t he p lan t r esources o f t he l o mas migh t t here fore h ave f orced man t o r e ly i ncreas ing ly o n s eeds a s h arves ts o f e d ib le s torage o rgans d im ini shed .

E ven tua l ly man a bandoned t he l omas a l toge ther .

A l though mar ine p roducts were t he p r imary s ubs is tence r esource d ur ing t he C o t ton P receram ic , c u l t iva ted p lan ts a re more a bundan t a nd i nclude a g rea ter r ange o f s pec ies t han f ormer ly.

L i th ic S tage s i tes h ave y ie lded o n ly

g ourds a nd s quash , a nd p oss ibly P haseo lus b eans ( P ickersg i l l , 1 969 ) . The mos t f requen t c u l t igens i n s i tes o f t he t ime p er iod 4 500 ,3 800 BP a re c o t ton a nd g ourds , b o th o f w h ich a re a ssocia ted w i th f i sh ing t echno logy a nd t here fore f i t w i th t he mar ine o r ien ta t ion o f t hese c u l tures . T he c o t ton p resen t a t t he b eg inn ing o f t he C o t ton Preceram ic d i f fers l i t t le i fa t a l l f ro m modern w i ld G ossyp ium b arbadense , wh ich s t i l l g rows i n a r id c oas ta l p ar ts o f t he S an ta E lena p en insu la a nd t he e x tre me n or th o f P eru ( S tephens a nd Mose ley , 1 974 ). T he a rchaeo log ica l s pec imens s how a g radua l i ncrease i n s eed s ize ( wh ich wou ld r esu l t i n i ncreased y ie ld o f f i bre ) a nd i n f i bre d iame ter t hrough t ime . T h is s ugges ts i n s i tu d o mes t ica t ion o f G . b arb adense i n c oas ta l P eru o r E cuador . D e mand f or c o t ton i ncreased r ap id ly , a nd i t was s oon u sed n o t j us t f or mak ing f i sh ing l i nes a nd n e ts , b u t a s t he p referred f i bre f or i ncreas ing ly e labora te t ex t i les wh ich Mose ley ( 1 975 ) c ons iders s y mbo l ised d i f ferences i n wea l th a nd s ta tus w i th in t he p opu la t ion a s we l l a s s erv ing a s t he ma in med iu m o f a r t is t ic e xpress ion .

Wi ld c o t tons a re

a l l p erenn ia l p lan ts o f v ery d ry h abi ta ts a nd t he e ar ly c u l t iva ted c o t tons c uu ld p robab ly h ave s urv ived q u i te s a t is fac tor i ly o n t he f l oodp la ins o f t he c oas ta l v a l leys . O ther c u l t iva ted p lan ts u t i l ised d ur ing t he C o t ton Preceram ic i nc lude c o m mon b eans , l ima b eans , C anava l ia b eans , c h i l i p eppers a nd t he r oo t c rop a ch ira ( Canna ) ( P ickersg i l l , 1 969 ) .

More r ecen t ly o ther r oo t c rops h ave b een

i den t i f ied f ro m p receram ic s i tes . T hese i nc lude s wee t p o ta to , man ioc , t he h igh land r oo t c rops o ca , u l lucu a nd I r ish p o ta to ( Mar t ins , 1 976) a nd y am b ean ( Grob man a nd B onavra , 1 978 ) . T hese c rops a re l ess d rough t-res is tan t t han c o t ton , b u t mos t a re a nnua ls o r c an b e g rown a s a nnua ls . T hey were p res umab ly p lan ted i n t he r iver v a l leys a s s oon a s p oss ible a f ter t he r ivers s ubs ided f ro m t he ir a nnua l c res ts a nd ma tured o n t he r es idua l mois ture l e f t i n t he s o i ls a f ter f l ood ing .

Brothwell, Don, and Geoffrey Dimbleby. Environmental Aspects of Coasts and Islands. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1981, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541103. 1 01 Downloaded on behalf of 38.67.221.43

I n t he a bsence o f q uan t i ta t ive d a ta o r f u l l s i te r epor ts i ti s d i ff icu l t t o e va lua te t he d ie tary i mpor tance o f f ood p lan ts c ompared t o mar ine p roduc ts . Many l arge s e t t le men ts o f t h is p er iod , s uch a s C huqu i tan ta , A spero , P iedra Pa rada a nd C u lebras , were l oca ted n ear t he mou ths o f r ivers w i th a ccess t o r easonab le a reas o f l and s u i table f or f l oodwa ter f arm ing ( Mose ley , 1 975 ). Un for tuna te ly n o m iddens a ssoc ia ted w i th t hese s i tes h ave y e t b een f u l ly e xcav a ted .

H owever , i ts ee ms l i ke ly t ha t c u l t iva ted p lan ts wou ld h ave b een more

i mpor tan t i n t he d ie t a t t hese s i tes t han a t t he more i n tens ive ly s tud ied s i tes a round Ancön ( Mose ley , 1 975 ) a nd a t L as H a ldas ( Ma tsuzawa , 1 978 ) where t here was n o n earby l and s u i table f or c u l t iva t ion , b u t where l arge c o m mun i t ies n ever the less t hr ived . V ery l i t t le work h as b een d one o n i n land r iver v a l ley s i tes a way f ro m t he c oas ta l p la in , b u t i ti s i n t h is z one t ha t man p robab ly f i rs t b ecame who l ly d ependen t o n c u l t iva ted p lan ts a nd c onsequen t ly d eve loped t he t echno log ica l i mprove men ts p resag ing t he s w i tch f ro m f i sh ing t o f arm ing o n t he c oas t i t se l f a f ter 3 800 BP . A ccord ing t o Pa t terson ( 1 971a ) , t hese u p-va l ley s i tes a re l oca ted where r iver wa ter , f ue l , b u i ld ing ma ter ia ls a nd a rable l and wou ld b e a va i lab le y ear-round . Away f ro m t he c oas ta l p la in t he r ivers r un i n d eep c hanne ls a nd f l oodpla ins a re v ir tua lly n on-ex is ten t , s o t o b r ing a dequa te l and u nder c u l t iva t ion i tw ou ld b e n ecessary t o d eve lop a s ys tem o f c ana l i rr iga t ion . The d rama t ic r el ie f o f t he c oas ta l f oo th i l ls , r espons ible f or t he d eep d ownc u t t ing o f t he r iver c hanne ls , means t ha t o n ly s hor t l ead-of f c ana ls w ou ld b e n eeded t o g e t wa ter f ro m t he r ivers , a nd n a tura l s lopes wou ld f aci l i ta te d is tr ib u t ion o f i rr iga t ion wa ter o ver t he c u l t ivab le l and ( Pa t terson , 1 971a ; F arr ing ton , 1 974; Mose ley , 1 975 ). I n c on tras t , o n t he c oas t t here i s l i t t le n a tura l h ead o f wa ter a nd l eng thy c ana l s ys te ms were n ecessary t o c onduc t wa ter f ro m t he r ivers t o t he f i e lds . F or e xamp le , i n v a l leys s uch a s t he C h icama , l a tera l c ana ls 2 4-36 m i les l ong were c ons tructed a long o ne o rb o th b anks o f t he r iver ( Enge l , 1 976 ). Fur ther d is tr ibu t ion a nd d ra inage c ana ls were a lso n eeded t o c o mpensa te f or t he l ack o f s lope i n t he c u l t iva ted f i e lds . Dur ing t he C o t ton P receramic , t hen , t he p rev ious ly n omad ic way o f l i fe w i th i t s s easona l r ound f ro m l o mas t o r iver v a l ley was a bandoned a nd r ep laced b y p ermanen t s e t t le men ts r e lying o n t he n on-seasona l p roducts o f t he o cean ( f ish , s he l l f ish , s eab irds a nd s ea mamma ls ) a nd/or p lan t c u l t iva t ion . T he f l oodwa ter f arm ing p robab ly p rac t ised o n t he c oas t a t t h is p er iod wou ld y ie ld o n ly o ne c rop p er y ear , b u t many o f t he p lan ts g rown p roduce a s torable s urp lus , f or e xamp le , d r ied b eans , ma ize k erne ls , s wee t p o ta toes a nd man ioc t ubers ( t he l a t ter s tored i n s i tu i n t he g round a nd h arves ted a s n ecessary ) . T hese s urp luses wou ld e nab le t he p opu la t ion t o s urv ive u n t i l t he n ex t h arves t . Ac oro l lary o f a bandonmen t o f t he n o mad ic l i fe-s tyle was t he l oss o f c ommun i ty s el f-su f f ic iency a nd t he b eg inn ing o f s pec ia l isa t ion i n f ood p roduc t ion . T hus , c oas ta l s i tes s uch a s Las H a ldas wh ich l acked a ccess t o c u l t ivable l and r ece ived a gr icu l tura l p roduce t hrough t rade wh i le mar ine s he l lf ish were t raded t o t he p redo m inan t ly a gr icu l tura l u p-va l ley s i tes . T hese t rade n e tworks mus t a lso h ave i nvo lved a gr icu l tura l c o m mun i t ies i n t he h igh lands , s ince t he p o ta toes , o ca a nd u l lucu r epor ted f ro m Ancön ( Mar t ins , 1 976) a re h igh land c rops wh ich wou ld n o t h ave g rown s uccessfu l ly o n t he c oas t ( Hawkes , 1 967 ; L eon , 1 964 ). A l though a w ide s pec trum o f c rop p lan ts was a va i lable a nd wou ld h ave p rov ided a n a gr icu l tura l ly e f f ic ien t c ropping a nd r o ta t ion s ys te m a s we l l a s an u tr i tiona l ly Brothwell, Don, and Geoffrey Dimbleby. Environmental Aspects of Coasts and Islands. 1 02 E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1981, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541103. Downloaded on behalf of 38.67.221.43

b a lanced d ie t , a gr icu l ture s pread o n ly s low ly o n t he c oas t a nd r e ma ined a s ubs id iary , p resumab ly n o t p ar t icu lar ly d es irable , f ood p rocure men t s ys te m t hroughou t t he C o t ton P receram ic . 3 .

C eram ic p er iods

c . 3 800 BP o nwards

A bou t 3 800 BP many o f t he s e t t le men ts o f t he C o t ton Preceramic were a bandoned .

S i tes a f fec ted i nc lude t he sma l l f ar m ing v i l lages o f t he S ou th

c oas t a round C h i lca a s we l l a s t he l arge , p resumab ly c ere mon ia l , c en tres o n t he C en tra l c oas t .

S i tes w i th d i f feren t s ubs is tence o r ien ta t ions , s uch a s

Pun ta G rande , w i th i t s mar ine s pecia l isa t ion , a nd C huqu i tan ta , w i th i ts a ccess t o s u i tab le l and f or f l oodp la in f arm ing , were l i kew ise a bandoned .

Enge l ( 1976)

c ons iders t ha t t he S ou th c oas t was p robably d eser ted f or a f ew c en tur ies a f ter t h is .

On t he C en tra l c oas t , l arge n ew c ere mon ia l c en tres were c ons tructed

( Lann ing , 1 967) .

Ac o mpara t ive ly sma l l f ract ion o f t he p opu la t ion r e ma ined

o n t he c oas t a nd c on t inued t he p rev ious p a t tern o f mar ine-based s ubs is tence , b u t mos t o f t he p opu la t ion moved i n land , p robab ly i n to sma l ler a nd more d isp ersed s e t t le men ts , a nd b ecame f u l l-t i me f armers ( Mose ley , 1 975 ) . A s w i th t he e ar l ier s ubs is tence s h i f t f ro m h in t ing-and-ga ther ing t o f ish ing , i ti s n o t e asy t o i den t i fy p recise r easons f or t he c hange f ro m d ependence o n f i sh ing t o d ependence o f a gr icu l ture .

C l i ma t ic c hange p er s e s ee ms u n l ike ly ,

s ince t here i s n o e v idence o f a ny marked a l tera t ions i n t e mpe sra ture o r r a inf a l l a t t h is t ime . H owever , t wo w ide ly s epara ted l oca l i t ies , t he N or th c oas t ( R ichards a nd B roecker , 1 963 ) a nd O tuma o n t he S ou th c oas t ( Cra ig a nd P su ty , 1 971) p rov ide e v idence o f ap er iod o f t ec ton ic u p l i f t a round 3 600-3000 BP . B eaches were r a ised u p t o 9m o n t he N or th c oas t . These d is turbances mus t h ave a f fec ted b oth f i sh ing a nd f ar m ing e cono mies , p ar t icu lar ly s ince , a round O tuma a t l eas t , t he u p l if t a ccurred s o s udden ly t ha t b eds o f mo l luscs were s tranded i n s i tu , r e ta in ing t he ir o r ig ina l p a t terns o f z ona t ion o n t he s hore ( Cra ig a nd P s u ty , 1 971 ) .

Ra is ing t he l and r esu l ts i n a n e f fec t ive l ower ing o f

t he wa ter t ab le , a t l eas t w i th r egard t o t he l and s ur faces wh ich e x is ted b e fore u p l i f t .

T h is d oes n o t s ee m p ar t icu lar ly c onducive t o a gr icu l ture .

Pa t terson ( 1971b ) s ugges ts t ha t t he p opu la t ion o f c en tra l Peru i ncreased f ivefo ld b e tween 4 300 a nd 3 750 BP .

H owever , p opu la t ion p ressure d oes n o t

s ee m t o h ave r esu l ted i n o ver-exp lo i ta t ion o f t he s ea 's r esources .

T he

s tranded l agoon a t O tuma , a nd t he Bay o f V en tan i l la ( dra ined b y al a ter u p l i f t ) , s t i l l c on ta ined v as t b eds o f e d ible mo l luscs w i th l i t t le e v idence o f o ver-f ish ing ( Cra ig a nd P su ty , 1 971 ;

Mose ley , 1 975 ).

A bandonmen t o f p rev ious s e t t le men ts , i n troduc t ion o f n ew t echno log y ( po t tery) a nd a c hange i n t he p r i mary me thod o f f ood p rocure men t migh t a l l s ugges t c onques t o f c en tra l P eru b y a n a l ien g roup wh ich i mposed i t s own way o f l i fe .

However , a ccord ing t o Lann ing ( 1967 ) , r eg iona l d if ferences i n tens i-

f ied d ur ing t h is p er iod a nd t he e ar ly P e ruv ian p o t tery i t sel f r epresen ts a t l eas t t hree f undamen ta l ly d i f feren t t rad i t ions .

T h is wou ld s ee m t o e l im ina te c on-

q ues t a s ac ause o f ac hange i n s ubs is tence . I tt here fore s ee ms l i ke ly t ha t t he s w i tch t o a gr icu l ture r esu l ted f ro m t echn o log ica l i nnova t ion r a ther t han e nv ironmen ta l c hange , p opu la t ion p ressure o r c onques t . T he i nnova t ion mos t l i ke ly t o h ave b rough t a bou t i ncrease i n t he amoun t o f l and a nd q uan t i ty o f p lan ts c u l t iva ted , a nd t o h ave c aused d ispersa l Brothwell, Don, and Geoffrey Dimbleby. Environmental Aspects of Coasts and Islands. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1981, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541103. Downloaded on behalf of 38.67.221.43 1 03

o f i n land s e t t le men ts o ver w ider a reas , i s t he i n troduc t ion o f c ana l i rr iga t ion . I rr iga t ion s ys te ms a re n ot e asy t o d a te a ccura te ly , a nd t here i s u n for tuna te ly n o d irect e v idence o f i rr iga t ion o n t he c oas t a s e ar ly a s 3 800-3000 BP , t hough t he l oca t ions o f s e t t lemen ts s uch a s L a F lor ida s trong ly s ugges t t ha t i rr iga t ion was p rac t ised ( MacNe ish , Pa t terson a nd B row man , 1 975 ; Mose ley , 1 974 ). P o t tery i t sel f i s a n i nnova t ion impor tan t t o a gr icu l ture i nso far a s i t mus t h ave i ncreased t he a ccep tab il i ty o f s o me o f t he p roducts o f c u l t iva t ion b y g rea t ly f ac i l i ta t ing t he p repara t ion o f f oods wh ich r equ ire l ong p er iods o f b o i l ing . Th is a pp l ies p ar t icu lar ly t o t he v ar ious b eans , f or wh ich p ro longed c ook ing i s n ecessary t o b reak d own t ryps in i nh ib i tors , p hyto-haemagg lu t in ins , f la tus f ac tors a nd c yanogene t ic g lycos ides , s o me o r a l l o f wh ich a re p resen t i n t he r aw s eeds . Preceram ic c ook ing t echn iques i nvo lved r oas t ing , o r b oi l ing b y a dd ing h ea ted s tones t o wa ter i n ac on ta iner s uch a s ag ourd wh ich c ou ld n o t b e h ea ted d irec t ly. Large q uan t i t ies o f f i re-cracked s tones i n C eram ic p er iod s i tes i nd ica te t ha t t hese t echn iques p ers is ted a f ter t he i n troduc t ion o f p o t tery e ven t hough mos t o f t he e ar ly p o ts a re i n f ac t c ook ing v esse ls ( Lann ing , 1 967). O ther i nnova t ions were a dded d ur ing s ucceed ing p er iods w i thou t a l ter ing t he e s tabl ished p a t tern whereby c o m mun i t ies were e ngaged p r imar i ly i n e i ther f ar m ing o r f i sh ing , a nd were l i nked t hrough t rad ing n e tworks w i th o ther c oas ta l a nd e ven h igh land c o m mun i t ies i n to a n i n terna l ly i n terdependen t b u t o vera l l s el f-su f f ic ien t u n i t . T o tora r eed b oa ts were i n troduced o n t he n or th c oas t s hor t ly b e fore 2 000 BP ( Mose ley a nd Mackey , 1 972 ) a nd e nabled e xp lo i ta t ion o f t he p rev ious ly i naccess ib le d eep-wa ter mar ine f auna . I n C h i le , L lagos tera M. ( 1979 ) h as u sed p resence o f c onger e e l i n o ccupa t ion d ebr is a s a n i nd ica tor o f u se o f r a f ts , a nd h as o b ta ined a v ery s im i lar d a te f or t he s tar t o f d eep-wa ter f i sh ing . The f oo t p lough o r t acl la s eems t o h ave b een a n e ven l a ter , p oss ibly I nca , i n troduc t ion t o t he c oas t . I t made p oss ible t he c u l t iva t ion o f l ow , we t f l ood-p la ins whose c learance r equ ired s o me f orm o f h eavy c lod-cu t ter ( Farr ing ton , 1 974 ). A u n iquely c oas ta l i nnova t ion was d eve lop men t o f t he t echn iques o f s unken f i eld c u l t iva t ion , wh ich mer i t more e x tens ive d iscuss ion . WATER TABLE AGR ICULTURE E ar ly f i e ld s ys tems i n Andean Amer ica a re w idespread y e t i ti s c o mparat i ve ly r ecen t ly t ha t t hey h ave r ece ived a t ten t ion i n t he l i tera ture .

One o f t hese

f or ms i s t he s unken f i eld , r ecen t ly i nves t iga ted b y J ef frey P arsons ( Parsons , 1 968 ) . Parsons ' p aper t r iggered i m med ia te r esponses b y t wo a u thor i t ies o n t he d eser t c oas t , Mose ley ( 1969 ) a nd R owe ( 1969 ) , wh i le f ur ther r esearch h as l ed t o ag rea ter u nders tand ing o f wha t t hese f i e lds were u sed f or , h ow t hey may h ave b een managed , t he ir a ctua l a n t iqu i ty a nd t he ir r ela t ionsh ips , b o th i n t ime a nd s pace , t o o ther f orms o f s ubs is tence ( Parsons a nd P s u ty , 1 975 ;

Kau tz a nd K ea t inge , 1 977;

Sm i th , 1 979 ;

Wes t , 1 979 ).

S unken f i e lds g enera l ly o ccur i n t he t opograph ica l ly l ow z one s l igh t ly i n land o f t he a ct ive l i t tora l b el t a l though t he e nv ironmen ta l p rerequ is i te , a wa ter t able wh ich i s v ery n ear t o t he g round s ur face , i s a ch ieved s o me t imes more t han a k i lo me tre i n land , a s i nf ae P isco a rea . T he ma in s i tes a re b y t he mou ths o f s o me t en o r s o v a l leys , o n ly af ew o f wh ich h ave p erenn ia l s treams . T hese v a l leys a re , f ro m n or th t o s ou th , t he C h icama , Moche , S an ta , Lacramarca , N epena , C h i lca , A s ia , P isco a nd Pescadores . Brothwell, Don, and Geoffrey Dimbleby. Environmental Aspects of Coasts and Islands. 1 04 E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1981, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541103. Downloaded on behalf of 38.67.221.43

T he t o ta l a rea o ccup ied b y

s unken f i e ld s i tes amoun ts t o a bou t 3 500 h a a nd t he t o ta l c u l t iva ted s ur face t o a bou t 2 000 h a ( Parsons a nd . Psu ty , 1 975 ).

G iven t he p ropens i ty o f t hese

e xcava ted s and p lo ts t o b eco me o bscured a nd d es troyed w i th t ime , t hese mus t s ure ly b e min i mum f igures .

I ndeed R owe 's d iscuss ion o f wa ter t ab le a gr i-

c u l ture ( Rowe , 1 969 ) i nd ica tes t ha t d epress ions wh ich were n a tura l ly f i l led w i th f resh wa ter were a lso e xp lo i ted a nd t h is g ives c ause f or wonder ing whe ther t he s unken f i e ld was d eve loped f irs t i n a reas where s uch n a tura l ' oases ' o ccurred .

Known a t C h i lca o n t he C en tra l c oas t a s mahamaes a nd o n t he

N or th c oas t a s p uk ios ( puqu ios ) t hese a gr icu l tura l p lo ts b ear s o me r ese mblance t o t he wa lk-in we l ls o f t he Nor th c oas t ( Mose ley , 1 969 , p . 4 86 ) , E cuador a nd h igh land Mex ico ( Flannery e t a l ., 1 967) .

R owe ( 1969 ) f inds t ha t i n mos t o f

t he e ar ly l i tera ture t he word h oya ( Span ish f or p i t o r d epress ion ) was u sed f or t hese f ea tures , t h is word b e ing u sed t oday i n t he s ou th o f Peru . The f i e lds t he mse lves were o r ig ina l ly e xcava ted i n t he s ands a nd s i l ts o f t he c oas ta l z one u n t i l as a tura ted z one was r eached . The f ie ld s ur face c an t hus b e u p t o 2 me tres b e low t he o r ig ina l g round s ur face .

C harac ter is t ica l ly

e ach f i e ld i s s urrounded b y s teep-s ided midden d ebr is c ons is t ing o f e xcava ted s and a nd s i l t a nd p er iod ic c rop r es idues wh ich s urv ive h ere i n d es icca ted f orm . O f ten t he f i e ld b as ins a re wa l led b y b locks o f s a l t-crus ted s oi l . b as ins may b e s ing le o r o ccur c o l lec t ive ly.

T hey may b e sma l l a nd s quar ish

o r l ong l i near f ea tures e x tend ing f or u p t o 1 00 m o r s o . f or m a c on t inuous r e t icu la te p a t tern .

T he s unken

Bas ins may a lso

U sua l ly t here i s s o me a l ignmen t i nvo lved

i n t he l ayou t o f t he f i e lds s ugges t ive o f s ys te ma t ic p lann ing t hough t he o r ig ina l t opography may h ave s ugges ted o r e ven d icta ted t hese t rends i n s o me i ns tances . T he amoun t o f f i e ld e xcava t ion r e la tes t o t he d ep th a t wh ich a h um id z one c ou ld b e e xposed b u t s ince v ir tua l ly a l l t hese f i e lds a re n ow a bandoned we c an o n ly s urm ise t he d ep th t o wh ich a bor ig ina l p eop les c ons idered i tp ruden t t o e xcava te g iven t he r isks o f s a l in iza t ion .

G round wa ter t ables h ave f a l len i n t he c ourse

o f t ime d ue t o s low c oas ta l u p l if t a nd r educed r iver d ischarges , wh i le wa ter a bs tract ion , f ro m we l ls i n p ar t icu lar , h as mean t t he d eepen ing o f p lo ts p ar t ic u lar ly i n z ones o f mos t i n tens ive a nd p ro longed u se .

The v iew h as b een e x-

p ressed e lsewhere ( Smi th , 1 979 ) t ha t t h is d rying p rocess l ed t o p roduct ion o f sma l ler p lo ts i n o rder t o r educe t he work i nvo lved i n l ower ing f i e ld s ur faces . S i mp le l ayou ts a nd i so la ted b as ins a re t here fore i n terpre ted a s s ign i fying a l im i ted p er iod o f u se. The s unken g ardens p roduced a w ide r ange o f f ood a nd f i bre .

M iddens

a ssoc ia ted w i th s unken f i e lds a t C h i Ica r evea l ma ize , b eans , c o t ton , g ourds , s quash , p eanu ts , c oca , c h i l i p eppers , man ioc , t o tora a nd t he t ree f ru i ts , l ucuma , c irue la d e l f ra i le ( punchos ia ) a nd c ereza ( Ma lp igh ia ) ( P ickersg i l l , u npub l .) , wh i le p o l len f ro m f ie ld s o i ls c on f irms mos t o f t hese t oge ther w i th c a t ta i l , s edge ( t o tora p erhaps ) a nd p oss ibly q u inoa , t hough t he l a t ter h as s o f ar n o t b een r ecovered f ro m midden d epos i ts ( R. T . Sm i th , 1 979 ).

Wes t

( 1979 ) h as f ound p o l len o f S olanaceae a t Puer to Moor in i n t he V ira v a l ley t oge ther w i th r ecords o f ma ize a nd b eans .

Th is t o ta l r ange o f c rops a rgues

f or t he s ubs tan t ia l a dap tab i l i ty o f t he s ys te m a lbe i t i nvo lv ing s u i table c ho ice o f s i tes a nd q u i te p oss ibly d i f feren t ia l e xcava t ion .

I ti nd ica tes t ha t , f or s hor t

p er iods a t l eas t , t hese f ie lds were v iab le n o tw i ths tand ing t he s a l in i ty h azard . F ish h eads ( anchove tas ) were p laced a s f er t i l izer i n t he s a me h o le a s s eeds , t h is p ract ice b e ing g enera l a long t he Peruv ian c oas t a nd a pparen t ly more

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w idespread t han t he u se o f g uano ( Rowe , 1 969 ).

G uano was , h owever , u sed

b y C han C han f ar mers o n t he N or th c oas t , who a re r epu ted t o h ave h ad i t b rough t a s much a s 4 35 mi les f ro m t he C h incha I s lands n ear P isco ( Reparaz , 1 958 ) .

S uch u se o f mar ine r esources , p ar t icu lar ly f ish , a s f er t i l izer u nder-

l i nes t he p r i mary d ependence o f c oas ta l p eop le o n t he s ea a nd t he r ole o f t he s ea i n t he d eve lop men t o f a gr icu l ture . S unken f ie lds wou ld h ave a f forded a l l y ear r ound p roduct ion c o mpared t o a reas d ependen t o n s easona l f l ood wa ters wh i le t he l oca t ions c hosen f or s unken f i e lds , g enera l ly n ear t o v a l leys , g uaran tee a s upp ly o f mo is t mud a nd s and t o make a dobe f or b u i ld ing , a no ther v i ta l c ons idera t ion i n t he c on tex t o f c oas ta l a dap ta t ion . F ina l ly , a nd c lear ly o f i m mense i mpor tance , t he c oas ta l f ogs mus t h ave p layed a c rucia l r o le i n r ender ing v iab le t he e xp lo i ta t ion o f t he wa ter t able i n t he f irs t p lace.

T h is a r ises f ro m t he r educ t ion o f e vapo transp ira t ion

wh ich wou ld g rea t ly r e tard t he r a te o f s a l in iza t ion a nd t hus l eng then t he p er iod o ver wh ich f i eld s ur faces c ou ld r e ma in i n u se . T he e x is tence o f c oas ta l s unken f i e lds r equ ires e xp lana t ion , s ince t hey i mp ly a c ons iderab le l abour i npu t .

T hose a t Puer to Moor in may b e a s e ar ly

a s 2 000 y ears BP ( Wes t , 1 979 ) wh i le t he o nes a t C h i Ica a re g enera l ly n o e ar l ier t han 1 300 BP ( Parsons a nd P su ty , 1 975 ) a nd t hose a t C han C han s ee m ma in ly t o h ave b een c ons truc ted a nd u sed i n Imper ia l C h i mu t imes a round 9 00-1000 BP ( Farr ing ton , 1 974 ). I ti s t hus c lear t ha t s unken f i eld a gr icu l ture o ccurred f ar t oo l a te i n t he p re-h ispan ic s equence t o h ave e xercised a ny f or ma t ive i nf luence o n t he d eve lop men t o f c oas ta l a gr icu l ture . I th as b een s ugges ted t ha t s unken f i eld a gr icu l ture a rose t hrough p opu la t ion p ressure a nd e xcess ive d e mands o n i rr iga t ion s ys te ms o r o n a ccoun t o f d i f f ic u l t ies e xper ienced w i th t he l a t ter ( J . R . Parsons , 1 968 ) .

C lear ly n o s ing le

a rgu men t n eed a ccoun t f or t he d eve lop men t o f mahamaes i n e very l oca l i ty . I ti s o n ly a t C han C han t ha t t hese f ie lds a re a ssocia ted w i th a ma jor u rban c en tre ( max i mum p opu la t ion e s t i ma ted a t 2 00 ,000 p ersons ) l arge e nough f or u s t o e nv isage p opu la t ion ' press ing ' o n a va i lable r esources .

Mose ley ( 1 969 )

a rgues t ha t i ti s improbable t ha t d i f f icu l t ies w i th i rr iga t ion h ad a ny i n f luence o n t he s pread o f mahamaes b u t h e n eg lec ts t o c ons ider t he c onsequences o f e nv ironmen ta l c hange wh ich , a s s ta ted e ar l ier , wou ld t end i n t he l ess wa tered v a l leys t o f avour s uch c oas ta l e xp lo i ta t ion i n t he f ace o f s i l ta t ion a nd r educed f l ows u p v a l ley .

Fur ther more i ti s l i ke ly t ha t i n t he c en tur ies a round 2 000 BP,

more a nd more l ow c oas ta l p la in was r evea l ing i t se l f a s an ew e nv ironmen t f or e xp lo i ta t ion .

Engel ( 1976) , who h as made d e ta i led i nves t iga t ions i n t he C h i lca

v a l ley , f inds t ha t e ar l ier p eoples u sed we l l wa ter t o i rr iga te t he v a l ley f l oor b u t t hese g roups a ppear t o h ave l e f t a bou t 1 800 BP . d ence

Th is may i ndeed b e e v i-

o f t he v a l ley s i l ta t ion p roble m a lready men t ioned .

I ti s c lear t ha t s unken f i e lds a re mere ly s upp le men ta l t o i rr iga ted a gr ic u l ture i n s o me l o ca l i t ies wh i le i n a reas l ack ing i rr iga t ion o ppor tun i t ies s unken f i e lds r epresen t t he s o le me thod o f f ar m ing , u n less o f c ourse wa ter c ou ld b e r a ised f ro m we l ls .

T he ma in a rgumen t a ga ins t t he l a t ter i s t ha t i f a n e f f icien t

s ys te m f or r a is ing l arge q uan t i t ies o f we l l wa ter h ad b een d ev ised t here wou ld b e l i t t le p oin t i n mak ing s uch d eep o r e x tens ive e xcava t ions .

Whe ther mahamaes

were f irs t d eve loped i n a reas a lready w i th i rr iga t ion f ar m ing o r were i nven ted b y r esourcefu l p eop le mak ing t he mos t o f a n a rea t o ta l ly l ack ing s ur face wa ter

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i s imposs ible t o s ay a t p resen t e xcep t t ha t t he a rgumen t b ased o n o bserva t ion o f wa terf i l led d epress ions , men t ioned e ar l ier , i s ap ersuas ive o ne .

Wha t

s ee ms more t o t he p o in t i s why t hey were made a nd , i n p ar t icu lar , why s uch al arge a rea was d eve loped a t C h i lca when t here s ee ms t o b e s o l i t t le e v idence o f s e t t le men t c oeva l w i th t he f i e lds .

A l though e ar ly s e t t le men t may h ave b een

o bl i tera ted b y t he d eve lop men t o f t he S pan ish t own o f C h i lca t he ma in a dobe s tructures p er iphera l t o t he s unken f i e ld z one a re , a ccord ing t o Enge l a nd o ther workers ( Pa rsons a nd P s u ty , 1 975 ) , e ar l ier t han t he f i e lds , w i th r ad ioc arbon d a t ings a round 2 000 BP c o mpared t o 1 300 BP f or t he f i e lds .

Enge l

( 1976) c ons iders t he s unken f i e ld p eople t o h ave b rough t n ew i n f luences t o t he a rea a s e v idenced b y T iahuanaco-s tyle p o t tery ( l oca l ly r eferred t o a s Puer to V ie jo t ype ) a nd t h is p erm i ts a n e xp lana t ion o ther t han s i mp le d eve lop men t b y c oasta l p eop les f or t he ir o wn p urposes .

Around 1 300-1200 BP t he H uar i p eop le

were e xpand ing t he ir i n f luence i n t he h igh lands i m med ia te ly e as t o f t he C en tra l c oast a nd o ne may t herefore b e j us ti f ied i n a ssoc ia t ing T iahuanaco id p ot tery s tyles w i th t h is e xpans ion is t p hase .

Parsons ( i n P arsons a nd P su ty , 1 975 )

a lso c ons iders t ha t H uar i i n f luence e xp la ins t he C h i lca mahamaes a s s ign i fying l oca l p opu la t ion e xpans ion .

There a re t wo p r incipa l p oss ibi l i t ies :

Huar i

p eople c ame t o t he c oas t e i ther i n s earch o f n ew l ands t o s e t t le o r s i mp ly t o e xp lo i t t he c oas t i n o rder t o mee t t he d e mand f or f ood a nd o ther ma ter ia ls i n t he h igh lands .

The f i rs t wou ld i mp ly a l arger r es iden t p opu la t ion t han t he

s econd t hough e i ther wou ld e xp la in t he f ac t t ha t v ir tua l ly t he e n t ire s ys te m o f f i e lds a t C h i lca a ppears t o h ave b een p lanned a s au n i t .

U se o f f i sh a s f er-

t i l iser mus t a ga in a rgue f or a n e f fec t ive f ish ing i ndus try s o t ha t t he Huar i Emp ire s tood t o g a in b o th f ish a nd c oas ta l c rops f ro m i t s e xpans ion wes tward . S unken f ie lds were t hus u sed a t v ar ious t imes o n t he P eruv ian c oas t f ro m a bou t 2 000 BP o nwards .

T hey were s o me t i mes r e la ted t o l oca l s e t t le men t

s pecia l isa t ion a s i n t he V irü v a l ley ( Wes t , 1 979 ) , s o me t i mes p rov ided a s upp lemen t t o c ana l-based i rr iga t ion f ar m ing a s a t C han C han , wh i le a t C h i lca t he s ys te m was p robab ly d eve loped b y o u ts ide i n f luence .

The l a t ter may h ave

f unct ioned t o c a ter f or h igh land p opu la t ion o versp i l l b u t more p robably C h i lca was s e t u p a s as e ll-su f f ic ien t c o m mun i ty whose p r i mary r o le was t he e xp lo it a t ion o f mar ine r esources . S U M MARY AND CONCLUS IONS The d eser t c oas t o f P eru p rov ided a n e nv ironmen t f or p reh is tor ic man wh ich i s w i thou t a n e xac t p ara l le l a nywhere e lse .

I t s mar ine r esources a re

among t he r iches t i n t he wor ld a nd e ven t oday t he wa ters o f f P eru a nd n or thern C h i le p roduce more t han o ne-f i f th o f t he wor ld 's c o m mer ica l f i sh ( Mose ley , 1 975 ).

I n c on tras t , t he d eser t a nd t he r iver v a l leys wh ich c ross i ta re o n ly

s easona l ly p roduc t ive .

The a rchaeo log ica l r ecord s hows t ha t man d ev ised

v ar ious s tra teg ies f or s ubs is t ing s a t is fac tor i ly i n t h is e nv ironmen t . T he f irs t i nvo lved e xp lo i ta t ion o f t he s easona l r esources o f l o mas a nd r iver v a l leys a nd n ecessi ta ted migra t ion b e tween s um mer v a l ley a nd w in ter l o mas c amps. The s ea , wh ich was e qua l ly a ccess ible f ro m b o th t he l o mas a nd t he r iver v a l leys , was u sed y ear-round t o ' s upp le men t t he d ie t . a lso h ave p rov ided a m inor f ood s upp ly.

C u l t iva ted p lan ts may

T he s econd s ubs is tence s ys te m r e l ied

p r imar i ly o n mar ine p roduc ts . The n o mad ic way o f l i fe was a bandoned , p ermanen t s e t t le men ts were b u i l t a long t he c oas t , a nd a gr icu l ture b ecame more i mpor tan t , t hough s t i l l o n ly a s ubs id iary s ource o f f ood . 1 07

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The t h ird f ood p ro-

c ure men t s ys te m i nvo lved f u l lt i me f arm ing . I n i t ia l ly man u t i l ised t he s eas ona l f l oods i n t he r iver v a l leys t o r a ise o ne c rop ay ear a nd r e l ied o n a s torab le s urp lus t o s uppor t t he p opu la t ion b e tween h arves ts . L a ter , i rr iga t ion made i tp oss ib le t o g row c rops y ear-round , a t l eas t i n v a l leys w i th a p ermanen t s upp ly o f wa ter . T here s ee ms t o h ave b een l i t t le i n teract ion b etween g roups f o l lowing t he f irs t a nd s econd s ubs is tence s tra teg ies , s ince l o mas c amps i tes were a bandoned a t a bou t t he t ime t ha t p er manen t s e t t le men ts o f f u l l t ime f ishermen b ecame w idespread . H owever , e xponen ts o f t he s econd a nd t h ird s tra teg ies h ave c oe x is ted p robab ly s ince t he C o t ton P receram ic when s pec ia l ised c o m mun i t ies o f f armers o r f i shermen f i rs t a ppeared ( Mose ley , 1 975 ) .

T hese s pecia l ised

s e t t le men ts were l i nked b y e xchange n e tworks i n to s e l f-su f f ic ien t c o mmun i t ies , ap a t tern wh ich p ers is ted u p t o t he S pan ish C onques t ( Ros tworowsk i d e D iez C anseco , 1 977 ) a nd s t i l l c on t inues t oday. T he e ar l ies t o ccupa t ion o f t he c oas t was b y s em i-no mad ic h un ters a nd g a theres . P ermanen t , mar ine-based s e t t le men ts c ame l a ter , wh i le d epend ence o n a gr icu l ture d eve loped l a ter s t i l l . T h is s equence , f ro m n omad ism t o s eden t is m a nd , u l t ima te ly , a gr icu l ture , f i ts S auer 's ( 1 952 ) t heor ies o n t he c u l tura l c on tex t i n wh ich man wou ld h ave s tar ted t o c u l t iva te p lan ts . H owever , d eve lop men t o f a gr icu l ture was s e ldo m a s s tra igh tforward a s S auer i mp l ies . C er ta in ly s tudy o f t he a rchaeo log ica l r ecord f rom t he P e ruv ian c oas t s ugges ts t ha t i tc anno t b e r ead a s as imp le , s t i l l l ess a s a n i nev i table , p rogress ion f ro m h un t ing a nd g a ther ing t o f arm ing . H un t ing a nd g a ther ing may h ave b een t he o n ly way o f l i fe o pen t o t he e ar l ies t o ccupan ts o f t he c oas t . Mar ine s he ll f ish c an b e g a thered b y p eop le a t e ven t he mos t p r im i t ive l eve l o f t echno logy , b u t Par ma lee a nd K l ippe l ( 1 974 ) h ave c a lcu la ted t ha t man c ou ld n o t s ubsis t o n mo l luscs a lone f or a ny l eng th o f t ime . S eabirds a nd s ea mamma ls c ou ld b e s ho t , s peared o r h arp ooned u s ing weapons s im i lar t o t hose u sed f or h un t ing l and g ame , b u t v ert ebra te f i sh were p robably t he mos t i mpor tan t mar ine s ource o f c a lor ies a nd p ro te in . F reshwa ter f i sh c an b e c augh t i n v ar ious ways , i nclud ing p o ison ing o r t rapp ing , b u t t hese l a t ter me thods a re n o t a pp l icable t o f i sh l i v ing i n t he o pen o cean , mos t o f wh ich mus t b e c augh t b y l i ne o r b y n e t . F ish h ooks a nd n e ts h ave b een f ound i n L i th ic s i tes , b u t c o t ton i s n o t k nown u n t i l l a ter i n t he P receram ic . Wha tever f i bre was u sed t o make L i th ic l i nes a nd n e ts , i ti s u n l ike ly t o h ave b een a s s trong o r c apable o f p roducing s uch a f ine- meshed n e t a s c o t ton . C er ta in ly o nce t echn iques f or mak ing t hread a nd c lo th f rom c o t ton f i bre h ad b een i nven ted , c o t ton s pread r ap id ly a l l a long t he c oas t—as a c u l t iva ted p lan t , s ince l i n t-producing c o t tons o ccur w i ld o n ly i n t he e x tre me n or th o f -P eru a nd d e mand f or f i bre v ery s oon o u ts tr ipped t he q uan t i t ies t ha t c ou ld b e s uppl ied b y w i ld p lan ts . Mose ley ( 1 975 ) s ees t he L i th ic s tage a s p rov id ing t he n ecessary t ime f or a s low b u i ld-up o f mar ine t echno log y wh ich e nabled c oas ta l p opu la t ions t o s w i tch f rom l and-based h un t ing a nd g a ther ing t o a mar ine-based s ubs is tence a round 4 500 BP .

C o t ton was p robab ly a n im-

p or tan t e le men t i n t he d eve lop men t o f t h is mar ine t echno logy , a nd i ti s s o met h ing o f ap aradox t ha t d eve lop men t o f af i sh ing e conomy s hou ld b e l i nked w i th p r ior e s tabl ishmen t o f a gr icu l ture o r a t l eas t o f t he t echn iques f or c u l t iva t ing c o t ton a nd g ourds . P eruv ian c oas ta l a gr icu l tura l i s i n t urn u nusua l , i fn o t u n ique , i n i t s e ar ly emphas is o n t wo n on-food c rops wh ich p rov ided i mpor tan t r aw ma ter ia ls f or f i sh ing t echno logy. Brothwell, Don, and Geoffrey Dimbleby. Environmental Aspects of Coasts and Islands. 1 08 E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1981, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541103. Downloaded on behalf of 38.67.221.43

Recent workers have questioned why man should ever have taken up agri­ culture at all since, as Cohen�fl977) puts it, agriculture seems to provide a poorer diet less reliably and with greater labour costs than hunting and gathering. Certainly food crops ·such as maize and manioc, which are efficient calorie producers eminently suitable for agricultural staples, spread much more slowly along the coast of Peru than cotton or gourds, indicating that farming was not an immediately attractive form of subsistence. Bray (1976) suggests that development of agriculture is analog ous to biological evolution and that at some point during the process of gradual change a critical threshold is passed and an irreversible commitment to agriculture made. Although Bray does not believe that a single variable acted in cause-and-effect fashion to bring about change, he does consider that increase in population was probably an important factor in the evolution of more efficient ways of producing food. One advantage that Cohen (1977) concedes for agriculture is that it makes it possible to produce more food per unit space per unit time and hence to support a larger population than under a hunting and gathering regime. Cohen (1977) and Patterson (1971b) both claim that population increases towards the end of the Lithic necessitated abandoning the earlier hunting and gathering existence and concentrating instead on the more prolific resources of the ocean. Bray (1976) considers that sedentism would lead to a further population increase since ethnographic data from various sources indicate that the birth interval between children decreases when young children no longer have to be carried on nomadic migrations. Whether the comparatively short seasonal journeys of Lithic hunters and gatherers between lomas and river valleys would limit birth rates in this way is not certain, but the population increase which Cohen (1977) and P atterson (1971b) detect towards the end of the Lithic suggests that they did not. P aulsen (1976) has suggested that dry periods in the Peruvian highlands prompted populations to move out of the seasonally arid inter-Andean valleys and down to the coast. She associates the spread of first the Huari and later the Inca Empire with such dry periods. Earlier arid phases might have led to similar emigration from the highlands, thus increasing population pressure in the coastal valleys and along the littoral. However, there is as yet no convincing evidence of such early movements in the archaeological record. The data suggest instead a well-developed network of trade routes linking coast, highlands and even the eastern jungles and involving such products as obsidian, chert, agricultural produce and, after 3000 BP, copper (MacNeish, p atterson and Browman, 1975). Although sedentism is no longer seen as a prerequisite for development of agriculture in the way that Sauer (1952) suggested, sedentism may have had a different importance under the agriculturally difficult conditions of the Peruvian coast. Moseley (1975) has suggested that the social organisation and traditions of corporate labour manifested in the construction of the ceremonial pyramids and communal buildings of the large marine-based settlements of the Cotton Preceramic were necessary also _for construction and maintenance of the ela­ borate canal systems, on which large-scale cultivation of land along much of the coast depended. So far the coast has been considered as an autonomous zone, in which cultural developments took place in response to factors originating in the Brothwell, Don, and Geoffrey Dimbleby. Environmental Aspects of Coasts and Islands. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1981, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541103. 109 Downloaded on behalf of 38.67.221.43

ecological context of the coast. However, the coast is unlikely ever to have been completely isolated from the highlands. Indeed, suggestions of early seasonal transhumance between coast and highlands and the evidence of trade already discussed show that there was considerable interaction between the two regions throughout prehistory. The river valleys provide natural and easy routes for communication between coast and highlands, giving rise to Murra's (1968) concept of 'verticality' in Andean cultural ecology. The coastal valleys, on the other hand, are separated by stretches of desert which would impede inter-valley communication. It is therefore necessary to consider how far the subsistence changes discussed for the coast were influenced by developments in the highlands. Unfortunately comparatively few highland sites covering the period 90003500 BP have so far been excavated. As would be expected, agriculture seems to have begun much earlier in the highlands than on the coast. Fully domesticated common and lima beans have been found in Guitarrero Cave, certainly at 9000 BP and possibly as early as 10,500 BP (C. E. Smith, 1977). Cultivation of plants on the coast may therefore have started as a consequence of contact with the highlands. Other crops also spread to the coast from the highlands, for example chili peppet (10,500 BP in Guitarrero Cave, 4500 BP on the coast) and maize (possibly 6000 BP in Guitarrero Cave and 5000 BP in the Ayacucho caves, about 4000 BP on the coast) (C. E. Smith, 1977; Flannery, 197 3). In the highlands, as on the coast, dependence on agriculture developed only slowly. One major difference between coast and highlands is that the highlands lack a non-seasonal subsistence resource comparable to the sea which would have permitted early sedentism. Although details are not yet clear, it seems that although the highlands had domesticated plants earlier than the coast, complete dependence on agriculture may have come later in the highlands than on the coast. While the arrival of agriculture may reflect highland influences on the coast, development of extensive irrigation systems on the coast also pre­ supposes peaceful coexistence between coastal and up-valley populations, if not authoritarian control of the entire valley system to ensure adequate par- · titioning of water along its length. Whatever the nature of these intra-valley systems of water management,they must also have promoted exchange and interaction between coastal and highland peoples. Man's adaptation to the desert coast of Peru has therefore changed through time, in response to advances in technology and social organisation. Much of this development seems to have taken place on the coast itself, elicited by the ecological and environmental conditions of the coastal region, but coast and highlands were in virtually continuous contact and the highlands were the source of at least one innovation which eventually had a great impact on coastal sub­ sistence, namely cultivation of plants. The coastal civilisations ultimately achieved a mastery of their unique. and somewhat unpredictable environment that was arguably more effective than European exploitation of this region in the centuries after the Conquest.

110

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s ynchronous

Na ture 2 53 , 6 17-618 . T he n a ture o f s a l ine a nd a lka l ine s o i ls o f t he P eruv ian

A groke m ia e s Ta la jtan 1 4 s uppl ., 4 15-421.

1 15 Brothwell, Don, and Geoffrey Dimbleby. Environmental Aspects of Coasts and Islands. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1981, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541103. Downloaded on behalf of 38.67.221.43

Brothwell, Don, and Geoffrey Dimbleby. Environmental Aspects of Coasts and Islands. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1981, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541103. Downloaded on behalf of 38.67.221.43

S EA WEED AS A PREH ISTOR IC RESOURCE B y Mar t in B e l l

T hough many o f t he modern f oods , f odders a nd f er t i l izers a re b ased o n p os t- med ieva l i nven t ions o r a re i n troduct ions f ro m o verseas , It h ink i tf a ir t o s ay t ha t f i e ld a rchaeo log ists h ave n o t a lways b een s u f f icien t ly o n t he l ook o u t f or e v idence o f n a t ive r esources wh ich migh t f ormer ly h ave b een more e x tens ive ly e xp lo i ted . S eaweeds a re a c ase i n p o in t , t he e thno-h is tor ica l s ources s how t ha t t hey h ave b een a n i mpor tan t r esource i n an umber o f c oas ta l a reas .

C an we h o ld o u t a ny h ope o f f ind ing e v idence f or t he ir e xp lo i ta t ion o n

a rchaeo log ica l s i tes?

T he mar ine a lgae a re a f ter a l l f l eshy , g enera l ly n on-

s ke le ta l a nd l ack ing i n s pec ia l ised s treng then ing t issue a nd migh t b e e xpec ted n o t t o s urv ive u nder a ny b u t t he mos t e xcep t iona l p reserva t ion c ond i t ions . We s ha l l b e c oncerned w i th t hree g roups : Phaeophy ta , b rown a lgae ;

C h lorophyta , g reen a lgae ;

a nd R hodophyta , r ed a lgae .

S o me me mbers o f

t he l a t ter a re d ist ingu ished b y ac a lc i f ied t ha l lus a nd e v idence o f t he m may t herefore s urv ive u nder c a lcareous c ond i t ions . E thno-H is tor ica l E v idence . C o m mun i t ies e xp lo i t ing s eaweeds may c o l lec t t he c as t o r d r i f t weed , wh ich i s g enera l ly t hrown u p b y s tor ms , o r t hey may c u t t he weed f ro m t he r ocks e i ther a t l ow t i de o r b y d iving .

Under e xcep t iona l c ircums tances ,

where t he mar ine s ubs tra te was n o t c apab le o f s a t is fying d e mand , s eaweeds were c u l t iva ted . T his h as b een d one i n Tokyo Bay s ince a bou t 1 700 A . D. ( Chap man 1 950 , p . 1 63 ) a nd i n s ou th wes t I re land where b ou lders were l a id d own i n t he s and i n n ea t r ows t o e ncourage t he g row th o f Fucus a nd A scophyl lum ( Co t ton 1 912 , p . 1 53 ) ;

h ow f ar t h is p ract ice g oes b ack i s u nknown .

Many s eaweeds p ossess i n teres t ing b ioche mica l p roper t ies wh ich a re t he b as is o f much o f t he ir e cono mic impor tance , f or i ns tance t hey a re c apab le o f c oncen tra t ing s a l ts o f p o tash a nd s oda f ro m t he s ea 's d i lu te s o lu t ion .

I od ine

a nd p o tass iu m i n p ar t icu lar a re c oncen tra ted a nd s pec ies o f Lam inar ia a re c apab le o f s tor ing u p t o 3 0 ,000 t imes t he i od ine c on ten t o f o cean wa ter ( Levr ing e t a l . 1 969 , p . 3 47) . b urn t t o p roduce k e lp ;

Dur ing t he p os t- med ieva l p er iod b rown r ockweeds were t h is i s f irs t d ocumen ted i n t he s even teen th c en tury when

t he French were e x trac t ing s oda f or g lazing a nd g lass .

K elp b egan t o b e p ro-

d uced i n Br i ta in a round 1 720 , t he i ndus try was b ased u pon a reas where l arge q uan t i t ies o f weed were t hrown u p b y s tor ms , c h ief ly S co t land , t he N or thern I s les a nd wes tern I re land .

I n s o me a reas t he weed was d r ied o n s pec ia l ly

b u i l t s tone wa l ls a nd b urn t i n c ircu lar k i lns o r t renches .

One s uch h as b een

e xcava ted o n N or th R ona ldsay ( Fen ton 1 978 ) , a nd e xa mp les e xposed b y e ros ion h ave r ecen t ly b een i nves t iga ted i n B irsay Bay o n Orkney ( J . Rackha m , p ers . c omm .).

T hese k i lns p roduced a s o l id c ake o f k e lp wh ich was t hen s en t t o

t he c he m ica l f actory .

O r ig ina l ly p roduct ion was f or s oda , b u t f ro m 1 814 i t

wa s a lsDimbleby. o a ma jor s ouAspects rce ofo f i od ine u n t i l t he Brothwell, Don, and Geoffrey Environmental Coasts and Islands. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1981, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541103. C h i l e38.67.221.43 i n 1 873 ( Chap man 1 950 ) . 1 17 Downloaded on behalf of

d iscovery o f minera l d epos i ts i n

There i s al i t t le e v idence o f much e ar l ier i ndus tr ia l a nd c ra f t u sage o f s eaweeds . P l iny , i n h is Na tura l H is tory , men t ions g ar men ts b e ing d yed p urp le w i th s eaweed e x trac t a nd d ur ing more r ecen t t imes i n Wa les r ed d yes h ave b een o b ta ined f ro m t he s ame s ource ( S tephenson 1 968 , p . 4 2 ).

T hey a lso

s ee m t o h ave b een u sed f or med ica l p urposes f ro m a v ery e ar ly d a te ;

a

C h inese h erba l o f 2 700 B .C . r e fers t o s eaweeds ( Levr ing e t a l . 1 969 ) , a nd t hey were a c o m mon f o lk r e medy f or a v ar ie ty o f c o mp la in ts i n I re land . O ther r ecorded minor u ses a re f or g lue , c au lk ing b oa ts a nd o ccas iona l ly e ven t he p roduc t ion o f a r t i facts s uch a s c on ta iners , f ish ing l ines , h ooks , e tc . N one o f t hese mu l t i far ious u ses , i n teres t ing a s t hey a re , i s l i ke ly t o h ave b een a ma jor r eason f or t he e xp lo i ta t ion o f s eaweeds i n p reh is tory when t hey wou ld h ave b een much more impor tan t a s f ood a nd f er t i l izer .

The ir e ar l ies t

r ecorded u se a s a n i ma l f eed i s b y L innaeus who , i n 1 745 , r ecords t he mix ing o f b o i led b ladderwrack w i th b ran t o p roduce a p ig feed , o n N or th Rona ldsay a nd b lack faced s heep f eed e n t ire ly o n s eaweed f or t en mon ths o n t he y ear , a nd a re o n ly p as tured d ur ing t he l a mbing s eason ( Round 1 973 , p . 2 21).

T he

u se o f t h is f odder was n o t j us t r es tr ic ted t o c oas ta l p as tures , a nd e ven when a n i ma ls were t aken u p t o t he s h ie l ings i t was t he p ract ice t o c arry a f ew b aske t l oads o f s eaweed o n t he b ack o f ad onkey ;

o n L ew is t h is was s tored i n as pecia l

l i t t le h u t , t he t igh-an-fhao ma inn , o r s eaweed h ouse ( Fen ton 1 976 , p . 1 35 ) . S eaweeds h ave a lso b een e x tens ive ly e xp lo i ted f or h u man c onsu mp t ion p ar t icu lar ly i n J apan a nd t he Far Eas t .

A bor ig ina l p opu la t ions i n A us tr ia l ia

a nd t he Maor is o f N ew Z ea land r egu lar ly u sed s eaweeds , s uch a s P orphyra , i n s a lads a nd s oups .

T he ir e ar l ies t r ecorded u sage i n t he wes t c o mes f ro m

a n I ce land ic s aga o f 9 61 A .D., wh ich r e fers t o t he e d ibi l i ty o f s o l ( Rhody men ia p a l ma ta ).

T he r igh t t o c o l lec t s o l i s r ecorded i n I ce land ic l awbooks a s e ar ly

a s t he f irs t h a l f o f t he t wel f th c en tury b y wh ich t ime , a ccord ing t o Ha l lsson ( 1 964 , p . 3 98 ) ,i t s ee ms t o h ave b een c o l lec ted a nd t ranspor ted o ver l ong d ist ances .

One s uspec ts a n e qua l ly a nc ien t t rad i t ion o f s eaweed e a t ing e x is ted

i n t he c oas ta l a reas t o t he wes t a nd n or th o f t he Br i t ish I s les where P orphyra i s s t i l l e a ten a s ac ons t i tuen t o f l aver b read . Pr ior t o t he i ndus tr ia l r evo lu t ion u ndoub ted ly t he mos t impor tan t u se o f s eaweed was a s f er t i l izer , t h is u se was f irs t men t ioned b y Pa l lad ius wr i t ing i n t he f our th c en tury A . D., a nd i t was b e ing u t i l ised i n France i n t he t we lf th c en tury A M .

C amden ( 1772 , p . 1 58 ) r ecords i t s u se i n Devon i n 1 586.

C lear ly i t s b ene f icia l e f fec ts u pon t he s o i l p roper t ies were a pprec ia ted f ro m a n e ar ly d a te , f or i ns tance F a l le ( 1734 , p . 1 49 ) , wr i t ing a bou t J ersey i n 1 694 d escr ibes h ow s eaweed ' ame l iora tes a nd f er t i l izes t he e ar th imbibing i t sel f i n to i t , s of ten ing t he c lod a nd k eep ing t he r oo t o f t he c orn mo is t d ur ing t he mos t p arch ing h ea ts o f s u m mer '.

I n f ac t t he u t i l isa t ion o f s eaweeds i s a n

impor tan t f actor i n t he f or ma t ion o f v ery f er t i le , p ar t ly man- made ls o i ls wh ich s tre tch u p t he N or th A t lan t ic l i t tora l f ro m P or tuga l t o t he N or thern I s les . I n P or tuga l t here a re marke t g ardens k nown a s mace iras , wh ich a re b e l ieved t o b e o f s o me a n t iqu i ty a nd wh ich a re i n tens t ively c u l t iva ted b y h and f or e ar ly v ege tables u s ing s eaweed a s f er t il izer ( Larkco m 1 977 , 1 979 ).

I n N or th Wes t

F rance t here i s a4 00 mi le l ong s tr ip o f c oas t k nown a s t he c e in ture d ore , where t he s teady u se o f s eaweed o n as tr ip 5 00 m f ro m t he s hore h as p roduced as o i l wh ich i s c apable o f t he c on t inuous p roduct ion o f b es t q ua l i ty v ege tables w i thou t a ny r o ta t ion ( Chap man 1 950 , p . 1 34 ). Brothwell, Don, and Geoffrey Dimbleby. Environmental Aspects of Coasts and Islands. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1981, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541103. 1 18 Downloaded on behalf of 38.67.221.43

S im ilar man- made s oi l p heno mena a re t he l azy-beds o f I re land

a nd

S co t land . T hese were f ormed b y l aying manure , g enera l ly s eaweed , i n p ara l le l s tr ips a bou t 1m w ide a nd t he s ame d is tance a par t . Tur f a nd e ar th f ro m b et ween t he s tr ips was t hen s pade-dug a nd l a id o n t op o f t he f er t i l izer t o p roduce c u l t iva t ion r idges . L a t ter ly l azy-beds h ave b een u sed ma in ly f or p o ta to g rowing , b u t t he ir u se f or g rowing g ra in c rops i s d ocumen ted f ro m a t l eas t t he e ar ly s ix teen th c en tury ( Fen ton 1 976 ). Fur thermore r ecen t e xcava t ions a t B e lderg , C o . Mayo , h ave p roduced e v idence o f c u l t iva t ion r idges , o f l azy-bed t ype , d a t ing b etween 4 500 a nd 3 200 B .P. ( M i tche l l 1 976 , p . 1 41). I n I re land mar ine a lgae h ave a lso p layed a p ar t i n t he f orma t ion o f p laggen s oi ls wh ich h ave a d eep h um ic p ro f i le p roduced b y t he i mpor ta t ion o f ma ter ia l , i nc lud ing s he l l , s and o r c ora l l ine a lgae .

The l a t ter a re c a lcareous me mbers o f t he Rhodophyta ,

t he b roken f ragmen ts o f wh ich make u p t he d azzl ing c ora l b eaches o f C onne mara . T h is c a lcareous s and was c o l lec ted a nd s pread o n p ea ty s oi ls i n s ou th wes t I re land ( Co t ton 1 912 , p . 1 53 ) o f ten mixed w i th b yre manure a nd s eaweed . C onry a nd M itche l l ( 1 971 ) d oub t whe ther t he t rue d eep p laggen s o i ls o f I re land f or med much b e fore t he l and h unger o f t he s even teen th c en tury , b u t t he a gr ic u l tura l p rac t ices wh ich p roduced t he m a re u ndoubted ly o f much more a nc ien t o r ig in , t here a re r eferences t o t he u se o f c a lcareous s and i n p re-Chr is t ian I re land a nd t he u se o f c ora l l ine a lgae i s d ocumen ted i n N ormandy f ro m t he t wel f th c en tury. Preserva t ion T h is wea l th o f e thno-h is tor ica l e v idence e s tabl ishes a r easonab le a p r ior i c ase f or t he e xp lo i ta t ion o f s eaweeds i n p reh is tory , b u t i s t here a ny way i n wh ich we may o bta in e v idence o f t h is? S eaweed i t se l f i s o n ly l i ke ly t o b e p res erved u nder e xcep t iona l c ond i t ions .

T he g eo log ica l r ecord i s a l mos t e n t ire ly

r es tr ic ted t o c a lcareous a lgae a l though o ccas iona l ly f l eshy p ar ts a re r epresen ted b y c arbonaceous f i l ms a nd i mpr in ts ( Wray 1 977 ). A t o ne e xposure i n C anada , where b ur ia l a ppears t o h ave b een v ery s udden , t here were we l l p reserved b lades o f L am inar ia a nd o ther s pec ies d a t ing f ro m 1 0 ,800 + 1 50 r ad iocarbon y ears b .p. ( In man e t a l . 1 970 ) . A s f ar a s p reserva t ion o n a rchaeo log ica l s i tes i s c oncerned , t he e v idence i s v ery l im i ted . T he r ed a lgae G igar t ina c hauv in i i was i den t i f ied f ro m p re-Co lumbian d epos i ts i n P eru d a t ing t o t he f our teen th c en tury A .D ., a nd i n teres t ing ly e nough t h is i s as pecies wh ich i s s t i l l e a ten i n P eru t oday ( Dixon 1 973 , p . 2 30 ). Burn t s eaweed h as b een r ecovered f ro m t he Brough o f B irsay o n Orkney a nd , a l though t he ma ter ia l was v ery f ragmen tary , s o me o f i th ad c haracter is t ic f ea tures o f Fucus v es icu losus ( A l ison Dona ldson , p ers . c o mm .). T he s i te i s o ne w i th b o th N orse a nd p re-Norse p hases b u t a t p resen t t here s n o c loser d a t ing e v idence f or t he c on tex t wh ich p roduced t h is ma ter ia l . Ano ther f ind o f c arbon ised ma ter ia l , t en ta t ive ly i n terpre ted a s b urn t s eaweed , i s r epor ted f ro m r ecen t e xcava t ions a t ' Da B igg ins ' , S het land , aN orse s i te o f t he t wel f th t o t h ir teen th c en tur ies 1 979 ) .

( Crawford

We s hou ld n o t b e s urpr ised b y t he p auc i ty o f p reserved n on-ca lcareous a lgae s ince o ne o f t he ir v ir tues a s af er t i l izer i s t he s peed w i th wh ich t hey b reak d own . E xper i men ta l work o n l arge b rown s eaweeds l i ke Macrocys t is , E ck lon ia a nd Durv i l lea s hows t ha t t hey d eco mpose w i th in f our mon ths ; Carpophyl lum , o n t he o ther h and , was s t i l l r ecogn isable a f ter a y ear ( Chap man 1 950 , p . 2 53 ). U n for tuna te ly v ery l i t t le work s ee ms t o h ave b een d one o n d ecay rod uc tsDimbleby. o r r es idua ls Aspects wh icof hCoasts mig h tIslands. b e t raced Brothwell, Don,p and Geoffrey Environmental and E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1981, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541103. Downloaded on behalf of 38.67.221.43 1 19

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I nclusions among s ea weeds collected on t he s hore a t S altdean , Sussex .

Brothwell, Don, and Geoffrey Dimbleby. Environmental Aspects of Coasts and Islands. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1981, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541103. Downloaded on behalf of 38.67.221.43

1 20

I nc lus ions w i th Modern S eaweeds I fs eaweed i t se l f i s s e ldo m p reserved t hen p erhaps t here i s s o me p o ten t ia l i n d e mons tra t ing i t s u t i l iza t ion b y l ess d irect me thods , f or i ns tance t he p res ence o f s eaweed e p i faunas o r o ther ma ter ia l wh ich migh t h ave b een t ransp or ted t o s i tes w i th s eaweed .

I n o rder t o a ssess t he p o ten t ia l o f t h is t ype

o f e v idence Ic o l lec ted L am inar ia s acchar ina , Fucus v es icu losus a nd L aminar ia d ig i ta ta a s c as t weed f ro m t he b each a t S a l tdean , S ussex , t oge ther w i th Fucus s pira l is wh ich was g row ing o n an earby b reakwa ter .

The h o ld fas ts were d is-

s ec ted a nd t he f ronds a nd s t ipes were c are fu l ly e xa m ined f or a ny ma ter ia ls wh ich were l i ke ly t o b e p reserved i n a n a rchaeo log ica l c on tex t ; a re p resen ted i n Tab le 1 . L a minar ia s p .

t he r esu l ts

T he mos t p roduct ive were t he h o ld fas ts o f c as t

B iva lve mo l luscs i nc luded t iny j uve i les o f ? Myt i lus e du l is ,

?Mod iolus mod io lus a nd ?Venerup is s p . t oge ther w i th e xamp les o f S phen ia b ingha m i a nd f ragmen ts o f t he c o m mon p iddock , Pho las d ac tylus .

T he g as-

t ropods i nc luded a n umber o f sma l l s pec ies , L i t tor ina s axa t i l is , R issoa p arva a nd C rep idu la f orn ica ta .

Par t icu lar ly i n teres t ing was t he d iscovery o f a

l arge n umber o f b arnac les w i th in t he h o ld fas ts . Me mbran ipora me mbranacea ,

The l acel ike b ryozoan

wh ich h as c a lc i f ied s ide wa l ls , was f ound

g rowing o n t he s t ipes o f Lam inar ia s p .

S even f ora ms , i den ti f ied a s Mass i l ina

s ecans , were f ound o n La m inar ia s acchar ina a nd , s ince t hese were n o t s pec i f ica l ly s earched f or , sma l ler f ora ms a re l i ke ly t o h ave b een missed d ur ing i n i t ia l s or t ing .

T rapped w i th in t he h o ld fas ts were a lso t he s andy a nd c a lcareous

t ubes o f p olychae te w orms , a nd o n t he f ronds o f Fucus v es icu losus were f ound 1 19 e xa mp les o f as pec ies o f s p irorb id wh ich g enera l ly g rows o n Fucus o r s tones .

F ina l ly t here were a l arge n u mber o f p ieces o f g rave l-grade s h ing le

t rapped w i th in t he h o ld fas ts .

O bv ious ly t h is i s b u t as e lec t ion o f t he t h ings

wh ich migh t h ave b een i n troduced t o s i tes w i th s eaweed , a l though i t mus t a lso b e emphas ised t ha t v ir tua l ly a l l o f t h is ma ter ia l c ou ld h ave a rr ived o n s i tes i n av ar ie ty o f o ther ways , f or i ns tance o n s tones , d ri f twood , e tc .

Th is s ur-

v ey d oes h owever , p rov ide ab ackground a ga ins t wh ich t o r ev iew s o me p ieces o f e v idence f ro m a rchaeolog ica l s i tes . Archaeo log ica l e v idence N o t s urpr is ing ly s o me o f t he mos t i n teres t ing a rchaeo log ica l e v idence c o mes f ro m t he A t lan t ic s eaboard where s eaweed u t i l isa t ion i s s o we l l a t tested h is tor ica l ly.

F ow ler a nd T ho mas ( 1962 ) e xcava ted

r idge—and-furrow f ie lds

a t Gwi th ian , C ornwa l l , d a t ing b etween t he n in th c en tury a nd c . 100 A .D. They f ound a n umber o f v ery t iny s he l ls o f musse l a nd p er iwink le wh ich were f ar t oo sma l l f or f oods tu f f , a nd a lso v ar ious l i t t le b each p ebbles , a l l o f wh ich s ee ms t o p o in t t o t he u se o f s eaweed a s manure .

T h is i s p ar t icu lar ly i n ter-

e s t ing i n v iew o f t he i nd ica t ions o f s ys te ma t ic manur ing , i n t h is c ase n o t n ecessar i ly w i th s eaweed , f ro m e ar l ier Bronze Age c on tex ts a t Gw i th ian ( Megaw e t a l . 1 960 ). A t t he P ic t ish a nd V ik ing a ge f ar ms tead a t Buckquoy , Orkney ( R i tch ie 1 977; p . 2 51) s eashore r esources s tud ied b y Dr . J ohn E vans a nd Miss P enny S pencer i nc lude a n umber o f i t e ms wh ich may h ave b een b rough t t o t he s i te w i th s eaweed :

t hese i nc lude Pa t ina p e l lucida , wh ich l i ves

o n Lam inar ia ; ?Mod io lus mod io lus ; L i t tor ina l i t tora l is ; S p irorbis b orea l is ( now S p irorobis s p irorbis ) ; a nd F lus tre l la h ispida , ab ryozoan wh ich f or ms e ncrus t ing c o lon ies o n A scophyl lu m a nd Fucus s pp. Brothwell, Don, and Geoffrey Dimbleby. Environmental Aspects of Coasts and Islands. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1981, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541103. 1 21 Downloaded on behalf of 38.67.221.43

An impor tan t c avea t

s hou ld b e a dded , h owever , b ecause af ew s p irorbids a nd ?Flus tre l la s p . were f ound a dher ing t o mar ine mo l luscs . Ad is t inct h or izon c on ta in ing L i t tor ina l i t tora l is i s a lso r epor ted i n c oas ta l b lown s and d epos i ts a t Freshwa ter Wes t i n D yfed a nd may p o in t t o t he c o l lec t ion o f s eaweeds ( Evans 1 979 ) . T here i s a lso e v idence o f s eaweed e xp lo i ta t ion i n a reas where i ti s v ery l i t t le a t tes ted i n h is tor ica l t imes . Ac ase i n p o in t i s t he mu l t i-per iod s et t lemen t a t B ishops tone o n t he S ussex c oas t ( Be l l 1 977 ). W i th in t he s e t t le men t an umber o f e xamp les o f i ned ible o r v ery sma l l mar ine mo l luscs s eemed l i ke ly t o h ave b een i n troduced w i th s eaweed . T hese i nc luded e xamp les o f Ano m ia e ph ipp ium , wh ich c o m mon ly a t taches i t sel f t o h o ld fas ts o r l arge s eaweeds ( Yonge 1 949 , p . 1 66) ; L i t tor ina s axa t i l is , wh ich f eeds o n a nd a round s eaweeds o n t he h igher s hore , a nd t h ir teen e xa mp les o f L i t tor ina l i t tora l is , wh ich i s g enera l ly f ound o n Fucus a nd A scophyl lum ( Graham 1 971) . T hese mo l luscs were i n c on tex ts d a t ing f ro m t he e ar ly I ron Age t o t he p agan S axon p er iod . Ano ther i n teres t ing p o in ter was t he p resence o f b arnacles i nt wo p i ts ; f our p ieces i n e ar ly I ron Age p i t 4 23 a nd 1 08 p ieces i n Ro mano-Br i t ish p i t 9 17. T h is e v idence was c ons iderably s treng thened b y t he p resence o f f our b ryozoans wh ich were i den t i f ied a s T urbice l lepora a v icu lar is , o ne o f wh ich was u ns tra t if ied , t wo c ame f ro m a n e ar ly I ron Age d i tch a nd o ne was f ound o n t he f l oor o f M idd le I ron Age p i t 7 91. T h is s pec ies i s f u l ly mar ine a nd c haracter is t ic o f d eep ish wa ter b e low a bou t 2 0m . T hey a re l i ab le t o b e washed u p a f ter a s tor m a nd M iss Pa t C ook o f t he Br i t ish Museum ( Na tura l H is tory ) t e l ls me t ha t s he h as f ound t he m among s eaweed c o l lec ted f or manure . A t ten t ion s hou ld a lso b e d rawn t o t he e x is tence i n t he B ishops tone s e t t le men t o f l arge q uan t i t ies o fb each s h ing le , p ebbles a nd p ieces o f c ha lk e xh ibi t ing t he b or ings o f mar ine mo l luscs .

B o th c ou ld h ave b een d e l ibera te ly b rough t

t o t he s i te b u t t hey migh t a lso h ave b een a cc iden ta l ly i n troduced w i th s eaweed . T hese v ar ious s trands o f e v idence c er ta in ly s ugges t t ha t s eaweeds were b e ing e xp lo i ted b y t he B ishops tone s e t t le men t . Fur thermore t he d iscovery o f s o me o f t hese t h ings i n I ron Age a nd R o mano-Br i t ish p i ts makes o ne wonder whe ther t hey were s tor ing s eaweeds , f or wha tever p urpose . C er ta in ly t h is was d one i n I ce land where s tores were l a id u p i n t renches where t hey were c o mpressed w i th h eavy o ak p lanks a nd s tones ( Chap man 1 950 , p . 1 24 ). E v idence f ro m t he B ishops tone s e t t le men t was c o mp le men ted b y D r .K en T ho mas ' s tudy o f mo l luscan e v idence f ro m a n earby l ynche t ( Bel l 1 977 , p . 2 58 ).

Among t he t erres tr ia l f auna t here were a f ew a qua t ic mo l luscs :

Myt i lus e du l is , L i t tor ina l i t torea , L i t tor ina s axa t i l is , t he e s tuar ine s pec ies H ydrobia u lvae a nd f reshwa ter ?Un io s p . The mar ine mo l luscs among t hese s uppor t t he e v idence f ro m t he u sed a s manure .

3 ettle ment

a nd s ugges t t ha t s eaweed was b e ing

I ti s u n for tuna te t ha t v ery f ew e xcava tors s eem t o h ave a t te mp ted t o make t o ta l c ol lec t ions o f mar ine mo l luscs ; o ne p lace where t h is h as r ecen t ly b een d one i s t he B u l lock Down mu l t i-per iod s e t t le men t p ro jec t o n t he c oas t a t B eachy H ead , E as t S ussex ( Caro l ine Car twr igh t , p ers . c o mm .). A s o n mos t s i tes t he v as t ma jor i ty o f t he mo l luscs were e d ible s pec ies b u t h ere a ga in we f ind sma l l n umbers o f L i t tor ina l i t tora l is t urn ing u p w i th in t he s tructures a nd p loughso i l o f t he K i ln C o mbe Med ieva l s e t t le men t a s we l l a s o ne o r t wo o ther s pec ies wh ich a re l i kely t o h ave c o me i n a s ' dead ' s he l ls .

Brothwell, Don, and Geoffrey Dimbleby. Environmental Aspects of Coasts and Islands. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1981, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541103. 1 22 Downloaded on behalf of 38.67.221.43

There i s a lso t he p oss ibi l i ty o f i den t i fying d is t inc t ive i nsec t f aunas wh ich a cco mpany r o t t ing h eaps o f s eaweed o n t he b each .

T he i nsects f ro m t he Ro man

we l l a t Ruds ton v i l la , Y orksh ire , s o me 1 0 km f ro m t he s ea ( Buck land 1 980 ) i nc luded a sma l l s p ider Er igone? a r t ica wh ich i s g enera l ly f ound a long t he s trand l ine among s eaweed .

A l though t he me mbers o f t h is g enus a re a c t ive

a eronau ts , a nd c ou ld h ave r eached t he we l l n a tura l ly , t here i s s o me s uppor t f or t he h ypo thes is , f ro m t he p resence o f b each p ebbles i n t he we l l , t ha t t he v i l la 's i nhabi tan ts were c o l lec t ing s eaweed .

C o mparab le e v idence d er ives

f ro m Dr . P e ter O sbourne 's work ( pers . c omm .) .on i nsect f aunas f ro m t he G u i ldha l l

s i te i n E xe ter .

Ma ter ia l f ro m a s ix teen th c en tury p i t i ncluded l arge

n u mbers o f p upar ia o f t he f l y L eptocara z os terae wh ich , i n i t s l arva l s ta te , i s g enera l ly f ound among r o t t ing s eaweed .

The a ssocia ted b ee t le f auna i s o ne

wh ich wou ld b e a t h o me i n a we t c o mpos t h eap c on ta in ing d ung a nd h ouseho ld r e fusc s . Ano ther i n teres t ing p o in ter i s t he p resence i n I psw ich ian c on tex ts a t Bacon H o le , G ower , o f F ora m in i fera wh ich a re i nd ica t ive o f as ha l low wa ter l i t tora l e nv ironmen ts a nd a re g erna l ly a ssoc ia ted w i th s eaweeds ( S tr inger 1 977 , p . 3 8 ) .

I n t he p ar t icu lar c ase o f t h is c oas ta l c ave t here i s n o s ugges t ion

t ha t t he s eaweed was b eing e xp loi ted b u t i td oes emphas ise t he p o ten t ia l i mp or tance o f f orams f or f u ture s tud ies . We s hou ld a lso b ear i n mind t he p oss ib i l i ty o f e ar ly i ndus tr ia l u t i l isa t ion o f s eaweed .

K elp h as , f or i ns tance , b een s ugges ted a s ap oss ible s ource o f

a lka l i i n t he p roduct ion o f f a ience b eads ( New ton a nd Ren frew 1 970 ).

The t ype

o f e v idence wh ich migh t b e s ough t f or t h is o n a rchaeo log ica l s i tes i s s ugges ted b y b urn t s he l ls o f L i t tor ina l i t tora l is a nd Pa t ina p e l luc ida f ro m a n e igh teen th c en tury s i te o n t he I s les o f S ci l ly , f or wh ich t here i s a lso a rchaeo log ica l e v id ence o f k e lp ing ( Evans 1 978 , p . 3 3 ).

I t migh t a lso b e wor th i nves t iga t ing

t he n on- me ta l lurg ica l s lags wh ich r esu l t f ro m t he v i tr if ica t ion o f wood a sh , s eaweed a sh , c ow d ung , b urn t s traw , e tc .

S lags o f t h is k ind were p resen t a t

B ishops tone ( Be l l 1 977 , p . 2 89 ) a nd o n t he E ssex r ed h i l ls ( Pe tr ie 1 910 ; J enk ins 1 910 ) , a nd t he i nd ica t ions a re t ha t a na lyt ica l s tud ies migh t b e a ble t o e s tabl ish f ro m wh ich ma ter ia ls t hese s lags d er ived ( Evans a nd T y leco te 1 967) . The b urn ing o f s eaweed migh t , o f c ourse , h ave b een u nder taken f or a v ar ie ty o f p urposes a par t f rom p o tash e x tract ion ;

d r ied s eaweeds were u sed a s f ue l

i n I ce land ( Ha l lsson 1 964 ) a nd S co t land ( Fen ton 1 978 , p . 2 06), a nd o n t he C hanne l I s lands s eaweed was s o me t i mes a shed b e fore b e ing u sed a s f er t i l izer ( S tephenson 1 968 , p . 4 7 ) . C onc lus ions I n c onc lus ion i tc annot b e emphas ised t oo s trong ly t ha t v ir tua l ly a l l t he ma ter ia ls wh ich Ih ave s ugges ted were i n troduced t o s i tes w i th s eaweed migh t h ave f ound t he ir way t here b y av ar ie ty o f o ther means .

H owever , t he e v idence

b eco mes more c onv incing when , a s a t Buckquoy a nd B ishops tone , we h ave a n umber o f v ar ie t ies o f e v idence a l l c on tr ibu t ing t o t he s ame c onc lus ion .

A t

B ishops tone a nd Gw i th ian we d o s ee m t o b e o n f a ir ly s a fe g round i n p os tu la t ing t he u se o f s eaweed a s manure .

S een i n t he c on tex t o f e v idence f or p reh is tor ic

mar ling , t he s pread ing o f d o mes t ic a nd f ar myard manure , c ora l l ine a lgae , s he l l s and a nd s he l ls f ro m t he midden , t h is s ugges ts t ha t p reh is tor ic c o m mun it ies h usbanded t he ir p edolog ica l r esources r a ther more c are fu l ly t han we h ave Brothwell, Don, and Geoffrey Dimbleby. Environmental Aspects of Coasts and Islands. 1 23 E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1981, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541103. Downloaded on behalf of 38.67.221.43

s o me t i mes t ended t o g ive t he m c red i t f or .

T he v ery l ongev i ty o f many

s e t t le men ts a nd t he e x ten t o f l andscape u t i l isa t ion , n ow b eing r evea led b y f i e ld s urveys , wou ld h ave n ecess i ta ted t he i n tens ive manur ing o f a n i n f ie ld . Under c er ta in c ircums tances , p ar t icu lar ly where t he n a tura l s o i l was v ery p oor , t hese measures migh t u l t i ma te ly h ave l ed t o t he c rea t ion o f al arge ly manmade s oi l s uch a s t he p laggen s oi ls a nd l azy-beds . T he o r ig ins o f t hese s o i ls a nd t he e x ten t o f p reh is tor ic manur ing i n g enera l a re ma t ters o f t he g rea tes t i n teres t a nd t h is p aper h as s ugges ted s o me l ines f or f u ture e nqu iry .

F ew o f t he b io log ica l r e ma ins r ecorded a s

i nc lus ions i n t he modern s eaweed s tudy a re l i ke ly t o b e s pot ted d ur ing e xcav a t ions .

Fur ther i nves t iga t ions o f f i e ld s ys te ms n ear t he c oas t , p ar t icu lar ly

c a lcareous d epos i ts , s hou ld emp loy s iev ing p rogra m mes s pec i f ica l ly t o s earch f or t he sma l ler mo l luscs , s pirorbids a nd b arnac les ; a lso b e made f or f orams .

i nves t iga t ions s hou ld

The s ame me thods s hou ld b e e x tended t o s e t t le men t

c on tex ts where l arger mo l luscs o r o ther b io log ica l r e ma ins s ugges t t he p res ence o f s eaweeds . A cknowledge men ts Iam g ra te fu l t o t he f o l low ing me mbers o f t he s ta f f o f t he Br i t ish Museum ( Na tura l H is tory ) f or i den t i fying ma ter ia l o r c heck ing my i den t i f ica t ions : Pa t C ook , Ka th ie Way , S o lene Whybrow , Dr . B oxa l l a nd A lex Mu ir .

The

f o l low ing p eop le h ave a l lowed me t o r efer t o t he ir u npubl ished work :

Dr .

Pau l Buck land , C aro l ine C ar twr igh t , A l ison D ona ldson , Dr . P eter O sbourne a nd J a mes Rackham .

Ih ave a lso h ad t he b ene f i t o f d iscuss ion o n t h is s ub ject

w i th T erry O 'Connor , P e ter B oyd a nd p ar t icu lar ly Dr . K en Tho mas who k ind ly r ead a n e ar l ier v ers ion o f t h is p aper a nd s ugges ted a n u mber o f i mprove men ts . B IBLIOGRAPHY Be l l , M ., 1 977.

' Excava t ions a t B ishops tone ' , S ussex Archaeo . C o i ls . 1 15 :

1 -299 . Buck land , P . C .,

1 980 .

' I nsect r e ma ins f ro m t he we l l ' I n I . M. S tead ,

Ruds ton R o man v i l la , Yorksh ire P h i losoph ica l S oc ie ty , Yorks . C amden , W., 1 772 .

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I n D . H . Yaa lon ( ed .) , Pa leopedo logy , I n terna t iona l S ocie ty S o i l S cience , 1 29-138 .

J erusa le m.

C o t ton , A . D ., 1 912 .

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C rawford , B ., 1 979.

' A p rogress r epor t o n e xcava t ions a t " Da B igg ins"

Papa S tour , S he t land 1 978 '

1 -178 .

N or thern S tud ies , No . 1 3 , 3 7-41.

D ixon , P . S ., 1 973.

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Evans , J . G ., 1 978 .

An I n troduct ion t o Env ironmen ta l Archaeology , E lek ,

L ondon .

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' So me v i tr if ied p roducts o f n on-

meta l lurg ica l s ign i f icance ' , Bu l l . H is t . Meta llurgy G p., 1 : Fa l le , P ., 1 734 .

Caesarea :

2 2-3.

o r a n A ccoun t o f t he I s le o f J ersey , s econd

e d i t ion , Wo t ton , L ondon . Fen ton , A ., 1 976.

S co t t ish C oun try L i fe , Dona ld , Ed inburgh .

Fen ton , A ., 1 978 .

T he N or thern I s les :

Orkney a nd S het land , Dona ld ,

Ed inburgh . Fow ler , P . J . a nd Tho mas , A . C ., 1 962.

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p er iod a t Gwi th ian ' , C orn ish a rchaeology N o . 1 , 6 1-84. G raha m , A ., 1 971.

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( N.S .) N o. 2 , A cade mic Press , London . Ha l lsson , S . V ., 1 964.

' The u se o f s eaweeds i n I ce land '.

I n Davy d e V irv i l le

a nd J . F eld mann ( Eds .) , C o mptes r endus d u I V c ongrbs i n terna t iona l d es a lgues mar ines B iarr itz 1 961 , P erga mon , New York . I l l man , W. I . , e t a l ., 1 970 .

' Mar ine a lgae o f t he C ha mpla in S ea e pisode

n ear O t tawa ' , Canad . J . Ear th S ci ., 7 : J enk ins , J . H ., 1 910 .

' Re marks o n Dr . F l inders P etr ie 's t heory ' , Proc.

S oc. An t iq. L ond ., 2 3 : Larkco m , J ., 1 977. p t . 7 :

1 583-1585.

9 0-96.

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2 89-294.

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' Rando m Harves t ', The O bserver

Levr ing , T . e t a l ., 1 969.

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2 0.5 .79 ,

4 0.

aS urvey o f R esearch a nd U t i l isa t ion ,

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C ornwa l l ' , Proceed ings Wes t C ornwa l l F ie ld C lub , n ew s er ies 2 : Mi tche ll , F ., 1 976.

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2 00-215 .

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1 99-206.

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Lond ., s econd s er ies , 2 3: R i tchie , A ., 1 977.

8 8-90 .

' Excava t ion o f P ict ish a nd V ik ing-Age Far ms teads a t

Buckquoy, Orkney' , P roc. S oc. An t iq . S cot ., 1 08 : Round , F . E ., 1 973 .

1 74-227.

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' Ev idence o f c l i ma t ic c hange a nd h u man o ccupa t ion d ur ing

t he l as t i n terg lacia l a t Bacon Hole Cave , G ower ' , G ower 2 8 : Brothwell, Don, and Geoffrey Dimbleby. Environmental Aspects of Coasts and Islands. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1981, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541103. 1 25 Downloaded on behalf of 38.67.221.43

3 9.

Wray , J . L ., 1 977. Yonge , C . M., 1 949.

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Brothwell, Don, and Geoffrey Dimbleby. Environmental Aspects of Coasts and Islands. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1981, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541103. Downloaded on behalf of 38.67.221.43

VEGETATIONAL H ISTORY OF THE I SLES OF S CILLY G . W. D i mbleby , J . R . A . G reig a nd R . G . S ca i fe

I NTRODUCT ION Exposed o f f-shore i s lands s uch a s t he I s les o f S c i l ly h ave f or l ong b een t he s ub jec t o f d i f feren t v iews r egard ing t he n a ture o f t he c l i max v ege ta t iona l c over t ha t t hey c arr ied .

T oday t hese i s les a re d evo id o f i nd igenous f ores t

t rees ; t hough t rees a re p resen t t hey a re a l l i n troduced . H owever , t he f act t ha t t hey d o g row t here t oday i nd ica tes t ha t t ree g row th i s p oss ible , wh ich i s a t v ar iance w i th a n a l terna t ive v iew t ha t t he e xposure f ac tor i s s o g rea t i n s uch s i tua t ions t ha t t ree g row th i s p hys io log ica l ly i mposs ib le .

On t h is t heory

s o me f or m o f h ea th land i s u sua l ly s een a s t he v egeta t iona l c l i max ( G im ingham , 1 972 ;

C oo mbe a nd F ros t , 1 956) .

The f irs t d irec t e vidence t ha t d ec iduous f ores t c over o nce e x is ted h ere was o bta ined b y p o l len a na lys is o f t he p a laeosol b enea th a s and-dune a t I nn is idgen , o n t he N or th c oas t o f S t . Mary 's , t he l arges t i s land i n t he g roup ( D i mbleby , 1 977) .

T h is a na lys is a lso p rov ided e v idence o f e ar ly ( bu t u nda ted )

a gr icu l tura l p ract ice s im i lar t o t ha t c o m mon ly f ound o n t he ma in land o f Br i t ian . The p resen t p aper a dds t o t he e v idence o nb o th t hese p oin ts .

T he p o l len

a na lys is o f ap ea t d epos i t a t H igher Moors o n S t . Mary 's g ives p roo f o f t he e x is tence o f p r imary mixed o ak f ores t a nd s ubsequen t c learance ( RGS ) , wh i ls t p o l len a na lyses o f s o i ls a ssoc ia ted w i th t he Bronze Age o n N ornour ( JRAG ) a nd t he I ron Age a t H a lang ; y D own o n S t . Mary 's ( G WD ) c on tr ibu te e v idence a bou t c on te mporary l andscapes a nd t he r o le o f p reh is tor ic a gr icu l ture i n t he m . T he p os i t ions o f t hese s i tes a re s hown o n t he map ( Fig . 1 ) . PORTH HELLICK - H IGHER MOORS ( RGS ) P or th H el l ick B og/H igher Moors n a ture r eserve i s o ne o f t wo a reas o f mire p ea t o ccurr ing o n S t . Mary 's .

A s econd s i te , n o t d iscussed h ere , i s a t

L ower Moors ( SV913 106 ) , o ne k i lo me tre .

e as t o f H ugh T own .

B o th h ave b een

s a mpled f or p ol len a na lyses t o h e lp e lucida te t he v ege ta t iona l h is tory o f t he I s les o f S ci l ly a nd t o p rov ide a f ra mework w i th in wh ich s oi l p o l len work c an b e c orre la ted . H igher Moors i s at opogenous mire e x tend ing i n land ( NN W ) f ro m Por th H e l l ick Bay ( SV925 107) t o H oly Va le ( SV921115 ).

There i s s ubs tan t ia l e v idence

t ha t p ea t f ro m b o th m ires h as b een u sed f or f ue l i n t he h is tor ica l p as t a s p ea t c u ts a nd b au lks c an b e s een .

The e f fec t o f t h is o n t he v ege ta t ion s ta tus h as

b een t he d rying o u t o f t he m ire a nd s ubsequen t s crub i nvas ion .

More r ecen t ly ,

c on t inued l and d ra inage a nd e x trac t ion o f g round wa ter f or p ubl ic s upp ly h as l owered t he wa ter t ab le f ur ther , c aus ing d egrada t ion o f t he mire . The a rea o f H igher Moors n a ture r eserve c onsequen t ly c ons is ts o f a mosa ic o f we t land v egeta t ion c o m mun i t ies r ang ing f ro m S a l ix ( wi l low ) ( _ § . . c aprea , S . v im ina l is ) Brothwell, Don, and Geoffrey Dimbleby. Environmental Aspects of Coasts and Islands. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1981, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541103. 1 27 Downloaded on behalf of 38.67.221.43

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1 28

c arr w i th t he s edge C arex p an icu la ta t o meso troph ic s edge a nd r eed f en a nd sma l l a reas o f a c id S phagnum b og .

Pure ly a qua t ic h abi ta ts a re p resen t i n

t he n umerous d ra inage c hanne ls a nd i n P or th H el l ick P oo l , i t se l f t he r esu l t o f p ea t c u tt ing ( Lous ley , 1 971) .

T he l eas t d is turbed a rea o f p ea t was f ound

a d jacen t t o H o ly Va le ( SV921112 ) i n c lose p rox im i ty t o a sma l l a rea o f U l mus g labra ( wych e lm ) wood land . A max i mum t h ickness o f 7 6 cm o f b lack , h igh ly h um i f ied d e tr i tus a nd monoco ty ledonous p ea t was s amp led a t 4 cm i n terva ls .

These o rganogen ic

d epos i ts r es t s harp ly o n ac lean , wh i te , f ine t o med iu m g ra ined s and w i th e x tre me ly l ow o rgan ic c on ten t . ( Faegr i a nd I versen , 1 974 ; t i on o f 1 ml s amp les .

S tandard p o l len c oncen tra t ion t echn iques

Moore a nd Webb , 1 978 ) were u sed i n t he p repara-

Ap o l len s um o f 5 00 g ra ins e xc lud ing F i l ica les a nd

Bryophyte s pores was c oun ted . L arger t o ta ls were r ecorded b e tween 4 a nd 1 2 cm where l oca l p o l len i n f lux f ro m Umbe l li ferae was h igh . These r esu l ts a re e xpressed i n p ol len d iagra ms ( F igs . 2a nd 3 ) a s ap ercen tage o f t o ta l p o l len ( TP ). T he d iagra ms p resen ted a re , h owever , i n a bbrev ia ted f or m s howing o n ly t he p r incipa l t ypes o f s o me 1 04 p o l len a nd s pore t axa r ecorded . Fu l l p o l len d iagrams f ro m t he s i te w i th r ad iocarbon d a tes w i l l b e p resen ted l a ter , a long w i th c o mpara t ive ma ter ia l f ro m L ower Moors , S t . Mary 's . F or t he p urpose o f d iscuss ion t he p o l len d iagram h as b een d iv ided i n to f ive b ios tra t igraph ica l a sse mblage z ones wh ich h ave b een d es igna ted HM :1 -5 f ro m t he b ase t o t he mire s ur face . HM : 1

7 6-70 cm .

T hese a re c haracter ised a s f ol lows :-

Arborea l ( 53% TP ) a nd s hrub p o l len ( 18% TP ) d om ina te

t h is z one w i th Quercus ( oak ) ( 4 2% AP ) , B e tu la ( b irch ) ( 53% AP ) , C orylus ( haze l ) ( 9% TP ) a nd S a l ix ( w i l low ) b e ing t he ma in e le men ts . M inor r ecords o f P inus ( p ine ) , U l mus ( e lm) a nd A lnus ( a lder ) a re e v iden t .

H erbaceous p o l len f requenc ies a re l ow ( 31% TP ) c ons is t ing

p r i mar i ly o f C yperaceae _ ( sedges ) ( 28% TP) a nd o ther mire t axa . HM :2

7 0762 cm .

T h is z one i s c haracter ised b y ar educ t ion i n t he a borea l

c o mponen ts a nd i ncreased h erbaceous p ercen tages .

B e tu la a nd

Quercus d ec l ine f ro m p rev ious l eve ls t o 1 7% TP a nd 3 -5% TP r esp ec t ive ly.

C orylus a nd S a lix r e ma in more o r l ess c ons tan t w i th

minor s hrub o ccurrences . t o a max i mum 6% TP.

C a l luna ( h ea ther ) i s i nco m ing a nd e xpands

H erb t axa p redo m ina te ( 6 2-64% TP )w i th

G ram ineae ( grasses ) ( 18% TP ) a nd C yperaceae ( 34% TP ) mos t i mp or tan t .

T he p resence o f p o l len o f C erea l ia a nd o f weeds a nd r udera ls

( i .e . p lan ts o f d is turbed h abi ta ts ) i s o f n o te . • HM :3

6 2-50 cm .

B etu la i ncreases s harp ly ( 4 6% TP ) s ubsequen t ly f o l lowed

b y Quercus ( 1 0% TP ). C orylus a nd S a lix ma in ta in s im i lar l eve ls b u t w i th a s ing le max i mu m o f t he l a t ter ( 8% TP ). H erbaceous t o ta ls s how ac orrespond ing d ec l ine t o 4 5% TP b u t w i th c on t inua t ion o f t axa n o ted p rev ious ly. HM :4

5 0-4 cm .

A s harp r educ t ion i n a rborea l a nd s hrub p o l len t o ta ls o ccurs .

Be tu la a nd Quercus d ec l ine t o 5% TP a nd l ess t han 2% TP r espec t ive ly. S a l ix a nd C orylus s im i lar ly d ec l ine t o l ess t han 2% TP. C onverse ly , h erb t o ta ls b eco me d om inan t ( 80-90% TP ). Max i mu m p o l len f req uenc ies o f G ra m ineae ( 44% TP ) a nd C yperaceae ( 55% TP )a re a ssoc ia ted w i th a d iverse a sse mblage o f r udera ls . Brothwell, Don, and Geoffrey Dimbleby. Environmental Aspects of Coasts and Islands. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1981, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541103. 1 29 Downloaded on behalf of 38.67.221.43

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p reserva t ion a nd i t s f ina l i den t i f ica t ion .

S o me t i mes v ege ta t ion a nd r ecord

a re l inked a s i n t he c ase h ere where t here a re b racken r h izo mes i n t he g round a nd a lso a c orrespond ing r ecord o f s pores

b u t i n o ther c ases t h is i s n o t s o ,

There were b luebe l l b u lbs i n t he s o i l a s we l l b u t t he ir p o l len i s f rag i le a nd s hed i n sma l l q uan t i t ies a nd was n o t f ound i n a ny p repara t ion , s o t h is s tudy c an s hed l i t t le d irect l i gh t o n t he h is tory o f b luebel ls h ere . The F lora o f t he I s les o f S ci l ly

( Lous ley , 1 971 ) ,is h e lpfu l i n l ink ing t he

p ol len r ecord w i th t he v ar ious p lan t c o m mun i t ies wh ich make u p t he f lora o f N ornour , ma in ly v ar ian ts o n t he Down a nd Dune t ypes o f v ege ta t ion , a nd mos t o f t he h erbaceous p o l len c an b e a ccoun ted f or i n t h is way.

The Caryophyl laceae

p o l len c ou ld n o t b e i den t i f ied more e xac t ly , b u t o n t he b as is o f r ecen t r ecords S i lene mar i t i ma ( s ea c amp ion ) o r o ne o f t he s pec ies o f C eras t iu m ( mouse-ear ) o r o f S te l lar ia ( ch ickweed ) a re c and ida tes . T he C o mpos i tae a re a lso a l arge g roup , a nd t he s ec t ion T ubu li f lorae p o l len wh ich d om ina tes t h is u pper p ar t c ou ld b e f ro m A ch i l lea mi l le fo l ium ( yarrow ) o r Tr ip leurosper mum mar i t i mum ( sea mayweed ).

A s pec ies o f L eon todon ( hawkb i t ) c ou ld b e r esponsible f or t he

C o mpos i tae s ec t . L igu l i f lorae p o l len r ecord .

G ra m ineae p o l len i s t he mos t

a bundan t t ype i n t h is p ar t o f t he d iagra m , d i f f icu l t t o a t tr ibu te t o a ny o ne s pec ies , b u t t he P lan tago p o l len c ou ld mos t ly b e a t tr ibu ted t o P . C oronopus , a ma jor c o mponen t o f t he mar i t i me g rassy s ward .

Ar mer ia mar i t i ma i s a no ther s pe-

c i f ic p o l len r ecord wh ich i mp l ies t he e x is tence o f s eas ide v ege ta t iön , a nd t he E r ica les r ecord p robab ly r epresen ts t he h ea ther ( Ca l luna v u lgar is ) wh ich i s a ma jor p ar t o f t he n a tura l p lan t c over a nd more w idespread t han Er ica c inerea ( f ine-leaved

h ea th ).

The Ranuncu laceae p o l len wou ld a ppear t o h ave

c o me f ro m Ranuncu lus f i car ia ( l esser c e land ine ) , t he o n ly me mber o f t h is f am i ly k nown o n t he E as tern I s les , a nd C arex a renar ia ( sand s edge ) i s l i kewise t he mos t a bundan t a nd w idespread me mber o f t he C yperaceae h ere . T he h erbaceous p o l len r ecord a ppears t o c orrespond t o wha t migh t b e e xpec ted f rom t he p resen t d ay f l ora , a nd p lan ts wh ich r e lease q uan t i t ies o f i den t i f iab le p o l len s eem t o b e r epresen ted , a l though t here a re o thers wh ich a re a bundan t o n t he g round l i ke b luebe l ls a nd p erhaps b ra mb les wh ich d o n o t f ea ture h ere .

T he t ree a nd s hrub p o l len r ecord i s much sma l ler t han t ha t

f ro m t he h erbs b u t A lnus , B e tu la , Carp inus ( hornbeam ) , C orylus a nd Quercus a re r epresen ted , a l though t he t op mos t s a mp le h as o n ly a s ing le g ra in o f h azel p o l len .

I ti s n o t e asy t o s ee t he p ara l le ls b e tween t h is p ar t o f t he p o l len d ia-

g ra m a nd t he r eg iona l f l ora b ecause S ci l ly i s t oday v ir tua l ly t ree less .

A lder

a nd o ak g row i n af ew p laäes , b u t b irch , h aze l a nd h ornbeam d o n o t ( Lous ley , 1 971) a nd N ornour i t se l f i s t ree less .

The F lora d oes p o in t o u t t ha t o ne o f t he

Eas tern I s les c lose t o N ornour , G rea t G an in ick , h as many p lan ts g row ing t here wh ich wou ld n orma l ly b e a ssoc ia ted w i th wood land , a nd i ti s t he o n ly p lace a par t f ro m T resco where o ak h as b een r ecorded , s o t hese may b e s igns o f p as t wood land . There a re s evera l p oss ibi l i t ies wh ich migh t e xp la in t he o ccurrence o f t hese t hree a pparen t ly e xo t ic t ree p o l len t ypes i n t h is p ar t o f t he p rof i le .

The

f i rs t i s t ha t t he s and j us t blow t he p resen t g round s ur face may h ave b een d ep os i ted s o me t ime a go w i th , p erhaps , l i t t le b u i ld-up s ince a nd t he s igns o f w ood land r epresen t s o me th ing t ha t e x is ted p rev ious ly .

An a l terna t ive i s t ha t

t he s oi l p ro f i le may h ave b een t runca ted a t s o me t ime b y w ind e ros ion , t hus e xpos ing o lder d epos i ts o n wh ich t he p resen t g round s ur face f or med . Brothwell, Don, and Geoffrey Dimbleby. Environmental Aspects of Coasts and Islands. 1 37 E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1981, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541103. Downloaded on behalf of 38.67.221.43

Ano ther

f ac tor i s t he d epos i t ion o f s and e roded f ro m e lsewhere wh ich c ou ld r esu l t i n t he m ix ing o f s o me o lder d epos i ts w i th y ounger o nes , f or b lown s and s eems t o b e a n i mpor tan t f ac tor i n S ci l lon ian s o i l f orma t ion . T he n ex t p o l len a sse mblage ( 35-60 cm ) wou ld a ppear t o r epresen t as o mewha t d i f feren t v ege ta t iona l t ype f ro m t ha t a boye i tb u t t he p o l len was g enera l ly p oor ly p reserved . S o me o f t he c hanges , l i ke t he s uperabundance o f C ompos i tae ( L ) p o l len , c ou ld b e d ue t o d i f feren t ia l p reserva t ion a nd t h inner wa l led p o l len g ra ins may h ave b eco me c orroded b eyond r ecogn i t ion .

Wi thou t t he a dd i t iona l

i n for ma t ion f ro m a bso lu te c oun ts i ti s d i f f icu l t t o b e s ure whe ther t he a bundance o f C o mpos i tae ( L ) p o l len i s ma in ly d ue t o p reserva t ion f ac tors . E ven s o , t here a re d iscern ible c hanges s uch a s t he sma l ler amoun ts o f p o l len f ro m Armer ia a nd E r ica les wh ich a re r obus t p o l len g ra ins t oo a nd u n l ike ly t o b e a f fec ted b y p reserva t ion f actors . T h is p o l len a ssemblage w ou ld a ppear t o c orrespond w i th t he p hase o f c onso l ida t ion o f b lown

a nd men t ioned i n t he s o i l r epor t ,

a nd t he l ow p o l len v a lues c ou ld we l l c orrespond w i th t h is o bserva t ion w i th a n u ns tab le d une s ur face s uppor t ing l ess o f t he h ea ther a nd t hr i f t . T he n ex t p o l len a sse mb lage ( 62 .5-87.5 cm ) c orresponds w i th t he b ur ied s oi l s ur face a nd h as t he h ighes t p o l len v a lues . T he mos t a bundan t p o l len t ype i s P lan tago wh ich w i th t he l arge amoun t o f G ram ineae p o l len wou ld s ugges t a k ind o f mar i t i me s ward v ege ta t ion , maybe ma in ta ined b y g razing p ressure wh ich wou ld f avour p lan ts w i th b asa l r ose t tes l i ke g rasses a nd p lan ta ins a t t he e xpense o f o thers n o t s o a dap ted t o t o lera te g razing .

T here a re o ccas iona l

r ecords o f p o l len c onsidered t o b e t ha t o f C erea l ia . I ti s r a ther a s porad ic r ecord , b u t t he l arges t amoun ts o ccur i n t h is l owes t p ar t o f t he p o l len d iagram a nd p rov ide e v idence o f a rab le f arm ing a s we l l a s t he p oss ible p as ture l and s ugges ted b y t he p lan ta in a nd g rass p o l len . T he b lackness o f t h is s o i l may b e d ue t o t he u se o f s eaweed , s pread o n t he f i e lds t o c oun teract t he ' hungry ' q ual i ty o f s and s o i l , b u t o f c ourse n o d irec t t races o f t h is c ou ld s urv ive . T he t ree p o l len r ecord i s a t i t s mos t c ons is ten t , w i th a l mos t c on t inuous o ccurrences o f A lnus a nd Quercus , more s ca t tered o nes o f B etu la a nd C orylus a nd p erhaps t races o f U lmus wh ich amoun ts t o e v idence t ha t t here was a t l eas t s o me wood land w i th in r ange o f p o l len d ispersa l a t t h is s tage . T h is p ar t o f t he p o l len d iagram may c orrespond w i th t he o ccupa t ion o f t he N ornour s i te , o n s tra t igraph ic g rounds , a l though t he d a t ing f or t he l a t ter i s n o t v ery p rec ise , 1 ,000 B .C. - 4 00 A .D. I t may b e a dded t ha t i n 1 966 D i mbleby ( p ersona l c o m mun ica t ion ) e xam ined t he b ur ied s oi l b enea th t he b u i ld ings f or p o l len b u t n one was f ound . D iscuss ion An i n teres t ing a spec t o f t hese r esu l ts i s t he c o mpar ison b etween t he p lan ts a ppear ing i n t h is p o l len d iagram f ro m N ornour a nd o ther S ci l lon ian p o l len work , t hose k nown f ro m f oss i l macroscop ic r e ma ins ( ma in ly c harcoa l ) a nd t he p resen t d ay f l ora d escr ibed i n t he F lora o f t he I s les o f S ci l ly .

T he k nown f oss i l r ecords

o f a sh , h ornbeam a nd p erhaps e lm a re s upp le men ted b y t he e v idence f ro m N ornour .

T hese t rees a re n o t n owadays n a t ive o n S ci l ly , b u t t heir p as t p re-

s ence i s s hown b y ac harcoa l r ecord o f a sh ( F lora , p . 2 12 ) , b u t i tc ou ld b e a rg ued t ha t c harcoa l r ecords migh t r epresen t wood wh ich h ad b een i mpor ted wh i le p o l len wou ld a lr n os t c er ta in ly d e mons tra te t he p resence o f p lan ts g row ing Brothwell, Don, and Geoffrey Dimbleby. Environmental Aspects of Coasts and Islands. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1981, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541103. 1 38 Downloaded on behalf of 38.67.221.43

S c i l ly.

T he h ornbeam a nd e lm p o l len r ecords c o me f ro m D i mb leby 's r esu l ts

f ro m I nn isdgen .

O ther i n teres t ing p o l len r ecords i nc lude t hose o f Ar te m is ia ,

D ipsacaceae a nd F i l ipendu la wh ich r epresen t p lan ts wh ich a re n o t k nown t o g row o n t he I s les o f S ci l ly n ow . S o me p lan ts may h ave e scaped d e tec t ion b y p o l len a na lys is y e t were p rob ably a bundan t a t t imes , p ar t icu lar ly U lex ( gorse ) .

Th is f am i ly , t he L egum i-

n osae , g enera l ly p roduces p o l len t ha t i s t h in a nd f ra i l a nd a lso t ends t o b e h ard t o i den t i fy t o a ny g roup o f g enera w i th in t he f am i ly e ven when f resh .

I ti s n o t

s urpr is ing t ha t t he sma l l amoun ts o f L egum inosae p o l len f ound i n f ive s a mples c ou ld n o t b e p os i t ive ly a t tr ibu ted t o U le x . There h ave b een s evera l r epor ts o n c harcoa l f ro m N ornour .

The mos t r ecen t i s t ha t o f Mrs . C . K eepax

( Ancien t Monu men ts L abora tory R epor t N o . 2 029 ) i n wh ich s he i den t i f ied mos t o f t he c harcoa l a s L eguminosae .

I t was n o t , h owever , p oss ible t o t e l l w i th

c er ta in ty f ro m t he c harcoa l whe ther t h is was U lex o r n o t , e ven t hough g orse i s t he mos t l i kely p oss ibi l i ty a s i ti s at rad i t iona l s ource o f f ue l a nd g rows a bundan t ly o n S c i l ly. The l ower p ar t o f t he p o l len d iagram wou ld a ppear t o c orrespond t o at ime when t he s i te was o ccup ied .

The s igns o f a rable f ar m ing o f c erea l c rops

s hou ld n o t b e t aken t o mean t ha t t hese were n ecessar i ly t he o n ly c rops g rown f or f ew o ther c rops p roduce a bundan t a nd i den t i f iab le p o l len b u t t here d o n o t a ppear t o b y a ny r ecords o f c arbon ised p lan t r e ma ins s uch a s g ra in t o c on f ir m o r e ven amp li fy t h is p ic ture .

T he e v idence o f p as tora l f ar m ing i s c orrobora ted

t o s o me e x ten t b y t he a n i ma l r e ma ins wh ich a lso d e mons tra te t ha t t he s ea , w i th i t s b irds , a n i ma ls a nd f ish , wou ld a ppear t o h ave p rov ided u se fu l f ood a s we l l ( Turk , 1 971) . HALANGY DO WN , S T. MARY 'S ( G WD ) The I ron Age s e t t le men t o f Ha langy D own was e xcava ted f ro m 1 964 o nwards b y A shbee ( 1964-1970 ) .

N o c lear ly d ef ined p a laeoso ls c ou ld b e f ound

b enea th a ny o f t he s truc tures o n t h is s i te f ro m wh ich s o i l p o l len p ro f i les migh t h ave b een s tud ied .

S amples im med ia te ly o ver lying s o me o f t he s tructures

d id p rove t o b e p o l len-r ich b u t o f c ourse t hey c ou ld n o t r e la te t o c on te mporary l and u se .

T he o n ly p o in t wor th mak ing a bou t t he m i s t ha t t hey were v ir tua l ly

d evoid o f t he p o l len o f woody s pec ies ;

G ra m ineae a nd P ter id ium p redo mina ted ,

w i th v ary ing amoun ts o f C a l luna a nd a s trong s u i te o f r udera ls . I n t he h ope o f o b ta in ing a s o i l p o l len p ro f i le t ha t migh t c over t he p er iod o f o ccupa t ion o f t he H a langy s i te , as er ies o f s amp les was t aken i n t he mar ine c li f f l y ing s o me 1 50 y ards d owns lope f ro m t he s i te .

T he c l i f f s ec t ion s howed

a bou t f our f ee t o f u nconso l ida ted d epos i ts , p oss ibly h i l lwash , o ver lying a t en f oo t d ep th o f u nmod i f ied ' head '.

( A t t h is d a te , 1 966 , r ecords were made i n

i mper ia l , n o t metr ic u n i ts ) . C on t iguous s amp les a t o ne i nch i n terva ls were t aken t hrough t he u ncons o l ida ted d epos i ts a t t he t op , a nd a lso i n al oa my l ayer , p ossib ly a wea thered s oi l , i m med ia te ly b enea th t he ' head '.

Th is l a t ter p roved t o b e d evoid o f

p ol len a nd n eed n o t b e men t ioned f ur ther . The p o l len d iagram o bta ined f ro m t he u pper l ayers ( exclud ing a f ew ' casua ls ' ) b ased o n t o ta l p o l len p lus f ern s pores , i s s hown i n F ig , 5a nd a longs ide i tt he s tra t i f ica t ion o f t he d epos i t . Brothwell, Don, and Geoffrey Dimbleby. Environmental Aspects of Coasts and Islands. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1981, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541103. 1 39 Downloaded on behalf of 38.67.221.43

I n terpre ta t ion T he mos t s tr ik ing f ea ture o f t h is p o l len p ro f i le i s t he v ir tua l a bsence o f t ree p o l len .

T h is means t ha t t here i s n o means o f d a t ing t he d i f feren t l a yers

b y t ree s pecies . The o n ly d a te i nd ica tor i s ap iece o f 1 4 th c en tury p o t tery f ound a t t en i nch d ep th , i n t he s ur face l ayer o f l oose g rey s and . T h is p robably i mpl ies , t hough i td oes n ot p rove , t ha t t he l ayer b e low t h is i n t he p ro f i le i s o f e ar l ier d a te . T he p o l len d iagram f a l ls i n to f i ve d is t inct l ayers , i nd ica ted b y h or izon ta l l i nes a cross t he d iagram . T he t opmos t l ayer , o n ly t wo i nches d eep , i s c hara c ter ised b y ah igh p ropor t ion o f g rass p o l len , a nd p ar t icu lar ly o f t he g roup d escr ibed i n t he d iagram a s Var ia -M isce l laneous . T hese a re p o l len t ypes wh ich c ou ld n o t b e i den t i f ied ( t hough we l l p reserved ) a nd p robab ly r epresen t a l iens a ssoc ia ted w i th t he p resen t u se o f t he l and f or c o mmercia l f l ower g rowing . The p o l len o f P it tosporum , a n i n troduced e vergreen s hrub u sed t oday a s a w indbreak , was f ound o n ly i n t hese t wo s amp les . F ro m t wo t o n ine i nches , t he p ro f i le i s d om ina ted b y g rass , L igu l i f lorae a nd r udera l p o l len , t oge ther w i th a bundan t b racken s pores . T he f ac t t ha t t he ma in c urves s how d is t inc t t rends i mp l ies t ha t p o l len i s b eing c arr ied d own i n to t h is l ayer , s o t ha t d esp i te t he l oose n a ture o f t h is ma ter ia l i th ad n o t b een a dded t o i n r ecen t t imes b u t h ad d eve loped a s tab le s ur face f ro m wh ich a s eq uence o f p o l len s pec tra h as d eve loped . T h is i s i n marked c on tras t t o t he u nder lying l ayer , i n wh ich t he p o l len i s e ven ly d is tr ibu ted b o th i n f requency a nd p ercen tage .

I t wou ld b e r easonable

t o r egard t h is a s al ayer o f a ccumu la t ing t op s oi l , p robab ly h i l lwash f rom t he f i e lds a bove . T he p o l len s u i te i s p oor i n s pec ies a nd i s l arge ly d om ina ted b y L igu l i f lorae a nd b racken . A s b o th o f t hese p o l len t ypes a re r e la t ive ly r es is tan t t o d ecay , we may b e s eeing h ere t he r e l ic o f ar icher a sse mblage . A t 2 3 i nches , as udden c hange o ccurs , marked b y h igher p ercen tages o f g rass p o l len a nd much l ess b racken .

T he mos t c onsp icuous f ea ture , h owever , i s t he s udden

i ncrease i n t he p o l len o f C ruci ferae , o f at ype wh ich c ou ld n o t b e i den t i f ied f or c er ta in , b u t h ad a c lose r ese mblance t o C ak i le mar i t ima ( sea r ocke t ). The g ra ins a re sma l ler t han modern s pec imens , b u t t h is i s c o m mon ly s o w i th p ol len p reserved i n m inera l s ed imen ts .

The C ruci ferae , o f c ourse , i nc lude c rop

p lan ts s uch a s c abbage o r c har lock , s o t he s ign i f icance o f t h is p o l len t ype mus t r e ma in i n d oubt . H owever , Ik now o f n o p ara l le l f or h igh c oncen tra t ions o f t he p ol len o f t h is f am i ly , wh ich i s e n to moph i lous , a nd i t s p resence mus t mean t he p resence o f q uan t i t ies o f f l ower ing ma ter ia l .

P oss ible e xp lana t ions a re

t ha t e i ther a f l ower ing c rop was b e ing g rown a s ag reen manure o f t ha t l oca l c oas ta l v ege ta t ion was b e ing b rough t o n t o t he f i e lds f or t he s ame p urpose. Wha tever t he e xp lana t ion , t he d is tr ibu t ion o f t h is p o l len t ype i n t h is l ayer s ugges ts t ha t a t 2 3 i nches t here i s a n o ld s ur face s ubsequen t ly b ur ied u nder h i l lwash . T h is l ayer i t se l f , h owever , i s c lear ly n o t ap r i mary s o i l , f or a t 3 1 i nches a nother a pparen t s ur face a ppears , a lso s howing h igh v a lues o f C ruci ferae p ol len b u t c haracter ised b y an ew p o l len , t ype., s o f ar n o t i den t i f ied . R e-exam ina t ion o f t h is p o l len t ype s ugges ts t ha t i ti s a lso a c ruc ifer , p oss ib ly C och lear ia a ng l ica ( scurvy-grass ) , a no ther c oas ta l p lan t .

H owever , i tc lear ly

d is t ingu ishes t he l owes t o f t he f i ve l ayers . T h is h as a l l t he i nd ica t ions o f a p o l len p rof i le d eve loped i n as o i l i n s i tu , wh ich i s c on f irmed b y t he d escr ip t ion Brothwell, Don, and Geoffrey Dimbleby. Environmental Aspects of Coasts and Islands. 40 E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1981, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541103.1 Downloaded on behalf of 38.67.221.43

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o f t he l owes t t wo l ayers s hown a t t he r igh t-hand s ide o f F ig . 5 .

I ts ee ms u n-

l i ke ly t ha t t h is s o i l was c overed b y d epos i ts f rom c lose b y , f or t he s amp les a bove i tg ive mirror i mages o f t he p o l len c urves , e spec ia l ly t he C uc i ferae a nd t he Var iaType A . I ti s a pparen t t ha t t hough t h is l eve l o f 2 9 t o 3 6 i nches i s t he l owes t p o l leni f erous h or izon , t here i s n o g rea ter r epresen ta t ion o f t ree p o l len i n i tt han i n a ny o f t he l ayers a bove . I n t h is s ensp , i tc on tras ts w i th t he N ornour p ro f i le wh ich i s b o th s o mewha t e ar l ier a nd o n a sma l l i s land . H owever , t he b og e v id ence f ro m H igher Moors a nd t he p a laeoso l e v idence f ro m I nn is idgen , n ei ther o f wh ich i s more t han a mi le f ro m H a langy D own , c lear ly e s tabl ish t he p rev ious p resence o f wood land i n t h is a rea o f S t . Mary 's . I tt here fore h as t o b e a ssumed t ha t H a lang y D own i t sel f was o nce wooded . T hough i ti s n o t p oss ible w i th c ert a in ty t o e qua te t he l owes t b ur ied l eve ls o f t he c l i f f f ace p o l len p rof i le w i th t he I ron Age o ccupa t ion a bove , i n t he a bsence o f a ny o ther a rchaeolog ica l s e t t lemen ts i n t he v ic in i ty t h is wou ld b e al i ke ly e xp lana t ion . I fs o , n o t o n ly were t he e nv irons t ree less a t t h is t ime b u t a pparen t ly a l l t races o f ap r imary s o i l h ave d isappeared , p resumably b y h i l lwash o r w ind e ros ion . I tw i l l b e r e memb ered t ha t t he p a laeoso l a t I nn is idgen i t sel f h e ld e v idence o f t runca t ion o f t he p r i mary s o i l p rof i le a nd t he s uper impos i t ion o fb lown s and a ssocia ted w ith a gr icu l tura l l and u se . CONCLUS ION I ti s i mposs ib le t o b ase a d e ta i led i n terpre ta t ion o f t he v ege ta t iona l h is tory o f t he I s les o f S ci l ly o n t he f ew i nves t iga t ions s o f ar made , b u t e ven f ro m w ha t h as b een d one o ne o r t wo g enera l c onclus ions c an b e d rawn . T here i s n ow c lear e v idence t ha t t he l arge i s land o f S t . Mary 's h ad a c over o f d ec iduous wood land s u f f ic ien t ly c on t inuous i n c anopy t o e xc lude l i gh t-de mand ing h erbs . T he N ornour p o l len a na lys is i nd ica tes g rea ter i n f luence o f t rees i n t he l ower l ayers , b u t i tr e ma ins a n o pen q ues t ion whe ther t h is was d ue t o t ree g row th o n t h is sma l l i s land i t sel f o r whe ther i t was a r e f lec t ion o f t he c ond i t ions o n a d jacen t l arger i s lands . On t he C orn ish ma in land d e fores ta t ion s tar ted i n e arnes t i n t he B ronze A ge ( D i mb leby , 1 963 a nd 1 971) a nd i ft h is were t he c ase o n t he I s les o f S ci l ly , i t wou ld a gree w i th t he s igns o f a mod i f ied l andscape d ur ing a nd a f ter t he o ccu; p a t ion o f t he s i te o n N ornour . T he p o l len p ro f i le f ro m H igher Moors p rov ides c lear e v idence o f a n e x tens ive c learance wh ich c ou ld c orre la te w i th s uch o ccup a t ion , a nd t he e v idence o f c learance f ound i nb ur ied s oi l a t I nn is idgen c ou ld a lso b e a ssocia ted w i th t h is p hase . I n t he a bsence o f t ime markers i n a ny o f t he p o l len d iagrams , c er ta in ty a bou t d a tes w i l l h ave t o a wa i t t he r ad iocarbon d a tes f ro m t he H igher Moors p ea t p ro f i le . I ft he e v idence o f a gr icu l ture a t Ha langy D own c an b e a t tr ibu ted t o t he a d jacen t I ron A ge s e t t le men t , t ha t a rea o f S t . Mary 's was c o mp lete ly t ree less b y t ha t t ime .

T here i s e v idence b o th f ro m t h is s i te a nd f ro m N ornour t ha t

p reh is tor ic a gr icu l ture was l ead ing t o s o i l move men t b o th b y h i l lwash a nd b y w ind e ros ion . I ft here i s a n e xposure e f fec t o n s uch o f f-shore i s lands i t may e xpress i t se l f n o t s o much i n t he n a ture o f t he p r imary v ege ta tion a s i n s i te d e ter iora t ion f o l lowing t he d isrup t ion o f t he o r ig ina l wood land c over b y p reh is tor ic a gr icu l ture a nd t hrough i t s c on t inu ing u se . Brothwell, Don, and Geoffrey Dimbleby. Environmental Aspects of Coasts and Islands. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1981, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541103. 1 42 Downloaded on behalf of 38.67.221.43

ACKNO WLEDGE MENTS The a u thors a re g ra te fu l t o Miss S . A . Bu tcher f or p rov id ing t he a rcha eolog ica l i n for ma tion a bou t t he s i te o n Nornour a nd t o Dr . He len Kee ley f or h er d escr ip t ion o f t he s o i ls t here . B IBLIOGRAPHY Ashbee , P ., 1 965-1970 .

Excava t ions a t Ha langy Down , S t . Mary 's , I s les o f

S ci l ly.

C orn ish Archaeology 4 , 1 965 , 3 6-40 ;

2 4-32 ;

9 , 1 970 , 6 9-76.

Bu tcher , S . A ., 1 970.

5 , 1 966, 2 0-27;

7 , 1 968 ,

Excava t ions a t N ornour , I s les o f S ci l ly , 1 969-70.

Corn ish Archaeo logy 9 : 7 7-91. Bu tcher , S . A ., 1 971.

Excava t ions a t N ornour , 1 971.

C orn ish Archaeology ,

Excava t ions a t Nornour , 1 972.

C orn ish Archaeo logy ,

1 0 : 9 4. Bu tcher , S . A ., 1 972 . 1 1 : 5 8-9. _ 1 Bu tcher , S . A ., 1 974 . C layden , B ., 1 964.

Nornour .

I n :

I s les o f S ci l ly Museu m Publ ica t ion No . 7 .

H osk ing , K . F . G . a nd S hr i mp ton , G . J . ( eds.) ,

Presen t v iews o n s o me a spects o f t he g eology o f C ornwa l l a nd Devon . Roya l G eolog ica l S ociety o f C ornwa l l , Penzance , 3 11-330 , S oi ls o f C ornwa l l . C oo mbe , D . E . a nd Frost , L . C ., 1 956.

The h ea ths o f t he Corn ish S erpen t ine .

J . E co l., 4 4: 2 26-256. D i mbleby , G . W., 1 963.

Po l len a na lyses f ro m t wo C orn ish barrows .

J ourna l

o f t he Roya l I ns t i tu t ion o f C ornwa l l n .S . I V , p ar t 2 : 3 64-375 . D i mbleby , G . W., 1 971.

I n :

M i les , H . &T ., Excava t ions o n Longstone

Downs , S t . S tephen i n Brannel a nd S t . Mewan .

C orn ish Archaeology ,

1 0: 2 6-7. D i mbleby , G . W., 1 977. S ci l ly.

Ab ur ied s o i l a t I nn is idgen , S t . Mary 's , I sles o f

C orn ish S tud ies , 4/ 5: 5 -10.

Dud ley , D ., 1 968 .

E xcava tions o n Nornour i n t he I s les o f S ci l ly , 1 962-66.

Archaeolog ica l J ourna l e CXX IV : 1 -64. Faegr i , K . a nd I versen , J ., 1 974.

T ex tbook o f Po l len Ana lys is .

3 rd e di t ion

b y Faegr i , K ., B lackwe l l , Ox ford . G im ingham , C . H ., 1 972. Keepax , C ., 1 976.

E co logy o f H ea th lands , C hap man a nd Ha ll , London .

Ancien t Monu men ts Labora tory R epor t No. 2 0297

L ousley, J . E ., 1 971.

F lora o f t he I s les o f S ci l ly.

David a nd Char les ,

Newton Abbot . Moore , P . D . a nd Webb , J . A ., 1 978 .

An I l lus tra ted G u ide t o Po llen Ana lys is .

Hodder a nd S tough ton , London . Tauber , H ., 1 967.

D i f feren t ia l p ol len d ispers ion a nd f i l tra t ion .

I n t . Ass . Qua tern . Res ., 7 : 1 31-41. Brothwell, Don, and Geoffrey Dimbleby. Environmental Aspects of Coasts and Islands. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1981, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541103.1 43 Downloaded on behalf of 38.67.221.43

Pr oc. C ong .

Turk , F . A ., 1 971. t imes :

4 .

N o tes o n C orn ish ma m ma ls i n p reh is tor ic a nd h is tor ica l

C orn ish Archaeo logy , 1 0 : 7 9-91.

Brothwell, Don, and Geoffrey Dimbleby. Environmental Aspects of Coasts and Islands. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1981, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541103. 1 44 Downloaded on behalf of 38.67.221.43

D IATO M ANALYS IS FRO M COASTAL S ITES I N THE NETHERLANDS B y M . J . J ans ma

I n troduct ion I n o rder t o u nders tand t he a na lys is o f d ia to ms f ro m a ncien t s et t le men ts i n c oas ta l r eg ions b e t ter , i ti s p erhaps p er t inen t t o e xp la in f irs t b r ief ly wha t d ia to ms a re , t he e nv ironmen t i n wh ich t hey l i ve , i n wh ich t ype o f s ed i men t t hey may b e f ound i n af oss i l s ta te , h ow s l ides a re made f ro m b o th s o i l s a mp les a nd p o t tery a nd h ow t he c oun t method h as d eve loped . D ia to ms a re s ing le-ce l led p lan ts , e i ther r ound o r l ong i n s hape . s ize v ar ies f ro m a f ew m icrons t o C . 1m m ( = 1 000 microns ) .

T he ir

T he ir p r i mary

r equ ire men t i s s un l igh t i n o rder t o a ss im i la te c arbon d iox ide , i n t he s a me way a s d o o ther p lan ts , a nd s econd ly t hey r equ ire wa ter . The wa ter mus t c on ta in s i l ica i n s o lu t ion wh ich t he d ia to ms e x tract t o f or m t he ir s he l ls ( or t hecae ).

T hese s he l ls f i t i n to o ne a no ther l i ke ab ox a nd i t s l i d .

s he l ls t oge ther f orm o ne c e l l .

B o th t he

E co log ica l ly , d ia to ms may b e s ubd iv ided i n to

t hree ma jor g roups , d epend ing o n t he s a l in i ty o f t he wa ter wh ich t hey i nhabi t , n a me ly , mar ine , b rack ish a nd f resh wa ter d ia to ms . T e mpera ture , c urren t , d ep th a nd a c id i ty o f t he wa ter a re a lso o f i mpor tance . I n t he N e ther lands , f oss i l d ia to ms a re b es t p reserved i n t he H o locene c oasta l d epos i ts , i .e . i n c lays , wh ich may o r may n o t b e mixed w i th s and o r h u mus , t hough t hey a re a lso t o b e f ound i n more p ea ty d epos i ts . t he c oas t d ia to ms o ccur i n r iver ine a nd l acus tr ine s ed i men ts .

Away f ro m F ina l ly , d ia-

t o ms may o ccur i n t he c lays u sed i n p o t tery manu fac ture , o n c ond i t ion t ha t t he f ir ing t e mpera ture n ever e xceded 8 00°C .

T he p resence o f d ia to ms i n

p o t tery was d iscovered q u i te a cciden ta l ly b y A . v an d er Wer f f . Turn ing n ow t o t he p repara t ion o f microscope s l ides f ro m b o th s ed i men t a nd p o t tery s a mp les w h ich a re t hough t t o c on ta in d ia to ms ,

t he s amp le i s f irs t

b o i led u p w i th c oncen tra ted h ydrogen p erox ide wh ich o x id izes a way a l l o rgan ic ma t ter w i th t he e xcep t ion o f t he d ia to ms .

I ft he s a mp le i s c a lcareous a c oup le

o f d rops o f c oncen tra ted h ydroch lor ic a cid a re s u f f ic ien t t o d isso lve t he r e mn an ts o f c a lc iu m c arbona te . T he s and i n t he s a mp le i s a l lowed t o s e t t le , a f ter wh ich t he l i qu id , c ont a in ing c lay a nd d ia to ms , i s p oured o f f .

T he mix ture i s c en tr i fuged a c oup le

o f t imes , a f ter wh ich t he l i qu id a bove t he s ed i men t i s p oured o f f , r e mov ing t he c lay f ract ion sma l ler t han 2 microns , t hough n o t t he d ia to ms .

The r es idue

—cons is ting o f d ia to ms a nd t he r emnan ts o f t he c lay f ract ion 2 -6 -m icronS — may n ow b e t rans ferred t o as l ide , e nc losed i n as yn the t ic r es in w i th p ro•n ounced r e frac t ive t endenc ies wh ich e nhance t he s tructure o f t he d ia to m s he l ls when v iewed u nder a m icroscope .

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B e fore mak ing s l ides f ro m p o t tery s herds , t hese s hou ld b e c leaned w i th t he u t mos t c are s ince a l l f ore ign c lay p ar t ic les mus t b e r emoved . Poor ly f ired s herds may t hen b e c rumbled b y h and , wh i le b e t ter f ired s herds mus t b e s p l in tered mechan ica l ly.

T he s herds a re t hen t rea ted .i n-t he s ame f ash ion

a s t he s ed i men t s amp les . C oncern ing t he c oun t me thod , t he n umber o f s pec i mens p er s pec ies i s c oun ted f or e ach s ample , p re ferably t o a t l eas t 4 00 i nd iv idua ls , j us t a s i n p o l len a na lys is . I n a dd i t ion , i th as p roved t o b e o f g rea t i mpor tance t o r ecord t he p ercent age o f d ia to ms p er s pec ies wh ich a re b roken a nd wh ich a re who le , s ince i n t he s tudy o f F eddersen Wierde b y K örber-Grohne , i ta ppeared t ha t t ranspor t o f t he d ia to ms o ver l onger d is tances t ends t o i n f l ict d amage t o t he s he l ls , a l though t he t o ta l e f fec t i s t o s o me e x ten t d ependen t o n t he s hape a nd s ize o f t he s he l ls . B y r eg is ter ing t he p ropor t ion o fb roken t o c omp le te i nd iv idua ls i ti s i n many c ases p oss ible t o e s tab l ish whe ther a p ar t icu lar s pec ies l i ved l oca l ly , o r whe ther i t was t ranspor ted f ro m e lsewhere : t hese a re r eferred t o a s a u toch thonous a nd a l loch thonous s pec ies r espec t ive ly . T he d is t inc t ion i s e spec ia l ly i mpor tan t b ecause d ia to m s he l ls c an b e e x tre me ly r es is tan t a nd may s urv ive s evera l r e mova ls i n f a ir ly g ood c ond i t ion . D ia to m s he l ls c an a lso b reak a s ar esu l t o f d ry ing o u t . B y c o l lec t ing a nd i den ti fying t he d ia to ms a t p resen t o ccurring i n t he N e ther lands v an d er Wer f f h as c ons iderably e n larged o ur k now ledge o f r ecen t s pecies . H is work h as r esu l ted i n t he c o mp i la t ion o f a n i den ti f ica t ion l i s t o f d ia to ms i n t he N e ther lands ( van d er Wer f f &H u Is , 1 957-1974 ) . I .

Purpose a nd i mpor tance o f d ia to m a na lys is t o s e t t le men t a rchaeo log y

a .

D ia to m a na lys is o f s ed imen t s a mp les

S ince —as we h ave a lready s een—d ia to ms l i ve i n wa ter , t he o n ly s ed imen ts n ear t o s e t t le men ts wh ich c on ta in d ia to ms a re t hose d epos i ted i n o r b y wa ter . T he s e t t le men t migh t , f or e xamp le , b e s i tua ted o n t he c oas t , n ear a r iver , c reek , l ake o r s tream . D ia to ms i n s o i l s amp les f ro m a s e t t le men t may t here fore i nd ica te t he p resence o f d i tches , r unne ls o r moa ts i n o r a round t he s e t t le men t . I ft he i nd iv idua l d ia to ms i n s uch s ed imen ts a re c o mp le te , t hen t he c lay i n wh ich t hey a re f ound mus t h ave b een d epos i ted i n s i tu , i n s a l ine , b rack ish o r f resh wa ter c ond i t ions . I f , o n t he o ther h and , t he s pec ies a re b roken , s econdary d isp lace men t i s imp l ied o r a l terna t ive ly , t he s ed imen t may h ave b een e xposed d ur ing d ry p er iods . I n r ea l i ty , t here i s u sua l ly a mix ture o f s pec ies w i th c o mp le te s he l ls w i th s pecies w i th d amaged s he l ls . T hus t he d ia to m c on ten t o f ap ar t icu lar s ed imen t s amp le wh ich c ons is ts o f u nbroken i nd iv idua ls o f f resh wa ter s pec ies a nd d amaged i nd iv idua ls o f mar ine s pec ies migh t i nd ica te t ha t t he e nv ironmen t a round t he s e t t le men t was o r ig in a l ly f resh , b u t t ha t l a ter , d ur ing a transgress ion , s ca les o f mar ine s pec ies were washed i n w i th t he s ea wa ter . F or t he i nhabi tan ts , t he c onsequences m igh t h ave b een t o ta l a bandonmen t o f t he s e t t le men t , o r t he c o mpu lsory r a is ing o f t he i nhabi ted a rea i n o rder t o r e ma in .

At ransgress ion may l ead t o as i tu-

a t ion whereby t he l ower s ed i men t c on ta ins f resh wa ter d ia to ms wh i le t he u pper d epos i t c on ta ins mar ine s pecies . T he t ransgress ion may i n t urn b e f o l lowed b yanda r egre ss ion , when Aspects t he m r ine s pecies a re s een t o b e r ep laced b y f resh Brothwell, Don, Geoffrey Dimbleby. Environmental of a Coasts and Islands. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1981, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541103. t er ofs p ecies e tc . 1 46 Downloaded w ona behalf 38.67.221.43

F ig . 1

Map o ft he N e ther lands , i ndica t ing c oas te l s i tes . l ower r igh t c orner i s 5 0 km .

Brothwell, Don, and Geoffrey Dimbleby. Environmental Aspects of Coasts and Islands. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1981, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541103. Downloaded on behalf of 38.67.221.43

1 47

T he s ca le i n t he

T he i nves t iga t ion a t Paddepoe l , G ron ingen ( f ig . 1 ) i s as u i table e xamp le o f d ia to m a na lys is f i l l ing i n t he -p ic ture o f t he e nv ironmen t i n a nd a round a s e t t le men t ( Groenman-van Waa ter inge & J ansma , 1 968 ) . Aq uan t i ta t ive d ia to m a na lys is o f t wo s tandard p ro f i les ( Paddepoe l 1 1-330 a nd Paddepoe l I V-345 ) , h as b een c arr ied o u t , a nd t he f luc tua t ions i n t he p erc en tages o f t he i nd iv idua l s pecies h ave b een d iagram med i n t he s ame way a s i s c us to mary i n p o l len a na lys is ( f ig . 2 ) . T he f o l lowing r esu l ts were o bta ined : 1 . P r ior t o t he e ar l ies t p hase o f o ccupa t ion , ag radua l d ecrease i n t he i n tens i ty o f f l ood ing , b eco m ing p ract ica l ly z ero i n t he p hase o f o ccup a t ion . T he d ia to ms a re a l loch thonous ( on t he b as is o f t he h igh p erc en tage o f b roken s pec i mens ) , e xcep t f or a n umber o f b rack ish-fresh a nd f resh-brack ish s pecies wh ich c ou ld h ave l i ved i n we t p laces o n t he h igh mud-f la t . 2 .

B e tween t he e ar l ies t p hase o f o ccupa t ion , e ncoun tered a t P addepoe l I , I a nd I I , a nd t he l a tes t o ccupa t ion p hase , f ound a t Paddepoe l I V , a n i ncrease i n f l ood ing , a s may b e c onc luded f ro m t he p ercen tage o f a l loch thonous mar ine p lank ton wh ich i s h igher t han i t was t oward t he e nd o f t he p reced ing s ed i men ta t ion p hase .

3 . A t t he t ime o f t he s econd o ccupa t ion , ad ecl ine i nf lood ing a c t iv ity , wh ich s trong ly i ncreased t herea f ter . Aq uan t i ta t ive a na lys is o f a d i tch s ect ion f ro m P er iod Ia t P addepoe l I I ( Paddepoe l 1 1-314 ) g ave ap ic ture q u i te d i f feren t i n c haracter f rom t he a na lys is o f t he s tandard d iagram .prev ious ly s hown .

I n t he l a t ter , t he d ia to ms a re f or t he mos t

p ar t a l loch thonous , t ranspor ted f ro m e lsewhere a nd d epos i ted w i th t he c lay s ed i men ta t ion a nd i n t he o ccupa t ion p hases , when t here was n o c lay d epos i t ion , al im i ted r ange o f ab rack ish-fresh t o f resh-brack ish d ia tom f l ora o ccurred i n we t p laces o n t he mud-f la t . I n t he d i tch h owever , ap redo m inan t ly a u toch thonous d ia to m f l ora o ccurred , w i th ab rack ish t o f resh-brack ish c harac ter a tt he b o t to m a nd b rack ishf resh t o f resh h igher u p . The sma l l q uan t i t ies o f mar ine t o b rack ishmar ine s pec ies a re a l loch thonous ( f ig . 3 ) . As econd e xamp le i s d rawn f ro m t he R o man p er iod s e t t le men t n ear R i jsw i jk i n S ou th H o l land ( f ig . 1 ) . I n t h is s e t t lemen t n umerous d i tches were f ound ( B loe mers , 1 978 ). When t he f i l l o f s ome o f t hese d i tches was e xam ined f or d ia to ms i tb ecame c lear t ha t t wo t ypes o f d i tches were d is t ingu ishab le ( Jans ma , 1 978 ) ; 1 . e nc losure d i tches d irec t ly a round t he s e t t le men t wh ich were f i l led w i th a l l manner o f h ouseho ld r ubbish , 2 . b oundary d i tches , e nc los ing p lo ts wh ich were p roved b y p o l len a nal ys is t o b e a rab le f i e lds ( Groenman-van Waa ter inge , 1 978 ). The d i tches o f t h is l as t c a tegory were i n o pen c onnec t ion w i th t he e nc los ure d i tches , t hough a bou t 1 0 cm l ower .

T he d ia to m c on ten t o f b o th d i tch

c a tegor ies i sb road ly s im i lar , b u t i n t he e nc losure d i tches v ir tua l ly a l l t he d ia to ms a re d amaged , wh i le i n t he f i e ld d i tches o n ly t he mar ine a nd mar ineb rack ish s pec ies o ccur , w i th a h igh p ercen tage o f d amaged s pecimens . 1 48

Brothwell, Don, and Geoffrey Dimbleby. Environmental Aspects of Coasts and Islands. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1981, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541103. Downloaded on behalf of 38.67.221.43

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Brothwell, Don, and Geoffrey Dimbleby. Environmental Aspects of Coasts and Islands. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1981, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541103. Downloaded on behalf of 38.67.221.43

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c an b e s een o n t he f o l low ing d iagrams , o ne f ro m a n e nclosure d i tch , t he o ther f ro m a f i e ld d i tch ( f igs . 4a nd 5 ) . D i f ferences o f t h is o rder may b e e xp la ined a s f o l lows :

t he o r ig ina l

s ed i men t , d epos i ted i n t he Dunk irk It ransgress ion , c on ta ined mar ine a nd mar ine-brack ish d ia to m s pec ies , p redo m inan t ly i n d amaged c ond i t ion .

T he

f resh-wa ter d ia to ms a c tua l ly l i ved i n t he d i tches , a nd a re , t herefore , a u toc h thonous . Why , t hen , a re t hese i nd iv idua ls f ro m t he f i e ld b oundar ies a lso d a maged? T he a nswer s ee ms t o b e t ha t t he d amage i s t he r esu l t o f p er iod ic d rying u p o f t he d i tches , wh ich p rov ides f ur ther p roo f t ha t t he f i e lds w ere f or a rable u se o n ly .

I n v iew o f t he ir s l igh t ly h igher p os i t ion , t he e nc losure d i tches

mus t c er ta in ly a lso h ave f a l len d ry a t t imes , b u t d ue t o t he r ich o rgan ic f i l l ( househo ld r ubbish ) t he d ia to ms a re r a ther b e t ter p reserved . b .

D ia to m a na lys is o f p o t tery a nd t he c orre la t ion w i th s ed i men t s amp les

I n an umber o f c ases , p o t tery f ro m c oas ta l s e t t le men ts i n t he N e ther lands h as a lso b een s ub jec ted t o d ia to m a na lys is , i n o rder t o e s tabl ish t he d egree o f s a l in i ty o f t he wa ter i n wh ich t he c lay u t i l ized was o r ig ina l ly d epos i ted . N o t e very s herd w i l l c on ta in d ia to ms , b y a ny means .

P o t tery may b e made

f ro m a c lay wh ich n ever c on ta ined d ia to ms t o b eg in w i th .

I n o ther c ases , t he

p o t tery may h ave b een f ired a t at e mpera ture a bove 8 00°C , t hus d es troy ing a ny d ia to m s he l ls wh ich m igh t h ave b een p resen t o r ig ina l ly .

B y c ompar ing

t he d ia to m c on ten t o f p o t tery w i th t ha t o f t he l oca l ly a va i lable c lay d epos i ts i ti s , u nder f avourable c ircums tances , p oss ib le t o e s tab l ish whe ther t he c lay u sed i n t he manu fac ture c an b e o f l oca l o r ig in o r n o t .

I ft he s pec trum o bta ined

d oes n o t ma tch t he l oca l c lays , e i ther c lay o r p o t tery mus t h ave b een b rough t f ro m f ur ther a f ie ld .

I ft hey ma tch , t he c lay may b e o b ta ined l oca l ly , b u t o ne

i s n o t s ure t ha t c lay w i th a s im i lar d ia to m c on ten t c ou ld n o t h ave c ome f ro m e lsewhere .

I n c o mpar isons o f t h is t ype i ti s n ecessary t o d e term ine .

1 . whe ther t he s pecies i n t he c lay o f t he s herd a re t he s ame a s t hose i n t he l oca l c lay , 2 . whe ther t he p ropor t ions o f i nd iv idua ls i n e ach s pecies a re c ons is ten t i nb o th s amp les a nd 3 . whe ther t he p ropor t ions o f who le t o d amaged s pec i mens a re c onsis ten t f or e ach s pec ies . I fo ne o r more o f t hese c ond i t ions c anno t b e me t , t hen t he c lay mus t h ave c o me f ro m e lsewhere , i n wh ich c ase i ti s mos t l i ke ly t ha t t he p o t tery c oncerned was i mpor ted . Iwou ld n ow l i ke t o d escr ibe a f ew s e t t le men ts a s e xamp les o f a na lyses s eek ing t he c orre la t ion b e tween p o t tery a nd l oca l ly a va i lab le d epos i ts a nd t he c onclus ions t o wh ich t hese r espec t ive s tud ies l ed . F or my f irs t e xamp le , Ih ave c hosen V laard ingen n ear R o t terdam ( f ig . 1 ) . H ere , a round 2 350 B .C . was s i tua ted a s e t t le men t o f t he e pony mous V laard ingen C u l ture , wh i le much l a ter , a round 1 940 B .C ., l ong a f ter t he V laard ingen p eople h ad d epar ted , p eople o f t he mar i t i me B e l l B eaker p hase e s tab l ished t he mse lves o n t he s ame s i te ( van R eg teren A l tena , Bakker e t a l i i , 1 962-1963 ) . H ere t he d i f ference b etween t he d ia to m c on ten t o f s o me V laard ingen s herds a nd t ha t o f t he s tra t igraph ica l ly d i f feren t ia ted a nd l a ter s herds o f t h e B e l l

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1 50

Brothwell, Don, and Geoffrey Dimbleby. Environmental Aspects of Coasts and Islands. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1981, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541103. Downloaded on behalf of 38.67.221.43

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Brothwell, Don, and Geoffrey Dimbleby. Environmental Aspects of Coasts and Islands. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1981, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541103. Downloaded on behalf of 38.67.221.43

B eaker c u l ture ( mar i t ime p hase ) was a ssocia ted w i th a c o mparable c hange i n d ia to m c on ten t o f s a mp les t aken f ro m a s ec t ion c u t o n t he s i te .

I ta ppeared

t ha t t he d ia to m c on ten t o f t he V laard ingen s herds c orrespond t o t ha t i n t he f i l l o f ac reek b ed i n t he s i te , i n wh ich b rack ish t o f resh wa ter mus t h ave f l owed . The s herds o f t he B e l l B eaker c u l ture , o n t he c on trary , c on ta ined ma in ly a l loch thonous mar ine a nd b rack ish s pec ies , wh ich a ga in c orrespond t o t he c on ten t i n t he c lay d epos i ted j us t p r ior t o a nd d ur ing t he Be l l B eaker h abi ta t ion b y t he p er iod ic f l ood ing a nd b reak ing o f t he b anks o f t he s a me c reek , wh ich h ad , i n t he mean t i me , d isp laced i t se lf l a tera l ly ( Groenman-van Waa ter inge &J ans ma , 1 969 ).

F igure 6 w i l l s how a d iagram o f t he s ec t ion , wh i le f igure

7w i l l s how s herds o f t he V laard ingen a nd t he B e l l B eaker c u l ture . Iw i l l d raw my s econd e xa mp le f ro m t he I ron Age s e t t le men t a t M idde ls tu m i n t he p rov ince o f G ron ingen ( f ig . 1 ) ( Boers m , 1 970 ) .

H ere t hree Ru inen-

Wo m me ls-I s herds were a na lysed , a long w i th s amples f ro m a c reek s ec t ion a nd a n o ld h abi ta t ion s ur face ( Jans ma , 1 977 ) ,

I n t he d iagra m f ro m t he c reek

( f ig . 8 ) t he c o mp le te s peci mens a re , a s we c an s ee , c oncen tra ted e spec ia l ly i n t he b rack ish t o f resh r ange , b u t o ccur a lso amongs t s o me mar ine a nd mar ine-brack ish s pec ies .

H owever , s ince t hese s pec ies h ave t ough s he l ls

t hey a re l ess i nd ica t ive o f t he e nv ironmen t t han , f or e xa mp le , t he u nbroken i nd iv idua ls o f t he l ong a nd h ence e asy b reakable b rack ish-fresh s pec ies . t h is c ase , s l igh t ly b rack ish , s tagnan t wa ter migh t b e v isua l ized .

I n

A s a mple

f ro m t he o ld h abi ta t ion s ur face s hows t he d ia to ms p resen t i n t he c lay c over d epos i ted t here . An umber o f s pecies o ccurr ing i n t he f i l l d iagram a re a bs en t h ere , n amely t he a u toch thonous c reek v ege ta t ion , t ha t i s t he s pec ies f ro m ab rack ish t o f resh e nv ironmen t . The a na lyses o f t wo o f t he t hree s herds c orrespond t o t he c reek c lays , n o t t o t he c lays o n t he o ld h abi ta t ion s ur face ( f ig . 9 ) . t a ined o n ly s ix d ia to ms .

The t h ird s herd c on-

A s im i lar ly l ow c oun t was o bta ined f ro m t hree

Ru inen- Wo mme ls-I s herds f ro m H i jkerve ld , i nthe p rov ince o f Dren te ( f ig . 1 ) ( Harse ma , 1 974 ).

T he d ia to m c on ten t o f t hree H i jkerve ld s herds —H i jkerveld

b e ing a n i n land s i te —and t he t wo s herds f ro m t he c u t t ing i n t he c oas ta l s i te o f Midde ls tum i s p er fect ly c ons is ten t w i th t he u se o f n earby c lays .

Why t he

t h ird s herd f ro m M idde ls tum s hou ld d i f fer i s u nc lear , s ince t he f abr ic i s i dent i ca l t o t he o ther t wo s herds a nd i ti s a lso , t o t he e ye a t l eas t , i nd is t ingu ishab le f ro m t he H i jkerve ld s he The a na lys is o f s o me med ieva l s herds f ro m Mede mbl ik , p rov ince o f N or th H o l land , f or ms my t h ird e xa mp le ( f ig . 1 ) ( Bes te man , 1 976; J ans ma , 1 977). H ere i t was a lso p oss ib le t o t ake c ores f ro m a s ect ion i n t he s hore z one o f t he f or mer L ake Wervershoo f ( Voorr ips & J ans ma , 1 974 ). f ig . 1 0 f our s tra t igraph ic l ayers a re d is t ingu ishab le .

A s c an b e s een o n T o s tar t a t t he b o t to m :

al ayer o f c lay d epos i ted i n f resh wa ter i s v is ib le c over ing t he s can ty C a la is I VB d epos i t ( l ayer I ) .

H ere o n ly f resh-brack ish a nd f resh s pecies o ccur .

Broken i nd iv idua ls a re n ear ly a bsen t h ere , s o i ti s j us ti f ied t o a ssu me t ha t t hese s pecies l i ved o n t he s po t , a nd t here a re i nd ica t ions t ha t s ed i men ta t ion i n a n e nv ironmen t w i th c a lm , f resh wa ter t ook p lace .

I n t he n ex t l ayer ( l ayer

2 ) , al arge n u mber o f mar ine , mar ine-brack ish , b rack ish- mar ine , b rack ish a nd b rack ish-fresh d ia to ms a ppear , s o i ti s p oss ible t ha t t he e nv ironmen t was g radua l ly s i l t ing u p d ue t o t ransgress ion p rocesses ; b u t i ti s a lso p oss ible , b ecause o f t he many b roken i nd iv idua ls , t ha t a n i nf low o f d is turbed ma ter ia l , Brothwell, Don, and Geoffrey Dimbleby. Environmental Aspects of Coasts and Islands. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1981, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541103. 1 53 Downloaded on behalf of 38.67.221.43

F ig . 8

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F ig . 9 Brothwell, Don, and Geoffrey Dimbleby. Environmental Aspects of Coasts and Islands. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1981, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541103. Downloaded on behalf of 38.67.221.43

1 54

Midde lstu m ( sherd d iagram ) .

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• •

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I

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-1,

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1 55

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N J

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2

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n a

Medemb l ik

( sherd d iagram ) .

o r ig ina l ly d epos i ted i n a mar ine-brack ish e nv ironmen t , t ook p lace , t he ma ter ia l n ow b e ing r edepos i tk l u nder p redo m inan t ly f resh-wa ter c ond i t ions . Dur ing t he d epos i t ion o f t he " k iek" c lay ( l ayer 3 ) , o n ly s l igh t c hanges i n t he e nv ironmen t a re d iscernab le :

mar ine , mar ine-brack ish , a nd b rack ish s pec ies

r e main , d isp laying r ough ly t he s ame r a t io o f who le t o b roken s pec imens a s i n t he p rev ious l ayer . There i s l i t t le c hange among t he mar ine s pecies i n l ayer 4 , ab urn t l ayer wh ich marks a C aro l ing ian o ccupa t ion . I n t he c ase o f t he mar ine-brack ish t ypes s o me s how a d ec l ine i nb o th b roken a nd u nbroken s peci mens , wh i le o thers a re r epresen ted o n ly b y b roken o nes . C ons ider ing t he d iagra m a s a who le , —perhaps w i th a n e xcep t ion f or t he d ia to ms f ro m l ayer 1—i t i s d i f f icu l t t o f orm a n o pin ion a s t o t he t rue a u toch thonous d ia to m f l ora , i fi t was p resen t a t a l l , s ince t he p ropor t ions o f c o mp le te t o b roken i nd iv idua ls a re a l mos t i den t ica l f or a l l s pecies :

mar ine , b rack ish a nd f resh .

The g en-

e ra l impress ion o b ta ined i s , t ha t mos t o f t he d ia to ms i n t he " k iek" c lay ( l ayer 3 1 a re s econdar i ly r edepos i ted . Af ew s herds o f " Kuge l töpfe" were a lso e xamined f or d ia to ms ( f ig . 1).

The s herds a na lysed a re 1 2- i n a l l .

A s we

t he n u mbers I .P .P .S . 7 0-1 t o 6a re f rom Medemb l ik , t he n umbers 7 t o 1 2 f ro m Dores tad , a med ieva l p os t a bou t 1 0 mi les S E f rom U trech t ( f ig . 1 ) . T he Mede mbl ik s herds n o . 1a nd 6 a re f ro m p er iod I , t ha t means t he t ime i n wh ich t he e ar l ies t C aro l ing ian " k iek" c lay was d epos i ted , t he s herds f ro m Mede mbl ik n os . 2 , 4a nd 5 a re f ro m p er iod I , t he s o-ca l led " daub"— leve l , wh i le t he Mede mb l ik s herd n umber 3 h as t o b e d a ted t o t he 1 2-13 th c en tury. T here was a g rea t measure o f s im i lar i ty b etween t he d ia to m c on ten t o f t hese s herds a nd t he s pectrum f ro m t he " k iek" c lay d epos i t o bta ined f ro m t he a foremen t ioned s ect ion . I n c o mpar ing t he d iagram f or t he s herds w i th t he d iagram f or t h e s ec t ion we h ave g o t t he impress ion , t ha t t he c lay f or p o t tery mak ing was t aken f ro m t he s uperf ic ia l " k iek" c lay d epos i ts a va i lable l oca l ly ( l ayer 3 ) . A s f ar a s t he d ia tom c on ten t i s c oncerned t here i s n o d i f ference b e tween s herds f ro m p er iod Ia nd I . An e xcep t ion i s t he much l a ter 1 2-13th c en tury Kuge l top f , s herd n umber 3 , s ince mar ine , mar ine-brack ish a nd b rack ishmar ine s pec ies a re a l mos t e n t ire ly a bsen t wh i le t he v a lves o f t he s pec ies i n t he b rack ish-fresh t o f resh-brack ish r ange a re p redo m inan t ly c omp le te .

I n

a dd i t ion , t he a bsence o f ap eak f or t he b rack ish s pec ies Nav icu la p eregr inä a nd t he l arge n umber o f t he f resh-brack ish s pec ies Rho icosphen ia c urva ta a re n o tewor thy. A ccord ing t o B . J . C ho lnoky ( 1 968 ) t h is l a t ter s pecies h as ap reference f or r unn ing wa ter i n a more o r l ess a lka l ine e nv ironmen t . S o we c an a sk o urse lves i fp erhaps c lay f ro m ab rack ish-fresh s tream was u sed i n t h is c ase .

A s men t ioned a bove , t he s herds n os 7 -12 a re f ro m D ores tad .

N u mber 7 i s g r i t t e mpered a nd c on ta ins a l mos t e xc lus ively f resh-brack ish t o f resh d ia to ms a nd t he s ame a ppears t o b e t rue f or t he o ther g r i t t e mpered s herds , t he n os 8 a nd 1 0 . On t he o ther h and , t he s herds w i th s hel l t e mper , n os 9 a nd 1 1 , c on ta in a v ery f ew mar ine t o b rack ish d ia to ms , s o f ew , i n f act , t ha t manu facture i n ac oas ta l r eg ion o r t he i mpor t o f c oas ta l c lays n eed n o t t o b e c ons idered a nd t he d ia to ms may h ave c o me w i th t he s he l l t e mper , wh ich p resumab ly was b rough t f ro m t he c oas t . The f ew mar ine d ia to ms p resen t i n s herd n o . 1 2 , w h ich was g rog t e mpered , may s im i lar ly b e e xp la ined b y t he p resence o f d ia to ms i n t he g rog t e mper . The d ia to m s pec trum o f t h is s herd d iverges f rom t he o thers , c h ie f ly i n t he p resence o f t he b rack ishfresh s pec ies , wh ich n o t o n ly o ccurs i n c ons iderable n umbers b u t a lso d isp lays ah igh r a t io o f u nbroken s he l ls .

C onc lud ing we may s ay , t ha t t he a na lysis

Brothwell, Don, and Geoffrey Dimbleby. Environmental Aspects of Coasts and Islands. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1981, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541103. 1 57 Downloaded on behalf of 38.67.221.43

P .v ir id is v ar . s ude t ica P innu la r ia Coccone is d is tana S tephanod iscus a s t rea S tauröhe is

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ST .

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v ar .

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F ig . 1 2

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v ar .

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D ip lone is i n ter rup ta C yc lo te l la s t r ia ta C a lone is N i tzsch ia p unc ta ta R . s ur ire l la R hapone is amph iceros D ip lone is Cosc inod iscus e xcen tr icus Coccone is

p e l to ides

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Brothwell, Don, and Geoffrey Dimbleby. Environmental Aspects of Coasts and Islands. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1981, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541103. Downloaded on behalf of 38.67.221.43

1 58

Haar le m

s ugges ts a l oca l p roduc t ion o f Med ieva l Kuge l töp fe , t ha t i s , i fs uch a c onclus ion i s warran ted f rom t he a nä lys is o f ma ter ia l f ro m o n ly t wo s i tes . Tha t t he c lay f or p o t tery manu facture was n o t i nvar iably e x trac ted f ro m t he n eares t a va i lab le s ource c an b e i l lus tra ted b y a n e xample f ro m t he t own H aar le m , s o me 1 5 m i les wes t o f Ams terdam ( f ig . 1 ) . S o me t ime a round t he 1 2th c en tury A .D. a p o t ter 's k i ln was s i tua ted o n t he s ou thernmos t e dge o f t he t own c en tre . F or t he 1 2 th c en tury p o t ter t here were t wo s i tes w i th e asi ly e x tractable c lay o pen t o e xp lo i ta t ion . One s i te l ay a bou t 1 mi le t o t he NE , n ear Bakenes w i th in t he o ld t own l im i ts , wh i le t he o ther l ay a pprox ima te ly 5mi les f ur ther o n , b e tween Haar le m a nd t he N or th S ea C ana l i n t he Ve lserbroek P older .

T he c lay f rom Bakenes was s o mewha t h um ic a nd c on ta ined p redo m-

i nan t ly f resh wa ter d ia to ms , wh i le t ha t f ro m t he Ve lserbroek P o lder mus t h ave b een d epos i ted u nder r a ther more s a l ine c ond i t ions i n v iew o f t he d ia to m c on ten t . I n a l l c ases , mar ine a nd mar ine b rack ish s pec ies d om ina ted , a l though t he t o ta l n umbers o f i nd iv idua ls p er s herd were q u i te d i f feren t f ro m e ach o ther . C ompar ison w i th t he d ia to m s pec trum f ro m Bakenes o n t he o ne h and a nd t ha t f ro m t he Ve lserbroek P o lder o n t he o ther , s howed t ha t t he d ia to m c on ten t o f t he s herds i sb es t ma tched i n t he V e lserbroek P o lder , e specia l ly i n i t s mar ine s pec ies , wh i le t he n umber o f i nd iv idua ls p er s pec ies a nd t he. r a t io o f who le t o b roken s pec i mens i s a lso c ons is ten t , a s c an b e s een o n f ig . 1 2 . A l though i ti s n o t s tr ict ly j us t i f ied t o a pp ly t he c onc lus ion d rawn f ro m t he e xam ina t ion o f o n ly af ew s herds t o a l l t he p roduc t o f t he k i ln , i td oes l ook a s t hough c lay was b rough t f ro m t he more d is tan t Ve lserbroek P o lder i n p refere nce t o t ha t f ro m Bakenes , p oss ibly b ecause i t was more s u i tab le f or t he p rod uc ts o f t he k i ln . I I .

D ia to m a na lys is f ro m c oas ta l s i tes a broad

D ia to m a na lys is o f p o t tery h as u n t i l n ow o n ly f ound a ppl ica t ion i n t he N e ther lands . Iwas t here fore d e l igh ted t o r ece ive f our s herds f ro m Mrs . Margare t J ones f ro m Muck ing , E ssex ( f ig . 1 3 ) ( Jones , 1 968 a nd 1 969 ). s herds c o me f ro m e ar ly S axon p o t tery f ro m t he 5 th c en tur y f l oors , d i tches a nd p i ts .

T he

r ecovered f ro m

The f i rs t s herd e xam ined i s f ro m ab ow l o rnamen ted

o n t he c ar ina t ion w i th t he c on t inuous f ace t ing wh ich i s —accord ing t o J . N . L . Myres —character is t ic o f t he e ar ly 5 th c en tury . Bu t i ta lso c arr ies a f ea ture t yp ica l o f t he e ar l ier G er man ic p o t tery , wh ich s urv ived i n to t he .4 th c en tu ry i n Eng land o n R o mano-Saxon wares . P erhaps t here a re c lose p ara l le ls t o t he p o t tery f rom F eddersen Wierde . Anyway , t he s herd c on ta ined v ery f ew d iat o ms ( Ic ou ld c oun t o n ly 6 s peci mens ) , a l l l i v ing i n f resh wa ter i n ae u troph ic a nd a lka line e nv ironmen t . The s econd s herd a lso d a tes f ro m t he 5 th c en tury a nd b e longs t o c oarse ware . Th is c on ta ined o n ly a f ew t iny d ia to m f ragmen ts . s o sma l l t ha t f ur ther d e ter m ina t ion was i mposs ible , w i th t he e xcep t ion o f a s ing le f ragmen t a t tr ibu table t o t he P innu lar ia f am i ly , ap redo minan t ly f resh wa ter s pec ies .

T he t h ird s herd , f ro m a p o t f rom a P os t-Ro man e nc losure

d i tch f i l l , a lso c on ta ined o n ly a f ew i nd iv idua ls ( t o ta l 6 ) , o n ly o ne o f wh ich was b roken .

T he r ema in ing i nd iv idua ls a l l b e long t o s pecies i nhabi t ing p re-

d om inan t ly f resh a nd p oss ib ly e ven s tagnan t wa ter , t hough t hey a lso p ossess ah igh t o lera t ion o f s a l t wa ter . F ina l ly , t he f our th s herd a lso c o mes f ro m ap o t i n aP os t-Ro man e nc losure d i tch f i l l . S even d ia to m f rag men ts f ro m t h is s herd a lso p o in t t o t he d epos i t ion o f t he c lay i n f resh wa ter c ond i t ions . Brothwell, Don, and Geoffrey Dimbleby. Environmental Aspects of Coasts and Islands. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1981, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541103. 1 59 Downloaded on behalf of 38.67.221.43

( a )

F ig . 1 3

The s ite o f Muck ing , Essex .

Upper : g eneral l ocat ion w ith

s ite marked M. Lower : Muck ing a rea w ith c rop- mark s ites . Modif ied f ro m M. J ones ( 1974 ) Ant iq . J .,

Brothwell, Don, and Geoffrey Dimbleby. Environmental Aspects of Coasts and Islands. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1981, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541103. Downloaded on behalf of 38.67.221.43

1 60

5 4 , p .

1 84 .

On ly a f ter a na lys is o f t he l oca l ly o ccurr ing s ed i men ts c an a ny c onclus ions b e d rawn w i th r egard t o l oca l p roduc t ion v ersus i mpor t . I V .

C onc lus ions I n t he p reced ing p ages Ih ave t r ied t o g ive y ou a n impress ion o f t he e x ten t

t o wh ich d ia to m a na lys is may a ss is t i n r econs truc t ing t he e nv ironmen t a round a n a ncien t s e t t le men t a nd h ow t he a na lys is o f p o t tery c an l ead t o ab e t ter i ns igh t i n to t he p rocesses o f manu fac ture ;

whe ther t he p o t tery h ad b een made

l oca lly f ro m l oca l ma ter ia ls , o r whe ther t here was impor t , e i ther o f c lay o r o f t he p o t tery i t sel f .

I nb o th c ases , t he i nves t iga t ion may h ave i mp l ica t ions

f or t he t rad ing c on tac ts o f t he c o m mun i ty . N o te : Trans la ted i n to E ng l ish b y Dr . C aro l v an Dr ie l- Murray

B IBLIOGRAPHY A l tena , J . F . v an R ege teren , Bakker , J . A ., C lason , A . T ., G lasbergen , W., G roenman-van Waa ter inge , W. a nd P ons , L . J ., 1 962-1963. The V laard ingen Cu l ture .

H e l in ium 2 , 1 962 , 3 -35 , 9 7-103 , 2 15-243 ;

3 , 1 963 , 3 9-54 , 9 7-120 . B es te man , J . C ., 1 976.

C aro l ing ian Mede mb l ik .

B er . R . 0 . B . 2 4 ;

4 3-106. B loe mers , J . H . F ., 1 978 . Canane fa ten .

R i jswi jk ( ' Z. H .) , " De Bu l t" , E ine S ied lung d er

N eder landse Oudheden 8 , 1 978 .

Boers ma , J . W., 1 970 .

B oerdam .

N ieuwsbu l l , KNOB 1 2 :

1 47-148 .

Cho lnoky , B . J ., 1 968 .

D ie Öko log ie d er D ia to meen i n B innengewässern .

L ehre . G roenman-van Waa ter inge , W., 1 978 . Pa lyno log ische U n tersuchung d re ier G rabenprof i le a us d er r ö merzei t l ichen S ied lung . I n R i jsw i jk ( Z. H .). Kapi te l L a us :

J . H . F . B loe mers , R i jswi jk ( Z. H .) , " De Bu l t" , E ine

S ied lung d er C ananefa ten , N eder landse Oudheden 8 :

4 52-456.

G roenmanrvan Waa ter inge , W. a nd J ans ma , M. J ., 1 968 .

D ia to m a na lys is .

A ppend ix I I t o W. A . v an Es , p addepoe l , e xcava t ions o f f rus tra ted t erps , 2 00 B .C . -2 50 A .D.

Pa laeoh is tor ia 1 4 :

2 86.

G roen man-van Waa ter inge , W. a nd J ans ma , M. J ., 1 969 . D ia to m a nd p o l len a na lys is o f t he V laard ingen C reek . A r ev ised i n terpre ta t ion . H e l in ium 9 :

1 05-117.

Harse ma , 0 . H ., 1 974.

A rcheo log isch o nderzoek o p h e t H i jkerve ld , g em .

Be i len . Voor lop ig b er ich t v an d e c ampagnes 1 969 e n 1 970 . Dren tse Vo lksa l manak 9 1: 1 61-168 . Hus ted t , F ., 1 930 .

Baci l lar iophyta ( D ia to meae ).

S t isswasser f lora Mi t te leuropas , H e f t 1 0 .

N ieuwe

I n A . Pascher , D ie

J ena .

Hus ted t , F ., 1 930-1966. D ie K iese la lgen D eu tsch lands , Ös terre ichs u nd d er S chwe iz t i n ter B erücks ich tigung d er f i br igen Länder Europas s owie Brothwell, Don, and Geoffrey Dimbleby. Environmental Aspects of Coasts and Islands. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1981, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541103.1 61 Downloaded on behalf of 38.67.221.43

d er a ngrenzende Meeresgebie te .

I n L . R abenhors t ,

Kryp togamen-F lora

v on D eu tsch land , ös terre iüh u nd d er S chwe iz , Bd . 7 . 1 930 ;

T i . 1 .

L ep izig ,

Au tor is ier ter Nachdruck , N ew York -We inhe im , 1 962 ;

T ie 2 -3.

L e ipzig , 1 959-1966. J ans ma , M. J ., 1 977.

D ia to m a na lys is o f p o t tery.

I n B . L . v an B eek ,

R . W. Brand t a nd W. G rowenman-van Waa ter inge ( eds .) , Ex h orreo: I .P.P. 1 951-1976 , C ing-u la 4 , p p . 7 7-85 . J ans ma , M. J ., 1 978 .

D ia to meenana lysen e in iger G ra benprof i le i n d er

r öm ischen S ied lung v on R i jsw i jk ( Z. H .) . B loe mers ,

Kapi te l La us :

J . H . F .

R i jswi jk ( Z. H .) , " De Bu l t" , E ine S ied lung d er C anane fa ten ,

N eder landse Oudheden 8 : J ones , M. U ., 1 968 . XLV I I I :

Un ivers i ty o f Ams terdam .

4 47-451.

C rop mark s i tes a t Muck ing , E ssex .

An t iq . J .

2 10-230 .

axon p o t tery f ro m a h u t a t Muck ing , Essex . J ones , M. U ., 1 969. S B er ich ten R .O .B . 1 9: 1 45-156. Voorr ips , A . a nd J ans ma , M. J ., 1 974 .

Po l len a nd d ia to m a na lys is o f a

s hore s ect ion o f t he f or mer Lake Wervershoof . 5 3 :

G eo log ie e n 1 V l i jnbouw

4 29-435 .

Wer f f , A . v an d er , a nd Hu is , H ., 1 957-1974 . A bcoude .

Brothwell, Don, and Geoffrey Dimbleby. Environmental Aspects of Coasts and Islands. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1981, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541103. Downloaded on behalf of 38.67.221.43

1 62

D ia to meeen f lora v an N eder land .

MA M MALS AND MAN ON ORONSAY : SO ME PREL IM INARY HYPOTHESES CONCERNING MESOLITH IC ECOLOGY I N THE I NNER HEBR IDES B y C aro l ine G r igson

1 .

I NTRODUCTION The Meso l i th ic o ccupa t ion o f t he i s land o f O ronsay i n t he I nner H ebr ides

i s r epresen ted t oday b y t he r e ma ins o f f i ve k nown s he l l middens ( see f igure 1 ) .

T hey a re a l l s i tua ted o n a nc ien t s hore l ines j us t a bove t he l eve l o f t he

ma in p os tg lac ia l mar ine t ransgress ion when t he s ea l eve l was r ough ly 7 m h igher t han i ti s t oday , a nd t hey d a te f ro m t he f i na l p hases o f t he A t lan t ic P er iod .

Rad iocarbon d a tes r ang ing f ro m 3 ,695 + 8 0 b .c . t o 3 ,200 + 3 80 b .c .

h ave b een o b ta ined f ro m c harcoa l i n t he middens ( Me l lars 1 978 ). C a ls tea l-nan-G i l lean Iwas f irs t i nves t iga ted i n t he 1 9th c en tury ( Gr ieve 1 885 , Anderson 1 898 ) a nd C noc S l igeach a t t he t urn o f t h is c en tury ( Anderson 1 898 , B ishop 1 914 ) ;

t he r esu l ts o f t hese e xcava t ions a re c onven ien t ly s um-

mar ized b y Laca i l le ( 1954 ).

T he P r iory M idden , C a is tea l-nan-G i l lean I ,

a nd Cnoc C o ig were a l l f ound d ur ing t he c ourse o f i nves t iga t ions b y Dr . Pau l Mel lars a nd h is c o l leagues b e tween 1 970 a nd 1 979.

Large s ca le e xcava t ion

o f Cnoc C o ig h as j us t b een c o mp le ted a nd -C a is tea l-nan-G i l lean Ia nd I , Cnoc S l igeach a nd t he P r iory M idden h ave b een s ampled ; h as b een p ub lished b y Me l lars ( 1978 ) ;

ap re l im inary a ccoun t

v ar ious s pec ia l is ts a re i nvo lved i n t he

i nves t iga t ions o f t he middens a nd t he ir c on ten ts a nd i tw i l l b e s o me t ime b e fore t he work i s f in ished a nd t he f ina l r esu l ts a ppear . Th is e ssay i s a n i n ter im s tage i n t he s tudy o f t he mam ma l ian r e ma ins f ro m t he n ew e xcava t ions , wh ich , t oge ther w i th t he ma ter ia l a lready p ubl ished , a l lows t he f or mu la t ion o f v ar ious h ypo theses .

S o me o f t hese q ues t ions h ave

a lready b een d iscussed b y Me l lars ( 1978 ) , b u t t h is i s a n a t te mp t t o f ur ther s e lec ted l i nes o f a rgumen t i n t he l igh t o f t he n ew ma m ma l i den ti f ica t ions a nd a more i n tens ive s tudy o f O ronsay a nd t he n e ighbour ing i s land o f C o lonsay a s t hey e x is t t oday.

Even tua lly t hese h ypo theses w i l l b e t es ted o n t he b as is

o f ad e ta i led a na lys is o f t he ma m ma l b ones a nd a n a t te mp t w i l l b e made t o r econs truct a s f ar a s p oss ible t he n a tura l a nd h uman e co logy o f t he t ime . I n o rder t o d o t h is t he mam ma l b ones w i l l n o t , o f c ourse , b e s tud ied i n i sol a t ion , b u t i n r e la t ion t o t he o ther , c op ious a n i ma l r e ma ins , t o t he l oca t ion o f t he s i tes , a nd t o t he e ar ly g eo log ica l , b o tan ica l a nd f auna l h is tory o f t he i s lands .

I n t he p resen t s tudy t hese a spects w i l l o n ly b e t ouched o n where

t hey a re d irec t ly r elevan t t o t he h ypo theses b e ing a dvanced .

Brothwell, Don, and Geoffrey Dimbleby. Environmental Aspects of Coasts and Islands. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1981, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541103.1 63 Downloaded on behalf of 38.67.221.43

C u i rn Mho ra

a 0

T he S trand

Ø Q

00

Y // , I

' 4

• •••• •

L eaba Mho r

B e inn O ronsay / // / //// // _eP r io ry M idde

, ‘ e dnoc S l i e ach

-

/

C noc C o ig

a E i lean n an U an

E i leen Ghao ideama l

1km

E i leen n an R on

F igure

1 ,

a O RONSAY A ND T HE S OUTHERN PART O F C OLONSAY

S howing h ow t he M esolithic s hell m iddens 3( a re s ituated o n t he main H olocene s horeline, marked --( from J ardine 1 978). T he a pproximate p osition o f t he r est o f t he H olocene s horeline i s r epresented b y t he p resent 1 0m c ontour T he c oasts o f b oth i slands w ere m ore i ndented i n t he M esolithic t han a t p resent, a nd t he s outhern p art o f O ronsay may have b een a s eparate i sland. O f t he t wo m odern g rey-seal b reeding i slets E ilean n an R on w ould have b een s ubmerged a t h igh t ide a nd E ilean G haoideamal n early s o. I t i s s uggested t hat s eals may h ave b red o n t he e ast s ide o f O ronsay d uring t he M esolithic. //

7

m ean h igh water s prings

7

l and o ver 15m

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1 64

m odern s andhills

m odern l ochrans

2 . 2 .1

MODERN CONDIT IONS Loca t ion Oronsay a nd C o lonsay a re i s lands s i tua ted i n t he mou th o f t he F ir th o f

L orne , 1 6 k i lo me tres f ro m t he l arge i s land o f Mu l l t o t he n or th , 9 .5 km f ro m I s lay t o t he s ou th a nd a bou t 1 2 .5 k i lo me tres f ro m J ura i n t he e as t ( see f igure 2 ) .

T he e n t ire s ou thern c oas t o f Mu l l a nd much o f b o th I s lay a nd J ura a re

v is ible f ro m C o lonsay a nd O ronsay , a l though t he v is ibi l i ty v ar ies g rea tly w i th t he wea ther .

A t t imes a l mos t e very d e ta i l o f t he c oas ts a nd moun ta ins o f

I s lay a nd J ura s tand o u t w i th c rys ta l l ine c lar i ty , a t o thers t hey a re b lo t ted o u t b y d r iv ing r a in o r m is t .

I n v ery c lear wea ther t he h i l ls o f Donega l i n

I reland may b e v is ib le f ro m t he t op o f B e inn Oronsay a s a smudge o n t he s ou thern h or izon . O ronsay i s c onnec ted t o C o lonsay b y aw ide , s andy s trand t ha t c an b e c rossed f or a bou t t hree h ours a round l ow wa ter . Oronsay i s a sma l l i s land , t r iangu lar i n s hape ;

i t s n or thern l and mass i s a bou t 4 .5 km l ong a nd f ro m

t he n or th c oas t t o t he s ou thern p o in t i s a bou t 2 .5 km . 5 50 h ectares .

C o lonsay i s much l arger :

I t s a rea i s a pprox i ma te ly

1 3 .5 km a long i t s ma in a x is ( f ro m

SW t o NE ) a nd v arying i n w id th f ro m a bou t 2 11 -t o 5 km .

I t s a rea i s a bou t

4 000 h ec tares . 2 .2

Presen t l andscape B o th i s lands a re f or med o f l ower T orr idon ian s ed i men tary d epos i ts wh ich

h ave b een f o lded a nd wea thered i n to a m in ia ture h igh land l andscape o f r ocky moun ta ins a nd b oggy v a l leys , many c on ta in ing sma l l l akes o r l ochans . moun ta ins a re q u i te l ow i n t er ms o f a bso lu te e leva t ion :

The

t he h ighes t p o in t o n

O ronsay i s B einn O ronsay a t 9 3 m , a nd o n C o lonsay t he h ighes t p o in t i s C amn a n E o in a t 1 43 m. The n or thern p ar t o f O ronsay i s f a ir ly h igh a nd r ocky w i th B e inn Oronsay t o t he wes t a nd a n a rea o f l ow r ocky h i l ls a nd b oggy v a l leys t o t he e as t .

A t

t he f ar e as tern t ip t here i s a n a nc ien t b each s loping t owards t he s ea , b u t s epa ra ted f ro m i tb y h igh c oas ta l d unes .

The s ou thern p ar t o f t he i s land i s l ow-

l y ing a nd c ons is ts l arge ly o f r a ised b each d epos i ts o f b o th p ebbles a nd s and , w i th a w ide a rea o f g rassy macha ir , s o me d unes , af ew r ocky o u tcrops a nd s o me marsh .

The i n terre la t ionsh ips b e tween t he modern a nd a nc ien t d unes

a nd t he middens a re v ery c o mp l ica ted a nd a re t o b e s tud ied b y Dr . D . G i lber tson . S evera l r ad iocarbon d a tes o n s he l ls f ro m w i th in t he p ebble b eaches o f Oronsay h ave b een o b ta ined b y D r . G raha m J ard ine , who h ad d one much r esearch o n t he c orre la t ions b e tween t he r a ised b eaches , t he middens a nd a nc ien t s ea l eve ls ( Jard ine 1 977 e z1 978 ). A l though t here a re d rama t ic s ea c l i f fs o n t he n or th-wes tern s hore o f C o lonsay b e low B e inn B hreac a nd Be inn R iabhach , mos t o f t he c oas t l ine o f b oth t he i s lands i s f a ir ly l ow , a nd t he r ocky h ead lands a re i n terspersed w i th s and a nd p ebble

b eaches b o th a t s ea l eve l a nd a t h e igh ts o f u p t o a bou t 1 1 m ,

a nd o ccas iona l ly , e ven a bou t 2 7 M . O .D.

As t he r ock s ur face o f O ronsay a nd

C o lonsay was s coured c lean o f a l l l oose ma ter ia l b y t he l ast ma in a dvance o f t he Devens ian i ce s hee t , t hese r a ised b eaches mus t h ave b een f or med s ince t he r e trea t o f t he i ce . T he h ighes t p robab ly r epresen t s tor m b eaches t hrown u p d ur ing t he La te G lac ia l p er iod ( Cunn ingha m C ra ig e t a l . 1 911). Brothwell, Don, and Geoffrey Dimbleby. Environmental Aspects of Coasts and Islands. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1981, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541103. 1 65 Downloaded on behalf of 38.67.221.43

1 0 kms

Co l l ie B ige

Co l l ie Mho r

JURA

F igure

2 .

T HE P OSITION O R O RONSAY AND C OLONSAY I N RELATION T O I SLAY A ND J URA

Showing s ome o f t he f eatures m entioned i n t he t ext, a nd the s ea d epths ( in f athoms) a round t he i slands ( 1 fathom = 1 .8 m etres). T he s hallowest water l ies b etween O ronsay a nd I slay, o ff Ardnave P oint. T he m ean l ow water s pring t ide l evel i s s hown by t he d ashed l ine; n ote t hat O ronsay i s j oined t o C olonsay a t l ow water.

Brothwell, Don, and Geoffrey Dimbleby. Environmental Aspects of Coasts and Islands. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1981, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541103. Downloaded on behalf of 38.67.221.43

1 66

2.3 Flora The present flora of the islands consists typically of bog in the upland valleys, with heather on the drier slopes, and grassland and bracken on the coasts and in the better drained inland valleys. However, this open, treeless appearance is rather deceptive: there are rowan trees Sorbus aucuparia and hawthorn Crataegus monogyna scattered about in most parts that are sufficiently sheltered from the south-west wind, and small species of willow (Salix) abound in marshy areas. On Colonsay in very sheltered places many deciduous and some evergreen trees planted in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries still thrive. There are as well two small, dense woods which may well be relicts of · more widespread natural woodland. These are Coille Mhor and Coille Bige on, not surprisingly, the most sheltered coast, the north-eastern (figure . 2). They consist largely of birch Betula sp., small oak trees Quercus sp., rowan trees, and, importantly, hazel nut trees Corylus avellana. Mc Neill also noted aspen Populus tremula, hawthorn and holly Ilex aquifolium. I am indebted to Dr. Gilbertson for the observation that birch is regenerating in the ungrazed valley to the south of Coille Mhor. Oronsay has no woodland-as Frances Murray wrote about the island in 1887, "with the exception of one small rowan tree, there is not ·So much wood to be had as would make a peastake or a porridge-spurtle", (quoted by Loder 1935); but even on Oronsay small willows abound and McNeHl also noted some elder trees Sambucus nigra. Dr. Gilbertson recently noticed two very· stunted oak trees and some rowan trees clinging to the lee side of Beinn Oronsay. Without in any way pre-empting the forthcoming palaeobotanical studies of the islands one can quote evidence for more extended woodland on Colonsay in the past: bog oak and goat willow stumps under the water of Loch Fada (an inland lake) and hazel nuts deep in the adjacent peat (NcNeill 1910). There is evi­ dence of early post-glacial woodland on some western coasts and islands of Britain that are now bare of trees (Spencer 1975) and on some other islands Skye (Birks 1973) and Harris (Evans 1971); so it seems likely that open wood­ land would have been present on the more sheltered parts of Colonsay and pro­ bably on parts of Oronsay as well. The same conclusion has been suggested by Dr. C. Paul from his studies of the assemblages of land molluscs from the sand dunes underlying the middens (Paul 1976). However as Birks (1977) has emphasized, it seems unlikely that any of the more exposed western islands of Scotland would have supported complete woodland cover at any time during the postglacial, so one can envisage a landscape of variegated relief, covered with open vegetation interspersed with woodland-a congenial habitat for many animal species. 2.4 Fauna The most striking feature of the terrestrial vertebrate fauna of Oronsay and Colonsay is the absence of so �any species that are, or were until recently, common on the mainland. According to Loder (1935) there are no amphibians or reptiles, no insectivores, no voles, stoats (Mustela erminea), weasels M. nivalis), wild cats, badgers, foxes, deer or black rats. The polecat (M. putorius) is extinct on Colonsay as in the rest of Scotland, but was said to be plentiful in 1549, and there is a place on Oronsay called polecat hollow Brothwell, Don, and Geoffrey Dimbleby. Environmental Aspects of Coasts and Islands. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1981, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541103. Downloaded on behalf of 38.67.221.43

167

� nam Feocullan). The pine marten (Martes martes) is also missing now, but there are several Gaelic marten place names on Colonsay (such as Leana an Taghain at Baleruminmore). The marten is arboreal in habit so this may be a further indication of greater tree cover in the not too distant past. Rabbits are almost ubiquitous on both islands and cause a great deal of damage, undermining the machair and competing successfully with sheep for grazing. Even the spread of myxomatosis has had little effect. Rabbits were probably introduced from Barra in the eighteenth century and a warren was dug for them near Kiloran (McNeil! 1910). It should be noted that the Gaelic words for rabbit Coinneann, and for warren Choineigh, occur in some place names on Colonsay and Oronsay and presumably postdate the introduction of rabbits to the islands, so the mention of animals in Gaelic place names is no guarantee of their antiquity. The common hare (Lepus capensis) seems to have come and gone, and has perhaps been introduced more than once (McNeill 1910). Not surprisingly house mice (Mus musculus) and brown rats (Rattus norvegicus) are common and must have been introduced. The only other rodent is the field mouse (Apodemus syl�ticus), which may well have been accidentally imported by man (Corbet 1961). It is first recorded on mainland Britain in the Boreal or Atlantic period (Sutcliffe and Kowalski 1976). The only carnivores on the island·s are the semi-marine otters· (LUtra lutra): they are said to be common along the strand between the islands, on the coasts of Colonsay below Baleruminmore and Ardskenish, and below the north-western cliffs, feeding on fish, seabirds and waders. Common seals (Phoca vitulina) are sometimes seen hauled -out on the skerries between Colonsay and Oronsay, but there are no suitable breeding grounds for them in the vicinity. The islets of Eilean nan Ron and Eilean Ghaoideamal (see figure • 1) support notable colonies of the grey, or Atlantic seal (Halichoerus grypus). The breeding colonies are not large: the maximum number of adults counted on both islets together on one day in Sept.ember 1956 was 269, and the total number of pups born in a whole season has been estimated to be between 350 and 400 (Hewer and Backhouse 1960). As well as breeding on the islets in the autumn grey seals haul out at other times of the year on the skerries between the islands, on isolated rocks on the south-west of Colonsay and, particularly when the tide is low, �n the erosional platforms around Eilean nan Ron, when their crying and mooing can be heard over the sound of the surf on most of Oronsay itself. Common rorquals (Balaenoptera ·physalus) are seen in-the -seas round about, and a 7 8-foot blue whale � musculus) was stranded near Bahmhard in July 1916 (Loder 1935). Some records of the vertebrates of Colonsay have been published in the Provisional Atlases of the Amphibia ·and Reptiles and of the Mammals of the British Isles (Arnold 1973 & 1978). These differ slightly from Loder's ac­ count in that the distribution maps, based on records ·of before 1960, include pygny shrews (Sorex minutus), as well as common lizards (Lacerta vivipara) Brothwell, Don, and Geoffrey Dimbleby. Environmental Aspects of Coasts and Islands. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1981, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541103. Downloaded on behalf of 38.67.221.43

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a nd s low wor ms ( Angu is f rag i l is ) f or C o lonsay ,

H owever , s ince t he maps

e xc lude r abbi ts , o t ters a nd b rown r a ts , wh ich c er ta in ly a re p resen t , i ti s c lear t ha t more work o n t he r ecord ing o f t he t erres tr ia l v er tebra tes o f t he i s lands i s n eeded .

N e i ther L oder n or Arno ld men t ion t he h erds o f f era l

g oa ts t ha t l i ve i n t he Ba lnahard r eg ion a nd o n Oronsay. C o lonsay a nd O ronsay h ave a r ich a nd v ar ied b ird p opu la t ion o f b o th r es iden ts a nd migran ts wh ich was l i s ted b y J ohn Bevan a nd L ew is Pa l mer f ro m 1 930 t o 1 933 ( pr in ted i n L oder , 1 935 ) .

Fu l mars ( Fu l marus g lacia l is ) ,

k i t t iwakes ( R issa t r idac tyla ) , g u i l le mo ts ( Ur ia a a lge ) , r azorbi l ls ( A lca t orca ) , a nd many s pec ies o f g u l ls n es t i n h uge n umbers o n t he n or th-wes tern s ea c l i f fs .

Pu f f ins ( Fra tercu la a rc t ica ) were s een o ccas iona l ly , b u t d o n o t b reed .

E ider d ucks ( So ma ter ia . mo l l iss ima ) b reed a l l o ver t he i s lands a nd a re c o mmon ly s een a long t he c oats ; 3 .

t here a re many o ther d ucks a nd waders .

RED DEER R ed d eer b ones a nd a n t lers ( or p ar ts o f a n t lers ) a re q u i te c o m mon i n t he

middens o f Cnoc C o ig , C a is tea l-nan-G i l lean Ia nd Cnoc S l igeach . q ues t ions t ha t t hey r a ise s ee m t o b e :

why a re t here r ed d eer

T he ma in

r e ma ins i n t he

middens , t ha t i s , was u se made o f d eer a nd where were t he d eer o b ta ined f ro m? 3 .1 The u se o f r ed d eer Three ma in u ses o f d eer ( or p ar ts o f d eer ) s ugges t t he mse lves : 1 .

The a n t lers a nd s o me b ones were u sed f or t he manu fac ture o f imp le-

2 .

Ven ison a nd o f fa l were e a ten .

3 .

Deer s k in was u sed ( f or c lo th ing , s he lter o r b oa ts ).

men ts .

There a re o f c ourse many o ther p oss ib le u ses f or many p ar ts o f t he b ody t ha t d o n o t s urv ive i n t he a rchaeo log ica l r ecord , s uch a s s inews , g u ts , wh isk ers a nd s o o n .

T he v ar ious p oss ible u ses a re n o t mu tua l ly e xc lus ive a nd i t

may we l l b e t ha t d eer were u sed f or s o me , o r a l l , o f t hese p urposes .

T h is

c ou ld b es t b e t es ted b y ab one e le men t a na lys is : a .

I fo n ly a n t ler ( e i ther s hed o r u nshed ) a nd b ones u sed t o make t oo ls ( usua l ly me tapod ia ls ) a re r epresen ted o n t he s i te , i ti s o bv ious t ha t t he o n ly u se made o f d eer , a t l eas t a t t he middens t he mse lves , was t oo l manu fac ture .

I n t h is c ase o ne wou ld e xpec t t o f ind t he was te

p roducts o f manu fac ture a s wel l a s t he t oo ls t he mse lves . b .

I fo n ly p r i me mea t b ones , t ha t i s v er tebrae , s capu lae , h umer i , p e lves , a nd t he p rox i ma l e nds o f r ad i i a nd t i b iae ( Uerp man 1 973 ) a re p resen t i t wou ld s ugges t t ha t t he a n i ma ls w ere b u tchered e lsewhere a nd b rough t t o t he s i te f or c onsump t ion .

c .

I ft here i s a n o verpropor t ion o f t he b ones o f t he s ku l l a nd f ee t ( wh ich migh t b e l e f t i ns ide h ides ) i t wou ld s ugges t t ha t d eersk in was b e ing u t i l ized .

d .

I ft he b one e le men ts a re r ando m ly r epresen ted i t wou ld s ee m t ha t t he a n i ma ls were b u tchered a t t he s i te a nd p u t t o av ar ie ty o f u ses . I n t h is c ase i t migh t b e d if f icu l t t o work o u t e xac t ly wha t was b eing d one w i th t he c arcases .

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O ne v ery impor tan t p rov iso t ha t a pp l ies t o a l l b one e le men t a na lys is i s t ha t o f d i f feren t ia l p reserva t ion , i ncorpora t ion a nd r e tr ieva l o f b ones i n a n a rchaeo log ica l d epos i t . B in ford a nd B er tram ( 1 977 ) h ave s hown t ha t b one s urv iva l c an b e g rea t ly a f fec ted b y t he a c t ion o f s caveng ing d ogs , S o f ar d ogs h ave n o t b een s a fe ly i den t i f ied f ro m a ny o f t he O ban ian s i tes , i nc lud ing t hose o n Oronsay , s o t h is may n o t b e i mpor tan t . T hey a lso s howed t ha t l ess d ense b ones a re more l i ke ly t o b e d es troyed i n t he c ourse o f t ime . F ac tors wh ich i n f luence b one s urv iva l a re c o mp l ica ted a nd n o t y e t f u l ly s tud ied , b u t c er ta in ly i nclude pH a nd wa ter a c t iv i ty. T he ma in midden ma ter ia l i s o bv i, ous ly c a lcareous a nd i t s pH w i l l p robably b e c ons is tan t ly h igh , b u t l each ing c an o ccur a nd s o s amp les o f t he m iddens w i l l h ave t o b e a ssessed f or v ar iat i ons i n p H , a nd i t may b e p oss ible t o r e la te t he r esu l ts t o t he d is tr ibu t ion o f v ar ious b one e le men ts w i th in t he middens . D i f feren t ia l r e tr ieva l u ndoubted ly o ccurred i n t he e xcava t ions o f S ym ing ton G r ieve a nd H enderson B ishop a t C noc S l igeach a nd C a is tea l-nan-G i l lean I . A l though much o f t he b one i n C noc C o ig was e x tre mely f rag i le o n e xposure , v ery c arefu l c onso l ida t ion b o th i n s i tu a nd i n t he l abora tory b y J i l l G oud ie a nd o thers h as e nsured t he r e tr ieva l o f a lmos t e very s urv iv ing b one . S iev ing was v arr ied o u t o n s amples s e lec ted o n ap robab l is t ic b as is ( Peacock 1 978 ) a nd g rea t ly e nhanced t he c o l lec t ion o f sma l l b ones , p ar t icu lar ly t hose o f b irds a nd f i sh . T he r e tr ieva l o f t wo l e f t s capho ids ( t iny wr is t b ones ) o f o t ter , g iv ing a m in imu m n umber o f t wo i nd iv idua l o t ters , s hows h ow e f fec t ive t he C noc C o ig e xcava t ion h as b een .

A s econdary

p roble m t ha t c an a f fect b one e le men t a na lys is i s t ha t c er ta in b ones a re more d i f f icu l t t o a ss ign t o s pecies t han o thers , p ar t icu lar ly i ft hey a re i ncomple te . 3 .2 T he s ource o f t he O ronsay r ed d eer b ones a nd t he z oogeography o f O ronsay a nd C o lonsay Where d id t he d eer r epresen ted i n t he O ronsay midden l i ve? o r O ronsay i t se l f , o r o n t he ma in land ( or r a ther o n I s lay o r J ura )?

O n C olonsay , C o lonsay ,

w i th a n a rea a t t ha t t ime o f a bou t 3 ,400 h ec tares , wou ld c er ta in ly b e ap oss ib i l i ty. A ccord ing t o Mi tche l l e t a l . ( 1 977 ) t he m in imum a rea o f wood land r equ ired t o ma in ta in a h erd o r r ed d eer i n E urope t oday i s a bou t 1 ,000 h ect ares , b u t t he a reas u sed t oday i n S co t land c an b e much l ess , p ar t icu lar ly o n i s lands ( M i tche l l , p .c .). I ti s s ugges ted i n s ec t ion 2 .3 t ha t C o lonsay was l i ke ly t o h ave b een c i t i t telarge ly w ooded a nd t he c o mbina t ion o f o pen w ood land a nd o pen g round w i th v ar ied b oundary z ones b e tween t he t wo wou ld a ccord ing t o e v idence q uo ted b y S i m mons ( 1 975 ) b e v ery s u i tab le f or h igh p opu la t ion d ens i t ies o f r ed d eer . I ts ee ms ( n i tche l l e t a l . 1 977) t ha t wha t r ed d eer p art i cu lar ly r equ ire i s w in ter s he l ter , a nd t he c ombina t ion o f t rees a nd a l ands cape o f v ar ied r e l ie f ,i nc lud ing many s he l tered s lopes a nd v a l leys m igh t h ave b een.i dea l .

Oronsay o n i t s o wn s ee ms u n l ike ly t o h ave b een a b le t o s uppor t

ab reed ing p opu la t ion o f r ed d eer a s i t s a rea was o n ly 3 00-400 h ec tares a t t he t ime o f t he max i mum mar ine t ransgress ion , b u t d eer migh t we l l h ave c rossed o ver f ro m C o lonsay o n o ccas ion : a s a modern p ara l le l Dr . B r ian M i tche l l ( p .c .) h as r ecords o f d eer s wimming f or d is tances o f u p t o o ne k i lome tre t o a nd f ro m t he i sa lnd o f S carba ( n ear t he n or thern t i p o f J ura ) . On t he o ther h and i ft he d eer were c augh t o n I s lay o r J ura i t wou ld s ee m l i ke ly t ha t o n ly y oung f awns ( poss ib ly a l ive ) o r a n t lers o r p ar ts o f d ead a du l t d eer w ou ld h ave b een t ranspor ted b y b oa t t o O ronsay . B one e le men t a na lys is c ou ld h elp t o e luc ida te t h is p rob le m , b u t more p os i t ive e v idence wou ld b e Brothwell, Don, and Geoffrey Dimbleby. Environmental Aspects of Coasts and Islands. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1981, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541103. Downloaded on behalf of 38.67.221.43 1 70

e v inced

i fi tc ou ld b e s hown t ha t t he d eer p opu la t ion r epresen ted i n t he mid-

d ens a nd h ypo the t ica l ly h un ted o n C o lonsay d i f fered a na to m ica l ly f ro m t ha t o f I s lay a nd J ura . The most l i ke ly d i f ference wou ld b e sma l ler b ody s ize i n t he C o lonsay p opu la t ion :

g eographica l i so la t ion i s k nown t o l ead t o d im inu t ion i n

l arge u ngu la tes . I tc ou ld b e a rgued t ha t s ince I s lay a nd J ura a re a lso i s lands t he ir r ed d eer wou ld b e s im i lar ly a f fec ted ;

h owever b o th t hese i s lands a re

v ery l arge a nd wou ld h ave b een c apab le o f s uppor t ing many h erds o f r ed d eer , s o i ts s ee ms u n like ly t ha t t he c ond i t ions f or s ize r educ t ion , whe ther g enotyp ic o r p heno typ ic , wou ld h ave a c ted t here , e specia l ly a s t he d is tances b e tween I s lay a nd J ura a nd b e tween J ura a nd t he ma in land a re s o sma l l t ha t g ene t ic i n terchange b e tween t he i s land p opu la t ions a nd w i th t he ma in land d eer wou ld h ave b een q u i te f eas ib le . I ti s h oped t ha t c o mpar isons o f s ize b e tween t he d eer f ound i n t he O ronsay middens a nd c on te mporary d eer r e ma ins f ro m J ura a nd f ro m t he ma in land w i l l h e lp t o e luc ida te t h is p roble m . I fi t were s hown t ha t t he C olonsay d eer were a s epara te p opu la t ion t here wou ld b e t he q ues t ion o f h ow t hey g o t t here . b y man , o r d id t hey s wi m?

Were t hey i nd igenous , o r i mported

T o b e i nd igenous t hey wou ld h ave h ad t o a rr ive i n

t he a rea f ro m t he ma in land a t at ime o f e x tre me l ow s ea l eve l i n e ar ly H o locene t imes .

A t p resen t t he s ha l lowes t wa ters ( a t a bou t 22 m 0 .D.) l i e b e tween t he

s ou th o f Oronsay a nd A rdnav p o in t o n I s lay ( see f igure

. 2 ).

R e la t ive s ea

l eve l i n t h is d is tr ic t i s t hough t t o h ave s tood a t a bou t + 11 m O .D. b etween a bou t 1 1 ,000 a nd 1 0 ,400 b .p . a nd t o h ave d ropped t o a round t he p resen t mean s ea l eve l a t t he b eg inn ing o f t he H o locene ( 10 ,000 b .p. ) , b efore r e turn ing t o a bou t 1 7 m a t t he t ime o f t he ( l oca l ) max i mum H o locene mar ine t ransgress ion . I t s ee ms l i ke ly t here fore t ha t , u n less t here h as b een a marked c hange i n t he s ub mar ine t opography o f t he a rea , C o lonsay a nd O ronsay h ave b een i s lands s ince a t l eas t 1 1,000 b .p . There i s s o me i nd irec t e v idence f or t h is v iew :

al and b r idge a lso s ee ms

u n l ike ly o n z oogeograph ica l g rounds , a s s o many o f t he sma l l c o m mon Br i t ish t erres tr ia l v er tebra tes a re a bsen t f ro m C o lonsay a nd Oronsay ( sec t ion 2 .4 a nd t able 1 ) .

T he miss ing s pec ies e ven i nclude s o me t ha t a re s upposed t o b e l a te

g lac ia l r e l ic ts ( co m mon f rog , a rct ic h are L epus t im idus , a nd s toa t ) a nd mos t o f t he r e ma inder were p resen t a s we l l o n t he ma in land i n t he e ar ly p os tg lacia l ( Gr igson , i n p ress ). T he a bsence o f s o me s pecies f ro m t he i s lands t oday may b e t he r esu l t o f q u i te r ecen t e x t inc t ions ( f or e xamp le t he p o leca t a nd t he p ine mar ten , men tioned a bove ) , b u t t he t ab le s hows h ow r es tr ic ted t he sma l l v er teb ra te f auna o f t he i s lands i s . I t mus t h owever a lso b e r e me mbered t ha t I s lay a nd J ura ( f ro m wh ich t he b u lk o f C o lonsay 's f auna wou ld h ave a rr ived i ft here h ad b een a l and c onnect ion ) a re a lso i s lands , a lbe i t l arge i n a rea , a nd a lso h ave a r es tr ic ted f auna , t hough l ess s o t han t ha t o f C o lonsay.

H owever , a l though t he c hanne ls s epara t ing

t he m a re v ery d eep ,I s lay a nd J ura a re v ery c lose t o e ach o ther , a nd J ura i s c lose t o t he ma in land .

The c o m mon a n i ma ls wh ich a l l f our i s lands l ack a re

t he h edgehog ( Er inaceus e uropaeus ) , t he mo le ( Ta lpa e uropaea , r ed s qu irre l ( Sc iurus v u lgar is ) , wa ter v ole ( Arv ico la t erres t is ) , f ox ( Vu lpes v u lpes _ ) , p ine mar ten ( Mar tes mar tes ) , wease l ( Mus te la n iva l is ) , w i ld c a t ( Fel ls s ilves tr is ) a nd b adger ( Me les me les ) ;

a l l a re p resen t o n t he n earby S co t t ish ma in land

( Arno ld 1 978 ) a nd mos t a re k nown f rom t he e ar ly p os tg lacia l a s we l l ( Gr igson , i n p ress ). Brothwell, Don, and Geoffrey Dimbleby. Environmental Aspects of Coasts and Islands. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1981, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541103.1 71 Downloaded on behalf of 38.67.221.43

TABLE 1

T erres tr ia l v er tebra tes o n C o lonsay c o mpared w i th t hose o f I s lay a nd J ura

I s lay , o r J ura , o r C o lonsay 1 935 ( Loder 1 935 )

b o th , s ince 1 960 ( Arno ld 1 973 & 1 978 )

_ *

P ygmy s hrew ( Sorex minu tus ) C o m mon s hrew ( § . a raneus ) Arct ic h are ( Lepus t im idus ) C o m mon h are

c apens is )

Bank v o le ( C le thr iono mys g lareo lus ) S hor tta i led v o le ( M icro tus a gres t is ) L ongta i led f i e ld mouse ( Apode mus s y lva t icus ) S toa t ( Mus te la e rm inea ) R oe d eer ( Capreo lus c apreo lus ) Red d eer ( Cervus e laphus ) C o m mon f rog ( Rana t e mporar ia ) C o m mon t oad ( Bu fo b u fo ) A dder ( V iv ipara b erus ) S low wor m ( Angu is f rag i l is ) C o m mon l i zard ( Lacer ta v iv ipara )

I t s hou ld b e n o ted t ha t t he c o m mon o t ter ( Lu tra l u tra ) i s n o t i ncluded i n t h is l i s t , a s a l though i ti s c o m mon o n I s lay , J ura , C o lonsay a nd O ronsay , i ti s s em i- mar ine h ere . * r ecorded a s p resen t b etween 1 900 a nd 1 959 ( Arno ld 1 978 ) ; r ecorded a s p resen t b efore 1 960 ( Arno ld 1 973 ).

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1 72

Table 1 emphas izes t ha t t he f auna o f O ronsay a nd C o lonsay l acks many s pecies t ha t e x is t o n t he n e ighbour ing i s lands o f I s lay o r J ura a nd s ugges ts t ha t o n z oogeograph ica l g rounds C o lonsay a nd Oronsay mus t h ave b een s epa ra ted f ro m t he m f or a v ery l ong t ime .

I ft here were d eer l i v ing o n C o lonsay

t hey were n o t i nd igenous a nd mus t h ave e i ther s wum t here o r b een i mpor ted b y man . D eer c an s wi m q u i te l ong d is tances , b u t Oronsay i s 9 .5 km f ro m t he n eares t l and ( I s lay ) , t he s ea b e tween t he m i s s wep t b y f as t t i des a nd i nc ludes . s o i ti s s a id , wh ir l p oo ls ,

I ti s t rue t ha t t h is d is tance m igh t h ave b een r e-

d uced a t at ime when t he s ea l eve l was l ower t han i ti s n ow , p erhaps b e tween t he La te G lacia l a nd A t lan t ic p er iods . Nav iga t ion s ee ms u n l ike ly t o h ave b een t he h igh p o in t o f ad eer 's i n tel lec tua l c apaci ty , b u t t he p oss ibi l i ty o f t he a cc iden ta l a rr iva l b y s ea o f ap regnan t h ind o r t wo c anno t b e r u led o u t . I ti s q u i te p ossible t ha t t he d eer were i n troduced b y man :

f awns , a s

J u l ie t C lu t ton-Brock ( i n p ress ) h as p o in ted o u t , c an e as i ly b e t russed u p a nd c arr ied a bou t i n sma l l b oa ts . I f Meso l i th ic man b rough t d eer t o t he i s lands , c ou ld t h is b e af i rs t s tep t owards c on tro l led h usbandry o r e ven d o mes t ica t ion? Sma l l s ize i n u ngu la tes f ound i n a ssocia t ion w i th man i s u sua l ly t aken t o i ndic a te ' d o mes t ica t ion , b u t o n ly i n t he a bsence o f o ther i so la t ing mechan is ms ( Gr igson 1 969 ) , s o i ft he O ronsay d eer d o t urn o u t t o b e o f r educed s ta ture , t h is c ou ld b e a ccoun ted f or b y t he ir g eograph ica l i so la t ion .

On b ehav ioura l

g rounds r ed d eer a re t he mos t u n l ike ly c and ia tes f or d o mes t ica t ion , b u t t he p oss ib i l i ty o f s o me s or t o f i n ter ference o r c on tro l c anno t b e r u led o u t . 3 .3 R ed d eer , a uks a nd t he p oss ible u se o f C o lonsay b y Meso l i th ic p eop le . The ma in p o in t t o b e l earn t f ro m t h is r a ther t heore t ica l c ons idera t ion o f t he imp l ica t ions o f t he p resence o f r ed d eer b ones i n t he Oronsay middens i s t ha t i n c ons ider ing t he e x ten t o f t he r esource base o f t he i nhab i tan ts o f O ronsay , C o lonsay mus t b e t aken i n to a ccoun t ;

av iew wh ich i s r e in forced b y t he s tudy

o f t he l i ke ly d is tr ibu t ion o f a uk n es t ing s i tes w i th in t he is lands . B ones o f t he n ow e x t inc t g rea t a uk ( P ingu inus i mpenn is ) a re q u i te n ume rous i n t he m iddens ( Bra mwe l l p .c . a nd L aca i l le 1 954 ). A s t hese b irds were p e lag ic , s pend ing mos t o f t he y ear a t s ea , i ts ee ms l i ke ly t ha t t hey wou ld h ave b een o bta ined when a t t he ir mos t c oncen tra ted a nd v u lnerable , t ha t i s when n es t ing o n l and i n Many ,

J une a nd p erhaps e ar ly J u ly ( F isher & L ock ley 1 954 ) .

There a re many l owlying r ocky a reas o f O ronsay a nd i t s n eighbour ing i s le ts t ha t wou ld h ave b een s u i tab le p laces f or t hese c lumsy , f l igh t less b irds t o n es t o n . •

B ones o f t he o ther s pecies o f a uks ( razorbi l ls A lca t orda , g u i l le mo ts

U r ia a a lge a nd p uf f ins F ra tercu la a rct ica ) a re l ess n u merous i n t he m iddens t han t hose o f t he g rea t a uk , a nd i tc ou ld b e a rgued t ha t i n t er ms o f r e la t ive impor tance i n t he d ie t ( t ha t i s c o mpared w i th n on-av ian s ources o f f ood ) t he ir c on tr ibu t ion was n eg l ig ib le .

H owever , t h is d oes n o t mean t ha t t he ir p resence

c an b e d is missed a s f or tu i tous ; p erhaps t hey c ons t i tu ted a l im i ted , s easona l r esource . Aga in i t s ee ms r easonab le t o s ugges t t ha t b e ing c o lon ia l b reeders t hey wou ld h ave b een c augh t when a t t he ir mos t c oncen tra ted , v u lnerab le a nd a ccess ib le , t ha t i s when b reed ing o n l and .

T here a re n o s u i table c l i f fs f or

t he ir c o lon ies o n Oronsay , n or o n t he s ou thern p ar t o f C o lonsay , n or wou ld Brothwell, Don, and Geoffrey Dimbleby. Environmental Aspects of Coasts and Islands. 73 E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1981, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541103.1 Downloaded on behalf of 38.67.221.43

t here h ave b een a ny when t he s ea l eve l was a bou t 7m h igher . T he o n ly p oss ib le b reed ing c l if fs a re t hose where r azorbi l ls a nd g u i l lemo ts ( and many o ther s ea b irds ) b reed t oday , t ha t i s o n t he n or th-wes t c oas t o f C o lonsay b e low Be inn Bhreac a nd B ein Rh iabhach ( s ee f igure . 2 ) . Pu f f ins n o l onger b reed o n O ronsay o r C o lonsay , b u t t here i s ag reen , t ur fy a rea h igh a bove t he s ea c a l led Lama lu m among t he n or th-wes t c l i f fs o f C o lonsay t ha t l ooks a s t hough i tw ou ld h ave b een i dea l f or p u f f in b urrows ;

t here a re n o s uch a reas o n

Oronsay o r o n t he s ou th c oas ts o f C o lonsay. A s t he n eares t p lace t o O ronsay f ro m wh ich t he sma l ler a uks c ou ld h ave b een e as i ly o bta ined was p robably t he s ea c li f fs o f n or th-wes tern C olonsay , i ts ee ms l i ke ly t ha t t he o ther r esources o f t he l arger i s land wou ld a lso h ave b een e xp lo i ted b y t he Meso l i th ic i nhab i tan ts o f O ronsay : p erhaps t hese i nc luded r ed d eer . 4 .

GREY S EALS S ea l b ones a nd t eeth a re f ound i n a l l t he middens f ro m wh ich mam ma l

b ones h ave b een o b ta ined ( Cnoc C o ig , C noc S l igeach , C a is tea l-nan-G i l lean I a nd t he P r iory midden ) . A l though b ones o f t he c o m mon s ea l ( Phoca v i tu l ina ) a nd t he g rey s ea l ( Ha l ichoerus g rypus ) a re men t ioned f rom C noc S l igeach a nd Ca is tea l-nan-G i l lean I ( Laca i l le 1 954 ) ,a l l t hose i den ti f ied f ro m t he n ew e xcav a t ions , a nd f ro m a r e-exam ina t ion o f t he s urv iv ing C noc S l igeach b ones , a re o f t he g rey s ea l . Around t he wes tern c oas ts o f S co t land g rey s ea ls c o me t o l and ( hau l o u t ) i n o rder t o mou l t i n w in ter o r i n e ar ly s pr ing u s ing l owlying r ocks a nd s kerr ies , b u t i ti s o n ly i n t he a u tumn , when t hey b reed o n v ar ious i sola ted i s lands , t ha t t hey a re l and-based i n a ny l arge q uan t i ty a nd a re r e la t ive ly e asy t o a pproach o nf oo t . I n t he s um mer t hey a re more o r l ess d ispersed a t s ea ( Hewer 1 974 ) . A s t here a re s ea lb reed ing c o lon ies o n t he i s le ts n ear O ronsay t oday t he p resence o f t he ir b ones i n t he middens may n ot s ee m s urpr is ing , b u t a t t he t ime o f t he 7 m s ea l eve l E i lean n an Ron wou ld h ave b een u nder wa ter a nd E i lean G hao ideama l wou ld h ave b een v ery sma l l .

Were s ea ls b reed ing

o n o r n ear O ronsay , a nd i fs o where? Wha t r e levance d oes t h is h ave t o t he g eography a nd h is tory o f t he s ea l b reed ing g rounds? T he d egree o f a t trac t iven ess o f s ea ls t o Meso l i th ic man a nd t he i n f luence o f t he l i ke ly s i tua t ion o f t he b reed ing g rounds t o t he d is tr ibu t ion o f t he m iddens w i l l a lso b e d iscussed . 4 .1 L oca t ion o f t he s ea l b reed ing c o lony i n t he A t lan t ic p er iod Fu ture w ork o n t he s ea l b ones f ro m t he m idden w i l l , i ti s h oped , s hed l i gh t o n t he ir s ex a nd a ge a t d ea th a nd h e lp t o s how whe ther s ea ls were c augh t d ur ing t he b reed ing s eason o r when h au led o u t a t o ther t imes o f t he y ear . S ea ls c an a lso b e c augh t i n n e ts a t s ea , b u t g rey s ea ls a re s o e asy t o o b ta in o n l and t ha t t h is s ee ms u nnecessary t o p os tu la te i n a Mesol i th ic c on tex t . Among t he a du l t s ea l b ones i nt he Cnoc C oig ma ter ia l t here i s a n a s tragu lus t ha t i s u ndoubted ly f oe ta l a nd t here a re o ther b ones t ha t s ee m t o b e f rom v ery y oung a n i ma ls , wh ich a l lows o ne t ö s ugges t t ha t b o th y oung a nd a du l t a n ima ls were b eing o bta ined f ro m ab reed ing s i te . The modern p a t tern o fb reed ing b ehav iour o f t he s ea ls o f E i lean n an R on a nd t o al esser e x ten t o f E i lean G hao ideama l h as b een d escr ibed i n s o me d et a i l b y H ewer a nd Backhouse ( 1960 ) a nd H ewer 's ( 1 974 ) c onclus ion was t ha t Brothwell, Don, and Geoffrey Dimbleby. Environmental Aspects of Coasts and Islands. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1981, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541103. 1 74 Downloaded on behalf of 38.67.221.43

t heir b ehaviour o n t hese i s le ts r epresen ts a s pec ia l " Inner H ebr idean" t ype , i n wh ich , a l though t he f e ma les u se t he t iny b eaches a t t he l eve l o f h igh wa ter s pr ings f or p upp ing , t he b u l ls ' t err i tor ies a re t he e ros iona l p la tfor ms t ha t s urround t he i s le ts a nd l i e a t a bou t t he p resen t mean t ide l eve l , t ha t i s t hey a re u nderwa ter a t h igh t i de . H owever o n Oronsay t hese e ros iona l p la t for ms o n ly e x is t a t t ha t p ar t icu lar l eve l , a nd wou ld h ave b een s ub merged a t at ime o f h igher s ea l eve ls , s o a ny b reed ing t err i tor ies a t t ha t t ime wou ld h ave h ad t o h ave b een o rgan ized d i f feren t ly.

A s econd , o r ' Ou ter H ebr idean ', t ype o f

t err i tor ia l i ty Wh ich H ewer d escr ibes i s o ne i n wh ich p upp ing a nd ma le t err it or ies a re we l l a bove t he h igh t i de l eve l o n i s land b eaches a nd o n l ow-lying g rassy o r p ea ty h o l lows t ha t a re e as i ly a ccess ib le f ro m t he s ea .

T here i s a

t h ird t ype where e ven t he h ighes t p ar ts o f q u i te l arge , t hough i so la ted , i s lands a re u sed , s uch a s N or th R ona a nd s o me o f t he Ou ter Farnes , b u t t h is may we l l b e ar e la t ive ly r ecen t r esponse t o t he r ap id ly i ncreas ing s ea l p opu la t ions i n Br i t ish wa ters . I ft here were b reed ing c o lon ies o f s ea ls o n Oronsay i n t he Mesol i th ic i t s ee ms a s t hough t hey wou ld h ave h ad t o b e o rgan ized d i f feren t ly f ro m t oday , p robably i n t he " Ou ter H ebr idean" f ash ion , a s e xe mp li f ied o n t he i s land o f S h i l lay ( Hewer 1 957 ).

I ta lso s ee ms t ha t t he u se o f t he e ros iona l

p la t for ms n ear O ronsay b y s ea ls i s ab ehav ioura l r esponse t o l owered s ea l eve ls d ur ing t he l as t 5 ,000 y ears , a nd o f c ourse t o more i n tens ive u se o f t he i s land b y man . Wh ich p ar ts o f O ronsay c ou ld h ave b een u sed b y b reed ing s ea ls?

One

c an im med ia te ly e xc lude a ny w ide a reas o f g en t ly s loping s andy b each a nd v ery s teep ly s he lv ing r ocky c oas ts , a nd Dubh E i lean c an b ee xc luded a s a ccess t o v ir tua l ly e very d ip a nd g u l ly a round i t s c oas ts i s b locked b y s teep , r a ised , s tor m b eaches .

T he p ebb le s tor m b ars t ha t make u p t he s ou thern t i p o f

Oronsay wou ld n o t h ave b een s u i tab le .

I n t he Ou ter H ebr ides t he s he l tered

e as tern c oas ts a re p re ferred b y s ea ls ;

p oss ible p laces o n O ronsay ( see

f igure . 1)

i nc lude t he r ocky e as tern c oas ts j us t s ou th o f Cnoc S l igeach ( where

n arrow a nc ien t b eaches s lppe s teep ly u p t o g rassy a reas b e low L eaba Mhor ) , t he l ow a rea a round C noc C o ig , a nd t he a rea t o t he s ou th o f C a is tea l-nanG i l lean I , t ha t i s t he s ou th-eas tern s hore b e low Dr ium Mor . t o b e t he mos t l i ke ly s po t i fo ne t akes S h i l lay a s a mode l .

T h is s eems

Af a ir ly s teep

e rs twh i le b each s lopes u p t o a nd b e tween f la t r ocks t ha t were p robab ly b arer t hen t han n ow , a nd t here i s e x tens ive o pen g rass l and b eh ind , c o mp le te w i th ap oss ible p ea t wa l low i n a nd a round t he l ochans .

I ti s p oss ib le t ha t t he who le

o f t he s ou thern p ar t o f O ronsay was a s epara te i s land i n t he Meso l i th ic ,p erh aps c onnec ted t o O ronsay a t l ow t ide b y as andy s trand ( Jard ine 1 977) , b u t t h is wou ld n o t p rec lude t he s e lec t ion o f t h is a rea a s t he mos t l i ke ly b reed ing p lace f or g rey s ea ls a t t ha t t ime . I n tens ive h u man o ccupa t ion o f ab reed ing i s land wou ld s oon f r igh ten t he s eMs a way a nd i t may b e s ign i f ican t t ha t t hree o f t he middens a re o n t he ma in p ar t o f O ronsay .

T he middens o f C a is tea l-nan-G i l lean Ia nd I a re h ow-

e ver o n t he s ou thern p ar t .

S easona l e v idence h as b een o b ta ined f or C a is tea l-

n a t i- G i l lean I a nd s ugges ts t ha t i t was u sed f or f i sh ing i n t he s u m mer ( Me l lars 1 978 & Me l lars & Wi lk inson f or thco m ing ) a nd p oss ibly f or b ird ing i n t he s pr ing ( auks ) ;

i t may we l l b e t ha t p eop le s topped f i sh ing f ro m t he

b reed ing i s land ( or a rea ) i n t he a u tumn a nd u sed i to n ly f or o ccas iona l s ea l h unt ing t r ips . Brothwell, Don, and Geoffrey Dimbleby. Environmental Aspects of Coasts and Islands. 1 75 E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1981, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541103. Downloaded on behalf of 38.67.221.43

I ti s o f c ourse b o th p oss ible a nd l i ke ly t ha t s ea ls h au led o u t o n a nd a round t he O ronsay c oas t i nt he p as t a s t hey d o t oday ( and t he s kerr ies t ha t wou ld h ave e x is ted o nt he wes t o f t he i s land , p ar t icu lar ly a t E i lean a n Uan , wou ld h ave b een s u i table f or t h is ) , s o s ea ls c ou ld h ave b eem o bta ined when h au led o u t i n e ar ly s pr ing . H owever Meso l i th ic man was s ure ly a n o ppor tun is t ( Me l iars 1 976) a nd • wherever . p oss ib le wou ld h ave u sed a n ima l r esources i n p laces a nd a t t imes o f t he y ear when t hey were a t t he ir mos t c oncen tra ted a nd when t hey c ou ld b e o b ta ined w i th a m in ima l i nves tmen t o f t ime a nd e f for t , t ha t i s , when t hey were i n t he ir b reed ing t err i tor ies . 4 .2 Why s ea ls? Laugh l in ( 1 977 ) h as p roduced a l i s t o f t he many u ses t o wh ich s ea ls a re p u tb y E sk i mos ( reproduced i n t ab le 2 ) . Iwou ld l i ke t o s tress t he e f f icacy o f s ea l s k in i n t he c ons truct ion o f b oa ts a nd a s c lo th ing . I ti s s a lu tary t o r e me mber t ha t i t was t he s ubs t i tu t ion o f I nd ia r ubber f or s ea l s k in b oo ts , a nd o f p ara f f in f or s ea l-o i ls , t ha t h e lped t o p u t a n e nd t o t he n ine teen th c en tury p ersecu t ion o f t he g rey s ea l ( Dar l ing 1 940 ). S ea ls a lso p rov ide a l o t o f f ood , t he p ups a re q u i te sma l l , b u t t he a verage we igh t o f a du l t b u l ls i s 2 25 k g ( 4 c w t ) a nd t heir we igh t c an e xceed 6 c w t ( a bou t 3 00 k i los ) ( Pr ime , p .c .).

Mu l t ip le U se o f R esources ( Eume top ia j uba ta N or thern o rS te l ler s ea l i on ) Par t o f An ima l

Par t ia l L is t o f U ses

1 . H ide

C over f or k ayak a nd um iak ;

2 . F lesh 3 . B lubber

F ood , f or h umans

4 . Organs ( hear t , l i ver , s p leen , k idney ) 5 . B ones

F ood ;

l i ne f or h arpoon

e a ten w i th mea t , r endered f or o i l

F ood R ibs f or r oo t d iggers , h umerus f or c lub , b acu lum f or f laker

6 . T ee th

D ecora t ive p endan ts

7 . Wh iskers

D ecora t ion o f w ood h un t ing h a ts a nd v isors

8 . S inew

B ack s inews u sed f or s ew ing , l ash ing , c ordage ( l ess d es irab le t han s inew o f wha le o r c ar ibou )

9 . F l ippers

S o les u sed f or b oo t s o les ; i n f l ipper a nd e a ten

1 0 . P er icard ium

c on ten ts g e la t in ized

1. E sophagus

Wa ter b o t t le , g enera l-purpose c on ta iner P arka , p an ts , l egg ings o f b oo ts , p ouches

1 2 . S to mach

S torage c on ta iner ( e spec ia l ly f or d r ied s a lmon )

1 3 . I n tes t ines

P arka , p an ts , p ouches

TABLE 2 T he u ses made o f p ar ts o f t he N or thern S ea L ion ( Eumetop ia j uba ta ) b y E sk imos . ( Fro m Laugh l in 1 977) .

Brothwell, Don, and Geoffrey Dimbleby. Environmental Aspects of Coasts and Islands. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1981, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541103. 1 76 Downloaded on behalf of 38.67.221.43

5 .

THE ATTRACT IONS OF THE L ITTORAL ZONE AND OF ORONSAY I N PARTICULAR A lan O sbourne ( 1977) h as a t tacked t he i dea t ha t t he l i t tora l z one i n g en-

e ra l was a n a t trac t ive e nv ironmen t f or e ar ly man , a rgu ing t ha t a s ar esource b ase i ti s s econd-ra te , b eing b o th l abourin tens ive a nd l ow -yie ld ing , t o b e u t i l ized o n ly i n t imes o f s easona l s carci ty o rf am ine o r when t he h u man c arrying c apaci ty o f t he a d jacen t l and h ad b een e xceeded .

H e b ased t hese a rgu men ts

l arge ly o n t he r e la t ive q uan t i t ies o f p ro te in p roduced b y t erres tr ia l h erb ivores c o mpared t o mar ine i nver tebra tes :

f or e xamp le i n t he N ew Wor ld 8 3 ,422

muss les y ie ld t he s ame q uan t i ty o f p ro te in a s o ne wh i te-ta i led d eer .

H e g oes

o n t o s how t ha t i n t erms o f p ro te in c on ten t mar ine ma m ma ls a re l ess p roduct ive t han t erres tr ia l h erbivores a nd a re l ess e f f ic ien t s ources o f e nerg y , a s , b eing c arn ivores , t hey a re h igher i n t he f ood c ha in . e n t ire ly o n l oca l c ond i t ions .

Is ugges t t ha t i td epends

Osbourne p o in ts o u t t ha t t he s ea ls o f t he P eruv ian

c oas t ( t ha t i s , t he s ea l i ons ) a re e x tre mely d i f f icu l t t o h un t , a nd t h is c on tras ts w i th t he e ase w i th wh ich g rey s ea ls c an b e c augh t a t t he ir b reed ing s ta t ions . Iwou ld l i ke t o p resen t t he h ypo thes is t ha t , u n l ike s o me o ther mar ine ma m ma ls , g rey s ea ls i n t he b reed ing s eason were a " low-inves t men t , h igh-re turn" r es ource o f t he g rea tes t i mpor tance , a nd t ha t t he h igh c a lori f ic a nd n u tr i t iona l v a lue o f t he ir f a t ( no t t o men t ion i t s many n on-d ie tary d ay-to-day u ses ) was t he s ea ls tchief a l lure men t f or p eop le l i v ing i n c oo l , we t e nv ironmen ts .

I n-

d eed i ti s t he u se o f p ar ts o f t he c oas ts o f O ronsay a nd C o lonsay b y t erres tr ia l b reed ing c o lon ies o f o therwise d i f fused p e lag ic p opo la t ions o f b irds a nd ma mma ls t ha t mus t h ave f or med t he i s lands ' ma in a t trac t ion f or Meso l i th ic h un ters . I s lands a nd c oas t lines o f c o mp l ica ted t opography h ave t he a dded a dvan tage o f al ong s hore l i ne r e la t ive t o t he a rea o f l and w i th in a g iven t err i tory ( Me l iars 1 978 ) , a nd t he v ar iega ted , g en t ly s lop ing , r ocky s hores o f O ronsay a nd t he s ou th-wes t o f C o lonsay w i th t he ir h uge l impe t a nd c rus tacean p opu la t ions wou ld h ave p rov ided a d ependable , i fn o t v ery n u tr i t ious s ource o f f ood , p art icu lar ly a t t imes o f s easona l o r o ccas iona l s carci ty o r when r ough s eas p reven ted f i sh ing , b ird ing o r s ea l ing . I fo ne a dds t he e co tona l n a ture o f t he S co t t ish c oas t l ine w i th i t s o pport un i t ies f or t he e xp lo i ta t ion o f r ocky a nd s andy s hores , i nshore s eas a nd c li f f n es t ing s i tes , a s we l l a s o f t he t erres tr ia l p lan ts a nd a n i ma ls o f t he h in ter land , o r i n t h is c ase , o f t he i n ter ior o f t he i s lands , o ne i s s ure ly a pproach ing a s i tua t ion t ha t was i n many ways i dea l f or h un ters a nd g a therers . t here were t he s ea ls :

And o f c ourse

i n n o way c ou ld t he r esources a nd e nv ironmen t o f

Oronsay b e d escr ibed a s s econd-ra te . 6 .

S U M MARY T he ma in a l terna t ive h ypo theses r egard ing t he p resence o f r ed d eer b ones

i n t he Oronsay middens a re ( 1 ) t ha t t hey c a me f ro m a n i ma ls l i v ing o n C o lonsay , a nd ( 2 ) t ha t t hey c ame f ro m a n i ma ls l i v ing o n I s lay o r J ura .

I n t he c ourse o f

d iscuss ion o f t hese h ypoh teses i tb eca me c lear t ha t C o lonsay s hou ld b e i nc lud ed when a ssessing t he l i ke ly r esource b ase o f t he Meso l i th ic i nhab i tan ts o f O ronsay , a nd t ha t b o th t he p resen t u nderwa ter t opography a round t he i s lands a nd t he ir v ery l im i ted t erres tr ia l f auna s ugges t t ha t C o lonsay a nd O ronsay h ave b een i so la ted s ince b efore t he b eg inn ing o f t he H o locene . I ti s h oped t ha t b one e le men t a na lys is a nd a c o mpar ison o f t he s ize o f t he r ed d eer b ones Brothwell, Don, and Geoffrey Dimbleby. Environmental Aspects of Coasts and Islands. 1 77 E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1981, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541103. Downloaded on behalf of 38.67.221.43

f ro m b o th t he o ld a nd t he n ew e xcava t ions w i th t hose f ro m c on te mporary s i tes o n J ura a nd t he ma in land w i l l a l low t hese h ypo theses t o b e t es ted , a nd w i ll a lso h e lp t o e s tab l ish whe ther t he d eer were u sed p r i mar i ly a s as ource o f b one a nd a n t ler f or t oo ls o r whe ther t hey were e a ten a s we l l . I ti s s ugges ted t ha t a s g rey s ea ls were p robab ly b reed ing o n Oronsay i t se l f t hey were h un ted t here i n t he b reed ing s eason ;

t h is h ypo thes is w i l l b e

t es ted b y s tudying t he a ge d is tr ibu t ion o f t he s ea l b ones i n t he C nog C o ig midden . 7 .

ACKNO WLEDGE MENTS T he h e lp a nd c r i t ic is m o f e ar l ier d ra f ts o f t h is p aper b y P au l Me l lars ,

G raha m J ard ine , D . B . G i lber tson , J ohn P r i me a nd K . M. Backhouse , a re g ra te fu l ly a cknowledged ; o wn .

t he r espons ibi l i ty f or t he v iews e xpressed i s my

It hank D on Bra mwe l l f or a ccess t o u npubl ished i n forma t ion o nb ird

b ones .

T h is e ssay i s d ed ica ted t o J oe Banks , who wa lked t he i s lands w i th me .

B IBLIOGRAPHY Anderson , J ., 1 898 .

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a t Dr iumvarg ie , O ban ; S oc. An t iq . S co t . 3 2 : Arno ld , H . R .,

a nd o f t hree s he l l mounds i n O ronsay.

( Ed .) , 1 973 .

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( i n p ress ).

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5 2-108 .

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1 037-1040 .

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t he

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S e t t le men t i n N eo l i th ic a nd Ear ly Bronze Age Br i ta in a nd E urope . P p . 2 7-73 .

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( A lca i m e nn is , L inn .).

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The Do mes t ica t ion a nd Explo i ta t ion o f p lan ts a nd a n ima ls .

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( i n p ress ) .

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t he Env ironmen t .

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g rypus , F ab .) P roc. Z oo l . S oc. L ond . 1 28 : Hewer , H . R ., . 1 974 .

Br i t ish S ea ls .

2 3-66.

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o f g rey s ea ls , H a l ichoerus g rypus , Fab. i n t he s ou thern I nner H ebr ides . Proc . Z oo l . S oc . L ond . 1 34: J ard ine , W. G ., 1 977.

1 57-195 .

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1 38-140 .

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Na ture 2 67:

al esson i n i n terpre ta t ion a nd d educ t ion .

1 83-196.

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London . Laugh l in , W. S ., 1 977.

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i ts e vo lu t ionary i mpor tance . Man t he Hun ter .

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P p. 3 04-320 .

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C olonsay a nd O ronsay i n t he I s les o f Argyl l , t he ir

h is tory , f l ora , f auna a nd t opography. McNe i l l , M„ 1 910 .

C h icago .

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C o lonsay , i t s P lan ts , C l i ma te , G eo log y , e tc . D oug las ,

Ed inburgh . Me l lars , P ., 1 976.

S e t t le men t p a t terns a nd i ndus tr ia l v ar iabi l i ty i n t he

Br i t ish Meso l i th ic .

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P p . 3 75-

Duckwor th , L ondon .

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E xcava t ion a nd e cono m ic a na lys is o f Meso l i th ic s he l l

middens o n t he i s land o f O ronsay ( I nner Hebr ides ).

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P p. 3 71-396.

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c a t ion o f s easona l o ccupa t ion i n Meso l i th ic s he l l m iddens . Mi tche l l , B ., S ta ines , B . W. 8 z We lch , D ., 1 977.

E co logy o f Red Deer .

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The n on- mar ine mo l lusca o f C o lonsay a nd O ronsay. 1 07-110.

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ac ase

I n C herry , J ., G a mb le , C . 8 z

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T he e co log ica l s e t t ing o f man i n t he H igh land Z one ,

I n E vans , J . G ., L i mbrey , S . 8 zC leere , H . ( eds .) , T he e f fec t o f man o n t he l andscape : t he H igh land Z one . Repor t n o . 1 1 , L ondon .

P p . 5 7-63 .

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S penser , P . J ., 1 975 . H abi ta t c hange i n c oas ta l s and-dune a reas : t he mo l luscan e v idence , i n : E vans , J . G ., L imbrey , S . &C leere , H . ( eds .) , The e f fec t o f man o n t he l andscape :

t he H igh land Z one .

P p . 9 6-103 .

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P le is tocene r oden ts o f t he Br i t ish

Bu l l . B r i t . Mus . Na t . H is t . _ ( Geo l .) 2 7 , n o . 2 .

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A n i ma l b one f inds a nd e cono m ic a rchaeo log y :

c r i t ica l s tudy o f T os teo-archaeo log ica l ' me thod .

Brothwell, Don, and Geoffrey Dimbleby. Environmental Aspects of Coasts and Islands.1 80 E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1981, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541103. Downloaded on behalf of 38.67.221.43

Wor ld Arch . 4 :

a

3 07-322 .

THE U SE OF F ISH I N RESOURCE S CHEDUL ING AND S EASONAL ITY S TUD IES I N TE MPERATE LATITUDES B y M . Wi lk inson

" fauna l r esearch c er ta in ly s hou ld b e d irec ted a long a n u mber o f p a ths o f i nqu iry i n d e ter m in ing t he s easona l i ty o f e xp lo i ta t ion"

( Sm i th

1 976 , 2 90 ). The s easona l v ar ia t ion . o f c l i ma te i n t e mpera te r eg ions e xer ts a ma jor i n f luence o n t he a va i lab le f ood s upp ly f or t he h u man , a nd a n i ma l , p opu la t ions t ha t l i ve t here .

I n r esponse t hey h ave d eve loped a r ange o f b ehav ioura l

a dap ta t ions t o d ea l w i th t h is s i tua t ion , t he mos t w idespread o f wh ich i nclude : ( i ) t he r es tr ict ion o f p opu la t ion s ize t o al eve l t ha t c an b e s uppor ted d ur ing t he p er iod o f l eas t a va i labi l i ty ;

( i) i n tens i f ica t ion o f t he e xp lo i ta t ion s ys te m ;

( i i i ) b roaden ing o f t he s ubs is tence b ase t o i nclude a dd i t iona l r esources ; e xp loi ta t ion o f al arger t err i tory ;

( i v )

( v ) o r t he d eve lop men t o f f ood s torage

t echn iques . A l mos t a l l o f t hese r esponses e n ta i l s o me s easona l v ar ia t ions i n t he e xp lo i ta t ion o f r esources , a nd a rchaeo log is ts h ave s hown i ncreas ing i n teres t i n u nders tand ing s uch p a t tern ing .

A l though t h is i n teres t h as b een mos t a pparen t

i n s tud ies o f g roups w ith f ood-co l lec t ing e cono m ies ( hun t ing , g a ther ing a nd f i sh ing ) , i ti s a lso f undamen ta l t o f ood-produc ing s ys te ms .

The l abour r e-

q u ire men ts o f c rop-product ion a re h igh ly s easona l a nd t hey h ave a v ery r est r icted p er iod o f y ie ld , wh i le t he s a me c an a pply t o s tock .

I n many i ns tances

f ood s torage h e lps t o o verco me t hese f luc tua t ions i n y ie ld f or f ar m ing g roups , wh i le t he l ow l eve l o f i t s a dop t ion i n mos t f ood-co l lec t ing e cono m ies r esu l ts i n much g rea ter s easona l p a t tern ing .

Var ia t ion i n t he p roduc t iv i ty o f p oten t ia l

f oods t hrough t he y ear i s r esponded t o b y s pec ia l isa t ion o n r esources , o r b y d ivers i f ica t ion t o i nc lude a r ange o f f oods , b o th o f wh ich u sua l ly e n ta i l t he o ccupa t ion o f more t han o ne s i te d ur ing t he c ourse o f t he y ear . " The g a therer-hun ter-f isher s ubs is tence s ys te m i s u sua l ly a s easona l c ircu i t o r a l terna t ion o f s uccess ive s i tes a nd t he ir c a tch men t a reas , wh ich e xp lo i t v ar ied c o mbina t ions o f p roduc t ive e co log ica l s ectors" ( C larke , 1 976, 4 69 ). Wi th t h is i n m ind n o s tudy o f t he e cono my o f f ood-co l lec t ing p opu la t ions c an h ope t o u nders tand t he p a t terns p resen ted w i thou t c ons ider ing s easona l v ar ia t ions i n t he s ubs is tence s tra tegy . MODELLING S UBS ISTENCE S TRATEG IES B efore c onsider ing t he s easona l p a t tern ing o f f i sh e xp loi ta t ion , i ti s u sef u l t o o u t l ine t he p r incip les u sed i n t he mode l l ing o f s ubs is tence s ys te ms , wh ich a pp ly b o th t o t he s easona l u se o f p ar t icu lar r esources a nd t o t he o vera l l p ropor tions i n wh ich t hey a re e xp lo i ted . Brothwell, Don, and Geoffrey Dimbleby. Environmental Aspects of Coasts and Islands. 1 81 E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1981, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541103. Downloaded on behalf of 38.67.221.43

The a im o f t he me thod i s :

" to e va lua te t he mos t f avourab le p er iods f or e xp lo i t ing t he d if feren t s pec ies f ro m ab io log ica l a s we l l a s ah un t ing-s tra teg ic p oin t o f v iew" ( M ikke lsen , 1 978 , 8 9 ) . F or t h is a n umber o f b ehav ioura l f ea tures o f t he r esource a re c ons idered , t oge ther w i th c er ta in c u l tura l e le men ts o f t he e xp lo i ta t ive p opu la t ion , t o e s tabl ish t he mos t e f f ic ien t s ys te m o f e xp lo i ta t ion . Mos t s tud ies a ppear t o a gree o n t he c r i ter ia t hey c ons ider f undamen ta l i n s uch d ecis ion- mak ing : 1 . M ikke lsen ( 1 978 ) c ons idered c hanges i n a n ima l d ens i t ies , b ehav iour p a t terns a nd t he a va i labi l i ty o f a n ima ls t o p eop le. P o iner ( 1 976 ) , i n ac o mpara t ive s urvey o f c oas ta l h un ter-ga therers , i den t i f ied t he r ange o f r esources a va i lab le , t he ir a bundance a nd t he ir p red ictab i l i ty; a ccess ibi l i ty i s a lso a n i mpor tan t f ac tor b u t i s r e la ted t o t he o ther v ar iables a nd t o t he a va i lable t echno log y. Bu l mer 's ( 1 976) s tudy o f t he Ka lam o f N ew G u inea f ound t ha t t he e x ten t t o wh ich r esources were u t i l ised d epende 'd u pon t heir p opu lat i on d ens i ty ; t he e x ten t a nd p rox im i ty o f t he ir h abi ta ts t o t he h o mes tead ;

t he d egree o f d o mes t ica t ion ;

t he ir h abi ts , i n t erms o f whe ther

t hey were e asy o r d i f f icu l t t o c ap ture ; t he s k i l ls , k nowledge a nd t echno log y a va i lab le ; t he s easons i n wh ich t hey w ere h un ted ; a nd t he e cono m ic a nd r i tua l v a lues a t tached t o t he m . i v .

J och im ( 1 976 ) r ecogn ises t wo ma jor g oa ls t o b e a ch ieved i n r esource u se s chedu l ing : t he r e l iabi l i ty o f r esources a nd t he l im i t ing o f e f for t . Each o f t hese a i ms c an b e d escr ibed i nt erms o f an umber o f a t tr ib u tes h e a ss igns t o e ach r esource :

w e igh t , d ens i ty , a ggrega t ion

s ize , mobi l i ty a nd n on- f ood y ie ld . R e l iab i l i ty

= w e igh t xn on-food y ield x d ens i ty mobi l i ty

L im i t ing o f - we igh t xn on-food y ie ld x a ggrega t ion s ize mobi l i ty e f for t I n a dd i t ion h e p roposes s evera l s econdary g oa ls , s uch a s g oodtas t ing f oods , f oods w i th a h igh f a t c on ten t , v ar ie ty , p res t ige a nd ma in tenance o f s ex r o les , a nd a lso i nc ludes ' cu l tura l ' f ac tors l i ke f ood s torage , i mposed l im i ta t ions o n p rocure men t a nd a ids t o p rocure men t . T he r ank ing u sed b y J och im i l lus tra tes o ne o f t he d i f f icu l t ies i n s uch mode l l ing . T hey a re a l l b ased o n o p t im isa t ion a nd e nergy e f f ic iency , a nd s o t end t o b e b iased t oward t he p roduc t ion s ide o f t he mode l . R esource u se s chedu l ing i s b ased o n d ecis ion- mak ing a nd o f ten i nc ludes a s er ies o f p oss ible o p t ions f avour ing a l terna t ive g oa ls . F or i ns tance , s tabi l i ty a nd r e l iab i l i ty may b e o f p ar t icu lar i mpor tance i n c er ta in e nv ironmen ts a nd w i l l f avour a ' g enera l ised ' e cono my a s o pposed t o a more e f f ic ien t ' s pec ia l ised ' r eg ime o f o pt i ma l e xp lo i ta t ion .

T h is c an b e i l lus tra ted f ro m t he c o mbina t ion o f

f i sh ing a nd f arm ing i n c rof t ing e cono m ies ( Cou 1 1 11 971 ) . I n N orway t he t wo a c t iv i t ies h ave b een e as i ly i n tegra ted , w i th mos t f i sh ing a ct iv i ty i n w in ter when t he d e mands o f f ar m ing a re l eas t , w hereas i n S co t land t he s ummer f i sh ing p laces a h eavy b urden o n t he p opu la t ion w i th much o f t he f armwork Brothwell, Don, and Geoffrey Dimbleby. Environmental Aspects of Coasts and Islands. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1981, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541103. 1 82 Downloaded on behalf of 38.67.221.43

f a l l ing o n t he wo men ( Gran t , 1 961 , 2 62 ) ;

h owever , b o th o f t hese s i tua t ions

may b e r e f lec t ing c o m merc ia l p ressures r a ther t han s ubs is tence d ec is ions ( Cou l l i1 971;

P a ine , 1 957 , 1 01 ) .

T he p rob le ms i nheren t i n t ry ing t o r ank

g oa ls c an b e s um mar ised i n af ur ther q uo ta t ion : " dura t ion o f a va i labi l i ty , s eason o f a va i labi l i ty a nd c ongruency o f f ish w i th o ther r esources wou ld d e ter m ine t he d egree t o wh ich a nad ro mous f ish wou ld b e e xp lo i ted b y h u mans , r egard less o f a bundance" ( Scha lk , 1 977 , 2 42 ). THE ANNUAL CYCLE OF F ISH EXPLO ITAT ION The mos t i mpor tan t f ac tors i n d e ter m in ing t he i n tens i ty w i th wh ich a r es ource i s e xp lo i ted a ppear t o b e i t s a bundance , p red ic tabi l i ty a nd a ccessi b i l i ty , a nd i t s r e la t ionsh ip t o o ther r esources .

B efore t hese a re c ons idered

s o me b as ic c ons idera t ions a re o f r e levance . F irs t ly , f i sh ing mus t b e r egarded e ssen t ia l ly a s a' hun t ing ' a c t iv i ty where c on tro l o ver t he e nv ironmen t a nd t he r esource i s s tr ict ly l im i ted ( Andersen & Wade l , 1 972 , 1 53 ).

S econd ly , i t

may b e mis lead ing t o t rea t f i sh a s as ing le r esource , a s t he b ehav iour p a t terns o f s pec ies d o v ary c ons iderab ly.

T he f ina l p o in t , o f d irect impor tance t o

t he a nnua l c ycle , i s t ha t f i sh a re c o ld-blooded a nd s o t he ir me tabo l is m e tc . i s c lose ly r e la ted t o t he t e mpera ture o f t he s urround ing wa ter .

H ence t he

a nnua l c l i ma t ic c ycle i n t e mpera te r eg ions p roduces a marked s easona l p a t tern ing i n t he l i fe o f f i shes . Turn ing t o t he f our c r i ter ia l i s ted a bove , v ery l i t t le c an b e made o f t he r e la t ionsh ip t o o ther r esources a s t h is d epends a s much o n e x terna l f ac tors a s o n t he i n tr ins ic q ua l i t ies o f t he r esource ;

i n t er ms o f t he a nnua l p a t tern

t he mos t i mpor tan t p o in t i s whe ther r esources c an b e u sed c onsecu t ive ly , o r a re c o inc iden t a nd t here fore r equ ire p r ior i ty d ecis ions . A ccess ibi l i ty: Th is w i l l d epend u pon t he a va i lable t echno logy a nd t he s pecies b e ing s ough t , b u t g enera l ly t he b es t l oca t ions t o min i mise e f for t a nd r isk a re t hose c loses t t o t he s hore o r i n s ha l low/Con f ined s tre tches o f wa ter .

R egard-

l ess o f t he a va i labi l i ty o f t he f i sh t here i s a lso t he i n f luence o f s uch f actors a s wea ther o n t he f i sh ing e f for t ( Landberg , 1 975 , 1 59 ). Pred ic tabi l i ty :

T he t wo ma jor c o mponen ts o f t h is a re t he o vera l l s tabi l i ty o f

t he s ys te m a nd t he r egu lar i ty o f t im ing w i th in t he c ycle .

A qua t ic e nv iron-

men ts a re g enera l ly f a ir ly s table , p ar t icu lar ly t he mar ine s ys te m ( Odu m , 1 975 , 1 71 ) , a nd t h is a pp l ies a lso t o t he ir f i sh p opu la t ions .

T he v ery marked

r egu lar i ty o f e ven ts i n t he a nnua l l i fe o f f i shes h as b een s tressed b y s evera l a u thors a nd mus t b e c losely r e la ted t o t he ir d ependence o n t he t e mpera ture o f t he s urround ing wa ter ( Cush ing f1 969 ;

S cha lk , 1 977).

Abundance :

There a re t wo ma in s i tua t ions t ha t r esu l t i n p er iods o f max i mum

a bundance .

T he f i rs t a pp l ies o n ly t o o pen wa ter s ys te ms a nd i s t he t ime when

t he l arges t n u mber o f i nd iv idua ls a re t o b e f ound i n a n a rea , i nc lud ing a ny migra tory p opu la t ions .

T he o ther i s a sma l ler s ca le r epe t i t ion o f t he f irs t

a nd i s b ased o n t he c ongrega t ion o f i nd iv idua ls w i th in t he a rea .

I n b o th t he

r esu l t i s t o min im ise t he a rea t ha t h as t o b e s earched t o l oca te t he r esource .

83 Brothwell, Don, and Geoffrey Dimbleby. Environmental Aspects of Coasts and Islands. 1 E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1981, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541103. Downloaded on behalf of 38.67.221.43

T he mos t i mpor tan t p o in t a bou t a l l o f t hese a t tr ibu tes i s t he ir marked s easona l v ar iabi l i ty. Any i n tens ive e xp lo i ta t ion o f t he r esource i s l i ke ly t o b e c oncen tra ted o n t he t imes when t he f i sh a re p resen ti ngrea tes t q uan t i ty , a re mos t a ccess ib le a nd i n g ood c ond i t ion . s i tua t ions a re r espec t ive ly f ound when :

I n t erms o f f i sh b ehav iour t hese

i . f i sh a ggrega te e i ther t o t ake a dvan tage o f f avourable c ond i t ions ( as o n s pawn ing a nd f eed ing g rounds ) , o r when t hey u nder take migra t ions a nd s o p ass t hrough ab ody o f wa ter i n l arge n umbers . i . t hey e n ter i nshore o r s ha l low wa ters ;

t hese o f fer p ro tect ion a nd r ich

f ood r esources , a nd a re t here fore v ery a t trac t ive t o f i sh , a s we l l a s b e ing t he mos t e as i ly a ccess ible t o f i shermen . i i . t hey a re i n p r ime c ond i t ion ;

f i sh u ndergo c ons iderab le c hanges i n we igh t

e tc ., w i th p eaks i n ' cond i t ion ' a f ter f eed ing , a nd p r ior t o ma jor e ven ts s uch a s s pawn ing a nd m igra t ions . I n many i ns tances s o me o r a l l o f t hese c ond i t ions a re c o inc iden t , i nd ic a t ing c lear o pt i ma l p er iods f or i n tens ive e xp lo i ta t ion . N o a t te mp t w i l l b e made h ere t o o f fer a d e ta i led a ccoun t f or a ny o ne s pec ies o r a rea , b u t i n g ene ra l t er ms c er ta in c ircums tances c an b e i den t i f ied : S pawn ing : One o f t he mos t i mpor tan t p o in ts a bou t t h is e ven t i s t he p red ic tabi li ty o f i t s t im ing ( Cush ing , 1 969 ) ; mos t s pecies s pawn i n t he s pr ing o r e ar ly s ummer , a par t f ro m s o me o f t he s a lmon ids who l ay t he ir e ggs i n t he a u tumn . F or many s pec ies i ti s a ssoc ia ted w i th a ggrega t ion o n s pawn ing g rounds a nd may b e p receded o r f o l lowed b y m igra t ion . I n al arge n umber o f c ases t hese g rounds a re i n s ha l low wa ters ; t he mos t e x treme e xamp les o f t h is a re a nad ro mous f i shes l i ke t he s a lmon t ha t l i ve i n t he s ea b u t e n ter f reshwa ter t o s pawn . A s t he t ime f or s pawn ing a pproaches mos t f i sh a re i n g ood c ond i t ion , w i th a h igh f a t c on ten t a s w e l l a s t he r oe wh ich i s ad es irable p roduct f ro m many s pecies . F eed ing :

B ehav iour d ur ing t he ma in s um mer f eed ing p er iod i s more v ar iable ,

b u t many s pecies a ggrega te e i ther i n s hoa ls i n o pen wa ter o r o n f eed ing g rounds ; t he c ond i t ion a nd we igh t o f t he f i sh i ncreases t hrough t he f eed ing s eason . T hese f avoured s i tua t ions a re c oun terba lanced b y p er iods o f l ow a va i lab i l i ty . F or many f i sh t h is i s t he w in ter when l ow t e mpera tures i nh ib i t a c tiv i ty a nd l im i t t he f ood s upp ly ; s o me s pecies b eco me i nac t ive a t t h is t ime wh i le o thers d isperse i n to d eeper wa ters .

Win ter i s a lso t he s eason when

i nc le men t wea ther i s l i ke ly t o u pse t f i sh ing a ct iv i ty t o t he g rea tes t e x ten t . Two f ina l p o in ts o ugh t t o b e made t o b roaden t he s cope o f t h is d iscussion . I th as b een b ased o n t he p a t terns o f b ehav iour o f i nd iv idua l s pec ies a l though mos t f i sh f aunas a re m ixed . T he s econd p o in t i s t ha t t he d iscuss ion h as c oncen tra ted o n a n ' i n tens ive ' f i shery , where i ti s p ossib le t o a ssume t ha t o p t ima l e f f ic iency i s i mpor tan t ;

o n ad i f feren t l eve l , where f ish i s u sed t o

s upp le men t t he d ie t , p rov ide v ar ie ty o r make u p as hor t fa l l i n r egu lar f oods , s uch c r i ter ia n eed n o t b e a pp l icab le .

Brothwell, Don, and Geoffrey Dimbleby. Environmental Aspects of Coasts and Islands. 1 84 E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1981, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541103. Downloaded on behalf of 38.67.221.43

ARCHAEOLOG ICAL APPLICAT ION OF RESOURCE S CHEDULING T he l i s t ing o f s pec ies a nd t he ir i n ferred s eason o f e xp lo i ta t ion i s t oo f am i l iar i n t he a rchaeo log ica l l i tera ture t o r equ ire i l lus tra t ion , b u t i ti s n otewor thy t ha t f i sh a re o ne o f t he p r i me s ources f or s uch i n terpre ta t ions . The me thod u sua l ly r el ies u pon t he mos t o bv ious t ime o f c ap ture o f i nd iv idua l s pec ies , a nd s o me t imes o n t he a bsence o f p ar t icu lar f i sh , b u t c an b e e x tend ed t o e xam ine a ssoc ia t ions o f s pecies o r t he b ehav iour o f s pec i f ic a ge g roups . A l l o f t hese s tud ies a ssume t ha t e xp lo i ta t ion o ccurred a t a n ' op t i ma l ' p er iod a nd make u se o f modern b ehav iour p a t terns , a l though n e i ther o f t hese a ssumpt ions i s n ecessar i ly v a l id .

T he p oss ibi l i ty o f f i sh ing a t o ther t imes o f t he y ear

i s s o me t i mes men t ioned ( Kae las , 1 976 , 1 34 ) b u t d eserves g rea ter c ons iderat ion .

S o me i nd ica tion o f whe ther a l terna t ive s tra teg ies were i n o pera t ion

may b e g a ined f ro m t he n a ture o f t he f i sh r e ma ins a nd t he o ther r esources e xp loi ted .

The q uan t i ty o f f i sh , t oge ther w i th t he d ivers i ty o f s pec ies c an

i nd ica te t he i n tens i ty o f t he f i sh ing a ct iv i ty , a nd t he s easona l i ty o f t he o ther f oods may p o in t t o t he t ime o f f i sh ing . I ti s n ecessary t o s tress t he p o in t t ha t , w i th c er ta in e xcep t ions , mos t s pecies h ave a l ong s eason d ur ing wh ich t hey c an b e c augh t ( abso lu te a va i lab i l i ty) w i th a much s hor ter p er iod f or o p t i ma l e xp lo i ta t ion ( re la t ive a va i labi l i ty) ; t herefore i n terpre ta t ions u s ing t he l a t ter a re o n ly s ta te men ts o f p robabi l i ty . Th is r a ises t wo p o in ts n e i ther o f wh ich h as b een f u l ly i nves t iga ted ;

f irs t ly

t here i s an eed t o c ons ider e xp lo i ta t ion s tra teg ies n o t b ased o n o pt im isa t ion , a nd s econd ly t here i s t he p oss ib i l i ty o f q uan ti fy ing t hese p robab i l i t ies .

B y

c a lcu la t ing t he p ropor t ion o f t he a nnua l c a th t aken i n e ach mon th t he l i ke l ihood o f c ap ture a t a ny t ime o f t he y ear c an b e e s t i ma ted ;

t h is c ou ld b e b ased u pon

k nown f i shery s ta t is t ics ( Leach , 1 979 ) o r o n e co log ica l mode l l ing ( Joch im , 1 976) . The g enera l p a t tern o f f i sh e xp lo i ta t ion p resen ted b y J och im a grees w i th t he c onc lus ions r eached a bove , b u t t here a re a n u mber o f p o in ts t ha t d eserve c ons idera t ion .

T he mos t i mpor tan t o f t hese i s t he i nc lus ion o f a l l f i sh w i th in

as ing le r esource g roup , when s pecies w i th d i f feren t b ehav iour p a t terns , s izes e tc . a re o bv ious ly r epresen ted .

I n t h is c on tex t i ti s w or th n o t ing t he u nder-

e s t i ma t ion o f t he a u tumn-spawn ing f i shes i n t he mode l l ing o f t he R ound Lake O jibwa s ys te m ( 44 ) .

F o l low ing f ro m t h is i ti s p oss ible t o q ues t ion t he ' average '

v a lues t ha t a re u sed f or t he r esource a t tr ibu tes .

Th is i s n o t t o q ues t ion t he

v a lue o f r esource u se s chedu l ing b u t t o s ugges t t ha t i tb e a pp l ied i n r a ther g rea ter d e ta i l i n f u ture mode l l ing . A t t he s ame t ime i ti s c lear t ha t t here i s an eed t o d eve lop a l terna t ive methods f or d e term in ing s easona l i ty.

T he v ar ious l i nes o f s uch e nqu iry

a re s um mar ised b y Sm i th ( 1976 , 2 88 ) : i . n iche r econs truc t ion o f a n i ma l s pec ies . i . i i .

r esearch i n to e thnoh is tor ica l r ecords . d irec t a rchaeo log ica l e v idence f or s easona l i ty.

The f irs t o f t hese c overs t he mode l l ing o f r esources c ons idered a bove a nd t he s econd n eeds l i t t le e xp lana t ion .

T he f ina l s ource h as r ece ived l eas t a t ten t ion

a nd o n ly f or s he l l f ish h as i t s p o ten t ia l b een a pprec ia ted . Brothwell, Don, and Geoffrey Dimbleby. Environmental Aspects of Coasts and Islands. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1981, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541103. 1 85 Downloaded on behalf of 38.67.221.43

I n t he s a me way

t hese t echn iques c an b e a pp l ied t o o ther r esources a nd f i sh a re o ne o f t he mos t p ro m is ing f i e lds , g iven t he work t ha t h as b een d one a lready i n f isher ies s cience. PR INCIPLES OF AGE DETER M INATION I N F ISHES I nb o th b io log ica l a nd f i sher ies s tud ies g rea t i mpor tance h as b een a t tached t o a geing , i n o rder t o u nders tand t he b ehav iour a nd p opu la t ion s tructure o f f ish s tocks .

A par t f ro m s o me c on tro l led e xper i men ts , w i th marked o r c ap t ive

f ish , t he v as t ma jor i ty o f a ge d e ter m ina t ions h ave t o b e b ased u pon i n tr ins ic p roper t ies o f t he f i sh .

Two ma in t echn iques e x is t , b o th b ased u pon t he man-

n er o f f ish g row th , a nd a s t h is d i f fers i n f undamen ta l ways f ro m t ha t o f o ther v er tebra tes , i ti s n ecessary t o c ons ider t h is f irs t . G row th i n F ishes :

T here a re t hree i mpor tan t a spec ts o f g row th t o c ons ider :

t he p a t tern t hrough l i fe ; w i th in a y ear .

t he v ar iabi l i ty o f g row th ;

a nd t he p a t tern o f g row th

I n g enera l ised t er ms f ish g row t hroughou t t he ir l i ves , f o l lowing

as igmo id g row th c urve , whereby a nnua l i ncre men ts i ncrease u n t i l ma tur i ty a f ter wh ich t he g row th r a te d ecl ines .

H owever , i n t er ms o f r e la t ive g row th ,

t ha t i s t he s ize o f a n i ncre men t a s ap ropor t ion o f t he o r ig ina l s ize , t here i s ac on t inuous f a l l t hrough l i fe ;

f or i ns tance c od f ry i ncrease i n s ize b y 3 -4

t imes d ur ing t he ir f irs t s um mer wh i le y ear l ings o n ly d oub le t he ir l eng ths i n t he s ame p er iod ( Wo l lebaek , 1 900 , 1 04 ) .

S evera l p er iods c an b e r ecogn ised

i n t he l i fe o f f i shes b ased o n t he c haracter o f g row th ( N iko lsky , 1 963 , 2 01-2 ) , w i th t he c leares t d iv is ion l y ing b e tween t he p er iod p r ior t o ma tur i ty ( rap id l i near g rowth ) a nd t ha t f o l low ing i t ( decl in ing i ncre men ts ) . G row th o ccurs i n r esponse t o as et ies o f i n terna l p hys iolog ica l f actors a nd e x tr ins ic p hys ica l o nes s uch a s t e mpera ture , f ood , p ho toper iod , s a l in i ty e tc .

The mos t i mpor tan t e x terna l i n f luences a re t he t e mpera ture a nd t he

a va i lab i l i ty o f f ood .

F ish c an r espond t o v ar ia t ions i n t hese c ond i t ions b y

a dop t ing d i f feren t r a tes o f g row th t o t he e x ten t t ha t t here a re n o p rescr ibed s ize r anges f or a ge g roups o r t he u l t i ma te s ize o f t he f i sh ( i nde ter mina te g rowth ) ( I les , 1 974 , 3 31) .

Th is i s mos t a pparen t i n c losed f reshwa ter s ys-

t e ms where ' s tun ted ' p opu la t ions a re n o t u nco m mon . T h is v ar iabi l i ty i n g rowth r a tes i s a pparen t n o t o n ly b e tween p opu la t ions b u t a lso w i th in t he m , e spec ia l ly

u nder s tress c ond i t ions ( N iko lsky , 1 963 , 2 06) .

Wi th t he c lose r e la t ionsh ip t ha t e x is ts b e tween f i sh g rowth a nd e nv ironmen ta l c ond i t ions , g row th i s b ound t o f o l low a s easona l p a t tern i n t e mpera te l a t i tudes .

T h is i s n o t e asy t o d e l im i t b u t a ppears t o f i t as ig mo id c urve t hus

t ransform ing t he o vera l l g row th c urve i n to a s er ies o f waves o f g row th . " I t a ppears t o b e ac o m mon f ea ture o f t he s easona l g rowth c urves t ha t t hey a re s ig moid i n s hape .

T here i s ap er iod d ur ing wh ich

g rowth a cce lera tes , t hen o ne o f a l mos t r egu lar r ap id g row th , f ol lowed b y o ne d ur ing wh ich g row th d ec l ines"

( I les , 1 974 , 3 37) .

The y ear c an b e d iv ided i n to t wo ma in s easons , w i th a c t ive g row th d ur ing t he s pr ing a nd s um mer , f o l lowed b y min i ma l i ncreases o ver t he w in ter ;

a s a n

e xamp le , c ypr in ids g row b e tween J une a nd S epte mber , w i th n one r ecorded f ro m N ove mber t o March ( S te inme tz , 1 974 , 1 48 ) .

T he mos t s ign i f ican t p o in t

i n t he y ear o ccurs i n t he s pr ing when g row th r esu mes a f ter t he w in ter b reak ; t he f a l l-o f f a t t he c lose o f t he a c t ive g row ing s eason i s more g radua l . Brothwell, Don, and Geoffrey Dimbleby. Environmental Aspects of Coasts and Islands. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1981, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541103. Downloaded on behalf of 38.67.221.43 1 86

Age D e ter mina t ion i n F ishes :

B e fore d escr ibing t he t wo ma in a ge ing t ech-

n iques , i tw i l l b e u se fu l t o b r ie f ly e xp la in s o me o f t he t er ms u sed .

There

a re s evera l s ys te ms f or n am ing a ge g roups , h u t t he b as ic o nes a re t he y ear c lass a l l f ish b orn i n ap ar t icu lar y ear ( 1978 c lass e tc. ) —and t he a ge g roups —wh ich c overs a l l f ish o f t he s ame a ge ( year l ings , s econd y ear f i sh e tc .) . The mos t s tra igh t forward d es igna t ion o f a ge g roups i s t o r efer t o f ish a s f irs t y ear , s econd y ear ...or t o u se t he c orrespond ing f i sher ies s ys te m o f 0 -group , I -group ...

A l l o f t hese p rocedures a re s i mp li f ied b y t he r es tr ic ted s pawn ing

s eason o f f ishes wh ich p roduces c lear a ge g roup ings ;

af ur ther s i mp li f ica t ion

i s t he a dop t ion o f J anuary 1 a s t he o f f ic ia l b ir thday o f f i shes . T he e as ies t me thod o f a ge ing i s t he P e tersen l eng th-frequency t echn ique ( Chugunova , 1 963 , 10-112 ) , wh ich i s b ased o n a l l i nd iv idua ls o f t he s a me a ge b e ing a pprox i ma te ly t he s ame s ize .

G iven t he r es tr ic ted s pawn ing s eason

a nd s im i lar g row th r a tes f or a l l i nd iv idua ls , t hen e ach a ge g roup s hou ld a ppear a s a mode when p lo t ted o n al eng th-frequency h is togra m .

T h is i s aq u ick a nd

s i mp le p rocedure a nd i s much u sed i n f i sher ies work b u t i s r a ther c rude a nd h as c er ta in l im i ta t ions .

F or i ns tance g row th mus t b e u n i for m a nd s o r u les

o u t mos t mixed p opu la t ions ;

e qua l ly i mpor tan t i s t he d ec l in ing g row th r a te

o f o lder f i shes , wh ich l eads t o p rogress ive o ver lapp ing o f l eng th f requenc ies ( Wea ther ley & Rodgers , 1 978 , 5 6 ).

There fore i ti s mos t s u i tab le f or u se o n

y ounger a ge g roupings . The s econd me thod i s b ased u pon t he e xam ina t ion o f g row th r ings i n t he ' hard p ar ts ' ( i .e . b ones , i nc lud ing s ca les a nd o to l i ths ) o f f i shes .

B ones mus t

i ncrease i n s ize r e la t ive t o t he g row th o f t he f i sh a nd s o b y a na logy t here s hou ld b e t wo ma in p a t terns o f b one g row th :

as er ies o f a nnua l i ncre men ts

c orrespond ing t o t he s igmo id g row th c urve t hrough l i fe ; w i th mos t b one g row th d ur ing t he s pr ing-sum mer s eason .

a nd a n a nnua l p a t tern T he n ew b one i s

a dded t o t he e x ter ior s ur faces , r espec t ing t he ir e x is t ing s hape , a nd i n s i mp l i f ied t erms i s a l mos t t wo-d i mens iona l o n f la t , p la tel ike s truc tures ( sca les , c lei thra , o percu la e tc .) a nd c oncen tr ic r ings o n c yl indr ica l f or ms ( ver tebrae , s p ines e tc .).

The d epos i t ion o f ma ter ia l w i th in t he y ear i s n orma l ly c on-

c en tra ted i n t he s pr ing-su m mer p er iod ;

i n t he p ike 8 0% o f l inear g row th o f

t he c le i thrum o ccurs i n 2 2% o f t he y ear ( Casse l man , 1 974 , 1 3 ).

T hese v ar i-

a t ions i n t he r a te o f d epos i t ion a re a ssoc ia ted w i th c hanges i n t he c o mpos i t ion o f t he ma ter ia l l a id d own : " The p er iods o f s low g row th a re impr in ted o n t he s ke le ton i n t he f orm o f r ings o r s tr ipes , wh ich a re p a le i n r ef lec ted l igh t . C onv erse ly , t he p er iods o f f as ter g row th a re c harac ter ised o n t he s ca les a nd s ke le tons b y w ide f ie lds o r r ings , w h ich a re d ark i n r e f lec ted l i gh t ..."

( N iko lsky , 1 963 , 1 90 ).

Th is d is t inc t ion o f t wo z ones w i th in t he a nnua l i ncre men t i s mos t c lear ly s een i n t he o to l i ths , b u t e x is ts i n o ther b ones a lso ;

i ti s t he r esu l t o f d i f fer-

e nces i n t he s tructure o f t he i norgan ic ma ter ia l t oge ther w i th v ar ia t ions i n t he amoun t o f t he o rgan ic c o mponen t .

H owever , t he mos t o bv ious d is t inc t ion i s

n o t w i th in t he a nnua l i ncre men t a s t he f as t z one g rades i n to t he s low o ne , b u t b e tween t he y ears , when r ap id g row th i n s pr ing f o l lows t he w in ter l u l l . T hese b reaks a re c oun ted t o g ive t he n umber o f a nnua l i ncre men ts a nd t here fore t he a ge o f t he f i sh .

The t echn ique i s w ide ly u sed i n f i sher ies s tud ies a nd i t s

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v a l id i ty h as b een e s tabl ished many t imes b y c o mpar ison w i th i ndependen t a ge d e ter m ina t ions ( B lacker , 1 974b , 8 7-90 ) .

H owever , i ti s i mpor tan t t o

i n troduce a n o te o f c au t ion a t t h is s tage a s t he f or ma t ion o f a nnua l r ings i s a n i n terna l p hys io log ica l p rocess a nd h as n o t y et b een f u l ly u nders tood ( Bagena l , 1 974 , v ) .

There fore , i ti s n o t s a fe t o a ssume t ha t t he t echn ique

w i l l work o n a ny g roup o f ma ter ia l u n t i l t h is h as b een t es ted ( B lacker , 1 974a , 1 13 ) . When t he me thod h as b een p roven t here a re a n umber o f p ract ica l p roble ms i n a ge r ead ing t o c ons ider ;

t hese c an b e s um mar ised i n t hree c a tegor ies :

i . Fa lse o r s econdary r ings :

When t he g row th p a t tern o f t he f ish i s d is-

t urbed f a lse ' win ter ' r ings may b e f ormed ;

t h is i s ac o m mon o ccurrence

a nd h as v ar ious c auses e .g . s pawn ing ( de B on t 1 967, 7 1 ).

These c an b e

c on fused w i th t he t rue a nnu l i b u t a re u sua l ly l ess wel l f ormed . i .

M iss ing r ings : Th is c an o ccur i fg row th ma ter ia l i s s ubsequen t ly r emoved , a s i n t he r esorp t ion o f s ca les , o r i fg row th i s s o s low t ha t t here i s n o n o t iceable d is t inc t ion b e tween s um mer a nd w in ter r a tes .

i i .

Annu lus r ead ing i s as ub jec t ive p rocedure a nd l eads t o v arying i n terpret a t ions , a l though t h is c an b e m in im ised ( B lacker , 1 974a ).

R ings c an b e

v ery d i f f icu l t t o r ead e spec ia l ly i ft hey a re o bscured b y s ubsequen t g row th o r b y t he c rowd ing o f r ings i n l a ter l i fe . T hese p roble ms d e mons tra te t he n eed f or c are i n t he u se o f t he t echn ique ( de B on t , 1 967 , 7 6 ).

One o f t he mos t i mpor tan t p o in ts i s t he c hoice o f t he

mos t a ppropr ia te b one a s t h is v ar ies b e tween s pec ies .

T he e le men ts t ha t

a re mos t e x tens ive ly u sed a re s ca les , f or t he S a l mon idae a nd C ypr in idae ( Chugunova , 1 963 , 1 7-43 ) , a nd o to l i ths o f t he G ad idae a nd P leuronec t idae ( W i l l iams R zB edford , 1 974 ).

O ther b ones a re a lso u sed i nc lud ing t he o per-

c u lum , c lei thrum , v er tebrae a nd f in s p ines . A rchaeo log ica l A ppl ica t ions :

T hese t echn iques c an b e u sed t o i nves t iga te t he

a ge c o mpos i t ion o f t he c a tch a nd t he s eason o f d ea th o f t he f ish , a l though o n ly af ew e xamp les o f s uch s tud ies c an b e c i ted . i . T he a ge c o mpos i t ion o f t he c a tch c an b e d e ter m ined f ro m l eng th f req uenc ies o f t he r econs truc ted s izes o f t he f i sh o r b y c oun t ing t he a nnu l i o nb ones .

H owever , t h is i s o f o n ly r es tr ic ted u se , p oss ibly a l lowing

i n ferences a bou t a ge-re la ted b ehav iour p a t terns a nd e nabl ing t he r econs truct ion o f t he a ge a nd s ize s tructure o f u nexp lo i ted f ish s tocks i .

O f much g rea ter p o ten t ia l i s t he p oss ibi l i ty o f d e ter m in ing t he s eason o f d ea th o f t he f i sh .

T h is c an b e d one w i th f i sh s ize i fg row th i s s u f f icien t ly

f as t a nd r a tes o f i ncrease a re k nown b u t g row th r ings a re more w ide ly a ppl icab le .

B y a ssess ing t he amoun t o f g row th s ince t he mos t r ecen t

a nnu lus i ti s p oss ible , o nce t he p a t tern o f b one d epos i t ion i s k nown , t o e s ti ma te t he t ime o f y ear t ha t d ea th o ccurred .

Where t wo r ecogn isab le

r ings a re l a id d own w i th in t he y ear r eso lu t ion i s e nhanced , a s i n o to l i ths . An e xa mp le o f s uch a s tudy i s t ha t b y C as tee l ( 1972 ) i n wh ich f our c aches o f f ish-bone f ro m a midden were t es ted f or s easona l i ty;

t he amoun t o f g rowth

b eyond t he a nnu lus o n as er ies o f v er tebrae was d escr ibed i n t erms o f t hree s easons a nd e ach c ache s howed a c lear p redo m inance o f o ne t ime o f y ear . Brothwell, Don, and Geoffrey Dimbleby. Environmental Aspects of Coasts and Islands. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1981, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541103. 1 88 Downloaded on behalf of 38.67.221.43

F igure 1 .Seasonal move men ts o f Pollachius v irens L .

i n i nshore waters .

s ubadu lf/ad u lt Brothwell, Don, and Geoffrey Dimbleby. Environmental Aspects of Coasts and Islands. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1981, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541103. Downloaded on behalf of 38.67.221.43

1 89

Bu t i n e ach c ase s o me 1 2% t o 1 4% o f t he r ead ings s howed a d i fferen t p a t tern ( Cas tee l , 1 972 , 4 09 ) wh ich was i n terpre ted a s e rroneous r ead ings o f c on ta m in a t ion o f t he s amp les . However , t wo o ther e xp lana t ions c an b e s ugges ted wh ich p o in t t o t he l im i ta t ions o f t he me thod . I fd i fferen t s pec ies o r a ge g roups w i th in a s pec ies a re i ncluded t hen a s t he a nnu l i may b e f or med a t d i f feren t t imes o f t he y ear , a l l t he b ones w i l l n o t s how t he s ame s tage o f d eve lop men t . S econd ly , a nnu lus f orma t ion i s n o t as ing le s i mu l taneous e ven t t hroughou t a p opu la t ion , b u t v ar ies v e tween i nd iv idua ls a nd s o s o me l eve l o f v ar iabi l i ty i s t o b e e xpec ted ( Trou t , 1 954 , 1 00 ; Gambe l l & Mers tor f f , 1 964 , 3 95 ). As p o in ted o u t b y Whee ler ( 1978 ) c are i s n eeded i s u s ing t h is t echn ique , b u t a s Cas tee l d e mons tra ted i th as v ery g rea t p o ten t ia l . RESOURCE S CHEDUL ING AND THE ORONSAY M IDDENS T he d iscuss ion a bove p rov ides t he f ra mework f or a ma jor e le men t i n t he a na lys is o f t he f i sh r e ma ins f ro m a s er ies o f Meso l i th ic s he l l middens o n t he i s land o f O ronsay ,

( I nner H ebr ides ).

S easona l i ty , b o th i n t he p a t tern o f r e-

s ource e xp loi ta t ion a nd i n t he s i tes o ccup ied i s t aken t o b e b as ic t o t he g roups t ha t l e f t t hese t races .

A s h as b een d e mons tra ted f ish p rov ide o ne o f t he

c leares t i nd ica tors o f s uch b ehav iour p a t terns a nd c an b e u sed i n v ar ious ways . H ere t he a pp l ica t ion o f r esource s chedu l ing i s c ons idered a nd i ts l im i ta t ions i n s easona l i ty s tud ies i s d iscussed . T he s he l l middens a l l d a te t o t he f our th mi l lenn iu m b .c . a nd a re b eing i nves t iga ted i n ap ro jec t d irec ted b y Dr . P . Me l lars ( Me l iars , 1 978 ).

There

a re a t l eas t f ive ma jor s he l l middens o n t he i s land a nd t h is r a ises p roble ms o f t he ir i n terre la t ionsh ips , i n a dd i t ion t o t he c ons idera t ions o f t he w ider s i te s ys te m .

They c on ta in e v idence f or t he e xp loi ta t ion o f aw ide r ange o f e cono-

mic r esources i nc lud ing l arge q uan t i t ies o f f ish .

O ver a d ozen s pec ies a re

p resen t b u t t he ma ter ia l i s d om ina ted b y o ne s pec ies , t he s a i the o r c oa l f ish , P o l lach ius v irens ( Re insch , 1 976;

Whee ler , 1 969. 1 68-9 ) , wh ich i s p resen t

i n s uch n umbers a s t o i mp ly a f i shery a t at ime o f a bundance. T here a re t hree ma in l i fe s tages i n t h is s pec ies , o f wh ich o n ly t he l i t tora l p hase i s r epresen ted i n t he s i tes .

T h is c overs f i sh i n t he f irs t t hree y ears o f

l i fe , b etween t he p e lag ic f ry s tage a nd t he r e turn t o d eeper wa ter w i th t he a pproach o f ma tur i ty.

I n t h is i nshore p er iod t here a re marked p a t terns o f

b ehav iour , t he ma in s pa t ia l a nd t e mpora l f ea tures o f wh ich a re s u m mar ised i n F igure 1 .

S i mp ly i n t erms o f ' abso lu te ' a va i labi l i ty t here i s ad is t inc t ion

b e tween t he w in ter q uar ter o f t he y ear when t he f ish move o u t i n to d eeper wa ter a nd s o a re l ess a ccess ible , a nd t he r e ma inder o f t he y ear . T he ' re la t ive ' a va i labi l i ty o f t he s pec ies w i th in t hese n ine mon ths i s h owever s ub jec t t o c ons iderable v ar ia t ions .

I fa t tr ibu tes s uch a s t he r a t ios

o f t he d i f feren t a ge g roups , t he a bundance o f i nd iv idua ls w i th in a n a ge g roup a nd t he s ize o f i nd iv idua ls , a re c ons idered i n t he mode l t hen a d eta i led p a tt ern o f c hang ing a va i lab i l i ty t hroughou t t he y ear i s b u i l t u p ( Figure 2 ) .

Wh i le

n umbers o f i nd iv idua ls f a l l t hrough t he y ear t he a varage s ize o f i nd iv idua ls i s r is ing a nd t here i s ac ons tan t ly c hang ing r a t io o f t he d i f feren t a ge g roups. An e xp lo i ta t ion s ys te m t o max im ise mea t y ie ld wou ld o n ly n eed t o b a lance t hese v ar iab les i n t er ms o f t ota l p roduc t iv i ty t o d e term ine t he o p t i ma l t ime f or f ish ing . Brothwell, Don, and Geoffrey Dimbleby. Environmental Aspects of Coasts and Islands. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1981, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541103. 1 90 Downloaded on behalf of 38.67.221.43

x

r s . 1

x

4 L 2

Brothwell, Don, and Geoffrey Dimbleby. Environmental Aspects of Coasts and Islands. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1981, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541103. Downloaded on behalf of 38.67.221.43

b ased o n t he F aroes ( a f ter B er te lsen 1 942) .

r rl

H owever , t he c hang ing s truc ture o f t he r esource t hrough t he y ear s ugges ts t ha t i fo ther g oa ls a re i mpor tan t o r o ther c ons tra in ts e x is t , t hen t he o pt i ma l p er iod f or e xp lo i ta t ion may c hange . I n t h is c on tex t i tw i l l b e n ecessary t o c ons ider : i . t he me thod o f f i sh ing : f i sh ing g ears a re s ize-se lec t ive s o i t may n o t b e p oss ible t o f u l ly e xp lo i t t he r esource a t a l l t imes ;

a lso t here i s t he

' e f f ic iency ' o f t he g ear i n t er ms o f t he amoun t o f f i sh c augh t s e t a ga ins t t he e f for t o f c ons truct ion a nd f i sh ing . i . t he way t he c a tch i s u t i l ised :

t he s ize a nd n u mbers o f f ish w i l l d e ter m ine

o r i n f luence t he ways i n wh ich t hey a re p rocessed , t he t ime i nvo lved , a nd t he u ses t o wh ich t hey a re p u t . I ft he e xp loi ta t ion o f t h is r esource was a t te mp t ing t o max im ise e i ther t he n u mb er o f f i sh o r t he s ize o f i nd iv idua l f ish t hen t here wou ld c lear ly b e d i f feren t o p t i ma l p er iods . On t h is b as is r esource s chedu l ing h as p roved i nadequa te i n i nd ica t ing t he s eason o f a c t iv i ty , a s t here i s ap oss ib le n ine mon th s eason , a nd s o i th as b een e ssen t ia l t o d eve lop a l terna t ive t echn iques , b ased o n f i sh s ize ( Me l iars & Wi lk inson , f or thco m ing ) a nd o to l i th g row th r ings .

On t he

o ther h and t he me thod h as g iven a n i nd ica t ion o f t he s tructure o f t he r esource a nd r a ised i mpor tan t q ues t ions a bou t t he a i ms a nd me thods o f t h is p ar t icu lar f i shery , a nd t he p oss ible a l terna t ive s tra teg ies o n wh ich i tc ou ld h ave b een b ased .

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t heir u se i n d eter m in ing s eason o f o ccupa t ion a nd p re-

h is tor ic f i sh ing me thods J . Archaeo l . S o l . . 6 , 1 09-126. Mel lars , P ., 1 978 .

Excava tion a nd e cono mic a na lysis o f Meso l i th ic s hel l

middens o n t he I s land o f Oronsay ( I nner Hebr ides ).

I n P . Me l lars ( ed .) ,

The Ear ly P os tg lacia l S et t le men t o f N or thern Europe , 3 71-396. Duckwor th , L ondon . Mel lars , P . & Wi lk inson , M ., f or thco m ing .

F ish o tol i ths a s a n i nd ica tor o f

s easona l o ccupa tion i n Mesol i th ic s he l l middens . Brothwell, Don, and Geoffrey Dimbleby. Environmental Aspects of Coasts and Islands. 1 93 E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1981, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541103. Downloaded on behalf of 38.67.221.43

Mikkelsen , E ., 1 978 .

S easona l i ty a nd Mesol i th ic a dap ta t ion i n Norway .

I n K . Kr is t iansen & C . Pa ludan- Mu l ler ( eds .) , N ew D irect ions i n S cand inavian Archaeo logy N iko lsky , G . V ., 1 964. O du m , E . P., 1 975 . Pa ine , R ., 1 957.

S tud . S cand . Preh is t . Ear ly H is t. 1 , 7 9-119.

The Eco logy o f F ishes

E cology 2 nd e d .

C oas t Lapp s oc iety ;

Po iner , G ., 1 976.

A cade m ic Press , London .

H o l t , R inehar t & Wins ton , L ondon . 1 .

Tromso Mus . S kr . 4 .

T he p rocess o f t he y ear among a bor ig ines o f t he c en tra l

a nd s ou th c oas t o f N ew S ou th Wa les

Archaeo l . Phys . An thropo l . O cean ia

1 1 , 1 86-206. Re insch , H . H ., 1 976.

K öh ler u nd S teinköh ler .

S cha lk , R . F ., 1 977.

Z ie msen , Wi t tenberg .

The s tructure o f a n a nadro mous f ish r esource.

I n

L . R . B in ford ( ed.) , For Theory Bu i ld ing i n Archaeo logy , 2 07-249. A cade m ic P ress , L ondon . Sm i th , B . D ., 1 976.

' Twi tch ing ':

e colog ica l r esearch . t inu i ty, 2 75-292 .

a minor a i l men t a f fect ing h u man p a laeo-

I n C . E . C leland ( ed .) , Cu l tura l Change a nd C on-

A cade mic P ress , London .

S te inmetz , B ., 1 974.

S ca le r ead ing a nd b ack-ca lcu la t ion o f b ream Abra m is

b ra ma L a nd r udd S card in ius e rythrop tha l mus L . 1 48-157.

I n T . B . Bagena l ( ed .) ,

The Age ing o f F ish , Unw in , O ld Wok ing .

Trou t , G . C ., 1 954.

O tol i th g row th o f t he Baren ts S ea c od Rapp . P-V . Reun .

1 36 , 8 9-102. Wea ther ley , A . H . & Rodgers , S . C ., 1 978 .

S o me a spec ts o f a ge a nd g row th .

I n S . B . G erk ing ( ed .) E co logy o f Freshwa ter F ish Product ion , 5 2-74. B lackwe l l , Ox ford . Whee ler , A ., 1 969.

The F ishes o f t he Br i t ish I s les a nd Nor th-wes t Europe .

Mac mi l lan , L ondon . Wheeler , A ., 1 978 .

Proble ms o f i den ti f ica t ion a nd i n terpreta t ion o f a rchae-

o log ica l f i sh r e ma ins .

I n D . R . Brothwe l l , K . D . Tho mas & J . C lu t ton-

Brock ( eds .) , Research P roble ms i n Z ooarchaeo logy.

I ns t . Archaeol .

Occas . Publ . 3 , 6 9-75 . Wi l l ia ms , T . & B edford , B . C ., 1 974. mina t ion .

The u se o f o tol i ths f or a ge d e ter-

I n T . B . Bagena l ( ed .) , 1 14-123.

. The Ageing o f F ish , Unwin ,

O ld Wok ing . Wo l labaek , A ., 1 900.

S o me b iolog ica l n o tes .

F ish ing e xper i men ts i n N orweg ian f j ords . I nvest . 1 , 9 6-119 .

Brothwell, Don, and Geoffrey Dimbleby. Environmental Aspects of Coasts and Islands. 1 94 E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1981, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541103. Downloaded on behalf of 38.67.221.43

I n J . H jor t & K . Dah l ( eds .) , Rep . N orw . F ish . Mar .

THE RELEVANCE OF B IRDS FRO M COASTAL AND I SLAND S ITES B y D on B ro thwe l l , D on B ra mwe l l a nd G raham C ow les

I n 1 848 , t he D an ish z oo log is t , J ape tus S teens trup , was a ble t o d e mons tra te o nb ird a nd o ther b one r e ma ins f ro m J u t land s he l l mounds t ha t ar ange o f i nf or ma t ion o n c l i ma t ic c ond i t ions , v ege ta t iona l c over , a nd h un t ing t echn iques c ou ld b e d er ived f ro m t he m .

Ah undred y ears l a ter , C larke 's r ev iew o n

f ow l ing i n p reh is tor ic Europe r ea l ly i nd ica ted t he f a i lure o f a rchaeo logy t o make f u l l u se o f t h is t ype o f d a ta o n a v i fauna .

A more r ecen t r ev iew b y

Dawson ( 1 969 ) s hows t ha t t he s cene i s a t l as t c hang ing , a nd q u i te c ons iderable e f for t i s n ow d irec ted t owards b ird r e ma ins i n s o me p ar ts o f t he wor ld .

On ly

ap ar t o f t he ma ter ia l i s o f c ourse c oncerned w i th s ea a nd s hore b irds . U sua l ly o n ly b ones o r b one f rag-men ts a re a va i lab le f or s tudy , a l though e ven p ieces o f e gg s hel l a re n ow b e ing r ecogn ised , c o l lec ted a nd s tud ied f ro m v ar ious s i tes .

F ea thers a re g enera l ly o n ly p reserved i n a r id a reas , f or

i ns tance P eruv ian c oas ta l s i tes s uch a s Ancon h ave p roduced f ragmen ts a nd e ven who le f ea ther d ecora t ions .

Bu t t he u nexpec ted c an h appen i n N or thern

Europe , f or i ns tance , t he p reserva t ion o f p eacock f ea thers i n t he G oks tad V ik ing s h ip i s r epor ted b y Brjns tead ( 1940 ). Perhaps t he u l t i ma te i n t he u se o f b ird r e ma ins was d e mons tra ted b y K ubler ( 1948 ) i n h is u se o f g uano t o e va lua te t ime —a s or t o f ' coprochrono logy '. A s f ar a s t he e xcava t ion o f b ird b ones i n c oncerned , t here a ppears t o h ave b een n o e va lua t ion s o f ar o f t he p oss ib le d i f feren t ia l p reserva t ion a nd s urv iva l o f s uch b one , a l though i ti s o f ten more f rag i le t han mam ma l b one o f c o mparable s ize .

I n t he c ase o f sma l ler s pecies , r ecovery b y c arefu l s iev ing i s d e manded ,

b u t h as n o t h appened much i n t he p as t .

R egard ing t he e xcava t ion o f d une d e-

p os i ts , Dawson ( 1958 ) men t ions a p roble m h e h as e xper ience o f , n ame ly t he mis lead ing a ssoc ia t ion o f e ar ly a nd l a ter b ones a s ar esu l t o f g radua l s and move men t .

T h is s ee ms t o b e ap ar t icu lar p roble m a t s o me N ew Z ea land Moa

s i tes . The l abora tory i den t i f ica t ion a nd a na lys is o f b ird b ones i s o f ten n o e asy t ask .

T here a re s o me 9 000 a va in s pec ies t oday , a nd a l though t hey o bv ious ly

d on 't a l l p i le i n to t he s ame l oca l i ty , q u i te a n umber o f s pec ies may o ccur t og ether , a nd may s how c on fus ing s ke le ta l s im i lar i t ies .

S o me i dea o f t he n u m-

b ers o f s pec ies wh ich c an o ccur r e la t ive t o t he n u mber o f b ird b ones i n t he s i te s amp le , c an b e s een i n t he f o l low ing t able o f n ine c oas ta l a nd i s land s i tes , ma in ly f ro m Br i ta in a nd r ang ing f ro m P le is tocene t o Med ieva l i n d a te ( Table 1 ) .

I n sma l ler s a mp les , t he s pec iesto-bone r a t io c an c lear ly b e a s l ow a s

1 :3 , a nd i n b one s amp les o f b e tween 1 00 a nd 5 00 , o ver 4 0 s pecies c an a t t imes o ccur .

A l though i den t if ica t ion may b e d i f f icu l t , a nd a t t imes h igh ly t en ta t ive ,

ma jor e rrors a re n o t s o l i ke ly.

T o g ive a f ew e xa mp les o f t he u sua l k ind o f

p roble m , Eas tha m ( 1 968 ) h ad t o c ons ider t he s ubt le d i f ferences b e tween t wo

Brothwell, Don, and Geoffrey Dimbleby. Environmental Aspects of Coasts and Islands. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1981, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541103. Downloaded on behalf of 38.67.221.43

1 95

Tab le 1 C oast , i s land a nd e s tuar ine b ird s pec ies r e la t ive t ob o ne n u mbers S i te 1 .

2 .

N o . b ones G orha m 's C ave , G ibra ltar ( P le istocene )

Ra t io S :B

5 00

4 5

1 :11

3 78

1 6

1 :24

3 4

1 1

1 :3

P or tches ter C ast le , U .K . ( Ro man )

3 .

N o . s pec ies

Mor ton , F ife , U .K . ( Meso l i th ic )

4 .

U be idiya , I srae l ( P le istocene )

3 86

4 1

1 :9

5 .

K ing 's L ynn , U .K . ( Medieva l)

1 970

3 1

1 :63

6 .

K ing 's C ave , D ura , U .K . 9 0

2 3

1 :4

( Norse-Pos t- Medieva l )

1 32

4 2

1 :3

8 .

G rea t Y ar mouth , U .K .

1 45

9 .

S outha mpton ( Ha mw ih ) U .K .

( Medieva l ) 7 .

N ewark Bay , Orkney , U .K .

( Saxon ) 1 0 .

8

1 :8

1 023

1 6

1 :64

4 522

6 0

1 :75

Baynard 's C ast le , L ondon ( Medieva l )

Da ta f ro m :

( 1 ) E astham , 1 968 ( 2 ) E as tha m , 1 975 ( 3 ) C ow les i n C o les , 1 971 ( 4 ) T chernov , 1 968 ( 5 ) Bra mwe l l , 1 977 ( 6 ) C ow les , u npub lished ( 7 ) Bramwe l l , u npub l ished ( 8 ) J ones , u npub l ished ( 9 ) C oy , u np ub l ished ( 10 ) Bra mwe l l, 1 975 .

Brothwell, Don, and Geoffrey Dimbleby. Environmental Aspects of Coasts and Islands. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1981, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541103. Downloaded on behalf of 38.67.221.43

1 96

Med i terranean Manx S hearwa ter v ar ie t ies , e i ther o f wh ich c ou ld h ave o ccurred i n P leis tocene b ones f ro m G ibra l tar . I n t he c ase o f f i sh-eag le r e ma ins f ro m t he C ha tha m I s lands , t rans fer f ro m t he g enus Ha l iace tus t o t he g enus I ch . thyophaga was u nder taken o n t he e v idence o f t he p os i t ion o f t he o u ter p rox i ma l f oramen o f t he t arso me ta tarsus ( Harr ison a nd Wa lker , 1 973 ).

The o ccurrence o f im-

ma ture b ones may f ur ther c o mp l ica te i den t i f ica t ion , a s Bourne ( 1967 ) f ound i n h is s tudy o f s ub foss i l p e tre l b ones f ro m t he C ha tha m I s lands . A s f ar a s t he more d e mograph ic t ypes o f i n for ma t ion a re c oncerned , a v ian s tud ies a re s ad ly b eh ind t he s tandards s e t f or ma m ma l work i n a rchaeo log y, a l though p robably t he r e levance o f t h is k ind o f i n for ma t ion o n b irds w i l l n ever b e s o g rea t a nyway . R egard ing n u mbers , i n h is s tudy o f b ird ma ter ia l f ro m K ing 's L ynn , B ramwe l l ( 1977 ) a dm i t ted t ha t a l though o n t he b as is o f t he mos t f requen t ly o ccurr ing b ones , a min i mum n u mber o f b irds wou ld b e 3 27 i nd iv id ua ls , a l l p oss ib le f actors ( i nc lud ing p robable c on te mporane i ty a nd s pac ia l s epara t ion ) s ugges ted a f i gure a pproach ing a t housand .

T h is b eco mes a f ar

more d i f f icu l t e xercise i fv ar ious s i te l eve ls a re i nvo lved .

F or i ns tance , b ird

b ones were s ca t tered t hrough e igh t l eve ls a t K ing 's C ave , I s le o f J ura , b u t a l though a min i mum n u mber o f 2 8 i nd iv idua ls c ou ld b e e s t i ma ted , c ons iderably more may b e i nd ica ted b y t h is s ca t tered a ssemblage ( Tab le 2 ) .

S ex ing p ro-

d uces more p roble ms a nd a ga in i t s r e levance t o z ooarchaeo log y h as s t i l l t o b e e va lua ted . C oas t a nd i s land b ird g eography d ur ing p hases o f t he P leis tocene was c er ta in ly n o t t he s ame a s s een a t p resen t .

C hanges i n c l i ma te a nd c oas ta l

e co logy , t ogether w i th t he g row ing i n f luence o f Man b y h is tor ic t imes c ou ld we l l h ave p roduced marked c hanges i n a v ian d is tr ibu t ions a nd d ens i t ies . Mar ine c ond i t ions , i nc lud ing t he n a ture a nd e x ten t o f i nshore i ce , a nd s ea l eve ls i n r e la t ion t o c l i f f s i tes s u i tab le f or n es t ing were c lear ly i mpor tan t v ar iables i n s o me a reas .

R eg ions , s uch a s t he Med i terranean , a l though

c oo ler a t t imes , may we l l h ave b een b e t ter s upp l ied w i th b ird f ood a nd mus t h ave g enera l ly h ad more u nd is turbed b reed ing s i tes . a re r evea l ing f ro m t h is p o in t o f v iew ;

Two f oss i l a v ifaunas

t he l as t G lacia t ion b irds o f t he G ro t te

d i R o mane l l i ( con ta in ing 6 s pecies o f g oose , 2s pec ies o f d uck a nd a s wan ) , a nd t he Ma l tese s amp le f ro m H ar Da laa m ( wi th 4 s pec ies o f s wan , 4o f g oose , a nd 6 o ther Ana t idae ) .

E ven i fo n ly w in ter v is i tors , t hey d e mons tra te t ha t

d i f feren t e co log ica l c ond i t ions , w i th l owered s ealeve l a nd g rea ter r a in fa l l p robably o ccurred .

Moreau ( 1 954 ) a cknow ledges t ha t s o me o f t he a vi faunas

a re " ba f f l ing m ix tures" a nd g ives t he c ase o f a Magda len ian f auna f ro m t he Dordogne ( As tre , 1 950 ) i n wh ich t he c o ld-adap ted S nowy Ow l N yc tea o ccurs i n s uch n umbers a s t o s ugges t t ha t i t was n o t merely a w in ter v is i tor ;

a nd

y e t t hese a re a ssoc ia ted w i th t he J ay , Rook a nd P heasan t , b irds s ugges t ing v ery d i f feren t h abi ta ts . C ons ider ing a no ther P le is tocene s i te , D ev i l 's T ower i n G ibra l tar ( Ba te , 1 928 ) , i t i s n otable t ha t t he 3 1 b ird s pec ies a re n ear ly a l l l oca l ly k nown t oday , s ugges t ing t ha t a l though p opu la t ion c hanges mus t h ave o ccurred , t here was a n o vera l l p ers is tence o f g enera i n t h is a rea , p erhaps o ver much o f t he P le is tocene . Bu t G rea t Auk b ones b o th a t Dev i l 's T ower a nd La C o t te d e S t . Bre lade s ugges t t ha t t he N eander tha lers were a lready b usy a ss is t ing a t l eas t t h is s pecies t owards e x t inc t ion .

S im i lar t o D ev i l 's T ower a re t he G orha ms

Cave b irds , w i th a f ew m inor d i f ferences p erhaps r e la ted t o l oca l t opography; Brothwell, Don, and Geoffrey Dimbleby. Environmental Aspects of Coasts and Islands. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1981, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541103. Downloaded on behalf of 38.67.221.43

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f or i ns tance , D ev i l 's T ower s ee ms t o h ave b een n ear p erches s u i table f or t he G u i l le mo t , whereas c o lon ies o f L i t t le Auk a nd Pu f f in may h ave l i ved n ear G orham 's C ave .

Th is c ave a lso h ad s pecies o f wa ter fow l a nd d ivers n o t o f ten

s een i n t he Med i terranean t oday.

C lear ly , t he more b ird ma ter ia l c an b e

s tud ied i n t h is k ind o f d e ta i l , t he more i t may a ss is t i n g enera l e nv ironmen ta l r econs truct ions i n r e la t ion t o Man , b u t c au t ion i s n eeded i n a ny d e ta i led r ec ons truc t ion

o f t he d is tr ibu t ion o f i nd iv idua l s pec ies .

The r eason f or t h is i s

t ha t i nd iv idua l s pecies c an a t t imes s how r apid c hanges ( as y e t n o t we l l e xp la ined ) i n t he e x ten t o f h ab i ta t p re ferences .

The p er fec t e xa mp le i s t he f u l mar i n

B r i ta in , wh ich i n 1 878 h ad j us t e x tended i t s b reed ing r ange f ro m S t . K i lda t o t he S he t lands .

Ah undred y ears l a ter , i t s b reed ing emp ire ( ad m i t ted ly o f

v ar iable d ens i ty ) o ccup ies more t han h a l f t he c oas t l ine o f B r i ta in a nd I re land ( Fisher , 1 946). When c ons ider ing a t ime-span f or b ird p opu la t ions e x tend ing i n to t he P leis tocene , t here i s c lear ly a n eed t o k eep i n m ind t he p oss ibi l i ty o f a dap t ive micro-evo lu t ionary c hange . I n t h is r espec t , T chernov ( 1968 ) h as c ons idered t he C a landra L ark ( Meanocorypha c a landra ) t hrough t ime i n t he N ear Eas t , a nd a nd d e mons tra ted s l igh t s ize a nd morpho log ica l d i f ferences p robab ly i n r esp onse t o g radua l ly c hang ing c l i ma t ic c ond i t ions .

There i s a lso t he d i ff icu l t

p roble m o f t o wha t e x ten t b irds h ave a dap ted t o d i f feren t h abi ta ts t hrough t ime , aq ues t ion c r i t ica l t o r e l iable e nv ironmen ta l i n terpre ta t ion . R egard ing b ird s amp les o f N eo l i th ic a nd more r ecen t d a te , f ar more a re a va i lab le , b u t a t t he s a me t ime , t here i s t he g rea ter d anger t ha t h u man p opul a t ions h ave h ad a d e tr i men ta l o r a t l eas t mod i fying e f fect u pon t hese c o m mun i t ies .

I n t hese s amp les , n umbers o f s pec i mens r epresen t ing a s pec ies may

b e v ery sma l l , b u t o ccas iona l ly may b e n otab ly h igher . Th is i s s een i n b ones f ro m Du tch s i tes ( Fig . 1 ) where A , Ba nd C a re N eo l i th ic t o Bronze Age s i tes a nd t he r es t Ro man t o Med ieva l —and ma in ly o f c oas ta l r eg ions ( C lason , 1 967) . P eak f requencies o ccur w i th Ma l lards ( nu mber 1 0 ) , d o mes t ic g oose ( 1 7 ) , Barnac le G oose ( 2 3 ) , Wh i teta i led Eag le ( 2 7 ) a nd d o mes t ic f owl ( 28 ).

Our

g enera l i mpress ion i s t ha t Br i t ish s i tes t end t o h ave more s pecies p resen t , a nd t he c o m mon b irds , e xc lud ing t he d o mes t ic f or ms , a re d i f feren t .

I ron

Age b irds f ro m a s ta l led c a irn o n E day , i n O rkney , i nc luded a t l eas t 2 8 c ormoran ts , s t i l l ac o m mon Orkney s pecies , t oge ther w i th l esser n u mbers o f H err ing G u l l , G rea t B lack-headed G u l l , S hag , Wh i teta i led Eag le a nd Mer l in . I n t he J ar lshof e xcava t ions , G anne t was mos t c o m mon ( P la t t 1 934 ) , a l though i tt hen d ec l ined i n n u mbers i n S he t land a nd r eco lon ised a gain o n ly r ecen tly ( Bourne a nd D ixon , 1 974 ). A t t he Meso l i th ic Mor ton s i te i n F ife , G u i l le mo t b ones were mos t n u merous ( Cow les , 1 971) a nd a t N ewark Bay , Orkney , G u i l le mo t a nd Rock Dove —a l though t he l a t ter may h ave b een d o mes t ica ted b y p os t-Norse t imes .

Th is l as t s i te i s

n o tewor thy i n h av ing t he l arges t n umber o f s pec ies i den t i f ied r e la t ive t o t he n umber o f b ird b ones f ound ( 42 s p i n 1 32 b ones ).

A s c an b e s een i n t he s pecies

l i s t ( Tab le 3 ) , ap oss ible N orse e xa mp le o f a Tawny Owl o ccurs , b u t i s u nknown i n t he i s lands t oday —preferr ing wood land c over u sua l ly.

A v ian s uppor t f or

s o me t ree c over h av ing o ccurred i n t he N or thern I s les i s a lso p rov ided f ro m J ar lshof i n S he t land , where Magp ie a nd B lack G rouse d e mand a t l eas t as ca t ter o f l i gh t wood land ( P la t t , 1 956) . A l though f ood b irds c ou ld h ave b een impor ted , i ts ee ms u n l ike ly t ha t t he o ther s pec ies c an b e s o e xp la ined . Brothwell, Don, and Geoffrey Dimbleby. Environmental Aspects of Coasts and Islands. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1981, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541103. Downloaded on behalf of 38.67.221.43

2 00

NUMBERS

_

F —

F " c r 9 ma

I

A f ter C lason ( 1967) .

, .

-2 _o , o IN

p -9 _

I i

I _

—J

l -a . -

C )

. _S I M I

I

M

r f

a

_a m

_c t . t

( . , c , ne

0

ImaCa

I

l -4

I BM

L 4 . ,

4,

1 91

0

CV

•4

CD

O

0

Brothwell, Don, and Geoffrey Dimbleby. Environmental Aspects of Coasts and Islands. 2 01 E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1981, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541103. Downloaded on behalf of 38.67.221.43

ed rd

1 ,4

I s4

VD f ` . 1

0, 1 , 1

er f . "1

C . 1

C • l e

T ab le 3

T he b irds i den t if ied a t N ewark Bay , O rkney P os t-

S pec ies

N orse

N orse

T ota ls

L agopus l agopus ( Grouse )

1

1

2

P luv ia l is a pr icaria ( Go lden P lover )

4

4

8

?L i mosa l appon ica ( Bar-ta i led G odw i t )

1

-

1

N u mer ius p haeopus ( Wh i mbre l )

1

1

2

Ga l l inago g a l l inago ( Sn ipe )

1

1

2

?Pha laropus s p . ( Pha larope )

1

-

1

?Anas c recca ( or q uerquedu la ) ( Tea l o r Garganey )

2

-

2

P inguinus i mpenn is ( Grea t A uk )

1

-

1

? Cepphus g ry l le ( B lack G ui l le mot )

2

-

2

C o lu mba l i v ia ( Rock D ove )

2

9

S tr ix a luco ( Tawny Ow l )

1

-

1 1 1

?Turdus t orqua tus ( R ing O use l )

1

-

1

Anser a nser ( Greylag G oose )

2

7

9

P luv ia l is s qua tero la ( Grey P lover )

1

1

2

? Sp . Sma l l wader

1

-

1

L arus marinus ( Grea t B lack-backed G u l l )

1

1

2

? Sp . i nde t . s ea b ird

1

-

1

S turnus v u lgar is ( S tar l ing )

2

1

3

C orvus s p . ( Crow o r R ook )

2

-

2

Pha lacrocorax c arbo ( Cor morant )

1

1

2

P ha lacrocorax a r is tote l is ( Shag )

1

2

3

Ga l lus s p . ( Do mes t ic f ow l )

2

N u mer ius a rqua ta ( Cur lew )

1

2 6

2 8

2

3

?Larus s p . ( Sma l l/Large G u l l s p . )

1

1

2

?Larus o r R issa ( ? o f K it t iwake )

1

-

1

F ra tercu la a rc t ica ( Puf f in )

1

-

1

P uf f inus p uf f inus ( Manx S hearwa ter )

-

2

2

Anas p la tyrhynchose ( Ma l lard )

-

5

5

U r ia a a lge ( Co m mon G u i l le mot )

-

7

7

C orvus c orax ( Raven )

-

1

1

C rex c rex ( Corncrake )

-

1

1

?P luv ia l is s p . ( Go lden o r G rey P lover )

-

1

1

Cepphus g ry l le ( B lack G ui l le mot o r P uf f in i n o ne c ase )

-

2

2

T urdus meru la ( B lackb ird )

-

1

1

S o ma ter ia mo l l issi ma ( E ider Duck )

-

2

2

A lca t orda ( Razorb i l l )

-

1

1

Ardea c inerea ( Heron )

-

1

1

Anser a lb ifrons ( Wh i te-fron ted G oose )

-

1

1

Tadorna t adorna ( She lduck )

-

1

1

?Anas a cuta ( P inta i l)

-

1

1

?Anus c lypea ta ( Shove ler )

-

1

1

Ay thya s p .

-

1

1

F a lcoperegr inus ( Peregr ine F a lcon )

( Pochard o r S caup )

-

1

1

F a lco t innuncu lus ( Kestre l )

-

1

1

Lagopus l ag op u s ( Grouse )

_

5

5

S co lopac idae s p . ( 2 s pec ies- ? one i s S ander ling )

-

2

2

Brothwell, Don, and Geoffrey Dimbleby. Environmental Aspects of Coasts and Islands. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1981, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541103. Downloaded on behalf of 38.67.221.43

1 32 2 02

A s f ar a s o ther p ar ts o f t he wor ld a re c oncerned , B ourne ( 1967 ) h as s tud ied l arge n umbers o f P e tre l b ones f ro m t he C ha tham I s lands a nd c onc ludes t ha t t hey a re n o t o n ly a n i nd ica t ion o f e ar ly European s laugh ter o f t h is a v ian g roup f or f ood , b u t t hey a lso s how t ha t t h is i s land g roup was f or mer ly a ma jor b reed ing t err i tory f or p e tre ls .

I n N ew Z ea land , t here i s s t i l l u ncer ta in ty a s

t o t he e x ten t e v ironmen ta l c hange o r t he impac t o f Man , h as c hanged t he d ist r ibu t ion o f al arge r a i l , t he Takahe ( No torn is ) , n ow r es tr ic ted t o sma l l c o lon ies i n t he S ou th I s land , b u t p rev ious ly w idespread .

Dawson ( 1969 ) p o in ts

o u t t ha t ( i f Man i s n o t t o b lame ) we h ave t wo a l terna t ive p oss ib le e xp lana t ions ; e i ther t he b ird c hanged i t s t olerance t o c er ta in e nv ironmen ts , o r t here h as b een a c on trac t ion o f i t s p resen t t ype o f h abi ta t a nd c l i ma te i n moun ta inous , s now-grass c oun try. N ow a f ew words o n t he p oss ible l inks i n t he p as t b e tween h uman a nd c oasta l b ird c o m mun i t ies .

P erhaps we c ou ld b eg in b y men t ion ing a c lass ic

e xamp le , we l l k nown , b u t p erhaps wor th t e l l ing a ga in .

Probab ly a t n o t ime

i n t he h is tory o f h u man s e t t le men t i n t he i s land g roup o f S t . K i lda , h ave p opul a t ion n umbers g one much b eyond 1 00 i nd iv idua ls .

T h is sma l l c o m mun i ty ,

h owever , i s a n e xce l len t e xa mp le o f t he d es truct ive r e l iance wh ich c an b e p u t b y h umans o n c oas ta l b irds , a nd o f t he s er ious i mpac t we c an h ave o n o ther s pec ies .

When Mar t in v is i ted S t . K i lda i n 1 679 , v as t n umbers o f g anne ts

were b reed ing i n t he a rea a nd h e e s t i ma ted ( probably o veres t i ma ted ) t ha t more t han 2 2 , 0 00 g anne ts were c augh t j us t i n t he p rev ious y ear . I n 1 786 , i t was r ecorded t ha t 1 ,200 g anne ts were t aken i n as ing le n igh t . Wi th t he i ne v i tab le d ec l ine i n t h is s pec ies , f u l mars t ook o ver a s t he ma in b ird o f e conomic impor tance a nd b y 1 920 , t he a nnua l c a tch o f t h is b ird was 9 ,600 ( w i th p u ff ins a nd a f ew o ther s pec ies a lso s u f fer ing c ons iderab le d ec i ma t ion ).

Bu t

i n t rue O ld T es tamen t f ash ion , t he f u l mar h ad i t s r evenge o n S t . K i ldans f or many y ears .

B y 1 756, a s er ious d isease was s tr ik ing h ard a t n ewborn i n fan ts

i n t he c o m mun i ty , o dd ly e nough , w i th t w ice t he mor ta l i ty i n ma les .

I ti s

n ow a c lass ic s tory i n med ica l h is tory t ha t t he r eason f or t h is c ond i t ion , Te tanus i n fan tus , was t he a pp l ica t ion t o t he s evered umbi l ica l c ord o f a mixt ure , t he ma jor c ons t i tuen t o f wh ich was f u l mar o i l ( Tho mpson , 1 970 ). c urse o f t he f u l mar r e ma ined u n t i l t h is c en tury .

T he

O f c ourse , t h is i s a n e x tre me e xamp le o f t he i mpac t o f man o n b ird s pec ies , b u t t here i s n o d oubt t ha t h uman c o m mun i t ies h ave i ncreas ing ly c hanged b ird p opu la t ion s izes a nd r anges o f b reed ing t err i tory s ince Pa laeol i th ic t imes .

I ti s sma l l c onso la t ion t ha t t he G reek D ionys ius d escr ibes h ow

a t tached g u l ls a re t o men ( Po l lard 1 977) , a l though t here i s n o d oubt t ha t s uch a n e xa mp le o f b ene f ic ia l s caveng ing h as e ncouraged t he ir n umbers a t c oat ta l p or ts a nd t owns i n r ecen t c en tur ies , a s we l l a s s o me l and s pec ies a t i n land u rban c en tres .

Bu t t he f ac ts a re ma in ly a ga ins t man .

I n t he c ase o f t he

G rea t Auk , n ow k nown f ro m many European s i tes , n u mbers may c oncievably h ave b een o n t he d ecrease e ven b y Mous ter ian t imes i n t he Med i terranean . I n Br i ta in , t he Wh i teta i led o r S ea Eag le o ccurred a t an umber o f s i tes , b u t i s n ow e x t inct a s ab reed ing s pec ies . A ccord ing t o o ld a ccoun ts , a l though f as t a nd f i erce e nough i n t he a ir , i tc ou ld b e k i l led b y t hrow ing s t ick o r s tone wh i le i t was o n t he g round t oo g orged w i th f ood t o r ise q u ick ly i n to t he a ir . I s land b irds s eem t o h ave b een p ar t icu lar ly h ard h i t o nce h u man s e t t lemen t was e s tab l ished .

Rodr iguez , a n i s land i n t he I nd ian O cean , h as

Brothwell, Don, and Geoffrey Dimbleby. Environmental Aspects of Coasts and Islands. 03 E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1981, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541103.2 Downloaded on behalf of 38.67.221.43

s een a s er ious d ec i ma t ion o f s ea b irds i n af ew h undred y ears , b y h umans , r a ts , c a ts a nd f ores t f i re ( Bourne , 1 968 ).

A scens ion I s land , w i th in i t s f i ve

c en tur ies o f h uman h is tory , h as s een a c lear ly ma jor b reed ing a rea f or s eab irds s er ious ly t hrea tened b y Man , t o t he e x ten t t ha t t he c o mpos i t ion o f s eab ird p opu la t ions o ver a v as t e x ten t o f o cean was p robably d rama t ica l ly a f fec ted ( O lson , 1 977) . Th is p o in t s hou ld p erhaps b e emphas ised , t ha t t he r epercuss ions o f h uman i n ter ference ( exp lo i ta t ion i fy our p re fer i t ) c an—and p robab ly d id i n t he p as t—go we ll b eyond t he i mmed ia te v ic in i ty o f h uman s e t t le men t . I n c ons ider ing t he e xp loi ta t ion f or f ood o f t hese b irds , t here i s i nc ident a l ly a d anger t ha t we w i l l a ssess t he m a ccord ing t o t he v a lues o f o ur o wn s oc iety t oday.

I n r epor t ing o n t he o ccurrence o f t he G rea t N or thern D iver

a t P or tches ter C as t le , Anne E as tham ( 1 975 ) r emarks t ha t t he f l esh i s ' ex tre me ly u npa la table ' , b u t t as te i s u n l ike ly t o h ave b een a d e terren t i n mos t e ar l ier s ocie t ies . F en ton ( 1 976) n o tes t ha t e ven i n t he n ine teen th c en tury , p eop le i n t he N or thern I s les wou ld b ury a c ormoran t f or 2 4 h ours t o t ender ise i ta nd r emove s o me o f t he f i shy t as te . A dm i t ted ly , e ag les a nd f a lcons may h ave b een k i l led more f or t he v a lue o f t he ir f ea thers i n f l e tch ing a rrows a nd s o o n , b u t i t wou ld b e r evea l ing t o l ook v ery c are fu l ly a t e ven t hese r e ma ins , t o s ee whe ther t here i s e v idence t ha t t hey a lso f i n ished u p i n t he c ook ing p o t . S easona l i ty i s as ub jec t wh ich i s i n tr igu ing t o mos t a rchaeo log is ts , a l though i td oes l i t t le more t han c on f irm t he b as ic f ac t t ha t f ood a va i labi l i ty i s l i ke ly t o s how s o me f luc tua t ion d ur ing t he y ear , a nd t ha t h uman c o mmun it i es were q u ick t o r ea l ise t ha t s o me p o ten t ia l f ood r esources were l i nked t o c l i ma t ic o r p hys io log ica l c ycles , a nd s hou ld b e g one a f ter o r wa tched f or a t c erta in t imes o f t he y ear .

N ever the less , we w ou ld a cknow ledge t ha t b ird

m igra t ion p rov ides g ood o ppor tun i ty t o e xp lore o ne a spect o f s easona l i ty i n r e la t ion t o c oas ts . I n h is s tudy o fb ird r e ma ins f ro m a s he l l mound i n S an F rancisco B ay , H oward ( 1 929 ) was a ble t o d e mons tra te t he o ccupa t ion o f t he a rea t hroughou t t he y ear o n t he e v idence o f p ar t icu lar wa ter b irds . S pec ies o f d ucks a nd g eese i nd ica ted o ccupa t ion f ro m O ctober t o A pr i l , a nd t he p res ence o f a bundan t c or moran t b ones ( n ear ly 5 0% b e ing y oung n es t l ings ) s howed t ha t s hore b irds were a lso e xp lo i ted i n t he J une-Ju ly p er iod . Wha t t h is d oesn 't r evea l , o f c ourse , i s whe ther t he Amer ind ian g roups moved s pas mod ica l ly a long t he c oas t , u s ing t he f ood r esources a t v ar ious p o in ts d ur ing t he y ear .

O n t he e v idence o f an umber o f mar ine b irds , e spec ia l ly c ormoran ts ,

a t aS ou th A fr ican midden s i te , a nd t he l arge p ercen tage o f f ledg l ings , A very ( 1 977 ) c onc luded t ha t o ccupa t ion o f t he s i te b y e ar ly K ho isan p eoples was p rob ably s tr ict ly l im i ted t o b e tween D ece mber a nd A pr i l .

T hese e xamples c ou ld

b e g rea t ly e x tended , b u t t he p o in t r ea l ly i s t o a sk whe ther f ur ther c onc lus ions c ou ld b e d er ived f ro m t he b ones a nd t h is k ind o f i n forma t ion . Wou ld i tb e p oss ib le , f or i ns tance , b y h is to log ica l s tudy , t o d e mons tra te t ha t b irds were b e ing c augh t a f ter t he b reed ing s eason a nd d ur ing t he ir mou l t? A lso , t here i s ag row ing l i tera ture o n t he i n terna l p aras i tes o f w i ld b irds , a nd Warner ( 1968 ) c o m men ts o n t he s ign i f icance o f d isease i n e ven c aus ing t he e x t inct ion o f e nde m ic H awa i ian a v i fauna . S o c ou ld i tb e t ha t d isease i s a n i ncreased h azard a tb re & l ing a nd mou l t ing p er iods o r 'f o l low ing m igra t ions , a nd a ga in c ou ld t he b ones c arry e v idence?

Brothwell, Don, and Geoffrey Dimbleby. Environmental Aspects of Coasts and Islands. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1981, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541103.2 04 Downloaded on behalf of 38.67.221.43

T he o vera l l i mpress ion o ne h as o f a v ian s tud ies i n a rchaeo logy , wh ich we h ave t r ied t o s how , i s t ha t t here i s g rea t p o ten t ia l , b u t t ha t p rogress h as b een s low , b eyond b asic r epor t ing .

T here i s n o d oubt t ha t b irds w i l l e ven-

t ua l ly c on tr ibu te more s ign i f ican t ly t o e nv iron men ta l a rchaeo logy.

B IBL IOGRAPHY A s tre , G ., 1 950 .

F aune magda lbnne e t a x i l ienne d e R ochere i l ( Dordogne ) .

Bu l l . S oc . H is t . Na t . T ou louse , 8 5 :

1 51-171.

A very , G ., 1 977.

R epor t o n t he mar ine b ird r e ma ins f ro m t he P a ternos ter

midden .

7 4-76.

S . A fr . A rchaeo l . Bu l l ., 3 2 :

Ba te , D . M., 1 928 .

Excava t ions a t a Mous ter ian r ock s he l ter a t D ev i l 's

T ower , G ibra l tar .

J . R oy. An throp . I ns t ., 5 8 :

B ourne , W. R . P ., 1 967. I b is , 1 09 :

9 2-113 .

S ubfoss i l p e tre l b ones f ro m t he C ha tham I s lands .

1 -7.

B ourne , W. R . P ., 1 968 .

The b irds o f Rodr iguez , I nd ian O cean .

I b is , 1 10 :

3 38-344 . B ourne , W. R . P . a nd D ixon , T . J ., 1 974 . p p . 1 30-144.

T he s eabirds o f t he S he t lands ,

I n R . G ood ier ( ed .) , T he Na tura l Env ironmen t o f S he t land .

N a ture C onservancy C ounc i l , E d inburgh . B ramwe l l , D ., 1 974 . u ra l is t , 5 4 :

B ird r e ma ins f ro m med ieva l L ondon .

L ondon Na t-

1 5-20 .

B ramwe l l , D ., 1 977.

B ird b one , p p . 3 99-402 .

E xcava t ions i n K ing 's L ynn 1 963-1970 . monograph N o . 7 . B rjns ted , J ., 1 940 .

I n H . C larke & A . Car ter ,

S oc ie ty f or Med ieva l Archaeo logy

Danmarks O ld t id , C openhagen .

C lark , J . G . D ., 1 948 . 1 16-130 . C lason , A . T ., 1 967.

Quo ted b y Dawson , 1 969 .

F ow l ing i n p reh is tor ic E urope .

An t iqu i ty , 2 2 :

An i ma l a nd Man i n H o l land 's Pas t .

Wo l ters ,

G ron ingen . C ow les , G ., 1 971.

B irds , p p. 3 50-351.

I n J . M. C o les , T he Ear ly s e t t le-

men t o f S co t land , e xcava t ions a t Mor ton , F i fe . D awson , E . W., 1 958 .

Re-d iscover ies o f t he N ew Z ea land s ubfoss i l b irds

n amed b y H . 0 . F orbes . Dawson , E . W., 1 969 .

Proc . P reh is t . S oc. 3 7.

I b is , 1 00 :

2 32-237.

B ird r e ma ins i n a rchaeo logy , p p . 3 59-375 .

B rothwe l l a nd E . H iggs ( eds .) , S c ience i n Archaeo logy.

I n D .

T ha mes & Hudson ,

L ondon . Eas tham , A ., 1 968 . Arch . L ondon , 7 : Eas tham , A ., 1 975 .

T he a vi fauna o f G orham 's C ave , G ibra l tar .

Bu l l. I ns t .

3 7-42 . T he b ird b ones , p p . 4 09-416.

t i ons a t P or tches ter C as t le , V o l . I , Ro man . q uar ies . Brothwell, Don, and Geoffrey Dimbleby. Environmental Aspects of Coasts and Islands. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1981, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541103. Downloaded on behalf of 38.67.221.43 2 05

I n B . Cun li f fe , Excava-

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