Enhancing Video Game Localization Through Dubbing (Palgrave Studies in Translating and Interpreting) 3030882918, 9783030882914

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PALGRAVE STUDIES IN TRANSLATING AND INTERPRETING SERIES EDITOR: MARGARET ROGERS

Enhancing Video Game Localization Through Dubbing Laura Mejías-Climent

Palgrave Studies in Translating and Interpreting

Series Editor Margaret Rogers, School of Literature and Languages University of Surrey Guildford, UK

This series examines the crucial role which translation and interpreting in their myriad forms play at all levels of communication in today's world, from the local to the global. Whilst this role is being increasingly recognised in some quarters (for example, through European Union legislation), in others it remains controversial for economic, political and social reasons. The rapidly changing landscape of translation and interpreting practice is accompanied by equally challenging developments in their academic study, often in an interdisciplinary framework and increasingly reflecting commonalities between what were once considered to be separate disciplines. The books in this series address specific issues in both translation and interpreting with the aim not only of charting but also of shaping the discipline with respect to contemporary practice and research. More information about this series at http://www.palgrave.com/gp/series/14574

Laura Mejías-Climent

Enhancing Video Game Localization Through Dubbing

Laura Mejías-Climent Translation and Communication Jaume I University Castelló, Spain

Palgrave Studies in Translating and Interpreting ISBN 978-3-030-88291-4    ISBN 978-3-030-88292-1 (eBook) https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-88292-1 © The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive licence to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 This work is subject to copyright. All rights are solely and exclusively licensed by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed. The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use. The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the authors or the editors give a warranty, expressed or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been made. The publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. Cover illustration: Marina Mazitova / Alamy Stock Vector This Palgrave Macmillan imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature Switzerland AG. The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland

Preface

Regardless of one’s personal interest in video games, their prominent role in the current entertainment landscape is undeniable. They have millions of fans around the world, their sales have exceeded other entertainment industries and a whole gaming culture gathers followers through international events, championships and streaming channels. However, video games are a relatively recent audiovisual product if we think about other non-interactive media. Games did not receive proper academic attention until the turn of the century, even later from the translation studies standpoint, and only since 2010 have publications on game localization started to flourish. Localization is a fundamental process that allows video games to be exported to other markets and to continue expanding across borders. This book aims to analyze the video game localization process, with a particular emphasis on the dubbing phase and its distinctive characteristics. To do so, the concept of video games, their semiotic structure and the video game industry will be presented. The special focus on dubbing is intended to fill the gap in research and education since dubbing remains largely unexplored in localization, even though film dubbing has already been studied extensively as it has been used for almost a century in the cinematographic industry. It should be acknowledged that a handful of manuals have been published on game localization. Nonetheless, little attention seems to have been paid to the full definition of video games from a semiotic and multimodal perspective and the implications this has v

vi Preface

for localization, which could also contribute to better understanding the professional task of localization. Furthermore, very few publications deal with dubbing in video games specifically. Dubbing in movies and dubbing in video games share some similarities in terms of quality standards, but the idiosyncrasy of the latter requires some particular adaptations. Reviewing the dubbing process and its specific synchronies applied to video games will be highly beneficial for both professionals and aspiring translators, as hardly any formal training was offered in this particular aspect until recently. It is thus my intention to shed some light on the subject matter from a threefold perspective: academic, professional and educational. To review the localization process step by step in this volume, not only has an analytical and theoretical framework been established, but a group of localization professionals have also been interviewed to gather first-­ hand information from the industry. They will remain anonymous to minimize any conflict with the usual confidentiality agreements that are signed in this industry. However, it can be specified that they participated in the localization process of some of the games analyzed in Chap. 5 (project managers, translators, reviewers, dubbing actors and directors, and dubbing engineers, as well as the head of the Spain-based dubbing studio Rec Games Sonido). Their insights will be incorporated throughout these pages to enrich and complement the academic sources that have also been consulted. One of the aspects that will be highlighted throughout the following chapters, which is also deduced from the answers of those interviewed, is the wide variety of approaches that the industry adopts in localization. This may be due to the still limited standardization of such a recent process, or to the fact that video games are particularly complex and multiform, and they differ greatly from one genre to another. Be that as it may, this monograph cannot provide an exhaustive account of all the practices and only seeks to put forward common trends in the localization sector and in the use of dubbing in particular. Although video games expand across international markets, and different locales will be referred to throughout these pages in order to provide several examples, the focus of this book will be titles localized from English to Spanish (Spain). It should be pointed out, nonetheless, that

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many of the professional practices described here are shared across language combinations and countries. Regarding the book structure, it is divided into six chapters, including some concluding remarks. Chapter 1 discusses the concept of video games as interactive audiovisual products, their semiotic implications for localization—and for dubbing in particular—and the different translatable assets and game situations that can be found in a game. A video game taxonomy will also be proposed, based on the criterion of the interactive genre, which brings together both the industry and the theoretical conceptualization of games. The aim is to design a framework in which to classify any video game depending on the type of experience offered to the player and to organize future research approaches to game localization and the different aspects that characterize each game genre, while always remaining realistic and useful to the industry, as the proposed terminology to identify game genres is quite similar to the terms used by the professionals and the specialized media. Chapter 2 reviews the history of video games and localization to situate the origins of dubbing in this interactive medium and trace its evolution, which remains largely overlooked in publications on game localization and game studies. Chapter 3 describes the localization process and the different phases and agents involved, according to the data gathered from various scholarly sources and professional statements. The relationship between audiovisual translation (AVT) and localization is discussed in order to clarify certain concepts, followed by a description of the localization process. The main localization agents, their most frequent activities and the materials they receive will also be discussed. Chapter 4 focuses on the dubbing phase, including the transfer of linguistic content and in-studio performances. An initial review of the main terms used in the AVT and localization fields will also be included to avoid the frequent terminology overlaps when referring to the terms dubbing, voice-over (VO) and lip-sync. This will help clarify the concepts and make an initial comparison between the well-established practices of cinematographic dubbing and its application in the game industry. The model of quality standards described for film dubbing will be explored from the perspective of game localization. Lastly, synchronization will be

viii Preface

presented as a particular dubbing standard that requires a different taxonomy when dubbing interactive products. Finally, Chap. 5 will present four case studies illustrating the concepts introduced in previous chapters. They will consist of descriptive and empirical analyses that make up a small corpus of adventure video games to be analyzed using game situations as the basic unit to organize their contents, rather than using time codes, as these cannot be traced in interactive material. Previous descriptive studies in AVT will serve as an essential reference, nonetheless, adapting the methodology to the particularities of interactive products. A final overview of the contents and results discussed throughout the book will be given in Chap. 6. As this book aims to review the characteristics and needs of game localization and particularly those of dubbing in video games, it might be deemed of interest for practitioners to understand localization processes from a systematized perspective, but also for researchers who could find utility in the description of the semiotic and multimodal perspective of video games, in their classification in different interactive genres and in a methodology to adapt descriptive studies in AVT to the particularities of interactive audiovisual material. Students and aspiring localizers could also benefit from a book in which video games are carefully defined from the specific point of view of media localization and its requirements. All in all, one of the aspects that can be deduced from these pages is that more research is required to contribute to the establishment of localization as a well-recognized and systematized field, although the first steps have been taken in recent years and this work intends to join the current landscape of video game localization by making its small academic, educational and professional contributions. Seville, Spain

Laura Mejías-Climent

List of Cited Video Games

Age of Pirates: Caribbean Tales (Akella, 2006) Alex Kidd in Miracle World (Sega, 1986) Arizona Sunshine (Vertigo Games/Jaywalkers Interactive, 2016) Asteroids (Atari, 1979) Astron Belt (Sega, 1983) Baldur’s Gate (Bioware/Interplay, 1998) Batman: Arkham Asylum (Rocksteady Studios, 2009) Batman: Arkham Knight (Rocksteady Studios, 2015) Batman: Arkham Origins (Warner Bros. Games Montréal, 2013) Battlefield 4 (EA Digital Illusions, CE 2013) Bega’s Battle (Data East, 1983) Bejeweled (PopCap Games 2001) Berzerk (Stern Electronics, 1980) Beyond: Two Souls (Quantic Dream, 2018) Bugaboo the Flee (Indescomp, 1983) Command and Conquer (Westwood Studios, 1995) Command and Conquer: Red Alert (Westwood Studios, 1996) Computer Space (Nutting Associates, 1971) Control (Remedy Entertainment, 2019) Cosmic Star Heroine (Zeboyd Gamez, 2017) CrossCode (Radical Fish Games, 2020) Cyberpunk 2077 (CD Projekt, 2020) ix

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List of Cited Video Games

Dark (Rare, 2000) Detroit: Become Human (Quantic Dream, 2018) Discs of Tron (Midway, 1983) Donkey Kong (Nintendo 1981) Dragon’s Lair (Don Bluth, 1983) EDGE (Mobigame 2011) Fahrenheit (Quantic Dream, 2005) Fifa (EA Sports, 1993–) Final Fantasy VII (Square, 1997) Final Fantasy X (Square, 2001) Frogger (Konami, 1981) Game Dev Studio (Roman Glebenkov, 2018) Gears 5 (The Coalition, 2019) Grand Theft Auto III (DMA Design Ltd., 2001) Heavy Rain (Quantic Dream, 2010) Horizon: Zero Dawn (Guerrilla Games, 2017) Iron Man 2 (Secret Level, Gameloft, 2010) Jurassic Park (BlueSky Software, 1993) Karateka (Jordan Mechner, 1984) KILL la KILL (A+ Games, 2019) L.A. Noire (Team Bondi, 2011) Maniac Mansion (LucasArts, 1987) Metal Gear Solid (Konami, 1998) Metal Gear Solid 2: Sons of Liberty (Konami, 2001) Mike Tyson’s Punch-Out! (Nintendo, 1987) Minecraft Dungeons (Mojang 2020) NBA 2K20 (Visual Concepts, 2017–2020) Ninja Gaiden (Tecmo, 1988) Overwatch (Blizzard Entertainment, 2015) OXO (aka Noughts and Crosses or Tic-Tac-Toe) (A. S. Douglas, 1952) Pac-Man (Namco, 1980) Phantasy Star (Sega, 1987) Pong (Atari, 1972) Pro Evolution Soccer (Konami, 2001–) RUSH (Two Tribes 2010) Silent Hill 2 (Team Silent, 2001)

  List of Cited Video Games 

Space Invaders (Toshihiro Nishikado, 1978) Spacewar (S. Russell, 1962) Super Mario Bros (Nintendo, 1985) Supermarket Shriek (Billy Goat Entertainment Ltd., 2019) Tennis for Two (W. Higinbotham, 1958) Tetris (Alekséi Pázhitnov 1984) The Elder Scrolls V: Skyrim (Bethesda Game Studios 2011) The Legend of Zelda: Ocarina of Time (Nintendo EAD) The Longest Journey (Funcom, 1999) The Mansion of Hidden Souls (Sega, 1995) The Witcher (CD Projekt RED STUDIO, 2007) Thunderhawk (Core Design, 1993) Wing Commander IV (Origin, 1996)

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Acknowledgments

Looking back, I realize that the long path to accomplish a project is full of valuable people whom I would like to thank for encouraging me and this work in one way or another—personal support is just as important as academic support. These acknowledgments are just a very brief expression of my sincere gratitude to all those who have contributed to making the following pages possible, whether mentioned here implicitly or explicitly. My deepest gratitude goes to Professor Frederic Chaume and his continuous guidance, generosity and positivity. Thank you for believing in me from the start. This project would not have been possible if I had not crossed paths with him a long time ago at ISTRAD, to whose staff I am also grateful for believing in me when I was just a young graduate. A special thank-you goes to Professor Rafael López-Campos. Professor Chaume’s immense personal and academic value is reflected in our research group TRAMA.  I am also deeply grateful to all group members for their continuous support and generosity. My special gratitude goes to Dr. Ximo Granell for his useful insights and to Dr. Irene de Higes Andino, Dr. José Luis Martí Ferriol and Dr. Julio de los Reyes Lozano for always helping me. This project would not be the same without the positive encouragement of my dear colleagues Núria Molines, Dr. Alicia Chabert and Dr. Robert Martínez. Thank you for being there any day, any time. xiii

xiv Acknowledgments

I would also like to thank my current university, Universitat Jaume I, for giving me the opportunity to gain predoctoral and postdoctoral experiences to date with the support of two research grants. Thank you to those I met during my research stays at DCU and my short teaching stay at the University of Malta. My special thanks go to Dr. Giselle Spiteri Miggiani for her inspiration. I am also grateful to Dr. Carme Mangiron and Dr. Miguel Bernal-Merino for their invaluable wisdom regarding this research. I am extremely grateful to all the professionals who shared their crucial insights and relevant information related to their experience in the localization industry, particularly those who worked for Pink Noise, Synthesis Iberia and KiteTeam at the time and more recently Rec Games Sonido. Thanks to all of them for their availability and for sharing their passionate experience on which these pages are based. I am also grateful to the publishers and the editors, Alice Green and Helen van der Stelt, for their guidance, and the series editor, Margaret Ann Rogers, for her valuable comments and suggestions, which have contributed to enhancing the contents of these pages. My gratitude also goes to all my students who have encouraged me with their questions and valuable feedback in order to continue improving and working in the field. Special thanks to those UJI students who began their undergraduate degrees in 2017–2018 and 2016–2017. Thank you, Juanjo M. M., for your wholehearted support. A special thank-you goes to my dear friend Megan, whose expertise in language revision is always essential, but even more her continuous and honest encouragement. Above all, my heartfelt gratitude goes to my family for supporting me to continue working every day and for patiently understanding: Blanca, José María, Guillermo and Alfredo. Thank you for always being there no matter what. Finally, I would like to mention my grandparents and their deep affection. Thank you for always believing in me; I am sure you are proud and watching over me, wherever you are. Even though the language or the topic might not be the most familiar to you, I would like to dedicate this book to you for your inspiration.

Praise for Enhancing Video Game Localization Through Dubbing

“Dr. Mejías-Climent has excellently combined dubbing synchronies and video game localisation in her monograph, two fundamental and growing areas of research within traditional Translation Studies. The methodology and case studies selected throw a bright light onto current professional practices, and how the localisation of multimedia interactive entertainment software can benefit from the existing cinema dubbing industry, as well as vice versa with the growth of interactive multimedia products. The present research thoroughly addresses one of the topics missing from previous game localisation scholarship, and nuances the types of synchronies found in video games. The scope of this book is very ambitious but very built on solid foundations, integrating dubbing and localisation research from the earliest publications to the latest ones. This monograph is an essential addition to the slowly-growing scholarship on game localisation. Without a doubt, a must-have book in all libraries and catalogues specialised in translation. It is a pleasure for me to see this great original investigation published for the benefit of video game dubbing researchers and professionals around the world.” —Dr Miguel Á. Bernal-Merino, Convener MAs in Translation, University of Roehampton, London. https://pure.roehampton.ac.uk/portal/en/persons/ miguel-­%C3%A1ngel-­bernal-­merino “Laura Mejías-Climent’s Enhancing Video Game Localization Through Dubbing makes a fresh and valuable contribution to the existing research in game localization, as it focuses on the dubbing process and the specific synchronies applied to

video games, which have received little scholarly attention to date. Mejías-­ Climent traces the origins of dubbing in the video game industry and describes its evolution to date. She also analyzes the game localization process, from a semiotic and multimodal perspective, providing us with the insights of the different agents involved in the dubbing process, skillfully combining theory with practice. The book presents four case studies of dubbing practices applied to AAA games, which illustrate in detail the current approaches used for dubbing in game localization, depending on the different game situations and their level of interactivity. Undoubtedly this book represents a must-read for anyone interested in video games and their localization, as well as readers interested in audiovisual translation and localization, be it academics, professionals, trainers, students or the general public.” —Carme Mangiron Hevia, Universitat Auònoma de Barcelona. https:// portalrecerca.uab.cat/en/persons/maria-­carme-­mangiron-­hevia-­3 “In a robust and illuminating contribution to the literature of audiovisual translation and video game localization, Laura Mejías-Climent takes the reader on a journey to the world of localization that allows video games to be exported to other markets and to expand across the world. By unravelling the secrets and history of this popular professional practice in an engaging and elegant prose, the author adopts an innovative semiotic and interdisciplinary approach –based on game situations and the interactive experience– to analyze the role of dubbing and the new synchronization types used in this market.” —Frederic Chaume Varela, Universitat Jaume I, Spain. https://www.uji.es/ departaments/trad/base/estructura/ personal?p_departamento=99&p_profesor=65104

Contents

1 Video Games as Modern Multimodal Products  1 1.1 What Is a Video Game and How Does It Work?   3 1.1.1 Semiotic Channels and Signifying Codes   6 1.1.2 The Rules of the Game   9 1.1.3 The Audiovisual and Interactive Dimensions: Gameplay and Playability  13 1.2 The Structure of a Video Game in Translation: Game Situations and Translatable Assets  19 1.3 The Link Between the Game Industry and Research: A Practical Proposal for Interactive Genres  24 1.3.1 Game Classifications Within the Industry and Academia 27 1.3.2 Game Genres Determined by the Interactive Dimension 29 1.3.3 The Nine Interactive Genres and Their Main Characteristics 33 References 38

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xviii Contents

2 The History of Localization and Dubbing in Video Games 43 2.1 The Current Game Industry in Figures and Its Impact on Research  46 2.2 The Origins of Video Games (1960s) and the First Beeps (1970s) 51 2.3 The Origins of Game Localization (1980s)  55 2.4 The Origins of Dubbing in Video Games (1990s)  60 2.5 The Industry in the New Millennium (2000s)  66 2.6 Concluding Remarks  71 References 74 3 Game Localization: Stages and Particularities 79 3.1 Game Localization and Audiovisual Translation  82 3.2 The Localization Process  86 3.2.1 Levels of Localization and Game Localization Models 90 3.2.2 An Agile Process in Different Phases  95 3.2.3 Agents and Available Materials in the Localization Process 102 3.2.4 The Role of Fan Communities 109 References113 4 Dubbing in Video Games117 4.1 The Film Dubbing Model in Localization 119 4.1.1 Avoiding Terminology Overlap 121 4.1.2 The Dubbing Process: Movies Versus Video Games123 4.1.3 Quality Standards in Film Dubbing Applied to Game Dubbing 135 4.2 A Particular Quality Standard: Dubbing Synchronies in Video Games 142 4.2.1 Synchronization Across AVT Modes and Localization142 4.2.2 Dubbing Synchronies Within the Semiotic Construct of Audiovisual Products 146 4.2.3 Types of Dubbing Synchronies in Video Games 151 References156

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5 Dubbing Analysis Through Game Situations: Four Case Studies163 5.1 A Brief Excursus on Research in Video Game Localization164 5.2 Analyzing the Dubbing of Adventure Video Games 167 5.3 The Dubbing of Three Action-Adventure Video Games 171 5.3.1 The Case of Batman: Arkham Knight172 5.3.2 The Case of Assassin’s Creed Syndicate184 5.3.3 The Case of Rise of the Tomb Raider192 5.4 The Dubbing of a Graphic Adventure: Detroit: Become Human201 5.4.1 Tasks in DBH205 5.4.2 Game Action in DBH207 5.4.3 Dialogic QTEs in DBH209 5.4.4 Cinematics in DBH211 5.5 Concluding Remarks 213 References219 6 Conclusion223 References232 Glossary235 Index243

Abbreviations

ACS AVT BAK CAT CGI CMS DBH DLC EOV FMV GILT LPM M&E NDA NPC PM QA Q&A QTE ROM RPG RTR SDV

Assassin’s Creed Syndicate audiovisual translation Batman: Arkham Knight computer-assisted translation computer-generated imagery content management systems Detroit: Become Human downloadable content English original version full-motion video globalization, internationalization, localization, translation localization project manager music and effects (audio track) non-disclosure agreement non-playable character project manager quality assurance questions and answers (queries sheet) quick-time event read-only memory role-playing games Rise of the Tomb Raider Spanish dubbed version xxi

xxii Abbreviations

SS sound-sync STC strict time constraint TC time constraint TM translation memory VO voice-over VOD video on demand

List of Figures

Fig. 1.1 Communication channels operating in non-interactive audiovisual texts (left), and in interactive audiovisual texts using a controller (center) or motion sensors (right) 9 Fig. 1.2 Channels and codes of communication that create the full meaning of an interactive audiovisual text (Mejías-Climent 2019)14 Fig. 2.1 Use of the terms video games, videojuegos and doblaje in the English and Spanish corpora of Ngram Viewer (smoothing: 1) 50 Fig. 4.1 Levels of restriction and types of dubbing synchronies in video games associated with game situations 155 Fig. 5.1 The distribution of game situations displayed in the English original version (EOV) and the Spanish dubbed version (SDV) of BAK, ACS, RTR and DBH213 Fig. 5.2 The distribution of types of synchronization used in the Spanish dubbed version (SDV) of BAK, ACS, RTR and DBH215 Fig. 5.3 The distribution of types of synchronization used in the English original version (EOV) of BAK, ACS, RTR and DBH216

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List of Tables

Table 1.1 Table 1.2 Table 4.1 Table 4.2

Table 5.1 Table 5.2 Table 5.3 Table 5.4 Table 5.5 Table 5.6 Table 5.7

Channels and codes of meaning operating in interactive audiovisual texts Classification of video games by interactive genres The concept of synchronization and adaptation in film and video game dubbing Film and video game dubbing synchronies in actionadventure games in relation to the semiotic codes creating meaning in the audiovisual product (based on MejíasCliment 2019: 304) The distribution of game situations in BAK in the Spanish and English versions The distribution of dubbing synchronies in BAK in the Spanish and English versions The distribution of dubbing synchronies in game action in BAK, in the Spanish and English versions The distribution of dubbing synchronies in dialogues in BAK, in the Spanish and English versions The distribution of dubbing synchronies in cinematics in BAK, in the Spanish and English versions The distribution of game situations in ACS in the Spanish and English versions The distribution of dubbing synchronies in ACS in the Spanish and English versions

15 32 146

154 174 174 177 181 184 187 188 xxv

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Table 5.8 Table 5.9 Table 5.10 Table 5.11 Table 5.12 Table 5.13 Table 5.14 Table 5.15 Table 5.16 Table 5.17 Table 5.18 Table 5.19 Table 5.20 Table 5.21

List of Tables

The distribution of dubbing synchronies in game action in ACS, in the Spanish and English versions The distribution of dubbing synchronies in dialogues in ACS, in the Spanish and English versions The distribution of dubbing synchronies in cinematics in ACS, in the Spanish and English versions The distribution of game situations in RTR in the Spanish and English versions The distribution of dubbing synchronies in RTR, in the Spanish and English versions The distribution of dubbing synchronies in game action in RTR, in the Spanish and English versions The distribution of dubbing synchronies in dialogues in RTR, in the Spanish and English versions The distribution of dubbing synchronies in cinematics in RTR, in the Spanish and English versions The distribution of game situations in DBH in the Spanish and English versions The distribution of dubbing synchronies in DBH, in the Spanish and English versions The distribution of dubbing synchronies in tasks in DBH, in the Spanish and English versions The distribution of dubbing synchronies in game action in DBH, in the Spanish and English versions The distribution of dubbing synchronies in dialogic QTEs in DBH, in the Spanish and English versions The distribution of dubbing synchronies in cinematics QTEs in DBH, in the Spanish and English versions

189 191 192 194 195 197 198 201 204 205 207 209 210 211

1 Video Games as Modern Multimodal Products

Rather than providing a linear narrative, [video games] offer virtual worlds, or landscapes, inviting players to explore and navigate using diverse audio-­ visual and haptic resources. —Ensslin (2012. The Language of Gaming, 5. New York: Palgrave Macmillan)

Abstract  After offering a definition of video games that highlights their most important characteristics for translators, this chapter describes the semiotic configuration of interactive products according to the different codes transmitted through three different communication channels. As interaction comes into play, the four game situations into which video games can be divided are presented and defined together with the key concepts of gameplay and playability. Translatable assets are also reviewed and their relationship to game situations is discussed. This chapter concludes with a proposal for game classification based on the single criterion of the interactive genre, that is, the type of activities and skills that the user encounters and puts into practice, making this taxonomy unique to video games compared to other media classifications. © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 L. Mejías-Climent, Enhancing Video Game Localization Through Dubbing, Palgrave Studies in Translating and Interpreting, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-88292-1_1

1

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L. Mejías-Climent

The ubiquity and strong appeal of video games nowadays are undeniable. More than 2.7 billion people play video games worldwide (Wijiman 2020), and it is well known that revenue from video games has surpassed that of the film and music industries in many countries around the world (Richter 2020). Among many other qualities, video games have the power to turn the player into the main character of the on-screen action, which might well be one of the main reasons for their popularity compared to other non-interactive media. They allow people around the world to become the protagonist of the story, and this universality is possible, thanks to game localization. In this chapter, the conceptualization of video games will be explored in terms of their semiotic nature, which includes different channels of communication and an interactive dimension, making them the most complex example of modern multimodal products. This characterization of video games will take into account the translator’s perspective to foreground the different aspects that need to be considered when localizing video games. The different translatable assets included in video games will be reviewed and associated with their semiotic nature. Finally, a game classification proposal will be presented using the criterion of the interactive genre, which will contribute to organizing the wide variety of video game genres that are taken to the market. This information is intended to explain how a video game works from a semiotic point of view, that is, characterizing video games by a series of symbols and systems of symbols that coalesce to convey meaning. This conceptualization of video games will also be useful to describe, in Chaps. 3 and 4, how dubbing is used in video games to transfer their meaning and, in general, the game experience to a new language. It should be noted that dubbing will always be understood in these pages as an audiovisual translation (AVT) mode1 (see Chap. 4 for more details). In countries such as Spain, where dubbing has traditionally represented the preferred AVT mode for consumers of audiovisual products, it can play a key role in enhancing the video game players’ experience through realistic atmospheres where the characters speak the players’ native language, regardless of the original language in which the interactive audiovisual product was created. Knowing how these products work from a semiotic perspective could in turn contribute to improving the localization

1  Video Games as Modern Multimodal Products 

3

process and the adaptation of dubbing procedures to be used in a product that displays particular interactive features.

1.1 W  hat Is a Video Game and How Does It Work? Nowadays, all users have a clear image of what a video game is and many different titles may come to mind when thinking about video games. Nonetheless, defining video games in terms of their semiotic nature, and from a translation perspective, is no easy task. The starting point to define a video game is in its very nature, which is the result of merging television and computing technologies (Levis 2013). Additionally, video games display an essential ludic intention from which their name originates: video (media) and game (human ludic activity). However, some examples of serious games can be found in the heterogeneous current landscape of video games, which may include training goals in the medical, technical or industrial fields (Granell 2012; Granell et al. 2015; Calvo-Ferrer 2019). The focus of these pages, however, will be entertaining video games. Nevertheless, regardless of their final aim, video games comprise an underlying ludic factor. The term game is the hypernym that encompasses any type of ludic activity, not only computer-based entertainment (Bernal-Merino 2015) but also any other kind of human ludic practice. For the sake of brevity, the term game will be used here as a synonym for video game. This chapter will review their particularities compared to other non-digital gaming activities in the context of multimedia entertainment products. Like any traditional game, video games are set within particular time and space parameters that are differentiated from reality and regulated by binding, specific and distinctive rules; they are played freely and voluntarily, entailing certain levels of amusement, tension and joy (Huizinga 2007). In the case of a video game, this ludic activity takes place in a virtual environment (Frasca 2001). The very first aspect that localizers must take into account when performing their translation tasks derives from

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this ludic component: the essence and experience of the game need to be reproduced in the translated version. The gameplay of every game represents its distinctive and most basic aspect and is directly connected to the interactive dimension (see Sect. 1.1.3). But before we explore the intricacies of interaction, let us return to the audiovisual environment of the video game, as this determines its medium of transmission. As is the case for other media products2 such as movies or TV shows, the screen is the basic device through which any video game is transmitted, including the possibility of virtual reality headsets, although the feeling of 3D reality in such cases is reproduced through different headsets and 3D devices, but always through digital signs and images (a “3D screen”). As such, localization draws on audiovisual translation processes and techniques and includes different AVT modes or translation techniques to translate the video game content, such as dubbing or subtitling. Hence, localization and audiovisual translation are directly connected (see Chap. 3), as they share the multimedia dimension of the translated product. Multimedia is used here to refer to digital products based on different technical and electronic resources “involving both sight and sound” (Snell-Hornby 2006: 85), not to be confused with the concept of multimodality, defined by Kress and Van Leeuwen (2001: 20) as “the use of several semiotic modes in the design of a semiotic product”. In other words, multimodal products involve “different modes of verbal and nonverbal expression, comprising both sight and sound, as in drama and opera” (Snell-Hornby 2006: 85). For further discussion on multimodality, see Kress and Van Leeuwen (2001), Taylor (2013), Jewitt et al. (2016) and Boria et al. (2020). In the case of video games, as well as other audiovisual products, both terms (multimedia and multimodal) can be used to describe them. This is because video games are digital products whose messages involve both sight and sound (multimedia), but also different semiotic modes of verbal (written and acoustic content) and nonverbal expression (sound effects, visual icons, symbols, colors, etc.) that are used to create meaning (multimodal content). This is not the case with other platforms such as the radio, a distribution medium in which speech, music and sound effects are used, that is, it is multimodal, but it is

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“monomedial instead of multimedial” as it can only be heard but not seen or touched (Kress and Van Leeuwen 2001: 67). Bearing these factors in mind, video games have been defined as multimedia (and we could add: multimodal) interactive entertainment software or MIES (Bernal-Merino 2015: 18). They include “any forms of computer-based entertainment software, either textual or image-based, using any electronic platform such as personal computers or consoles and involving one or multiple players in a physical or networked environment” (O’Hagan and Mangiron 2013: 65). These entertainment products create interaction with the user through an interactive text (Maietti 2004: 49). Consequently, localizers must bear the following aspects in mind: video games operate through audiovisual content (multimedia messages) determined by interaction and its rules (in other words, multimodal content transmitted through sight, sound and touch). Game localization deals with the linguistic, cultural and technical adaptations of an audiovisual entertainment text generated by software for different types of hardware, which allows the player(s) to interact amongst themselves and with the on-screen events, according to a set of rules (MejíasCliment 2019: 26). This definition of video games encompasses the main aspects that determine the translation process: the process of adapting the product and making it fully meet the expectations of the target audience is known as localization because we are dealing with software; as the contents are displayed audiovisually, different audiovisual translation modes (as defined by Díaz Cintas and Remael 2021: 6: dubbing, subtitling, accessibility modes, etc.) come into play. Finally, as an additional interactive dimension is included and is regulated by the rules of the game, the process and materials available for translation are particular and must adhere to a certain set of instructions given by the software developer and must be adapted to the expectations of the target locale. As Maietti (2004) states, video games represent the most complex multimodal product nowadays. The creation of meaning takes place through different forms of “meaning making” (Jewitt et al. 2016: 2), that is, various modes of communication (visual, acoustic and tactile), and their interplay should be considered holistically by the translator in order to reproduce the essence of the video game and the original experience.

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Nonetheless, the linguistic content (displayed by the game in the form of written or recorded messages) will, in most cases, be the only element that the translator modifies and the only one to which the translator will have access. If not only text but also additional assets are modified, the localization process might share some characteristics with transcreation, which will be discussed in Sect. 1.1.3. This makes the localization process particularly complex. A comprehensive knowledge of how the creation of meaning takes place in a video game and the different assets of which it is composed has the potential to contribute to facilitating the translator’s task. In the particular case of dubbing, translators work only with written text, but this translated text is performed later by dubbing actors in a studio in order to integrate it into the localized game in the form of oral messages. These recorded dialogues should sound natural and credible within the game world. This will be discussed further throughout Chap. 4.

1.1.1 Semiotic Channels and Signifying Codes A video game displays its meaning in the form of an interactive audiovisual text. If, as Zabalbeascoa argues (2008: 21), “we accept a text as a speech act or, more broadly, as any instance of communication, we will conclude that an audiovisual text is a communication act involving sounds and images”; the same must therefore be true for video games. As such, they conform to the definition of audiovisual text, which is “a semiotic construct woven by a series of signifying codes that operate simultaneously to produce meaning” (Chaume 2012: 100). These different codes (systems of signs) are transmitted through, at least, the acoustic and visual channels to create meaning (ibid.: 172). However, in addition to these two channels, the interactive and distinctive dimension included in video games adds a third channel that can be referred to as tactile (Pujol Tubau 2015) due to the nature of the codes it transmits and the involvement of the human sense of touch. Just as film language is characterized by a particular combination of different codes, video game technology deploys codes of meaning in specific combinations, although, in this case, the aforementioned tactile channel is added, which is non-existent in filmic productions, with very

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rare exceptions3 (Chaume 2003). This tactile channel transmits a significant amount of information, although the visual channel can also undertake a new directionality if no controller is used. Therefore, the semiotic construct of video games differs from that of non-interactive audiovisual productions in its bidirectionality, as the transmission of meaning takes place from the game to the player, but also from the player to the game. In this respect, two types of video games can be identified: those in which a controller is needed and those in which the player acts in front of a motion sensor. The latter became popular with the seventh generation of consoles (Wii, Nintendo 2006; Kinect for Xbox 360, Microsoft 2010; and later [eighth generation] Wii U, Nintendo 2012; and Nintendo Switch, Nintendo 2017 [ninth generation], among others). They incorporate a particular interactive, motion-sensing device that interprets the player’s body movement instead of the person physically touching a controller. In such cases, the visual channel not only transmits the traditional kinesic codes4 on-screen (characters’ movement and visual action), but the players’ movements are also recognized and understood by the game through the now-bidirectional visual channel (Burgoon et al. 2010). Each movement activates specific responses by the game according to the particular rules of the game (see Sect. 1.1.2). As O’Hagan notes: “By definition, video games provide an interactive environment. Such interaction typically takes place through the buttons and the levers on the game controller. More recent games also allow player input via speech and handwriting” (2007: 3). To this we can add physical movement. Particular examples of these recent forms of interaction are the modern virtual reality (VR) devices such as Oculus Rift (Oculus VR 2016), Sony PlayStation VR (2016), or Nintendo Labo VR Kit (2019). Furthermore, the games for these VR platforms rely on the visual channel, as the player’s eye movement is the kinesic activity interpreted by the game to establish interaction. A combination of both the tactile and the bidirectional visual channel can operate if the VR headset and additional controllers are used or kinetic sensors are incorporated into the headset. The focus of these pages, however, will be those video games in which a controller is used, as this is the most widespread type of game nowadays. Bidirectionality occurs through the tactile channel as well. As early as 1998 with The Legend of Zelda: Ocarina of Time (Nintendo EAD),5

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among other fifth generation games, an add-on known as Rumble Pack (Nintendo 1997) could be incorporated into the controller to make it vibrate significantly. The player could sense the enemy’s presence simply by interpreting the controller’s movement, even though they were not yet visible. Current video games use more sophisticated haptic devices (Cleaveland 2006) that allow the players to even guess the number of balls contained in a small box simulated by the controller (Joy-Con) in the game 1-2-Switch (Nintendo 2017). To sum up: information moves bidirectionally between the game and the player. The game sends signs to the player through the visual and acoustic channels as well as through the tactile channel if vibrating controllers are used. The player, in turn, sends signs back to the game through kinesic (visual channel) or haptic codes (tactile channel) whose particular meaning is determined by the rules of the game. The term haptics is used in the field of communication studies to mean the intentional and conscious use of kinesic codes through the sense of touch in interpersonal communication (Poyatos 2002a: 244). Likewise, this term is used in computing and game development spheres to refer to “the ability of equipment to produce an output that is felt, rather than seen or heard. Haptic output is usually a force or vibration” (Cleaveland 2006: online). Haptics is also used in accessible communication systems such as braille (Ruiz López and Lluch Rodríguez 2015: 104), although, in this case, as a unidirectional intentional use of the sense of touch. Accordingly, the tactile channel in a video game is the channel through which haptic codes are transmitted in the form of pushing buttons or keys, or moving levers or other components on the controllers. These are functional haptic codes, as the tactile activity takes place as a means to achieve something (Heslin and Patterson 1982: 37). All these movements represent different signs that the game interprets, according to its particular rules (see Sect. 1.1.2), and allow interaction between the player and the game system. The game, in turn, might use haptic codes to create a meaningful and haptic experience for the player. Usually, different vibrations in the controller represent the particular signs that these haptic codes comprise and which are transmitted from the game to the player. Haptic technologies “are standard in controllers for videogame consoles such as Sony’s PlayStation 2, Microsoft’s Xbox and Xbox 360, and

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Fig. 1.1  Communication channels operating in non-interactive audiovisual texts (left), and in interactive audiovisual texts using a controller (center) or motion sensors (right)

Nintendo’s GameCube” (Paterson 2007: 128). This means that a new communications channel is added to facilitate the transmission of information, and thus, human-computer interaction. To sum up, the following diagram (Fig. 1.1) illustrates how video games communicate with their users compared to non-interactive audiovisual products such as movies or TV series. Apart from the aforementioned visual and acoustic channels operating in any audiovisual text, the tactile channel is added to game communication, as it is also used in interpersonal communication, but, in this case, encompassing a limited and structured series of haptic codes. Interaction creates bidirectionality in the communication process between the player and the interactive entertainment medium. Bidirectionality can take place through the tactile channel (haptic codes) or the visual channel (kinesic codes), provided that motion sensors are incorporated into the game platform to perceive the player’s movement.

1.1.2 The Rules of the Game The tactile channel is not the only distinctive aspect of the semiotic construct of interactive entertainment media. A series of rules govern the signs that constitute the activities and responses by the video game and the player. These rules regulate how the different semiotic codes operate

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within the game programming and establish certain possibilities and limitations that determine the nature of every video game (Maietti 2004). As Ensslin remarks: “The rules of games tend to be more explicit and straightforward than those of language and communication” (2012: 26). Indeed, in every video game, the aforementioned codes of meaning transmitted through the visual, acoustic and tactile channels are “re-regulated” according to these new and particular rules, different from the ones that traditionally structure interpersonal communication and which are shared within any culture or community. Certainly, most of the semiotic codes used in video games are similar to those participating in interpersonal communication, but the rules of the game give new instructions to these codes that comprise a unique set of signs for each game which are different from their traditional use in human-to-human interaction. The rules of the game constitute an “invisible structure” that organizes video game interaction, similar to linguistic rules governing language, although even more precise because they are defined meticulously for each video game; or, in the words of Raessens and Goldstein: “Rules and play create carefully orchestrated instances of designed interaction” (2005: 65–66). These rules determine, for example, whether a particular dialogue will occur after the player performs certain actions, and might offer the player different possibilities in such a dialogue. This means that the dubbed material of the game (the dialogue) will be displayed according to what the player does in compliance with the rules of the game. The semiotic construct of any traditional (non-interactive) audiovisual product is de-codified and interpreted by a passive audience, whereas in interactive audiovisual texts, the message is completed by the player’s actions according to the rules of the game, which activate the complex multimodal structure of codes and channels of communication (see Sect. 1.1.1). As Juul suggests: “The rules of the game construct a state machine, a ‘machine’ that responds to player action” (2005: 58). The player becomes part of the action and, as such, their actions are part of the whole meaning of the video game. Thus, the full meaning of the interactive audiovisual text originates from the player’s participation, which is limited, but also allowed, by the rules of the game. The nature of the rules of the game is twofold: to organize what happens within the game programming and to establish what can and cannot

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be done by the player. In other words: the rules can be internal, pertaining to the computer programming of the software, and external, governing the player’s actions. The former activate and regulate the complex semiotic construct of audiovisual and haptic codes, while the latter are of paramount importance for localizers, as they need to know what type of action is allowed from the player to adapt their translation accordingly. We can examine the rules as they are found mechanically in the game program or in the manual of a board game, or we can examine the rules as something that players negotiate and learn, and at which they gradually improve their skill. (Juul 2005: 2)

From a semiotic perspective, these rules may be thought to constitute another set of signs by themselves. However, certain aspects reveal the nature of these rules as a code of behavior (Fiske 1990: 64) rather than a signifying code. First, there is no paradigmatic selection of rules and they do not convey meaning by themselves (thus, they do not constitute a set of signs of meaning), but rather they regulate the meaning of other signs. Second, they are not shared conventionally by a specific community, but are imposed by the game programming and are particular to each game; therefore, players must learn them in order to play. And finally, these rules are not transmitted through any particular channel, but regulate how the different systems of signs behave within the game. Consequently, the rules of the game can be defined as a code of behavior that orchestrates interaction and activates the various codes transmitted through the different channels of communication. To illustrate how these rules work in relation to the different codes of meaning, let us think about the haptic activity that can be transmitted from the player to the game in a video game such as Assassin’s Creed: Origins (Ubisoft 2017) using an Xbox One controller. In this action-­ adventure game, each button is assigned an action: pressing A makes the player do parkour; pressing B makes the player crouch; pressing Y is used to assassinate; pressing X is to dodge; pressing the right lever locks the camera and so on. All these movements represent meaningful signs for the game and constitute the haptic code transmitted through the tactile channel from the player to the game system. Each movement carries

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meaning, which is interpreted by the game programming, and this meaning is particular to this specific game. If we take the sign “pressing X”, meaning “to dodge” within the game world, the rules of the game determine that if X is correctly pressed on time and the character is close enough to an enemy, the attack from this enemy is avoided, but only under those conditions. Pressing the RB button results in a light attack; the rules of the game determine that this weakens our enemy but does not kill him or her. Even if the player does not act, this lack of movement represents a sign for the game, whose rules state that the story does not continue, or instead, that another character approaches ours to provoke him/her. In this way, the haptic codes are structured and regulated according to the rules of the game and convey different meanings than when used in human-to-human interaction. Thus, they are “re-regulated” by the rules of the game as well as all kinesic activity by the player that the video game is designed to interpret through specific devices. A clear difference between interpersonal communication and human-­ to-­game interaction is that a limited and fixed list of kinesic signs does not exist for the first, therefore, kines (Birdwhistell 1970) or “minimum units of kinesic expression” can be almost unlimited, depending on the type of interaction and the social or cultural context, while the human expressive continuum in a video game is limited to a particular group of signs (the haptic code) that gives the player a limited list of options to interact with the game medium. The same applies to the various visual and acoustic codes that intertwine to create the meaning of a video game, determined by the rules of the game. This reflects the importance of the rules of the game: they determine, limit and establish what can happen within the game world. It is undoubtedly useful for localizers to be aware of these rules, as they might determine how the game will react when a certain action is performed.

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1.1.3 T  he Audiovisual and Interactive Dimensions: Gameplay and Playability One of the reasons for the success of video games seems to be the inclusion of the interactive dimension in a story that takes place on-screen, turning the player into the main character in the development of the action. This additional dimension was not included explicitly in previous theoretical conceptualizations of the audiovisual text, such as Zabalbeascoa’s axis diagram (2008: 26) to situate the audiovisual text on two continuums, depending on the amount of information transmitted through the visual or the acoustic channels using a certain amount of linguistic or non-linguistic content. From the translator’s perspective, it is paramount to bear in mind the amount of information transmitted through each channel of communication and how they intertwine to create meaning, regulated by the rules of the game, as the linguistic code is the only one that translators can modify most of the time, as noted earlier. This modified linguistic code must fit the entire semiotic construct to obtain a successful localized version of the game and to reproduce its gaming essence. How every signifying code influences the linguistic one and relates to it is essential to the translator’s task (Chaume 2004: 26). To understand the complexity of video games as interactive audiovisual texts, let us return to Zabalbeascoa’s proposal. His axis diagram seemingly allows any audiovisual text to be classified in a 25-position space. The x-axis represents the amount of information transmitted through the linguistic code (1: basically verbal; 2: more verbal than nonverbal; 3: both verbal and nonverbal; 4: less verbal than nonverbal; 5: only nonverbal). The y-axis also represents a continuum between two poles: from only audio content to only visual content (A: only audio; B: more audio than visual; C: both audio and visual; D: less audio than visual; E: only visual). A movie could be situated in almost any of these positions, as its meaning is transmitted through visual and acoustic codes that follow a cinematographic and pre-established structure. Likewise, a video game could be placed in such a diagram, although the interactive dimension would be missing.

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A video game generates full audiovisual texts only when it is played since it works bidirectionally, as explained previously. The game developer offers the player a limited list of possibilities that, when put into practice, bring back a response from the game system. This response, in turn, offers a new set of possibilities to the player. In this way, different game situations emerge depending on how the player acts. The full meaning derives from the entire semiotic construct involving the game system and the player. Due to the presence of the interactive dimension, this construct is not pre-established and fixed, as in a linear movie. To reflect this and to adapt Zabalbeascoa’s proposal to game localization, Fig. 1.2 illustrates how the particular semiotic configuration of a video game is composed of a series of signifying codes (see Sect. 1.1.1)

Fig. 1.2  Channels and codes of communication that create the full meaning of an interactive audiovisual text (Mejías-Climent 2019)

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that are distributed within the game system and regulated by the rules of the game (see Sect. 1.1.2), allowing the interaction to take place. Continuous interplay among the different signifying codes and their interaction with the player makes the game develop in not-completely predictable ways to generate the full meaning of this interactive multimedia entertainment product. Every time the game is played, the development of the story might take place differently (always within certain limits established by the game developer). Action—interaction—is what makes the game display its full and particular meaning. As O’Hagan and Mangiron put it (2013: 198), “the game world is constructed in the highly structured use of multimedia and multimodality, involving the verbal and the non-verbal”. To be more specific regarding these codes of meaning, Table 1.1 summarizes the different semiotic codes that operate to create meaning in an interactive audiovisual product. It has been designed by extending the list of semiotic codes operating in a traditional audiovisual text by Chaume (2004: 305), from which the tactile channel and the various bidirectional options were excluded; as we have seen, this channel is hardly ever present in non-interactive audiovisual texts. Ideally, localizers should be familiar with this complex structure of semiotic codes and channels of communication as the localizers’ task, essentially, is to modify only the linguistic code to make the localized Table 1.1  Channels and codes of meaning operating in interactive audiovisual texts

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product natural to the target users, but always keeping the whole semiotic construct unaltered, thus reproducing the essence of the game. It should not be forgotten that in reality, in the case of dubbing, even though the final performance of the text is included as acoustic content, that is, dubbed dialogues, translators carry out the linguistic transfer dealing only with written text, typically without any additional context or visual or sound references (this will be discussed further throughout Chaps. 3 and 4): Modern video games form a technological environment that affords various interactions between the game and the player through the game’s interface. Games localisation therefore requires the consideration of both technical and socio-cultural aspects in an effort to transfer the game play experience arising from the multiple dimensions and modality of a game. (O’Hagan 2007: 5)

Despite the challenge posed to translators by their restricted access to the entirety of the semiotic construct, the aim of localization remains the reproduction of this complex structure for the new users. As Ensslin neatly summarizes: “We therefore need to take into account videogame aesthetics as a whole, which includes the specific tactile sensations and actions they evoke as much as it does audio-visuality” (2012: 124). Game localization is linked to the concept of domestication, as the core of the translating activity is the target culture,6 its conventions and preferences, and all changes required to make the game feel natural to the target player are given priority (Granell et al. 2015). The skopos of the localization brief is to reproduce the gameplay and the feel of the game; its essence should thus be approached as a communicative translation in which target users are not made aware of the fact that they are consuming a translated product. Localization is what Nord (2018: 48–49) would tag as an instrumental form of translation, an equifunctional translation in which the function of the target text is the same as that of the source text. Two concepts are fundamental in localization as an equifunctional form of translation: gameplay and playability. Both represent the essence of the game and are closely connected to its semiotic configuration. The first is conceived as the immersive experience that the game

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offers a player in terms of the different types of activities that the player can undertake, for which particular skills are required. The latter, playability, refers to the ease with which the player interacts with the game system as well as its capacity to engage the player successfully in the game world (López Redondo 2014). These two concepts are distinctive of video games and should be reproduced precisely in localization. To do so, translators should be familiar with the semiotic configuration of video games. It is paramount for them to be aware of the rules and the mechanics of the game to adjust their translation accordingly. Although they will only have access to written content (linguistic code) for translation, a well-coordinated project and a complete localization kit (see Chap. 3, Sect. 3.2.2) are key elements as they will supplement the lack of access to the final product. Apart from the visual and acoustic channels that are considered when translating non-interactive audiovisual products, the additional tactile channel must be contemplated. If the tactile channel and its possibilities are not taken into account in the linguistic transfer, the playability might be hindered or slightly changed, which is undesirable in localization. Likewise, the linguistic code must be adapted to suit the video game’s complex semiotic construct and to reproduce the same feeling that the game provokes in a source-language player—it could be argued that it is hard to establish what exact effect the product produces in the source player. This is why the instructions provided by the developer or client and the previous experience of the localizing team are essential when approaching any localization project. Bernal-Merino (2020: 308) identifies playability itself as an element to measure quality in localization. If the different semiotic channels have been taken into account and the playing experience is reproduced faithfully, the localization process can be considered successful and its quality would probably be guaranteed. Although translators only have access to text strings instead of the final product, the different semiotic channels and how they operate can be taken into account following the instructions given by the client, including the localization kit (see Chap. 3), the guidelines suggested by the project manager and the translator’s own experience in the field. In this regard, two modern terms used in the field of localization must be considered: transcreation and deep or enhanced localization.

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Transcreation, a concept invoked by some authors and many professionals (Muñoz Sánchez 2017; O’Hagan and Mangiron 2013; Mangiron and O’Hagan 2006), seems to be closely linked to localization. It involves the highest level of creativity to adapt all possible elements that might be perceived differently by the target culture, such as creating new names for characters, weapons or game phases or levels, changing particular buttons or game mechanics, or modifying colors or aesthetics according to the target culture’s preferences. This greater freedom—way beyond the scope of the translator—is intended to reach all levels of the video game to recreate its complex semiotic and multimodal structure, creating a new version of the original game that is fully adapted to the target market. Changes in the source product may thus affect all modes of communication: verbal and nonverbal visual signs, verbal and nonverbal acoustic signs, and haptic communication (O’Hagan and Mangiron 2013: 199), although access to all other non-linguistic codes is not very common due to the unavailability of the materials and the strict non-disclosure agreements that localizers are required to sign, thus the developer and/or the distribution firm will ultimately be in charge of deciding to what extent changes beyond linguistic adaptation will be made. The concept of transcreation, nonetheless, could be nothing but a current, more flexible idea of translation in which a domesticating, naturalizing approach is adopted, accommodating the localized product to target users’ preferences and expectations, and not limiting translation to a strict linguistic transfer (Chaume 2018). Transcreation “does not seem to add anything new other than the fact that the source text is part of a video game and not a novel” (Bernal-Merino 2015: 89). Deep localization, in turn, represents the highest level of localization that a video game can achieve nowadays. Although it is a recent concept that still needs to be further explored, it could be argued to result from adopting a transcreation approach and incorporating localization into the game development process (ibid.: 173). Deep or enhanced localization is achieved by adopting what Bernal-Merino (2020) calls a glocalization strategy (which will be discussed in Chap. 3): “The glocalisation strategy is a further production refinement following internationalisation where companies allow for the natural structural or design variations that entering a new market may require” (ibid.: 310). This enhanced

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localization implies that end users experience the gameplay and playability as if the product was developed for them originally by eliminating any possible traces of the original culture, which might remain to a certain extent in other localization projects in which an internationalization approach was not adopted—it should not be forgotten that internationalization facilitates localization, but does not necessarily eliminate all traces of the game having been developed in a different locale. An example of this is when character’s food preferences are changed from rice balls or sushi in a video game sold in Japan to hamburgers in its North American version, such as Alex Kidd in Miracle World (Sega, 1986). Deep localization involves localizers and publishers in the game development process instead of conceiving localization as a purely later phase, which reduces the challenges of cultural adaptation. Deep localization also considers cultural adaptations carefully to modify any aspects of the game that might hint at a different locale. According to Bernal-Merino (2020), in this approach, video games are understood as consumer products, thus, the expectations and sensitivities of the target market must be satisfied even more carefully than in localization, and any traces of foreignization are planned to be eliminated from the very beginning. Deep localization appears to be the current and most desirable result of an optimized internationalization process, taking into account the particularities of the target market and creating a new product whose gameplay and playability are determined by a carefully localized multimodal medium.

1.2 T  he Structure of a Video Game in Translation: Game Situations and Translatable Assets Video games are highly complex multimodal products as they display the different signifying codes that configure their meaning through three communication channels, one of which (or sometimes two—both tactile and visual) requires the direct participation of the player to complete the full meaning of the interactive audiovisual text. This bidirectional creation of meaning causes a continuous change in game situations (Pujol

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Tubau 2015: 150) as the game develops, responding to the player’s action. Game situations will play a crucial and innovative role in our method of analyzing dubbing using a corpus composed of video games (see Chap. 5). Game situations are different moments within the game programming that entail different levels of interaction for the player as well as a particular audiovisual configuration (which varies considerably from game to game). Especially since the late 80s, the use of cinematic scenes has turned video games into a more cinematographic medium, as short non-­ interactive video clips started to be included in the game programming (O’Hagan and Mangiron 2013)—albeit revealing serious technical limitations, far from the high-definition images and realistic sound that cinematic scenes feature nowadays. These cinematic scenes represent the game situation that most resembles traditional audiovisual texts, as they stop interaction completely and turn the player into a passive spectator for a few seconds or minutes. Their configuration is pre-established and designed beforehand, like movies are. They are sometimes included as full-motion video clips (FMV) within the game programming, also known as computer-­ generated imagery (CGI) or pre-rendered scenes, developed and rendered previously and incorporated into the game as video files with slightly higher resolution. Nonetheless, it is increasingly common in modern video games with high processing capacities to include cinematic scenes in the form of in-game movies, as opposed to FMVs or pre-rendered scenes. These in-game movies are rendered in real time by the game engine, thus including any customization that the player might have introduced (such as dressing their character in particular clothes or carrying specific weapons). In both cases, cinematics stop interaction and display filmic conventions. In contrast, the basic unit displayed in any video game is game action, the most interactive situation, as full interaction is required by the player to complete the meaning of the interactive audiovisual text. The player can explore, attack, use objects or interact with the game atmosphere freely, according to the rules of the game. In between interactive game action and non-interactive cinematic scenes, two more game situations can be described: dialogues and tasks. Both entail different interactive possibilities depending on the game. The

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latter are moments in which the player is given instructions as diegetic information (e.g., another character tells ours where to go) or non-­ diegetic messages (the player, not the character, is addressed directly by the game system). Depending on the game, tasks may or may not interfere with interaction. They often limit interaction in a particular way or stop it completely to make the player pay attention to the instructions, but they can also be transmitted in full interactive contexts. The same applies to dialogues, as their interactive configuration depends completely on the type of game and its particular characteristics. Dialogues are dialectical exchanges between the main character and other non-playable characters (NPCs), or among NPCs. They are sometimes crucial for the game story, hence, dialogues partially stop interaction, restricting the main character’s activity to a few camera movements or simply walking, but not using any weapons, for example. Nonetheless, some dialogues take place in fully interactive moments and the player can choose whether to pay attention or not. These two elements, dialogues and tasks, are hybrid game situations whose interactive configuration relies completely on the type of game. Translation for dubbing these dialogues and tasks will imply different levels of restriction depending on the interactive configuration of these game situations (see Chap. 4), but typically, it is less demanding than dubbing in cinematic scenes as NPCs are not seen in such close detail, compared to non-interactive video clips. The partially interactive game mechanics that are used in some game situations are quick-time events (QTEs) (see Chap. 5, Sect. 5.3), typically during in-game movies in action games or with dialogical purposes in graphic adventures. QTEs represent particular moments in which the player is given a time limit to perform a specific action such as pressing the correct button once or a certain number of times, or choosing from several options. No other actions can be performed but the one required by the game. If the player reacts as expected, the in-game movie will continue or some type of advantage will be conferred on the player. Game situations can be very useful to split the game into different parts in order to analyze particular characteristics through empirical studies. Descriptive studies in the field of audiovisual translation commonly focus on a particular phenomenon that is analyzed in depth throughout an audiovisual product or corpus. In such cases, time codes are very

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useful to trace the said phenomenon and provide a quantitative account. In the case of a video game, this methodology needs to be adapted, as the development of the game depends on the player’s actions and time codes are absent in interactive material. Hence, game situations seem to be beneficial for organizing the contents of the game for systematic purposes, in combination with the narrative stages of the game (if there are any). See Chap. 5 for four practical examples. Some of the elements that can be identified in every game situation are translatable assets. Games are programmed using code and a series of elements, some of which are translated during localization. This is the case for on-screen or in-game text displayed on the user interface, such as menus, help messages, tutorials, system messages or written dialogues. These are sent to the translators in the form of text strings in spreadsheets. In addition, art assets or graphic text frequently need to be translated or adapted. These are all the graphic elements containing texts such as signs, maps, posters, notes and so on. They are more complex to modify than in-game text, as they are typically embedded in images instead of separated as editable text, so the editing process is more time-consuming than simply translating text strings. Sometimes the developers provide the translators with a list of translatable strings whose translation will later be used by the art designers or developers to replace the original text embedded in the graphic material. On other occasions, art assets are not even considered during the translation process for temporal or economic reasons, thus translators might not even be aware that translatable assets remain untranslated, and later on, fans and gamers with programming skills release “mods” (short for modifications) of the game in which some or most art assets have been translated, as happened with The Elder Scrolls V: Skyrim (Bethesda Game Studios 2011). Audio components represent another major asset to be translated. Especially in role-playing games (RPGs) or action-adventure games with audible dialogues, the amount of audio components can be enormous: narrations, dialogues, songs, instructions and so on. Modern video games include either subtitles or dubbing for these assets, although these AVT modes differ from traditional dubbing or subtitling practices in non-­ interactive material (O’Hagan and Mangiron 2013).

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Finally, video game projects also include “box and docs” or printed and additional material such as the game packaging, websites, strategy guides, banners, commercial descriptions, and so on. This encompasses all external material not included in the game programming. Therefore, it is never displayed in any of the aforementioned game situations but represents a sizeable portion of the translatable material of a video game. Ideally, the same translation team is in charge of translating all the different types of material to ensure a cohesive and coherent translation of the entire project. Particularly useful for translators is to understand what type of text— on-screen, audio or box and docs—each of these translatable assets comprises and where the first two types can be found within the game (game situations) as the action develops (Mejías-Climent 2019: 92; Bernal-­ Merino 2015: 110). • In the case of in-game text, this text can be used to transmit tasks and written dialogues, but also during the game action in the form of written messages for the player. Translating in-game texts requires replacing the written text, which can be narrative or dialogic and include technical, functional, didactic, promotional or legal contents. • Art assets are usually displayed during game action and translated by replacing the text embedded in the images. They can convey narrative messages, but also some functional or promotional content. • Audio components are used in any of the four game situations: tasks, dialogues, action and cinematics. They are translated using AVT modes: either subtitling or dubbing if the game project has a large budget, as this is more expensive than subtitling. Audio components carry narrative or dialogic messages and can also fulfill functional or didactic purposes. • Finally, the additional material, as has been mentioned, is external to the game and therefore not displayed in any game situation. It usually performs technical, didactic, promotional or legal functions. As O’Hagan and Mangiron remark: “Knowing the most typical taxonomies of game text can facilitate the selection of more appropriate translation strategies which minimize the risk of translation errors” (2013:

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159). It is difficult to offer a fixed list of game assets and the type of text strings they can display in such a dynamic and heterogeneous product as video games are. Many factors such as the interactive genre (see 1.3.) and the medium (or setting, see also Sect. 1.3) of the game determine the most common functions that each game asset fulfills within the story and the text typologies that can be found throughout the game. Bernal-­ Merino (2015: 107–138) and O’Hagan and Mangiron (2013: 155–171) offer a detailed review of the different assets, their possible functions and some translation strategies.

1.3 T  he Link Between the Game Industry and Research: A Practical Proposal for Interactive Genres Classifications and taxonomies have been used extensively throughout history to organize elements according to a series of shared criteria, such as film, music or literary genres. In translation studies, the first proposals for classifications of text typologies and genres came from linguistics around the 60s (Jiménez-Crespo 2013: 68). Nowadays, localization does not escape categorization and is closely connected to the different textual conventions that govern each type of text and each genre, though much remains to be explored concerning the possibilities that categorization offers for localization training, practice and research (ibid.: 37). Among other benefits, consistent categorization of video game genres could help structure their study and characterize each genre according to its different particularities, and also to compare different genres and determine the localization needs of each one. Video game classification is particularly complex due to the dramatic development of the medium (see Chap. 2) and the heterogeneous and technologically evolving nature of the games. New types of games emerge continually, as developers strive for originality to make their products unique and reach potential buyers. Researchers have offered numerous classifications in line with the rapid evolution of video games and according to different criteria. Developers and distributors propose their own

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classifications too, and the concept of genre does not seem to be uniform. Here a proposal for game classification based on game genres will be put forward (Sect. 1.3.3) to homogenize the terminology and concepts used by both academics and professionals. Categories aim to group different elements with shared features, such as literary or film genres. Many game classifications are inspired by such genres (Clarke et al. 2017: 448), which sometimes may not be naturally suited to the game idiosyncrasy. The ideal starting point to classify any type of product coherently is to determine the principal classification criterion that will be used, preferably just one that can be later combined with others. This will avoid unnecessary overlapping or redundancy: “[t]he first determining factor of any generic typology lies in the criteria it uses” (Arsenault 2009: 154). There is an ongoing debate within game studies about the determining factor to define video games: the narratological approach focuses on narrative elements and paradigms to analyze video games, whereas the ludological approach relies on the gameplay and interactive experience to understand this medium (Frasca 2003). In the first, literary and film theories are applied to video games, using narrative paradigms, likely due to the initial lack of a well-recognized discipline to situate and study interactive entertainment products. Ludologists, on the other hand, understand video games based on their interactive structures and elements, especially the rules of the game and the mechanics and playability (Apperley 2006; Frasca 2003). Be that as it may, these two approaches point toward two possible initial criteria that can be used to classify video games: their narrative configuration (narratology) and the interactive experience (ludology). Video games combine an audiovisual configuration and the interactive dimension with certain communicative functions related to their entertaining, aesthetical or design affordances (Clarke et al. 2017: 448). If the technological features of the audiovisual and interactive medium are considered, two more classifying criteria can be added. Therefore, a total of four criteria can be used to classify video games: the platform and the game mode in addition to the already mentioned interactive experience (defined below as the interactive genre) and narrative configuration

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(defined below as the medium or milieu) (Clearwater 2011; O’Hagan 2007): • The platform (hardware) on which the game is played: arcade machines, personal computers, consoles, portable consoles or smartphones and small devices. • The mode involves two different aspects: the player perspective (first person, third person or mixed) and the number of players participating in the action (single player or multiplayer). Not to be confused with the concept of mode as a form of meaning-making described in Sect. 1.1. (Jewitt et al. 2016). • The medium or milieu represents the traditional literary and filmic approach based on conventional stylistic, narrative, thematic and iconographic parameters (Wolf 2005: 114). The game medium can be compared to audiovisual genres (Agost 1999; Chaume 2003; Hurtado Albir 2011), such as comedy, horror, western, thriller, and so on. Not to be confused with medium defined in Sect. 1.1 as an electronic or technical form of communication (based on Boria et al. 2020). • The (interactive) genre is determined by the type of activities and tasks that the player has to put into practice, such as speed, strategy, fighting and a wide variety of cognitive and physical skills (Clearwater 2011). This refers to the interaction established between the player and the game. This is not to be confused with a broader conception of the term “genre” as a group of elements with shared stylistic and aesthetic characteristics, such as literary or film genres. For the sake of clarity, this criterion for classifying video games depending on their gameplay will be referred to as interactive genres, to differentiate them from literary or film genres (here referred to as medium): “[i]nteractivity is an essential part of every game’s structure and a more appropriate way of examining and defining video game genres”. (Wolf 2005: 114) These four classifying criteria have been used throughout game history, sometimes with different terms to refer to the same concepts and very often combining more than one criterion under the same category to create original but overly heterogeneous groups. The unrestrained development of the game industry has pushed classifications to become flexible

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and varied, with combined criteria and sometimes overlapping groups. In addition, the author’s point of view can lead to using a certain criterion or a combination of them: while academics seem to prefer classifications based on the interactive genre or the medium (narrative conventions), the industry opts for original taxonomies that suit their own interests and are perceived as a novelty by potential consumers. Very often, they offer classifications with overlapping and heterogeneous groups (Frasca 2001: 11). In this landscape, the agreement between academic and commercial classifications seems to be missing as “formal academic work is often overlooked by creators and consumers of games” (Clarke et al. 2017: 447).

1.3.1 G  ame Classifications Within the Industry and Academia Game developers use custom-made classifications in which some of the aforementioned criteria are combined to offer their players original groups and to promote their brand identity. Players accept and use these classifications and terminology themselves as they contain a lot of information on the different types of games: “[v]ideogame genres are not only helpful for gamers’ identity constructions but they fulfill a powerful commercial role as well” (Ensslin 2012: 44). While these categorizations are indeed useful for commercial purposes, they lack homogeneity and pose many inconsistencies from an academic perspective. If we take Ubisoft Store’s website as an example,7 the following are considered game genres: action/adventure, casual, co-op, fighting, horror, multiplayer, music, puzzle, racing, shooter, simulation and strategy. Although quite descriptive for potential buyers, these categories combine different criteria within the same classification as co-op games are grouped according to the game mode (two or more players cooperating), horror games are classified by the medium, and strategy or fighting games are sorted by the skills put into practice by the player. The aim of commercial classifications seems to follow marketing strategies to give potential buyers a clear and attractive idea of what they are offered. Moreover, these classifications are dynamic and change continually as new types of games are developed every year. Additionally,

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different groupings can be proposed by the same company depending on the country where the games are sold due to localization strategies aimed at suiting the target culture. This is the case for Nintendo’s website in Spain and the USA:8 Acción, Aventura, Arcade, Lucha, Salud y forma física, Música, Fiesta, Plataformas, Puzle, Carreras, Rol (RPG), Disparos (shooter), Simulación, Deportes and Estrategia in Spain; Action, Adventure, Application, Education, Fitness, Indie, Music, Party, Puzzle, Racing, Role-Playing, Simulation, Sports and Strategy in the USA. Not only game developers but also distribution platforms such as Steam or Origin propose their own classifications, as can be seen on their websites.9 None of these companies (developers or distributors) offers identical classifications, but most of them seem to group their games into two separate classifications, according to two different criteria: games based on the platform and games classified by the game genre or simply “type of game” (as Nintendo calls it). Within the industry, it could be said that there are as many game classifications and ways to name them as there are companies. All of them combine different criteria to make their classifications more descriptive and remarkable, and notable differences can be found across countries and over time (O’Hagan and Mangiron 2013: 67). Within academia, there have been many game classifications since the turn of the century, especially in communication studies and the new area of game studies. Some of the first were proposed by Crawford (1984), Levis (1997/2013), Wolf (2001/2005), King and Krzywinska (2002), Aarseth et al. (2003), Rollings and Adams (2003), Whalen (2004) and Apperley (2006). Some were criticized for not suiting the most recent game genres or the terminology used by game players, and only Wolf, and King and Krzywinska decided to prioritize the interactive genre following a ludological approach. There have been so many game classifications proposed that authors such as López Redondo (2014) have published reviews and comparisons of the most popular classifications (Estallo 1995, Levis 1997/2013, Scholand 2002, Newman 2004). Some of the most recent proposals are those by Arsenault (2009), Clearwater (2011), Ensslin (2012) and Fencott et al. (2012) in the field of game studies.

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As happens with commercial classifications, those designed by researchers have changed over time, influenced by technological developments and increasingly common genre mixing. Many of them combine more than one classification criterion, which, as noted, makes them overly heterogeneous. Sometimes a broad category called “Others” is considered, where any game difficult to classify by particular criteria can be included, but this fails to offer a homogeneous group of games with shared features, which is the main aim of many classifications. Some proposals can also be found within the particular field of localization. O’Hagan and Mangiron (2013) highlight the fact that game genres are useful for identifying textual typologies and conventions, which could be of practical relevance for the translator’s task. Their proposal leans toward a narrative conceptualization of genres. Granell et al. (2015) offer a similar proposal. Méndez González and Calvo-Ferrer (2017) present a classification inspired by the categories created by the Spanish magazine MeriStation, specializing in video games. By doing so, they intend to bring the industry and academia together and to homogenize terminology. Nonetheless, to our knowledge, a standardized and broadly used game classification still seems to be missing in localization and translation studies.

1.3.2 G  ame Genres Determined by the Interactive Dimension Video games have been defined as very particular interactive audiovisual texts. The interactive dimension makes them unique compared to other multimedia products. Nonetheless, this particularity seems to be overlooked in many of the aforementioned game classifications. Wolf ’s academic classification proposal (2005: 114–115) represents one of the exceptions, as he recognizes that “player participation is arguably the central determinant in describing and classifying video games, more so even than iconography. […] Interactivity is an essential part of every game’s structure and a more appropriate way of examining and defining video game genres”. He proposes 42 game genres determined by gameplay and interactivity, intentionally excluding any stylistic and narrative

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configuration as this criterion (the medium) can be applied later to differentiate video games belonging to the same category. Ensslin (2012) reviewed and updated Wolf ’s proposal to limit it to 22 interactive genres. In turn, Fencott et al. (2012) maintain that different activities characterize each group of video games. Inspired by Rollings and Adams’ classification (2003) and using their own developed software, they retrieved information from websites specializing in video games and proposed their own classification of 12 genres according to the particular skills that the player needs to exercise in each of them. Based on these previous classifications, we propose below a new taxonomy of nine macro-groups determined by the single criterion of the interactive genre, that is, the skills and activities, or group of skills, required of the player. This criterion is based on the main skills and activities put into practice by the player to activate the full meaning of the game, but it does not consider other aspects such as the platform, the number of players or perspective (mode), or the narrative and stylistic conventions (medium or milieu), since interactivity (types of skills and activities performed by the player) is the only criterion that applies. All video games belonging to the same interactive genre share one or a group of skills required of the player. Additionally, within the same category, some skills or activities can be more prominent or are typically combined with others. This creates minor differences within the proposed nine interactive genres and makes it possible to sub-divide a category into some sub-groups, such as rhythm games (the player needs to activate his/ her rhythmic skills), encompassing dance games (the main feature of the game is that the player has to dance) and singing games (the main feature of the game is that the player has to sing). It should be acknowledged that all classification entails a certain level of idealization, since video games are increasingly more complex and involve many different activities. Nonetheless, this proposal offers nine genres intended to delimit groups of games with a shared list of activities involved in their gameplay. This is not a fixed list; the number of categories can be expanded as new types of games arise. In addition, it should be taken into account that the name of each genre in most cases is not a particular skill or activity, but simply a name under which games that share basic activities are grouped. Some groups refer to a more prominent

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skill, while others are characterized by mixing a series of activities, such as action-adventure games. This classification is linked to the real terminology used by players and the industry as the work by Fencott et al. (2012) and their terminology extraction from specialized websites has been used. Some of the categories proposed by Wolf (2005) and Ensslin (2012) have been modified or grouped together, and the work by O’Hagan and Mangiron (2013) has been reviewed as well. As explained, the essential feature of the macro-genres is interaction (activities and skills), with types of skills or some groups of skills differentiating the sub-types. As categories are flexible and open and the criterion to add new categories is the skills required by the player, any video game can be included in the above classification as all video games are characterized by interactivity. This is not the case for narrative classifications structured according to the medium (similar to filmic or literary genres) since not all games are set in a realistic atmosphere. Abstract games such as Tetris (Alekséi Pázhitnov 1984) and Edge (Mobigame 2011) are difficult to situate in a classification determined exclusively by the medium. In addition, our classification can be expanded as new types of games emerge, making it adaptable diachronically, which would not be as easy in a classification following standardized narrative and stylistic conventions. Classifying video games by platform is very common among developers and distribution companies and is useful for players, who need to know which games can be played on their computers or consoles. Nonetheless, it is not such a practical criterion in terms of consistency, as many games have shared versions for different platforms and no broad differences can be seen, except for small device games (Jiménez-Crespo 2013), which tend to be more technologically limited. Moreover, the platform is an external element of the game and not a particular, inherent feature of the interactive audiovisual product. It determines technical changes to allow hardware compatibility, which are applied to the game code (language programming, formats, etc.), but does not necessarily entail considerable changes at a linguistic level, that is, the linguistic translation is not approached differently—except for particular

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terminology used by the platform company. Thus, the platform does not seem to represent a productive classification criterion. The game mode (perspective and number of players involved) would comprise categories that are too broad and heterogeneous for a practical classification. Games such as Supermarket Shriek (Billy Goat Entertainment Ltd. 2019) and Minecraft Dungeons (Mojang 2020), for example, belong to the same game mode as they are played exclusively from a third-person perspective, although the skills and activities put into practice during gameplay are radically different. Such a broad category would not be useful when researching particular trends in localization practices. In addition, not all games are played controlling a character. Such is the case in abstract games such as Bejeweled (PopCap Games 2001) or RUSH (Two Tribes 2010), which require no personal perspective due to their visual configuration. The proposal in Table 1.2 is intended to be useful for empirical analyses situated under the umbrella of audiovisual translation studies. A descriptive methodology to analyze a certain phenomenon in localization could be applied, but instead of using the traditional film genres to map the different audiovisual products that can be analyzed, the proposed classification reveals the particular nature of video games and their interactive dimension. While film genres account for stylistic, iconographic and narrative conventions, the analysis of video games calls for an adapted Table 1.2  Classification of video games by interactive genres Video game classification based on the interactive genre Combat  Shooter (firearms)  Fight (physical contact)    Beat’em-up    Hack and slash Adventure  Action-adventure  RPG  Survival  Platforms  Graphic/conversational adventure Racing Puzzles and labyrinths

Simulation  Resource management  Sports Strategy Rhythm  Dance  Sing Educational  Serious games Competition and contest  Games of luck  Bets

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classification that includes the most evident particularity of interactive audiovisual products. The aim is thus not to propose a completely differentiated research paradigm for localization, but rather to adapt the methods used in AVT research to recognize the idiosyncrasy of a modern type of audiovisual text. In addition, this classification could be useful for localizers in the same way as film genres are useful in audiovisual translation projects, giving the translator a clear idea of the type of contents to be translated considering, in this particular case, the game mechanics. In other words, a classification based on interactive genres could be useful for localizers to know what type of activities will be put into practice in the game and how to address the player effectively to guide him/her throughout the gameplay. Regarding dubbing, this classification could help determine to what extent dubbing is important when a video game localization project is planned. If, for example, the game belongs to the group of puzzles, the linguistic content in the form of acoustic messages will most probably be irrelevant or even non-existent, while in an action-adventure game, interaction with the game scenarios will probably imply talking to other characters and relying on realistic cinematic scenes, which usually features a significant amount of acoustic content whose dubbing could facilitate player immersion.

1.3.3 T  he Nine Interactive Genres and Their Main Characteristics The nine categories of interactive genres included in our classification work as broad tags that encompass a series of skills that the player needs to practice in order to interact with the game world successfully. This creates a particular type of game experience and entails different game mechanics in each category. Additionally, if further differences are to be identified among the video games included under the same category, additional criteria can be applied, such as the medium, the platform or the mode (see Chap. 5). The first category, combat games, includes all video games in which confrontation takes place. The main goal is to defeat the enemy using

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weapons, or without them by struggling physically or wrestling. The player has to activate their strength, resistance, attack and defense skills, capturing, chasing and using weapons. Good reflexes are essential. Possible subcategories of this group are shooters, in which target practice and spatial scanning are essential and the player has to be skillful using virtual weapons (hand-eye coordination), and fighting games, in which no firearms are used but physical contact is established instead, sometimes manipulating sharp objects such as knives (hack’n’slash), sometimes physically fighting against a continuous and increasing number of enemies (beat’em up). Adventure games include the highest number of different skills required in a video game. There is a huge variety of adventure games, some of which can be subcategorized as action-adventure, RPG or role-­ playing games, survival, platforms and graphic or conversational adventures, as well as full-motion video (FMV). They require the player to combine exploration, investigation, puzzle-solving, interaction with other characters, sometimes close attention to detail and usually defeating enemies, and they frequently follow a “linear” development (to a certain extent, but dependent on the player’s choices) according to a story’s plot. The action is frequently intense and constant, and it requires the player to explore and interact with the game world continuously, playing the role of one or more characters and pursuing a specific goal that is usually introduced at the beginning of the story, motivated by a narrative background. To achieve this main objective, the player has to overcome continuous obstacles displaying a wide range of skills such as speed, physical agility, decision-making, clue discovery and puzzle-solving. Due to its narrative background, selecting a particular medium combined with the interactive genre of adventure games can clearly delimit a corpus of analysis with distinctive characteristics; for example, survival adventures in a horror environment, fantastic role-playing games, historical action-­ adventure stories and so on. Adventure games include action-adventure games, in which the dynamic, frantic activity is combined with exploration and defensive skills to achieve the main goal. In RPGs, the character played by the user and his or her personality determine most of the skills exercised by the player. This character and his/her identity becomes the core of the action.

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Survival games require speed, defensive and evasive skills, and sometimes good time management. Platform games are characterized by acrobatic movement and spatial scanning skills. Graphic, conversational adventures and FMV give priority to the narrative content of the game, hence, the action is lighter and the player has to continuously make decisions based on the story he/she is experiencing, monitoring other characters’ personalities and actions. Deductive, analytical and critical skills are also necessary to respond to the action displayed on the screen, which frequently includes continuous cinematic scenes completing the story. Racing games require speed, good hand-eye coordination, concentration, time management and great agility using the controllers. Speed and/or obstacle avoidance determine the results of the game. Cars, motorcycles, bikes or other means of transport, even animals, real or imaginary, are driven or ridden by the player. The main goal is to reach the finish line in first place or to beat a record. Puzzles and labyrinths usually require abstract reasoning and mathematical or spatial thinking, and sometimes entail creative or reasoning skills too. Different objects or pieces need to be manipulated skillfully, sometimes associating colors, shapes or other elements. Controllers have to be used carefully if different virtual objects are required to fit and be put together. Simulation games require full immersion in the real environment reproduced virtually. They are thus associated with personal and resource management skills (means of transport, economy, commerce, building, etc.), with strategic thinking and logical reasoning, or with sportive knowledge if they emulate a particular sport. The player has to be resolved and focused on the action displayed on the screen, needs overall vision, organizational skills and speed and balance for sports games. Strategy games call for concentration, strategic and rational thinking, problem-solving skills and analytical reasoning. Mental speed and agile reactions are essential in real-time strategy instead of turn-based strategy games. Rhythm video games require good musical skills, intonation, corporal rhythm and dynamism. Sometimes skillful use of the controller is necessary if they emulate a particular musical instrument. In such cases,

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these resemble simulation games, but the main skills required in these games are those involved in musical performances. Educational games require complex mental activity associated with mathematical, geometrical, linguistic or analytical thinking, logical reasoning, cognitive flexibility or memory skills, depending on the particular contents of the game and the ages of the potential players. They can focus on specific and formal training, in which case they also resemble simulation games, although their main purpose is to train the player in a specific activity instead of offering pure entertainment, and some of them may be considered serious games. Competition and contest games rely either on luck or a wide variety of skills such as speed, reasoning and general knowledge in the case of question-based contests. Their main aim is to make players compete against each other and they sometimes include virtual gambling games. As has been pointed out, as many subgenres could be added to this proposal as new types of games emerge in the commercial landscape. This proposal lays its foundation on the concept of interactive genre, referring to the main skills and activities required of the player in order to enjoy a particular gameplay. The combination of this classification with further criteria such as the platform, the game mode or the medium could be beneficial in purposefully designing video game corpora in which to carry out empirical analyses. In addition, this proposal is closely linked to the real vocabulary used within the game industry and the specialized media.

Notes 1. The concept of audiovisual translation “mode” is used here as described by authors such as Chaume (2018), Deckert (2020) and Díaz Cintas and Remael (2021) to refer to the various “translation practices that differ from each other in the nature of their linguistic output and the translation strategies on which they rely” (Díaz Cintas and Remael 2021: 7). It will always be used in the framework of audiovisual translation (AVT), which serves as an umbrella term encompassing different AVT modes. These “various ways in which audiovisual productions can be translated into other languages” (ibid.) are listed briefly in Chap. 4 (Sect. 4.1). The term

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“AVT mode” should not be confused with mode in the context of semiotics, that is, the study of signs and symbols. In this context, mode refers to the traditional semiotic concept of verbal, nonverbal, aural and visual content and is also used throughout this chapter (for further discussion, see Kress and Van Leeuwen 2001). A third meaning for the term mode is included in the glossary and refers to a particular criterion to classify video games (see Sect. 1.3). 2. The concept of medium as an electronic or technical form of communication (Snell-Hornby 2006: 5) should not be confused with medium as a criterion to classify video games (see Sect. 1.3). In this second case, and as defined in the glossary, medium or milieu refers to the particular setting in which a video game takes place (Wolf 2005: 114). In this sense, it is similar to cinematographic or literary genres. 3. Some of these minor exceptions are the smell-o-vision movies from the 50s, in which the sense of smell was used (Delabastita 1989), or productions such as Earthquake (1974), in which an earthquake was simulated with moving seats, and XMILE (2016) by M. Á. Font, in which the sense of smell was stimulated too. 4. The adjective kinesic is used here when referring to the ‘semiotic codes’ in the particular field of science studying body movement and nonverbal behavior (kinesics); kinetic, in turn, is the adjective referring to the movement in general. This is not to be confused with kinesthesia or kinesthesis, the perception of our own body’s position in reference to external stimuli and space (Poyatos 2002b: 34). 5. Whenever a video game is mentioned, unless otherwise stated, its original (untranslated) title will be indicated along with the name of its developers or creators and the year of first release (later releases in different locales might have followed). These developers will not be included in the reference list at the end of the chapter. 6. Cultural adaptations in video games may range from changing colors or icons that have particular meanings in a given locale to eliminating or creating new characters that fit better the expectations of the target players. Dubbing implies a linguistic transfer and it is known that language and culture cannot be considered separately. However, when describing cultural adaptations in video games, modifications beyond linguistic-­ cultural references are considered, but they will not be the focus of these pages. For further discussion on game culturization and cultural ­modifications in video games, see Consalvo (2006), Di Marco (2007),

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O’Hagan and Mangiron (2013) and Bernal-Merino (2016), to name but a few. 7. Available at [accessed: May 30, 2020]. 8. Available at and [accessed: June 1, 2020]. 9. Available at and [accessed: May 30, 2020].

References Aarseth, Espen, Marie Solveig Smedstad, and Lise Sunnanå. 2003. A Multidimensional Typology of Games. DiGRA ‘03—Proceedings of the 2003 DiGRA International Conference: Level Up. Agost, Rosa. 1999. Traducción y doblaje: Palabras, voces e imágenes. Barcelona: Ariel. Apperley, Thomas H. 2006. Genre and Game Studies: Toward a Critical Approach to Video Game Genres. Simulation and Gaming 37 (1): 6–23. https://doi.org/10.1177/1046878105282278. Arsenault, Dominic. 2009. Video Game Genre, Evolution and Innovation. Eludamos. Journal for Computer Game Culture 3 (2): 149–176. Bernal-Merino, Miguel Á. 2015. Translation and Localisation in Video Games Making Entertainment Software Global. New York: Routledge. ———. 2016. Creating Felicitous Gaming Experiences: Semiotics and Pragmatics as Tools for Video Game Localisation. Signata. Annales Des Sémitoques 7: 231–253. https://doi.org/10.4000/signata.1227. ———. 2020. Key Concepts in Game Localisation Quality. In The Palgrave Handbook of Audiovisual Translation and Media Accessibility, ed. Łukasz Bogucki and Mikołaj Deckert, 297–314. Cham, Switzerland: Palgrave Macmillan. Birdwhistell, Ray. 1970. Kinetics and Context. Essays on Body Motion Communication. Philadelphia, PA: University of Pennsylvania Press. Boria, Monica, Ángeles Carreres, María Noriega-Sánchez, and Marcus Tomain. 2020. Translation and Multimodality. Oxon and New York: Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780429341557. Burgoon, Judee K., Laura K. Guerrero, and Kory Floyd. 2010. Nonverbal Communication. London and New York: Routledge.

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Calvo-Ferrer, José Ramón. 2019. Some Remarks on the Idiosyncrasy of Serious Games and Its Effects on Research Results. Proceedings of the European Conference on Games-Based Learning, 2019 October, 137–142. https://doi. org/10.34190/GBL.19.137. Chaume, Frederic. 2003. Doblatge i subtitulació per a la TV. Vic: Eumo. ———. 2004. Cine y traducción. Madrid: Cátedra. ———. 2012. Audiovisual Translation: Dubbing. Manchester: St. Jerome Publishing. ———. 2018. Is Audiovisual Translation Putting the Concept of Translation Up Against the Ropes? JosTrans—The Journal of Specialised Translation 30: 84–104. Clarke, Rachel Ivy, Jin Ha Lee, and Neils Clark. 2017. Why Video Game Genres Fail: A Classificatory Analysis. Games and Culture 12 (5): 445–465. https:// doi.org/10.1177/1555412015591900. Clearwater, David A. 2011. What Defines Video Game Genre? Thinking about Genre Study after the Great Divide. Loading… The Journal of the Canadian Game Studies Association 5: 29–49. Cleaveland, Peter. 2006. Haptic Controls: A Touching Experience. Control Engineering, March 1. https://www.controleng.com/articles/ haptic-­controls-­a-­touching-­experience/. Consalvo, Mia. 2006. Console Video Games and Global Corporations: Creating a Hybrid Culture. New Media and Society 8 (1): 117–137. https://doi. org/10.1177/1461444806059921. Crawford, Chris. 1984. The Art of Computer Game Design. Berkeley, CA: McGraw-Hill. Deckert, Mikołaj. 2020. Capturing AVT and MA: Rationale, Facets and Objectives. In The Palgrave Handbook of Audiovisual Translation and Media Accessibility, ed. Łukasz Bogucki and Mikołaj Deckert, 1–9. Cham, Switzerland: Palgrave Macmillan. Delabastita, Dirk. 1989. Translation and Mass-Communication: Film and TV Translation as Evidence of Cultural Dynamics. BabelBabel Revue Internationale de La Traduction/International Journal of Translation 35 (4): 193–218. https:// doi.org/10.1075/babel.35.4.02del. Di Marco, Francesca. 2007. Cultural Localization: Orientation and Disorientation in Japanese Video Games. Tradumàtica, November 5. http:// www.fti.uab.cat/tradumatica/revista/num5/articles/06/06.pdf. Díaz Cintas, Jorge, and Aline Remael. 2021. Subtitling: Concepts and Practices. London and New York: Routledge.

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Ensslin, Astrid. 2012. The Language of Gaming. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. Estallo, Juan Alberto. 1995. Los Videojuegos, Juicios y Prejuicios. Barcelona: Planeta. Fencott, Clive, Mike Lockyer, Jo Clay, and Paul Massey. 2012. Game Invaders. The Theory and Understanding of Computer Games. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons. Fiske, John. 1990. Introduction To Communication Studies. 2nd ed. London and New York: Routledge. Frasca, Gonzalo. 2001. Rethinking Agency and Immersion: Video Games as a Means of Consciousness-Raising. SIGGRAPH. ———. 2003. Simulation versus Narrative: Introduction to Ludology. In The Video Game Theory Reader, ed. Mark J.P. Wolf and Bernard Perron, 221–235. Oxon and New York: Routledge. Granell, Ximo. 2012. La Traducción de videojuegos: Retos de una formación especializada. In Estudios de traducción e interpretación vol. II: Entornos de especialidad, ed. José Luis Martí Ferriol and Ana Muñoz Miquel, 25–34. Castellón: Publicacions de la Universitat Jaume I. Granell, Ximo, Carme Mangiron, and Núria Vidal. 2015. La traducción de videojuegos. Sevilla: Bienza. Heslin, Richard, and Miles L. Patterson. 1982. Nonverbal Behavior and Social Psychology. Nonverbal Behavior and Social Psychology. Boston: Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-­1-­4684-­4181-­9. Huizinga, Johan. 2007. Homo Ludens. 6th ed. Madrid: Alianza Editorial. Hurtado Albir, Amparo. 2011. Traducción y traductología. Introducción a la traductología. 5th ed. Madrid: Cátedra. Jewitt, Carey, Jeff Bezemer, and Kay O’Halloran. 2016. Introducing Multimodality. Oxon and New York: Routledge. Jiménez-Crespo, Miguel A. 2013. Translation and Web Localization. Oxon: Routledge. Juul, Jesper. 2005. Half-Real: Videogames between Real Rules and Fictional Worlds. Londen and Cambridge: MIT Press. King, Geoff, and Tanya Krzywinska, eds. 2002. Screenplay: Cinema/Videogames/ Interfaces. Londres: Wallflower Press. Kress, Gunther, and Theo Van Leeuwen. 2001. Multimodal Discourse. The Modes and Media of Contemporary Communication. Londond and New York: Oxford University Press. Levis, Diego. 2013. Los videojuegos, un fenómeno de masas. 2nd ed. Barcelona: Paidós.

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López Redondo, Isaac. 2014. ¿Qué es un videojuego? Claves para entender el mayor fenómeno cultural del siglo XXI. Sevilla: Héroes de Papel. Maietti, Massimo. 2004. Semiotica dei videogiochi. Milan: Unicopli. Mangiron, Carme, and Minako O’Hagan. 2006. Unleashing Imagination with ‘Restricted’ Translation. JoStrans. The Journal of Specialised Translation 6: 10–21. Mejías-Climent, Laura. 2019. La sincronización en el doblaje de videojuegos. Análisis empírico y descriptivo de los videojuegos de acción-aventura. Universitat Jaume I. Méndez González, Ramón, and José Ramón Calvo-Ferrer. 2017. Videojuegos y [para]traducción: Aproximación a la práctica localizadora. Granada: Comares. Muñoz Sánchez, Pablo. 2017. Localización de vdeojuegos. Madrid: Editorial Síntesis. Newman, James. 2004. Videogames. London and New York: Routledge. Nord, Christiane. 2018. Translating as a Purposeful Activity. Functionalist Approaches Explained. 2nd ed. Oxon and New York: Routledge. O’Hagan, Minako. 2007. Video Games as a New Domain for Translation Research: From Translating Text to Translating Experience. Tradumàtica 5. http://www.fti.uab.es/tradumatica/revista/num5/articles/09/09.pdf. O’Hagan, Minako, and Carme Mangiron. 2013. Game Localization: Translating for the Global Digital Entertainment Industry. Amsterdam: John Benjamins. Paterson, Mark. 2007. The Senses of Touch. Haptics, Affects and Technologies. Oxford and New York: Bloomsbury Publishing. Poyatos, Fernando. 2002a. Nonverbal Communication across Disciplines. Volume 2: Paralanguage, Kinesics, Silence, Personal and Environmental Interaction. Amsterdam and Philadelphia, PA: John Benjamins. ———. 2002b. Nonverbal Communication across Disciplines. Volume I: Culture, Sensory Interaction, Speech, Conversation. Amsterdam and Philadelphia, PA: John Benjamins. Pujol Tubau, Miquel. 2015. La representació de personatges a través del doblatge en narratives transmèdia. Estudi descriptiu de pel·lícules i videojocs basats en El senyor dels anells. Universitat de Vic—Universitat Central de Catalunya. Raessens, Joost, and Jeffrey H. Goldstein. 2005. Handbook of Computer Game Studies. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. Richter, Felix. 2020. Gaming: The Most Lucrative Entertainment Industry by Far. Statista, September 22. https://www.statista.com/chart/22392/ global-­revenue-­of-­selected-­entertainment-­industry-­sectors/. Rollings, Andrew, and Andrew Adams. 2003. Andrew Rollings and Ernest Adams on Game Design. Berkeley, CA: New Riders.

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Ruiz López, Ana Isabel, and Reyes Lluch Rodríguez. 2015. La didáctica del braille más allá del código. Nuevas perspectivas en la alfabetización del alumnado con discapacidad visual. Madrid: ONCE. Scholand, Michael. 2002. Localización de videojuegos. Tradumàtica 1. http:// www.fti.uab.es/tradumatica/revista/articles/mscholand/art.htm Snell-Hornby, Mary. 2006. The Turns of Translation Studies: New Paradigms or Shifting Viewpoints? Amsterdam: John Benjamins. https://doi. org/10.1075/btl.66. Taylor, Christopher John. 2013. Multimodality and Audiovisual Translation. In Handbook of Translation Studies, ed. Yves Gambier and Luc Van Doorslaer, 98–104. Amsterdam and Philadelphia, PA: John Benjamins. Whalen, Zach. 2004. Game/Genre: A Critique of Generic Formulas in Video Games in the Context of ‘The Real’. Works and Days 43/44 (22): 289–303. Wijiman, Tom. 2020. The World’s 2.7 Billion Gamers Will Spend $159.3 Billion on Games in 2020; The Market Will Surpass $200 Billion by 2023. Newzoo, May 8. https://newzoo.com/insights/articles/ newzoo-­games-­market-­numbers-­revenues-­and-­audience-­2020-­2023/. Wolf, Mark J.P. 2005. The Medium of the Video Game. 3rd ed. Austin: The University of Texas Press. Zabalbeascoa, Patrick. 2008. The Nature of the Audiovisual Text and Its Parameters. In The Nature of the Audiovisual Text and Its Parameters, ed. Jorge Díaz-Cintas, 21–37. Amsterdam and Philadelphia, PA: John Benjamins.

2 The History of Localization and Dubbing in Video Games

The story of videogames reflects the momentous shift to a progressively more technological society. —Baer (2005. Videogames: In the Beginning, 2. Springfield: Rolenta Press)

Abstract  Starting with a general overview of the most prominent figures in the game industry, Chap. 2 reviews the rapid evolution of the interactive medium, tracing the origins of localization and those of dubbing in particular, with the aim of discussing the main challenges that the industry has faced and the needs it reflects nowadays. This historical review is structured in the different decades that have passed since the origins of interactive media as particular changes can be observed in each decade regarding sound technologies, which are key in the evolution of dubbing in video games. Some examples of popular games and consoles will be mentioned to illustrate the evolution of dubbing in this media since the early 60s up to the current decade.

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 L. Mejías-Climent, Enhancing Video Game Localization Through Dubbing, Palgrave Studies in Translating and Interpreting, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-88292-1_2

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In our current, technologized era, it is logical to think that technological advancements will be at users’ disposal to offer them greater customization and as many opportunities as possible to suit their preferences. A clear example of this is the ever-increasing range of audiovisual translation (AVT) modes1 available when consuming audiovisual products: original version with subtitles in the user’s own language, original version with original subtitles, dubbed version, subtitles for the deaf and the hard of hearing, audio description, and so on. This wide array of AVT modes was not always available in all media, as most regular and traditional video games consumers probably know, and technological advancements played a fundamental role in increasing consumers’ options. Despite their impact on current society as the most popular entertainment medium, video games are nonetheless a relatively recent type of audiovisual product compared to other multimedia productions such as those belonging to the film or the music industry, not to mention other entertainment industries such as literature or the wide variety of non-­ digital games. It is thus worth exploring the rapid development of video games as a medium in order to provide a comprehensive overview of the main aspects that have contributed to the dramatic growth of the game industry and turned it into the most profitable market nowadays. Many authors including De Maria (2019), Hennessey and McGowan (2017), López Redondo (2014), Donovan (2010), Baer (2005), Wolf (2005), Martínez Robles (2003), and Kent (2001) have already offered such an overview within the field of game studies just as O’Hagan and Mangiron (2013) and Bernal-Merino (2011), among others, have done within the field of localization and translation studies. This chapter adds value to these accounts by shifting the focus to the history and evolution of dubbing in video games specifically. Such a review has not been carried out previously within academia (O’Hagan and Mangiron 2013: 46) as far as can be ascertained. As dubbing has contributed to the enhancement of the global game industry, giving the players the opportunity to experience the game world in their own language, the focus of this chapter will be the evolution of the game localization industry from the particular perspective of dubbing and game sound, which are inextricably linked. This review aims to pave the way for a more complete understanding of how the dubbing industry

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works, what the main challenges it has faced throughout game history are and what some of the key issues are that need to be examined in the modern video game dubbing and localization industry. If someone wishes to become a part of the industry or to start researching on game localization, it is essential to know the industry in depth so that research and future professionals can address its needs and provide useful information and strategies for professional practice. Nonetheless, training, research and professional practices do not always go hand in hand. This was the case with localization, especially in its early years, when the industry used to develop its own innovation and adaptation methods without the benefits that may have been brought by research, which did not begin to gather momentum until the last decade (O’Hagan and Chandler 2016: 312). Dubbing originated with the first talkies at the end of the 1920s: “[t]he history of dubbing necessarily runs parallel to the history of cinema. However, although the literature on the history of cinema is extensive, very little has been written on the history of dubbing and AVT in general” (Chaume 2012: 10); to this can be added the case of dubbing in video games specifically. It should be pointed out that dubbing was not a feature of video games until the 1990s, when human voices started to be used. This gives an idea of how recent dubbing is in the interactive medium of video games. Although research on dubbing and its historical evolution has increased rapidly in recent years, dubbing in video games in particular seems to remain underexplored from a diachronic perspective, which is the standpoint offered by this chapter. In this historical analysis, the turning point will be shown to be the introduction of audio files in video games containing dialogues, which could then be replaced by translations. Video game history has traditionally been divided into different console generations that illustrate the technological and playability advancements that each one has introduced in the game industry. From the localization standpoint, this evolution has been divided into different growth phases (O’Hagan and Mangiron 2013: 46–62). Here, the development of the video game dubbing industry will be distributed across the different decades, starting with the very origins of video games, as every decade brought about particular advancements in sound quality that led to some improvements in video game dubbing.

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To understand the importance of dubbing in video games and their significant impact on society and research, we will start by reviewing some recent figures. Then, the origins of video games as a mass-­ consumption product will be traced, followed by a review of their evolution and how dubbing practices in particular and localization in general developed within this industry. This diachronic perspective is structured according to the different decades during which video game localization and dubbing have evolved.

2.1 T  he Current Game Industry in Figures and Its Impact on Research Some ten years ago, video games already represented “the most lucrative entertainment industry ahead of books, music and films” (Bernal-Merino 2011: 12), and they still do. In countries such as Spain, this industry included more than 15 million video game players in 2019 (AEVI 2019). Not to mention the video game industry income for the same year, 1.5 billion euros, which far exceeds the total amount generated by the film (624.1 million) and the music industry (296.1 million) in 2019 in Spain (AEVI 2019). The biggest game producer worldwide is the United States, where the total income reached $43.4 billion in 2019, meaning that most games originate in English. This is the highest figure internationally. In terms of players, over 164 million adults play video games in the United States (ESA 2019). Globally, revenues were estimated at $159.3 billion in 2020 and are expected to reach up to $200 billion by 2023 (Wijiman 2020). These figures are notably higher than the $43.5 billion generated by the film industry worldwide in 2019—before it was hit by the COVID pandemic—and the $21.5 billion earned by the recorded music industry (Mulligan 2020). There are more than 2.7 billion video game players around the world (Wijiman 2020). Due to their remarkable success among users since they were first introduced, video games represent a product worth studying, as shown by these figures and demonstrated by the academic literature in the last

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decade. Nonetheless, even though research has expanded, especially during the 2010s (Mangiron 2017), localization was overlooked for several years, as both a research field and a market strategy, despite the fundamental role it plays in countries such as Spain given the large number of foreign products available. Indeed, although the secrecy in the game industry prevents us from updating this information, at the time of their research Rodríguez Breijo and Pestano Rodríguez (2012) stated that 94% of the national demand for video games in Spain was satisfied by international products, thus requiring a localization process. As O’Hagan (2007: 2) pointed out, “despite translation playing such a vital role in this growing industry, its significance is largely ignored in games studies, while video games remain similarly underexplored in translation studies”. However, a few years later Bernal-Merino notes that “the game publishing industry is slowly realising the crucial part that […] game localisation plays in boosting sales globally, opening new markets and expanding franchises” (2015: 2). To understand the initial lack of collaboration between game and translation studies and its absence from academia, a mixture of financial and notional reasons need to be taken into account, “and arguably include the misjudgment of the importance of even basic translation and its impact as a factor in conveying the feel of the game” (ibid.). In fact, video games themselves did not find their place within academia until the turn of the century, with the establishment of game studies as an autonomous field and the creation of the journal of the same name (Aarseth 2001; O’Hagan and Chandler 2016). This medium was not acknowledged properly until several decades after it first entered the market, which made it even more difficult for localization to be given the attention that such a practice deserves. Bernal-Merino (2016: 231) pinpoints the reason for the initial lack of interest in game localization: “partly because of its relative youth, and perhaps a certain degree of stigmatization in society and academic research”. Additionally, the development of new technologies and market and economic pressures have “pushed industry processes towards literal translation because it is easy for computers to swap words between languages” (ibid.). Newman (2004) refers to two main reasons for this lack of attention to the game industry in general during the 70–90s, despite the strong

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impact of games in everyday life. Firstly, video games were considered a childish, trivial medium, in which there was no need for research. Secondly, they were seen as an irrelevant practice, “mere trifles, low art” lacking the credibility of more traditional media (ibid.: 5). However, both the industrial and academic fields have changed in the last decade, as we shall see in the following pages. To illustrate this, Mangiron (2017) offers an overview of the increasing volume of publications available since the turn of the century, including academic articles by Mangiron and O’Hagan, Bernal-Merino, Kehoe and Hickey, Dietz and Heimburg, all of which were published in 2006; as well as Mangiron in 2007 and the monographs by O’Hagan and Mangiron (2013); Mangiron et  al. (2014); Bernal-Merino (2015); Granell et  al. (2015); Muñoz Sánchez (2017); and Méndez González and Calvo-Ferrer (2017). Yet many areas call for further research, as is the case for dubbing in video games. Misconceptions about video games are disappearing over time, as the figures show (AEVI 2019). In the particular case of Spain, 49% of adults (between 26 and 34 years old) play video games regularly, rising to 54.3%, if we extend the age range to adults between 35 and 44 years old, and a further 19% are between 45 and 64 years old. Out of the more than 15 million video game players in Spain, 73.3% claim to play every week. The weekly playing time in Spain is estimated at 6.7 hours, still behind the 11.6 hours a week that the British spend on average, or the 8.3 and 8.6 hours that the Germans and the French play, respectively (AEVI 2019). Furthermore, over 8.4 million video games and 1.1 million consoles were sold in Spain in 2019. The most popular genres recognized by AEVI (2019) in their classification action games, sports games, role-­ playing games and adventure games. Despite these figures, the great value of games does not lie in their broad offer of genres or platforms, but in the “growing number of countries with a maturing gaming community thanks to the game localisation industry” (Bernal-Merino 2016). Now that the social and economic importance of video games is unquestionable, it seems reasonable to review how localization has evolved as an essential practice that enables video games to reach many different cultures, expanding their economic and social impact. Furthermore, since its emergence in the game industry during the 90s,

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dubbing in particular has played a key role in extending consumers’ choice when it comes to playing localized video games, in line with the increasing variety of AVT modes available for non-interactive products nowadays, especially since the expansion of video on demand (VOD) platforms. Some seminal publications reviewing the evolution of video game localization are those by Bernal-Merino (2011), O’Hagan and Mangiron (2013) and Bernal-Merino (2015). Nonetheless, as will be explained in Chap. 3, localization involves a wide range of practices to make a video game seem natural to a certain locale (i.e. regional version, O’Hagan and Chandler 2016: 318). Many of these practices had not been reviewed properly in the academic literature until recently (Mangiron 2017), although research is still lacking. This is the case for dubbing, an audiovisual translation mode included in the localized version of most triple-A titles (or AAA games, those with a large budget).2 Dubbing is also the most popular audiovisual translation mode among Spanish consumers— at least historically, although the trend might be changing with the increasing range of AVT modes available when consuming audiovisual products nowadays, such as subtitling, subtitling for the deaf and the hard of hearing and audio description. As stated above, dubbing has been analyzed extensively within academia, but much remains to be explored about dubbing in video games in particular. As this chapter shows, dubbing refers to the same AVT mode—and professional practice—in both movies and video games. However, it can be considered an old practice in the film industry while it is still in its infancy in the interactive medium due to the historically distant origins of movies and video games. To pinpoint the emergence of movies and video games historically, a visual comparison can be established between these two industries by adopting the perspective of “culturomics”. This method consists of analyzing linguistic big data to identify particular social and cultural behaviors through language use (Michel et al. 2011). Using the online free-access tool Ngram Viewer available at , the origins of video games and dubbing can be traced back by identifying patterns in language use. Ngram Viewer uses very large corpora in which a word or combination of words (known as n-grams) can be searched. The corpus is composed of millions of books

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available through Google Books containing more than 500 billion words which were published between 1800 and 2018 in 8 different languages.3 The chart resulting from searching the terms video games, videojuegos and doblaje (see Fig.  2.1)4 will show how far back the origins of both products go in terms of published books containing these words. According to these results—and as will be explained in the next section— the emergence of video games can be traced back to the 60s. The number of publications on video games written in English is notably higher than books available in Spanish since the USA can be considered the birthplace of this modern form of entertainment. In contrast, the origins of dubbing (in Spanish, doblaje) are reflected in the first use of this word in the late 20s. Interestingly, right after the second major crisis of the game industry, between 1983 and 1985 (O’Hagan and Mangiron 2013; López Redondo 2014), there is a drop in the appearance of these terms in the documents published in the following years, which then quickly resumed a steady increasing trend. There are certain limitations to this search as the books gathered by Google represent only a small percentage of all books published worldwide, and Google books are subject to different restrictions, such as copyright and electronic formatting. In addition, the search for polysemous words might not be reliable within a particular field as the results do not distinguish between disciplines (this is the reason why the term “dubbing:eng_2019” has not been included in Fig.  2.1. It has many

Fig. 2.1  Use of the terms video games, videojuegos and doblaje in the English and Spanish corpora of Ngram Viewer (smoothing: 1)

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different meanings compared to “doblaje”, which only refers in Spanish to the audiovisual translation mode replacing the original dialogues with the translated ones). However, this tool offers a very interesting source of data in which linguistic aspects reflecting reality can be explored and compared (Phillpott 2016), such as the emergence of video games and dubbing. We will proceed to explore the origins and combined evolution of both in the following pages.

2.2 T  he Origins of Video Games (1960s) and the First Beeps (1970s) The origins of this interactive form of entertainment are still controversial. Even determining the first video game in history is a complicated matter (Newman 2004) as different titles could be considered the first for various reasons. If their ludic and technological nature is to be considered, the following four are usually cited as the first video games in history. As we shall see, dubbing does not become relevant until a few decades later. To begin with, OXO, also known as Noughts and Crosses or Tic-Tac-Toe, inspired by the traditional non-digital tic-tac-toe, was the first game to display digital graphics. Created by the student A. S. Douglas in 1952, it could only be played on the EDSAC, a computer at Cambridge University. It was a mere display of technological advancements, rather than a product serving real game purposes (López Redondo 2014; Hennessey and McGowan 2017). Second, Tennis for Two was an electronic game created by the physicist W. Higinbotham in 1958 at the Brookhaven National Laboratory (BNL). Some have argued that Tennis for Two was not the original name since neither Higinbotham nor the BNL used it, simply calling the game A computer tennis (Hennessey and McGowan 2017: 48). It was an interactive “sport simulation” recreated with an oscilloscope and two small cabled boxes with buttons used as controllers, which can be considered the precursors of current game controllers (ibid.: 47). It was conceived

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simply as a source of entertainment for visitors at the BNL, where the developer used to work (López Redondo 2014: 130). These two very early video games had neither music nor sound effects (Collins 2008: 9) and lacked any particularity that required adaptations such as technical modifications or linguistic content. They were conceived as “fun demonstration[s] of how computers [could] handle and display ballistic motions”, rather than real games (Baer 2005: 17). Third, Spacewar, by S. Russell (1962), is considered by many to be the first video game because it was a major innovation based on a cathode ray screen. But more importantly, for the first time, it was intentionally created as a game (Kent 2001: 31): Two interactive programs existed before Spacewar, in which you interacted with switches on the computer and you changed a display on the screen, depending on what you did with the switches. But they weren’t particularly designed as games. And they weren’t very popular because, as games, they weren’t very good.

Spacewar was designed by the aforementioned student, S.  Russell, together with some colleagues at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT). The original platform was the PDP-1, a very limited computer that initially impeded the inclusion of color, music or sound effects. The game was included on all PDP-1 computers that were sold, mainly to universities and computing experts (Hennessey and McGowan 2017: 69). Later updates and modifications of the original game did include a series of “space-battle” sounds that were intended to guide the users’ action (Collins 2008: 8). This game allegedly inspired Nolan Bushnell to create a video game that finally marked the take-off of the industry, Pong (Atari 1972). Pong’s enormous success came right after a first attempt to commercialize an allegedly plagiarized version of Russell’s Spacewar: Computer Space in 1971 (by Nutting Associates) (López Redondo 2014; Levis 2013). However, this first attempt turned out to be a failure due to the very limited graphics of the screen and the complexity of the control panel, which most users did not understand.

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Pong was “to some extent responsible for making the sound of video games famous, with the beeping sound it made when the ball hit the paddle” (Collins 2008: 8), although its sound was fairly haphazard, as the designer himself, Al Alcorn, states (Kent 2001: 42): The truth is, I was running out of parts on the board. Nolan [Bushnell, Atari’s founder] wanted the roar of a crowd of thousands—the approving roar of cheering people when you made a point. Ted Dabney told me to make a boo and a hiss when you lost a point, because for every winner there’s a loser. […] I [didn’t] know how to make any one of those sounds. […] Since I had the wire wrapped on the scope, I poked around the sync generator to find an appropriate frequency or a tone. So those sounds were done in a half a day. They were the sounds that were already in the machine.

Such simple nonverbal sounds would never require any form of dubbing. In fact, no particular adaptations would have been needed if these games had been brought to other cultures at that time as these were all very straightforward forms of interactive entertainment, and localization was still unknown. Despite their controversial origins, from the installation of Pong in a California bar to the present day, video games have, as we have seen, become one of the main forms of entertainment. Their evolution is evident in the increasing formal complexity of the medium, in their social and economic impact and in the impressive growth of the industry, including the process of dubbing. The scope of these pages does not allow us to review the evolution of the four generations of consoles before the 1990s in detail because, as one might expect, dubbing was completely unknown in this modern interactive environment before then, despite already being well consolidated within the cinematographic industry. Nonetheless, it is necessary to refer to the rapid development of the sound components, which are essential for dubbing. Although some rudimentary linguistic components were incorporated before 1990, sound technologies were still limited, and technological restrictions prevented dubbing from being used in video games until later. This means that

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dubbing has only been used for approximately twenty years in video games, whereas film dubbing was created about nine decades ago and has been used and refined since then. As happens in the film industry, in gaming, sound effects and music are crucial for players’ immersion. Appropriate localization is thus essential, in addition to the translation of the acoustic linguistic code. However, the introduction of speech in game sound took more than a decade to become a reality. In the 60s and the 70s, the US company Atari dominated the market (O’Hagan and Mangiron 2013), and arcade machines were the heart of gaming activity. These machines emitted certain electronic and rudimentary sounds, mainly aiming to catch the potential users’ attention (Collins 2008: 8–9). They were inspired by their amusement-­arcade predecessors, the mechanical penny machines, such as pinball, which featured bells and buzzers to attract players: “[v]arious electric bell and chime sounds were incorporated into the machines [early video games] in the following decades” (Collins 2008: 8). As Wolf (2005: 30–31) states, electronic music developed during the 1960s and came to be known for its new computer-generated sounds and sometimes repetitious compositions. Electronic sounds could be arranged and repeated by a computer, and soon synthesized beeps and boops became the computer-generated soundtracks for video games.

During the initial stages of the game industry, game sound was determined by the technological constraints of these early arcade machines, that is, storage and programming limitations, although this situation ended up creating an aesthetic preference for looping and sampling during the 8-bit era (1980–1986). Typically, only an introductory and “game-over” music theme was used in most games, repeating basic sound effects throughout the rest of the action, yet there was still no place for human voices. These arcade games contained hardly any elements that needed to be translated (Bernal-Merino 2011: 12): Most video games relied on clear mechanics and engaging gameplay, so there was little text to be read, and in deed [sic] to be translated. This early

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period is in fact responsible for the introduction into most languages of English terms such as ‘arcade’, ‘score’ and, of course, ‘game over’.

Even though music was not used during game action, “continuous music was, if not fully introduced, then arguably foreshadowed as one of the prominent features of future video games as early as 1978, when sound was used to keep a regular beat in a few popular games” (Collins 2008: 9–12). Many of the games used different tone loops and basic beeping sound reproductions that were the only acoustic environment in the video game for many years. During this first period of the game industry, loud sound effects were given priority over music, even in home consoles, although the first one, the Magnavox Odyssey by R.  Baer (1972), had no sound. In the arcades, Space Invaders (Toshihiro Nishikado 1978) and Asteroids (Atari 1979) were the first examples of video games containing four-tone music and a two-note “melody”, respectively, throughout the action. Although the industry began in the USA, other countries, especially in Asia (mainly Japan), foresaw the promising future of the game industry and embarked on developing their own products, which were soon exported to the North American market. As far as localization was concerned, however, these few games that started to be exported were programmed using English as “computer programming was still in its infancy and only the Roman-English alphabet could be easily displayed” (Bernal-­ Merino 2011: 12). Foreign markets were not relevant yet, and the possibilities of localization were still unknown. Not being familiar with localization processes, developers used what is currently known as the “no localization” level (Maxwell-Chandler and Deming 2012: 31) as no elements of the video game were adapted if it was brought to a new locale.

2.3 The Origins of Game Localization (1980s) The film industry had become established as one of the most profitable entertainment markets long ago, and its audiovisual translation processes were already standardized to a large extent when the connection between localization and AVT started to become evident as early as the 1980s.

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During this decade, the first examples of cut-scenes were displayed in a few video games “to convey plot, characterization and spectacle” (Klevjer 2014: 301). The arcade game Pac-Man (Namco 1980) was the first “to include cut-scenes in the literal sense of the term: brief non-playable intermissions that ‘cut’ away from the action to present a kind of staged ‘scene’” (Klevjer 2014: 302). Similar examples can be found in games such as Donkey Kong (Nintendo 1981) for the arcades; Bugaboo the Flee (Indescomp 1983), Karateka (Jordan Mechner 1984) and Maniac Mansion (LucasArts 1987) for home computers and Phantasy Star (Sega 1987) and Ninja Gaiden (Tecmo 1988) for home consoles. These titles included a few cinematic scenes for the first time in video game history, although they were fairly rudimentary and in some cases, especially for home consoles, they were combined with on-screen text supporting the message. As O’Hagan and Mangiron remark: “[d]espite the relative limitations of the technology, there were early signs of cinematic techniques being used in games” (2013: 51). Cinematics represented the first definite sign that sound and dialogues were about to become as important as they were in the cinematographic industry. However, as far as dubbing is concerned, this practice was still unknown in video games due to the technical limitations of the medium. Regarding cinematic resources, a very peculiar type of game were the innovative laserdisc arcade releases such as Bega’s Battle (Data East 1983), Astron Belt (Sega 1983) and the very popular Dragon’s Lair (Don Bluth 1983). These arcade productions took advantage of the recent laserdisc technology and clearly resembled a movie (or very long cut-scene) that allowed minimal interaction with the player. These first interactive movies represented visual and sound innovation for the arcades, although the mechanics were frequently criticized because the player’s action was reduced to a few options selected at the correct time, as in modern quick-­ time events (QTEs), but throughout the entire game. The analog sound stored on laserdiscs could be reproduced using only two soundtracks. Therefore, speech was not given priority in these productions. This technology caught the players’ attention, but its popularity did not last long as it was expensive, more failure-prone than traditional arcade games and the players got bored easily with the basic and repetitive mechanics (Retrolaser 2014).

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Apart from the introduction of cut-scenes in the game mechanics, significant improvements took place in audio technologies in the 1980s (O’Hagan and Mangiron 2013: 49): dedicated synthesis chips were added to the arcade circuits to offer “more tonal background music” and more elaborate sound effects (Collins 2008: 12) which “allowed for a wider range of timbres and volumes, greater polyphony, and the use of computerized musical scores to supplement the sound effects with strong, thematic tunes” (Grimshaw 2014: 120). Some digital sound signs and digital-to-analog converters were also used, but the conversion was complex and the resulting sound was monotonous and repetitive. Furthermore, it was in the 1980s that some speech chips were used for the first time, introducing short vocal samples. Separate chips were used for sound effects and voices, and these speech chips became more popular throughout the 80s. Discs of Tron (Midway 1983) was one of the first games to use stereo sound, while Frogger (Konami 1981) was one of the forerunners of including dynamic music beyond mere sound effects (Collins 2008: 19). Berzerk (Stern Electronics 1980), developed for arcade machines, was one of the first games that included human-like voices (De Maria 2019; Pérez Fernández 2010; Parsons 2007) using a sample-based synthesizer that allowed 31 words to be played. Surprisingly, in this particular game, such early voices were dubbed into Spanish, replacing the original files with the translated ones, although it was a very limited dubbing given the few words that the game could store and manage. In the late 80s, arcade games of the 16-bit era (1987–1989)—also known as the “fourth generation”—typically used voice synthesis chips, as Collins points out: “[s]ome companies, such as Nintendo and Konami, used custom-made speech chips for their arcade games. Walking around the arcade in the late 1980s, the machines would literally call out to players, begging to be played” (2008: 38). These voice samples were still raspy and artificial, but in combination with some visual improvements in the game graphics, they represented an improvement compared to previous video games of the 8-bit era (the early 80s). Moreover, the Musical Instrument Digital Interface (MIDI) protocol was adopted in the 16-bit era, which allowed sound to be transmitted and stored using code instead of samples, “meaning file size was very small—a distinct advantage for games, which taxed the memory of the machines” (ibid.: 49–50).

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Throughout the decade, home consoles gradually replaced arcade machines. As far as the inclusion of speech in these home games was concerned, the first 8-bit consoles included sound chips that were similar to those used in arcade games, thus allowing three to five sound channels, which were used for music and sound effects but rarely for speech. Some 8-bit consoles such as the popular Nintendo Entertainment System or NES (Nintendo 1983) offered video games based on this multi-channel sampling, including something mildly resembling human voices, such as Mike Tyson’s Punch-Out! (Nintendo 1987), although it was a very basic human sound cheering on a very artificial fight and no particular words could be identified. The limitations of these consoles were evident, especially due to the use of cartridges, whose storage space was very limited and caused very popular games such as Super Mario Bros (Nintendo 1985) not to include cut-scenes and resort to static text and dialogue scenes as the main storytelling devices (Klevjer 2014: 302). In addition, digital-to-analog conversion was slow in the three types of media used to distribute home games: floppy discs, cassette tapes and cartridges. Dubbing options could hardly be considered, even in the relatively more advanced 16-bit consoles of the late 80s, such as the popular Mega Drive or Genesis in North America (Sega 1988). With regard to translation practices, the level of localization used during the 80s is the game-external “box and docs” (Maxwell-Chandler and Deming 2012: 31), as only packaging and manuals were translated—into English if the game was originally developed in Japanese, although Japanese production was smaller than North American—or into French, Italian, German and Spanish (also known as the E-FIGS) since these represented the most profitable markets at that time (Bernal-Merino 2011: 14) for North American developers. These were the early days of localization, characterized by a process of trial and error. Not much attention was given to the quality of the translations, and many of them were carried out by non-professional translators (O’Hagan and Mangiron 2013). In spite of the aforementioned sound improvements, the few human voices included in some games remained in the original language, as did any in-game text, due to technological constraints and the lack of awareness of the potential that localization had for the game industry and developers’ revenues. The skopos of these early localized versions was thus

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reduced to a mere linguistic transfer, and the numerous advantages that localization could have brought to the game industry were still unexplored. Only rare exceptions can be pointed out regarding marketing approaches for hardware and console names in particular. These exceptional examples of “early localization” can be found in some strategies adopted by Japanese companies exporting their products to the powerful North American market. As Acks et  al. (2020) state, the advertising department of the Japanese company Nintendo adapted both the name of their first home console, originally known as Famicom (Family Computer System) in Japan (Nintendo 1983), and its aesthetic and unappealing colors, to be sold in the US. There, this device was distributed in 1985 with a more formal and neutral appearance, in gray tones with red accents, under the name NES (Nintendo Entertainment System). Later, a similar strategy was followed to sell the Super Famicom console in Japan (Nintendo 1990) as Super Nintendo or SNES in North America (Nintendo 1991). Nintendo’s greatest competitor at that time, Sega, did not fall behind and also used different names for its 1988 console, Mega Drive, which it exported to the US in 1989 as Sega Genesis. Nonetheless, these represented singular adaptations of names and hardware aesthetics that the sellers deemed necessary due to the temporary instability of the North American industry after the 1983–1985 video game market crash and obvious cultural differences between Japanese and American consumers. However, localization and canonical, analytical translation approaches were not yet considered in this decade. After the said “game industry market crash” (O’Hagan and Mangiron 2013), this decade witnessed Atari’s decline. Yet, the Japanese developer Nintendo, which became highly popular in North America, and later Sega, which paid closer attention to the European audience’s preferences, started to take over the market. Following the trend in the arcades, sound loops became widespread from 1984 onward and were typical in most of the games developed by Nintendo. PCs started to become enormously popular, especially in the case of the Commodore 64 (1982), and they offered interesting improvements in game sound, such as soundcards and synthesizers, although this was mostly for sound effects and music.

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2.4 T  he Origins of Dubbing in Video Games (1990s) It was not until the mid-1990s that the human voice could finally be incorporated into the soundtrack of games, given the previous limitations imposed by cartridges and other storage systems. During the development phase of the industry (mid- to late 1990s, according to O’Hagan and Mangiron 2013: 55–58), the fourth and fifth generations of consoles began to incorporate rudimentary human voices, usually in English or Japanese. The first “dubbings”, as we know this practice nowadays, became more frequent from the fifth generation—the 32-bit, 64-bit or 3D era—onward, with PlayStation1 or PS1 (Sony 1994), Sega Saturn (Sega 1994) and Nintendo 64 or N64 (Nintendo 1996), among others. Dubbing was also used in a few titles belonging to the fourth generation, such as Thunderhawk (Core Design 1993) and Jurassic Park (BlueSky Software 1993), both for Mega Drive (Sega 1988), together with the add­on device Mega-CD (Sega 1991). According to the Spanish website specializing in video game dubbing, DoblajeVideojuegos.es, a total of only eight video games included voices dubbed into Spanish between 1992 and 1993. In spite of the initial storage limitations, the inclusion of increasingly richer audio files and soundtracks in which the human voice started to find its natural place was enabled by different factors that improved the processing capacity of console systems as well as their storage space. Some earlier 16-bit consoles, such as the already mentioned Super Nintendo Entertainment System or SNES (Nintendo 1990), and especially the Windows 95 computer operating system, marked a difference from previous systems in terms of sound possibilities since their sound chips were custom-made to make games sound slightly more realistic and allow more channels to be used. These devices included digital synthesizers that could play different but limited tones with stereo sound. Voice sampling could be seen more frequently in SNES than in the previous 8-bit systems, improving soundtrack quality. However, the trend in game sound during the 16-bit generation had been to maintain the “chip-tune” music

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and the rudimentary style of the previous generation (Collins 2008: 47), especially in the case of Nintendo. The main factors that finally improved speech quality in game sound in the 90s were the move from cartridges to CD-ROMs (compact discs), the introduction of 32-bit consoles starting with PlayStation 1 (Sony 1995), and the generalization of digital sound. All this made it easier to manage and store information, expanding the possibilities of the audio files and, consequently, making way for the inclusion of some dubbed audio files, replacing the original ones. Cut-scenes, also called full-motion video (FMV), were also enriched with the use of semi-3D graphics, as demonstrated by games such as Final Fantasy VII (Square 1997), with “particularly influential […] pre-rendered cut-scenes” (Klevjer 2014: 302). This title, however, became especially popular due to the significant number of translation errors that it included which, in some cases, even made it difficult to understand the story or greatly confused the players. This was commonplace in the localized versions of many games from the late 80s and the first half of the 90s. The use of CDs made it possible for developers to include digital video sequences and music in laser quality, avoiding any loss of essential information due to quality reasons (López Redondo 2014: 170). Before the 90s, there were some home consoles and particular add-on devices that reflected what would happen throughout this decade. This was the case with Mega Drive (Sega 1988), a 16-bit console, and the aforementioned Mega-CD (1991), which supported CD games instead of cartridges, as well as the Sega 32X and Mega Drive 32X add-on (1994), which expanded the console’s CPU from its original 16 to 32 bits. Another example was the console Atari Jaguar (Atari 1993), with a powerful 64-bit processor, although it was not very successful, as well as the first console using CD-ROMs, Turbografx (NEC 1987), known as PC Engine in Japan and TurboGrafx-16  in North America. Despite the technological power of these devices, they were launched at almost the same time as the fifth generation of consoles (early 90s). It was Sony and its popular PS1 that made the final transition from 16 to 32 bits possible, and the use of CDs instead of cartridges became widespread. All this happened during the so-called 16-bit console war (O’Hagan and Mangiron 2013: 53), when Sega and Nintendo, the two biggest companies at that time, were

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competing for market share with their latest fourth generation of video game consoles: Sega Mega Drive (known as Genesis in the US) and SNES. After the full introduction of CD-ROMs as a distribution medium for video games, the audio components no longer depended on the synthesis of a sound card and composers, and sound effect designers could start recording and storing the pre-recorded audio files in the game. This included some human voices, although storage was still limited. Later, the development of 3D or surround sound made it possible for the player to feel that the audio was coming from a three-dimensional atmosphere and therefore a more realistic space (Collins 2008: 64). This 3D sound was introduced in the Windows 95 operating system and some games for Nintendo 64 (Nintendo 1996): “[g]ame space became much more similar to film space […]. Cut-scenes could now be played out in real time, rendered through the games’ own graphics engines, and blended seamlessly with the polygonal graphics of gameplay” (Klevjer 2014: 303). This, once again, was crucial for dubbing and its potential contribution to immersion at that time. In spite of the technological improvements that home consoles experienced, computers became the most prominent game devices in the late 1980s and the early 1990s. They led the technological advancements of the time with the replacement of cassettes by diskettes and the greater data-processing capacities of games, in which greater importance could be given to sound and music, with more complex and sophisticated resources (López Redondo 2014: 151). The importance of voices in video games started to become evident in titles such as Command and Conquer (Westwood Studios 1995), a war game whose storyline was narrated by real actors and which served to let users dive even more deeply into their roles (Martínez Robles 2003: 96–97). Other games such as Command and Conquer: Red Alert (Westwood Studios 1996) and Wing Commander IV (Origin 1996) “had large amounts of live-action cut-scenes” (Klevjer 2014: 302) in which the audio components played a key role for immersion. Given the possibilities that the inclusion of human voices had for gameplay, the first dubbings were carried out mainly from Japanese into English, which very often served as a pivot language for subsequent dubbings. Towards the end of the 1990s, some titles were dubbed into

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Spanish, French, Italian and German, as noted earlier. Bernal-Merino (2011: 16) refers to Baldur’s Gate (Bioware/Interplay 1998) for PC as “one of the first role-playing games to be ‘fully’ translated and dubbed into Spanish”. Nonetheless, PS1 represented one of the best consoles in terms of technological advancements (the use of CDs and a 32-bit CPU). Various games were developed for this console and subsequently dubbed, marking a milestone and becoming a reference point in the history of dubbing (Arenas 2017), as illustrated by the popular Metal Gear Solid (Konami 1997), which surprised Spanish players with one of the first quality dubbings and therefore a full localization—it should be highlighted that this level of localization (see Sect. 3.2.1 in Chap. 3) was seldom used at this time. Although dubbing started to be used more often with PS1, previous examples of fully dubbed games that were mentioned at the beginning of this section are Thunderhawk (Core Design 1993) and Jurassic Park (BlueSky Software 1993). Another interesting example was The Mansion of Hidden Souls (Sega 1995) (La mansión de las almas ocultas in Spain, also known as Tale of the Dream Mansion in Japan), developed for Sega Saturn (Sega 1994) and, surprisingly, fully localized into Spanish. It was a point-­ and-­click adventure containing more dialogues than the previous examples, which might well be one of the reasons why it was fully localized, in order to facilitate players’ interaction with the game and the story. In these few cases, not only were the “box and docs” adapted to the different locales—game packaging was originally developed in Japan and distributed in North America and Europe with different, more culturally suitable images on the covers—but all the audible dialogues were also translated and dubbed into Spanish. The quality of the dubbing, nonetheless, was far below current standards as the limited mouth movements and sound barely matched. In addition, the dubbed version replaced the original sound files due to the storage limitations of CD-ROMs. Nevertheless, these few examples represented the starting point for what would become an essential practice in the following years. With the increasing popularity of video games and these first examples of well-localized games, the growing international markets started to reveal the need to address the particularities of the different locales. Consumers from all over the globe started to express their interest in

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video games, and developers gradually became aware of this increasing trend, along with the importance of providing game consumers with high-quality localized products that would meet their expectations. For instance, we can refer to the well-received dubbings included in some video games marketed in Spain, as described above. With the aim of tailoring the product for the consumers, the 90s shifted the previous trend in localization from “box and docs” used in the 80s to “partial localization” in the 90s, that is, in addition to packaging and guides, the user interface was translated as well, including the first use of subtitles when pre-rendered cinematic scenes had audible dialogues. Full localization— the translation and adaptation of all translatable assets, including the dubbing of the audio content—was not common yet, although, as the aforementioned examples show, it started to be explored, especially at the end of the decade. All this made “non-English speakers […] less dependent on manuals” (Bernal-Merino 2011: 15). Although the 80s and 90s were still plagued with poor translations, it was not until the mid-1990s that development companies and publishers began to realize that fully translated versions of their products could bring enormous economic benefits (Bernal-Merino 2006: online). The overriding importance of localization became evident from the mid-90s, when some localization vendors started to emerge. In turn, dubbing, as part of the localization process, became inextricably linked to game cinematics and the pursuit of realism and immersion, and some efforts could be seen toward the inclusion of dubbed dialogues in a few games produced during this decade, in line with the increasing importance of localization as a market strategy. Despite the initial constraints imposed by the limitations of technology, “this drive toward realism […] is a trend we shall see throughout the history of game sound” (Collins 2008: 9), including dubbing. As was the case with software localization in general, characterized by a process of trial and error, dubbing in video games was also developed throughout the 90s following the same trial and error process and the previous experience of the professionals in the film dubbing industry. A case in point is the video game The Longest Journey (Funcom 1999, edited by the Spanish publisher FX Interactive), which was dubbed in the EXA Spanish dubbing studios. The publisher explored the possibilities that

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some studios offered with the aim of dubbing this video game following the cinematographic dubbing model and taking some of the very few dubbed video games available at that time as an example of what they did not want to do with this title.5 The technical process was unique since this was the first interactive product to be dubbed at EXA. The experience contributed to designing and later refining a working process adapted to the idiosyncrasies of the medium. When this first video game dubbing project was carried out, the studio did not have digital equipment yet. Thus, the dubbed recording was stored on tape and the only source material was a script of about 2000 words that dubbing director Rosa Sánchez reviewed and adapted, according to her experience as a dubbing director in the film industry. The Longest Journey was a graphic adventure based on a certain linearity, in spite of interactivity. The dubbing cast was made up of experienced actors who, nevertheless, had never dubbed a video game. The guidance provided by the dubbing director was thus essential for their performance, as was her familiarity with the script as a whole, since no images were available and the storyline offered some alternatives caused by interactivity. After about 20 busy days of work, the dubbed audio, recorded on tape, had to be taken to a music studio to be digitalized and later included as sound files in the code programming of the video game.6 After this first experience, EXA studios, as well as many other dubbing studios in Spain, deemed it essential to adapt their equipment and processes to the digital particularities of video games and therefore to be prepared to exploit the niche in the market for the dubbing of interactive products. In the case of EXA, digital equipment started to be used from 2000 to 2002 with the audio production software Pro Tools. Before the turn of the century, recordings for dubbed video games were usually made with the sole reference of a written script, although the original audio recordings were also sometimes available. On the rare occasions when videos were available, they had to first be converted to magnetic tapes (Betacam) in order to be used in the dubbing studio.

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2.5 T  he Industry in the New Millennium (2000s) Klevjer (2014: 303) states: “around the turn of the millennium, real-time (yet fully-voiced) cinematics started to become the default choice in games across the board”. Some good examples of such games are popular titles such as Dark (Rare 2000), Grand Theft Auto III (DMA Design Ltd 2001) and Silent Hill 2 (Team Silent 2001). Especially since the introduction of DVDs as the main game distribution medium in the sixth generation of consoles (also known as the 128-bit era), the inclusion of soundtracks with human voices, cinematic scenes and their corresponding dubbing into languages such as Spanish, German, Italian and French became common practice in the traditional dubbing countries—despite this being the most expensive AVT mode, reserved almost exclusively for triple-A titles. As spoken dialogues gained presence in the interactive medium, the audio component became more important for translation purposes as dialogues needed to be properly tackled within the localization process. The volume of audible dialogues and their relevance to the story increased considerably. The sixth generation of consoles—including Dreamcast (Sega 1998), PlayStation 2 (Sony 2000) and Xbox (Microsoft 2001), among others— brought about an improvement in the use of human voices in game soundtracks, which became more realistic with strong implications for localization (O’Hagan and Mangiron 2013: 59). The option to re-voice the original audio track of dialogues in different languages using human voice talents that appealed to the audience became real. In addition, “from the point of view of translation, cut-scenes gave rise to the explicit use of subtitles and dubbing techniques similar, but not identical, to those used in AVT” (ibid.). Inevitably, film dubbing became the model for video game dubbing as it had become a consolidated industry, especially in traditional dubbing countries. The interesting possibilities offered by dubbing in video games were now evident, and technological improvements were making it easier. The main drawback that soon became obvious was the high expense that this AVT mode entailed—and

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still does nowadays due to the extended list of agents involved in the process (see Chap. 3). Among all sixth-generation devices, PS2 was especially important because it used DVDs for the first time, which offered better technical and storage capacities compared to the previous CD-ROMs. Consequently, the sound configuration embraced up to 48 channels (ibid.: 58). This console improved the possibilities of dubbing, “replacing text boxes and mechanical computer-generated sounds, and leading to the application of dubbing mode in localised games” (O’Hagan 2007: 3). Video games such as Final Fantasy X (Square 2001) included rich dialogues recorded by dubbing actors in a studio—originally in Japanese and, in this case, only dubbed into English given the enormous costs that dubbing into the initially planned French, German, Italian and Spanish would have incurred (Mangiron 2004). PS2 “competed with Nintendo’s Game Cube (Nintendo 2001), the first Nintendo machine which did not rely on cartridges as a storage medium, but on a custom-made optical disc, the ‘Nintendo GameCube Game Disc’, which provided a storage capacity of 1.4 GB” (Fritsch 2013: 29). The further development of 3D graphics, imitating cinematographic sound and visual configuration, represented another major improvement in game technology. Cinematic sequences became a very popular resource as they displayed the technological advancements of the console, also allowing the development of narrative content within the game and enriching the story and the audiovisual experience. A good example of a sixth-generation game mentioned by O’Hagan and Mangiron (2013: 59) is Metal Gear Solid 2: Sons of Liberty (Konami 2001), “a relatively early example containing lengthy cut-scenes lasting up to 40 minutes; these divided gamers, who were either repelled or attracted by the inclusion of such ‘non-interactive story-telling scenes’”. Be that as it may, cut-scenes were enhanced by this wealth of technological improvements and now represent a basic component in most video games. Nowadays, most of them are generated in-game, rather than stored as pre-rendered video files, “as it costs less and is far more flexible […], and also because most game developers favor a visual seamlessness between gameplay sections and the cinematics” (Klevjer 2014: 303).

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Later on, with the seventh generation of consoles (Xbox 360 [Microsoft 2005], Play Station 3 [Sony 2006], Wii [Nintendo 2006]), “continuing advances in technologies of performance capture and facial animation meant that the acting in these games could be as nuanced as that of feature films” (ibid.). New technologies allowed developers to cast actors who would act out some of the scenes for the game developers as a basis for creating the on-screen characters and their movement in a more realistic way. This is achieved through motion capture (“mocap”) or motion-­ scanning techniques, which consist of a series of sensors that are placed all over an actor’s body to capture his or her movements and recreate them in a digital animation model (Kines 2000), including facial expressions and lip movement. This is particularly relevant for dubbing since body movement and lip articulation are reproduced in high-quality images and might impose severe restrictions on the translated text as happens in film dubbing, especially in close-ups and extreme close-ups. For the time being, however, these motion capture techniques are not commonly used when dubbing a video game into a target language; they are rather used to create facial expressions and lip movement in the original language in which the game is developed, since re-animating the characters’ faces and lips in every language would entail an excessive investment of time and money. A rare exception to this is the recent video game Cyberpunk 2077 (CD Projekt, 2020), which uses particular animation software based on human faces analysis that allows the game to re-create the characters’ lip movement in up to ten languages. Some recent games such as Batman: Arkham Knight (Rocksteady Studios 2015), Detroit: Become Human (Quantic Dream 2018) or the series Uncharted by Naughty Dog, among many others, do resort to this realistic technique to generate their characters’ movement and expressions based on the actors’ performances in the original language. In most cases, the results in the quality and realism of their dubbings into target languages closely resemble film dubbing, and the original English lip movement can be observed by paying close attention. Klevjer (2014: 303) refers to an interesting example of the possibilities of this motion-­ scanning technique using actors, which were already evident in 2011 with the game L.A. Noire, developed in English by Team Bondi, in which suspects and witnesses’ facial expressions are fundamental to the player’s

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decisions when solving a series of cases. Despite the accurate facial expressions displayed in the original language, this game was not dubbed into other languages, which might hinder the game experience for non-­ English speakers as the realistic effect of talking to and interacting with characters in the target player’s own language is lost. Nevertheless, subtitles are available for French, German, Italian and Spanish-speaking players, and localized versions in Japanese and Russian are available for PC. Although, as discussed in Chap. 1, video games and cinema are different because the former allow interaction, video games seem to have always been inspired by cinema, using it as the benchmark for a well-­ received audiovisual and immersive environment. Video games have thus imitated the audiovisual configuration of cinema to some extent, especially in the case of cinematic scenes (which are, after all, short non-­ interactive video clips included in video games). The evolution of some video games toward the conventions of cinema has been such that the genre of interactive movies seems to have enjoyed a rebirth since the beginning of the century. In these video games, the plot and realism are more important than the gameplay itself. This is the case with graphic adventures such as Fahrenheit, Heavy Rain, Beyond: Two Souls and Detroit: Become Human (Quantic Dream 2005, 2010, 2013, 2018, respectively). The game mechanics are based on the narrative development of the story, which depends on the choices continuously made by the player, but always prioritizing the cinematographic enjoyment of the product over a completely independent activity. These games could be considered the distant and successful descendants of the laserdisc arcade releases produced in the early 80s, although current technological advancements now make a dramatic difference and allow the player to become the real protagonist instead of a mere spectator with a few interactive options. Apart from cases like these, in which cinematic scenes play a fundamental (narrative) role, and regardless of the game genre, the audio assets of a video game have become one of the most important components in terms of localization. It is from the 1990s onward that it makes sense to start talking about dubbing in the interactive medium as we know it today. The dubbing processes in video games and movies share obvious similarities. The dubbing industry is well established in countries such as Spain, Germany, Italy or France, and its standardized practices serve as a

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basic model for video games. However, considerable differences are noticeable in the process of dubbing for the cinematographic versus the game industry (see Chap. 4). Particularly, regarding the materials available for translators (traditional linear scripts in movies, but decontextualized text strings in spreadsheets for games), we can note the common absence of final videos for game dubbing and the different approaches that localization vendors adopt depending on various factors. In contrast, film dubbing is a highly standardized practice regardless of the genre or the characteristics of the particular movie, show or documentary (Chaume 2020: 104). As Fernández Costales (2012: 388) points out, “game developers are investing more and more human and economic resources aiming to localize games into different locales and the simultaneous-shipment of a title into several target markets is a must to succeed in achieving a global echo”. This trend is related to a gradual change that is taking place in the twenty-first century. Since the early 2000s, the push toward the sim-ship model (simultaneous shipment, see Chap. 3, Sect. 3.2), especially from 2005 onward (O’Hagan and Mangiron 2013), has made the translation process even more challenging because localization is carried out at the same time as the game itself is being developed. Even Japanese companies such as Nintendo, whose traditional preference was to launch their titles first locally and only later for the rest of the world, are moving toward a sim-ship model as well. This makes the translators’ task more challenging as they have to work with unstable and decontextualized text strings that undergo continual changes. Despite this, “it is clear that many of the international sales would not be there in the first place if not because of localisation” (Bernal-Merino 2011: 16). Current localization practices are fundamental for developers’ earnings, and full localization can be considered the strongest preference, especially in triple-A games. Market demands and player expectations seem to be pushing developers and publishers even further, toward deep or enhanced localization (Bernal-Merino 2020: 300) that produces video games that are fully adapted to the different locales and their idiosyncrasies. Many different aspects and assets in the games need to be modified and translated to that end. Among the different translatable assets that can be found in a video game (see Chap. 1), cinematic or cut-scenes are

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the ones that most accurately resemble traditional films today. They represent a major resource to convey narrative meaning and complement the story. As a result, the dubbing of such scenes in video games tends to apply the maximum level of restriction, that is, lip-sync in close-ups and extreme close-ups, although it is only possible to see this if the final videos are available, which is often not the case (see Chap. 3). More relaxed types of synchrony apply in dialogues or throughout the game action since the characters’ faces are not always clearly visible and the visual perspective depends on the player’s actions and the interactive configuration of the gameplay. This will be discussed in detail in Chap. 4.

2.6 Concluding Remarks As this chapter has revealed, the future of dubbing in video games seems to be determined by technological advancements as the evolution of video games “has run in parallel with the progress of new technology” (Fernández Costales 2012: 387). With the ever-growing technological advancements in the game industry and the push toward enhanced or deep localization, some transcreation practices could become widespread in order to adapt the characters’ lip movements to the different languages, as is common practice nowadays in triple-A games but only for the original dialogues, very often in English, although sometimes in Japanese. If transcreation and video-editing practices became widespread (and cheaper), traditional dubbing and its different synchronies might change completely. However, for the time being, it is clear that the multimedia and multimodal nature of games calls for the inclusion of different AVT modes in the localization process (typically, dubbing, subtitling, subtitling for the deaf and the hard of hearing and audio description), depending on the nature and requirements of each particular game; and different strategies (Fernández Costales 2012) for translating the in-game and audio and cinematic assets of a video game can be explored to meet audience expectations. As the historically based analysis in this chapter has shown, the evolution of video games has progressed rapidly through the generations, having now reached the ninth generation of consoles with Nintendo Switch

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(2017) and the more recent Nintendo Switch Lite (2019) and PlayStation5 (Sony 2020). Compared to their technologically limited origins, today’s games display a wide range of technological capacities that require highly specialized localization processes to adapt all the game assets to the target culture. Audio assets are probably the most time-consuming and expensive components to be adapted to a target locale in order to meet the dubbing standards that the audience expects. We can recall that this AVT mode has only been used for around two decades in the game industry, compared to the nine decades of development and standardization in film dubbing. Nonetheless, the rapid growth of the industry and the urgent market demands have made dubbing in video games evolve rapidly, and it has even become a marketing strategy for triple-A games in which popular target-language voice talents might be used to attract players. The importance of current localization practices in general and dubbing practices in particular can also be seen in annual awards given to the best translation for dubbing and best dubbing performances, among other categories, organized by institutions such as Asociación de Traducción y Adaptación Audiovisual de España (ATRAE), the Spanish audiovisual translation and adaptation association, or the specialized site Gamereactor. This demonstrates the growing importance that localization has in the game industry. Technology has been decisive in the evolution of game dubbing. Although technological advancements have been fast, the first generation of video games “included few elements which required translation to sell in different markets—they had simple rules and no recognizable characters that were culture-specific, let alone any dialogue to be translated” (O’Hagan and Mangiron 2013: 49). This contrasts with current highly elaborate video games, which undergo long and complex translation processes for dubbing as part of the whole localization process. Dubbing had no place during the first few decades of the game industry due to the technical limitations of the medium, especially with regard to sound systems. Not even music or sound effects had been given the immersive power that they have in modern video games, let alone speech content. It was in the 90s that the economic possibilities of localization started to be exploited and dubbing found its place, thanks to the improvements in storage and management capacities of computers and consoles

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following the inclusion of the first speech chips in the now virtually extinct arcade machines. Nowadays, translation has proven “to be a key process to adapt the game into different cultures and preserve the game experience” (Fernández Costales 2012: 391), and dubbing is essential when it comes to creating realistic and compelling stories that provide gamers with an immersive experience, as users can enjoy gameplays in their own language. Audiences are accustomed to a series of conventions and have their own preferences. In cultures where dubbing has been the preferred AVT practice for many years, including it also in video games allows players to participate in the game in an optimal way according to their own preferences. Although it is considered an expensive and time-­ consuming practice, players increasingly demand that their favorite games include dubbed dialogues: “[a]s we venture deeper into a global capitalist society, consumers expect to be catered for, and multimedia interactive entertainment products are in a way the perfect exemplification of this” (Bernal-Merino 2011: 17). If localization is taken for granted in any current video game, the highest level of localization—including high-quality dubbing—is the ultimate feature that consumers expect. The now well-established and standardized model of film dubbing underlies dubbing practices in game localization, but with some noticeable differences in the process responding to the interactive idiosyncrasy of games. This process and its particularities will be explored in the next chapter.

Notes 1. Chaume (2018), Deckert (2020), Díaz Cintas and Remael (2021). 2. Triple-A titles are those video games whose budget is large, are expected to generate high income—similar to movie blockbusters—and their developer has a strong position in the industry. 3. By typing a particular word followed by the operators “:eng_2019” and “:spa_2019”, the user can retrieve the desired term(s), checking the corpus in English and Spanish, respectively. For example, Fig.  2.1 was obtained by typing the combination “video games:eng_2019,videojuegos :spa_2019,doblaje:spa_2019” (no space is needed after the comma).

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4. Source: Ngram Viewer, available at . As indicated in the original website , for further discussion on the use of this tool, see the original paper: Jean-Baptiste Michel, Yuan Kui Shen, Aviva Presser Aiden, Adrian Veres, Matthew K.  Gray, William Brockman, The Google Books Team, Joseph P.  Pickett, Dale Hoiberg, Dan Clancy, Peter Norvig, Jon Orwant, Steven Pinker, Martin A. Nowak and Erez Lieberman Aiden. Quantitative Analysis of Culture Using Millions of Digitized Books. Science (published online ahead of print: 12/16/2010). 5. This information was accessed through personal communication with the dubbing professional Enrique Gutiérrez and the dubbing director Rosa Sánchez, who agreed to be interviewed about their vast experience in the Spanish film and video game dubbing industry (September 22, 2020). 6. This information was also accessed through personal communication with the dubbing professional Enrique Gutiérrez and the dubbing director Rosa Sánchez (September 22, 2020).

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Mulligan, Mark. 2020. Recorded Music Revenues Hit $21.5 Billion in 2019. MIDIA, March 5. https://www.midiaresearch.com/blog/ recorded-­music-­revenues-­hit-­215-­billion-­in-­2019. Muñoz Sánchez, Pablo. 2017. Localización de videojuegos. Madrid: Editorial Síntesis. Newman, James. 2004. Videogames. London and New York: Routledge. O’Hagan, Minako. 2007. Video Games as a New Domain for Translation Research: From Translating Text to Translating Experience. Tradumàtica 5. http://www.fti.uab.es/tradumatica/revista/num5/articles/09/09.pdf. O’Hagan, Minako, and Heather Chandler. 2016. Game Localization Research and Translation Studies Loss and Gain under an Interdisciplinary Lens. In Border Crossings. Translation Studies and Other Disciplines, ed. Yves Gambier and Luc van Doorslaer, 309–330. Amsterdam and Philadelphia: John Benjamins. O’Hagan, Minako, and Carme Mangiron. 2013. Game Localization: Translating for the Global Digital Entertainment Industry. Amsterdam: John Benjamins. Parsons, Neil. 2007. Historia de los videojuegos: Berzerk. La Esfera Musical, December 3. https://laesferamusical-­np.blogspot.com/2007/12/historia-­de-­ los-­videojuegos-­berzerk_9047.html. Pérez Fernández, Lucila María. 2010. La localización de videojuegos (inglés-­ español): Aspectos técnicos, metodológicos y profesionales. Málaga: Universidad de Málaga. Phillpott, Matthew. 2016. An Introduction to Text Mining. PORT (Postgraduate Online Research Training). School of Advanced Study, University of London. https://port.sas.ac.uk/mod/book/view.php?id=554&chapterid=328. Retrolaser. 2014. Laserdisc, de La Revolución Al Fiasco. Retrolaser.Es, October 12. https://retrolaser.es/laserdisc-­historia-­en-­las-­recreativas/. Rodríguez Breijo, Vanessa, and José Manuel Pestano Rodríguez. 2012. Los Videojuegos en España: Una industria Cultural incipiente. Ámbitos. Revista Internacional de Comunicación 21: 361–379. https://doi.org/10.12795/ ambitos.2012.i21.18. Wijiman, Tom. 2020. The World’s 2.7 Billion Gamers Will Spend $159.3 Billion on Games in 2020; The Market Will Surpass $200 Billion by 2023. Newzoo, May 8. https://newzoo.com/insights/articles/ newzoo-­games-­market-­numbers-­revenues-­and-­audience-­2020-­2023/. Wolf, Mark J.P. 2005. The Medium of the Video Game. 3rd ed. Austin: The University of Texas Press.

3 Game Localization: Stages and Particularities

Localisation should not be perceived as a mandate to modify everything, but rather as an awareness of the sensitivities and preferences of other cultures. —Bernal-Merino (2015. Translation and Localisation in Video Games. Making Entertainment Software Global. New York: Routledge: 174)

Abstract  Chapter 3 describes the localization process and the different phases and agents involved. First, the relationship between localization and audiovisual translation is discussed in order to define what is currently understood by localization and how it is related to other media adaptation practices. Then, the localization process is presented, divided into three main phases: pre-localization, translation and post-­localization, emphasizing the fact that localization should be conceived as an agile and flexible process. The main localization agents, their most common activities and the materials they receive are also discussed based on the insights shared by current and anonymous localization professionals who illustrate how localization takes place nowadays. Special attention is drawn to the dubbing practices included in the localization process.

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 L. Mejías-Climent, Enhancing Video Game Localization Through Dubbing, Palgrave Studies in Translating and Interpreting, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-88292-1_3

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The professional practice of localization allows video games to become global. It originated with the aim of adapting software products to cultures other than the one where they were created, but how it is approached and the process itself have evolved rapidly to suit market demands along with the evolution of the interactive medium, as described in Chap. 2. Likewise, the technological boom in recent decades has had an impact on localization and its professional practices. In this chapter, the game localization process will be described in detail in order to characterize it and to gain a better insight into the current professional practices it entails. When presenting the different stages involved in the localization process later in the chapter, special attention will be paid to the dubbing phase and the particularities that interactive media such as video games impose on dubbing practices, which will be further developed in Chap. 4. Thus, this chapter aims to offer a description of the localization process as a whole in order to let the reader understand how dubbing is carried out within this broader framework of localization. The tasks that the different agents undertake will be discussed and the available materials will be described. They consist essentially of written translatable text, typically without much context. This is related to the interactive nature of video games (see Chap. 1), which makes them complex products whose development and functioning make it impossible for the localizing team to access the full product during the translation process. Localization is an essential component of GILT practices, which encompass globalization (frequently abbreviated as g11n, based on the number of characters between the first and the last letter), internationalization (i18n), localization and translation. In today’s globalized societies, companies have a greater awareness that a series of requirements must be taken into account to expand their business worldwide. These adaptations result in changes at all levels in the product they seek to export. This idea is inextricably linked to internationalization, or the process of creating a product with the clear intention of adapting it to different locales, meaning later changes that might be required in the software programming, the length of the texts or aesthetic changes, among many others, are considered from the very beginning. This approach facilitates the localization process since the product is not conceived as particularly marked by any one culture or language, and subsequent technical

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adaptations might not be necessary or problematic during the localization process because they have been tackled since development of the product began. Localization entails adapting and preparing software or a multimedia product to be sold in a particular locale. This industrial practice originated in the late 1970s, when software developers in North America identified the need to make their products available in different languages in order to expand into markets such as France, Germany, Spain and Japan (Jiménez-Crespo 2013) and thus increase their sales. During the 1980s, this process gained momentum and extended to the field of video games—which ultimately are a particular type of software—in addition to becoming common practice with the emergence of the World Wide Web and the translation of hundreds of websites, most frequently into English (ibid.). Nevertheless, Bernal-Merino notes that “it was not until the mid-1990s that entertainment software companies started to consider the possibilities of making fully translated versions [of video games] for other countries” (2006: online). The 1990s represent the consolidation phase of the localization industry, with the creation of large localization service providers (Esselink 2000). As a result, between the 80s and 90s, localization as a practice evolved to deal with all types of digital texts, from those displayed on websites and in video games to mobile phones and other electronic devices. Traditionally, therefore, the three main types of multimedia products that could be localized were web, software—including software run on small devices—and video games. They all have particular elements in common, such as their digital and multimodal nature, a user interface which allows interaction, and the need for cooperation between developers, localizers and testers to fully localize them successfully. Nonetheless, these products might differ greatly in how the translatable text strings are compiled and organized, the programming language used in the software and the variety of genres and fields of specialization (Jiménez-Crespo 2013: 28). The following pages will focus on the localization of video games in particular. Broadly speaking, the process follows a similar structure for the three groups of products: receipt and preparation of the product, translation and editing, and quality assurance or QA. However,

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considerable differences can be seen within this broad structure depending on the localization vendor, and current professional practices are making the differences between the localization of each of the three types of products more noticeable. In the case of game localization, glocalization—“a further production refinement following internationalisation where companies allow for the natural structural or design variations that entering a new market may require” (Bernal-Merino 2020: 310)—represents the most avant-garde approach to video game production as localization is integrated in the game development process to optimize cooperation between production and localization agents, accessibility practices and QA. The following review of the localization process draws on key sources such as Maxwell-Chandler and Deming (2012), O’Hagan and Mangiron (2013), Bernal-Merino (2015) and Muñoz Sánchez (2017). The information contained in such references has been updated and completed with the insights of a group of anonymous professionals who work in the localization industry,1 with the aim of seeking common practices in the current localization market.

3.1 Game Localization and Audiovisual Translation Localization has revealed new forms of conceiving translation in general and the boundaries of audiovisual translation (AVT) in particular, such as “[w]hether AVT subsumes localization or vice versa” (O’Hagan and Mangiron 2013: 106). And some shared aspects continue to blur any supposed distinctions between AVT and localization, although an alternative view can also be made. As noted, the latter represents a complex adaptation process to modify the original audiovisual and multimedia product at many levels, not only linguistically and culturally, but also technically, legally and aesthetically. Technical adaptations might include changes in the use of controllers or buttons, legal adaptations refer to compliance with the regulations applicable in the country in which the product is marketed, and aesthetical modifications can entail a change in the colors used in the menus or the

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characters’ clothes, to name but a few examples (see Muñoz Sánchez 2017 for further discussion on localization being distinct from AVT). It has been argued, nonetheless, that localization does not refer to anything new that the concept of translation could not already include (Esselink 2000; Bernal-Merino 2006). As Chaume (2018: 94) states: Localisation simply brings those non-linguistic processes to the front, and that is the reason for the coinage of this new term, but those and some other non-linguistic processes also appear in the new AVT modes […]. Audiovisual translation, ranging from dubbing to audio description, fansubbing to free-commentaries, also includes a process of domestication and constant adaptation of non-linguistic issues.

The ongoing debate seems to depend on the perspective that is adopted: while professional sectors appear to advocate for a conceptualization of localization as a standalone discipline, distinct from AVT, academia does not clearly differentiate localization as an independent field of study. After all, it deals with a target culture’s access to audiovisual material— with the added particularity that these audiovisual products allow interaction with their consumers. Both AVT and localization aim to make the translated product fully natural to the target audience, and both tend to prioritize functionality2 and accommodation to target conventions over a faithful reproduction of the linguistic content (ibid.: 95). Regardless of the position that is adopted, it should be acknowledged that linguistic translation only represents one of the different steps within the whole process of game localization. Both AVT and game localization are intended to fully adapt the product to the target locale, and both encompass different translation modes, such as dubbing, subtitling, audio description or subtitling for the deaf and hard of hearing, depending on the purpose and the product to be translated (genre, potential users and means of distribution, among other factors). As Bernal-Merino (2015: 88) highlights, “it would be inaccurate to use [localization] within Translation Studies to refer solely to text translation since it also refers to non-linguistic activities”. Hence he advocates for the use of the term “linguistic game localization” if the process of linguistic translation itself is being discussed.

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Game localization can be considered a task in which the skopos (Vermeer 2000) is to reproduce the functionality of the game and the user experience (see Sect. 1.1.3). Generally, players are not aware or do not pay attention to the fact that they are using a translated product. Similarly, this is what Nord (2018: 48) describes for the target readers of “pragmatic texts such as instructions for use, recipes, tourist information texts, and information on products […] in which receivers ideally do not notice, or are not even interested in the fact that they are reading a translation”. Since the function of the game is carefully preserved when localizing it, this process represents an instrumental translation. In any case, the translation brief “constitutes specifications for translation given by the translation commissioner, takes precedence and shapes translation priorities and strategies” (O’Hagan and Mangiron 2013: 154), although the most common approach tends to be producing a product which seems familiar to the target locale. Game localization adopts a domesticating approach, and the localized version leans toward target culture conventions, preferences and expectations (Venuti 1995/2008). According to Toury (1995/2012: 69–70), acceptability in the target locale, that is, following its norms and conventions, is given priority over pursuing adequacy according to the particular norms governing the source language. To such an end, game localization goes beyond text-to-text translation, and creativity becomes essential for localizers, who are “not only allowed but encouraged to use their creativity in their work” (Bernal-Merino 2020: 298). The more creative translators are as writers, the better they will reproduce the original gaming experience and essence, rather than just rendering a literal translation of the words. As explained in Sect. 1.1.3, gameplay and playability become essential gauges to assess localization as the expected result is a localized product that reproduces the same immersive experience and engages the target user as successfully as the original video game does (for more details, see Bernal-Merino 2020). While a post-gold model3 was typical in the earlier decades, especially among Japanese developers, the gradual move toward sim-ship (simultaneous-­shipment) releases, and the efforts to achieve deep or enhanced localization in their latest products have pushed companies toward adopting glocalization as their market strategy, which means

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integrating and planning localization as part of the production phase of the game. Apart from enhancing the target gamers’ experience with a product that meets their expectations and feels fully natural to their locale, such a strategy allows developers and publishers to maintain closer control over their products, prevent piracy and generate marketing hype with simultaneous (localized) releases worldwide. In addition, the idea of video games as mass-consumption products instead of canonical works (as books or movies might be) “enables a degree of co-creation” (Bernal-­ Merino 2020: 298) and leads to a shared responsibility between localizers, testers and editors “because their industrial workflow requires their collaboration to guarantee the playability of each of the localised versions” (ibid.). In light of the above, maintaining a clear-cut distinction between AVT and localization is hard to sustain from a discipline-based point of view; it is also inseparable from a further discussion on the concept of translation itself, which remains outside the scope of these pages (see Chaume 2018). Our approach regards translation as a broad concept that encompasses modifications beyond a mere linguistic and reductionist “transfer”. Both AVT and localization aim to make multimedia products accessible to a target market, and current technologies continue to bring about new products and forms of consumption that challenge traditional translation practices. In the paradigm of AVT, localization refers to the adaptation of multimedia interactive (entertainment) software (or MIES, as Bernal-­ Merino 2015 calls this) to be used and enjoyed naturally in a target culture. While many authors have reviewed the concept of game localization and carried out empirical studies in some cases, to date no methodological proposals have been made to take account of the interactive nature of this complex audiovisual product. To this end, Chap. 5 reports an empirical study that applies a new approach centered on game situations. In contrast to previous empirical studies of game localization, this approach does not simply adopt established methods used to analyze AVT material. Rather, it uses this framework as a starting point but then adapts it to explicitly accommodate the crucial distinguishing characteristic of interactivity. Moreover, such an approach allows us to describe the game localization process and the different AVT modes that can be used (in the

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case of these pages, dubbing) compared to AVT modes used in the non-­ interactive industry, since the interactive nature of video games is likely to necessitate changes in practice and procedures. In addition, the professional practices needed in film and video game dubbing can also be compared in order to spot particular requirements depending on the nature of the product that is translated. In the following sections, the localization process is described as a professional practice in order to characterize it and to situate dubbing, considered as an AVT mode (Chaume 2013; Díaz Cintas and Remael 2021), within the industrial process of localization.

3.2 The Localization Process As mentioned, localization deals with web content, software and video games. All these products are modified at different levels (e.g. from no localization through partial to full localization) to suit market demands and consumer expectations. Web localization generates the highest volume of translated content nowadays (Ramírez Delgado 2017: 40) due to the large amount of information that circulates online daily and the easy access that is freely available to web development tools and content management systems (CMS). Websites are dynamic and subject to continual updates, and they display linguistic, graphic and multimedia content that has to constantly be adapted in the localized versions. Sometimes, the programming code needs to be modified to accommodate new content depending on the locale, as is the case in software localization. Software localization deals with considerable volumes of files and multimedia content (text, images and audio) that are compiled and displayed through a user interface. In the case of software localization projects, the adaptation and translation processes include user manuals, legal content, installation guides, warranty documents and other additional content such as websites. In small device projects, descriptions for online stores are also translated and modified to target potential consumers in the new locale. Software localization is the third largest group in terms of business turnover behind web and game localization (Jiménez-Crespo 2013: 28).

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Finally, video game localization encompasses all the aforementioned content and files, but tends to be slightly more complex and time-­ consuming because video games usually contain a larger amount of translatable assets than websites or software programs. Apart from linguistic, graphic, legal and functional contents, audiovisual and marketing contents become especially relevant, and sometimes the programming is also adapted to particular mechanics or peripherals. As can be deduced, all three groups of products require the adaptation of different assets (see Chap. 1, Sect. 1.2), which are integrated back into the product programming after they have been modified. The localization process is typically divided into a preparation or pre-localization phase, followed by the translation, adaptation and editing of the contents, and finally the QA process to ensure that the resulting product is functional and has been adapted successfully according to the requirements of the localization brief. Nowadays, localizers face the challenge of the widespread sim-ship model, as opposed to delayed localizations or “the post-gold model in which a localized version follows the release of the original” (O’Hagan and Chandler 2016: 114), as mentioned in Sect. 3.1. Sim-shipping entails additional time constraints and instability of the translated content, which might change repeatedly as it is being developed at practically the same time that the localization process is taking place. Despite this, the current sim-ship model has become popular since companies aim to increase their income by hitting the maximum number of markets at once. These aspects are common to the localization process of all three groups: web, software and video games. Game localization, however, is characterized by particular features. Firstly, although functionality must be maintained in the localized version of all software and web products, gameplay and playability are exclusive to video games. The complex semiotic multimodal construct that creates the meaning in a video game through audiovisual and tactile or kinesic action represents the essence of the product (see Chap. 1). It also differs from game to game as they all pursue originality and novelty to attract video game players not only with imaginative stories but also with innovative mechanics. Thus, game localization is deeply dependent on creativity since it is fundamentally important to adapt as many assets and as much content as necessary in order to reproduce the game experience

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for the target user. Furthermore, a pragmatic approach (Bernal-Merino 2020: 300–303) is essential to reproduce the creation of meaning that, in the case of games, takes place bidirectionally, between the game and the player, through either the tactile or the visual channel (see Chap. 1, Sect. 1.1), always adhering to the rules and guidelines set by the developer. Localizers must therefore be familiar with the semiotic construct of the video game as mechanics and playability must be fully functional in the target version and the experience is to be reproduced for the target user. Although, as previously mentioned, while web content and software are also functional products, the ludic and interactive experiences that create a whole new virtual and immersive environment in a video game is exclusive to this type of product, and creativity plays an essential role in the localization process to recreate it faithfully (see also Bernal-Merino 2020). This adaptation process relates to AVT directly as suspension of disbelief (Bernal-Merino 2015: 39; O’Hagan and Mangiron 2013: 211; Dietz 2006) plays a fundamental role in both interactive and non-interactive environments. The audience or players in front of a screen—whether playing a video game or watching a movie—accept particular unnatural aspects of the content derived from the audiovisual nature of the medium. In other words, they “suspend their disbelief ” to prevent the limitations of the media from hampering the immersive experience. This, nonetheless, still happens to a certain extent in video games, and “poor localization serves as a constant reminder to players of the fact that the game has not been originally intended for them” (O’Hagan and Mangiron 2013: 211). While certain words, phrases or incorrect terminology and a lack of synchrony, either written or audible, might hinder this suspension of disbelief in a translated movie (dubbed or subtitled), in a video game, there are many aspects that might interfere with immersion, such as a poorly translated interface, confusing icons or graphics, imprecise terminology, opaque cultural content, a lack of synchrony or nonfunctional variables or placeholders,4 among many others. In the case of AVT, suspension of disbelief has been studied in detail by various authors (Palencia Villa 2002; Romero-Fresco 2009, 2020; Baños Piñero 2009; Marzà Ibàñez and Chaume 2009; Di Giovanni and Gambier 2018). However, suspension of disbelief and the particular elements that interfere with it have yet to be further explored in the

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interactive environment from the perspective of translation studies, although this remains outside the scope of these pages. Finally, the relative youth of localization means that it lacks a certain level of standardization compared to well-consolidated industries such as the film industry and the AVT processes that take place within it. As an example, subtitling can be traced back to its humble origins as intertitles in the first silent movies in the early twentieth century. This evolved rapidly to suit the development of the film industry and the different formats and technical methods to project and distribute films. Dubbing has been used since the late 1920s with the first talkies, and it represents a well-consolidated AVT mode in countries such as Spain, France, Italy and Germany. On the other hand, localization appeared with the development of software and the World Wide Web, which only date back to the last two decades of the twentieth century (see Chap. 2). Since then, the web and software localization industries have evolved gradually, hand in hand with technological advancements, and localization practices have tended to gravitate toward optimization processes, many of which are still being explored. In the case of video game localization, however, one of the most defining characteristics of this process is creativity, as mentioned above. All video games aim to surprise potential players and entice them into an original virtual immersive experience—which could be maintained by dubbing in target locales where audiences are accustomed to consuming audiovisual products dubbed into their native language. This high level of creativity and originality pursued by all brand-new games results in more complex and tailored localization projects in which standardization seldom exists. In a move toward the standardization of the industry, the work of the International Game Developers’ Association (IGDA) should be mentioned, whose Game Localization Special Interest Group (SIG) promoted the publication of the Best Practices for Game Localization guide (Honeywood and Fung 2012; Mangiron 2017: 75). In addition, the now widespread sim-ship model and the time constraints that this entails for localizers have pushed the game industry toward the adoption of computer-­assisted translation (CAT) tools that could optimize translation processes as they are widely used in the web and software localization industry. Machine translation practices are also being explored to

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optimize translation processes in the game localization industry considering the high volume of translatable text strings that video games display, either as on-screen text (written) or as audible dialogues during game action and cinematics (the different types of translatable assets in video games were discussed in Chap. 1, Sect. 1.2). However, these technological innovations are not yet providing standardized solutions in the localization of this highly creative medium. The use of CAT tools has until recently not been as widespread in game localization as it has in the localization of productivity software. This in turn seems to highlight differences between localizing productivity software and entertainment applications such as video games, which are designed to be affective media more than pure functionality. (O’Hagan and Mangiron 2013: 97)

The localization process described in these pages, consequently, relies on a certain degree of generalization as different developers and localization service providers approach their game localization projects differently, based on various criteria such as the game genre, the potential players, the target locale or the budget, among others. Yet, a basic idea of the main stages, tasks and challenges that localizers and other localization agents might face in a game localization project can be presented. Being familiar with how localization processes work is argued here to be potentially beneficial for anyone interested in this industry in which creativity and flexibility are essential to undertake all kinds of projects.

3.2.1 L evels of Localization and Game Localization Models One of the first steps, before the localization project begins, is to define the level of localization to achieve (Maxwell-Chandler and Deming 2012: 8–10): • No localization: no elements of the original product are adapted or translated when sold in a new locale. This was the model typically used

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during the initial stages of the game industry (see Chap. 2, Sect. 2.2) as the dominant arcade machines were developed and sold in English due to technological and computer-programming restrictions, and the potential of foreign markets was still unknown. Nowadays, this model is hardly ever used, except in some cases of low-budget indie games (independent developers) that cannot afford localization in their initial projects. Games such as Game Dev Studio (Roman Glebenkov 2018) or Cosmic Star Heroine (Zeboyd Gamez 2017) are good examples of these low-budget games sold on online gaming platforms in which even their description is displayed solely in the original language. • Packaging and manual localization (box & docs): game assets contained in the game’s programming remain in the original language, but the packaging and printed manuals are translated. Although product documentation is now “a legal requirement set out in EU Resolution C411” since 1998 (Byrne 2007: 14), this model was typically used during the 80s (see Chap. 2, Sect. 2.3). Modifying the programming code and internal elements of games was expensive and time-­ consuming, and the localization process was still in its infancy, but the boxes and printed manuals were key elements to catch consumers’ attention and were easy to modify and thus translation started to be used as a marketing strategy. Nowadays, indie developers may also use this not-so-common level of localization, especially when developing titles for popular consoles such as PlayStation or Nintendo Switch. Examples of these are CrossCode (Radical Fish Games 2020) and KILL la KILL (A+ Games 2019). An example of a vendor currently using the box & docs level is the Spanish firm Meridiem Games,5 which imports games to Spain in the original language, but the boxes are translated into Spanish. Furthermore, the box & docs strategy can also be used when the publisher expects to reach a very limited range of consumers, and the costs of other levels of localization are not worth the potential profits. The Disgaea saga (Nippon Ichi Software 2003–2017) encompasses tactical role-playing games with a distinct Japanese flavor that appeals to a limited group of consumers. As a result, these games are sold untranslated, except for the boxes. • Partial localization: this model encompasses box & docs as well as all in-game text displayed on the interfaces of the game, but the audio

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content remains untranslated. This model is more cost-effective than full localization and offers the target consumer a more personalized experience than just localizing the box & docs. However, it is more time-consuming than the previous model as the source code of the game has to be manipulated to extract all the translatable assets, and QA is essential to make sure that no source text is left out and to avoid any possible bugs. Sometimes, the audio content is also translated in the form of subtitles if the code supports them, but the audio files remain in the original language, unlike in the next level of localization, in which dubbing is used to replace the original audio files. Good examples of this partial localization approach are the Grand Theft Auto (GTA) (various developers 1997–2013) and Red Dead Redemption (various developers 2010–2016) sagas, whose dialogues are so dense— and so colloquial and full of slang in the case of GTA—that audio localization would require an excessive investment of time and money, despite the large income that these sagas generate. • Full localization: this consists of translating and adapting all possible game assets, including box & docs, in-game text and audio content, even additional websites or promotional elements. This is the most expensive and time-consuming model and is thus typically applied only to triple-A titles (those that have a large budget and are expected to be best sellers generating high incomes) since re-voicing all audio files is a long, drawn-out process and requires a high number of professionals (see Chap. 4, Sect. 4.1.2). Full localization involves more agents in the project as well as a careful QA process to ensure that all written and audible text is translated and displayed correctly, but it also offers the target players a well-tailored immersive experience in their own language and culture. This is the only level of localization in which versions dubbed into different languages are included in the localized video game. Good examples of this are the games analyzed in Chap. 5: Detroit: Become Human (Quantic Dream 2018), Rise of the Tomb Raider (Crystal Dynamics 2016), Batman: Arkham Knight (Rocksteady Studios 2015) and Assassin’s Creed Syndicate (Ubisoft 2015). Nowadays, developers and vendor companies are streamlining their processes for efficiency as full localization, although costly and

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time-consuming, is the minimum players expect from triple-A productions. In addition, “as full localisation slowly becomes standard practice for more companies in more languages, a number of professionals in the language services and the game industries have started considering implementing” deep or enhanced localization (Bernal-Merino 2015: 172–173) (see Chap. 1, Sect. 1.1.3). This new sub-type of full localization, in which the product becomes indistinguishable for target consumers from a product originally produced in their language and cultural milieu, is closely connected to the glocalization strategy in which internationalization is taken into account from the very beginning of the development process, and localization is integrated as part of the game development. This allows full cooperation between all agents to achieve the best quality in all localized projects as target consumers and their expectations are considered at all levels and phases, and any elements that might disrupt the gaming experience are modified to benefit the immersive experience. Although not all companies and developers can afford this approach, it seems to be the prevailing trend nowadays in terms of industry optimization and best-quality results. This is a notable change in the industry compared to a decade ago, when localization was mostly considered an afterthought (see Chap. 2), essentially dependent on the original product, which had to be specially adapted afterward to address the needs of the target locale, with the consequent time and financial investment. Cattrysse (2001: 4) highlighted this fact at the turn of the century with the boom of multimedia production and the increased demand for translated products that technological advancements brought about: Translation decisions often occur as an afterthought when the project has been successful on a local or national basis. Only then does the client think it could be interesting to produce translations or versions in other languages. Needless to say, in MM [multimedia] production, this way of proceeding creates many problems. Verbal text has been stored with nonverbal material in identical files, and to translate or to change the textual parts, one has to adapt and reprogram the entire files. This is a time-consuming and thus costly process.

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In addition to the level of localization—which typically depends on the translation brief and the client’s preferences, the type of game and marketing expectations—the industry model also varies from one company to another (Muñoz Sánchez 2017: 192–193; Granell et al. 2015: 66; O’Hagan and Mangiron 2013: 116–121): • The outsourcing model is more common in the European and North American markets and consists of outsourcing the project to a specialized localization service provider who completes the entire project and is usually responsible for preparing and compiling the final version of the game to be delivered to the customer, usually the developer or the publisher. As O’Hagan and Mangiron (2013: 118) explain: The vendor selects the translators who will work on the project (usually independently and with no contact with other translators on the team) and is in charge of the integration of the different game assets in order to create the different playable versions. The vendor also arranges the recording of the script for voiceover in a studio [if a full localization of the game has been commissioned].

• The in-house model is typically used in the Japanese market and offers positive advantages to localizers as they are in-house members of the development team, with whom they work closely, integrating localization into the creation of the game. This model is less prone to localization errors (bugs, mistranslations, etc.) than the outsourcing model since localizers have access to the original content as required and it represents a more appropriate situation for implementing a glocalization strategy. In some cases, major developers “have a localization department and a pool of freelance translators with whom they work regularly […] under the supervision of the localization coordinator, who also liaises between the localizers and the original development team” (ibid.: 121). • A hybrid or mixed model is starting to become standard practice in favoring the glocalization strategy since it can reduce personnel costs and speed up the process. It provides some benefits of both the external model (a better workflow) and the in-house model (closer contact

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with the developing engineers and better access to the original game assets and other reference material). In this model, the developer is responsible for some of the localization tasks and includes a few localizers as part of the development team, frequently translators and testers, while an external localization vendor performs a significant part of the process. Now that the main aspects defining the localization process have been reviewed, the various phases into which it can be divided will be described in the following section.

3.2.2 An Agile Process in Different Phases As described, the localization process can vary greatly depending on the business model, the level of localization as well as the type of game and target players and, of course, the available budget and estimated income that the product is expected to generate. Despite this complexity, the localization process can be divided into three main phases in which different steps are to be completed, with a certain degree of flexibility. This allows us to understand where the dubbing process takes place—which is the particular focus of the coming chapters—and who the main agents are in the localization process as a whole and the dubbing phase in particular (see Sect. 3.2.3). Before these three stages are presented, it should be noted that localization does not take place following a waterfall (sequential) model, that is, where one phase is fully completed before moving to the next one. On the contrary, game localization increasingly follows an agile model that takes place in response to development and localization needs using a flexible approach. As Bernal-Merino (2015: 279) defines it, an agile workflow represents “a software development methodology based on iterative and incremental development where solutions evolve through collaboration between self-organising, cross-functional teams. It is often seen as an alternative to the waterfall model” [author’s italics]. The localizers’ task is divided into different batches that contain linguistic text strings (always in the form of written text) that are not necessarily

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organized either chronologically, following the game plot (if there is any), or logically. On the contrary, batches of text respond to development preferences and repeated programming updates. This means working with decontextualized written text strings (rarely accompanied by images, see Sect. 3.2.3) and repeated changes and updates responding to the software development needs, which can sometimes be confusing for translators. For example, while the translation team is working on batch 2, updates from batch 1 are also received and given priority over batch 2. Batch 3 is also received and needs to be translated as soon as possible, even though batch 2 might not be finished yet. If the game is to be released following the sim-ship model, this process is the most common situation for localizers. Developers are best able to judge how well the story/context fit the game mechanics in their native language. Thus the team focuses on polishing the language assets until they are satisfied with the game. They will make updates to the text throughout the development process—changing a word here and there to ensure the story and gameplay mesh together in the most suitable way. Translators may not have the benefit of seeing what these changes are if they are just delivered a batch of text for translation. They may not realize the implications of the specific word choices and changes in the original source material. Typically not privy to all the information, the translator has to make the best choice with the information available, and may never see their work until the game is released to the public. (O’Hagan and Chandler 2016: 313)

This applies to the whole process, even the different translation modes used in the project, which include dubbing. A batch that has already been translated to be dubbed (i.e. a series of written text strings that are later performed by the dubbing actors in the target language) might be discarded for different reasons, while pick-up sessions in the dubbing studio are very often needed to make changes to the dubbed files or to add new audio files that were not initially included in the corresponding batch or which contained errors or information that has changed. All this corresponds to an agile approach to game development and localization.

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As stated above, three basic stages can be differentiated in any game localization process, regardless of the level of localization that applies (except for no localization), although, bearing this agile model in mind, they are interdependent and are not necessarily completed before the next one begins (Bernal-Merino 2015; Granell et al. 2015; O’Hagan and Mangiron 2013): Pre-localization, including management and organization tasks. This first stage involves receiving the localization brief (if an outsourcing model is adopted) and preparing the material to be sent to the translators as well as deciding the level of localization to apply. The project manager(s) (PM) receive the documentation and materials available for translation, estimate and agree to the deadlines and appoint the translators who will participate in the project. Clear deadlines and instructions for submitting the localized project are essential to planning the process efficiently. Typically, more than one translator is involved in triple-A games as they contain large amounts of text to be translated. The translatable strings are separated from the game code and usually exported and distributed in spreadsheets (Excel) as editable text. This task can be carried out by the localization project manager in the in-house model or by the developer in the outsourcing model (see Sect. 3.2.3) and requires programming skills. Unlike in non-interactive movies, a traditional script for the original production can never be made accessible to the translators in the case of video games since these are not programmed following a linear production script. If CAT tools are used, the corresponding translation memories (TMs) and localization files will be prepared to be sent to the translators. A key element at this stage is the localization kit or lockit, which should contain all the basic information to give the localization team a thorough overview of the video game—although this resource is not always made available to translators as some professional localizers themselves stated in a questionnaire carried out in 2020  in Spain (Mejías-Climent 2021). Ideally, this lockit will include the following elements (Bernal-Merino 2015: 191–193; Maxwell-Chandler and Deming 2012: 277–288):

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–– All necessary documentation for the project, including specific instructions, technical guidelines and stylesheet, general product information, a detailed explanation of the game mechanics and a thorough description of the plot: context, character description, saga or related published titles and so on. Screenshots and promotional information are always useful. –– CAT tool files (TMs, glossaries, particular terminology) and any necessary instructions on variables, placeholders or tags. –– Game code and software tools (if the outsourced vendor is responsible for extracting the files and integrating them once translated to perform the game testing), or translatable assets, and length restrictions: editable text (Excel, XLIFF, XML or TXT, among others), art assets, voice-over files, video files (cinematics) and box & docs (manuals, packaging, game descriptions for the online stores, etc.). Core localization (also called translation by O’Hagan and Mangiron, 2013: 130, or simply localization by Pujol Tubau, 2015: 148): this is the central phase of the project as the translatable assets are modified to suit the target language and culture (depending on the level of localization decided for the project, all translatable assets or only part of them are modified). Translators receive continuous batches of spreadsheets in which, ideally, text strings are accompanied by all necessary contextual information (string ID, character, location, cue, trigger, etc.) and limited by the corresponding length restrictions, usually in the form of a maximum number of words, characters or pixels. Length restrictions regarding audio files will be described in closer detail in Chap. 4 (Sect. 4.1.2). Variables or placeholders may also impose restrictions on the translated text in the form of gender and number agreement in certain languages such as Spanish, Italian, German or French. As O’Hagan and Mangiron (2013: 132) define them, “variables are values that hold the space for different text or numerical strings—such as proper nouns, numerals, and objects—and they change depending on certain conditions specific to the player action”. Terminology must be chosen carefully following the developer or publisher’s stylesheet and platform-specific requirements as well as the medium and content of the game. Coherence must be considered

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c­ arefully if the game belongs to a certain saga. TMs and CAT tools are very useful to homogenize the different translators’ work, although all translated strings are proofread in this central translation stage, usually by a PM or localization coordinator, or by reviewers or other translators, who ensure that there are no misspellings, errors or inconsistencies in the text translated by different people: “[i]n the in-house model if there is a team of translators they usually review each other’s work” (O’Hagan and Mangiron 2013: 134). Dubbing (or voice recording), also known as audio localization, takes place in this central stage of the localization process. Initially, the text strings that constitute the “script” of the video game are translated together with the rest of the strings included in the different batches that the translators receive. This “script”, nonetheless, does not follow the same format as that of a cinematographic script because, as explained (see Chap. 1), the interactive material is non-linear and is configured differently, allowing a certain level of arbitrariness and requiring the player’s action in order for the story to develop. As a result, there is no proper linear script or transcript, but rather text strings contained in spreadsheets together with the in-game text. These are simply marked as audio or voice-over content, but they do not constitute a traditional movie script. Sometimes, the core localization phase has already begun, but it is still unclear whether these strings corresponding to audio files will later be dubbed or subtitled. The publisher can take the decision to dub or subtitle a video game at any stage once the project has begun, even while translation is already taking place. Furthermore, these text strings might not have been recorded yet in the original language when they are received for translation— which, in any case, is irrelevant for translators as they will never have access to audio or video files. The dubbed and subtitled versions are often identical—subtitles are commonly verbatim reproductions of the audio content. This will never be the case in a movie as dubbing and subtitling represent different modes (spoken vs. written), hence different restrictions are put in place. Game subtitling does not follow the same standards as film dubbing due to the interactive nature of the product and the materials available (see Sect. 3.2.3) during the localization process, which frequently results in low-readability subtitles

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(Mangiron 2016). The dubbing process will be further discussed in Chap. 4, Sect. 4.1.2. Post-localization (integration and testing): this final stage is crucial to avoid any localization errors or bugs in the version of the video game that is taken to the market. All translated and revised text, art and audiovisual assets are compiled back into the game code, and a basic first playable version (alpha) is produced to begin the careful quality assurance (QA) process, although the development process might not have finished yet as it is an agile process (see above). Later on, a more stable beta version is released which closely resembles the final version of the game, and no additional changes are made by the developers in this version, although major bugs might be found when the team of testers play this beta version. They must enter all the spotted errors in a bug database that generally contains functionality, compliance and linguistic issues, although the exact format of the database and the bug classification depends on the localization vendor. All these bugs are fixed, and new playable versions are released to be played by the testers again. The different playable versions that are produced to perform the testing process are known as builds (O’Hagan and Mangiron 2013: 137). With regard to dubbing, if major problems have been identified in the dubbed version of the translated game (terminology, incorrect or unclear pronunciation, lack of synchrony, untranslated files), pick-up sessions need to be set up to re-dub these audio files containing errors. Once the QA process is completed and the last build has been debugged, the release candidate or “gold master” is delivered to the publisher or developer. Approval is necessary from the age rating board and the platform holder (Bernal-Merino 2015: 180) before the finished game is finally produced and distributed. In this final stage of the localization process, the most typical errors that can be found by testers are the following (see Vázquez Rodríguez (2018) for further classifications and descriptions of localization errors): –– Functionality bugs are related to the game interface, its stability and the game mechanics. They interfere directly with the game experience, regardless of the linguistic content. Therefore, they are

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critical and need to be remedied in most cases. One example would be a particular combination of commands crashing the game unexpectedly (Muñoz Sánchez 2017: 154). –– Compliance errors mean that the required platform, saga or specialized terminology and guidelines have not been followed adequately, causing some inconsistencies throughout the game. –– Linguistic errors are more frequently made during localization than the original game creation process and, in turn, can be divided into various sub-groups (Muñoz Sánchez 2017: 154–166): • Grammar mistakes, misspellings and typos. • Font issues depend on character encoding (e.g. the character encoding used in the game does not support the Spanish letter ñ or French accents). These are not very common errors if the game has been developed following an internationalization approach. • Wrong text implementation refers to the fact that a particular section is displayed in the wrong language. Similarly, missing translations refer to particular text strings that are not displayed on the screen in the target language. • Mistranslations should be assessed from a functional perspective as creativity might have caused certain original messages to be adapted to the target locale intentionally in a particular way. However, if a text string does not make sense in the context where it appears or puzzles the player, it is probably a mistranslation. • Overrunning text or text overflow refers to strings where the length restriction has not been applied correctly; thus, the text exceeds the given limit on the written interface. Similarly, length restrictions cause text to be truncated when displayed. • Style (readability improvement) and cultural issues: while the former might be controversial and need to be fully justified—style implies a high level of subjectivity—the latter are related to particular elements that do not suit the target culture clearly and should be replaced, such as body language, symbols, icons, historical contexts and so on (see O’Hagan and Mangiron (2013: 201–242) for further discussion on game culturalization).

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These linguistic errors and all types of bugs can be classified differently, depending on the developer or localization vendor’s criteria, but the above represent the most common situations reported by testers. Regardless of the classification, “linguistic bugs found in multimedia interactive entertainment software are grouped in four levels of priority: A—Cannot be sold like this, B—Playable but affects playability, C— Noticeable but does not affect playability, D—Barely visible” (BernalMerino 2020: 306). Although linguistic and some functional errors can interfere with the game experience, “it is common knowledge in the industry that even for big-budget titles there sometimes remain noticeable localization errors that are not fixed before the game is released […] because they are not considered to be sufficiently high priority to fix as ‘functionality bugs’ that impede gameplay” (O’Hagan and Chandler 2016: 315). Furthermore, the now-widespread additional downloadable content (DLC) and patches or hotfixes (small software packages to fix bugs) can be used by developers to fix problems that were included in the initial version of the game. As explained, this three-stage process can vary greatly from one developer, publisher or localization vendor to another, depending on different factors such as the game localization model, the level of localization, the game genre and the potential users and target locale. Despite this, it is important for the localization professionals to be familiar with the main stages described above, which have to be completed from an agile perspective in any localization process, so that the agents involved are aware of the possible tasks and implications of their work. These agents and the materials available to them during the localization process will be described in the following section.

3.2.3 A  gents and Available Materials in the Localization Process When localization issues are detected by players, translators are often the first to be blamed. Nonetheless, this is far from accurate as the list of roles involved in the whole localization process is extensive, and all these professionals perform essential and interrelated tasks. Since the localization

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process is flexible yet can be divided into three basic stages, the different agents involved in the process can also be grouped into three matching levels: administration and management, production and post-production.6 Administration and management refer to the upper category of agents. The localization commissioner and the project managers (PMs) and coordinators can be included here. Localization project managers are in charge of receiving (outsourcing model) or preparing (in-house model, in which the acronym LPM is commonly used as a designation) the localization kit and extracting (if necessary) the translatable assets to be shared with translators. Their role is supervisory, ensuring that all guidelines, deadlines and requirements are met in a consistent way throughout the whole process. They liaise between the client and the rest of the localization agents. Localization coordinators can also be found in major projects supervising the localization process in different languages. In some companies, additional project managers can be appointed to supervise particular areas, as is the case with full localization projects including dubbing, in which a sound manager might liaise between the dubbing director, actors and sound engineers in the dubbing studio and the translation project manager in triple-A projects (Mejías-Climent 2019: 105). As Muñoz Sánchez (2017: 181–183) points out, several skills are essential at this supervisory level. First of all, previous experience in the field and technical knowledge about internationalization and localization processes are fundamental. PMs need to be thoroughly familiar with the whole process and the different stages and roles involved, as well as the particular tasks that each agent has to complete. Furthermore, basic notions of game programming (dealing with placeholders and coding) and CAT tools are highly desirable to ensure that the translatable assets and the necessary tools are prepared and used correctly. Second, PMs need to be familiar with the localization industry and the game market in general, as well as with what their clients expect and the aim of their product in particular. The better a PM knows the game, the better he/she can resolve queries and guide the translators and other localization agents. Finally, organizational and analytical skills, as well as leadership and communication skills, are key for any project coordinator to ensure that the

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project and communication between the agents run smoothly and to resolve any difficulties that may arise. In addition, time management skills are essential to manage the available resources and meet the deadlines: “[l]ocalization of AAA titles requires tight project management which involves a specific workflow and tools to turn around different regional versions (locales) on time and within budget” (O’Hagan and Chandler 2016: 310). Additionally, Bernal-Merino (2015: 211) refers to localization consultants, who are “experts in very specific areas and constitute an ideal addition to a team that lacks the expertise for a particular project, theme or territory”. They can constitute a valuable resource to support the project and to advise on particular specialization areas (legal, literary, technology and terminology, socio-cultural context, etc.) and on different aspects of the target locale to adapt the product appropriately and successfully. The production stage encompasses translators and reviewers or editors, who are in charge of the core phase of the localization process: linguistic translation (Bernal-Merino 2015) and proofreading. Although discussing all the translation competences required by a game localizer remains outside of the scope of these pages (see Dietz 2007; Mangiron 2007; Chandler 2008; Granell 2011; O’Hagan and Mangiron 2013; Bernal-Merino 2015; Muñoz Sánchez 2017), it is worth noting that they ideally possess a series of interdisciplinary skills related to the different aspects of the process. These of course include mastery of their target language and culture, but also a broad knowledge of the source language and cultural awareness; great creativity; documentation resources and problem-solving strategies; computer and technological skills; familiarity with the gaming environment and slang, platforms and terminology; familiarity with AVT practices and CAT tools; and flexibility and a commitment to teamwork. Reviewers and editors require similar skills to translators (Muñoz Sánchez 2017: 181–182). In fact, they are usually experienced translators or act as translators themselves, carrying out cross-revisions between the different translators within the same project, especially in the in-house model. They need particular analytical skills to examine the text at the segmental level (string by string, spotting typos, misspellings or grammatical errors and mistranslations), but also globally, in order to identify

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any possible inconsistency or incoherence in the storyline, terminology, dialogues or character discourse. Style and register are also reviewed carefully to comply with the instructions given by the client. As explained in Sect. 3.2.2, the dubbing phase takes place during the production stage, once a significant part of the translatable audio assets have been translated and are ready to be delivered to the dubbing studio. Therefore, agents participating in the dubbing studio can be included as production-phase agents. These include the dubbing director, dubbing actors or voice talent, and sound engineers. Sometimes, linguistic or dubbing assistants may participate in the dubbing sessions, and translators are occasionally asked about particular words or strings that may need to be changed due to time restrictions, although consulting with translators is not very common. Unlike cinematographic dubbing, the role of dialogue writers and dubbing assistants is practically non-existent in video games, considering that there is no traditional script to be adapted and divided into takes. Likewise, there is no script to be domesticated and prepared for the dubbing studio using dubbing symbols, although this preparation phase is essential in cinematographic dubbing. Despite this, the dubbing director can carry out similar tasks, re-­ organizing the strings into script-like spreadsheets to facilitate the voice talent’s task, and occasionally certain symbols may be added. This entirely depends on the dubbing director’s preferences, also known as the artistic director. At times, a dubbing assistant can help with these tasks for major projects. As will be detailed in Chap. 4, Sect. 4.1.2, and similar to what happens in the localization process as a whole, the procedures in the dubbing phase may vary as well, depending on the studio and the companies involved, among other factors. Finally, at the post-production phase, testers are included. Tester heads (Bernal-Merino 2015: 211) are in charge of supervising the QA process and reporting to LPMs. They ensure consistency and debugging of critical errors, working closely with LPMs. Testers also require similar skills to translators. Of course, they need to master the target language and culture and have a vast knowledge of the source language and culture. English is usually essential, regardless of the source and target languages, since it is frequently used as the lingua franca to communicate with the rest of the agents involved in the localization

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process, and bug reports and databases are usually written in English. Cultural awareness, creativity and especially attention to detail are also very important for testers. A high level of technological literacy and familiarity with CAT tools are obviously desirable, and familiarity with the gaming environment, platforms and terminology, in addition to AVT practices, is certainly essential in good testers (Muñoz Sánchez 2017). Before moving on to describing the available materials during the localization process, an additional professional profile must be mentioned. Localization engineers are in charge of extracting the translatable assets from the game code and re-integrating them to produce the different playable versions of the game or builds. Thus, unlike the rest of the localization agents described above, localization engineers participate in all levels throughout the whole process, especially in sim-ship projects in which localization takes place parallel to the game development, and new translatable strings and assets are created and extracted continually. Particularly important is their task at the production level to extract all the translatable assets, as well as in the post-production phase where they are responsible for producing the first playable alpha and the beta versions of the game. They might also convert different files to formats supported by the CAT tool used for the project. They should also be aware of translators and testers’ needs in order to provide them with the necessary material to perform their tasks successfully (Bernal-Merino 2015). The localization process has often been considered “blind localization” (Dietz 2006, 2007; O’Hagan and Mangiron 2013: 119) since the available materials are quite different from a traditional AVT project or any other translation area such as literary, legal or technical (which may all be included in a localization project as well, depending on the nature of the different translatable assets). Because localization deals with a product based on complex software programming, and because it includes interaction, the translatable assets (see Chap. 1, Sect. 1.2) need to be separated from the programming code and cannot be translated accompanied by their context. Furthermore, the sim-ship model makes this situation even more complex since the translatable material is created when the localization process begins and text strings are unstable, change constantly and are not organized chronologically or logically for translation purposes. The strict information non-disclosure agreements (NDAs) that localizers

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are required to sign pose an added difficulty, “forbidding them from revealing information about the project for a given period of time, except for any information that may be already available in the public domain, such as trailers, reviews, press releases, and demos” (O’Hagan and Mangiron 2013: 269). This general lack of contextual information creates a “blind” situation for translators, who have to bear different factors in mind to constantly choose the least risky translation option. As O’Hagan and Mangiron ibid.: 119) put it, Translators have to rely on their own intuition drawing on their game literacy and general understanding of game culture; they must make an educated guess of what the context could be and provide the most flexible translation which is likely to work in different contexts.

Not only translators but also all professionals involved in game localization, from PMs to sound engineers, confirm that their previous experience in the field and their familiarity with the gaming environment is usually what guides them in making the least risky localization decisions (Mejías-Climent 2019). Although this strategy of choosing the most neutral translation might not favor the highest-quality localization, it frequently avoids glaring errors in the resulting target version. This idea of “blind” localization is related to the materials available to localizers to perform their tasks. The importance of the localization kit has been described previously (see Sect. 3.2.2). This should contain the basic documentation to complement the lack of contextual information that translators face. The most striking difference between localization and other types and modes of translation is that the translatable assets are decontextualized, which would be inconceivable in most translation tasks. In the case of in-game text and most audio files, these text strings are distributed in spreadsheets, usually Excel files, but also XLIFF, XML, TXT or other formats to be processed with CAT tools. It is of paramount importance that the translators modify only the column or space assigned to their translated text as any other unexpected changes to the original file could interfere with game functionality and cause serious bugs. The fact that in video game dubbing there is no traditional script, and the linguistic translation and voice recording take place without any

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videos supporting the text, is the most notable difference from cinematographic dubbing. This would be unacceptable in film dubbing as the linguistic (translated) content is inseparable from the other audiovisual codes that create the whole meaning of the product (Zabalbeascoa 2008; Chaume 2012). Because of the different and challenging conditions prevailing in the dubbing of video games, translators, reviewers and the different agents in the dubbing studio need to become familiar with this particular approach of “blind” dubbing. In the best-case scenario, translators may have a series of screenshots at their disposal, showing some aspects of the game aesthetics, characters, weapons or locations. In any case, translators do not have access to audio content while they translate since translating and adapting the translation to traditional dubbing constraints would be far too time-consuming and ineffective. The same applies to reviewers of the translations. Once the translated text reaches the dubbing studio, the corresponding original audio files must be delivered to the sound engineer, who will be in charge of substituting them with the dubbed ones, always exactly reproducing the original structure of the project files, usually in an organized structure distributed in files and folders. The original audio files are normally the only “audiovisual” support available to dubbing professionals, unlike in film dubbing, in which voice actors always watch the video while dubbing the linear translated script. In game dubbing, the main reference in the dubbing studio is the sound waves—the graphic representation of each utterance—but no images are available. The audio waveforms of the translated text are expected to resemble those of the original audio files (for a discussion of the various restrictions that apply, see Chap. 4, Sect. 4.2.3). The lack of additional visual resources is sometimes due to confidentiality reasons and sometimes because the final videos have not been created yet or will be rendered by the game engine—the core software that makes the game program run—when the game is being played (in-game movies, see Chap. 1, Sect. 1.2). In some projects, limited videos might be available for certain pre-rendered cinematics. These low-­ quality versions will never be the final videos in the game, but they give dubbing professionals a more precise idea of what is happening on the screen. Sometimes, these can be motion-capture videos, a technique used to recreate human actors’ body movements in a digital model using

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sensors on their body, as described in Chap. 2 (Sect. 2.5). These rudimentary videos, nonetheless, can give the dubbing professionals additional information about the situation. Finally, two more elements are worth mentioning regarding the materials available in the localization process. As a “blind” process, localization requires regular contact with the client, developer or publisher, in which queries are an essential element. Queries are usually related to missing contextual information or possible typos or errors in the original language. The method for making queries can vary greatly depending on the company, but it is typically an Excel spreadsheet or a Google Sheets document known simply as queries or Q&A (questions and answers). Translators and reviewers can write down their questions and usually the LPMs manage them and get the answers from the client (Muñoz Sánchez 2017). Another element that plays an important role in localization projects are, as outlined above, CAT tools and localization tools. Like most features, these depend on the preferences of the developer (in-house model) or the localization services provider (outsourcing model). Discussing all the different translation tools that can be used in game localization would be too extensive and previous works already refer to them, such as Muñoz Sánchez (2017), Méndez González and Calvo-Ferrer (2017), Bernal-­ Merino (2015), O’Hagan and Mangiron (2013) and Maxwell-Chandler and Deming (2012). Translation tools such as SDL Passolo, Alchemy Catalyst, Localization Studio or Visual Localize, and CAT tools such as memoQ, OmegaT, Xbench and Déjà Vu are frequently used in game localization, as are proprietary tools developed by the publisher or game developer. Translators and localizers need basic knowledge of these types of tools and a certain flexibility to adapt to any other software that the project or the client might require.

3.2.4 The Role of Fan Communities To conclude, brief mention of video game players and fan communities should be made as they are playing an increasingly active role as agents in the localization of some popular games (crowdsourcing, “mods” and

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ROM-hacking7) or of indie titles through crowdfunding. Although this topic also remains largely outside of the scope of these pages and deserves in-depth discussion both in the academic and industrial fields (see O’Hagan 2017; O’Hagan and Chandler 2016; O’Hagan and Mangiron 2013; Muñoz Sánchez 2009; Dovey and Kennedy 2006; Jenkins 2006), user participation needs to be acknowledged in the current expanding localization industry. Fans are becoming increasingly informed with up-to-date information on newly released games even before the official localization is made available in their language […]. They do not wish localizers to make the decision on what is suitable and not suitable on their behalf. But fans may not be fully aware of all the factors which official localization needs to consider such as age ratings systems which differ from country to country, obligating some changes. (O’Hagan 2017: 197)

Video game players are the ultimate target of the localization process and, as fans, they have the broadest and most detailed knowledge of the different sagas, worlds and stories depicted in their favorite titles. At the same time, internet communities and the increasing user-generated content available online make it very easy for fans to participate as “co-­ creators” in the fabric of game culture (O’Hagan and Mangiron 2013: 293). This proliferation of user participation offers some positive aspects for developers: just like fandubbing or fansubbing in audiovisual productions, fan communities are willing to translate their favorite video games on a voluntary basis in order to be the first to access the game, which might initially be seen by developers as reducing localization costs. In addition, the participation of fans ensures the use of game-world terminology. Sometimes, indie developers with reduced budgets commission part of the translation process to professional localizers, while some stages such as beta testing can be crowdsourced. Another increasingly popular practice is modding, by which the most experienced fans with advanced computer skills add modifications (“mods”) to their favorite games, often as a legal activity, including, for example, localization into a particular language or translation of the art assets, which sometimes remain unchanged due to time and budget constraints. ROM-hacking also

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allows video game players with computer skills to localize their favorite titles through ROM modifications. The game ROM (read-only memory) data contains all the different assets that constitute the game, some of which are accessed by fans and modified to localize the untranslated game for a particular locale. O’Hagan sums the situation up: “[t]he ultimate goal of translation hacking is to share games that fans deem worth sharing. It is mainly motivated by the absence of official translations or because the officially-localised version of a game is not considered satisfactory in the eyes of the fans” (2017: 188). However, as O’Hagan and Chandler (2016) highlight, this may be counter-productive as localization represents a highly specialized field requiring comprehensive training, which not all fans have. According to such authors, this may result in different types of bugs, from mistranslations and other linguistic errors to serious functionality bugs, not to mention compliance errors. Contrary to what developers might expect, such problems caused by an unsuccessful crowdsourcing practice can lead to considerable delays in the project. Furthermore, user participation in the localization process can be unethical and detrimental to the reputation of professional translators. Moreover, translation hacking can give rise to legal issues if the original ROM has not been given general circulation by the developing company. Finally, the move by some fan communities toward “delocalization” (O’Hagan 2017) seems contrary to the current trend of glocalization and the integration of the localization process into game development to suit the different locales. Some fans consider a localized version of a game that in their opinion deprives it of its original taste and cultural diversity to be unauthentic. For this reason, they may suggest their own translated version with a clearly foreignizing approach. This debate remains open as “the move by fans to delocalize is something of an unpredicted outcome” (ibid.: 199). After all, localization is a highly specialized practice that has become an essential part of any video game development project in terms of market revenue and consumer demand. Inextricably tied to both technological advancements and market trends which influence the process and the agents involved in it, “[l]ocalization is meant to be user-oriented by tailoring the product for the users in the target market” (ibid.: 197).

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As for dubbing, this AVT mode is embedded in the central stage of the localization process and, while the tasks of some agents and their practices are similar to those in film dubbing, there are notable differences such as the materials available to the translators and the dubbing professionals in the studio. In the next chapter, this AVT mode within the localization process will be explored more extensively.

Notes 1. A total of 19 people were interviewed, either by telephone or by videoconference. 17 of them were interviewed at the end of 2017 and 2  in September 2020. All these semi-structured interviews were recorded and transcribed in order to extract and analyze the relevant information in detail. Their roles in the localization industry range from project production (project managers) to translation production (translators and reviewers) and translation post-production in the dubbing studio (dubbing directors, dubbing actors and sound technicians). 2. The term “functional” is used here to indicate that a product is designed to be practical and used to achieve a particular goal, such as a commercial website, intended to promote the sales of a certain product, or software programs developed as audio or graphic editors. Video games, in contrast, typically pursue a ludic goal, rather than other types of purely functional activities. 3. The post-gold model consists of marketing the video game, first, in the country where it was developed, and later on, in different markets, as opposed to the sim-ship model, which means the global launching of the product in all markets (locales) simultaneously. 4. As O’Hagan and Mangiron (2013: 132) define them, variables or placeholders are “values that hold the space for different text or numerical strings—such as proper nouns, numerals, and objects—and they change depending on certain conditions specific to the player action. 5. Their website is available at [accessed in May 2021]. 6. The processes outlined in Sect. 3.2.3 draw particularly on the interviews with professionals in the field, which, as indicated above, must remain confidential as sources.

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7. ROM-hacking refers to the process of accessing the game ROM (read-­ only memory) to edit some features of the video game such as graphics, settings, texts (to add translations) and so on. The ROM is a file that contains all the elements of which the video game is composed and can be executed in an emulator—a computer system that recreates a different system—not necessarily the original platform for which the game was developed. ROMs can be found on the internet, and fans and those known as “romhackers” download them to add their own modifications to the game (see Muñoz Sánchez 2007 for a review of how this process can take place).

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4 Dubbing in Video Games

Cinema is a factory of illusions. Dubbing attempts to give the illusion of an illusion. —Whitman-Linsen (1992: 55, drawing on Caillée 1960: 108)

Abstract  Chapter 4 focuses on the dubbing phase, taking place in the intermediate stage of the localization process. An initial review of basic terms used in the media localization field is included to avoid terminology overlap when referring to dubbing, voice-over and lip-sync. The industrial process of film dubbing is reviewed to establish a comparison with game dubbing. The model of quality standards in film dubbing also serves as a basis to study the differences that game dubbing standards reflect. Finally, synchronization is presented as a particular dubbing standard that requires a different taxonomy for interactive products. While film dubbing synchronies can be divided into three types, the multimodal configuration of video games expands the taxonomy to five synchronies related to the restrictions applied to the translatable assets.

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 L. Mejías-Climent, Enhancing Video Game Localization Through Dubbing, Palgrave Studies in Translating and Interpreting, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-88292-1_4

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Having reviewed the key concepts of video games and of localization in Chaps. 1 and 3, respectively, this chapter focuses on dubbing as one of the audiovisual translation (AVT) modes used to localize triple-A titles nowadays, applying a full level of localization (see Sect. 3.2.1 in Chap. 3). In particular, dubbing is used to translate the audible dialogues included in interactive entertainment products. To recap, these dialogues are always made available to the translators in the form of written text strings, typically in spreadsheets (see Chap. 3, Sect. 3.2.3). We can recall that the translation mode refers to the technical methods used to transfer the linguistic content from a source audiovisual product to a target one (Chaume 2004a: 31, Hurtado Albir 2011: 69–70). In the case of dubbing, the transfer is from oral to oral—with the added specificity that the text was originally written to be spoken as if not written (Gregory and Carroll 1978: 42) but dealt with by video game translators in written form for both source and target material. In the case of subtitling, it would be from oral to written; in the case of audio description, it would also be from oral and written (if visual elements are displayed in the original product) to oral, to name some other AVT modes that remain outside the scope of these pages, but that could also be explored in video game localization. This chapter will review the concept and model of film dubbing as one of the most widespread AVT modes worldwide when it comes to accessing audiovisual products today. The dubbing model in non-interactive products will serve as the basic reference to introduce the concept and use of dubbing in video games and to identify some of the particularities that characterize this AVT mode in interactive media compared to film dubbing. To this end, an initial review of the terms used in the AVT and localization fields will be included to avoid the frequent terminology overlap when referring to dubbing, voice-over (or VO) and lip-sync. This will help clarify the concepts in order to then be able to compare the well-­ established professional practices of cinematographic dubbing and the use of dubbing within the game industry as well as to situate it within the localization process in particular. Finally, dubbing standards will also be explored both in film and video game dubbing, focusing on dubbing synchronies in particular, which represent the dubbing standard that differs the most between non-interactive and interactive media.

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4.1 The Film Dubbing Model in Localization The numerous AVT modes that exist nowadays—which continue to grow increasingly varied as modern technologies evolve—can be grouped according to different criteria. In practical terms, a clear distinction can be made between those AVT modes requiring a new soundtrack containing the dialogues translated into the target language to be incorporated into the original audiovisual product and those AVT modes that involve the addition of written text on the screen, frequently in the form of subtitles (Chaume 2013; Díaz Cintas and Remael 2021). The former represents the revoicing group, in which AVT modes such as dubbing, voice-over, half-dubbing and narration, audio description, fandubbing or fundubbing, simultaneous interpreting at film festivals and free commentary can be included. The second group encompasses all captioning modes: standard subtitling, subtitling for the deaf and the hard of hearing, audio subtitling, surtitling, respeaking (to create live subtitling) and fansubbing (Chaume 2012b). As AVT and game localization are related practices which share a range of translation modes (see Chap. 3, Sect. 3.1), most of these AVT modes can be used in the interactive media. The most frequent modes used to make games more internationally marketable are subtitling and dubbing. Accessibility practices (essentially, subtitling for the deaf and the hard of hearing and audio description) are also increasingly used in video games (see Mangiron 2021 for further discussion on the current state of accessibility in video games), although this still represents an underexplored area both in academia and in the professional fields (Mangiron et al. 2014). A recent example of a highly accessible video game was released in 2020, The Last of Us Part II, developed by Naughty Dog, which offers more than 60 accessibility settings including options for people with different kinds of sensory or motor impairments. However, this is one of the very few examples of accessible video games that can be found in the current market. It is well known that dubbing represents the AVT mode preferred worldwide to translate cartoons aimed at young audiences (Minutella 2021). It is also the traditionally preferred mode to access most feature films belonging to the fiction genre (as opposed to non-fiction products)

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and TV genres in European countries such as France, Italy, Germany and Spain. Dubbing owes its popularity to various cultural, economic and historical reasons that are beyond the scope of these pages but have already been reviewed by Chaves García (2000), Karamitroglou (2000) and Chaume (2012a, 2013, 2020), among others. After the eruption of digital technologies, digital terrestrial television (DTT) and the boom of video-on-demand (VOD) platforms, however, traditional national preferences have been increasingly blurred and a wide range of films, TV shows and series are now available to consumers featuring both dubbing and interlinguistic subtitling in different languages (for foreign products), intralinguistic subtitling (for audiovisual content produced nationally) and sometimes audio description. Furthermore, laws and regulations have also contributed to expanding the AVT offer by promoting the inclusion of accessibility modes such as subtitling for the deaf and the hard of hearing, sign language and audio description in public television and national audiovisual productions (Neves 2018). As Szarkowska points out: “[i]n Europe, legislation has proceeded in two parallel ways: in the form of national regulations implemented by each Member State and in the form of directives at the EU level” (2020: 258). The United Nations Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities (United Nations 2006) has also played an important role in the recognition of the needs of people with disabilities, thus promoting accessibility modes on public television and the internet (Greco and Jankowska 2020). All these factors allow audiences to choose the AVT mode that best fits their needs and preferences. As Sánchez-Mompeán (2020: 1) points out, “new developments have given viewers total control over the audiovisual content they watch, deciding when, where and how to consume audiovisual products, switching freely from one language to another and between different AVT modes”. Despite this changing landscape, it should be acknowledged that dubbing is still the traditionally preferred AVT mode in some countries and represented the inevitable model when video games developed and started to include speech content that would require dubbing (see Chap. 2). Therefore, film dubbing will also serve to compare how the professional dubbing process takes place in game localization as well as to identify some similarities and differences in terms of

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quality standards in film and video game dubbing, which remains an underexplored area in localization. Dubbing has been defined as the process of translating and adapting the source script of an audiovisual product to be performed in the target language by voice talent in a dubbing studio. The resulting recorded soundtrack in the target language replaces the voices of the original actors. It requires “a linguistic, cultural, technical and creative team effort” (Chaume 2020: 104) to meet the prevailing quality standards that audiences expect and to which they are accustomed when consuming dubbed products. This definition of dubbing as well as most of the quality standards governing the practice of film dubbing can also be broadly applied to video game dubbing, although considerable differences will be pointed out in the following pages. But before such a comparison is drawn, some terminological issues should be clarified.

4.1.1 Avoiding Terminology Overlap Every professional practice coins its own terminology and specific slang. As AVT and game localization are closely related, some shared concepts and the terms used to designate them might be confusing or overlap. This is the case for the terms dubbing, voice-over and lip-sync, which need to be clarified for the sake of consistency throughout this chapter. As defined, dubbing represents one of the most popular AVT modes consisting of matching the target language translation to the articulatory and body movements of the screen actors as well as to the pauses and the length of the source utterances in order to replace them with the performed translation in the dubbing studio. Voice-over, another of the AVT modes belonging to the group of revoicing, involves adding a new dialogue track in the target language on top of the original soundtrack, which is still audible at a lower volume (Franco et al. 2010: 27). Voice-­ over is the AVT mode typically used in reality TV and documentaries in Spain and Italy, although it has also traditionally been the prevailing mode in some Eastern European countries such as Russia and Poland to translate fiction genres (TV series and movies). Finally, the term lip-sync, another commonly used term in AVT, is understood as an inherent

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characteristic of dubbing, one of the three dubbing synchronies that needs to be applied to dubbed products. Among other semiotic codes, the shot configuration is determinant in deciding whether lip-sync should be used (typically, in close-ups and extreme or big close-ups) or to what extent kinesic synchrony and isochrony are relevant (see Sect. 4.2.2). In the game industry, however, voice-over is the widespread all-­ encompassing term used to refer to all recorded voices included in the game; in other words, all dialogues performed by voice actors in a sound studio, either in the source or in the target language. While it is clear that video games, as digital creations, do not show real people talking on the screen as happens in movies, real actors are always needed to lend their voices and bring the animated creations in video games to life.1 Voice-over is thus the term used to refer to those voices given to the animated characters. Dubbing, in turn, is used with different meanings: sometimes as a synonym for voice-over, sometimes to refer exclusively to audio files that do not need to match the characters’ lip movement or lip-syncing (Maxwell Chandler 2005: 186). Finally, lip-sync tends to be used only when the characters’ articulatory movement has to be reproduced in the translated text, typically in cinematics, which coincides with the use of this term in film dubbing, although it tends to be slightly less precise in video games. In light of the above and for the sake of terminological consistency between AVT and game localization, in these pages, the term dubbing is used to refer to the translated text performed by dubbing actors in the target language—regardless of the type of synchronies that apply—as traditionally understood within the field of AVT, replacing the original voices. Voice-over is used exclusively as the aforementioned AVT mode adding a new dialogue track in the target language on top of the original soundtrack, while voices or original voices will be the terms referring to the original audio files in a video game, like in any movie. Finally, lip-sync refers here to one of the dubbing synchronies used in both film and game dubbing, traditionally considered one of the quality standards in dubbing (Chaume 2007) (see Sect. 4.2). It should be pointed out that the term revoicing can also be found as a synonym for dubbing in various fields (Chaume 2020: 105). Nonetheless, as indicated above, revoicing here is considered the hypernym to refer to

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all AVT modes in which a new audio track containing the target text is added to the original product, with dubbing being the most representative. As a final note, it should be acknowledged that lip-syncing in video games can be achieved either through a well-adapted text, imitating the film dubbing process, or through alterations to the characters’ lip and face animation, unlike film dubbing, in which the real actors’ performances will never be altered by animation techniques. However, animation and image editing techniques are still time-consuming and expensive, and dubbing in video games tends to follow the cinematographic model of a translated and adapted script that maintains visual coherence with the image on the screen when performed by the dubbing actors. As Spiteri Miggiani (2019: 29) states, “this will continue until the most recent developments in facial manipulation video technology […] might one day invert the situation by enabling on-screen images (and lips) to adapt to the text”. Indeed, the cases of video games whose characters’ faces have been adapted to fit the articulation of languages other than the original are still scarce, Cyberpunk 2077 (CD Projekt Red 2020) being the most recent example, in which AI technologies and animation techniques were used to recreate full lip-syncing and characters’ facial articulation in ten different languages—it should be noted that the game had to be temporarily withdrawn from the market because of the many bugs it contained. These might represent avant-garde practices reflecting future trends in game dubbing, but for the time being, they are not very common in today’s localized titles due to the significant effort involved.

4.1.2 T  he Dubbing Process: Movies Versus Video Games The translation and voice recording of a film script are the basic phases in a long production chain in which several agents, in addition to the translator, are involved, as we have seen in Chap. 3. Although translators are considered independent professionals, teamwork is essential to ensure a high-quality final product. All these agents can apply modifications to the text until the definitive dubbed product reaches the audience. The

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dubbing process for non-interactive products has been explained by Whitman-Linsen (1992), Wright and Lallo (2009), Chaume (2012a), Cerezo Merchán et al. (2017) and Spiteri Miggiani (2019), to name but a few, but a general overview will be offered here from a comparative perspective to describe the dubbing process in video games. As noted in Chap. 3, the following review of the dubbing process in video games draws on key sources such as Chandler (2006), Le Dour (2007), Sioli et al. (2007), Maxwell Chandler and Deming (2012) and O’Hagan and Mangiron (2013). The information contained in such references has been updated and completed with the insights of a group of anonymous professionals who work in the localization industry and participated in the translation for the dubbing of some of the titles analyzed in Chap. 5. The aim of these complementary interviews was to seek common practices in the current localization market. Traditionally, the film dubbing process has been divided into the following main phases. First, the broadcasting rights of a foreign audiovisual production are acquired by the company that will distribute it in the target culture. Afterward, the dubbing brief is submitted to a dubbing studio. Next, the dubbing studio organizes the whole dubbing process, starting with choosing the translator to carry out the linguistic-cultural transfer. Then, the translated text is passed on to the adapter or dialogue writer, usually the dubbing director, who modifies the text to comply with the three dubbing synchronies (lip-sync, kinesic synchrony and isochrony) and to make it sound natural. After that, the translated and adapted text, divided into takes or loops, is performed by the voice talent in the studio, guided by the dubbing director. Finally, the sound engineer or audio technician mixes the dubbed tracks with the original soundtrack and produces the dubbed movie’s definitive audio track. This final soundtrack is included in the product just as it will be distributed; no additional modifications are needed once the movie comes out of the dubbing studio. Although these general steps remain similar, the current process differs somewhat as a result of the increasing need for optimization due to the increasing volume of audiovisual products entering the market and the new generations of translators with specific training in translation for dubbing and text adaptation, who can handle the entire process except

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for voice performance. The larger number and increased specialization of dubbing professionals is a response to the increase in today’s audiovisual production and its wider availability. Digital VOD platforms such as Netflix, HBO Max, Amazon Prime Video, Rakuten TV, Sky (in some Latin American countries), Filmin (in Spain, Portugal and Mexico), Movistar+ (in Spain) and so on have boomed in recent years, which have brought about an increase in the audiovisual offer. Furthermore, devices that allow consumption of and interaction with audiovisual products have also flourished, such as smart televisions, tablets, laptops, cell phones and so on. Widespread access to websites designed to store and stream a wide range of videos, such as YouTube, Vimeo or Twitch, has also contributed to the increase in audiovisual production and easier access to it, thus the need for streamlined translation services. In this current landscape of booming audiovisual markets, the translation process greatly depends on factors such as the means of distribution (cinema, TV, VOD, internet, etc.) and the distributors and language service providers involved. If we focus on cinema, large film distributors tend to follow a translation process in which the translator’s role is usually limited to a mere linguistic transfer of the script, with a frequent preference for foreignization (based on Venuti 2008). Although this first rough translation usually remains linguistically close to the ST dialogue, it also usually includes notes on cultural aspects, wordplay and other idiosyncratic issues (Chaume 2012a: 29) and is then adapted by the dialogue writer or adapter, who domesticates the script to make it sound natural and suit target language conventions. Dialogue writers are also in charge of applying the three dubbing synchronies (see Sect. 4.2) and inserting the characteristic dubbing symbols used to facilitate the voice talent’s task. Very often, dubbing directors act as dialogue writers as well to give the final version of the script their own artistic imprint. They do not necessarily know the source language, although it is increasingly common for them to understand it. Dubbing assistants are usually in charge of dividing the script into takes, also known as “loops” in some English-speaking countries. They may also add dubbing symbols and prepare the dubbing sheet, or dubbing cue sheet, on which all the performers and their assigned characters, takes and times are indicated.

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If an audiovisual production is to be shown in movie theaters in the target language, the producer is the agent who initiates the dubbing process, known as the initiator (based on Nord 2018). On the other hand, if a TV station is the agent acquiring the broadcasting rights for an audiovisual product, the TV station will commission the translation and thus initiate the dubbing process when contacting the producer or rights holder. The TV station is also the agent who commissions the dubbing studio and determines how the dubbing process will take place. When the translation brief is aimed at TV broadcasting, it is more common for the translator’s task to include the rough translation in addition to dialogue writing or adaptation of the text to target language conventions (Cerezo Merchán et al. 2017: 28–29). These professionals acting as both translators and dialogue writers are becoming more and more common due to the current increase in specialized training programs that universities and private institutions offer nowadays. VOD platforms also usually seek to obtain the translated and adapted text from a single translator, which might help speed the process along and reduce costs, as happens with TV stations. Once the script has been adapted to suit the dubbing conventions (takes division, dubbing symbols and oral naturalness), an additional agent, the reviewer or proofreader, might be included to ensure that the script complies with the TV station or VOD platform’s conventions and stylesheet. This step is usually included in the quality assurance (QA) phase in the case of dubbing for large film distribution companies. Sometimes, TV stations also have a linguistic assistant in the dubbing studio, as is the case with the Spanish regional TV channel À Punt, where all AVT modes must adhere to the conventions of the language variant spoken in Comunitat Valenciana. In any case, quality control is an essential final step to ensure that the resulting product meets the expected quality standards in dubbing. Regardless of the agent initiating the process, either TV stations, VOD or movie theatres, the last phase (dubbing performance in the studio) is similar. In the past, dubbing actors used to receive a copy of the translated script beforehand to prepare their performance for the dubbing sessions. Due to industry secrecy nowadays to prevent piracy, this practice is no longer used and “ordinarily, actors do not see a script before the

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session” (Wright and Lallo 2009: 222). In the studio, the translated and adapted script used to be printed and placed on a lectern in the dubbing booth where the voice talents perform their lines, and divided into different takes following the conventions imposed by the dubbing studio. Nowadays, it is increasingly common to use tablets placed on the dubbing lecterns, in which minor modifications to the script can be reflected immediately by synchronizing the actors’ and dubbing director’s tablets. The dubbing director, who has the full script and is familiar with the plot and each character’s features, supervises and guides the actors’ performances and may make minor changes or add dubbing symbols to the script during the recording sessions. Whether they are working with printed text or using tablets, actors usually add their own marks and symbols to the script during the first look at the take to adjust their performance and synchronization accordingly: “[t]he goal is to do a good take in one or two tries” (Wright and Lallo 2009: 223). Dubbing directors, also known as art directors, usually stay outside the dubbing booth, in the adjoining room separated by soundproof glass, where the sound technician also works in front of the mixing desk. Dubbing directors “may be responsible for postproduction as well” (ibid.). The sound engineer manages all the dubbed files and replaces the original voices with the dubbed ones. All the lines are recorded on a new track that will eventually be mixed with the original soundtracks (the M&E or music and effects track) to produce the final dubbed version of the audiovisual product. Sound engineers “are also responsible for the blending in of newly recorded background murmur” (Spiteri Miggiani 2019: 7). It is important to mention that the dubbed product is definitive once the mixing of the soundtracks is completed; it is delivered to the client the way it is produced by the sound engineer, requiring no additional changes. This, however, does not happen in video game dubbing, as will be explained below. The aforementioned dubbing conventions for film dubbing vary greatly from one country to another (see Chaume [2012a] for a detailed review on dubbing conventions across Europe and Cerezo Merchán et al. 2017 for a review on dubbing conventions in Spain). In the case of Spain, regions such as Comunidad de Madrid and Catalonia have their own dubbing agreements2 that specify different aspects of the script and the

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dubbing process, such as the maximum number of lines per character per take and the maximum duration of takes. Professional aspects such as rates, working hours and payment units are also stipulated in these agreements, as well as the different agents included in the dubbing process and their duties. It should be noted, however, that these agreements refer exclusively to the artistic branch, hence translators are not included. Video game dubbing is also considered in such agreements, and some of the differences that will be described here are reflected in these professional agreements, one of them being the payment unit. Takes or loops make the actors’ performance easier as they are limited in length (number of lines) to facilitate memorization. Furthermore, they have always been used to determine the dubbing actors’ salary; they receive a certain amount according to the number of dubbed takes and the call, that is, the number of days they have to go to the dubbing studio. In video game dubbing, however, the voice talent’s salary is calculated based on time instead of takes, as these are not used in localization due to the interactive and computerized nature of video games as well as the absence of a traditional, linear script. In the case of translators working on non-interactive audiovisual products such as movies, their rates— which, as previously mentioned, are not covered by these agreements—are agreed upon based on the number of translated reels (usually ten minutes each) or time (number of hours taken to perform the words they have translated, although this is not common), while game localizers usually determine their rates based on the number of translated words. As explained, after translation, the dubbing script of non-interactive products is modified to comply with target language conventions, reproducing oral and natural speech “to suit linguistic, cultural, ideological and technical needs” (Spiteri Miggiani 2019: 12) and to adhere to all dubbing synchronies. The script is also divided into takes and dubbing symbols are inserted (Chaume 2012a: 37–39), with the exception of French or Canadian studios where the bande rythmo method is used (Chaume 2012a; Cornu 2014; Spiteri Miggiani 2019). None of these adaptations, however, are made in video game dubbing. As described in Chap. 3 (see Sect. 3.2.2), dubbing takes place during the intermediate stage in the localization process, that is, the translation or core localization phase, between the pre-localization and post-localization phases. In

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this case, the publisher or game distributor can be considered the initiator of the dubbing brief, commissioning the localization of a video game and choosing full localization as the level of localization to be achieved (see Sect. 3.2.1). Yet the brief might not initially specify whether voice recording in the target language will be performed or subtitles will be used instead as the inclusion of this costly AVT mode (dubbing) in the localization process can be decided at a later stage, subject to budget availability—subtitling the audio content and cinematics in a video game is always cheaper than dubbing. This is a clear difference from film translation where the translation brief always clearly states whether the commissioned translation is for dubbing or the dialogues will be subtitled instead. At this intermediate translation stage within the localization process as a whole, the dubbing phase, in turn, can be divided into three basic steps: pre-production, including the linguistic transfer, casting actors and setting up the recording sessions; voice recording in the dubbing studio and finally post-production, which encompasses cleaning, producing, file-naming and proof-listening to the recorded files. As happens with localization as a whole, dubbing in particular can also take place following an agile model (see Sect. 3.2.2) in which new lines are received for translation once others have already been recorded, and pick-up sessions will need to be set up to modify previous files or to add new ones. This makes the dubbing process more error-prone than film dubbing, in which the process usually follows a waterfall model, even though pick-up sessions might still be necessary if any errors are detected. As no traditional script is available, the dubbing process in video games is quite different at the translation phase, and while some differences therefore need to be considered, the actual dubbing in the studio resembles film dubbing. From a broader perspective, nonetheless, the film dubbing model is useful for understanding dubbing in video games, as the three basic steps in video game dubbing (pre-production, dubbing in the studio and post-production) also take place in film dubbing as described above: translation and dialogue writing, which corresponds to pre-­ production in game localization; recording in the studio for both types of products and finally quality control in film dubbing or post-­production in localization.

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During pre-production, translators carry out the linguistic transfer of the work batches they receive successively. Yet, an initial rough translation and a later adapted script based on that initial one never ends up taking place, as it does in film dubbing. The reason is that the text has been extracted from the game coding (pre-localization) and distributed in spreadsheets containing isolated text strings. In other words, if the text is given to translators as isolated text strings that are decontextualized, their adaptation to suit the conventions of a traditional film dubbing script cannot take place. Spreadsheets or batch instructions usually classify the text strings as in-game text (to be displayed on the game interface) or voice-over (voices recorded in the original language). Generally, it is the developer who is in charge of sorting the translatable text strings contained in the spreadsheets. Space limitations are also considered, sometimes expressed as a maximum number of characters or words and sometimes as percentages (e.g. maximum length not to exceed 10 or 20% of the original length). Every localization vendor has its own conventions to classify the types of strings and the space limitations, and these might vary depending on the developer and game genre as well. Translators can address queries to their PM if any questions arise regarding context or space limitations. Although the approach to the language transfer in video games might largely depend on the game genre or the translation brief, typically, it tends to be slightly more domesticating than in film dubbing (see Chap. 3, Sect. 3.1). This is because the main goal, as explained, is to reproduce the game experience and the essence of the game for the target culture, in other words, acceptability rather than adequacy to use Toury’s terms (1995/2012). However, game localizers cannot follow the same approach as film translators when making the text sound natural, spontaneous and synchronized with the image since the relevant image is rarely available. The same is true regarding the full verbal context for each translatable string. Thus, localizers tend to resort more to their own previous experience and intuition when making certain translation decisions, instead of taking the full product as a reference (which would be the best-case scenario) to ensure that their translation fits the audiovisual context where it will be displayed. In addition, the information contained in the localization kit and the guidelines received from the project manager are essential

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too. Further studies might contribute to revealing to what extent the translator’s previous experience in the field is important in order to achieve the desired effect in their translation when additional context is unavailable. After linguistic translation, another difference emerges between film and game dubbing: while the dialogue writing phase is essential in the former, no division into loops or adaptation of the script can be carried out in game dubbing, nor are time codes used, as translators and dubbing agents work with separate audio files instead of a single linear audio track. Synchronies are also not applied in the same way as the three dubbing synchronies are used in movies (see Sect. 4.2). If the game dialogue is to be dubbed in the target language, the translated lines, classified as spoken voices (or voice-over, following the game localization terminology described in Sect. 4.1.1), might be put together in a master spreadsheet containing all the lines with as much contextual information as possible. This information should ideally include the character’s name, context (situation within the game’s plot, if there is any), inflection, location or area within the game world (if possible), voice effect, trigger and file name (Chandler 2006). This master spreadsheet is then used by the dubbing director to guide the dubbing actors when performing in the studio. The dubbing director supervises the entire recording in the studio phase and usually has the last word about any artistic decision. Some art directors might opt for adapting the translated lines to make the text sound more natural or adjust it more accurately to the duration and articulation of the original lines (isochrony and lip-sync). Some dubbing directors, acting as adapters or dialogue writers, might choose to insert dubbing symbols in the translated lines to make the task easier for dubbing actors, making the translated lines more closely resemble a traditional movie script. However, it should not be forgotten that a linear script will never be used in the game dubbing studio, and the task tends to be more difficult than dubbing non-interactive products since the story is not recorded linearly and the lack of context might hamper the actors’ performances. Therefore, the art director’s familiarity with the game’s plot and mechanics is key to successfully guiding the recording phase in order to compensate for any lack of context or image.

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Before dubbing actors are called to the studio, the translated lines contained in the master spreadsheet are sometimes grouped into different “dubbing scripts” to be used by each dubbing actor, who will record their lines individually, regardless of the number of people involved in the conversation. This is also increasingly common in film dubbing as the technology used in the recording process is becoming more sophisticated. In the past, dubbing actors used to record their lines with their colleagues in the same dubbing booth, and this is sometimes still preferred for artistic reasons, that is, in dramatic scenes (Spiteri Miggiani 2019: 12). In video games, this is hardly ever the case and each actor dubs their lines separately. They usually receive a copy of the spreadsheet containing only their lines (without previous cues or responses in the case of dialogue). These lines can be grouped based on the character saying them or on the type of line, such as “onomatopoeia” (audible sounds uttered by the characters), in-game short comments or longer dialogues in cinematics. The volume can also be used as a criterion to organize the lines and allow the actors to perform optimally, beginning with locutions at the softest volume and ending with those that are shouted. Any unnecessary information is deleted from these copies, for example, the filename for dubbing actors. However, this information will remain in the sound engineer’s copy since it is essential for them to perform their task. Each recorded line usually corresponds to one audio file (a video game contains thousands of files), so correct file-naming is fundamental to later reinserting all the translated assets into the game coding and letting the game engine activate each audio file successfully at the right moment. The sound engineer’s task is thus a meticulous and complex one. Some studios such as Rec Games Sonido3 have developed specialized software to manage all the assets and files included in a video game dubbing project. This ensures that the file-naming is correct and reproduces the original file structure exactly, which is essential for video game functionality. Needless to say, not only sound engineers but also translators must respect the original file-naming precisely to ensure that no errors or bugs arise when reinserting the translated version of any in-game text or recorded audio file in the localized version. The fact that translators working in game dubbing have no access to video or audio files in the pre-production translation phase arises from a

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number of factors (see Chap. 3). While potentially helpful as an audiovisual reference, consulting such files would be too time-consuming for translators, and sometimes those videos have not yet been created at this stage, that is, when the text in question is being translated. These videos may also be in-game movies rendered by the game engine while playing, which makes it impossible to finalize them during the translation phase. In the dubbing studio, the original audio files are normally a basic reference for dubbing actors to reproduce the original prosody and performance, although certain batches are dubbed without any kind of reference, such as onomatopoeia or shouting. The dubbing director’s guidance is thus vital for artistic and dramatic purposes. Essentially, the recording phase in localization is similar to film dubbing in terms of artistic performance, but it differs considerably in terms of materials available during the recording sessions. Finally, at the post-production phase, sound engineers are in charge of adjusting and debugging the target audio files and ensuring that they are named correctly. Their task also involves adjusting audio files if necessary to resemble the original as closely as possible (see Sect. 4.2). This may also occur in movies, though it is not as common. As explained for film dubbing, sound engineers mix the newly recorded audio track in the target language with the M&E track of the original product. In the case of game dubbing, however, they work with hundreds of dubbed audio files that must be arranged in the same structure as the original since they will be integrated back into the game code to produce the localized version, which makes it a more complex task than in film dubbing as it involves computing skills. The developer instead of the sound engineers typically carries out this task. The sound engineers will thus never produce and see the end result of the dubbed game as they do in film dubbing. Sometimes, this might cause some disappointment for the dubbing team, who work hard to create an artistic production whose audio files might not work as expected for a variety of technological reasons beyond the translator’s and dubbing team’s control, such as lack of synchronies rendering images and activating audio files, poor sound quality because of game engine management problems and so on. All the translated assets are integrated into the game code, and different playable versions of the game or builds (see Chap. 3, Sect. 3.2.2) are

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produced to perform a thorough quality assurance process. This QA process, carried out by the game testers, is not performed on the dubbed audio files exclusively but rather encompasses the localized video game as a whole—this represents another difference from film dubbing, whose quality control process focuses exclusively on the recorded dialogues. If any bugs are spotted in the game build, they will be entered in the corresponding database to determine whether they interfere with the gaming experience or imply major coherence issues, or if the game can be commercialized despite them (thus representing minor errors). Pick-up sessions to make corrections are expensive and developers or distributors prefer to avoid them if possible. As mentioned, the three stages of video game dubbing outlined here represent the most typical approach to game dubbing, but many variations can be found in professional practice depending on the localization vendor or the developer’s and distributor’s preferences. The wide variety and originality of game genres make it very difficult to standardize the game dubbing process. It is also important to highlight that whenever definitive videos or pre-rendered images are available, especially cinematics, the process will, however, closely resemble film dubbing as the recorded lines can be arranged like a traditional script, and the image can be used as a reference for acting purposes and to apply the necessary synchronies. Yet, this is not the most common situation when dubbing video games. It can be concluded that the most significant differences between film and game dubbing relate to the interactive and computerized nature of the latter as well as to the process and materials available during translation and audio recording. As explained, film dubbing as a standardized professional practice in traditional dubbing countries such as Spain can serve as a reference point for dubbing interactive products. Yet the lack of definitive videos in game localization constitutes a major difference, together with the technological configuration of the games, based on numerous files and a programming language which together prevent the translators from working with a single dubbed dialogue track. In addition, localization projects tend to be considerably larger than film dubbing projects and involve a higher number of agents, therefore representing more expensive and time-consuming productions.

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4.1.3 Q  uality Standards in Film Dubbing Applied to Game Dubbing Regardless of the type of audiovisual product being translated (video games, TV shows or series, movies, documentaries, etc.), the translator should bear in mind the fact that the target audience always unconsciously takes a series of characteristics for granted in the dubbed text that must be maintained in order to satisfy the audiovisual experience and not to interfere with immersion. As (Chaume 2007: 71) states: In any text that is subject to certain rules or conventions of genre in a specific culture and time, the absence of an expected element […] may be received by the reader as a negative mechanism. […] The macro-genre of audiovisual texts also canonically presents a specific configuration. Translated audiovisual genres (films, television series, cartoons and documentaries in the Spanish case) should, by convention, present certain specific characteristics that contribute to their recognition by the audience, to the way they are consumed and thus their foreseeable success.

If there are breaks with conventions, the product might still be successfully received as an innovation or, on the contrary, it might be rejected. For example, foreign series used to be subtitled, instead of dubbed, in the North American market. However, the Spanish production Cable Girls (Ramón Campos and Gema R. Neira 2017) has been highly successful in its dubbed version into English. Conversely, the video game Iron Man 2 (Secret Level, Gameloft 2010) was dubbed into Spanish as audiences are accustomed to consuming dubbed products, but the quality of this dubbing, especially in terms of performance and the main character’s Spanish voice, different from that of the dubbing actor in the movie, turned it into a widely unpopular game in the Spanish market. Especially in the case of video games, however, particular deviations from generally accepted practices not only happen but also are necessary as features of interactive multimedia products. This is because video games, despite their audiovisual nature, present several characterizing differences (see Chap. 1, Sect. 1.1). One particular difference between game localization and non-interactive media translation has already been mentioned: the

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general trend toward a more domesticating translation that reproduces the gameplay and the essence of the interactive product (see Chap. 3, Sect. 3.1 and Chap. 1, Sect. 1.1.3). A second difference will be explored in Sect. 4.2 and throughout Chap. 5 with regard to dubbing synchronies. But before that, film dubbing will be used again as a model to compare with video game dubbing. To do so, the commonly accepted quality standards in dubbing (Ávila 1997; Chaume 2007, 2012a) will be reviewed to determine whether they apply to game dubbing as well. Research on the reception of dubbed games is still needed to further explore this first approach to quality standards in dubbing applied to localization. Yet this initial review can serve as a starting point for future definition and the delimitation of quality standards in video game dubbing. Quality standards are necessary to guide translation practice and are already widespread in the non-interactive audiovisual field, but less so in video games. According to Chaume (2005, 2007), synchrony is the first quality standard that all dubbed products must meet. In film dubbing, it refers to the reproduction of the length of the original utterances as well as matching the characters’ body language and mouth articulation. As Sánchez-Mompeán notes: “[s]ynchrony makes dubbing work by tricking viewers to think [sic] that audio and image stem from the same source” (2020: 28). Synchrony in dubbing was considered in Fodor’s (1976) seminal work, and many authors have explored it since then such as Whitman-­ Linsen (1992), Chaume (2004a, 2004b, 2012a), Martínez-Sierra (2012) and Spiteri Miggiani (2019), to name but a few. As it represents the dubbing standard that perhaps differs the most between film and game dubbing, it will be discussed in detail throughout Sect. 4.2. Second, credibility and naturalness are important elements in a translated text that is going to be reproduced orally as spontaneous speech. It involves adopting the appropriate oral register in the target language, avoiding artificiality and considering the context and circumstances in which the dialogue takes place. Calques and interference from the source language must be avoided, and the linguistic norms of the target language must also be respected. Certain strategies (Spiteri Miggiani 2019) or particular resources can be used to give the text an oral and natural flavor, such as the inclusion of self-corrections, fillers and

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interruptions, unfinished sentences or words, simple grammatical structures and particular terminology associated with the situation, such as vulgarisms or swear words, that are typically used in spontaneous informal speech. Despite the translator’s efforts to give the text an oral, spontaneous flavor, it is commonly accepted that the language of dubbing, or dubbese, reflects a very particular prefabricated orality aimed at maintaining the balance between texts that were originally written to be performed as oral and spontaneous messages (Gregory and Carroll 1978: 42). As Sánchez-­ Mompeán states, dubbese is “a prefabricated dialogue that attempts to recreate spontaneous-like conversations whilst mixing together linguistic traits from both oral and written speech and that often carries pejorative connotations” (2020: 32). This typical prefabricated orality is also used in video games as the dubbed voices are influenced by the medium and the source language. Extensive research has been carried out on the language of film dubbing (Pavesi 2005; Pérez-González 2007; Baños-Piñero 2009; Baños-Piñero and Chaume 2009; Romero Fresco 2009; Marzà Ibàñez and Chaume 2009; Freddi and Pavesi 2009, among others). However, further research is needed on the particular language used in video game dubbing to identify whether this game dubbese presents any differentiating characteristics compared to film dialogue since constraints in game localization (Mangiron and O’Hagan 2006) are not the same as in non-­ interactive audiovisual translation (Mayoral et al. 1988). The third dubbing standard pointed out by Chaume (2007) is semiotic coherence, in other words, translated dialogues should fit the image and the iconographic configuration on the screen to make it work as an overall unit. In the case of film dubbing, Martínez-Sierra (2008) emphasizes the fact that visual limitations might be considered a constraint, but also an aid to complement the textual content. However, iconographic coherence is particularly difficult to achieve when translating text strings isolated from the audiovisual context in which they will be displayed. Therefore, a fully elaborated localization kit as well as a thorough QA process are essential to avoid inconsistencies in the localized product and can help to mitigate any potential errors. Proofreaders and testers also aim to ensure that coherence is achieved not only between words and images, but also within the game plot and across different sagas, which is

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particularly important in the case of popular movies or video games with millions of fans with a broad knowledge of their favorite characters and stories. The importance of intertextuality in AVT has been explored by authors such as Sánchez-Mompeán (2020: 35), Lorenzo-García and Rodríguez-Rodríguez (2015), Chaume (2012a), Martínez-Sierra (2010) and Agost (1999), among others. Being faithful to the source text is also considered one of the quality standards in film dubbing. As Chaume (2020: 111) defines it, “[f ]idelity to the source film [is achieved] through the preservation of its relevant features, so that target culture viewers can watch the same film (or TV series, cartoon, commercial, etc.) as source culture spectators”. This implies avoiding any type of censorship or changes in meaning. However, censorship constraints can be particularly influential in the dialogue writing process. This can stem from corporate censorship or be self-imposed, “applied by dialogue writers themselves in anticipation of subsequent amendments in the studios” (Spiteri Miggiani 2019: 32). Despite this issue being widely and critically explored in academia (Díaz Cintas 2018; Martínez-Sierra 2017; Mereu Keating 2016; Ranzato 2016), the ultimate aim of the localizing team is to let the target players experience the product in the same way as the source-language speakers. At some points, this might imply altering a close translation in favor of form, function and effect, although all these aspects should ideally be balanced to achieve a translated product that reproduces the source version. It has already been discussed that this feature is particularly flexible in game localization due to the absolute need to reproduce the gameplay and the playability of the product, which can entail more profound modifications at some points than a mere linguistic transfer. How the tensions between fidelity and immersion are resolved in game dubbing, in particular, has yet to be explored further. Reception studies could shed some light on this question (Mangiron 2018). The importance of the voice talent’s performance is such that their acting is considered another quality standard. Overacting and underacting can easily hamper the audience’s experience, with overacting being more common in dubbed performances than underacting (Chaume 2007: 85): “[p]eople just do not speak like dubbers seem to imagine they do” (Whitman-Linsen 1992: 47). The major challenge actors face in film

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dubbing is to achieve a natural, spontaneous balance between their own voice acting, that of the on-screen actor or actress they are dubbing, and the textual constraints of the script (Whitman-Linsen 1992; Wright and Lallo 2009). Certainly, the performance given by dubbing actors is beyond the translator’s control, but a translation in which all other standards have been taken into consideration can contribute to more natural-­ sounding acting. Among all the artistic aspects involved in the oral interpretation of the translated text, the prosody of dubbed speech (Sánchez-Mompeán 2020) is particularly important to complement the message and to transmit the meaning properly. Prosodic features like intonation, volume, tempo, rhythmicality and tension should not be considered “mere dramatic flourishes or adornment of the text. They are meaningful and expressive elements in their own right” (ibid.: 226). Dubbing actors have to act out their lines so that they convey the message with the appropriate prosody to reproduce the emotional content, although “prosodic cues are rarely represented graphically in the translated script, as they tend to be included within the confines of performance or dramatization” (ibid., 58). Yet a certain lack of naturalness is permitted in the same way that suspension of disbelief creates a threshold of permissiveness for unnatural non-­ prosodic linguistic aspects (dubbese). Sánchez-Mompeán (2020: 194) calls this dubbitis or “the prosodic rendition adopted by dubbing actors”. This quality standard in film dubbing is also pertinent to game dubbing. In fact, some examples of inadequate delivery by the voice talent in game localization can be identified to illustrate the importance of dramatization, even when a close linguistic translation seems to work well. A case in point is Age of Pirates: Caribbean Tales (Akella 2006), which was commercialized with very low-quality dubbing that many may consider rudimentary, far from the professional-sounding performances to which Spanish audiences are accustomed. Other titles with similar surprising dubbings from English into Spanish that were severely criticized by players include Control (Remedy Entertainment 2019), Arizona Sunshine (Vertigo Games/Jaywalkers Interactive 2016), Battlefield 4 (EA Digital Illusions CE 2013), Iron Man 2 (Secret Level 2010) and The Witcher (CD Projekt RED STUDIO 2007). Some of these examples are particularly striking as they relate to the low-quality sound or the abysmal

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dramatization, which, among many other factors, might be due to the lack of referential images to perform accordingly. Sometimes, a poor standard of dubbing can happen because the initiator of the dubbing process, usually the distributor, favors famous voices over professionals specialized in the field of game dubbing. This was argued to be the case for the video game Battlefield 4 (Lloret 2014; CD 2013), in which the very popular Spanish actor Imanol Arias lent his voice to one of the soldiers, performing a considerably unnatural dramatization. In their search for immersion, video game players adamantly condemn any element that might disrupt their gaming experience, perhaps even more so than in their reaction to movies. Further reception studies should be devoted to determining what particular aspects of the prosody of dubbed speech in video game dialogues hamper this immersion; additional research could contribute to analyzing to what extent the particular localization process and the materials available interfere in the dramatic performance in relation to the translated “script” (or rather, text strings). Some titles have, however, been praised because of the natural, well-­ performed Spanish dubbing they feature, which notably contributes to the player’s immersion within the game atmosphere. This is the case for titles such as Horizon: Zero Dawn (Guerrilla Games 2017); Overwatch (Blizzard Entertainment 2015); Gears 5 (The Coalition 2019), belonging to the Gears of War saga; and Batman: Arkham Asylum, Batman: Arkham Knight (Rocksteady Studios 2009, 2015) and Batman: Arkham Origins (Warner Bros. Games Montréal 2013), all three included in the Batman: Arkham saga, to cite a few examples. Some aspects of these dubbed dialogues are closely related to film dubbing, such as the natural and credible dramatization of the game, as well as the application of all the quality standards described in this section. In the particular case of Detroit: Become Human (Quantic Dream 2018), which will be further analyzed in Chap. 5, some aspects of dubbing synchronies particularly resemble the film dubbing model, although further research could also contribute to determining to what extent the voice talent’s performances facilitate player immersion in these high-quality dubbed games. In any case, dramatization in video games appears to be an essential aspect of the dubbing process, as repeatedly expressed by video game players in fan forums

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and on social media. Together with the translated script, actors’ performances are closely related to the amount and quality of emotional content transmitted to the end users and can thus influence both user immersion and the game’s overall success. As has been mentioned, this aspect of user experience could benefit greatly from reception studies. Finally, although this is beyond the translator’s control, proper technical adjustments and the high quality of the soundtrack are essential to any good dubbing practice. In this AVT mode, original voices should not be heard, and sound effects must remain the same as in the original version. Any particular reverberations or sound effects in the actors’ voices should also be reproduced. To this end, translators can add certain symbols to help the sound engineer detect these effects. Voices are usually slightly louder than in real life to be heard easily (Chaume 2007). The sound engineer’s task is fundamental to meeting this dubbing standard. As explained, film dubbing entails the mixing and production of the final soundtrack, adding the dubbed dialogue track to the existing M&E track of the audiovisual product, whereas video game dubbing entails a more complex editing process in which all translated files are renamed and reinserted in the game coding, reproducing the same structure as that of the original version. The sound engineer’s previous experience in video game dubbing seems to play an essential role in meeting this quality standard, as expressed by some sound engineers specialized in localization.4 To a large extent, all six quality standards (i.e. synchrony, realistic dialogues, coherence, fidelity, credible performances and high-quality technical conventions) seem to play a significant role in how players perceive and interact with dubbed video games. Now that experimental research in AVT seems to be flourishing (Orero et al. 2018), interesting lines of research can be opened in the field of video game localization and its reception. To this end, reception studies seem to provide an appropriate framework (Di Giovanni and Gambier 2018) in order to determine whether significant differences can be established between quality standards in film and video game dubbing. As used to be the case with non-­ interactive products in the last decade, nowadays, “we will most likely have to continue defining which fields of the target text should be adequated [sic] to the source text, and which other fields should be adjusted

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to the norms of the target system” (Chaume 2007: 87), but on this occasion, in video game localization. Having reviewed the six quality standards in film dubbing and how they can be adapted to game dubbing, let us now focus on the standard that might differ the most between video game and film dubbing: synchronization.

4.2 A  Particular Quality Standard: Dubbing Synchronies in Video Games According to Whitman-Linsen (1992: 19), in AVT translation “a myriad of intricate and interrelated ‘synchronies’ must be fulfilled in order to produce high-quality target versions”. Even though synchronization has been classified in different ways (Whitman-Linsen 1992; Herbst 1996; Chaume 2004b; Martínez-Sierra 2012; Spiteri Miggiani 2019), the underlying idea of all classifications is to make all aspects of the translated audio fit all visual aspects of the original product as well as the original does: “[g]ood dubbing today looks like the story was recorded in the language you hear, even though that is not the original language” (Wright and Lallo 2009: 219). This idea applies to video game dubbing as well, although some particularities arising from the interactive nature of video games and the professional framework of localization also need to be considered. The principal aural translation mode for video games, and the focus of this chapter, is clearly dubbing, but voice-over will also be briefly considered as the characteristics of synchronization in different translation practices vary to some extent. In the following paragraphs, the concept of synchronization and its implications in game localization will be discussed.

4.2.1 S  ynchronization Across AVT Modes and Localization Synchronization is an essential element in any dubbed product, aiming to trick the viewer into “the illusion of an illusion” (Caillé 1960: 108)

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that dubbing represents, making the translated text fit the images on the screen. More specifically, as stated, synchronization “consists of matching the target language translation and the articulatory and body movements of the screen actors and actresses, as well as matching the utterances and pauses in the translation and those of the source text” (Chaume 2004: 43). In this strictest sense of synchronization, the verbal acoustic component is adapted to precisely fit the images and movements displayed on the screen. However, in other AVT modes such as voice-over, the target-­ language voice cannot be “precisely” attuned to that of the source-­ language speaker, so the term “synchronization” needs to be understood in a more nuanced way according to the mode. In dubbing, the concept of synchronization can encompass linguistic features beyond visual-­ temporal synchronization characteristics in some cases, that is, the content of what is said might be adapted. In voice-over, the temporal features of synchronization involve some sort of delay, at least as far as the words are concerned (voice-over isochrony). Finally, while synchrony is a crucial consideration in both film and game dubbing, it takes on different forms, dependent on the nature of the audiovisual material, as we shall see. To recap, in film dubbing, there are three: lip-sync, isochrony and kinesic synchrony. The types of synchrony in video games are five (wild, time constraint, strict time constraint, sound-sync and lip-sync); these will be defined in the next Sects. 4.2.2 and 4.2.3. Authors such as Gilabert, Trifol and Ledesma (2001: 326) state that synchronization (or ajuste in Spanish), as used in film dubbing, includes two different aspects: sincronización and adaptación or “time synchronization and adaptation” [my translation]. The first refers to the temporal correspondence of the original and the translated utterances, while the latter involves the style of the script, making it sound natural in the target language and reproducing the coherence between the images and the translated text and the characters’ language varieties and style. To a certain extent, this second aspect seems to correspond to the quality standards described above as coherence and faithfulness to the original (see Sect. 4.1.3). In other words, under the umbrella term synchronization, Gilabert et al. (2001) encompass, on the one hand, lip-sync and isochrony (synchronization in their own terms) and, on the other hand, kinesic synchrony together with the reproduction of the source register, style and

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naturalness (adaptation in their own terms), in contrast to other approaches which class kinesic synchrony together with lip-synch and isochrony. This classification as well as that proposed by Martínez-Sierra (2012) seems to introduce some ambiguity into how the term synchronization is used, encompassing both dubbing synchronies (related to visual-­temporal features) and linguistic and content coherence. Linguistic features related to language varieties, registers and style, as well as voice compatibility (or idiosyncratic vocal type, as defined by Whitman-Linsen 1992: 39), are, however, included in the six quality standards listed in Sect. 4.1.3 (to be precise, linguistic features are considered when creating realistic and natural dialogues, and a coherent discourse faithful to the original). Hence, in these pages synchronization in film dubbing is understood as exclusively referring to visual-temporal aspects (lip-sync, isochrony and kinesic synchrony), while linguistic adaptation (the creation of realistic and natural dialogues, and a coherent discourse, faithful to the original) is considered separately. As a new soundtrack on top of the still audible original soundtrack (see 4.1.1), voice-over also relies on synchronization in order to transmit the source message to the target audience with authenticity and faithfulness (Franco et al. 2010), the latter being even more important in non-fiction products such as documentaries or reality shows. Four types of synchrony can be found in voice-over (Matamala 2020: 134–135), rather than the three in dubbing (Chaume 2020: 111–112). First, voice-over isochrony refers to fluent translations that match the length of the original utterances, although the translated text is always heard between one and three seconds later than the original—this definition, however, might question the use of the term synchronization to refer to a text that is not synchronous with the original. Second, literal synchrony refers to an accurate and, to a certain extent, literal rendition of the source message, always respecting the acceptability of the target language conventions. In this case, as happens with the idea of adaptation described above, the use of the term synchronization might be questioned when referring to linguistic content (creating realistic and natural dialogues, and a coherent discourse faithful to the original) rather than visual-temporal matters (adjusting the length of the utterances to what happens on the screen). A third type of

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synchrony identified in voice-over is kinetic synchrony, which coincides with the concept of kinesic synchrony described below for dubbed products. Finally, action synchrony is also used in voice-over, meaning that strict coherence is needed between the linguistic content and the images depicted on the screen, such as deictic references or particular objects mentioned in the script that can also be seen. This concept seems to coincide with the concept of coherence described in Sect. 4.1.3 as one of the quality standards in film dubbing. Thus far, the different definitions that can be found for the term synchronization have been reviewed depending on the authors who define it and the AVT mode in which it is used (dubbing or voice-over). In what follows, the idea of synchronization for both film and game dubbing is based on what authors such as Romero Fresco (2009), Chaume (2012a), Pujol Tubau (2015) and Sánchez-Mompeán (2020) state concerning the dubbing of fiction products according to the visual-temporal characteristics, but excluding considerations concerning quality standards related to the linguistic content (“adaptation”). According to these authors and as outlined above, synchrony can be sub-divided into three types in film dubbing. Phonetic or lip-sync refers to the correspondence of the characters’ lip articulation with the translated utterances. Kinesic synchrony relates to coherence between the translation and the characters’ body movements and facial expressions. Finally, isochrony involves the time correspondence between the duration of the source and the target utterances. Any dischrony—or lack of synchrony—at any of these three levels (Fodor 1976) can cause the rejection of the translated product by the target audience and thus the commercial failure of the dubbed movie or show. However, the suspension of disbelief (see Chap. 3, Sect. 3.2) that all audiences adopt when sitting in front of a screen creates a threshold of tolerance to certain minor dischronies (Chaume 2007), isochrony being the most valued type of synchrony by Spanish audiences (Chaume 2004b). Lip-sync is almost exclusively reserved for close-ups and extreme close-ups and is more likely to be tolerated if incorrect. Table 4.1 below summarizes these concepts for film dubbing. It also introduces the five types of dubbing synchronies that can be found in video games, which will be further discussed in the next section.

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Table 4.1  The concept of synchronization and adaptation in film and video game dubbing

4.2.2 D  ubbing Synchronies Within the Semiotic Construct of Audiovisual Products This section explores synchronization, as defined above, in relation to the semiotic configuration of video games described in Chap. 1. The aim is to explain why the concept of synchronization is shared with that of film dubbing synchronies. However, we can recall that the types of synchronies differ between video games and movies. In the latter case, the three types of film dubbing synchrony (lip-sync, isochrony and kinesic synchrony) are dependent for their correct implementation on the translator, but even more on the adapter or dialogue writer if this task is not performed by the translator him/herself and ultimately on the voice talent: “[d]ubbing actors must also comply with the same set of synchronies [phonetic or lip synchrony, isochrony and kinesic synchrony] to achieve a plausible result” (Sánchez-Mompeán 2020: 28). Sound engineers also play an important role in the application of synchronies as they verify that isochrony is carefully respected and can fix minor dischronies in the dubbed track. This already highlights a remarkable difference in the application of synchronies in film and video game dubbing considering the external factors, especially the professional factors (Chaume 2004a: 157–160), of the translation process regarding the available materials.5 As noted earlier, video game translators do not have access to videos or audio files while translating, and adaptation of the translated dialogue is not carried out in video games because there is no traditional script; and even dubbing actors might not perform their lines in front of a video. The

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sound engineer’s task also seems to be more complex due to the huge amount of files they have to handle and to the careful editing that is sometimes required of them to adapt the dubbed files to the original sound waveforms (see Sect. 3.2.3) as accurately as possible using sound-­ editing software. Differences between film and game dubbing in the use of synchronies derive from “internal factors” as well: the semiotic configuration of audiovisual products (Chaume 2004a; see Chap. 1) creates particular constraints that translators must address when the linguistic code is adapted to the target language. As Chaume (2020: 108–109) explains, A semiotic approach, that is, a multimodal approach to dubbing, thus takes into account all filmic codes, the interaction between the signs of each code in the production of meaning and the constraints posed by the signs belonging to all these codes, which must be transferred to the target culture without taking the viewer out of the film.

These semiotic codes—considering codes as systems of signs, as presented in Chap. 1—can be transmitted through at least the acoustic and the visual channels in non-interactive products. The linguistic, paralinguistic, musical, special effects and sound position codes belong to the former, whereas the iconographic, photographic, mobility, planning and graphic codes belong to the latter (Table 1.1 in Chap. 1 summarizes this). The editing code results from integrating the acoustic and visual channels. All these codes are closely intertwined and have an impact on the linguistic code. For example, the information transmitted by the acoustic verbal code (text) through the acoustic channel should match the iconographic code transmitted through the visual channel. Chaume (2012: 111) gives us an example of this: “if a translator is faced with a joke about eggs that is also illustrated on screen with an icon representing an egg, his/her joke in the translated version will probably have to involve eggs too”. Hence, the translator must consider the semiotic construct as a whole and its different implications at all times to make the translated linguistic code fit the audiovisual configuration of the target product. In the case of dubbing synchronies, particularly important are the sound

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position and the paralinguistic codes (acoustic channel), as well as the photographic, mobility and planning codes (visual channel). Regarding the first group, that is, the acoustic codes, the sound position will require the inclusion of certain dubbing symbols in the translated script, such as (OFF) or (ON), to indicate where the voices come from, that is, whether they are on- or off-screen voices uttered by characters who are or are not visible. Paralinguistic codes are also reflected in the translated script using dubbing symbols, such as the following for Spanish: (G) (any paralinguistic sound), (LL) (crying) or (R) (laughter). Regarding the second group, that is, the visual codes, the photographic codes might have an impact on the visibility of the characters on the screen, and thus synchronies can be applied more or less precisely. Mobility codes refer to proxemics and might require a more or less restrictive use of kinesic synchrony. Finally, the planning codes (types of shots) determine whether dubbing synchronies need to be applied. Depending on the level of detail in which a shot shows the faces of the characters in the scene, lip synchrony will be used more or less precisely. The same happens with isochrony and kinesic synchrony to make the translated text fit the character’s movements (see Cerezo Merchán et al. 2017 and Chaume 2004a, 2012a for further discussion on the use of symbols in Spanish dubbing and the impact of the semiotic codes on the translated text). When it comes to game localization, the model of synchronies in film dubbing cannot be used, as interaction turns games into a more complex semiotic product. While the ever more common inclusion of high-­quality cinematic scenes in video games resembling traditional movies creates a strong link between movies and the interactive media, an additional dimension must be considered in the latter. Although the concept of synchronization is relevant to both video games and film dubbing, in video games it responds to a series of restrictions directly linked to interaction, which modifies the semiotic configuration of the interactive audiovisual product. Restrictions in game dubbing are related to visual-­ temporal features of the game, ranging from so-called wild synchronization as the least restrictive to lip-synch, the most restrictive. They are presented here (and classified in Sect. 4.2.3) according to different time constraints imposed on the translated text strings as well as some additional visual limitations in the case of lip-sync, in which the highest

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number of semiotic codes operate. To understand how these time constraints are created, the semiotic configuration of video games can be considered. Video games are composed of a series of assets that interrelate and change repeatedly throughout the game’s development during play, and are displayed in different game situations (tasks, game action, dialogues and cinematics, see Chap. 1, Sect. 1.2), which may vary depending on the interactive genre and the configuration of the particular game. This alternation of game situations is caused by interaction, including the player’s action, which results in the creation of meaning and makes the story develop by interacting with the game environment in a certain and limited way. It is thus highly advisable for localizers, and dubbing agents in general, to become familiar with the game mechanics and the type of interaction that each game situation allows in order to translate the text strings more or less “restrictively”, to which we return below. Since the interactive medium differs from movies or TV shows in the inclusion of an additional dimension and a new communication channel (transmitting haptic codes), its configuration is thus different and new types of synchronization arise. To understand how dubbing synchronies work in video games from a semiotic perspective, the different channels of communication that operate in the creation of meaning in a video game have to be considered (see Chap. 1, Sect. 1.1.1). In the complex semiotic construct, in the case of dubbing, translators, localizers and dubbing professionals can only modify the linguistic code transmitted through the acoustic channel. Hence, all other remaining semiotic codes in the video game have to be considered to ensure that the one that is modified—linguistic—fits the target system just as it fits the original, reproducing the gameplay and playability accurately (see Chap. 1, Sect. 1.1.3). As described for movies, it might be thought that the types of shots— the planning code transmitted through the visual channel—have an impact on the type of synchrony that is chosen in video games. However, it does not make sense to talk about types of shots in an interactive product whose visual configuration will change according to the players’ actions and chosen settings. In addition, as explained, videos are not available when the text is translated, nor on many occasions while the

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translated lines are being dubbed. Thus, dubbing synchronies are considered from a different perspective, especially in the case of game action or dialogues, which usually allow the highest level of interaction and thus freedom for the player. The most important aspect to be considered in the use of dubbing synchronies in video games is therefore interaction, allowed by the tactile channel in the case of video games played using an external controller or by the visual channel through the players’ kinesic action if no controllers are used. In the four case studies presented in Chap. 5, dubbing synchronies will be analyzed in video games played with a controller. This implies carefully analyzing the game mechanics, how game situations alternate and to what extent those situations are visually restrictive for the translated text. As an example, in some video games, the visual perspective during game action or dialogues should be considered when translating for dubbing as it might affect the level of detail and closeness in which characters are seen. In video games using a third-person perspective, other characters might never be seen closer than a medium shot, while video games allowing a continuous alternation between third- and first-person perspectives might allow a higher level of detail. In this second case, a more restrictive type of synchrony might be required in all translated strings taking place during game action, whereas in third-person video games, the level of restriction might be laxer. Taking Batman: Arkham Knight (Rocksteady Studios 2015) as an example, this game only allows a third-­ person perspective for the player. Such a perspective usually lets the player see the characters in a medium or full shot, but never closer. Thus, the relatively lax type of synchrony known as time constraint (see Sect. 4.2.3) appears to be the best option to use during game action as the characters will be seen, but their continual movement (orchestrated by the player and the game rules) and the use of full shots give translators and dubbing actors some flexibility to make the translated utterances match the characters’ expressiveness.6 This means that the audiovisual configuration of the video game can be considered for synchronization purposes to a certain extent (knowing how each type of game situation works is useful), but types of shots do not determine the type of synchronization since they depend on the player’s action within the limits established for each game situation.

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Nevertheless, it could be assumed that in cinematic scenes, the types of shots have to be considered as a determining factor for synchronization purposes. However, this happens only if the final videos are available during the recording in the studio, in which case the situation will not be different from any other animation movie and the three film dubbing synchronies will be used, but final videos are rarely available and their visual configuration is not always clear. Since it is only audio waves that are frequently available, the dubbing agents tend to apply the maximum level of restriction (visual-temporal constraint) as much as possible when dubbing cinematic scenes, that is, reproducing the original audio waveforms exactly in terms of duration, pauses and articulation, to ensure that these scenes meet the standard of quality synchronization when rendered in the game, regardless of the final visual configuration and the types of shots. In fact, this approach is mentioned in the collective agreement on dubbing and sound professional conventions described previously (see Sect. 4.1.2), in which video games and multimedia products are considered audiovisual productions with particular characteristics such as the unavailability of videos. In this respect, the agreement states that the game situations that are not filmed beforehand as cinematic scenes will be dubbed and synchronized by reproducing the length of the original audio files as much as possible (ADOMA 2014: 7). As has been discussed, the characteristics of the interactive multimedia products create additional constraints in translating in video game dubbing beyond the traditional three types of synchronies of film dubbing. These restrictions, as mentioned, relate to visual-spatial temporal features of the different game situations that constitute a video game and can be divided into five types. Section 4.2.3 presents and defines these.

4.2.3 Types of Dubbing Synchronies in Video Games Bearing this more complex semiotic configuration in mind, to date, five types of synchrony have been identified in video game dubbing (Maxwell Chandler 2005; Sioli et al. 2007; Le Dour 2007; Maxwell Chandler and Deming 2012; O’Hagan and Mangiron 2013; Bernal-Merino 2015; Pujol Tubau 2015; Mejías-Climent 2019):

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• Wild synchrony (sometimes referred to as VO or voice-over): no time restrictions apply, used for off-screen voices and off-camera narrations. • Time constraint (TC): the translated utterances must be approximately the same length as the originals, although a 10% or 20% margin is allowed, meaning that the target text can be slightly longer or shorter than the source text. This is usually measured using the audio waves as a visual reference, although translators might be informed about the restriction as a limited number of characters or words. • Strict time constraint (STC): the translated utterances must be exactly the same length as the original ones. However, no internal pauses or specific intonation are taken into account. • Sound-sync (SS): the translated utterances must be exactly the same length as the original utterances. Internal pauses and prosody must be reproduced as well. • Lip-sync: the translated utterances must be exactly the same length as the original sentences, including pauses and speed, and the text must resemble the character’s lip articulation. Some authors also include “stitches” in the list of dubbing restrictions (Pujol Tubau 2015; O’Hagan and Mangiron 2013). These are particular very short text strings typically reproducing proper nouns, places, positions within a scale and so on, and they work as variables to be included in a longer text locution. They are stored as separate audio files and combined with longer sentences when activated by the gameplay, according to the player’s actions and settings. Stitches are commonly used in sport games such as the sports sagas Fifa (EA Sports 1993), Pro Evolution Soccer (Konami 2001) and NBA 2K20 (Visual Concepts 2017–2020) in which commentators describe what is happening during the game. In their descriptions, the players’ names or numbers might sound slightly different in terms of prosody when uttered in a sentence as they have been recorded separately, and the intonation differs from that of the longer sentence. Stitches are not considered a type of dubbing synchrony here since they do not impose any particular length or time restriction on the dubbed line. The five types of synchrony described above can be used in different game situations, depending on the characteristics of the text strings and

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the game mechanics in general. Considerable differences can also be found across different game genres. As a reference, action-adventure video games (see Chap. 1, Sect. 1.3) will be analyzed in Chap. 5 to describe how dubbing synchronies can be used depending on the different game situations of which these games are composed. Although more research is essential to study these initial trends further (see Chap. 5), a preliminary idea of how restrictive each game situation is in action-­ adventure games can be introduced in relation to the type of synchrony and the possible text string associated with these situations. The possible text strings vary greatly depending on the game. Broadly speaking, text strings can belong to the game plot (diegetic) or be addressed to the player directly, outside the game world (extradiegetic). Among diegetic text strings, it is common that non-playable characters (NPCs) are programmed to produce a series of utterances that contribute to making the game atmosphere more realistic. These can be full sentences or messages, or short utterances or even onomatopoeia (paralinguistic content). The type of text string expected in each game situation is listed in the last column of the table below. Table 4.2, however, should never be understood as a prescriptive indication on how to apply dubbing synchronies in video games—as explained, this can vary greatly depending on factors such as the game genre and the developers and localization vendors involved—but rather as a descriptive initial approach to game synchronies and situations in relation to the level of interactivity allowed by each situation and its semiotic configuration. This table is based on Mejías-Climent (2019), where a descriptive empirical study is presented to identify the types of synchronies associated with the different game situations in a group of action-­ adventure games. As depicted in Table 4.2, the different constraints that should be considered in game dubbing can be associated with a gradation of restrictions imposed by the interactive medium. The more semiotic codes that are involved, the more restrictive the game situation is, that is, the less interaction is allowed for the player and consequently, the more restrictive the dubbing synchrony is. For example, if the translator receives a batch of translatable strings marked as extradiegetic tasks, he/she will not need to restrict his/her translation to a particular length, as these lines will be

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Table 4.2  Film and video game dubbing synchronies in action-adventure games in relation to the semiotic codes creating meaning in the audiovisual product (based on Mejías-Climent 2019: 304) Synchrony Acoustic, visual and tactile channels Semiotic code that affects the linguistic (acoustic) code • Haptic Tasks (full, partial • Wild • Sound position or no • Paralinguistic interaction) Game action (full • Wild • Haptic interaction) • TC • Sound position • Paralinguistic • Iconographic • Photographic • Mobility/kinesic • Haptic Dialogues (full or • Wild • Sound position • TC partial • Paralinguistic • STC interaction) • Iconographic • SS • Lip-sync • Photographic • Mobility/kinesic Cinematics (no • Lip-­sync • Haptic7 interaction) • Wild • Sound position • Paralinguistic • Iconographic • Photographic • Mobility/kinesic • Planning • Musical • Special effects Game situation (triggered by the player’s action)

Type of text string

• Diegetic or extradiegetic off-screen voices • Diegetic off-screen voices • Onomatopoeia and short utterances (main character and NPCs) • Ambient noise • Interaction between characters within game action

• In-game movies, dialogues, monologues and short utterances (non pre-rendered scenes) • Pre-rendered cinematics

dubbed applying the most flexible type of synchrony, that is, no time constraint. If the translatable strings are classified as game action, the length will be considered with a certain level of flexibility. If the translatable strings correspond to cinematics, it would be advisable to imitate the length of the original sentences as much as possible, as well as reproduce the lip articulation of the original to some extent. Dubbing synchronies used in film dubbing can also be used as a reference, showing that the more restrictive the game situation is in terms of audiovisual

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configuration, the stricter the dubbing synchrony is as well. Compare, for instance, the relative freedom of dubbing so-called tasks (three semiotic codes; no synchrony) with cinematics (nine semiotic codes; all three types of synchrony required). Dubbing synchronies used in cinematics can up to a point be used similarly to how they are used in movies, but the rest of the game situations are directly influenced by the semiotic nature of the interactive product, and different levels of restriction apply when recording the translated lines in the dubbing studio. This gradation of restrictions in video games is represented in Fig. 4.1. The model of signifying codes in traditional audiovisual products is useful to understand how complex each type of game situation is, and thus, what level of flexibility to expect when translating strings that will be displayed in each of these game situations. This might help to describe how dubbed dialogues should be synchronized in video games, and quality standards in film dubbing can guide the dubbing practice included in localization processes, as shown in Sect. 4.1.3. Nevertheless, due to the nature of the interactive medium and the circumstances of the professional translation and localization process (or external factors, as Chaume 2004a defines them), dubbing synchronies used in film dubbing are not enough to dub interactive products. Instead, more types of synchrony are needed according to a series of restrictions directly linked to interaction. These restrictions greatly depend on the game genre and its particular characteristics, and the experience gathered by the different professionals involved in the localization process (see Mejías-Climent 2019).

Fig. 4.1  Levels of restriction and types of dubbing synchronies in video games associated with game situations

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Notes 1. Future research could explore the similarities and differences between the voice recording of video games and of non-interactive animated films (Minutella 2021) as both types of product use human voices to bring characters to life in the original language, not only to dub their dialogues into the target language. 2. The collective agreement on dubbing and sound professional conventions in Madrid is available online: https://adoma.es/wp-­content/uploads/2019/01/ CONVENIO-­ANEXO-­SALARIAL-­IV-­.pdf. The collective agreement on dubbing conventions in Catalonia is also available online: https://www. aadpc.cat/uploads/2015/03/01-­ii-­convenicolectivoprof-­doblaje.pdf. They are available in Spanish only [accessed on December 21, 2020]. 3. Sound studio specialized in video game dubbing, based in Madrid (Spain). Website available at http://www.recgamessonido.com/ [accessed on December 23, 2020]. 4. Two sound engineers and a dubbing professional were interviewed in 2017, 2018 and 2020 about the use of dubbing synchronies in game localization (Mejías-Climent 2019, 2022). 5. Chaume 2004a describes these situational or external factors as professional issues, historical aspects and communicative and reception issues related to the translation brief. See also Chaume 2012: 165–171 for further discussion. 6. Sections 5.3.1.2, 5.3.2.2 and 5.3.3.2 in Chap. 5 offer some particular examples of text strings that have been dubbed applying this type of synchrony. 7. Haptic codes are considered in cinematic scenes as triggers, but they do not affect their audiovisual configuration since cinematics do not allow any type of interaction for the player, except in quick-time events.

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Le Dour, Corinne Isabelle. 2007. Surviving Audio Localization. Gamasutra. https://www.gamasutra.com/view/feature/1713/surviving_audio_localization.php#5. Lloret, Alberto. 2014. Análisis y crítica de Battlefield 4. Hobby Consolas, January 18. https://www.hobbyconsolas.com/opiniones/guerra-­sube-­nivel-­57726. Lorenzo-García, Lourdes, and Beatriz Rodríguez-Rodríguez. 2015. La intertextualidad en los textos audiovisuales: El caso de Donkey Xote. Ocnos: Revista de Estudios Sobre Lectura 13 (13): 117–128. https://doi.org/10.18239/ ocnos_2015.13.07. Mangiron, Carme. 2018. Reception Studies in Game Localisation: Taking Stock. In Reception Studies and Audiovisual Translation, 277–296. Amsterdam: John Benjamins. ———. 2021. Panorama actual de la accesibilidad a los videojuegos. In Modalidades de Traducción Audiovisual: Completando El Espectro, ed. Beatriz Reverter Oliver, Juan José Martínez-Sierra, Diana González Pastor, and José Fernando Carrero Martín, 101–110. Granada: Comares, Colección Interlingua. Mangiron, Carme, and Minako O’Hagan. 2006. Unleashing Imagination with ‘Restricted’ Translation. JoStrans. The Journal of Specialised Translation 6: 10–21. Mangiron, Carme, Pilar Orero, and Minako O’Hagan. 2014. Fun for All: Translation and Accessibility Practices in Video Games. Bern: Peter Lang. Martínez-Sierra, Juan José. 2008. Humor y traducción. Los Simpson cruzan la frontera. Castelló de la Plana: Universitat Jaume I. ———. 2010. Building Bridges Between Cultural Studies and Translation Studies: With Reference to the Audiovisual Field. Journal of Universal Language 11 (1): 115–136. https://doi.org/10.22425/jul.2010.11.1.115. ———. 2012. Introducción a la traducción audiovisual. Murcia: Universidad de Murcia. ———. 2017. Dealing with the N-Word in Dubbing and Subtitling Django Desencadenado: A Case of Self-Censorhip? Ideas 3 (3): 39. Marzà Ibàñez, Anna, and Frederic Chaume. 2009. The Language of Dubbing: Present Facts and Future Perspectives. In Analysing Audiovisual Dialogue. Linguistic and Translational Insights, ed. Maria Freddi and Maria Pavesi, 31–39. Bolonia: Clueb. Matamala, Anna. 2020. Translating Non-fictional Genres: Voice-over and Off-­ screen Dubbing. In The Palgrave Handbook of Audiovisual Translation and Media Accessibility, ed. Łukasz Bogucki and Mikolaj Deckert, 133–148. Cham, Switzerland: Palgrave Macmillan.

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5 Dubbing Analysis Through Game Situations: Four Case Studies

As long as a norm is active and effective […], one would be clearly able to pinpoint regularities of behaviour in recurrent situations of the same type. —Karamitroglou (2000: 18)

Abstract  Chapter 5 presents four empirical studies illustrating the main concepts discussed previously. Game situations serve as the unit to organize the analyzed contents of four video games, in their English and Spanish dubbed versions, rather than using time codes as these cannot be traced in interactive material. Previous descriptive studies in audiovisual translation (AVT) serve as an essential reference, adapting the methodology to the particularities of interactive products. The results show that game action is more prominent in action-adventure games, while the graphic adventure includes more cinematics. The use of dubbing synchronies suggests a relationship between the level of restriction in each game situation and the type of synchrony: the more restrictive the game situation is, the more complex the type of synchrony applied.

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 L. Mejías-Climent, Enhancing Video Game Localization Through Dubbing, Palgrave Studies in Translating and Interpreting, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-88292-1_5

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Video games have already been defined as the most complex type of interactive and audiovisual products. The process of localizing these games, and dubbing in particular, has been explored in previous chapters. Chapter 5 presents four empirical analyses that will illustrate the concepts introduced in previous chapters. They will consist of four descriptive studies focusing on game situations (tasks, game action, dialogues and cinematics), which are the unit of analysis used to organize the translatable assets of the four adventure video games (we return to this choice below in Sect. 5.2). Descriptive studies in AVT offer an appropriate research framework to situate this non-evaluative analysis. The methodology used in previous models analyzing non-interactive corpora will be adapted to the particularities of interactive products previously described in Chaps. 1, 2, 3 and 4. The results will be discussed from two perspectives, namely the occurrence of different game situations in each of the chosen video games and the use of different dubbing synchronies, before moving on to consider possible relationships between them. This analysis is intended to serve as a starting point for further research on the particularities and requirements of dubbing in video games.

5.1 A  Brief Excursus on Research in Video Game Localization As detailed in previous chapters, the characteristics of video games and their localization process can vary considerably depending on the game genre, the developer and the localization vendors involved. To begin to describe the broad landscape of dubbing in video games, four titles were selected to perform a descriptive analysis of how dubbing synchronies are used in localization. Synchronization was chosen as it differs considerably from the way it is used in movies (see Chap. 4, Sect. 4.2). To conduct this analysis, the framework of descriptive studies in audiovisual translation (AVT) offers the ideal setting to design a non-evaluative study in which the multimodal nature of video games is considered. As stated in Chap. 3 (Sect. 3.1), descriptive translation studies in AVT is a suitable model for comparing how the interactive nature of video games creates differences from non-interactive products in terms of their translation and adaptation processes. This model of analysis has been adapted to include the

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interactive dimension of video games. The four case studies presented here aim to give an account of the different dubbing synchronies used in four adventure video games and of the game situations of which each game is composed. Although they will be presented as four separate case studies, the results could also be explored through an amalgamation of the data into one larger study in order to start identifying preliminary trends in the use of dubbing synchronies in the interactive genre (see Chap. 1, Sect. 1.3) of adventure games, with an emphasis on action-­ adventure games. Research in video games started flourishing at the beginning of the century, and the field of translation studies has paid special attention to game localization in the last decade. The main research trends in game localization have covered issues such as the characteristics of the medium (Granell et al. 2015; Bernal-Merino 2015, 2016; O’Hagan and Mangiron 2013), translation strategies and challenges (Fernández Costales 2012; Bernal-Merino 2007), priorities and restrictions (Muñoz Sánchez 2017; Le Dour 2007; Dunne 2006), the localization process and the agents involved (O’Hagan and Chandler 2016; Maxwell Chandler and Deming 2012; O’Hagan and Mangiron 2013; Loureiro Pernas 2007) and the different localization models (Maxwell Chandler and Deming 2012; Muñoz Sánchez 2017), to name but a few. Accessibility practices in game localization have also gained momentum in recent years (Mangiron 2016, 2021; Mangiron et al. 2014; Mangiron 2011). The link between localization and other forms of translation has been reviewed as well (Mangiron 2017: 82–83). Methodologies have mainly consisted of empirical and, most frequently, qualitative methods (Vázquez Rodríguez 2014, 2018; Pujol Tubau 2015; Mangiron 2013), and most studies are based on the authors’ first-hand experience as localizers themselves or on textual analyses and case studies focused on a particular phenomenon. Despite this recent growth in research, a solid theoretical and methodological framework is still needed and further studies are essential to identify trends that might lead to defining “norms” in game localization, following Toury’s descriptive approach (2012). Corpus studies seem to offer an excellent way to approach such an end (Mangiron 2017: 88), as also in translation studies in general (Zanettin 2014; Laviosa 2012; Baker 1993). The link now being made between multimodality and corpus

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studies seems to be promising for the analysis of game localization, in other words, for the use of multimodal corpora (Soffritti 2018; Baños et al. 2013). However, the (semi-)automatic analysis of more than one mode in a translation corpus remains a challenging task, requiring more complex corpus preparation and different methods of analysis than those used in traditional monomodal written corpora (Mejías-Climent 2021). The nature of video games as largely interactive products also mitigates against any kind of automatic analysis of a static corpus. The four video games selected for analysis in the current study will therefore be analyzed manually, with each being presented as a case study. In this context, the four video games studied here represent a starting point to descriptively explore the characteristics of dubbing in  localization, combining an empirical approach with a mixed method of analysis, qualitative and quantitative, and drawing on the field of AVT and the model of film dubbing, as well as the methodological framework of descriptive studies. Except for Vázquez Rodríguez (2018) and Pujol Tubau (2015),1 no previous studies using video game corpora are known thus far, and dubbing seems to be an underexplored area in the localization process. The material making up the corpus consists of a relatively large quantity of data (96 hours). Although an automatic analysis of the data was ruled out for the reasons given, the use of the tool “filters” in Excel sheets contributed to semi-automatizing the data processing. Although issues such as representativeness, size, comparability, transcription conventions, annotation and corpus alignment still need to be addressed, as happens with corpora of AVT (Pavesi 2018: 317), the methodology described below can serve as a starting point for the analysis of video game corpora. Future research is essential to further explore the patterns identified here and, certainly, the exploration of other game genres will enrich this initial approach to video game dubbing.

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5.2 A  nalyzing the Dubbing of Adventure Video Games Due to the absence of empirical studies on dubbing synchronies in video games thus far, the analysis conducted here can be considered exploratory as the results will point to preliminary trends in the use of dubbing synchronies in adventure video games. As stated, this empirical and descriptive study aims to determine the types of synchronization used in the different game situations that alternate throughout four video games: Batman: Arkham Knight (Rocksteady Studios 2015), Assassin’s Creed Syndicate (Ubisoft Quebec 2015), Rise of the Tomb Raider (Crystal Dynamics 2016) and Detroit: Become Human (Quantic Dream 2018). All these games belong to the interactive genre (see Chap. 1, Sect. 1.3.3) of adventure video games. The first three belong to the subcategory of action-adventure games (Sect. 5.2) whereas the latter is a graphic adventure (Sect. 5.3). Adventure video games are one of the most popular genres and encompass an endless variety of new titles released every year. Their narrative background is usually essential to structure the game development, while the game mechanics, as stated in Chap. 1 (see Sect. 1.3.3), entail a series of player skills rather than focusing on a single type of experience. We can recall that typically, players have to combine abilities like exploration, stealth, puzzle-solving skills and interaction and fights with other characters; the action, although depending on the decisions made by the player, follows a more or less clear evolution structured in different “missions”, “sequences”, “goals” or other basic game sections.2 The main characters are usually animated humans, whose mouths and expressions will need to be considered in dubbing—unlike puzzles such as EDGE (Two Tribes 2011) or Tetris (Alekséi Pázhitnov 1984) in which no characters are displayed and which contain no dialogues, making dubbing essentially irrelevant. These circumstances make dubbing a key component to recreating the immersive experience for the player in adventure games. In the particular case of action-adventure video games, the aforementioned titles (Batman: Arkham Knight, Assassin’s Creed Syndicate and Rise of the Tomb Raider) were chosen because they meet a series of

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requirements that make dubbing an interesting feature to analyze in the localized product: their medium (see Chap. 1, Sect. 1.3) is not fantastic or cartoon- or anime-inspired, but rather realistic humans are displayed, whose mouths are also realistic and clearly visible. These titles are available for PC as this platform, when properly equipped, tends to render images with a slightly superior quality compared to consoles. They do not alternate the visual perspective, but are always played using a third-­ person perspective, which restricts the visual configuration more than video games alternating between first- and third-person visions. They are single-player games, thus avoiding the methodological complexity of playing them for the second time in the same way as the first with more than one player participating. Finally, they were all developed and localized by different companies, thus avoiding detecting patterns associated with a particular firm rather than the game genre. As for the graphic adventure, this title was chosen because it meets the same requirements (medium, platform and perspective). It was also developed by a game studio different from the developers of the three action-adventure titles. The localization company is the same as the one where Batman: Arkham Knight was localized. However, the dubbing directors and sound engineers are different, and their publisher is also different (Warner Bros. in the case of Batman: Arkham Knight and Sony Interactive Entertainment in the case of Detroit: Become Human). This information was retrieved from the Spanish website specializing in video game dubbing DoblajeVideojuegos.es.3 Having selected the three action-adventure games and the graphic adventure that will be analyzed, the following research question guided the analysis: What types of synchronization are used in the dubbing of adventure video games according to different game situations? With this question as a starting point, recurring patterns are searched for (quantitative) to determine how (qualitative) synchronization and restrictions work in this particular interactive genre, considering the multimodal characteristics of the product. To identify such patterns, a spreadsheet or chart for analysis was used to note the recurrence of the different types of synchronization, and relative frequencies were calculated using the data obtained. The distribution of occurrences according to the type of synchronization thus quantifies patterns in the use of dubbing synchronies in each game

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situation, and also accounts for the presence of different game situations within each title. To structure the contents of the analyzed games, game situations (see Chap. 1, Sect. 1.2) were used as the unit of analysis, instead of time codes, as no fixed times can be used in an interactive product. This represents an innovative methodology in empirical analyses of video game localization, considering that the significant difference between interactive and non-interactive media needs to be accounted for when designing research using multimodal material. Descriptive studies in non-­interactive products always resort to time codes to situate the studied phenomena within the movie or audiovisual product, but, for reasons explained in Chap. 4, this approach is not appropriate for video games, which do not operate with a linear script. One of the reasons why not much descriptive research has been conducted using video game corpora is the difficulty they create for the researcher in structuring and accessing the material as interactivity requires the player’s participation to create the full meaning of the video game resulting from the interplay of the various semiotic codes, in which the plot or development of the facts is not static and fixed in time. Furthermore, non-disclosure agreements (NDAs) impede researchers from accessing game assets or text easily, so the only option to undertake descriptive studies in most cases is to actively analyze the materials during gameplay. Game situations are a useful tool to organize such materials as they are neither determined by time nor by a linear structure, but by the player’s action. As no time units are considered, the different records noted on the data spreadsheet or chart for analysis depend on the continuous alternation of game situations. Every time the game situation changes, it is recorded on the chart as a new unit of analysis, together with the particular studied phenomenon, in this case, the type of dubbing synchronization used in such a situation. In any replication of the study, some differences in the frequency distributions obtained for each game situation might be found, but any such differences are likely to be slight, as video games are programmed to respond to players’ actions in a particular way, allowing some variation but only to a certain extent. A different analysis chart was used for each video game that was played. They were analyzed manually by a single researcher, with the aid of the

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semi-automatic tool “filters” in Excel sheets. An experienced player was in charge of playing the four games while the gameplay was being analyzed by the researcher, gathering the data in the chart. The brief that this experienced player received was to accomplish the main goal in each of the four games, ignoring any secondary missions. All the games were played twice by the same player, first in Spanish and then, in English. The gameplays were recorded using the Windows 10 gaming software Xbox Game Bar.4 In the case of the video games analyzed here, this analysis chart or Excel sheet consisted of six different columns: the first identifies the moment within the game plot (each game story is organized in a particular but clearly identifiable form), the second classifies the game situation (tasks, game action, dialogues or cinematics; see Chap. 1, Sect. 1.2), the third contains the type of dubbing synchrony used in the game situation in the Spanish dubbing (Spain variant), while the fourth contains the type of synchrony used in the original game situation in English (wild, time constraint, strict time constraint, sound-sync and lip-sync; see Chap. 4, Sect. 4.2.3). The fifth column accounts for the type of text string contained in the game situation, that is, onomatopoeia, main character’s short utterances, monologues, dialogues and so on. Finally, a sixth column was reserved to note additional comments and the codes of the videos that were generated while recording the gameplay. These videos served as a reference in case any game situation or dubbing synchrony needed to be double-checked or particular examples needed to be extracted. The procedure for completing the analysis chart was as follows: each video game was played twice, first with the Spanish dubbing and then with the original English voices; the same path was reproduced by the player as far as possible the second time each game was played, although slight arbitrary differences occurred in the game situations that the game displayed. However, these differences were found to have no significant effect on the results. The focus of the study was on the type of synchronization used in each game situation rather than a comparison of the text strings or linguistic fidelity. This made some minor differences in the original and the target segments analyzed irrelevant.5 The descriptive procedure outlined here is based on comparing a specific phenomenon in the source and the target segment (after Toury 2012) to analyze and describe

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it, but no assessment or quality evaluation is performed (Chaume 2012: 162). Instead, the behavior of game situations and their link to dubbing synchronies are described. As no fixed time determines the development of the story in video games, to delimit the corpus, each game was played until the main goal stated at the beginning of the story was achieved, ignoring any secondary missions or tasks that could expand the time played unnecessarily. Although cinematic scenes are short non-interactive video clips, other game situations, especially game action, can be expanded as much as the player desires; therefore, there is no time limit as there is in non-­interactive products. This is the reason why achieving the main goal in each story was considered a suitable criterion to delimit the interactive corpus. The data presented in the following sections will show that the total number of game situations varies in most cases between English and Spanish. This is due to the already-mentioned arbitrariness inherent to any interactive product and to minor differences in the actions taken by the player. In the case of Assassin’s Creed Syndicate, however, the total number of game situations found in both versions, English and Spanish, is the same, which might be an indication of the game structure being more stable than in the other cases. As for dubbing synchronies, some distributions are identical in Spanish and English, which means that the English audio files and the Spanish dubbing were recorded applying the same constraints. On some other occasions, the total number of synchrony types varies from one language to the other, which might reflect slight changes caused by the localization process.

5.3 T  he Dubbing of Three Action-Adventure Video Games Following the procedure described above, a total of 96 hours of gameplay were analyzed for the four video games (see also Sect. 5.4). The details of time spent playing and results obtained will be explained in the following sections for each particular video game, with this methodology being a common procedure in all of them.

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5.3.1 The Case of Batman: Arkham Knight Batman: Arkham Knight (BAK), developed by the British Rocksteady Studios and distributed by Warner Bros. Interactive Entertainment, was launched in the global market on June 23, 2015. It can be played on PlayStation 4, Xbox One and Microsoft Windows. The localization process for Spanish (Spain) was taken on by the specialized company Pink Noise, based in Madrid, with headquarters in Paris and Mexico. It was originally developed in English, and the final product includes in-game text and subtitles in English, Spanish, French, German, Italian, Brazilian Portuguese, Polish, Russian and Korean. Voices are available in English, Spanish, French, German, Italian and Brazilian Portuguese. It was awarded the prize for the best male Spanish dubbing and the prize for the best game dubbing in 2015 (Turnes 2015), and was ranked the 11th best-selling video game in the same year (AEVI 2016). Nonetheless, the version for PC had to be withdrawn from the market temporarily due to numerous bugs that interfered with the game experience. About four months later, it was brought back to the market including patches to fix some of the problems that the game still had. The main character in this action-adventure game is Bruce Wayne, a multimillionaire businessman whose parents had been killed and who devotes his time to martial arts, intellectual activities and the development of weapons and devices that give him enormous power. He takes on the dark persona of Batman to fight the villains in the city of Gotham, where the story takes place. Batman’s great enemy in this game is the Scarecrow, who threatens Gotham with a terrible toxin. In his campaign to defeat his enemy, Batman relies on allies like Robin, Oracle, the policeman James Gordon and his own butler, Alfred Pennyworth. During the game, he will face several enemies who support the Scarecrow, such as the Arkham Knight, Two-Face, Poison Ivy and Harley Quinn. Batman’s archenemy, the Joker, will also make an appearance, even if it is in Batman’s mind. The video game fits perfectly in the adventure genre since the player, controlling Batman, has to overcome a series of obstacles, battles and enigmas, resorting to different weapons, stealth and hand-to-hand

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combat. The superhero can also drive the Batmobile to move around the entire city of Gotham, which constitutes an open world. Action is also present throughout the story with continual fights and frantic activity. The game allows third-person vision, only controlling a single character, Batman, and is estimated to require between 12 and 15 hours to achieve the main goal. The game follows a central storyline, or campaign, complemented by optional Riddler challenges and missions, after which the player can continue completing additional challenges and enigmas as long as desired. To accomplish the ultimate goal of the story, the player receives on-screen messages repeatedly such as “New objective” or offering “Target details” and the instructions to move to the next mission. Thus, the story follows a series of pre-established phases that might vary slightly depending on the missions that the player decides to undertake. Our gameplay lasted for 13 hours in both the Spanish and English versions. Cinematic scenes (non-interactive moments) are numerous as they complete the narrative content of the story, although Batman’s thoughts (tasks, fully interactive moments) are essential for the player to know where to go and what to do next. Therefore, tasks such as the ones transmitted to the player in the form of Batman’s thoughts are also essential in the game development. Likewise, dialogues with other non-playable characters (NPCs), especially allies, play a fundamental role in guiding the player and helping him/her complete missions and move throughout the game’s open world. Game action is based on hand-to-hand fighting and driving the Batmobile to shoot enemies and to move from one area to another quickly. Some enigmas are also part of the game action. The player has to solve them by deciphering different clues. The game as played can be broken down into 553 units or records in Spanish and 535  in English (see Table  5.1 below). The distribution of records (i.e. game situations) in each version is quite similar, and the rank order of the four game situations is the same. Any minor differences could be due to the player’s prior knowledge of the game when playing it for the second time, as hints and clues were already known by the player. If a task is completed immediately, no instructions are given to the player by the game, nor are certain dialogues activated, thus reducing the number of tasks and dialogues transmitted during the second gameplay.

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Table 5.1  The distribution of game situations in BAK in the Spanish and English versions Tasks Game action Dialogues Cinematics Total

Spanish

English

91 (16.46%) 190 (34.36%) 174 (31.46%) 98 (17.72%) 553

81 (15.14%) 187 (34.95%) 169 (31.59%) 98 (18.32%). 535

Table 5.2  The distribution of dubbing synchronies in BAK in the Spanish and English versions Wild synchrony Time constraint Strict time constraint Sound-sync Lip-sync No dubbing Total

Spanish

English

272 (49.19%) 76 (13.74%) 12 (2.17%) 67 (12.12%) 125 (22.6%) 1 (0.18%) 553

256 (47.85%) 72 (13.46%) 7 (1.31%) 50 (9.35%) 149 (27.85%) 1 (0.19%) 535

The types of synchronies identified in the Spanish dubbing and the English original version are set out in Table 5.2 below. The distribution of dubbing synchronization types shows the same rank order in both languages, although there are some minor differences, in particular the use of lip-sync was reduced in Spanish compared to the English version. In general, there seems to be a slight relaxation in the application of dubbing restrictions in the Spanish dubbed version.

5.3.1.1  Tasks in BAK Tasks in BAK are mostly introduced through Batman’s thoughts as off-­ screen voices. They are usually comments on the environment that guide the player to interact with it in a certain way, to approach some other character or to look around for objects or clues. These comments are normally made after the player has completed a mission. The character thinks aloud about where he should go or what he should do next. Therefore, tasks in BAK are mainly dubbed without restriction, that is,

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wild sync, since the character does not move his mouth or make any particular gesture when talking. This is the case for the following example, when the player’s next goal is to power an antenna to determine his enemy’s position: • English original version (EOV) [task, wild sync]—Batman: The generator’s damaged. I need to bypass it and power the antenna directly. • Spanish dubbed version (SDV) [task, wild sync]—Batman: El generador está dañado. Tendré que darle energía a la antena directamente. • Back translation: The generator is damaged. I will have to power the antenna directly. In a few cases (only 5), other characters give Batman instructions on how to continue, mainly his butler, Alfred, or one of his assistants, Lucius Fox. They express instructions in a diegetic way, describing maps that are shown on the screen or indicating places to go so that they locate and help the character. In such cases, wild sync is used as well since the characters are not visible on the screen, but speak using off-screen voices: • EOV [task, wild sync]—Lucius Fox: The winch needs a secure anchor point to function. Once it’s attached, just hit reverse. • SDV [task, wild sync]—Lucius Fox: El cabrestante necesita un punto de anclaje. Una vez acoplado, eche marcha atrás. • Back translation: The winch needs an anchor point. Once attached, pull back. In the English version, the 81 recorded tasks are voiced using wild sync, the same type of synchrony used in the Spanish dubbed version. Thus, in BAK, 100% of the tasks are dubbed applying no restrictions since all of them are transmitted by diegetic off-screen voices, very often that of the main character.

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5.3.1.2  Game Action in BAK Game action in BAK consists mainly of exploring the open world in the city of Gotham, fighting enemies repeatedly and solving several enigmas. It is not surprising, then, that wild sync and time constraint predominate. The latter occurs in all fights against enemies, when the main character and the NPCs emit onomatopoeias (audible sounds uttered by the characters) when hit as well as short threatening utterances. Since NPCs are visible from a third-person perspective and viewed through dynamic full or medium-full shots, their faces cannot be seen in much detail, so their utterances can be 10% longer or shorter than the character’s movement and articulation. Wild sync does not apply in fights because every time a character speaks, small red symbols appear over his/her head, thus their utterances must more or less fit the length of time that these symbols are visible. For example: • EOV [game action, TC] –– Militia: It’s the Bat! –– Militia: You’re better than this! –– Militia: Hit him back! • SDV [game action, TC] –– Miliciano: ¡Perímetro roto! ¡Es Batman! –– Miliciano: ¡Estás rodeado, Batman, no hay salida! • Back translation: –– Militiaman: Perimeter breached! It’s Batman! –– Militiaman: You’re surrounded, Batman, there’s no way out! It should be noted that the Spanish version is not a close translation of the English version. This is due to the already-mentioned arbitrariness of the game coding choices among various stored fighting utterances; in other words, for the same visual sequence, a different stored fighting utterance is the acoustic accompaniment. This is not relevant to our study

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since we focus on the type of synchrony rather than the linguistic rendering of the message. Wild sync is also used during game action. It is actually the most frequent type of synchrony as Batman uses a radio through which he receives messages and can hear his opponents. These are all off-camera voices: • EOV [game action, wild sync]—Arkham Knight: I’ve got Oracle, Batman. Now you care who I am. Just gotta find me. But Gotham’s a big place and there’s a whole army between us. I’m ready for you. • SDV [game action, wild sync]—Caballero de Arkham: Tengo a Oráculo, Batman. Ahora ya te importa quién soy. Encuéntrame. Pero Gotham es una gran ciudad y hay un ejército entre nosotros. Estoy preparado. • Back translation:—Arkham Knight: I have Oracle, Batman. Now you already care who I am. Find me. But Gotham is a big city and there’s an army between us. I’m ready. Two exceptional cases of sound-sync and lip-sync were also found during game action. These take place in situations when NPCs are seen close-up and their mouths reproduce the English and Spanish articulation. Table  5.3 summarizes the results for the distribution of types of synchronization for this game situation.

Table 5.3  The distribution of dubbing synchronies in game action in BAK, in the Spanish and English versions Wild synchrony Time constraint Strict time constraint Sound-sync Lip-sync Total

Spanish

English

119 (62.63%) 69 (36.32%) 0 (0%) 1 (0.53%) 1 (0.53%) 190

116 (62.03%) 69 (37%) 0 (0%) 1 (0.54%) 1 (0.54%) 187

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5.3.1.3  Dialogues in BAK Dialogues in BAK are more complex in terms of dubbing synchronization as all types of synchronies were identified in this particular game situation, which was not the case for tasks (in which only wild synchronization was found) and game action (in which no cases of strict time constraint were found). As explained, they represent dialectical interactions between other characters, or NPCs, and the main character. These interactions typically take place between two different moments of game action; in other words, they do not stop the player’s activity—but can interfere with it. In BAK, a series of dialogues limit the player’s activity for a few seconds, restricting it to only camera movements or certain other movements, not allowing him/her to attack, use weapons or perform other actions. This type of dialogue during limited action does not restrict interaction completely, thus it cannot be considered a cinematic scene (which will be the case in the examples described in Sect. 5.3.1.4). In the Spanish version of BAK, most dialogues are dubbed using sound-sync: 57 cases of the 174 dialogues recorded (32.76%). Out of these 57, 18 cases are dialogues during limited action, while the remaining 39 dialogues present no restrictions for the player. In many cases, NPCs and their mouths are clearly visible. On many occasions, they may also be seen from behind, including the main character, but if the player turns the camera intentionally, the spoken utterances can be seen to fit the character’s gestures and pauses. Sometimes, their lips articulate the original English words exactly as they were animated reproducing the recorded original utterances, while the Spanish dubbing is close to lip-­ sync, but not as precise as in English:6 • EOV [dialogue, lip-sync]—Joker: I think that went quite well, considering. / Of course, I wouldn’t have told him, but that’s why it’s so liberating being me! // You’ve got a lot to look forward to, Bats. • SDV [dialogue, SS]—El Joker: Bueno, salió bien, después de todo. / Eso sí, yo no se lo habría dicho, pero es lo que tiene ser libre como yo. // Tienes mucho que perder, Batman.

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• Back translation: The Joker: Well, it worked out well, after all. Mind you, I wouldn’t have told him, but that is the thing about being free like me. You’ve got a lot to lose, Batman. Some examples of Spanish lip-sync are found in dialogues during limited action, although fewer than in English:7 • EOV [dialogue, lip-sync]—Joker: Ok, this is it. The moment we’ve both been waiting for. Scarecrow’s just down there. So, are you gonna stop him and save Oracle? Or am I going to get another hit of that delicious gas while you watch, helpless, as she dies? How do we decide? • SDV [dialogue, lip-sync]—El Joker: Bien, al fin, el momento que estábamos esperando. Tienes al Espantapájaros justo ahí, ¿vas a pararle los pies y a salvar a Oráculo? ¿O voy a llevarme otra ración de rico gas mientras contemplas indefenso cómo muere? ¿Qué vamos a hacer? • Back translation: The Joker: Well, finally, the moment we’ve been waiting for. You’ve got the Scarecrow right there, are you going to stop him and save Oracle? Or am I going to take another helping of delicious gas while you watch helplessly as he dies? What are we going to do? Wild sync is also used in both English and Spanish as Batman uses his radio repeatedly to talk to his allies, very frequently while driving, thus his face cannot be seen nor can the camera’s perspective be changed. In addition, a few cases of time constraint (only four) were identified in Spanish, three of which were recorded as time constraint in English as well. The Spanish voices match the duration of the original utterances more or less, while in the following example, the NPCs’ gestures and pauses are also reproduced in the voices heard: • EOV [dialogue, SS] –– Officer Lancaster: God knows how he got out without shooting anyone. The people in that diner tore each other apart. –– Sergeant Denning: Is just me? The toxin don’t seem to be wearing off.

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–– Militia: Hey Batman! I guess Scarecrow gave you the slip? You broke my wrist for nothin’! He’s got plans for you, Batman. You and all your friends. Tonight’s the night we finally break the Bat! • SDV [dialogue, TC] –– Agente Lancaster: Sí, pobre desgraciado. Como descubra lo que hizo en el restaurante, no podrá perdonárselo jamás. –– Sargento Denning: Seguro que pierde la placa. –– Miliciano: Eh, Batman, ¿el Espantapájaros te ha dado para el pelo? ¡Me rompiste la muñeca por nada! Tenemos planes para ti, Batman. También para tus amigos. Hoy será la noche en la que por fin caiga el murciélago. • Back translation: –– Officer Lancaster: Yes, poor bastard. If he finds out what he did at the restaurant, he’ll never forgive himself. –– Sergeant Denning: He’s bound to lose his badge. –– Militiaman: Hey, Batman, did the Scarecrow give you a haircut? You broke my wrist for nothing! We’ve got plans for you, Batman. For your friends, too. Tonight will be the night the Bat finally falls? A few examples of strict time constraint were also identified in both versions (nine in Spanish, four of which were also identified as strict time constraint examples in English). In these cases, NPCs’ faces are visible and they can be seen starting and finishing speaking (opening and closing their mouths), but lip articulation and pauses cannot be made out: • EOV [dialogue, STC] –– Robin: Nice work. You really held your own just now. I’m impressed. –– Batman: You can carry him. –– Robin: What did this guy eat? A car? • SDV [dialogue, STC] –– Robin: Buen trabajo. Has aguantado muy bien. Estoy impresionado. –– Batman: Puedes llevarlo tú.

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–– Robin: ¿Qué se ha comido este tío? ¿Un coche? • Back translation: –– Robin: Good job. You’ve held up very well. I’m impressed. –– Batman: You can take him. –– Robin: What did this guy eat? A car? Table 5.4 presents the distribution of types of synchrony for the game situation dialogues.

5.3.1.4  Cinematics in BAK Cinematic scenes tend to use lip-sync more frequently than the other dubbing synchronies, although some cases of other synchronization types are also found in BAK. As an initial anecdote, it can be noted that in both English and Spanish, a cinematic scene opens the video game. Only a song in English is heard, “I’ve Got You Under My Skin” by Frank Sinatra, which has been reproduced as in the original in the Spanish version. It is not dubbed, nor do any subtitles appear. It accompanies some images contextualizing the beginning of the story and linking it to the previous game in the same saga, after the Joker has been defeated. Although apparently extradiegetic, it does have immense narrative importance, even though the player is not yet aware of it—nor was the localization team, probably. The song lyrics describe some crucial events that will happen during the development of the story, but no form of translation has been

Table 5.4  The distribution of dubbing synchronies in dialogues in BAK, in the Spanish and English versions Wild synchrony Time constraint Strict time constraint Sound-sync Lip-sync Total

Spanish

English

48 (27.59%) 4 (2.87%) 9 (5.17%) 57 (32.76%) 56 (32.18%) 174

45 (26.63%) 0 (0%) 4 (2.37%) 40 (23.67%) 80 (47.34%) 169

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used, although this study has not been able to confirm whether it was left untranslated intentionally. Regarding synchronization, wild sync is the second most frequent type of synchrony found in cinematic scenes (14 cases in both versions), typically when characters are not visible, for example, when Batman talks to other characters from the Batmobile or when off-screen voices accompany descriptions of the main character’s equipment. Time constraint is used in only three situations in which the characters’ faces are seen from afar or their faces are partially covered, although their body expressiveness must be reproduced in the translation: • EOV [cinematic scene, TC] –– Militia: What the hell did you do to me? –– Militia: Helped you, idiot. Anyone who touches you now gets a thousand volts. • SDV [cinematic scene, TC] –– Miliciano: ¿Qué coño me habéis hecho? –– Miliciano: Ayudarte, idiota. Ahora, todo el que te toque recibirá mil voltios. • Back translation: –– Militiaman: What the fuck have you done to me? –– Militiaman: Help you, you idiot. Now, everyone who touches you will get a thousand volts. Strict time constraint was also found in only three cases in which the characters are seen more closely: their body expressions and gestures are visible, but their mouths are not. Likewise, sound-sync is used on nine occasions in which the characters are seen closely, but their lips are not completely visible because of the shot or their garments. Finally, lip-sync represents the most frequent type of synchrony used in cinematics, precisely reproducing the characters’ lip articulation, expressiveness and internal pauses and intonation in all the utterances:

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• EOV [cinematic scene, lip-sync] –– Batman: You’re safe now. –– Mark Cheung: You don’t know the half of it, Batman. Scarecrow… he… was… –– Batman: Stay calm and tell me what you know. –– Mark Cheung: They’ve been running the plant for hours. They brought in trucks, weapons, soldiers, shipments of hazardous materials. / They knew exactly what they were doing. –– Batman: He’s producing his toxin on a massive scale. –– Mark Cheung: It’s bad. Real bad. / We’re talking about a gas cloud that could cover the entire Eastern seaboard. –– Batman: Where do I find Scarecrow? –– Mark Cheung: I… / I got no idea. All I know is he’s moving ahead with his plan and he’s got a whole freaking army backing him up. We’re screwed, Batman. –– Batman: I’ll stop him, but first I’m getting you out of here. Wait by the Batmobile. • SDV [cinematic scene, lip-sync] –– Batman: Ya estás a salvo. –– Mark Cheung: No tienes ni idea, Batman. El Espantapájaros… él… –– Batman: Pues cálmate y cuéntame lo que sepas. –– Mark Cheung: Llevan horas en la planta. Han traído camiones, armas, soldados, materiales peligrosos. / Saben muy bien lo que hacen. –– Batman: Ha producido una cantidad enorme de su toxina. –– Mark Cheung: Mal. Muy mal. La nube de gas podría llegar a cubrir toda la costa este. –– Batman: ¿Y el Espantapájaros? –– Mark Cheung: No… / No lo sé. Solo sé que su plan sigue adelante y que tiene un puto ejército a sus órdenes. Estamos jodidos, Batman. –– Batman: Lo detendré. Pero, primero, te sacaré de aquí. Espera en el batmóvil. • Back translation: -Batman: You’re safe now.

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–– Mark Cheung: You have no idea, Batman. The Scarecrow… he… –– Batman: Then calm down and tell me what you know. –– Mark Cheung: They’ve been at the plant for hours. They’ve brought trucks, weapons, soldiers, hazardous materials. / They know what they’re doing. –– Batman: They’ve produced a huge amount of their toxin. –– Mark Cheung: Bad. Very bad. The gas cloud could cover the entire East Coast. –– Batman: What about the Scarecrow? –– Mark Cheung: I don’t… / I don’t know. I just know that his plan is going forward and he’s got a fucking army at his command. We’re screwed, Batman. –– Batman: I’ll stop him. But first, I’ll get you out of here. Wait in the Batmobile. It should be noted that, in the case of cinematics, the distribution of types of synchronization is identical for English and Spanish, as shown in Table 5.5.

5.3.2 The Case of Assassin’s Creed Syndicate Assassin’s Creed Syndicate (ACS), developed by Ubisoft Quebec and distributed by Ubisoft, was released globally on October 23, 2015, for PlayStation 4 and Xbox One, and on November 19, 2015, for Microsoft Windows. It was localized into Spanish (Spain) by Synthesis Iberia, based Table 5.5  The distribution of dubbing synchronies in cinematics in BAK, in the Spanish and English versions Wild synchrony Time constraint Strict time constraint Sound-sync Lip-sync No dubbing Total

Spanish

English

14 (14.29%) 3 (3.06%) 3 (3.06%) 9 (9.18%) 68 (69.39%) 1 (1.02%) 98

14 (14.29%) 3 (3.06%) 3 (3.06%) 9 (9.18%) 68 (69.39%) 1 (1.02%) 98

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in Madrid at that time, but which now has its headquarters in Milan and operates as part of Keywords Studios, an Irish localization services provider that acquired Synthesis Iberia in 2016. This game was developed in English, and the final product includes in-game text and subtitles as well as voices in English, Spanish, French, German, Italian, Czech, Hungarian, Japanese, Korean, Polish, Brazilian Portuguese, Russian and Chinese, in addition to in-game text and subtitles in Danish, Finnish, Norwegian and Swedish. It was ranked the 13th best-selling video game in 2015 (AEVI 2016). ACS belongs to the popular Assassin’s Creed saga created by Ubisoft, which has released a new title in this historical fiction saga almost every year since 2007. All the Assassin’s Creed games follow the same storyline: the conflict between the ancient Templars, currently organized under the company Abstergo Industries, and the clan of the Assassins, who want to prevent the Templars from finding some enormously powerful objects known as Fragments of Eden, which would allow their owners to dominate the world. This confrontation takes place repeatedly, returning to different historical moments in the past—every new game in this saga is set in a different era. These trips to the past are possible using the memories stored in one of the current Assassins’ DNA, which can be accessed through a device called Animus. This machine recreates the past and brings the Assassins to the historical setting in question to look for the Fragments of Eden and save the world from Templar domination. ACS in particular takes place in London during the Victorian era, in the second half of the nineteenth century during the Industrial Revolution. The player can control two main characters alternatively, the twin Assassins Evie and Jacob Frye, who belong to the Londoner gang the Rooks and whose mission is to find the Fragments of Eden and to free the working class dominated by the powerful Templars. These enemies are organized around the Blighters gang and led by the evil Crawford Starrick. The Blighters control London and gather all the industrial fortune, thanks to corruption and the enslavement of the workers. This video game is another excellent example of the action-adventure genre. The ultimate goal is presented at the beginning of the story: to free London from the Templars and recover the Fragments of Eden. The characters will have to overcome obstacles, solve challenges and mysteries,

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practice parkour and face and fight enemies, thus a wide variety of skills is required. Action is also present throughout the story, with continual fights and frantic activity in an open world constituted by the city of London. The game allows only third-person vision and a single character can be controlled, either Evie or Jacob Frye, with some missions being exclusive to one character or the other. It is estimated to require between 15 and 20 hours to achieve the ultimate goal. When played for this analysis, it required 18 hours in Spanish and 17 in English since enemies and missions were already familiar to the player and were completed faster. This game is developed following a central storyline, or campaign, with numerous additional missions and secondary objectives that were ignored in our case. The story is divided into nine clearly separate sequences. This facilitates the organization of the contents to be analyzed within the game plot. Sequences are divided into different “memories” which, in turn, are composed of different missions. All the memories within a sequence must be completed, although these memories and missions do not follow linear development, but rather depend on the player’s choices. A cinematic scene contextualizes every new sequence, and the player can follow continuous short instructions in the form of in-game text that lead him/her to the next mission. As was the case with BAK, ACS is also composed of numerous cinematic scenes that contextualize and complement the narrative content of the story. Tasks are transmitted to the player in the form of diegetic off-­ voices, and dialogues also complement the narrative content, although they are not crucial for the player. Game action is based on continual fights, either hand to hand or using weapons, solving several mysteries (called “enigmas” in BAK) and moving around the map of London either by walking or by driving carriages. This organizational structure resulted in 400 records on the analysis chart, divided into 9 different sequences plus a total of 8 introductory and final situations, mainly cinematic scenes (see Table 5.6 below). Since cinematics contextualize each sequence, they are the game situation most frequently repeated throughout gameplay, although action is also very frequent. In this case, the number of game situations identified in the Spanish and the English versions is the same as no omission of any game situation occurred even when the game was played for the second time.

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Table 5.6  The distribution of game situations in ACS in the Spanish and English versions Tasks Game action Dialogues Cinematics Total

Spanish

English

6 (1.5%) 161 (40.25%) 66 (16.5%) 167 (41.75%) 400

6 (1.5%) 161 (40.25%) 66 (16.5%) 167 (41.75%) 400

Dubbing synchronies were recorded as follows (see Table 5.7 below). As the table shows, the dubbed Spanish version is less restrictive in its choice of synchronies than the original English if the higher number of cases of time constraint is taken into consideration and the lower number of strict time constraint and sound-sync, although lip-sync, is still the second-ranked type in both versions.

5.3.2.1  Tasks in ACS Only six spoken tasks were recorded in ACS, always transmitted through diegetic off-screen voices which represent short messages for the main characters uttered by the Animus device. They are always (100%) dubbed using wild sync, both in English and in Spanish: • English original version (EOV) [task, wild sync]—Shaun and Rebecca are safe for now, but we’re still relying on you to find us that Shroud. • Spanish dubbed version (SDV) [task, wild sync]—Sonia y Rebeca están a salvo de momento, pero aún confiamos en que encuentres el sudario. • Back translation: Sonia and Rebecca are safe for now, but we are still confident that you will find the shroud.

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Table 5.7  The distribution of dubbing synchronies in ACS in the Spanish and English versions Wild synchrony Time constraint Strict time constraint Sound-sync Lip-sync Total

Spanish

English

32 (8%) 191 (47.75%) 18 (4.5%) 13 (3.25%) 146 (36.5%) 400

32 (8%) 154 (38.5%) 45 (11.25%) 20 (5%) 149 (37.25%) 400

5.3.2.2  Game Action in ACS Game action is mainly based on the exploration of the city, practicing parkour and climbing emblematic buildings, solving various mysteries, driving carriages and fighting the enemy. The main character and the scene, in general, are usually seen in full shots, and the camera perspective cannot show the characters in close detail; it can only be moved around and the shot rotated, but players cannot zoom in. Time constraint is thus the most frequent type of synchrony, although a few cases of strict time constraint were also found in both versions when the characters were shown in medium-full shots. Their mouths open and close, but they do not articulate words: • EOV [game action, STC]—Let’s find out where that syrup is made, shall we? // The man in charge of the syrup distribution runs a fighting club at the foundry… • SDV [game action, STC]—Vayamos a averiguar dónde se hace ese jarabe. // El encargado de la distribución del jarabe lleva un club de lucha en la fundición… • Back translation: Let’s go find out where that syrup is made. // The guy in charge of syrup distribution runs a fight club at the foundry…. Only 1 game situation was recorded as using wild sync during game action, when the player exceptionally encounters a space-time portal from which an off-screen voice speaks. In sum, the 161 game action moments in ACS predominantly use time constraint in both the English original and the Spanish version, but with

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Table 5.8  The distribution of dubbing synchronies in game action in ACS, in the Spanish and English versions Wild synchrony Time constraint Strict time constraint Sound-sync Lip-sync Total

Spanish

English

1 (0.62%) 155 (96.27%) 5 (3.11%) 0 (%) 0 (%) 161

1 (0.62%) 133 (82.61%) 27 (16.77%) 0 (%) 0 (%) 161

a more cases of the more restrictive strict time constraint in the English. Table  5.8 shows the types of synchrony identified in the Spanish and English versions of ACS.

5.3.2.3  Dialogues in ACS Dialogues in ACS tend not to interfere with interactivity options at all, except for a couple of cases when the player’s action is limited to camera movements and walking. Since dialogues take place during game action, the field of vision is quite similar, usually a full shot or medium-full shot, although zooming in is possible during most dialogues. While the most frequent type of synchrony is time constraint in both the English original and the Spanish dubbed version, this accounts for just over half of occurrences in the latter but only just under a third in the former. More examples of the more restrictive time constraint and sound-sync are found than in game action as the characters’ expressiveness and mouth movements are more clearly visible. With nearly a quarter of cases accounted for by sound-sync, the English original version tends to reproduce the moment when mouths open and close more faithfully than the Spanish version on many occasions, as happens in the following example, in which the Spanish dubbing does not coincide exactly with mouth openings and closings: • EOV [dialogue, STC] –– Evie: Now is not the time for tourism, Jacob. Now’s the time to find Henry Green. I’ve always been the quicker climber, haven’t I?

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–– Jacob: Not since we were two. –– Evie: Race you to the highest vantage point. You’re going to lose again! –– Jacob: Not on my watch! • SDV [dialogue, TC] –– Evie: No es momento de hacer turismo, Jacob. Es hora de buscar a Henry Green. Siempre he trepado mejor que tú, ¿no es cierto? –– Jacob: No, que yo recuerde. –– Evie: ¿Carrera hasta el próximo punto elevado? ¡Vas a perder otra vez! –– Jacob: ¡De ningún modo! • Back translation: –– Evie: This is no time for sightseeing, Jacob. It’s time to look for Henry Green. I’ve always climbed better than you, haven’t I? –– Jacob: Not that I recall. –– Evie: Race to the next high point? You’re going to lose again! –– Jacob: No way! Dialogues also take place inside carriages on a few occasions, which have been recorded as using wild sync because none of the characters’ faces or bodies can be seen, and the main character is seen from behind while driving. Again, the English version seems to be more restrictive in its choice of synchronies than the dubbed version as more than half the cases (53.03%) are accounted for by strict time constraint and sound-sync compared to the Spanish version, which resorts to strict time constraint and sound-­ sync in only one-third of cases (Table 5.9).

5.3.2.4  Cinematics in ACS Cinematic scenes are very frequent in ACS as they contextualize all sequences and most missions and memories. They are high-quality video clips in which lip-sync is most typically used as if they were traditional movies. On one occasion, the Spanish dubbing is slightly more flexible

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Table 5.9  The distribution of dubbing synchronies in dialogues in ACS, in the Spanish and English versions Wild synchrony Time constraint Strict time constraint Sound-sync Lip-sync Total

Spanish

English

10 (15.15%) 34 (51.51%) 13 (19.7%) 9 (13.64%) 0 (%) 66

10 (15%) 21 (31.82%) 18 (27.27%) 17 (25.76%) 0 (%) 66

and has been recorded as applying sound-sync because the lip articulation is not as precise as it is in English. This is the case for the following example, in which there is a slight dischrony toward the end of the Spanish dubbed utterance compared to the exact articulation of the English version: • EOV [cinematic scene, lip-sync]—Bloody Nora: I don’t have time to deal with street rats… String them up. • SDV [cinematic scene, SS]—Bloody Nora: No tengo tiempo para lidiar con ratas callejeras. / Matadlos. • Back translation: Bloody Nora: I don’t have time to deal with street rats. / Kill them. Wild sync is also used repeatedly as some of the cinematic scenes use off-camera voices to describe the narrative context. It should also be noted that dischronies were identified on 17 occasions as the images move faster than the dubbed voices in Spanish, while this problem does not occur in English. This may be due to the rendering of the images and sound by the game engine, which works with a large amount of stored data and may not process it fast enough, even though the translation and dubbing processes might have been flawless (Table 5.10).

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Table 5.10  The distribution of dubbing synchronies in cinematics in ACS, in the Spanish and English versions Wild synchrony Time constraint Strict time constraint Sound-sync Lip-sync Total

Spanish

English

15 (8.98%) 2 (1.2%) 0 (%) 4 (2.39%) 146 (87.42%) 167

15 (8.98%) 0 (%) 0 (%) 3 (1.8%) 149 (89.22%) 167

5.3.3 The Case of Rise of the Tomb Raider Rise of the Tomb Raider (RTR) was developed by Crystal Dynamics and distributed by Microsoft Studios, Eidos Interactive and Square Enix (Koch Media). It was released on November 10, 2015, for Xbox One; on January 28, 2016, for Microsoft Windows; and on October 11, 2016, for PlayStation 4. KiteTeam was commissioned to localize it into Spanish (Spain). This company was created in 2014 with headquarters in Madrid, Mexico and Brazil. In 2015, Keywords Studios also acquired KiteTeam, which turned into Keywords Studios-Spain, SLU, in 2018. However, when this project was carried out, KiteTeam operated as an independent localization services provider. The final product includes in-game text, subtitles and voices in English (source language), Spanish, French, Italian, German, Dutch, Polish, Brazilian Portuguese, Russian, Chinese and Korean, and also features in-game text and subtitles in Arabic. RTR is included on the list of top-selling games in 2016 on the online platform Steam and was awarded “Outstanding Achievement in Videogame Writing” at the 2016 Writers Guild Awards. RTR belongs to the popular Tomb Raider saga, whose protagonist is the archeologist and treasure hunter Lara Croft. On this occasion, she continues with the investigations initiated by her dead father, also an archeologist, who was looking for the lost city of Kitezh and the secret of immortality. Croft’s objective brings her to Syria and Siberia, where she faces natural phenomena, wild animals and the secret organization The Trinity, which also seeks to find the Divine Source for immortality and becomes a fierce enemy to Lara.

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This title is also a good example of an action-adventure game due to the wide range of skills required to solve the puzzles, mysteries and obstacles, and action is also a key element in these adventures full of fights and hectic activity. It takes place in an open world where the player can move freely. The game allows third-person vision and only Lara can be controlled as the playable character. It is estimated to require between 12 and 15 hours to be completed. Like the previous BAK and ACS games, in RTR, a narrative background guides the player to follow the main storyline, or campaign, structured in different objectives composed of a series of missions. The story is initially contextualized by long cinematics, which are essential to offer the player the necessary narrative background to make the plot develop. In addition, on-screen messages guide the player to the next mission that needs to be completed, indicating the place to go and the task to perform. Secondary missions and other small discoveries are available to continue playing once the main goal has been achieved, but not pursued, as was also the case in the other two video games. The action-­ adventure dynamics in the three titles have notable similarities, even though the narrative and stylistic medium is different in all three: modern fiction in BAK, historical fiction in ACS and also modern fiction in RTR, but with a less technological atmosphere than BAK. The story follows a series of pre-established phases that might vary depending on the missions that the player decides to undertake. The experienced player collaborating with this study only needed eight hours to complete the main goal in the Spanish version and seven hours to play in English. This difference is due to the player’s familiarity with the puzzles and mysteries the second time it was played. Cinematic scenes give the player all the necessary narrative information to act accordingly and are lengthy. In game action, puzzles and mysteries are even more frequent than in BAK or ACS due to the archeological context, but hand-­ to-­hand fights, speed and stealth are also recurrent. Tasks are usually transmitted as off-screen diegetic voices in the form of the main character’s thoughts. Dialogues are not as frequent as cinematics or game action and are used to complement narrative information, but are not crucial. In the analysis, 373 records were obtained for the Spanish version and 374 in English. These figures are shown in Table 5.11.

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Table 5.11  The distribution of game situations in RTR in the Spanish and English versions Tasks Game action Dialogues Cinematics Total

Spanish

English

50 (13.4%) 163 (43.7%) 45 (12.06%) 115 (30.38%) 373

47 (12.57%) 168 (44.92%) 45 (12.03%) 114 (30.48%) 374

As the figures in Table 5.12 show, types of synchronization are distributed in very similar ways in both versions; in other words, in both versions around three-quarters of cases are accounted for by the least restrictive types, that is, wild sync and time constraint.

5.3.3.1  Tasks in RTR As described for BAK and ACS, in RTR, all tasks are dubbed using wild sync because they are all transmitted through an off-screen diegetic voice reproducing Lara Croft’s thoughts. The character might be visible, but her mouth does not move as she is thinking aloud, indicating to the player what to do next. Thus, all tasks use wild sync in English and Spanish, that is, no restrictions apply: • English original version (EOV) [task, wild sync]—More Mongol ruins… It looks like the paths goes all the way through… Got to get past that bear. • Spanish dubbed version (SDV) [task, wild sync]—Más ruinas mongolas… Parece que el camino las atraviesa. Tengo que pasar por donde el oso. • Back translation: More Mongolian ruins… It looks like the road goes through them. I have to pass by the bear.

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Table 5.12  The distribution of dubbing synchronies in RTR, in the Spanish and English versions Wild synchrony Time constraint Strict time constraint Sound-sync Lip-sync Total

Spanish

English

101 (27.08%) 176 (47.19%) 13 (3.48%) 34 (9.11%) 49 (13.14%) 373

102 (27.27%) 175 (46.79%) 14 (3.74%) 34 (9.09%) 49 (13.1%) 374

5.3.3.2  Game Action in RTR RTR is mainly based on exploration and fights. While exploring, jumping, moving across the different settings, spying and fighting her enemies, Lara utters different onomatopoeic expressions8 and brief descriptions of what she sees, and she also overhears enemies’ conversations. All these utterances fit the characters’ physical movements and expressiveness, although they are flexible and do not precisely match the time when the characters’ mouths open and close. Most times, characters are seen from behind and the camera, even if it can be turned around, does not allow close-ups or even medium shots. All these cases represent examples of time constraint in both the English version and the Spanish dubbed version: • EOV [game action, TC] –– Konstantin is on his way down from the prison. What!? [Onomatopoeia]. –– Never seen anything like that. Crazy son of a bitch… –– I think I heard something. I’ll take a look. What the hell? Came from this… over there! You’re dead! [Onomatopoeia]. • SDV [game action, TC] –– A todas las unidades. Acaban de avisarme. Konstantin viene de la prisión. Hay que arreglar todo esto antes de que llegue. Eh, ¿me oye alguien? Vaya mierda, hay… [onomatopeyas].

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–– Nunca había visto nada así. Puto tarado, mira que lanzarse contra tres hombres armados con un… –– Ay, iré a ver… –– Comprendido. [Onomatopeyas]. –– Espera, algo pasa. • Back translation: –– To all units. I have just been notified. Konstantin is coming from the prison. We have to fix all this before he arrives. Hey, can anybody hear me? Holy shit, there’s… [onomatopoeias]. –– I’ve never seen anything like that. Fucking asshole, you can’t go up against three armed men with a… –– Oh, I’ll go check… –– Got it. [Onomatopoeias]. –– Wait, something’s up. Wild sync is actually the most frequent type of synchronization in game action as Lara uses a walkie-talkie to hear her enemies through off-­ screen diegetic voices, as happened with BAK: • EOV [game action, wild sync]—Surrender at once. Resistance will be met with deadly force. Lay down your weapons, or you will be shot! If you do not cease fire, we will kill you all. You have 30 seconds. • SDV [game action, wild sync]—Rendíos. Castigaremos la resistencia con fuerza letal. ¡Bajad las armas o dispararemos! Si no dejáis de disparar, os mataremos. Tenéis 30 segundos. • Back translation: Surrender. We will punish resistance with deadly force. Put down your weapons or we will shoot! If you don’t stop firing, we will kill you. You have 30 seconds. Likewise, Basecamp is a recurrent situation in which the player can camp and equip themselves with new weapons or outfits while Lara thinks aloud, narrating what she has discovered thus far, yet her mouth remains closed and still. Therefore, all Basecamp moments use wild sync as well. Finally, there is a particular example of wild sync in game action using an off-screen voice narration; the player can act with no restrictions

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Table 5.13  The distribution of dubbing synchronies in game action in RTR, in the Spanish and English versions Wild synchrony Time constraint Strict time constraint Sound-sync Lip-sync Total

Spanish

English

130 (79.75%) 33 (20.24%) 0 (0%) 0 (0%) 0 (0%) 163

130 (77.38%) 38 (22.62%) 0 (0%) 0 (0%) 0 (0%) 168

while listening to a recording of Lara’s father describing his discoveries before his death. The distributions are shown in Table 5.13.

5.3.3.3  Dialogues in RTR Dialogues are diverse, and four different types of synchronization are used in both the English and Spanish versions. To begin with, many dialogues take place using the already-mentioned walkie-talkie. Although interaction is not restricted in any way and Lara keeps moving and exploring or fighting as decided by the player, whenever a dialogue takes place, the character sometimes moves her arms to accompany what she is saying. If the camera is turned around, her mouth can be seen moving, although no articulation is used. Instead, a simple and rudimentary opening and closing movement can be observed. In addition, a small red light on the walkie-talkie that Lara carries on her belt turns on, indicating that voices can be heard. For all these reasons, some of the dialogues in game action need to be classified as time constraint, as a few flexible restrictions are considered to make the utterances fit the image. Wild sync was identified in only three moments in dialogues as the visual configuration of the scene did not allow either Lara or her interlocutor to be seen. Furthermore, a few cases of strict time constraint were found whenever the characters’ faces could be seen more closely and their mouths opened and closed repeatedly, coinciding exactly with the length of the utterances, although pauses and intonation were not reproduced: • EOV [dialogue, STC]

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–– They have him… Imprisoned… Got to… Got to… –– Oh, no. No, no, no. • SDV [dialogue, STC] –– Agios o Theos… Lo tienen / prisionero… Tienes que… –– Oh, no. No, no, no. • Back translation: –– Agios or Theos… They have him / prisoner… You have to… –– Oh, no. No, no, no, no. Two examples of sound-sync were found when the visual configuration and the camera movement allowed the characters to be seen clearly. Their expressiveness and mouths resemble the text closely, yet without reaching the highest level of restriction (lip-sync). No examples of lip-­ sync were found. The figures are presented in Table 5.14.

5.3.3.4  Cinematics in RTR Cinematic scenes are also diverse in RTR and the five types of synchronization can be found. They all contextualize the beginning or the end of different missions, sometimes using flashbacks to Lara’s childhood to explain why she is determined to complete her father’s investigation. Although wild sync is typically used for narrations and when off-screen voices are heard, lip-sync is the most frequent type of synchronization in both English and Spanish, since cinematics represent cinematographic Table 5.14  The distribution of dubbing synchronies in dialogues in RTR, in the Spanish and English versions Wild synchrony Time constraint Strict time constraint Sound-sync Lip-sync Total

Spanish

English

3 (6.6.7%) 31 (68.9%) 9 (20%) 2 (4.44%) 0 (0%) 45

3 (6.6.7%) 31 (68.9%) 9 (20%) 2 (4.44%) 0 (0%) 45

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video clips. The characters’ mouths are animated, reproducing the English text exactly on many occasions; the Spanish lip-sync is very accurate in most cases, which means that dischronies are not common: • EOV [cinematic scene, lip-sync] –– Ana: Lara?! It’s me! –– Lara: Ana! Oh God… I’m so sorry. What are you doing here? –– I saw the gutter press was attacking you again. / I thought you could use some company. –– Lara: More lies. Were you followed? –– Ana: Followed? / Of course not. What’s going on? –– Lara: [Gestures] I think I found the tomb. –– Ana: Oh, you can’t be serious. –– Lara: The myth of the prophet is real. Dad was right. –– Ana: Lara, your father was… / unwell. –– Lara: No, he was close to a great discovery. Tangible evidence of the immortal soul. […] • SDV [cinematic scene, lip-sync] –– Ana: ¡¿Lara?! ¡Soy yo! –– Lara: ¡Ana! Dios mío… Lo siento mucho. ¿Qué haces aquí? –– Ana: Vi que la prensa amarilla volvía a atacarte. Pensé que te vendría bien la compañía. –– Lara: Más mentiras. ¿Te han seguido? –– Ana: ¿Seguido? / Claro que no. ¿Qué sucede? –– Lara: [Gestos] Creo que he encontrado la tumba. –– Ana: Tienes que estar de broma. –– Lara: El mito del profeta es real. Papá tenía razón. –– Ana: Lara, tu padre no… / estaba bien. –– Lara: No, estaba a punto de hacer un gran descubrimiento. La prueba tangible del alma inmortal […]. • Back translation: –– Lara: Lara?! It’s me! –– Lara: Ana! Oh, my God… I’m so sorry. What are you doing here?

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–– Ana: I saw the tabloids were attacking you again. I thought you could use the company. –– Lara: More lies. Were you followed? –– Anna: Followed? / Of course not. What’s going on? –– Lara: [Gestures] I think I found the tomb. –– Anna: You’ve got to be kidding me. –– Lara: The myth of the prophet is real. Dad was right. –– Ana: Lara, your father wasn’t… / okay. –– Lara: No, he was about to make a great discovery. The tangible proof of the immortal soul […]. A few examples of time constraint were identified in both versions in very short cinematics in which the characters only uttered onomatopoeic expressions, or their faces were covered with a mask or a helmet, so their mouths were not visible, yet their body movement could be seen and the text was a good fit. Likewise, some cinematic scenes show the characters in full shots, thus their mouths can be seen opening and closing, but no clear articulation is identifiable. As a result, strict time constraint applies. The more restrictive sound-sync is also used when the photographic codes (lights and colors) do not allow the characters’ mouths to be seen clearly, but their utterances precisely reproduce the same length and pauses, with a faithful use of cinematographic isochrony and kinesic synchrony (Table 5.15): • EOV [cinematic scene, SS] –– Jonah: [Gestures] Gotcha! [Gestures] / Shit, Lara! / You’re gonna give me a heart attack! / Are you okay? –– Lara: Yeah. Come on. • SDV [cinematic scene, SS] –– Jonah: [Gestos] ¡Te tengo! [Gestos] / ¡Mierda, Lara! / ¡Vas a hacer que me dé un infarto! / ¿Estás bien? –– Lara: Sí. Vamos. • Back translation:

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Table 5.15  The distribution of dubbing synchronies in cinematics in RTR, in the Spanish and English versions Wild synchrony Time constraint Strict time constraint Sound-sync Lip-sync Total

Spanish

English

15 (13.04%) 15 (13.04%) 4 (3.49%) 32 (27.83%) 49 (42.61%) 115

14 (12.28%) 14 (12.28%) 5 (4.39%) 32 (28.97%) 49 (42.98%) 114

–– Jonah: [Gestures] I got you! [Gestures] / Shit, Lara! / You’re gonna give me a heart attack! / Are you okay?

5.4 T  he Dubbing of a Graphic Adventure: Detroit: Become Human Unlike the three previous games, Detroit: Become Human belongs to the subgenre of graphic adventures, included in the interactive genre of adventure games (see Chap. 1, Sect. 1.3). Graphic adventures focus on the narrative content rather than using complex mechanics and requiring the development of skills, yet a combination of different skills is necessary to make the story develop while exploring the setting and making determinant decisions. This video game, along with BAK, ACS and RTR, displays realistic human beings and androids whose mouths and expressions can be considered for synchronization purposes. The medium is set in a dystopic North American city and is also played exclusively from a third-­ person perspective, in single-player mode, and was developed by a different company than the previous three games, although the localization company coincides with that of BAK. The different subgenre of a graphic adventure game creates considerable differences that are accounted for in the results of the analysis, as will be described below. As it belongs to a different subgenre, it is interesting to compare this video game with the other three action-adventure titles to identify particularities in the game situations of which the game is composed and also in the application of dubbing synchronies.

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Detroit: Become Human (DBH) was developed by Quantic Dream and distributed by Sony Interactive Entertainment. It was launched on May 25, 2018, for PlayStation 4 and on December 12, 2019, for Microsoft Windows. Its director, David Cage, is also the founder of this game development firm specializing in interactive storytelling, with a very personal style emulated in other titles developed by Quantic Dream such as Beyond: Two Souls (2013) and Heavy Rain (2010). The localization services company Pink Noise carried out the dubbing process into Spanish (Spain). The game was originally developed in English, and the final localized product includes in-game text and subtitles in 24 languages. Voices are available in English, Spanish, Latin American Spanish, French, German, Italian, Arabic, Japanese, Polish, Portuguese, Brazilian Portuguese and Russian. In 2018, it won the Excellence in Narrative award at the SXSW Gaming Awards at the annual South by Southwest Festival (SXSW) (Austin, Texas) and the Award for Excellence at the Japan Game Awards in 2019. The story revolves around three main characters: the caretaker android Markus, the housekeeper android Kara and the police android Connor. These three androids live in Detroit, which has become a technological city in a dystopic world in which androids are sold to serve humans for several purposes. Problems arise when some androids start experiencing feelings beyond what a machine is supposed to, defying or even killing their owners and thus becoming “divergent” androids. Connor’s aim is to investigate some cases of divergent androids while Kara and Markus face the challenge of defying their owners and escaping to fight for their rights. Like BAK, ACS and RTR, this video game can be classified in the interactive genre of adventure games due to the variety of activities and skills required of the player. However, unlike the previous games, as the narrative content is given priority over the player’s ability to interact with the game world, DBH belongs to the subcategory of graphic adventure. David Cage’s games have always been conceived as a film whose challenge is not as important as the immersion in the story itself (Altozano 2017). The mechanics are simple and easy to learn. What really matters are the decisions made by the player to make the story develop, choosing one among a series of options that the game programming offers; the consequences, however, are unknown to the player. Above all, Cage’s main

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concern is the player’s emotional response and to make the story really touch the player (ibid.). Like any movie, the story is told and played from a third-person perspective, in this case, controlling either Connor, Kara or Markus as pre-determined by the game—the player cannot choose the character. It is estimated to require between 8 and 10 hours to be completed. This game is also structured according to a central story whose development is divided into what can be considered different missions. Every time a new mission is completed, a scene flowchart shows the paths taken by the player and those yet to be explored if the same mission or part was repeated. The next mission will depend on the decisions made by the player in the previous one. Once the end of the story has been reached, no additional missions are available, but every mission can be repeated as many times as desired, thus altering the next mission to be completed. Consequently, the story develops in a more pre-defined way than in the action-adventure games previously analyzed, but any decisions made by the player still determine what happens next. In this analysis, it took ten hours to complete the story in Spanish and ten hours to complete it in English. Interestingly, cinematic scenes are the game situation most frequently identified on the analysis chart instead of game action, as happened with some of the previous titles, except for ACS, in which cinematics were also the most frequent situation. However, game action was not far behind. As explained, cinematics contextualized game action in ACS and appeared before and after a game action moment was completed. In the case of DBH, the frequent appearance of cinematics is suggestive of the stronger narrative nature of a graphic adventure compared to action-adventure games, in which game action is the core of the product. The second most frequent game situation in DBH is dialogues in the form of quick-time events, followed by game action, which displays straightforward game mechanics based on puzzle-solving as well as the exploration of the setting and clue gathering. Finally, voiced tasks are not common. It should be acknowledged that this video game does not contain dialogues as defined for action-adventure games, but rather what can be considered quick-time events (QTEs) with a dialogic aim—or “dialogic QTEs”. QTEs are a recurrent tool in Cage’s work to engage the player in

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making decisions with simple mechanics. In fact, the most purist video game players criticize QTEs because they are said to interfere with playability and the player’s full control of the action. That is indeed Cage’s intention: to make playability simple and accessible to any person interested in the story, regardless of their gaming skills—as stated above, narrative over interaction. In the case of DBH, most QTEs are included in dialogues with other NPCs in which the player is engaged in making decisions within a limited time span. Traditionally, QTEs are considered a type of game mechanics usually included in cinematics in which the player is given a time limit to press a certain button or perform a particular movement. Depending on the game, it may be necessary to get all the actions in the right order within the allotted time for the cinematic scene to continue, or they simply give the player some advantage (Yova Turnes 2020). In DBH, pure action QTEs containing no dialogues are not very common. In other video games, these pure action QTEs are not dubbed as they simply require the player to press a certain button, but no voices are heard. This is not the case in DBH as QTEs offer the player different options in a dialogue and are thus dubbed. For this reason, pure action QTEs have not been recorded on the analysis chart at all, as all of them would have been recorded as “no dubbing”. Only dialogic QTEs that are dubbed (i.e. they let the player participate in a dialogue that is also heard) have been considered. As stated, the importance of the narrative content is illustrated by the figures in Table 5.16, in which cinematics are the most frequent situation followed by QTEs. They are essential moments to make the plot develop and to give the player the necessary context to make decisions. Tasks, Table 5.16  The distribution of game situations in DBH in the Spanish and English versions Tasks Game action Dialogic QTEs Cinematics Total

Spanish

English

58 (8.33%) 180 (25.86%) 212 (30.46%) 246 (35.34%) 696

58 (8.33%) 180 (25.86%) 212 (30.46%) 246 (35.34%) 696

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Table 5.17  The distribution of dubbing synchronies in DBH, in the Spanish and English versions Wild synchrony Time constraint Strict time constraint Sound-sync Lip-sync No dubbing Total

Spanish

English

54 (7.76%) 24 (3.45%) 36 (5.17%) 10 (1.43%) 424 (60.92%) 148 (21.26%) 696

54 (7.76%) 23 (3.3%) 36 (5.17%) 6 (0.86%) 429 (61.64%) 148 (21.26%) 696

which are not very common, are irrelevant for dubbing as they are—with one exception—transmitted exclusively through on-screen text. Table 5.17 summarizes the distribution of the five types of synchrony. As will become apparent in the tables presenting the distributions for each of the game situations below, in contrast to the action-adventure games, a large number of situations were marked as “no dubbing” (148/696, i.e. 21.26%). Of these, 80 took place during game action, 11 represented silent cinematic scenes and 57 were tasks in which the instructions were transmitted through in-game text. As the figures in Table 5.17 show, lip-sync is the type of synchronization most commonly used, which seems reasonable in a graphic adventure whose aim is to reproduce the cinematographic experience while letting the player become the main character of the story. Silent moments are also frequent, typically during game action, while the character is exploring a room or place. Cinematic scenes containing no dialogues are also used as a narrative tool in this graphic adventure, and tasks use on-screen text exclusively, thus no dubbing is necessary. The only exception to this is the very first task of the game in which a female android talks to the player in a close-up shot, giving him/her instructions to adjust the game settings.

5.4.1 Tasks in DBH As explained, tasks do not require dubbing in DBH as they are almost exclusively transmitted through in-game text. As noted, the only exception is the beginning of the game, when an android addresses the player

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to help him/her adjust the game settings. The android’s lips have been animated reproducing the English utterances exactly. The Spanish dubbing uses an accurate lip-sync resembling cinematographic dubbing in a close-up shot: • English original version (EOV) [task, lip-sync]—Hello! Welcome to the Detroit experience. I’m an android and I’ll be your hostess. Before we begin, let’s make some adjustments to optimize your experience. These language settings were detected on your console. Are they correct? Please adjust your screen settings. Thank you. Now select your profile. When this sign is displayed, please do not turn off your ­console. You’re now ready to begin Detroit. Remember: this is not just a story. This is our future. • Spanish dubbed version (SDV) [task, lip-sync]—¡Hola! Le doy la bienvenida a la experiencia Detroit. Soy una androide y estoy a su servicio. Pero antes de empezar, vamos a hacer unos ajustes para optimizar su experiencia. Este es el idioma que hemos detectado en su consola. ¿Es el correcto? Por favor, ahora configure la pantalla. Gracias. Ahora, seleccione su perfil. Cuando este signo aparezca, por favor, no desactive su consola. Está usted a punto de comenzar Detroit. Recuerde: esto no es solo una historia. Esto es nuestro futuro. • Back translation: Hello! I welcome you to the Detroit experience. I am an android and I am at your service. But before we begin, let’s make a few adjustments to optimize your experience. This is the language we have detected on your console, is it the correct one? Please configure the screen now. Thank you. Now, select your profile. When this sign appears, please do not turn off your console. You are about to start Detroit. Remember: this is not just a story. This is our future. Out of the 58 tasks found in DBH, only 1 (1.72%) is dubbed using lip-sync in both versions, while the other 57 cases (98.28%) required no dubbing (Table 5.18).

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Table 5.18  The distribution of dubbing synchronies in tasks in DBH, in the Spanish and English versions Lip-sync No dubbing Total

Spanish

English

1 (1.72%) 57 (98.28%) 58

1 (1.72%) 57 (98.28%) 58

5.4.2 Game Action in DBH DBH uses simple mechanics to let the player explore the different settings, talk to other NPCs, analyze their behavior and gather clues and information as continuous decisions will need to be made throughout the story. Since cinematics and dialogues carry the narrative weight of the story, spoken text in game action is sometimes irrelevant. In fact, many game action moments are silent, requiring no dubbing. Wild sync is typically used, as voiced text repeatedly serves as background noise, such as off-screen announcements at the train station and messages transmitted through the radio and TV. On a few occasions, the main characters utter short statements while carrying out tasks, but they are seen from behind and do not show any particular expressiveness or body movement that should be reproduced in the text, thus wild sync applies as the most frequent type of synchrony during game action. Time constraint has also been identified when NPCs utter short sentences whose length fits the time that their mouths open and close, while strict time constraint has been identified when the camera allows medium shots in which the characters’ movements can be seen more clearly. While pauses are not reproduced, the utterances’ lengths precisely fit the same number of seconds that the characters’ mouths open and close: • EOV [game action, STC]—Kara: Look, the store is still open. Maybe we should go inside. At least you’ll be out of the cold. • SDV [game action, STC]—Kara: Mira, la tienda aún está abierta. Tal vez podamos entrar. Al menos no tendrás frío. • Back translation: Kara: Look, the store is still open. Maybe we can go inside. At least you won’t be cold.

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Sound-sync has only been identified on three occasions in Spanish, while these cases were recorded as using lip-sync in English. This is because while the characters’ mouth articulation has been animated based on the English recordings, the Spanish reproduces the same length, pauses and deictic expressions, but lip articulation does not seem to be considered: • EOV [game action, lip-sync] –– Salesperson: And handles the kids’ homework from elementary school to university level. –– Woman: Wow, honey, it looks amazing… This is exactly what we need. –– Man: How much did you say it costs? –– Salesperson: At the moment, we’re doing a special promotion on this entire range at $7999, with a 48-month interest-free credit. And it comes with a two-year warranty for parts and labor. • SDV [game action, SS] –– Vendedor: Y se encarga de los deberes de los niños, desde primaria hasta la universidad. –– Mujer: Vaya… Cariño, es increíble… Exactamente lo que necesitamos. –– Hombre: ¿Cuánto ha dicho que cuesta? –– Vendedor: En este momento tenemos una oferta especial para esta gama de 7999 dólares, con financiación sin intereses a 48 meses. Tiene dos años de garantía en piezas y mano de obra. • Back translation: –– Salesperson: And he takes care of children’s homework, from elementary school through college. –– Woman: Wow… Honey, that’s amazing… Exactly what we need. –– Man: How much did you say it costs? –– Salesman: Right now we have a special offer on this range for $7999, with 48-month interest-free financing. It has a two-year warranty on parts and labor.

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Table 5.19  The distribution of dubbing synchronies in game action in DBH, in the Spanish and English versions Wild synchrony Time constraint Strict time constraint Sound-sync Lip-sync No dubbing Total

Spanish

English

42 (23.33%) 22 (12.22%) 31 (12.22%) 3 (1.67%) 2 (1.11%) 80 (44.44%) 180

42 (23.33%) 21 (11.67%) 31 (12.22%) 0 (0%) 6 (3.33%) 80 (44.44%) 180

In the example above, although the Spanish dubbed version has been recorded as using sound-sync (which means that the highest level of restriction, i.e. lip-sync, has not been applied), the inclusion of the deictic expression “on this entire range” should be highlighted, translated in Spanish as “para esta gama”. Even though lip movement and facial expressions cannot be seen clearly, most utterances have been translated reproducing the original structure of the English sentences, which ensures that any gestures made by the characters are also reflected in the dubbed version; otherwise, in the above example, dischrony would have occurred when the salesperson points at the android he is describing in the image. The results for game action are presented in Table 5.19.

5.4.3 Dialogic QTEs in DBH As explained, dialogues in DBH take place in the form of quick-time events in which the player is given a limited time span to choose one of four options given within a dialogue. Most dialogic QTEs take place during cinematic scenes, which is why lip-sync is by far the most frequent type of dubbing synchronization. Cases of wild sync, time constraint, strict time constraint and sound-sync have also been recorded, but they are almost marginal and are used in particular moments when the characters are seen from behind or it is difficult to see their faces. The figures in Table 5.20 show that the Spanish and English versions have the same distribution of dubbing synchronies. The following example illustrates the use of lip-sync.

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Table 5.20  The distribution of dubbing synchronies in dialogic QTEs in DBH, in the Spanish and English versions Wild synchrony Time constraint Strict time constraint Sound-sync Lip-sync Total

Spanish

English

5 (2.36%) 1 (0.47%) 4 (1.89%) 2 (0.94%) 200 (94.34%) 212

5 (2.36%) 1 (0.47%) 4 (1.89%) 2 (0.94%) 200 (94.34%) 212

• EOV [QTE-dialogue, lip-sync] –– Connor: I understand… It probably wasn’t interesting anyway… A man found dead in a sex club downtown… Guess they’ll have to solve the case without us… –– Lieutenant: You know, probably wouldn’t do me any harm to get some air… There’re some clothes in the bedroom there. –– Connor: I’ll go get them. • SDV [QTE-dialogue, lip-sync] –– Connor: Lo entiendo… Tampoco creo que tuviera mucho interés… Han encontrado el cadáver de un hombre en un burdel del centro… Ya resolverán el caso sin nosotros… –– Teniente: Oye, no me vendrá mal tomar un poco el aire. En el armario de la habitación hay ropa. –– Connor: Iré a por ella. • Back translation: –– Connor: I understand… I don’t think I had much interest either… They found a man’s body in a brothel downtown… They’ll solve the case without us…. –– Lieutenant: Listen, I could use some fresh air. There’s some clothes in the bedroom closet. –– Connor: I’ll go get them.

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5.4.4 Cinematics in DBH The use of dubbing synchronies in cinematic scenes in DBH is quite similar to that in dialogic QTEs as both are essential narrative moments to make the game develop. They use a cinematographic configuration to create a realistic atmosphere in which, as happens in movies, lip-sync serves as the most accurate dubbing synchrony. A few examples of the less restrictive time constraint, strict time constraint and sound-sync are found whenever the characters involved are not clearly visible, are seen from behind or have their faces partially covered. Likewise, wild sync is used on a few occasions when off-screen voices are heard. The following example shows the use of lip-sync in cinematics before the results for this game situation are summarized in Table 5.21. • EOV [cinematic scene, lip-sync] –– Lieutenant? –– [Gestures] –– Wake up, Lieutenant! –– [Gestures] –– It’s me, Connor! –– [Gestures] –– I’m going to sober you up, for your own safety. I have to warn you, this may be unpleasant. –– Hey! Leave me alone, you fuckin’ android! Get the fuck outta my house! Table 5.21  The distribution of dubbing synchronies in cinematics QTEs in DBH, in the Spanish and English versions Wild synchrony Time constraint Strict time constraint Sound-sync Lip-sync No dubbing Total

Spanish

English

7 (2.85%) 1 (0.41%) 1 (0.41%) 5 (2.03%) 221 (89.84%) 11 (4.47%) 246

7 (2.85%) 1 (0.41%) 1 (0.41%) 4 (1.63%) 222 (90.24%) 11 (4.47%) 246

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–– I’m sorry, Lieutenant, but I need you. Thank you in advance for your cooperation. –– Hey! Get the fuck outta here! • SDV [cinematic scene, lip-sync] –– ¿Teniente? –– [Gestos] –– Despierte, teniente. –– [Gestos] –– ¡Soy yo, Connor! –– [Gestos] –– Por su bien, haré que vuelva a estar sobrio. Se lo advierto: será poco agradable. –– (G) ¡Déjame en paz, puto androide! ¡Sal de mi casa, joder! –– Lo siento, teniente, pero lo necesito. Le agradezco de antemano su colaboración. –– Eh, ¡lárgate de aquí, joder! • Back translation: –– Lieutenant? –– [Gestures] –– Wake up, lieutenant. –– [Gestures] –– It’s me, Connor! –– [Gestures] –– For your sake, I’ll sober you up again. I warn you: it won’t be pleasant. –– (G) Leave me alone, you fucking android! -Get the fuck out of my house! –– I’m sorry, Lieutenant, but I need you. Thank you in advance for your cooperation. –– Hey, get the fuck out of here! -Get the fuck out!

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5.5 Concluding Remarks As this chapter has shown, video games are diverse in nature, but their contents can be structured and analyzed following a particular methodology that takes into account their interactive dimension as audiovisual products. Adventure games, like most interactive genres, can be divided into different game situations that entail particular conditions for interactivity. As the data analyzed here indicates, these game situations require different approaches when being dubbed. As a first step toward identifying the nature of the relationship between game situation and type of synchronization, and more generally as a modest starting point in exploring the use of dubbing in localization, the following analysis brings together the data presented above. Clearly, further studies with larger video game corpora are needed. Regarding game situations, it could be argued that their recurrent use varies depending on the interactive genre, according to the games analyzed here. The three action-adventure games show a predominance of game action with a strong presence of cinematics (see Figure 5.1 below). 50% 45% 40% 35% 30% 25% 20% 15% 10% 5% 0% BAK EOV

BAK SDV Tasks

ACS EOV

ACS SPV

Game action

RTR EOV Dialogues

RTR SDV

DBH EOV

DBH SDV

Cinematics

Fig. 5.1  The distribution of game situations displayed in the English original version (EOV) and the Spanish dubbed version (SDV) of BAK, ACS, RTR and DBH

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This seems consistent with the type of experience created by action-­ adventure games, in which the user plays the main role in making the story develop, interacting with the different settings and other characters, but the narrative content is also essential to complement and guide the player’s actions. On the other hand, the graphic adventure analyzed is based on a stronger prevalence of cinematics, followed by dialogues, both of which carry the narrative content in which the player repeatedly makes significant decisions, making game action the third most repeated situation (see Fig. 5.1 below). The use of game situations as units of analysis for descriptive studies could also be explored to analyze and characterize other AVT modes such as standard subtitling, subtitling for the deaf and hard-of-hearing or audio description. The identification of how the game situations are distributed in selected video games provides the basis for the more interesting question of whether any patterns can be found between the choice of particular dubbing synchronies and particular game situations. A further issue to be considered is whether the genre (or in the case studies presented here, subgenre) plays a role in the choice of dubbing type. In fact, no clear preferences have been found in the present data according to the game genre: each of the games studied shows a different distribution in the use of each type of synchronization, so no clear pattern emerges (see Tables 5.2, 5.7, 5.12 and 5.17). However, some patterns do begin to emerge if we consider particular game situations (see Figs.  5.2 and 5.3 below). Tasks, for example, do show a clear pattern as they are always dubbed wild in action-adventure games or appear as on-screen text in DBH. This, nonetheless, could vary depending on the setting or medium (see Chap. 1, Sect. 1.3) as historical games would not allow the use of modern technologies (walkie-talkies or similar devices which mask facial views) to receive information. This also applies to game action, in which the two least restrictive types of synchrony—wild and time constraint—are the most frequently used, likely due to the limited detail in which faces and characters are seen while interacting with the game world as well as the use of walkie-talkies and off-camera voices to hear other characters. In the four games studied, dialogues are the most diverse game situation as no clear patterns can be detected, although the data is suggestive of a slight preference for the

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more restrictive types—strict time constraint, sound-sync and lip-sync— than in other situations. Finally, as cinematics represent the game situation that most closely resembles traditional movies, lip-sync notably predominates, combined with wild sync whenever off-camera narrations are used. Since DBH prioritizes the cinematographic experience over the game mechanics, not only are cinematics more frequent than in the other three games, but the use of stricter restrictions in dubbing is also reflected in the prevalence of lip-sync in the overall game. Figures 5.1, 5.2 and 5.3 also let us compare the original and the target version of each game. As these figures show, the localization process does not seem to cause considerable changes in the voicing and dubbing synchronization. A modest relaxation can be seen in the Spanish version of BAK, ACS and specifically in game action in DBH as the English original version contains a slightly higher occurrence of stricter types of synchronies, perhaps caused by a certain loss of accuracy during the dubbing process. Regarding game situations, changes in both versions are minimal or even nonexistent in some cases and seem to be caused by the arbitrariness inherent to all interactive products. 100% 90% 80% 70% 60% 50% 40% 30% 20% 10% 0%

Wild

TC

STC

SS

Lip-sync

No oral text

Fig. 5.2  The distribution of types of synchronization used in the Spanish dubbed version (SDV) of BAK, ACS, RTR and DBH

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100% 90% 80% 70% 60% 50% 40% 30% 20% 10% 0%

Wild

TC

STC

SS

Lip-sync

No oral text

Fig. 5.3  The distribution of types of synchronization used in the English original version (EOV) of BAK, ACS, RTR and DBH

Finally, this analysis shows that the interactive nature of video games adds a new dimension to the initial reference point of film dubbing, creating different levels of restriction for dubbing purposes in game localization. The games analyzed here seem, with certain variations, to follow patterns in the use of dubbing synchronies depending on how restrictive each game situation is in terms of the number of semiotic codes it involves.9 The higher the number of semiotic codes that influence the linguistic code—which is what is being translated—the more restrictive the synchrony is. Interaction creates variability and leads to some of these semiotic codes having a more limited impact on the choice of dubbing type (e.g. types of shots or photography). Thus, the more interactive a situation is, from cinematics as the least to tasks/games actions the most interactive with dialogues in between, the less restrictive dubbing seems to become, although additional aspects should also be considered, such as the medium (setting) of the game, the mode (player perspective) and the game mechanics. All these factors should be taken into consideration as possible variables when designing an extended corpus as they might well influence dubbing synchronization choices; for example, the use of

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walkie-talkies or similar devices favors wild sync, while a first-person perspective might allow a higher level of detail and closer view of other characters, thus making sound-sync or lip-sync prevail. The aim of this empirically based chapter has been to shed some light on the flourishing field of video game localization, focusing on the underexplored area of dubbing and synchronization, for which the data presented above is intended to offer a starting point for further research. Using multimedia corpora can definitely contribute to identifying recurrent patterns in the use of dubbing synchronies, which could be used to optimize translation processes. Game genres could also be more clearly defined according to the different game situations in which they are articulated and to the interactive conditions they impose. Finally, close collaboration with the industry would undoubtedly contribute to refining research methodologies as well as to targeting those aspects that the game industry considers of interest to improve its own localization processes.

Notes 1. Both authors use video game corpora in their research. Pujol, nonetheless, also includes three movies and a short in his corpus to conduct a transmedia analysis, while Vázquez Rodríguez uses a corpus of ten video games to analyze translation errors. Neither of them used game situations as the unit of analysis to organize the studied phenomena, as we propose here, nor do other researchers conducting case studies such as Van Oers (2014), Müller Galhardi (2014), Ensslin (2012), Mangiron (2010), Fernández Torné (2007) and Crosignani and Ravetto (2011), to name but a few. 2. The terms “mission”, “sequence” and “section” are not used here with any particular meaning in the gaming world, but simply as generic terms used to refer to different ways to structure the game action. In other words, each adventure video game can be organized in different parts, as movies are structured into sequences developing a particular topic or phase of the story. These movie sequences, in turn, can be divided into scenes and shots. In video games, however, no standardized terminology is used to structure the contents of the plot. For example, Assassin’s Creed Syndicate is divided into different “sequences”, as they are called in the game, which in turn are divided into different parts. Each part represents a particular

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mission or assignment that the player must complete. In Batman: Arkham Knight, the story is divided into “missions” and “optional missions”, that is, different assignments that the player must complete, but they are not grouped into sections or sequences. In Rise of the Tomb Raider, the story is based on sequential “goals”, as they are called in the game, each of them containing particular “missions”; for example, one of the goals is to find the lost tomb. To find it (main goal), one of the many missions or assignments is to find some ruins, another one is to explore a specific area within those ruins and so on. Once all the missions are completed, the main goal is achieved and a new goal is set for the player. 3. The information about Detroit: Become Human is available at https:// www.doblajevideojuegos.es/fichajuego/detroit-­become-­human. The information about Batman: Arkham Knight is available at https://www. doblajevideojuegos.es/fichajuego/batman-­arkham-­knight. Both were accessed on July 14, 2021. 4. This software developed by Microsoft is included in Windows 10 as a tool to let players stream online their gameplays and record them. It also allows screenshots to be taken and the gaming app Xbox to be accessed. 5. Such minor differences arose when some of the segments in English and Spanish did not correspond literally in terms of their linguistic content (i.e. the source and the original sentences were not the same) due to the arbitrariness inherent to all video games—typically, a series of short utterances are stored in the game code to be emitted in specific circumstances such as, for example, battle expressions or onomatopoeia when the main character dies. This was not a relevant issue for the analysis, as the focus was the type of synchronization and not the evaluation of the linguistic content. 6. The symbol / has been used when there are pauses between 1 and 4 seconds within a statement. Longer pauses are indicated with //. 7. Bold letters have been used to highlight the use of equivalent vowels, consonants or groups of letters in lip-sync examples. 8. Guiomar Alburquerque, the Spanish dubbing actress who dubbed Lara Croft in RTR, describes these expressions as batches of onomatopoeia for different purposes: jumping, dying, hitting enemies and so on. They are all dubbed consecutively without any visual references, as isolated gestures, yet they fit the character’s expressiveness and the allotted time to be uttered, approximately, which is why they have all been categorized as time constraint examples. Her interview can be seen at https://www.youtube.com/ watch?v=Tzyrqin7nwc (Xbox España, 2015) (accessed January 31, 2021). 9. See Table 4.3 in Chap. 4, Sect. 4.2.3.

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References AEVI (Asociación Española de Videojuegos). 2016. Anuario de la industria del videojuego. Madrid. Altozano, José. 2017. El videojuego a través de David Cage. Sevilla: Héroes de Papel. Baker, Mona. 1993. Corpus Linguistics and Translation Studies: Implications and Applications. In Text and Technology: Studies in Honour of John Sinclair, ed. Mona Baker, Gill Francis, and Elena Tognini-Bonelli, 233–250. Amsterdam/Philadelphia: John Benjamins. Baños, Rocío, Silvia Bruti, and Serenella Zanotti. 2013. Corpus Linguistics and Audiovisual Translation: In Search of an Integrated Approach. Perspectives: Studies in Translatology 21 (4): 483–490. https://doi.org/10.108 0/0907676X.2013.831926. Bernal-Merino, Miguel Á. 2007. Challenges in the Translation of Video Games. Tradumàtica 5. ———. 2015. Translation and Localisation in Video Games Making Entertainment Software Global. New York: Routledge. ———. 2016. Creating Felicitous Gaming Experiences: Semiotics and Pragmatics as Tools for Video Game Localisation. Signata. Annales Des Sémitoques 7: 231–253. https://doi.org/10.4000/signata.1227. Chaume, Frederic. 2012. La traducción para el doblaje. Visión retrospectiva y evolución. In Reflexiones sobre la traducción audiovisual. Tres espectros, tres momentos, ed. Juan José Martínez Sierra, 25–37. Valencia: Universitat de València. Crosignani, Simone, and Fabio Ravetto. 2011. Localizing the Buzz! Game Series (Or How to Successfully Implement Transcreation in a Multi-Million Seller Video Game). Trans. Revista de Traductología 15: 29–38. https://doi. org/10.24310/TRANS.2011.v0i15.3193. Dunne, Keiran J. 2006. Perspectives on Localization. Ed. Keiran J.  Dunne. Amsterdam/Philadelphia: John Benjamins. Ensslin, Astrid. 2012. The Language of Gaming. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. Fernández Costales, Alberto. 2012. Exploring Translation Strategies in Video Game Localisaton. MonTI 4: 385–408. Fernández Torné, Anna. 2007. Anàlisi de la localització de Codename: Kids Next Door—Operation V.I.D.E.O.G.A.M.E. Tradumàtica 5. Granell, Ximo, Carme Mangiron, and Núria Vidal. 2015. La traducción de videojuegos. Sevilla: Bienza.

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Laviosa, Sara. 2012. Corpora and Translation Studies. In Corpus Applications in Applied Linguistics, ed. Ken Hyland, Chau Meng Huat, and Michael Handford, 67–83. London and New York: Continuum International. Le Dour, Corinne Isabelle. 2007. Surviving Audio Localization. Gamasutra. https://www.gamasutra.com/view/feature/1713/surviving_audio_localization.php#5. Loureiro Pernas, María. 2007. Paseo por la localización de un videojuego. Tradumàtica 5. Mangiron, Carme. 2010. The Importance of Not Being Earnest: Translating Humour in Video Games. In Translation, Humour and the Media, ed. Delia Chiaro, 89–107. London: Continuum. ———. 2011. Accesibilidad a los videojuegos: Estado actual y perspectivas futuras. Trans. Revista de Traductología 15: 39–51. https://doi.org/10.24310/ trans.2011.v0i15.3195. ———. 2013. Subtitling in Game Localisation: A Descriptive Study. Perspectives: Studies in Translatology 21 (1): 42–56. https://doi.org/10.108 0/0907676X.2012.722653. ———. 2016. Reception of Game Subtitles: An Empirical Study. The Translator 22 (1): 72–93. https://doi.org/10.1080/13556509.2015.1110000. ———. 2017. Research in Game Localisation. The Journal of Internationalization and Localization 4 (2): 74–99. https://doi.org/10.1075/jial.00003.man. ———. 2021. Panorama actual de la accesibilidad a los videojuegos. In Modalidades de traducción audiovisual: Completando el espectro, ed. Beatriz Reverter Oliver, Juan José Martínez-Sierra, Diana González Pastor, and José Fernando Carrero Martín, 101–110. Granada: Comares, colección Interlingua. Mangiron, Carme, Pilar Orero, and Minako O’Hagan. 2014. Fun for All: Translation and Accessibility Practices in Video Games. Bern: Peter Lang. Maxwell Chandler, Heather, and Stephanie O’Malley Deming. 2012. The Game Localization Handbook. 2nd ed. Sudbury, MA: Jones. Mejías-Climent, Laura. 2021. “Los estudios de corpus y la localización: Una propuesta de análisis para material interactivo.” In Reflexión crítica en los estudios de traducción basados en corpus / CTS spring-cleaning: A critical reflection, edited by María Calzada and Sara Laviosa. MonTI—Monografías de Traducción e Interpretación 13: 220–250. Müller Galhardi, Rafael. 2014. Video Games and Fan Translations: A Case Study. In Fun for All: Translation and Accessibility Practices in Video Games, ed. Carme Mangiron, Minako O’Hagan, and Pilar Orero, 175–195. Bern: Peter Lang.

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Muñoz Sánchez, Pablo. 2017. Localización de videojuegos. Madrid: Editorial Síntesis. O’Hagan, Minako, and Heather Chandler. 2016. Game Localization Research and Translation Studies Loss and Gain under an Interdisciplinary Lens. In Border Crossings. Translation Studies and Other Disciplines, ed. Yves Gambier and Luc van Doorslaer, 309–330. Amsterdam/Philadelphia: John Benjamins. O’Hagan, Minako, and Carme Mangiron. 2013. Game Localization: Translating for the Global Digital Entertainment Industry. Amsterdam: John Benjamins. Pavesi, Maria. 2018. Corpus-based Audiovisual Translation Studies. Ample Room for Development. In The Routledge Handbook of Audiovisual Translation, ed. Luis Pérez-González, 315–333. London and New York: Routledge. Pujol Tubau, Miquel. 2015. La representació de personatges a través del doblatge en narratives transmèdia. Estudi Descriptiu de pel·lícules i videojocs basats en El senyor dels anells. Universitat de Vic—Universitat Central de Catalunya. Soffritti, Marcelo. 2018. Multimodal Corpora and Audiovisual Translation Studies. In The Routledge Handbook of Audiovisual Translation, ed. Luis Pérez-­ González, 334–349. London and New York: Routledge. Toury, Gideon. 2012. Descriptive Translation Studies  – And Beyond. 2nd ed. Amsterdam: John Benjamins. Turnes, Yova. 2015. Ganadores de los premios DoblajeVideojuegos 2015. [Blog] DoblajeVideojuegos.es, December 22. https://www.doblajevideojuegos.es/blog/ganadores-­de-­los-­premios-­doblajevideojuegos-­2015/?utm_ source=rss&utm_medium=rss&utm_campaign=ganadores-­de-­los-­premios-­ doblajevideojuegos-­2015. Van Oers, Annelies. 2014. Translation Strategies and Video Game Translation: A Case Study of Beyond Good and Evil. In Fun for All: Translation and Accessibility Practices in Video Games, ed. Carme Mangiron, Minako O’Hagan, and Pilar Orero, 129–148. Bern: Peter Lang. Vázquez Rodríguez, Arturo. 2014. El error de traducción en la localización de videojuegos: El Caso de Breath of Fire: Dragon Quarter. Master’s Degree Final Project, Universitat de València. ———. 2018. El Error de traducción en la localización de videojuegos. Estudio descriptivo y comparativo entre videojuegos indie y no indie. Universitat de València. Yova Turnes. 2020. GamerDic. http://www.gamerdic.es/. Zanettin, Federico. 2014. Translation-Driven Corpora: Corpus Resources for Descriptive and Applied Translation Studies. Oxon and New York: Routledge.

6 Conclusion

There is […] a pressing need to make developers and publishers aware of the importance of providing good quality dubbed and subtitled games to their audience, as this is likely to improve the gameplay experience and, in turn, the reception and sales of their games in target territories. —Mangiron (Journal of Audiovisual Translation 1 (1): 127, 2018a)

Abstract  This final chapter summarizes the main concepts and points discussed throughout the book regarding current practices in video game localization, focusing on the AVT mode of dubbing and the particularities it entails when dealing with interactive products, especially in terms of dubbing synchronies and quality standards. Video games represent the most powerful mass-media consumption product aimed at entertaining users and offering them a satisfactory immersive experience, and their localization process is essential to their distribution across foreign markets. Dubbing is a highly popular AVT mode whose translation practices are already standardized and it represents a basic model for video game dubbing. This chapter concludes with some possible future lines of

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 L. Mejías-Climent, Enhancing Video Game Localization Through Dubbing, Palgrave Studies in Translating and Interpreting, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-88292-1_6

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research on video game dubbing, which remains an underexplored AVT mode within the interactive media. Video games have become a modern and extremely flexible medium that allows both users and developers to express themselves, intertwining their actions to create a story. The development of video games as a mass-­ consumption product has experienced a dramatic growth in their approximately eight decades of life. This development has gone hand in hand with technological improvements and continues to take place to this day. Future advancements in the gaming world cannot be predicted, but the market will have to take heed of the evolution of the medium to respond to such changes, implement them and continue to improve the user experience. A key industry in the gaming world, as these pages have illustrated, is localization. All media and audiovisual products have traditionally broadened their international scope considerably, thanks to translation processes, and video games are no exception. However, translation has to adjust to the characteristics of the product to offer the target users an experience tailored to their specific needs and expectations. Localization aims to respond to such particularities by subjecting the product to a complete adaptation process at several levels, in which many different factors need to be taken into account. Considering the more standardized model of audiovisual translation (AVT) and the different modes that it encompasses—dubbing, subtitling and accessibility, to name but a few— game localization can rely on practices in AVT to choose among a variety of translation solutions in accordance with the characteristics of the game and its genre, as well as with the target users and their expectations. These AVT modes do, however, need to be adapted to suit the interactive nature of games. In a traditional dubbing country like Spain, dubbing has proven to be an AVT mode that is well received by gamers, whose immersion is facilitated by a realistic atmosphere in which aural and visual elements create a natural ensemble of semiotic elements. When dubbing comes into play, the visual assets of the game are complemented by acoustic messages, instructions and dialogues that diversify the user’s cognitive processing (Mejías-Climent 2019). However, as a complex AVT mode involving a long chain of professionals and phases, dubbing poses its particular challenges when it comes to

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interactive products. In both film and video game dubbing, a series of quality standards are expected to be met if the translated product is to be well received and successfully consumed by the target audience. One of these quality standards that affect both film and video game dubbing is synchronization. Whether synchronization in game dubbing will eventually be replaced by transcreation practices involving video and face editing remains to be seen as this practice, allowing the characters’ mouths to be animated using their spoken lines in the target languages, is still rare. For the time being, synchronization in game dubbing seems to follow the model of cinematographic dubbing up to a certain point, considering the particularities of video games as audiovisual products that add an interactive dimension. The aim of this book has been to shed some light on the current practices of video game localization, starting from the AVT mode of dubbing and then taking into account the particularities that it entails when dealing with interactive products, especially in terms of dubbing synchronies. Throughout the previous five chapters, it has been argued that video games represent the most commercially successful mass-media consumption product, aimed at entertaining users and offering them a satisfactory immersive experience. It should not be forgotten, however, that this is not the only purpose of interactive products; serious games are experiencing dramatic growth as well for teaching and training purposes in different fields such as healthcare, the military and advertising, among others (Calvo-Ferrer 2019: 137–138). The gaming industry is expected to surpass $200 billion in revenue by 2023 (Wijiman 2020), which gives an idea of how popular this medium has become. Research has not fallen behind, despite an initial reluctance to consider video games a serious medium worthy of academic efforts (Newman 2004). Video games have found their place within translation studies in recent years, and research on their localization process has increased considerably in the last decade, as demonstrated in Chap. 2 and further developed in Chap. 5. Considering the recent growth in video game production and especially in related academic research, this book has focused on the convergence of video games and dubbing, which, to date, remains one of the many underexplored aspects of game localization (Mangiron 2017). To contribute to a more solid framework for video game analysis, Chap. 1 reviewed the concept of video game from the particular

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standpoint of translation and the implications that the semiotic configuration of video games has for localization purposes. As stated, video games represent the most complex example of an audiovisual product, fitting the already well-known definition of an audiovisual text (Chaume 2012) with the added particularity of a third channel of communication: the tactile channel (Mejías-Climent 2019). This channel and the functional haptic codes (Heslin and Patterson 1982) it transmits allow a video game to create interaction with the users, who become the protagonists of the on-screen action. The different translatable assets displayed in various game situations have also been listed and defined in Chap. 1 in relation to how the video game works, creating game situations that alternate continually based on the player’s actions and governed by the game rules. These game situations (tasks, game action, dialogues and cinematics) can serve as the unit of analysis for descriptive studies, as demonstrated in Chap. 5, as fixed time codes are of no use in interactive material. This represents a research innovation proposed in these pages that could be used in future studies to analyze other AVT modes empirically. Game situations should also be considered in terms of professional practices as they involve different levels of restriction in types of synchrony and interactivity. For example, as a game situation, cinematic scenes are not interactive, and closely resemble traditional films; as the results of the current study have demonstrated, synchrony would therefore probably need to be strict, while game action is fully interactive and requires more flexibility in the audiovisual configuration of the scene, making visual-temporal constraints for synchronization less strict. Knowing the different assets that a video game comprises, where they are typically displayed and the restrictions they entail can help to inform training programs for video game dubbing. Finally, it was also pointed out that familiarity with the different types of video games that are available in the market and their particular features is also important. A practical game classification proposal has been offered in these pages, based on the interactive genre (drawing from Fencott et al. 2012, Ensslin 2012, Wolf 2005), with the aim of contributing to systematizing future empirical studies. Chapter 2 reviewed the rapid evolution that video games have experienced since their origins, traced back to the 1960s. This historical

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perspective, structured in decades, has illustrated how fast video games have evolved compared to their close relatives—movies and other non-­ interactive audiovisual products—in which AVT modes were already common practice when video games started to gain popularity. Particular attention has been paid to the emergence and evolution of dubbing in interactive media, which dates back approximately two and a half decades, compared to the almost century-long use in the case of film dubbing. This has given film dubbing an advantage in developing, standardizing and optimizing its translation processes, and it therefore serves as a good and obvious starting point for the dubbing of interactive products, with a series of particularities that have been explored in the present study. The historical review offers an overview of the main challenges that the game and the localization industry have faced and points to the eventual convergence of video games and movies in terms of sound technologies and dubbing requirements and expectations. Moving from the evolution of video games to the particular practices that localization entails nowadays, Chap. 3 offered an in-depth overview of the localization process as a whole and the different stages into which it can be divided, acknowledging that it should be understood as an agile process in which development requirements might cause translators to go back and forth between previous and subsequent localization phases. A professional perspective has been taken to describe the different localization levels that can be applied to a particular video game, the agents involved in the process and their main tasks, as well as the different materials with which they usually work. Essentially, localization represents a highly creative practice (Mangiron and O’Hagan 2006) in which previous experience is usually key in solving typical issues such as missing context or space restrictions. As it represents the focus of this book, special attention has been paid to dubbing to situate it within the localization process as a whole. It should be taken into account that this review of localization as a professional practice serves as a general reference to understand how the process takes place, but different factors such as the relative youth of the video game medium (Chap. 2), the wide diversity of game genres (Chap. 1), the different localization models, the particularities of the game in question, the target audience, and the developing and localizing firms involved can lead to considerable variation in the

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localization process in order to adapt it to the project requirements. As can be deduced, a good localizer requires not only creativity but also flexibility. After describing the whole process, Chap. 4 focused on dubbing to characterize it in the interactive medium, always using film dubbing (Chaume 2012, 2020) as a basic model to understand how dubbing has been adapted to video games. Particularly, quality standards in film dubbing were reviewed to determine whether they apply to video games as well, which represents a research gap that needs to be addressed with empirical studies, including also where relevant, reception studies. Chapter 4 has presented a tentative preliminary exploration of this research area. Due to the closeness of video games and movies in terms of audiovisual configuration—except for the interactive dimension—quality standards seem to converge in these media products with two singularities. The first of these is the increased flexibility that localization allows in order to modify the linguistic rendering of the message in favor of a more “natural” experience, reproducing the original gameplay and playability precisely (Bernal-Merino 2020; O’Hagan and Mangiron 2013), though further reception studies will contribute to exploring this aspect. The second standard that differs more clearly between non-interactive and interactive media is synchronization. Interaction enabled by the additional semiotic channel in video games poses new challenges for the visual configuration of the product and the subsequent adaptation and time synchronization of the target text. Therefore, dubbing synchronies as traditionally described for film dubbing do not operate in the same way in video games; hence, a particular taxonomy of restrictions, and thus game dubbing synchronies, was proposed and empirically analyzed in Chap. 5. Chapter 5 offered examples of how video game localization and the particular dubbing synchronies that apply to game dubbing can be analyzed within the framework of descriptive studies. Drawing on the conceptualization of video games in Chap. 1 and the proposed video game classification, a particular methodology adapted to the idiosyncrasy of video games as interactive audiovisual products was designed to perform an empirical analysis based on game situations. Four adventure games were chosen to explore whether a connection can be established between

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game situations, the different restrictions they impose through the particular admixture of semiotic codes and the different dubbing synchronies identified in the video games studied. Indeed, the results point to a certain link between game situations and dubbing synchronies in the four analyzed games, such that the more interactive a situation is, from cinematics as the least to tasks/games action the most interactive with dialogues in between, the less restrictive dubbing seems to become in terms of semiotic codes operating in its configuration. Likewise, dubbing synchronies seem to vary across different interactive subgenres in this study, although the conclusions are preliminary and need to be explored further using larger video game corpora. As for game situations, the prominence of particular situations seems to be connected with the interactive genre in some respects. Two of the three titles belonging to the interactive subgenre of action-adventure games display game action as the most frequent game situation, followed by cinematics, dialogues and finally tasks, with the exception of Assassin’s Creed Syndicate, in which cinematics were the most frequent situation, closely followed by game action. This reflects the interactive nature of the product, in which the player takes on the main role to make the story develop, guided by narrative sequences and additional dialogues or instructions. However, the fourth video game classified as a graphic adventure displays cinematics more frequently, followed by dialogues, game action and tasks. This can be explained by the narrative style of graphic adventures, prioritizing the cinematographic experience over complex game mechanics. It would be of interest to explore further whether our proposal for a new approach to game classification, based on the interactive nature of games and the types of practices required by the player, can be validated in future studies, building on the suggestion in the present study that particular game situations are characterized by particular patterns of dubbing synchronies. In practical terms, the present study has shown that that lip-sync is usually preferred in cinematics, as well as wild sync whenever off-screen voices are heard; game action usually displays time or strict time constraint as constant interaction allows a less detailed view of the characters involved; tasks are typically transmitted using off-screen voices and therefore wild sync applies, although this might vary considerably depending

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on the medium (understood as a narrative classification criterion: stylistic and thematic configuration of the story). Finally, dialogues do not seem to follow a clear pattern, which might point to a higher relevance of other aspects of the video game like the aforementioned medium. Considering the medium (narrative and thematic setting) where the story takes place, the game can be set either in our current world or in a futuristic society, in a particular moment in ancient history or in a fantasy setting, thus affecting how characters interact with each other (in person, using electronic devices, telepathy, etc.), and thus requiring different types of dubbing synchronies. These represent just tentative factors that would also benefit from further research. The study also showed that the localization process does not cause a significant loss of accuracy in the dubbed version of the product compared to the original audio configuration. The tendency for more relaxed types of synchronies to be used in a few cases in the dubbed versions is not sufficient to conclude that the localization process is other than a quite precise practice as determined by a comparison with the audiovisual configuration of the original product. As complex as the localization process might be, the original configuration seems to be rendered accurately in the target version in terms of dubbing synchronies in the games analyzed here. Although future research is needed to continue identifying and confirming these patterns in video game dubbing, the results yielded by this preliminary research might serve as a starting point to continue the exploration of the characteristics of the AVT mode of dubbing in game localization. Future projects might find it worthwhile to analyze various aspects of video game localization for which it is hoped that this work has provided an insightful starting point. To begin with, the results obtained here for a limited corpus of games should not be extrapolated directly to other games, given the wide variety of features that characterize each game genre and each game in particular. It would thus be appropriate to expand the corpus in order to analyze more games belonging to the same interactive genre of adventure games and, among them, different subgenres, to explore further similarities and differences. In order to determine whether the patterns identified here can lead to detecting norms in the use of dubbing synchronies in interactive products across game genres, an extended

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video game corpus composed of different interactive genres would be the next step. The use of a game classification based on the interactive genre could make it possible to map out the characteristics of dubbing in video games according to the feature that differentiates them from non-­ interactive audiovisual texts, namely interactivity, and thus the skills required of the player. Both dubbing and other AVT modes could be studied following this model, such as subtitling parameters or restrictions for accessibility. In addition, other aspects that characterize dubbing could also be mapped out following the methodology proposed here, such as the artificial language of dubbing or dubbese, whose characteristics may be linked to the types of synchrony, since, as this study shows, they correspond to different levels of constraint that could also create artificiality in the text translated for dubbing. Identifying norms in larger corpora could contribute to suggesting guidelines for game dubbing that, in turn, would lead to greater compliance with quality standards in video game dubbing, as they are established. Furthermore, guidelines and codes of good practice in game dubbing could be helpful for professional translators both during the project preparation phase and also during in-studio recording. In relation to these quality standards, research has already been carried out in film dubbing (Chaume 2007, 2012) but this remains an underexplored aspect of localization. This makes it essential to develop reception studies (Mangiron 2018b) to continue exploring, with data based on the users’ input, just which of the quality standards in film dubbing operate similarly in video games and which need to be reoriented as proposed here. Finally, not only would studies limited to recently published games be informative, but a diachronic study of the development of dubbing synchronies in video games could also shed some light on the evolution of the different game generations in terms of their dubbing. This might also point to future possibilities concerning the direction in which the industry may be heading, such as transcreation and the editing not only of the text, but also of the images in favor of an even more tailored experience for the target player. As has been argued in these pages, video games offer an immense landscape for future research and represent a fruitful field of study that is now beginning to bloom as fast as the industry itself is developing.

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References Bernal-Merino, Miguel A. 2020. Key Concepts in Game Localisation Quality. In The Palgrave Handbook of AudioviTranslation and Media Accessibility, ed. Łukasz Bogucki and Mikołaj Deckert, 297–314. Cham, Switzerland: Palgrave Macmillan. Calvo-Ferrer, José Ramón. 2019. Some Remarks on the Idiosyncrasy of Serious Games and Its Effects on Research Results. Proceedings of the European Conference on Games-Based Learning 2019-Octob (October): 137–142. https://doi.org/10.34190/GBL.19.137. Chaume, Frederic. 2007. Quality Standards in Dubbing: A Proposal. Tradterm 13: 71–89. ———. 2012. Audiovisual Translation: Dubbing. Manchester: St. Jerome Publishing. ———. 2020. Dubbing. In The Palgrave Handbook of Audiovisual Translation and Media Accessibility, ed. Łukasz Bogucki and Mikolaj Deckert, 103–132. Cham, Switzerland: Palgrave Macmillan. Ensslin, Astrid. 2012. The Language of Gaming. New  York: Palgrave Macmillan. Fencott, Clive, Mike Lockyer, Jo Clay, and Paul Massey. 2012. Game Invaders. The Theory and Understanding of Computer Games. Hoboken, New Jersey: John Wiley & Sons. Heslin, Richard, and Miles L. Patterson. 1982. Nonverbal Behavior and Social Psychology. Nonverbal Behavior and Social Psychology. Boston: Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-­1-­4684-­4181-­9. Mangiron, Carme. 2017. Research in Game Localisation. The Journal of Internationalization and Localization 4 (2): 74–99. https://doi.org/10.1075/ jial.00003.man. ———. 2018a. Game on! Burning Issues in Game Localisation. Journal of Audiovisual Translation 1 (1): 122–138. https://doi.org/10.47476/ jat.v1i1.48. ———. 2018b. Reception Studies in Game Localisation: Taking Stock. In Reception Studies and Audiovisual Translation, 277–296. Amsterdam: John Benjamins. https://doi.org/10.1075/btl.141. Mangiron, Carme, and Minako O’Hagan. 2006. Unleashing Imagination with ‘Restricted’ Translation. JoStrans. The Journal of Specialised Translation 6: 10–21.

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Mejías-Climent, Laura. 2019. La sincronización en el doblaje de videojuegos. Análisis empírico y descriptivo de los videojuegos de acción-aventura. Universitat Jaume I. Newman, James. 2004. Videogames. London and New York: Routledge. O’Hagan, Minako, and Carme Mangiron. 2013. Game Localization: Translating for the Global Digital Entertainment Industry. Amsterdam: John Benjamins. Wijiman, Tom. 2020. The World’s 2.7 Billion Gamers Will Spend $159.3 Billion on Games in 2020; The Market Will Surpass $200 Billion by 2023. Newzoo. May 8. https://newzoo.com/insights/articles/newzoo-­games-­market-­numbers­revenues-­and-­audience-­2020-­2023/. Wolf, Mark J.P. 2005. The Medium of the Video Game. 3rd ed. Austin: The University of Texas Press.

Glossary

Action-adventure (interactive genre) 

Interactive subgenre of video games included in the main genre of adventure games. Action-adventure games are characterized by requiring a wide range of skills that are combined to explore and interact with the game world, in addition to dynamic, frantic activity and exploration and defensive skills. Adventure (interactive genre)  Group of games characterized by requiring the player to combine a set of skills (speed, physical agility, decision-making, clue discovery and puzzle-solving, to name but a few) to achieve the main objective, typically stated at the beginning of the game, using a conducting and motivating narrative background. They frequently follow relatively linear development and require the player to explore and interact with the game world continuously. Adventure games include the highest number of different skills required of the player and can be subcategorized in a wide variety of subgenres. Agile model  Industry workflow that takes place in response to development and localization needs, as opposed to the waterfall model. A flexible approach is adopted in which iterative solutions are sought as necessities arise.

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 L. Mejías-Climent, Enhancing Video Game Localization Through Dubbing, Palgrave Studies in Translating and Interpreting, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-88292-1

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236 Glossary Arcade 

Generic term referring to any gaming machine available in public spaces and operated by coins, typically based on simple mechanics and/or aesthetics. Art assets  Graphic or visual elements included in the game that might require translation even though the text is not stored as editable text but rather as images, such as signs, maps, posters and so on. As rec  Final version of the dubbing script or list of strings containing all the dialogues dubbed in the studio and all changes that have been applied to the final performance in the target language. Audio localization  Audiovisual translation mode of dubbing included in the localization process (also known as voice recording). Batch  Group of translatable assets that are delivered to the localization team to be dealt with at the same time. Box and docs  Level of localization in which only the game box and manuals are translated, while all in-game texts and audio files remain in the original language. Bug  Error or problem occurring while playing a video game. Bugs can relate to functionality, compliance and linguistic issues. Builds  Different playable versions of a video game that are produced to perform the testing process during game localization. Captioning  Audiovisual translation technique encompassing all audiovisual translation modes involving the addition of written text on the screen, frequently in the form of subtitles (standard subtitling, subtitling for the deaf and the hard of hearing, audio subtitling, surtitling, respeaking, fansubbing). Cartridge  Physical storage device in the form of a small plastic container in which one or more games are stored, typically used to distribute console video games during the 80s and 90s, although current consoles might use them too, as is the case with Nintendo Switch. Cinematic scenes  See cinematics. Cinematics  Non-interactive game situation consisting of short video clips contained in the game based on a cinematographic configuration that turns the active player into a passive spectator for a few seconds or minutes. They can be either pre-rendered (produced beforehand and stored as such in the game coding) or in-game movies that are rendered while playing. Cue  Dialogue line assigned to a particular character. Cut-scenes  See cinematics. Deep localization  See enhanced localization. Dialogue  Interactive or semi-interactive game situation involving the main character in a conversation with other characters.

 Glossary  Dubbing 

237

Audiovisual translation mode consisting of translating and adapting the source script of an audiovisual product to be performed in the target language by voice talent in a dubbing studio. The resulting recorded soundtrack in the target language will replace the voices of the original actors and actresses. Enhanced localization  Highest level of localization that can be achieved nowadays considering the target player as the basic reference to whose culture and expectations the game must be fully adapted. It results from adopting a transcreational approach that incorporates localization into the very game development process (see glocalization) (Bernal-Merino 2020, 2015). Full-motion video  See cinematics. Game action  Fully interactive game situation in which the player interacts with the game world to make events develop. Game situation  Particular moment within the game programming that entails a certain level of interaction for the player as well as a particular audiovisual configuration, which varies considerably from game to game. Typically, games can be divided into four main game situations: tasks, game action, dialogues and cinematics. Gameplay  Gaming experience, feel of the game and types of activities carried out by the player. GILT  Acronym used to encompass the different processes involved in the creation and adaptation of a product to a particular locale: globalization, internationalization, localization and translation. Glocalization  Localization strategy in which the localization process is included in the actual production phase of the game, involving not only dialogue writers, designers and developers but also translators in the creation process, considering all the locales to which the game will be exported and the consequent adaptations that are necessary in the game from the very beginning. Haptic codes  Signifying codes transmitted through the tactile channel involving the sense of touch and movement. They are bidirectional as the game sends them to the player in the form of vibrations in the controller, while the player sends them back to the game in the form of pushing buttons or keys, or by moving levers or other components on the controllers. Indie  Game developed by an independent studio or group of developers, typically with a more limited budget than triple-A productions. In-game movies  Short video clips included in a video game but not stored in the game programming as closed and final clips. On the contrary, they are rendered by the game engine at the very moment they are activated, as opposed to pre-rendered scenes.

238 Glossary In-game text 

Translatable game asset consisting of text displayed on the game interface. In-house  Localization model in which the game developer is also in charge of the localization process, typically through an internal localization department. Interaction  In the gaming field, the act of communicating with the technological device on which a game is played (console, computer, cell phone, etc.). It allows the video game to fully display its semiotic meaning; otherwise, the creation of meaning would be only partial. Interactive genre  Criterion to classify video games characterized by the type of activities and skills that the player needs to put into practice to interact with the game and which are distinctive for each particular game genre. Internationalization  Approach adopted in the development process of a certain product that is intended to be sold in locales other than the original where it was created. Thus, necessary modifications are considered from the very beginning such as the possibility of enlarging text strings, changing colors or characters, modifying different aspects of its programming and so on. Kinesic  Semiotic codes belonging to the field of science studying body movement and non-verbal behavior (kinesics). Kinetic  Adjective used to refer to an element that is in motion. Lip-sync  Dubbing synchrony shared in both film and game dubbing requiring the translated text to resemble the exact lip articulation of the characters visible on the screen, particularly in close-ups or extreme close-ups. Locale  Particular area or region characterized by a shared linguistic and cultural background in terms of market settings. Localization  Process of adapting a video game to be sold in a locale different from the one where it was developed. It encompasses a series of changes affecting not only the text (linguistic transfer) but also other visual, aesthetic, cultural and functional aspects. Lockit (localization kit)  Group of documentation resources that ideally accompany the localization project to offer a clear idea of the characteristics of the product and the approach to be followed in translation, such as specific instructions, guidelines and descriptions, CAT tool files if necessary, game code, screenshots and so on. Medium  In game studies and game localization, and as used in this book, traditional literary and filmic approach to classify a product based on conventional stylistic, narrative, thematic and iconographic parameters. It can be compared to audiovisual genres such as comedy, horror, western, thriller and so on. Like the interactive genre, the platform or the mode, the medium or milieu can be used as a classification criterion.

 Glossary  Medium (sense 2) 

239

In Communication Studies, electronic or technical form of communication (Snell-Hornby 2006: 5). Mission  Assignment given to the player. Mode  In game studies and the gaming world, way of operating in the game depending on the number of characters involved (single or multiplayer) and the visual perspective for the player (first or third person, or mixed). It can be used as a classification criterion. Mode (sense 2)  In audiovisual translation, “translation practices that differ from each other in the nature of their linguistic output and the translation strategies on which they rely”, as defined by Díaz Cintas and Remael (2020: 7). Mode (sense 3)  In semiotics, it refers to the traditional concept of verbal, non-­ verbal, aural and visual contents (for further discussion, see Kress and Van Leeuwen 2001). Motion capture (“mocap”)  Animation technique consisting of placing a series of sensors all over an actor or actress’ body to capture his/her movements and recreate them in a digital animation model. Off-camera voices  See off-screen voices. Off-screen voices  Utterances produced by characters who are not present in the setting where the action is taking place and thus cannot be seen. They can be diegetic (other characters) or extra-diegetic voices (narrations and instructions aimed exclusively at the player, but not belonging to the story). On-screen text  See in-game text. Outsourcing  Localization model in which the process is commissioned to a specialized vendor who takes care of the entire translation and adaptation ­process. This vendor is independent from the developer and specializes in localization projects. Platform  Hardware on which the game is played. It can be used as a classification criterion. Playability  Degree to which a video game is easy to play, engaging and overall attractive to the player. Pre-rendered cinematics  Short video clips stored in the game programming as closed and final clips that will be displayed as recorded, allowing no customization. Pre-rendered scenes  See pre-rendered cinematics. Quick-time event (QTE)  Game mechanics typically used during in-game movies in which a particular input by the player is expected to make the action continue. If the player fails to react as expected, the action might be interrupted or the player can simply miss the opportunity to gain some advantage.

240 Glossary Revoicing 

Audiovisual translation technique encompassing all audiovisual translation modes requiring a new soundtrack containing the dialogues translated into the target language to be incorporated into the source audiovisual product (dubbing, voice-over, half-dubbing and narration, audio description, fandubbing or fundubbing, simultaneous interpreting at film festivals, free commentary). Rules  Series of pre-established instructions included in the game programming that govern what the player can and cannot do and how the game reacts to the player’s actions. Sequence  In the video game Assasin’s Creed Syndicate, the different events or parts into which the game plot is structured. Sequences in this particular video game are constituted by several missions that the player must complete to move on to the next sequence. Sim-ship (simultaneous shipment)  Market strategy that consists of launching both the original and localized versions of a product in the global market simultaneously, as opposed to selling the original product first in the country of development and only later bringing the localized version to other locales. Sound-sync  Type of dubbing synchrony used in video games exclusively requiring the translated utterances to be exactly the same length as the original utterances. Internal pauses and prosody must be reproduced as well, but lip articulation is not considered. Strict time constraint  Type of dubbing synchrony used in video games exclusively requiring the translated utterances to be exactly the same length as the original ones. No internal pauses or specific intonation is taken into account. Synchronization  Dubbing standard requiring the translated text to match the characters’ expressiveness and articulation, as well as the length of the utterances. In other words, the overall acoustic configuration of the translated text must fit the accompanying images. Synchrony  See synchronization. Tactile channel  Semiotic channel of communication transmitting haptic codes to create meaning on a kinesic level. Together with the visual channel, it is responsible for the creation of interaction with the player as it involves the human sense of touch and its participation in the audiovisual configuration of a video game. It allows the player to interact with the game through a controller and the game to send haptic codes to the player, typically in the form of vibrations. Task  Game situation in which the player receives instructions or hints on how to continue. Depending on the game, it can be fully, semi-interactive or non-interactive.

 Glossary  Time constraint 

241

Type of dubbing synchrony used in video games exclusively requiring the translated utterances to be the same length as the originals, with a 10% or 20% margin, meaning that the target text can be slightly longer or shorter than the source text. Transcreation  Localization practice in which localizers’ creativity is essential to adapt all possible elements that might be perceived differently by the target culture, such as creating new names for characters, weapons or phases, changing particular buttons or game mechanics, or modifying colors or aesthetics according to the target culture’s preferences and expectations. Translatable assets  Elements included in the game code that can require some type of translation or adaptation, such as in-game text, audio components and graphic elements. Elements external to the game programming are also considered translatable assets in a game localization project, such as the packaging, the user manual, commercial descriptions, websites and so on. Trigger  Reason why a character utters a statement. It is advisable to include it in the spreadsheet containing the dialogues. Triple-A  Game with a large budget usually developed by large developing firms with a strong position in the game industry. Video game  Audiovisual (entertainment) text generated by software for different types of hardware which allows the player(s) to interact amongst themselves and with the on-screen events according to a set of pre-established rules. Voice-over  In the game industry, an all-encompassing term used to refer to all recorded voices included in the game, all dialogues performed by voice actors and actresses in a sound studio, either in the source or the target language. In the AVT field, it refers to a translation mode that involves adding a new dialogue track in the target language on top of the original soundtrack, which is still audible at a lower volume. It should be noted that this second meaning is the one used in this monograph for the sake of consistency with the AVT field. Waterfall model  As opposed to the agile model, it refers to an industrial workflow in which one phase must be completed before moving to the next one.

Index1

A

B

Action-adventure, 11, 22, 31, 33, 34, 153, 154, 165, 167, 168, 171–201, 203, 205, 213, 214, 229 See also Adventure; Interactive genre Adventure, viii, 21, 27, 28, 34, 35, 48, 63, 65, 69, 164, 165, 167–171, 193, 201–211, 213, 214, 217n2, 228–230 See also Interactive genre Agile, 35, 95–102, 129, 227 Art assets, 22, 23, 98, 110 See also Translatable assets Audio localization, 92, 99 See also Dubbing; Voice-over

Box and docs, 23, 58, 63, 64 See also Translatable assets Bug, 92, 94, 100, 102, 106, 107, 111, 123, 132, 134, 172 C

Captioning, 119 Cinematics, 20, 23, 34, 35, 56, 61, 64, 66, 67, 70, 71, 90, 98, 108, 122, 129, 132, 134, 149, 154, 155, 156n7, 164, 170, 181–184, 186, 190–193, 198–201, 203, 204, 207, 211, 213–216, 226, 229

 Note: Page numbers followed by ‘n’ refer to notes.

1

© The Author(s), under exclusive licence to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 L. Mejías-Climent, Enhancing Video Game Localization Through Dubbing, Palgrave Studies in Translating and Interpreting, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-88292-1

243

244 Index

Cinematic scenes, 20, 21, 33, 35, 56, 64, 66, 69, 148, 151, 156n7, 171, 173, 178, 181, 182, 186, 190, 191, 193, 198, 200, 203–205, 209, 211, 226 See also Cinematics; Game situation Cut-scenes, 56–58, 61, 62, 66, 67, 70 See also Cinematics; Game situation D

Deep localization, see Enhanced localization Dialogue, 6, 10, 16, 20–23, 45, 51, 56, 58, 63, 64, 66, 67, 71–73, 90, 92, 105, 118, 119, 121, 122, 124–126, 129, 131, 132, 134, 136–138, 140, 141, 144, 146, 149, 150, 155, 156n1, 164, 167, 170, 173, 178–181, 186, 189–191, 193, 197–198, 203–205, 207, 209, 214, 216, 224, 226, 229, 230 See also Game situation Dubbing, v–viii, xv, xvi, 2–6, 16, 20–23, 33, 37n6, 44–73, 80, 83, 86, 89, 92, 95, 96, 99, 100, 103, 105, 107–109, 112, 112n1, 118–155, 164–217, 224–231 See also Voice-over E

Enhanced localization, 17–19, 70, 71, 84, 93

F

Full-motion video (FMV), see Cinematics G

Game action, 20, 23, 55, 71, 90, 149, 150, 154, 164, 170, 171, 173, 176–178, 186, 188–189, 193, 195–197, 203, 205, 207–209, 213–215, 217n2, 226, 229 See also Game situation Gameplay, 4, 13–19, 25, 26, 29, 30, 32, 33, 36, 54, 62, 67, 69, 71, 73, 84, 87, 96, 102, 136, 138, 149, 152, 169–171, 173, 186, 218n4, 228 Game situation, vii, viii, xvi, 14, 19–24, 85, 149–155, 164–217, 226, 228, 229 Glocalisation, 18, 82, 84, 93, 94, 111 H

Haptic codes, 8, 9, 11, 12, 149, 156n7, 226 I

In-game movies, 20, 21, 108, 133 See also Game situation In-game text, 22, 23, 58, 91, 92, 99, 107, 130, 132, 172, 185, 186, 192, 202, 205 See also Translatable assets In-house, 94, 97, 99, 103, 104, 109

 Index 

Interaction, 4, 5, 7–12, 15, 16, 20, 21, 26, 31, 33, 34, 56, 63, 69, 81, 83, 106, 125, 147–150, 153, 155, 156n7, 167, 178, 197, 204, 216, 226, 228, 229 Interactive genre, vii, viii, 2, 24–36, 149, 165, 167, 168, 201, 202, 213, 226, 229–231 Internationalization, 18, 19, 80, 82, 93, 101, 103 K

Kinesic, 7–9, 12, 37n4, 87, 122, 124, 143–146, 148, 150, 200 L

Level of localization, 18, 58, 63, 73, 90–92, 94, 95, 97, 98, 102, 118, 129 Lip-sync, vii, 71, 118, 121, 122, 124, 131, 143–146, 148, 152, 170, 174, 177–179, 181, 182, 187, 190, 198, 199, 205, 206, 208, 209, 211, 215, 217, 218n7, 229 See also Synchronization; Synchrony Locale, vi, 5, 19, 37n5, 37n6, 49, 55, 63, 70, 72, 80, 81, 83–86, 89, 90, 93, 101, 102, 104, 111, 112n3 Localization, v–viii, xv, xvi, 2, 4–6, 14, 16–19, 22, 24, 28, 29, 32, 33, 44–73, 80–112, 118–146, 148, 153, 155, 156n4,

245

164–166, 168, 169, 171, 172, 181, 185, 192, 201, 202, 213, 215–217, 224–228, 230, 231 Localization kit, see Lockit Lockit, 17, 97, 103, 107, 130, 137 M

Medium, vii, 4, 9, 12, 19, 20, 24–27, 30, 31, 33, 34, 36, 37n2, 44, 45, 47–49, 53, 56, 62, 65–67, 69, 72, 80, 88, 90, 98, 137, 149, 150, 153, 155, 165, 168, 193, 195, 201, 207, 214, 216, 224, 225, 227, 228, 230 Mocap, see Motion capture Mode, 2, 4, 5, 18, 22, 23, 25–27, 30, 32, 33, 36, 36–37n1, 44, 49, 51, 66, 67, 71, 72, 83, 85, 86, 89, 96, 99, 107, 112, 118–123, 126, 129, 141–146, 166, 201, 214, 216, 224–227, 230, 231 Motion-capture, 68, 108 O

Off-camera voices, see Off-­ screen voices Off-screen voices, 148, 152, 174, 175, 177, 182, 187, 188, 191, 196, 198, 211, 214, 229 On-screen text, 56, 90, 205, 214 See also In-game text; Translatable assets Outsourcing, 94, 97, 103, 109

246 Index

QA, see Quality assurance QTE, see Quick-time event Quality assurance (QA), 81, 82, 87, 92, 100, 105, 126, 129, 134, 137 Quality control, see Quality assurance (QA) Quick-time event (QTE), 21, 56, 156n7, 203, 204, 209–211

Sound-sync (SS), 152, 177–179, 182, 187, 189–191, 198, 200, 208, 209, 215, 217 See also Synchrony; Synchronization Strict time constraint (STC), 143, 152, 170, 178, 180, 182, 187–190, 197, 198, 200, 207, 209, 211, 215, 229 See also Synchrony; Synchronization Synchronization, 71, 88, 100, 118, 122, 124, 125, 127, 128, 131, 133, 134, 136, 140–155, 156n4, 156n6, 164, 165, 167–171, 174, 175, 177, 178, 181, 182, 184, 187–192, 194–198, 200, 201, 205, 207, 209–211, 213–217, 218n5, 225, 226, 228–231 Synchrony, vi, vii, 71, 88, 100, 122, 124, 136, 141–146, 148–156, 170, 171, 175, 177, 181, 182, 188, 189, 200, 204, 207, 211, 214, 216, 226, 231 See also Synchronization

R

T

P

Platform, 4, 5, 7, 9, 25, 26, 28, 30–36, 48, 49, 52, 91, 100, 101, 104, 106, 113n7, 120, 125, 126, 168, 192 Playability, 13–19, 25, 45, 84, 85, 87, 88, 102, 138, 149, 204, 228 Pre-rendered cinematics, 64, 108 See also Game situation Pre-rendered scenes, 20 See also Pre-rendered cinematics; Game situation Q

Revoicing, 119, 121, 122 Rules, 3, 5, 7–13, 15, 17, 20, 25, 72, 88, 135, 150, 226 S

Sim-ship, see Simultaneous shipment Simultaneous shipment (Sim-ship), 70, 84, 87, 89, 96, 106, 112n3

Tactile channel, 6–11, 15, 17, 150, 226 Task, vi, 3, 6, 13, 15, 20, 21, 23, 26, 29, 70, 80, 84, 90, 95, 97, 102, 103, 105–107, 112, 125, 126, 131–133, 141, 146, 147, 149, 153, 155, 164, 166, 170, 171, 173–175, 178, 186, 187, 193, 194, 203–207, 214, 216, 226, 227, 229 See also Game situation

 Index 

Time constraint (TC), 87, 89, 143, 148–150, 154, 170, 176, 179, 182, 187–189, 194, 195, 197, 200, 207, 209, 211, 214, 218n8 See also Synchrony; Synchronization Transcreation, 6, 17, 18, 71, 225, 231 Translatable assets, vii, 2, 19–24, 64, 70, 87, 90, 92, 98, 103, 106, 107, 164, 226

247

Triple-A, 49, 66, 70–72, 73n2, 92, 93, 97, 103, 118 V

Voice-over (VO), vii, 98, 99, 118, 119, 121, 122, 130, 142–145, 152 W

Waterfall, 95, 129