ENGLISH SENTENCE

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ФГБОУ ВО «Оренбургский государственный педагогический университет»

Хартунг В.Ю.

ENGLISH SENTENCE (учебное пособие по синтаксису английского языка)

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Допущено УМС ОГПУ в качестве учебного пособия для обучающихся по направлению подготовки 44.03.05 Педагогическое образование (с двумя профилями подготовки) по дисциплине «Практический курс первого иностранного языка (английский) (Практическая грамматика первого иностранного языка (английский))»

Оренбург 2020

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УДК 737:81(075.8) ББК 81.2 (Англ)

Рецензенты С.В. Мангушев, кандидат филологических наук, доцент Л.Э. Безменова, кандидат филологических наук, доцент

Хартунг В.Ю. English Sentence: учебное пособие по синтаксису английского языка / В.Ю. Хартунг. – Оренбург, 2020. – 64 с. Данное пособие содержит основные теоретические положения и практические тренировочные упражнения по курсу грамматики английского языка (раздел «Синтаксис»). Материалом для упражнений служат связные отрывки и отдельные предложения из произведений англоязычных авторов XX-XXI вв. Пособие предназначено для учащихся педагогических вузов по направлению подготовки 44.03.05 «Педагогическое образование с двумя профилями подготовки», профиль «Иностранный язык (английский) и Иностранный язык (немецкий/французский)»,

УДК 373:81(075.8) ББК 81.2 (Англ) © Хартунг В.Ю.., 2020 2

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Оглавление 1

Предисловие

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2

Parts of Speech

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3

Types of Sentences

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4

Simple Sentence

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5

Subject

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Predicate

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Agreement between Subject and Predicate

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Object

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9

Attribute

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10 Adverbial Modifier

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11 Independent Elements

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12 Compound Sentence

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13 Complex Sentence

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14 Subject Clause

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15 Predicative Clause

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16 Object Clause

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17 Attributive Clause

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18 Adverbial Clause

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19 Parenthetical Clause

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20 Revision

58

21 Список литературы

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Введение Настоящее пособие предназначено для студентов педагогических вузов по профилю «Иностранный язык (английский) и Иностранный язык (немецкий/французский)», изучающих дисциплину «Практический курс первого иностранного языка (английский) (Практическая грамматика первого иностранного языка (английский))». Пособие носит комплементарный характер и является дополнительным к основным учебникам. В основе процесса обучения лежит компетентностный подход, обеспечивающий подготовку специалиста, способного решать определенный класс профессиональных задач, что предполагает наличие совокупности интегрированных качеств личности: знаний, умений, навыков, способов деятельности. Целью

данного

пособия

является

формирование

у

студентов

представления об особенностях синтаксиса в английском языке и о структуре английского предложения во всех его многообразных формах. В пособии дается краткая классификация частей речи, а также схемы анализа простого, сложносочиненного и сложноподчиненного предложений. Предложения, предлагаемые на анализ, были взяты из произведений современных английских и американских авторов: Ф. С. Фицджеральда, У. С. Моэма, Т. Капоте, X. Филдинг, А. Кристи, М. Хэддона, П. Л. Трэверс, Дж. Вебстер, Дж. Роулинг и многих других. Данное пособие окажет помощь студентам в освоении теоретического и практического материала при изучении вопросов синтаксиса английского языка на аудиторных занятиях и при самостоятельной работе. Содержание учебного пособия соответствует требованиям ФГОС ВО по направлению подготовки 44.03.05 «Педагогическое образование» (с двумя профилями подготовки).

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PARTS OF SPEECH According to their meaning, syntactical function and morphological characteristics, words fall into certain classes called parts of speech. We distinguish between notional parts of speech and structural parts of speech. Notional parts of speech have independent meaning and function in the sentence. They are nouns, adjectives, pronouns, numerals, verbs and adverbs. Nouns are subdivided into common nouns (a man, a book, people) and proper nouns or names (John, the Neva, London). Pronouns fall into personal pronouns (we, you), possessive pronouns (my, our), reflexive pronouns (myself, themselves), reciprocal pronouns (each other, one another), demonstrative pronouns (this, those), interrogative pronouns (who, what), indefinite pronouns (all, each, any) and negative pronouns (nobody, neither). Sometimes the last two groups are considered together. According to their syntactical function verbs may be divided into notional, auxiliary, and semi-auxiliary. Notional verbs have a meaning of their own and form a simple verbal predicate expressing an action or a state. Auxiliary verbs have no independent meaning and serve to build the analytical forms of the English verb. Semi-auxiliary verbs have a weakened meaning and form compound predicates. They fall into link verbs and modal verbs. One and the same verb may function as notional, auxiliary and semi-auxiliary in different sentences. I have a beautiful garden. (notional) We have never been to London. (auxiliary) The have to study hard for the exam. (modal) Notional verbs can have non-finite forms or verbals, which combine the characteristics of a verb with those of some other part of speech. They are the infinitive, the gerund and the participle. Structural parts of speech are form-words; they have no independent function in the sentence and serve to connect words or sentences or emphasize the meaning of words. Structural parts of speech are prepositions, conjunctions, articles and 5

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particles. A special place is occupied by modal words, words of affirmation and negation and interjections. Though they have a meaning of their own, they do not enter into the structure of the sentence as a part of the sentence. Perhaps, you are right. No, I don't agree with you. Oh, I haven’t known that.

Ex. 1 State to what part of speech each word in bold type belongs: “Very pretty!” said Gandalf. “But I have no time to blow smoke-rings this morning. I am looking for someone to share in an adventure that I am arranging, and it’s very difficult to find anyone.” ”1 should think so — in these parts! We are plain quiet folk and have no use for adventures. Nasty disturbing uncomfortable things! Make you late for dinner! I can’t think what anybody sees in them,” said our Mr. Baggins, and stuck one thumb behind his braces, and blew out another even bigger smoke-ring. Then he took out his morning letters, and began to read, pretending to take no more notice of the old man. He had decided that he was not quite his sort, and wanted him to go away. But the old man did not move. He stood leaning on his stick and gazing at the hobbit without saying anything, till Bilbo got quite uncomfortable and even a little cross. “Good morning!” he said at last. “We don’t want any adventures here, thank you! You might try over The Hill or across The Water.” By this he meant that the conversation was at an end. “What a lot of things you do use “Good morning” for!” said Gandalf. “Now you mean that you want to get rid of me, and that it won’t be good till I move off.” “Not at all, not at all, my dear sir! Let me see, I don’t think I know your name?” “Yes, yes, my dear sir - and I do know your name, Mr. Bilbo Baggins. And you do know my name, though you don’t remember that I belong to it. I am Gandalf, 6

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and Gandalf means me! “Gandalf, Gandalf! Oh, good gracious me! Not the wandering wizard that gave Old Took a pair of magic diamond studs that fastened themselves and never came undone till ordered? Not the fellow’ who used to tell such wonderful tales at parties, about dragons and goblins and giants and the rescue of princesses and the unexpected luck of widows’ sons? Not the man that used to make such particularly excellent fireworks! I remember those! Old Took used to have them on Midsummer’s Eve. Splendid!

Ex. 2 Complete each sentence with a word formed from the word in capitals. State to what parts of speech both words belong: Example: Our city has some open spaces but they are not very accessible. (ACCESS) 1. We managed to get on the earlier flight as there had been a _____and there were now two spare seats. (CANCEL) 2. I didn’t _____ straight away because I wanted to go straight out and watch the sunset. (PACK) 3. Sarah has a degree in law and a diploma, so her _____ for the job are very good. (QUALIFY) 4. The _______ made the job sound very exciting, but in fact it was pretty boring. (ADVERTISE) 5. Beckham’s knee ______ prevented him from playing in the Cup Final last year. (INJURED) 6. All the ______ had to take part in tests for drugs before the race could start. (COMPETE) 7. Pete’s clothes are always ten years out-of-date, which is why he always looks so _______. (FASHION) 8. Men should never wear a ______ tie with a striped shirt. (PATTERN) 9. The main ______ is at the side of the building. (ENTRY) 10. The flat was cheap to rent as it was _____. We filled it with the things from our old house. (FURNITURE) 7

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Ex. 3 Complete each sentence with a word formed from the word in capitals. State to what parts of speech both words belong: 1. I wouldn’t want to be a ______ because I’d have to be away from home so much. (SAIL) 2. He ____ as he came up to the comer, but he was going too fast and went straight over the handlebars. (BRAKES) 3. That soup was very ____. Could I have some more? (TASTE) 4. Katy went on a ______ course last year to learn how to make curries. (COOK) 5. Dan has _______ his shoes already and is complaining that they’re too tight. (GROW) 6. Our holiday was quite _______because we took a tent instead of staying in a hotel and we hired bikes instead of a car. (EXPENSE) 7. A lot of telephone boxes have been ______ recently so you can never find one that works. (VANDAL) 8. Sarah’s uncle is a ______ and he’s in prison for burglary at the moment. (CRIME) 9. John Irving is my favourite ______ and I’ve just finished his latest book. (NOVEL) 10. The cruise ship that we were on was fantastic — there were different ______every evening, including a jazz singer and an amazing magician. (ENTERTAIN)

TYPES OF SENTENCES

A sentence is a unit of speech which expresses a more or less complete thought and has a definite grammatical form and intonation. Sentences may be divided into simple and composite, which in their turn fall into compound and complex. A simple sentence is a sentence that has only one subject-predicate group. 8

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She was speaking eagerly. A compound sentence consists of two or more coordinated simple sentences — clauses. And she kept on waiting for him, but he never came. A complex sentence consists of a principal clause and one or more subordinated clauses. She asked if I had ever met her father. According to the communicative aim of the utterance sentences can be divided into declarative, interrogative and imperative. A declarative sentence is a statement of a certain fact or idea. The subject of a declarative sentence usually precedes the predicate. 1. She gave a convincing performance. 2. He has never been accused of a crime. An interrogative sentence is a question; it asks for information. Interrogative sentences are divided into general, special, disjunctive and alternative. In an interrogative sentence the predicate or a part of it usually precedes the subject. 1. You have a good view of the stage, haven’t you? 2. Why can’t he be present? An imperative sentence induces the addressee to perform a certain action in the form of a command or request. Most (but not all) imperative sentences have the verb in the imperative mood. 1. Go to the blackboard! 2. Let us start a discussion! (But! Could you, please, open the door?) Any of the above defined kinds of sentences (declarative, interrogative and imperative)

may

become

emotionally

coloured,

expressing

joy,

grief,

astonishment. Such sentences are called exclamatory sentences. This transition is marked by intonation. What a nasty weather we are having! All kinds of sentences mentioned above may be affirmative or negative.

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Ex. 4 Define the communicative types of the sentences: 1. If she didn’t get what she wanted Mary Poppins would not stay. 2. Mary Poppins, you’ll never leave us, will you? 3. One word more from that direction and I’ll call the Policeman! 4. Don’t you know that everybody’s got a Fairyland of their own? 5. Mrs. Wigg! How dare you call me Mrs. Wigg? 6. And that is how Mary Poppins came to live at Number Seventeen, Cherry Tree Lane. 7. “Kindly close that window,” replied Mary Poppins. 8. Can’t take you to tea today, I’m afraid. 9. Then how could you have been there? 10. Mary Poppins put her hat straight at the Tobacconists Shop at the comer. 11. Don’t let’s ask her anything else or we’ll never get there. 12. I’m a cheerful sort of man and very disposed to laughter. 13. Why is he 'called Mr. Wigg — does he wear one? 14. Oh, Lordy, Lordy, don’t make me laugh, I beg of you... 15. As she laughed she felt herself growing lighter and lighter, just as though she were being pumped full of air. 16. Do think of something funny! 17. “My goodness!” he said. “How dreadful! 18. And he hid his face in his handkerchief and laughed loudly into it. 19. Andrew, come to Mother! 20.1 shall be grown up in another fourteen years! 21. They landed on the floor with a huge bump, all together. 22. And don’t bite your Bus ticket! 23. Is Mary Poppins right or are we? 24. He was even fond of her in a mild sort of way.

Ex. 5 Define between simple, compound and complex sentences: 1. Jerusha went without comment, but with two parallel lines on her brow. 2. Jerusha caught only a fleeting impression of the man—and the impression consisted entirely of tallness. 3. The shadow pictured grotesquely elongated legs and arms, which ran along the floor and up the wall of the corridor. 4. She advanced to the office quite cheered by the tiny episode, and presented a smiling face to Mrs. Tippett. 5. Did you notice the gentleman who has just gone? 6. I am not at liberty to mention his name; he expressly stipulated that he was to remain unknown. 7. Mrs. Lippett allowed a moment of silence to fall, then resumed in a slow, placid manner extremely trying to her hearer’s suddenly tightened nerves. 8. It seemed to me that you showed little gratitude in holding up to ridicule the 10

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institution that has done so much for you. 9. He believes that you have originality, and he is planning to educate you to become a writer. 10. This will enable you to enter on the same standing as the other students. 11. Just such a letter as you would write to your parents if they were living. 12. The gentleman’s name is not John Smith, but he prefers to remain unknown. 13. You must remember that you are writing to a Trustee of the John Grier Home. 14. Before leaving yesterday morning, Mrs. Lippett and I had a very serious talk. 15. I must say, however, 27 that when I think about you, my imagination has very little to work upon.

THE SIMPLE SENTENCE

According to their structure simple sentences are divided into two-member sentences and one-member sentences. The most common type is the two-member sentence which comprises a subject and a predicate. And now the nightmares returned. The one-member sentence does not comprise a subject and a predicate but consists only of one member, which is neither a predicate nor a subject Summer afternoon, warm and fragrant. Both two-member and one-member sentences can be extended or unextended. An unextended sentence comprises only the predicative group. 1. The children have come. 2. Autumn. An extended sentence comprises the predicative group and some secondary parts (objects, attributes, adverbial modifiers). At dawn the birds sing their songs marvelously. A sentence may be elliptical if it lacks some of the required parts, which, nevertheless, can be recovered from the context. Elliptical constructions can often be used in dialogue to shorten what is being said. Fire when ready. (In the sentence, «you are» is understood, as in «Fire when you are ready»). 11

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Ex. 6 Define the structural types of the following simple sentences: 1. “Who wants me?’ — “Mrs. Lippett in the office. And I think she’s mad. Aha-men!” 2. He waited to discuss the terms with me. They are unusual. 3. Only that’s rather insulting to me. 4. You are tall. You are rich. You hate girls. 5. There it goes! Lights out. Good night. 6. Don’t you hope I’ll get in the team? 7. That joke has gone all over college. 8. Second Punic war. Hannibal and his forces pitched camp at Lake Trasimenus last night. 9. Physiology: Reached the digestive system. Bile and the pancreas next time. 10. In the future please always address me as Judy. 11. She did, truly. Those were her words. 12. The poor were put here in order to keep us charitable. 13. LATEST WAR BULLETIN! News from the Scene of Action. 14. And are you perfectly bald or just a little bald? 15. “On the strength of that impertinent paper, he has offered to send you to college.” “To college?”

PARTS OF THE SIMPLE SENTENCE SUBJECT

The subject is a principal part of the sentence which denotes a person or thing we speak about. Due to the structure of the language the subject is normally always expressed in the sentence and can be omitted only in ellipses in colloquial speech. He is a pleasant fellow; (I) hope he won’t bore us out there. The subject may be expressed by: a) A noun in the common case, both proper and common. My father kept the “Admiral Benbow” Inn. Ali Sakai unloaded his donkey and asked for the money. b) A pronoun in the nominative case. You have not given me all the wood yet. Who ever heard of such a bargain? One can never tell. c) A numeral, both cardinal and ordinal. Six is not much. 12

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The second to come was my brother. d) A substantivized adjective or participle. The young and the old were gathered there. The wounded were carried to the hospital. e) An infinitive or an infinitive group. To be there alone was not a pleasant experience. f) A gerund or a gerundial group. Seeing is believing. g) Any word which is substantivized. “A ” is the first letter of the English alphabet. h) A syntactically indivisible unit. How to do it is a difficult question. i) An infinitival, gerundial or participial complex. He was found to sit there quite alone. Your having missed the train is no excuse. j) A clause. What we found there is difficult to describe.

The Use of the Pronoun “It” as the Subject.

When used as the subject of a sentence “it” may be notional or formal. In its ordinary meaning notional “it” serves as a personal pronoun, which replaces a noun of neuter gender. Where is the key? — It is on the table. The pronoun “it” has a demonstrative force when it is used to point out a person or thing. Who is it? — It’s my father. Formal uses of “it” fall into impersonal, introductory (anticipatory) and emphatic. Impersonal “it” functions as a formal subject in impersonal sentences. 13

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It is dark. It is unbearable. Introductory “it” generally serves to introduce a lengthy subject expressed by an infinitive or gerundial group, a complex construction or a clause. It is high time he gave a definite answer. Emphatic “it” is a peculiar use of the anticipatory “it” which serves to emphasize a part of the sentence. It was Mary who I saw in the garden.

The Use of the Particle “There” as Subject.

When the subject of the sentence is indefinite, it is often placed after the predicative verb and the sentence begins with the introductory particle “there”. The predicative verb is usually the verb “to be” or some other verb with the meaning of “to exist”. There was a violent storm last night. Once upon a time there lived a king.

Ex. 7 Point out the subject of the following sentences, say by what it is expressed: 1. They were whispering excitedly together. 2. And the old man hugged Mr. Dursley around the middle and walked off. 3. For a full minute the three stood and looked at the little bundle. 4. Having a cupboard as a bedroom was not worse than that. 5. The rest of them were all quite happy to join in Dudley’s favorite sport: Harry Hunting. 6. Outside the ring of dancing warriors with spears and axes stood the wolves at a respectful distance, watching and waiting. 7. Everyone of these old people was over ninety. 8. At that moment I couldn’t seem to remember the story. 9. Soon the burning was faint below, a red twinkle on the black floor; and they were high up in the sky. 10. Seeing slabs of chocolate in the shop windows or watching other children munching bars of creamy chocolate was the most terrible torturing thing. 11. If anyone looked out of their window now, they wouldn’t be 14

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able to see anything. 12. But that’s no reason to lose our heads. 13. For a second, Mr. Dursley didn’t realize what he had seen. 14. Most of them had never seen an owl even at nighttime. 15. Could all this have anything to do with the Potters? 16. The other seized Dori in his claws and flew away with him into the night leaving Bilbo all alone. 17. Nothing like this man had ever been seen on Privet Drive. 18. He took something out of his pocket. It seemed to be a silver cigarette lighter. 19. His aunt and uncle will be able to explain everything to him when he’s older. 20. Thirty-six is two presents less than last year. 21. I am looking for someone to share in an adventure, and it’s very difficult to find anyone. 22. “So you have got here at last!” was what he was going to say to Gandalf this time. 23. Some called for ale, and some for porter, and one for coffee, and all of them for cakes. 24. “He seems to know as much about the inside of my larders as I do myself!” thought Mr. Baggins. 25. Thereupon the twelve — not Thorin, he was too important, and stayed talking to Gandalf — jumped to their feet and made tall piles of all the things. 26. Bilbo rushed along the passage, very angry, and altogether bewildered. 27. The dark filled all the room, and the fire died down, and the shadows were lost, and they still played on. 28. To hear it out in the forest under the moon was too much for Bilbo. 29. Now it seemed that a great goblin-raid had been planned for that very night. 30. Listening to their growling and yelping did not make Bilbo more comfortable.

Ex. 8 Define the function of “it”: 1. Maybe the older you grow the less easy it is to put this thought into action. 2. It was high summer, and on this eastern side of the mountains there had been little rain for some time. 3. It was wolves who were howling at the moon, wolves gathering together! 4. “Gandalf for certain this time,” he thought as he puffed along the passage. But it was not. It was two more dwarves. 5. He took a golden watch from his pocket and examined it. It was a very odd watch. 6. Mr. Dursley blinked and stared at the cat. It stared back. 7. It seemed that Professor McGonagall had reached the point she was most anxious to discuss. 8. In fact, it was nearly midnight before the cat moved at all. 9. If it got out that they were 15

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related to a pair of — well, he didn’t think he could bear it. 10. It was on the comer of the street that he noticed the first sign of something peculiar.

Ex. 9 Fill in “it” or “there”: 1. What could he have been thinking of? ___must have been a trick of the light. 2. ____was no point in worrying Mrs. Dursley. 3. ____ have been hundreds of sightings of these birds flying in every direction since sunrise. 4. ____was one of these mailboxes that had first made me aware of Holly Golightly. 5. ____ was a feeling I’d read about, written about, but never before experienced. 6. Even if the Potters were involved, ____ was no reason for them to come near him and Mrs. Dursley. 7. All that noise! ___ would be enough to turn any boy’s head. 8. He rolled onto his back and tried to remember the dream he had been having. ____ had been a good one. ____ had been a flying motorcycle in it. 9. ____’s no hurry, we have all the day before us! 10. ____ Just before tea-time came a tremendous ring on the front-door bell. 11. ____ seems a great big hole to me,” squeaked Bilbo. 12. _____was plain that whatever «everyone» was saying, she was not going to believe it. 13. «_____’s the best place for him,» said Dumbledore firmly. 14. “____ is a dragon marked in red on the Mountain, said Balin, “but ____will be easy enough to find him without that, if ever we arrive there.”

PREDICATE

The predicate is the second principal part of the sentence which expresses an 16

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action, state or quality of the person or thing denoted by the subject. The predicate contains a finite verb form, which agrees with the subject in number and person. Predicates can be divided into simple and compound (nominal or verbal); there are also mixed types of predicates. The simple verbal predicate denotes an activity performed or suffered by the subject and is expressed by a finite form of the verb. No matter how many elements the verb form comprises, the predicate still remains simple. They lit the fire. The repairs are being made. The simple verbal predicate can be expressed by a verbal phraseological unit, thus it is a simple phraseological predicate. The man gave a violent start. The compound nominal predicate denotes a certain state or quality of the subject and consists of a link verb and a nominal part called predicative. The link verb is a verb with weakened meaning, which denotes “being”, “becoming”, “remaining” in a certain state or “seeming” to be in it. 1. The day was sunny. The water felt cold. 2. He became a teacher. The leaves turned yellow. 3. He kept quiet. She stayed motionless. 4. She seemed displeased. Her face looked pale. The predicative can be expressed by a) A noun in the common case; He is a doctor. b) An adjective; The weather looks fine. c) A pronoun; This book is mine. He is nobody to me. d) A stative; My father is alive. e) A numeral, both cardinal and ordinal; My sister is four. My brother remained the first. 17

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f) A prepositional phrase; The lesson is at an end. g) An infinitive, an infinitive phrase, a for-to-infinitive construction; To decide is to act. The most important thing is for us to come to a decision. h) A gerund, a gerundial phrase, a gerundial construction; Our aim is mastering grammar. The greatest trouble is our not knowing the details. i) A participle; I am annoyed. j) An adverb indicating a state; Our lesson is over. k) An indivisible group of words; I am just one of them. l) A clause. The problem is that he doesn’t want to hear. The double predicate is a special type of predicate which presents a crossing of two predicates: a verbal predicate with a verb in its full notional meaning and a nominal predicate with its predicative part. The bird fell dead to the ground. The natives go naked all year round. The compound verbal predicate is expressed by two verbs: one of them in a finite form and the other in the form of an infinitive or a gerund. There may be compound verbal modal predicates and compound verbal aspect predicates. The compound verbal modal predicate is expressed by a modal verb or construction and an infinitive. It shows the attitude of the speaker towards the person or thing expressed by the subject. I can do it myself. He is going to buy a car. She would read for hours on end. The compound verbal aspect predicate consists of a verb indicating the beginning, duration, repetition or end of the action and an infinitive or a gerund. She keeps interrupting me. She began to type her report. The mixed predicate includes elements of two types of predicates. 18

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We must be ready by four. (Compound modal nominal predicate) You can begin to prepare for the party. (Compound modal aspect predicate)

Ex. 10 Choose between simple and compound predicates: 1. As my watch was broken, I had to buy a new one. 2. The bread was cut with a sharp knife. 3. When I came home, I saw that my son’s finger was cut to the bone. 4. The roof of my house is painted every year. 5. The roof of my house is painted green. 6. When I arrived at the port all the cases were packed. 7. The cases were packed by skilled workers. 8. The letter is written in ink. 9. The library is usually closed at 6 o’clock. 10. The library is closed as to-day is Sunday. 11. Emily was smiling while she was reading the letter. 12. But she was smiling and calm whatever he said. 13. It is terrifying how unimportant human life is nowadays. 14. The gangs are terrifying the whole city. 15. He is constantly frightening his younger brother with monster stories! 16. His cool calmness was frightening by itself. 17. A funny thing has happened to me! 18. If it has to happen it is unavoidable. 19. There was nobody to be seen. 20. He was to come here an hour ago.

Ex. 11 Point out the predicate, define its type and say by what it is expressed: 1. He was wearing a new navy-blue overcoat, a new brown trilby hat, and a new brown suit, and he was feeling fine. 2. But now, even in the darkness, he could see that the paint was peeling from the woodwork on their doors and windows. 3. Billy caught sight of a printed notice propped up against the glass in one of the upper panes. 4. He stopped walking. He moved a bit closer. 5. On the carpet in front of the fire, a pretty little dachshund was curled up asleep with its nose tucked into its belly. 6. And all in all, it looked to him as though it would be a pretty decent house to stay in. 7. He had never stayed in any boarding-houses, and, to be perfectly honest, he was a tiny bit frightened of them. 8. He was in the act of stepping back ... when all at once his eye was caught and held in the most peculiar 19

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manner by the small notice that was there. 9. She was about forty-five or fifty, and the moment she saw him, she gave him a warm welcoming smile. 10. It’s such a comfort to have a hot water-bottle in a strange bed with clean sheets, don’t you agree? 11. That’s all right. You mustn’t worry about me. 12. Tomorrow I’ve got to get up rather early and report to the office. 13. She gave him a little wave of the hand and went quickly out of the room and closed the door. 14. His landlady appeared to be slightly off her rocker. 15. I’m a lucky fellow, he thought, rubbing his hands. This is a bit of all right. 16. That’s funny, he thought suddenly. Christopher Mulholland. It rings a bell. 17. I’ll give you a nice cup of tea and a ginger biscuit before you go to bed. 18. Billy started sipping his tea. She did the same. 19. Or was it possible that he might have broken down at the last moment and written her something beautiful? 20. There is no knowing what people will do when they are about to die. 21. So I was growing more melancholy every hour — and then, all of a sudden, in comes Landy. 22. “Do you believe you’ll go to heaven?” “I doubt it,” I said, “though it could be comforting to think so.” 23. One or two others here at the hospital have been helping me, especially Morrison. 24. It’s a big idea, and it may sound a bit far-fetched at first... 25. For four weeks after that, he had paid the housekeeping bills himself and given her no money at all, but of course he wasn’t to know that she had over six pounds salted away. 26. It was not four after all, it was FIVE. 27. This glade in the ring of trees was evidently a meeting-place of the wolves. More and more kept coming in. 28. And suddenly first one and then another began to sing as they played.

Ex. 12 Choose a right word. 1. The music sounded (weird/ weirdly) in those pompous surroundings. 2. The master looked at me (attentive/ attentively) as if not knowing what to say. 3. The dish smelt (sour/ sourly) and tasted (bitter/ bitterly). 4. Thanks, I feel just (fine/ finely). 5. You are looking so (gorgeous/ gorgeously) tonight. 20

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5. I’d rather stay in bed. I’m feeling not (good/ well) today. 6. The medicine smelled (strange/ strangely) and he put it aside. 7. You look (bad/ badly). Have you been working much lately? 8. The food in this restaurant always tastes (delicious/ deliciously). 9. Her words sounded (bitter/ bitterly) and she looked (unhappy/ unhappily). 10. Tim looked at me (disapproving/ disapprovingly) and gave a short sigh.

AGREEMENT BETWEEN SUBJECT AND PREDICATE

The predicate verb agrees with the subject in number and person: I am a student. They are reading. He has not come. 1. The verb that follows the anticipatory subject “it” is always singular. It was my brothers who were late. 2. When two or more singular subjects are connected by “and” or asyndetically, the verb is plural. James and I were both absent. Mary, Peter and I have had a long walk today in the fields. Note 1 If the two nouns express one person or thing, the verb is singular. Bread and butter is wholesome food. The painter and decorator has come. But: The painter and the decorator have come — the repetition of the article shows that two different persons are meant, therefore the verb “have” is in the plural. Note 2 There is a strong tendency to use the verb in the singular instead of the plural when the verb precedes the subjects. It is often found in interrogative sentences. In the distance was heard the applause of the people, the shouts and clapping of hands. Where was she and her baby to sleep that night? Note 3 In the construction “there is” the verb is also in the singular when two or more singular subjects are connected by “and”. There comes a young woman and her two children. There was a concert and 21

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dancing at our club last night. Note 4 A single noun qualified by several adjectives is followed by a verb in the singular if the noun is intended to express a single notion, and by a verb in the plural if the noun expresses different notions: A well-equipped and extensive factory was visited by the delegation yesterday. Careless and slovenly writing is not allowed. But: Vertical and sloping writing are both allowed. 3. When two nouns in the singular are connected by either. . . or, nether . . . nor, not only . . . but also, the verb agrees with the subject that stands next to it. Either James or John is going to do it. Either James or I am to do it. Either you or James is at fault. 4. If a noun is associated with another noun by means of with or together with, the verb agrees in number and person with the first noun. In this case the subject is expressed by the whole group of words (a woman with two children, a carrier with his horse). A woman with two children has come. A carrier with his horse has just entered the yard. 5. If two subjects expressed by nouns or pronouns are joined by the conjunction as well as, the verb agrees in number and person with the first subject. The students as well as the teacher were present at the meeting. I as well as they am ready to help you. 6. After the indefinite pronouns each (one), every (-body, -one), any (-body, -one), no (-body, -one), neither, the verb is singular, even when they are followed by several singular subjects. Each of them was present. Every bush and every tree was in bud. Neither of you is wanted. Nobody was present. “None”, originally singular, belongs also here when reference is made to one person. “None” is now quite common, however, as a plural with a plural verb: Several men were injured but none were killed. None of them have come. 7. Collective nouns (family, crew, crowd, etc.) take a singular verb or a 22

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plural verb. The verb is plural if the persons (or things) which form the collective are considered separately. The verb is singular if the collective denoted by the noun is taken as a whole. His family were sitting round the table. - My family is small. The committee were divided in their their opinion. - The committee was made up of twenty people. 8. Nouns of multitude such as people, militia, police, cattle, poultry, etc. are used with a verb in the plural. There were many people present. The poultry have done much mischief among the flowers in our garden. The cattle at this farm are sleek and well-fed. Note agreement of the verb with the nouns variety, number, proportion, etc. The number of books is not great. - A number of interesting papers were read. The variety of questions was surprising. - A great variety of books were recently published. 9. Nouns in the plural expressing measure of weight, time, etc., are associated with a verb in the singular when the statement is made about the whole amount and not about the units. The last day or two (a single period) has been a busy time for me. Twenty five metres (one distance) is a good race for a boy under ten. 10. When a plural noun is used as the title of a book, newspaper, etc., a singular verb is used. “Gulliver's Travels” is full of satire. Lamb’s “Tales of Shakespeare” is widely read by students of English. But the plural may also be used. “The Canterbury Tales” are (or is) Chaucer’s chief claim to fame. Dickens’ “American Notes” were (or was) published in 1842.

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Ex. 13 Use the proper form of the verb instead of the infinitives in brackets. 1. The bread and the butter (to be put) on the table. 2. The horse as well as the rider (to be hurt) by the fall. 3. Not only the flowers, but even the grass (to be withered). 4. Two hours’ study (to be) not enough. 5. (to have) either of the boys gone? 6. Neither of them (to be) at fault. 7. Not only the teacher, but the students themselves (to do) it. 8. Either he or I (to be going) to do it. 9. Neither he nor his friends (to be) present. 10. The crew (to be standing) in different parts of the ship. 11. His last sixpence (to be lost). 12. I as well as they (to be) highly satisfied with the report. 13. A reaper as well as a tractor (to be needed) for this collective farm. 14. Not only the earth but also the planets (to move) round the sun. 15. The company (to be entering) the hall by different doors. 16. Our party (to be) soon on (its — their) feet. 17. My family (to be) early risers. 18. That hundred roubles (to be) here. 19. Mine (to be) a large family. 20. The meeting (to be) large. 21. Every man and every woman (to be) to take part in the elections. 22. Neither John nor Emma (to be) at home. 23. Either of the methods (to give) the same result. 24. “Mates!” suddenly cried one of the strikers, “the police (to be coming)!” 25. (to be) either of you ready to help me? 26. The Two Gentlemen of Verona (to be) a play by Shakespeare. 27. Everyone of these pencils (to be) mine. 28. In front of us on a clear part of the street a company of boys (to be dancing). 29. The cattle (to be.) up in the hills. 30. The director and the secretary (to come). 31. The council (to be divided) in (its — their) opinion. 32. The cavalry (to be unhorsed). 33. The Committee- (to consist) of five members. 34. Bread and butter (to be) a good kind of food at tea time. 35. My aim and object (to be) to make English grammar clear to all. 36. Every one of the letters (to be rewritten). 37. (to have) anyone forgotten to sign his name? 38. I can wait; four weeks (to be) not so long. 39. The grey and blue blanket (to be washed) today. 40. The white and feathery blossoms (to be) on the table. 41. A variety of questions (to be put) to the lecturer. 42. The number of books which we have to read for this examination (to be) considerable. 43. A great number of students (to be) present at the conference. 44. Each of us (to be) ready to 24

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help you. 45. The number of delegates chosen (to be) large. 46. A number of boys (to approach) the school. 47. Neither of us (to be) mistaken. 48. The number of tickets (to be limited). 49. The number of children in the park (to be) remarkable. 50. The family (to be gathered) round the table.

Ex. 14 Use the appropriate form of the verb. 1. "There ___ money in my pocket," I said to the porter. (is, are). 2. I know my hair __ beautiful, everybody says so. (is, are) 3. The works __ his country, his home, his reason for being. (was, were) 4. These white swine __ not live. (does, do) 5. Means __ easily found. (was, were) 6. This watch __ a special favourite with Mr. Pickwick, having been carried about... for a greater number of years than we feel called upon to state, at present. (was, were) 7. "Good," I said. "No one shall tell me again that fish __ no sense with them." (has, have) 8. The deer __ ravaging the man's fields. (was, were) 9. Money __ so scarce that it could fairly be said not to exist at all. (was, were) 10. I was here before the gates __ opened, but I was afraid to come straight to you. (was, were) 11. The papers __ dull, the news __ local and stale, and the war news __ all old. (was, were) 12. At Capracotta, he had told me, there __ trout in the stream below the town. (was, were) 13. The sugartongs __ too wide for one of her hands, and she had to use both in wielding them. (was, were) 14. Her hair __ loose and half-falling, and she wore a nurse's dress. (was, were) 15. And the baggage __ apparatus and appliances. (contain, contains) 25

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16. The china __ good, of a delicate pattern. (was, were) 17. The nurse's wages.: __ good. (was, were)

OBJECT

The object is a secondary part of the sentence which stands in close relation to the verb, completing its meaning. Not only the finite forms of the verb take an object, but also the verbals -— participle, infinitive and gerund. Who invented the radio? We laughed at his joke. She listened, looking at me attentively. To find an accommodation is not always easy in high season. Besides verbs, there are also some adjectives which can be followed by objects. I am glad of your success. He is clever at drawing. Nouns of verbal or adjectival nature may also have objects. My surprise at seeing her was great. Have you any objections to his going? The object in the sentence may be expressed by: a) A noun in the common case, both proper and common. We led a happy life on the island. I saw ‘‘Queen Mary ” arrive at the harbour. b) A pronoun in the objective case. You can always depend on her. I saw something unusual. c) A numeral, both cardinal and ordinal I found the second behind the couch. d) A substantivized adjective or participle. Do you speak English? e) An infinitive or an infinitive group. I like to walk long distances. f) A gerund or a gerundial group. I enjoy taking a bath in the morning. 26

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g) Any word which is substantivized. Let’s dot our “I”s. h) A syntactically indivisible unit. Explain him how to do it. i) An infinitival, gerundial or participial complex. I saw him cross the street. I felt something wet touching my hand. j) A clause. We all thought you had been killed in the accident! From the point of view of their grammatical peculiarities the objects are subdivided into direct, indirect, prepositional and cognate. The direct object expresses the direct receiver or product of the action of a transitive verb. The pilot started his engine. She called her sister. The indirect object is also used with a transitive verb and denotes the addressee of the action. It can be both prepositional and non-prepositional. They sent us a telegram. The sent a telegram to their aunt. The prepositional object may be used both with transitive and intransitive verbs; nouns and adjectives. She spends much money on cultural services. We depend on your help. I’m anxious for your success. The cognate object is an object similar in meaning to the guarding verb, and sometimes even of the same root. It is used to make the sentence more emphatic. She smiled a happy smile. They fought a long battle.

The Complex Object The object that is expressed by an infinitival, participial, gerundial or Absolute Nominative construction is called the complex object. Excuse my interrupting you. I’m waiting for them to come. We consider this picture a masterpiece. 27

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Ex. 15 Point out the object, define its type and say by what it is expressed: 1. I had first become acquainted with my Italian friend by meeting him at certain great houses where he taught his own language and I taught drawing. 2. The ruling idea of his life now was to show his gratitude to the country that had given him a shelter. 3. But one day, I saw a girl I liked go into the marching band office to sign up. 4. I was standing around waiting for my hat to be cleaned when I noticed a big container of coffee. 5. Pitcher, still mildly curious, noticed a difference in her ways this morning. 6. I want you to marry me. I love you, Miss Leslie. I wanted to tell you, and I snatched a minute. 7. I don’t remember the applause, because Joan let out a loud cry from across the aisle that drowned out everything else. 8. The audience started to applaud as soon as they saw her. 9. Now in a few minutes, they were going to announce who had won the Oscar for the Best Supporting Actress of the year. 10.1 suppose the registrar didn’t think it would be right to ask a properly brought-up girl to room with a foundling. 11. I meant to write a long letter and tell you all the things I’m learning, but 7th hour has just rung. 12. “I don’t mind staying after school,” I said to Professor Herbert, “but I’d rather you’d whip me with a switch and let me go home early.” 13. You can sweep the schoolhouse floor, wash the blackboards, clean windows. I’ll pay the dollar for you. 14. I’m trying to make a scholar of Dave. And here he comes in late and leaves me all the work to do! 15. “You can’t see them with your naked eye,” said Professor Herbert. 16. He may have lost the neighbours’ respect, but he gained — well, you will see whether he gained anything in the end. 17. Sallie McBride helped me choose the things at the Senior auction. 18. I hope you never touch alcohol, Daddy? It does dreadful things to your liver. 19. But I’ll give you extra pocket money if you do a good job. 20. She wrapped her arms around her Mum and gave her a kiss. 21. And she sniffed her usual sniff of displeasure. 22. Harry was going to ask Ron if he’d had any of the treacle tart, but he fell asleep almost at once. 23. Nearly Headless Nick was always happy to point new Gryffindors in the right direction. 24. They learned how to take care of all the strange plants and fungi, and found out what they were used for. 25. Hedwig hadn’t brought Harry 28

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anything so far. 26. “Would you mind moving out of the way?” came Malfoy’s cold drawl from behind them. 27. Professor Flitwick had golden bubbles blossoming out of his wand and was trailing them over the branches of the new tree. 28. “We just want to know who Nicolas Flamel is, that’s all,” said Hermione. “Unless you’d like to tell us and save us the trouble?” Harry added. 29. “And you could ask your parents if they know who Flamel is,” said Ron. “It’d be safe to ask them.” 30. Harry snapped it shut, but the shriek went on and on, one high, unbroken, earsplitting note. 31. I had every worker in the place yanking the paper off those bars of chocolate full speed ahead from morning till night.

Ex. 16 Fill in the necessary preposition: 1. We congratulated them _____their success. 2. I must appeal ____ your common sense. 3. I believe he died ____ pneumonia. 4. The supplies we had were divided ___ two parts. 5. He informed her __ his decision. 6. He is slowly recovering ___ his illness. 7. He failed his examination ___ history. 8. I’m sorry to say, my opinion differs ___ yours. 9. The child was named ___ his father. 10. I don’t care __ your opinion. 11. I couldn’t help smiling ___ their remark. 12. He pulled me ___ the arm. 13. She sympathized ___ every stray dog and neglected child. 14. We all agreed ___ his proposal. 15. She could never part ____ any of her old things. 16. He expressed his opinion ___ the subject. 16. Are you familiar ___ this text? 17. I am grateful ___ you ____ looking after my son. 18. I’ve come because I care ___ you and I’m worried. 29

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19. Such behaviour is typical ___ him. 20. He informed her __ his decision.

Ex. 17 Translate the sentences into Russian, pay attention to the use of the objects. 1. Я полностью полагаюсь на ваше решение. 2. Что заставило его уехать так неожиданно? 3. Я предпочитаю лежать на солнышке и ничего не делать. 4. Эта песня отличалась от той, что он слышал вчера. 5. После ужина он позвал нас и предложил прогулку. 6. Я прожил долгую и счастливую жизнь. 7. Мы с нетерпением ждали прибытия поезда. 8. Извините, что я вас прерываю. 9. И тогда она совсем перестала готовить и убираться. 10. Анна всегда содержит свои вещи в чистоте. 11. Наша страна богата природными ресурсами. 12. Мы можем гордиться своими успехами. 13. Он обнаружил один носок на столе, а второй — за диваном. 14. Я бы рад избавиться от него, но не могу. 15. Я хочу, чтобы вы приготовили доклады к понедельнику. 16. Поначалу дети ее стеснялись. 17. Насколько я могу судить по вашим словам, вы возражаете против моего предложения. 18. Меня очень удивил тот факт, что она не сказала «нет». 19. Мы должны помочь бедным и обездоленным. 20. Она поступила в колледж и закончила его спустя всего два года. ATTRIBUTE

An attribute is a word or phrase that modifies a noun or a noun equivalent. There may be more than one attribute modifying the same word. The attribute may be expressed by: a) An adjective. It was a fresh, fine morning with a light breeze from the sea. b) A participle or a participial phrase. A broken chair stood against the wall. The child playing in the garden is my son. 30

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c) A pronoun. He took his coat and left. These exercises appear to be less difficult. d) A numeral. He is sitting in the fourth row. He bought two pounds of cheese. e) A noun in the possessive case. Rip’s only friend was his dog. f) A noun in the common case (an adjectivized noun). We expect him to come by the night train. g) A prepositional phrase. She opened the door on the left and found herself in the garden. h) A syntactically indivisible group of words. A nine-months-long winter is typical of Russia. A girl with blue eyes stood in the doorway. i) An infinitive, an infinitive phrase or a complex construction. It was a correct thing to do. It was a high price to pay for a sin. Mother bought her a nice toy for her to play with. j) A gerund with a preposition or a gerundial complex construction. We were facing the problem of crossing the river. What was the reason for Mary’s coming? k) An adverb. We shall occupy the room above. l) A clause. I had to buy a cheap watch that I could afford.

The Apposition A noun or a noun phrase added to another noun and meaning the same person or thing is called an apposition. There are two kinds of apposition: loose apposition and close apposition. The noun used as a loose apposition is just loosely connected to the head-noun and has a force of a descriptive attribute. It is usually separated from the head-noun 31

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by a comma. His son, a youth of sixteen, was of lighter colour in hair and eyes. A noun used as a close apposition stands in such a close relation to the head noun that they form a group with the stress on the apposition. Aunt Augusta wouldn't approve of your staying here. The river Volga is the largest river in Russia. Ех. 18 Analyze the attributes in the given sentences: 1. We asked the man who had brought the old man’s sea- chest where our guest had come from. 2. At first we thought it was the want of company of his own kind that made him ask that question. 3. You’ll get a silver fourpenny on the first of every month if you keep your eye open for a seafaring man with one leg and tell me at once if he appears here. 4. It happened one day that a poor wood-cutter, new in his profession and ignorant of the character of Ali Sakai, went to his shop and offered him for a sale a load of wood which he had just brought from a considerable distance in the country on his donkey. 5. In a hole in the ground there lived a hobbit. Not a nasty, dirty, wet hole, filled with the ends of worms and an oozy smell, nor yet a dry, bare, sandy hole with nothing in it to sit down on or to eat: it was a hobbit-hole, and that means comfort. 6. The best rooms were all on the lefthand side (going in), for these were the only ones to have windows, deep-set round windows looking over his garden and meadows beyond, sloping down to the river. 7. It was a dwarf with a blue beard tucked into a golden belt, and very bright eyes under his dark-green hood. 8. And what would you do, if an uninvited dwarf came and hung his things up in your hall without a word of explanation? 9. She was wearing her blue coat with the silver buttons and the blue hat to match, and on the days when she wore these it was the easiest thing in the world to offend her. 10. She seemed to be quite upset, and they thought Mr. Wigg must be a very odd person if Miss Persimmon was so glad not to be Mrs. Wigg. 11. Sallie McBride, my room-mate, helped me choose the things at the Senior auction. 12. A small man with a fine head of coarse white hair, he has a bony, sloping face better suited to 32

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someone far taller; his complexion seems permanently sunburned: now it grew even redder. 13. Mr. Willy Wonka can make marshmallows that taste of violets, and rich caramels that change colour every ten seconds. 14. And, by a most secret method, he can make lovely blue birds’ eggs with black spots on them... 15. And now the whole country, indeed, the whole world, seemed suddenly to be caught up in a mad chocolate-buying spree, everybody searching frantically for those precious remaining tickets. 16. In far-off Russia, a woman called Charlotte Russe claimed to have found the second ticket, but it turned out to be a clever fake. 17. I’m in the peanut business, you see, and I’ve got about a hundred women working for me over at my place, shelling peanuts for roasting and salting. 18. The third ticket...the third ticket was found by a Miss Violet Beauregarde. 19. Mike Teavee himself had no less than eighteen toy pistols of various sizes hanging from belts around his body... 20. And when the hand came out again, there was an ancient leather purse clutched in the fingers. 21. Nobody in the family gave a thought now to anything except the two vital problems of trying to keep warm and trying to get enough to eat. 22. He hated that “I’ve-told-you” expression of hers. 23. And Violet Beauregarde, before tasting her blade of grass, took the piece of world-recordbreaking chewing-gum out of her mouth and stuck it carefully behind her ear.

Ex. 19 Find a proper place in the sentences for adjectives given in brackets. Make up your own sentences with no less than three attributes to one headword. 1. Most of us find ourselves beginning to crave stews and pies and all kinds of dishes (steaming, Irish, rich; apple, sweet, hot; warming, delicious). 2. He would lift his nose high in the air and sniff the smell of melting chocolate (small, cold, pointed; wonderful, sweet, dream-like). 3. He wore a hat and a coat (shaggy, borsalino; sports, grey, rough). 4. What is more, there was a waterfall halfway along the river (chocolate, tremendous, brown). 5. He was wearing a watch (monstrous-looking, Swiss, huge, fake). 33

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6. The tiny men looked like dolls (pale, Chinese, medium-sized). 7. In a hole in the ground there lived a hobbit. Not a hole, filled with the ends of worms and an oozy smell, nor yet a hole with nothing in it to sit down on or to eat: it was a hobbit-hole, and that means comfort (wet, nasty, dirty; dry, sandy, bare). 8. It had a perfectly round door like a porthole, painted green, with a knob in the exact middle (brass, shiny, yellow). 9. The best rooms were all on the left-hand side, for these were the only ones to have windows, windows (looking over his garden, round, deep-set). 10. Hobbits wear no shoes, because their feet grow soles and hair like the stuff on their heads (natural, leathery; brown, thick, warm).

Ex. 20 Translate into English, pay attention to the use of attributes. Как здесь было зелено, как покойно, какая нежная травка была под их ногами! Нет, это невозможно! Почему невозможно? Зеленые ветки, шурша, касаются их шляп, а вокруг их ног водят хороводы яркие, как радуга, цветы. Мэри с Бертом поглядели друг на друга — а сами-то они как изменились! На Спичечнике был совершенно новый костюм — в зеленую и красную полоску сюртук и белые панталоны, а голову его венчала новехонькая соломенная шляпа. И весь он сиял, как новый шестипенсовик. — Ах, Берт, какой ты красивый! — восхитилась Мэри. Берт на миг онемел, он и сам не мог отвести глаз от Мэри. Наконец он перевел дух и воскликнул: — Как здорово! И больше ни слова не прибавил. Но смотрел он с таким восторгом, что Мэри достала из сумки зеркальце и глянула в него. Она тоже изменилась. Плечи ее окутывала прелестная шелковая пелерина в ярких узорах, шею нежно щекотало длинное страусовое перо, ниспадавшее с полей шляпы. Ее самые лучшие туфли исчезли, вместо них — туфельки неописуемой красоты с блестящими пряжками в бриллиантах. На руках были те же белые перчатки, под мышкой — бесценный зонтик. 34

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— Бог мой! — воскликнула Мэри Поппинс. — Вот уж действительно выходной день! Любуясь друг другом и собой, они двинулись в глубь рощи и скоро вышли на залитую солнцем поляну. И, представьте, на зеленом столе их ожидал послеобеденный чай! Вокруг стола — зеленые стулья, посреди него — гора пончиков чуть не до неба, а рядом большой медный чайник. Но самое прекрасное — две тарелки с креветками и, конечно, две вилки — не руками же их есть! ADVERBIAL MODIFIER

The adverbial modifier is a secondary part of the sentence which modifies a verb (or a verbal), an adjective or an adverb. An adverbial modifier characterizes the process denoted by the verb from the viewpoint of situation, quality or quantity. There are adverbial modifiers of: 1) Place / direction. (Where? Where to? Where from?) She lived next-door. We came from the cinema. 2) Time / frequency. (When? How often?) We’ve lived there for three years. He often came to visit us there. 3) Manner / attending circumstances. (How?) He sleeps snoring loudly. He sleeps with the window open. 4) Degree. (How? To what extent?) She entirely agreed with us. I quite understand you. I’m extremely happy. 5) Cause. (Why?) We couldn’t settle because of his absence. The grass was glittering with dew. 6) Purpose / result. (What for?) Ham walked with us to show the boats. I was too tired to continue my work. 7) Comparison. (How? Like what?) She cried like a child. 8) Condition. (In what case?) 35

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If addressed, he mumbled something inarticulate. In case of my illness John will be in charge. 9) Concession. (In spite of what?) In spite of all his reasoning, he felt extremely unhappy. Though tired, he went on working. 10) Exception. (Except who / what?) Everybody was in the library, except Violette. The adverbial modifier can be expressed by: a) An adverb. He always works attentively. b) A noun with/ without accompanying words. Stop a minute. Walter ran the entire distance. c) A prepositional phrase. He worked with great devotion. During the interval they talked in the hall. d) A noun, pronoun, adjective, infinitive, participle, or prepositional phrase with a subordinating conjunction. Though busy, he could help me. If asked he always gave an answer. f) A participle, a participial phrase, participial construction. Putting away his bicycle he went into the room. She left the room with the candle burning on the table. g) A prepositional phrase or a construction with a gerund. Read instructions before opening a package. On pressing this button you ’ll get your money back. h) An infinitive, an infinitive phrase, or an infinitive construction. He ran to catch the tram. The night was too dark to see the way. The bag was too heavy for the child to lift. i) A clause. Before I met you I’d been happy.

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Ех. 21 Analyze the adverbial modifiers in the following sentences. Reconstruct the questions to which these sentences may be the answers. 1. It was 7 minutes after midnight. 2. The dog was lying on the grass in the middle of the lawn in front of Mrs. Shears’s house. 3. The dog moved its feet as if it was running on its side. 4. She lived on the opposite side of the road, two houses to the left. 5. Dogs do not tell lies because they cannot talk. 6. She made the wiggly quotation sign with her first and second fingers. 7. I am arresting you for assaulting a police officer. 8. I watched the sky while driving toward the town center. 9. Some of the stars moved nearly as fast as the speed of light. 10. If moving toward us the stars will be seen better. 11. It was 1:12 a.m. when Father arrived at the police station. 12. The gesture was used to substitute a hug. 13. I’m no end pleased with our agreement. 14. I get immediately upset thinking about it. 15. He did it just for his mother’s satisfaction.

Ex. 22 Analyze the adverbial modifiers in the given sentences. Translate them into Russian. 1. There is a legend about a bird which sings ... more sweetly than any other creature on the face of the earth. 2. But the whole world stills to listen, and God in His heaven smiles. 3. So Meggie squatted down behind the gorse bush next to the front gate and tugged impatiently. 4. It never occurred to her that Agnes was to play with. 5. Astonishingly lifelike blue eyes shone between lashes of real hair... 6. Jack and Hughie came rustling through the grass where it was too close to the fence to feel a scythe. 7. Frank had driven his mother into Wahine to buy Meggie’s doll, and he was still wondering what had prompted her to do it. 8. Jack and Hughie had the doll between them on the front path, manipulating its joints 37

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callously. 9. She stared at Frank out of grey eyes so large and full of tragedy that he felt his throat tighten. 10. Pulling a dirty rag from his breeches pocket, he rubbed it clumsily over her face, then pinched her nose between its folds. 11. He fancied she would not have been nearly so upset if poor Agnes had only bled when she lost her hair. 12. From waking to sleeping she lived in the kitchen and back garden, her stout black boots beating a circular path from stove to laundry to vegetable patch to clotheslines and thence to the stove again. 13. Meggie, I let you put on your Sunday best dress this morning on one condition, that you didn’t get it dirty. 14. I promised we’d fix it up as good as new. 15. Having finished her inspection, Fee laid Agnes on the dresser near the stove and looked at Meggie. 16. The words were matter-of-fact rather than comforting. 17. What none of the children save Frank could realize was that Fee was permanently, incurably tired. 18. The boys were clustered on the back veranda playing with a frog, except for Frank. 19. The finely painted bone china face was beautiful, left unglazed to give the delicately tinted skin a natural matte texture. 20. And he grinned down at the little girl with the curious sense of wonder. 21. The boys trailed in gradually, Frank bringing up the rear with an armload of wood... 22. Padraic put Meggie down and walked to the head of the non-company dining table at the far end of the kitchen. 23. The plates were big ones, and they were heavily heaped with food. 24. In spite of the muted groans and sounds of disgust, everyone including Stu polished his plate clean with bread. 25. Vegetables and fruit were eaten because being good for you. 26. Jack and Bob were too tired to feed the dogs. 27. Frank worked on the doll without raising his head, but as the pile of plates grew he got up silently to fetch a towel and began to dry them. 28. Saying things like this you’re insulting Daddy, and he doesn’t deserve it. 29. Today, when those wretched chaps were pulling her dolly about, she just stood there crying as if her whole world had fallen to bits. 30.1 can’t do any more. I’m too tried to see straight.

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Ex. 23 Translate into English, pay attention to the use of adverbial modifiers. Винни-Пух первым делом подошел к одной знакомой луже и как следует вывалялся в грязи, чтобы стать совсем- совсем черным, как настоящая тучка. Потом они стали надувать шар, держа его вдвоем за веревочку. И когда шар раздулся так, что, казалось, вот-вот лопнет, Кристофер Робин вдруг отпустил веревочку, и Винни-Пух плавно взлетел в небо и остановился там — как раз напротив верхушки пчелиного дерева, только немного в стороне. — Ураааа! — закричал Кристофер Робин. — Что, здорово? — крикнул ему из поднебесья Винни-Пух. — Ну, на кого я похож? — На медведя, который летит на воздушном шаре! — А на маленькую черную тучку разве не похож? — тревожно спросил Пух. — Не очень. — Ну ладно, может быть, отсюда больше похоже. А потом, разве знаешь, что придет пчелам в голову! К сожалению, ветра не было, и Пух повис в воздухе совершенно неподвижно. Он мог чуять мед, он мог видеть мед, но достать мед он, увы, никак не мог. — Кристофер Робин! — Что? — У тебя дома есть зонтик? — Кажется, есть. — Тогда я тебя прошу: принеси его сюда и ходи тут с ним взад и вперед, а сам поглядывай все время на меня и приговаривай: «Тц-тц-тц, похоже, что дождь собирается!» Я думаю, тогда пчелы нам лучше поверят.

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INDEPENDENT ELEMENTS

A word or a group of words that has no grammatical connection with the sentence in which it stands is called an independent element of the sentence. Independent elements are: interjections, direct addresses and parentheses. Independent elements may occur in different positions in the sentence. Interjections are a specific class of words expressing emotion such as joy, sorrow, surprise, etc. Oh, it’s you! Hurrah, I’ve found my book! Direct address is used to arouse somebody’s attention, and is usually a name or a name-substitute. John, come here! Oh, you good-to-nothing, where have you been? Parenthesis is a modal expression showing the attitude of the speaker towards the idea expressed in the sentence. Perhaps, you are right. In a -word, we made a two-week journey in ten days. Ех. 24 Point out independent elements of the sentence. 1. I can start on the upper first thing in the morning. Lord, but I’m tired! 2. Go and help Frank with the wood, you lazy little scamps. 3. By the way, I’ve booked you at the Ritz. 4. “How’s it feel to be four, Meggie?” he asked his daughter. 5. “Well, Meggie girl, it’s your birthday, so Mum made your favorite pudding,” her father said, smiling. 6. “Oh, goodie, jam roly-poly!” Meggie exclaimed, slopping her spoon up and down in the custard. 7. Frank, don’t get grand ideas. They only lead to trouble. 8. Agnes! Where on earth did she get a name like that? 9. Maybe he was too concerned for her, maybe he was a bit of a mother’s boy. 10. “Come on, Meggie, I’ll piggyback you the rest of the way,” he said gruffly. 11. “Well, Robert Cleary, why are you late?” Sister Agatha barked in her dry, once Irish voice. 12. “I’m sorry, Sister,” Bob replied woodenly. 13. It was, properly speaking, a Protestant hymn, but the war had rendered it interdenominational. 14. Sister Agatha sneered, looking around at the other children as if they, too, surely must 40

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share her contempt. 15. “Go home, you revolting little Philistine,” she said, turned on her heel and went through into Sister Declan’s classroom. 16. «What’s the matter, dear?» he asked, bending over until her face was level with his own. 17. Cry, for the love of heaven! Make a noise, Francis Cleary! 18. All excited about going to school, eh? 19. Well, you’ve surely had quite a day, haven’t you? 20. To tell the truth, I do not quite like this book. 21. «Come on, you big old bitch, I’ll ride you home,» he told the mare, scooping up a halter. 22. Honestly, I cannot congratulate you upon it. 23. However, Meggie was a much better target, for Stuart’s wistful tranquility and almost saintlike aloofness were hard nuts to crack, even for Sister Agatha. 24. On the other hand, Meggie trembled and went as red as a beet, for all she tried so manfully to adhere to the Cleary line of behavior as defined by Frank. 25. «Meghan Cleary, put that pencil down! » she thundered. 26. «Oh, please, Sister, it was my fault! » she squeaked.

Ex. 25 Analyze the following simple sentences. Point out their parts. Translate them into Russian. 1. I will not waste money on: pasta-makers, ice-cream machines or other culinary devices. 2. My mother rang up at 8.30 in the morning last August Bank Holiday and forced me to promise to go. 3. You look like some sort of Mary Poppins person fallen on hard times. 4. Malcolm and Elaine Darcy are coming and bringing Mark with them. 5. I kept jamming my foot down to the floor on the accelerator pedal to give vent to my feelings. 6. She seemed to manage to kiss me, get my coat off, hang it over the banister, wipe her lipstick off my cheek and make me feel incredibly guilty all in one movement. 7. She led me through the frostedglass doors into the lounge, shouting. 8. Dating in your thirties is not the happy-golucky free-for-all thing. 9. How does a woman manage to get to your age without being married? 10. Your mother has the entire Northamptonshire constabulary poised to comb the county with toothbrushes for your dismembered remains. 11. Apparently he had the most terrible time with his Japanese wife. 12. Being set up with a man against your will is just the first level of humiliation. 13. The rich, 41

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divorced-by-cruel-wife Mark — quite tall — was standing with his back to the room, scrutinizing the contents of the Alconburys’ bookshelves. 14. It struck me as pretty ridiculous to be called Mr Darcy and to stand on your own looking snooty at a party. 15. They kept making me walk round with trays of gherkins and glasses of cream sherry in a desperate bid to throw me into Mark Darcy’s path yet again. 16.1 couldn’t stop myself turning bright red. 17.1 shall be taking one of my trains in the morning. 18. Now suddenly we are all supposed to snap into self-discipline like lean teenage greyhounds. 19. I looked at her wistfully, her vast, bulbous bottom swathed in a tight red skirt with a bizarre three-quarter-length striped waistcoat strapped across it. 20. Perpetua could be the size of a Renault Espace and not give it a thought. 21. On way home in end-of-Christmas denial I bought a packet of cutprice chocolate tree decorations and a £3.69 bottle of sparkling wine from Norway, Pakistan or similar. 22. Now I feel ashamed and repulsive. 23. Jude naturally was blaming it all on herself. 24. After all, there is nothing so unattractive to a man as strident feminism. 25. Eventually the three of us worked out a strategy for Jude. 26. Sharon and I were suddenly filled with remorse and self-loathing for not advising Jude simply to get rid of Vile Richard. 27. Staff are expected to be fully dressed at all times. 28. Father has never expected you to turn to the black sheep of the family. 29. I wasted two hideous days glaring psychopathically at the phone, and eating things. 30. Frantic messaging continued all week, culminating in him suggesting a date for Sunday night and me dizzyingly, euphorically, accepting.

COMPOUND SENTENCE

A compound sentence consists of two or more independent sentences connected by coordination; such sentences are called clauses. In the compound sentence the clauses may be connected 1) syndetically, that is by means of coordinating conjunctions or conjunctive adverbs; 2) asyndetically, that is without a conjunction or conjunctive adverb. There are 4 types of coordination: 42

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1. Copulative coordination shows that two ideas are connected. Copulative conjunctions are and, nor, neither ...nor, not only...but (also). Not only was he dissatisfied, but he was extremely indignant. All the symptoms returned, and this time they were much worse than ever. 2. Disjunctive coordination indicates choice and is expressed by the conjunctions or, else, or else, either...or, and the conjunctive adverb otherwise. We must hurry or we shall miss the train. You must fasten the boat to that pole, otherwise the current will carry it away. 3. Adversative coordination implies that two ideas contradict each other. The conjunctions are but, while, whereas and conjunctive adverbs are nevertheless, still, yet. I have a reputation of a hanging judge, but that is unfair. I tried to persuade her, still she would insist on leaving. 4. Causative-consecutive coordination is expressed by the conjunctions for, so and by the conjunctive adverbs therefore, accordingly, consequently, hence. For introduces coordinate clauses explaining the preceding statement. So, therefore, accordingly, consequently, hence introduce coordinate clauses denoting consequence and result. All of them were dead by that time, and therefore, sir, there must have been someone else on the island. We shan’t buy it, for I can’t afford it.

Ex. 26 Define the type of coordination in the following sentences. 1. It was a distressing time; and poor Jerusha Abbott, being the oldest orphan, had to bear the brunt of it. 2. Usually, as you know, the children are not kept after they are sixteen, but an exception was made in your case. 3. You are not to thank him for the money; he doesn’t care to have that mentioned, but you are to write a letter telling of the progress in your studies and the details of your daily life. 4. The Trustees and the visiting committee had made their rounds, and read their reports, and drunk their tea, and now then were hurrying home to their own cheerful firesides, to forget their bothersome little charges for another month. 5. He will 43

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neither answer your letters, nor in the slightest particular will he take any notice of them. 6. These monthly letters are absolutely obligatory on your part; they are the only payment that Mr. Smith requires, so you must be punctilious in sending them. 7. To her surprise the matron was also, if not exactly smiling, at least appreciably affable; she wore an expression almost as pleasant as the one she donned for visitors. 8. I am not at liberty to mention his name; he expressly stipulated that he was to remain unknown. 9. Jerusha’s eyes widened slightly; she was not accustomed to being summoned to the office to discuss the eccentricities of Trustees with the matron. 10. It seems queer for me to be writing letters at all — I’ve never written more than three or four in my life, so please overlook it if these are not a model kind. 11. Maybe you won’t stay rich all your life; lots of very clever men get smashed up in Wall Street. 12. Usually Freshmen can’t get singles; they are very scarce, but I got one without even asking. 13. I’m still ‘Jerusha’ in the catalogue, but I’m ‘Judy’ everywhere else. 14. Either you trust me and accept my terms or you’d better find someone else to do the job for you. 15. She gets the last names out of the telephone book—you’ll find Abbott on the first page—and she picks the Christian names up anywhere; she got Jerusha from a tombstone. 16. Everything seems perfect, and yet there is something wrong about it all. 17. But you have the upper hand, for if I become too impertinent, you can always stop payment of your cheques. 18. There was some kind of music being played in her dream — a piano, maybe, or else it might be an accordion, who knows? 19. I forgot to post this yesterday, so I will add an indignant postscript. 20. Whilst probability in some cases is against some people being implicated, yet no one can be considered as cleared of all complicity. 21. I’m in the basketball team and you ought to see the bruise on my left shoulder. 22. Julia Pendleton comes into my room to do geometry, and she sits cross-legged on the couch and wears silk stockings every night. 23. My sister Isabel gave me the silk stockings, and Aunt Susan the Matthew Arnold poems; Uncle Harry (little Harry is named after him) gave me the dictionary. He wanted to send chocolates, but I insisted on synonyms. 24. Fifty-seven irregular verbs have I introduced to my brain in the past four days 44

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— consequently they’ll have to stay till after examinations.

Ex. 27 In books of English and American writers find other examples of compound sentences with different types of coordination.

COMPLEX SENTENCE

A complex sentence consists of a principal clause and one or more subordinate clauses which can be linked asyndetically or syndetically (by means of conjunctions and connectives). There is a difference between a conjunction and a connective. A conjunction is a formal element connecting clauses. A connective connects clauses and has a syntactical function in the subordinate clause it introduces. A subordinate clause may follow, precede or interrupt the principal clause. There may be several homogeneous subordinate clauses coordinated with each other. A subordinate clause may be a principal clause for some other subordinate clauses (the first, second, third, etc. degree of subordination). According to their grammatical function subordinate clauses are subdivided into subject, predicative, object, attributive and adverbial clauses. A compound-complex sentence is a sentence consisting of two or more coordinated clauses one of which at least has one or several subordinate clauses.

Ex. 28 Define between simple, compound, complex and compoundcomplex sentences. 1. At 11.30 1 could stand it no longer, grabbed the handbag, got in the lift and went to the loo two floors down to avoid the risk of anyone hearing suspicious rustling. 2. Although it was only 12.45 1 thought a vodka and orange wouldn’t do any harm since it was a genuine emergency, but then I remembered that baby wasn’t supposed to have vodka. 3. For he couldn’t admit anything had changed, and he kept Meggie in his mind as a little girl, shutting out any visions which might contradict this. 4. Before, his loneliness had been an impersonal thing, he 45

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had never been able to say to himself that the presence in his life of any one being could remedy it. 5. Far too intelligent to pretend there was nothing causing his brown study, Father Ralph gave his master-to-be as penetrating a look as he was receiving, then smiled faintly and shrugged his shoulders, 6. I should imagine those whose fortunes are less carefully invested than Mrs. Carson’s are the ones who stand to lose the most. 7. Prices are ridiculously low, but they can’t remain low forever. 8. I unwrapped the packet in a fury, shoving the box and everything in the bin and getting on with it, then put the stick upside down on the back of the loo without looking at it. 9. So not only was Father de Bricassart something of a diplomat, he was also something of a businessman as well! 10. Those who could stopped paying rent and tying themselves down to the futility of looking for work when there was none. 11. A man stowed his few essentials inside his blanket, tied it with thongs and slung it across his back before setting out on the track, hoping at least for handouts of food from the stations, if not employment. 12. Most managed to live, some died and if found were buried before the crows and pigs picked their bones clean. 13. Good stockmen were easy to come by, and Paddy had nine single men on his books in the old jackaroo barracks, so Stuart could be spared from the paddocks. 14. Fee stopped keeping cash lying about, and had Stuart make a camouflaged cupboard for the safe behind the chapel altar. 15. Bad men preferred to stay in the cities and the big country towns, for life on the track was too pure, too lonely and scant of pickings for bad men. 16. That winter brought bad storms, some dry, some wet, and the following spring and summer brought rain so heavy that Drogheda grass grew lusher and longer than ever. 17. The dry weather came back; the thigh-high grass dried out completely and baked to a silver crisp in a rainless summer. 18. There was a man in Brisbane called Inigo Jones who wasn’t bad at long-range weather predictions, using a novel concept of sun spot activity, but out on the black-soil plains no one put much credence in what he had to say. 19. Poor Mrs. O’Rourke was horrified, but Paddy laughed until his sides ached. 20. He got down from his horse, tied the animal securely to a tree and sat beneath a wilga to wait the storm out. 46

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SUBJECT CLAUSE Subject clauses perform the function of the subject to the predicate of the principal clause. Who can do it is not easy to decide. Subject clauses are connected with the principal clause: 1. By means of conjunctions that, if, whether; If he will come is not certain. 2. By means of conjunctive pronouns who, what, which, whoever, whatever; Who broke the glass remained unknown. 3. By means of conjunctive adverbs where, when, how, why; How he managed to do it is more than I can tell. 4. Asyndetically. It is necessary we all should be present. If the subject clause follows the principal clause the introductory “it” is used in the principal clause to introduce the subordinate clause. It is strange that he didn’t come at all. Subject clauses are not separated by a comma.

PREDICATIVE CLAUSE

Subordinate predicative clauses have the function of a predicative in the sentence. In the principal clause there is only a part of the predicate — a link verb. The link verb together with predicative clause forms a compound nominal predicate. Predicative clauses are introduced: 1. By means of conjunctions that, if whether, as if, It looks as if it were going to rain. 2. By means of conjunctive pronouns who, what, which; '‘Piggi” was what he used to call her. 3. By means of conjunctive adverbs where, when, how, why, 47

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This is why he is so happy. 4. Asyndetically. My point is there’s no other way. There is no comma between the principal clause and the predicative clause. There are sentences in which both the subject and the predicate are represented by subordinate clauses. In this case the principal clause consists only of a link verb. Why she took the job is what I can’t understand.

OBJECT CLAUSE

Object clauses perform the function of the object to the predicate verb of the principal clause. They can also refer to a non-finite form of the verb or an adjective. Object clauses are connected to the principal clause: 1. By means of conjunctions that, if, whether; She told me that she was willing to help. 2. By means of conjunctive pronouns who, what, which, whoever, whatever, whichever; I don’t know which pencil is mine. 3. By means of conjunctive adverbs where, when, how, why, He didn’t tell me where he had put the things. 4. Asyndetically. I knew he would come. An object clause may be preceded by a preposition if the verb which governs the subordinate clause requires it. The introductory “it” may be used if necessary. They were delighted with what they saw in the picture. Rely on it that I will give you a full account. As a rule, object clauses are not separated by a comma from the principal clause.

Ex. 29 Point out subject, object and predicative clauses. Draw schemes of 48

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the sentences. Translate into Russian. 1. The trouble with college is that you are expected to know such a lot of things you’ve never learned. 2. It’s queer what a mixture the registrar can make in the matter of room-mates. 3. The trouble with working in publishing is that reading in your spare time is a bit like being a dustman and snuffling through the pig bin in the evening. 4. It would be much more sensible if resolutions began generally on January the second. 5. The worst of it was that Una Alconbury and Mum wouldn’t leave it at that. 6. Humph, it’s not that I wanted him to take my phone number or anything, but I didn’t want him to make it perfectly obvious to everyone that he didn’t want to. 7. I said it to show I had had a genuine reason for coming over. 8. The strange thing was that the parade of drifters constantly changed... 9. Drogheda was a very famous name, and might conceivably attract what few undesirables there were on the track. 10. It is proved by surveys that happiness does not come from love, wealth or power but the pursuit of attainable goals. 11. Down in the city they don’t know how the other half lives. 12. It seems wrong and unfair that Christmas, with its stressful and unmanageable financial and emotional challenges, should first be forced upon one wholly against one’s will, then rudely snatched away. 13. She said she was glad he was being good and doing better. 14. It seems as though we are in the same boat. 15. What I want you to tell me is what you yourself know about the man. 15. It was a matter of chance that I should have rented a house in one of the strangest communities in North America. 16. I don’t know if we can save the homestead, but I think Horry ought to get ready to defend his place. 17. Then she begins to rock back and forth, slowly. It’s as if she were listening to music. 18. Meggie remembered thinking how much prettier the Home Paddock might have been... 19. She could see how little pygmy silhouettes of men jumped and cavorted like anguished souls in Hell. 20. The reason for educating me is that you’ve got sense of Duty. 21. It is very uninspiring that I should write to a Thing. 22.1 haven’t a doubt but that you throw my letters into the waste-basket without reading them. 23. What you do to my letters is a thing of great importance to me. 24. In a fire, everyone did what he or she was best equipped to do. 25. 49

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There’s no doubt about it, I’m a very languid Latin scholar.

Ex. 30 In books of English and American writers find other examples of sentences with subject, object and predicative clauses.

Ex. 31 Finish up the sentences using subject, object and predicative clauses. 1. ... makes no difference to me. 2. Are you really convinced ... ? 3. ... remained unknown. 4. The sky is grey. It looks ... 5. He can surely do it. The question is... 6. It is necessary ... 7. We all should like to know ... 8. You are to be very careful with ... 9. He was asked about ... 10. My idea, dear friend, is ... 11. I allowed you all to think ... 12. But the funny thing was ... 13. It’s only in books ... 14. They must have guessed ... 15. ... goes without saying. 16. Her voice sounded ... 17. It is really very odd ... 18. I realize now ... 19. Jack seemed relieved to find... 20. For a moment I was sorry... 21. ... makes all the difference.

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ATTRIBUTIVE CLAUSE An attributive clause serves as an attribute to a noun or a pronoun in the principal clause. This noun or pronoun is called the antecedent of the clause. There is a man downstairs, who wants to see you. All that you’ve told me is of great importance. Attributive clauses can be divided into relative and appositive ones. Attributive relative clauses qualify the antecedent. Attributive appositive clauses disclose its meaning. Attributive relative clauses can be limiting and descriptive. An attributive relative limiting clause restricts the meaning of the antecedent and cannot be removed without destroying the meaning of the sentence. It is not separated by a comma. These clauses are introduced by 1) relative pronouns who, whose, which, that, as; 2) relative adverbs where, when; 3) asyndetically. “As” introduces a restrictive clause when the demonstrative pronoun such is used in the principal clause. 1) The boy who is speaking to my mother is my cousin. 2) It’s the house where I saw the thief. 3) She is the girl I’m anxious to marry. An attributive relative descriptive clause doesn’t restrict the meaning of the antecedent, but gives some additional information about it. It may be omitted without affecting the precise understanding of the sentence as a whole. There is usually a comma between the principal and the attributive descriptive clauses as the connection between them is very loose. Attributive descriptive clauses are introduced mostly syndetically by means of 1) relative pronouns who, whose, which; 2) relative adverbs where, when. 1) My son, who had been crying the whole morning, suddenly relaxed into a smile. 2) I came to a city, where every beggar was a poet. Attributive appositive clauses refer to an abstract noun in the principal clause and disclose its meaning. They are such nouns as “idea”, “notion”, “thought”, “reason”, etc. An attributive appositive clause is not separated from the principal clause by a comma. Appositive clauses are introduced by the conjunction that, 51

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occasionally by the conjunction whether or by adverbs how, when, where and why. Such clauses are not joined to the principal clause asyndetically. The idea that it could be done easily never occurred to me. I have no notion when he’ll be back.

Ex. 32 Point out attributive clauses. Define their type. Draw schemes of the sentences. Translate into Russian. 1. Suddenly, Mr Wonka, who was sitting on Charlie’s other side, reached down into the bottom of the boat, picked up a large mug, dipped it into the river, filled it with chocolate, and handed it to Charlie. 2. Anyone could see that this was the room he loved best of all. 3. A small shiny machine kept going phut-phut-phutphut-phut, and every time it went phut, a large green marble dropped out of it into a basket on the floor. 4. I am inventing them for children who are given very little pocket money. 5. All that remained of Violet Beauregarde herself was a tiny pair of legs and a tiny pair of arms sticking out of the great round fruit and little head on top. 6. I don’t see the reason why you haven’t told me about those letters before? 7. At the comer she turned to the right and then to the left, nodded haughtily to the Policeman, who said it was a nice day, and by that time she felt that her Day Out had begun. 8. Miss Lark’s two maids were rushing wildly about the garden, looking under bushes and up into the trees as people do who have lost their most valuable possession. 9. I remember a case where a woman’s husband was condemned to death. 10. But at the very moment she was thinking these thoughts, adventure, as she afterwards told my Mother, was stalking her. 11. Sometimes it was a polka, sometimes a Highland Fling and sometimes a special dance that she made up out of her own head. 12. She had lived there always — she often told my Mother that she couldn’t remember the time when she hadn’t lived in that field. 13. She danced all the way, snatching little sprays of green food from the hedges as she went, and every eye that saw her stared with astonishment. 14. There were Courtiers and Ladies-in-Waiting everywhere, who were all very gorgeously dressed and all talking at once. 15. The Secretary counted the Laws he had written 52

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down in the red notebook. “Seventy-two, your Majesty,” he said. 16. Presently the secretary emerged, carrying a large green book which was always kept there in case the King wanted to know anything. 17. He dressed himself then, putting on his best clothes, which he knew were only for Sunday. 18. The unfortunate fact that the new third wife of the American millionaire was a bad sailor had led to putting up of the house for sale. 19. There he purposely bumped into Robertson Ay, who was sound asleep on top of the best rock plants, and Robertson Ay was very angry. 20. It looked dreadful, and fear of what would happen to him stirred within Michael.

Ex. 33 In books of English and American writers find other examples of sentences with attributive clauses

Ex. 34 Expand the sentences providing attributive clauses where possible. 1. Five minutes later, Michael found himself standing in his stained clothes in a comer of the nursery. 2. Harry picked up the parcel and felt it. 3. He climbed carefully along one of the branches trying to see through the leaves. 4. It was almost dark now, but Harry could see Quirrell. 5. Harry and Ron spent most of their free time in the library with her. 6. They knocked on the door of the gamekeeper’s hut an hour later. 7. Hermione had now started making study schedules for Harry and Ron, too. 8. Harry noticed him glance at the fire. 9. The dragon snapped at his fingers, showing pointed fangs. 10. There were empty brandy bottles and chicken feathers all over the floor.

ADVERBIAL CLAUSE

Adverbial clauses perform the function of an adverbial modifier to a verb, an 53

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adjective or an adverb in the principal clause. According to their meaning adverbial clauses can be: adverbial clauses of time, place, cause (reason), purpose, condition, concession, result, manner, and comparison. They are connected with the principal clause by means of subordinating conjunctions, but adverbial clauses of condition may be joined to the principal clause asyndetically. If an adverbial clause precedes the principal one, it is usually separated from it by the comma, if it follows the principal clause, no comma is used, if it interrupts the principal clause, a comma is used at the beginning and at the end of it. 1. Adverbial clauses of time show the time of the action expressed in the principal clause. They are introduced by the following conjunctions: when, while, whenever, as, till, until, as soon as, as long as, since, after, before, now that. When the storm passed, we continued our way. While we were at breakfast, a letter was delivered from my brother. 2. Adverbial clauses of place show the place of the action expressed in the principal clause. They are introduced by the conjunctions where and wherever. She went where you had told her to go. Do your duty wherever you may be. 3. Adverbial clauses of cause show the cause of the action expressed in the principal clause. They are introduced by the conjunctions as, because, since, for fear (that), on the ground that, for the reason that, etc. Since you're tired you must have a rest. As the day was clear, we decided to climb a mountain. 4. Adverbial clauses of purpose state the purpose of the action expressed in the principal clause. They are introduced by the conjunctions that, in order that, so that, lest and some others. We must hurry lest we should be late. They climbed higher that they might get a better view. 5. Adverbial clauses of result denote the result of the action expressed in the principal clause. They are introduced by the conjunction that or so... that, there is sometimes a comma between the subordinate and the principal clauses. It is so simple that a child can understand it. 54

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6. Adverbial clauses of condition state the condition of the action expressed in the principal clause. They are introduced by the conjunctions if, unless, in case, on condition that, provided and some others. They also may be joined asyndetically; it causes inversion in the subordinate clause. In case he misses the bus, he can take a train. Could you stay a little longer, we should finish the work today. 7. Adverbial clauses of concession denote the presence of some obstacle which nevertheless does not hinder the action expressed in the principal clause. They are introduced by the conjunctions and connectives: though, although, as, no matter how, however, whoever, whatever, whichever, notwithstanding that, in spite of the fact that. However much I try, I can’t pronounce this word. Pitch- dark as it was, we could still find our way. 8. Adverbial clauses of comparison denote the action with which the action expressed in the principal clause is compared. Such clauses are sometimes considered as adverbial clauses of manner. They are introduced by the conjunctions as, than, as... as, not so...as, as if as though. It is not as easy as you think. It is much longer than you've promised.

Ex. 35 Point out adverbial clauses. Define their type. Draw schemes of the sentences. Translate into Russian. 1. Mary Poppins pulled the perambulator up with a jerk, in case Andrew, in his wild flight, should upset it and the Twins. 2. Whipped cream isn’t whipped cream at all unless it’s been whipped with whips. 3. The beard grew so fast that soon it was trailing all over the floor in a thick hairy carpet. 4. It was growing faster than we could cut it! 5. Wherever I went, there he was, staring at me accusingly. 6. The Red Calf had to take its breakfast of dandelions all by itself because the Red Cow could not remain still enough to eat. 7. Everybody was watching Violet Beauregarde as she stood there chewing this extraordinary gum. 8. But don’t worry, my dear Mrs Beauregarde. We’ll get her repaired if it’s the last thing we do. 55

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9. It was his habit and Jane’s always to protect Robertson Ay, because they loved him and didn’t want to lose him. 10. The trees were so thick he couldn’t see where Snape had gone. 11. They watched the little squirrel as he tapped the walnut shell with his knuckles. 12. This gas is so terrifically lifting that it lifts you right off the ground just like a balloon, and up you go until your head hits the ceiling — and there you stay. 13. The doors clanged shut and the lift leaped away as though it had been stung by a wasp. But it leapt sideways! 14. Andrew, of course, was never allowed outside the gate unless he went with Miss Lark for a walk in the Park, or with one of the maids to have his toes manicured. 15. She danced wildly and beautifully and in perfect time, though she had no music to go by. 16. I always thought dancing improper, but it can’t be since I myself am dancing. 17. She could see the figures of the King and the Courtiers growing smaller and smaller until they disappeared below. 18. Quirrell, however, must have been braver than they’d thought. 19. They piled so much homework on them that the Easter holidays weren’t nearly as much fun as the Christmas ones. 20. It’s hard to stop Muggles from noticing us if we’re keeping dragons in the back garden. 21. Even though it was such a warm day, there was a blazing fire in the grate. 22. So now they had something else to worry about: what might happen to Hagrid if anyone found out he was hiding an illegal dragon in his hut. 23. I almost weakened; if he hadn’t been so dictatorial, maybe I should have entirely weakened. 24. I thought I’d better see my bridges in flames behind me before I finished writing to you. 25. When I’ve worked all the summer I deserve two weeks. 26. I was planning to Surprise you by writing a great novel before I graduated. 27. I felt as though I had cremated my only child! 28. If I had a husband and twelve children swallowed by an earthquake one day, I’d bob up smilingly the next morning and commence to look for another set. 29. But just as I was turning to the end to read the inscription on my tombstone, I woke up. 30. One hundred dollars would buy some coal and some shoes for three children so that they could go to school, and give a little margin so that she needn’t worry herself to death when a few days pass and she doesn’t get work. 56

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Ex. 36 Translate into English, using adverbial clauses. 1. Несмотря на то, что он был толстым бородатым мужчиной, он очень боялся свою маму. 2. Он даже не смел жениться, потому что мама сказала, что сама найдет ему невесту. 3. «Пегас», хоть и с трудом, взлетел и взял курс на Луну, где он должен был дозаправиться и получить новые звездные карты. 4. Если вы передадите ему привет от Громозеки, он обязательно покажет вам дневники капитанов. 5. — Мы ненадолго, — сказал профессор Селезнев, когда они подошли к небольшому домику, на котором было написано: «Дирекция космического музея». 6. У них такие большие и подвижные уши, что они могут обмахиваться ими в жаркую погоду и даже ложиться на одно ухо как на подушку и накрываться другим как пледом. 7. Селезнев с Алисой пошли на базар пешком, а Зеленый остался на корабле, потому что собирался проверить двигатели. 8. Если эти люди были здесь вчера, значит, корабль Кима вернее всего находится где-то поблизости. 9. Но она не успела сделать и двух шагов к кораблю, как в подземелье вспыхнули яркие прожектора, и громкий голос приказал: “Ни с места!” 10. Когда глаза привыкли к свету, Алиса увидела, что они окружены врагами. 11. А когда вы тоже попросили показать дневники, я заподозрил, что и вы — переодетые пираты. 12. Капитан Ким выпустил птицу, чтобы она отыскала среди звезд капитана Бурана и позвала его на помощь. 13. Поэтому она ринулась вниз и, как ни метался пират по поляне, она изловчилась, схватила его за шиворот и с трудом подняла в небо. 14. Если с птенцами он подружится, они ему будут даже червяков оставлять. PARANTHETICAL CLAUSE

Parenthetical clauses are used in parenthesis and have rather loose connection with the rest of the sentence, giving just additional information or comments. I liked to fly, as I say, and had none of my mother’s anxieties. Parenthetical clauses, which have appended force and are marked by commas 57

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and placed in the middle or at the end of the sentence, should not be confused with principal clauses introducing an object clause. I think it is past ten. — It is past ten, I think.

REVISION Ех. 37 Analyse the sentences. Draw their schemes. Translate them into Russian. 1. She explained to Eloise, who had come out to the driveway to meet her, that everything had been absolutely perfect, that she had remembered the way exactly, until she had turned off the Merrick Parkway. 2. Mrs. Snell having finished the cleaning and ironing was having her customary cup of tea before walking down the road to the bus stop. 3. She longed for the day when Meggie would be old enough to help; already the child did simple tasks, but at barely four years of age it couldn’t possibly lighten the load. 4. In hostile silence, the girls stared out of opposite windows until the cab pulled up in front of Selena’s apartment house. 5. Frank worked on the doll without raising his head, but as the pile of plates grew he got up silently to fetch a towel and began to dry them. 6. Well, I was sick all over the table and it went right through to my drawers, so Mum had to wash me and change my dress, and I made us all late. 7. He sat me down in a chair, patting me as though I were a cushion, pressed cigars upon me, cakes, wine. 8. There is no knowing what people will do when they are about to die, Mrs. Pearl told herself, and she tucked the envelope under her arm and hurried home. 9. Dirk Stroeve agreed to fetch me on the following evening and take me to the cafe at which Strickland was most likely to be found. 10. That was six weeks ago, on a Tuesday morning, very early, long before your visiting time, and the moment he entered I knew there was some sort of madness in the wind. 11. The doctor recovered himself, but it required quite an effort for him to find his voice. 12. She knew them only from the many photographs that she had received and that she kept putting up all over the house. 13. He had specifically requested that she telephone Landy as 58

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soon as she had read the letter. 14. There was something strangely alive in them (painted fruit), as though they were created in a stage of the earth’s dark history when things were not irrevocably fixed to their forms. 15. Then suddenly, Miss Lark’s voice would be heard calling from a window, and the other dog would get up, loll out his tongue at Miss Lark, wink at Andrew and wander off, waving his hindquarters as he went just to show that he didn’t care. 16. He and his friend marched sedately up to the group, whisking their tails jauntily and keeping their ears well cocked, and you could tell by the look in Andrew’s eye that, whatever he meant, he meant business. 17. I beg you to remember that I am a decent respectable animal and have been taught from my infancy that jumping was no occupation for a lady. 18. And it seemed to her that as it disappeared into the darkness great chords of music came from it and echoed through the air. 19. He knew the moment he opened his eyes that something was wrong but he was not quite sure what it was. 20. This is the hardest letter I ever wrote, but I have decided what I must do, and there isn’t going to be any turning back. 21. The feeling often comes over me that I am not at all remarkable; it is fun to plan a career, but in all probability I shan’t turn out a bit different from any other ordinary person. 22. One can’t help thinking, though, how their conversation will bore their husbands, unless they are fortunate enough to obtain stupid husbands. 23. Anyway, she feels now as though all the good things were coming together. 24. This morning I did eat my breakfast upon a cold turkey pie and a goose, and I did send for a cup of tee (a china drink) of which I had never drank before. 25. We can keep our lights all night if we choose, the only requirement being that we do not disturb others. 26. Why on earth don’t they go to men’s colleges and urge the students not to allow their manly natures to be crushed out by too much mental application? 27. How relieved they’ll be when five o’clock comes and you pat them on the head and take yourselves off! 28. When I first came to college I felt quite resentful because I’d been robbed of the normal kind of childhood that the other girls had had. 29. We decided that the best thing we could do with our ten days was to come where it is quiet. 30. There is so much noise that you can’t hear the girls across the table speak 59

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unless they make their hands into a megaphone and shout. 31. It is funny how certain places get connected with certain people, and you never go back without thinking of them. 32. I think you might come and make my acquaintance — I shall hate you if you don’t! 33. It’s especially fun when your kind of work is the thing you’d rather do more than anything else in the world. 34. I’ve been writing as fast as my pen would go every day this summer, and my only quarrel with life is that the days aren’t long enough to write all the beautiful and valuable and entertaining thoughts I’m thinking. 35. Amasai, who used to be so obliging about beating rugs and carrying wood, grumbles if you suggest such a thing. 36. The wick lighted and burned with a small, steady, yellow flame and the way he held his hands the wind didn’t get to it at all. 37. He was sitting there very still, and it was obvious that a small tension was beginning to build up inside him. 38. The man seemed serious about the bet and he seemed serious about the business of cutting off the finger. 39. It was the usual kind of hotel writing desk, just a plain rectangular table about four feet by three with a blotting pad, ink, pens and paper. 40. He made a good job of it and when he’d finished there wasn’t any question about the boy being able to draw his hand away.

Ex. 38 Combine the given sentences into various types of compound and complex sentences. Make the necessary changes. 1. The boy watched the chopper. He didn’t flinch. His mouth didn’t move at all. 2. I had escorted Gladys Ponsonby back to her house that night nearly six months ago. She had spoken so freely to me about certain people. Otherwise this tragic business could never have taken place. 3. She pushed him gently towards his bed. He got in. Then she slipped the portrait of Mary Poppins into his hand. 4. There was a letter attached to the painting. Jane found the fact suddenly. The letter ran: “DEAR JANE, Michael had the compass so the picture is for you. Au revoir.” 5. She does want to come. I certainly shan’t have her back. 60

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6. Michael said nothing. He brought Barbara back and tucked her into bed. He was sniffing uncomfortably. 7. She went sailing on and on, up into the cloudy, whistling air. At last she was wafted away over the hill. The children could see nothing but the trees bending and moaning under the wild west wind... 8. She did not mind. It seemed to Jane and Michael so. She smiled. It seemed she and the wind understood each other. 9. Something was about to happen at Number Seventeen. He did not quite know what. His heart felt heavy with the thought. 10. They forgot it soon. Everything seemed to be as it always was. The spring sunlight lit up the house so beautifully. The house needed a coat of paint and new wallpapers. Nobody remembered it.

Ex. 39 Make up your own sentences to fit the scheme. 1. Principal Clause

Adverbial Clause of Place

Appositive Clause

2. Principal Clause

Predicative Clause

Attributive Limiting Clause

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3. Principal Clause I

Principal Clause II

Object Clause

Adverbial Clause of Condition

4. Principal Clause

Attributive Limiting Clause

Predicative Clause

Adverbial Clause of Condition

5. Principal Clause I

Principal Clause II

Subject Clause

Adverbial Clause of Concession

Attributive Descriptive Clause

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6. Principal Clause

Object Clause

Adverbial Clause of Condition

Object Clause

7.

Principal Clause

Attributive Descriptive Clause I

Attributive Descriptive Clause II

Object Clause

Adverbial Clause of Time

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Список использованной литературы Александрова, О.В. Современный английский язык : морфология и синтаксис / О.В. Александрова, Т.А. Комова. - М.: Издательство МГУ, 1998. - 208 с. Зеленщиков, А.В. Грамматика современного английского языка = A New University English Grammar / А.В. Зеленщиков, Е.С. Петрова. - СПб. : Филологический факультет СПб. Государственного Университета Академия, 2003. - 640 с. Кобрина Е.А.. Корнеева Н.А. и др. Грамматика английского языка: Морфология. Синтаксис. Учебное пособие для студентов педагогических институтов и университетов по специальности № 2103 "Иностранные языки". - СПб., СОЮЗ, 1999. - 496 с. Левицкий, Ю.А. Синтаксис английского языка: учебное пособие / Ю.А. Левицкий. – Москва ; Берлин : Директ-Медиа, 2014. – 166 с. – Режим доступа: URL: http://biblioclub.ru/index.php?page=book&id=241217 Синтаксис английского языка : учебное пособие для вузов / Н.П. Петрашкевич, М.К. Ветошкина, Л.А. Шелег, И.В. Боровикова. - Минск : Лексис, 2002. - 128 с. A Grammar of the English Language / Грамматика английского языка / В.Л. Каушанская и др. - М.: Айрис-пресс, 2012. - 384 c.

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