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English Pages 326 Year 1949
English Influence in Norwegian and Swedish Figuresculpture in wood 1 2 2 0 — I 2 7 O
A R O N A N D E R S S O N
English Influence in Norwegian and Swedish Figuresculpture in wood I 2 2 0 — I 2 7 O
A k a d e m i s k avhandling s o m med tillstånd av Humanistiska Fakulteten vid Stockholms Högskola för vinnande av Filosofie Doktorsgrad offentligen försvaras i Högskolans lärosal B , Norrtullsgatan 2, lördagen den 10 december 1949, kl. 10 f. m . AV
ARON
ANDERSSON Fil. Lic.
S T O C K H O L M 1 9 4 9
in Norwegian and Swedish Figuresculpture in wood 1 2 2 0 — 1 2 7 0
By ARON ANDERSSON
S T O C K H O L M 1949
Published with the aid of grants from the Humanistiska
Fonden
Printed in Sweden by Esselte Ab Stockholm, 1949
To
my
parents
Foreword
It may seem presumptuous to devote an entire book to the study of English influence on wood sculpture in Norway and Sweden within as limited a period as fifty years of the Middle Ages. However, I hope that the abundance and quality of the works of art which I have been able to assemble whilst follow ing m y research within these limits of time and space will fully justify my theme. Furthermore, when tracing the English influence in Scandinavian medieval art, there is no epoch that can compete with the middle of the 13 th century for richness in preserved material. This was the last century of the Middle Ages in which English influence played an important part in Scandinavian art — and the art preserved from the preceding centuries, when English influence is known to have existed in many different fields of culture, is scant and ambiguous. During the centuries that followed the Continent became the main exporter of works of art and the source from which the Northern artists took their inspiration. The years 1220 and 1270 are, of course, only approximate. I do not think that any of the Scandinavian carvings discussed in this book were made before the year 1220, as their English prototypes are contemporary or at any rate hardly more than a decade earlier. On the other hand, we know too little about a possible conservatism and/or modernism in the Scandinavian art circles of those days to be able to ascertain that none of the works mentioned here was made later than 1270. But the development of art in England does not justify the assumption that the English initiative came later, and this has helped in establishing my date. Many arthistorians in Scandinavia have touched upon the subject of English influence on the art of our Middle Ages, and the main lines have already been mapped out by previous generations. The paintings from the Gothic period in Sweden and Norway have been published in a notable work by Professor Andreas Lindblom, in which the author has tried to trace the dividing line between English and Continental influences. — As I was given the great honour of receiving a generous scholarship from the British Council (1946—47) to enable me to study English medieval art, I had the opportunity of acquiring some knowledge of English 13 th century carving, and I decided to make English influence on the plastic arts of the Scandinavian peninsula during that century the subject of my studies. I have prefaced my research with rather an extensive account of English figure sculpture from that same period; this seemed necessary as my opinions in many
respects differ from those of Mr. E. A. Prior and Mr. A. Gardner, whose standard work on the subject has remained undisputed too long. Also, in so doing, my views on the Scandinavian material will be more comprehensible and open to criticism. I do not pretend to have found the one acceptable solution to the many problems put forth in this thesis, but only to have produced material worthy of discussion. This book is the report on a few years' research under exceptionally favourable circumstances; it is an interpretation of the stylistic qualities of widely spread material which I have been in a position to examine and judge at first hand. *
*
*
It is a great pleasure for me to acknowledge my deep gratitude to all those who furthered my work. Foremost I want to mention Professor Johnny Roosval, m y teacher and friend, who opened my eyes to the beauty of medieval art, and who always generously encouraged and furthered my studies. I regard it as a dear privilege to have been given the opportunity of working in Statens Historiska Museum in Stockholm under the guidance of the late Baron Carl R. af Ugglas, Keeper of the Medieval Antiquities, whose successor, Dr. Bengt Thordeman, has given me much valuable support in his encouraging signs of interest and con fidence in my work. It was in fact while working for Dr. Thordeman on a small exhibition in connection with the acquisition of a crucifix (reproduced on p. 282) that I got the idea of writing this book. My work in his department belongs to my happiest and most inspiring experiences, and I also want to convey my thanks to my friends and colleagues there, Dr. Monica Rydbeck and Dr. Olle Källström. During m y year in England I had the great privilege of being under the tute lage of Professor T. S. R. Boase, then Director of The Courtauld Institute, and I want to express my deep gratitude for his kind interest and never failing patience and sympathy towards me and my work. I also remember with grate fulness all the kind and helpful people on the staff in that beautiful house at Port man Square. My very special thanks are due to Dr. John Allan of The British Museum, who in innumerable ways assisted m y studies in England, and helped my work through his many inquiries on my behalf, and — not least — took the trouble to check the English translation of my book. To the many friends and colleagues in museums and institutions, which I have visited in the course of my work, I want to convey my sincere thanks for their kind help and generous hospitality : Mrs. Lotte Blindheim, Universitetets Oldsaks samling, Oslo, Mr. Gustaf Blomberg, The Östersund Museum, Östersund, Mr. Rupert BruceMitford, The British Museum, London, Mr. F. Cottrill, The Winchester City Museums, Winchester, Dr. Elisabeth Dhanens, Musée Cinquan
tenaire, Brussels, Dr. Gerhard Fischer, Universitetets Oldsakssamling, Oslo, Dr. Hans A. Gräbke, St. AnnenMuseum, Lübeck, Dr. Brynolf Hellner, Nordiska Museet, Stockholm, Mr. Terence Hodgkinson, The Victoria & Albert Museum, London, Mr. Charles F. Holmes, The London Museum, London, Dr. Robert Kloster, The Bergen Museum, Bergen, Mr. Sverre Marstrander, Videnskapssel skapets Samling, Trondheim, Riksantikvar Arne NygårdNilsen, Oslo, Mr. James J. Rorimer, The Metropolitan Museum, New York, Miss Wencke Slomann, The Bergen Museum, Bergen, and Dr. F. S. Wallis, The City Museum, Bristol. For inspiring and loyal support, and many invaluable hints and discussions my thanks are due to those of my friends who are working on subjects similar to mine: Mr. Martin Blindheim, Oslo, Dr. Fritz Fuglsang, Flensburg, Mr. Rune Norberg, Stockholm, Dr. Hanns Swarzenski, Boston, Professor Hans Wentzel, Stuttgart, Mr. Harald Widéen, Gothenburg, and Mr. George Zarnecki, London. — For his kind interest in my work and a great deal of good advice I thank Professor Sten Karling, Stockholm, who has been good enough to accept this thesis as my dissertation for the Doctor's degree. — T o the trustees of »Humanistiska Fonden» I express m y sincere thanks for a contribution towards the printing of this book. For the generous way in which reproductions have been put at my disposal I wish to thank: The Conway Library, London, Mr. F. H. Crossley, London, Kunstgeschichtliches Seminar, Marburg, The Victoria & Albert Museum, London, The Dean and Chapter of Westminster, The Dean and Chapter of Winchester, and Mr. George Zarnecki, London, for the photographs of English monuments ; for the photographs of Norwegian monuments The Bergen Museum, Bergen, The Drammen Museum, Drammen, The National Museum, Copenhagen, Nor diska Museet, Stockholm, Riksantikvariatet, Oslo, Mr. Magnus Seim, Kinn, Universitetets Oldsakssamling, Oslo, and Videnskapsselskapets Samling, Trond heim; and for the photographs of Swedish monuments AntikvariskTopografiska Arkivet, Stockholm, and The Östersund Museum, Östersund. I want to thank Miss Elsa Schill for her ready help with the typing of m y manuscript and Mrs. Ebba von Dardel for her careful and enthusiastic work on the translation. I also have a great pleasure in acknowledging my debt of gratitude t o the library staff of Vitterhetsakademien, Stockholm, and to the ladies of AntikvariskTopografiska Arkivet for their kind and neverfailing help. Stockholm, May 1949. Aron Andersson
Contents Page. Part I. The Development
of English
Figure Sculpture during the Period
1220—i2jo
and
Some of Its Characteristics 1. " T h e W e l l s S c h o o l "
15
2 . " T h e L o n d o n S c h o o l o f Purbeck M a r b l e " 3. " T h e W e s t m i n s t e r S c h o o l " Part II. English Influence in Norwegian
55 70
and Swedish Figure Sculpture in Wood 1220—1270
1. PreRequisites
93
2 . T w o I m p o r t e d E n g l i s h W o r k s a n d a N a t i v e S c h o o l o f Sculpture i n t h e T r o n d heim Region a. St. Michael of Mos v iken
108
b. The Austråt Madonna
113
c. A Sculpture Workshop in Trondheim at the Middle of the 13 th Century . . . . 118 3. T h e M a d o n n a f r o m H o v e C h u r c h a n d Further E v i d e n c e o f a B e r g e n W o r k s h o p i n t h e R e i g n o f H å k o n H å k o n s s o n
127
4 . T h e Master o f Enebakk, a n d Related N o r w e g i a n W o r k s a. St. Mary from Enebakk, a Crucifix in This Church, and a Calvary Group from Ostsinnen b. The Madonnas from Fresvik (Sogn) and Hillestad (Vestfold)
138 145
c. The Hedal Madonna (Valdres) and the Problem of the Scandinavian Shrines of the H o l y Images 5. St. J o h n f r o m H e g g e n a n d Classicism
149 160
6 . T h e A n g l o B y z a n t i n e S c h o o l o f Manuscript Painting at t h e M i d d l e o f t h e 13th C e n t u r y and C o r r e s p o n d i n g W o r k s o f Sculpture i n N o r w a y
175
a. The Antemensale from Villnes (Sogn)
176
b. The Gallery Reliefs at Kinn (Sogn)
180
c. The Calvary from Balke (Opland) and Related Representations of the Crucifixion 185 d. Images from the Balke Workshop and Some of Their Presumptive Models, Pos sibly of English Origin
206
7 . T h e French H i g h G o t h i c a n d t h e A n g l o N o r w e g i a n Sculptural T r a d i t i o n . . . . 230 8. E n g l i s h versus French I nf l ue nc e i n S w e d i s h W o o d e n Sculpture a. The Apostle from Vanga and a Royal Effigy, Wrongly Considered as Examples of English Influence
247
b. English and Norwegian Influence i n Western Swedish Sculpture
256
c. AngloNorwegian Influence in Central and Northern Swedish Sculpture
266
d. A n Enigmatical Crucifix
281
I n d e x o f M e d i e v a l M o n u m e n t s and Personalities Q u o t e d Literature M a p o f N o r w a y a n d S w e d e n
292 310 319
л
P A R T I The Development of English Figure Sculpture during the Period 1220—1270 and Some of Its Characteristics
I . " T H E W E L L S S C H O O L " .
The year 1220 is a very important one in the history of English medieval sculp ture. It marks the beginning of the erection of the west front of Wells Cathedral1. The entire façade was planned and built as a gigantic sculptural monument, a screen façade with picture friezes and niches for statues. It is possible that the statues and other sculptures of the Wells Cathedral, thanks to the fact that they are very well preserved, today stand out with increased importance to a world whose knowledge of the otherwise ruthlessly destroyed English medieval sculpture is scant enough as it is, but we can state with some degree of certainty that none of the contempo rary Early English cathedrals can or could compare as regards abundance of sculp tures. It seems as though the Bishop Jocelin of Bath after his return from exile made a major effort to make Wells Cathedral outshine all other creations of the Church so far accomplished on either side of the English Channel in this respect. According to W . H. St. John Hope and W . R. Lethaby2, who have so far given the most thorough detailed description of the Wells sculptures, the sculptural plan at the time of the erection of the cathedral comprised 176 statues of male and female saints, 127 of which remain, 30 halfsize angel figures whereof remain 21, 49 scenes from the Old and New Testaments, 35 of which still remain, as well as a series of 85 reliefs with scenes from the Resurrection, practically all of which have survived to this day, besides the tympanum of the western portal with its image 1 See W. H. St. John Hope & W. R. Lethaby "The Imagery and Sculptures o n the West Front of Wells Cathedral Church" (in Archaeologia, Vol. LIX, London, 1904), p. 165. Also E. S. Prior "The Cathedral Builders in England" (1905), p. 50. Bishop Jocelin, however, did not return from France in 1220 as stated in the latter work, but as early as 1213. See C. M. Church "Jocelin, Bishop of Bath, 1206—1242" (in Archeo logia, Vol 51, part 2, London, 1888). Cp J. Armitage Robinson "Documentary Evidence Relating to the Build ing of the Cathedral Church of Wells" (in The Archaeological Journal, Vol. LX X X V , London, 1930), p. 12. A later date for the erection of the west front has been suggested b y John Bilson "Notes on the Earlier Architectural History of Wells Cathedral" (in The Archaeological Journal, Vol. LXXXV, London, 1930), p. 65 f. w h o opines that the construction was started some time between 1225—1230. The architectural historical evidence for such an assumption hardly appears conclusive, however, and the sculptures, also mentioned in the motivation, do rather confirm the year of construction generally accepted as being 1220 on comparison with the continental parallels drawn below. See page 34. 2
Op. cit. p. 147, 160.
of the Holy Virgin, the small sculptures of the arch and the group of the Corona tion of Mary placed above the portal as the central point of composition of the entire façade. This immense concentration of sculptures, the largest preserved from the middle ages in England, is sufficiently homogeneous with regard to style to have emerged in the course of one or two decades of uninterrupted work in a stonecutter's workshop. This sculptural workshop must, naturally enough, have been situated at Wells or in its immediate vicinity; the work was carried out simultaneously with the erection of the façade, and the same material was used both in the sculptures and the building, i. e. freestone from the Doulting quarries in the neighbourhood. But it must be pointed out in this connection that all the sculptures with the exception of the ornamentation of the western portal are quite individual and independent of one another, so that they could remain finished wait ing to be placed in their respective niches as the work on the façade proceeded, or, they might have been finished after the completion of the façade. It may be assum ed, however, for practical reasons, that all sculptures intended for the decora tion of the west face of the cathedral were placed in their niches in the upper tiers before the scaffolding was removed, and, as the bishop, in the preamble of the charter of October 17th, 1242, states that the work had proceeded so far that the consecration could take place, the west front may have been completed in that year, at the latest1. It must be an inspiring task to classify in groups the abundance of statuary on the west front, and identify the different master sculptors who worked on it. The sole attempt in this direction was made by Edward S. Prior and Arthur Gardner in their great work on English medieval sculp ture*. It is not my intention item by item to contest the grouping of the material accomplished by these authors, neither do I intend to present a similar detailed plan of my own regarding the progress 1
Hope & Lethaby op. cit. p. 165—166. The economic circumstances of the See during the t w o decades following the death of Bishop J ocelin i n 1242, d o not seem to have allowed continued construction. See also Canon Church "The Documentary Evidence Relating t o the Early Architecture of the Cathedral" (in Somersetshire Arch, and Nat. Hist. Soc. Proc. 1888, part 2), p. 99. Repairs seem t o have become necessary after an earthquake i n 1248 which, according t o Matthew Paris (Hist. Angl. IH, 42) damaged the tower. Whether this earthquake also caused damage to the sculptures o n the west front is, however, unknown. See Canon Church op. cit. p. 101. — Robinson op. cit. p. 11, emphasizes the fact that the consecration of the church does not give any information as regards the completion of the construction work. The church may well have been completed inside while the decoration work o n the west front was still going on. See Bilson op. cit. p. 67. But Bilson's attempt t o prove that part of the ornamental decoration of the west front could not have been finished until the middle of the century or around 1260 judging by the occurrence of a very advanced type of leaf i n the decoration of the inner order of the arch in the central doorway, is hardly convincing. These leaves, "bossed up to an undulating surface, with serrated edges", are certainly foreign within the "vegetation" of the cathedral, which belongs entirely t o the pure English stiffleaf type, but they hardly justify the changing of the whole chronology of the west front. These leaves occur already fully developed in the left portal of the west front of the Notre Dame in Paris, i.e. 1220, and in the very monument where the Wells sculpture has its strongest roots o n the European con tinent. See below p. 33 f. 2 "An Account of Medieval FigureSculpture in England" (Cambridge, 1912), p. 296 f. Ср., however, also Hope & Lethaby op. cit. p. 167 f.
of the work and the development of style while asserting a mutual chronology. This would lie outside the framework of my work, and such an attempt would necessitate a detailed study and close scrutiny of each individual sculpture, a thing which is quite impossible to do considering their position high up on the façade. I shall only dispute a few of the more obvious discrepancies in Prior & Gardner's system, and make an attempt to draw the main lines of the progress of the work and the development of style, and try to fit the sculptures into their European framework. As pointed out above, all the sculptures were in all probability carried out in the course of less than a quarter of a century and in a local workshop. Many hands must naturally have been active on this immense project, and yet, the sculp tures, as regards style, constitute a singularly uniform group. Close study of the monument immediately reveals that Prior & Gardner's classification is too arbitrary and can hardly be the result of a thorough, critical analysis of style. Its schematic nature is pronounced and noticeable even on a cur sory reading; the classification is based on sex and profession rather than on the study of styles1, and the authors, while wishing to find a method in the successive 1
The Group A , for instance, consists of bishops, group В of kings and princes, group С of princes and knights, group D of bishops and kings, etc., and the feminine element is introduced as late as in group G. — Group С is distinguished from, for instance, group В by not being "trampling o n dragons, etc.". In n o case have I been able to find a dragon under the feet of the figures; the statues N . 3, N . 5, N . 11, N . 12, N . 13, N . 15, N . 17, N . 21, N . 23, and N . 36 (numbered as i n Hope & Lethaby s system, op. cit. p. 146. Cp. note 3 p. 18) however, are trampling o n small crouching male or female figures. The shaping of these socle figures seems t o be based o n the legends connected with the martyr deaths of the saints in question, and in numerous cases it has proved possible for W . R. Lethaby to identify the saint's statue b y means of the socle figure. See Hope & Lethaby op. cit. p. 195 f. Group В is distinguished from group A b y having "more variety i n their attitudes and expressions" and are characterized b y "the gentle expressions and delicate in clinations of the heads". But it is only natural that the sculptors would take advantage of the possibility of achieving a higher degree of variety offered b y the dress of a king or a knight, compared t o the bishop's figure whose robes of necessity can be draped i n one w a y only. There is hardly more expression and hardly a more noticeable inclination of the head among the figures of the group В than of the group Л , but the expression may possibly be somewhat more worldly, less severe in group Б, and this is also concerned with the nature of the personage portrayed. — As typical of group С in relation t o the t w o preceding groups is mentioned "a departure from the immobility of the effigy conception". As w e have not been able to n o tice any such effigy conception before, this distinction becomes incomprehensible. " . . . the hands, instead of hanging b y the side are employed o n the dress, fingering the breaststrap, or holding up the cloak". But this is the case to the same extent in the preceding group ! — Group D includes seated bishops and kings o n the outward side of the buttresses, and it is evident that they follow a uniform plan. The quality individ ually, however, is rather varying. — Group E includes four figures in armour. — Group F comprises bishops and monks. The description "these broadproportioned figures..." is motivated Бу their clerical robes, but they still differ from group A ("advanced example of the A sculpture") inasmuch as their niches and bodies are taller. — Group G consists of most of the figures in the upper tier with the exception of those belonging t o the preceding group. They have a "marked expression given them i n their tall propor tion. This is often ten times their headheight... and has been thought a perspective device for correcting the v i e w from the ground". The height of the figures is dictated b y the shape of the niches — but are these really given their shape o n account of perspective, and not only because it is more decorative with taller niches i n the upper tiers from a Gothic architectonical point of view? — Group H includes the statues o n the wallfaces or panels between the buttresses. The authors are of the opinion that "both its handling and its sets of subjects appear outside the first general scheme", but d o not produce any evidence for it, and Hope & Lethaby w h o most thoroughly of all have studied the plan of the façade sculpture, have not expressed any such opinion. — Group J consists of four deacons. 2—903547
1 7
filling of the figure niches, often separate figures standing close to one another and so similar in style that one would presume offhand that they were made by the same sculptor. What has, above all, led the authors astray is their idea that the Wells sculpture is a purely local English phenomenon where we might follow step by step the development from a primitive to a more advanced form of sculp ture. This incorrect assumption is the basis, for instance, of the authors' classifica tion of group A : Twelve figures of bishops on the inner side of the buttresses of the southern half of the façade, distributed in the second and third tiers from the ground, as well as two seated bishops on the outward side of the buttresses. These figures of bishops, which are claimed to represent the earliest stage as regards the rows of statues on the west front both chronologically and in style, are compared t o some effigies of bishops from about 1200 A. D. in the sanctuary of the cathedral, and are considered to be a further development of the latter1. This, however, is pure hypothesis. The façade sculptures represent something quite new, clearly defined threedimensional sculpture as compared to the effigy figures primitively carved out of the stone slabs, and there is not a single solitary detail in the sculp tural work that indicates any relation between them. There is hardly any other reason to separate the figures classified in group A from the ones surrounding them than the mere fact that they all wear bishop's robes. The robes naturally give them a uniform appearance; the figure will inevitably become rather broad, and this is accentuated in the façade sculptures owing to the fact that the statues are rather short, a result of the size of the niches in which they stand. This, however, does not justify the expression "slab treatment" 2 . The drapery treatment of the figures in this group constitutes a veritable sample collection of the possibilities existing among the other statues on the façade; the broad, flat folds referred to as typical of the Wells sculpture are here found in robes otherwise hanging in soft, more naturalistic curves, (an exception even from this rule is, however, found within the group in question, namely, S. 21, where the folds form a sharp angle)з. 1
See Prior & Gardner op. cit. p. 296 f. with an illustration showing the five bishops' tombs in question. The date is possibly somewhat early and may rather be fixed at the first or second decade of the thirteenth century. See J. Armitage Robinson "Effigies of Saxon Bishops at Wells" (in Archaeologia, Vol. 65, London, 1913—14), p. 108. Here are also some g o o d illustrations of the other bishops' tombs. — In the Abbot's Kit chen i n Glastonbury Abbey are preserved t w o effigies, presumably of abbots of the monastery from the .first half of the 13th century; the older is comparable t o the older bishops' tombs i n Wells, the younger is probably a piece of work from the sculptor's workshop concerned with the decoration of the west front of the Wells Cathedral Church. 2 Prior & Gardner op. cit. p. 309. Quite inconsistent is the author's attempt t o explain the taller proportions of the Wells sculptures b y referring t o tomb sculpture (p. 296). Within group A, which is supposed t o mediate the transition from the tomb sculpture i n the church to the more advanced west front sculptures, w e find the shortest figures with the most broadset proportions of the entire façade (op. cit. p. 300, fig. 321). 3
The numeration follows the system suggested b y Hope & Lethaby op. cit. p. 145. The letters N and S
trefer t o the north and south of the central portal. The Roman letters indicate the figures of the lowest tier,
the odd numerals those of the second, and the even ones those of the third tier. In each single case the numbers start at the central portal and continue to the north and south respectively, returning at either end of the façade.
Fig. i. Tympanum of the western doorway. Wells Cathedral.
Otherwise the characteristic thin pleating of the material appears only in the alb, the vestment worn under the robe. The distinct and expressive treatment of the face does not differ from any of the other sculptures in this tier as regards stage ot development. O n the other hand, a comparison with the heads of the bishops effigies shows that one of the most decisive steps towards a fully developed Gothic form distinguishes these two groups. It seems hardly probable that the local scu p tor's workshop where the not especially high quality figure sculptures of the bis ops tombs were executed, can have been able to take the step entirely on its own. Should Prior & Gardner's classification thus not lead t o any acceptable solution of the chronological and stylistic problem, then new ways and means will have t o bC
T h e façade was certainly, as soon as the general plan had been accepted erected right up to the roof without interruption, irrespective of whether or not the sculp tures were completed and ready to be placed in the niches. According t o what principle was the sculptural work carried out then; where did one start, and where did one finish? f Oldest as regards style and probably also the earliest sculptural decoration о the west front is the tympanum of the central portal, with the Virgin and C i in a quatrefoil surrounded by angels with incensories1. T h e Virgin Mary seems almost archaic with her long, straight lower limbs and the mantle decorative у spread over the bench and converging in wide folds inwards towards her feet; Г See ill.~äbove. С р . Hope & Lethaby op. cit. Pl. X X I I : Prior & Gardner op. cit. p . 285.
the right shin is distinctly sculptured under the flimsy material which clings tightly, spreading in oblique folds towards the bench and her left knee, supporting the Child. Her left knee is somewhat higher than the right as the left foot tramples upon a dragon. The mantle, draped in a curve behind the torso, leaves the breast free with its fine pleated and girdled tunic. The two angels on either side bend their knees with an exquisite pose; their thin chitons bloused above the waistband cling to the bent knees and spread gracefully above the rear foot. It seems natural that the central portal was the first part of the façade to be fur nished with sculptural ornaments, especially as the censing angels and the tym panum are hewn from one single block of stone, the sole figure sculptures on the entire west front hewn out of a block, forming a part of the wall. What followed? — Perhaps the large figure niches around the portal and on the outward sides of the buttresses in the lowest tier with their elaborately sculptured socles came next, but nothing remains today of this ornamentation. In the entire lowest tier of the west face with its 44 niches only four statues remain; they are situated at the ends of the façade and are in a very poor condition. These sculp tures were, no doubt, among the most eminent of the entire cathedral and carried out by the greatest sculptors. The statues of the lowest tier of the northern and east ern sides of the northern tower all belong to the most exquisite and best preserved sculptures of the cathedral, surpassing in quality most of what remains in the upper tiers of the west front. Before, or at the same time as the more or less methodical production in series of statues for the upper tiers began, the more complicated and delicate task of filling the quatrefoils of the lowest tier with scenes from the Old and New Testaments must have been in the centre of interest and assigned to one of the most prominent sculptors. The quatrefoils, with their varying size and from an architectural point of view rather shocking shapes, broken inwards and outwards, in the inner and outward corners of the buttresses, must have offered great difficulties as regards the adjustment of suitable compositions. The artist solved the problems with great skill. In the small quatrefoils between the buttresses there often occurs a single figure, such as John the Baptist in the desert, Noah building the Ark, etc. In the broken quatrefoils on the outer corners of the buttresses there is usually above the critical corner a small group of two or three figures or persons intertwined, or one predominating figure which quite eliminates the gaping effect and that of the rugged edges (for instance, the Tree of Life forbidden, the Fall of Man, etc.). In some soli tary cases a fluent, consecutive composition occurs, such as the Birth of Christ. When the series was complete and the figures, and the architectural setting as well was painted, these quatrefoils, like the ones broken inward, must have given the architecture an appearance of lightness and gracefulness.1 What now gives an 1
O n traces of painting and the original condition of the façade, see Hope & Lethaby op. cit. p. 181.
impression of architectural dilettantism must have been artistic perfection of the first order at that time ! — In the inner corners the quatrefoils were either divided into two panels (as in Adam and Eve working, Cain and Lamech) or the corner has been overcome by means of a merry composition, as in Noah's Ark. From a stylistic point of view the series is strikingly homogeneous, being kept in a sober, quiet style with a perfect command of the means of expression. Composi tion, proportions, treatment of drapery, and psychological force of expression, everything is on the same level. A clear, mature style. And this style is, on the whole, decisive as regards all the sculptures of the west front. Hardly any new elements occur. The fine, pleated folds of the drapery, here and there giving a "ribbon" effect on the background of a sculptured body, are here used with excep tional artistic taste. The master sculptors of statues may be judged qualitatively by their more or less successful adaption of this style — but they hardly add any thing to it. The Coronation of Mary above the western portal must also be classified in the same group as the Madonna tympanum and the sculptures from the Old and New Testaments. Prior & Gardner1 are inclined to fix the time of its creation at some date during the final period of the erection of the west front, but this is hardly correct. It would be an anomaly to leave the ornamentation of this, the most important figure niche of the entire façade, to the last moment, and the style differs from the one we may assume belongs to the last phase of this school. Typical of the group in question is the soft, live rhytm, the relative ease and freedom and width of the drapery treatment, and the graceful carriage of the figures. The folds are generally deeply carved with a great effect of light and shade. But — there is in this drapery treatment no element which is not already present in the Madonna and angels of the tympanum. The different impression it makes is not greater than can be explained by the different sizes, the younger iconographie type of the Corona tion of Mary and — perhaps — by its having been sculptured by another master. W e can find several parallels to this deeply cut drapery in the reliefs from the Biblical story (see, for example, Christ at the Age of 12 in the Temple)'. In which order were the statue niches of the west front filled? What was done first? — W e have already assumed that the lowest tier belonged to the very earliest, but here practically nothing remains. Are the statues preserved to our time standing in their original places? It is possible that some single statues have changed places in the course of repair work or repainting, or perhaps when the erection of the towers was finally carried out. Observe, for instance, that a king (not a bishop as one might expect) з sits in the upper tier on the buttress immediately to the right 1
Prior & Gardner op. cit. p. 281. For ill. see also Hope & Lethaby op. cit. Pl. XXII.
2
See ill. in Prior & Gardner op. cit. p. 279 ; Hope & Lethaby op. cit. Pl. X X V I .
3 According to the iconographical system observed by Mr. Lethaby, see Hope & Lethaby op. cit. p. 178 £., and for the sake of symmetry.
2*—903547
2 1
of the portal, while in the topmost tier a bishop sits on the buttress at the northern end (not a king as one might expect). O n the buttresses of the northern tower a king and a knight sit in the lower tier ; in the upper on the right stands, however, a pope who thus breaks the rule to the effect that the figures on the outward side of the buttresses should be seated; he is also too slender for the niche. Here is a case where one might assume that the statue has been moved and put in the wrong place (N. 42). This is, however, to a certain extent countered by the fact that the figure in the upper tier on the buttress on the left is a sitting pope (N. 58). Icono graphically they motivate the existence of one another as counterparts being the only statues of popes in the northern half of the façade1. — In the row formed by three gentlewomen on the inner side of the buttress to the right, (N. 44, 46, 48)2 the figures are all placed on stone blocks of very different sizes. The figure in the middle is colossal compared to the small sculpture on the left, and the figure on the right is something inbetween. If these statues are actually standing in their proper places, they certainly justify M r Hope's assumptions that they were sculptured at Doulting and not here at Wells, no matter how improbable this may sound. — Moreover, the lack of consonance as regards size between the individual statues and niches is noticeable in several places in the upper tiers. Especially pronounced is the discord between sculpture and niche in St. Eustace and the female figure beside him (N. 76, 78)4. There is reason to ask whether the division of the façade into niches was carried out in collaboration with the sculptors who were to fill the niches with images of saints. The sizes and proportions of the niches are very haphazard, and the fact that they are very narrow and squeezed in between the blue has columns must have caused the sculptors great problems. O n the whole the niches of the second tier are shorter and better proportioned for human figures than those of the third tier. The sculptor has generally tried to counteract the disproportionate length of the upper niches by putting socles under the figures, in several cases — on the west front — a socle adorned with foliations. O r he has resolutely sculptured a tall, co lumnar figure. The two solutions are applied side by side in an astonishing manner on the same buttress in S. 6 and 8 (of 8 remains only the foliated socle). This seems somewhat haphazard and does hardly indicate any uniform planning. Most difficult were naturally the very narrow niches in the walls of the towers ; the models used here (hermits in s. and queenabbesses in n.) are, however, selected in such a way as to suit the column like form of sculpture. The most finely composed group of sculptures is found on the west wall of the nave around the three lanceo late windows; in the lower tier King Solomon and the Queen of Sheba, on the left 1
A seated pope is placed o n the wall of the southern tower, S. 34.
2
See Hope & Lethaby op. cit. Pl. X L V II.
3 See Hope & Lethaby op. cit. p. 167. 4 See Hope & Lethaby op. cit. pl. XXVII.
a martyr king, and on the right a bishop ; in the upper tier we find in the centre a queen and a widow lady, on the left St. Alban, while the statue on the right is missing1. This group seems to have been carried out simultaneously, and here the contrast between the short figures in the lower and the tall columnar ones in the upper tier is paradoxically accentuated. Here the distribution of niches and sculp tures are seemingly in complete harmony, but the figures in the upper row are all placed on foliated socles fitted loosely into the niches, and have, nevertheless, a tall, pillarlike stature on account of the high, narrow shape of the niches, while King Solomon and the Queen of Sheba are almost comically short, standing as they do on their fixed, foliated socles of the same type as those we find in the niches of the lowest tier, and with abacus of blue lias. This field shows how com pletely the sculptor was subject to the tyranny of the architecture, and it is difficult to believe that the building of the façade and the sculpturing of the statues kept pace with one another. But if the proportions of the figures are dependent on the shape of the niches, on what stylistic criteria are we to base our work when trying to determine the age of the various sculptures in relation to one another? The sharpness and freedom of the drapery treatment maybe? — But this is already fully developed in the reliefs from the Old and New Testaments. The density and richness of the folds? — But this is partly connected with the tall and narrow shape of the figures, and (as re gards the female figures) it can also be explained by the assumption that the artist has really tried to reproduce thin, soft, finely pleated material (it is typical that Prior & Gardner place all the female figures among the latest groups). After this only the treatment of the face remains, and might possibly in the course of the work express a development more and more towards the Gothic. But I do doubt that it would be possible to determine the relative age of the figures on the basis of something as subde as their varying facial expressions, especially in their present, rather poor condition. If it were a question of the work of one specific sculptor, it might perhaps be possible, but here, where we have to reckon with many different hands and consider the difference as regards the skill and attitude (conservative or modernist) of the various sculptors, such an attempt would be futile. W e often notice that the sculptures in pairs, or even in larger groups of figures standing close to one another, are so similar that one may assume that they have been made by the same man, or, at least, simultaneously. Prior & Gardner's divi sion according to profession is to a certain degree justified. "When a series of bishops or martyr kings was to be ordered, it would only be natural to have the same sculp tor or team of sculptors make them all. It is, on the other hand, quite misleading to make a chronological grouping of the development of the school by assuming that the entire workshop started with the task of producing twelve bishops on the 1
The naming is taken from Hope & Lethaby op. cit.
inner side of the buttresses on the southern half of the façade. There is no reason for the assumption that the work proceeded along these lines. T o me it seems hardly possible to discern among the sculptures on the west front a development from a primitive stage to one more perfect, from a fumbling attempt at statuary to more complete command of the means of expression. As mentioned above, the constituent features of the Wells sculpture are already represented and artistically exploited to a perfection hardly surpassed in any of the sacred figures in the relief scenes from the Old and New Testaments. Among the works of a sculptor's workshop where a progressive development cannot be observed, it might be more correct to look for the earliest works among the pieces of the highest quality. It is typical that we find these in the lowest tier. The niches here are the best suited for statuary; their proportions are uniform and suitable for human figures, and they are connected two and two under a bigger baldaquin. In each niche we find a beautifully sculptured socle for the statue, and the back walls of each pair of niches form a slight inward angle which contributes to hold the figures of each pair together. In this respect the architect and the sculptor seem to have been acting in close collaboration. It is also characteristic that the few sculptures remaining in the bottom tier are all composed together in pairs as regards inclination of head and movement of body. This occurs only in exceptional cases in the upper tiers. In other words, a complete harmony between architecture and sculpture exists in the lowest tier. In the bottom tier Prior & Gardner have separated a group of four statues under the name of the "Group of Evangelists" (N. XXX—N.XXXIII) 1 . T o this group may be added at least two more fragmentarily preserved sculptures in the same tier, and the name of the "Group of Apostles" or "Group of Prophets" would in that case be more justified. It should be mentioned in this connection, however, that the figures are not barefooted as is usually the case with apostles. They have oval, masculinely beautiful and expressive faces with beards and long, curly hair, and drapery treatment of a certain weight. Prior & Gardner' have with every justifica tion compared them to the reliefs from the Testaments, and assume that they are indeed sculptured by the same artist. They vary to a certain extent among them selves, and the figure N.XXX, for instance, differs somewhat from the others as regards the drapery treatment of its mantle which sweeps around the right leg in a series of arched and somewhat sliced folds ; it also differs from the others inasmuch as its tunic folds up at angles on the chest. Such a difference in the system of dra pery must, however, be considered a natural occurence in the work of one artist, and the possibilities of variety of the drapery of the loosely hanging mantles are 1 See Ш. Hope & Lethaby op. cit. Pl. XXVIII. Prior & Gardner op. cit. p. 303. I find Prior & Gardner s sepa ration of an Annunciation Group and a Visitation Group in the same tier impossible t o accept, or, at least, t o prove. See Prior & Gardner op. cit. p. 310 £. 2
Op.cit. p. 303.
on the whole well exploited in the rows of statuary on the Wells façade. There is a conspicuous abundance of variety. — A small, characteristic detail still noticeable in at least two of the figures in this group is the fact that one foot is supported by a leaf rolled up from the socle (N.XXX, N.XXXI). The group of five (originally six) deacons following these at the eastern corner of the northern tower, and comprising two of the most exclusive figures of the entire cathedral, is in all probability from the same time, and Prior & Gardner1 have placed these deacons in a group of its own. There is, however, a certain difference in quality noticeable within this group, and it seems hardly probable that the creator of N.XXXIV and N.XXXV with their ethereal expressions and the exquisitely cleancut sensitiveness in the drapery treatment would be in the same way entirely responsible for the remaining three figures in the group. However, there need not exist any doubt that the statues were made at the same time, and one small, signifi cant detail which connects them — apart from stylistic and other reasons — is the position of the three subdeacons with the left foot somewhat advanced and supported by a square, narrow console protruding from the footslab, a peculiarity which does not occur in any other standing figure, but which reminds us of the footstools of the seated kings.1 Of the figures of the ground tier the four female statues N.XXVI—N.XXIX remain, forming a harmonious group. The figures are somewhat slenderer and the drapery treatment of a thinner, finer kind than in the previous ones. This is probably due to the softer material of the feminine garments. If the sculptures of the lowest tier thus emanate from the first phase of activity of the sculptor's workshop, it is, however, considerably more difficult to suggest a chronological grouping of the figures in the upper tiers. Among the more important tasks were naturally the broad niches on the outward sides of the buttresses with seated kings, bishops, and other male persons. Nearly all the figures with the excep tion of the bishops have the position considered typical for the Wells sculpture, namely, with one foot on a footstool, a position of the feet resembling that of the apostles and subdeacons. The draping of mantles and tunics hanging from the knees of the seated persons are as a rule carried out in accordance with the same scheme as in the Coronation of Mary. But the droll positions with elbows sticking out and one leg thrown over the other, which indicates a certain inclination to experiment, sometimes jeopardize the artistic result. The positions of the head, however, a trifle bent forward or turned to the side, give an impression of ease. The strength and concentration of the facial expression is impressive in the better preserved specimens, and the finest figures of seated kings, S. 10 and N . 67 (the 1 Op.cit. p. 315. As regards these figures see also W. H. St. John Hope " O n Some Remarkable Eccle siastical Figures i n the Cathedral Church of Wells" (in Archaeologia, Vol. 54, London, 1894), p. 81 e x cellently illustrated, and with interesting explanations of certain details of garments. 2
See below o n page 43 f.
latter with a rather odd, sweeping drapery treatment around one leg, resembling the apostle N . X X X described above) are two of the best sculptures of the entire west front 1 . A chronological, progressive division of the other sculptures seems, as pointed out above, rather difficult; should any one principle be established, it would possibly be that the niches were filled tier by tier, and not so much buttress by buttress. W e often find closely related figures in the same tier, usually side by side. If a progressive development cannot be applied to the school in the sense put forward by Prior & Gardner, w e will, instead, have to reckon with a regression, mannerism, and fossilization of the stylistic expression, because the workshop cannot have remained absolutely stagnant as regards style while carrying out a tremendous task like this which must certainly have taken more than ten years. This seems to be correct, apart from a shorter period of more advanced "Gothification" expressed by purer Gothic faces than previously, partly at the expense of the individualism Fig. 2. Young queen (N.35). a n c [ special characteristics of the older type, and in softer, more r / r Detail Wells Cathedral . v 1 accentuated human lines with slimmer waists under the tunics and mantles than earlier, sometimes even with an intimation of counterpoise. Representative of this tendency are, above all, the young king N . 7 and the young queen N . 352. The explanation to these impulses in the old workshop is hardly possible to find today. It may have occurred through the employment of a new artist, because only half a dozen figures give a more concentrated expression of these new ideas. If so, it must have been a sculptor trained in a workshop closely related to the Wells school, for his figures fall easily into place among the other statuary on the west front, hardly breaking the stylistic homogeneity mentioned above as typical of the sculptures of the Wells façade. The sculptor emanates from the same artistic milieu. The more advanced Gothic type of faces with its tendencies to typification is also generally characteristic of the — as far as I can see — latest sculptures of the façade. As mentioned above, the figures on the west wall of the nave on both sides of the windows must be reckoned among the works of the later phase of the school. The Queen of Sheba (N. 1)3 is one of the best examples of the advanced "Gothification" of the face types. A number of statues in the t wo upper tiers — and among them the ones mentioned above as examples of a lacking in consonance with the surrounding architecture as regards proportions — also seem t o belong here. The majority of the most pillarlike female figures with their dense 1 2
For ill. see Prior & Gardner op. cit. p. 303 f. Cp. Hope & Lethaby op. cit. Pl. XXVIII and Pl. LI.
See ill. in Prior & Gardner op. cit. p. 314, fig. 350.
3
For ill. see Prior & Gardner op. cit. p. 44; Hope & Lethaby op. cit. Pl. X X X I V .
a n d fine d r a p e r y a n d small heads w i t h slight, " G o t h i f i e d " features m a y thus — i n a g r e e m e n t w i t h P r i o r & G a r d n e r — b e considered t o b e l o n g t o t h e latest w o r k s o f t h e school. A certain fossilization a n d lack o f life a n d inspiration is also, w i t h ' a f e w exceptions, typical o f t h e m . I n s o m e c ertain cases t h e sculptor has m a d e use o f this manneristic style w i t h lengthened bodies — w e are justified i n calling i t m a n n e r i s m e v e n t h o u g h , as p o i n t e d o u t above, i t m a y b e m o t i v a t e d b y t h e architecture — w i t h such a n extraordinary e y e f o r t h e artistic possibilities i t offered t h a t t h e results are s o m e o f t h e m o s t peculiar a n d refined creations o f t h e entire w e s t f r o n t , while, a t t h e same time, t h e y h o l d a n air o f gracefulness a n d c o o l c h a r m amidst all this refinement, w h i c h appears t o b e specifically English. O u t standing a m o n g these h a p p y chances is, a b o v e all, t h e figure k n o w n u n d e r t h e n a m e o f St. Ethelburga o f B a r k i n g ( N . 54). 1 I shall here g i v e a suggestion f o r t h e division i n t o g r o u p s o f t h e sculptures o f t h e upper tiers i n accordance w i t h m y idea o f t h e stylistic d e v e l o p m e n t . T h i s suggestion is n o t a n a t t e m p t t o achieve a de f i ni t i v e ch ro n o l o g i ca l division o f t h e sculptures o f the w e s t front; this c a n o n l y b e d o n e after close detailed examination. T h e s u g g e s t i o n is i n t e n d e d as g u i d a n c e f o r t h e reader a n d as illustration o f t h e a b o v e account. T h e impression o f stylistic h o m o g e n e i t y is m o r e conspicuous t h a n t h e difference i n style, a n d complicates t h e division. T h i s also explains t h e great e x t e n s i o n o f t h e first g r o u p — t h e sculptures o f t h e t w o latter groups h a v e perhaps b e e n possible t o observe o n l y i n their o ut r é specimens. T h e question marks express t h e doubtfulness as t o w h i c h g r o u p t h e sculpture actually belongs. D e s p i t e all possible inaccuracies w h i c h m i g h t h a v e occurred, as t h e e x a m i n a t i o n based o n photographs a n d observations f r o m t h e g r o u n d (large collections o f p h o t o graphs i n Victoria & Albert M u s e u m a n d t h e C o n w a y Library o f t h e C o u rt a u l d I n stitute, L o n d o n ) c a n o n l y lead t o a superficial k n o w l e d g e o f t h e sculptures, I n e v e r theless consider m y s e l f unde r o b l i g a t i o n t o t h e reader t o include t h e f o l l o w i n g table: 1. T h e s a m e phase, as regards style, as t h e sculptures o f t h e l o w e s t tier a n d t h e seated figures o n t h e o u t w a r d side o f t h e buttresses (these are thus n o t included i n o u r table): S. 5. B i s h o p . Hope & Lethaby o p . cit. Pl. X L . S. 7. B i s h o p . Hope & Lethaby o p . cit. P l . X L . S . u . B i s h o p ( b y t h e s a m e craftsman as S.7?) Prior & Gardner o p . cit. p . 300, f i g . 321. 5 . 1 2 . M o n k . Hope & Lethaby op.cit. P l . X L I . 5.13. B i s h o p . 5.14. B i s h o p ( s o m e w h a t later t h a n t h e others?) Hope & Lethaby op.cit. P i . X L I . 5.15. B i s h o p . 5.16. Bishop. 5.17. Bishop. 5 . 1 8 . B i s h o p ( s o m e w h a t later t h a n t h e others?) 5.21. Bishop. 5.22. A b b o t ( s o m e w h a t later t h a n t h e others?) 5.23. B i s h o p . 1
For ill. see Prior & Gardner op. cit. p. 308, fig. 336; Hope & Lethaby op. cit. Pl. XLIX.
5.24. M o n k . Hope & Lethaby op.cit. P l . X L I L 5.25. Hermit. 5 . 2 6 . H e r m i t . Hope & Lethaby op.cit. P i . X L II. 5.27. Hermit. 5 . 2 9 . B i s h o p ( s o m e w h a t later t h a n t h e others?) Hope & Lethaby op.cit. PL XLIII. 5.30. B i s h o p ( t y p e as S л 8). 5 . 3 1 . B i s h o p ( s o m e w h a t later t h a n t h e others?) Hope & Lethaby op.cit. P i . X L . 5 . 3 2 . B i s h o p ( s o m e w h a t later t h a n t h e others?) 5 . 3 6 . B i s h o p ( s o m e w h a t later t h a n t h e others?) S.38. B i s h o p ( s o m e w h a t later t h a n t h e others?) 5.37, S.39, a n d S . 4 0 are i n t o o b a d a c o n d i t i o n t o a l l o w j u d g e m e n t . Result o f e x a m i n a t i o n o f southern half o f façade: T h e l o w e r tier generally contains t h e o l d e r types, a n d these s e e m t o b e concentrated t o t h e centre o f t h e façade. T h i s is perhaps also c o n f i r m e d b y t h e t w o seated bishops o n t h e southernmost buttress o f t h e w e s t front; t h e y s e e m t o b e i n s o m e w a y c o n n e c t e d w i t h t h e s o m e w h a t y o u n g e r bishops, a l t h o u g h their present c o n d i t i o n is t o o p o o r t o a l l o w o f a n y definite j u d g e m e n t . T h e majority o f bishops o f a y o u n g e r t y p e are i n all probability c o n t e m p o r a r y w i t h g r o u p II, perhaps e v e n g r o u p III, b u t sufficiently plausible reasons f o r placing t h e m w i t h i n these g r o u p s d o n o t exist.
N . 5. M a r t y r k i n g . N . i i . M a r t y r k i n g ( s o m e w h a t later t h a n t h e others?) Hope & Lethaby op.cit. Pl. X X X . N . 1 2 . Martyr king. N . 1 3 . M a r t y r k i n g (predecessor o f N . 3 ? ) Hope & Lethaby op.cit. P l . X X X . N . 1 4 . M a l e saint. N . 1 5 . M a r t y r k i n g . Hope & Lethaby op.cit. P l . X X X I . N . 1 7 . M a r t y r k i n g . Hope & Lethaby op.cit. Pl. X X X I . N . 1 8 . W a r r i o r (?) N . 2 1 . M a r t y r k i n g . Hope & Lethaby op.cit. P l . X L I V . N . 2 2 . "Warrior (?) Hope & Lethaby op.cit. P l . X L V . N . 2 3 . Martyr k i n g . Hope & Lethaby op.cit. PL X L I V . N . 2 4 . St. T h o m a s o f Canterbury (later t h a n t h e others?) Hope & Lethaby op.cit. PL X X V I I . N . 2 5 . Q u e e n A b b e s s . Hope & Lethaby op.cit. PL X L V . N . 2 7 . Q u e e n A b b e s s (same sculptor as previous figure?) Prior & Gardner o p . c i t . p . 310, f i g . 3 4 0 . N . 2 9 . Martyr. N . 3 0 . Priest. N . 3 1 . Martyr. N . 3 6 . Martyr. Hope & Lethaby op.cit. P l . X X X . N . 3 7 . W a r r i o r (?) Prior & Gardner op.cit. p . 306, f i g . 332. N . 3 8 . M a l e saint. Prior & Gardner o p . c i t . p . 312, f i g . 344. N . 3 9 . W a r r i o r (?) N . 4 5 . M a l e saint. Hope & Lethaby op.cit. P l . X L V I . ( T o II?) N . 4 7 . K i n g . Hope & Lethaby op.cit. Pl. X L V I . ( T o II?) N . 4 8 . Fe m a l e saint (later t h a n t h e others?) Hope & Lethaby op.cit. P l . X L V I I .
N . 5 3 . K i n g . Hope & Lethaby op.cit. Pi. X L V I I L N . 5 5 . K i n g . Hope & Lethaby op.cit. P i . X L V I I L N . 5 6 . B i s h o p (later t h a n t h e others?) Hope & Lethaby op.cit. Pl. X L I X . N . 5 9 . M a l e saint. Prior & Gardner op.cit. p . 303, f i g . 326. N . 6 0 . W a r r i o r (?) Hope & Lethaby op.cit. P l . L. N . 6 1 . K i n g ( b y t h e s a m e sculptor as N . 5 7 ? ) N . 6 2 . W a r r i o r ( b y t h e s a m e sculptor as N . 5 8 ? ) Hope & Lethaby op.cit. P l . L. N . 6 4 . W a r r i o r (?) Hope & Lethaby op.cit. Pl. L. N . 6 6 . W a r r i o r (?) Hope & Lethaby op.cit. Pl. L. N . 7 5 . K i n g . Hope & Lethaby op.cit. P i . LI. N . 7 6 . St. Eustace. Hope & Lethaby o p . c i t . P l . X X V I I . N . 7 7 . Seated m a l e saint. Hope & Leihaby op.cit. P i . LI.
II. "Gothification". N . 7 . K i n g . N . 8. Q u e e n (perhaps rather III). Hope & Lethaby op.cit. P i . XLIII. N . 3 5 . Q u e e n (cp. m a n t l e arrangement o v e r f o o t t o that o f N . 7 ) . N . 4 3 . M a l e saint ( o n b o u n d a r y o f g r o u p I). Hope & Lethaby op.cit. Pl. X L V I . N . 4 9 . Q u e e n . Prior & Gardner op.cit. p . 310, f i g . 341. N . 5 1 . K i n g (counterpart o f preceding figure; facial t y p e as i n I; gesture w i t h r o p e e n d o f b e l t as i n N . 2 9 ) . Hope & Lethaby op.cit. P i . X L V I I L N . 7 4 . F e m a l e saint (perhaps III?J Hope & Lethaby op.cit. P i . X L I X . III. Y o u n g e s t G r o u p . 5.1. S o l o m o n . Hope & Lethaby op.cit. P l . X X X I V . 5 . 2 . Q u e e n . Prior & Gardner op.cit. p . 313, f i g . 3 4 6 . 5.3.
B i s h o p . Prior & Gardner op.cit. p . 306, f i g . 333
S.6.
Fem a l e saint. Hope & Lethaby op.cit. Pl. X X I X . N o t e t h e f o l d s o f t h e tunic, simplified t o ribbons e v e n l y b r o a d a n d thick.
S.28. H e r m i t . Hope & Lethaby op.cit. P l . X L I . N . I . Q u e e n o f Sheba. Hope & Lethaby op.cit. Pl. X X X I V . N . 2 . W i d o w L a d y . Hope & Lethaby op.cit. Pl. X X I X . N . 3. M a r t y r k i n g . Hope & Lethaby o p . cit. P l . X X X I . N . 4 . St. A l b a n . Hope & Lethaby op.cit. P l . X X I X . N . 6 . Q u e e n . Hope & Lethaby op.cit. P i . XLIII. N . 2 6 . Q u e e n (same sculptor as preceding figure?) Hope & Lethaby op.cit. P l . X L V . N . 2 8 . Q u e e n (same craftsman as N . 2 6 ? ) N . 3 2 . Bishop. N . 4 2 . P o p e (?) N . 4 4 . Q u e e n ( c p . drapery o f v e i l t o that o f N . X X V I I I ) . Hope & Lethaby op.cit. PI. X L V I I (belongs t o III?) N 4 6 . F e m a l e saint. Hope & Lethaby op.cit. P i . X L V I I . N . 5 4 . St. Ethelburga o f B a r k i n g . Hope & Lethaby op.cit. P i . X L I X . N.63. Queen. N . 6 5 . Fem a l e saint ( b y s a m e sculptor as N . 6 3 ? ) N . 7 8 . Fem a l e saint. Hope & Lethaby
op.cit. p l . X X V I I .
O n t h e northern half of the façade t h e f i g u r e s s e e m t o h a v e b e e n m o v e d a b o u t t o a certain e x t e n t ( f o r instance, t h e m a rt y r kings), f r o m a n iconographical p o i n t o f v i e w as w e l l as w i t h regard t o t h e figures representative o f t h e various stylistic g r o u p s , w h i c h are placed rather a t r a n d o m .
T h u s , i f w e l o o k u p o n t h e sculpture w o r k s h o p a t W e l l s as a relatively closed circle t h e p roductions o f w h i c h d o n o t offer a n y p r o o f o f a n y successive d e v e l o p m e n t t o w a r d s a freer, m o r e plastic attitude, b u t are rather characterized b y stagnation, a n d w h o s e final stage t o a certain e x t e n t w o u l d b e o n e o f qualitative deterioration a n d d y i n g inspiration, these observations m u s t naturally b e limited t o refer t o t h e local conditions a t W e l l s only. F r o m t h e f o l l o w i n g w e will see t h a t t h e school i n its h e y d a y w a s representative o f English sculpture i n quite a different w a y , a n d exerted its influence o v e r a w i d e area 1 . I t m a y seem anachronistic t o see i n t h e sculptures o f t h e W e l l s Cathedral a " d e v e l o p m e n t " f r o m t h e freer, m o r e m a t u r e figures o f t h e b o t t o m tier w i t h their fuller plastic values t o t h e stiff, archaic l o o k i n g figures o f t h e y o u n g e s t g r o u p w i t h their m o n o t o n o u s parallellism i n t h e d r a p e r y treatment, because all w e k n o w o f t h e sculpture o f t h e 13 t h c e n t u r y a t this stage i n t h e m a i n countries o n t h e C o n t i n e n t indicates a develop m e n t t o w a r d s liberation, plastic masses m o r e freely g r o u p e d i n t h e draperies, m o r e f r e e d o m i n t h e posing o f t h e b o d y , a n d greater ability o f psychologi cal expression i n a n increasingly sensitive modelling o f t h e face 1 . I n o r d e r better t o b e able t o appreciate t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f t h e W e l l s sculp tures, i t w o u l d b e valuable t o k n o w its prerequisites, its i m m e d i a t e p r e d e cessors. I t is striking, h o w e v e r , t h a t statuary o n such a scale does n o t seem t o h a v e occurred i n English architecture d u r i n g t h e halfcentury immediately preceding t h e erection o f t h e W e l l s façades, w i t h t h e exception o f a f e w statues o f prophets a n d apostles excavated at Y o r k , w h i c h , h o w e v e r , s e e m f o r eign t o English art, a school inspired b y Spain o r t h e south o f France, w h o s e w o r k hardly contributes t o enlighten us f u r t h e r o n t h e subject o f t h e W e l l s sculpture*. O n t h e o t h e r hand, a v e r y f r a g m e n t a r y relief, a Majesty i n the refectory i n Worcester^ shows a surprising skill a t drapery treatment. T h e dress scheme o f this relief is derived f r o m Byzantine models, a fact w h i c h is 1 Miss Saunders observes a parallel as regards style to the Wells sculpture in one of the tombs i n The Temple in London, that of William Mareschell, Earl of Pembroke, and draws the conclusion that "the Wells style represents a chronological rather than a local development." See O. Elfrida Saunders "A History of English Art in the Middle Ages" (Oxford, 1932), p. 204. 2 The situation was the reverse around the year 1100 — at the birth of medieval monumen tal sculpture — as the development goes from the free picturesque style of classical antiquity t o wards linear abstraction and restriction, the very birth process of western European sculpture: development from dependent copying to an independent conception of the task. See M. Creutz " D i e Anfänge des monumentalen Stiles in Norddeutschland" (Cologne, 1910), p. 11 f. C p E. Panofski "Die deutsche Plastik des elften bis dreizehnten Jahrhunderts" (Munich, 1924), I, p. 13,29.
3 Prior & Gardner op.cit. p. 288. 4
See Prior & Gardner op.cit. p. 217, p. 151. Cp. Saunders op.cit. p. 90 f.
5 See Prior & Gardner op.cit. ill. p. 250, and date p. 192. ЗО
in keeping with the estimated date of its creation, about 1200 A.D.; the influ ence of Byzantine art has been observed in the contemporary English pain tings preserved to us to a greater extent than is the case as far as sculpture is concerned1. The greater part of the sculptures which might have produced evidence of continuous English sculptural activity throughout the middle ages were carried out in a more destructible material than stone, the most impor tant works were probably carried out in wood and are almost completely lost to posterity. The demand for cult images was rather heavy during the Roman Catholic era, and every little church needed its Holy Rood with the mourn ing Mary and John as well as Madonna images and saint statues for the many altars. Practically nothing of all this remains today2. But some odd survivals are still turning up from nowhere, such as the qualitatively rather good little Madonna which a few years ago was bought by the Victoria & Albert Museum3. This piece must be regarded as representative of English woodwork at the end of the twelfth century; her harmonious proportions, sweeping drapery treatment, and the broad face with rounded, lively eyes corre spond well to the contemporary miniature style of the "Life of St. Cuthbert" 1 See T. Borenius & E. W. Tristram »Englische Malerei des Mittelalters» (Florence, 1927) o n wall paintings in Canterbury Cathedral and St. Mary's i n Kempley (Gloucs.) from about 1175 A . D . , p. 5 f., and in Winchester Cathedral from about 1225 and from the period 1250—1260. It must be mentioned that the youngest of these paintings i n their free, soft, plastic style correspond most closely t o the Worcester relief. Ср., nevertheless, the painting of a Majesty at Copford Church (Essex) dated about 1150. See E. W. Tristram "English Medieval Wall Painting" (Oxford, 1944), p. 115 f., Pl. 75. The figure, h o w ever, underwent a thorough renovation i n 1872. The figures better preserved are of the more re stricted style (PL 78—80). A comparison t o miniature paintings lends better support t o the date estimate of 1200 A . D . W e find, for instance, a similar style of drapery in "the Guthlac Roll" (British Museum, Harley Roll, Y . 6) and i n a Bestiary (Bodleian Library, Oxford, MS. Ashmole 1511), both assumed t o be of the end of the twelfth century. See Eric G. Millar "La Miniature Anglaise du X e au XlIIe Siècle" (Paris, 1926), Pl. 53 and 58, p. 98 and 100. — The Byzantine influence o n English manuscript illumination during the second half of the twelfth century is specially stressed by F. Wormald "The Development of English Illumination in the Twelfth Century" (in The Journal of the British Archaeological Association, 3rd Series, Vol. VIII, 1943), p. 39. Cp. A. Haseloff i n André Michel "Histoire de l'Art" (Paris, 1906), II, i , p. 316. 2 See Aymer Vallarne »English Church Screens» (1936), p. 12, and g o o d illustrations of remaining fragments. As regards the occurrence of Holy Roods i n English churches, see F. B. Bond & B. Camm "Roodscreens and Roodlofts" (1909), p. 82 f. — A n early mention of a Rood group at Canterbury is quoted by Prior & Gardner op.cit. p. 8. — The opinion expressed b y F. E. Howard & F. H. Crossley "English Church W o o dwo r k" (1927, sec. ed.) must however be regarded as quite misleading, viz. that "England produced scarcely any woodwork of artistic importance until the latter part o f the thirteenth century. . . " (p. 13). Wre hope t o be able to show this below. — Prior & Gardner op.cit. p. 8. also think that the figures on altars and wooden bars often mentioned i n medieval texts were probably carved i n oak. Cp. A. H. Church "Some Minor Arts as Practised in England" (London, 1894), p. 57, with the interesting statement from the Close Rolls that Henry III i n the year 1249 "orders three oaks t o be taken from his park at Peri t on, and three images made from them, and placed as his gift in Glastonbury Church." 3
Inv. N o . A . 79—1925. See O. Elfrida Saunders "A History of English Art in the Middle Ages" (Oxford, 1932), p. 91 with dates as here, and an excellent illustration. — First published in "Review of the Principal Acquisitions During the Year 1925" (London, 1927), p. 2 f. and Pl. I.
Fig. 3. Head of a prophet. Notre Dame, Paris. Plas ter cast.
Fig. 4 statue (N.XXX). De
(Br. Mus. Add. MS. 39943)1, or a "WestminsterPsalter" (Br.Mus. Royal MS.2, A XXII) 2 while the smooth, framed, long oval surfaces in the draping of the mantle over Mary's left upper arm indicate a somewhat older conception. Nothing here an ticipates the elegant slenderness and finely pleated, sharply outlined folds of the Wells sculpture.
There is considerably more reason to mention the exclusive miniature sculpture in the northern portal of the Lady Chapel of Glastonbury Abbey (Somerset), whose fine, soft and rich naturalistic drapery style has the same classical effect as the Wells sculpture. The seated figure of Mary in the Epiphany appears as a predecessor of the Madonna in the western portal of the Wells Cathedral, and the drapery sculpture in the two angels flanking the Wells Mary has many parallels in Glastonbury Abbeyз. The same freedom and vigour in the movement of the body, the same softness in the drapery treatment, can also be observed in the approximately contemporary — end of 12th century — stainedglass windows of Canterbury Cathedral 4 . W e 1 2
tail. Wells Cathedral.
Millar op. cit. Pl. 52.
Millar op. cit. Pl. 62—63.
3 O n the portal sculptures at Glastonbury see Prior & Gardner op. cit. p . 189. C p . the seated H e r o d t o the left in the picture op. cit. fig. 167 w i t h the seated kings at Wells w i t h one elbow stuck o u t and the left f o o t supported. — There is, however, nothing t o j ustify Prior & Gardner's comparison w i t h the sculpture in the south porch of Malmesbury Abbey except the w a y i n which the sculpture has been placed i n the arch of a portal. B u t this was a widespread practice at that time, occurring i n western France at least as frequently as in England, and this is also pointed out b y Prior & Gardner op. cit. p . 199. Prior & Gardner date the sculp ture at some time around 1185, while A. W. Clapham i n "English Romanesque Architecture after the C o n quest" (Oxford, 1934), p . 132, says 1185—90. See also ill. i n the same book, Pi. 25. W i t h o u t any special date mentioned, but w i t h emphasis o n the parallel at Malmesbury, see W. St. John Hope " O n the Sculptured Doorways of the Lady Chapel of Glastonbury A b b e y " (in Archaeologia, Vol. 52, London, 1890), p. 85 f . 4 See N. H. J. Westlake " A History of Design in Painted Glass" (1881—1894). Ср., f o r instance, the atti tude of the seated figures w i t h that of the seated kings i n Wells. See Herbert Read "English Stained Glass" (London, 1926), frontispiece ill., o r Saunders op. cit. p . 102. Westlake op. cit. Vol. 1, p . 107, sees in the stained glass windows of the Canterbury Cathedral an example of the expansion of the glass painting studio at C h a r t res, and this origin is accepted and further c onfirmed b y E. Mâle i n Michel op. cit. II, 1, p. 374 f. A vigorous protest against this was delivered b y Read op. cit. p . 32 f. Bernhard Rackham " T h e Early Stained Glass a t Canterbury Cathedral" (in Burlington Magazine, London, 1928), p . 34, also sees something English i n the figure style a n d refers t o the image of the scribe Eadwine i n the socalled "Eadwine Psalter" of Christ Church, Canterbury, k n o w n t o be a c o p y of the Utrecht Psalter. See Millar op. cit. Pl. 43 and p . 95 w i t h estimated date 1150. Eadwine Psalter w i t h image of the scribe is, however, b y A. Boeckler "Abendländische Miniaturen" (1930), p . 92, placed at the head of a Frenchinfluenced g r o u p of manuscripts i n English miniature art. Canterbury is referred t o as the centre of this Frenchinfluenced art. Saunders op. cit. p . 102 f. finds it difficult t o find adequate parallels t o the Canterbury style in contemporary English miniature painting, establishes an iconographical influence f r o m St. Denis, and considers the glass on the whole — also stylistically — t o b e "strongly under French influence" (p. 112 f.). З 2
Fig. 5. Tympanum of the left portal of the west front, Notre Dame, Paris. Detail.
Fig. 6. Hermit (S. 28). Detail. Wells Cathedral.
find in the miniatures preserved to this day a similarly advanced style in the pages of aWinchester Bible in Pierpont Morgan Library, N e w York, (MS. 619)1, and a step further towards a fully developed plastic conception of figures and draperies — and simultaneously with a still more pronounced classical effect — is marked by the Psalter of Queen Ingeborg at Chantilly from the beginning of the 13 th century. The discussion which has developed regarding the English or French origin of the psalter, and which n o w seems to be decided in favour of the latter alternative2 is significant of the close relationship between English and French art as early as the beginning of the 13 th century, and which is becoming increasingly pregnant and conspicuous in the course of the century in question. It is also in French monuments that w e find the closest parallels on the Continent to the sculptures of the Wells façade, and the consonance is not only of a general nature; it is based on an intimate contact between the two countries as regards this developments. Let us, to begin with, compare the faces of two seated prophets in the tympanum of the left portal of the west front of the Notre Dame Cathedral in Paris with the apostle or prophet N . X X X and the hermit S. 28 at 1 Millar op. cit. pl. 48, p. 96. H e r e estimated t o date f r o m the end of the twelfth century and compared t o a Bible i n Winchester Cathedral. O n the latter, cp. Wormald op. cit. p. 45 and Walter Oakeshott " T h e A r t ists of the Winchester Bible" (1945). 2
See Haseloff op. cit. p . 332, 339; Millar op. cit. p . 52; Henry Martin "La Miniature Française d u XlIIe a u X V e Siècle" (Paris, 1923), p. 3, estimates the date of the psalter "antérieurement à 1236. . . premier quart d u XlIIe siècle". T h e very close relationship of the miniatures t o the classicist sculpture at Rheims, observed b y O . Elfrida Saunders "English Illumination", I (Florence, 1927), p. 56, gives, however, an impression of relative contemporaneity — the creation of the psalter w o u l d thus scarcely have taken place before 1211, the year the sculpture workshop of the Rheims Cathedral started its activity. See Louis Demaison " L a C a t h é drale de Reims" (Paris, 1910). Hans R. Hahnloser "Villard d e H o n n e c o u r t " (Vienna, 1935), p. 216, does n o t consider the relationship t o Rheims i n the figures of the psalter as being very close. E n passant I w o u l d like t o mention that a n expert like Georg Graf Vitzthum „ D i e Pariser Miniaturmalerei z u r Zeit des hl. L u d w i g " (Paris, 1907), p . 16, declares i n favour of the English origin of the psalter. 3 C p . E. Prior " T h e Statues of Wells w i t h some Contemporary Foreign Examples" (in Journal of t h e Royal Institute of British Architects, Vol. XI, 1904, p . 325 f.). 3 ;—903547
33
Wells1. Note in the former pair (fig. 3/4) the closely related, rectangular shape of the face, the conformity of the level eyebrow arches, the small slit eyes, the strong, straight nose, and the expression of the closed lips. In the second pair (fig. 5/6) it is above all the beard, divided up in snakelike curls, which induces to comparison. The importance of this relationship is fully clear to us on observing the approximate contemporaneity of the monuments ; the sculptural ornaments of the Notre Dame portal are estimated to date from the period 1210—1220, and are thus, as regards time, an immediate predecessor of the Wells sculpture2. Before one can say anything definite about a connection between the two monuments, a comparison will have to be made of the drapery treatment on both sides. This proves to be on the same level as regards development in Wells Cathedral as in Notre Dame, even though the direct parallels do not appear very conspicuously when comparing figure b y figure. The draperies of the figures of Notre Dame are of the same stiff, still some what restricted feeling for material as at Wells, and the plastic distribution of the drapery follows the same principle with plain, even surfaces broken by vertical, somewhat flattened folds forming characteristic systems in the tunics over the chest and in the mantle flaps hanging down from the knees. Cp. for instance the figures in the tympanum of Notre Dame with the seated figures in the Biblical reliefs at Wells3 and here and there in the rows of statuary.4 The rigid way in which a flap of the mantle hangs down and concludes in an abrupt contour has its parallel at Wells, for instance in the veil of the figure N.XXIX (Hope & Lethaby op. cit. Pl. XXIII). The broad, flat folds on the lower part of the figures in the Coronation of Mary at Notre Dame, concluding in an omegashaped contour on the socle, has 1 Above o n page 24 w e have included the figure N . X X X among the oldest statues of Wells, and it is there fore especially suitable as an object of comparison, when seeking the prerequisites of the school i n parallels abroad. Above on page 29 w e have assumed the figure S. 28 t o belong to the younger phase of the school, but this constitutes n o obstacle in this connection; practically the entire row of statues in the bottom tier of the west front of the Wells Cathedral has disappeared, and according to m y statement above o n page 2 4 these sculptures would in all probability have been the oldest works of this school; it is more than probable that many of the types of face and systems of drapery represented in the upper tiers were carried out after models in the bottom tier; the remaining statues in the bottom tier on the northern wall of the cathedral prove that this may have been the case. Ср., for instance, the faces of the figures N.XXVIII and N . 2 (Hope & Lethaby op. cit. Pl. XXIII and Pl. X X I X ) ; the figure S. 28 may thus very well be supposed t o have had as regards face type, a closely related predecessor among the oldest sculptures of the façade. 2 O n this date see Marcel Aubert "French Sculpture at the Beginning of the Gothic Period, 1140—1226" (Florence, 1929), p. 94. Cp. Jules Roussel "La Sculpture Française. Epoque Gothique" (Paris), I, p. 6. Cp. Marcel Aubert "Notre Dame de Paris, Architecture et Sculpture" (Paris, 1928), p. 108 note 1; L. Lefrançois Pillion "Les Sculpteurs Français du XlIIe Siècle" (Paris, 1931, sec. éd.) dates the portal at approximately 1220 in the index at the end of the book; cp. the same author "Notre D a m e de Paris" (Paris, 1942), p. 31. André Michel in Michel op. cit. II, 1, p. 145, says without more precise specification "les premières années du XlIIe siècle". — For the best ill. of this tympanum see Aubert "French Sculpture. . . " op. cit. Pl. 86. 3 E . g., Hope & Lethaby op. cit. Pl. X X V . 4
Especially pronounced in Hope & Lethaby op. cit. Pl. X X I , X L V I, LI, Prior & Gardner op. cit. p. 305, fig. 331. — W h e n comparing the seated figures of Notre Dame and, for instance, the seated king N . 57 at Wells (Hope & Lethaby op. cit. Pl. XXVIII) one observes, however, a difference in the deeply undercut, arched folds between the legs of the Wells figure. Cp. below fig. 38.
Fig. 7. The month of August. Notre Dame, Paris.
Fig. 8. The month of May. Notre Dame, Paris.
its parallel in the folds of the feminine figures at Wells, but here the drapery is more "mobile", and an equally formal division of similar folds can hardly be found at Wells in any other place than the Madonna of the tympanum (fig. 1). Still live lier is the impression of a relationship between Wells and Notre Dam e when w e study the pictures of the months o n the jambs and the reliefs on the wall socles in the same portal in the Notre Dame Cathedral 1 . Here w e find the same contrast between a somewhat bigger monumentally treated sculpture and one slightly smaller, chiselled t o a fineness similar to that of Tanagra, as w e find at Wells in the angel figures in the quatrefoils of the bottom tier (Hope & Lethaby op. cit. Pl. XXIV). W e find the same harmonious proportions, the same skill in the repro duction of elegant and quick movements as in the Biblical reliefs at Wells, and w e show here the picture for August (fig. 7) displaying distinctly the type of folds of a tunic over a narrow belt, a type developed into a canon at Wells: the even, 1
Aubert op. cit. Pl. 87—88.
vertical, parallel folds c o m i n g f r o m above p u f f o u t d o w n w a r d s a n d break a n d b e n d inwards i n a triangular fold o v e r t h e girdle, while t h e outer edges o f t h e w i d e f o l d f o r m long, n a r r o w edges i n between. (Cp. t h e figures 7/38). I n t h e p icture o f M a y (fig. 8) t h e vertical, plain folds continue w i t h o u t m u c h change u n d e r t h e belt a n d w i t h a h a r d l y discernible e d g e i n t h e m i d d l e o f t h e wide, plain surfaces b e t w e e n t h e folds. I n o r d e r rightly t o appreciate t h e significance o f t h e stylistic a n d chronological conformities b e t w e e n N o t r e D a m e a n d W e l l s Cathedral, i t is i m p o r t a n t , h o w e v e r , t h a t o n e should see N o t r e D a m e i n its French context. If w e c o m p a r e t h e W e l l s sculpture w i t h other French m o n u m e n t s o f t h e same epoch, w e w o u l d use t h e v e r y w o r d s Marcel Aubert 1 e m p l o y e d t o distinguish t h e N o t r e D a m e sculpture f r o m this material: " A style less sober a n d m o r e charming t h a n a t Chartres, m o r e deli cate a n d less realistic, less c o m m o n p l a c e t h a n a t A m i e n s . " A f t e r this i t m i g h t b e considered certain t h a t t h e sculptures i n W e l l s a n d N o t r e D a m e w e r e n o t created independently o f o n e another. T o assume that a local development i n various countries should simultaneously h a v e h a d such similar results seems unreasonable even at t h e first glance. Besides, i n E n g l a n d w e w o u l d l o o k i n vain f o r a g r o u p o f m o n u m e n t s w h e r e a development can b e f o l l o w e d step b y step, leading t o t h e highly advanced sculpture o f Wells Cathedral, w h i l e such a g r o u p actually exists i n France, w i t h t h e N o t r e D a m e sculptures f o r m i n g a link i n t h e chain. According t o Marcel A u b e r t (op. cit.) t h e sculpture o f t h e French G o t h i c is a plant w i t h its roots i n t h e m i l d climate o f IledeFrance f r o m its origin at St. Denis a n d Chartres a t t h e m i d d l e o f t h e 12th century. Logically a n d step b y step t h e development can b e followed i n t h e m o n u m e n t s surviving t o this day. A n enigmatical, inherent, driving force w o u l d slowly b u t surely h a v e led t h e development towards a freer m o r e fulltoned plastic o f a higher value, a better c o m m a n d o f t h e means o f expression, a n increasingly naturalistic representation w i t h m o r e individual h u m a n faces a n d a school o f proportions defined b y t h e h u m a n b o d y . This is a n appealing v i e w o n t h e w h o l e , quite defensible w h e n studying t h e impressive remains o f t h e French m o n u m e n t s w h i c h h a v e survived t o o u r t i m e . B u t should one, i n consequence, l o o k u p o n t h e W e l l s sculpture as a shoot o f t h e French tree, a n e x p o r t p r o d u c t ? T h e p u r e l y English t y p e o f façade a t W e l l s w i t h sculpture galleries o v e r t h e entire west face a n d v e r y small, n o t especially accentuated, portals, is o f t e n stressed as being i n contrast t o t h e French system, b u t this observa t i o n naturally does n o t j u s t i f y a n y conclusions w i t h regard t o t h e sculpture. O n e cannot a priori d e n y that French sculptors m a y h a v e b e e n e m p l o y e d at t h e W e l l s w o r k s h o p , b u t there are, nevertheless, details indicating t h a t t h e w o r k w a s carried o u t b y English hands. T h e Biblical reliefs w h i c h , according t o w h a t is s h o w n above, are o f vital importance w h e r e a j u d g m e n t o n t h e basic position o f t h e W e l l s sculp t u r e is concerned, h a v e i n m a n y scenes l u m p y g r o u n d formations w i t h a rich v e g e 1
Op. cit. p. 94.
tation, and this vegetation is without exception carried out with leaves of the entirely characteristic English stiffleaf type (see fig. 9)1. In Paris the shapes of the leaves are of a different and more naturalistic kind. Moreover, the Wells and Notre Dame sculptures are not so closely related that they might have been carried out by the same sculptors2. T he Wells sculpture has its own distinctive appearance, and a character which may be described as specifically English. The statuary rows of Notre Dame are unfortunately n o longer in existence, but if they — as suggested by Marcel Auberts — were similar in appearance to the statue in the Louvre of Ste. Geneviève from the church Ste. Ge neviève in Paris, built 1220—25, the differ ence from the Wells sculpture must have been striking*. In this connection one is indeed justified in quoting Prior & Gardner^ as regards the English sculpture at the middle of the 13th century: ''There is a delicacy of sentiment which strikes us as specially English beside the more robust characterization of French sculp ture", and, as regards the Wells sculpture in particular, "it exhibits a feeling more tender and intimate than belongs to the greater, more learned sculpture of Amiens and Chartres." The difference appears al Fig. 9. Cain and Lamech. Detail. Wells Cathedral. ready — despite all superficial similarity — of the above comparison of the heads from Wells and Notre Dame (fig. 3/4, 5/6). 1
C p . Hope & Lethaby op. cit. Pl. X X V , X X V I . T h e transition f r o m a fully conventionalized vegetation i n scenes like these t o a naturalistic g r o w t h like i n Paris seems i n England t o have taken place as late as the middle of the century. In this respect cp. the ill. of t w o Apocalypses at O x f o r d , the first (Bodleian, Tanner 184) f r o m the middle of the century o r shortly before that time, the second (Bodleian Canon. Bibi. Lat. 62) f r o m the third quarter of the century. N o t e esp. the scenes w i t h St. J o h n at Patmos. A third Apocalypse (Paris, B . N . Latin 10474) seems t o m a r k the v e r y transition between the t w o types. N o t e especially the wonderful picture 30 V ! (after photographs i n the C o n w a y Library, the Courtauld Institute, London). C p . Montague Rhodes James " T h e Apocalypse in A r t " (London, 1931), nrs 46, 50, 86. 3 Despite the great expansion of French art during that century n o examples of works in France and i n other countries which might have been carried o u t b y the same sculptors are available, so far as I k n o w . C p . LefrançoisPillion "Les Sculpteurs Français. . o p cit. p. 213, w i t h an explanation of the spreading of the models.
3 O p . cit. p. 97. 4 See Paul Vitry " L a Sculpture Française sous le Règne d e Saint Louis, 1226—1270" (Paris, 1929), Pi. 6 . 5 O p . cit. p . 235, p. 318.
3—903547
37
T h e proportions are also s o m e w h a t slenderer t h r o u g h o u t as f a r as t h e English figures are concerned, t h e m o v e m e n t o f t h e figures s o m e w h a t livelier 1 . O n e n o tices i n t h e drapery treatment m o r e mobility a n d life, a n d t h e fabrics are thinner. If t h e n t h e W e l l s sculpture cannot h a v e been b r o u g h t i n t o existence w i t h o u t i n t i m a t e k n o w l e d g e o f c o n t e m p o r a r y French m o n u m e n t s , it has nevertheless its o w n peculiarities, a n d its roots m u s t — especially as t h e sculptors w e r e native arti sans — at least t o a certain extent b e sought i n a n early p r o d u c t i o n o n English soil, a produc tion w h i c h has b een lost. W h e r e w a s t h e source o f i nspiration t o this sculpture? A s p o i n t e d o u t above, a strong Byzantine influence m a d e itself noticeable i n English miniature a r t d u r i n g t h e second half o f t h e 12th century, a n d sculpture also certainly received n e w impulses a t t h e same t i m e f r o m t h e great reservoir o f Byzantine art. A n o t h e r alternative is also o p e n t o u s : A n inspiration f r o m classical art, f r o m t h e m o n u m e n t s surviving f r o m classical antiquity. If w e w i d e n o u r field o f vision, n o t o n l y focussing o n t h e development i n t h e IledeFrance — w h e r e , b y t h e w a y , t h e possibility o f loan a n d inspiration f r o m classical a r t m a y n o t b e entirely denied — i t is clear t o us t h a t t h e e n d o f t h e 12th a n d t h e beginning o f t h e 13 t h century w a s a p e r i o d o f lively artistic activity i n w h i c h sculpture played a p r o m i n e n t p a r t i n several centres m o r e o r less independent o f o n e another. F r o m t i m e t o t i m e t h e archaeologists h a v e established that t h e artists h a v e taken their inspiration f r o m a triple source : T h e d omestic tradition, t h e Byzantine, a n d t h e clas sical a r t \ E v e n t h o u g h t h e classical influence is less conceivable t h a n t h e Byzantine, a n d talk o f a classical spirit i n 13 t h c e n t u r y sculpture is o f t e n t o b e understood as a general, s o m e w h a t careless characterization rather than a n expression o f a n opinion as regards t h e origin o f t h e style, a n admiration o f classical sculpture a n d m a n y farreaching f o r m a l loans f r o m t h e same are nevertheless undeniable i n certain definite cases as f a r as this e p o c h is concerned. T o underrate t h e i m p o r t a n c e a n d influence o f classical a r t o n that o f t h e early g o t h i c era, w h i c h seems t o b e t h e g eneral tendency t o d a y , w o u l d therefore b e t o deprive us o f o n e o f the means o f u n d e r standing certain p h e n o m e n a w i t h i n this art. I n t h e MeuseRhine area t h e master Nicolas d e V e r d u n lived a n d w o r k e d a t t h e e n d o f t h e 12th century. His art anticipated t o a certain extent t h e development i n t h e IledeFrance', a n d its classical inspiration has a b a c k g r o u n d i n t h e R o m a n 1
Cp. A. Goldschmidt "English Influence o n Medieval Art of the Continent" (in Medieval Studies in M e m ory of Kingsley Porter, Cambridge, Mass., 1939, Vol. 11), p. 723. O f Gothic sculpture he says: "Thus the proportions of the English figures are generally slenderer and convey a stronger impression of motion." 3 Especially distinctly is this triad emphasized b y Betty Kurth "Die deutsche BildTeppiche des Mittel alters" (Vienna, 1926), I, p. 66, i n her examination of the socalled "KarlsTeppich". 3
See J. Roosval "Romansk Konst" (Bonniers Konsthistoria, Stockholm, 1930), p. 190. An especially clear picture of the artist's position in the contemporary development of sculpture has, I think, been given by Hanns Swarzenski "Die lateinischen illuminierten Handschriften des XIII. Jahrhunderts" (Berlin, 1936), p. 7. The classical feature in the sculptor's art is duly noticed by the latest authority i n this field, Alois Weis gerber, in his "Studien zu Nikolaus v o n Verdun" (Bonn, 1940, Kunstgesch. Forsch, des Rhein. Heimat bundes, herausgeg. v o m Kunsthist. Inst, der Univ. Bonn, Band IV), p. 38, p. 122 f.
cultural traditions o f t h e Rhineland 1 . T h e influence o f classical m o n u m e n t s becomes increasingly palpable a t t h e sculpture w o r k s h o p i n Rheims* f r o m 1210, w h i c h w a s i n charge o f t h e sculptural decoration o f t h e n e w l y erected cathedral : I n t h e central a n d t h e l e f t p o r t a l o f t h e n o r t h e r n transept t h e features f r o m classical antiquity d o m i n a t e t h e f i g u r e style completely, i n t h e drapery t r e a t m e n t as well as t h e t r e a t m e n t o f t h e details o f h air a n d face, a n d t h e o rigin o f t h e style is f u r t h e r emphasized b y iconographical details inspired b y classical antiquity, as w e l l as t h e fact t h a t m a n y o f t h e figures stand o n classically profiled socles i n t h e G o t h i c building. T h e style has f o u n d its theoretician i n t h e f a m o u s Villard d e Honnecourt?. I n t h e south o f France, m a i n l y i n Provence a n d B o u r g o g n e , t h e remaining a n cient m o n u m e n t s h a v e f r o m t i m e t o t i m e t e m p t e d t o imitation, a n d inspired a magnificent development o f sculpture d u r i n g t h e 12th century*. — D u r i n g t h e f o r m e r half o f t h e 13 t h century, h o w e v e r , t h e interest i n t h e antique f o u n d its m o s t r o m a n t i c expression i n Frederic II's SouthItalian k i n g d o m , w h e r e a n a r t based directly u p o n antique models flourished?. W i t h o u r k n o w l e d g e o f these conditions o n t h e continent w e should perhaps f o r m u l a t e t h e question o f t h e relative independence o f t h e English sculpture at t h e t i m e o f t h e b r e a k t h r o u g h o f g o t h i c figuresculpture i n E n g l a n d t hus : D i d E nglish s culpture take a n y independent p a r t i n t h e w o r k based o n Byzantine a n d classical models? 1 See Weisgerber op. cit. p. 123. — A n extraordinarily beautiful torso of classical origin i n the museum o f Metz is reproduced i n Julius Baum "Die Malerei und Plastik des Mittelalters", II (in "Handbuch der Kunst wissenschaft", Potsdam, 1930), p. 11. A comparison of this torso w i t h the fragmentary angel figure at Hildes heim, dating from 1186, reproduced in H. Beenken "Romanische Skulptur in Deutschland" (Leipzig, 1924) is rather suggestive. . . — A classical sculpture was among the Gothic statuary o n the façade of the Strasbourg Cathedral according t o Jean Adhémar i n a review in " A Bibliography of the Survival of the Classics" (Vol. II, Warburg Institute, London, 1938), p. 205. The statement is, however, based o n an observation made during the 18th century, and one is justified in questioning whether the sculpture in question had already found refuge here during the middle ages. 2
See Louis Bréhier "La Cathédrale de Reims" (1916), p. 150. The author's mention of Chartres and Amiens as sources of this sculptural workshop at Rheims (p. 151) seems hardly to refer to the phase inspired by classical antiquity. See especially p. 182 f., chapter IX, "Le Maître de la Visitation et l'Inspiration Antique au Moyen Age". Cp. Jean Adhémar "Influences Antiques dans l'Art du Mo y en A g e Français" (the Warburg Institute, London, 1939), p. 273 f., according t o which the style is derived f o m ancient monuments preserved at Rheims during the 13th century. — Cp. Vitry op. cit. p. 48 f. 3 See J. B. A. Lassus et Alfred Dar eel "Album de Villard de Honnecourt" (Paris, 1858). Already these authors have established that a connection exists between the classisizing style of Rheims and Villard d e Honnecourt's album o n one side and the close relationship t o the art of the Rhineland, especially Cologne, o n the other, (p. 71, 108, 195). Cp. A. Boeckler op. cit. p. 86, and the same author "Beiträge zur romanischen Kölner Buchmalerei" (in Mittelalterliche Handschriften. Festgabe z u m 60. Geburtstage v o n Hermann Deger ing. 1926), p. 27. Hans R. Hahnloser "Villard de Honnecourt" (Vienna, 1935) says about the artist p. 211 ". . . es besteht kein Zweifel, dass Villard i n einer besonders eingehenden, mehrmals überarbeiteten Dar stellung ein griechischrömisches Idealbild festhalten wollte." — The basis of the drapery style is sought (p. 216) in the book illumination of the Meuse district from about 1170, and, above all, in Nicolas de Ver dun's art. In fourteen of the drawings in the sketchbook Hahnloser finds illustrations of ancient works of art (p. 267). 4
See Adhémar op. cit. p. 237 f.
5 See Émile Bertaux "L'Art dans l'Italie Méridionale" (Paris, 1903), p. 707 f. The emperor was also an enthusiastic collector of antiquities, see op. cit. p. 715.
T h e question is h a r d l y easy t o answer, considering t h a t t h e m o n u m e n t s are n e a r l y completely destroyed, b u t w e can a t least cherish a h o p e o f f i n d i n g a n i n dication o f its course b y examining t h e possibilities o f such sculpture production. — T h e Byzantine influence o n English b o o k illumination a t t h e e n d o f t h e 12th c e n t u r y has been emphasized above, a n d w e h a v e also given a n example o f s trongly 1 Byzantinizing sculpture . T h e B yzantine influence indisputably c a m e t o E n g l a n d i n a f o r m as direct as t o t h e continental countries o w i n g t o t h e close connections w i t h t h e French N o r m a n s a n d their Sicilian k i n g d o m 2 , their participation i n t h e Crusades, a n d t h e conquest o f Constantinople i n t h e year o f 1204З. T h e remains o f G a l l o R o m a n m o n u m e n t s o n English soil can h a r d l y c o m p a r e w i t h corresponding remains i n southern France o r i n t h e Rhineland, either i n n u m b e r s o r as regards artistic merit, b u t w e h a v e a t least o n e extremely valuable i t e m o f i n f o r m a t i o n indicating that classical education i n E n g l a n d d u r i n g t h e m i d d l e ages w a s also accompanied b y increased interest i n classical art. T h e great h u m a n i tarian, Bishop H e n r y d e Blois, h a d i n t h e year 1151 a n entire shipload o f sculptures a n d stone f r a g m e n t s collected i n t h e ruins o f R o m e t ransported t o h is diocesan capi tal, Winchester 4 . W e h a v e n o detailed i n f o r m a t i o n o n this collection, b u t w e can h a r d l y b e mistaken i n assuming t h a t antique sarcophagus reliefs w e r e a m o n g these f r a g m e n t s . T h e antique sarcophagi played a n outstanding p a r t i n t h e antiquarian interest i n t h e m i d d l e ages?, a n d w e can w e l l understand t h e respect a n d zeal t h e humanitarians o f t h e R o m a n Catholic C h u r c h m u s t h a v e devoted t o t h e Christian sarcophagi o f late antiquity, m o n u m e n t s t o t h e first witnesses o f t h e Christian 1
See above, p. 30.
2
Sicily's role as a mediator between Byzantium and the Occident has often been pointed out, and can be proved b y concrete examples. See A. Haseloff "Die Glasgemälde der Elisabethkirche i n Marburg" (Berlin, 1907), p. 15; Kurth op. cit. p. 48; Hahnloser op. cit. fig. 20/18; J. Roosval "Gotländsk Vitrearius" (Stock holm, 1949). In connection with English art Wormald op. cit. p. 47 mentions the importance of Salerno as a centre o f education, while Oakeshott op. cit. p. 11 points to Sicilian mosaics as artistic models. Cp. F. Saxl & R. Wittkower "British Art and the Mediterranean" (London, 1948), p. 24—27. — As regards English connections with Sicily cp. Evelyn Jamison "Alliance of England and Sicily in the Second Half of the 12th Century" (in Journal of the Warburg and Courtauld Institutes Vol. VI, London, 1943). 3 The possibility that this event meant a n e w flow of Byzantine inspiration i n occidental art is pointed out b y , for instance, A. Goldschmidt "Das Evangeliar i m Rathaus zu Goslar" (Berlin, 1910), p. 19. The impor tance of this, however, must not be overrated. See K. Weitzmann "Abendländische Kopien Byzantinischer Rosettenkästen" (in Zeitschrift für Kunstgeschichte, III, Leipzig, 1934), p. 89 f. For contemporary accounts of the plunder see jean Ebersolt "Orient et Occident" (Paris, 1929), p. 19 f., chapter II "L'Empire Latin de Constantinople". Cp. Adhémar op. cit. p. 118 f. 4 See O. Elfrida Saunders "A History of English Art . . ." op. cit. p. 113. — Cp. Adhémar op. cit. p. 97. A quite different attitude towards classical art was taken b y the abbot Eadmar at St. Albans at the begin ning of the n t h century, w h o had all images of gods found when taking building materials from "Veru lamium" destroyed. See Thomas Wright " O n Antiquarian Excavations and Researches in the Middle Ages" (in Archaeologia, X X X , 1844), p. 442. — Henry de Blois had a contemporary Italian counterpart in his collecting of antiquities in his brotherinoflice, Cardinal Orsini. See G. Zappert "Ueber Antiquitätenfunde i m Mittelalter" (in Sitzungsberichte der к. к. Akademie der Wiss., hist, philos. Classe, IV, Vienna, 1850), p . 767. 5
See Adhémar op. cit. p. 78 f., p. 159 f.
faith 1 . Irrespective o f w h a t treasures o f this k i n d could b e f o u n d i n E n g l a n d d u r i n g t h e m i d d l e ages, w e also h a v e t o take i n t o account t h a t a n English artist yearning f o r k n o w l e d g e could p a y visits t o France, Italy, a n d — perhaps c o m b i n e d w i t h a j o u r n e y o f pilgrimage — t o t h e N e a r East, all w i t h o u t m u c h difficulty. A s regards t h e period w e are dealing w i t h h ere, i t is also o f interest t o observe t h a t t w o o f t h e m o s t p r o m i n e n t m e n i n t h e c o u n t r y maintained friendly relations w i t h Frederic II, w h o h a d m a r r i e d H e n r y Ill's sister Isabel i n 1235, a n d also paid a visit t o his SouthItalian k i n g d o m . O n e o f t h e m w a s Richard o f Cornwall, t h e b r o t h e r o f H e n r y III, m a r r i e d t o Sanchia o f Provence, a n d Crusader a n d personal f r i e n d o f Innocent I V a n d Frederic II, a m a n w h o shared his brother's "pleasure i n a m a g n i ficent domestic life. His castles a t W a l l i n g f o r d a n d Berkhamsted w e r e t h e c o u n t e r parts o f W e s t m i n s t e r a n d W i n d s o r " * . T h e o t h e r w a s his contemporary, t h e i n t e r nationally alert a n d active Bishop o f Winchester, Peter des R o c h e (bishop i n 1205, returned f r o m a l o n g trip abroad i n 1231, died at F a r n h a m i n 1238), w h o j o i n e d E m p e r o r Frederic II o n his crusade. 3 T h a t t h e suggestion o f t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f classical art f o r English 13 t h century sculpture is n o t m erely a series o f u n c o n f i r m e d hypotheses seems t o m e satisfactorily p r o v e d b y a female torso f o u n d i n t h e D e a n ' s G a r d e n a t Winchester (fig. 10). T h e statue seems originally t o h a v e h a d its place i n o n e o f t h e f o u r niches o f t h e p o r c h o f t h e deanery, f o r m e r l y t h e prior's house*. P r i o r & G a r d n e r assume t h a t i t is t h e w o r k o f a master f r o m Wells, b u t this ish a r d l y m o r e t h a n a conjecture. T h e m o v e m e n t o f t h e figure is considerably livelier t h a n i n a n y o f t h e statues o n t h e w e s t f r o n t o f t h e W e l l s Cathedral, t h e curves o f t h e b o d y are m o r e p r o n o u n c e d , a n d — w h a t is m o r e i m p o r t a n t — t h e drapery treatment is carried o u t quite differently f r o m that o f t h e W e l l s sculptures. A t W e l l s — e v e n i n t h e thinnest o f fabrics — t h e cloth is draped i n flat, wide, vertical folds, a n d t h e slightly h o l l o w e d mouldings i n b e t w e e n a re divided b y a n a r r o w e d g e a long t h e m i d d l e (see, f o r instance, fig. 38). 1
Cp. below p. 167 f. 2 F. M. Powicke "King Henry III and the Lord Edward" (Oxford, 1947)» p
3 Powicke 00. cit. p. 75 f
5 Op. cit. p. 317 f. Their statement t o the effect Jt seems t o be mere guesswork. — Mr. F. Cottrill, W i vestigate the origin of the stone for me, and he has a liberty of quoting the following lines from Mr. Cot tone is the wellknown Portland stone from the Isle of Port building stones, and he is quite sure that the stone is note that the Isle of Portland belonged to Winchester Cathe land o n the coast of Dorset. It is of interest t o note tl dral Priory i n the middle of the 13th century."
Fia. io. Statue. Winchester Cathedral.
A t Winchester t h e entire dense, fine drapery is carried o u t i n v e r y fine, n a r r o w , g e n t l y r o u n d e d f olds r u n n i n g o v e r t h e lightly indicated form, o f t h e breasts, gathered u p a b o v e t h e girdle a r o u n d t h e slim waist, a n d flowing freely o v e r t h e hips a n d all t h e w a y d o w n o v e r t h e feet a n d t h e footslab w h e r e t h e material remains lying i n sweeping, soft contours. T h e f o r w a r d gliding m o v e m e n t o f t h e figure is equally emphasized b y t h e advanced supported r i g h t f o o t a n d the trailing position o f t h e left leg as b y t h e p rojecting chest a n d r i g h t a r m (missing) w i t h its shoulder lowered. T h e m o v e m e n t is emphasized b y the draping o f t h e dress, quite plain o v e r t h e o u t stretched r i g h t k n e e a n d shin, a n d i n t h e w a v i n g folds o n t h e f o o t slab leaving o n l y t h e toes o f t h e r i g h t f o o t uncovered while t h e mantle, lying like a screen b e h i n d t h e torso, is lifted i n a magnificent flap t o t h e left h i p . T h e small, n a r r o w frieze o f stiffleaf r u n n i n g a r o u n d t h e e d g e o f t h e socle 1 proves that t h e sculptor w a s a n E nglishman. C a n inspiration f r o m classical w o r k s b e d enied i n this statue? — I t is, above all, t h e N i c e statues o f classical antiquity that c o m e t o m i n d w h e n b e h o l d i n g this ethereal, gliding r h y t h m a n d m o v e m e n t — t h e female figures o f t h e g o l d e n age o f ancient Greece i n their rich, thinly pleated garments, these figures w h i c h h a v e caused admiration a n d t e m p t e d t o imitation l o n g since i n late classical times. O n e m i g h t c o m p a r e t h e m i g h t y Annunciation angel w h i c h , as late as t h e 17th century, adorned a g a t e o n t h e Golden H o r n i n Constantinople 2 , t h e antique f o r m o f a dancer w h i c h inspired t o a n imitation a t Vezelay, o r a n Ascension M a r y a t Corbie^, n o less classically m i n d e d a n d inspired, t h e t w o latter f r o m t h e 12th a n d 13 t h centuries respectively. T o seek t h e direct original o f t h e Winchester figure w o u l d , h o w e v e r , b e rather futile. O n c e m o r e returning t o t h e W e l l s sculpture, w e can observe classical features w h i c h t o a certain extent m i g h t b e called characteristic o f Wells. T h e classical p r o file w h i c h w e recognize i n m a n y o f t h e figures o n t h e west front 4 , perhaps f o r t h e m o s t p a r t i n t h e statues o f kings, is certainly a feature w h i c h — w i t h a shorter n o s e — becomes typical o f t h e m o r e advanced G o t h i c style b o t h h e r e a n d there i n Europe5, b u t a t W e l l s w e find this profile relatively early developed, a n d i n e x pressive, w e l l characterized faces. A n o t h e r classical, a n d i n G o t h i c times m o r e original feature i n t h e W e l l s sculpture is t h e position o f t h e seated figures w i t h o n e f o o t o n a small footstool 6 o f t e n finely profiled a n d v e r y elaborately d o n e . T h e 1
Observed b y Prior & Gardner op. cit. p. 318.
2
See O. Wulff"Altchristliche und Byzantinische Kunst" (in Handbuch der Kunstwissenschaft, 23, Ber lin, 1913—16), p. 174 and fig. 168. 3 Adhémar op. cit. p. 247 and 266, as well as Pl. X X I X . 4 See Hope & Lethaby op. cit. Pl. XXVIII, X X X I , X X X I V , XLIÏ, XLIV, XLVI, XLVIU; Prior & Gard ner op. cit. p. 301, fig. 323—324, p. 314, fig. 349. 5 Cp. Louis Bréhier "L'Art Chrétien" (Paris, 1918), p. 279. 6
Observed b y H. Cornell "Norrlands Kyrkliga Konst under Medeltiden" (Uppsala, 1918), p. 157 £. — — The motif occurs at Wells in the following figures: Seated king S. 10, seated male saint N . 9, seated kings N . 10, N . 19, N . 33, N . 67.
motif may perhaps be seen as an expression of the eflort to achieve increased move ment in the figures, a thing which has been pointed out above as something charac teristic in English Gothic style, but with regard to the rarity of the motif it is of interest t o find its origin in classical art. J . J . Tikkanen 1 , w h o has made a survey of the history of the leg position in occi dental art, has not at all observed the motif w ith one foot of a seated figure supported b y a footstool, while, however, it occurs frequently as far as standing figures are concerned, ever since the golden era of classical art 2 . The rareness of this phenom enon is also striking. While a footstool is something very frequent in seated figures in classical sculpture, especially in reliefs, it is never theless quite exceptional that a stool is used only b y one foot, and, above all, that the format — as at Wells — is adjusted t o serve for one foot only. This motif, with only one foot sup ported b y the stool occurs in late classical reliefs^ in figures seen in profile, and in which the artist saw a possibility o f avoiding the compact impression caused b y one leg and foot Fig. 11. Central portal, covering the other. Simultaneously the artist found a possibility west front. Detail. Notre of giving a clearer idea of the extension of the figure and its Dame, Paris. position in the space, and a more interesting composition of the contours in the surfaces of the relief. In this connec tion it is of special interest t o learn that the motif can be found in early Christian sarcophagi* and in reliefs belonging to artistic craftsmanship of the last f e w cen turies of classical antiquity5. l JJ Tikkanen " D i e Beinstellungen i n der Kunstgeschichte" (in Acta Societatis, Scientiarum Fennicae, T o m XLII, i , p. 93 f. Helsingfors, 1912). 2 It occurs, f o r instance, i n numerous Byzantine ivory reliefs, above all, in scenes w i t h a dictating seated figure and a slave standing before h i m writing. T h e footstool f o r o n e of the slave's feet has a n obvious meaning : Simultaneously as the slave takes a standing attitude before his master as an expression of respect, his writing is considerably facilitated b y the supported foot. T h e profile of the small footstool adjusted t o serve only f o r one f o o t corresponds so well t o the m o r e elaborately sculptured specimens at Wells that the very type of stool might have been transmitted t o the English sculptors b y Byzantine models. See numerous examples i n A. Goldschmidt & K. Weitzmann " D i e Byzantinischen Elfenbeinskulpturen des X.—XIII. Jahrhunderts", I, (Berlin, 1930). 3 See, f o r instance, Adhémar op. cit. Pl. IV, 10. H o m m a g e à la Musique, Ivoire d u IVe Siècle Transformé au X l e en Couverture d u Tropaire d ' Au tu n (Bibl. de l'Arsenal, Paris). 4
See, f o r instance, Giuseppe Wilpert " I Sarcofagi Cristiani Antichi", Vol. sec. (Rome, 1932), Pi. C X X X X I I , 3 (Sarcofago lateranense N o . 164), and Hans von Campenhausen " D i e Passionssarkophage" (Marburger Jahrbuch, 5, 1929), p . 17, fig. 6 (sarcophagus at the Augustine Monastery at Nîmes w i t h Pilate in this atti tude); p. 35, fig. 23, and Ludwig von Sybel "Christliche Antike", II, (Marburg, 1909), fig. 34 present the above sarcophagus (Rome, the Laterani, N o . 164) w i t h J o b sitting in this w a y w i t h one f o o t o n a footstool. — J o b , broken b y poverty and disease, often occurs sitting i n profile w i t h his legs in similar position, but here w i t h a piece of rock supporting the inner foot. See, f o r instance, Junius Bassus' sarcophagus reproduced b y von Campenhausen op. cit. p. 26, fig. 16, and Sybel op. cit. II, fig. 18. 5
See, for instance, Joseph's despairing father i n the scene of the return of the brothers o n the famous Maximianus throne at Ravenna. Charles Diehl " M a n u e l d ' A r t Byzantin" (Paris, 1910), p . 281, fig. 145. This is practically the only figure I have ever found in this attitude en face. — O n the ivory plaque o n t h e
I n medieval a r t o n t h e C o n t i n e n t t h e m o t i f , as used at Wells, is practically u n k n o w n 1 . H e r e I m u s t p o i n t o u t , h o w e v e r , that isolated, seated figures o f t h e m o n u m e n t a l f o r m a t o f t h e W e l l s school hardly occur i n continental cathedral sculp ture 2 . I t m i g h t h a v e been expected t h a t t h e m o t i f w i t h t h e supported f o o t w o u l d h a v e occurred i n t h e cult images w h i c h h a v e survived t o o u r t i m e o n t h e C o n t i n e n t — a l t h o u g h v e r y f e w are preserved i n France — presenting M a r y a n d t h e C h i l d o r s o m e seated saint. B u t this is n o t t h e case. W e f i n d , o n t h e o t h e r h a n d , a n example o f t h e use o f t h e m o t i f i n a seated f i g u r e o f a p r o p h e t (fig. 11) o n t h e left i n t h e third a r c h f r o m t h e inside i n t h e central p o r t a l o f t h e west f r o n t o f N o t r e D a m e s , a m o n u m e n t w e h a v e previously h a d reason t o c o m p a r e w i t h t h e cathedral c h u r c h a t Wells. H e r e t h e supported position o f t h e r i g h t l o w e r leg i n t h e composition o f t h e figure is motivated b y t h e fact t h a t t h e r i g h t e l b o w is supported b y t h e r i g h t k n e e , a n d t h e r i g h t side o f t h e head rests i n t h e r i g h t h a n d . — T h e rarity o f this m o t i f o n t h e C o n t i n e n t justifies t h e conclusion t h a t this w a s something specially characteristic o f t h e W e l l s sculpture. W e can t o a certain e x t e n t f o r m a n o pinion o f t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f t h e W e l l s s chool, o r rather t h e W e l l s style, t o c o n t e m p o r a r y English art b y examining t h e t o m b effigies o f stone i n western a n d southern England 4 , a relatively great n u m b e r o f back of the cover of the Etschmiadzin Evangeliary a Madonna occurs which probably belongs to the group of figures in this attitude : Her right foot is visualized either planted firmly o n the ground or with the heel supported by the little footstool for the left foot. See Joseph Strzygowski "Das EtschmiadzinEvangeliar" (Vienna, 1891), Pl. I. The enthroned Christ o n the cover of the book takes the same attitude. — The Maxi mianus throne and the book cover belong in the same early Christian art cycle — see Strzygowski op. cit. p . 48 and the same author "L'Ancien Art Chrétien de Syrie" (Paris, 1936), p. 78 f. 1
As pointed out by Cornell op. cit. p. 158.
»In a row with seated figures, as for instance, the prophets and kings in the tympanum of the above mentioned left portal of the west front of Notre Dame in Paris, the motif would hardly be appropriate. 3 See Vitry op. cit. Pl. 3. — The portal is here estimated as dating from 1225—30, and the noticeable difference i n style of the left from the centre portal is here accentuated (p. 8). Louise LefrançoisPillion "Notre Dame de Paris" (Paris, 1942), p. 32 f. opines, however, that the t w o portals are contemporaries. Marcel Aubert "La Cathédrale Notre Dame de Paris" (Paris, 1909, — nouv. éd. 1945), p. 124 f. supports Vitry's opinion, saying: ". . . la porte de la Vierge, sculptée vers 1210—1220", p. 132 f. ". . . porte centrale sculptée aussitôt après celle de la Vierge, vers 1220—1230. . ." 4 It seems natural that stonecutters from Wells should have participated in the sculptural adornment of cathedrals erected immediately after the completion of the Wells façade. There are very f e w traces of such activity, however, if w e j udge by the stylistic evidence. Prior & Gardner op. cit. p. 236 have found that Wells masons have taken part in the work o n the socalled Reliquary in the north transept of the Gloucester Ca thedral. This observation seems justified with regard to the miniature sculptures of the doorjamb, but whether this also holds true with regard to the beautifully sculptured human heads in the spandrels (op. cit. p. 236, fig. 239) is not at all certain. — The statues of the west front at Lincoln which in its structure with niches for the statuary may be described as a remote copy of the Wells façade, hardly seem to have any direct connection with Wells. See Prior & Gardner op. cit. p. 322 and fig. 359. A fragmentary hornblowing figure in the cloister, probably fallen d o w n from the west front, presents some relationship t o the Wells sculpture i n the drapery treatment, but is rather primitively executed. The building of the façade at this stage is dated about 1250 A . D . — The west fronts of Salisbury and Lichfield Cathedrals, which repeat the system of the Wells façade with niches for the statuary and are contemporary or slightly younger, have n o comparable sculptures from the time of erection.
w h i c h are k e p t t o this day, especially a series o f warriors, m o s t o f t h e m o f t h e cross legged t y p e so p o p u l a r i n E n g l a n d d u r i n g t h e 13 t h century 1 . I n a f e w cases — as t h e t o m b s are f o u n d i n t h e i m m e d i a t e vicinity o f Wells a n d the stone material seems t o h a v e b e e n taken f r o m D o u l t i n g — w e m a y assume w i t h a h i g h degree o f p r o b a bility o r even certainty that these figures w e r e m a d e b y sculptors at Wells. B u t otherwise o n e is b o u n d t o conclude t h a t t h e t o m b s are spread o v e r a w i d e area, a n d t h a t n o t h i n g definite c an b e said a b o u t t h e origin o f t h e artists o r t h e derivation o f t h e style, o n l y t h a t t h e latter is i n keeping w i t h that represented b y t h e w a r r i o r s o n t h e w e s t f r o n t o f t h e W e l l s Cathedral. O n e characteristic observed b y E d w a r d S. Prior 3 is t h e sculpturing o f t h e links i n t h e c hain m a i l w i t h seams along t h e sleeves, while t h e effigies i n eastern England, especially at t h e T e m p l e i n L o n d o n h a v e t h e chains arranged horizontally a r o u n d t h e a r m s ' . This peculiarity w h i c h m i g h t b e interpreted as a typical feature o f t h e p r o d u c t i o n o f t h e W e l l s w o r k s h o p can b e f o u n d i n m a n y o f t h e figures w h i c h otherwise, i n d r a p e r y treatment, etc., are r e presentative o f t h e W e l l s style, b u t i n far f r o m all. I n o r d e r t o b e able t o j u d g e t h e value o f this detail i n t h e g a r m e n t correctly w e m u s t l o o k u p o n t h e p h e n o m e n o n i n a w i d e r sense. T h e h a n d b o o k s o n t h e history o f a r m o u r d o n o t p a y m u c h a t t e n t i o n t o this detail as a rule 4 , b u t a rapid survey o f t h e material i n E n g l a n d a n d o n t h e C o n t i n e n t (book illuminations, stained glass, a n d wall paintings, as w e l l as sculpture) shows that chainmail w i t h horizontal seams predominated d u r i n g t h e first p a r t o f t h e 13 t h century, w h i l e t h e seams along t h e sleeves h a v e their oldest representatives i n t h e W e l l s sculpture. I n French sculpture t h e latter t y p e does n o t occur b e f o r e t h e m i d d l e o f that century5, a n d comes i n t o general use d u r i n g t h e second half o f t h e 13 t h a n d t h e beginning o f t h e 14th century, although o n l y i n t o m b effigies 6 . I n G e r m a n m o n u m e n t a l plastic t h e oldest specimen o f chain m a i l 1 2
O n some abbots' tombs at Glastonbury see above p. 18 note i .
See Alfred C. Fryer "Wooden Monumental Effigies in England and Wales" (London, 1910), p. 13.
3 See an especially clear example ill. by Hope & Lethahy op. cit. Pl. XLV, and Prior & Gardner op. cit. p . 308, fig. 335 4 See, for instance, M. ViolletleDuc "Dictionnaire Raisonné du Mobilier Français", V, (Paris, 1874), p. 244 f. or W. Boeheim "Handbuch der Waffenkunde", (Leipzig, 1890), p. 130 f., or Paul Post "Das Kostüm und die ritterliche Kriegstracht i m deutschen Mittelalter v o m 1000—1500" (Berlin, 1928—39). 5 See Camille Enlart "Manuel d'Archéologie Française" II (Paris, 1916), p. 468, showing a representative of either type o n the same page. 6
See casts at the Musée Trocadéro, Paris, of the effigy of Guy II de Lévis, Seigneur de Mirepoix (dead i n 1260) at Abbaye de NotreDamedelaRoche, LévisSaintNom (Seine et Oise), and of tombstones over a knight at Corbeil (first third of 14th century) and over Charles d'Évreux, Comte d'Etampes (dead 1317) at St. Denis. O n the other hand, the type with the seams along the sleeves does not, as far as I have been able t o establish, occur in the decorative sculpture of Chartres, Rheims, or Notre Dame in Paris, *not even in those dating from the latter half of that century. It seems as if the seams along the sleaves were a variety w hich did not to any great extent tempt the artist t o imitation in purely decorative works. — In French miniatures seams along the sleeves occur in "Bréviaire de Philippe le Bel" from before 1297 (.Martin op. cit. Pl. 18), but horizontal still i n a "Psautier de SaintLouis" from the middle of the century (see Michel op. cit. p. 343, fig. 257). In glass paintings at Chartres the seams are, as a rule, horizontal.
w i t h seams along t h e sleeves k n o w n b y m e dates f r o m a b o u t 1250 1 . I t therefore seems as i f t h e p r o d u c t i o n o f t h e chain mail w i t h t h e seams along t h e sleeves w a s s o m e n e w fashion i n that century, a p h e n o m e n o n w h i c h has been first reproduced i n m o n u m e n t a l sculpture a t Wells. 2 W i t h o u t d r a w i n g t o o farreaching conclusions f r o m material o n l y fragmentarily preserved, w e m i g h t perhaps refer t o this rapid a d o p t i o n o f a n e w fashion i n t h e shape o f the a r m o u r as something characteristic o f t h e W e l l s school — i t bears witness t o t h e same interest i n naturalism a n d detail as w e can observe i n t h e sensitively sculptured heads a n d i n t h e elaborate garments o f t h e deacons^. I t m a y , h o w e v e r , n o t b e regarded as a criterion o f sculptures o r i g i n ating f r o m t h e W e l l s school, a n d i t is n o t j ustifiable o n t h e basis o f this detail t o visualize a WestEnglish sculptural w o r k s h o p tradition w i t h its starting p o i n t a t W e l l s a n d lasting as l o n g as till a r o u n d 1300 A.D.4. A naturalistic reproduction o f 1
See Panofski "Die deutsche Plastik . . op. cit. Pl. 87, the St. Maurice in the cathedral of Magdeburg. In the illuminations, the oldest example seems to be found in the socalled "AschafFenburger Evangeliar" from about 1260, see Swarzenski op. cit. I, p. 101, II, Pi. 39,223.—Exceptionally early — a contem porary of Wells — is a small kneeling figure personifying Tigris supporting a baptismal font in the cathedral of Hildesheim, a Saxon piece of work dating from about 1220. See Fried Lübbecke "Die Plastik des deutschen Mittelalters" (Munich, 1923), Pl. 19. — In German tombstones the type hardly seems t o occur at all. See Weigert op. cit. ill. % In English manuscript illumination the type with seams along the sleeves seems hardly ever to have gained ground. In the tomb sculpture of the latter half of the century and around 1300 it occurs frequently. See Prior & Gardner op. cit. p. 609, fig. 682, p. 610, fig. 683, p. 649, fig. 726, p. 665, fig. 745. T o these examples may further be added the warrior in miniature in Purbeck marble, adorning the heartshrine, possibly of William de Albini III (dead 1236) at Bottesford (Leics.) presented by Victoria Manners "The Rutland Monu ments i n Bottesford Church" (The Art Journal, London, 1903), p. 270. If the attribution holds true it is possibly one of the oldest examples in eastern England. — Besides this must be mentioned a greatly restored figure at Brympton (Somerset), from about 1300, possibly o n these grounds referred to by Prior & Gardner op. cit. p. 608 as a sample of the "Bristol style"; and a very primitive figure in Purbeck marble at Castle Ashby (Northants) from the latter half of the thirteenth century, which by Prior & Gardner op. cit. p. 594 is correctly placed in the same group as a similar rough figure, made from the same material, at Salisbury (op. cit. p. 670). — Towards the end of the century and, particularly, from the beginning of the 14th century, the artist refrained from carving the chains and made them instead in pressed gessowork laid upon the statues. Especially distinctly can this be observed in a figure at Curry Rivel (Somerset) from about 1300, where traces of gessowork and paint still remain. In most cases, especially in that of wood en figures, it is quite worn off.
3 As far as these are concerned, see the ref. above o n p. 25 note 1. 4 O n the socalled Bristol school cp. below o n p. 50 f. — In "The Shrine of St. Thomas de Cantilupe in Hereford Cathedral" (in Transactions of the Woolhope Naturalists' Field Club, Herefordshire, 1930), p. 45 f. George Marshall expresses, however, a similar opinion when he says that Thomas de Cantilupe's tomb was made b y an artist from Bristol. The exquisitely carved monument (see ill. in Prior & Gardner op. cit. p. 376) expresses with its fine and rich, naturalistic foliated ornamentation and in its very structure with small figures around the walls of the sarcophagus, quite modern ideas inspired from France but perhaps mediated and conveyed here via London. The tomb is dated t o the i28o's. The oldest English example o f "weepers" is found in Lady FitzAlan's tomb at Chichester, and dates from c. 1280, while it occurs in France as early as in 1260 in St. Louis' tomb at St. Denis. Cp. Prior & Gardner op. cit. p. 375 f. and Fred. H. Crossley "English Church Monuments A D . 1150—1550" (London, 1921), p. 128. O n the introduction of natural istic foliation in England, see Edward S. Prior "The Cathedral Builders in England" (1905), p. 67. Cp .J. D. le Conteur & D. H. M. Carter "Notes o n the Shrine of St. Swithun formerly in Winchester Cathedral" (in The Antiquaries Journal, Vol. IV, London, Oct. 1924), p. 362 and as t o date p. 370. — O n the derivation of the style in Thomas de Cantilupe's tomb it is of interest to remember that the northern transept in Hereford Cathedral, erected a little earlier, is strongly influenced b y Westminster Abbey, the chief mediator of
Fig. 12. Effigy of William Longespée. Salisbury Cathedral.
chainmail from that time is more understandable in a tombstone effigy of a con temporary than in the legendary sainted knights of the Wells façade1. Possibly the oldest and certainly the most magnificent of the tomb effigies that might be compared to the sculptures of the Wells façade is that of William Long espée, Earl of Salisbury (dead 1226) in Salisbury Cathedral. An exquisite stiffleaf frieze runs around the slab, and a couple of leaves are covered by an elegantly spread fold of the surcoat on the right side, while the feet of the figure in a recum bent position are supported by two leaves growing up from the slab2. This detail, like the relative stiffness of the folds with parallel, narrow but strong curves alter nating with curved eges in plain surfaces justify a comparison with the sculpture of Wells3. The wide stance and the right hand resting on the right thigh (an almost unique position of the hand) as well as the long, pointed shape of the shield and the strong face with pointed oval eyes indicate that the figure was made shortly after the death of the earl, but hardly later. Qualitatively on the same level with this figure is a knight at Atherington (Devon) whose slab is adorned by an even series of stiffleaf in a hollowed moulding framed by a couple of rounded bars. As at Salisbury a pointed flap of the surcoat covers decoratively a fraction of the leaffrieze, but the drapery treatment with thin, pleated, narrow, and flat folds on the chest and an accentuated right hip resembles still more the system of the Wells façade. The legs were crossed, and the right hand seems French influences in the middle of the century. See Fr. Bond "Westminster A b b e y " (1909), p . 108. Small coats of arms suspended f r o m naturalistically shaped leaftwigs like those of the Hereford t o m b are also found o n the carved Purbeck sarcophagus of Queen Eleanor in Westminster Abbey, probably m a d e shortly after the queen's death (1291). See W. R. Lethaby "Westminster Abbey and the King's C r a f t s m e n " (1906), p . 177. 1
A m o n g the sepulchral effigies (dealt w i t h i n detail below) m o r e o r less closely related t o the Wells sculp ture — all of t h e m date f r o m a time n o later than about 1250 — the images in the churches as follows have the chain mail wi t h seams along the sleeves: Abbey Dore, Atherington, Bitton, Iddesleigh, Malvern Abbey, Salisbury, Shepton Mallet, Tintern Abbey, W a r e h a m ; while the links are arranged horizontally o n the images of knights at Lewes, Pershore Abbey, Shrewsbury Abbey, and Sullington. 2 3
See Prior & Gardner op. cit. p. 607, fig. 680. T h e sculptured leaf under the left foot is missing.
С р . , f o r instance, fig. N . X X X and N . 67. Hope & Lethaby op. cit. p . 167, comparing the effigy t o the warriors o n the Wells façade, also points o u t that the material is probably stone f r o m Doulting. C p . Prior & Gardner op. cit. p. 607.
t o h a v e rested o n t h e hilt o f t h e s w o r d . D a t i n g t h e figure t o t h e second quarter o f t h e 13th century is justifiable 1 . T w o knights a t Shepton Mallet i n t h e i m m e d i a t e n e i g h b o u r h o o d o f W e l l s w e r e l o n g a g o rightly described as b y t h e masters o f t h e W e l l s w e s t front 3 , a n d t h e r e is e v e r y reason t o believe this. T h e y s h o w t h a t t h e crosslegged t y p e w i t h t h e feet supported b y a h o n w a s m a d e use o f b y these sculptors a t least a r o u n d 1240. A n o t h e r representative o f this t y p e a n d p r o d u c e d b y t h e W e l l s w o r k s h o p is p r o b a b l y a k n i g h t a t Iddesleigh (Devon) w h i c h , like o n e o f t h e Shepton Mallet knights rests t h e r i g h t h a n d o n t h e l o n g , n a r r o w shield, b u t t h e o p e n eyes h a v e already a fully developed G o t h i c shape w i t h a straight undercontour. A l o n g t h e southern coast o f E n g l a n d w e find examples o f t h e W e l l s style i n t o m b s o f knights a t W a r e h a m (Dorset), Sullington (Sussex) a n d Lewes (Sussex), all m a d e f r o m P u r b e c k o r Sussex m a r b l e . T h e figure a t W a r e h a m , placed a t t h e southern e n d o f t h e sanctuary, has a stiffleaf frieze along t h e profiled e d g e o f t h e slab, a n d t h e r i g h t h a n d seems t o h a v e rested i n t h e s ame position o n t h e r i g h t h i p as i n t h e Longespée figure a t Salisbury. T h e carriage o f t h e h e a d also resembles t h a t o f t h e latter figure, i.e. s o m e w h a t inclined t o t h e r ight. T h e r i g h t h i p is plainly sculptured a n d t h e surcoat o n this side — as a t Salisbury a n d A t h e r i n g t o n — lies flung o u t i n a l o n g , pointed flap elegantly h e w n a n d decoratively falling o v e r t h e e d g e o f t h e foliation, a n d t h e legs are crossed a n d supported b y a f o u r l e g g e d a n i m a l . T h e d rapery t r e a t m e n t is i n f u l l consonance w i t h t h e W e l l s m a n n e r ; t h e l o n g , p o i n t e d shield a n d t h e n a r r o w eyeslits j u s t i f y t h e assumption t h a t t h e figure dates f r o m t h e second quarter o f t h e 13 t h century. T h e w a r r i o r at Sullington, possibly Sir W i l l i a m d e C o v e r t , crusader a n d l o r d o f t h e m a n o r , has already t h e fully developed, large, c o n v e x G o t h i c eyes, a n d t h e shield o n t h e left a r m is relatively small b u t o f a l o n g , n a r r o w shape. T h e h e a d is t u r n e d s o m e w h a t t o t h e right, a n d t h e r i g h t a r m rests o n t h e chest'. T h e exquisite sensitiveness a n d f r e e d o m dignified b y strict control, i n t h e representation o f t h e finely pleated t h i n folds o f t h e surcoat contribute t o accentuate t h e clear plastic concentration w h i c h is typical o f t h e m o u l d i n g , o f t h e w h o l e as well as i n e v e r y detail, a n d w h i c h together w i t h t h e tall a n d slender proportions m a k e this figure o n e o f t h e m o s t characteristic, a n d artistically o n e o f t h e m o s t sterling representa tives o f t h e W e l l s style. O n t h e left side t h e surcoat falls d o w n o v e r t h e facetted e d g e o f t h e slab, a n expression o f t h e same effort t o achieve decorative elegance as 1
The face is entirely worn away, the right arm broken off and missing, and the same applies to the right leg, the left foot, and the lower part of the slab. The sword seems t o have been executed in some other material. — Prior & Gardner s op. cit. p. 606, note 1, statement that the material is Purbeck marble, is an assumption I dare not definitely refute although I myself had the impression that it is freestone. According to Prior & Gardner op. cit. p. 594, and table p. 562, the crosslegged type occurred for the first time at the middle of the century, and, in consequence, w e have here one of the oldest examples in existence today. 2
See Hope & Lethaby op. cit. p. 167; Prior & Gardner op. cit. p. 608.
3 The lower part of the crossed legs and the corresponding part of the slab are broken off and missing.
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we observe in several of the figures previously mentioned, and the right hip is, as in these figures, sculptured with a plain surface. A torso at St. John's Church, Lewes, is modelled in a corresponding attitude with the right hand on the chest, a similar narrow, pointed, oval shield on the left side and the garment draped over the chest in narrow, parallel folds with broad, smooth spaces in between, and a sharpness and sensitiveness in the system resembling that of Wells, justifying a mention here1. W h e n examining the spread of the Wells style n orth wards, it is appropriate to begin with a closer scrutiny of the theories regarding the removal of the Wells workshop to Bristol after the completion of the work at Wells. Prior & Gardner 2 were the first to voice this opinion, and it has been further developed in a paper b y Alfred C. Fryer3. Granted that a transfer to Bristol of labour f r o m Wells may seem probable, what evi dence do the surviving monuments yield? The only effigy at Bristol, which might be claimed to have been made simultaneously with or immediately after the completion of the Wells façade is a civilian effi gy in St. James's Church, possibly the image of Richard de Grenville (died 1240)4. There is, however, nothing about this figure of a relatively poor quality which can justify a comparison to the Wells sculpture; the position of one hand on the mantle ribbon occurs too frequently to justify any offhand conclusions, and the stone cutter who carved the stiff, monotonously repeated parallel folds can in n o way have been familiar with the highly advanced sense of articulation by means of wider and narrower folds and sculptured forms of the Fig. 13. Madonna. St. Bartholomen;'s body, which is characteristic of the Wells school. Hospital, Bristol. Closest as regards time comes a warrior in Lord 1 I cannot, o n the other hand, like Prior & Gardner op. cit. p. 592 compare it w i t h a figure reproduced b y t h e m o n p . 593, a figure f r o m Stowe N i n e Churches (Northants.), which has a definitely younger drapery treatment in its wide, soft folds of a somewhat heavy naturalism, certainly n o t older than about 1260, the date Prior & Gardner agree upon. It belongs t o the epoch of the n e w French style which swept over England i n the latter half of the century. 3
O p . cit. p . 319, p . 609 f.
3 " M o n u m e n t a l Effigies M a d e b y Bristol Craftsmen (1240—1550)" (in Archaeologia, Vol. 74, London, 1923—24). T h e definitions made b y Fryer are — at least as regards the older material — nothing b u t a repe tition of Prior & Gardner's v i e w o n the matter, and therefore need n o t be dealt w i t h specially here. 4 See Fryer op. cit. p . 2, Pl. I, 6, and Prior & Gardner op. cit. p. 606 f., fig. 679. T h e determination according t o Ida M. Roper " T h e Monumental Effigies of Gloucestershire and Bristol" (1931), p. 93 f. SO
M a y o r ' s Chapel identified b y Miss Roper 1 as R o b e r t d e G o u r n e y (dead 1269), a n d a style o f s o m e w h a t y o u n g e r character is s h o w n i n t h e m o n u m e n t o f M aurice d e G a u n t (dead 1230) b y his side 2 . A third effigy o f approximately t h e same date b u t o f a r o u g h e r quality is f o u n d i n St. M a r y Redcliffe'. A l l these reveal drapery treatment o f a freer, b u t at t h e same t i m e heavier a n d m o r e naturalistic t y p e t h a n t h a t o f t h e first half o f t h e century, a n d t h e origin o f t his style m i g h t b e sought i n France, w h e r e i t as far as sculpture is concerned m i g h t b e called "après A m i e n s " . A detail indicating t h e French origin o f this style is t h e d o u b l e cushion lying u n d e r t h e heads o f all t h e figures, a detail apparently introduced i n E n g l a n d b y t h e school o f sculpture i n Westminster*, a n d occurring f o r t h e first t i m e i n m o n u m e n t s i n t h e b r o n z e t o m b s o f H e n r y III a n d Q u e e n Eleanor a n d i n t h e t o m b o f Aveline, Countess o f Lancaster, all o f t h e m i n Westminster A b b e y a n d dating f r o m a b o u t 1 2 9 0 5 . I n France t h e double cushion u n d e r t h e head is f o u n d i n a royal t o m b a t St. Denis dating f r o m t h e 1230'ies 6 . — If t h e date o f t h e three figures a t Bristol is thus b r o u g h t towards t h e e n d o f t h e c e n t u r y , a direct connection w i t h W e l l s becomes quite o u t o f t h e question also f o r chronological reasons. W h e n w e find t h a t t h e three figures w e a r chain m a i l w i t h seams along t h e sleeves, w e also r e m e m b e r that this w a s customary i n French t o m b effigies f r o m t h e latter half o f t h e century?. 1
O p . cit. p. 49. For ill. see Fryer op. cit. Pl. II.
2
Roper op. cit. p. 47 "It is a 'memorialle' and n o t a tomb, and was probably erected s o m e thirty years after the Baron's death." For ill. see Prior & Gardner op. cit. p. 609 or Fryer op. cit. Pl. II. 3 For ill. see Prior & Gardner op. cit. p. 610 or Fryer op. cit. Pl. III. Miss Roper calls h i m Robert, 3rd Lord Berkeley (dead 1220) but points out that (op. cit. p. 114) : "The peculiarity o f closed eyes does n o t occur else where till after the middle of the century, and there are o n l y four or five k n o w n examples i n England, although numerous o n the Continent." She thinks (p. 115) that the figure originates f r o m the same workshop as those i n Lord Mayor's Chapel. — T h e beautiful head o f a knight i n St. Philip's Church—ill. in Fryer op. cit. Pl. I V — b y Prior & Gardner op. cit. p. 610 and Roper op. cit. p. 151 rightly compared t o a head at present i n Exeter Cathedral — ill. in Prior & Gardner op. cit. p. 611, fig. 686 — seems t o date f r o m about 1270. 4 See Prior & Gardner op. cit. p. 553. This motif, o n the other hand, hardly seems t o occur earlier i n south country marble w o r k , as asserted b y these authors, op. cit. p. 621. Neither Bishop de la W y l e at Salisbury, dating f r o m about 1270, nor the Lady i n Romsey f r o m the same time have the double cushion. — T h e ear liest k n o w n example outside London is the socalled Lady FitzAlan i n Chichester f r o m about 1280. ( O n the Lady FitzAlan cp. above o n p. 47 note 4). Should instead, as claimed b y the local authorities, the effigy be the image o f Maude, Countess o f Arundel, w h o died i n 1270, the date o f its origin may b e put some ten years back i n time. — T h e question is, however, whether or n o t the effigy o f Lady Aveline (see the f o l l o w i n g note) i n Westminster Abbey ought t o be put somewhat nearer the year of her death, 1269. — Prior & Gardner $ argument (op. cit. p. 642) for a considerably later dating does not, I think, seem sufficiently c o n vincing. — A t any rate, the motif w i t h double cushion does n o t occur before the last quarter o f t he century, and then almost exclusively at Westminster, but becomes a rule practically without exception i n the tombs throughout the country f r o m the beginning o f the 14th century. 5 See ill. i n Prior & Gardner op. cit. p. 643, fig. 718, for Lady Aveline p. 345, for Henry III p. 660, and for Q u e e n Eleanor p. 661. 6
T h e t o m b o f Philippe (died about 1235), brother o f Saint Louis, originally i n l'Abbaye de Royaumont. Here w e also find — as usually among more elaborate examples o f tombstones f r o m this epoch — the kneeling angels w i t h incensories at the head. — See cast i n the Musée Trocadéro, Paris. — Ср. Paul Vitry & Gaston Brière "L'Eglise Abbatiale de SaintDenis et Ses Tombeaux" (Paris, 1908), p. 116. 7
Cp. above p. 4 6 note 6. Cp. also the above accounts o n p. 47 n o t e 4 o f the monument o f St. Thomas d e Cantelupe i n Hereford.
Considerably greater interest i n this connection is attached t o a M a d o n n a i n a v e r y p o o r state b u t still radiantly beautiful w i t h h e r n o b l e carriage a n d proportions. T h e f i g u r e has l o n g been bricked i n t o t h e w a l l t o t h e l e f t o f t h e E a r l y English portal o f St. B a r t h o l o m e w ' s Hospital i n Christmas Street (fig. 13) 1 . T h e V i r g i n sits slender a n d erect (head missing) o n a bench, w i t h t h e thighs inclining slightly forwards, t h e C h i l d o n h e r l e f t k n e e (upper p a r t o f b o d y missing) w i t h his r i g h t leg h a n g i n g vertically w h i l e t h e l e f t rests, w i t h t h e l o w e r leg diagonally i n relation t o t h e b o d y , o n M a r y ' s leg. M a r y ' s l e f t h a n d (the entire l o w e r a r m missing) has p r o b a b l y b e e n l y i n g a r o u n d t h e C h i l d a n d possibly a t t h e same t i m e lifted a flap o f t h e mantle w h i c h hes i n t h e shape o f a screen w i t h a n a r r o w e d g e visible o n t h e o u t e r side o f t h e left shoulder a n d u p p e r a r m . T h e m a n t l e hes o v e r t h e r i g h t leg a n d falls, o n t h e inner side o f t h e leg, i n a n evenly w i d e f o l d vertically d o w n t o t h e socle (probably a b o r d e r o f t h e l ining folded u p) w h e r e i t opens i n an omegashaped c o n t o u r . I n a similar w a y t h e m a n t l e folds a t sharp angles o n t h e o u t e r side o f t h e l e f t l e g b u t s o m e w h a t d r a w n u p b e f o r e t h e left shin revealing t h e tunic, a n d b e t w e e n t h e legs (evidently also draped o v e r t h e r i g h t thigh, although h e r e covered b y t h e p a r t o f t h e mantle c o m i n g f r o m t h e r i g h t side) i t f o r m s a series o f t hree w i d e , strongly p r o truding, flatly c u t folds, t h e t w o l o w e r o f w h i c h are split i n t o t w o halves. A r o u n d buckle is fastened t o t h e u p p e r p a r t o f t h e chest, a n d t h e thin g a r m e n t f o r m s a f e w sharply a ngled f olds o v e r t h e m i d d l e o f t h e chest, a n d vertical, p lane ridges i n t h e sides, t h e folds swelling s o m e w h a t o u t w a r d i n triangular f ormations a bove t h e n a r r o w w aist b a n d . U n d e r M a r y ' s left f o o t are t h e remains o f a reptile, a n d a similar o n e m a y h a v e been placed u n d e r t h e r i g h t f o o t as well, as b o t h feet are o n t h e same level. Proportions, arrangement o f drapery, a n d t h e h i g h quality o f t h e w o r k , all j u s t i f y t h e assumption that o n e o f t h e W e l l s sculptors is responsible f o r it. B u t this is t h e sole sculpture at Bristol indicating a continued W e l l s tradition*. T h e spreading o f t h e W e l l s style can, h o w e v e r , b e followed i n t w o w a r r i o r t o m b s i n A b b e y D o r e (Herefords.) a n d Shrewsbury A b b e y (Shrops.) 3 . 1
Prior & Gardner op. cit. p. 319 only mention this figure en passant and do not give its exact location: " . . . in a back s t r e e t . . . a much mutilated figure." Cp. Fryer op. cit. p. 2, and J . F. Nicholls &John Taylor "Bristol Past and Present" (1881), I, p. 232, II, p. 120. — I w ould like to convey m y thanks to Dr. F. S. Wallis, The City Museum, Bristol, for photographs and kind assistance during m y studies in Bristol. 3
In the neighbourhood of Bristol there is a warrior's tomb in Old Sodbury (Gloucs.) dated by Roper op. * cit. p. 470 f. at approximately 1240. The effigy is a very rough piece of work, and the in England rather rare attitude with a broad, triangular, flat shield placed squarely over the figure is also found i n a warrior effigy in Bitton (Gloucs.) dating from approximately 1240 according t o Roper op. cit. p. 185, w h o compares it t o the one i n Sodbury, "probably the later work of the same sculptor". The figure in Bitton, however, has already the motif of the double cushion. Another significant detail may be added, namely the fact that the chainmail has seams along the sleeves. — The motif with the shield placed over the body also occurs in a badly mutilated figure in Thruxton (Hamps.) which has probably had a helmet o n its head. The rough quality of the work does not allow any conclusions to be drawn as regards the date of its creation, owing t o the relief character of the effigy. Cp. nevertheless Prior & Gardner op. cit. p. 588. As to figures with hel mets see below p. 54 note 2. 3
The fragments of three warrior tombs in Tintern Abbey (Mon.) are too insignificant t o justify more exact determination. The largest fragment seems rather provincial so far as the quality is concerned.
T h e w a r r i o r i n t h e n o r t h e r n choir aisle o f A b b e y D o r e 1 is rather o v e r d i m e n sioned, a n d carries o n t h e left u p p e r a r m a large, pointed oval shield. T h e l e f t h a n d rests flatly o n t h e sheath w h i l e t h e r i g h t has a f i r m g r i p o n t h e hilt o f t h e s w o r d . T h e legs are crossed, b u t t h e l o w e r parts are b r o k e n o f f a n d missing 2 . T h e effigy is p o w e r f u l a n d skilfully m a d e , a n d t h e surcoat is draped w i t h scant, plane ridges comparable t o t h e m a n n e r o f t h e W e l l s sculpture. This dates t h e figure t o a period n o t later t h a n t h e m i d d l e o f t h e 13 t h century. T h e same attitude w i t h t h e left a r m protected b y a large, oval p o i n t e d shield a n d t h e left h a n d o n t h e sheath w h i l e t h e r i g h t grasps t h e hilt o f t h e s w o r d is taken b y t h e magnificent effigy i n Shrewsbury^, also s o m e w h a t overdimensioned, a n d resting w i t h t h e legs apart a n d t h e surcoat freely a n d loosely draped a n d nearly reaching t h e ankles. T h e s w o r d is d r a w n a f e w inches o u t o f t h e sheath, a n d t h e l e f t h a n d does n o t m e r e l y rest o n t h e sheath as i n t h e figure i n A b b e y D o r e , b u t holds i t i n a firm grip. T h e tall, slender proportions b r i n g t o m i n d t h e Bristol M a donna, a n d t h e inclination t o w a r d s a decorative draping o f t h e u p t u r n e d flaps o f t h e surcoat are, as m e n t i o n e d above, t o a certain extent typical o f t h e best represen tatives o f t h e W e l l s style. T h e dense, n a r r o w , parallel folds o v e r t h e chest are b r o k e n i n triangular surfaces o v e r t h e n a r r o w waistband; t h e r i g h t thigh is sculptured as a plain surface, a n d t h e drapery i n t h e l o w e r parts o f t h e surcoat is, despite t h e loose draping, characterized b y long, parallel, flat folds alternating w i t h quite plain surfaces. T h e sheath o f t h e s w o r d tilted o u t w a r d s a n d t h e r i g h t k n e e s o m e w h a t lifted a n d t u r n e d o u t w a r d s give variation a n d r h y t h m , b u t h a r d l y break t h e v e r ticalism o f t h e figure. T h e strong a n d m a t u r e sculpturing a n d t h e characteristic o f style described j u s t i f y comparison w i t h t h e best w o r k s i n W e l l s a n d d a t e i t t o t h e m i d d l e o r second quarter o f t h e 13 t h century. T h e dating o f a knight's t o m b i n Pershore A b b e y is m o r e uncertain 4 . T h e figure is s o m e w h a t unusual i n a f e w details carefully sculptured, such as the o p e n e d chin protection o f t h e chainmail, t h e turnedback m a i l gauntlet o f t h e r i g h t h a n d a n d t h e leather (?) j e r k i n w i t h its small buckles visible i n the a r m h o l e o f t h e tunic o n t h e right side, a n d e v e n i n its position w i t h t h e left leg t h r o w n o v e r t h e r i g h t (usually t h e o t h e r w a y around), a n d t h e position o f t h e r i g h t h a n d b y t h e r i g h t h i p w i t h a h o r n as attribute. A small d r a g o n bites t h e tip o f t h e shield. — I t is p r o bable that P r i o r & Gardner's dating o f a b o u t 1280 is correct, as t h e f r e e d o m a n d softness o f t h e drapery calls t o m i n d t h e L o n d o n style f r o m t h e last quarter o f t h a t 1 Obs., not the one mentioned and reproduced b y Prior & Gardner op. cit. p. 610 f., fig. 687, placed in the southern choir aisle. 2
A fragment of the lower legs and the lower h e m of the tunic is kept o n the same side of the choir. — The face of the warrior is entirely worn away. 3
The figure is not mentioned b y Prior & Gardner op. cit. — The sculpture has its place in a niche of a later date in the southern wall of the nave. In the church he is known under the name of Roger de M o n t gomery. — The head is missing for the most part, and this also applies to the feet which seem to have been resting o n a couchant quadruped. 4 See Prior & Gardner op. cit. p. 611, fig. 685. — Both feet and the lower left leg are broken off.
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c e n t u r y , ' b u t a t t h e same t i m e i t is characterized b y a certain reticence, above all i n t h e fine parallel folds across t h e chest. This figure is i n t r u t h a crucial test i n t h e stylistic division o f England's w e a l t h o f material i n t o m b sculpture preserved f r o m t h e 13th century, b u t I agree w i t h P r i o r & Gardner's dating o f a b o u t 1280, although i t is difficult t o see h o w a comparison b e t w e e n this figure a n d those o f t h e same t i m e i n Bristol can b e justified 1 . W e h a v e thus been able t o f o l l o w t h e spreading o f t h e W e l l s style o v e r large areas i n t h e west a n d south o f E ngland, a n d i t seems t h a t o n l y t h e scarcity o f m o n u m e n t s preserved f r o m t h e m i d d l e a n d second quarter o f t h e century i n t h e n o r t h a n d east 2 keeps us f r o m completely acknowledging Miss Saunders' assumption 1 For these see above o n p. 51. — There is n o reason for m e to enlarge here o n the other figures mentioned at the same time by Prior & Gardner (op. cit. p. 610), but which vary very much from one another. — The figure in Malvern Abbey (Worcs.) referred to by Prior & Gardner op. cit. p. 607 is unusual because of its relieflike treatment, its position with the legs apart and with an axe i n the right hand. The small shield i n the left hand could place the date as late 13 t h century, and the connection with Wells is uncertain, even if the stone should be from Doulting, as Prior & Gardner assume. 2
Regarding the monuments belonging to the Purbeck school in London, cp. below o n p. 55 f. — I should, however, here give m y views o n some of the monuments in these parts of the country that — in m y opinion — have received too early a dating from Prior & Gardner op. cit. : for example a warrior in Sudborough (Northants.) which, in its fragile, graceful elegance and its sensitive drapery, shows close relationship to another warrior i n Ousby (Cumberl.), a carving in oak which Prior & Gardner have prob ably dated quite correctly to the beginning of the 14th century. Should the figure i n Sudborough, as A . Hartshome (Victoria County History, Vol. 1, p. 394) asserts, represent Robert de Vere, this dating would b e supported b y an agreement dated 7th September, 1303, with Robert de Vere's executor concerning the funeral, as reported b y W. T. Mellows "The Knights of Peterborough Barony" (Peterborough, 1926, cp. "Annual Report of the Peterborough Natural History Society", 1925), p. 7 f. — It is, however, more i m portant t o establish the dating of t w o knights and a priest in Furness Abbey (Lancash.) (Prior & Gardner op. cit. p. 603, p. 630) which, far from showing any sign of clumsy sculpturing at a primitive stage, express a well developed plastic sense with a certain cubism i n the whole and conventionalized i n detail which seems rather provincial (see ill. in Crossley op. cit. p. 236). The shortness of the knight's surcoat and the omission t o carve the links of the chainmail could be interpreted as late features. The sharply rounded fold tops of the surcoat and the abrupt termination in a vertical plain surface of the body from which the legs stick out suddenly, is a parallel to the same stylistic feature, although less radically executed, as in the late 13 t h cen tury tombs at Winchelsea (Prior & Gardner op. cit. p. 595, fig. 671; p. 559, fig. 674). The legs are crossed and the feet rest against foliated balls. The most characteristic feature of the warriors, however, is that their heads are covered by an almost flattopped helmet, which connects them with a group of warrior tombs in County Durham. A warrior tomb in Hurworth (Durham), where the knight carries a short, triangular shield, of the same shape and sculptured with the same coatofarms as the shield on the tomb in The Temple, London, bearing the name of Robert de Ros (a cast is in the Victoria & Albert Museum, A . 19386), the date of which is fixed with a fair amount of certainty b y reason of style to the beginning of the 14th century (see Prior & Gardner op. cit. p. 635, fig. 709), is very closely related to the Furness tombs. The knight at Hur worth is like a forerunner to those ät Furness, and there are further parallels in County Durham at Chester leStreet, Pitington, Staindrop and Whitworth. Cp. the ill. in Robert Surtees "History of Durham" (1820— 1823), Vol. II, Pi. 33, Vol. Ill, Pi. 40, and Charles A. Stothard "The Monumental Effigies of Great Britain" (London 1876), Pi. 24—25. A. Hartshome " O n Kirkstead Abbey, Lincolnshire, Kirkstead Chapel, and a Remarkable Monumental Effigy there Preserved" (Exeter, 1883; cp. The Archaeological Journal, Vol. XL, p. 296) also calls attention t o a similar figure at Kirkstead (Lines.), see ill. in Crossley op. cit. p. 208, whose stiffleaf decoration around the pillow could point to a date not later than the middle of the century, but Hartshome points out (p. 4) the unusual kind of "banded mail" in the coat of mail which is only found o n figures at Tewkesbury, Tollard Royal, Dodford (ill. in Crossley op. cit. p. 210) and N e w t o n Solney, all of which can for different reasons be placed at a relatively late date, about 1300 (cp. Prior & Gardner op. cit.). Prior & Gardner op. cit. p. 592 show yet another example of this type at Walkerne (Herts.) probably one
that t h e style o f t h e W e l l s sculptures should b e regarded as a chronologically limited phase i n t h e development o f English sculpture rather t h a n as confined t o a particular locality 1 . W e also f i n d t h e W e l l s school's characteristic d r a p e r y style represented o n o n e o f t h e w a r r i o r t o m b s i n T h e T e m p l e i n L o n d o n , attributed t o Gilbert Mareschel, Earl o f P e m b r o k e (dead 1241) 2 . O t h e r w i s e the W e l l s school seems t o h a v e left v e r y f e w traces o n t h e productions o f t h e capital i n so far as w e identify these w i t h t h e pieces m a d e b y t h e w o r k s h o p that flourished f r o m t h e b e ginning o f t h e century, a n d w h o s e w o r k s w e r e carried o u t almost exclusively i n P u r b e c k marble. T h e i nspiration f r o m t h e C o n t i n e n t seems h e r e t o h a v e c o m e f r o m o t h e r sources t h a n those I h a v e m e n t i o n e d f o r t h e W e l l s sculpture. B u t m o r e o f this i n t h e following chapter.
2 . " T H E L O N D O N SCHOOL OF PURBECK M A R B L E "
T h e heading o f this chapter will probably surprise some, as i t can as y e t h a r d l y b e considered p r o v e d that t h e w o r k s h o p o r w o r k s h o p s w h i c h p r o d u c e d t h e n u m e r o u s h i g h quality tombstones a n d effigies f r o m P u r b e c k m a r b l e ' actually w e r e t o of the oldest examples, but impossible to date b y the legs crossed in a walking position, which is also found in an oak carving of high quality at Hildersham (Cambs.) from the beginning of the 14th century. (Cp. Prior & Gardner op, cit. p. 664). The head which is covered by a flattopped helmet is to be found, as Harts home (op. cit. p. 3) has observed, on the seals of Henry III, Edward I, and Alexander III of Scotland, and the motif seems, on the whole, to have enjoyed an increased popularity in art during the latter part of the 13th century and about 1300. Cp. for instance, manuscript illuminations (Millar op. cit. Pl. 88) and small pieces such as the famous horseman aquamanila (Otto von Falke & Erich Meyer "Bronzegeräte des Mittelalters'^ Berlin, 1935, p. 44 f.), especially the beautiful aquamanila from Hexham in the British Museum (v. Falke & Meyer op. cit. Pl. 112, 257). The popularity of this representation of knights with the vizor down is easy to understand in the century par préférence of the tourneys. — This flattopped type of helmet also occurs, according to G. Demay "Le Costume au Moyen Age d'après les Sceaux" (Paris, 1880), p. 133, i n a French seal from 1288, but shortly afterwards the shape of the helmet is changed and becomes more peaked. 1 2
Cp. above p. 30 note 1.
The original is in Reigate stone according to information from the Victoria & Albert Museum, London. A cast of this effigy (A. 1938—8) is in the Victoria & Albert Museum as well as those of four other knights in The Temple, one nameless effigy in Purbeck marble (A. 1938—10) (ill. in Prior & Gardner op. cit. p. 590) from the middle of the century, and the hypothetically named William Mareschel the Younger (dead 1231) of Reigate stone (A. 1938—9) from the last quarter of the 13th century, Robert de Ros (dead 1227) in Y ork shire limestone (A. 1938—6), (for ill. see Prior & Gardner op. cit. p. 635, fig. 709) from the beginning of the 14th century, and William Mareschel the Elder, Earl of Pembroke (died 1219) in Purbeck marble (A. 19387), (for ill. see Prior & Gardner op. cit. p. 588), which Prior & Gardner describe as the oldest, best preserved figure in The Temple, and date about 1225—1230. — The warriors in The Temple, whose anti quarian value has been greatly diminished b y additions and restorations during the last century, were t a large extent destroyed in the bombing of The Temple during the War of 1939—45, and I have not been able to examine the originals. In this survey it is sufficient to state that the older Purbeck marble knights seem to have the rich, softly flowing, naturalistic drapery style in the surcoats which is also characteristic of most of the preserved Purbeck marble sculptures from the first half and the middle of the century in other parts of England, dealt with on p. 57 f. — Cp. Prior & Gardner ill. p. 589, p. 590. 3 The monuments dealt with in this chapter are all — unless otherwise stated — executed in Purbeck marble.
be found in London. However, Prior & Gardner 1 and Saunders2 have suggested this and especially stressed the dominating importance of London as the centre of inspiration and impulses for the ideas and style of the Purbeck sculpture. It is there fore quite justifiable in this connection to see the qualitatively higher developed Purbeck monuments as representative of the style predominating in London, and the way in which the monuments are widely spread in England also seems to confirm the assumption that they were really carried out in London and not in remote Purbeck. It is remarkable, that the marble tombs in the immediate vicinity of Purbeck or within a reasonable distance for easy transport, such as the southern coast of England, are practically all of a relatively primitive quality3, while the finest sculptures are found evenly distrib uted inland in the cathedrals of Canterbury, Rochester, Winchester, Salisbury, Exeter, Worcester, Lichfield, Peter borough, and Ely. Had the monuments in London been better preserved, had we not only had the ruthlessly restored knights' tombs in The Temple, but also the bishops' tombs in the old St. Paul's, not to mention Fig. 14. Corbel head. Rochester others of equally great significance, then the Purbeck Cathedral. sculpture would have appeared more firmly rooted in the growing metropolis. The earliest known examples of higher developed Gothic figure sculpture in Purbeck marble are a few heads in quatrefoils in Archbishop Hubert Walter's tomb (died 1205) in Canterbury Cathedral 4 and the small bishops' busts in quatre foils on the lid of the sarcophagus of Bishop Gilbert de Glanville (died 1214) in Rochester Cathedral, a monument closely related to the former as regards structure. A third monument from approximately the same time is the tomb of Bishop Henry 1 O p . cit. p . 571. "Since, then, beside local works at Corfe itself, there was an establishment of marblers i n London, the hypothesis is that the London demand and the London artistry made the backbone of the Purbeck craft, and that the local industry was f r o m the first, and all through, in t ouch w i t h the most advanced ideas of the English architectural style which the capital developed. . . London should, w e think, certainly b e looked t o for the origins of the figurestyle in the marble". 2 Saunders op. cit. p . 203. " M u c h of it was shipped f r o m the Dorsetshire quarries t o London, where the majority of the effigies w e r e made. . . Others were w o r k e d at the quarries in the Isle of Purbeck itself, espe cially f o r places i n the southwest." — This question has hardly been dealt w i t h b y Crossley op. cit. p. 25.
3 This is the case with, f o r instance, a civilian effigy f r o m the end of the 13 t h century in St. Andrew's, Plymouth, a civilian effigy i n St. Clemens, Dartmouth, f r o m the latter half of the century, a warrior i n W a r e h a m (Dorset) f r o m the latter half of the 13th century (not the one dealt w i t h above o n p. 49), a civilian effigy and a lady i n Sopley (Hants.) f r o m the end of the century, and a lady i n Warblington (Hamps.) f r o m the latter half of the century, a warrior,,a lady, and a civilian effigy i n Winchelsea (Sussex) the m a t e rial of which, however, is Sussex marble rather than P u r b eck marble as claimed by Prior & Gardner o p . cit. p . 596. — B u t it is striking that the artistically m o r e important works within the same area and the same epoch, i. e. a husband and wife at Beer Ferrers (Devon) and a knight at Bridport (Dorset), are carried o u t i n another material, n o t Purbeck marble. 4 See ill. in Crossley op. cit. p. 33. C p . o u r ill. fig. 15.
Marshall (died 1206) in Exeter Cathedral1 where the lid of the sarcophagus ad mittedly is adorned with an effigy — while the former are not — but where the divi sion of the side of the sarcophagus into larger and smaller quatrefoils with seated saints and human heads mark the connection with the previous ones, even though the geometrical division of the surfaces is here livened by magnificent foliation. The bishop's figure on the lid of " rV the sarcophagus is of a rather primitive and ancient kind, indi cating that the decoration of the sides and the lid of the sarcophagus can hardly have been made at the same time. Among the early 13 th century sculptures in Purbeck marble are also a few beautiful corbel heads in the sanctuary of Rochester Cathedral (fig. 14), in the transept of Salisbury Cathe dral2 and in the sanctuary of Lincoln Cathedrab. They are all characterized by summary but Fig. 15. Tomb of Archbishop Walter. Detail. Canterbury Cathedral. firm and determined modelling, extraordinarily powerful with strongly marked eyebrow arches, deep eye sockets, and convex eyes the pointed oval contours of which are already showing a tendency towards the long, narrow, High Gothic shape, with a straight under contour, high cheekbones, nose with a softly rounded and slightly fleshy tip, small mouth with fleshy lips, and a pointed, protruding chin. Especially noticeable in its sensitive modelling is the head of a young man on the eastern gable of Archbishop Walter's sarcophagus in Canterbury ( f i g . 15)4.
The oldest lifesize figure of this early Purbeck school which can already be con sidered representative of mature Gothic sculpture is probably the sarcophagus of King John in Worcester Cathedral (fig. 16). The king is sculptured resting with his legs apart and the feet supported against a standing lion biting the point of the drawn sword held in the king's left hand. In his right hand the king holds the sceptre. At the head stand two bishops swinging censers, probably St. Oswald and St. Wulstan, between whose shrines the king's sarcophagus was originally 1
See ill. in Crossley op. cit. p. 47.
2
See ill. in Prior & Gardner op. cit. p . 232, fig. 224.
3 See ill. in Prior & Gardner op. cit. p. 233, fig. 229. 4 M y h earty thanks t o M r . George Zarnecki of the Courtauld Institute, London, for his kind assistance in photographing the Canterbury t o m b .
Fig. 16. Effigy of King John. Worcester Cathedral.
situated.1 It was, perhaps, a wellconsidered precaution to place two canonised bishops at the head of the banned king instead of the more obvious representatives of divinity, the angel figures we usually find in this place. The modelling of the face of the king corresponds well to the above description of the early Purbeck heads, and the sculp ture is conspicuous for the magnificent ornamental setting for jewels, — more explicitly expressed — the numerous cavities, round and oval, which have p r o bably been intended as settings for jewels or imitation jewels of tinted glass. W e find these oval cavities, not only in the crown, on the hilt of the sword, and in the buckle of the belt, but also in the broad neckband of the tunic, here vertical and horizontal ovals alternately, as well as in the narrow border of the sleeves and in the king's gloves. The figure is freely modelled, almost in round bosse, and the tunic's rich, soft drapery is particularly characteristic with its dense parallel fold ridges, all with a rounded profile. O n the chest the folds are divided into four big, double hollowed ridges on either side, and the folds in the middle are draped diago nally around a smaller Vshaped drapery system. The chest part of the folds swells out strongly above the waistband, and the lower part of the tunic is divided into seven to nine high, profiled ridges separated by broad hollows, the draping forming an omegashaped serpentine contour when seen from below. The wide sleeves have the same soft, rich folds, but the arm itself is also sculptured in plain surfaces, especially the well rounded lower arm. The king died in 1216, and the effigy must have been made fairly soon after his burial, about 1220 at the latest2. Where can w e find the origin of this soft and rich style with the goldsmithery inspired rich jewelry adornment if w e regard the figure as the product of a London workshop? 1
See Powicke op. cit. p. 1. C p . Edward F. Strange " T h e Cathedral C h u r ch o£ Worcester", (London, 1900), p. 62 f. w i t h a quotation f r o m M. H. Bloxam " T h e Sepulchral Remains and Effigies i n the Cathedral Church of Worcester" (in T h e Archaeological Journal, Vol. X X , p . 345 f., London, 1865). 2 There is n o reason for dating it as late as c. 1240, as suggested b y Prior & Gardner op. cit. p . 580. As the authors give n o authority for this suggestion, it is superfluous here t o counter their statements w i t h other arguments than those appearing f r o m m y presentation of the stylistic development.
T h e answer is near at h a n d if w e once m o r e direct o u r glance t o w a r d s t h e C o n tinent, perhaps n o t so m u c h t o w a r d s t h e beautiful sculpture o f IledeFrance, strict as i t is i n its f o r m 1 , as i n t h e case o f W ells, b u t rather t o t h e rich field o f a r t a n d c rafts m a n s h i p a t t h e e n d o f t h e 12th a n d t h e b eginning o f t h e 13 t h centuries i n t h e M euse R h i n e area w i t h t h e cities o f C o l o g n e , Liège, a n d AixlaChapelle, a n d w h i c h can also i n t h e process o f giving a n d receiving include Rheims a n d Treves i n its sphere o f activity*. L o n d o n ' s lively business relations w i t h this area, commercially perhaps chiefly w i t h t h e m i g h t y city o f C o l o g n e , are w e l l k n o w n , a n d i n connection w i t h t h e K i n g J o h n e ffigy i t is j ustifiable t o m e n t i o n t h e p a r t p layed b y P u r b e c k m a r b l e as a succes sor a n d displacer o f t h e black m a r b l e f r o m T o u r n a i w h i c h w a s previously i m p o r t e d i n t o E n g l a n d i n t h e f o r m o f sculptured t o m b s t o n e slabs, fonts, etc.' T o w a r d s t h e e n d o f t h e 13 t h century a n d t h e beginning o f t h e 14th a v e r y close relationship b e t w e e n English a n d L o w e r Rhenish illumination is observed b y V i t z t h u m 4 a n d interpreted as a n expansion o f English art?. W h e n i t comes t o f i n d i n g t h e prerequisites f o r t h e astonishingly early a n d m a t u r e plastic style o f K i n g J o h n , h o w e v e r , i t seems m o r e j ustified t o seek t h e i nspi ration o n t h e o t h e r side o f t h e Channel, a n d i n t h e MeuseRhine area w e actually find this particular rich, flowing a n d soft drapery style i n m a n y varieties i n t h e goldsmith's a r t i n t h e miniature plastic o f t h e shrines, t h e m o s t glorious specimens 1 A n y one w h o feels inclined to advocate the priority of the Chartres plastic may with every justification refer to the rich drapery style i n the tympanum figures i n the northern and southern portals of the Chartres Cathedral and the relief ornamentation in brocade pattern in several of the statues of the southern portal (see, for instance, Aubert, op. cit. Pl. 79), but here is however something essentially different from this early Purbeck sculpture which is considerably more naive in its conception of adornment, such as the large cavi ties filled with tinted glass, and in its broad, squat proportions, its lack of individuality in the face. And, above all, the particular profile of the folds i n the Purbeck sculpture is everywhere softly rounded as different from that i n Chartres. 2
Ср. above p. 38 f.
3 Cp. Prior & Gardner op. cit. p. 203. Francis Bond "Fonts and Font Covers" (London, 1908), p. 204 f. 4 Op. cit. p. 162, 196. 5 Cp. Goldschmidt "English influence . . . " op. cit. p. 725. — I could, however, give an example of Belgian influence o n English tomb sculpture from the same time: The figure of a lady in Bedale (Yorks), (see ill. in Prior & Gardner op. cit. p. 632), corresponds to the effigy o n a tombstone in Tournai marble at St. Denis t o such an extent that a connection between them can hardly be denied, and as the Bedale lady appears as a further conventionalized and rougher copy of the former, and besides is a quite unique occurrence in the English tomb material (Prior & Gardner op. cit. p. 632 assume German influence), hardly any doubt can exist as regards the priority. The figure at St. Denis was earlier known as Catherine de Courtenay (dead 1307), but Raymond Koechlin "La Sculpture Belge et lçs Influences Françaises aux XlIIe et X l V e Siècles" (in Gazette des BeauxArts, 45, 3 pér. 31, Paris, 1903), p. 17 states that the tomb instead belongs t o Blanche de Cas tille (dead 1252) and even that it, according to archival information was sculptured in 1255. See ill. op. cit. p. 17. — This date does not strike m e as very probable when considering the style of the figure — as regards time it fits better in with the old attribution. Koechlin's suggestion, however, has been accepted by Vitry & Bribe op. cit. p. 119. — In the Musée Trocadéro in Paris where w e find a cast, the attribution t o Blanche de Castille has been abandoned. The figure is titled : "Princesse Inconnue, dite autrefois Blanche de Castille, Statue Provenante de l'Eglise Abbatiale de Maubuisson; pierre de Tournai. Seconde Moitié du XlIIe Siècle." »
o f w h i c h date f r o m t h e e n d o f t h e 12th a n d t h e first f e w years o f t h e 13 t h centuries. I t will suffice h e r e t o m e n t i o n such a f a m o u s piece as t h e Shrine o f t h e T h r e e H o l y Kings i n C o l o g n e , a n d t h e style is also represented i n manuscripts a n d glass p a i n t ings f r o m t h e same city 1 . T o b e able t o p r o v e a derivation o f t h e early P u r b e c k style o f t h e 13 t h c e n t u r y f r o m these sources w e w o u l d , h o w e v e r , n e e d material f o r comparison i n a m o r e m o n u m e n t a l plastic, b u t h e r e t h e m o n u m e n t a l material preserved t o o u r t i m e fails us completely. I t is clear, t h o u g h , that t h e early d e veloped plastic m a t u r i t y i n t h e miniature sculpture o f t h e reliquaries m u s t n o t b e regarded as a p h e n o m e n o n restricted t o t h e goldsmith's w o r k s h o p — i t w o u l d h a v e b e e n expressed t o t h e same extent i n larger size plastic, b u t is n o w lost, mainly, perhaps, being f o r t h e greater p a r t carried o u t i n such destructible a material as w o o d 2 . Possibly t h e m o s t beautifully preserved example o f t h e style w e m i g h t assume w a s predominating i n t h e L o w e r R h i n e area, a n d perhaps especially i n C o l o g n e a r o u n d 1220, is a M a d o n n a f r o m Visby Cathedral (Gotland), i n all probability i m p o r t e d f r o m G e rm a n y з. A piece o f goldsmith's w o r k o f t h e h i g h 1
See Swarzenski op. cit. I, p. 12. Cp. Heinrich Oidtmann "Die Rheinischen Glasmalereien" (Düsseldorf, 1912), Taf. IV—VII. 2
One single solitary piece of work of importance from the first half of the century has however been preserved t o our day in Cologne: a Madonna in the SchnüttgenMuseum, reproduced in Fritz Witte "Tau send Jahr e Deutscher Kunst am Rhein" (Berlin, 1932), II, Pl. 86, and dated at about 1230. It seems to me, however, that some influence from the Rheims plastic is already noticeable i n this work. Cp. Richard Hamann "Die Salzwedeler Madonna" (in Marburger Jahrbuch 3, 1927), p. 84. The author stresses the leading part in goldsmith's plastic played by the MeuseRhine area, and points out the close connections and the alternating influence between that area and the north of France, especially Rheims (p. 88). But he goes a little too far (in m y opinion) when he includes the Madonnas in Gassicourt and Gaillac in the same sphere (p. 84, 87). Here w e find n o correspondence in drapery system, fold treatment or posture of body; w e observe instead the restricted, beautiful style of IledeFrance in its most refined form, the style the character of which is still typical of the left western portal of the Notre Dame in Paris and the Wells sculpture. 3 For ill. see J. Roosval "Medeltida Skulptur i Gotlands Fornsal" (Stockholm, 1925), Pl. XXII. The M a donna is mentioned by Carl R. rf Ugglas "Gotlands Medeltida Träskulptur till och med Höggotikens Inbrott" (Stockholm, 1915), p. 240 f. and assumed to be the work of a sculptor w h o had immigrated from Germany, a man w h o is said t o be responsible for a large number of statues in that island, and who, according to C. R. af Ugglas' suggestion is known in Swedish art history under the n o m de guerre of "The Tingstäde Master". But it is striking, and C. R. af Ugglas has himself pointed out (p. 241, p. 275) that this very Madonna of Visby is distinguished from the other works in the group through somewhat earlier styled features and — I would like to add — through a superior quality. If w e maintain the n o m de guerre "The Tingstäde Master" for the other works in this group, and regard h i m as the master of a workshop on Gotland around the middle of the century in accordance with the dating suggested b y af Ugglas, it would be more correct, however, t o regard the Visby Madonna as a piece of work imported from Germany around 1220. Is it not natural that the German burghers of Visby should turn t o one of the most prominent sculpture workshops in their homeland t o buy a Madonna for their principal church in Visby, which the cathedral used t o be. — Roosval op. cit. p. 34 £ is also inclined to date the Madonna at around 1220 and connects her with the in fluence from the construction of the sanctuary of the Magdeburg Cathedral which is noticeable in the archi tecture of the Visby Cathedral from the same time. A stylistic parallel to the Visby Madonna can, as men tioned b y V . C. Habicht and C. R. af Ugglas (see note below), be observed in the decorative stone sculp ture of the capitals of the choir at Magdeburg Cathedral, see Walther Greischel "Der Magdeburger D o m " (Berlin, 1929), Pl. 37. — The Madonna from Hablingbo (Gotland), which t o a great extent corresponds to the one in Visby Cathedral, might, however, be regarded as a deliberately made local copy of the Visby Madonna which was looked upon as a remarkable foreign figure. Cp. Roosval op. cit. p. 37. — See also following note.
est o r d e r , perhaps also i m p o r t e d f r o m t h e L o w e r R h i n e area a t t h e same time, has also f o u n d its w a y t o t h e rich island i n t h e Baltic; a secular buckle f r o m D u n e w i t h a c h a r m i n g scene f r o m t h e life o f t h e nobility o f t hat t ime, a n d i n t h e same r ich, flowing d r a p e r y style as t h e Visby M a d o n n a 1 . A n a lmost gentler, m o r e picturesque style i n t h e drapery arrangement is f o u n d i n t h e f a m o u s M a d o n n a i n SaintJean i n Liège, dated at a b o u t 1200 b y C o u n t d e B o r c h g r a v e d 'Altena, t h e best connoisseur a t present o f Belgian medieval sculpture*. A b o u t this masterpiece h e v e r y rightly says: " L a draperie est digne d ' u n Nicolas d e V e r d u n o u des meilleurs miniaturistes d e Winchester"^. T h e same d rapery style, b u t s o m e w h a t f reer a n d looser, w e find i n t h e perhaps s o m e t e n years later M a d o n n a i n St. Vincentiuskerk at Voider*. M y m e n t i o n i n g t h e M a d o n n a a t G o t l a n d first is d u e t o t h e fact t h a t she, i n h e r dense, s o m e w h a t stiff drapery, i n h e r restricted f o r m a n d verticalism, is closer related i n style t o t h e P u r b e c k effigy o f K i n g J o h n t h a n t o t h e Belgian w o r k s , i n their m o r e studied a n d m o r e perfect pliancy, composition a n d h a r m o n y o f lines'. Besides, t h e Visby M a d o n n a w i t h its estimated date o f a b o u t 1220 is closer i n t i m e t o K i n g J o h n . W i t h this little excursion t o t h e C o n t i n e n t I believe I h a v e b e e n able t o p r o v e this : T h e plastic style characteristic o f t h e K i n g J o h n effigy is essentially t h e same as 1
The buckle, n o w at the Statens Historiska Museum, Stockholm, was found i n the soil together with other treasures in 1881, and its origin has aroused a lively discussion amongst scholars. See ill. in Carl R. af Ugglas "Det Stora Bältespännet i Duneskatten" (in Fornvännen, Stockholm, 1937, p. 257 £., p. 321 f., p. 258, p. 260, and p. 322), as well as the same author "Bidrag till den Medeltida Guldsmedskonstens Historia" II (Stockholm, 1948), p. 163. In the former work the author disputes the dating suggested by Roosval (men tioned i n the preceding note) for the Madonna in Visby Cathedral, and i n both works he emphasizes the domestic, Gotlandic, origin of the goldsmithwork, using as a starting point the activity of the Ting staede Master — but chiefly making use of the Visby Madonna for comparison. For references t o literature on the discussion of the origin of the buckle see the notes of the works cited. French origin is assumed by C . Enlart and O . v o n Falke, German b y V . C. Habicht and W . Greischel. — That the buckle is not of local Gotlandic origin but rather an imported piece of work seems to m e explicitly proved by af Ugglas* presenta tion i n the latter work ("Bidrag till. . ." op. cit. p. 163) where the buckle contributes t o our knowledge of a continuous Gotlandic goldsmith tradition during the middle ages. Its unique character and quality c o m pared t o the other material in the island is striking, and not even the chalices from Gothem and Linköping — which are probably also imported German pieces although from another circle of artists — indicate any relationship. — The acanthus ornamentation of the buckle with bunches of grapes or "berries" is a well k n o w n motif i n Rhenish goldsmithery — as observed by af Ugglas op. cit. p. 165 — and occurs in a very similar form, lively and fresh w ith small figures intertwined and with a graceful mobility, i n the rooftop o f the socalled Annoschrein in Sieg burg. See O. von Falke "Deutsche Schmelzarbeiten des Mittelalters" (Frankfurt am Main, 1904), Pi. 51. — For citizens of Visby originating in Cologne, see Carl R. af Ugglas "Lödöse" (Gothenburg, 1931), p. H I . — A buckle of gilt bronze closely related t o the one from D u n e is n o w i n the possession of the Metropolitan Museum of Art, N e w York, published b y J. J. Rorimer i n T h e Metropolitan Museum of Art Bulletin, May 1948, p. 238 f. 2 See ill. in J. de Borchgrave d*Altena "Oeuvres de N o s Imagiers Romans et Gothiques, Sculpteurs, Ivoiriers, Orfèvres, Fondeurs: 1025—1550" (Brussels, 1944), Pl. XXI. 3
J. de Borchgrave d'Altena "Madones Anciennes Conservées en Belgique" (Brussels, 1945), Pl. VII.
4 Photograph i n the Musée Cinquantenaire, Brussels. 5 The more grim and sober style which found its expression i n the effigy of King John and the Visby Madonna has its counterpart o n Belgian soil i n the beautiful Madonna in the Musée Cinquantenaire, in cluded in Legs van den Peereboom, the origin of which is unknown. See J. Destrée in Bulletin des Musées Royaux d'Art et d'Histoire (Cinquantenaire, Brussels), May 1930, p. 62 f. 6 l
that o f t h e sculpture o f t h e MeuseRhine area, a n d is h e r e f o u n d fully developed already a r o u n d 1200. It is therefore possible t h a t this area w a s t h e source o f inspira t i o n o f t h e P u r b e c k sculptor. T h a t this is t h e case — that t h e inspiration f o r this highly capable w o r k c a m e t h r o u g h impulses f r o m abroad — seems t o m e v e r y probable, especially as t h e sarcophagi i n P u r b e c k marble, o n l y s o m e decades older, are so oldfashioned a n d plastically rather primitive i n comparison. T h i s is n o t t h e case w i t h regard t o t h e above t o m b s — w i t h t h e sole exception o f t h e effigy o f Bishop H e n r y Marshall i n Exeter — o f w h i c h t h e close relationship i n f i g u r e sculpture t o K i n g J o h n has b e e n p o i n t e d o u t above (p. $8), b u t i t certainly is i n a series o f abbots' t o m b s i n P e t e r b o r o u g h Cathedral f r o m a r o u n d 1200 a n d t h e beginning o f t h e 13 t h century. T h e oldest o f t h e effigies assumed t o b e that o f A b b o t Benedict (died 1193) is h a r d l y m o r e t h a n a v e r y h i g h relief w h e r e t h e drapery treatment is mainly carried o u t i n a f e w slightly carved slits1. T h e n e x t i n t h e series is a n o n y m o u s b u t m i g h t b e dated, at s o m e t i m e d u r i n g t h e period 1200—1210, a n d h e r e t h e folds o f t h e cloak are sculptured b y cutting i n t o t h e slab while t h e f i g u r e itself is still carried o u t i n v e r y l o w relief, a n d despite t h e fact that t h e h e a d protrudes considerably f r o m t h e b o t t o m level t h e face is rather flat2. — A t h i r d A b b o t i n v e r y p o o r c ondition f o l l o w i n g t h e same iconographie scheme as t h e preceding figures, w h i c h i n all probability belongs i n t h e first quarter o f t h e century, as w e l l as a f o u r t h , f airly contemporary^, w i t h t h e original detail that a n angel o n either side takes a firm g r i p o n t h e ears o f t h e A b b o t , still maintain t h e flat, slablike shape. T h e same applies t o t h e effigy attributed t o A b b o t Alexander o f Holderness (dead 1226) 4 . T h e r e is a considerable g a p i n development b e t w e e n t h e P e t e r b o r o u g h figures a n d t h e effigy o f Bishop Marshall i n Exeter* o n o n e side a n d K i n g J o h n i n W o r cester o n t h e other, b u t t h e quick change o f style can v e r y w e l l b e explained b y impulses f r o m w i t h o u t . T h a t t h e change actually t o o k place at t h e latest a b o u t 1220, a n d that K i n g J o h n ' s effigy was m a d e v e r y soon after his death (as w o u l d b e o n l y natural) I find convincingly p r o v e d b y t h e heads i n Rochester a n d Salis b u r y (cp. above p . 57) w h i c h are closely related t o t h e t o m b sculpture, and, thanks, t o t h e architecture, can b e accurately dated. W h a t influence d i d t h e style introduced i n t h e K i n g J o h n effigy h a v e o n t h e conti n u e d development o f sculpture? T h e question is extremely difficult t o answer o n account o f t h e scanty material a n d its consisting almost exclusively o f bishops' t o m b s w h i c h usually b e c o m e rather stereotyped i n t h e shaping o f t h e folds o f t h e 1 2
For ill. see Prior & Gardner op. cit. p. 575, fig. 649.
See Prior & Gardner op. cit. p. 575, fig. 650.
3 See Prior & Gardner op. cit. p. 575, w h o suggest that the figure is either the image of Abbot Acharius. (dead 1214) or Abbot Lindsey (dead 1222). 4 Cp. Prior & Gardner op. cit. 576. 5 Ср. Prior & Gardner op. cit. p. 576.
r o b e a n d t h e vertical fall o f t h e alb. I h a v e n o t been able t o f i n d another w o r k b y t h e sculptor w h o carried o u t t h e effigy o f K i n g J o h n 1 , b u t a n a n o n y m o u s bishop's statue i n t h e southern choir aisle o f Lichfield Cathedral is m o s t certainly closely related as regards style 2 . H e r e again w e find t h e broadset proportions, t h e v e r y dense, parallel folds, a n d i n t h e collar a n d t h e m i t r e w e find n u m e r o u s r o u n d cavities f o r "precious stones". Similar o v a l settings are also f o u n d i n t h e bishop's gloves a n d shoes. H e rests w i t h t h e legs apart a n d each f o o t s upported against a ball decorated i n stiffleaf. A n o t h e r bishop i n Lichfield, carried o u t i n P u r b e c k marble, rests u n d e r a balda q u i n suspended f r o m t w o slender c o l u m n s supported b y a series o f stiffleaf g r o w i n g u p f r o m t h e slab. Despite a general consonance w i t h t h e a b o v e as regards t h e r o u n d , plastic shape o f t h e b o d y , t h e settings f o r "precious stones" etc., h e r e a m o r e a d vanced style is indicated i n t h e fine modelling o f t h e ascetic face a n d t h e scarcer, m o r e articulate drapery, resembling t o a certain e x t e n t that o f t h e W e l l s sculpture. T h e exquisitely beautiful b u t faintly conventionalized freestone figure o f a priest i n Rippingale should also b e seen i n close connection w i t h this P u r b e c k styled A l o n g t h e edges o f t h e slab r u n s a frieze o f conventionalized leaves, a n d each f o o t is supported against a foliated ball. T h e dense, parallel folds w i t h n a r r o w , r o u n d e d ridges fall d o w n i n rigorous verticalism, b u t f r o m t h e l o w e r arms hangs a series o f cornetshaped folds spreading o u t fanwise, a n d t h e alb is draped o v e r t h e shins i n t w o flaps sweeping softly o u t w a r d w i t h omegashaped contours. I n t h e same phase as t h e K i n g J o h n effigy i n t h e development o f t h e P u r b e c k school w e c a n finally include a P u r b e c k m a r b l e lady 4 a n d a bishop i n t h e same material i n t h e L a d y Chapel i n Worcester5. T h e latter, w h o , w i t h his rich drapery 1 A fragment of a tomb sculpture of Purbeck marble in Ramsey Abbey (Huntsh.) k n o w n as Abbot Ralph seems t o be closely related to the King John effigy. See Crossley op. cit. p. 138. — During m y visit there I could only establish that the fragment has been kept packed i n sawdust in the cellar of the house ever since the abbey was converted into a school some time during the thirties. So far as I could learn f r o m the headmaster, it is hardly probable that the sculpture will be unwrapped within a reasonable time ( !). — O n this fragment see Philip Nelson "A Purbeck Marble Effigy of an Abbot of Ramsey of the 13 th Century" (in The Archaeological Journal, 74, ser. 2,24, London, 1917) with g o o d reproductions. The quality of the carving seems to be excellent. If the fragment is contemporary with the effigy of King John, as I am inclined t o think, the attribution to Abbot Ralph cannot be right. — Dr. Hanns Swarzenski has kindly drawn m y attention t o a fragment of a seated figure (a Majesty?), preserved in the cloisters of Lincoln Cathedral. It is carved in freestone and seems to be closely related in style t o works like the Ramsey tomb. 2 See ill. i n Prior & Gardner op. cit. p. 604. — According to Prior & Gardner op. cit. p. 583, note 1, this sculpture is not made from Purbeck marble, a material it bears a resemblance to, but "of a grey limestone p ossibly from Derbyshire". I agree entirely with Prior & Gardner op. cit. p. 604 that " w e can hardly be wrong i n taking it as an attempt b y a London workshop to use a n e w material for effigymaking".
3 See ill. in Crossley op. cit. p. 193. — The open book o n the chest of the priest contains a text, very worn, but of which I have been able t o decipher: CIGI — В (?) ( ) A D ? Ih W C — . Could this perhaps lead t o the identification of the priest? — The entire face is broken off and missing. 4 See ill. in Prior & Gardner op. cit. p. 579, fig. 654. 5 See ill. in Prior & Gardner op. cit. p. 579, fig. 653. B y Prior & Gardner here compared t o a Pur beck bishop in St. David's (Wales). — In the church the tomb is wrongly attributed t o Walter de Cantelupe (dead 1266). Another bishop's tomb in the church attributed to William de Blois (died 1236) seems t o be a simpler replica of this tomb, and made from Higley stone. Both have the relatively original, strongly foliated setting for the head.
and numerous settings for precious stones (in the mitre, the collar of the cloak, in the maniple, in the sleeve hems of the alb, at the ends of the stole) proves to be an especially typical representative of the style of King John's effigy, is perhaps sur prising in as much as it is broader and flatter, but this might to a certain extent be due t o the robes of office. The finely carved features bring to mind those of King John, especially the shape of beard and moustache, and w e find a relatively good basis for dating in comparison between this bishop's tomb and another in the southern wall of the Lady Chapel in Exeter, probably rightly attrib uted to Bishop Simon de Apulia (died 1223) Here w e f ind examples of the same breadth and flatness in the proportions of the body, and even though the sculpture on the whole is more vague than that in Worcester, the fine facial modelling Fig. 17. Effigy of a Bishop. Detail. Carlisle Cathedral. with narrow Gothic eyes shows an even more advanced form than the other. The relieflike position of the hands over the chest in both cases indicates that they both belong to the same stage of development, granted though that the Exeter bishop's hand position is of a still more ancient kind. Towards the middle of the century more sensitiveness is noticeable in the elabora tion of facial details as well as the sculpturing of the body under the material. The finest examples of this phase are a) an abbot's effigy in Sherborne Abbey (Dorset) and b) a bishop's effigy in Carlisle Cathedral, both in Purbeck marble. The anonymous abbot in Sherborne Abbey 2 , situated in the southern aisle of the choir, rests with hands folded on the chest and the feet supported against a walking dragon with wings and a lion's body. The crozier rests inside his right elbow. The asceticlooking face is badly damaged, but especially sensitive in the elaboration of the curly moustache in basrelief, half engraved, and the fine curly beard with three more accentuated tendrils sculptured in relief on each cheek with strands only engraved in between. The small chin is very fine and pointed. T o this sensitive modelling of the face corresponds the sculpturing of the robe as of a very thin material, thinly draped over the upper arms and lying in a series of rounded downward arched folds over chest and abdomen; the curves of the body are deli— 1 See Percy Addleshaw " T h e Cathedral Ch u r ch of E x e t e r " (London, 1898), p . 71. — For ill. see Crossley op. cit. p . 188. 2 In the little guidebook published b y the Friends of Sherborne Abbey (1946), the t o m b (p. 23) is attrib uted t o A b b o t Laurence of Bradford (1246—1260). T h e possibility of thus dating the t o m b shall n o t be denied here, although a dating o n purely stylistic grounds seems t o m e m o r e in agreement w i t h Prior & Gardner's suggestion (op. cit. p . 581) of about 1245. — For ill. see Prior & Gardner op. cit. p. 581.
cately outlined, and the empty space between the legs indicated. The quality of this sculpture equals the best of this period. The bishop in Carlisle1 shows a novelty compared to the preceding bishops' effigies in so far as his right hand in a gesture of blessing did not rest in relief on his chest, but was lifted upwards. There are several cavities in the mitre, round as well as oval, for "precious stones", and the ascetic countenance is delicately modelled with deep eye sockets and open Gothic eyes on a convex base. The moustache and the beard are more plastically elaborated than is the case in the Sherborne figure — the beard, formed b y a ring of Sshaped curls alternating with tongue shaped tresses. The robe is of the same thin material as in Sherborne, transparent looking and spiritu alized in its fine outline around an ascetic body. The soft arches of the folds have rounded ridges, and the drapery over the chest is concentrated on the left side, over the heart, while the folds f rom the right shoulder run diagonally and grow down wards into a system with deep, clubshaped cavities. The robe has the same thin, outward folded hems as in Sherborne. T o the same period in style development within the Purbeck sculpture belong a few tombs in the presbytery in Ely Cathedral, attributed to Bishop HughofNorthwold (dead 1254) and Bishop W illiam de Kilkenny (died 1256)2, as well as the tomb of the Archbishop de Gray (died 1255) in Y ork M inster. 1 For ill. see Prior & Gardner op. cit. p. 582. C p . Crossley op. cit. p . 47. O u r fig. 17. 2
F o r ill. see Prior & Gardner op. cit. p. 583, a n d also Crossley op. cit. p . 189. — T h e effigy of Bishop Kilkenny is v e r y m u c h restored; the right hand and the greater part of the face are m o d e r n Fig. 18. Effigy of Bishop Richard Poore. w o r k . — T h e effigies are so similar i n style that an approximate Salisbury Cathedral. contemporaneity is probable, and this, i n its turn, supports o r c o n firms the correctness of the attribution together w i t h the years of death of the bishops, one shortly after the other. T h e only other pair of bishops i n Ely during the 13 t h century whose years of death are so close in time mutually are J o h n Phard (died 1225) and Geoffrey d e B u r g (died 1228), b u t such a dating of the effigies w o u l d certainly be t o o early. C p . W. D. Sweeting " T h e Cathedral Church of E l y " (London, 1901), p. 116 f. 3 For ill. see Prior & Gardner op. cit. p . 584. — T h e baldaquin, however, indicates a considerably livelier sculptural temperament than the effigy, a nd although it m i g h t b e approximately contemporary w i t h regard t o t he foliation w hich is still exclusively stiffleaf, I a m here inclined t o assume that another sculptor is respon sible. T h e corbel heads o n the roof of the canopy are masterpieces of Gothic "Kleinkunst". O n these, cp. below p . 80.
5—903547
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I n t h e same g r o u p can also b e included t h e t o m b o f Bishop Richard P o o r e (died 1237) i n Salisbury, and, as a confirmation o f t h e relatively early dating o f t h e t o m b c o m p a r e d t o t h e o t h e r effigies i n this g r o u p , i t should b e m e n t i o n e d t h a t t h e bishop's r i g h t h a n d i n a blessing attitude h e r e still rests o n t h e chest a n d is n o t raised (fig. 18). I a m also inclined t o date a P u r b e c k m a r b l e k n i g h t i n R u s h t o n (Northants.) t o t h e m i d d l e o f t h e 13 t h century, o r shortly after. I t is a p o w e r f u l piece o f w o r k . T h e l e f t l e g is resting across t h e right, a n d t h e r i g h t h a n d grasps t h e s w o r d f r o m a b o v e i n a twisted position, t h e left a r m being covered b y a l o n g , p o i n t e d oval shield. T h e surcoat is a trifle primitively draped o v e r t h e chest i n b r o a d , s o m e w h a t r o u n d e d ridges separated b y scores a t regular intervals, b u t this, indeed, gives t h e plastic shape a certain character w h i c h i t has i n c o m m o n w i t h t h e bishops' effigies m e n t i o n e d above. A s a relatively late feature i t m a y b e m e n t i o n e d t h a t t h e t o p p a r t o f t h e chainmail f o r m s a collarshaped c o n t o u r o v e r t h e shoulders 1 . O n either side o f t h e rectangular h e a d cushion lies a small vine t w i g w i t h three leaves i n each side, decoratively spread o v e r t h e e d g e o f t h e cushion. I t is o n e o f t h e earliest e x a m ples o f naturalistic leaf decoration i n English sculpture, a n d t h e leaves still h a v e a stiff, conventionalized shape. T h e n e x t phase o f development o f t h e P u r b e c k sculpture is characterized b y richer a n d fuller drapery arrangement w i t h b a g g y , soft, a n d b u l g i n g surfaces. P r i o r & Gardner 2 state that t h e drapery w h i c h " a t first w a s thin, s h o w i n g linen folds; w a s afterwards thicker, s h o w i n g silk folds". B u t there is h a r d l y a n y indica t i o n t h a t t h e late 13 t h c e n t u r y sculptors w o u l d h a v e tried t o create a n illusion o f heavier material t h a n at t h e beginning o f t h e century, t h e blousing folds rather indicate v e r y t h i n material, a n d neither is there a n y evidence o f t h e robe's material h a v i n g u n d e r g o n e a n y changes a t t h e m i d d l e o f t h e 13 t h centuryз. T h e n e w t y p e o f drapery treatment is n o t based o n a change o f t h e material i t professes t o represent, b u t is entirely d u e t o t h e development o f style, a n d this is p r o v e d b e y o n d d o u b t b y t h e better preserved French 13 t h c e n t u r y plastic w h e r e t h e p h e n o m e n o n is also observable s o m e w h a t earlier t h a n i n England, f o r instance, 1
Cp. ill. Crossley op. cit. p. 208, a warrior in StoweNineChurches (Northants.) called Sir Gerard de Insula and here dated c. 1260—70, and in Prior & Gardner op. cit. p. 593 dated 1260. But this figure is of a younger character, both in the weaker and softer proportions, the striding position of the feet (cp. above p. 54 note 2), the decorative swing of the baldric, and the drapery arrangement which however resembles that of Rushton i n its restricted form. The relationship is striking nevertheless. In Rushton the knight's feet are supported o n a resting lion. 3
Op. cit. p. 559. 3 See Camille Enlart "Manuel d'Archéologie Française", III, Le Costume (Paris, 1916), p. 334 f. Silk seems, according to this source, to have been the material commonly used in robes during the 13 th century. See op. cit. fig. 333 of Thomas à Becket's robe i n the cathedral at Tournai. Ср. J . Braun "Die liturgische Gewan dung" (Freiburg, 1907), p. 184 f. regarding the change of the robe during the 13th century, and p. 200 f. o n the material used in the robes during the middle ages, for instance with reference to a register in Rochester. In a bishop's robe during the 13 th century silk seems t o have been the customary material.
i n t h e southern p o r t a l i n A m i e n s o r i n t h e n o r t h transept portal i n t h e N o t r e D a m e d e Paris, b o t h f r o m a b o u t 1250 1 . I t is natural, h o w e v e r , t h a t t h e P u r b e c k school i n L o n d o n d u r i n g t h e r e i g n o f H e n r y III, w i t h t h e lively artistic relations w i t h F rance', w o u l d h a v e b een e x t r e m e l y alert as regards t h e latest fashions i n Paris, a n d i n d e e d w e find t h e n e w d r a p e r y style represented i n a f e w P u r b e c k w o r k s already f r o m t h e early sixties o f t h a t c e n t u r y . T a k i n g t h e oldest t o m b s representing t h e style chronologically w i t h t h e y e a r o f d eath o f t heir tenants, w e w o u l d h a v e t o start w i t h t h e heart shrine o f B i s h o p A y m e r d e Valence (died 1261) i n t h e cathedral o f Winchester^. T h e effigy is carried o u t i n a half l e n g t h figure, lifting his h e a r t b e f o r e his chest w i t h b o t h hands. T h e r o b e falls i n loose, blousing folds. T h e consistent stiffleaf ornamentation leads t o t h e conclusion t h a t t h e t o m b a n d effigy w e r e carried o u t shortly after t h e bishop's death. I t r u n s a l o n g t h e e d g e o f t h e f r a m i n g m andorla, adorns t h e trefoil a r c h o v e r t h e bishop's head, a n d e v e n t h e c r o w n o f his crozier. T h e countenance is b a d l y d a m a g e d , b u t h i g h q uality i n e v e r y little detail is characteristic o f this piece o f w o r k . N e x t c omes t h e m o n u m e n t o f Bishop Giles d e B r i d p o r t (died 1262) i n Salisbury Cathedral 4 . T h e w o r k is o f h i g h quality, t h e face being extraordinarily delicately modelled, ascetic w i t h n a r r o w , fine G o t h i c eyes, w e l l shaped m o u t h , a determined c h i n , a n d small, curled locks o f hair o v e r t h e forehead b e l o w t h e e d g e o f t h e m i t r e . T h e r o b e is d r a p e d i n triangular folds, f aintly bloused a n d i rregularly b r o k e n . T h e h e m s h a v e a b r o a d , plastic t u r n o v e r . T h e r i g h t h a n d is raised i n blessing, t h e l e f t grips t h e s haft o f t h e crozier, a n d t h e feet are s upported against a lion. T h e balda q u i n seems t o h a v e b een c o m m e n c e d i n P u r b e c k marble, a n d t h e foliation p r o t r u d i n g f r o m t h e oldest p a r t o f t h e tracery is a k i n d o f cross b e t w e e n stiffleaf a n d n a turalistic vine. O n l y t h e arched surface o f o n e side is m a d e f r o m P u r b e c k m a r b l e — t h e entire baldaquin is otherwise carried o u t i n freestone w i t h t h e exception o f c o l u m n s a n d r o o f e d g i n g . I n t h e freestone parts, w h i c h are p r o b a b l y s o m e w h a t later t h a n t h e P u r b e c k parts, a naturalistic foliation does already occur. T h e figure style i n t h e representation o f t h e spandrels does, admittedly, n o t d e n y t h a t t h e y might b e c o n t e m p o r a r y o f t h e effigy, b u t t h e m u d d l e o f t h e compositions, a t h i n g t h a t distinguishes t h e m so m u c h f r o m t h e delicately balanced reliefs o f t h e C h a p t e r H o u s e (about 1270) a n d t h e abundance o f finely distributed, naturalistic leaves i n t h e ornamentation rather j u s t i f y a later d a t e t h a n t h a t o f t h e decoration o f t h e C h a p t e r House. T h e reliefs w h i c h possibly represent scenes f r o m t h e bishop's lifes w o u l d i n t h a t case indicate decadence i n t h e w o r k s h o p tradition, o r perhaps 1
See Vi try op. cit. Pl. 62, Pl. 63. — As t o the French origin of this style cp. Prior & Gardner op. cit. p. 620.
2
Cp. below p. 71.
3 For ill. see Prior & Gardner op. cit. p. 322, fig. 358, and Crossley op. cit. p. 428. 4 See ill. i n Prior & Gardner op. cit. p. 77, and. Crossley op. cit. p. 49. These pictures, however, give o n l y an impression of the structure o f the baldaquin, not the figure itself. 5 Cp. Gleeson White "The Cathedral Church of Salisbury" (London, 1898), p. 68 f.
Fig. 19. Effigy of a Lady. Romsey Abbey.
only the difficulties the masters encountered when leaving the old traditional iconographical scheme and trying t o create a new pictorial tradition. O f special interest is the beautiful effigy of a lady in Romsey Abbey, attributed t o Joan de Nevill (died 1263)1, o n account of the high quality of the sculpture as well as its character of transitional work. The figure rests under a canopy with a trefoil shaped opening, and the baldaquin is carried on either side by a small human half length figure — the baldaquin of the Sherborne tomb mentioned above is, b y the way, carried in a quite analogous way. — Along the sides of the slab runs a frieze of decorative stiffleaf alternating with small triangular shields. The fine, pointed oval countenance is set in a frame of kerchief with wimple, the left hand grips a narrow mantlestrap on the breast, and the right hand lifts the right half of the cloak. The very posture resembles the Wells sculpture, but the figure has, above all, on account of the long, stiff and flat flap with a sharp, angular contour which with a predominating strength hangs down f r o m the lower left arm, a poise and dominance through the conventionalization of the arrangement which indicates a relationship t o the Wells sculpture, whether this may be interpreted as an indica tion of a direct connection or only as an expression of a relationship as regards artistic feeling in t w o fellow countrymen 2 . The flap of the mantle hanging down f r o m the right hand is almost as stiff and flat, and concludes in a contour broken into angles. The body is nevertheless sculptured with the same exquisite sensitiveness as w e find in the Sherborne and Carlisle effigies, and the new swelling and down ward arching soft drapery only occurs — but so much more characteristically in this case — in the hanging parts of the cloak, in the sides under the elbows. The feet are supported on a crouching hon. « According t o W. B. Corban " T h e Story of Romsey Abbey" (1947), P i8 For ill. see Prior & Gardner OP
* C p . f ö / i n s t a n c e , the female saint N o . 78 at Wells. See Hope & Lethaby op. cit. PL XXVII. B u t the most complete stylistic parallel i n the stiff, flat flaps as well as in the s o f d y b u l g i n g p a m _ which I have found t o the lady i n Romsey is an apostlefigure i n the socalled OscottPsalter, see Saunders "English Illumination" II op. cit. Pl. 70. T h e Oscott Psalter belongs t o the French i n fluenced Courtschool f r o m the middle of the century.
I t is n o t m y task t o f o l l o w t h e c o n t i n u e d d e v e l o p m e n t o f t h e P u r b e c k sculpture. T h e soft, H i g h G o t h i c d r a p e r y style — " d o l c e stil n u o v o " as D a n t e called i t — w a s applied m o r e o r less successfully b y t h e P u r b e c k m a r b l e sculptors d u r i n g t h e last t h i r d o f t h e c e n t u r y . T h e interest i n t h e m o d e l l i n g o f t h e b o d y o f t h e resting figure u n d e r t h e g a r m e n t n o l o n g e r p r e d o m i n a t e s . T h e sculptor is n o w losing himself i n t h e f r a i l c h a r m o f t h e n e w Parisian d r a p e r y style, a n d excelling i n t h e r e p r o d u c t i o n o f t h e b u l g i n g surfaces a n d w i n d i n g s o f t c o n t o u r s o f t h e material. T h e structure o f t h e figure b y m e a n s o f d r a p e r y is carried o u t i n accordance w i t h a system c o n t r a r y t o t h a t applied i n W e l l s d u r i n g t h e f o r m e r half o f t h e c e n t u r y ; t h e r e t h e stiff, vertical parallels w e r e p r e d o m i n a n t ; n o w , h o w e v e r , t h e s o f t arches a n d diagonally trailing folds prevail. T h e W e l l s figures w e r e characteristic i n t h e restriction a n d activity i n t h e i r tense, alert postures, b u t n o w t h e m o v e m e n t s o f ' t h e b o d y h a v e a n a l m o s t v o l u p t u o u s gracefulness, a n d t h e r e is already a f a i n t i ndication o f a smile o n t h e face o f J o a n d e N e v i l l w i t h h e r small, delicate m o u t h a n d t h e s o f t d i m p l e i n h e r c h i n . W e c a n f o l l o w t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f this n e w style i n m o n u m e n t s like t h e effigy o f B i s h o p W a l t e r d e l a W y l e (died 1271) i n Salisbury 1 , a n d i n t h e m a g n i f i c e n t m o n u m e n t t o B i s h o p L a u r e n c e d e St. M a r t i n (died 1274) i n Rochester, w h o s e extraordinarily r i c h a n d a d v a n c e d architecture i n t h e b a l d a q u i n is q u i t e u n i q u e i n its k i n d a n d c a r v e d w i t h a precision a n d elegance w h i c h c a n n o t b u t cause increased a d m i r a t i o n , considering t h e h a r d m a t e r i a l o f t h e P u r b e c k m a r b l e . T h e b a l d a q u i n a n d t h e slab a r e besides a d o r n e d w i t h naturalistic foliation (oaktwigs, vineleaves, a n d small flowers), h e r e represented i n o n e o f t h e oldest d a t e d specimens o n English soil. T h e effigy o f B i s h o p T h o m a s o f I n g o l d e s t h o r p e (died 1291) 2 i n t h e s a m e c h u r c h is o n e o f t h e y o u n g e s t P u r b e c k t o m b s o f quality preserved t o o u r t i m e . I t is e v i d e n t t h a t t h e P u r b e c k m a r b l e h a d p l a y e d its p a r t as m a t e r i a l f o r t o m b s culp t u r e b y t h e e n d o f t h e 13 t h c e n t u r y . P r i o r & G a r d n e r ' a r e p r o b a b l y right i n t h e i r a s s u m p t i o n t h a t t h e explanation c a n b e f o u n d i n t h e P u r b e c k m a r b l e itself; this coarse g r a i n e d m a t e r i a l w a s h a r d l y suitable f o r t h e s o f t curves a n d sensitively e l a b o r a t e d details o f t h e n e w style. I t w a s t h e r e f o r e replaced b y w o o d a n d f r e e s t o n e w h i c h w e r e b e t t e r suited f o r such subtle effects. A l r e a d y f r o m t h e last t h i r d o f t h e 13 t h c e n t u r y w e find i m p o r t a n t w o r k s i n these materials representative o f t h e n e w style; i n freestone, f o r instance, t h e t o m b s o f t h e bishops P e t e r A q u a b l a n c a (died 1268) 4 a n d T h o m a s d e C a n t e l u p e (died 1282)5 i n H e r e f o r d , a n d t h e t o m b o f C h a n cellor Swinfield 6 i n t h e s a m e cathedral, o r t h a t o f L a d y FitzAlan i n Chichester 1
For ill. see Prior & Gardner op. cit. p. 597.
2
For ill. see Prior & Gardner op. cit. p. 600.
3 Op. cit. p. 601 f. 4 For ill. see Prior & Gardner op. cit. p. 605. Cp. Crossley op. cit. p. 50. 5 For ill. see Prior & Gardner op. cit. p. 376 and Crossley op. cit. p. 51. — O n the tomb cp. above p. 47 note 4. 6
For ill. see Prior & Gardner op. cit. p. 617.
5*—903547
69
Cathedral 1 f r o m a b o u t 1280, a n d t h e t o m b o f Bishop W a l t e r B r o n e s c o m b e (died 1280) i n Exeter 2 , especially o utstanding o n account o f i ts w e l l conserved p o l y c h r o m e . O t h e r t o m b s i n freestone are those o f Aveline, Countess o f Lancaster (died 1273) a n d E d m u n d C r o u c h b a c k (died 1296) i n W e s t m i n s t e r A b b e y ' a n d P u r b e c k m a r b l e is thus definitively pensioned as material f o r sculpture. M a d e f r o m o a k , h o w e v e r , is t h e effigy o f Archbishop J o h n P e c k h a m (died 1292) i n Canterbury*, carved i n t h e closest relation t o t h e style o f t h e W e s t m i n s t e r effigies j u s t mentioned, a n d furnished w i t h t h e same k i n d o f c a n o p y as t h e y . S o m e w h a t older perhaps is t h e o a k effigy o f a priest a t Clifford (Herefs.)'.
3 . " T H E WESTMINSTER S C H O O L "
T h e r e can b e n o d o u b t a b o u t i t — H e n r y III (1216—1272) w a s o n e o f t h e m o s t splendid p a t r o n s o f a r t w h o ever ruled i n England 6 . T h e n u m e r o u s artistic e n t e r 1
For ill. see Prior & Gardner op. cit. p. 643, fig. 719. — For tomb and date of same see above p. 51 note 4.
2
For ill. see Prior & Gardner op. cit. p. 620 and Crossley op. cit. p. 189.
3
For ill. see Prior & Gardner op. cit. p. 643, fig. 718, p. 345 and 653, fig. 730, and Crossley op. cit. p. 54, 60, 134. O n relative mutual dating of tombs cp. above p. 51 note 4. 4
For ill. see Prior & Gardner op. cit. p. 662.
5 For ill. see Prior & Gardner op. cit. p. 663, fig. 741. Cp. Crossley op. cit. p. 193. — Cp. Fryer "Wooden Monumental E f f i g i e s . . o p . cit. p. 10, with illustration and dated approximately 1270—80. Also cp. description and ill. in George Marshall "Wooden Monumental Effigies in Herefordshire" (in Trans actions of the Woolhope Naturalists' Field Club, 1920), p. 189 f. The author's assumption that "it is the ear liest wooden monumental effigy known to exist at the present time" may be correct. — Fryer op. cit. has given a topographical index of medieval wooden effigies preserved in England with short descriptions and references. N o w the list seems to need revision, at least in so far as the figures in Little Horkesley (Essex) n o longer exist; they were destroyed together with the church by air bombing during the War of 1939—45. The oldest wooden warrior to exist might be Robert, Duke of Normandy (died 1134), in Gloucester Cathe dral, but opinions differ as regards its exact date. Roper op. cit. p. 231 f. dates the figure at about 1250 and indicates a connection with Wells on account of the seams along the sleeves of the chainmail (as regards this peculiarity see above p. 46 f.). A. Hartshorne in Church op. cit. p. 59 states — without any explicit reason — that the figure dates from "hardly later than 1240", and Fryer op. cit. p. 9, also without further evidence, at about 1280, " . . . considered to be one of the oldest existing wooden effigies". Prior & Gardner op. cit. p. 665 (with ill.) says about 1290 with reference to the garments, and compares it to the late Bristol knights. Crossley op. cit. with illustration p. 209 agrees, and so does Saunders "A History.. ." op. cit. p. 209 and fig. 76. This might be correct, but it deserves to be mentioned that the figure has undergone very thorough renovation some time during the 17th century when the wooden sarcophagus was made in "false Gothic". There was probably a badly injured figure, and this was completed and mended with the n e w parts worked to fit into the old original sculpture. Typical additions from the 17th century are thus the head cushion, the crown, the spurs, and the sheath. Dubious is the face with its too naturalistic appearance, as well as the tunic with its high edges around the large armholes; the sprawling position of the legs seems rather suspect although they might have been supported by a lion, n o w missing. The position of the arms is rather i m possible, and the shield strap running across the chest and ending abruptly by the left armpit (easily seen in the ill. of Saunders op. cit.) indicates that the figure has originally had a shield on the left side. — A n xray picture of the figure might perhaps reveal which parts have been joined, unless the entire figure should prove to be a 17th century imitation. 6
See E. F. Jacob "The reign of Henry III. Some Suggestions" (in Transactions of the Royal Hist. Soc. 4th sec., X , London, 1927), p. 33 f.
prises, recorded i n c o n t e m p o r a r y documents, w h i c h w e r e carried o u t a t t h e r o y a l residences d u r i n g his l o n g reign, a n d i n w h i c h t h e k i n g s h o w e d lively personal interest, have, h o w e v e r , o n l y t o a v e r y small e x t e n t left traces t o posterity 1 . B u t W e s t m i n s t e r A b b e y , t h e great m o n u m e n t f r o m t h e m i d d l e o f his reign, still r e mains essentially as a n example o f his building enthusiasm, e v e n t h o u g h t h e c h u r c h w a s later deprived o f practically all its original fixtures a n d f u r n i t u r e a n d t h e greater p a r t o f t h e sculptural decoration. T h e r e is reason t o assume t h a t t h e royal initiative w a s decisive w i t h regard t o taste as w e l l ; t h e church is a n e x p o n e n t o f something entirely n e w i n E nglish 13 t h century architecture, a French cultural current directly transplanted i n England, resulting i n t h e building o f t h e great sanctuary o f E n g l a n d after models f r o m c o n t e m p o r a r y French architecture*. T h e king's French education, his repeated visits t o France, a n d his deliberate copying o f his great contemporary» St. Louis, certainly w e r e o f s o m e consequences. B u t i t is also evident t h a t English architects a n d English stonecutters w e r e m a i n l y responsible f o r t h e construction. T h e f e w remaining sculptures m i g h t contribute t o establish t o w h a t extent foreign l a b o u r a n d craftsmanship w e r e used 4 . T h e o n l y statues i n Westminster A b b e y remaining f r o m t h e original decoration are M a r y a n d t h e angel i n t h e Annunciation G r o u p i n t h e Chapterhouse, w i t h t h e t w o figures placed as pendants o n either side o f t h e entrance (fig. 20—21)5. T h e g r o u p 1 Cp. Tancred Borenius "The Cycle of Images i n the Palaces and Castles of Henry III" (in Journal of the Warburg and Courtauld Institutes, Vol. 6, London, 1943). 2
Bond "Westminster Abbey" op. cit. p. 121 regards Westminster Abbey as French inspired, a copy o f the prototype in Rheims Cathedral. The English features he sees mainly in the ribs of the vaults and the w a y i n w hich they have been filled, the situation of the transept, shapes of capitals, e t c . . . Prior "The Cathe dral Builders. . op. cit. p. 62 also calls attention to the Chapterhouse with its polygonal plan and branched vaulting as typically English; he also stresses that the details i n the masonry of the church are mainly Early English with Purbeck marble shafts with short, profiled round capitals. As exceptions foliated capitals occur n o w and then in the wall arcades, which seem t o have been sculptured b y a French craftsman. But Westminster is too close t o the Romanesque cross plan with a narrow nave and separate transepts to give an impression of a French cathedral. — A French sculptor among the English was already observed b y C. G. Scott "Gleanings from Westminster Abbey" (London, 1863), p. 32. — O n French versus English cp. Bond op. cit. p. 105 f. Here also ill. p. 107 of the capitals in St. Benedict's Chapel, attributed to a French artisan. — W'. R. Lethaby "Westminster Abbey and the Kings' Craftsmen" (London 1906), p. 115 f. points to the cathedrals of Rheims, Paris, and Amiens as models, and also mentions Sainte Chapelle. The same author "Westminster Abbey Reexamined" (London, 1925), p. 46, p. 64 f. especially stresses Rheims and Amiens as forerunners. H. F. Westlake "Westminster Abbey" (London, 1923), p. 74 f. points out that a "Master Henry de Reyns, Mason," is mentioned in the Rolls in the year o f 1256, and that the king bought h i m a house in Westminster i n 1245. Besides, the church i n Rheims was already completed and consecrated i n 1241, and Henry III was in France 1242—43. Lethaby op. cit. p. 87 shows that "Reyns" may have been an English placename, and Master Henry was the king's architect in Windsor Chapel as early as 1239—40. — Powicke op. cit. p. 571 thinks that "his name (de Reyns) i n various forms is c o m m o n enough for the Essex township of Rayne. . ." H e also points out that Henry III did not get an opportunity t o visit Rheims before November 1262. 3 Powicke op. cit. p. 571. 4 It is established beyond doubt that French sculptors participated. Matthew Paris states that French and English artists were assembled for this work. See Bond op. cit. p. 108. 5 O n the disposition of entrance wall see ill. in Bond op. cit. p. 93.
dates from about 1250; this is documentarily established1. Mary, with her head slightly inclin ed, raises her right hand avertingly, holding in her left hand a book and lifting a flap of t he m an tle with three fingers. The angel is presented in a walking attitude with the torso leaning back and the right hand stretched forward in a blessing gesture while the left hand, concealed by the flap of t he mantle, which it lifts, holds the beginning of a parch ment, the end of w hich is rolled up. Mr. Lethaby2 1
Lethaby " Westminster A b bey and the King's Craftsmen", op. cit. p. 155 emphasizes the notice as regards payment for t w o figures i n 1249. — Prior & Gardner op. cit. p. 320 quote a similar notice (the s u m m e n tioned is in b o t h cases 5 3 sh. 4 d.) but for the year of 1253. As the construction of the Chapter house was commenced in 1250 (according t o M a t t h e w Paris), the date of the figures is fairly well established. — M r . L a w rence E . Tanner, present Keeper of the Muniments, has been kind enough t o confirm that the year 1253, given b y Prior 8 Gardner, is the correct date f o r the payment quoted. 2 "Westminster A b b e y R e examined" op. cit. p. 116—117.
Fig. 20. Angel of the Annun ciation. The Chapter House, Westminster Abbey.
says of this pair that they are so 4 'strikingly similar to a pair at the Virgin's door at Amiens Cathedral... that ours are imitated from the French figures. . and they show that "not only the mason at West minster but the sculptor as well studied French models". A com parison to the Annunciation Group at Amiens1 shows in such a con vincing way the English peculiarity of these figures that one is justified in questioning whether the artist has ever set foot on French soil. Miss Saunders2 rightly points to the tradition f r o m Wells. These narrow, elegant oval faces with high foreheads and large, Byzantine pointed oval eyes, hair falling in loose tendrils (as in the angel figure) or with the exquisite arrangement over the inclined face of Mary with the hairband over her loose locks and beautifully ar ranged veil — where do w e find counterparts to this in Amiens? The figures still have a pillarlike stature; they are bound in a shy and re strained grace, but the sculpturing of details of the body and draperies expresses the highest degree of refinement. The posture of the angel with the right foot turning outward and the uncovered left heel visible on the slab can hardly be assumed to represent one moment 1
See ill. i n Vitry op. cit. Pl. 23.
2
O p . cit. p . 189.
Fig. 21. Mary of the Annunciation. The Chapter House, Westminster Abbey.
of a walking motion — the lower torso with the advanced right hip is entirely stationary, pillarlike and straight, sculptured into the stiffly treated garments. The backward bending position of the upper torso might be justified by a pair of large wings on the angel's back, possibly in some other material1 but, as regards com position, it has probably been motivated and balanced not only by the mantle fold hanging forward, but also in the continuation of the parchment scroll upwards from the left hand in a decorative curve. The arrangement of the draperies is certainly characterized by a greater extent of freedom and variety than is the case in the statues of the Wells façade, a greater effort to achieve plastic liberation, but the bodies are sculptured under the thin material with the same sensitiveness and the same suggestive technique with plain surfaces and sculptured details, such as the knees as in the con temporary group of Purbeck tombs2, and the texture itself of the drapery treatment with narrow, stiff ridges in pointed or rounded arches alternating with faint, hardly noticeable lines in the surfaces, or the plain, stiff, cornetshaped folds, they are all phenomena observable in Wells and in the tombs connected w ith Wells, such as the one of Longespée in Salisbury. The sliced, arched tongues of the mantle of the angel resting around the waist have the same restricted character as those of the apostle N.XXX in Wells3. It is hardly necessary to point out that the draping of Mary's dress over the feet has numerous parallels in Wells. The winding, "designed", a trifle nitty contour drawn diagonally across the figure by the hem of the angel's mantle is admittedly of a kind unknown in Wells, but neither has it any parallels in Amiens. A softly waving dress contour, or one in sliced, overturned forms like the flap hanging down in front, frequently occurs in Amiens, but the diagonal contour has its own, quite special characteristics. It is formed by the narrow cone shaped folds hanging stiffly downwards opening obliquely showing a surface of the lining. The space between the cornets are either skirtshapedly rounded or running in a rising contour, slightly broken in the middle owing to the division of the cloth into two planes, divided by a sharply narrow, straight edge. This arrangement of drapery we find in many of the contemporary, Byzantine influenced English manuscript illuminations including those attributed to Matthew Paris and his school4. In the freer and more mobile style of the manuscript illumina tions the coneshaped folds seem, however, to increase and predominate in rela tion to the spaces in between. — Another English feature is the half open mouth of the angel delivering the message. I have not seen any similar naturalistic detail either in the Annunciation of Rheims or that of Amiens. 1 See Prior & Gardner op. cit. p. 320 £. — I have, unfortunately, not been able t o check whether there are any fastening devices for the wings o n the figure's back as the Chapterhouse has been used for storage since the war and n o one is admitted there. M y observations are based o n the plaster casts in the Victoria & Albert Museum (A. 1916—279, 280). 3
See above p. 64.
3 See Hope & Lethaby op. cit. Pl. XXXVIII. 4 See Millar op. cit. Pl. 78, 81—91.
I n t h e j a m b s o f t h e C h a p t e r H o u s e d o o r w a y , also h e r e inside, is a series o f e x quisitely carved seated figurines i n a setting o f scrollwork; i n t h e left j a m b t h e r e is a stiffleaf scroll, i n t h e r i g h t o n e t h e leaves h a v e t h e shape o f p o i n t e d oval flaps1. T h e drapery o f t h e figurines is dense a n d fine, a n d t h e mantles are d r a p e d i n i n n u merable variations, o f t e n w i t h a triangular l o b e o n t h e g r o u n d b e t w e e n t h e feet. T h e feet are supported o n cloud formations, a n d t h e heads o f t h e figures, i n s o f a r as t h e y h a v e escaped destruction, are f r a m e d b y spiral, Sshaped o r ballshaped locks. — O n either side o f t h e p o r t a l w e find large trefoils w i t h angels swinging censers, a n d t h e w a l l surface outside t h e trefoils is w o r k e d i n t h e same diaper p a t t e r n w h i c h so o f t e n r eoccurs inside t h e church 2 . M r . Lethaby^ has pointed o u t t h a t a similar square diaper exists i n Amiens. A m o n g o t h e r features o f t h e decoration o f t h e Chapterhouse m a y finally b e m e n t i o n e d t h e sculptures i n t h e t y m p a n u m a b o v e t h e portals o f t h e cloister 4 . A l o n g t h e hollows o f t h e d o o r j a m b s r u n s a frieze o f stiff l eaf, a n d i n t h e h o l l o w o f t h e t y m p a n u m t h e r e are traces o f badly d a m a g e d seated figures i n a stiffleaf scroll. I n t h e field itself there are three p r e d o m i n a n t foliated consoles, o n t h e t w o o u t e r o f w h i c hw e find t h e remains o f angel figures. T h e figure o n t h e r i g h t is i n fairly g o o d condition, a l t h o u g h t h e h e a d is missing, a n d proves t o b e a piece o f w o r k o f h i g h quality, fine a n d fragile w i t h a s o m e w h a t linear, b u t exquisite drapery treatment. T h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t sculptures o f t h e interior o f t h e church still preserved f r o m t h e stage o f construction are f o u r censing angels i n t h e w i n d o w spandrels i m m e diately b e l o w t h e large r ose w i n d o w s i n t h e e n d walls o f t h e t w o transepts. A l t h o u g h t h e figures are o n l y slightly less t h a n lifesize t h e y are o n l y j u s t visible f r o m t h e floor o f t h e church. I n t h e south transept there are t w o angels, o n e i n t h e o u t e r spandrel i n each corner, w h i l e t h e space b e t w e e n t h e w i n d o w s is occupied b y a sculptural g r o u p i n a v e r y b a d condition, possibly representing St. J o h n a n d E d w a r d t h e Confessors. I n t h e n o r t h e r n transept o n l y t h e t w o angels remain, t h e t w o central figures h a v e disappeared altogether. T h e angels are carved i n v e r y strong relief, i n t h e torso practically r o u n d boss, i n o n e piece w i t h t h e triangular wall slab. B y h e l p o f t h e history o f t h e building o f t h e church t h e figures are estimated t o date f r o m t h e p e r i o d 1250—55®. 1 See Prior & Gardner op. cit. p. 245, fig. 262. — In the Victoria & Albert Museum there are also plaster casts of these details (A. 1916—277, 278). 2
O n this diaper pattern in the Chapter House see Bond op. cit. p. 107.
3 Op. cit. (1906), p. 115 f; op. cit. (1925), p. 48. 4 See ill. in H. J. Feasy "Westminster Abbey" (London, 1899), Pi a&er Chapter III. 5 For ill. of the structure of this entire southern wall and the arrangement of the figures see Bond op. cit. p. 273. — O n the central group as well as the angels and a beautiful corbelhead, also in the southern transept, see J. G. Noppen "Recently Cleaned Sculpture at Westminster" (in Burlington Magazine, 1931, p. 139 f.). A master w h o can possibly be connected with the Chapter House figures is mentioned here : William Yxewerth. 6
Cp. Prior & Gardner op. cit. p. 261. — In this work also ill. of the spandrel sculptures: Frontispiece ill. and ill. p. 85, p. 262, p. 263, p. 264. — Excellent plaster casts of the four figures i n the Victoria & Albert Museum (A. 1916—237, 238; A . 1931—7, 8).
Fig. 22. Censing Angel. South Transept, Westminster Abbey.
The angels are presented in a half kneeling position, leaning against the window arch, the torso bent slightly backwards decoratively framed by the large wings, both arms stretched forward swinging censers with a mighty force — the incen sory is in all these four cases swung high in the inner corner of the spandrel. The four angels are sufficiently closely related t o come from the same sculptor, but the most perfect among them is the angel in the eastern corner of the south
transept, as often pointed out1. The skill at making use of the space available, the balance of the composition and its decorative strength, the boldness and emphasis in the sculpturing itself — everything is in perfect harmony. The figure is meant t o be seen at some distance, and this perhaps explains the dispatch and roughness with which it is carried out, the very thing which gives it its spontaneous brio. All contours which contribute to accentuate the shape and motion of the well propor tioned body are made especially conspicuous, and the drapery treatment with rugged surfaces and deep hollows makes an extraordinary effect of strength, and gives, in its mantle fold waving in the wind with its moving contours and the play of light and shade, a picturesque richness, indeed foreboding the baroque. The mighty movement of arms and censer is in a magnificent way accentuated by the grand forward sweep of the left wing, by the forward flow of the mantle fold, and by the fold of the sleeve hanging loosely from the right arm, continuing in the undercontour the line of the right lower arm while simultaneously marking the waist which, together with the sculptured knees, contributes to the firm struc ture of the figure. The forward movement is perfectly balanced by the slightly backward bent carriage of the torso and the parallel right wing faintly forward bent along the outer edge, and thus in a live plastic way framing the figure with the vertical line further emphasized by the vertically hanging edge of the sleeve just mentioned. The upper contours of the wings and the head form a living unit very characteristic, by the way, of the entire group. The faces of the angels are conspicuous with their square chins and large, flat cheeks, and in this case the cubical shape of the head is especially striking and makes a peculiar and charming contrast to the carefully chiselled details in the curly hair and sweet face. The total effect is somewhat artificial but really exquisite. In the inner corner of the spandrel a small stiffleaf grows gracefully out of the slab; it is like the signature of the English sculptor. It is very probable that the idea of these angels was taken f r o m SainteChapelle2 as advocated by Mr. Lethaby'. The quick exchange of ideas — the construction of SainteChapelle was completed in 1248t — between the two royal enterprises is quite natural and seems confirmed by Mr. Lethaby's5 observation that the "geo metrical" tracery of the windows in the Chapterhouse is inspired from Amiens 1 See J. G. Noppen "Further Sculptures of the Westminster School" (in Burlington Magazine, 1928, II, p . 74 f.) Here also ill. of a roof corbel i n the triforium at the northeast end of the presbytery, an exquisite bead, closely related t o the angel reliefs. — Cp. Saunders op. cit. p. 190. 3
A similar pair occurs in the reliquary tribune i n HauteChapelle, and the reconstruction is fully re liable here. See F, Gebelin "La SainteChapelle et la Conciergerie" (Paris, 1937), p. 52 f. and ill. p. 53, p. 55. A n d cp. i n many places in the spandrels above the wall arcade, op. cit. p. 44. 3 Op. cit. (1925) p. 48, p. 85 f. 4 Gebelin op. cit. p. 9. According t o this source begun some time during the period 1243—1246, and accord i n g t o an older opinion not before 1246. See H. Stein "La Palais de Justice et la SainteChapelle de Paris" {Paris, 1912), p. 119. O n the relic tribune p. 214. 5 Op. cit. (1925) p. 98 f., p. 109. Cp. Powicke op. cit. p. 574.
or SainteChapelle. At Amiens the construction work proceeded simultaneously with that of SainteChapelle, and a very close relationship between the two work shops seems evident, perhaps they were even under a common direction1. If we look to the Continent for the originals of the figure style of the angel reliefs, we find the closest parallels in Amiens, in the rich sculptural decoration of the west front which seems to have been completed in the year of 1236'. Here the broad, square face type predominates with its diminutive details, and here we find it in a specially characteristic form in the Michael figure in the Judgment Porch tympanum (fig. 29)3. The faces of the Westminster angels have, however, a more elegant shape and richer coiffures, a feature they have in common with the con temporary angel figures of the west portal of the Rheims Cathedral4, and which therefore seems due to the stylistic development in France. These observations do not in any way lessen the originality of the Westminster master, equally remarkable in the impulsive force of the composition and the unconventional freedom of the drapery treatment with the characteristic English folds with sharp edges and narrow, stiff ridges. The baroque mobility and the shifting of light and shade in the waving mantle folds have numerous parallels in the contemporary English manuscript illuminations5. Very closely related to these reliefs of angels are twentyfour halfsize figures of angels, distributed in groups of four on the soffits of the lancet windows in the north transept6. The majority of the figures are set in a frame of round medallions with outward growing stiffleaf widening out especially in the spandrels on either side of the joining points of the medallions. The arrangement recalls the medallion series with apostle figures one finds on the doors of the Byzantine ivorytrip tychs, and just as in this case the spandrels between the medallions are generally livened by foliation or palmette decorations?. In Byzantine frescos and mosaics 1
Gebelin op. cit. p. 10 ". . . nous sommes vivement frappés par les affinités que présente avec la Sainte Chapelle haute la chapelle de la Vierge de la cathédrale d'Amiens, sensiblement contemporaine de notre m o n u m e n t . . . Cette parenté architecturale pourraitelle autoriser à penser que le bâtisseur de notre édi fice n e fut pas étranger au chantier amiénois?" 2 See Georges Durand "Monographie de l'Église Notre D a m e Cathédrale d'Amiens" (Paris, 1901), p. 29, p. 208. As regards the importance of Amiens for SainteChapelle see p. V, p. 33. — The sculptures o f the west front dated about 1225 o n p. 32. — Vitry op. cit. p. 22 dates them about 1225—1235.
3 Cp. also angel head fig. 33 from Rheims. — There is abundant evidence that the Rheims workshop received inspiration or labour from the workshop which carried out the western portals of Amiens. C p . Louis Bréhier "La Cathédrale de Reims" (1916), p. 151, and Vitry op. cit. p. 50 f. 4
Vitry op. cit. Pl. 71.
5 See, for instance, Millar op. cit. Pl. 78 and others, o n the whole the same group of manuscripts as referred to above o n p. 74 note 4. 6 See C. J. P. Cave & L. E. Tanner " A Thirteenth Century Choir of Angels i n the North Transept o f Westminster Abbey and the Adjacent Figures of T w o Kings" (in Archaeologia, Vol. 84, 1935). — The casts i n the Victoria & Albert Museum (A. 1916—225—242) are here severely criticized (p. 64): "So much have they been touched up that many of them look like completely modern sculptures." 7 See Charles Diehl "Manuel d'Art Byzantin" (Paris, 1910), p. 621 with ill. of such a triptych in the C a binet des Médailles, Paris. Ср. О. M . Dalton "Byzantine Art and Archaeology" (Oxford, 1911), p. 232,. with ill. of a panel in the Victoria & Albert Museum with a similar motif.
a similar system of decorations under an archvault is a rather frequent occur rence1. Both the shape of the face with the strong chin and the fine Gothic details as well as the large loose wig kept together b y a headband reveal the closest relationship to the censing angels2. In contrast to the sculptures just mentioned here the vaulting bosses in these parts of the Abbey are strikingly ancient as regards the figure style, with tall slen der forms with dense, fine drapery and the plain sculptured surfaces over the knees and the very long lower legs. The new and modern is mostly found in the rich and free composition. The sculptured reliefs in the spandrels of the wall arcades of the transepts are only to a small extent conserved, and in a very poor condition 4 . Certain motifs similar to the reliefs of the wall arcade of Sainte Chapelle occur*, but — as pointed out b y Prior & Gardner 6 — the compositions are poor, and the p o w erful, conventionalized foliation used to fill up the empty areas is rather rustic in character. Considerably more interesting are the exquisite corbelheads whose very being is characteristically English (fig. 23). These corbelheads, which are numerous in most Early English buildings, and which belong among the finest achieve Rg_ у c M ш Wcstminster ments in English Gothic sculpture, are practically Abbey. everywhere carried out with the same sensitiveness, 1
See Diehl op. cit. p. 538 w i t h ill. of a fresco i n Soghanli. C p . ill. op. cit. p . 579 of a similar system of decoration i n a manuscript illumination, although here without foliation. — Dalton op. cit. reproduces p . 290 a fresco i n St. Michael's, Athens, w i t h the system used as a l o w border of a wall surface, but it occurs — although without foliation — in mosaic i n the apsis arch i n the cathedral of Parenzo (op. cit. p . 343) i n the monastery church of M o u n t Sinai (op. cit. p. 384) and i n the vaulting arches i n the Martorana, Palermo (op. cit. p . 413). — I n English wallpaintings the motif occurs w i t h halfsize figures i n round medallions in combination w i t h foliation, for instance, i n St. Gabriel's Chapel i n Canterbury Cathedral (Tristram op. cit. Pl. 20—22), i n N o r w i c h Cathedral (op. cit. Pl. 84) such medallions w i t h foliation are grouped together i n a series, b u t here they contain entire figure scenes. T h e paintings date f r o m the end and the middle of the 12th century respectively. Individual medallions i n various sizes w i t h halfsize angels are f o u n d spread over the vaults of the Chapel of the Guardian Angels i n Winchester Cathedral — the paintings dating f r o m t he period of approximately 1250—60. (See Borenius & Tristram op. cit. Pl. 11). 2 С р . also the heads reproduced in J. G. Noppen "Sculpture of the School of J o h n of St. Albans" (in B u r lington Magazine, 1927, II), as well as those i n St. Faith's Chapel, reproduced b y Lawrence E. Tanner " U n k n o w n Westminster A b b e y " (Harmondsworth, 1948), Pi. 33—36. 3
See casts in the Victoria & Albert M u s e u m (A. 1916—241—242—243—3806). C p . Tanner op. cit. Pl. 20/21.
4
See ill. i n Prior & Gardner op. cit. p . 254, p. 255; Feasy op. cit. Pl. t o Chapter IV.
5 This concerns, f o r instance, the halflength angel arising o u t of the cloud lifting one coronet i n each hand. C p . Prior & Gardner op. cit. ill. p. 255, and Gebelin op. cit. ill. p . 44. Similar figures are however f o u n d already i n the quatrefoils in the b o t t o m tier of the Wells west front. See Hope & Lethaby op. cit. Pl. X X I V . 6
O p . cit. p . 254.
whether we find them in Westminster Abbey, Salisbury QuireScreen and Chapterhouse, or in Lincoln Choir. Characteristic of these are fine, individua lized faces with soft, dreamy expressions. There is, it is true, no psychological ex pression which a French sculptor of that time could not have reproduced excellently, but these English heads are so exquisite in their fine naturalism with cheeks asceti cally hollow and mouth delicately modelled, closed or half open, expressing a half spoken question. There is something lyrical and languishing at the same time, which appears to be specifically English1. These heads in the wall arcades form the sharpest possible contrast to the more continentally inspired types of the angel heads in the upper tiers. — In the wall arcades of the nave the spandrels are adorned with large shields suspended by straps around the necks of small, delicately carved, sharply detailed human heads1. This work probably dates from about 12601. The most important sculptural decoration in the architecture of the church, however, was placed in the porch, magnificently planned after French models,of the north transept. Nothing remains of this decoration, in which we could rightly expect to find the plastic closest related to French cathedral sculpture in the entire church*. The activity of the Westminster School was, however, not limited to London. The small labelheads on the canopy of the tomb of Archbishop Walter Gray in York Minster testify that it was carried out by a master from Westminster Abbey. The little angelhead smiling towards us from a corner of the canopy has the same 1
Cp. above p. 37.
2
For ill. see Feasy op. cit. Pl. facing p. 84, and Bond op. cit. p. 25.
3 See Lethaby op. cit. (1906) p. 6, and same author op. cit. (1925) p. 60. Here it is given as a basis for the dating, that Simon de Montfort's shield occurs, which can hardly have been the case if the work was carried out later than 1264, the year when Simon fell i n disgrace. As regards this mighty prince, the king's brother inlaw, and his travels abroad see Powicke op. cit. p. 200 f. ; p. 227 it is said that he was "as much at home in Paris as in Westminster, Lourdes, and Kenilworth". 4 J. G. Noppen "An Unknown Thirteenth Century Figure" (in Burlington Magazine, 1928, II), reproduces a full size figure in a private collection in London dating it at about 1270 or the second half of the 13 th century. H e points out the French style of this figure, probably a St. John the Evangelist, and says that " . . . if English, it could only have come from Westminster". In a later addition (Burlington Magazine, 1932, p. 170) the determination WestminsterLincoln workshop is confirmed, and the date established at about 1270—80. — It is very hazardous to make a definite statement about such a figure which suddenly has appeared i n the art market in London in recent years without provenance. The few contemporary Eng lish sculptures still preserved do not support any assumption of the English origin of the statue. There can be n o doubt, however, that the figure was executed under the influence of the Rheims sculpture. The face has an air of caricature about it, and the drapery treatment has neither the French rhytm nor the English sharpness. I would rather compare it to German plastic of the character displayed in, for instance, the effigy of Landgräfin Adelheid (dead 1274) in St. Elisabeth in Marburg. See H. Weigert "Die Stilstufen der Deut schen Plastik v o n 1250 bis 1350" (in Marburger Jahrbuch, 3. Band, Marburg, 1927), Taf. LXVIII c.—Since this was written, Professor Hans Wentzel, Stuttgart, has kindly pointed out to the writer that this stone sculpture in all probability comes from a gallery in the minster of Strasbourg, and is reproduced from an old etching i n "Oberrheinische Kunst" Band 2, (1926—27), Taf. 36. ill. 3, N o 14. — A statue of a Madonna belonging to the same set is n o w in the Metropolitan Museum, N e w York, N . Y. U.S.A. See James J. Rori mer "The Virgin from Strasbourg cathedral" (in The Metropolitan Museum of Art Bulletin, April, 1949). The author (p. 227) mentions the figure of St. John as recently bought b y the Toledo Art Museum, Toledo, U.S.A.
refined and exclusive type of face as the censing angel in the eastern corner of the south transept of Westminster Abbey, described above1. It is possible, perhaps, to acquire an idea of the appearance of the sculptures missing in the northern transept portal in Westminster Abbey by studying the southern choir portal in Lincoln Cathedral2 the dating of which as well as that of the entire choir seems to he somewhere between the years of 1255 and 1280З. As the sculptures of the portal — as will appear from the following — seem to be of a more ancient type than those in the choir itself, the date of the completion of the portal is perhaps closer to the former year than to the latter, which means that it follows in time quite closely upon the works in Westminsters The very idea of a large porch, magnificently decorated with statuary is French in its origin, and the very subject of the Last Judgment as in the Lincoln portal, is found in monumental form in the portals of the French cathedrals, the workshops of which were predominant during the 13 th century. W e find this subject in the western façade of the cathedral of Amiens, which was so important to Westminster Abbey. The specifically English characteristics of the Lincoln sculpture are, however, quite evident when comparing it to the French models. In the French portals (Chartres, Paris, Rheims, Amiens) the tympanum terminates horizontally at the base, and the composition of the picture is built up architectonically in clearly de fined tiers. At Lincoln5 two pointed portal arches break into the tympanum from underneath introducing a certain motion into the very contour of the tympanum. This motion is then adopted and further developed in a magnificent way in the composition of the picture itself. This, with its gigantic statue of Christ in a quatre foilshaped mandorla, carried by flying angels, is "still that of manuscript painting" 6 , and the entire tympanum is intertwined in one living, rhythmical composition, the basic elements of which, the nervously lively angels in their fluttering, gliding movements in bending and twisting attitudes with swinging arms and moving 1
For ill. see Prior & Gardner op. cit. p. 234, fig. 231. Cp. Crossley op. cit. p. 48. As regards the tomb other wise, cp. above p. 65,. 2 Pointed out b y Lethaby op. cit. (1906) p. 361, and exhaustively motivated b y the same author "Notes o n Sculptures in Lincoln Minster, The Judgment Porch and Angel Choir" (in Archaeologia, Vol. 60, 2, 1907), p. 380 f. The west portal i n Lichfield Cathedral is here regarded as a faded offshoot from Lincoln. Cp. the same author op. cit. (1925) p. 68 f. and p. 188, "These Lincoln Angels, with the wonderful sculptures of the Judgment Door, which is contemporary with the Angel Choir, are so like the Westminster angels and the old north portal that it seems likely that the Westminster sculptors must have gone o n t o Lincoln". The same derivation from London of the Lincoln sculpture is advocated b y Prior & Gardner op. cit. p. 295, p. 323. 3 See A. W. Clapham "Lincoln Cathedral. Introductory n o t e . . ." (in The Archaeological Journal, Vol. СШ, London, 1946), p. 102.
4 Prior & Gardner op. cit. dates portal sculpture p. 286 at about 1270. 5 See ill. in Prior & Gardner op. cit. p. 286, and in Lethaby op. cit. (Archaeologia, 60, 2), facing p. 381. In the latter work the photographs were taken some time about 1870, before the restoration was begun and the partly incorrect complementary additions were made. A cast made before the renovation can be found i n the Victoria & Albert Museum, London. See our ill. fig. 24 after Lethaby and fig. 25. 6
Prior & Gardner op. cit. p. 286.
6—903547
8 l
Fig. 24. Tympanum of South Porch. Lincoln Cathedral.
lees brine to mind the drawings o£ the Winchester school. Similar compositions certainly occurred frequently in the English 1 2 t h century c h u r c h e s vault paumngs, and one example of this still remains in the apse of St. Gabriel s Chapel in Canter bury Cathedral 1 . The p r e s e n t a t i o n of Christ in a mandorla, carried by angels, i n a tympanum was probably a firmly rooted tradition during the preceding century^ but by the time of the completion of the Lincoln Portal it was already considered i < ~ ~ , : d J l y the similarity in .be pte.mt.a.ton of King EJgat't Charter. Wincbe.te,
Milla, op. CiL
PL
. T , L op. cit. Pl. 3 7 . A similar compositi»» has ham "English Romanesque Architecture . . . op. a t . p. i4& m n s h churches cp. Saunders op. cit. Chapter IV, and p. 80 t.
a n g c i ^ a m e ^ m a n ^ r k ^m ^ y a n ^ L m c o h ^
T p t a l y p L to O x f o r d f t o m . b o oJt o
cne
b o t a n d the upstanding
{Mill., op. cit. Pl. » ) . T h e magnificent mantle k n o t , m the angel
rather conservative and oldfashioned. The quatrefoilshape of the mandorla, how ever, is an innovation from the 13 th century. The figure of Christ in the mandorla is flanked by two kneeling angels who have probably been carrying the instruments of torture1, and in the space out side the mandorla five angels are occupied by carrying it, while still another angel is hurrying forward from either side in order to help them or originally carrying symbols of some kind. Christ seems to have been lifting his right hand in a gesture of benediction while the left uncovered the wound in his right side. In the left corner of the tympanum small human figures arise, fully dressed, from their sar cophagi, and a small angel turns and holds his arm over them protectingly while a larger angel in a turning position, his body forming an arch as though drawn towards the centre of the tympanum by some magnetic power, probably is meant to represent the Archangel Michael, the weigher of souls, stretching his arms to welcome the blessed resurrected. In the right corner of the tympanum two long haired devils grasp the small, naked bodies of the damned, while at third, larger devil seems to be involved in a struggle with an angel. In the spandrel between the portal arches there is a devil's mouth, wide open, and placed upside down, decora tively supporting the entire composition of the field, and two small devils engaged in filling it with the souls of the doomed, while the laughing head of a monster looks on triumphantly. Angels in a striding attitude are placed at the foot of the two outer spandrels. This entire magnificent composition is in relief with the exception of the figure of Christ which is situated in a deep recess, and it gives its full effect only when regarded like a design for a book illustration, like a relief bound in a surface where every head, every motion of body, and every fold of drapery is distributed in two dimensions. The mighty surfaces of the composition are almost exclusively worked out in contours, and the sense of linear effects has also conquered the plastic in the elaboration of the details; this feature, for instance, has been predo minant in the artist's conception of the drapery treatment. figures of the vault painting in Canterbury mentioned i n the preceding note can also be compared in this connection. — I have not found any direct counterpart to the soft shawl around the waist, with its deco rati v ely protruding loop, in French cathedral sculpture. The motif does not seem t o be Byzantine. There is, however, a typical example of the same phenomenon i n a wooden sculpture in the Cathedral of Amiens, the socalled St. Sauve, a full size crucifix of the Lucca type from the beginning of the 13th century. For ill. see Louis Bréhier "L'Art Chrétien" op. cit. p. 241. The violent i8th century restorations seem hardly to have touched the drapery treatment of the trunk. Cp. Durand op. cit. II, p. 374 f. W e find a similar drapery detail i n one of the small figures in the reliefs of "les sousbassements" i n the Porte de la Mère Dieu o n the west front in the quatrefoil of the lower tier far out o n the right. See Durand op. cit. I, Pl. XI. The figure has the cloak held together with a waistband over the stomach, and with a large, protruding loop. — W e find the motif in German crucifixes as, for instance, the great triumphal crucifix in the cathedral of Halberstadt (for ill. see A. Goldschmidt "Die Skulpturen v o n Freiberg und Wechselburg", Berlin, 1924, Pl. 96), and it was certainly also found in French (compare above) and English crucifixes. The manuscript illuminations are especially informative with regard t o English crucifixes which have been lost. 1
See Lethaby op. cit. p. 381.
Fig. 25. Tympanum of South Porch. Detail. Lincoln Cathedral. Plaster cast from before restoration.
The only heads remaining in the tympanum belong to two angels in the left section, and their broad, almost square faces with heavy coiffures do not deny the relationship to the Westminster sculpture. The footslab under the feet of Christ is supported against sculptured stiffleaf, and the angel Michael tramples with his left foot on a small ball of leaves — one of these details which we have so often encountered in the English, 13 th century sculpture. The most interesting features, however, are found in the drapery treatment which has probably been carried out by artists well aware of the French Gothic sculpture developed around the middle of the century, with its naturalistic freedom in the arrangement, but the elabora tion of which is so entirely original, and has such singular characteristics. The lively motion in the figures of angels has caused plainly modelled surfaces and curves of the body where the drapery treatment has been limited to a few sharp edges that emphasize the direction of the extremities, and the thin mantles are
designed in fine, pleated and delicately winding contours against the background, hanging in broad folds from raised arms and kicking or forward moving legs. In a few single cases like the angel on top or the angel in the right section of the mandorla we also find an energetically flapping fold of the mantle, which reminds us naturally of the same motif in the censing angels in Westminster Abbey. Also in cases where looser arched folds might have been expected and actually occur, these are formed as flat and sharply cut folds, stiff and of a certain linear barrenness. Most striking is this style in the Majesty figure itself, where we might have been justified in ex pecting a more plastic treatment both because of the format and the deepened per spective. The tunic is densely and delicately draped, and the mantle which seems to have been held together on the right shoulder lies over the declining right thigh in layers of flat folds pressed one on the other in sinuous curves. The mantle is drawn over both legs from the left; hanging from the knees are plain, stiff, cornetshaped folds, and the hems seem as though flatly pressed against each other in — so to speak — uncertain, nervously winding contours. The downward arching folds between the legs, partly formed through clubshaped hollows also have something stiff and rugged in their shape. This modelling is somewhat dry and cold, one might say bloodless — but it is an expression of a determined sense of style; it contains at the same time a certain refinement and austerity, a dry, matteroffact elegance. In the innermost arch1 around the tympanum we find six seated queens to the left and six seated kings on the right. Their fully developed Gothic faces are gene rally well rounded, somewhat broadly oval, in a setting of Sshaped curls. The drapery treatment is rich in variety and contains the coneshaped folds of the French St. Louis style. — The arches next to the former are adorned with a stiff leaf scroll in open work, the outer with pointed oval foils with eight female figures personifying virtues on the left, and eight apostles on the right2. Very characteristic is the female figure with the mantle fold lifted high and hanging down in rich cones3. A total of seven full size statues remains, identified by Mr. Lethaby as follows: In the portal we find Ecclesia to the left of the Christ of the tympanum (contrary to what is customary on the Continent), and Synagogue on the right, and on the outer side of the portal on either side we find a male saint; they are, possibly, apost les. Farther to the east beside one of the chapels added to the general structure stands a female saint, and still farther east on the end buttress stands a royal couple, possibly St. Ethelbert and Princess Althryda. None of the figures have their origi 1
For ill. see Prior & Gardner op. cit. p. 53.
2
For ill. see Prior & Gardner op. cit. p. 246.
3 The mantlefold lifted high i n the air seems as though derived from and j ustified i n the abundantly drap ed St. Louis style from the middle and the second half of the century, with its love for rich, soft curves. See, for instance, t w o enchanting angels in sculptured oak i n the Louvre, an "Ange Porteflambeau, Ate liers Champenois, 2e Moitié du ХШе S." ( N o . 100), and an "Ange, Ateliers Rémois, XlIIe S." ( N o . 1585).
6 * — 9 0 3 5 4 7
85
Fig. 26—27. Ecclesia and Synagogue. Statues in the South Porch, Lincoln Cathedral.
n a l heads 1 , a n d m o s t o f t h e m are i n v e r y p o o r condition. T h e finest sculptured pair a r e Ecclesia a n d Synagogue (fig. 26—27) a n d t h e y j u s t i f y M r . Lethaby's enthusiastic statement t o t h e effect t h a t t h e y are " t h e m o s t perfectly accomplished external statues i n E n g l a n d " 2 . Magnificent i n its structure is t h e figure o f Ecclesia w i t h t h e folds o f h e r dress c o n v e r g i n g t o w a r d s t h e l e f t h a n d w h i c h carries a miniature m o d e l o f a c h u r c h . T h e folds start at t h e n e c k b a n d i n w i d e , plainly pleated surfaces, flow i n a h a r d l y discernible curve o v e r t h e v e r y slightly r o u n d e d breasts, a n d m e e t i n t h e left h a n d . B u t t h e m o s t striking effect is m a d e b y t h e sharp, highridged, diagonal folds r u n n i n g stiffly straight f r o m t h e uplifted h e m o f t h e dress t o w a r d s t h e h a n d . As a "fillingin" m o t i f m a y b e regarded t h e dense, d o w n w a r d arched folds o n t h e r i g h t side a n d t h e w i n d i n g c o n t o u r f o r m e d b y t h e coneshaped b u t flat folds h a n g i n g f r o m t h e l e f t h a n d a n d opening u p , s h o w i n g t h e lining. T h e mantle lies o v e r b o t h shoulders, a n d has p r o b a b l y been lifted i n a large flap b y t h e r i g h t side o f t h e r i g h t h a n d ; o n t h e left side t h e m a n t l e hangs i n t w o l o n g , stiff folds. T h e u n d e r g a r m e n t hangs i n vertical, plane, sharpedged folds, a n d especially t h e m i d d l e f o l d b e t w e e n t h e legs gives a n almost incredible effect i n its thin', flat shape, a b r u p t l y a n d inevitably b r o k e n i n t o a thin coil d o w n t o w a r d s t h e g r o u n d . A r o u n d o n t h e socle t h e dress is draped i n flat pressed, thin, omegashaped folds. T h i s flat, sharpedged a n d stiff d r a p e r y treatment, these flattened cones, a n d these folds w i t h w i n d i n g contours are quite i n correspondence w i t h t h e p h e n o m e n a w e h a v e f o u n d earlier i n t h e t y m p a n u m . T h e peculiar m i d d l e fold, squarely b r o k e n t o w a r d s t h e g r o u n d , w e find, f o r instance, i n t h e t y m p a n u m i n t h e carrying angel o n t h e r i g h t a t t h e l o w e r half o f t h e mandorla. T h e characteristic gesture o f Synagogue w i t h t h e left h a n d is explained b y M r . Lethaby w h o assumes t h a t t h e Tables o f t h e L a w t h a t w e r e originally falling d o w n f r o m this h a n d are n o w missing. O v e r t h e shoulders lie s o m e stiffly w i n d i n g curls. T h e b r o a d waistband w i t h t h e b i g k n o t w i t h a p r o t r u d i n g l o o p is a parallel t o t h e 1
As regards the female saint, the socalled "Queen Margaret", b y Lethaby referred t o as "Ethelreda", o n the buttress immediately east of the portal, a discussion has arisen as t o whether the head is genuine or not. I, for one, a m convinced that the face is modern work, and probably not only the face but also the left hand and the t w o dress folds hanging d o w n from it. H o w a connoisseur of English 13 th century art could ever accept this Victorian charity bazaar lady as an example of English art o f the reign of Edward I defeats me. See Saunders op. cit. p. 191 and ill. facing. The tendrils arranged without feeling, the abominably natural istic reproduction of the eyes and the very poor plastic quality, everything, i n m y opinion, testifies that the head was made i n connection with the other 19th century renovations of the Judgement Porch which gave heads and attributes t o the adjacent royal couple. Both Lethaby op. cit. p. 387 and Prior & Gardner op. cit. p. 324 regard the head as a 19th century renovation. — In a recent article i n The Antiquaries Journal (1949) p. 87 f. a renewed attempt has been made b y A. Gardner & P. P. HowgraveGraham to prove that the head of "Queen Margaret" is genuine. I d o n ot find the argument convincing, and even // the head of the statue should not be a later addition, the face of it must have been reçut or touched up in the last century to such an extent, that w e have not g o t the right t o regard it as an authentic piece of 13 th century carving. 2 Op. cit. p. 387. — Cp. Prior & Gardner op. cit. p. 324 "The statues o n either side of the porch are among the finest of our medieval examples," and p. 326 ". . . the statues of the Judgment Porch* m a y be ranked as the crowning examples of English statuemaking."
detail w e find in the Majesty. The drapery of the dress over the chest with dense vertical ridges around a Vshaped system in the middle might seem similar to that of Wells (cp. fig. i), but here the folds fall still denser and narrower, still more sharpedged and flatter in the relief, and although they protrude more f r o m the sides out over the waistband, it is without softness, hard and abruptly broken. The dress falls over the lower torso in long, narrow, vertical ridges, some lev elled with flat edges, other with a slight hollow on the outer surface. O n the ground the tunic flows out in still richer, omegashaped, flat and winding folds than in the figure previously mentioned. The left foot is entirely covered by the cloth. The figures are of the same style as those in the tympanum, and I do not hesitate to characterize them as distinctly English. Had the heavy mantle folds which seem to have been framing the figure on either side remained, the figures would certainly have gained in plastic intensity. The female saint on the buttress Hg. 28. Statues. Southern^ fojde of Choir, Lincoln
tQ
e a s t
a d o s e a f f i n i t y tQ
Ecclesia as regards the arrangement of drapery. She might well be by the same master1. — The two male figures on the outer sides of the portal have more summary and powerfully distributed drapery with their mantles lifted in mighty, sweeping, heavy folds. They are, unfortunately, very badly damaged 2 , but the same bold style of drapery meets us in the royal couple farther to the east. In these trailing, rounded coneshaped folds (fig. 28) it would be more justifiable to see an influence from the Amiens sculpture, and the square, strong break of a vertically hanging fold narrowing f rom a relatively rounded surface in the breaking point into one extremely thin, w e find excellently exemplified in the drapery of the Archangel Michael in "Portail du Sauveur" in Amiens (fig. 29). It is the very same phenomenon w e observed at Lincoln in the Portal statuary and in one of the angel figures of the tympanum. A considerably more advanced drapery arrangement developing towards the more perfect High Gothic type, but still surprisingly free, unconventional and har monious, w e find in the interior of the choir, in the spandrels of the triforium of the socalled "Angel Choir". Richness and clarity are typical of this true plastic style 1 3
As pointed o u t b y Lethaby op. cit. p . 387. — O n this figure cp. preceding page n o t e 1.
For ill. see Lethaby op. cit. Pl. X X X V I . — С р . Prior & Gardner op. cit. p . 327, fig. 363.
with soft, live surfaces, working "with smooth and baggy folds" 1 . The immediate source of this style seems to be the French plastic of the middle of the century as expressed in fragments f r o m a gallery in Chartres2, in a tympanum in Rouen Cathedral^ or the decoration of the north transept portal of Notre Dame of Paris4. The heads of the angels with their rather square faces with broad chins, narrow Gothic eyes, and great variety in coiffures kept together with nar row ribbons, also bring to mind the sculpturing of the heads in these m o del works and — mutatis mutandis — also the con tinentally inspired angel heads in the transepts of Westminster Abbey5. The wave of French style which gave the angel reliefs their plastic life also left traces in the sculptured roof bosses in the vault of the choir in Fig. 29. "Portail du Sauveur". Detail. Amiens Cathedral. Lincoln Cathedral; here grows a naturalistic leaf vegetation of so far unsurpassed magnificence and variety6. In the aisles of the choir w e find figure sculptured roof bosses, the style of which is already strikingly High Gothic?. Perhaps even more pregnant appears the new, allconquering French style in the bosses of the wooden vaulting in the cloisters8. Religious motifs such as the Corona tion of Mary, the Madonna and Child and a canonized bishop alternate with month pictures and purely burlesque motifs; cows, rabbits, fabulous monsters and Sil vanus heads. The fable world of book margins and goldsmithery is here presented 1
Prior & Gardner op. cit. p . 325. — For ill. see op. cit. p . 4, 86, 267, 268, 269, 270—75.
3
See Vitry op. cit. Pl. 19.
3 Vitry o p . cit. Pl. 61. 4 Vitry op. cit. Pl. 63. 5 С р . above p . 84. 6
See C. J. P. Cave " T h e Roof Bosses of Lincoln Cathedral" (in Archaeologia, Vol. 85, London, 1936), p. 27 f. 7 See Cave op. cit. Pl. IX, fig. 4—8. 8
According t o Cave op. cit. there are ill. t o these i n " T h e Builder" (July 19th, 1890) and i n "Associated Architectural Societies' Reports", X X , 179. — See also ill. in Prior & Gardner op. cit. p . 389, fig. 461.
i n h i g h quality w o o d sculpture. T h e restricted G o t h i c figure style is t h e s a m e as w e find i n t h e socalled " P o r t e R o u g e " i n t h e n o r t h façade o f t h e choir o f N o t r e D a m e o f Paris 1 dating f r o m a b o u t 1270, a n d t h e Silvanus heads p o i n t t o t h e s a m e m o n u m e n t . T h e y b e l o n g t o t h e m o s t f r e q u e n t l y occurring decorational m o t i f s o f t h e Paris Cathedral, a b o v e all o n t h e southern wall w h e r e t h e y are indeed overflowing 2 . T h e J u d g m e n t P o r c h o f Lincoln Cathedral f o u n d a successor i n t h e w e s t p o r t a l o f C r o w l a n d A b b e y (Lines.), n o w completely ruined, b u t w h e r e a stately " S y n a g o g u e " a n d t h e consolecarrying angel i n "Ecclesia's" place bear witness t o t h e close relationship'. — A statue o f a female saint o n t h e gable o f L anercost A b b e y (Cumberl.) o u g h t also perhaps t o b e seen as a n e x p o n e n t o f t h e w o r k s h o p respon sible f o r t h e J u d g m e n t P o r c h i n Lincoln Cathedral 4 . T h e v e r y flat l o n g coneshaped folds h a n g i n g f r o m t h e raised l e f t h a n d h o l d i n g a n a ttribute (?) seems v e r y distinctly t o c o n f i r m t h e derivation f r o m Lincoln a n d also t h e a b r u p t turns o f t h e dress folds against t h e f o o t slab. 1
Vitry op. cit. Pl. 66.
2
These Silvanus heads seem to be one o£ the most popular motifs of the Parisian 13 th century school. One w a y of finding its classical origin is pointed out b y Adhémar op. cit. p. 265 : The monastery of St. Denis was presented with an antique fountain about A . D . 1180. The monks used it for a washbasin. A Silvanus head is sculptured o n one side of the fountain. See op. cit. Pl. X XXII. This fountain is n o w placed in the court yard o f l'Ecole des BeauxArts in Paris. — Except for the exterior architecture of Notre Dame — espe cially i n the southern transept — the Silvanus heads occur i n the tomb of St. Etienne (dead 1159) in the abbey of Aubazine (Corrèze) from the second half of the 13 t h century, quite covered with naturalistic foliation, and i n the tomb of Saint Louis (dead 1260) in St. Denis, moved from the abbey of Royaumont. O f these t w o there are casts i n Musée Trocadéro, Paris. — Villard de Honnecourt has t w o magnificent examples i n his sketchbook. See Hahnloser op. cit. Taf. 10, 43. O n the origin of the motif compare op. cit. p. 26, note 2, and Abb. 21—23, 25—26. The fact that it occurs o n the socle of the Bamberg Horseman is here regarded as confirmation of the French origin of the sculpture as regards style. — W h e n I find these Sil vanus heads as corbel heads from the Franciscan church at Wismar (Germany) I would rather assume French influence via German monuments than evidence of the expansion of English art, as assumed b y H. Wentzel "Lübecker Plastik bis zur Mitte des 14. Jahrhunderts" (Berlin, 1938), p. 65. For ill. see op. cit. Taf. 45. — T h e reference i n op. cit. p. 127, note 27 t o the figure o f a bishop on a roof boss i n Lincoln cloister reproduced i n Prior & Gardner op. cit. p. 389, fig. 461, as a suggestion for the solution o f the problem of the Gotlandic, socalled Bunge master, is, o n the other hand, quite irrelevant. In one case w e have an English exponent of the Parisian style o f about 1270, and i n the other a Swedish sculptural group, reflecting the rich, flowing drapery style of the southern transept portal of Notre Dame de Paris around 1260 (see Vitry op. cit. Pl. 64) or — possibly — the very similar style of about 1300, as asserted b y C. R. af Ugglas "Gotlands Medeltida Träskulptur" op. cit. p. 536 f. 3 See Prior & Gardner op. cit. p. 324 and ill. p. 325, fig. 362, p. 69, fig. 63, and p. 244, fig. 260. 4 See Prior & Gardner op. cit. p. 323 with ill.
P A R T I I English Influence in Norwegian and. Swedish Figure Sculpture in Wood 1220—1270
PREREQUISITES
I n t h e previous section I h a v e tried t o d r a w a picture o f t h e development o f English sculpture d u r i n g t h e p e r i o d dealt w i t h i n this w o r k . T h e material I h a v e h a d t o w o r k w i t h is v e r y fragmentary, particularity as regards sculptures i n w o o d w h i c h are almost nonexistent. T h i s w o u l d seem discouraging f o r continued i n vestigation, a n d naturally m y w o r k has b e e n m a d e m o r e difficult b y t h e t o t a l destruction o f w o o d sculptures i n E n g l a n d . T h e technical characteristics t h a t m a y possibly h a v e distinguished t h e English w o r k s h o p tradition a n d w h i c h could h a v e given m e a g o o d basis f o r m y a r g u m e n t are unfortunately quite u n k n o w n . W h a t is e v e n w o r s e is t h a t t h e disappearance o f English w o o d sculpture also m e a n s t h e total absence o f English cult statues, a n d i n t h e Scandinavian countries i t is these v e r y figures t h a t h a v e b e e n preserved t o a considerable, if n o t o v e r w h e l m i n g , d egree. I h a v e t hus indicated o n e o f t h e m a i n objects o fm y task : i f I can conclusively p r o v e t h a t English influence w a s p r e d o m i n a n t i n a g r o u p o f Scandinavian w o o d sculp tures f r o m this t i m e , I w i l l thereby n o t o n l y h a v e supplemented t h e k n o w l e d g e o f English medieval sculpture, b u t , a b o v e all, helped t o fill o n e o f t h e m u c h f e l t v a c u u m s i n English medieval material as a w h o l e preserved t o o u r time. I t is w o r t h t r y i n g — w e w i l l h a v e t o take o u r evidence w h e r e w e f i n d it. A comparison b e t w e e n stone sculpture a n d w o o d sculpture as a means t o establish the origin m a y n o t surprise a n y o n e , b u t thanks t o t h e exceptional u n i f o r m i t y , iconographically a n d stylistically, i n all branches o f a r t f r o m t h e height o f t h e m i d d l e ages, I feel justified i n d r a w i n g u p o n t h e testimony o f paintings as well, i n particular by c o m p a r i n g t h e m w i t h t h e m o r e fully preserved English illuminations f r o m this period. T h e haphazardly preserved English a r t f r o m this phase w i l l also, as a w h o l e , give t h e standard o f value o f w h a t has disappeared; this w i l l b e particularity i m p o r t a n t w h e n i t comes t o distinguishing b e t w e e n t h e pieces i n Scandinavian w o o d sculp t u r e w h i c h m i g h t b e considered as i m p o r t e d , sculptured i n English w o r k s h o p s o n English soil, i n relation t o domestic N o r w e g i a n o r Swedish productions. If therefore, i n tracing Scandinavian w o o d sculpture t o a n English source, I a m reduced t o j u d g i n g o n stylistic a n d iconographie grounds, t h e hazards o f such a m e t h o d deserve t o b e p o i n t e d o u t a n d underlined f r o m t h e v e r y beginning.
W h e r e t h e iconographical is concerned, i t entails great risks t o determine a n y definite characteristics o f o n e c o u n t r y as opposed t o t h e others w i t h i n t h e w e s t e r n E u r o p e a n sphere o f culture o f t h e h i g h m i d d l e ages ; t h e art, w h i c h flourished u n d e r t h e protection o f t h e Catholic C h u r c h , seems t o h a v e internationalized t h e iconographical types. W h e n a n e w t y p e w a s created, i t spread w i t h great rapidity. N e i t h e r m u s t t h e f r a g m e n t a r y material conserved elsewhere b e allowed, because o f t h e gaps, t o lead us t o false conclusions: f o r instance, i n n o r t h e r n France, t h e heart o f t h e developments o f G o t h i c style, there are hardly m o r e t h a n s o m e t e n cult statues preserved, a n d t h e almost complete lack o f crucifixes is striking. E x t r e m e caution is therefore necessary w h e n t r y i n g t o build u p a possible o r i g i n f r o m English a r t o n iconographical grounds. M y stylistic observations, o f course, f o r m something m o r e t o build o n , b u t these are t o a great extent, naturally e n o u g h , built o n intuition a n d subjective artistic feeling. A n d t h e r e are m a n y p i t falls f o r t h e u n w a r y i n tracing stylistically t h e Scandinavian sculpture t o English sources : as is apparent f r o m t h e a b o v e representation, French a n d English sculpture w e r e , d u r i n g certain periods, extremely closely related, a n d French, as w e l l as L o w e r Rhenish 1 , sculptures h a v e evidently b e e n t h e sources o f i nspiration t o English sculptors together w i t h t h e classical a n d Byzantine a r t treasures w h i c h f o r m t h e soil o n w h i c h germinated so m a n y o f t h e artistic expressions o f t h e 13 t h century. T h e s e complicated conditions w i l l m o r e t h a n once d u r i n g m y w o r k w i t h Scan dinavian material f o r c e m e t o d eterminations w h i c h m a y seem v a g u e a n d i n m a n y cases j u s t i f y concluding w i t h a question m a r k . O n l y w h e r e h i g h quality Scandinavian sculpture is concerned can a discussion o f its f o r e i g n sources b e c o m e really f r u i t f u l — t h e b u l k o f provincial o r rustic sculpture, w h i c h m a y o f t e n reflect t h e qualities o f v e r y i m p o r t a n t w o r k s n o w missing, will n o t b e dealt w i t h h e r e except i n cases w h e r e i t t h r o w s n e w light o n m y subject. I t is m y task h e r e t o r elate t h e history o f a style current, n o t t o p o r t r a y local Scandinavian a r t schools a n d their offshoots. B e f o r e e m b a r k i n g o n m y dangerous v o y a g e I w i l l first say a f e w w o r d s a b o u t t h e p r o o f s o f A n g l o S a x o n connections w i t h N o r w a y a n d Sweden d u r i n g t h e p e r i o d i n question, as t h e y are k n o w n i n o t h e r fields2. If t h e difficulties are great w h e n i t comes t o p r o v i n g b e y o n d a d o u b t t h e English origin o f n u m e r o u s p h e n o m e n a i n N o r w e g i a n a n d Swedish 13 t h century sculpture, w h e r e , h o w e v e r , t h e assump t i o n o f such a n origin is quite justifiable, i t still seems as t h o u g h m y o bservations w o u l d b e m o r e sharply outlined against a b a c k g r o u n d o f t h e p a r t played b y t h e English relations i n t h e ecclesiastical, e c o n o m i c a n d political history o f N o r w a y a n d Sweden d u r i n g t h e p e r i o d i n question. Against this b a c k g r o u n d t h e testimonies o f t h e art pieces w i l l receive their correct historical a n d d o c u m e n t a r y importance. E v e n 1 2
See above p. 36, 67, 78, 88 £. and p. 61 £.
Similar comparisons, but of a more extensive character, have been made b y af Ugglas op. cit. p. 67 f., and A. Lindblom "La Peinture Gothique en Suède et en Norvège" (Stockholm, 1916), p. 4 f.
t h o u g h , i n this w o r k , i t is m y m a i n task t o present t h e m as things o f beauty, a d mirable as pieces o f art, i t deserves t o b e m e n t i o n e d that their ability o f mediating a n i m m e d i a t e a n d concrete contact w i t h a b y e g o n e age is unsurpassed. English influence m a d e itself felt i n N o r w a y considerably m o r e t h a n i n Sweden, a n d t h e reasons f o r this are o f course t o a great extent t h e geographical position o f these countries. If w e study a m a p o f Scandinavia i n t h e 13th century (see p . 319), this condition becomes e v e n m o r e apparent because o f t h e extention at t h a t t i m e o f b o t h countries. N o r w a y consisted o f , n o t o n l y its present area, b u t also t h e provinces o f J ä m t l a n d a n d Härjedalen, w h i c h n o w belong t o Sweden (together w i t h t h e parishes o f Särna a n d Idre i n n o r t h e r n Dalecarlia) i n t h e n o r t h , a n d B o h u s län o n t h e western coast. O n t h e o t h e r side Finland (christianized b y t h e Swedes) belonged t o t h e Swedish realm, w h i l e t h e Swedish b o r d e r t o D e n m a r k r a n t h r o u g h t h e forests o f southern Småland, a n d t h e Swedish province o f Halland o n t h e western coast belonged t o D e n m a r k together w i t h t h e southernmost provinces o f Skåne a n d Blekinge. A n a r r o w strip o f land o n t h e southern b a n k o f t h e G ö t a Ä l v estuary w a s Sweden's o n l y d o o r t o t h e sea i n t h e west, w h e r e t h e t o w n o f Lödöse, f o u n d e d d u r i n g t h e previous century, w a s situated. T h e N o r w e g i a n c o u n terpart w a s Kungahälla o n t h e opposite b a n k o f t h e river. T h e geographical position o f t h e countries seems t o h a v e predestined N o r w a y t o oversea connections i n a westerly direction w h i l e Sweden, via t h e Baltic Sea a n d t h e overland r o u t e t h r o u g h D e n m a r k , w a s m o r e confined t o t h e continental seats o f culture. N o n e t h e less, b o t h N o r w a y a n d Sweden m a y b e referred t o as a veritable p l a y g r o u n d f o r insular a n d continental influences d u r i n g t h e p e r i o d o f christianization (the 10th a n d n t h centuries), exemplified i n t h e w e l l k n o w n rivalry b e t w e e n t h e missionaries f r o m E n g l a n d a n d those f r o m t h e H a m b u r g B r e m e n archdiocese i n G e r m a n y . O f i m m e n s e i m p o r t a n c e t o t h e cultural progress o f t h e Scandinavian countries w a s t h e introduction o f t h e monastic orders. — T h e monasteries w e r e , as e v e r y o n e w e l l k n o w s , centres o f culture a n d artisanship d u r i n g t h e early m i d d l e ages. D u r i n g t h e 12th century t h e first monasteries w e r e f o u n d e d i n Sweden a n d N o r w a y b y t h e Cistercians, a n d i n these monasteries w e find c o n clusive evidence t o t h e effect that t h e t w o countries' contacts overseas w e r e m a d e i n different directions; i n N o r w a y t h e monastery Lyse Kloster w a s f o u n d e d i n B e r g e n (1146) b y m o n k s f r o m Fountains A b b e y (Yorks.) a n d H o v e d ö y a Kloster i n O s l o (1147) f r o m Kirkstead A b b e y (Lincolns.) 1 , while t h e Swedish monasteries Alvastra (1143) a n d N y d a l a (1143) w e r e affiliations o f t h e French Clairvaux 2 . T h e difference i n initiative m a y b e significant, b u t does n o t , o f course, m e a n t h a t 1
O n the Cistercian monasteries in N o r w a y see Gerhard Fischer "Cistercienserne o g Hovedöya" (Oslo, !935) — The Benedictine monastery o n the Isle of Selje also seems t o have been founded by English monks ; the church was consecrated to St. Alban. 2 O n Swedish Cistercian monasteries see S. Curman "Cistercienserordens Byggnadskonst. I. Kyrkopla nen" (Stockholm, 1912), and E. Ortwed "Cistercierordenen o g dens Klostre i Norden", II (Copenhagen, 1933).
t h e N o r w e g i a n monasteries thenceforth received their spiritual n o u r i s h m e n t f r o m E n g l a n d alone, o r t h a t those i n Sweden w e r e totally dependent o n France. T h e y w e r e different branches o f t h e same monastic order, a n d t h e exchange o f b r e t h r e n o f t h e o r d e r b e t w e e n t h e countries w a s p r o b a b l y v e r y lively; English m o n k s w o r k e d together w i t h French a n d Scandinavian m o n k s i n t h e Swedish monasteries, n o t t o m e n t i o n those o f o t h e r nationalities 1 , a n d i n t h e N o r w e g i a n monasteries t h e c o m munities w e r e n o less international. Irrefutable p r o o f o f t h e continued relations b e t w e e n t h e Swedish c h u r c h a n d E n g l a n d are t h e n a m e s o f t h e English bishops i n Sweden d u r i n g t h e 12th century, a n d t h e English manuscript f r a g m e n t s f r o m S w e dish churches a n d monastery libraries f r o m t h e 12th, 13th a n d 14th centuries, w h i c h h a v e survived t h e destruction w h i c h f o l l o w e d i n t h e w a k e o f t h e R e f o r m a tion 2 . T h e university i n Paris seems t o h a v e held t h e greatest attraction f o r those w h o w a n t e d t o study theology, b u t w e also hear o f N o r w e g i a n s studying a t L i n со1пз a n d Canterburyt, a n d d u r i n g t h e latter half o f t h e 13 t h century w e find b o t h N o r w e g i a n s a n d Swedes i n Oxford?. T h e archival traces f r o m that century i n Scandinavia are v e r y scant, w h e r e f o r e t h e i n f o r m a t i o n existing m u s t b e considered so m u c h m o r e significant a n d i m p o r t a n t . Scandinavian clergymen o f English b i r t h w e r e f r e q u e n t d u r i n g t h e 12th century, b u t d u r i n g t h e 13 t h t h e y seem t o h a v e b e c o m e v e r y exceptional. O n e f a m o u s e xample is T h o m a s , canon i n Uppsala a n d t h e first bishop o f Finland (dead 1248). H e is said t o h a v e belonged t o t h e D o m i n i c a n order 6 . — O n e indication o f t h e continued relations b e t w e e n t h e N o r w e g i a n monasteries a n d their principal monasteries i n E n g l a n d is t h e fact that t h e English A b b o t Laurentius at H o v e d ö y a (about 1240) w a s later transferred t o Kirkstead?. T h e fact that Scandinavian churches d u r i n g t h e 13 t h century w e r e m e n t i o n e d as dedicated t o English saints does n o t necessarily m e a n t h a t English contacts existed 1 See Toni Schmid "Sveriges Kristnande" (Stockholm, 1934), p. 104. Cp, Ortwed op. cit. I (Copenhagen, 1927), p. 66. 2
See Isak Collijn "Redogörelse för på uppdrag af Kungl. Maj :t i Kammararkivet och Riksarkivet verk ställd undersökning angående äldre arkivalieomslag" (Stockholm, 1914), p. 37. Most of them originate from the end of the 12th and the beginning of the 13th centuries. Our oldest preserved calendar written at Vallentuna during the 13 t h century after an English original, shows influence from t w o different directions : England and Norway. O n N orwegian monks i n Swedish monasteries cp. Schmid op. cit. p. 106. 3 See J. E. S ars " D e n Norske Historie" (Kristiania, 1877), p. 269. 4 See A. Chr. Bang " D e n Norske Kirkes Historie" (Kristiania, 1912), p. 146. — Cp. E. Bull "Det Norske Folks Liv o g Historie" II (Oslo, 1931), p. 180. 5 See Yngve Brilioth "Svenska Kyrkans Historia" II (Uppsala, 1941), p. 146. The Swedish clergy studied almost exclusively in Paris at that time — the sole exception seems to have been the mendicant orders, chiefly the Dominicans, whose organization of study took the brethren to Cologne, Oxford, and probably also t o other colleges and universities. (Op. cit. p. 163). Within the organization of the Dominican Order the Scan dinavian countries formed a unity, the province of Dacia. — The contact between the Scandinavian m ona steries was certainly very lively. In the year 1213 the Norwegian monastery of Lyse became affiliated to the Swedish Alvastra. See Schmid op. cit p. 105 f. 6
See Knut B. Westman "Den Svenska Kyrkans Utveckling" (Stockholm, 1915), p. 274, and Eirik Horn borg "Finlands Kristning" (in Kyrkohistorisk Årsskrift, Uppsala, 1926), p. 212 f. 7 See Edvard Bull "Kristianias Historie", I (Kristiania, 1922), p. 106.
§
d u r i n g that period 1 , b u t a historical piece o f i n f o r m a t i o n t o t h e effect that t w o counties i n t h e Swedish p r o v i n c e o f Småland, as late as t h e y e a r 1271 " a b a n t i q u o " , p a i d tribute t o T h o m a s à Becket's shrine i n C a n t e r b u r y , is v e r y important 2 . Scan dinavian pilgrimage t o t h e shrine o f t h e English saint w a s probably q u i t e frequents. T h e N o r w e g i a n prelates certainly o f t e n travelled t o t h e P o p e i n R o m e via E n g land« e v e n t h o u g h t h e overland r o u t e t h r o u g h Sweden p r o b a b l y w a s used at least as frequently?. T h e names o f English saints occur i n various connections i n t h e history o f t h e Scandinavian medieval church, b u t undeniably t h e m o s t p o p u l a r saint, worshipped equally i n S w e d e n a n d N o r w a y , w a s t h e canonized N o r w e g i a n k i n g St. Olav, w h o s e shrine w a s i n T r o n d h e i m . His cult also extended t o England 6 . W h e n t h e p r i o r o f N i d a r h o l m Monastery o n a n islet i n t h e f j o r d a f e w miles o f f T r o n d h e i m visited L o n d o n s o m e t i m e d u r i n g t h e 1240's, i t w a s o n quite another errand t h a n t h a t o f t h e p ilgrim o r t h e theologian h u n g e r i n g f o r learning'. I t w a s his task t o r e d e e m t h e mortgages o n t h e properties o f t h e monastery, t h e u n h a p p y consequences o f t h e late A b b o t Björn's extravagances i n R o m e . A b b o t B j ö r n h a d t a k e n w i t h h i m t h e monastery's seal a n d apparently m a d e g o o d use o f it. — T h e r e f o r m a t i o n o f t h e monastery a n d its final restoration, h o w e v e r , w a s n o t a c c o m plished until a m o n k w a s called t o T r o n d h e i m f r o m St. Albans, t h e f a m o u s M a t t h e w Paris, w h o visited N o r w a y d u r i n g t h e years 1248—49. T h i s skilled a n d learned m o n k also visited K i n g H å k o n i n Bergen, w h o s e f r i e n d h e was. M a t t h e w Paris's visit can hardly h a v e b e e n quite w i t h o u t consequences f o r t h e c o n t e m p o r a r y development o f art i n N o r w a y , b u t w e h a v e n o e vidence t o suggest that t h e m o n k w a s engaged i n artistic enterprises o f a n y k i n d d u r i n g his j o u r n e y 8 . 1
A church dedicated t o St. Alban is said t o have existed i n the year 1233 i n the Swedish province of S ö dermanland. af Ugglas op. cit. p. 76. 2
Lindblom op. cit. p. 16. — O n dedications to St. Thomas of the churches of the other Scandinavian countries cp. Fredrik В. Wallern " D e Isländske Kirkers Udstyr i Middelalderen" (in Foreningen til Norske Fortidsmindesmerkers Beväring, Aarsberetning, Kristiania, 1909), p. 15. Ср. T. Borenius "St. Thomas Becket i n Art" (London, 1932), p. 21, with mention of a bishop's figure from Granvin (Vesti.) n o w i n the museum of Bergen, possibly representing St. Thomas. The figure is roughly carved, but possibly derives from the latter half of the 13th century. 3 Cp. Ludwig Daae "En Krönike o m Erkebiskoperne i Nidaros" (in Festskrift udgivet i anledning af Trondhjems 900 aars jubileum, 1897), p. 42. 4 Such a journey is known t o have taken place in 1225. See Daae op. cit. p. 42. 5 T he route was in all probability over Skara. A similar route was followed b y Bishop Pål of Hammar. See Bull "Det Norske Folks. . ." op. cit. p. 296. — The deported Norwegian Archbishop Jon died i n Skara o n Dec. 21st, 1282. See Bang op. cit. p. H I . 6
Cp. Harry Fett "Hellig Olav" (Oslo, 1937), p. 63 f. and Sigrid Undset "Norske Helgener" (Oslo, 1937), p. 125, mentioning a St. Olav church i n York. Several are k n o w n to have existed in London, one, for i n stance, i n Southwark, see Alexander Bugge "Handelen mellem Norge o g England" (in Historisk Tidsskrift, Rekke 3, IV, Kristiania, 1898) p. 5. Ср. same author "Skibsfarten Fra de AEldste Tider til omkring Aar 1600" (in " D e n Norske Sjöfarts Historie" I, Kristiania, 1923), p. 79, mentioning n o less than six churches dedicated t o St. Olav in the present City of London, all probably built during the n t h century. 7 See Henr. Mathiesen "Trondhjem i Borgerkrigene" (Trondheim, 1902), p. 115. 8 Harry Fett ascribes extensive influence o n Norwegian art to Matthew Paris in "Matteus af Paris o g hans Stilling i Norsk Kunsthistorie" (in op. cit., Aarsberetning 1909, p. 188 f.), for instance,.
7—903547
97
T h e m o s t active relations o f E n g l a n d w i t h Scandinavia d u r i n g t h e period dealt w i t h h e r e seem, h o w e v e r , t o h a v e been o f a purely commercial nature, a n d i n this respect N o r w a y ' s leading position is, i f possible, e v e n m o r e pronounced 1 . T h e A n g l o N o r w e g i a n trade relations w h i c h already h a d v e r y deeply r o o t e d t r a d i tions, culminated d u r i n g t h e 13th century. Bergen w a s a n international c o m m e r cial centre o f great importance, w h e r e English, Gotlandic, Danish, G e r m a n , a n d Flemish merchants c a m e together, b u t d u r i n g t h e 13 t h century t h e English t r a d e b e c a m e increasingly i m p o r t a n t t o T r o n d h e i m 2 , Oslo, a n d T ö n s b e r g as well. E v e n t h o u g h c o m m e r c e w a s t o a great extent i n t h e h a n d s o f foreigners, N o r w e g i a n participation w a s lively, a b o v e all d u r i n g t h e f o r m e r h alf o f t h e century, a n d f r o m t h e 13 t h century w e h a v e a b u n d a n t i n f o r m a t i o n o n N o r w e g i a n c o m m e r c e o n t h e east coast o f England: visits t o Y a r m o u t h , L y n n , Boston, G r i m s b y a n d Hull, a n d t h e fair i n Lincoln. L o n d o n , h o w e v e r , seems h a r d l y t o h a v e been visited b y N o r w e g i a n ships d u r i n g that century, a n d a N o r w e g i a n ship is recorded f o r t h e last t i m e o n t h e English w e s t coast i n 1213, viz. at Bristol'. "With r e g a r d t o m y w o r k , i t is immensely interesting t o observe that n o t o n l y private individuals, i n t o w n a n d i n t h e country, b u t t h e clergy as well played a p r o m i n e n t p a r t i n t h e A n g l o N o r w e g i a n trade. T h e Archbishop o f T r o n d h e i m w a s o n e o f t h e first t o receive commercial privileges i n England ( f r o m H e n r y II i n 1181), a n d h e m a d e g o o d use o f t h e m . B u t monasteries like Nidarholm*, Lyse a n d Hovedöya? also seem t o h a v e h a d ships trading regularly w i t h E n g l a n d . T h e explanation is at least partly t h e church's large i n c o m e i n k i n d . E v e n a c o u n t r y parson i n t h e T r o n d h e i m area maintained commercial relations w i t h England. saying that the monk assisted the king i n the choice o£ English artists or English studios where Norwegian brethren could be sent t o study. Fett finds examples of the Matthew Paris style i n Norwegian paintings, reliquaries, reliefs, etc., but his assumption that Matthew Paris designed the plan for the west front of Trondheim Cathedral has met with criticism. See A. Lindblom "Mattheus af Paris och det Norska Måleriet under Gotiken" (in Tidskrift för Konstvetenskap, Lund, 1916), p. 162, and Bull op. cit. p. 312. — Lind blom "La Peinture Gothique. . ." op. cit. p. 128 f. regards a wing of a reredos from Faaberg (now i n the Oldsaksamlingen, Oslo), with a representation of St. Peter, as a work emanating from the Matthew Paris circle and i n all probability imported t o N o r w a y through him. Cp. H. Fett "Norges Malerkunst i Middel alderen" (Kristiania, 1917), p. 75. The attribution has been accepted i n England, see Borenius & Tristram op. cit. p. 13 f. and Pi. 26. 1
See Bugge op. cit.
2
See A. Bugge "Nidaros' Handel o g Skibsfart i Middelalderen" (in Festskrift Udgivet i Anledning af Trondhjems 900 Aars Jubileum, 1897), p. 7. 3 See A. Bugge "Handel" (in J. Hoops "Reallexikon der Germanischen Altertumskunde", II, Strasbourg, 1913—15), p. 436. — Indirect proof that the west coast of England was n o longer visited b y Norwegian merchantmen can be found in the information that the burghers of Hereford bought dried fish imported from N o r w a y i n the markets of Gloucester. O w i n g t o the long overland transports it became somewhat more expensive there than i n London. See A. Bugge op. cit. (1898), p. 129. — Cp. nevertheless the same author "Skibsfarten fra de AEldste Tider.. ." op. cit. p. 182 o n an import of timber from Norway t o Bristol i n 1236. 4 Bugge op. cit. (1897), p i6 5 Bugge op. cit. (1898), p. 39.
Norwegian commercial relations with western Germany, with the German cities on the shores of the Baltic Sea, with Hamburg, Bremen, and the Rhineland were extremely lively, but it is of special interest in this connection to note that the westGerman commerce with Norway was almost exclusively maintained by German ships — the Norwegian participation seems to have been negligible1. — During the latter half of the 13th century the Germans seem to go a step further; they take over the Norwegian trade on England as well. Professor В ugge* regards the latter half of the 13 th century as a period when Norwegian trade with the Bri tish Isles was definitely on the decrease, and by the end of the century the Norwe gians were completely ousted by German competition in most of the English ports. The commercial exchange between England and Sweden was on a more modest scale, and above all the Swedish foreign trade was mainly in foreign hands, chiefly Germant During the period here in question, this applies to Lödöse4 in the same degree as to the Swedish cities on the shores of the Baltic5. The Swedish church was to a great extent under French influence, but the culture in Swedish towns was greatly influenced by the Germans6. The two embassies the Swedish regent Birger Jarl sent to Henry III may possibly have had commercial objects, but the result of their efforts can hardly have been of any great consequence?. Gotland, however, the rich island in the Baltic Sea, occupied a special position in the Swedish realm. Its capital city, Visby, had its golden era during the 13 th century. The Gotland merchants received privileges from Henry III in 1237, pri vileges so extensive that only the merchants of Cologne could compare in that respect8. The Gotlanders seem mostly to have visited the English east coast, the coastal towns of Norfolk and Lincolnshire, but they also had permits to stay in England all the year around and travel freely in the country9. What is said above 1 See Johan Schreiner "Hanseatene o g Norges Nedgång" (Oslo, 1935), p. 23. — С р . / . Schreiner "Hanseatene o g N o r g e i det l ò d e Århundre" (Oslo, 1941), p. 17. 3
See "Skibsfarten fra de AEldste Tider" op. cit. p. 200.
3 The great privileges enjoyed b y the foreign traders i n Sweden show that Swedish merchants w i t h inter national conncetions were rare. See Bugge i n Hoops op. cit. p. 432. 4 See C. R. af Ugglas "Lödöse" op. cit. p. 106. 5 See Adolf Schück "Studier Rörande det Svenska Stadsväsendets Uppkomst och Äldsta Utveckling" (Stockholm, 1926), p. 222 f., p. 270 f. 6
See A. Schück "Sveriges Historia genom Tiderna" (Stockholm, 1947), p. 213 f., p. 270.
7 Schück op. cit. p. 213 f. — Henry III i n 1255 sent the monks Gilbert de Bello and Roger de Refham to Sweden with a reply. 8 A Bugge Gotlaendingenies Handel paa England o g Norge omkr. 1300" (in Historisk Tidsskrift, Rekke 3, V , Kristiania, 1899), p. 150. 9 ВиЯЯе °P cit p x 52. — For an opinion that the Gotland trade o n England at the middle of the 13th century was purely transit commerce via Lübeck, Hamburg and Flanders, and during the latter half of the cen tury also via Norway, see C. R. af Ugglas "Gotlands Medeltida Träskulptur. . ." op. cit. p. 15 f., with refer ences to literature. — The English letters of privilege, however, mention the "mercatores de Gutland" among w h o m many purely Gotland names occur. This, and the purely practical reasons for which direct sea transport was t o be preferred to the double unloading and reloading the land transport would necessitate, seems t o m e to contradict such an interpretation.
as regards German infiltration into the Swedish cities on the mainland applies to an even greater extent to Visby; the town has very much the air of a German commercial colony. When examining the political situation in Norway during the 13 th century, we see that the old interests in the west were maintained, although on a reduced scale: the Isle of Man and the Hebrides were Norwegian colonies ruled by a Scan dinavian royal family until 1266, when they were ceded to the king of Scotland. The Orkneyislands belonged to the Norwegian crown until the end of the middle ages. Swedish efforts of expansion eastward were continued with military opera tions in eastern Finland and missionary expeditions in Esthonia. The relations between Norway and Sweden were excellent throughout this period; they were further stabilized through mutual treaties, marriages between the ruling houses in the two countries, and repeated meetings between the regents, for instance, at Lödöse. At the middle of the century Sweden occupies to a certain extent a posi tion of arbitrator between Norway and Denmark, and the first seeds of a future inter Scandinavian policy can be traced back to that time1. It is, however, the great personality of the king, Håkon Håkonsson, which lends increasing glory to the political affairs of Norway during this period. He ruled (1217—1263) at the same time as Henry III of England (1216—1272), and was a counterpart to the English king as regards aesthetic interests as well. He was a Euro pean personality of culture, a faithful son of the Church, and simultaneously open to the refinement and richness in the courteous ideals of that time. The friendship between the two kings was expressed by the gifts with which they presented each other nearly every year. In 1236 King Håkon received from Henry a seal, a replica of his own, made by Walter de Croxton2, and the year prior to that, as a New Year's gift, a rosary of gold inlaid with precious stones. In the year 1252 Henry Ill's gift to Håkon was a golden crown a copy of his own made by Edward of Westminster. There was in Norway, to a greater extent than in Sweden at the same time, an ari stocracy with traditions and an international outlook towards western Europe, a class which could introduce the refined culture of western Europe into Norway 4 . The most significant proof of this is found in the numerous contemporary Nor wegian revisions and translations of foreign literature during the 13 th century, which was not introduced into Sweden until the 14th century and then mostly through Norwegian translations. The history of Swedish domestic politics during this time is characterized by con siderably more numerous and violent conflicts than the Norwegian, and the chaotic state of affairs is mentioned by, for instance, Cardinal William of Sabina who 1 3
See Sven Tunberg "Sveriges Historia" 2, (Stockholm, 1926), p. 94. — Ср. Schuck op. cit. p. 211.
See ill. i n Fett op. cit. index.
3 See Bugge op. cit. (1898), p. 22 f. and Lindblom op. cit. p. 15. 4
See Sars op. cit. p. 355 f.
visited the country towards the end of the 1240's. An effort towards a consolida tion of fundamental importance was, however, made by Birger Jarl (Earl Birger), the greatest Swedish statesman of that time, whose position as the regent of Sweden was unquestioned after he had quelled the risings that followed upon the death of King Erik Eriksson in 1250. After Birger's death in 1266 the government was assumed by his sons. It was not until the rule of Birger's son Waldemar that Sweden was given a coun terpart to the splendid royal and palatial hall of King Håkon Håkonsson in Bergen, although of somewhat more modest proportions, namely, Alsnö Hus1. King Håkon's building enthusiasm was not limited to castles, palaces and assembly halb; it was also expressed in ecclesiastical buildings such as missionary churches in northern most Norway, at Tromsö and Ofoten, and the Apostle Church and Hospital Church in Bergen*. The building activity in Norway during this period is on the whole extremely lively^, and nearly everywhere we find in the monuments pre served the forms of the Early English«. In Trondheim, the very stronghold of the Norwegian ecclesiastical hierarchy, the construction of the cathedral proceeded and the corner stone of the west front was laid in the year 1248. The central part of the nave displays, both in vaulting system and form treatment, very close rela tionship to the Angel's Choir in Lincoln, while the lateral aisles are designed in a slightly earlier type of Early English5. In the choir of Vår Frue Kirke (St. Mary's) in the same city, we find a portal in Early English with the heads of a king and a bishop on either side. In the Bergen area Dr. Fett6 has observed a strong North English influence in the building style, and English shapes and lines are found in all the constructions pre served from that period: in the royal assembly hall, Håkonshallen7, in the tower of Bergen Cathedral (from c. 1260), and in the choir of the Mary Church?, as well as in the more important buildings in the Bergen district; Utstein Monastery10 1
See Bengt Thordeman "Alsnö Hus" (Stockholm, 1920), p. 63 £.
2
See H. Fett" Norges Kirker i Middelalderen" (Kristiania, 1909), p. 6 9 . — T h e construction of t he churches in Tromsö and Ofoten may also b e seen in connection with increased immigration as a consequence of the growing importance of the great fisheries — during the 13 t h century dried fish became one of N o r way's most important exports. See Schreiner op. cit. (1935), p. 41. 3 Cp. Bull op. cit. p. 61. 4 See Fett op. cit. p. 64 f., chapter VI with ill. 5 See Fett op. cit. p. 67. — C p .Johan Meyer "Kirker o g Klostre i Middelalderen" (in Norsk Kunsthistorie,. Oslo, 1925), p. 172 f., and John Tverdahl "Nidarosdomens Vestfront" (in Aarsberetning, op. cit. 1934), p. 30. — For a concise and well illustrated monograph o n the cathedral see Johan Meyer "Domkirken i Trond hjem" (Trondheim, 1914). 6
Op. cit. p. 70.
7
See ill. in J. Meyer "Profanbygninger i Middelalderen" (in Norsk Kunsthistorie op. cit.), p. 99 f.
8
See ill. i n Fett op. cit. p. 70, Meyer op. cit. p. 179, and Anders Bugge "Bergens Domkirke" (1931).
9 See ill. in Meyer op. cit. p. 158. 10
See ill. i n Fett op. cit. p. 72—73, fig. 210—211.
7*—903547
IOI
and the church of Avaldsnes1. In the choir of Stavanger Cathedral, erected after a fire in 1272, this Norwegian filiation of Early English is most magnificently ex pressed in the jewellike construction of the exterior, the rich play of the vaulting ribs in the interior, and the abundant ornamentation in stiffleaf. N ot until the end of the 13th century does the foliation receive a trace of naturalistic modelling2. Among the scant remains of medieval architecture in Oslo are the fragments of the Dominican monastery of St. Olav (about 1220—40) with English form charac teristics3; and the ruins of the Premonstratencian monastery at Dragsmark (now in Bohuslän, Sweden) show a quite exquisite treatment of detail, for example, a frieze of elegant stiffleaf running in a hollowed moulding1». It is only natural that this AngloNorwegian school of architecture left behind a number of beautifully sculptured baptismal fonts of English type?, but also im ported English church bells are known6, and English influence has on the whole been observed in several connections in the interior decoration of the Norwegian churches of the 13 th century. At the time of King Inge's death in 1217, his brother had a costly tomb made for him, carved, painted, inlaid with gold and supplied with the king's coatof arms sculptured and painted. The tomb stood in Trondheim Cathedral, but nothing remains of it now, neither are there any traces of the many precious and valuable objects presented at the same time to the church, such as, for example, a golden vessel, a gift to the king from King John of England'. That there was import of goldsmith's work from England during the 13 th cen tury is proved by many examples, one of which is the beautiful chalice, made some time around 1230, now in Borsa Kirke in the Trondheim region8. The Nor wegian chalices from this period are, in the main, made after English models, and 1
See ill. i n Fett op. cit. p. 73, fig. 212.
2
See Meyer op. cit. p. 182. — For ill. of Stavanger Cathedral see N. Nicolaysen "Stavanger Domkirke" (Kristiania 1895), and "Stavanger Domkirke" (Stavanger, 1933). — A. W. Brögger "Stavanger Domkirkes Kor o g dets Bygmester, Biskop Arne" (in Aarsberetning, op. cit., 1912), p. 59 assumes that English builders participated i n the work. — The many human heads (op. cit. p. 51) which, according t o English fashion, adorn the architecture, were so ruthlessly restored during the 19th century that they have lost most of their artistic and documentary value. — O n these heads cp. C. J. Schive "Maerkelige Hoveder i Klaebersten i o g udenpaa Stavanger Domkirkes Chor" (in Vidensk. Selsk. Forhandlinger, Kristiania, 1877). 3 See Bull op. cit. ill. p. 292. — Cp. Bull "Kristianias Historie" op. cit. p. 210—11. 4
See Meyer op. cit. p. 189. — A x e l L . Romdahl "Byggnadsstilen i Dragsmarks Klosterkyrka" (in Göteborgs och Bohusläns Fornminnesförenings Tidskrift, Bd. 1, Gothenburg, 1915), p. 6 f. observes a close relationship t o the choir of Stavanger Cathedral as regards ornamentation, and assumes these building details t o date from the last f e w decades of the 13 th century. Cp. same author "Byggnadsstilen i Dragsmarks Klosterkyrka i Bohuslän" (in Aarsberetning, op. cit., 1916). 5
For ill. see Fett op. cit. p. 108, ср. N. Nicolaysen "Kunst o g Haandverk fra Norges Fortid" (Kristiania, 1881—1891), Pl. II—V. Cp. J. Roosval "Die Steinmeister Gottlands" (Stockholm, 1918), p. 61 f. 6
Fett op. cit. p. 102 f.
7 See Mathiesen op. cit. p. 82. 8
See Thor Kielland "Norsk Guldsmedskunst i Middelalderen" (Oslo, 1926), Pi. 106.
even the figure style of Norwegian reliquaries and shrines and seals can be traced to English models1. In the many wooden antemensales with painted decorations Norway possesses unique material by which one can gain knowledge of the development of painting of the period. A school of painting closely related in style to two Psalters from about 1220 in Peterborough Abbey has been found to exist in Bergen* where the school seems still to have flourished at the middle of the century. A painted wing of a reredos from Hamar diocese in central Norway, displaying close correspon dance to the Matthew Paris style, shows that English influence reached these parts of the country in a form just as undiminished*. Turning our eyes towards Sweden we find that the general picture of the deve lopment of art in the 13 th century is very different. Most of the great building enterprises hardly seem to have attained efficient working order until the second half, or even as late as the last quarter, of that century, and in Gotland, where the building activity was lively throughout the entire century, those monuments which have been preserved almost exclusively bear witness to continental relations. The Gotland churches are richly decorated with details sculptured in stone — on the mainland, with its shortage of easily worked stone the brick is being introduced, chiefly at first in the churches of the mendicant friar orders, but also in cathedrals like those of Strängnäs, Västerås and Åbo. Through the brick architecture the Swedish mainland establishes its position within the BalticScandinavian art region as defined by Professor RoosvaK But at the middle of the century English cooperation is noticeable in the cathe dral at Linköping ; the section of the nave built at that time has the characteristics of the English style (admittedly of a type out of date by then) and the fact that the English system of measurement of "span" and "palm" is used in these parts of the building indicates that the team of masons had been summoned direct from Eng lands. Their activity in Linköping seems to have been of a very short duration, however. Much less easy to explain is a possible English influence in the construction o f the choir of Skara Cathedral during the third quarter of the century, as is the 1 See Kielland op. cit. p. 96, p. 107, p. 123 f., Pl. 107—113. — Ср. the seated Majesty o n the reliquary from Vatnaas (op. cit. Pl. 69—70) and Filefjeld (op. cit. Pl. 73—74) with the engraved representation o f the same motif o n the English paten from Dolgelly (Wales) (op. cit. Pl. 116). O n the crucifix from Bellinge see b e l o w p. 243 f. 2 See Lindblom op. cit. p. 125 £ and Fett op. cit. p. 249. — Cp. Borenius & Tristram op. cit. p. 14 and Pi. 28—29. — French influence, however, is noticeable i n a somewhat younger Oslo school. See Lindblom op. cit. p. 113 £ and p. 117 with the date of about 1275. Cp. Fett op. cit. p. 250 pointing out the relationship t o the contemporary sculptural school of Oslo.
3 See above p. 97 note 8. 4 See J. Roosval "Den Baltiska Nordens Kyrkor" (Uppsala, 1924), p. 7 f. and p. 77 £ — Cp. same author "Das BaltischNordische Kunstgebiet" (in Nordelbingen, Flensburg, 1927). 5 See A. Romdahl "Linköpings Domkyrka" (Gothenburg, 1932), p. 43 £
o p i n i o n o f Professor Romdahl 1 . T h e plan is m a i n l y Cistercian 2 ; t h e leaf fragments preserved give n o definite points o f guidance, a n d t h e console heads occurring h e r e as w e l l as i n t h e m o r e o r less c o n t e m p o r a r y parts o f t h e V ä r n h e m a n d G u d h e m A b b e y Churches a n d S. Ving's C h u r c h i n t h e Province o f V ästergötland are all m o r e closely related t o similar w o r k s i n French architecture t h a n t o t h e console heads o f t h e English a n d A n g l o N o r w e g i a n architectures. T h e greatest w o r k i n Swedish architecture o f t h e 13 t h century, t h e planning o f Uppsala Cathedral, w a s also, according t o unanimous testimony, assigned t o a Frenchman. If Linköping Cathedral is t h e o n l y surviving m o n u m e n t o n Swedish soil dis playing irrefutable a n d direct English influence i n its architecture, t h e question o f t h e sphere o f activity o f this English w o r k s h o p becomes all t h e m o r e i m p o r t a n t . T h e f a c t t h a t t h e English p e r i o d i n L inköping a t t h e m i d d l e o f t h e c e n t u r y w a s o f r ather s h o r t duration has already b e e n intimated. Influence f r o m Linköping is observed i n St. Nicholas' C h u r c h a t Ö r e b r o 4 , a n d a g r o u p o f b aptismal fonts o f E nglish t y p e w i t h t h e f o o t t h e shape o f a b u n c h o f little columns, f o u n d i n central Sweden, h a v e p r o b a b l y s o m e connection w i t h t h e activities o f t h e E nglish masons i n Linköping?. D u r i n g t h e 13 t h century a sculptural a r t flourished i n t h e Province o f Västergöt land, t h e m o s t characteristic p r o d u c t o f w h i c h is a g r o u p o f tombstones w i t h crosses a n d palmette vines. T h e English parallels t o this sepulchral art are m a n y a n d striking 6 , b u t t h e m a i n p e r i o d o f English influence w a s as early as t h e 12th century, a n d t h e development i n t h e 13 t h c e n t u r y appears t o u s as a native r e f o r m i n g a n d f u r t h e r development o f t h e impulses already received?, partly also w i t h elements f r o m t h e south, f r o m t h e E u r o p e a n continent 8 . 1
See A. Rotndahl "Skara Domkyrkas Byggnadshistoria" (Uppsala, 1928), p. 16 f. — Ср. same author "Gammal Konst" (Stockholm, 1916), p. 50 f. 2
Erik Lundberg in "Byggnadskonsten i Sverige under Medeltiden 1000—1400" (Stockholm, 1940), is of the opinion that the immediate prototype of the plan o f the choir can be found in Hamar Cathedral, Norway. 3 See VitryBrière op. cit. Pl. LXVIII, 1—9. Cp. for example the head op. cit. Pl. LXVII, 1, from Rheims, w i t h the head i n Romdahl op. cit. p. 20; or the head N o . 8 in the same plate from SaintGermainenLaye, w i t h the broad square shape and the long thick tendrils rolled up at the end, t o the head in Skara op. cit. p. 26. 4 See A. Romdahl "Några Observationer i Nikolaikyrkan i Örebro" (in Fornvännen, Stockholm, 1939). C p . Henrik Cornell "Den Svenska Konstens Historia" (Stockholm, 1944), p. 170. 5 See J. Roosval "Medeltida Dopfuntar" (in Utställningen af Äldre Kyrklig Konst i Härnösand 1912, Studier, Stockholm, 1914), p. 42 f. with ill. of the font at Gudmundrå (Province of Ångermanland). The b o w l of the font has n o w been found and also shows it t o b e an English type. See Wilhelm Holmquist "Medel tida Fynd från Gudmundrå Gamla Kyrka" (Fornvännen, 1939), p. 328 f. — Cp. C. R. af Ugglas op. cit. p. 568, and Rune Norberg "Medeltida Dopfuntar i Sörmland" (in Sörmländska Kyrkor, II, Eskilstuna, 1944), p. 23, and ill. p. 15, N o . 4, of the font i n Västra Vingåker (Södermanland). 6 See Harald Widéen "Västergötlands Romanska Gravmonument" (in Kulturhistoriska Studier tillägnade Nils Åberg 1938, Stockholm) with instructive illustrations. 7 See Ernst Fischer "Västergötlands Romanska Stenkonst" (Gothenburg, 1918), p. i n f. Ср. the sante author " D e n Västgötska Stcnmästaren Andreas och hans verk" (in Tidskrift för Konstvetenskap, Lund, 1918), p. 26„ 8
See C. R. af Ugglas "Till de Västgötska Liljestenarnas Genealogi" (in Västergödands Fornminnes förenings Tidskrift, 5, Gothenburg, 1948), p. 63 f.
T h e Swedish i ó t h century historian Olaus Petri mentions English bells i n S w e dish churches, b u t as f a r as I k n o w n o such bell exists today.W e h a v e o n l y a f e w examples o f c h u r c h silver f r o m t h e 13 t h century, a n d there is n o p r o o f o f i m p o r t f r o m E n g l a n d o r o f indisputable English influence 1 . T h e same applies t o textiles w h i c h h a v e b e e n preserved, a l t h o u g h remarkable examples o f French e m b r o i d e r y c a n b e f o u n d 2 . As a starting p o i n t f o r j u d g i n g t h e sculptural development i n t h e t w o Scandina v i a n countries d u r i n g t h e E a r l y G o t h i c o r E a r l y English period, s o m e k n o w l e d g e o f w o o d e n sculpture d u r i n g t h e p e r i o d immediately preceding will b e especially valuable. T h i s applies t o a greater extent t o Sweden t h a n t o N o r w a y . I n so f a r as w e can j u d g e o n t h e basis o f t h e material preserved, t h e early current o f t h e G o t h i c style b r o k e i n t o N o r w a y f a r m o r e forcefully t h a n i n Sweden, sweeping a w a y t h e traces o f a n older tradition almost w i t h o u t a n y period o f t r a n s i t i o n , a n d immediately represented b y exquisite w o r k s o f art, partly i m p o r t e d a n d partly also domestic products w h i c h perfectly express t h e n e w stylistic ideals. T h i s c o r r o borates w h a t w e h a v e learned regarding t h e flourishing reign o f K i n g H å k o n Håkonsson w i t h its lively cultural a n d commercial relations w i t h E n g l a n d . I n Sweden t h e transition t o t h e Early G o t h i c style occurs i n another w a y , w i t h a n inertia a n d conservatism w h i c h seems provincial. T h e inability t o k e e p abreast w i t h t h e various trends o f style abroad is revealed b y t h e v e r y oldfashioned t y p e o f E a r l y English represented b y t h e English t e a m o f masons i n Linköping a t t h e m i d d l e o f t h e century. T h e domestic schools o f w o o d carving seem — h o w e v e r uncertain t h e dating m a y b e as regards t h e specific pieces — t o repeat, w i t h a n a sto nishing obstinacy, t h e inherited Romanesque types, w i t h a v e r y faint G o t h i c m o d i 1
O n the chalice i n Hedared Church (Västergötland) see A. Andersson "Kyrksilver" (in Skara Stift i Ord och Bild, Stockholm, 1949), p. 216 with ill. — The other, more important pieces of goldsmith's work from the period i n question come from Gotland, Linköping, Veckholm (Uppl.) and the Finnish t o w n of V i borg, all of them bearing witness t o cultural relations with western Germany. See C. R. af Ugglas "Bi drag. . . " op. cit. p. 121 f. and ill. p. 139, 163, 165—171 as well as Pl. III—IV. O n the chalice from Viborg, see lit. ref. p. 189 note 45. For ill. see, for example, Otto Meyer "Spätromanische Abendmahlskelche i n Norddeutschland" (in Jahrbuch der Preussischen Kunstsammlungen, Berlin, Bd. 53, 1932), p. 167. This chalice is, however, according t o tradition, booty from the Thirty Years W a r (op. cit. p. 168). 2
Agnes Branting & Andreas Lindblom "Medeltida Vävnader och Broderier i Sverige" II (Stockholm, 1929), p. 21 separate a French group of embroideries from the latter half of the 13 t h century, mainly be longing t o the cathedrals of Uppsala and Skara. The authors' derivation of the French origin of, for example, the famous Uppsala robe is conclusive (op. cit. p. 27 f.) and convincingly disputes the arguments i n favour o f the English origin of the robe previously put forth b y Mrs. Christie w h o , by the way, has modified her views somewhat i n A. G. I. Christie "English Medieval Embroidery" (Oxford, 1938), p. 79 f. The author also deals with the Skara robe, op. cit. p. 86 f. 3
The only distinct example of the survival of an older tradition i n early Gothic sculpture i n N o r w a y that I k n o w is a crucifix from Årdal Church i n Stavanger Museum where a romanesque type of crucifix with parallel legs and an oldfashioned loincloth displays distinct influence from the circle of the Balke Master i n the modelling of the details of face and body. O n the Balke Master, see below p. 185 f.—Another example perhaps is a Madonna from Mosviken Church i n the Videnskapsselskapets Samling in Trondheim, as pointed out b y H. Fett in "Billedhuggerkunsten i N o rg e under Sverreaetten" (Kristiania, 1908), p. 27 f. and fig. 38.
ficatìon, until t h e French H i g h G o t h i c current at t h e e n d o f the 13 t h a n d beginning o f t h e 14th centuries, definitely breaks d o w n every resistance. So m u c h m o r e i m p o r t a n t as a prerequisite f o r a n examination o f 13 t h century sculpture is t h e k n o w l e d g e o f t h e older domestic schools, a n d their models. T h e material is still incompletely examined, b u t a f e w m a i n lines are n o w clearly established. I n N o r w a y as well as i n Sweden t h e 12th century sculptures still preserved seem t o reveal m o r e o r less direct contacts w i t h t h e sculptural w o r k s h o p o f Chartres 1 , possibly established t h r o u g h t h e French Cistercian O r d e r 2 . T h e small M a d o n n a f r o m Viklau C h u r c h at Gotland is generally regarded as i m p o r t e d French w o r k s , b u t this French t y p e o f 12th c e n t u r y M a d o n n a is represented i n s o m e f i f t y domestic pieces o f sculpture w i d e l y spread i n Sweden, Finland a n d N o r w a y . T h e Swedish examples are mainly f r o m t h e 13 t h c entury, a n d this admittedly s o m e w h a t v a r y i n g repetition o f o n e p r o t o t y p e has been referred t o as copying, f o r religious reasons, o f s o m e c o n t e m p o r a r y M a d o n n a , f a m o u s f o r h e r miraculous power*. W i t h o u t denying t h e possibility o f this t h e o r y w h i c h unfortunately cannot b e d o c u m e n t a r y confirmed, o r its application i n certain cases, I w o u l d like t o emphasize this conservative repetition o f a n already obsolete t y p e as s y m p t o m a t i c as far as m u c h o f t h e Swedish sculpture f r o m t h e f o r m e r half o f t h e 13th century is concerned 6 . A f e w seated saints also belong t o t h e same category as w e l l as a g r o u p o f cruci fixes, t h e best o f w h i c h can b e f o u n d i n t h e c h u r c h o f Väte o n t h e Isle o f G o t l a n d ' . I n certain cases t h e m o d e r n stylistic features m a y h a v e c o m e t o Sweden via G e r m a n y 8 , a n d as probable examples o f G e r m a n art e x p o r t f r o m t h e beginning o f t h e 13 t h century can b e m e n t i o n e d t h e extraordinarily w e l l preserved St. Michael figure i n H a v e r ö C h u r c h (Medelpad) a n d a bishop f r o m Anundsjö (Ångermanland), t h e f o r m e r probably f r o m Hildesheim, t h e latter possibly f r o m t h e R h i n e land?. 1
See especially Roar Hauglid "Chartres Trends i n the Former Northern Medieval Plastic Art" (in D e t Kgl. Norske Videnskabers Selskabs Skrifter 1939 N o . 2, Trondheim, 1940). * According to af Ugglas "Gotlands Medeltida Träskulptur. .
op. cit. p. 147 £.
3 N o w in the Statens Historiska Museum, Stockholm. For ill. see af Ugglas op. cit. p. 100, Hauglid op. cit. p. 14, Cornell op. cit. p. 120 £. 4 The group was first collected by af Ugglas op. cit. p. 120 £. 5 af Ugglas op. cit. p. 168 £. 6
See below p. z j i t i o t e 3.
7
See af Ugglas op. cit. p. 173 f. and the same author "Trydekrucifixet och Lund" (in Från Stenålder till Rokoko, Studier tillägnade Otto Rydbeck 1937, Lund) with ill. p. 271. — O n the representatives of the same type o n the mainland, see R. Norberg "Romansk Träskulptur i Norra Småland" (in Meddelande n :r XII från Norra Smålands Fornminnes och Jönköpings Läns Hembygdsförbund, Jönköping, 1940), ill. p. 3—4 and p. 7 note i . 8 Cp. however, Herbert von Einem "Die Madonna aus Nikolausberg bei Göttingen" (in Jahrbuch der Preussischen Kunstsammlungen, Bd. 52, Berlin, 1931), p. 118 whose opinion it is that the direct French i n fluence i n Sweden reacted through Swedish works of art exported to Germany.
9 For ill. of the Michael figure see Cornell op. cit. Pl. 44 or sam2 author "Norrlands Kyrkliga K o n s t . . op. cit. Pl. VII, and in the same work also the figure of a bishop from Anundsjö, n o w in Härnösands Museum, p. 166. — O n the German origin of the St. Michael figure cp. C. R. af Ugglas "L'Exposi tion d'Art Religieux d'Härnösand" (in Revue de l'Art Chrétien, Paris, 1913), p. 394. For ill. o f
I t should, h o w e v e r , b e particularily emphasized t h a t neither t h e N o r w e g i a n n o r t h e Swedish w o o d carving o f t h e 12th century has been sufficiently w e l l examined f o r m e t o give as complete a s u r v e y o f t h e English, French a n d G e r m a n stylistic features i n their m u t u a l relationship as t h e v o l u m e o f material should h a v e m a d e possible. O w i n g t o t h e paucity o f E nglish m o n u m e n t s , t h e possibility o f t h e French Chartres style's having been i n t r o d u c e d i n t o Scandinavia via E n g l a n d — w h i c h , f o r instance, o u g h t t o h a v e been n a t u r a l i n N o r w a y — has generally been o v e r looked 1 . Extraordinarily interesting i n adding t o t h e k n o w l e d g e o f English 12th c e n t u r y sculpture is t h e small M a d o n n a f r o m V a r n u m C h u r c h (Västergötland), n o w i n t h e Borås Museuin, w h i c h has recently b e e n rescued f r o m oblivion and, i t seems, is regarded w i t h every justification as English w o r k o f the m i d d l e o f t h e 12th century, c o m i n g f r o m a w o r k s h o p t h e style o f w h i c h closely corresponds t o that o f t h e reliefs o n t h e w est f r o n t o f L incoln Cathedral 2 . T h e attribution is strongly supported b y t h e existence o f a closely related M a d o n n a f r o m Ranes C h u r c h i n t h e T r o n d h e i m area, n o w i n t h e Videnskapsselskapets Samling i n Trondheim^, a n d t h e M a d o n n a f r o m U r n e s C h u r c h (Sogn) i n Bergens Museum* a n d t h e M a d o n n a o f N y k i r k e (Vestfold) i n t h e Oldsakssamlingen, Oslo?, are also closely related t o t h e t w o f o r m e r Madonnas. F r o m these figures t o t h e sculptures dealt w i t h i n t h e following chapter is, h o w ever, a l o n g w a y , a gap i n t h e style development almost impossible t o span. A t t h e beginning o f t h e period i n question here, t h e early Gothic sculpture i n E n g l a n d a n d o n t h e continent w a s a t its height, a n d d u r i n g t h e n e x t f i f t y years t h e transition t o H i g h G o t h i c takes place ; i n France at t h e m i d d l e o f t h e century, i n E ngland t o w a r d s St. Michael and the figure of the bishop, see also the latter work p. 395. af Ugglas has, however, later (op. cit. 1915, p. 573) abandoned this theory of origin since H. Cornell m "Spridda Studier från Utställningens Avdelning för Medeltida Träskulptur" (in Utställningen af äldre Kyrklig Konst i Härnösand 1912, Studier, Stockholm, 1914), p. 53 pointed t o a connection with the Rheims sculpture. This derivation from Rheims has later been generally accepted (cp. op. cit. 1918, p. 150 f.). There is, however, clear proof of the German origin of the figure, proof which I hope to be able to produce in a separate paper later. 1 See, however, R. Norberg "Fem Ångermanländska Madonnabilder" (in Ångermanland 1940—41, Härnösand 1941), p. 88 f., w h o compares a Madonna i n Fjällsjö Church (Ångermani.) t o a St. Olav figure f r o m Vernes Church in the Trondheim district (cp. ill. in Hauglid op. cit. p. 4) and regards both as examples o f French style imported to Trondheim via England. 2
See R. Norberg "Varnummadonnan, ett Lincolnarbete från iiootalet?" (in Fornvännen, 1948, 4, Stockholm, 1948). The author mentions some ten more works from Västergötland, more or less influenced b y English 12th century art; although definitely Swedish work and rather primitive at that; Madonnas from Berga, Mofalla, KinneKleva, Älgarås, KållandsÅsaka, Härja; St. Mary and St. John from a Calvary i n Häggesled; triumphal crucifixes from Fullösa and Ledsjö, and a Madonna shrine from the neighbouring province of Dalsland as well. Whether or not the t w o flying 13 th century angels from Tärby Church (Väs tergötl.) mentioned by the author (op. cit. p. 240, note 1) have any connection with English art is, bowever, uncertain. 3 For ill. see Fett "Billedhuggerkunsten. . Maria" (Oslo, 1937), p. 88.
op. cit. p. 20 fig. 25, and the same author "Vår Frue Jomfru
4
For ill. see Fett op. cit. p. 20 fig. 23.
5 For ill. see Fett op. cit. p. 20 fig. 24. This Madonna is especially closely related to the Madonna in Berga {Västergötl.) mentioned in note 2.
t h e e n d o f t h e period a n d after conflicts w i t h t h e domestic traditions i n t h e c o u n t r y . I t is t h e rapid transfer o f t h e n e w early G o t h i c style w h i c h is characteristic o f t h e sculptural p r o d u c t i o n i n N o r w a y d u r i n g t h e reign o f H å k o n Håkonsson, a n d i t is t h e absorption o v e r a l o n g e r p e r i o d a n d t h e assimilation w i t h older, domestic types w h i c h is typical o f t h e c o n t e m p o r a r y Swedish sculpture. F r o m early times t h e no rsemen w e r e w e l l skilled i n t h e art o f w o o d c a r v i n g — although their plastic conception o f t h e h u m a n f i g u r e i n its different details w a s o f t e n rather p o o r , a n d w h e n i t c a m e t o their ability t o p r o d u c e a m o r e modulated, psychological expression t h e y w e r e f a r inferior t o their colleagues i n southern E u r o p e w i t h t heir richer a n d m o r e refined culture. B u t I will n o t anticipate t h e results o f t h e i m p e n d i n g investigation.
2 .T w o IMPORTED ENGLISH W O R K S AND A NATIV E SCHOOL OF SCULPTURE I N THE TRONDHEIM REGION
a. St. Michael of Mosviken O n e o f t h e m o s t exquisite o f all medieval sculptures preserved i n Scandinavia is t h e figure o f St. Michael, s o m e w h a t u n d e r f u l l size, n o w i n t h e Videnskaps selskapets Samling i n T r o n d h e i m , emanating f r o m Mosviken C h u r c h o n t h e o t h e r side o f t h e Firth o f T r o n d h e i m 1 . St. Michael, tall a n d slender, stands w i t h h is legs crossed o n t h e b a c k o f a dragon 1 . T h e h e a d is slightly inclined f o r w a r d t o t h e left. T h e l eft shoulder is d r o o p i n g a n d t h e left a r m is h i d d e n behind a n a r r o w , pointed shield w i t h c o n v e x surface p r o t e c t i n g t h e left side o f t h e saint, w h i l e t h e r i g h t a r m is raised w i t h t h e l o w e r a r m slightly b e n t f o r w a r d ; t h e h a n d has i n all probability b e e n h o l d i n g a lance o r a spear directed against o n e o f t h e dragon's t w o heads. T h e beautifully shaped o v a l h e a d o f t h e saint is exquisite i n its details. T h e c r o w n o f t h e h e a d is delicately arched a n d i n clined f o r w a r d w i t h a thin, upstanding r i b b o n tied a r o u n d t h e head. A b o v e t h e r i b b o n t h e hair is parted i n t h e m i d d l e w i t h fine a n d discreetly curling tendrils divided b y fine, n a r r o w scores. O v e r t h e forehead t h e hair lies i n a roll o f i n w a r d curving tendrils, g r o w i n g t o w a r d s t h e temples a n d f o r m i n g a thick p a d b e h i n d t h e free, well sculptured ears. T h e forehead is slightly arched, a n d t h e e y e b r o w s are s w u n g h i g h i n immensely fine sharp contours o v e r t h e w i d e o p e n pointed o v a l 1 The angel has earlier been reproduced in H. Fett "Billedhuggerkunsten. . o p . cit. p. 58 f. and is there mentioned in connection with the Westminster and Lincoln sculpture. a Oak. — Height about 165 cm. — The right hand and its attribute, as well as the wings of the angel are missing. — Colours: golden hair, pink carnation, brownishred eyebrows and eye contours, blue eyes, red mouth and nostrils ; the mantle is red with lily ornamentation in gold and (now blackened) silver, green lining; tunic of gilt silver with black neckband and orange lining; shield of gilt silver with black edges; dragon in mild blue with red j aws, black eyecontours and brown spine, the larger head with orange coloured ears, the smaller with the same colour in the open jaws, the wing in the forepart in silver with scales d e signed in black and feathers in gilt silver, all on an orange coloured socle.
eyes with sharply cut eyelids and convex globes. Some three to four millimetres under each eye there is a tiny cavity which adds expression to the eyes. Owing to the inclination of the head the right part of the face is somewhat longer than the left one and the right eye is also longer than the left. The long narrow nose is slightly aquiline with the tip somewhat rounded. The broad cheeks filling up the fine oval of the face are faintly rounded, almost flat. The upper lip is softly hollowed over a small, finely cut, arc shaped mouth; the lower lip protrudes over a dimple in the narrow, pointed chin. From this head, in itself an exquisite masterpiece of art, radiates an older, more refined culture, in an aesthetic as well as humanitarian respect, than the one w e may assume to have existed in Scandinavia during the 13 th century. — T h e head receives its full dig nity through the high slender neck, the modelling of which is only intimated through broad, faint hollows on either side of a central ridge with the Adam's apple immediately below the chin. The mantle lies plainly over the left shoul Fig. 30. St. Michael. Detail. Mosvihen. der with a faintly upstanding edge, and is draped around the waist on the right side in a broad fold turned upward and revealing a crescentshaped fold of the lining. The mantle lies thinly draped over the right hip and hangs shortly below the knees in a slightly arched contour. The tunic has a round low neck, and hangs from the narrow rounded right shoulder and upper arm in soft, parallel curves bending over the mantlefold round the waist, and the outer curves forming soft plumelike hanging surfaces over the latter, while the outermost to the right forms a soft loose coil outside the right hip. The lower legs under the tunic are modelled in slightly hollow surfaces; three folds are spread fanwise between the legs. The problem of the position of the feet is most elegantly solved: The entire figure is resting on the toes of the right foot supported against the neck of the drag
on, and on the heel and big toe of the left foot supported on the coil of the tail and the spine of the dragon respectively. The effect is of something h ov ering and airy which must have been increased in a magnificent way when the figure was complete with a pair of mighty wings spreading out f rom the back and enveloping the com position with its sweeping contours. O n the back of the angel there are distinct marks of a pair of wings in the form of recesses and plugholes. The dragon is in a walk ing position with one wing drooping, trampling with his feet on a small oval piece of earth. The head is stretched upwards, twisting with open j aws and tongue reaching out. The tail is coiling up and supplied with another, smaller head, reaching up along the left leg of the saint. Sufficient colour remains to give us an impression of the discreet splendour of this representative of the hosts of heaven, as he took shape in the imagination of Fig. 31. St. Michael from Mosviken. the 13 th century artist. The colours have the same refined, calm harmony, the same reticence of expression so characteristic of the angels proud carriage and the noble inclination of the head as well as of the delicately modelled details of the drapery. (On colouring, see note p. 108). n o
There can hardly be any doubt as to the English provenance of this figure. The slim, delicate head bears witness to the Byzantine inspiration so strongly noticeable in English art as late as the middle of the 13 th century. W e can, for example, com pare St. Michael's face to an angel in mosaic above the Emperor's Door in the Hagia Sophia (fig. 32)1 where w e find the same longish type of face with the long nose. In France we find, for instance, an angel from one of the buttresses of the Rheims Cathedral (fig. 33) from the middle of the century, which, with its narrow ribbon around the head apparently belongs to the same cate gory of Byzantine descendants. But here the French plastic with its firm sense of form is already manifest, the different levels are strongly accentu ated, the face is considerably broader, Fig. 33. Angel. Detail the nose has a well defined shape, and Fig. 32. Angel's head, Hagia Sophia, Constantinople. Rheims Cathedral. the eyes are already Gothic, consid erably narrower. But if there is a Byzantine element in the facial type of our St. Michael figure, the Byzantine element is also entirely limited to the face. Otherwise the figure is as western as can be. The Byzantine St. Michael figures are presented in majestic frontal postures with a broad stance and dressed in imperial garments with magnifi cently adorned stiff borders2. The German representations of St. Michael are also poised with a broad stance on the dragon, just as w e see them in the Byzantine prototypes^. The crossed legs with the advanced foot twisted and giving the im pression of a dancing step is a wellknown feature in west European sculpture of the 12th century, above all in the Toulousian, but at the time when our St. Mi chael was created, it must already have been considered rather oldfashioned, judging by the rareness of the motif on the Continent. This position with the legs crossed may thus, in other words, be regarded as a conservative feature in English 13 th century sculpture, perhaps partly due to the English artist's effort to achieve 1
T h e mosaic was executed immediately after 869 and is a representation of the guardian angel of the church. See Alfons Maria Schneider " D i e Hagia Sophia zu Konstantinopel" (Berlin, 1939), p. 29. 2
A n exceptionally magnificent example of this Byzantine type of St. Michael i n a western version is reproduced b y Jean Ebersolt i n his " O r i e n t et Occident" (Paris, 1928), Pl. XVII, a fresco i n the cathedral of P u y , France. — O n Byzantine versus occidental cp. Graf G. Vitzthum "Antrittsvorlesung zur Byzantinischen Frage" (in Byzantinische Zeitschrift, 1911), p . 353. 3 N u m e r o u s examples could b e quoted f r o m German manuscripts. It is of special interest t o us t o observe examples of this type i n Sweden, in sculpture like the St. Michael figure at Haverö mentioned above at p . 106, o r 13th century examples like, for instance, a St. Michael f r o m Asklanda C h u r c h in t h e Gothenburg Museum. C p . a St. Michael i n the Flensburg Museum, a figure I find very important as regards the der ivation of the Haverö figure; it is published b y Fritz Fuglsang" " E i n e Gruppe schleswigscher Holzskulp turen des 13. Jahrhunderts" (in Festschrift aus Anlass des 25jährigen Eröffnungstages des Museums gebäudes . . ., Flensburg, 1928). O n a St. Michael at Stöde (Medelpad) ср. b el o w p . 271.
increased m o t i o n i n t h e figure1, b u t t h e fact that this has b e e n maintained m u s t perhaps t o t h e same degree b e seen as a n example o f t h e English artist's w e l l k n o w n taste f o r t h e eccentric. O u r St. Michael figure shares t h e leg position w i t h m a n y o f t h e gallant warriors o f t h e epoch, resting o n their sarcophagi i n English c o u n t r y churches. I n o r d e r t o get t h e English origin o f t h e St. Michael figure f r o m M o s v i k e n c o n vincingly confirmed, w e will c o m p a r e i t w i t h t h e sole angel statue surviving f r o m t h e m i d d l e ages i England, viz. t h e Annunciation A n g e l i n t h e C h a p t e r H o u s e o f Westminster A b b e y (Fig. 20). T h e correspondence is striking. T h e r e is something similar already i n t h e l o n g face t y p e w i t h t h e b i g eyes, b u t n o t o n l y t h a t ; t h e v e r y posture o f t h e angel w i t h t h e r i g h t f o o t twisted o u t w a r d is t h e same, a n d that t h e t w o angels are f e l l o w c o u n t r y m e n is m o s t noticeable i n t h e treatment o f drapery : n o t e h o w i n b o t h cases t h e drapery begins o n t h e r i g h t h i p w i t h a f e w r o u n d e d folds, a n d finally developes i n t o pointed angular forms, a n d h o w this section is f r a m e d b y v e r y l o n g a n d v e r y n a r r o w coneshaped folds, c o m i n g f r o m either side a n d converging d o w n w a r d , a n d h o w t h e v e r y discreetly curving contours o f t h e m a n t l e h e m are v e r y closely related i n b o t h cases. T h e s oftly s welling m a n t l e f o l d at t h e waist w i t h sliceshaped f o r m s is i n either case t h e v e r y same. A certain d i f ference i n t h e character o f t h e drapery modelling is conditioned b y t h e material, i n o n e case stone, i n t h e o t h e r w o o d . W h a t is stiff a n d sharply edged i n W e s t minster is soft a n d flowing i n T r o n d h e i m . B u t t h e correspondence is so deeply r o o t e d a n d t h e quality o f t h e M osviken angel so h i g h t h a t I d o n o t hesitate t o m a i n tain t h a t t h e M osviken St. Michael is a n English piece o f w o r k , p r o b a b l y m a d e i n a L o n d o n w o r k s h o p at approximately t h e same t i m e as t h e Westminster figure, i . e . a b o u t 1250. T h e r e are n o sufficiently closely related w o r k s i n Scandinavia that could possibly j u s t i f y t h e assumption that t h e M o s v i k e n St. Michael is a N o r w e g i a n piece o f w o r k , w h e t h e r b y a n English artist o r English o r b e t w o r k i n g i n N o r w a y . This appears almost comically distinct f r o m another St. Michael figure, t h e m a k e r o f w h i c h w a s u n d o u b t e d l y inspired b y t h e M o s v i k e n St. Michael o r a similar figure. It is t h e St. Michael f r o m N ä s k o t t (Jämtl.), n o w i n Östersund M u s e u m (fig. 34) 2 . T h e contrast 1 In the magnificent English(?) St. Michael reproduced b y M. H. Bernath in " An EastAnglian Primitive i n Germany" (in Burlington Magazine, London, 1928) from the beginning of the 14th century, the motion is strongly accentuated b y the flow of the mantle, but the figure has an even stance o n the back of the dragon. — The dancing position of the legs and feet can be found in figures o n the page from a Winchester Bible from the end of the 12th century (Millar op. cit. Pl. 48). In a 13th century Apocalypse from Oxford w e find an angel with exactly the same foot position as ours has. See O. E. Saunders "English Illumination", 2, op. cit. Pl. 91. — In German art from the same century w e find an exceptional example of a similar position of legs and feet in the Wechselburg sculpture. See below fig. 68. It should probably be regarded as a sign of influence from Toulousian sculpture. See W. Kleiminger "Figur und Raum. Zur Wesens bestimmung der^ deutschen Plastik des 13. Jahrhunderts" (Kiel, 1948), p. 37. г Pinewood. — Height about 140 cm. — The right arm and its attribute (a spear?) are missing; the nose is broken off; as far as I can see there is n o trace of fastening points for the wings which have probably been fixed o n a piece of boarding o n the back of the figure. — The colouring may be original, it is, at any rate,
between the two figures is quite fascinating; one an aristocratic representative with Byzantine ancestry from one of the leading cultural centres of Western Europe, the other a NorthNorwegian Viking descendant
medieval : hair b r o w n , carnation pink, cheeks and chin red, lips red, ÊÊ and there are red lines around brownedged blue eyes ; dark green f Я mantle w i t h orange lining ; red tunic w i t h big, white, round spots ; И И в J B the belt is black, the shield red w i t h a silver cross and a dark green border w i t h white foliation; the dragon has a dark green head, black 34 St. Michael from Näskott. eyes, a n d the b o d y is striped i n red, white, orange, and green; the g r o u n d slab is orange coloured. — T h e figure was published b y H. Cornell in "Norrlands Kyrkliga Konst. . . " op. cit. p. 166 f. and the same author "Spridda Studier. . . " op. cit. p. 57 compares the figure t o the St. Michael f r o m M o s v iken. 1
T h e same stance also occurs i n a small St. Michael f r o m H o v C h u r ch (Soknedalen) in the Videnskaps selskapets Samling, Trondheim. (Pinewood, height about 53 cm.) T h e figure is a r o u g h piece of w o r k and, j u d g i n g b y the drapery treatment, hardly earlier than f r o m about 1300.
8—903547
Fig. 35. Madonna from Austrat. Detail.
heim. The figure is n o w — in a pitiful state owing to paint of a later date — in the Videnskapsselskapets Samling in Trondheim like the figure from Mos viken1. The Virgin2 sits frontally on a low bench with the right foot somewhat advanced 011 the semicircular socle slab. In the raised right hand she has probably been hold 1
Published b y H. Fett i n ' ' V å r Fruc. . op. cit., p. 70, and dealt w i t h in a m o r e scholarly connection by C . R. of Ugolas in " M a d o n n a n 'Austråt I' och Sverige" (in Kulturhistoriska Studier tillägnade Nils Åberg 1938, Stockholm), p. 202 f. 2
O a k . — Height about 106 c m . — T h e Virgin's right forearm is missing; a piece of the veil is broken ofF o n the left side, and the leaves of the c r o w n are missing ; a big crack and holes in the part of the mantle between the legs and o n the outer side of the right foot ; the right a r m and left hand and foot of the Child a r e missing; a large piece is chipped off t he socle in front. — T h e paint is f r o m the 18th century at the earliest. I I 4
ing a flower spray (the hand is missing) ; the left hand lifts a fold of the mantle and supports the Child which sits on her left knee. The Child's right hand (missing) was raised in an attitude of benediction towards the spectator, the left hand (missing) has been lowered, it probably held an attribute, an orb or a book. The peculiar proportions of the figure give it its strong artistic effect: the head of the Virgin is only some 13 cm high, while the total length of the body is 102 cm. T he slender, columnlike stature of the trunk gives the shoulders a narrow and sloping shape and does hardly permit any hips. It is further emphasized by the mantle which envel opes the tall, slender body like a shell, but is hardly more than just visible through the plain even contour of the mantle edge. The face of the Virgin is delicately mod elled with a high straight, in the upper part slightly arched forehead, set in a frame of two narrow tendrils coming down f r o m the parting in the middle and mod elled with carved hollows. The veil stands up like a plain, stift screen framing the face on either side. The nose is broken off, but the details of the face are otherwise well preserved with the delicately arched eyebrows and wide open Gothic eyes, the lids of which are made to appear as though really protruding f r o m under a fold of the skin. The cheeks are well rounded, the mouth very prominent with full, well formed lips and a small pointed chin. The slender, round neck is not excessively Fig. 36. Madonna from Austråt. long. — O n the right side the mantle lies with an upturned fold over the sloping right thigh and runs along the inner side of the leg in a plain flap turned over triangularly, ending in a long narrow pointed flap on the socle between the legs ; on the outer side of the right thigh two arched folds protrude, the lower at a sharp angle, and the mantle finishes at the bottom in a hanging skirtlike rounded flap framed by two seemingly pressed, flattened coneshaped folds (the incorrect painting makes it look in the illustration as if the mantle continues all the way down to the socle slab, which, however,
is not the case). The plain surfaces are everywhere livened by narrow, designing ridges in thin relief. The right knee is sculptured under the cloth, but the inward bending lower leg is very narrow and gradually disappearing, and on the outer side there is a thin, faintly hollowed pointed triangular mantlefold hanging down from the knee. O n the left side the mantle Hes over the fingers of the left hand and falls in an incredibly long, narrow fold, hollowed in front, ending on the socle in an outward turned crescentlike flap or point. From the left side of the bench there is a long narrow fold hanging down to the socle where it turns outwards revealing a triangle of the lining. The contour of this fold is a repetition of the motif of the fold hanging from the left hand. — The low neck of the tunic is round (distorted by the painting), and from shoulder to shoulder across the upper part of the chest runs a series of narrow rounded ridges, softly and delicately turning and branching out. O n the lower part of the chest are grouped a series of narrow, upstanding folds, parted by wide hollows with narrow ridges running through the middle on either side of a large Vshaped fold, and falling over the waistband, which is narrow, in a slightly plumeshaped curve. The band is without a sculp tured buckle and its end falls almost vertically and disappears with a pronounced loop under the mantlefold by the right groin. Dense vertical folds alternating with broad hollows with narrow ridges lie over the stomach, the tunic falling in a couple of vertical folds below the mantle on the right side, and curving up softly on the socle. From the inner side of the left leg (incorrectly painted with the same colour as the mantle) some sharply protruding arched folds end abruptly against the right leg. The very small feet of the Virgin are visible, the tips of the narrow, tapering shoes peeping out from under the hem of the tunic. The Child has the same slender proportions as the Virgin, and the folds of his frock converge towards his left hip. The details of His face are very similar to those of the Virgin's, but the forehead is lower, the hair is arranged in a roll or a pad, and the leaves of the coronet are still intact. As regards the bench there is only this to be said; the strongly sloping top with the cushion gives a deliberate semblance of perspective, a phenomenon we shall find in quite a number of the English inspired cult statues in Norway 1 . Ever since the figure was first published it has been connected with the sculpture of the west façade of the Wells Cathedral2. This derivation of the style of the figure is best proved by comparing it to the (badly mutilated) Madonna in the portal of St. Bartholomew's Hospital in Bristol (fig. 13). Here we find the same tall, slender proportions with the long trunk3, a similar arrangement of the mantle on the inner side of the right leg, and a somewhat similar drapery treatment over the chest and between the legs. And also the position of the legs of the Christ child 1 2
O n the possible origin of the motif, see below, p.211 f.
See above, p. 114 note 1.
3 The illustration (fig. 13) unfortunately does not d o the proportions full justice as the photograph was taken from below whereby the length of the lower legs has become greatly exaggerated. H Ö
is practically identical. Nevertheless, I am not very much inclined to equate the Wells style and that of the Austråt Madonna. The latter is of a more gentle kind than any of the statues of the Wells west front. The very sensitively modelled curved folds on the chest, thin as the nerves in a leaf but graded and softly alive in the modelling, rather bring to one's mind the Purbeck tombs from the middle of the century (see above, p. 64 f.). As regards the arched shape of this system of folds o n the chest, one might with greater justification point to the Annunciation Angel in the Chapter House of Westminster Abbey, whose facial shape and modelling on a whole, moreover, provide yet another reason for comparison. The semblance of perspective in the bench is of a form which does not occur in the Wells Cathedral but in a group of Norwegian sculptures from the middle of the century, and the inspiration seems to have come from East Anglia (see below, p. 212). Several char acteristic details remind us of this group, for instance, the flat stiff cornetshaped folds and the arrangement of the mantle on the right of the outer side of the lower leg, where two stiff cornets frame a broad, downward hanging skirtshaped sec tion with a narrow Yshaped ridge (cp. fig. 105). This arrangement does not occur among the seated figures of the Wells façade, except possibly in the group of "The Coronation of Mary" which, however, occupies a special position among the sculp tures of the façade (see above, p. 21), and not even here is the motif comparable t a that of the Austråt Madonna with its stiff, restricted conventionalization. The style of the Austråt Madonna is in its conventionalization more akin to that of the tympanum figures of the southeast porch of Lincoln Cathedral. Compare for i n stance the ribbonlike folds on the chest of the Christ figure in that tympanum (fig. 25), the arched folds on the outer side of his thighs and the flatly pressed folds on the fore side of his lower legs with the respective parts in our Madonna. This is not meant as a denial of the obvious relationship between the Austråt Madonna and the Wells sculpture; but it deserves to be pointed out that one cannot alto gether explain the Austråt figure on the basis of the Wells sculpture; her features are younger and — partly — differing from those of the latter. I am also inclined to regard her as somewhat later than the Wells sculpture — although only negligibly so — about 1255, and as having been made in an East Anglian workshop of whose production she is the sole survivor. With reference to what has been said about the Wells sculpture as a chronologically rather than locally defined phase in the development of English sculpture, considering the relationship of the Madonna with the Lincoln sculpture, and considering that the Norwegian trade relations with England were livelier in the eastern than in other parts of the country, this determination of the figure is in every respect the most defendable and appealing of them all. Like the St. Michael from Mosviken the Austråt Madonna has possibly been the cause of rough domestic imitation in a Madonna from Maere, also in the Viden skapsselskapets Samling in Trondheim. However, we shall not linger on the subject 8*—903547
I I 7
of these purely provincial works which give a rather distorted picture of the artistic activity in the Scandinavian countries. It is so much less justified as many creations of higher quality can be mentioned, works which in all probability come f r o m a Trondheim studio operating at about the same time as the figures just men tioned were made, and in a related style, inspired f r o m England. c. A Sculpture Workshop in Trondheim at the Middle of the 13th Century. N o n e of the works mentioned in this chapter have been preserved in Trond heim itself, b ut their distribution over the greater part of the country is such that Trondheim forms the natural common origin of them all. T h e northern Scan dinavian characteristics are, besides, strongly accentuated b y the material: pinewood. They are all carved f r o m this material and there was an abundance of pine in the T rondheim district, while oak trees hardly are known to have existed there. W i t h regard to style the figures — six altogether — display such singular unity that the time of their creation — possibly with the exception of the youngest — may very well have been limited to some ten years. Besides, they are of a somewhat earlier style than the t w o imported figures dealt with above, a pure Wells style. T w o different artistic temperaments o r different phases in the Fiq. 37. St. Olav from Tyldal. development of one artist are observable in the group, one more harmoniously proportioned and psychologically expressed, and the other conventionalized, bold and inaccessible. W e regard the former as the older phase, the one more close t o the foreign models, and include in this group a Madonna f r o m Lillhärdal (Härje dalen), a St. Olav figure f r o m Tyldal (Hedmark), and another in Refsund (Jämt land). T h e younger phase is represented b y a Madonna f r o m Kall (Jämtland), and a St. Olav f r o m Seim (Hordaland). A standing St. John f r o m Austråt (North T r ö n delag) does contribute to our knowledge of the repertoire of motifs, of course, but is
in itself a very crude piece of w ork which bears witness to the decline of t he workshop ; both iconography and style probably display influence from other art centres. It appears from the distribution that the earliest figures are found at Tyldal, south of Trondheim, and in the then Norwegian provinces of J ämtland and Härjedalen, both belonging to the economic sphere of Trondheim 1 . Besides, Härjedalen belonged to the Trondheim Diocese, and Refsund in Jämtland is situated on the old pilgrim road to Trondheim 2 . The figures in the younger group are found within a circle even closer to Trondheim, with the sole exception of the St. Olav from Seim on the Norwegian west coast, considerably more within reach of Bergen. This, however, is neither surprising nor contradictory : the connections between Trondheim and Bergen were lively and the best communication was by sea. In order to get a true idea of the origin of the style developed by the workshop of Trondheim, it is ap propriate that w e should begin with the St. Olav fig ure from Tyldab. St. Olav 4 sits in a frontal position, head slightly inclined, holding in his right hand the shaft of a battleaxe and in his left an orb resting on his left thigh. The figure is so striking in its resem blance to the seated king N . 57 at Wells (fig. 38) that an account of the parallels would turn out to be a concise description of the Tyldal figure of St. Olav. W e recognize the short and broad type of face set in a 1 See Nils Ahnlund"Jämtlands och Härjedalens Historia" I (Stock h o l m , 1948), p. 60. O n administrative connection between J ämtland and Härjedalen ср. p . 181. O n T r o n d h e i m as the capital " b y " (town) of the Jämtlanders, ср. p . 476.
Fig. 38. Statue of King (N. 5 7 ) . Wells Cathedral.
3
Ahnlund op. cit. p . 196. C p . p . 408 £.
3 T h e figure published b y Fett i n op. cit. p . 60, and compared t o the St. Michael f r o m Mosviken. — C p . F. B. Wallem & I. B. Larsen "Iconographia Sancti O l a v i " (Trondheim, 1930—47), p. 17. 4 T h e figure is n o w i n the National Museum, Copenhagen. — Pinewood. — Height about 130 c m . — T h e leaves of the c r o w n are missing, and the shaft of the battleaxe is n e w . T h e original shaft was probably m u c h shorter. — Colours: Pink carnation w i t h rosecoloured cheeks, crimson m o u t h ; eyes w i t h w h i t e eyeballs, bluish green rings w i t h yellow iris and black pupils ; eyebrows b r o w n , contours of eyelids b r o w n ; there are traces of gilding in hair and beard; the c r o w n is parchment coloured w i t h black edges, b u t was probably gilt originally; the mantle is red w i t h black hems and a bluish green lining; the tunic is silver w i t h pale gilding; the waistband o r belt is silver w i t h a decorative pattern i n black; shoes decoratively painted : o n the heel a thin vine branch, red o n a black background, ending i n f r o n t i n a white ball border askew across the f o o t ; the cushion o n the seat is white w i t h blue stripes forming squares; the stool has red edgings, white o r faintly greenish shaded sections w i t h decorative patterns painted in black ; socle treated in the same way. I I 9
Fig. 39. St. Olav from Tyldal. Detail.
Fig. 40. St. Olav from Tyldal. Detail.
frame of a narrow roll of hair over the forehead and a thick Sshaped tendril on either side. W e recognize the wide open eyes and, above all, the short, straight nose with the classical profile. The mantle, screenshaped behind the back, occurs frequently at Wells, and the wide stance of the seated figure with sloping thighs and feet turned outward shows the most satisfying correspondence with the Wells king in question, and the same applies to the distribution of the drapery on the chest, the decorative loop of the waistband, the fold ridges hanging vertically from the knees and the strong curved folds between them. The garments of the Tyldal figure are, however, — perhaps owing to the softer material of the wood — softer and more swelling, as, for instance, in the softly rounded hollows of the upper part of the sleeves as well as the curved folds between the legs, where they form regular bags. Similar soft, baggy folds with strong clubshaped hollows hang on the outer sides of the legs. — H o w fundamentally different it is; the noble face, so expressive of character, of the Wells king, compared to the satisfied grin of the St. Olav from Tyldal. The Norse sculptor has also allowed himself a radical conventionalization in certain parts, most evident in the ballshaped curls of the mustache and in the even distribution of the beard in plain surfaces alternating with hollows twice as broad and with sharp ridges in the middle. This conventionalization also extends to the drapery arrangement, and the folds on the chest are in their clear rhythmic ally defined division in stronger and thinner folds of a structure as logical and serene as in a fascicle of Gothic columns. O n either side of the Vshaped fold in the middle of the chest run alternately stronger ridges, increasing downwards towards the belt in triangular surfaces, and evenly narrow ridges. In the middle of each moulding runs a fine, narrow ridge.
The other St. Olav figure in this group, at Refsund, is an only slightly varying repetition of the Tyldal figure, but considerably smaller.1 A comparison with the St. Olav figure from Seim2 of approximately the same size3 as the Tyldal figure is, however, very interesting. The slenderness is further accentuated and especially striking in the wasp waist, but otherwise the figures are as similar as they can possibly be (see fig. 42). The motif of the mantlefold on the inner side of the right leg of the Tyldal figure also appears here, and is symmetrically repeated on the inner side of the left leg, thus to a certain extent revealing the exhaus tion of the artist's stock of motifs which develops into conventionalization and decorative repetition. Note also h o w insensibly the fold of the mantlestrap is reproduced. Nevertheless, the carving is extremely skilfully and powerfully done, and the figure is in every way striking. — The face was probably never meant to be seen in profile, but a glance from the side is quite revealing: the Greek profile together with the lower part of the face, withdrawn to accen tuate the inclination of the head, makes an appalling caricature (fig. 43). The masterpiece of the Trondheim workshop, perhaps the oldest preserved example, as humanly attractive as it is artistically well balanced, is the Ma donna from Lillhärdal (fig. 44—45)4. The Virgin sits, slender and straight, on the bench with her head turned Fig. 41. St. Olav in Refsund. somewhat to the right, and the right foot somewhat advanced on the socle slab, which is softly rounded in front. In the right hand she has been holding a flowerscepter, the point of support of which is still visible in the 1 Pinewood. — Height about 77.5 c m . — T h e leaves of the c r o w n are missing, and so are the lower left a r m and the upper part of the axe o r scepter held i n the right hand. — Since the photograph reproduced here was taken, the figure has been atrociously repainted w i t h thick oil paint. 3
Mentioned b y Fett i n "Billedhuggerkunsten. . Fett "Hellig O l a v " op. cit. p . 68.
op. cit. p . 60 and compared t o the Tyldal figure. C p .
3 N o w in the Bergen Museum. — Pinewood. — Height about 123 c m . — T h e leaves of the crown, the lower arms and considerable sections of the mantle o n the back of the figure as well as of the bench between the legs are missing. — T h e paint is practically gone, b u t there are traces of blue o n the outside of the mantle. 4
Belongs t o the collection of Distriktslantmätare A . H . L. Andersson, Sollefteå. — Pinewood. — Height about 101.5 c m . — T h e Virgin's nose, the right lower arm, and the leaves of the c r o w n are broken off a nd missing ; the head and arms of the Child are missing as well as the right leg and left f o o t ; a piece of the f o o t slab is chipped off i n the front. — Colours : the Madonna shows traces of having been repainted, b u t under this paint there are remnants of the original colours, such as red o n the outside of the mantle, and blue and white in the lining.
mantle lining on the right leg. With her left hand she holds the Child on her left knee. As in the Tyldal St. Olav, the mantle envelops the slender body like a shell, and is draped over the legs in a similar way with the lining turned out in broad folds and with the flap from the left side draped in curves between the legs. But the right lower leg is plainly and delicately mod elled, and on the socle between the legs the mantle falls in a pointed fold. The queenlike, slender long neck and the narrow sloping shoulders, together w ith the dense folds spreading fanwise over the breast, make the figure attractive in a refined way, and the series of small outwardsrunning ridges in the hem of the tunic on the socle gives an effect of vivacity. In many respects this com position resembles the Austrat Madonna (fig. 36), and the latter is also brought to mind when studying the shape of the face. The countenance is framed o n both sides by an undulating, screen shaped edge of the curly hair, parted in the middle over the delicately rounded, faintly convex foreheadJ The eyebrow arches are swung upwards, and the pointed oval eyes are surrounded by narrow eyelid rims. Although the nose is broken off w e can imagine that the profile was classical ; the rounded cheeks, the little round chin and the delicate little mouth with dimples in the corners, joined with the wings of the nose through a little oblique fold of skin, Fig. 42. St. Olav from Seim. contribute to add life and human ex pression to the face. The posture and drapery of the Christ child is wholly reminiscent of Austråt. The difference in harmony and balance which w e have observed in the St. Olav figures of Tyldal and Seim, are also typical of the relation between the Madonnas from Lillhärdal and Kail. W h a t is in the former case a modulated abundance of form and expression is in the latter conventionalized force with decorative ex aggeration and outstanding skill and technique in woodcarving. The Kail Ma
donna 1 is mainly a rough repetition of the Lillhärdal figure, but is not quite without credit and individuality (fig. 46). The elements of the drapery arrangements are essentially the same in both cases. Note, for instance, the heavy, hanging angular bags on the outer sides of the legs, and the fall of the dress under this section of the mantle in a crescentshaped, upturned fold, making a contour against the front of the bench. The drapery of the dress over the feet, with the points of the shoes revealed like in the Austråt figure, is also the same. There is, however, something personal in the shape of the face, flattened from underneath and with a small dimple in the short chin, and the treatment of the hair is something quite unique, arranged in a series of discs placed one on top of the other with rounded contours. There is some thing lively and vigorous about this Madonna, Fig. 43. St. Olav from Seim. Detail. with her exaggeratedly long trunk inclining somewhat to the right, which gives her an impression of leaning on the flowerscepter, the shaft of which she holds in her elegantly long, slim fingers resting on her right knee. The Child also takes an attitude which deviates somewhat from that of the other figures, with his left foot energetically placed on the Virgin's left knee. Behind the Virgin's right arm the mantle is full, like a sail before the wind. The astonishingly narrow bench (2.5 cm broad in the middle) is a phenomenon she shares not only with the Lillhärdal Madonna but also with St. Olav from Seim. This peculiarity seems to be due to the material; it would be rather difficult to find a pine log thick enough to allow the modelling of a broader bench. The smallest figure in the group, the St. Olav from Refsund, has a bench of more ordinary proportions. The Madonna from Kali and the St. Olav from Seim have much in common : the extremely slender torso which makes the shoulders fit in badly with the trunk and leaves the arms hanging loosely, like those of a jointed doll, the long cylindrical neck, the withdrawn lower part of the face, the profile with the burlesquely protruding nose and the small pouting mouth half open. Besides this there is the indisputable skill of the carving and the fossilized expression. Both figures were probably made by the same sculptor. 1 N o w i n the Östersund Museum. — Pinewood. — Height about 100 c m . — T h e flowerstalk i n the Virgin's right hand is missing, and so are the right a r m and left h a n d of the Child. — T h e figure received its present shrine at the end of the middle ages, and was at the same time repainted. T h e t o p of the Virgin's head was then remodelled t o serve as a basis for a m o r e modern and probably m o r e magnificent c r o w n than the original one which was, in all probability, carved i n one w i t h the head.
Fig. 44. Madonna from Lillhärdal.
Fig. 45. Madonna front Lillhärdal.
The remaining figure, belonging, like the two previously mentioned, to the younger phase of the workshop, is a John the Baptist from Austråt (fig. 47)1. H e stands with his feet wide apart, hfting in his left hand an Agnus Dei disc. Apart 1 N o w i n Videnskapsselskapets Samling, Trondheim. — Pinewood. — Height a b o u t 128 c m . — T h e tip of the nose has been knocked off at some time and later repaired. T h e figure was entirely repainted at a later date.
f r o m a cloak the figure is nude. It is chiefly his head, which both in hair treatment and facial shape, reminds us of the St. Olav figures of this group, especially the one f r o m Seim, and justifies a comparison. The modelling of the body is very poor indeed. The cloak has a few large, tubeshaped folds and some baggy ones with large club shaped hollows. The broadness and freedom of the drapery makes a younger impression than any of the figures described above. The iconographical type of the John the Baptist figure — nude, with only a cloak swept about him — might also as a cult figure be a rather late innovation f r o m the century of St. Francis1. A surprisingly true replica of this representation of John the Baptist appears in a painted figure on an antemensale f rom Tjugum (fig. 48), defined as a piece of work showing French influence f r o m the end of the 13 th century at the earliest2. The Austråt figure probably ought to be re garded as approximately contemporary to the painted figure and indicates that this wood carving school had representatives as late as the end of the century, men who received new, foreign impulses. 1 C p . b e l o w the figure f r o m Follebu (fig. 104) probably older and sculptured after an English model. Karl Künstle "Ikonographie der Heiligen" (Freiburg, 1926) does n o t mention any n u d e J o h n the Baptist figure f r o m the H i g h Gothic. As far as I k n o w there is n o example of the motif in French cathedral plastic f r o m the 13 t h century, and i n " L a Bible Moralisée" f r o m the middle of the 13 t h century J o h n t h e Baptist has always tunic and mantle. See A. Laborde"La Bible Moralisée" (Paris, 1911—27). In a graduale of a Dominican monastery o n the upper Rhine (?) f r o m the end of the 13 t h century the initial I occurs, added at the begin n i n g of the 14th century, where o u r type of J o h n the Baptist appears in a series of scenes. See Swarzenski op. cit. Fi I , p . 129 f.; II, ill. 607. — I n a seal of the C i t y of Ghent S 46. Madonna from Kail. of the year 1275 there is a seminude J o h n the Baptist closely resembling the one f r o m Austråt in iconography, but clad in a hide instead of a usual cloak. See Demay op. cit. p. 439, fig. 506. — T h e comparative rarity of this type of J o h n the Baptist in 13th century plastic m a y only b e accidental. As a matter of fact w e find this type only clad in the skin already in the " P o r t e d e St.Gall" f r o m about 1185 in the cathedral of Bale. See W. Deonna " L a sculpture suisse des origines à la fin d u X V I e siècle" (Bâle, 1946), p . 28, fig. 14. 2 See Fett " N o r g e s Malerkunst. . . " op. cit. p. 162 f. and p. 252, and Lindblom " L a peinture. . . " op. cit. p . 146 and p . 152. T h e antemensale is seen b y b o t h authors in connection w i t h a French inspired school of painting i n Bergen. St. J o h n the Baptist f r o m Austråt makes one w o n d e r whether the antemensale f r o m T j u g u m ( n o w in the Bergen Museum) might have been made i n Trondheim, after all.
As a means by which the Trondheim workshop could be dated, the Wells sculpture is naturally decisive. N o t until after the death of Duke Skule in 1240 did Trondheim get lasting peace and order 1 , and in the year 1248 the corner stone of the west front of the Trondheim Cathedral, is laid % W*ИИИИ1 * e*' a ^ a r g e s c a l e artistic enterprise is started 3 . It would n a t u r a t o % " . J œ S l H * l assume that the Trondheim workshop began its activity some time during this decade. As regards its prerequisites, this is m y theory : The m a n w h o made the Lillhärdal Madonna had certainly worked in the workshop of an English woodcarver as an apprentice. Very likely he had pupils of his own, fellow countrymen, in Trond heim. T h e Madonna figure f r o m Kali and the St. Olav f r o m Seim represent a younger, more nationalistic phase in the activity of the master. If not, they must be the w o r k of one of his colleagues with very much the same training as his own, or of a very prominent pupil at his workshop. T h e close correspondence to the Austrat Madonna is explained thus: the Madonna is a piece of work imported f r o m E n g Fig. 47. St. John the Baptist land, indicating continued relations from Austråt. between the Trondheim region and the milieu in which the N orwegian master received his training. She has, however, later char acteristics than the earlier works produced b y the T r o n d heim workshop; she is representative of English conven tionalization of the motifs existing in the Trondheim school of sculpture, but displays at the same time n e w elements introduced f r o m other quarters (cp. above, p. 117). Thus not even the Trondheim sculptures should — in m y opinion — necessarily be derived directly f r o m Wells. They may have their roots in an eastern English woodcarving school representative of the Wells style. W h e n comparing, for example, the St. Olav f r o m Seim and the English king in Wells (fig. 38), or the Madonna f r o m Austrat and the Madonna f r o m Kali, one cannot help thinking of J . E. Sars' comment o n the Norwegian translations of foreign literature in relations to the originals during the same century: 4 'Man har naesten k u n et Lig 1
See Mathiesen op. cit. p . 82.
2
C p . above, p . 101.
Fig. 48. St. John the Baptist painted on an antemensale from Tjugum.
t i l b a g e " (there is hardly b u t a corpse left) 1 . B u t a n impartial j u d g e m e n t w o u l d h a r d l y b e q u i t e as n e g a t i v e i n o u r case. It w a s a skilful w o o d carver, n o t a dilettante, w h o carried o u t t h e t w o N o r w e g i a n figures. M i g h t i t n o t h a v e b e e n th at h i s c o n c e p t i o n o f divinity, different f r o m t h e English, w a s t h e cause o f t h e s e severe a n d s o l e m n l y staring statues? Perhaps h e h a d received, after all, his deepest impressions f r o m t h e R o m a n e s q u e M a d o n n a s o f his h o m e district, w i t h their terrifying e y e s staring i n t o a n u n k n o w n distance, w h i c h lies h i d d e n w i t h i n themselves. T h e r e is n o answer t o these questions.
3 . T H E MADONNA FROM HOVE CHURCH AND FURTHER EVIDENCE OF A BERGEN WORKSHOP IN THE REIGN OF HÅKON HÅKONSSON O n e o f t h e finest m e d i e v a l sculptures i n Scandinavia is t h e M a d o n n a f r o m H ove C h u r c h i n t h e p r o v i n c e o f S o g n 2 n o r t h o f B e r g e n , still radiant w i t h m a g n i f i c e n t g i l d i n g — b u t crippled i n s o far as b o t h t h e M a d o n n a and h e r chair are brutally s a w n o f f at ankle level. It w o u l d b e t e m p t i n g t o regard a G o t h i c masterpiece l i k e this as a n i m p o r t e d w o r k f r o m a richer artistic and cultural e n v i r o n m e n t , b u t there are several indications that this is o n e o f t h e first w o r k s f r o m a N o r w e g i a n w o r k s h o p active f o r a l o n g t i m e , as this w o r k s h o p has l e f t several traces i n N o r w e g i a n Early G o t h i c sculpture. It is natural f o r m a n y reasons t o assume that t h e w o r k s h o p w a s situated i n nearby B e r g e n , and o n l y t h e k n o w l e d g e o f H å k o n Hàkonsson's aesthetic interests a n d international connections c a n p r o v i d e t h e correct b a c k g r o u n d t o m y assumption, w h i c h w o u l d b e m o r e t h a n b o l d i f I d i d n o t simultaneously p r e s u m e that t h e w o r k s h o p w a s established w i t h t h e aid o f o n e o r m o r e masters s u m m o n e d t o N o r w a y f r o m abroad. I shall h a v e t o m a k e y e t another assumption i n order t o justify t h e M a d o n n a ' s b e i n g included i n this w o r k : t h e sculptors w e r e i n v i t e d o v e r f r o m England. F r o m w h a t w e k n o w a b o u t t h e Early G o t h i c i n H å k o n H àkonsson's N o r w a y , t h e truth o f such a n assumption is m o s t probable, b u t it m u s t also b e p r o v e d stylistically.
The Virgin3 sits in a frontal position on a bench the top of which inclines somewhat 1 3
Sars op. cit. p. 346.
N o w in the Bergen Museum. — Published by Fett "Billedhuggerkunsten. . same author "Vår Frue. . ." op. cit. p. 72. 3
op. cit. p. 54, and the
Oak. — Height about 94 cm. — The figure is sawn off at ankle level. The right hand of the Virgin is missing, and so are the leaves of the crown. The Child's left forearm, fingers of the right hand, right foot and toes of the left foot, the leaves of the crown are also missing. Colours : The Virgin's crown is gilt with black contours and vertical, red and green ovals alternatingly with green "colons" in between; the veil is white with gilt edges and bluish green shadings in front; the lining is bluish green; the hair is gilt, carnation pink, eyebrows and eyelid contours brown, cheeks rosy, eyes of a mild blue, mouth light red; mantle gilt with black and reddish brown fur in broad bands, lining blue and white ; the border of the mantle with a decora tive pattern drawn in black and white ; tunic gilt with a neck decoration drawn in black with an inner field shimmering in red and green; same pattern of sleeve borders; belt black with a pattern of reserves in gold. The head and crown of the Child like those of the Virgin, the Child's mantle gilt with red lining; tunic gilt and with sleeve and neck borders similar to those of the Virgin. The cushion on the bench is dark green
forward. In the right hand (which is n o w missing) she has held a sceptre, the shaft of which has been resting (in a cavity) on the outward turned mantle lining o n the outer side of the right knee. She supports the Child on her left knee with her left hand with the finger tips hidden in the mantle fold, all except the ring finger. The circlet of the crown is relatively broad, and the veil lies plainly behind the hair which falls down from the parting in t he middle in thick, curling, del icately fluted tendrils, framing the evenly rounded oval of the face with a somewhat pro truding chin and a straight, rather big nose with a thick rounded tip. The eyebrows are evenly arched over p ointed oval eyes with rather convex eyeballs. The mouth is small and delicately sculptured with the corners slightly indented. The neck is high and cone shaped. The mantle stands up behind her body like a screen, and is edged with fur halfway down the upper arms. W i t h the lining turned out in a wide surface the mantle lies spread over the right thigh and knee and continues, with the front edge turned upwards, under Fig. 4g. Madonna from Hove. the Christ Child in an in creasingly narrow fold. In the left side the turned up fold of the lining disappears under the Child but descends diagonally between the legs from the left knee. O n the outside of the thighs the mantle runs in sliding curves and falls down from the bench in narrow rounded ridges. Around the right lower leg, sculptured under the fabric, the mantle w i t h black and white pattern, top of bench red, edging gilt, facet edge white shaded i n red downwards, the side of the bench white shaded w i t h blue upwards a n d w i t h trefoils and n a r r o w rounded " w i n d o w s " , all w i t h a black innerground and w i t h double contours.
sweeps in crescentlike folds, with diagonally ascending folds on either side, and around the shin hes a "lifted", crescentshaped, faintly hollowed fold. The thin material of the dress is draped smoothly and loosely around the upper arms and twisted around the fore . . .. arms. Across the chest the tunic is draped i n dense, fine, rounded ridges, spreading out p lumelike and blousing in a soft curve over the narrow belt, the end of which, with an elegant twist, hangs down over the stomach. O n the left side of the chest two ridges j oin in a "lifted", faintly mould ed fold; otherwise the folds are divided by soft hollows. The soft drapery continues across the stom ach in dense, round rid ges. The Child, whose head is broader and rounder than that of the Virgin, raises his right hand in an attitude of benediction ; in the left h and he has obviously been hold ing some object against his left knee. The mantle is Fig. 50. Head of Madonna from Öystese. swept around him, the lining turned out across the stomach and the right leg, which lies turned outward against the lining of the Virgin's mantle, while the left leg hangs diagonally with the foot dropping downwardforward. The Hove Madonna was not the only one of its kind. A Madonna head f r o m Öystese Church (Hardanger) 1 east of Bergen, conserved in the same museum, has such a family likeness to her that the close relationship is quite indisputable2. 1 Published i n Fett "Billedhuggerkunsten . . . " op. cit. p . 40, and the same author " V å r Frue. . . " op. cit. p . 72, a n d compared t o the H o v e Madonna. 2
O a k . — Height about 20 c m . — T h e circlet of the c r o w n mutilated, and the leaves missing. Colours : C r o w n gilt, w i t h ornamentation d r a w n i n black w i t h circles, horizontal ovals a n d rhomboid ornaments separated b y "colons" a n d partly filled w i t h red and greenshimmering colours ; the inside of the c r o w n circlet is decorated w i t h larger and smaller threetongued leaves painted red ; veil green, hair gilt, carnation pink, eyelid rims a n d eyebrows b r o w n , iris bluish green i n several shades, cheeks rosy and m o u t h light red.
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The same deep crown, the same loose waving tendrils, the same screenlike veil, the same regular, oval face with rounded cheeks, soft Hps and nose with a rounded tip. But the Öystese Madonna might claim the be the younger sister: the hair Hes in thinner locks, not thick and rich as in the Hove figure, and the eyes have a some what straighter undercontour, a more Gothic pointed shape. The variation is not so great, however, as to lessen the probability of the figure's having been made by the same master. By comparing his two Madonnas to works of the early Purbeck marble school in London, I consider the EngHsh origin of the artist confirmed. In King John's tomb in Worcester we find this soft, flowing, rich drapery style with rounded profiled folds, shoulders sculptured under the fabric and the soft material of the dress loosely draped around the arms, the same broad circlet of the crown decorated with large jewels, the same love for magnificent ornamentation. The same thick and wavy tendrils frame the face of the king and that of the Hove Madonna, and the correspondance to the facial type of the early Purbeck school becomes increas ingly distinct when the Hove head is compared to the corbel heads in Rochester Choir (fig. 14) or the transept in SaHsbury1 : the same rounded, low forehead, the same evenly rounded oval face with swelHng cheeks and without noticeably in dented temples, the same rather thick nose with fleshy but softly rounded tip. At first glance it might seem justifiable to regard the Madonnas as imported works, the products of a prominent London workshop from the 1220'ies. But many sculptures might be grouped around these Madonnas in Norway, showing that the workshop exerted a lasting influence on the entire westNorwegian sculp ture. And if it is possible to draw these conclusions from material so fragmentarily preserved, there is every reason to assume that the workshop actually was in Nor way, in Bergen, although the leadership, at least at the beginning, may have been EngHsh. Judging by the evidence we possess, the contact with England was kept aHve, as certain changes of style are noticeable, which otherwise could not easily be explained in a domestic production. The latter observation is above all based on the study of two crucifixes, which both seem to have come from the Bergen workshop although greatly apart in time. The older came from the church at Fresvik (Sogn)2, and only the Christ figure remains. Christ^ hangs with his head slightly bent towards his right shoulder and the arms 1
See Prior & Gardner op. cit. p. 232, fig. 224. O n the Purbeck Marble School, cp. above, p. 55 f.
2
Mentioned by Fett in "Billedhuggerkunsten. . ." op. cit. p. 43 as a crucifix of unknown origin. — Lindblom op. cit. p. 127 compares the crucifix with the Christ figure o n the antemensales from Kinsarvik and Hauge, and assumes that it came from the Master's o w n workshop or another belonging t o the same school. The similarities are o f a very general nature, but the observation which puts the crucifix in the same group as English influenced paintings in N o r w a y naturally confirms our English derivation of the sculptural workshop as a whole. 3
Oak. — Height about 77 cm. — The thumbs and the middle finger of the right hand are broken o f f and missing. — Colours: crown, hair and beard in gilt silver; the crown has black edges and j ewelry painted
Fig. s1 Crucifix from Fresvik.
are stretched out horizontally with stiff fingers. The trunk forms a slight arch forward with the left leg bent, lying across the right in profile and with the knee protruding. The feet are crossed and fastened together with a wooden nail. The head carries a heavy crown and the curving tendrils of the hair frame the face with its closed eyes and brows knit in pain. The screenlike treatment of the hair and the narrow shape of the face deviate to a certain extent f r o m the same fea tures in the two Madonna figures. The trunk is well sculptured with a half circle i n green, diagonally placed squares and horizontal red ovals alternatingly w i t h white reflections o n t o p ; the plumeshaped leaves of the c r o w n are decorated w i t h leaves d r a w n i n black; light pink carnation, pink cheeks and roots of hair, light red m o u t h , b r o w n eyelid contours and eyebrows, b r o w n little strokes along the edge of the beard; reddish tinge around the nipples and red blood oozing f r o m the gash under the right breast; the shape of the ribs is indicated b y light pink contours; the loincloth is held in gilt silver w i t h black lines along the edges and w i t h a red lining; the waistband, shawlshaped, is white w i t h black contours along the edges a n d a bluish green lining.
Fig. 52. Crucifix from Mosviken. Detail.
formed by the collarbone around the neck, breast bone and accentuated breasts with nipples; below the chest is rather flat; the diaphragm has a broad, vertical hollow and a few small muscles sculptured over the rounded belly with a navel. The legs are rather short and powerfully sculptured. The style connection with the H o v e Madonna is distinctly apparent in the modelling of the loincloth. This is suspended from a narrow shawlshaped piece of material tied in a knot with an upstanding loop on the left side, and concealed in f ront by a broad overhanging fold of the loincloth with pleated folds going inwards round the Vshaped midsection. O n the right side another broad flap hangs over the waistband in soft curves with turned up coiling hems. The loincloth is softly and richly draped around the right leg
Fig. S3 Crucifix from Mosviken.
with a flowing movement up towards the left hip. The right leg is covered, framed, modelled and draped with narrow, rounded ridges which twice merge into a crescent shaped, slightly hollowed surface as around the lower right leg of the Madonna. The crucifix from the church of Mosviken (North Tröndelag) 1 proves to be 1
Published b y Fett "Billedhuggerkunsten . . op. cit. p . 57 and here attributed t o the same master as St. Michael f r o m Mosviken. — Figure and cross of oak, the b o d y fixed t o the cross w i t h iron nails. — Height about 120 c m . — T h e arms of the cross are sawn off as is the t o p of the stake; below the ballflower t o the right and the edging are missing. — Colours : c r o w n of thorns green, hair and beard gilt, carnation pink, trickles of blood o n the forehead, pale pink cheeks, pale red m o u t h , eyebrows black, contours of eyelids and little strokes along the edges of moustache and beard dark b r o w n ; spear gash in the chest blue a n d red, traces of red blood o n the hands, loincloth in silver w i t h black lines along the edges a n d red lining w i t h a
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the y o u n g e r o f the t w o , f o r several reasons : t h e royal c r o w n is here replaced b y a twisted c r o w n o f thorns, t h e b o d y is straight, n o t bent forward i n a n arch, a p e c u liarity typical o f a g r o u p o f Romanesque metal crucifixes, a n d t h e proportions o f t h e b o d y are m u c h taller and m o r e slender w h i l e the loincloth, w h i c h repeats the Fresviktype (but i n a different position), is m o r e modulated i n its distribution o f folds and ridges a n d plain surfaces, n o t s o rich b u t m o r e clear, and t h e k n o t o n t h e right h i p has a bigger, m o r e decorative and elegantly sculptured l o o p . B y e x a mi ni ng the face o f the M o s v i k e n crucifix w e w i l l find that t h e correspondence w i t h the t w o Madonnas is quite surprisingly great : the tendrils fall i n the same soft, delicately fluted w a v e s , the n o s e has t h e same fleshy, softly rounded tip, and t h e m o u t h is equally delicate and soft. T h e eyes are closed a n d t h e e y e b r o w s knitted as i n t h e Fresvik figure, t h e moustache has t h e same brushlike texture, w h i l e t h e beard, divided i n t o fine tendrils w i t h t h e ends rolled inward, is rather reminiscent o f K i n g J o h n i n Worcester. T h e arms are stretched o u t horizontally, e v e n m o r e s o than i n t h e Fresvik crucifix, and h a v e t h e same stiff fingers, b u t the m o d e l l i n g o f the b o d y is n o t equally sensitive. T h e upper section o f t h e chest has the shape o f a disc, and the t w o nipples are placed symmetrically like ornaments w i t h o u t a n y natural connection w i t h the actual anatomy. I n contrast t o this flat chest w e see the b a g g y , h a n g i n g belly, beginning abruptly under t h e h o l l o w o f t h e diaphragm. T h e ribs protrude like a decorative grill o n b o t h sides w i t h a diagonal con tou r i n front. T h e right l e g has t h e same sharp m o d e l l i n g w i t h an almost cylindrical thigh, sharp shin, calves pressed o u t and the b i g t o e stretched o u t i n cramp. T h e decora tive e l e m e n t i n t h e loincloth is emphasized t h r o u g h the folds running d o w n f r o m t h e l o o p being m u c h looser, a n d t h e n a r r o w folds at t h e stake o f t h e cross b e i n g lo n g e r at t h e right side, thus stressing t h e vertical element o f t h e comp os ition and, at the same time, essentially c o m p l e m e n t i n g i t and g i v i n g i t balance. H o w then can w e explain t h e relationship b e t w e e n the Madonnas and t h e t w o crucifixes? T h e Fresvik crucifix is, as pointed o u t above, o f an older t y p e than that o f M o s v i k e n , and the equally s o f t a n d rich, b u t m o r e articulate arrangement o f the drapery o f t h e latter, w i t h larger surfaces o f t h e b o d y sculptured under t h e cloth, brings i t closer t o the Madonnas than t h e Fresvik crucifix. S o does, a b o v e all, t h e shape o f t h e face and t h e hair treatment. T h e Fresvik crucifix m a y b e a n i m p o r t e d piece o f English w o r k , s o m e w h a t older than t h e other figures, b u t o r i g i nating f r o m the same artistic circle as represented b y t h e creator o f the Madonnas. T h e M o s v i k e n crucifix is, w i t h its crude m o d e l l i n g o f b o d y and tendency towards conventionalization hardly t h e w o r k o f the maker o f t h e t w o Madonnas himself, b u t m a y w e l l b e that o f o n e o f his abler N o r w e g i a n pupils. It deserves t o b e m e n pattern of gold dots in groups of five evenly distributed, white waistband with blue lining ; edges of cross silver (originally gilt?) with a pattern of horizontal purple ovals and green diagonal squares separated b y "colons", red and green alternatingly, red facets inwards; the convex inner surface of the cross is green, and in the trefoil d o w n below there are traces of a painted angel, the symbol of the Evangelist St. Matthew, with golden wings i n a red field.
1.3.4
tioned that the colour scheme of the works here dealt with displays the same corre spondence as does the plastic style (see colour description in the footnotes). The crucifix from Mosviken has in all probability a somewhat younger cousin in a triumphal crucifix in the church of Rödven (More)1 which, as far as the quality of the sculptural work is concerned, is entirely equal to the Mosviken crucifix. The arms are bent upwards in a gentle curve and the eyes are open. The shape of the cross is the same as in Mosviken, a type we often meet in English inspired Nor wegian sculpture. The inner surface of the cross is convex, bordered by plain facets, and at the ends of the crossbars and the stake, there are indented fields the shape of half quatrefoils with a straightly cut moulding outwards. In the outer spandrels of the foils ballflowers grow (see fig. 53 in the lower lefthand corner). Otherwise surprisingly little of WestNorwegian sculpture remains. A Ma donna2 and a St. Olav3 from Röldal Church (Hardanger) in Bergen Museum, both showing distinct signs of having been influenced by the drapery style and arrangement in sculptures of the Hove Madonna type, are of too provincial a quality to be dealt with in detail here. Considerably more interesting is a small Madonna from Grong Church (North Tröndelag)t, in the Videnskapsselskapets Sa'mling in Trondheim, which shows distinct signs of a connection with the workshop which produced the Hove Ma donna, but which at the same time proves to be a younger representative of this workshop through new style elements which are hardly older than the middle of the century, and whose domestic character is emphasized by features corresponding to those of an EastNorwegian school of the same period? and by highly personal characteristics. W h e n comparing the M a r y f r o m G r o n g 6 t o t h e M a d o n n a f r o m H o v e o u r 1
Cp. Fett "Billedhuggerkunsten . . op. cit. p. 57, where the crucifix is attributed to the sculptor o f the Mosviken crucifix. For ill. see the same author "Gotik o g Klassisk Höimiddelalder" (in Norsk Kunst historie, op. cit.), p. 211. 2 Published b y Fett "Billedhuggerkunsten . . op. cit. p. 41, here mentioned i n connection w i t h the head from Oystese. Cp. the same author "Vår Frue. . ." op. cit. Detail of the head p. 64.
3 Published i n Fett "Hellig O l a v . . ." op. cit. p. 75. 4
Published b y Fett in "Billedhuggerkunsten. . ." op. cit. p. 57 and fig. 95, mentioned here in connection w i t h the Mosviken crucifix. 5
See below, p. 206 f.
6
N o w i n the Videnskapsselskapets Samling, Trondheim. — Oak. — Height about 62 cm. — The leaves of the crown are damaged, the right forearm and the Child's head and arms are missing. — Colours : the crown is gilt w ith black contours and palmettes reserved in the black o n the leaves of the crown ; o n the larger leaves vertical purple ovals and o n the smaller green squares placed diagonally, white "colons" i n between; the veil is white w i t h a blue shadowing along the edge and a red lining; the Virgin's hair is gilt, carnation very pale pink, light red at the roots of the hair, rosy cheeks, red lips, darkbrown eyebrows and eyelid rims, blue eyes with dark pupils ; the mantle is gilt with black lines along the hems and black furedging ; fur lining i n bluish green and white ; the tunic is gilt with black lines along the hem, lining red, and across the chest traces of a painted j e w e l with black contours and green and purple "stones"; the belt is black with a reserved gilt pattern; the shoes are black and the socle green; the Child's smock is gilt with black lines along the h e m ; the cushion of the bench is green checked i n white and red; the seat is brown with a red edging
Fig. 54. Madonna from Grong.
Fig. 55. Madonna from Grong.
first impression of relationship is surprisingly great; the heavy crown, the fur trimmed border of the mantle screen behind the shoulders, the very similar out ward turned fold with raised edge over the right leg, the drapery of the tunic across the chest. But the face is of a broader, rounder and more square type, with a short Gothic nose, a faint smile in the coquettish corners of the mouth, and the fluted waves of the hair are somewhat straighter and more restricted. All this is typical of advanced Gothic. The posture of the Child was lively enough in the Hove Madonna, but here the left foot, elegantly twisted around, kicks against the right knee of the Virgin while the right leg is raised with a pointed knee and the decorated w i t h black contours, w h i t e moulding shaded downwards i n green and a foliated frieze reserved i n black; gilt edging; the main part of the bench is white w i t h black " w i n d o w s " and a black central edging, and shaded slight b r o w n upwards a n d light red downwards ; the lower moulding has a foli ated frieze and is shaded i n green, the lower edging is red. — In the rounded hollow of the chest a coloured piece of glass paste has probably been set as a jewel.
entire b o d y i s b e n t i n t o profile. T h e m o t i o n is rather ungraceful, n o matter w h e t h e r i t is derived f r o m an English, o r s o m e other foreign, m o d e l o r is a n expression o f t h e N o r s e sculptor's efforts t o i m p r o v e o n t h e original b y g i v i n g i t m o r e life a n d energy 1 . Such an i m p r o v e m e n t — a n e x a m p l e o f »horror vacui» o r t h e N o r w e g i a n sculptor's weakness f o r conventionalized heightening o f expression — is i n all probability t h e distribution o f t h e sharp vertical ridges i n t h e fur lining o f t h e mantle spread o n the l e f t side o f t h e throne, a distribution w h i c h is quite e x c e p tional i n t h e rendering o f a fur surface (usually quite s m o o t h ) a n d a little unrea sonable. N o t e v e n t h e f o l d o f lining o n t h e right l e g has b e e n a l l o w e d t o remain plain as i n t h e H o v e Madonna, b u t is b r o k e n i n t h e m i d d l e b y a sharp ridge. T h e vertical drapery pulled tightly around t h e right l e g , caused b y t h e mantle b e i n g caught under t h e f o o t , brings t o m i n d , h o w e v e r , a contemporary East N o r w e g i a n school 2 . T h e w i d t h o f t h e screenshaped v e i l w i t h a little e d g e f o l d e d i n wards o n either side^, t h e plain surfaces a n d undercontours o f t h e h a n g i n g c o n e shaped folds f o r m i n g a n o p e n r h o m b o i d space« are quite i n correspondence w i t h the same p h e n o m e n o n i n t h e East N o r w e g i a n school w h i c h , admittedly, also seems t o h a v e sprung f r o m English prototypes, albeit f r o m t h e m i d d l e o f t h e c e n tury. T h e G r o n g M a d o n n a is thus a hybrid; a n e x a m p l e o f t h e introduction i n t o the o l d w o r k s h o p o f n e w impulses, that is, i f t h e assumption that she c o m e s f r o m the same B e r g e n w o r k s h o p as t h e H o v e M a d o n n a is correct. T h e similar colou r scheme, and certain details i n t h e painting w h i c h t h e t w o figures h a v e i n c o m m o n , s e e m t o c o n f i r m this assumption. H o w difficult a task i t is t o investigate t h e stylistic provenance o f a sculpture o n the basis o f details o f garment and posture appears clearly w h e n s tudying t h e Christ Child, w h o s e l o n g smock, w i t h folds running parallel towards t h e left side, is n o t f o u n d i n t h e same w a y i n the N o r w e g i a n figures at o u r disposal except f o r t h e Austrat M a d o n n a and t h e T r o n d h e i m g r o u p m e n t i o n e d ab ove. T h u s influences 1
Cp. above fig. 46. Essentially the same leg position as in the Child figure, although calmer and more harmonious, is to be found in a Madonna in Bönsnes Church (Akershus). I am inclined to regard this Ma donna, which in many respects differs from the material dealt with here, as an imported piece of North French work. The figure is skilfully and elegantly sculptured, the composition is harmonious and firm, and every element is perfectly balanced. The date of its production is, in m y opinion, nearer the middle than the begin ning of the century. The drapery of the mantle o n the outer side of the right leg and the position of the Child can be compared t o those of the Madonnas of the FrancoDanish school, such as, for example, the one from Selsö in the National Museum, Copenhagen, and the one i n Sällstorp (Halland, Sweden). The harshness of the carving brings to m y mind the Madonna from Gassicourt, mentioned above, or perhaps rather a small Madonna figure from V . Skrukeby (Östergötl.) n o w in the Statens Historiska Museum, Stockholm, which C. R. af Ugglas in "Tiotusen År i Sverige" (Stockholm 1945), p. 256 regards as an imported French figure from about 122$. The Madonna is here said t o come from the church of H ö g b y (see ill. op. cit. fig. 258), but her original church has since been found t o be V . Skrukeby. — The Bönsnes figure is reproduced b y Fett i n "Vår Frue . . ." op. cit. p. 98—99. I may add that the Madonna is carved in oak, about 80 c m high, and that the arms of the Child and the attribute are modern as is the present colouring. *Cp. fig. n o . 3 Cp. fig. 106. 4 Cp. fig. 104.
f r o m three different quarters s e e m t o m e r g e i n this little M a d o n n a figure, a n d w e g e t a g l i m p s e o f t h e c o m p l i c a t e d i n t e r w o v e n pattern o f i n t erm i n g l i n g impulses a n d ideas i n t h e v e r y l i v e l y N o r w e g i a n artistic w o r l d o f t h e r e i g n o f H å k o n H å konsson. I n each specific case, h o w e v e r , t h e e v i d e n c e p o i n t s t o E n g l a n d as t h e u l t i m a t e source o f inspiration, a n d w h a t w e discern h e r e is o n l y a reflected radiation f r o m t h e c o n t e m p o r a r y English sculptural w o r k s h o p s , w h o s e oeuvres are f o r e v e r l ost. 4 . T H E MASTER OF ENEBAKK AND RELATED NORWEGIAN WORKS
a. St. Mary from Enebakk, a crucifix in this church, and a Calvary group from Östsinnen. A greater contrast t o t h e H o v e M a d o n n a as regards style t h a n t h e M a d o n n a f r o m Enebakk (Akershus) is hardly imaginable, a n d a c o m p a r i s o n b e t w e e n these t w o figures is especially i m p o r t a n t as t h e St. M a r y f r o m Enebakk 1 is o n l y slightly i n ferior t o t h e H o v e M a d o n n a w h e r e quality is concerned. St. Mary* is seated frontally o n her s t o o l w i t h t h e Christchild o n h e r l e f t k n e e a n d t h e right k n e e turning s o m e w h a t o u t w a r d . In h e r ri g h t h a n d she has p r o b a b l y b e e n h o l d i n g a flower spray (sceptre). U n d e r t h e l o w c r o w n t h e hair is parted i n screenlike w a v e s o n either side o f t h e l o n g o v a l face w i t h t h e h i g h forehead, t h e w i d e o p e n G o t h i c eyes, t h e t h i n delicate n o s e w i t h its faintly c o n c a v e bridge, t h e small p o u t i n g m o u t h a n d t h e firm t i p o f t h e n a r r o w chin. T h e hair is f r a m e d b y t h e veil, a n d t h e stiff e d g e o f t h e m a n t l e f o r m s a shell around t h e upper torso, w i t h its lining w i d e l y turned o u t a n d ru n n i n g i n a n e v e n , s m o o t h c u r v e u n d er t h e r i g h t a r m and across b o t h thighs. T h e stiff, e v e n l y pressed surfaces i n t h e l i n i n g are typical o f t h e fabric treatment o f this figure. T h e l e g s are s m o o t h l y m o d e l l e d , ou tl i n e d t h r o u g h t h e cloth, a n d o n t h e o u t e r side o f t h e ri g h t t h i g h runs a sharply protruding, screenshaped, f r a m i n g f o l d w h i c h further accentuates t h e s m o o t h l y r o u n d e d shape o f t h e b o d y , t o t h e s a m e e x t e n t as d o t h e n a r r o w r o u n d e d c u r v i n g f o l d s l y i n g o n t h e o u t e r side o f t h e t h i g h , w h i c h rise a b o v e t h e surface o f t h e l e g n o m o r e t h a n t h e nerves o f a leaf. T h e ri g h t k n e e is exquisitely rounded, a n d t h e s m o o t h c u r v e o f t h e l o w e r l e g is sensed as m u c h b y t h e sharp diagonal ridges r u n n i n g d o w n t o w a r d s i t f r o m t h e b e n c h o n t h e ri g h t as t h r o u g h t h e p l a y o f t h i n n e r v o u s lines sculptured i n t h e light, c l i n g i n g material o n t h e inner side o f t h e l e g a n d w h i c h , b e t w e e n t h e l e g s a l m o s t reluctantly loosens u p i n a f e w sharply p r o truding a n d undercut curves r u n n i n g u p t o w a r d s t h e l e f t k n ee. T h e restriction a n d restraint i n the style o f t h e figure b e c o m e as distinct i n t h e w i d e , threefold h o l l o w e d 1
N o w in the Universitetets Oldsakssamling, Oslo. — Reproduced by Fett in "Billedhuggerkunsten. . op. cit. p. 42 and the same author "Vår Frue.. ." op. cit. p. 79. 2
Oak. — Height about 98 cm. — The Virgin's right arm is missing, and pieces of the mantle are chipped off at the back and also from the dress between the feet ; the right hand of the Child is damaged, the front and right leaves of Mary's crown are restored, as are all the leaves of the Child's crown, as well as a piece of the right corner of the socle. — Colour: Traces of red paint on the outside of the mantle.
fold hanging in front from the left knee, not freely and vertically as one might expect, but following the position of the lower leg somewhat inwards, as in the Child's gesture of benediction with the right hand resting against the chest1. The shape of the low neck of the tunic is a pointed curve, and the drapery across the chest is as scant as possible, grouped around a Vshaped midsection with a few broad hollows on the left side and on the right side two broad, hollowed "lifted" folds with sharp edges, which disappear flatly under the narrow waistband and continue with a triangular overturn vertically across the rounded belly. O n the socle the tunic is spread out fan wise with sharp ridges, hollowed surfaces and over turns, and with a couple of oblique edges over the left foot. The softly rounded toes of the shoes are visible, and the left foot is placed on a small footstool of the same type as those in Wells 2 . The Christchild has its mantle swept around the waist, and f r o m the left knee the folds, standing out like fins, hang stiff a nd straight. If w e turn to Wells for parallels to the style of this Madonna, w e will not have to search long. The drapery of the tunic, and a mantle draped in the same way in a diagonally ascending motion towards the left knee can be found for example in the figure of the seated king N . 67З, but perhaps a comparison with the seated Madonna in the tympanum of the western portal« is even more warrantable. At the same time theEnebakk Madonna turns out to be hardly older than the later more gothicized phase of the Wells sculp Fig. 5 6. Madonna from Enebakk. ture mentioned above^. Compare, for example, her face with big Gothic eyes, pouting lips, and curly hair in short waves to those of the queen N . 35 in Wells (fig. 2). But in this case, as little as in that of the Austråt Madonna, does one willingly accept a direct derivation from Wells. 1
C p . above p. 64.
3
C p . above p . 44 £.
3 See ill. i n Prior & Gardner op. cit. p. 303, fig. 326. 4 See fig. i . 5 See above p. 29.
Fig. 57. Crucifix in Enebakk.
Here w e do not have the clear, well defined, slightly rough treatment of the drapery of the Wells sculpture, which so easily becomes schematic. Instead, there is another feeling for the plastic form of the body, a feeling to which the drapery arrangement has to adapt itself. The flat sculptured surfaces of the body play a predominating part, and the folds of the garments are hardly more than indicated by thin ridges, edges, and — so to speak — sucked out bags without any indepen dent plastic life. It is the same unreal, spiritualized drapery design that w e found in the Purbeck tombs from the middle of the century, and in studying the Enebakk Madonna there is, above all, one monument which springs to mind, viz. the W a r rior's T o m b at Rushton 1 . In this connection I shall not say more than that the sculp tor probably received his training in England at the middle of the century. Whether he was an Englishman or a Norwegian is impossible to say. One cannot exclude the possibility that the figure is imported, but there is in Enebakk Church a crucifix 1
See above p . 66.
w h i c h u n d o u b t e d l y w a s m a d e b y t h e s a m e sculptor, a n d m a n y o t h e r figures can b e g r o u p e d a r o u n d these t w o sculptures. T h e Christ figure o f t h e E n e b a k k crucifix — t h e original cross disappeared l o n g a g o — is o f a b e a u t y i n n o w a y inferior t o t h a t o f t h e M a d o n n a . Christ hangs w i t h t h e b o d y i n a slight curve t o t h e left, t h e h e a d leaning o n t o t h e r i g h t shoulder. T h e a r m s are stretched o u t straight, a trifle u p w a r d , w i t h t h e hands open, a n d t h e legs are straight w i t h t h e r i g h t f o o t crossing t h e l e f t w i t h o u t , h o w e v e r , t h e feet t o u c h i n g each other. Christ wears a small c r o w n w i t h leaves like those i n t h e c r o w n o f M a r y , a n d t h e hair falls i n loose, d eeply sculptured tendrils d o w n o v e r b o t h shoulders. T h e l e f t half o f t h e v e r y n a r r o w face is (for reasons o f perspective) modelled i n a curve a n d rather overdimensioned. T h e eyes are closed a n d t h e e y e b r o w s k n i t i n pain w i t h wrinkles r u n n i n g b a c k i n a curve across t h e forehead (cp. M o s v i k e n fig. 52). T h e straight nose is h i g h a n d n a r r o w , t h e cheeks ascetically h o l l o w , a n d o n t h e u p p e r h p t here is a small moustache w h i c h hangs o n either side o f t h e n a r r o w , p r o t r u d i n g m o u t h section w i t h a small m o u t h d r o o p i n g a t t h e corners. A r o u n d t h e j a w a n d t h e r o u n d e d , p r o t r u d i n g chin r u n s a thickness indicating a beard. T h e a r m s h a v e strongly developed biceps w h i l e t h e forearms are v e r y flat like t h e hands, w h o s e slim fingers w i t h r o u n d e d fingertips, are b e n t slightly i n w a r d s . T h e h i g h b u l g i n g chest has a strongly m a r k e d breastbone, w e l l r o u n d e d ribs w i t h a d o u b l e c o n t o u r e d gash i n t h e l e f t side. T h e belly is r o u n d e d a n d t h e d i a p h r a g m has a b r o a d h o l l o w a n d a pair o f peculiar knotshaped muscles o n either side. T h e l o w e r legs h a v e sharp shins a n d t h e calves are s o m e w h a t stiffly sculptured i n t w o levels. T h e b i g t o e o f t h e r i g h t f o o t is pointing d o w n w a r d s . A certain r o u g h leanness a n d stiflness is peculiar t o all t h e details. T h e l o n g loincloth is elegantly sculptured w i t h a waistband a n d a small flap falling o v e r i t o n e ither side. I n f r o n t a w i d e r " s k i r t " is h a n g i n g u n d e r t h e belly, partly twisted i n t o t h e w aistband a n d w i t h i n w a r d t u r n e d , pointed f o l d surfaces f r o m either side, a n d a f e w curved folds i n t h e middle. T h e loincloth is quite plain a n d clinging o v e r t h e legs. S o m e sharp, t h i n folds are d r a w n diagonally f r o m t h e r i g h t calf a n d k n e e t o w a r d s t h e l e f t h i p w h i l e a couple o f t hin, undercut, curved folds h a n g b e t w e e n t h e thighs. F r o m o u t side t h e r i g h t k n e e a coneshaped f o l d boldly protrudes as a consequence o f t h e p u l l t o w a r d s t h e l e f t h i p ; this f o l d is linked together w i t h a w i d e i n w a r d t u r n e d skirtshaped section w i t h a f e w l o n g tubeshaped folds close t o t h e u p r i g h t p o r t i o n o f t h e cross o n t h e right. These tubeshaped folds f o r m , together w i t h t h e l o n g cones o n t h e l e f t side a n d j o i n e d w i t h t h e m t h r o u g h a flat disc r o u n d e d a t t h e l o w e r e d g e , a b r o a d screenshaped section b e h i n d t h e legs a n d t r u n k o f t h e figure, decora tively exploited b o t h t h r o u g h its l e n g t h a n d t h e s o m e w h a t o u t w a r d s w u n g shape b e l o w o n t h e sides. T h e M a d o n n a a n d t h e crucifix f r o m E n e b a k k are u n d o u b t e d l y m a d e b y t h e same 1 Oak. — Height about 115 cm. — The entire figure gilt i n later t i m e s . — M r . Blindheim has kindly drawn the author's attention t o this crucifix.
sculptor. If w e c o m p a r e t h e Christ f i g u r e f r o m E n e b a k k t o t h e M o s v i k e n crucifix, w e f i n d t h a t t h e differences i n style are as b i g as b e t w e e n t h e H o v e M a d o n n a a n d St. M a r y f r o m E n e b a k k — b u t t h e y are n o t so b i g t h a t t h e y cannot b e explained o n a basis o f t w o different phases o r trends i n English a r t d u r i n g t h e f o r m e r h a l f o f t h e 13 t h century. T h e E n e b a k k crucifix w a s perhaps, i n accordance w i t h t h e general c u s t o m o f that time, flanked b y a m o u r n i n g M a r y a n d J o h n . W e g e t a r o u g h idea o f w h a t t h e y l o o k e d like f r o m a C a l v a r y g r o u p f r o m Östsinni C h u r c h (Opland), n o w i n Universitetets Oldsakssamling i n Oslo 1 . T h e Östsinnen sculptures 2 are comparatively m o r e modest as regards size, b u t t h e artistic keeping is v e r y g o o d ; possibly o f a m o r e oldfashioned character t h a n t h a t o f t h e E n e b a k k crucifix. T h e posture o f t h e Christ figure, t h e inclination o f t h e h e a d a n d t h e shape o f t h e countenance w i t h t h e eyes closed are similar i n b o t h crucifixes, a n d here, t o o , Christ wears a r o y a l c r o w n a n d has a w o u n d b e t w e e n t h e ribs o n t h e right. T h e arrangement o f t h e loincloth, h o w e v e r , is s o m e w h a t different inasmuch as t h e b indcloth o r waistband is tied w i t h a b i g k n o t o n t h e r i g h t side, t h e ends h a n g i n g d o w n freely ; b u t i t is essentially t h e same t y p e o f loincloth : t h e l o n g n a r r o w shape w i t h t h e legs sculptured t h r o u g h t h e material a n d t h e sharp diagonal folds t o w a r d s t h e l e f t h i p as w e l l as t h e characteristic coneshaped fold, p r o t r u d i n g o n t h e o u t e r side o f t h e r i g h t k n e e o w i n g t o t h e p u l l t o w a r d t h e h i p . T h e skirtshaped flap u n d e r t h e belly o f t h e figure is partly folded i n t o t h e w a i s t b a n d , j u s t as i n E n e b a k k . T h e Christ figure f r o m Östsinnen gives a n impression o f b e i n g t h e earlier t y p e : this appears f r o m t h e b r o a d a n d h e a v y c r o w n a n d t h e calm, straight contours o f t h e loincloth. H e r e w e find that neither t h e decorative swing i n t h e rear p a r t o f t h e loincloth n o r t h e curved posture o f t h e b o d y a re q u i t e so strongly accentuated. T h e same oldfashioned verticalism is characteristic o f M a r y , w h o is presented w i t h t h e h e a d i n half profile t u r n e d t o w a r d s t h e cross, h e r feet i n a walking p o s i t i o n t o w a r d s it. W i t h h e r r i g h t h a n d , she grasps h e r l e f t w h i c h points u p w a r d s b e f o r e t h e left side o f t h e chest, a n d t h e m a n t l e is pulled u p w i t h a f o l d i n t h e l e f t e l b o w . T h e m o t i f w i t h a c r o w n e d M a r y a t t h e f o o t o f t h e cross is something q u i t e exceptional. T h e arrangement w i t h t h e l o n g veil, t h e left half o f w h i c h is l y i n g 1
Published by Fett i n "Billedhuggerkunsten . . o p . cit. p. 42 f. — Cp. the same author "Vår F r u e . . . " op. cit. p. 69. 2
Oak. — The height of the Christ figure about 79 cm, that of the t w o flanking figures about 90 cm. — Cross and arms of the Christ figure missing; the toes of the right foot are broken off and missing; the same applies to the front part of Mary's left foot. — Colours: Christ: Crown, hair and beard gilt, carnation pink, mouth red, wound in chest red, loincloth gilt with green lining. Mary : Crown and hair gilt, traces o f blue in her eyes, veil red with green lining, mantle red with blue lining, tunic gilt with red lining. John : hair gilt, traces of blue in his eyes, red mouth, mantle green with red lining, tunic gilt; the socle under the feet of J ohn has orange top and front edge, a white part with network i n black, the bottom part is green with orange edging. — The white spots o n the figures i n the photograph is caused b y the gesso which, remains i n many places where the paint has fallen off.
Fig. 58. Calvary group from Östsinnen.
in a curve round the throat, and the right half hanging down on the outside of the right arm well below the hip is strikingly reminiscent of the fashions of the female figures in Wells1, and in Wells w e also find counterparts t o the peculiar cut of the mantle 2 : It falls like a bell over the upper torso and then opens abruptly in a slit d own the middle of the chest. Mary's gown falls richly over her feet covering the edges of the socle with d own ward r ounded contours and vertical ridges, and i n front there is an omegashaped fold. The length of the gown and the rich drapery over the feet is one of the most characteristic elements in the female statues of the Wells façade, and even an example of the girdling by means of an invisible belt or waistband as in the Mary from Ostsinnen can be found theres. Besides — and this must b e conclusive — the drapery treatment is precisely the same as in Wells, or rather a simplified ver sion of it. Whether the folds form sharp angular systems or run as long, parallel verticals, they are formed by narrow, sharp edges and wide, Cal Fig. S9 Head of Christ. Detail fr vary group from Östsinnen. flat hollows. Mary's gown covering the lower body can be described as a fluted column. John stands resting on his left foot with the right one advanced and the head turned in half profile towards Christ. The head is covered by a round, plain cap (?) and a winding tendril frames the face which resembles that of Mary. It has the same shape and the same long, narrow eyes with heavy eyelids. The eyebrows are knitted in grief and the wrinkles on the forehead run in a returning curve; the right hand grasps the left which rests at the waist. The mantle is suspended on the right shoulder, sweeping around the left and around the right side and leg with a pull diagonally upwards towards the left hip and falling in a flap over the left forearm. The smooth sculpturing around the right leg framed on the outside by a long, tubular fold, broken on the inside by sharp, diagonal ridges, is definitely reminiscent of the corresponding details of Christ. The right sleeve of the tunic is very wide and hes in a fold swept back from the wrist — over the legs the drapery of the tunic is considerably stronger marked than in Mary's gown, with high, sharp, vertical ridges, and very wide, deep, flat or faintly hollowed inter spaces. The bare feet are well shaped. 1
See f o r instance the figures N . XXVIII, N . 44, N . 54, Hope & Lethaby op. cit. Pl. XXIII, X L V II and XLIX. 2
See f o r example the figure S. 28, Hope & Lethaby, op. cit. Pl. XLI.
3 See fig. N . X X V I I , Hope & Lethaby o p . cit. Pl. XXIII.
T h e quality o f t h e sculptures is quite g o o d , a n d i t is evident that t h e sculptor w a s trained i n a w o r k s h o p w h o s e w o r k s stylistically w e r e closely related t o those o f t h e W e l l s w e s t f r o n t . T h e crucifix g r o u p f r o m Östsinnen represents a n earlier phase t h a n t h e sculptures f r o m E n e b a k k , a m o r e p u r e W e l l s style. If w e , o n t h e o t h e r h a n d , c o m p a r e t h e Östsinnen g r o u p t o t h e best w o r k s o f t h e a b o v e (p. 118 f.) m e n tioned T r o n d h e i m school, t h e style o f w h i c h also has elements i n c o m m o n w i t h t h e W e l l s school, t h e Östsinnen figures give t h e impression o f something m o r e oldfashioned b u t , a t t h e same time, m o r e conventionalized a n d simplified. T h e t w o sculptural g r o u p s are t w o v e r y different shoots f r o m t h e same r o o t . T h e e x planation is perhaps t h a t t h e Östsinnen sculptor w a s a provincial master w i t h developed peculiarities, w h i l e t h e T r o n d h e i m school is a m o r e direct transplanta t i o n t o Scandinavian soil o f impulses f r o m a first r a t e sculptural school.
b. The Madonnas from Fresvik (Sogn) and Hillestad ( Vestfold). St. M a r y f r o m E n e b a k k is a piece o f w o r k o f exceptionally h i g h quality f o r Scan dinavia, a n d besides, she shows e v e r y sign o f representing h e r style i n a n unusually p u r e f o r m . I t is therefore h a r d l y surprising that w e find i n N o r w a y h e r sisters a n d o t h e r relatives t o b e o f a slightly m o r e robust character, a n d displaying certain elements o f style f r o m elsewhere, w h i c h m a y b e interpreted as a m e r g e r w i t h t h e earlier, domestic tradition o f f o r m . Closely related t o prototypes o f t h e E n e b a k k M a r y category is f o r e x a m p l e a M a r y f r o m Fresvik 1 w h i c h i n a similar w a y has t h e left f o o t placed u p o n a small footstool, a n d w h o s e drapery o f mantle, rising t o w a r d s t h e left knee, springs f r o m t h e s a m e scheme as t h e E n e b a k k M a r y , a l t h o u g h m u c h r o u g h e r a n d m o r e simpli fied i n t h e execution. T h a t t h e Fresvik figure is o f a considerably m o r e provincial standard t h a n t h e counterpart f r o m E n e b a k k also appears f r o m t h e clumsy shape o f t h e b e n c h a n d cushion c o m p a r e d t o t h e exact a n d exquisite finish o f t h e E n e b a k k figure. T h e d r a p e r y arrangement o f t h e dress o v e r t h e feet is i n b o t h cases o n t h e 1
N o w i n the Nordiska Museet, Stockholm. — Published b y Fett in " B i l l e d h u g g e r k u n s t e n . . o p . cit. p. 40 and the same author "Vår F r u e . . . " op. cit. p. n o f. — Oak. — Height about 130 cm. — A piece of the crown and the right part of the head chipped off and missing ; the figure is cracked from the left shoulder downwards with cavities ; the sceptre in the right hand is broken o f f and missing ; the head and right arm of the Christchild are missing. — Colours : Crown gilt with vertically standing ovals drawn with black con tours under the bigger leaves ; veil white shaded with blue i n front and red lining ; hair gilt, carnation pink with light red shades along the hairroots, blushing cheeks, brown eyelid rims and eyebrows, bluish green iris around dark pupils, red mouth; gilt mantle with blue and white fur lining ; dress gilt with neckband with inlaid "stones" painted in black (or darkened silver) and the round j ewel painted in the same colour; carna tion of the hands and neck pink shaded i n red along the borders of the sleeve and neck; shaft of sceptre i n Mary's hand red; the Child's mantle gilt with red lining, the tunic gilt (?), the book o n the left knee bluish black and with the inside of the back red; the stool cushion green with black lines forming a pattern o f squares with light red rhombs with green circles i n a white ring ; the stool white with light red shades and edges, besides blue and green shadows, and large, black quatrefoils and triplet lancet "windows" as well as a foliated frieze o n a background o f squares formed b y black lines. The gilding o n the garments is rather pale, and the colours o f the chair are strikingly crude. 10—903547
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whole carried out in accordance with the same model, but what is fine and deli cate in Enebakk is crude, sloppy and arrogant in its loose form in Fresvik. Some differences between the figures as regards the arrangement can be mentioned, name ly that the mantle of the Fresvik Mary is swung over the left shoulder as a cover and that the Christchild here sits in the customary way (as for example in the Hove Madonna) on Mary's left knee while in the Enebakk figure he sits further up on the left thigh with his left foot supported against her knee1. What, above all, separates the two Madonnas despite all superficial and surprising similarities — especially striking in the narrow delicate face set in a frame of curly tendrils, the Gothic eyes, the concave nose, the protruding, delicately sculptured mouth and the pointed chin — is however the very texture of the drapery treatment. In the Fresvik M a donna the drapery is of a vaguer nature : See for example h o w the mantlefolds around the right lower leg form wide, crescentshaped, softly hollowed sur faces in a way which reminds us of the drapery of the H ove Madonna (fig. 49), and note h o w the folds across the chest curve softly towards the middle above the waistband. This again is reminiscent of the soft drapery across the chest of the Hove Madonna, but carried out in a poorer and more simple way. It cannot be denied that the drapery of a tunic Fig. 60. Madonna from Fresvik. over the waistband in this form, softer compared to that of the Enebakk M a donna, can be observed in certain figures in Wells, such as, for example, the seated king N . 92. But in this case w e consider a connection with the workshop responsible 1 C p above fig. 46 the Madonna f r o m Kali. Perhaps is this posture after all n o t an example of the N o r se artist's improvement o n the original, b u t only representative of a younger iconographical type i n England? T h e shortage of material does n o t allow us t o give any exact answer t o that question, b u t I have n o t f o u n d a n y counterparts t o the latter type in any of the Madonna pictures i n English manuscript illumination. 2
For ill. see Hope & Lethaby op. cit. Pl. XXVIII.
for the Hove Madonna as more probable both because of the relatively crude work and because it originates f r o m a church in WestNorway, a district which was undoubtedly within the sphere of influence of the Bergen school (the church of Hove is in the nearest vicinity of Fresvik). Thus w e have here an indication of the continued existence of the Bergen workshop, and of the É 'gÄ fact that it worked after newer models. It might m 1 Щк be considered fairly certain that the Fresvik Ma donna was made after a model of the Enebakk fPjp Madonna type, but the figure itself does not J m jjnL contribute to enlighten us on the latter. That the J||&; , ß Enebakk Madonna was not the only of its kind ÊM* ! i n N o r w a y w e might have assumed even without jÉi
Extraordinarily interesting on account of its complex nature, and instructive as an example of h o w different types and fashion currents could cross and merge into one work is the Madonna f r o m Hillestad Church (Vestfold)1. The creator of this figure was — to use a word highly popular among art investigators — an eclectic. This word often contains a negative judgment as well, however, but it is not used in that sense here. The Hillestad Madonna is an inspired piece of work, and her master was a skilled woodcarver. In this statuary of saints there is generally а certain mutual relationship between colouring and sculptural work as regards quality. The Hillestad Madonna is radiant in her pure, har monious, well balanced colours, while the sculptor has proved his skill in the long, elegant hands, and his artistic feeling in the column lik
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