English for Researchers

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Министерство образования и науки Российской Федерации Южно-Уральский государственный университет Кафедра иностранных языков

Ш143.21-9 Б433

О.В. Белкина

ENGLISH FOR RESEARCHERS: NEGOTIATIONS Учебное пособие

Челябинск Издательский центр ЮУрГУ 2018

ББК Ш143.21-923 Б433 Одобрено учебно-методической комиссией Института лингвистики и международных коммуникаций Рецензенты: к.ф.н. И.В. Степанова, к.ф.н. Новикова В.П.

Б433

Белкина, О.В. English for Researchers: Negotiations: учебное пособие. / О.В. Белкина; под ред. К.Н. Волченковой. – Челябинск: Издательский центр ЮУрГУ, 2018. – 73 с. Учебное пособие предназначено для профессорско-преподавательского состава, аспирантов и молодых ученых ЮУрГУ. Цель пособия – совершенствовать навыки переговорного процесса, разрешения проблемных и кризисных ситуаций в профессионально-исследовательской деятельности. Пособие содержит в себе теорию и практические задания для формирования и развития навыков ведения переговорного процесса, психологических особенностей делового общения, правил современного делового этикета. Содержатся также практические рекомендации, с помощью которых возможно эффективное применение приобретённых навыков на практике, в том числе в сфере научноакадемического сотрудничества. Учебное пособие соответствует требованиям Федерального государственного образовательного стандарта.

ББК Ш143.21-923

© Издательский центр ЮУрГУ, 2018 2

CONTENTS Unit 1. What is negotiating …………………………………………...

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Unit 2. Classification and stages of negotiations ……………………. 19 Unit 3. Strategies and tactics of a good negotiator. Negotiation skills.. 37 Unit 4. Negotiation cases. Negotiations in academic environment…... 54 Appendix ……………………………………………………………... 61 References ……………………………………………………………. 73

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UNIT 1. WHAT IS NEGOTIATING

Warm-up activity Have you ever...  bargained with a boss for a raise in pay, a better office location, or other positive changes in working conditions?  tried to make your supervisor reconsider the deadline for the project that desperately needed certain improvement?  hesitated to ask questions because you did not want to be seen as uninformed or not properly prepared?  in a personal relationship, tolerated abusive behaviour from another person because you: 1) felt uncomfortable confronting the person, 2) felt you might not be able to express yourself properly, or 3) didn't want to hurt the other person's feelings even though that persons actions were hurting you?  been rather persistent or even rude while supporting your idea in a discussion or argument? If you answered yes, then, please, give more detailed information about the variants that you have chosen:  What was the exact situation?  What did you do, how did you tackle the issue?  How would you describe your relationship with the other person following the situation? The responses that you provided speak volumes about your abilities to deal with difficulties, tensions, challenges and tough issues. The above-mentioned conflict-resolving processes and skills refer to the area of negotiations. This unit provides you with the basic notion, conceptions, goals and objectives of negotiations. It aims at developing your negotiation awareness, your understanding of the complicated nature of negotiating process. ACTIVE VOCABULARY 1. (to) negotiate 2. negotiation 3. negotiator 4. negotiable

5. agenda 6. argument

вести переговоры, договариваться, обсуждать условия, улаживать дело, торговаться переговоры, ведение переговоров, обсуждение условий, согласование участник переговоров, представитель стороны в переговорном процессе, посредник, член делегации возможный для обсуждения; предмет обсуждения, торга; являющийся или могущий стать предметом сделки; обсуждаемый повестка дня, порядок действий, программа действий, список важных вопросов, идей, планов спор, дискуссия 4

7. (to) bargain 8. (to) compromise 9. (to) persuade

торговаться, договариваться, оговаривать, заключать сделку, вести переговоры пойти на соглашение, идти на уступки, изыскивать компромиссные решения убеждать, уверять, склонять к чему-либо, сманивать, уговаривать кого-то на что-то, улещивать.

READING Reading task 1 Read the titles of two texts. Try to guess what the general ideas of the texts are, what points are considered. DAY-TO-DAY NEGOTIATING AGENDA People negotiate every day. During an average day, they may negotiate with  the boss, regarding an unexpected work assignment;  subordinates, regarding unexpected overtime;  a supplier, about a problem with raw materials inventory management;  a banker, over the terms of a mortgage loan;  a government official, regarding the compliance with environmental regulations;  a real estate agent, over the lease on a new countryside house;  his/her spouse, over who will walk the dog;  his/her child, over who will walk the dog (still an issue after losing the previous negotiation); and  the dog, once out, as to whether any “business” gets done. In short, negotiation is a common, everyday activity that most people use to influence others and to achieve personal objectives. In fact, negotiation is not only common, but also essential to living an effective and satisfying life. We all need things – resources, information, cooperation, and support from others. Others have those needs as well, sometimes compatible with ours, sometimes not. Negotiation is a process by which we attempt to sort of influence others to help us achieve our needs while at the same time taking the needs of those people into account. Compromising as a part of negotiating process is a fundamental skill, not only for successful management but also for successful living. (Roy J. Lewicki, David M. Saunders, Bruce Barry. Preface to “Negotiation: Readings, Exercises and Cases”)

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LIFE IS A SERIES OF NEGOTIATIONS You negotiate all day, every day, from the time you wake up to the time you go to sleep. Agenda is diverse. Negotiable matters are plenty. Contract terms and conditions. Hiring, managing performance, and firing. Defining deadlines, scope, and deliverables. Collecting fees. Seeking alignment about business strategy. Enlisting stakeholders. Creating partnerships and joint ventures. Dissolving them. You make offers, counteroffers, agreements and settle arguments. You say yes. You say no. You stall for time. Finally, lunch. When you go home, the negotiations continue. Over buying a new car, switching carpool days, or how much screen time the kids are allowed. Daily negotiating decisions can be extremely important: which medical advice to follow; how much to spend or save; how long your aging parents can live at home; whether to stay together. Generally, negotiating is the way we get things done. One of my clients told me, “my toughest negotiations are with my dog”. If you are like most people, when you think about negotiation, then you picture people talking to “the other side.” Whatever they do, negotiators are people trying to promote their approaches and persuade other people of their point of view. (Erica Ariel Fox. Harvard Business review) Reading task 2 Do the following tasks and answer the questions. 1. Skim the two texts. Identify the main ideas expressed in both texts. Are they similar or there is something that makes them a bit different? 2. What approaches do you share? Why?  The idea expressed in the first text where negotiation is seen as an “attempt to influence others” or  the idea promoted in the second text where negotiation is viewed as a “try to persuade other people”. 3. Say what negotiating items are in your daily diary. What were your toughest negotiations ever? Why? 4. Have you ever had troubles while negotiating with your pets? Reading task 3 Scan the texts and say whether the following statements are true (T), false (F) or not given (NG). Develop the ideas suggested. 1. Issues can be negotiable only in the case if other parties have needs, which are not compatible with ours. 2. Day-to-day people negotiate about many things as e.g. how many bonuses should be given to the best team performers. 3. Negotiations are everlasting, they never stop, they just move from business sphere to our private life. 4. Negotiating is not merely a habitual standardized process; it is a vitally important part of our life. 6

Reading task 4 Familiarize yourself with the etymology of the term. Do you remember the titles of some books, movies or songs where the word “negotiator” appears? If yes, say how the word contributes to the general message of this book, movie or a song. “Negotiation” derives from the Latin word negotiare meaning “to do business, trade, deal” and this original commercial sense is retained in many modern languages so that, for instance, negozio in Italian is a shop, negocios in Spanish is business. In contemporary English, “negotiate” evokes a can-do, commercial world in which pragmatic individuals exchange views in order to arrive at a mutually satisfactory arrangement. Reading task 5 Read the second part of the Erica Ariel Fox’s story about her negotiation-related experience at Harvard Law School. Think about the title for this part of the text. … That is only half the story. After nearly 20 years of teaching negotiation at Harvard Law School, and the same years spent advising and training thousands of executives, public sector leaders, consultants and lawyers from all over the world, I see things differently. Actually, the most important negotiations we have – the ones that determine the quality of our lives and the impact of our actions – are the ones we have with ourselves. Learning to communicate well and to influence other people are essential skills in business. But even more fundamental to your success is learning to negotiate effectively with yourself. Negotiating with yourself? Yes. Better results, stronger relationships, and more of life’s deeper rewards, all come from learning to negotiate with yourself. At first, this sounds strange. Can you talk to yourself without being crazy? Can you disagree with yourself? If you have an argument with yourself, who wins? At the start of my leadership development programs, I ask people for examples of “negotiating with yourself”. It is not hard to brainstorm a list once you think about it. People usually come up with personal examples first: Should I eat the ice cream or stick to my diet? Make a scene with the garage for charging more than the estimate, or just pay the bill and move on? Should I raise that difficult topic today – or wait? Accept a “friend” request from my college nemesis, or have 25 years not removed the sting? Soon, the list of topics grows more serious, and turns to work: 1. My plate is completely full, but my boss just asked me to start a new project. There is no particular glory in it. Do I say yes to please her? 2. I want to approach my colleague who is back from bereavement leave, but then I tell myself it is none of my business. 3. My client is pushing me hard to do something questionable. Technically speaking, it is not against the written rules. On the other hand, it feels a bit unethical. Should I say no? 4. We are nearing our fundraising target, but we are not quite there. Our biggest donor said I could ask him for more money if we fell short, but I feel awkward going back to him again. (Erica Ariel Fox. Harvard Business review)

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Reading task 6 Summarize the text using the questions given below as a plan. 1. What categories of people are trained at Harvard Law School? 2. Has the author changed her attitude to the priorities in teaching negotiations or her focuses shifted? How? 3. What two categories do all negotiations fall into, according to the author? 4. Does the idea of “negotiating with yourself” sound weird or is it a common place? 5. Is it a simple thing to brainstorm a list of “self-negotiations”? What are habitual ideas that come to mind first? 6. How do the further ideas about “negotiating with yourself” evolve? SPEAKING Speaking task 1 According to your life background and professional experience, develop your own list of “more serious” negotiating-with-yourself topics, based on Erica Ariel Fox’s ones. Reading task 7 Read the following interpretations of the notion of negotiations. Taking into account all you know about negotiating process, all that you have already read, heard or practiced yourself related to this phenomenon; what conception seems the most complete and reasonable to you? Why? Justify your choice. Negotiation is  a process of combining divergent positions into a joint agreement under a decision rule of unanimity (Wikipedia);  a formal discussion between people who have different aims or intentions, especially in business or politics, during which they try to reach an agreement (Collins dictionary);  a bargaining process between two or more parties (each with its own aims, needs, and viewpoints) seeking to discover a common ground and reach an agreement to settle a matter of mutual concern or resolve a conflict (Business Dictionary);  a process that speakers go through to reach a clear understanding of each other (British Council);  a method by which people settle differences (Joe Pirzadeh, an American entrepreneur and business negotiator);  a dialogue intended to reach an understanding, resolve a point of difference, or gain advantage in outcome of dialogue, to produce an agreement upon courses of action, to bargain for individual or collective advantage, to craft outcomes to satisfy various interests of two people/parties, etc. (Dan Buettner, an American National Geographic and New York Times bestselling author, explorer, educator and public speaker);  a ubiquitous social activity used to accomplish many important tasks including making deals, resolving disputes, allocating resources, making decisions, and solving problems (David Lax and James Sebenius, American business negotiation theorists);  the ability to seek favourable compromise, when each party will give a little, in order to get a little (Sir Winston Leonard Spencer-Churchill, a British Prime Minister);  the art of deception where a negotiator must be a great liar…., a deceitful man who will always find plenty who are ready to be deceived (Niccoló Machiavelli, an outstanding Italian diplomat).

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Speaking task 2 Summarize the ideas based on different approaches to the nature of negotiations and come up with your own notion of the negotiation. Is it  a process,  a method,  a dialogue,  an art,  an ability,  an activity,  a discussion,  a tool,  your own variant? Give your reasons. Reading task 8 Think about the goals and objectives in the negotiation process. Try to identify as many as possible. Is it possible to divide them into some categories? Read the text and compare your results with the information given below. IMPORTANCE OF GOALS IN NEGOTIATION All negotiators come to the table with a set of interests, which usually fall into two main buckets: common and specific. Consequently, goals and objectives must be differentiated accordingly. For a negotiation to succeed, you need a clear sense of what you want the outcome to be. If you do not have defined goals in mind, you are unlikely to come away from negotiations with the outcome that is best for your business. Entering a negotiation with specific goals, as well as clear understanding of your next best alternative, puts you in a stronger position. Be SMART Whenever possible, set SMART goals – Specific, Measurable, Achievable, Relevant And Time-bound. The more you can clarify your goals, the more likely it is you will get them. For example, if you are looking for something vague such as “I want my seller to lower his prices,” then 1% decrease would technically achieve those goals, but it might not do enough for your bottom line. On the other hand, asking the seller to cut his price in half likely is not attainable. Do your homework to come up with a realistic assessment of what you can get and enter negotiations with that figure in mind. Prioritize Your Objectives Many negotiations have more than one objective desired on each side of the table. If you are negotiating terms with a seller, for example, your primary goal may be to decrease your costs and increase responsiveness, but you might care less

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about specific payment terms. Your seller might want to get more of the contract funds up front more than it wants a raise. Prioritizing goals lets you know what is most important to you and what you can compromise on. Tangible vs. Intangible Negotiations start with tangible goals, like those determined by the SMART goal framework. That keeps the focus on what is best for the deal and business. But those involved in a negotiation also may have intangible goals. For example, if a manager has been criticized for “losing” past deals with a union, he may enter negotiations with the intangible goal of being seen as the winner. This could influence him to take a confrontational pose even if an early offer would otherwise be to his liking. A company with a negative history of harming the environment may enter a negotiation with the local government with a goal of enhancing its reputation, even if that means making a lessadvantageous deal on other terms. Determine Opponent Goals While it is natural to focus on your own goals, it is also worth analyzing those of your opponent. That way, it is easier to look for common ground and find win-win outcomes. If that is not possible, at least that will give you a better sense of what the other side’s desired outcome is. One way of determining what the other party really wants is to make two or three offers, of approximately equal value to yourself, that emphasize different aspects of the proposal and see which one is more attractive to them. If your seller seems much more interested in getting more money up front as opposed a larger total sum spread out over a longer period, that’s a useful goal to know. Know Your BATNA (and WATNA) Enter every deal knowing your Best Alternative To a Negotiated Agreement – “BATNA”. That helps you decide how aggressive to set your goals and how firm you can be in sticking to them. If your BATNA is acceptable, such as when you have another interested seller ready to commit at an attractive price, you can strike a hard bargain. On the other hand, if your BATNA is poor, your lower-priority goals may have to fall by the wayside on your way to an agreement. Consequently, the negotiator is to be well aware of WATNA – the worst alternative that can threaten the success of negotiations. This variant must be avoided at all costs. (Craig Berman. Small Business) Reading task 9 Find out the key words in every paragraph of the text. Outline the general idea of each goal category based on the key words selected. Reading task 10 Answer the questions by choosing the correct variant according to the information in the text. 1. Smart goals refer to a) selecting only clever options out of the overall list of goals and objectives pursued by the company; b) advanced technological level of goals set; c) the abbreviation summarizing efficiency criteria of goals. 2. You should enter negotiations if a) you have made a very general rough assessment of the possible result, having a vague idea about the bottom line; b) you have prepared properly, having analyzed and evaluated all data possible, having in mind particular rational target; 10

3.

4.

5.

6.

c) go in blind, not having bothered yourself to collect some data and perform any analysis – best decisions are always made on the spot. Many negotiators a) have a list of equally significant objectives that must be discussed one by one; b) do not care what points are to be discussed first; c) select issues first that are of primary importance. Intangible goals are a) difficult to quantify as they refer to something that cannot be measured in physical terms as money, number of contracts, etc; b) something hard to achieve; c) absolutely unreal. Opponents’ goals are to be a) totally ignored; b) considered only if the need arises; c) properly identified and taken into account in any case. BATNA means a) the plan a party can fall back on, if the negotiations prove unsuccessful; b) another option, which doesn’t refer to the topic of current negotiations; c) the alternative totally welcomed by both parties in negotiations.

Speaking task 3 Think about some topic of negotiations related to your professional or research area. Dwell on the negotiation goals following the plan, suggested in the text:     

SMART criteria, prioritizing, set of tangible / intangible goals, determining opponents’ goals, BATNA (WATNA).

Reading task 11 Read the text. Be ready to describe the categories of negotiations presented in one more classification given below. NEGOTIATION GOALS Categories of goals that affect the negotiator’s choice of strategy and tactics.  Aggressive goals  Competitive goals  Cooperative goals  Self-centered goals  Defensive goals  Combinations of goals AGGRESSIVE GOALS – seek to undermine, deprive, damage or otherwise injure a rival or opponent. Example: Taking a customer or supplier away from a competitor in order to hurt the competitor. COMPETITIVE GOALS – one party seeks to gain more from the negotiation than the other party. In fact, the negotiator hopes to obtain as large a comparative advantage as possible. Example: Receiving the highest possible price. Paying the lowest possible price. 11

COOPERATIVE GOALS – are achieved through an agreement that leads to mutual gain for all negotiators and their respective sides. This achievement is also referred to as win-win negotiating. Example: Forming a joint venture, partnership, or corporation to engage in business opportunities to achieve a mutual profit. SELF-CENTERED GOALS – seek a particular result regardless of what the other side receives. These goals are those that depend solely on what one’s own side achieves. Scenario: two large accounting firms merge. The tremendous size of the new firm raises a self-centered goal to find sufficient prestigious space in a single location. The goal is reached when the new firm negotiates a lease for 15 floors in a major midtown New York office building. DEFENSIVE GOALS – seek to avoid a particular outcome. Examples: Avoiding a loss of respect. Preventing a strike. Avoiding the loss of a customer or supplier. COMBINATION OF NEGOTIATION GOALS – Each negotiation usually has multiple goals. Case: In a collective bargaining negotiation, a transportation firm seeks to have its employees make prompt deliveries in order to maintain its business volume. This is a self-centered goal. A defensive goal is suggested if the maintenance of volume is intended to avoid a loss of customers. The goal is also aggressive to the extent that the same activity keeps new customers away from competitors. (Course Hero, an online educational resource) Speaking task 4 Get back to the Speaking Task 3 where you described certain negotiations in your professional or research area. Say what category the goals of these talks belong to:  Aggressive goals  Competitive goals  Cooperative goals  Self-centered goals  Defensive goals  Combinations of goals. Explain why. VOCABULARY Vocabulary task 1 Match the verbs from the text to the corresponding nouns to make phrases. Sometimes the same verb may be followed by different nouns. If necessary, consult the texts. 1) to define 2) collect 3) create 4) make 5) settle 6) dissolve 7) seek 8) manage 9) contract 10) enlist 11) brainstorm

a) b) c) d) e) f) g) h) i) j) k)

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offers and counteroffers partnerships alignment with a strategy terms and conditions fees a list of ideas joint venture arguments deadline performance stakeholder

Vocabulary task 2 Use the word combinations from Vocabulary task 1 (if they refer to the area you are involved in) in the sentences of your own to describe your research or professional activities. F. ex. I manage performance of my research team on a weekly basis: keep a close eye on the results achieved, listen to the reports of the team members, and discuss the hurdles when they arise. Vocabulary task 3 Complete the sentences using the words from the box in the necessary form. In some sentences, more than one verb may be used according to the context. To negotiate, negotiation, a negotiator, negotiable, agenda, an argument, (to) bargain, (to) compromise, (to) persuade 1. Being an excellent _____ he was actively involved in relevant discussions and international talks and put forward many constructive suggestions in terms of encouraging and attracting overseas educators. 2. One of the most crucial skills to improving your career in a competitive society may be the ability to _________ people to see things your way. 3. We must face one certainty: as long as we continue our discussion without a particular negotiating text, all of us will continue to _________ for “best positions”. 4. The necessity to support research, raise academic standards and increase the number of highly qualified faculty members is on _________ for the University Council. 5. There is an intense _________ around academic readership and citation – that “as many as 50% of papers are never read by anyone other than their authors, referees and journal editors”. 6. The university conducts __________ with potential employers to sponsor research in the area of digital technologies. 7. Their flexibility and willingness to _________ made it possible for us to reach agreement on the text acceptable to all participants. 8. The author describes a project-oriented curriculum in which the teacher and learners work together to ___________ a syllabus to address learner’s needs and preferences. 9. The key points that must be kept in mind while discussing this contact are as follows: what is __________ and what can be altered? Vocabulary task 4 Focus on the vocabulary you will need now and further on. Match the words to their definitions. One definition is extra. Ask your peers as many questions as possible using these words. a) a condition that helps you or gives you a greater chance of success

1. alternative 2. intention

3. advantage

b) the total value of the negotiation; the minimum that you can accept; the point where you must decide whether to continue or simply walk away and seek a new opportunity c) the result or effect of an action, situation, or event

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4. bargain

5. outcome

d) someone who tries to help two groups who disagree to reach an agreement with each other, usually as a job e) something that is different from something else, especially from what is usual, and offering the possibility of choice

6. bottom line

f) an offer made in response to another

g) an agreement between two people or groups in which promises to do something in exchange for something else

7. agenda

8. concession

9. counter-offer

each

h) something that you want and plan to do; an aim

i) something that is allowed or given up, often in order to end a disagreement, the act of admitting defeat j) a list of matters to be discussed at a meeting or any matters that have to be dealt with

LISTENING Listening task 1 Listen to the three texts that focus on three different aspects of negotiations. Every part deals with a set of negotiating goals. Place them into the proper sections as they are mentioned in the texts. Then summarize the key issue of every text. Goals:         

to negotiate a higher allowance with parents settle a matter of mutual concern resolve an issue discover a common ground maintain a relationship reach an agreement negotiate use of the family IPad make a deal with another party negotiate salary, terms of employment, promotions

Text 1 What is negotiation?

Text 2 Who negotiates?

Text 3 Why and how do people negotiate?

VIDEO Video task 1 Watch the video episode from the American movie “Just Go with It” where the main character Danny (Adam Sandler) is a successful plastic surgeon in Los Angeles who feigns unhappy marriages to get women and to avoid romantic commitment that 14

may lead to heartbreak https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=m4feT64SVXs Try to summarise as much information as possible. In the episode Danny (Adam Sandler) persuades Maggie (Bailee Madison), a daughter of his female friend, to pretend his fake kid. If you do not understand something, you may refer to the script: Danny: …I thought you’d be excited to have an acting job. Maggie: If it’s an acting job, we should get paid. Danny: Yeah. You’re gonna get paid…in experience. Maggie: I wanna actually get paid. Danny: (laughs) All right, what do you want? Maggie: 600 dollars for the day, plus overtime if we go over eight hours. I’ll do my own hair and makeup and I want you to pay for the 6-week intensive acting camp that my mom can’t afford. Danny: 50 dollars for the day and a 2-week acting class at the YMCA nearest you. Maggie: 500 dollars and a 4-week acting class. Danny: 300 dollars and a 3-week class. Maggie: Done. (Offers her hand for shaking). Danny: (Shakes her hand) I would have done it for 500 (dollars). Maggie: (laughs) I would have done it for the experience. Video task 2 Say whether the sentences are true or false. If they are false, make corrections. True False 1 The tone of this negotiation is harsh and aggressive. 2 The tone of this negotiation is relaxed but polite. 3 Maggie is unprepared for her negotiation with Danny. 4 Maggie appears confident when she expresses her demands. 5 Danny is unwilling to negotiate with Maggie. 6 Maggie tells Danny why she deserves to have her goals met. 7 Danny is surprised that Bailee wants to be paid in money. 8 Maggie is not confident when presenting her terms. 9 Maggie asks for more than she expects to receive during the negotiation. 10 Danny’s counter offer to Maggie is purposely very low. 11 Both participants lost something from the negotiation. 12 Both participants gained something during the negotiation.

DISCUSSION Discussion task 1 Read the following negotiation-related quotes. They belong to people who represent totally different professions and walks of life. Try to guess the authors of the quotes and match the sayings to spheres and professions. 15

President

Gangster

Lawyer

Actress

Writer

Sports Agent

Engineering scientist

Jazz Musician

Economist

Politician

1. We cannot negotiate with those who say, "What's mine is mine and what's yours is negotiable." 2. Let us never negotiate out of fear. But let us never fear to negotiate. 3. You can get much farther with a kind word and a gun than you can with a kind word alone. 4. If you don't get what you want, it's a sign either that you did not seriously want it, or that you tried to bargain over the price. The only thing certain about any negotiation is that it will lead to another negotiation. 5. In any negotiation, the one who first gives a number is the loser. 6. Everything is negotiable. Whether or not the negotiation is easy is another thing. 7. A negotiation is a strategic conflict. The trick to negotiation was to hold all the cards going in and, even if you didn't, to try to look as though y 8. Negotiations are a euphemism for capitulation if the shadow of power is not cast across the bargaining table. 9. This is a classic negotiation technique. It’s a gentle, soft indication of your disapproval and a great way to keep negotiating. Count to 10. By then, the other person usually will start talking and may very well make a higher offer. You can't go to a negotiating table pointing a gun, but you've got to keep it over your shoulder. 10. Negotiation is not a policy. It's a technique. It's something you use when it's to your advantage, and something that you don't use when it's not to your advantage 11. Relationships are a constant negotiation and balance. Now compare the results. Are they the same or different? What made you choose the way you did?    

 

We cannot negotiate with those who say, "What's mine is mine and what's yours is negotiable." ~ John Fitzgerald Kennedy, 35th President of the United States Let us never negotiate out of fear. But let us never fear to negotiate. ~ John Fitzgerald Kennedy, 35th President of the United States You can get much farther with a kind word and a gun than you can with a kind word alone. ~ Al Capone, an American gangster and businessman, known by the nickname "Scarface" If you don't get what you want, it's a sign either that you did not seriously want it, or that you tried to bargain over the price. ~ Rudyard Kipling, an English journalist, short-story writer, poet, and novelist The only thing certain about any negotiation is that it will lead to another negotiation. ~ Leigh Steinberg, an American outstanding sports agent In any negotiation, the one who first gives a number is the loser. ~ Kenneth Eade, an American attorney, environmental and political activist 16

       

Everything is negotiable. Whether or not the negotiation is easy is another thing. ~ Carrie Fisher, an American actress, writer, and humorist A negotiation is a strategic conflict. ~ D. Marc Kilgour & Keith W. Hipel, Canadian professors, engineering scientists The trick to negotiation was to hold all the cards going in and, even if you didn't, to try to look as though you did. ~ Eoin Colfer, an Irish author of children's books Negotiations are a euphemism for capitulation if the shadow of power is not cast across the bargaining table. ~ George P. Shultz, an American economist, statesman, and businessman This is a classic negotiation technique. It’s a gentle, soft indication of your disapproval and a great way to keep negotiating. Count to 10. By then, the other person usually will start talking and may very well make a higher offer. ~ Bill Coleman, an American jazz musician You can't go to a negotiating table pointing a gun, but you've got to keep it over your shoulder. ~ Joe Slovo, a South African politician, an opponent of the apartheid system Negotiation is not a policy. It's a technique. It's something you use when it's to your advantage, and something that you don't use when it's not to your advantage. ~ John Bolton, an American politician, diplomat and UN ambassador Relationships are a constant negotiation and balance. ~ Claire Danes, an American actress

Discussion task 2 Choose five quotes, make your comment, develop the idea, suggested by the author and if possible, illustrate the quotes with some fact or story. Project work Think about some outstanding negotiator in history. Find information about his  background (national, family, educational, etc.);  negotiating achievements;  his / her views on negotiation process;  quotes that summarize his / her attitudes and approaches. Make a multimedia presentation and share it with your peers. Say if his / her approaches are still applicable and why. A fine example of one great compromiser is Winston Churchill, British politician and Premier for the UK from 1940-1945 and 1951-55 and Nobel Laureate 1953, who helped orchestrate the tenuous political bond between Britain and the United States by employing his negotiation skills. During World War II, Churchill, was the archetypal negotiator. He was a courageous man with artful skills, tremendous oratory, ambition, confidence, and will. These qualities, along with his aristocratic lineage, made him revered and venerated by the British public. He was said to have been a Master of a very specific negotiation technique. A deadly mixture between fait accompli (establishing and presenting circumstances that cannot be changed unilaterally by the negotiation partner) and salami tactics are employed to extract small concessions that are expanded in the course of further negotiations. This tactic is based on a universally valid strategy of persuasion: The inherent need for consistency of each human being, the wish to bring order and harmony into ones perceptions, beliefs and actions.

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Put into action, it works like this: Churchill: Madam, would you sleep with me for five million pounds? Socialite: My goodness, Mr. Churchill ... Well, I suppose ... we would have to discuss terms, of course... Churchill: Would you sleep with me for five pounds? Socialite: Mr. Churchill, what kind of woman do you think I am?! Churchill: Madam, we've already established that. Now we are haggling about the price.

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UNIT 2. CLASSIFICATION AND STAGES OF NEGOTIATIONS

Warm-up activity Think about the negotiation process in terms of set of standard DVD operations. Dwell on the ideas that stand behind these operations. Illustrate your answer with some particular situations. Compare your ideas with the conception of Anthony K. Tjan, a famous American entrepreneur, a CEO of the Cue Ball Group. DVR-inspired approach in important and sensitive businessnegotiating situations: 1. Pause. Consider business-negotiating situations as a mini movie in production in which you are the director. When you have any new and sudden disruption to filming (i.e. new information, a new competitive player, a new shift in available resources, etc.), the first call to action should be to take a pause. 2. Play. Let the movie play out in your head and think about the various negotiation scenarios and how you can use the new information or situation to your advantage. 3. Mute. Remind yourself to hit your internal mute button so that you keep your thinking to yourself unless there is a compelling reason to share. Think like a poker player and ask if there is any benefit to share what you know with the counter-party. There usually isn’t. 4. Rewind and Record Again. Appropriately reset your actions and hit “record” again to move toward your desired “win smart” ending. This unit provides you with the knowledge on structure, stages and tactics of negotiations as well as their classifications. It aims at developing your understanding, which steps are to be undertaken to organize proper negotiations.

ACTIVE VOCABULARY 1. hard-bargain(ing) 2. 3. 4. 5.

gain assumption (to) haggle (to) adopt an extreme or fixed position 6. (to) reach / finalize a deal 7. (to) regard smbd as a rival 8. frame of negotiations 9. mutual (concession, gain, etc) 10. mandatory

жёсткая позиция в переговорах, нежелание идти на уступки выгода, положительный эффект, прибыль исходная предпосылка; предположение торговаться, сбивать цену занимать крайнюю, жёсткую, определённую позицию достичь окончательной договоренности, завершить сделку, заключить соглашение воспринимать, считать кого-то соперником, противником, врагом рамки переговоров взаимный /ая (уступка, выгода и т.д.) обязательный, необходимый, неукоснительный 19

11. trade-off

12. collaborative agreement 13. to achieve a consensus 14. vested interest

оптимальное соотношение, компромиссное решение, взаимовыгодный обмен соглашение о сотрудничестве достичь согласи личная заинтересованность, личная выгода, кровный интерес

READING Reading task 1 Read the text. Identify basic distinguishing features of different types of negotiations. CLASSIFICATION OF NEGOTIATIONS In order to properly prepare and organize or just to participate in successful negotiations you are to familirise yourself with the classification of negotiations as it determines the type of communication, goals and objectives set and the output of talks. Besides, it can help you decide which strategy to pursue. Negotiation can take a wide variety of forms, from a multilateral conference of all United Nations members to a small business encounter to make a deal. There exist different types of negotiations but the most general one is differentiating between two major kinds: distributive and integrative. Distributive negotiation (also referred to as Zero-sum / Win-lose negotiations) Distributive negotiation is sometimes called positional or hard-bargaining negotiation and attempts to distribute a "fixed pie" of benefits. Distributive negotiation operates under zero-sum conditions and implies that any gain one party makes is at the expense of the other and vice versa. For this reason, distributive negotiation is also sometimes called win-lose because of the assumption that one person's gain is another person's loss. Distributive negotiation examples include haggling on an open market, the negotiation of the price of a car or a home. In a distributive negotiation, each side often adopts an extreme or fixed position, knowing it will not be accepted – and then seeks to make as few concessions as possible before reaching a deal. Distributive bargainers consider negotiation as a process of distributing a fixed amount of value. A distributive negotiation often involves people who have never had a previous interactive relationship, nor are they likely to do so again in the near future, although all negotiations usually have a distributive element. In the distributive approach each negotiator fights for the largest possible piece of the pie, so parties tend to regard each other more rather as a rival than a partner and to take a harder line. This type of bargaining is likely to be more hostile and less productive of an agreement. There is not enough for everyone to get what they want, so when one side gets something, the other side loses something. For example, let us say a seller’s “walk-away” price for a service is $5,000, but your “walk away” price is $4,800. Your goal is to get the seller as close to your walk 20

away price as possible without blowing the deal. If you get that seller to agree to $4750, that seller loses $250 and you lose $50, which means you gave up less than the other party. Integrative negotiation (also referred to as Non-zero-sum / Win-win negotiations) Integrative negotiation is also called interest-based, merit-based, or principled negotiation. It is a certain frame of negotiations in which it is in your interest to find a solution in which both parties feel as if they gained something in the deal. This is known as integrative bargaining, and the best way to think about this strategy is that it is a “win-win” for both parties. The idea is that you are negotiating in such a way that you take the other party’s wants, needs, fears, and concerns into the equation. Instead of simply worrying about losing less than the other party, you are looking for a solution in which both parties have to give up something to achieve a consensus and finalize the deal. Making mutual concessions is mandatory for integrative negotiations that involve a higher degree of trust and the formation of a relationship. It can also involve creative problem-solving that aims to achieve mutual gains. It sees a good agreement as not one with maximum individual gain, but one that provides optimum gain for all parties. Productive negotiation focuses on trade-off, the underlying interests of the parties rather than their starting positions, approaches negotiation as a shared problem-solving rather than a personalized battle, and insists upon adherence to objective, principled criteria as the basis for collaborative agreement. Using the previous illustration of negotiating with a seller, integrative bargaining would seek to ensure that both you and the seller lost an equal amount. With that in mind, you would agree to a price of $4,900, which means that the seller loses $100 in the negotiation, and you also lose $100. You would both leave the negotiation table, with both of you feeling that you compromised but took each other’s wants and needs into consideration. (Sampson Quain. Small Business. Wikipedia) Reading task 2 Match the distinctive features and elements of bargaining process to the corresponding type of negotiations.

A fixed pie,

mutual problem solving,

a partner, formation of a relationship, trade-off,

win-win,

hostile,

lack of interactive fruitful contacts, collaborative, a rival,

personalized battle, win-lose

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DISTRIBUTIVE NEGOTIATIONS

INTEGRATIVE NEGOTIATIONS

SPEAKING Speaking task 1 What particular negotiations come to your mind in terms of distributive / integrative negotiations? What type would you personally choose if:  you have tough deadlines for the mutual project;  you have harsh fixed limited budget for the future collaboration program;  the company you deal with announced its plans to leave the market after the last deal with you. Justify your choice and reasons. Speaking task 2 Think about the ways, how to convert distributive negotiations into integrative ones? What negotiation tools or ideas can be of primary importance? Reading task 3 Skim the text about another classification of types of negotiating processes, based on issues discussed. Give the title to the text. Find out key words describing each type of negotiations. When it comes to negotiating the right deal with your suppliers, it does not always have to be salary based on getting what you want at the lowest negotiations possible price. Far from it. There are other benefits you may want to negotiate – sometimes at the cost of a higher price. Like extended payment terms, merger and priority delivery, a greater service offering, trade take over additional inclusions and certainly a more negotiations negotiations favourable quality of products or goods. Negotiating with suppliers can be a complex matter. There are many factors to take into account, including setting your objectives, understanding your supplier's position in the market and most importantly, using the right strategy to meet your desired outcome. Salary negotiations can be tricky business. Unless you have the inside scoop on what an employer is willing to offer, you may come in too high and then screw up your chances to get a really nice job offer. Coming in a little bit high is one thing, but if you ask for a salary that is thousands of dollars more than the company has budgeted for, there is no room to negotiate. On the other hand, it is important to get paid what you are worth and you don't want to be taken advantage of. You also do not want to end up resenting your boss for underpaying you and, of course, you need to earn enough to pay the bills. When one business acquires or merges with another, a negotiation must first take place. Both parties involved are seeking the most beneficial situation for themselves. If you and the other party are so diametrically opposed, then, how can you ensure that you get as much benefit from the deal as possible without ruining it entirely? Effectively negotiating merger and take over agreements involve addressing and resolving a number of key business, legal,

customer – supplier negotiations

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tax, intellectual property, employment, and liability issues. Such agreements are often heavily negotiated, and a poorly negotiated transaction can result in significant risks to the selling company and its shareholders. International trade is one of the backbones of almost every economy in the world. Trade negotiation is a process in which nations meet together to discuss the possibility of trade, with the goal of reaching a trade agreement. Both nations have a vested interest in negotiating a successful trade agreement because it has the potential of promoting economic growth and allowing companies to expand their markets, but both are also concerned with protecting their economy and safety. Trade negotiations can become quite complex, and may involve more than two nations, along with moderators who take a neutral stance to help the countries reach an agreement. (Bryan Carrol. Supplier negotiations: more ways to make the right deal Alison Doyle. Salary and Benefits Richard D. Harroch, David A. Lipkin, and Richard V. Smith. Key Issues in Negotiating Merger and Acquisition Agreements. Forbes What is trade negotiation? WiseGeek platform) Reading task 4 Scan the text and answer the following questions. Based on your answers and the key words selected, summarize the general idea of the text. 1. What significant topics are discussed in customer-supplier negotiations? 2. Does the idea of customer-supplier negotiations imply getting what you want at the minimum price? 3. This type of negotiating being dead easy, does not involve any difficulties or challenges, does it? 4. What the potential traps can you face while conducting salary negotiations? 5. Is it a simply or tricky type of negotiations? 6. Where is the focus placed in merger and take-over negotiations? 7. What questions are to be preliminary answered when you are involved in the latter type of negotiations? 8. What is the ultimate goal of trade agreements? Speaking task 3 Have you ever participated in any of four types of negotiations? If yes, what was 1. the agenda; 2. the goals; 3. the output; 4. the complexities and challenges? Vocabulary task 1 Complete the sentences using the words and word combinations from the box in the necessary form. Hard-bargain, assumption, (to) haggle, mutual, mandatory, a rival, vested interest, (to) finalize, a consensus 1. International language testing is … if the oversees company seeks proof of your language proficiency. 2. A key …. is that research in pure science requires substantial financial support. 3. This company has been operating in the investment market segment for decades and is reputed for driving a …. 23

4. Unrealistic expectations ruin common-sense approaches that could promote our … goals. 5. We hope that now our discussions will be result-oriented, enabling us to achieve … on guidelines for implementation of staff annual assessment. 6. Our team supports the University efforts to … a common strategy to enter a highly competitive international higher education market. 7. If you want to keep things simple and do not want to have to … or bargain with other players, try another target audience. 8. As we contributed so much in the preparation and organization of the Conference, consequently we have a … in the success of the themes and ideas of this scientific event. 9. The latest rankings by Times Higher Education (THE) put Oxford on top for the second year in a row and its … Cambridge in second, displacing the California Institute of Technology. Vocabulary task 2 Match the verbs from the text to the corresponding nouns to make phrases. Sometimes the same verb may be followed by different nouns. If necessary, consult the texts. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.

to reach finalize promote meet protect adopt result in

a) b) c) d) e) f) g)

growth outcome safety consensus position risks deal

Speaking task 4 You are a chief member of some negotiating team. Think about the agenda of negotiations using the word combinations from Vocabulary task 2 and your own ideas. Put your peers in the picture of your negotiations. Speaking task 5 Look at the picture. Does your idea of negotiation stages look the same as the information presented in the diagram? Can you think of some other intermediate stages or vice versa, you feel like deleting certain unnecessary steps? Give your reasons. Speak about negotiations you participated in: what stages were involved? The caption “due diligence” in the diagram means a comprehensive appraisal of a business undertaken by a prospective buyer, especially to establish its assets and liabilities and evaluate its commercial potential.

всестороннее исследование деятельности компании, её финансового состояния и положения на рынке, комплексная оценка деятельности, проверка благонадёжности делового партнёра.

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Speaking task 6 Find the starting point of negotiations. Describe the traditional scenario of negotiations in your own words.

First, give the background to the negotiations. Put everybody in the picture. Talking about the situation is a good way of reminding people of key facts and issues.

Then kick off the negotiations themselves, perhaps by finding out more about the priorities of the other side (the things they think are most important) or talking about your own requirements. Meet and greet representatives of the other side and introduce your colleagues.

Offer coffee and start small talk to create a relaxed atmosphere.

Have a good clear agenda and timetable.

Go to the meeting room and suggest that you get down to business.

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Reading task 5 Study the following infographic images related to the negotiation stages and single out the repeated elements.

26

27

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Reading task 6 Read the text that summarizes the algorithm of negotiation process mentioned before. Be ready to describe the essential elements of every stage / step. STEPS OF NEGOTIATION PROCESS Experts distinguish different stages in negotiations, but almost all of them are based on the same algorithm that may be reduced to certain common crucial points. The essence of negotiation process can essentially be understood as a four-stage process. The four stages of the negotiation process are preparation, opening, bargaining and closure. Stage I: Preparation Preparation is instrumental to the success of the negotiation process. Being well-prepared generates confidence and gives an edge to the negotiator. Preparation involves the following activities: 1. Gather Information: One needs to learn as much as one can about the problem and ascertain what information is needed from the other side. Understanding clearly the issues involved is also needed. 2. Evaluate Leverage: Evaluation of one’s leverage and the other party’s leverage in the beginning is important because there may be a number of things one can do to improve one’s leverage or diminish the leverage of the other side. 3. Understand the People Involved: It is important to know the people with whom the negotiation is to take place. An understanding of their objectives, roles and the issues likely to be raised by them will facilitate better handling of the situation during the negotiation process. 4. Establish Rapport: It is helpful to establish a rapport with the opponent during the early stages, that is, before the bargaining process begins is helpful. This was, one can determine early on how cooperative the opponent is going to be. 5. Know Your Objectives: Clarity of objectives is absolutely essential. It needs to be decided in advance how much you are willing to concede to the opponent and what your priorities are. All arguments and justifications should be ready. 6. Establish the Type of Negotiation: Anticipate the type of negotiation expected, that is, ascertain whether it will be highly competitive, cooperative or something unusual; whether the negotiation will be face to face, by fax, through a mediator, or in some other manner. 7. Make a Proper Detailed Plan: Decide on the negotiation approach and plan accordingly. Stage II: Opening Phase – Exchanging Information Here the two sides come face to face. Each party tries to make an impression on the other side and influence their thinking at the first opportunity. Psychologically, this phase is important because 29

it sets the tone for the negotiation to a large extent. It involves both negotiating parties presenting their case to each other. Stage III: Bargaining Phase The bargaining phase involves coming closer to the objective you intended to achieve when you started the negotiation. In this phase, the basic strategy is to convince the other side of the appropriateness of your demands and then persuading the other party to concede to those demands. For this, one needs to be logical in one’s approach and frame clearly-thought-out and planned arguments. Stage IV: Closure Phase The closing phase of a negotiation represents the opportunity to capitalize on all of the work done in the earlier phases. The research that has been done in the preparation phase, combined with all of the information that has been gained is useful in the closing phase. It also involves the sealing of the agreement in which both parties formalize the agreement in a written contract or letter of intent. Reviewing the negotiation is as important as the negotiation process itself. It teaches lessons on how to achieve a better outcome. Therefore, one should take the time to review each element and find out what went well and what needs to be improved. * Failure to Agree If the process of negotiation breaks down and agreement cannot be reached, then re-scheduling a further meeting is called for. This avoids all parties becoming embroiled in heated discussion or argument, which not only wastes time but can also damage future relationships. At the subsequent meeting, the stages of negotiation should be repeated. Any new ideas or interests should be taken into account and the situation looked at afresh. At this stage, it may also be helpful to look at other alternative solutions and / or bring in another person to mediate. ** Informal Negotiation There are times when there is a need to negotiate more informally. At such times, when a difference of opinion arises, it might not be possible or appropriate to go through the stages set out above in a formal manner. Nevertheless, remembering the key points in the stages of formal negotiation may be very helpful in a variety of informal situations. (Management: Study HQ, an online educational resource Skills you Need, an online resource)

Reading task 7 Scan the text and complete the sentences taken from different paragraphs. Say what steps they correspond to.          

It is important to know that … . …. is absolutely essential. …. is also needed. The basic strategy is to … . … should be ready. … should be taken into account. One needs to learn … . Anticipate … . It might not be possible… . … may be very helpful … .

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Vocabulary task 3 Focus on the vocabulary from the text. Match the word combinations to their definitions. Answer the questions given below. 1. to evaluate smbd’s leverage

a) to help solve difficulties much easier

2. to give an edge to smbd 3. to facilitate handling of the situation

b) to create or establish a general feeling or atmosphere among a group of people (about a particular subject)

c) to provide powerful arguments by structuring them 4. to concede to the opponent

d) to give somebody an advantage

e) to involve (smbd) deeply into a stormy debate or an angry discussion

5. to set the tone 6. to frame arguments

7. to embroil in heated discussion

f) to understand what tools and mechanisms you or your opponent has to influence your decisions and use his / her own benefits to maximum advantage

g) to promote harmonious understanding 8. to establish a rapport

h) to make concession to the opponent

1. How do you set the tone if the audience you deal with does not react to your ideas the way you want? 2. What gives you the edge: your professional experience, academic reputation, your skills, or your life background? 3. Is it easy for you to concede to the opponent even if he / she provides sound arguments? 4. How do you usually establish rapport with new members of the team (project, program, etc.)? 5. What data should you have to frame persuasive arguments? 6. What sources of information will you use if you have to evaluate the leverage of the partner from another University who is supposed to join your research team? 7. Is it difficult for you to stay calm if you are embroiled into heated discussion? Can you control the situation?

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Reading task 8 Rank the stages / steps of the preparation phase of negotiations in the order they are mentioned in the text. Know your objectives

Make a proper detailed plan

Gather information

Establish rapport

Evaluate leverage

Establish the Type of Negotiation

Understand the People Involved

VIDEO Video task 1 Watch the video about 4 negotiation steps https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3T0FaGPe4R4 Your task is to illustrate the following negotiation elements by the examples provided by the speaker:  Setting your objectives  Identifying precedence  Seeking out precedence  Creating a series of tradables  Setting your limits  Preparing BATNA. 32

Video task 2 Watch the following video https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=05uFs8qVCcI and identify the stages, paying special attention to the formality of the language used. Video task 3 After watching the episode, match the initial subsequent steps of negotiations on the right to the appropriate stage number on the left. 1

Stage 1

Getting down to business / agreeing on procedure

2

Stage 2

Outlining and clarification of the proposal’s terms

3

Stage 3

Making informal ‘small’ talk

4

Stage 4

Offering greetings / introducing names and job titles

5

Stage 5

Stating basic intentions and each party’s expected outcome of the meeting

6

Stage 6

Making opening statements

Vocabulary task 4 Complete the following text, based on the video episode above, with the necessary words.

Proposal terms

greet

informal

role

titles

outcome

intentions

preferences opening

This video demonstrates that before negotiations begin, it is important for each party to 1) … the other formally and introduce colleagues’ names and job 2)… . This helps to avoid confusion and ensure that the 3)… of each person is clear. After introductions, it is customary in many cultures to briefly engage in 4)… talk to ease tension and add a human element to the meeting. (Making ‘small talk’, however, may not be customary in cultures where starting business quickly is preferred with the ‘time is money’ concept, so it is important to learn the cultural norms and business 5) … of each party before commencing negotiations.) Informal small talk usually ends with one party suggesting to ‘get down to business’ then negotiations begin with an 6)… statement or 7) … by the party who requested the meeting. This is often followed by each party stating their basic 8)… and expected 9)… for the meeting and deeper discussion and clarification of the 10)… and details of the proposal. Video task 4 Match the early steps of negotiations on the left to the appropriate phrases from the video on the right.

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GREETINGS / INTRODUCTIONS

– I hope you had a relaxing journey here. – Will you be here for a while?

MAKING INFORMAL ‘SMALL’ TALK

– Ms. Taylor, I want to say that we believe we can offer you a good price and come up with a ‘win-win’ result.

BEGINNING NEGOTIATIONS

– We don’t intend to reach an agreement today. – My first priority is to keep the negotiations open.

MAKING OPENING STATEMENTS

– Well, we better get down to business.

STATING INTENTIONS/OUTCOMES

Hello. I am James Brown. Sales Manager for Coca Cola. This is my associate, Peter Jackson. / Very pleased to meet you. I’m Ann Taylor. This is my legal adviser, Mary Smith.

OUTLINING / CLARIFYING TERMS

We’re prepared to offer a very attractive price for a minimum sale in exchange for a 1-year contract.

Vocabulary task 5 Match the definitions on the right to the appropriate vocabulary item on the left. a ‘win-win’ result

a situation where all parties benefit

an exploratory tool

make clear the details of a proposal

testing the water

approach or try something cautiously

to run it past the board

a means of gaining information

hard to resist

to show something to a company’s governors / to get approval for something

a first priority

difficult to refuse

to clarify the terms

main objective or goal

Video task 5 Write the appropriate number of each stage of negotiation next to the phrases below. (Write only one number for each phrase.) Early Stages of Negotiation 1. GREETINGS / INTRODUCTIONS 2. MAKING INFORMAL ‘SMALL’ TALK 3. BEGINNING NEGOTIATIONS 4. MAKING OPENING STATEMENTS 5. STATING INTENTIONS/EXPECTED OUTCOMES 6. OUTLINING / CLARIFYING TERMS

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             

I hope you had a pleasant flight. Shall we proceed with the task at hand? I’d like to begin by saying… I’d like to introduce John, my associate. We do not anticipate reaching an agreement today. I hope your hotel is comfortable. Our main goal is to keep the negotiation open. Shall we commence our discussion? Let me start off by saying… We propose 450 dollars per unit and a 1-year contract. Are you enjoying Hong Kong? Let us commence by saying… We do not intend on making a decision today. I’d like to present Mr. David Barstow, our Accounts Executive for National Cement.

Vocabulary task 6 Complete the chart below by matching the appropriate stages to the phrases from negotiations. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

Delaying Making Offers and Proposals Suggesting a Procedure / Plan Responding to Offers and Proposals Welcoming / Building Relationships Expressing Expectations / Setting Limitations

STAGE №?

STAGE №?

STAGE №?

STAGE №?

STAGE №?

STAGE №?

How was your flight?

I’d like to start by suggesting the following agenda.

We do not expect to reach an agreement today.

There are several Your proposal is We would have options available interesting, but to get back to to us...one is… we have a few you on it. concerns.

On behalf of... I would like to welcome you to...

Perhaps we should establish a general procedure.

We are here mainly to test the water.

Regarding our proposal, our position is...

Concerning your proposal, we believe that...

We would need to run it past our board first.

I would like to welcome you to…

Let’s begin by establishing a framework for this meeting.

We see today’s meeting as a way of investigating our options.

We are prepared to offer you…

With regard to your proposal, we feel that…

We would need to consult our colleagues and get back to you.

It is our pleasure to welcome you to...

Let’s begin by agreeing on a procedure for today’s negotiation.

We are here today simply to explore our options.

Do you think you The proposal could consider… sounds appealing, but we have some concerns we need to discuss.

We need to study this and get back to you later.

-Would you care for a beverage before we begin?

Shall we start by agreeing on a framework for today’s discussion?

We have joined today’s meeting mainly to hear your terms.

We suggest / propose…

We don’t have authority to make final decisions, so we’ll need to get back to you later.

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We can offer you…

As far as your proposal is concerned, we feel that…

PROJECT WORK Make a mind map to represent the topic “Classification and stages of negotiations”.

Be ready to explain your ideas and illustrate them with particular examples.

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UNIT 3. STRATEGIES AND TACTICS OF A GOOD NEGOTIATOR. NEGOTIATION SKILLS Warm-up activity Think about some images that come to your mind when negotiations or negotiators are spoken about. Try your hand at interpreting these images. Read about some other metaphors that are related to the idea of negotiations. Explain how you understand them. Experts in negotiations primarily tend to compare them to  battle,  a sport or game,  cooking,  commerce,  dancing,  gardening. Wilmot and Hocker [Wilmot, Hocker, 2001] discuss sixteen!!! common metaphors that negotiators use to approach conflict or to form a perspective:  war,  struggle,  explosions,  court trial,  force of nature,  animal behavior,  messiness,  communications breakdown,  games,  heroic adventure,  balancing,  bargaining,  a tide,  a garden,  a dance,  quilt-making. Read about one more list of negotiation-related metaphors of Michał Chmielecki who recognizes 12 images. Cover the right column DESCRIPTION with a sheet of paper and try to disclose the meaning of metaphors. Now open the column and compare the results. Say what qualities you should have to survive and win in the process of negotiations. METAPHOR

DESCRIPTION Negotiation is a process where you either “win or lose”. In negotiation, every move is justified. The other side is suspicious of our motives.

War

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Marathon

Negotiations can be painful. They require time. Success needs time. Negotiation can be a game of poker in which players must hold the cards close to the chest. The other party will probably try to cheat us somehow. We have to be cautious about the possibility of unethical tactics being employed against us. It’s a risky process, that requires a lot of preparation. Sometimes you need to resign at some level. There are many surprises waiting for you during the process, that is why you never go alone and you have to rely on others. In this domain, as the term denotes, negotiation process is made akin to that of a journey, where there is a reference or starting point and a destination or end point. On the way there are some ‘twists and turns,’ sometimes you come across a “stumbling block’ and you have to ’clear the way’. Both parties must cooperate and complete one another in order to achieve a goal. You must be engaged in it with all your soul. You need to move with grace and flow with the melody line (the external negotiation environment you cannot change). Like sculptor, you need to get rid of many unnecessary layers of information and get to the core. In golf you adhere to the rules, you display professional etiquette. From time to time you have to take risks but all the time you have to maintain focus. Trust in relationships is essential. Every shot completed gives you another opportunity to make another one. Negotiators are not in a hurry to get to the end. When the ball is in the hole, there are no more shots. Golf is often a game of luck. A bad bounce here or a good bounce there can sometimes make all of the difference in a round. Negotiation can be viewed as football, where a “level playing field” is required; mediators are “umpires” or “referees.” Metaphorical use of football serves to highlight the stresses of the long negotiations, the highly conflictual confrontations and the strategy to extend deadlines and buy time in the face of the inability to reach a satisfactory agreement that would (temporarily) pacify the conflict.

Poker

Climbing

Journey

Cooking Dance

Sculpting

Golf

Football (soccer)

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Basketball

Negotiations might be compared to basketball, where “timeouts” are sometimes taken. Understanding and open communication between parties is crucial. If you want to focus attention on yourself too much you won’t reach a goal.

Playing in a band

This unit provides you with the set of negotiation skills and tactics essential for conducting successful negotiations as well as qualities and characteristics of effective negotiators. ACTIVE VOCABULARY 1. innate abilities 2. interpersonal and communication skills 3. sustainable competitive advantage 4. 5. 6. 7. 8.

body language to clarify the point to avoid confusion to find clues sensitive issue

9. benchmark data 10. bluff 11. venue 12. mimicry

врождённые способности умение общаться с людьми, навыки межличностного общения эффективное конкурентное преимущество, конкурентоспособность язык жестов, невербальная коммуникация уточнить, разъяснить момент избежать путаницы и недопонимания найти ключ к чему-то, понять и осознать что-то острый больной вопрос, вопрос, затрагивающий болевые точки, щекотливая ситуация исходные (базовые) данные обман, блеф (глагол: обманывать, блефовать) место действия, встречи; территория проведения мероприятия имитирование, подражание

READING Reading task 1 Read the text. In every paragraph, choose the key words that help to describe negotiator’s skills. SEVEN KEY SKILLS FOR SUCCESSFUL NEGOTIATION Negotiation is the key to business success. Successful negotiation involves good interpersonal and communication skills, used together to bring a desired result. In fact, negotiation is one of the main qualities employers look for when recruiting staff nowadays. This is because a good negotiator can close the best deals, leading to the advancement of an organization. Improved supplier relationships, sustainable competitive advantage and managing conflicts effectively are all advantages of successful negotiations. Some people have the innate abilities to indulge in 39

a fruitful negotiation process and they have the capacity to bring a positive result no matter how challenging the negotiation may seem. However, this may not be the case for most employees. The good news is that negotiation skills can be learnt and practiced for better results. This can be done through innovative training and development programs. Modern e-learning training solutions such as scenario-based training videos, simulations and gamification has made the task of training employees less complex. Let us take for example, scenario-based training videos: through such training solutions, employees are able to witness real work situations to which they can easily relate. This proves to be more engaging and prepares them to face similar situations in real life. Therefore, they know exactly how to react in challenging circumstances and also, which tactics to use to reach their objectives in a negotiation. Some of the key skills for a successful negotiation are:  Preparation Preparation is responsible for 90% of negotiating success. The more prepared you are preceding a negotiation, the more likely it is that the result of the negotiation will be acceptable for all parties involved. The two most important things to do during preparation are: firstly, make sure to have all the information that you can about the forthcoming negotiation. Secondly, think about the negotiation process from the beginning to the end and be fully prepared for any eventuality. You need to know about the product or service, and the person with whom you will be negotiating. You obtain this information by choosing good questions to ask that are well thought out. Remember that the power is always on the side of the person with the best information.  Patience Good negotiators are normally very patient. They focus mainly on getting agreement on all the parts of the contract that the two parties have in common before they go on seeking for cordial ways to settle the other issues. Besides, it is important to prepare good questions to ask to clarify and understand each point. This will help to avoid confusion later.  Active Listening Negotiators have the ability to listen attentively to the other party during the conversation. Active listening includes the ability to read body language as well as verbal communication. It is vital to listen to the other party to find areas for compromise during the meeting. Instead of spending most of the time in negotiation while defending his viewpoint, the experienced negotiator will spend more time listening to the other party and find clues for further debate.  Emotional Control It is important for a negotiator to have the ability to keep his emotions under control during the negotiation. Negotiating on sensitive issues can be frustrating and allowing emotions to take control can worsen the situation during the meeting. This will more likely lead to negative results. For example, while negotiating a good deal with a supplier, the employee can react angrily if the supplier is being too persistent to maintain high prices. This should be avoided at all cost and the employee should be advised to keep calm during the negotiation process.  Verbal Communication Skilled negotiators must be able to communicate clearly and efficiently to the other party during the negotiation. If the negotiator does not state his case clearly, it can lead to misunderstanding and an unfavorable result. During a bargaining meeting, an effective negotiator must have the skills and tact to clearly point out his desired outcome as well as his logical perception. 40

 Problem Solving Employees with good negotiation skills have the capability to find a variety of solutions to problems. Instead of concentrating on his own desired goal for the negotiation, the individual with skills can focus on problem-solving, which may lead to benefits for both sides of the issue.  Ethics and Reliability Ethical standards and reliability in a skilled negotiator stimulate a trust for effective negotiation to take place. Both parties in a negotiation must trust that the other side will keep up with promises and agreements. A negotiator must have the skills to implement his promises after bargaining ends.  Conclusion Being a good negotiator requires a set of skills and knowledge to make sure that the required objectives are reached. To make this happen, it is essential to provide an effective training and development program to employees, allowing them to learn about the essence of negotiation and the steps to follow. This is likely to lead to increased competitive advantage and profitability. (Marc Wins. Procurement academy) Reading task 2 Summarize the previous text, using the chosen key words. Comment on every skill. Range them according to their importance for negotiating activity. SPEAKING Speaking task 1 Enlarge the list of negotiator’s skills with your own variants. Make it in the form of guess-game: make a story, which illustrates the skill on your mind: your peers should understand what you think about. LISTENING Listening task 1 Eric Perrot is an area sales manager of a Belgian food company. Eric negotiates supply contracts with many of the biggest food retailers in Europe. Listen to his interview (Part A) in which Eric talks about the key to a successful negotiation and summarize what he says about  two components of being prepared;  his metaphorical perception of the negotiation process;  the ideal outcome;  winning or losing a negotiation;  one of his the most successful deals;  the company’s policy towards partners (buyers). (Jon Naunton. ProFile 3)

Reading task 3 Read about the negotiating styles of red, blue and purple stylists.

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Red Stylists see each negotiation as a separate contest with a winner and a loser; believe you win by dominating your opponent, beating him/her down; enjoy using manipulative tricks and bluffs; want something for nothing.

   

   

Blue Stylists believe both sides can win by reaching a compromise; regard negotiations in the longer term; recognize each party’s interests; will only trade something for something.



Purple Stylists do not adopt either of red / blue styles, but rather switch between them, as the circumstances require.

Red Style:

Purple Style:

Blue Style:

More for me means less for you

Combine your play of red moves with blue moves

More for me means more for you

Tough guy/ Soft guy

Red conditions, blue offers

Measured risk

Overvaluation

Linking issues

Preconditions

Realistic offers

Threats

Seek and reveal interests

Ploys Aggressive, dominant, devious

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Reading task 4 Discuss which color stylist would be more likely to make statements 1-5. 1. 2. 3. 4.

I am giving you this proposition once only. Take it or leave it. We are happy to discuss a discount if we can work something out. I want you to show your good faith by agreeing to this proposal now. Actually, this point is not negotiable so far, but if you are ready in turn to involve us into your next ambitious project as tandem-partners, perhaps we will accept your terms. 5. I can understand that you do not want to leave yourself vulnerable to price rises. 6. How do you think we can overcome our differences in the future? VIDEO Video task 1 Watch the episode based on negotiation process from the movie “Up in the Air”. Ryan Bingham (George Clooney) works for a human resources consultancy firm, which specializes in contract termination assistance https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qyL7TG6SzDU. Pay special attention to the ways how  his trainee deals with the situation;  he himself handles problems with employees to be fired. Video task 2 Hope you will never face such kind of situation (fingers crossed). Say what employee responses seem close to you? How would you behave in such situation?  Why me?  What am I supposed to do now?  Am I supposed to feel better that I'm not the only one losing my job?  This is ridiculous! I have been a fine employee for over 10 years and this is the way you treat me?  How do you sleep at night, man? Huh?  How's your family? They sleeping well at night? Electricity still on? Heat still on, refrigerator full of food? Gas tank full of gas? Video task 3 Say what type of negotiator Ryan Bingham belongs to: a red, blue or purple stylist. Justify your choice. How did he convince Bob to terminate a contract with the company? Listening task 2 Listen to the part B of Eric Perrot’s interview where he places special focus on skills of a good negotiator. Answer the following questions: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

According to Eric, what qualities should a good negotiator have? Explain the idea of “buy signs”. How important is the ability to be persuasive? Who are the most difficult customers for Eric? How does he deal with them? How controlled does he stay in negotiations?

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Listening task 3 In part C, Eric gives an example of two deals he made. Listen to the part C and answer the questions.

1. What concession did the buyer in the first deal want? What was Eric's reaction? 2. Why does Eric believe that you should never give something for nothing? 3. What went wrong in the second deal and what did he do? Reading task 5 Read the following text about pre-negotiation tactics. Find key sentences that express the central claim of every tactic. Add more ideas to every strategy. What tactics vice versa seem to be a bit far-fetched? Why? BEFORE-THE-NEGOTIATION STRATEGIES AND TACTICS Strategy: Increase Your Power Power is crucial. When you have power, your counterpart will give larger (and more frequent) concessions. But that sparks an important question: what if you have less power? What if you’re negotiating with your boss? Even if your counterpart has higher authoritative power, you still have hope. This section will teach you a few negotiation tactics to balance the odds, even when your counterpart has higher power. Tactic 1: Gather Benchmark Data Most of the tactics in this article are grounded in interesting – and often surprising – academic research. This tactic, instead, is grounded in common sense. To gain leverage, you need knowledge. You need to understand the type of deal that you should be receiving. Without that knowledge, you will be at the mercy of your counterparts, allowing them to dictate the size of your deal. Do not let that happen. If you are interviewing for a job, check out the average salaries for similar positions. Gather those benchmarks through: Salary Websites. Visit free resources like PayScale or Glassdoor. LinkedIn. Contact people in similar roles. Recruiters. Ask employment agencies for comparable salaries. Tactic 2: Enhance Your BATNAs Power emerges from two main factors:  Value: Which party benefits more from a successful agreement?  Alternatives: How many alternatives exist for each party? You can increase your power by altering those two factors. You could alter the first factor by offering more value. When you offer more value, your counterpart becomes more dependent on a successful agreement (giving you more power). But that option is somewhat impractical. Luckily, the second factor is more useful. It is BATNA: – Best Alternative to a Negotiated Agreement. If you don’t have strong alternatives, you become dependent on your counterpart. You are at their mercy. Because you have less leverage, you’ll need to make larger concessions – and that’s not a good position. Instead of putting your eggs in one basket, you should enhance your BATNAs before any negotiation. Ideally, you should enhance the 44

 quantity,  quality, and  plausibility of your BATNAs (Kim, Pinkley, & Fragale, 2005). If you’re applying for a job, apply and interview with multiple companies. Those BATNAs will reduce your reliance on any individual company, giving you greater leverage in the negotiation. Strategy: Control the Logistics When planning the negotiation, you will need to coordinate when, where, and how it will occur. People with less power are usually accommodating with those decisions:  Counterpart: When are you free?  Less Powerful Negotiator: I am free any afternoon next week. Let me know which day works best for you. That approach is harmful. When coordinating logistics, do not be overly accommodating (and never reveal an empty calendar). Ideally, you should dictate those logistics.  Counterpart: When are you free?  Powerful Negotiator: I am free at 10am next Wednesday. Does that work for you? Even if your counterpart needs to suggest a different time, your assertiveness will increase your perceived power, giving you a more favorable deal in the negotiation (Diekmann, Tenbrunsel, & Galinsky, 2003). Tactic 3: Choose a Day with Nice Weather Weather has a powerful – often subconscious – effect on our behavior. It is pretty scary. When the weather is bad, reports of domestic violence increase (Cohn, 1993). Despite the negative effects of bad weather, the opposite occurs for good weather. When the weather is nice, you’re more likely to help people, such as leaving larger tips for waitresses (Cunningham, 1979). People also develop behaviors that are favorable for negotiation, such as:  Cooperation (Forgas, 1999)  Creative problem solving (Carnevale & Isen, 1986)  Tendency to concede (Baron, 1990) If you need to negotiate in bad weather, you should discuss the bad weather before the negotiation. In one study, people showed less satisfaction with their life when the weather was bad (Schwartz & Clore, 1983). However, that negative effect was eliminated when researchers began the conversation by talking about the weather. That discussion helped people attribute their dampened mood to the weather (so they adjusted their moods to compensate). Tactic 4: Choose an Early Time When proposing a time, you should usually suggest an early time (perhaps 9-10am). You’ll get two main benefits. First, an early time ensures that you’ll have plenty time to negotiate. As Malhotra and Bazerman (2008) explain: “The more time and other resources a negotiator has invested in the negotiation, the more willing the negotiator will be to accept the agreement offered.” (pp. 17) You can thank cognitive dissonance (Festinger & Carlsmith, 1959). But that’s not the only reason for choosing an early time. If your counterpart is negotiating with other people that same day (e.g., a company that interviews multiple applicants), an early time will help you generate a stronger impression. People are easily influenced by primacy effects. When information is presented earlier in a sequence, it generates a stronger impact on longterm memory (Murdock, 1962). If you can’t choose an early time, you should choose a later time (perhaps 4-5pm). If you can’t be the first interview of the day, you should strive to be the final interview (which will trigger a recency effect). 45

Tactic 5: Choose the Right Medium Another consideration is the medium. Should you negotiate face-to-face or via email? Until recently, the research was contradictory. On the one hand, face-to-face communication generates more rapport (Drolet & Morris, 1999). It also conveys more clarity since some information is conveyed non-verbally (DePaulo & Friedman 1998). Some studies even found direct evidence that face-to-face negotiations produce better outcomes than email negotiations (Valley et al. 1998). But don’t get too hopeful. Some studies found opposite results, where email produced better outcomes (Croson, 1999). Some researchers attribute those results to the “exitability” of email. Since negotiators can leave an email thread more easily, the conditions are more unstable. Thus, parties are more motivated to reach an agreement (Hatta, Ohbuchi, & Fukuno 2007). So what is the answer? Which medium is better? Surprisingly, it depends on your gender (Swab & Swab, 2008). Female negotiators receive better deals when they communicate face-to-face. Male negotiators receive better deals when they communicate via email. Why does gender matter? When we communicate face-to-face, we feel more tension and arousal, thus resorting to our instinctive gender roles:  Females resort to caring and communicative behaviors  Males resort to aggressive and dominant behaviors If you are negotiating with a male, you should reduce nonverbal cues (e.g., negotiate via email or phone). If you need to negotiate in person, reduce the level of eye contact (Swab & Swab, 2008). If you’re negotiating with a female, you should increase nonverbal cues (e.g., negotiate in person). Eye contact is particularly effective. (Nick Kolenda. Psychology & Marketing) Reading task 4 Answer the following WHAT questions: 1. What do you trust more: strategies and tactics based on academic research or common sense? 2. What two major factors generate power? 3. What are potential threats if you are at the mercy of your opponents (counterparts)? 4. What three basic parameters should you coordinate while planning the negotiation? 5. What factors can have a subconscious effect on the negotiator’s behavior? 6. What three types of behaviors are highly beneficial for negotiations? 7. What are preferable ways of communication for male / female negotiators?

46

SPEAKING Speaking task 2 Peer work. Reflect upon the saying by Stanley Baldwin, Former British Prime Minister: “I would rather trust a woman’s instinct than a man’s reason”. In pairs, perform in turn both a male and female approach to the following issues:  having a new baby;  moving to a new country;  changing a job place;  being promoted to a new higher-paid but challenging position;  quitting your current job.

Video task 4 Watch the episode from a famous speech of Margaret Thatcher who was the leader of the UK Conservative Party from 1975 to 1990 and Prime Minister from 1979 to 1990. She gained the reputation of being a “tough lady politician”. Say if there are any situations when you are ready for the U-turn, which means a complete change from one opinion or plan of action to an opposite one. “But I prefer to believe that certain lessons have been learned from experience, that we are coming slowly, painfully to an autumn of understanding. And I hope it will be followed by a winter of common sense. If it isn’t we shall not be diverted from our course. To those waiting with baited breath for that favorite media catchphrase the "U-turn," I have only one thing to say “You turn if you want to: the Lady is not for turning”. How does this speech characterize Ms. Thatcher? What qualities and traits of her character does it reveal? Dwell upon it. If you are interested, you may watch the whole speech at https://www.americanrhetoric.com/speeches/margaretthatchernotforturning.htm, it will give you plenty! Do any tough male politicians come to you mind? If yes, who and why? Reading task 5 Read the text about starting-the-negotiation tactics. STARTING-THE-NEGOTIATION TACTICS Tactic 1: Negotiate at Your Office If you negotiate in person, where should you meet: their office, your office, or a neutral location? Some researchers would argue a neutral location (venue). By remaining unbiased, you cultivate a shared focus on problem solving (rather than competition). On the other hand, more aggressive negotiators would recommend your own office. Not only could you convey your dominance through that decision, but you could also use your office to incorporate other persuasion techniques. For example, a group of researchers from Columbia and Harvard shed light on the “power” of body language. They found that body language associated with low power (e.g., shorter chair, contracted posture) altered two hormones that generate the feeling of power: testosterone and cortisol (Carney, Cuddy, & Yap, 2010). 47

If you give your counterpart a short and awkward chair, you decrease their testosterone and raise their cortisol. Those biological changes, in turn, reduce their feeling of power — which should give you a more favorable deal in the negotiation (Kim, Pinkley, & Fragale, 2005). Tactic 2: Disclose Personal Information For decades, researchers have recognized the power of self-disclosure (Worthy, Albert, & Gay, 1969). When you disclose personal information to other people, you build greater rapport with those recipients. Not surprisingly, self-disclosure helps negotiators. When you disclose unrelated personal information, your counterparts negotiate less aggressively, giving you a better overall deal (Moore et al., 1999). Before the negotiation starts, always mention unrelated things about yourself, such as interests or hobbies. Those things – although small and innocent – will make the negotiation more successful. Tactic 3: Mimic Their Nonverbal Behavior When you mimic people’s nonverbal behavior, you build greater rapport. That finding is widely supported by research (see Chartrand & Bargh, 1999), and it is also effective in negotiation (Maddux, Mullen, & Galinsky, 2008). Mimicry can also explain another finding: negotiators gain better outcomes when they eat together. As Lakshmi Balachandra (2013) explains…“When individuals eat together they enact the same movements. This unconscious mimicking of each other may bring positive feelings towards the other party and the matter under discussion.” By bringing pastries and coffee, you will gain benefits of both eating and mimicking. (Nick Kolenda. Psychology & Marketing) Reading task 6 Say if the following statements are true or false. If false, make the necessary corrections. 1. As all experts say, the neutral venue for conducting negotiation is the best variant for all parties involved. 2. The choice of chairs does not make any difference. 3. Disclosing personal information seems to be ruinous practice for the party as it places itself at the mercy of the other party. 4. Interests and hobbies are a good idea for “small talk”. 5. When you mimic or mirror your partner’s behavior, it can result in increasing confidence and establishing better contacts between the parties. Listening task 7 Listen to the text “Delivery” that describes how important speaking skills are for the person who is involved into contacts with different types of audiences, scientifically trained audiences namely. Speak about the following points: 1. How many % of interpersonal communication  come from facial expressions and other body language.  vocal quality or tone of voice;  the content, the actual meaning of the words? 2. What is the difference between the general population and scientifically trained listeners? 3. What is necessary for the scientific speaker to be more effective? 4. Dwell upon the role of smile in verbal and non-verbal communication 5. What are the practical recommendations for the speaker (negotiator) to deliver message properly? 48

Reading task 7 Read the text about during-the-negotiation tactics. Give the general idea of every tactic in one sentence (avoiding the words from the paragraph titles). DURING-THE-NEGOTIATION TACTICS Tactic 1: Avoid Disclaimers and Weak Language When your counterpart is more powerful (e.g., your boss), you might feel intimidated. You might feel pressured to use soft disclaimers, such as: “I know this might sound like a lot, but ______.” “I hate to ask for this, but ______.” “Would you ever possibly consider ______?” Never use those disclaimers. If you show signs of guilt, your counterparts will act more aggressively (Van Kleef, De Dreu, & Manstead, 2006). You will walk away with a worse deal. Instead, show signs of confidence and dominance. Do not be a jerk. Never insult or degrade your counterpart. Just be firm and confident in your requests. People receive better deals when their language and nonverbal behavior convey power and confidence (Tiedens & Fragale 2003). Tactic 2: Address All Relevant Terms In negotiation, your biggest enemy is not your counterpart. Your biggest enemy is a fixed pie mentality. Consider a job negotiation. The employer offers $70,000. But you wanted $80,000. With a fixed pie, at least one party would need to make a concession. All else being equal, both parties would usually concede to the middle – in this case $75,000. That approach is not great. The final agreement is usually worse for both parties. However, with the right approach, you can avoid a fixed pie mentality (and you can create a deal that is favorable for both parties). To understand, let us analyze the root of fixed pies. They usually occur because both parties focus on a single metric (e.g., salary). To avoid a fixed pie, you need to address all terms. For example, job negotiations include more than just salary. They include:  Vacation days  Commissions  Working from home  Other perks. By listing all of the terms, the negotiation becomes less fixated on a single metric. With more terms on the table, you create flexibility to negotiate. You might accept the $70,000 salary if you can earn a higher commission and work from home two days a week (or some other combination of terms). Tactic 3: Make the First Offer Some people argue that you should wait for your counterpart to make the first offer. Adam Grant, author of Give and Take, argues against that approach: “When I poll executives, more than three quarters believe that it’s usually best not to make the first offer…There’s only one problem with this assumption: it’s wrong. One thorough analysis of negotiation experiments showed that every dollar higher in the first offer translates into about 50 cents more in the final agreement.” (Grant, 2013) In most cases, you should make the first offer. You’ll get the main benefit: INCREASE YOUR PERCEIVED VALUE. If you request a high salary, suddenly your best qualities become a focal 49

point. Even if the final salary is below the exact anchor point you requested, that priming mechanism pulls the final settlement closer to that range. Tactic 4: Separate Gains / Combine Losses Which option will make you happier:  You find a $20 bill  You find a $10 bill, and then you find another $10 bill later? Both outcomes are the same. However, most people feel greater satisfaction with the second outcome (Thaler, 1985). But let’s look at the opposite side. Which option will make you feel worse:  You lose a $20 bill  You lose a $10 bill, and then you lose another $10 bill later? With those options, the second option makes people feel worse. Turns out, people prefer to gain value in increments, but they prefer to lose value in one lump sum. You should follow that guideline in negotiations. Consider the following benefit: The project will be completed under budget and ahead of schedule. With some strategic rewording, you could separate that benefit into smaller pieces:  The completed project will meet all quality requirements.  The project will be completed under budget.  The project will be completed ahead of schedule – no later than May 3. Voila. You just turned one benefit into three. Whether you present those benefits in writing or whether you present them at different points in the negotiation, your counterpart will perceive greater value in the deal (Malhotra & Bazerman, 2008). Tactic 5: Ask Diagnostic Questions You make an offer. But you encounter resistance. Your counterpart gives a blatant “no.” No reason. No rhyme. Just no. To make the proper adjustment, you should ask diagnostic questions: who, what, where, when, why, how. Although this tactic is somewhat grounded in common sense, you need to understand why there is resistance. Suppose that your boss rejects your request for a raise. You should ask for the reason behind that decision. Maybe it is due to the budget. Maybe it is due to your performance. Whatever the reason, you need to know. Once you get your answer, you can pivot your questions accordingly. If the reason is based on budget, you can ask when the budget will open up. If the reason is based on performance, you can ask what it will take to earn that raise. (Nick Kolenda. Psychology & Marketing) Speaking task 3 Have you ever practised any of these tactics? If yes, share your stories. Video task 5

Watch the episode from the movie “Pirates of Silicon Valley” based on History of Apple and Microsoft https://www.youtube.co m/watch?v=fwYy8R87 JMA. You will see a famous scene where Steve Jobs barges into an interview between the Apple CEO Mike Markkula and a prospective Apple Employee, Mr. Brewster. Try to identify as many tactics and strategies employed by both parties. Then answer the questions: 50

1. Does Mr. Brewster seem to be a highly qualified professional for the IT industry? Why? 2. Why does Stebe Jobs start being rude and aggressive while conducting the interview? 3. What is the weak point of Mr. Brewster from your point of view? 4. How would you behave in such situation? What tactics would you use? 5. What type of negotiator Steve Jobs belongs to: a red, blue or purple stylist? Give your reason.

Vocabulary task 1 Complete the sentences using the words and word combinations from the box in the necessary form. Innate abilities, interpersonal and communication skills, sustainable competitive advantage, body language, to clarify the point, to avoid confusion, to find clues, sensitive issue, benchmark data, to bluff, venue, mimicry 1. It is vital that training provide a clear definition and understanding of project management to … and misperceptions. 2. This activity is important because regular questionnaires provide … on many different topics, information that is needed to develop proper educational policies. 3. To achieve the desired result, teams should be given adequate resources for staff support for common initiatives and actions, access to knowledge and experience, and training in …. 4. It is believed that this is a …, especially for those nations living in diverse multicultural societies for a long period of time. 5. It is more fun to …! Especially when you know that the opponent does not have a card up his sleeve! 6. Participants of the Educational Congress stressed the importance of innovation as a source of …. 7. Negotiation is a labyrinth where you should … to the secret intentions of parties. 8. This workshop even gave me some helpful tips about acting and …for interpreting what people try to hide verbally. 9. Everyone is born with advantages or disadvantages across a whole range of physical characteristics as well as …. 10. The United Nations system remains the only appropriate framework and … for such a dialogue. 11. I express my sorrow that, contrary to the understanding reached before today's meeting, the Chairman of the Committee, forgot to … before the adoption of the text of the Protocol. 12. …, camouflage, and deception (either through withholding information or supplying misleading information) are all common strategies used by humans. Vocabulary task 2 Make up a story based on the words from the Vocabulary task 1. Vocabulary task 3 Do the multiple choice quiz aimed at identifying what kind of negotiator you are. Find out what your natural negotiation style is and learn how to use it to ultimately help you win. The 51

quiz results are scored automatically. To start the quiz, follow the link https://www.tryinteract.com/quiz/what-kind-of-negotiator-are-you Then share the results obtained with your peers, compare yours with their outcomes and say whether you agree with them or not. Give your reason. QUIZ OUTCOMES Competitive You are a highly results-driven, focused and assertive negotiator who can often become aggressive. You thrive in a negotiation situation as you enjoy the opportunity to win. You have a strategic mind, therefore you don't get phased by your opposition. Being right matters more to you than preserving relationships.

Collaborative You are an open and honest negotiator, who understands the concerns and interests of the other party. You enjoy negotiations especially if it involves finding creative solutions to mutually satisfy both parties. However, you often turn simple situations into more complicated ones by overthinking and exploring many alternatives.

Compromising Your main concern while negotiating is finding middle ground and doing what's fair for both parties. You would rather compromise and settle with less than anticipated in order to satisfy the other party's needs. You may rush negotiations and make concessions too quickly which can lead to a loss.

Avoiding You really don't like negotiations! You try to avoid any conflict by any means possible, maybe by passing the responsibility to another member of your team or staying quiet. You find negotiations intimidating and would be susceptible to threats, therefore you would rather work behind the scenes. 52

Accommodating Your main concern while negotiating is preserving relationships. You like to connect on a personal level, and you would be put out if the other party wasn't interested in also building relationships. It matters to you what the other party thinks of you.

DISCUSSION Discussion task     

Read the problems below. Discuss with your peers what you would do in each situation, what tactics you would employ.

You have spent the last month preparing a report for head office. You have just learned that your boss has taken all the credit for the work. Your boss gave you a highly confidential report to read over the weekend. Now you cannot find it and you think you may have left it on the train. You have been sent to negotiate an important new contract for your firm. During the negotiations your counterpart makes it clear that he expects a personal cash contribution (a bribe) from you if your company is to win the contract. In your CV you lied about your qualifications in order to get the job you wanted. You have just been offered the job, but your new employer has asked to see your certificates. You have just seen in your bank statement that your employer has paid you £500 more than your monthly salary. (Graham Tullis & Tonya Trappe. New Insights into Business)

Project work Study two ABCs of negotiation tactics (given in the Appendix section): Choose the most exciting and effective strategy and demonstrate it to the peers in the form of multimedia presentation. Do not hesitate to include related movie episodes, songs, pictures, etc. into your presentation.

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UNIT 4. NEGOTIATION CASES. NEGOTIATIONS IN ACADEMIC ENVIRONMENT

This unit lists some negotiation cases, including those related to academic environment. It aims at enlarging your negotiating experience, developing your negotiating skills by providing useful tips. CASE 1 HOW-NEGOTIATE-ACADEMIC-JOB-OFFERS Negotiation is a delicate dance and it is the first opportunity for your future employer to see how you will be once on the job. If you make reasonable requests and are easy to negotiate with, then that is a good sign to your future colleague. However, you can destroy a relationship if you play hardball in negotiations. Thus, the philosophy that it never hurts to ask is a good one. However, it should always include the disclaimer that the way you ask can hurt. Here is a real case where my acquaintance had an offer pulled because he took his adviser’s advice not to be the first to bring up salary. The conversation went something like this: Candidate: Can you come up on the salary? Dean: What are you thinking? C: I would like it to be higher. D: How much higher? C: I would like to hear your best offer. D: Why don’t you take some time to think about what you need and call me tomorrow and give me your number? C: (Next day) I would like you to do better on the salary. D: I need a number from you. C: I am not comfortable stating the number; I want you to how much more you can pay me. D: If you will not tell me a number we cannot negotiate, so I am sorry, you are forcing me to pull the offer. C: (Calls back the next day to plead for the position and tells the dean his adviser told him to use that strategy.) D: So sorry but the job has been offered to someone else. There are rules to successful negotiations and you should familiarize yourself with the rules before you even get your first interview. If you do your homework in advance then there should be few surprises when the offer comes. And since sometimes the offer can come soon after the interview, you want to be ready. Rule 1: Do your research. Know the institution type, the funding and the state/college climate. Smaller private colleges tend to pay less because they have smaller endowments. A branch campus of a state university will probably pay less than the main campus. A union shop will have less salary flexibility than a non-union shop. And a higher cost of living in a particular location doesn’t guarantee a higher salary. Salaries in academe vary so widely that even if you read the American Association of 54

University Professors' faculty salary survey each year and see what the average starting salaries are you have to remember that this is the average, so some people are getting less than that while others are getting more. Also consider if the salary is paid over 9 or 12 months, and understand what that means. Are there opportunities to teach summer or overload classes to increase your salary? There are also other elements of a job offer beyond salary and you should educate yourself about those as well. Some of the information will be easy to find by searching the human resources page on the university’s website. You can learn about the health benefits, retirement, moving or educational expenses etc. If the institution is a public you can find salary scales on the website. If you know someone at a similar institution type you can ask them for advice. Rule 2: Always negotiate over the phone, never in writing. Successful negotiations require a delicate personal touch. It’s all about relationship management with your new employer. When I coach people we talk about how to ask I suggest starting with a question, “I was wondering if the salary is negotiable?” Then go from there. There are some cases where the salary is not negotiable (unionized institutions, small colleges, colleges in states with shrinking state support). And salary compression may be an issue at the institution. If you get this information up front you can move to the next item on your list. The other reason for asking is so you can create a dialogue. You aren’t making a demand; you are seeking information. If the salary is negotiable you should still be subtle in the ask. “Would it be possible to bring it up to…” And this is the tricky part; you give a specific number or you can give a range. Would it be possible to bring it to the low- to mid-60s range? Again you have to feel out the other person. If the answer to the question about the salary being negotiable is, "Well, we can come up a little," then I’d be suggest not asking for more than $5,000 but realizing that may mean only $1,000. This is why the phone call is so essential as is listening for cues from the other. Rule 3: Know your audience. There are some things you just do not want to ask for, and that is dictated by institution type. Universities with a heavy teaching focus do not like people who ask to teach less and universities with a heavy research focus do not like people who ask for a lighter research expectation, or STEM folks who ask for a release from grant expectations. This is why it is very important for you to consider what institution type is right for you. Not everyone was meant to be at a teaching-focused college. If you are a hard-core researcher, then do not apply to teaching colleges and vice versa. I know that due to market conditions people are applying to any academic job no matter how big a stretch. But given the time and expense of making hires and the huge costs for you and the institution if the fit isn’t right, it’s better to find the right place for you. Rule 4: Prioritize your list of requests and modify as needed. It is O.K. to want five or six items, but you probably will not get them all. If you get your first three, depending on what they are, you may want to stop there. Asking for too many things can make you sound like a high-maintenance hire. In addition, each time your future employer says yes, s/he is hoping that is the last thing on the list and you will accept. However, when your list goes on and on they will get tired and begin to wonder if there is an end to your list.

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This negotiation conversation will impact your new colleagues’ perceptions of you and will hopefully make them happy with rather regretting their choice. You want to communicate that you will be a good colleague, that you understand the institution and that you want a good relationship with your future coworkers. So go ahead and ask for what you need, but make sure your needs are reasonable for the institution and that you are asking in the best possible way. (Christine Kelly. Inside Higher Education) Vocabulary Match the words and word combinations given in bold in the text to their definitions.

1. (to play) hardball

2. funding 3. salary flexibility 4. to overload classes 5. shrinking state support 6. (to) be subtle 7. the tricky part

8. heavy teaching focus 9. lighter research expectation 10. STEM folks

11. hard-core researcher

a) to have more classes than it is prescribed by your contract, your job title and number of contact hours b) to be very delicate while doing smth c) professionals in science, technology, engineering and mathematics fields d) the most complicated, challenging issue e) decrease in volume of research or scientific activities f) a bigger emphasis on instructing rather than research g) a person having an intense (often excessive) interest in or enthusiasm for some scientific activity and research h) money-management operation, financial support i) decrease in financial sponsorship, support from the state j) to act aggressively and ruthlessly, use every means possible to achieve a goal, especially in disregarding the harm caused k) difference in salary range, an opportunity to get pay rise, not fixed payment

SPEAKING Answer the questions / or dwell on the following ideas: 1. What employee category do you refer to: a hard-core researcher or a lecturer seeking for a lighter research expectation? 2. Are you ready to overload classes if you want to have a pay rise? 3. Does the University you work for, fall under the category of heavy research focus or heavy teaching focus type? 4. Is your major related to STEM or art / humanities? 5. Will you be able to play hardball while negotiating extra responsibilities on non-payment basis? 6. Does your academic position / job imply salary flexibility? If yes, what are the key performance indicators that have an impact on your salary? 7. If you search for the academic position in a well-reputed University, how many requests are there in your list? Will you share them with your peers? 56

8. How would you behave while conducting negotiations for academic job offer? 9. Think about some other ideas to enlarge the list of rules / tips how to have a win-win academic job offer negotiation. What will be your negotiating technique to get a job offer you want badly? Dramatize the possible negotiations with your peer. CASE 2 WAIT, BUT WHEN DO WE NEGOTIATE? I’ve negotiated two faculty positions – unfortunately, in two separate years – and both times I was left waiting for our “negotiations” to start. I got an offer over the phone, they told me I had X time to decide. But when am I supposed to ask for all the things I have been told to ask for? So I asked a friend who also had a job offer what he did. He looked at me with surprise and said “I just called the department head and asked. How else are we supposed to do it?” So that’s what I did – I just asked. My initial requests were met with horror. The department head had never heard of anyone asking for more salary without a competing offer and had certainly never seen it granted. She made it clear she was shocked by my behavior and embarrassed for me. Public employees salaries are public record, so I looked hers up. Her salary for the past year was four times what they were offering me. I kept pushing. The Dean did increase the salary. A member of the committee told me later – after I had already signed the contract – that the College has X amount of money to play with in salary negotiations. Guess how much I was able to raise my salary by? The same amount. Unfortunately, I couldn’t get them to put everything in my offer letter. Everything they wouldn’t put in was waived away with an “Oh, it will all be fine, you worry too much.” Some things turned out fine and some didn’t. For example, the lab space I was promised was taken away and I am still unsure of where my lab space will be and how it will be configured, which is pretty stressful. On the other hand, I got a major upgrade to my office space, my start-up is 20% higher than other positions and my salary is 5% higher. You win some, you lose some. Things to think about Academic negotiations are a squishy, weird thing. Universities are cautious about lawsuits and everything happens verbally. That means your “negotiations” are discussions and if you are not assertive, your requests will get swept away. I’m not used to being assertive in conversations with people who are basically strangers, and I found the whole thing really difficult. Get everything you can in the contract. In my case, the department head changed between my offer and my starting date so all those things we discussed… gone. Different department heads have different priorities. I thought I was safe because I had email exchanges but I was wrong. Do your research. Some institutions have very limited resources, some do not. Consult salary surveys like the AAUP’s and start-up offers from sites like Wiki Ecology. If it is a public institution, you can find salaries for current faculty in state databases. There is a culture in academics of not wanting to discuss numbers because it is shallow or crass. It’s not. Focus on the long-term. A lot was made of the humanities candidate who had an offer pulled from Nazareth University because she tried to negotiate. I know a woman who had an offer pulled because she requested a position for her spouse, another woman who had an offer pulled because she was pregnant and requested to delay her start date to have her baby, and another woman who had an offer pulled because she couldn’t move her family by the start date. They ended up with better jobs at better institutions (the first also negotiated a tenure-track job for her spouse) but it 57

took 2-3 more years on the market. I don’t know if this happens to men too and they just don’t talk about it. Ultimately I think you are better off searching for a job at a place that values you enough to at least try and accommodate your needs but finding that place may take a while. Identify your priorities. Whether it be teaching assignments, space, salary or equipment there are going to be some things you cannot live with or without. At the same time, you are probably not going to get everything you want so don’t feel like a sucker if you take some aspects as-is. Understand that you are wanted. The administration usually wants to fill your position with a minimum of money, fuss and bother but the department really, really wants you. Your colleagues will be overjoyed to have you share the load and add to the social and intellectual life of the department. It is very unlikely that other faculty will know any details. Once the department makes their decision and the offer goes out, the administration asks current faculty to bow out. This is meant to benefit the administration because they are the only ones with all the information. Use it to your advantage and don’t be afraid to ask for what you want. (Guest-post-academic-negotiations. wordpress.com)

Vocabulary Match the words and word combinations from the text to their definitions.

1. 2. 3. 4.

a competing offer public record to waive away a lawsuit

5. shallow or crass 6. to pull an offer 7. a tenure-track job

a) b) c) d)

to refuse a claim or dispute brought to a law court superficial (not deeper) or rude documents or pieces of information that are not considered confidential and are in open access e) a proposal given by another person f) a professor’s pathway to promotion and academic job security g) to cancel or withdraw a proposal or an offer

SPEAKING Answer the questions / or dwell on the following ideas: 1. The mere thought of asking your boss for a raise can be enough to make your palms sweat. Is it better to strengthen your case by using a competing offer as ammunition to boost your pay? Say, how it can be done. Will you consider a good old blackmail to reach what you want? 2. What academic things are public record in the country you live / work / have an internship? What should not be public record? Give your reasons. 3. What kind of University employees are the first to be waived away, terminate the contract with? 58

4. Do you know any situations when the Universities faced lawsuits? What were the circumstances? How to avoid the worst case scenario? 5. What questions (issues) during academic negotiations tend to be viewed as shallow or crass in the country you live / work / have an internship? 6. If you were a dean whose applications / offers would you pull? Explain your choice. 7. What are the prerequisites to be eligible for a tenure-track job in the country you live / work / have an internship? How would you ask your head for pay increase / upgrade to your office space / a twoyear full time paid internship in the Ivy League University? Develop your strategy. USEFUL PHRASES FOR NEGOTIATIONS Welcoming and Establishing a Rapport  It’s my pleasure to welcome you to …  I would like to welcome you to …  Is this your first visit to …?  Did you have a good journey? Setting the Negotiation Agenda  I would like now to begin by suggesting the following agenda.  To start with, I think we should establish the overall procedure  Is this okay with you? Negotiation Phrases for Making Proposals  We’d like to propose that …  We propose / suggest …  Regarding your proposal, our position is …  How do you feel about … Responding to Suggestions  Maybe it would be better to …  Perhaps a better idea would be …  May we offer an alternative? We propose that …  From where we stand, a better solution might be … Agreeing – Reacting to a Negotiation Proposal  I think we can both agree that…  I agree with you on that point.  I think that would be acceptable. Negotiation Phrases for Objecting  That is not exactly how I look at it.  If you look at it from my point of view…  I have some reservations about that…  From my perspective…  I am afraid we couldn’t agree to that… Giving a Reason in Negotiations  The reason for that is …  This is because … 59

Prioritising Interests  The most important issue for us is …  Our intention is …  Our main priority is …  We might like to … Giving Clarification in Negotiations  If I understood you correctly …  Are you suggesting that …  Do you mean …  What exactly do you mean by …?  I’m not sure I fully understand your point.  Could you clarify one point for me?  Could you be more specific?  Can we summarize your position up to this point?  Am I right in thinking that …? Negotiation Phrases for Compromising  If you were prepared to …, we might be able to…  We are ready to accept your offer; however, there would be one condition.  Would you be willing to accept a compromise?  In return for this, would you be willing to …? Accepting a Negotiation Proposal  This agreement is acceptable to us.  I think we have reached an agreement here.  That sounds reasonable.  I think we have a deal.  I believe we have an agreement.  I can agree to that. Negotiation Phrases for Concluding  Let us just summarize our agreement.  I think you have covered everything.  Let us just confirm the details, then.  Have I left anything out?

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APPENDIX

I. THE ABC OF NEGOTIATION PLOYS AND TACTICS By Eric Garner If you want to win at the game of negotiations, then you need to know the ploys, tactics and gambits that will give you an advantage over your opponents. Here is an A to Z that will show you how to do exactly that. A is for Aristotle’s Appeals If you want to boost your powers of persuasion, you can’t do better than to use the 3 appeals which Aristotle defined as the secret of Ancient Greece’s greatest minds. He called them ethos, logos and pathos. 1. Ethos appeals are based on ethics and reputation. Quite simply, this is anything that makes your arguments sound more credible, such as an endorsement from a key person or citing expert testimony. 2. Logos appeals are based on logic and include statistics, facts and evidence. 3. Pathos appeals are based on emotion and means any argument which either creates a fear of not doing the deal on the one hand or a desire to enjoy the benefits of the offer on the other. Work these three types of arguments into your negotiating presentations, and you’ll be practically unstoppable. B is for BATNA A BATNA is your Best Alternative To a Negotiated Agreement and is the only certain way to be successful in negotiations. By preparing for negotiations with one party by sounding out an alternative deal with someone else gives you walkaway power. It means that, even if the alternative isn't quite what you want, you are still prepared to go there, if need be. One of the best examples of a BATNA took place during negotiations between the Malta government and the British over the use of Maltese harbors for British naval ships. During the negotiations, the Malta government courted the Soviet Union who was more than interested in a deal. This alternative gave Malta both leverage and walkaway power. C is for the Coquette Principle You can increase the power you have over others by raising the value of what you have in their eyes but then making them wait before they can enjoy it. This whets their appetite more and is salaciously known as "the coquette principle". Other coquette techniques include...  emphasizing the scarcity and rarity of what you have  underplaying the value of what you have to make them want it even more  being reluctant to part with what you have as unworthy of their interest.

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D is for Dumb Is Smart The competitive nature of conflict that underlies power negotiations often results in both sides trying to prove they're more intelligent than each other. One side will use arguments that are clever in the belief that this will win them points. However, there are disadvantages in appearing too clever:  you risk turning cleverness into a competition so that, even if you get a bad deal, you can still say you were cleverer  being smart pre-supposes that you have to win the argument. Most successful negotiations are not won on the arguments alone but on a range of other factors.  being clever prevents you asking "dumb" questions in case you appear stupid. This makes you vulnerable to deals which must be carefully checked out. Remember, dumb is smart and smart is dumb. E is for Emotional Ambush There are five emotional ploys that your opponents may try to use on you to soften you up: 1. personal attacks: "You're not up to it!" 2. accusations, e.g. of amateurism, awkwardness, intransigence, unfairness "Come off it...! You can't really mean that...!" 3. flattery: appealing to your ego, e.g. "I’m sure you have the authority to sanction this deal..." 4. warnings, e.g. of what might happen if no deal is struck. "Just think how disappointed you'll feel..." 5. emotional ambush: Emotional ambush is when an atmosphere is created in the negotiation room which makes you reluctant to displease or upset your opponent. You begin to feel that it would be rude to refuse them. F is for Fait Accompli Fait Accompli is a cheeky but powerful tactic if you can get away with it. You simply go ahead with what you want to do without the agreement of the other side. When they catch you out, you respond with a look of surprise and say something like, “Who me? Oh, I didn’t know I wasn’t supposed to do that. I am sorry. I won’t do it again.” G is for Gallipoli When talks are entrenched and leading nowhere, it can be useful to open up a new "front" or new avenue. This is sometimes called the Gallipoli ploy, after the Turkish town used to open up a second Eastern front in the First World War. For example, you may be discussing with an employee the importance of coming to work on time. In the middle of the discussion, the employee protests, “Other employees come into work late and you don’t say anything to them.” This is an attempt by the employee to deflect you from their issue and open up a diversionary discussion. One of the best responses you can make to Gallipoli is not to fall for the diversion but to ask a question, such as, “What makes you believe I do not give other employees who come in late the courtesy of dealing with them one-on-one, just as I am doing with you?” H is for Hot Potato In power negotiations, the "hot potato" is the problem that is too hot for you to handle so you deftly throw it back like a hot potato for the other side to handle. "We realize that you would like 5% from us, but in view of what we've said, we can only offer 3. So, we’ll leave it with you.” The story is told of the husband who lay awake all night worrying about what he was going to say to the bank manager in the morning about his overdraft. Finally in exasperation and in need of some sleep, his wife turned on the light, picked up the phone and dialed the bank manager at home: "Hello, this is Mrs. Jones. I thought you should know that my husband is coming to see you tomorrow to find out what you're going to do about reducing his overdraft. Goodnight." "There", she said, "it's his problem now. So let's get some sleep!" 62

I is for the Iroquois Preparation Method High-level negotiations affecting the lives and livelihoods of others require stamina and resourcefulness. One way to prepare for such endurance tests is to copy the Iroquois before going into battle. They fasted; they got themselves into a peak of fitness; they practiced with their weapons until they could use them without thinking; and they trained like hungry prize-fighters before a fight. While your negotiation preparations may not go to such lengths, the Iroquois Method illustrates the need to focus so that we are physically, mentally and psychologically ready. J is for Just See If I Don’t… Just See If I Don’t is an on-the-brink negotiating tactic and only advisable when negotiations have reached a crunch point. It’s really a warning to the other side that, if they don’t see sense, you’ll carry out your threat of walking away from the deal and taking some form of unpleasant action. Lee Iacocca, former chairman of the Chrysler Corporation, used this tactic when he was in pay negotiations with the automobile unions in the late 1970s. The union wanted $20 an hour and Iacocca would not budge from $17 per hour. One bitter night, Iacocca addressed the committee. "It was one of the shortest speeches I have ever given," he later recalled. He told the committee, "You've got until morning to make a decision. If you don't help me out, I'll declare bankruptcy in the morning and you'll be out of work. You've got eight hours to make up your minds.” The unions eventually agreed, and, despite the brinksmanship of the tactic, it turned out to be a turning point in the fortunes of the company. K is for Knowing Your Opponents The background research you need to carry out in preparation for negotiations is vital for getting to know your opponents. It can include:  a preliminary get-together to clarify initial claims, offers and positions  desk research, for example the outcome of previous deals  investigation of alternative courses including getting a BATNA (the Best Alternative To a Negotiated Agreement)  foot-slogging for on-the-spot information  getting advice from your own experts. Once you have information about the other side's position it can be compared to your own to find out how far apart you are. L is for Later, or, I’ll Think About It And Get Back To You Later Using a delaying tactic of “I’ll think about it and get back to you later” is a good way to put off a decision while leaving the door open. It leaves enough doubt in the other side’s mind for them to consider changing their offer. This tactic works best after a lengthy period of discussion in which both sides have invested a lot of time and energy. If the other side use “I’ll Think About It” on you, respond with a question that ties them down to a date for getting back to you or clarifies what they need to think about. A more aggressive response would be to ask, “Rather than go away and probably miss this deal, why not tell me what bothers you? I’m sure we can help you come to a decision today.” M is for Modest Diffidence When you sound absolutely certain of a position, you take on an air of superiority which can antagonize others. If you introduce a touch of modest diffidence, you sound more open to negotiation. This is how Benjamin Franklin used this tactic: "I develop the habit of expressing myself in terms of modest diffidence, never using, when I advanced anything that may possibly be disputed, the words "certainly", "undoubtedly" or any other that give the air of positiveness to an opinion; but rather say "I conceive..." or "I apprehend a thing to be so and so..." "for such and such reasons", or "I imagine it to be so...", or "it is so, if I am not mistaken." This habit I believe has been of great 63

advantage to me when I have had occasion to inculcate my opinion and persuade men into measures that I have been from time to time engaged in promoting." N is for Needs Not Positions Throughout the first half of a power negotiation, your aim is to take a position and defend it. In the second half, when you are trying to reach agreement, your aim is to uncover the real needs of the other side behind their public position. It is meeting both sides’ needs that ensures a settlement, not battling against respective positions which only leads to stalemate. Notice the difference between Position, Interests, and Needs in this situation. Position: I demand that you stop your children playing football near my garden otherwise I'll have to call the police. Interests: I have dahlias growing in my garden which I don't want damaged. Needs: The dahlias are ready to bloom for next week's show. After that it doesn't matter. O is for Obligation One of the oldest of power tactics in trade is "obligation". This is the technique of putting people in you debt with generous acts. One businessman visiting China for the first time fell victim to obligation. For the first four days of his visit he was wined and dined, chauffeured to all the tourist spots, given anything he wanted. His hosts even put a fax at his disposal when the fax machine in the hotel failed to work. At last on the morning of departure, and with time running out, they got down to business. The Chinese negotiators, with subtle reminders of what gracious hosts they had been, extracted everything they wanted from the hapless businessman. P is for Power Ploys Power ploys are attempts by the other side to wrong-foot you by exerting some kind of Svengalilike power over you. You can resist these attempts by seeing through their power ploys. If you are clever, you can even turn their power ploys to your advantage using these tactics:  simply ignore them.  name them. This is like the naming of mythological beasts of old in order to scare them away. "Oh, I see you've placed me facing the sun. I might not be able to see too well from there. I'll just move nearer."  suggest you discuss them. "Ah, I see you're playing "Hard to get". Shall we discuss tactics?"  counter them and call their bluff. "I see you're playing "Higher authority". Well, as a matter of fact, I think we would be happy to hear from your boss." Q is for Questions The side that controls the questions in a negotiation is the side that is always in control. Questions do a number of things: they allow you to sit back and listen; they help you gather information; and they stop you from giving anything away. There are no-go questions and go questions in negotiations: No-go questions are those that...  reprimand and accuse (Why didn't you...?)  entrap (Are you still peddling the Union line, then?)  threaten and pre-judge. Go questions are those that...  open (What do you think...?)  seek permission (Why don't we look at things differently?)  are barometric (How would you feel if...?)

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R is for Reluctant Player Reluctant Player is a gambit that you can play at the start of negotiations. Whatever the other side’s opening offer or demand, you simply counter with a reluctance to come anywhere near it. Here are 5 timeless phrases that will make the other side think again: 1. “That sounds way too low/high.” 2. “To make it worth my while, I would need…” 3. “Considering the amount of time/money/work this needs, I don’t think we can make any kind of progress…” 4. “You’ll have to do better than that…” 5. “Can we work on that…?” S is for Salami Matyas Rakosis, one-time head of the Hungarian Communist party is credited with this definition of the "salami" technique at the end of power negotiations. "When you want to get hold of a salami sausage which your opponents are strenuously defending, you must not grab at it. You must start by carving yourself a very thin slice. The owner of the salami will hardly notice or, if he does, not mind very much. The next day you will carve another slice, then still another. And so, little by little, the salami will pass into your possession." T is for Tentative Overtures You can make tentative overtures to the other side to inch your way forward out of deadlocked negotiating positions. Here are three ways to do it:  Yes, yes, yes. The more you use the word "yes", the more you encourage positive and constructive thinking. "Yes, you have a point...;Yes, I can see that... Yes, what you're saying is right..."  "Yes... and" instead of "yes...but" Not: "Yes, we like your ideas, but you're asking too much." But: "Yes we like your ideas and if we could agree a price, we would be interested."  "I" instead of "You" Avoid the finger-pointing of direct "You" statements. Not: "You're wrong" but: "I think you're wrong." U is for Uncertainty Natural negotiators are comfortable with uncertainty, while those who fear the process aren’t. Samfrits Le Poole in his book “Never Take No For An Answer” recalls a deal he made to buy a small plane. He got it for the ridiculously low price of $14,500. After the negotiations, he asked the seller why he had sold for such a low price. The man admitted that he found the whole negotiating process uncomfortable because of the uncertainty. He was wracked with questions such as “What if I don’t get another buyer?” and “What if nobody else comes forward?” As a result, he settled at the first offer simply because he couldn’t stand the uncertainty involved. V is for Variables Playing around with the variables in a negotiation is often the only way that you can reach a deal. The more variables you have in terms of price, terms, and deliverables, the more room you have for maneuver. So, when you get stuck on the main issues, change the package. If you’re deadlocked on the price of the house, throw in the furniture and fittings, agree to a garden makeover, or pay for their removal costs. W is for Writing the Agreement When you have edged your way to a solution in negotiations, you should write down exactly how you understand it. You should do this even if the other side also writes down their understanding of the agreement. Always beware of "one-truck deals". There is a big difference between: 65

"One truck for sale: £10,000" and "One 1998 model Bedford for sale: 120,000 miles certified on the clock, serviced at 111,500 miles. Delivered to your home. Price excludes tax, insurance, but includes MOT, dated November last..." X is for Xchanging Concessions Exchanging concessions is not a strategy you should use lightly in negotiations, particularly if the other side starts by offering you a concession and then expects one in return. This is because making concessions is a sign of weakness and betrays a need to please the other side. Almost certainly, an experienced negotiator will interpret any concession you make as weakness and push you into making more. If you do decide to make a concession, do so reluctantly and optimize the value of what you give away. In the same vein, if the other side gives you a concession in the expectation that you will do the same, take it reluctantly and let them know that its worth is not that great to you. Y is for Yikes, You’ve Got To Be Kidding Yikes, You’ve Got To Be Kidding is a shock tactic used in the opening exchanges of a power negotiation to make your opponents sit up and think and maybe re-assess their offer or demand. As one seasoned diplomat put it: "Be unreasonable; appear reasonable." You owe it to both your side and your opponents to reject a first offer - even if it is within your acceptable settlement range. Why? Because if you accept their first demand, they'll be left thinking they could have done better and if they accept your first offer, you’ll be left wondering if you couldn’t have done better. In power negotiations, both sides need to experience at least the ritual of winning something from the other side. Z is for Zipped, or Keeping Your Mouth Zipped Keeping your mouth shut, or zipped, is one way to keep the other side guessing. No matter how much they try to get you involved, if you can stay quiet and give nothing away, then you are in control of the negotiations. In "The Ransom of the Red Chief", O. Henry tells the story of the spoilt little rich boy who is kidnapped and held for a large ransom. Instead of giving in, the parents don't react at all to the ransom demands. As time goes by, they even feign a loss of interest in the boy's fate. The kidnappers meanwhile become so exasperated with the boys' antics and their unexpectedly long baby-sitting stint that they finally pay the parents to take the boy back! So that’s the Negotiators’ Alphabet with tactics that you can slip into any negotiation whenever you want to secure an advantage for yourself or your side. Rehearse and practice them until they are automatic responses, and your reputation as a top notch deal-maker is guaranteed. Eric Garner is Managing Director of ManageTrainLearn, the web site company that guarantees to make you a better manager, trainer and learner. Eric is a graduate of the University of Cambridge and has many years’ experience as a HR manager and trainer. He is a Chartered Member of the UK Institute of Personnel and Development. Eric Garner may be reached through his web site at http://www.managetrainlearn.com Copyright © 2006 Eric Garner, ManageTrainLearn.com

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II. NEGOTIATION IDIOMS

beat around the bush – to talk about something without giving a direct answer The manager was beating around the bush and never said anything important. blow a deal – to ruin a business deal with someone We are working hard so that we do not blow the deal with our new customer. breakthrough – a success that comes after overcoming a difficulty There was a breakthrough in the talks to end the teacher's strike. bring (someone) to terms – to make someone agree to something or do something The government worked hard to bring the two sides to terms. bring (something) to the table – to have something to offer during a negotiation We were able to bring a new offer to the table during the negotiations. call off (something) or call (something) off – to stop or quit or cancel something We called off the meeting because everybody was busy. close a deal – to end a negotiation successfully We had to work hard but we were finally able to close the deal. come back with an offer – to return to negotiations with a new offer We came back with a new offer and the negotiations continued smoothly. come to terms – to reach an agreement After negotiating all night the government and the company came to terms on an arrangement for the new water system. 67

come up with (an idea or something) – to produce or find a thought or idea or answer My boss was happy when I came up with some good ideas during the meeting. common ground – shared beliefs or interests There was no common ground between the two sides and the negotiations did not go well. cover ground – to talk about the important facts and details of something The questions were endless and we were unable to cover much ground during the meeting. cut a deal – to make an agreement, to make a deal or arrangement We cut a deal and left the meeting in a positive mood. draw the line – to set a limit about what will be done or discussed The union was flexible on the salary issue but they drew the line at talking about health benefits. draw up (something) or draw (something) up – to put something (a contract or a plan) in writing The lawyers drew up a contract for the new housing development on the government land. drive a hard bargain – to bargain hard and try to make an agreement to one's advantage The sales manager drives a hard bargain and it is difficult to negotiate with him. drive at (something) – to mean something, to want to say something I could not understand what the other negotiators in the meeting were driving at. gentleman's agreement – an agreement that is not written down but is made by two people or two groups who trust each other I made a gentlemen's agreement with the carpenter to build some new furniture. get down to business – to start working or doing the business at hand We must get down to business and finish our work quickly. get the ball rolling – to start an activity or action We should get the ball rolling and begin the meeting at once. get the message – to understand clearly what someone means I do not think that the opposite side got the message about where the negotiations are heading. get to first base – to make a good start, to succeed 68

We have not been able to get to first base regarding the terms of the new contract. get to the heart of (something) – to find the most important facts or central meaning of something We spent the morning trying to get to the heart of the problem with the computer supplier. give a little – to compromise during a negotiation We know that we must give a little if we want to complete the negotiations. give in to (someone) – to do what another person wants rather than to fight and argue with him or her After eight weeks of negotiations we gave in and agreed to sell the machinery at a discount. go back on (something) – to not be faithful or loyal to one's word or an agreement The company directors went back on their word to give the employees a salary increase. hammer out (an agreement or a deal) – to negotiate a deal or agreement by discussion and debate The negotiations lasted all night but finally we were able to hammer out an agreement. hang in the balance – to have two equally possible results, to be uncertain The outcome of the election was hanging in the balance after the top candidates had an equal number of votes. hard-nosed – to be very strict, to be stubborn, to be uncompromising The negotiators were hard-nosed during the talks for a new contract. have a card up one's sleeve – to hide something of value I thought that the negotiations would not succeed but my boss had a card up his sleeve that we did not know about. have a poker face - to not show any reaction or emotion Our boss had a poker face when he told us that our office would soon close. hold all the aces/cards/trumps – to have all of the advantages The management group was holding all the aces during the meeting with the union. horse-trade – to make a business agreement or deal after careful bargaining and compromise After several hours of horse-trading we reached an agreement to buy the new computers. ink a deal – sign a contract The company inked a deal to buy the new product. 69

lay one's cards on the table – to be open and honest about one's intentions Our boss laid his cards on the table during the meeting. make a concession – to change your position in favor of the other person/side when you are negotiating The union made a big concession in their negotiations with their company. make an offer – to make a financial or other proposal for a product or service I will make an offer and try to buy the house that I like. make headway – to make progress We are bargaining hard and making headway with the new agreement. meet (someone) halfway – to compromise with someone The price for the truck was too high but we met the salesman halfway and made an agreement to buy it. play one's ace – to use one's best resource (the ace is the most powerful card), to use all of one's power I played my ace when I asked my boss for more money.

pull (something) out of a hat – to get something as if by magic, to invent something, to imagine something The problem was difficult but somehow we were able to pull a solution out of a hat. put one's cards on the table – to be open and honest about one's intentions We put our cards on the table and tried to solve the problem. reach a compromise – to achieve a compromise with someone The company tried very hard to reach a compromise with the workers. reach a deal – to complete or make a deal The company reached a deal with their supplier. reach a stalemate – to arrive at a position where no progress is being made The talks to buy the new computers have reached a stalemate and it will be difficult to start them again. reach an agreement – to complete or make an agreement The supplier and the buyer reached an agreement about the new product.

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reach first base – to make a good start, to succeed We were unable to reach first base in the discussions. read between the lines – to understand the meaning of something by guessing what is not said The salesman did not say that no products were available but we could read between the lines and we knew that there were none available. a setback – a change from better to worse, a delay, a reversal The bad weather was a setback in our efforts to get the material delivered on time. smooth (something) over or smooth over (something) – to make something seem better or less severe We tried to smooth over the problems between the two managers. stand one's ground – to maintain and defend one's position The other negotiating team was very aggressive but we stood our ground and bargained hard. start the ball rolling – to begin an activity or action I will start the ball rolling by making some telephone calls to my coworkers. stick to one's guns – to defend an action or opinion despite an unfavorable reaction We stuck to our guns during the meeting and asked for more time to consider the proposal. stumbling block – something that prevents or obstructs progress The salary issue was a stumbling block in the negotiations between the company and the union. sweeten the deal – to offer something during a negotiation that is attractive to the other side We sweetened the deal during the negotiations in order to win the new contract.

talk (someone) into (something) – to get someone to agree to something, to persuade someone to do something We were unable to talk the other members of our team into delaying the meeting until next week. talk (someone) out of (something) – to persuade someone not to do something I tried to talk our sales manager out of offering a price for the product that was too low.

trump card – something that is kept back to be used to win success if nothing else works Although we appeared weak during the negotiations we had some new information to use as our trump card. 71

turn thumbs down on (something) – to reject something The other negotiating team turned thumbs down on our wish to postpone the meeting until tomorrow. wheel and deal – to negotiate to buy and sell something (often in a way that is very close to being dishonest or illegal) The salesman likes to wheel and deal with his customers. wind up (something) or wind (something) up – to end, to finish, to stop We would like to wind up the meeting early tomorrow. Do the quiz and check yourself at http://www.idiomconnection.com/negotiations.html The 25 idiom quizzes are given after the ABC entries.

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REFERENCES 1. Chan Kim, W., Mauborgne, R.A. Blue Ocean Strategy, Expanded Edition: How to Create Uncontested Market Space and Make the Competition Irrelevant / W. Chan Kim, R.A. Mauborgne. – Harvard Business School Publishing Corporation, 2015. – 320 p. 2. Chmielecki, M., Sulkowski, L. Metaphors in Management – Blend of Theory and Practice / M. Chmielecki, L. Sulkowski. – Peter Lang GmbH, Internationaler Verlag der Wissenschaften, 2016. – 206 p. 3. Fox, E. A. Winning from Within: A Breakthrough Method for Leading, Living, and Lasting Change / E.A. Fox. – Harper Business, 2013. – 384 p. 4. Kolenda, N. Methods of Persuasion: How to Use Psychology to Influence Human Behavior / N. Polenda. – Amazon Digital Services LLC, 2013. – 242 p. 5. Lewicki, R.J., Saunders, D.M., Barry, B. Preface to “Negotiation: Readings, Exercises and Cases” / R. J. Lewiski, D.M. Sanders, B. Barry. – New York, NY: McGraw-Hill Education, 2015. – 336 p. 6. Naunton, J. ProFile 3: Student’s Pack / J. Naunton. – Oxford University Press, 2005. – 168 p. 7. Tullis, G., Trappe, T. New Insights into Business / G. Tullis, T. Trappe. – Longman, 2000. – 176 p. 8. https://smallbusiness.chron.com/importance-goals-negotiation-75454.html 9. https://www.coursehero.com/file/39904057/13-Negotiationspptx/ 10. https://smallbusiness.chron.com/behavioral-organizational-theories-4963.html 11. https://blog.locomote.com/supplier-negotiations.-more-ways-to-make-the-right-deal 12. https://managementstudyhq.com.cutestat.com/ 13. https://www.procurement-academy.com/7-key-skills-successful-negotiation/ 14. https://www.insidehighered.com/advice/2018/02/19/questions-ask-avoid-sabotaging-yourcareer-search-opinion 15. https://tenureshewrote.wordpress.com/2015/01/29/guest-post-academic-negotiations/ 16. http://www.negotiatormagazine.com › garner_july2006/

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Учебное издание

Белкина Оксана Валентиновна ENGLISH FOR RESEARCHERS: NEGOTIATIONS Учебное пособие

Техн. редактор А.В. Миних Дизайн обложки А.В. Коноваловой Издательский центр Южно-Уральского государственного университета Подписано в печать 18.12.2018. Формат 60 1/8. Печать цифровая. Усл. печ. л. 8,83. Тираж 50 экз. Заказ 630/509. Отпечатано в типографии Издательского центра ЮУрГУ. 454080, г. Челябинск, проспект Ленина, 76. 74