English education: The law, the church and the government of the british empire 9783486739251, 9783486739244

Citation preview

ENGLISH EDUCATION THE LAW, THE CHURCH AND THE

GOVERNMENT OF THE BRITISH EMPIRE

W. H. WELLS (B. A. OXON) ENGLISH LECTURER IN THE UNIVERSITY OF MUNICH

MUNICH AND BERLIN PRINTED A N D EDITED BY R. O L D E N B O U R G

1910

Introduction. The object of this book is to explain the Englishman through his education and the organisation under which he lives and works. The following books have been consulted: Education in the Nineteenth Century. Cambridge. Educational Systems of Great Britain and Ireland. G. Balfour. The above are comprehensive accounts of primary, secondary and tertiary education.

English National Education. H. Holman. London. The State in its Relation to Education. H. Craik. London. London at School. H. B. Philpott. London. These three deal with primary education. The Red Code, published annually for the National Union of Teachers (N. U. T. Edition) gives the latest regulations for state schools. Great Public Schools (various authors), Lbndon, is rather fragmentary. Eton College. Eton. Eton.

Maxwell Lyte,

the standard history of

A. Clutton-Brock, London, is also a good history.

Reminiscences The Eton

of an Eton

Guide.

R. Leigh.

Colleger.

C. H. M.

Eton.

IV

Public Schools and Public Opinion. T. Pellatt. London. The writer knows of no book that gives a vivid, complete impression of the organisation and underlying principles of an English public school. C. H. M., however, gives a really interesting and instructive account of the life of an Eton colleger. Though the present writer was at a public dayschool, not a public boarding-school, he believes that he caught there sufficient of the public school spirit to be able to discriminate between what is possible and consonant with it, and what is not; and he accepts C. H. M.'s account with confidence in the truth of his description of college life at Eton. He would only suggest that the masters know a good deal more of what is going on than the boys suspect. In the long run the masters still make the school.

Oxford, its Life and Schools. A. Stedman, London — a good account of the University as a whole. The Student's Guide to the University don Press.

of Oxford.

The Students Guide to the University Cambridge University Press. The London

University

Guide

of

ClarenCambridge.

1908.

London Education. S. Webb. London. — The lastmentioned book is particularly useful for the sections dealing with London University and the Polytechnics.

The Renaissance of Girls' Education. (Miss) A. Zimmern, London — is a comprehensive and standard work on the subject.

V

The Education of Girls and Women in Great Britain. C. S. Brennan, London, is also good. There is no book, so far as the writer knows, that gives a lively and convenient account of the English Church as it actually is. The foreigner's best course would be to obtain the English Book of Common Prayer, and commentaries written from the High, Low, and Broad Church points of view. The English Church.H.W. M. Spence (Temple Primer), London, is too historical, though the last chapters are useful, and give also an account of the Methodist movement. For the latter any histories of England may be consulted. The rather scanty accounts of the other religious bodies are taken from the books of reference mentioned below, and a general acquaintance with the subjects possessed by the writer. And it is from personal knowledge, supplemented by the assistance of a friend "in the Church" that the writer has composed the section that deals with the Church of England. The sources of the section that deals with the Law are, once more, personal knowledge and books of reference. A. Dicey, London — A The Law of the Constitution. standard and indispensable work, which makes the subject interesting even to a layman. The English Constitution. W. Bagehot, London — contains many thoughtful and valuable reflections on the distribution of power in the English constitution. It is a well-known book. The Governance of England. S. Low, London — is a stimulating and valuable account of the present condition of the constitution, and gives a very interesting sketch of some of the latest tendencies.

VI

The Working Constitution. S. Courtney (Temple Primer), London — confines itself chiefly to facts, but gives them in a singularly lucid and interesting manner. The foreign student cannot do better than to begin with this book. Local Government. P. Ashley. London. — The subject is an extraordinary complicated and confusing one. The book is small, but presents the essential facts and theories with admirable clearness and restraint. It deals with the subject, moreover, at the date of writing (1905).

The

Government of Greater Britain. W. F. Trotter, (Temple Primer) — gives a clear account of the constitutions of the various parts of the British Empire and of the classes into which they fall. Great Britain has developed an Empire that in its composition is unique in the history of the world. The problems she has had to solve have centred chiefly about the position and functions of the governors. The manner in which the present state of affairs has been reached is best studied in

A Short History of British Colonial Policy. (500 pages), H . E . Egerton, London ; or in particular in a standard work upon Canadian history such as Canada, Vol. V. Part II. of Lucas' Historical Geography of the British Colonies. There are other instructive books on the subject but the writer has found these two most useful. The later-born colonies have inherited the results of British experience in Canada and the early American colonies. Nevertheless the histories of the Australian and South African states supply interesting developments of the principles evolved by the relations between the British Government and the Briton across the seas

VII in earlier days. But the principles themselves are clearly found in the history of C a n a d a . Canada ( 1 7 6 0 - 1 9 0 0 ) . J. G. Bourinot, C a m b r i d g e 1900 — could be taken instead of Lucas' Historical Geography. It is a g o o d and standard short history. English Colonisation and Empire. A. Caldecott, London — is a useful University Extension Manual. T h e student who desires to obtain an intelligent insight into Indian affairs will have to consult a list of books too long to be mentioned here. He will however find in the Progress of India, Japan and China in the Century. R. Temple, London, a useful s u m m a r y . An interesting book of essays is The India of the Queen. W. W. Hunter, London, written by a well-known authority who deals with many aspects of our rule in India. A. D. l n n e s has written a clear and c o m p r e h e n s i v e Short History of the British in India; and so on. But for the latest particulars about organisation, and for a treatment of the latest p r o b l e m s one must go to the n e w s p a p e r s and to works of general reference. The Times, N o v e m b e r 16. 1909, gives a s u m m a r y of the reforms that are to take effect in 1910; and a n u m b e r of letters a n d s o m e articles in the s a m e n e w s p a p e r during 1909 give some idea of the nature of the difficulty. Hazell's Annual (1910) has a good article, and extracts from the Times.

The Encyclopaedia The Harmsworth Jack's

Reference Book).

Hazell's

Britannica. Encyclopaedia. Book

(formerly

Annual.

The Statesman's

Year Book,

1909.

Pannell's

Reference

V1U Minerva (a German Guide to the Universities of the World). Strassburg. The present book has been written at odd times during several years. If the writer has forgotten his indebtedness to any source, he would be glad to have his attention drawn to this; he would also be glad of any corrections.

W. H. Wells Munich January 1910.

Contents. Education T h e education given by the s t a t e T h e public s c h o o l s T h e universities Oxford Cambridge London

I I 22 41 44 62 65

T h e Law Solicitors and barristers T h e courts

69 69 72

T h e Church of England The clergy Doctrines T h e Established Church of S c o t l a n d T h e Methodist C h u r c h e s The Three Denominations T h e S a l v a t i o n Army

65 81 84 92 93 96 97

T h e s c h o l a s t i c profession T h e civil service

99 102

T h e British Constitution Local g o v e r n m e n t The colonies Canada Australia South Africa T h e c o l o n i e s and the mother-country

104 117 121 123 124 125 125

India

127

Education. T h e idea that the state should trouble itself about e d u c a t i n g its future citizens is a new one in E n g l a n d ; a n d even now state education, in practice if not in theory, is seldom sought except by those who cannot afford to pay for anything else. We find the beginnings of a general system of popular education in the voluntary efforts of private p e r s o n s early in the last century. Before then it was possible for poor scholars of unusual capacity to obtain an education; s o m e schools existed for them, and p a t r o n s could occasionally be f o u n d . But the eighteenth century had hardly increased the facilities offered by the sixteenth and early sevent e e n t h ; in s o m e cases the perversion of f u n d s had actually diminished t h e m ; and it was not until the beginning of the nineteenth century that p r o g r e s s was really resumed. T h e pioneers were Joseph Lancaster and Dr. Bell. Lancaster, a Quaker, with a strong love of teaching, b e g a n his career by instructing p o o r boys in a room in his father's house. He himself was poor. His pupils in turn b e c a m e t e a c h e r s ; and in 1808 he enlisted the s y m p a t h y of s o m e wealthy persons, and the British and F o r e i g n School Society was formed to p r o m o t e the w o r k . T h e Lancaster schools were supported by the d i s s e n t i n g sects. Dr. Bell obtained his experience as m a s t e r in a military school in India. Like Lancaster he had difficulty in obtaining assistants, and he hit upon the plan of i

2

making the older pupils teach the younger ones for some hours in the week. In this way the pupil-teacher system began, a system that became undesirably popular. Dr. Bell was taken up by the Church of England, and the National School Society was founded in 1808. It is to be noted that the work of education was promoted in each case by a religious body; and that the teaching was primarily religious. It was not until 1832 that the state gave any financial support. In this year the government granted M 20,000, to be distributed by these two societies for building purposes. The grant was continued year by year. Such was the almost unnoticed beginning of state education in England. The next step was the formation of a Committee of Privy Council on Education in 1839, the first secretary of which was Sir Kay Shuttleworth. The committee recognised the need of training teachers, but the state shrank from the task of doing this itself. The utmost obtainable was a grant in aid of ¿10,000 for the training of teachers, and in 1840 two colleges were established by the above-mentioned societies, — the National Society's Training College in Battersea (London), and the British and Foreign School Society's in Borough Road, Southwark (London), both of which still remain. The state was now in a position to demand the right of inspection, and this was done. But the inspection was at first very tentative. The state had no desire to cause a strike on the part of the voluntary educational agencies. The report of the inspectors was disheartening, and in 1846 arrangements were made for the obtaining of better teachers. Pupil teachers were to be instructed systematically; and they were encouraged to increase

3 their own efficiency by the g r a n t i n g of certificates, to be won by examination. In 1856 a Vice-President of the Council of E d u cation b e c a m e the first representative of educational policy in parliament. In this way the Education D e p a r t ment c a m e into existence. In 1858 a new c o m m i s s i o n of enquiry r e p o r t e d so unsatisfactorily u p o n the condition of the state-aided schools, to say n o t h i n g of the others, that the adoption of s o m e m e a n s to e n s u r e greater efficiency b e c a m e imperative. T h e Revised C o d e of 1862 s h o w e d c o n s i d e r a b l e a c u t e n e s s of a rather low o r d e r . By this, g r a n t s w e r e to be m a d e a c c o r d i n g to the results o b t a i n e d by examination of the individual children. T h e g r a n t was to be proportionate to the n u m b e r of children w h o w e r e successful. T h e r e were s o m e a d v a n t a g e s to the s y s t e m ; it e n s u r e d that the children learnt s o m e t h i n g a n d that none but the hopelessly b a c k w a r d w e r e neglected. But educational ideals naturally suffered, a n d it is said with plausibility that the children suffered too. T h e r e w a s still h o w e v e r no a d e q u a t e supply of schools. If the condition of state-aided or b o a r d - s c h o o l s was unsatisfactory*, j u d g e d by m o d e r n s t a n d a r d s , the purely voluntary schools were for the m o s t part w o r s e ; and in other cases, especially in m a n u f a c t u r i n g t o w n s , where the population had g r o w n rapidly, schools of any sort were few in n u m b e r . T h e provisions of Mr. F o r s t e r ' s Bill of 1870 m a k e the situation clear. T h e r e is no attempt in it to s u p e r sede voluntary effort, merely an attempt to s u p p l e m e n t it. The whole country was m a p p e d out into e l e m e n t a r y school districts. W h e r e a g o o d school already existed, it was allowed to remain. But in o r d e r to rank as an * In 1870 the state was expending about £415,000 a year on education.

1»

4 elementary school according to the meaning of the Bill, it had to submit itself to inspection and in this way prove its efficiency. And, though denominational religious teaching was not prohibited, the schools had to be worked with a " c o n s c i e n c e clause"* which allowed parents to withdraw their children from the religious lessons. And for this qualified permission to give denominational teaching of the kind they required, the managers (and the parents) paid by the forfeiture of any help from the local rates. They received a governmental grant, and charged fees; the rest had to be made up by voluntary subscription. Where no satisfactory elementary teaching was obtainable, or where the schools refused to comply with the other conditions, " b o a r d schools" were instituted, managed by a board of persons chosen by election in the district. In these schools undenominational religious teaching was given, and a conscience clause was an essential feature. T h e s e schools derived their income from a state grant, fees, and a local rate to make up deficiencies. In these boards we have for the first time legally instituted, responsible authorities with power to enforce payment from the inhabitants of their respective districts through the rates.** It should be noted that there s e e m s to have been no idea that the education provided should be for any but the poor. T h e r e were weak points in the system. T h e school boards were given only the option of passing a bye-law to compel attendance, and the voluntary schools had not even this; so that though immense efforts were * The so-called Cowper-Temple clause. ** We have also a concrete expression of the principle that education is a secular matter, not indispensably connected with religious teaching, a principle about which the conflict had raged bitterly for years in connection with the elementary schools, and with the training colleges also.

5 made, especially by the s u p p o r t e r s of the voluntary schools, to p r o v i d e an a d e q u a t e n u m b e r of places, even these places were not satisfactorily filled. The importance of the voluntary schools and the wealth invested in their buildings, etc., must not be underrated. In 1876 the f i g u r e s were, — 2,000,000 places belonging to the C h u r c h of E n g l a n d , 600,000 to the British School Society a n d dissenting m a n a g e r s , 200,000 to the Roman Catholics, and 550,000 to the school b o a r d s . By an act of 1876 every p a r e n t was o r d e r e d to send his children to school,* and School A t t e n d a n c e Committees (elected purely and only for this p u r p o s e ) were given the s a m e p o w e r of enforcing attendance as was g r a n t e d to the school b o a r d s . In 1880 every elementary education authority was o r d e r e d to compel attendance;** so that by 1880 s o m e t h i n g like a uniform system of public elementary education existed. In 1891 the p a y m e n t of fees, which previously had been d i s p e n s e d with in cases of obvious poverty,*** w a s abolished. It was still felt, however, that m u c h r e m a i n e d to be done. T h e cost of providing education, e q u i p m e n t s , staffing, etc., was steadily rising; and the b o a r d schools with their elastic local rate w e r e able to meet this. But the voluntary subscriptions proved hardly equal to the increased strain; the relative p e r c e n t a g e of the g o v e r n * Until the a g e of 10, if the child could obtain a certificate of proficiency in reading, writing and arithmetic; otherwise until 14 years of age. No factory was allowed to employ children under 10 years of age. ** Had the law been rigidly enforced the s c h o o l s would have been swamped. But the g o v e r n m e n t knew that by the time the law could be enforced the s c h o o l s could be ready. The average attendance is now fairly g o o d , but the parents h a v e only been reconciled gradually to the idea of compulsory education. »•» By application to the poor-law guardians. The reception of such relief did not disqualify the parents in any of their rights as citizens.

6

mental grant to the total income of the voluntary schools increased; and, in spite of this, in some cases the latter with their smaller income were unable to provide satisfactorily for their pupils. And the objectors to them took up the fairly unassailable position that the gift of state money should be accompanied by state representation on the governing bodies of these schools; and that under the circumstances, considering the amount of aid received from the state, it was absurd to call them voluntary schools at all. The importance of the question from the educational standpoint was clear, as up to the end of the last century more than half the children were being educated at these schools. The next epoch-making Act in English education was the Education Act of 1902, which established, generally speaking, the system that still holds. The chief points about it were, that the Board of Education, with a president appointed (nominally at least) by the King, with a parliamentary secretary and another, permanent secretary, became the central authority, and that boards were no longer elected expressly for educational purposes. Instead of this the educational authorities were obtained from committees of the larger local councils, i. e.: (1) The county councils.* (2) The councils of boroughs with more than 10,000 inhabitants. (3) The councils of urban districts with more than 20,000 inhabitants. The idea of this change was that the business of the larger councils would attract a more capable class of persons than were enlisted by the ad hoc school boards. The committees are formed partly of councillors, partly of persons outside the council who are * Compare page 117.

7

interested in education; and of these latter one at least must be a woman. T h e board schools took the name of County Council (C. C.) Schools or "provided schools", and were taken over by managers chosen by the local education committee. T h e voluntary schools became "non - provided s c h o o l s " (because the buildings were not provided by the state). T h e control of them was entrusted to four managers chosen in accordance with the provisions of the trust-deed, and two managers chosen by the local education committee. Both varieties of school were empowered to draw on the local rates. The non-provided schools had no pecuniary responsibility except that of providing the buildings and keeping them in proper order. No existing school was to be held unnecessary that had an average attendance of more than thirty scholars. One would have thought that this was a fair settlement of the religious difficulty, but it has not given entire satisfaction. The presence of a state-aided denominational school gives offence to other denominations, or rather to the ministers or clergy of other denominations, for the parents themselves are pretty indifferent; and the non-denominational teaching of the C. C. schools is also an object of dislike to many, and is stigmatised not only as godless but as an insult to dogmatic religion. T h e religious difficulty was especially felt in districts where the denomination in possession of the local schools was not favoured by the majority of the inhabitants. Wales, for instance, is largely nonconformist, a n d the schools in many nonconformist districts were Church of England. T h e local authorities refused to levy the rates; and when the central authority did this over their heads, the parents refused to send their

8 children to the denominational s c h o o l s ; and the latter, having no children, could earn no government grant. Thousands of summonses were issued, people went to prison, compulsory sales were c o m m o n ; but "passive resistance" won the day, and in 1907 a Welsh Education B o a r d was instituted.* C a s e s of passive resistance (refusal to pay the rates) were c o m m o n in England too, and every one felt that the religious question was by no means settled. T h e obvious way out of the difficulty would have been to buy out the voluntary agencies and then give a religious education suited to the needs of the neighbourhood. But the capital required for this would have been about twenty-five million pounds. In London alone five million pounds would be required. S o that the government had the choice between paying ¿ 7 1 5 , 0 0 0 a year as rent, or paying about £ 1 7 5 , 0 0 0 towards teaching denominational religion. In every educational bill the clauses affecting the teaching of religion have been the most keenly disputed. ** T h e system is too new for it to be seen how it works, but one or two remarks will be not out of * The writer has not been able to find out what the effect of this has been, except that Welsh is used as the medium of instruction, where the scholars speak that language. The clue to the eased situation is probably political. ** In reading "the story of the obstruction placed in the way of progress in educational matters by religious bodies one is tempted to judge the latter rather harshly. But it must be remembered that, if the sects shewed (and show) themselves obstinate towards any change that involved the loss of their control over the education of the poor, they had previously shewn the honesty of their convictions by their striking voluntary sacrifices of time and money. And it is a little hard that those who have borne the heat and burden of the day should find themselves superseded at the very moment when the financial difficulties are being overcome.

9

place here. The system of payment by results — by the result of the examination of each child — was found unsatisfactory from the point of education, of the child, and of the teacher, and has been dropped. Instead of this the inspector gives his general impression of the school, a method which allows the teachers a free hand, but which perhaps does not provide the same incentive to painstaking instruction. As regards the spirit of the teaching, the old shallow ideas have been discarded. In intention at least there is shewn in the new code of regulations a clear desire to make elementary education a real education given in an intelligent spirit, not a mere cramming of the children with elementary facts. T h e introduction to the code gives an indication of the manner in which it is intended the Act of 1902 is to be administered. " T h e purpose of the public elementary school is to form and strengthen the character and to develope the intelligence of the children entrusted to it, and to make the best use of the school years available, in assisting both girls and boys, according to their different needs, to fit themselves, practically as well as intellectually, for the work of life." T h e children are to be trained in habits of observation and clear reasoning, they are to be given a living interest in the world around them, they are to be taught how little they know. T h e teachers themselves are to feel that they are entrusted with a great and honourable task. " A n d though their opportunities are but brief, the teachers can yet do much to lay the foundations of character. They can endeavour by example and influence, aided by the sense of discipline which should pervade the school, to implant in the children habits of industry, self-control, and courageous perseverance in the face of difficulties: they can teach them to reverence

10 what is noble, to be ready for self-sacrifice, to strive their utmost after purity and truth: they can foster a strong respect for duty, and that consideration and respect for others which must be the foundation of unselfishness and the true basis of all good m a n n e r s : while the corporate life of the school, especially in the playground, should develope that instinct for fair-play and for loyalty for one another which is the germ of a wider sense of honour in later life."* T h e idea that the teacher is no mere specialist appointed to give teaching in one or more subjects, but a man whose whole personalty must tell in the direction of influencing the character of the children for good, is as much recognised in elementary schools as in the great public schools. T h e teacher's duties by no means end with instruction. In many cases they must advise, persuade and help in one way or another; and for a man or woman of kindly and broad sympathies a career is opened in the service of the nation which can fill a life. T h e r e is of course very great divergency in the size of the schools, but a representative London C. C. S c h o o l contains about one thousand pupils arranged in three departments — boys', girls' and infants', with in some c a s e s mixed classes. Each school is divided into " S t a n dards", of which there are usually seven, the seventh b e i n g the highest. The maximum number in a class is 60 pupils. Attendance is compulsory from the age of five up to the age of twelve. If the child can then obtain a certificate of proficiency it b e c o m e s free, if not it remains at school until it is fourteen. But the rule is relaxed in some cases. In many districts the child by obtaining a certificate becomes partially exempt at * Quoted from the introduction to the Elementary School Code, p. 11, N. U. T. edition, 1909.

II the age of eleven. The local authorities are given a certain amount of discretion as to the subjects taught. S o long as the general scheme set forth by the central authority is carried out, subsidiary subjects may be taught, or not, according to the needs of the district. The State gives other education than elementary. T h e public elementary schools are intended for those who have to leave school at the age of fourteen or under. Next in order come the Higher Elementary Schools, where the pupils obtain a three years' course from the ages of twelve to fifteen.* The justification of the Higher Elementary Schools is two-fold. In the first place, where pupils leave school early it is a useless expense to maintain scantily attended higher standards. It is more economical to collect the pupils elsewhere, from a larger area. Secondly the distinguishing feature of a H. El. School lies in this, that in addition to the further prosecution of the EI. School subjects, special subjects are taught. As in the case of the elementary schools, considerable discretion in the choice of subjects is allowed to the local authority, so long as the general curriculum is not neglected, the local authority being considered to be the best j u d g e of the needs of the district. T h e essential feature is however that these subjects shall be taught in such a way as to be directly useful to a boy who intends to leave school at the age of fifteen and enter a trade. In some cases, for instance, a knowledge of French might be useful, in others useless. But where French is taught, it is taught as an introduction to * Sometimes such a school is organised exclusively for the use o! such children, sometimes it has also the standards for younger children, in which case it combines elementary and higher elementary education.

12

"business French". In a secondary school the same language would be taught as an introduction to the thought and literature of the country. In the state Secondary Schools a pupil attends from the age of twelve to sixteen, and the teaching given is on a broader educational basis. The course must embrace the English language and literature, and one other language, usually Latin; geography, history, mathematics, science, drawing and manual instruction. Sometimes the course is carried beyond the age specified above, if the means of the school permit. Education at a secondary school must be paid for in the majority of cases. The course is liberal; but nevertheless attention must be paid to the fact that most of the boys will discontinue their education at the age of sixteen. For those who wish to continue their studies further, and perhaps go to a university, scholarships are provided at some of the better-class public day-schools. One seems to see here a hint of a system of state education which will join rich and poor in one comprehensive, graduated scheme. The scholarships are intended to defray the cost of the child's education and, to some extent, of its maintenance. The transference to a betterclass secondary school takes place at the age of twelve (or eleven) by means of a junior (minor) scholarship, which lasts for two years. Then come the intermediate scholarships (two or three years), and finally the senior (major) scholarships, which maintain the winner at a technical college or at a university. In this way continuous assistance is provided, by means of which a boy can at little or no cost pass from a primary to a secondary school, and thence to a university. For those who are obliged to leave school early an opportunity to qualify themselves further is offered in the Continuation Schools, where evening classes are

13

held, chiefly of a s e c o n d a r y nature, a n d in the polytechnics and similar institutions. The Polytechnics r e q u i r e s o m e w o r d s of e x p l a n a tion, as they play an i m p o r t a n t part in technical e d u cation. Polytechnics are of recent date. T h e Mechanics' Institutes, etc., f o u n d e d in the first half of the century, languished or died owing to their m e m b e r s ' lack of elementary education, with hardly an exception. T h e m o d e r n polytechnic o w e s its inception to " a piece of life-long philanthropy by a City m e r c h a n t : a Utopian novel: a so-called p r e d a t o r y Act of P a r l i a m e n t : and the whiskey m o n e y " . * Beginning at the e n d : — T h e Local Taxation ( C u s t o m s and Excise) Act of 1890 a s s i g n e d a yearly s u m of money arising f r o m C u s t o m s a n d Excise duties that now a m o u n t s to nearly a million p o u n d s p e r a n n u m to the p u r p o s e of h i g h e r education. T h i s is distributed a m o n g the local authorities and is the so-called "whiskey money".** T h e " p r e d a t o r y Act of P a r l i a m e n t " was the City Parochial Charities Act of 1883, which re-organised the m a n y charitable e n d o w m e n t s of the 109 minute parishes of the City of L o n d o n . These e n d o w m e n t s had been r e n d e r e d u n n e c e s sary by the decrease of the resident population, a n d h a d moreover e n o r m o u s l y increased in v a l u e : so that after s p e n d i n g s o m e £ 150,000 in b u y i n g open s p a c e s and an equal s u m in building technical institutions, a b o u t .£50,000 a year r e m a i n e d for the s u p p o r t of the latter. T h e "Utopian n o v e l " was Sir Walter Besants' All Sorts and C o n d i t i o n s of Men, with its East E n d " P a l a c e of Delight" for recreation and social i n t e r c o u r s e . T h e * Sidney Webb.

London Education.

** The London County Council (L. C. C.) alone g e t s about £180,000 a year from this source.

14

philanthropist was Mr. Quintin Hogg, under whom, after various preliminary stages of growth, the Regent Street Polytechnic was instituted. T h e polytechnics and other technical institutes are now supported by governmental grants, by private subscription, in which the City Companies play an important part, by rates, and by fees. T h e work is multifarious. It comprises the practice and theory of trades, from bricklaying to telegraphy, the study of languages, law, political economy, art, theses for the higher London degrees, research work of a high order, etc. etc. T h e institutions are as a rule admirably staffed. At the same time it is recognised that the majority of the students are leading more or less isolated lives, and the social and cultural side of the programme is not neglecte d ; there are clubs for sport and clubs for study, for men and for women, or for b o t h ; there are day-schools and evening classes, for children,* and for grown-ups. The London polytechnics (London is especially the home of these institutions) have sometimes some thousands of pupils, and incomes of ten to nearly thirty thousand pounds a year. In this connection it should be noted that a proposal has been made to build a College of Applied S c i e n c e in London that should correspond roughly to the Charlottenburg Polytechnic. As regards technical education generally, it may be said that the national reproach is being fast wiped out. Here as elsewhere the deficiencies in English technical education are the result of a certain preference for rule-of-thumb methods and of a contempt for theory, as much as of a lack of facilities. It is in the province of secondary education that the greatest irregularity and overlapping are to be * These would probably rank officially as secondary schools, but there is a great deal of uncertainty in the classification of schools.

15

found. The near future will probably see an attempt to remedy this by better organisation. There has been a great improvement in the preparation, and consequently in the quality and social standing of the teachers in public elementary schools. One reason for their hitherto rather low standing has been the undue numbers of pupil-teachers. It is true that the old vicious system has been abolished by which the intending teacher carried on his education, professional and other, in scanty spare hours, often at the cost of his health; but, when every advantage has been given, the fact remains that the admitting of such teachers means the presence in our schools of a large number of teachers whose own education can hardly be called liberal. The career of those who wish to prepare themselves so as to be qualified for the higher posts begins really at the age of sixteen (or fifteen), when they become pupil-teachers and receive a small salary (up to £30). During their two years engagement they are allowed time for their own education at pupil-teachers' centres, which are to be found in most large towns. Here they are instructed in the subjects required for their exams. The most important of the latter is the Preliminary Examination for the Certificate, which entitles them to be employed directly as uncertificated teachers (it replaces the old King's Scholarship Examination), or to be admitted at a training college. By another method they become bursars with a bursary grant from the Board, and continue their own education up to the age of eighteen (seventeen) without teaching. They then either become student-teachers at an elementary school, or enter a training college directly. The state still entrusts the training of its teachers to voluntary (state-aided) agencies, of which there are about seventy recognised, mostly denominational, though

16

religious tests are only partially allowed. The training colleges are residential or day, for men or for women, or (in the case of day colleges) for both; and with the exception of an entrance fee of £10 to £15, and a fee for books, are free.

The Education of Women. A d e t e r m i n e d effort has been m a d e to i m p r o v e the education of girls and w o m e n . It is noteworthy that the s u c c e s s attained is chiefly d u e to the initiative a n d p e r s e v e r a n c e of w o m e n t h e m s e l v e s . T h e crying need in the m i d d l e of the last centuryw a s the want of better teachers. T h e f o u n d a t i o n of colleges for the higher education of w o m e n p r e c e d e d t h e r e f o r e any m a r k e d d e v e l o p m e n t of girls' schools. T h e foundation of Q u e e n ' s College, L o n d o n , in 1848, followed by that of Bedford College, L o n d o n , in 1849, may conveniently be taken as the b e g i n n i n g of the m o v e ment. Both colleges were for the h i g h e r education of w o m e n , t h o u g h the f o r m e r soon d e v e l o p e d a day-school for girls which took up a great deal of its e n e r g y . T h e first important foundation in girls' schools w a s that of C h e l t e n h a m C o l l e g e in 1853, which was started as a b u s i n e s s c o n c e r n , t h o u g h the s h a r e h o l d e r s r e n o u n c e d their claims to d i v i d e n d s twenty y e a r s afterwards. A similar u n d e r t a k i n g was the Girls' Public D a y School C o m p a n y , f o u n d e d in 1872, also a p a y i n g c o n c e r n , followed by the C h u r c h S c h o o l s C o m p a n y in 1883, and many others. T h e s u c c e s s obtained by these schools g a v e a s t i m u l u s to the private schools, and the i m p r o v e m e n t in t h e m all h a s been m a r k e d , the chief feature b e i n g the substitution of k n o w l e d g e as the first aim of girls' education for m o r e or less showy a c c o m p l i s h m e n t s intended to s e c u r e social s u c c e s s . 2

18

But education is not likely to be recognised unless it can show solid proof of its quality by the test of well-known examinations. The gradual opening to girls of such examinations was therefore of the greatest value, in giving the public confidence. The Cambridge Local was opened to girls in 1865, the Higher Cambridge Local in 1868, and the Oxford Local in 1870. Cheltenham is the largest boarding and day-school for girls. It has about 500 boarders and 400 day-pupils.* The scheme comprises a Kindergarten at the one end and direct preparation for London University degrees and for the teaching profession at the other. It has a staff of about 100 teachers. The fees vary from 12 to 24 guineas a year for a day-pupil, from 54 to 93 guineas for a boarder. The High Schools (such is the term for the ordinary company-owned girls' school) take girls from the ages of seven to nineteen, though in some cases there is a Kindergarten attached. They are democratic in character, but the education given in the lower forms is intended as a preparation for a course of several years, and therefore does not connect directly with that given in the public elementary schools. The gulf however is sometimes bridged by government scholarships. The schools are well organised, well equipped and give a sound education in which the fact is not lost sight of that many of the girls intend to earn their own living. Lessons as a rule last from 9.15 to 1.30, with an interval of twenty-five minutes. The afternoon is devoted to 'extras', preparation and games. In these schools, as at Cheltenham and elsewhere, games are greatly encouraged on account of the benefits to physique and to character, anyhow to the latter, that they confer. The Some oi the day-pupils only attend special courses.

14

fees are from £ 10.10 to M 13.10. In some cases boarders are received. The presence of such schools as those described above has had a great effect upon the quality of other, private schools, i. e. schools owned by private persons. But it is to be noted that parents have not shewn themselves unwilling to send their children to more expensive schools because of these increased facilities. On the contrary, the more expensive schools flourish. It was equally important to establish a connection with the higher teaching and examining bodies, the universities. The year 1869 saw the tentative beginnings at Hitchin of Girton College, as it was called after its transference in 1873 to the village of that name near Cambridge. At first the students heard lectures at Girton, and were only tested informally by the same examination papers as were used in the men's degree examinations. According to the result of these exams a college certificate was granted; and in respect of length of residence, etc., the students conformed exactly to the regulations of the men students. In 1871 Newnham College, Cambridge, was founded. Here the students at first prepared chiefly for the Higher Local, but in course of time matters took the same course as at Girton. More and more women students submitted themselves to the informal examinations for the degrees; gradually lectures at some of the men's colleges were opened to women; and in 1881 the existence and rights of the women students were formally recognised. Henceforth the women were to be admitted to the honours exams of the university on the same conditions as the men,—except that they were to receive no degree, but only a University certificate. At Oxford the movement started a little later; but in 1879 Somerville Hall (now College) and Lady 2*

20

Margaret Hall were f o u n d e d , in 1886 St. H u g h ' s Hall a n d in 1893 St. Hilda's, the latter two b e i n g smaller c o n c e r n s . All the examinations w e r e formally o p e n e d to w o m e n in 1884. T h e position of the w o m e n is h o w ever technically different. T h e University does not exact (as C a m b r i d g e does) the s a m e conditions of residence, etc., as are required of the m e n ; on the other h a n d it does not wholly recognise the w o m e n students, and the latter when they p a s s a University examination receive only a college diploma to that effect. T h e r e is also an indépendant, alternative system of examinations instituted by the Association for the E d u cation of Women, which is h o w e v e r not m u c h in favour. T h i s state of affairs gives g r e a t e r f r e e d o m to the women, but the education received loses s o m e t h i n g of the genuine university quality that gives the C a m b r i d g e course its value. At present both Oxford a n d C a m b r i d g e seem resolved not to grant women d e g r e e s . T h e residential colleges at Oxford and C a m b r i d g e are beautiful or at least pleasant buildings with large g r o u n d s , and the life is m o d e l l e d upon that of the u n d e r g r a d u a t e s , with s o m e variations. In s o m e colleges each student has one b e d - and sitting-room c o m b i n e d , in others two r o o m s are p r o v i d e d . Meals are taken mostly in c o m m o n . Athletics are practised vigorously. T h e a v e r a g e c h a r g e at Oxford and C a m b r i d g e for board, residence and tuition s e e m s to be a b o u t € 100 a y e a r ; and it is usual to reside in a college. By living at h o m e , where permitted, the s t u d e n t s can very much reduce their e x p e n s e s . At the n e w e r universities resid e n c e at a college is not so g e n e r a l , and the non-collegiate student need not feel that she has been cheated by circumstances out of a g o o d deal of the s c h e m e of training intended by the university by the fact that she lives at home. Nevertheless at all the better universities the fees for tuition alone a m o u n t to £ 30—40

21

a year, so that her expenses will always be considerable. Matters are made easier for brilliant students by scholarships of the value of £ 2 5 to £ 6 0 a year, tenable for three years. The difficulties in the way of securing to women equal rights with men were not so great at other universities. London University, till recent years only an examining body, opened its degrees to women in 1878. Previously it had offered special examinations for women, but these exams were not regarded with favour. In 1882 it showed its liberality by admitting women (graduates) as qualified members with the right to vote. As regards the other universities women on the whole enjoy the same privileges as at London. But one exception applies to almost every university. Women are not admitted to the men's courses in medicine or theology.

English Public Schools. It is rather difficult to describe what is known as a public school. Technically its distinguishing mark is that it is an endowed institution whose affairs are administered in perpetuity by a board of governors. The governors appoint the headmaster, and have the control in all matters that affect the financial position of the school. But the headmaster is generally allowed a pretty free hand otherwise. He chooses his assistants and is responsible for the efficiency of the teaching and the discipline.* T h e description however would lead one to think that a public school could be presented to any nation by any rich man, with little notice, which is not the case. A public school is the product of many years, often of many centuries. It needs time, and it needs a peculiar national character, before that body of powerful and honourable public opinion can be established in the school which is essential if 'government by the governed', the hall-mark of a public school, is to be practicable. Such a system demands a long unwritten tradition amongst the boys themselves. In all there are some forty public schools, but the title in its ordinary application is restricted to a * An a s s i s t a n t - m a s t e r would, h o w e v e r , be e n g a g e d with the approval of, and the right of appeal to, the g o v e r n o r s . Similarly a right of appeal would e n a b l e a boy who was threate n e d with an unusually s e v e r e punishment, e. g. expulsion, to lay his c a s e b e f o r e this higher tribunal.

23 d o z e n o r s o of t h e

larger,

older

and

more

famous.*

T h e r e a r e s e v e r a l p u b l i c d a y - s c h o o l s * * in the n e i g h b o u r h o o d of the l a r g e r t o w n s , but the typical public s c h o o l is a b o a r d i n g s c h o o l . Eton,

the largest,

mands

that

we

In the first rank of t h e s e

Winchester and Harrow. should

limit

ourselves

to a

d e s c r i p t i o n of o n e public s c h o o l ; a n d E t o n is m o s t c o n v e n i e n t for o u r There

are

however

of public s c h o o l s

that

de-

detailed

College***

purpose.

some may

stand

Space

be

general

characteristics

mentioned

first.

The

h e a d m a s t e r , w h o h o l d s a position that is g e n e r a l l y v e r y well p a i d f ,

h a s u n d e r h i m a staff of

assistant-masters

in c h a r g e of f o r m s , c l a s s e s , o r divisions, b e s i d e s o t h e r s who teach special subjects such as mathematics, F r e n c h , German,

etc.

* It is hardly realised abroad how small a section of the population receive this "typically English" education. But the public schools set the tone to a large extent for the nation. ** The present writer was at Dulwich College, a public day-school with about 700 boys, situated a few miles south-east of London. There were at the time some 70 boarders. The fees for day-boys were about £ 20 a year. Of course it was endowed. The fees sound large in Germany, but are not large in England. The class really to be pitied in the matter of education is the class that is too proud to send its children to a state school and too poor to send them at least to a good public day-school. It is hoped, however, that the social stigma at present attached to a state-provided education will vanish as the advantages of a good education become more and more apparent. It is absolutely impossible for a small, cheap, unendowed private school to be efficient. *** There is no distinction in character or status between 'School' and 'College' as applied to educational institutions for boys. A boy is ' a t s c h o o l ' whatever the title of this school may be. To be ' a t c o l l e g e ' is to b e a t a university. In practice we say a boy is at Eton or at Rugby, without troubling to add ' C o l l e g e ' in the former c a s e or ' S c h o o l ' in the latter. f His salary is often well into four figures in pounds.

24

The school is often divided into ' S i d e s ' , e. g. r Classical, Modern, Science, Engineering Sides; and into an Upper (Senior) and Lower (Junior) School. Of these 'Sides' the only ones that require further description than the names themselves give, are the Classical and the Modern Sides. A classical boy has Latin and Greek for his chief subjects, but he is also taught mathematics, French, geography and modern history, the latter two items generally in small quantities. Boys on the Modern Side learn some Latin, but their chief subjects are modern languages, i. e., French and German. They probably learn more mathematics, geography and history than the classical boy; and in addition they may take up a purely commercial subject. There is an Army Class for intending officers. The division into Sides is not carried into the lowest classes. The Sixth Form is the highest, and the First Form (where there is one) the lowest. Most forms are subdivided into Upper and Lower. Between the Fourth and the Fifth Forms there is sometimes a ' S h e l l ' ; but the Shell at Westminster is the highest form. Another, variously placed, form is the 'Remove'. Boys enter when they are from ten to fourteen years of age, and leave usually when or before they are nineteen. There is generally an arrangement by which a boy who fails to attain a suitable form for his age is courteously obliged to leave. Examinations may be held as often as once a term (three terms to a year). A boy may be 'moved' every term; he may even get a 'double remove' (by which he* jumps over one form) for several terms in succession, arriving thereby in the Sixth at a very early a g e . * He can then do special work for a scholarship at a university or for his general mental improvement. * La carrière ouverte aux talents! missed, he must learn lor himself.

Anything that he has

25

Most of the well-known public schools have a long and adventurous career behind them. T h e oldest is Winchester ( C o l l e g e ) , which was founded in 1382 and lately celebrated its quincentenary amid much r e j o i c i n g ; but others run it close in respect of age. T h e histories of these schools show much uniformity. They start with the foundation of an almshouse, or charity-school, or of both. T h e funds arising from the endowments increase beyond the necessities of their original purp o s e s . * There is a long period during which these increased incomes are wasted, or used for the maintenance of fat sinecures; but in course of time the scopes of the institutions are enlarged, till there e m e r g e s a public school. But with many a b u s e s ! T h e condition of the best public schools in the middle of the last century even was so bad that a Royal Commission (1861) was appointed, and as a result many of them were reformed or reconstituted. A subsequent Endowed S c h o o l s C o m mission ( 1 8 6 9 ) , with wider powers, carried out a reapplication of charitable educational endowments from which some of the public schools practically date their existence. * To take one instance: — Some land which in 1567 was presented to Rugby School on its foundation, produced about £ 8 a year. The same land now produces about £5,000 a year. Great Public Schools, p. 146.

Eton College. Eton College was founded in 1440 by Henry VI under the title of 'The King's College of Our Lady of Eton beside Windsor'. By the charter of foundation t h e r e . w e r e to be a provost and ten fellows to form the governing body, four clerks, six choristers, a schoolmaster, twenty-five poor scholars and twenty-five poor and infirm men. Lands near Eton and elsewhere were granted for the support of the institution, building operations on a large scale were begun, and privileges and exemptions were granted by king and pope. At a very early date the number of poor scholars was increased to seventy, and an assistant-master, or usher, was provided. Ten chaplains, six clerks and ten choristers were then added. It had an adventurous career for some centuries. Though the fellows 'tacked' with considerable ingenuity as one political upheaval after another took place, there was nearly always friction between the college and the crown prerogatives. The college narrowly escaped entire suppression at the hands of Edward IV, Henry the Sixth's rival and successor; and in the reign of Henry VIII there was an ominous valuation of college funds made which was not, however, followed up. The statutes had made provision for the education at Eton of any boys who chose to come to the village and pay for their privileges. These 'commensales' were of two kinds; noblemen's sons, who slept in college, i. e., in the college building, and other boys, who lodged

27

in the village and were afterwards known as 'oppidans', a name now applied to those boys who live in the boarding houses maintained by the college masters. In about 1648 the former class of commensales disappeared owing to the confusion resulting from the civil war. The school grew in spite of ups and downs. By 1678 there were 202 boys, of whom 78 were collegers.* The latter had however a very rough life. 'Long Chamber', a huge dormitory 172 x 27 x 15 feet in size, contained seventy-two b e d s ; and there the boys were shut up with no supervision, from nightfall till morning. It is not to be supposed that the smaller boys enjoyed themselves. The dirt and general discomfort of the arrangements are said to have been incredible. The oppidans presumably found lodgings according to the state of their purses till the middle of the eighteenth century, when they were lodged, as now, in boarding houses. The teaching arrangements were equally rough, and little can have been learnt by the boys. And these evil conditions persisted. The chief task of the masters was to keep order. In 1832 one master flogged eighty boys in one summer's night to avert a rebellion. This sounds very brutal, but the times were rough, and the relations between masters and boys were often hostile. The scholars had certainly a very hard time; but it is not clear that the boys as a whole were cowed by the treatment they received.** Their exploits were certainly * T h e s e collegers were the original "poor scholars." ** 'Lord Chatham told Lord Shelburne: — "That he scarce o b s e r v e d a boy who w a s not cowed for life at Eton; that a public school might suit a boy of turbulent forward disposition, but would not do where there was any gentleness". On the other hand, Canning said: — "Foreigners often ask, by what means an uninterrupted s u c c e s s i o n of men, qualified more or less eminently for the performance of parliamentary and official duties, is secured. First, I answer (with the prejudices.

28 astonishing; and if their boisterous high spirits took a brutal turn in their amusements, it was quite in accordance with the spirit of the eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries. From 1840, when Francis Hodgson, Lord Byron's friend, became Provost, we begin to hear of better things. In 1861 the Royal Commission paved the way for a reconstruction of Eton College ( 1 8 7 1 — 2 ) . According to the present statutes the governing body consists of the provost, and ten fellows, namely, the Provost of King's College, Cambridge, of nominees of the Universities of Oxford and Cambridge and the Royal Society, of the Lord Chief Justice and of the Eton masters respectively; the remaining governors are chosen by co-optation.* The governing body appoints the headmaster, who holds office at their pleasure; and he in turn chooses his assistants, though the governing body settles their number and their salaries. There are some sixty assistant-masters, and over a thousand boys. The scholars** or collegers live in one of the college buildings, the oppidans in b o a r d i n g - h o u s e s owned by assistantperhaps, of Eton and Oxford), that we owe it to our system of public schools and universities. From these institutions is derived (in the language of the prayer of our Collegiate Churches) 'a due supply of men fitted to serve their country in Church and State'. It is in her public schools and universities that the youth of England are, by a discipline which shallow judgements have sometimes attempted to undervalue, prepared for the duties of public life."—Maxwell Lyte, 'Eton College'. The difference of opinion is curious. * In the choice of governors for public schools an attempt is made generally to secure 'men of affairs' rather than, or as well as, educational experts. The educational part then is largely entrusted to the headmaster. •* Poverty is now no longer a condition for the holding of an Eton scholarship.

29 m a s t e r s , * of w h i c h t h e r e a r e t w e n t y - s e v e n .

T h e maxi-

m u m of b o a r d e r s a l l o w e d in o n e

h o u s e is forty.

fees

but

are

£140

to £ 1 6 0

a year;

this

of

The course

d o e s not by a n y m e a n s r e p r e s e n t t h e total e x p e n s e of keeping take

a boy

at E t o n . * *

The

headmaster

does

not

boarders. Eton,

even

a m o n g public

s c h o o l s , is rich,

and in

the m a t t e r of b u i l d i n g s offers m u c h that is truly m a g n i ficent.

T h e S c h o o l Y a r d , which is a b o u t four h u n d r e d

and fifty feet s q u a r e , is f a m o u s ; and the d i m e n s i o n s of the

beautiful

school

chapel***

( 1 5 0 x 46 feet)

vouch

for the w e a l t h a n d the r e l i g i o u s f e r v o u r of the f o u n d e r . Altogether

the

greatest

school

in the

world m a y

be

p r o u d of its b u i l d i n g s . T h e s c h o o l h o u r s a r e naturally different f r o m t h o s e of

a

day-school.

The

morning

begins

with

early

s c h o o l f r o m 7 to 8 a. m. in s u m m e r , h a l f - a n - h o u r l a t e r in w i n t e r .

Then

comes

9 . 2 5 to 9 . 4 5 ,

and

with a b r e a k

from

breakfast.

school

Chapel

continues

10.45

to

then

11 a. m .

lasts till

Three

o'clock

s c h o o l lasts f r o m 2 . 4 5 to 3 . 4 5 , and five o ' c l o c k f r o m 5 to 6 p. m .

from

mid-day, school

Tuesdays, T h u r s d a y s and Saturdays

a r e h a l f - h o l i d a y s , and a n u m b e r of d a y s — s a i n t s - d a y s , e t c . , are w h o l e

holidays.

The

regular

holidays

last

o v e r fifteen w e e k s a y e a r .

T h e r e are three terms,

a s at s o m e

schools,

other

public

are called

just

which,

'halves',

in s p i t e of t h e r e b e i n g t h r e e of t h e m . There are Fourth

and

five

Third.

forms, The

the

Fifth

Sixth, tends

Fifth,

Remove,

e s p e c i a l l y to b e -

* Houses are no longer owned by women, but the title 'dame' still survives for the owner of such a house. ** Other schools are less expensive, most of them considerably so, but it is always expensive to keep a boy at a good public boarding-school. *** It is practically all choir, a fragment of a still greater scheme that never reached completion.

30 c o m e of unmanageable size, and is split up into First Hundred, Upper, Middle and Lower Divisions; and the Fourth contains the Upper, Middle and Lower Fourth Forms. Further subdivision gives thirty-one divisions containing each about thirty-five boys in charge of a division master. T h e first ten collegers take rank above all the ordinary boys, so that the Captain of the Oppidans, though he is a very important person, only ranks eleventh. Sixth Form consists of twenty boys, who are taught by the headmaster himself. There are besides in the headmaster's division the six highest collegers and the six highest oppidans in the First Hundred. T h e s e six collegers c o m p o s e ' L i b e r t y ' , a name derived from their having most of the privileges though not the powers of the Sixth Form.* After reaching the First Hundred no boy may pass ahead of another. But work is carried on so independently of divisions that this c a u s e s no limitation of a boy's opportunity to study. T h e Army C l a s s has four divisions, in the First Hundred, Upper, Middle and Lower Fifth Form respectively, and has its own arrangements. B o y s in the lower divisions are carefully kept up to the mark. Every boy is assigned to a tutor, who goes with him through any work that he has to present to his division master and, if it is written, corrects it. As the boy g o e s from division to division, but keeps to the s a m e tutor throughout his school life, it is of great importance whom he g e t s ; and s o m e tutors are much sought after. T h e tutor has in some respects concurrent jurisdiction with the division master; and it is plain that with his closer knowledge of the boy's character and abilities he can befriend the latter and help, ad* The description of the arrangement of the school is taken chiefly from 'Eton' by A. Clutton-Brock; that of life in college from 'Recollections of an Eton Colleger', by C. H. M.

31

vise and correct him with a greater insight into the situation than a division master who sees the boy at the most for a few terms. But it doubles the work of the classical masters, who are division masters as well as tutors.* The tutors are also responsible in some degree for the general well-being of their pupils; but it is clear that, when a thousand boys are set to live together for months at a time apart from what are customarily supposed to be the refining influences of home, we have a problem in social and educational science fraught with every possibility of disaster, and one which the above-mentioned system goes but a short way to solve. Boys are boys, not angels. There seem in fact to be only two solutions. One must have an elaborate system of espionage, or one must trust to the boys themselves; and the latter is the system in favour at public schools. Ultimately, of course, the soundness of the school must depend upon the masters, who are not only expected to set a practical example of what a man should be, and of how a man should live, but who choose the boys to whom authority is to be delegated and who are to set the tone to the rest. The idea is that boys will respond to responsibility; and that the duty of the masters is to choose the right boys to be leaders, and then to efface themselves as much as possible out of school hours (in their magisterial capacity), only coming forward when their presence is either clearly desired or clearly needed.** It is difficult to give an adequate description of * The tutorial system is almost peculiar to Eton. ** That a man should know thoroughly the subject he has to teach is evidently not enough if he is to make a good teacher in a public school. A number of qualities are requisite which examinations cannot gauge.

32 the part that these boys in authority play in the school organisation. T h e fact is, it rests with them to give the school organisation effect. T h e school, it must be emphasised, is a social organism, not merely a teaching institution; and depends for its health upon the harmonious working of innumerable personal factors just as much as a healthy state. T h e problem that lies before the headmaster is how to give his ideas such effect that they may not only command superficial assent, but may filter through and saturate the whole school with the spirit that inspired them. The problem is partially solved by taking the senior boys to some extent into the headmaster's confidence, and arming them with authority. At the head of the school is the senior colleger, who is Captain of the S c h o o l . He, however, divides authority with the Captain of the Oppidans, who ranks only eleventh, but has a larger province to look after. On the other hand the latter divides his authority with the captains of h o u s e s ; and both he and the senior colleger are to a large extent merely participants in the general authority exercised by Sixth Form. The Sixth Form have considerable powers, amongst which not the least is the right to cane, a power which they share with the headmaster a l o n e . * Being themselves boys, they have a knowledge of what is actually going on behind the scenes to which the intuitions of the acutest headmaster must bow. It is therefore of the greatest importance that the 'head' should secure the willing co-operation of these boys. At the some time he must recognise their independance, and not demand of them services that will * Canings at most schools are very rare, and everywhere they are rarer than they used to be. The Sixth Form canings are administered at Sixth Form supper, and therefore must presumably have the approval of the Sixth Form generally.

33 estrange them from their fellows. Their whole value lies in their being trusted by boys and masters alike. T h e y are boys, not masters. They may sympathise with the master, but they will not tell him tales. If he likes to trust them they will carry out his regulations — at least he will get an idea from the attitude of Sixth Form as to the reception his innovations are likely to receive. And if he is a practical man he will give their expression of opinion consideration. They will moreover care for the well-being of the school in a thousand ways. But boys they are and boys they remain. T h e mere fact that a boy has been treated confidentially by a master generally makes the boy desirous to fulfil expectations. T h e r e are failures, of course. One cannot always find the required number of boys 'sans peur et sans reproche'; the master is himself human, liable to err in his ideas and in his choice of boys. But when once a firm and honourable tradition has been established in connection with the holding of certain posts, the first battle of the campaign has been won. It is only necessary to read the many books about Eton, with their enthusiastic descriptions of past life in college, or in boarding-houses, to realise how intense the life is that is lived there, how indissolubly the boy is bound up with the interests of his house and his school. Battles and friendly contests are fought over again, triumphs re-celebrated, the minutest details are remembered, resuscitated after the lapse of thirty and forty years; characters are discussed even at that distance of time, and tribute is paid generously. It is only with this duly in mind that we can rightly estimate the nature of the responsibility that the holding of these posts entails. It may seem a small thing that a boy should be selected as the representative and to s o m e extent the controller, of the thirty or forty boys that constitute a h o u s e ; and a still smaller thing that 3

34 he should be captain oi his house football or cricket team. But the boys are living their lives at school to an extent unknown in a day-school, and take things correspondingly seriously. If under these circumstances a captain proves himself worthy of his post it is by the possession of firmness of character, a sense of honour, tact and intuition. He must in fact exercise all those qualities that are afterwards required of rulers of men. T h e most striking and amusing instance of the delegation of authority to boys is given by C. H. M. in his description of life in College. C h a m b e r is part oi the old Long C h a m b e r , and consists of a large room with cubicles on either side, rendered private by sliding curtains. Here the fifteen bottom scholars live, usually for their first three halves. T h e age of the oldest would therefore be not more than fifteen. Nevertheless, C h a m b e r is a self-governing c o m m u nity. " C h a m b e r , and all that therein is, is kept in order by the Captain of Chamber, who is an autocrat in the highest sense of the word. He has a few traditional laws to enforce and makes others as it suits him. T h e r e is no appeal against his word, and any attempt at disobedience is instantly punished by a siphoning.* He is sometimes only a fag himself,** but he has complete control over the other ¡fags. Should his subjects b e come mutinous, he has Sixth Form to back him up, but should he himself b e c o m e slack they are down on him at once. If he takes a real interest in his j o b he may do a great deal of good in showing small boys the way they should go and in preventing eccentric or effeminate youths from being ragged more than is good for them Should C h a m b e r become * A siphon is a stiff filling a bath from a tap. * * G e n e r a l l y not.

canvas

india-rubber

lined

pipe for

35 stuffy at any time, the captain merely has to shout " C h a m b e r w i n d o w s " , when the windows of every stall must be opened at once, whether the occupant likes it or not. T h e evening begins to get d a r k : " C h a m b e r g a s ! " is called, and every burner immediately l i g h t e d . . . . The captain further has the power of ordering any b o y ' s stall to be forbidden entry, should the occupant wish to be u n m o l e s t e d . " Subordination at first, power as the reward, such is the system. T h e small boys are not only kept u p to the mark by strict supervision through their tutors, they are also subjected to a peculiar training in the shape of fagging. Roughly speaking, the senior b o y s down to, and including, the Upper Division of Fifth Form can fag, Middle and Lower Fifth Form are merely immune, while the rest of the school, comprising about three hundred boys, are fags. T h e three hundred b o y s are however not distributed evenly. In a house with many lower boys a fagmaster (i. e. a boy with the right to fag) would have no difficulty in getting fags. In College, fags are scarce. Only Sixth Form and the Captain of Liberty have fags of their own. T h e other fagmasters, in and out of college, have only the right to impress any lower boy into their service whom they find disengaged, which is perhaps the most disagreeable part of the system—for the f a g s ! T h e system is apparently preserved not from lack of funds with which to provide servants, but with the object of chastening those who otherwise might be tempted to think too highly of their own importance. Rank is no excuse. T h e duties of a fag are to call his master, to bring him hot water and fill his bath. After early school he makes toast in the kitchen, prepares tea, does any elementary cooking that his master may think fit to entrust to him, fetches any hot dishes such as bacon and eggs, sausages, from shops in the 3*

36 town, etc., etc. At tea he has the same duties. In many cases the work is lightened by the fact that s o m e two or three boys form a ' m e s s ' , with several fags to do the work. Fortified with tradition the system does not lead to quite the evils that might be expected. Feeling is strong against the bullying of fags by their masters, in fact a fagmaster often protects a small boy. By public opinion he has a kind of proprietary right in his fags; and the same opinion gives a strength to a fagmaster's remonstrances that a boy who is inclined to bully a fag will do well to keep in mind. Moreover, though friendships between senior and junior boys are generally undesirable, a kindly fagmaster takes an interest in the welfare of his fags and can do much to encourage what is good in them. T h e principle in favour at a public school, that boys should be left pretty much to themselves to decide what a man can do and what -he cannot do, works out fairly successfully, it is believed. There are failures, of c o u r s e ; and a house s o m e times requires cleaning out. Occasionally a few boys are expelled; often a good many others ought to be. It need hardly be said that there is evil as well as good in abundance in such a school. But perhaps the greatest advantage of such a school is that a boy obtains his introduction to life by learning both good and evil early in this small but hard-living community. It is perhaps a melancholy thing that this should be advisable. It rubs the bloom off, of course; and it is often a sorrowful thing for a boy's parents, this ' g o i n g through the mill', even where the result is creditable. One can comfort oneself with the probably well-founded belief, that the general levelling is on the whole upward. Such at least is the general opinion, and it is shared by the writer. Given human nature as it is, the public schools seem as good a means as any for

37

dealing with a problem solved.

that will never be

perfectly

English public schools have been unfavourably criticised of late on the grounds that the boys do not learn enough, and that athleticism is unduly encouraged. S o m e justification and apology is therefore necessary. T h e r e seem indeed to be inherent weaknesses as well as advantages in the public school system. If the boys are left to themselves, pure knowledge and the zeal for learning will inevitably suffer. B o y s are seldom naturally intellectual. Moreover those selected for influential positions, to set the tone, are not always the best boys at lessons.* It is always preferred that the prefects and house-captains should have a good reputation for work, but the elevation of a boy to a position of command simply on the score of his performances in school hours can be disastrous—for others as well as for himself, unless he possesses a vigorous, honourable, attractive personalty that the boys will readily obey and imitate; and such a boy is as likely to have distinguished himself out of school as in school, or more likely. It is perhaps regrettable that boys are more inclined to admire one who has distinguished himself as an athlete than one who is a scholar; but the fact remains, and the master in choosing his leading boys has got a very practical and urgent task. These boys have got to rule, and to rule well. Even a stupid or deliberately idle boy may have invaluable qualities to which the master is only too glad to attach the hall-mark of his approval by giving him a position of influence. He wants his boys to learn, but he also * In some public schools authority is vested less in the Sixth as such, than in the prefects, who are not necessarily selected from the highest form.

38 wants them to grow up healthy and clean-minded. T h e English public school boy lives his life at school with a completeness unknown in Germany, and the possibilities of disaster are proportionately increased. But even if the leading boys are selected from the highest form they remain boys, with very distinct limits to their horizons, intellectual and emotional. T h e ideals of a public school are boyish. It is in fact questionable y/hether it is good to surrender boys so unreservedly during their impressionable years to the influence of their fellows. It might be argued that the excellenc i e s of a public school training are counterbalanced by the absence of those suggestive, humanising, broadening influences that contact with older people of greater experience of life can supply; and of that large openness of mind that a less stringent training of character would at least permit. This seems indeed to be the price we pay for our public schools. English education promotes a type, a very useful, forcible, often high-minded type, with the peculiar, effective, unreflecting code of gentlemen, a type invaluable to the British government, but a type! We do get character; we get also caste, and this caste is based for better or worse upon the ideals and capacities of "the better boy", — and the ideals stick! T h e want of intellectuality in a public school is indeed partly the outcome and partly the cause of that scarcely veiled contempt for knowledge that marks the English nation as a whole. T h e r e is some excuse in both cases. England till lately has had very much her own way in the world of c o m m e r c e and politics outside Europe and America, and has got on pretty well in spite of this contempt for knowledge, i. e. for knowledge not immediately applicable. Now she has competitors, and finds the source of her most serious competition in the generally superior level of knowledge in Germany;

39 and she begins to complain that her schools are at fault. The public schools cannot immediately respond, because they are old and complicated institutions with the natural conservatism of s u c h ; and because the old contempt for knowledge still persists at heart in the nation. English public schools are made by Englishmen and produce Englishmen. When the English nation h a s a better appreciation for knowledge, the boys will learn more. As regards athleticism, it must be remembered that it is of the highest importance, when a thousand boys live together for months, separated from home influences, that these boys should have their time filled in a healthy manner. In day-schools the matter is rather different; a n d work there, and perhaps in boarding-schools also, suffers from the attention and energy given to games. At the same time it is believed that in games the boy acquires, in addition to health of body, qualities s u c h as courage, perseverance, initiative, unselfishness, good-temper, hardiness and self-control, the capacity for command and for intelligent subordination, the acquisition of which is not too dearly paid for with the resulta n t partial failure to obtain the utmost possible amount of learning. The truth seems to be contained in the saying, •"You cannot eat your cake and have i t ! " English education is an education of the whole boy, not merely of the acquisitive and retentive faculties that are sufficiently assessed by examination results. We try to educate men, not specialists. And in respect of learning, though •the amount learnt is important, the manner in which it is learnt is important too. If the boys are to have that freedom to choose between good and evil without which the development of character is impossible, it is .inevitable that a considerable number will incline

40

towards evil, in this connection idleness. But what the English boy learns he learns chiefly from his own initiative, from self-respect, or the desire to please his parents, or his friends the masters; and it may be that it is initiative that in the long run "tells". It may be —not! That is a problem that every nation must solve for itself. At present the English parent growls because his boys do not learn enough; but he shows nothing but an increasing desire th^t his boys should enjoy the advantages of a public school education.

The Universities. T h e nine universities of England, a r r a n g e d in order of seniority, are as f o l l o w s : — (1) Oxford University, which dates from the twelfth century and contains r o u g h l y 3500 resident u n d e r g r a duates. (2) C a m b r i d g e University, which dates from the thirteenth century and c o m p r i s e s 3000 resident u n d e r graduates. (3) D u r h a m University, founded in 1832. T h e University is in close connection with the Cathedral and receives f r o m it a yearly revenue. It is c o m p o s e d of University College, Bishop Hatfield's Hall, St. C h a d ' s Hall and (for w o m e n ) Abbey H o u s e . Since 1875 the d e g r e e s have been o p e n e d to w o m e n . T h e r e are 225 s t u d e n t s . They r e s i d e in college. Affiliated to the University are the N e w c a s t l e - u p o n - T y n e College of Medicine a n d the Newcastle College of Science, with an a t t e n d a n c e of a b o u t 2000 s t u d e n t s . T h e s e are residential e n d o w e d universities u n s u p ported by the state. T h e following are non-residential universities, t h o u g h they have residential Halls for men a n d for w o m e n s t u d e n t s . T h e y obtain their incomes f r o m v a r i o u s sources, f r o m the public f u n d s and to a m i n o r degree from endowments. (4) London University, f o u n d e d 1898, internal stud e n t s 3940. But in 1908—9 the n u m b e r of newly im-

42 matriculated students, amounted to 3886.*

external

and internal

(5) Birmingham University, founded

together,

1900.

(6) T h e Victoria University of Manchester, founded 1903. Number of students 1587. (7) Liverpool University, founded 1903. Number of students 1105; and in affiliated colleges, 1100. (8) Leeds University, founded students 1115.

1903.

Number of

(9) Sheffield University, founded 1905. Though it is not proposed to deal with any but English university education, the following universities must also be mentioned. (1) St. Andrew's about 850 students.

University,

founded

1411,

with

(2) Glasgow University, founded 1451, with about 2150 students. (3) Aberdeen University, founded 1494. (4) Edinburgh students.

University,

1582, with

about 3 0 0 0

Education in Scotland is cheap and democratic, and, in some faculties, of a very high degree of excellence. T h e universities are non-residential (though Halls are provided), and degrees are open to women. T h e medical degrees of Edinburgh and Glasgow are especially famous for their high quality; and no less than one half and one third respectively of the students in these two universities are medicals. In some cases, however, the courses of instruction, and the youthful* For the difference between external and internal students see page 66. The figures given for attendance refer either to 1907—1908 or 1908-1909.

43 ness of the s t u d e n t s , lay the Scotch universities open to the c h a r g e that they merely take the place of the higher classes of a good secondary school. Glasgow and A b e r d e e n together, Edinburgh a n d St. A n d r e w s together, return one m e m b e r to Parliament, two m e m bers in all for the four Scotch universities. Ireland h a s two universities:— (1) T h e University of Dublin, consisting of Trinity College, Dublin (founded 1591), with about 1300 students. Residence is optional. D e g r e e s and courses are o p e n to women. It returns two m e m b e r s to Parliament. (2) T h e Royal University of Ireland, Dublin, an examining b o d y (founded 1880) for the three Q u e e n ' s Colleges of Belfast, Cork and Gal way. In 1904 more than 3000 students, male and female, presented t h e m selves for the various examinations and d e g r e e s . There are, besides, various Roman Catholic Colleges of university rank. T h e University of Wales is a federal university. The seat is Cardiff. The University Senate is c o m p o s e d of the h e a d s of d e p a r t m e n t s of the three constituent colleges—the University College of Wales, seat Aberystwith, f o u n d e d 1871, n u m b e r of students 460; the University College of North Wales, seat Bangor, f o u n d e d 1884, n u m b e r of s t u d e n t s 330; and the University College of South Wales, seat Cardiff, founded in 1882, n u m b e r of s t u d e n t s 751. T h e charter was granted in 1893. T h e University gives d e g r e e s to male and female students, who must reside in a Hall or in licensed lodgings. Education a n u m b e r of which, though sity, might at

of a university type is also p r o m o t e d by colleges in different parts of England they have not yet the rank of a univerany time in the near future qualify t h e m -

44 selves for, and be granted, a university charter.* It is also furthered by University Extension lectures. The universities, namely, arrange courses in university subj e c t s for those who by reason of business engagements, or lack of funds, or from other reasons, are unable to present themselves for a regular university training. At present Oxford, Cambridge, London and Manchester are the principle supporters of the s c h e m e ; but the number of universities participant in it is likely to increase.

Oxford.** Oxford, a charming old town in spite of its extensive suburbs, lies on the Isis, above the point where this river joins the T h a m e , at about an hour and a quarter's distance from London by train, in a low and unhealthy position. It is the county-town and the seat of a bishopric. T h e colleges form the centre of the town and are closely clustered together. They are in various styles of architecture, but have the common characteristic that they are built of a crumbling stone that the moist climate soon invests with a venerable depth of colour. T h e Colleges represent a good deal of wealth. T h e y and the University together have a yearly income of about £ 4 0 0 , 0 0 0 , and with the students are the source of life to the trading population of the town. At the same time the scheme is laid out on such a large scale that there is certainly no superfluity of money for new undertakings. * This is the usual origin of the newly created universities. As a rule several colleges are amalgamated to form one university. ** The writer has chosen Oxford for detailed description, instead of Cambridge, because he knows the former better.

45

The University of Oxford. O x f o r d University is a c o r p o r a t e body, capable of holding p r o p e r t y in perpetuity,

of appointing

its

own

officers, and of r e g u l a t i n g its own affairs g e n e r a l l y . Its affairs are m a n a g e d

by—

( 1 ) T h e H e b d o m a d a l C o u n c i l , which c o n s i s t s of the V i c e - C h a n c e l l o r , the two P r o c t o r s , and e i g h t e e n elected m e m b e r s . ( 2 ) T h e H o u s e of C o n v o c a t i o n , to which, roughly s p e a k i n g , all M. A ' s , D o c t o r s of Civil L a w or Medicine b e l o n g . (3) T h e C o n g r e g a t i o n of the University, to

which

all P r o f e s s o r s , E x a m i n e r s and other official p e r s o n s b e long, and t h o s e m e m b e r s of the H o u s e of C o n v o c a t i o n who

reside

in

Oxford

twenty

weeks

or

more

each

year. ( 4 ) T h e A n c i e n t H o u s e of C o n g r e g a t i o n , c o m p o s e d of M. A ' s , D. D ' s , D . C . L's,

D. M's

of l e s s than

two

y e a r s s t a n d i n g , a n d of H e a d s of C o l l e g e s and Halls. S u c h are the official g o v e r n i n g b o d i e s ,

but in the

present c o n n e c t i o n

they are of little i m p o r t a n c e .

the u n d e r g r a d u a t e

the

few e x e c u t i v e

university

For

is represented by a

officials.—

(1) T h e

Vice-Chancellor.*

(2) T h e

Proctors.

(3) T h e

Examiners.

T h e university is in fact

known

to the

undergra-

duate only t h r o u g h the a b o v e - m e n t i o n e d officials, w h o m he avoids nations which

as

held

much in

as

possible;

buildings

through

known as the

he visits at intervals with

equal

the

exami-

'Schools',**

unwillingness;

* T h e C h a n c e l l o r a c t s through his proxy. * * T h e word ' s c h o o l ' is used also to designate a university e x a m i n a t i o n or c o u r s e .

46 and a few other institutions which he generally ignores. For him the university has little c o n c r e t e existence; it has no o b v i o u s r e s i d e n c e ; he can p a s s his examinations without listening to a single university lecture; and the university fees are u n i m p o r t a n t relatively to his other expenses. From first to last, in his daily life, the important institution to him is the College. As the college has almost completely ousted the university in the life of the u n d e r g r a d u a t e , it is necessary to explain how this has c o m e about. The growth of the college system dates f r o m the thirteenth century, and was d u e to the difficulty of maintaining o r d e r between the students and the townspeople. In order to keep s t u d e n t s out of mischief and to secure to them some m e a s u r e of quiet and o p p o r t u n i t y for study, Walter de Merton f o u n d e d Merton College in 1274; and in this foundation we find the main characteristics of the m o d e r n college. It was to be a corporate body within the university for the benefit of the secular clergy, who in those days fulfilled many of the functions now p e r f o r m e d by the laity. He provided a building, and an e n d o w m e n t for the education of the students, who were to live in the college. The example was followed, and in 1435 the university decided that all s t u d e n t s must live in a College or Hall. T h e chancellor however gave permission to some of the townsfolk to lodge students. So that by the middle of the fifteenth century university life presented much the s a m e characteristics as it does at present, namely:— The students live in b u i l d i n g s called Colleges or Halls*, or in licensed lodgings. T h e head of a college * Halls are smaller and generally cheaper than Colleges. There are 21 C o l l e g e s and one public Hall at Oxford. There are also a few private Halls for students, but these are hardly anything more than licensed lodgings.

47 is called president, provost, warden, or master. The other officials are the 'fellows', including the dean, the bursar and (sometimes) the tutors. In such an institution the student can find facilities for learning, including lectures, tuition and libraries, without troubling or being troubled by the university at all. T h e distinction between a professor, a fellow and a tutor or lecturer is a little puzzling. In familiar language they are called 'dons' indifferently; though a student, when talking to a don about another don, might prefer to avoid the word and to give the definite title. A fellow is a member of the governing body of the college. As vacancies occur they are filled up by co-optation generally preceded by an examination*. Fellowships are now generally given for a limited number of years, though they may be renewed; and during this time it is expected that the fellow shall do something for the advancement of learning, by research or teaching. As a general rule a candidate must have a B . A. degree, and not have more than £ 4 0 0 or £ 5 0 0 a year private income. An unmarried fellow has a right to a suite of rooms in college.** A tutor or lecturer on the other hand is not necessarily a 'fellow', i. e. he need not be one of the governing body, though he may be and often is. He is engaged to teach. T h e distinctive features of a professor are that he is paid (about £'900 a year generally) by the university instead of the college, and that he gives his pro* T h e s y s t e m of e x a m i n i n g for fellowships is not uncriticised. It s e e m s a rather primitive way of estimating the direct utility or the intrinsic ability of t h e candidates. * * Only in a few c a s e s d o e s a married fellow live in c o l l e g e . P e r m i s s i o n to marry was only g r a n t e d in 1877.

48 fessorial lectures in university premises. B u t he may also be a fellow of a college and lecture in it. And a fellow can augment his income by lecturing. T h e scope of the lectures in colleges has been widened of late years by agreements between groups of colleges, by which a lecture in one college is open to undergrads of the other colleges of the group without an extra fee. In this way an efficient college lecturer can collect a considerable audience. T h e system however has had the effect of ousting the university professors still more effectively from the field of work covered by the important examinations. T h e audiences of the professors are drawn largely from other sources than the undergraduates, the latter having neither time nor inclination to attend lectures that do not directly deal with the subjects for examination. And the attendance at university lectures is still further thinned by the inconvenience of the hour at which many of these lectures are held—in the afternoons, when the undergraduate world is taking its recreation. If the utility of the professors were to be judged by the amount of teaching they did, it would be found wanting; but the position is an excellent and honourable one for those who wish to do original w o r k ; and well-known men, such as Palgrave, Freeman, Herkomer, Ruskin and others, have even managed to attract large numbers of undergraduates.* As there is no leaving-exam at the schools, there is an entrance exam to the university which is called R e sponsions ('Smalls'), the chief difficulty of which lies in the fact that it would be easier to pass at the age of sixteen than of nineteen, and the chief characteristic in the retention of Greek as a compulsory subject. At the more intel* It should be mentioned that some studies, e. g. Science, Medicine, still remain for obvious reasons, the expense of equipment, etc., in the hands of university teachers.

49 lectual colleges this exam must be passed before the student comes into residence, at others it may be left for a term or so. T h e r e is also a college matriculation exam, of much the same character as S m a l l s ; but it has this added difficulty, that it is competitive; and the colleges are by this means enabled to select their men. The choice of a college is an important matter, as it may determine a man's weal or woe at the university.* S o m e colleges are known as reading colleges in which the students are expected to take Honours, others are famous for athletic prowess, others for social standing, and so o n ; others are known for less pleasant reasons. Often a man sends his son as a matter of course to the college at which he himself matriculated. Another factor is the consideration of expense. At some colleges the standard of living is higher, or at least more expensive, than at o t h e r s ; and a final reason is provided in the scholarships and exhibitions that all the colleges provide. The difference between a 'scholar' and an 'exhibitioner' is twofold. Scholarships are not in the least reserved for those who need assistance, but are often held by the sons of well-to-do parents*; and to be a scholar is to hold a privileged social position. On the other hand exhibitions are often bestowed where the candidate is really in need of assistance. They are generally of less value. Learning is encouraged by a very generous bestowal of such rewards. Most schools of any standing have exhibitions for the universities. And as regards the colleges, Balliol C o l l e g e , Oxford, alone gives 68 scholarships and exhibitions, which in some cases * A boy b e c o m e s a 'man' when he goes up to a university. ** In isolated cases the scholar takes the honour and resigns t h e pecuniary reward. This is, however, rare.

4

60

have a value as high as £ 1 1 0 a year for five years, though the usual value is about £ 5 0 to £ 6 0 for three or four years. Scholarships are 'close', that is reserved, e. g. for descendants of the founder, or for clergymen's sons, or for boys from a particular school; or 'open', in which latter case the only restriction is that of age. Some scholarships are intended for the assistance of advanced students, e. g. the Craven and the Ireland. These are moreover university scholarships, and may be held simultaneously with a college scholarship. The possessor of a university and of a college scholarship will find his university career need cost him little, especially if he holds a school exhibition as well. The colleges are for the most part beautiful old buildings, the stones black and crumbling with age and the climate. They are built round a series of quadrangles, and are capable of housing from forty to two or three hundred undergraduates. The rooms are arranged in sets of two (bed- and sitting-rooms), with an occasional set of three rooms, and vary very much in size and general desirability. If the undergraduate be a scholar, or if he has passed the college matric high—and early, he may get fine rooms on the first or the ground floor in the principal q u a d ; but generally the newcomer is obliged to content himself with an attic. Such rooms contain however the rudiments of furniture, and they have the advantage that they cost little, and that there is nothing to spoil; they are also comfortable enough for the boy who for the first time perhaps has rooms of his own. A student who wishes to protect himself from intrusion can 'sport his oak', i. e. close the massive outer door of that wood. As a rule the ordinary door suffices. The rooms are allotted partly by seniority, but considerations of expense also count. The rent varies from about £ 4 to £ 6 a term, but the question

51

of the furniture is more important. Except in a few cases, where the furniture is hired from the college, each newcomer buys the furniture of his rooms from the last occupier at a valuation made by the college, and when his turn comes to leave he sells it again minus the depreciation caused by wear and tear. The valuation may range from £ 1 0 to £80, a very serious consideration. In addition, the commoner (not the scholar) must deposit some £ 3 0 with his college as 'caution money', i. e. to save the college from loss in case he cannot pay the college charges; so that there is considerable expense attendant upon beginning one's college career. There are so many students that the old buildings cannot house them all, and most colleges have been obliged to build 'New Buildings', in which the freshmen ('freshers') find accommodation, anyhow for some terms. But even then there is such a want of room that a commoner seldom gets more than two years in college—the first or last years, it varies with the college—; and he must spend the rest of his time in 'digs', i. e. licensed lodgings. There is generally one scout and a boy for every five or six undergrads. The majority of these servants are excellent, if a little expensive in their ways. About others the less said the better. It is advisable to keep on the right side of one's scout. The academic year begins in October and contains three terms, the Michaelmas, Lent and S u m m e r terms, which begin in the middle of October, January and April respectively, and last for about eight weeks. A residence of six weeks may rank as a term kept, if the undergrad can satisfy the authorities that his absence was involuntary. The keeping of terms is important, as a minimum of nine terms residence is required before a degree can be taken. Unless he means to court disaster the undergrad 4*

52 must make up his mind from the first what exams he m e a n s to take. T h e alternative is a Pass School or an H o n o u r s S c h o o l ; each entitles him to a degree, though there is considerable difference in their value.* Let us suppose that he is modest and aims at a Pass. He will then take P a s s Moderations ( P a s s Mods) at the end of his third, the summer t e r m ; or later. If he is a man of ordinary abilities he will have no difficulty in doing this. All that is required is a painstaking study of s o m e fairly short Latin and Greek books, and in addition rather elementary Mathematics, or Logic, or Sanscrit, or Arabic. At about this time another exam must be passed, by Honours and P a s s men alike, the examination in Divinity ( ' D i v e r s ' ) . T h e subject-matter is simple, three or four b o o k s of the Old and New T e s t a m e n t ; and it was at one time fashionable (and perhaps is still) to court a ' p l o u g h ' by giving only a few days, or even only one day, to preparation for it. Failure meant no disgrace. But as an amusement it is slightly expensive, as the fee for the first attempt is £ 2 , and £ 1 for s u b sequent attempts. As an alternative one can be examined in a Greek book. T h e last barrier that stands between the undergrad and his degree is the Final P a s s School, or ' G r o u p s ' , as it is familiarly called from the way in which the subjects are grouped. T h e s e Groups are a most complicated and fascinating study, and great ingenuity and * A man who has taken a pass can write B. A. after his name with as much right as a man who has taken Honours. In the Honours Schools there are however other degrees than the B. A. For the M. A. there is no examination. For this the graduate (Pass or Honours) must keep his name on the college books for not less than three years, and must pay his college and the university certain fees. As M. A. he can vote in the election of the two members that the university returns to Parliament.

53 days of earnest thought are expended on the task of attaining the easiest possible combination. T h e candidate must offer three subjects. Group A. contains ancient languages and ancient history, e. g. a part of Plato's works, or of Aristotle's Politics, or o t Thucydides, or of Tacitus' Annals, or Sanskrit o r Persian. B contains English History to 1815, with some early literature; or a period of European History with G e o g r a p h y ; or French or G e r m a n ; or Political E c o n o m y ; or the Principles of the English Law of Contracts; or the Institutes of Justinian; or Hindu Law of the Family, Family Property and Inheritance. C comprises Geometry, Trigonometry, and Physics. D is theological.*

Chemistry

F o r an Honours degree four years are n e c e s s a r y * * , which is a serious consideration. T h e first exam is Honour Mods, which is taken at the end of the fifth term. It is an examination in scholarship which p r e sents considerable difficulty. T h e r e are optional s u b j e c t s such as L o g i c , Greek Art or the History of the Greek Drama, etc.. There are several classes, a ' g u l f ' , which lets a student through, and a ' p l o u g h ' , which does not. A first-class is a creditable achievement, but the whole examination is open to the objection that its subject matter is treated too much on the lines suitable to a Sixth Form b o y ; and that it takes up too much of the undergraduates' time. After passing Honour Mods in the Lent term the student will probably take things easily during the summer, and earnest work begins again with the winter. * Of the subjects given only two may be taken from one group, usually A. ** It is possible but difficult to take a Pass in Mods, and then Honours in a final school within three years.

54 P o e t s and orators have been the chief subjects for Honour Mods. For Classical Greats, as the Final Honours S c h o o l in Litteris Humanioribus is called, the chief subj e c t s are history and philosophy. Till lately the course was almost entirely philosophical, but the historical element has now come into prominence. The whole exam is open to the charge against all the exams at Oxford except the Pass exams, that the field is so wide that it is impossible for the candidate to know it thoroughly. He is taken through the well known philosophies, from Plato and Aristotle to the nineteenth century,—with omissions, which are also open to criticism, e. g. of later Epicurean and Stoic philosophy; and he takes certain periods of classical history. T h r o u g h the whole course he has the benefit of an hour or so a week with his philosophical and again with his historical tutor, for each of whom he writes weekly or fortnightly essays. T h e other great final schools are History and Jurisprudence. In History there is undoubtedly reference to original authorities, charters and state documents; but the field is very large, and the student is more intent on covering it than on thoroughly investigating any particular point. Education in modern literature escaped being a part of Oxford education till a few years ago. As far as the present writer knows, it resembles closely the Modern Philology course in German universities. It naturally draws a good many men whose previous education has not qualified them for the classical s c h o o l s ; and only when it obtains standing, and when the high qualifications required for a good class are recognized, will it b e c o m e an integral part of university education at Oxford. Law is also taken by a large number of students, but it is by no means necessary for a lawyer to go to

55 a university at all. T h o s e who do take it are usually intending barristers; and very often a degree in law is taken after a degree in some other Honours School, that is to say, in a fifth year. S u c h are the principal schools. T h e school for Medicine also deserves mention; but the number of medical students at Oxford is small compared to those at a German university. Hospital facilities are not so good as at other towns. S o m e description of undergraduate daily life may be of interest. T h e undergrad is usually roused by his scout at about 7.30 a. m. He has then the choice b e tween getting up at once and presenting himself for chapel at 8 a. m., (a short service in the chapel contained in each college) in respectable costume, or he can attend roll-call at 7.50 a. m. more or less in undress, and finish his toilet afterwards. But for his first two years he must attend one or the other four times a w e e k ; otherwise he will be ' h a u l e d ' by the dean (the dean will request an interview). After the first two years the rule is relaxed. Breakfast takes place between 8.30 and 9.30. It is usually a comfortable meal. Lectures as a rule do not begin till ten o'clock, and two lectures a day are a good allowance. Each lecture lasts fifty-five minutes. Lunch, usually at one o'clock, is of a very light description, bread and cheese very often, or stewed fruit; and at two o'clock the undergrads start for their e x e r c i s e . * For reading men rowing is the best form of creation. It provides regular daily exercise and allows of the undergrad being changed and ready tea at 4.30. It also requires careful living; so rowing men are generally a steady set.

reyet for that

* The climate at Oxford, and at Cambridge also, is so unhealthy that daily exercise is almost a necessity, if a man wishes to keep in good condition.

56

Most of the rowing is done in the winter months. T h e rowers are first ' t u b b e d ' , that is, taken out in a pair-oar boat with a capable coxwain to coach them. They are then selected and promoted to ' f o u r s ' , and at the end of the Michaelmas term the ' f o u r s ' of a college row against each other. In the Lent term the promising rowers in each college are formed into an eight, and the inter-collegiate race known as Torpids or ' T o g g e r s ' is rowed. Then in the summer term, in Eights Week (in Cambridge the May Week), each college puts one or more eights on the river, and they row against each other. Men who are in a college eight do not take part in the smaller races, though they do not neglect their own training during the winter months. The races are ' b u m p ' races. The river is so narrow that the boats are obliged to start at a fixed distance behind one another. The object of each boat is to touch ( ' b u m p ' ) the boat in front of it. If this happens, the two boats exchange positions. This goes on for several days, and the final result determines the order of the next year's start. Unless a man is a member of his college eight, he takes his boating less strenuously in the summer than in the winter terms. Punting, canoeing and sculling pass the time very pleasantly. Cricket, football, hockey, tennis, etc., are of course played very keenly, but there is often the disadvantage that they do not offer daily exercise; or, on the other hand, they may take up too much of the time of an undergrad who shows skill at them, and thus interfere with his work. After tea studious men get in about two hours' work. At seven dinner in Hall is taken. There are the same regulations for attendance at this as for attendance at; chapel or roll-call. The dons sit at a raised table. After dinner coffee is perhaps taken at a man's rooms, or there is the theatre, or a wine party, etc.;

57 and, once more, reading men get in a couple of hours' work. At nine o'clock the college gate is closed; and no one may g o out except to his lodgings, where the same regulation prevails. A student may enter till ten o'clock without his name being taken. Anyone who comes into college after ten is subjected to a small fine, and his name is sent up in a weekly 'gate-bill' to his tutor, who however takes no notice except in case of persistent late hours. T o be out of one's college or lodgings after midnight is a serious offence. T h e college porter, who sits in the lodge or gate just inside the entrance, has however duties which commend him more to the students than the taking of their names. He protects them from duns, who are not allowed in college, and does other small offices. T h e restrictions are not quite so irksome as might be thought. T h e undergrad can get company, wine, cigars, etc., in c o l l e g e ; and his rooms are usually comfortable enough to allow him to entertain a good many friends. Moreover he can climb.* As the poet says:— " S t o n e walls do not a prison make, Nor iron bars a c a g e . "

Discipline out of college is administered by the proctors. T h e s e are two dons chosen in rotation from the c o l l e g e s for one year's office. They wear a distinctive costume, namely, a black gown with velvet sleeves and a kind of clerical white tie. Their chief duty is to patrol the streets and to take the name and college of any student who is without cap and gown. T h e cap or mortar-board is a cap of black cloth with a stiff square of cardboard covered with the same material placed flat on the top of it with one corner towards the front, and with a black silk tassel. T h e c o m m o n e r ' s gown * He will do well, however, not to be caught.

58

is of coarse black linen reaching to the waist, and is hideous. The scholar's gown is longer, graceful, and of silk. The B. A. gown is still longer, reaching nearly to the ancles. Academic costume must be worn in interviews with dons, at chapel and roll-call, hall dinner, lectures, examinations, in the university libraries and in the streets after dusk, on pain of a fine. The proctors also visit prohibited places of entertainment, undesirable publichouses, etc.. They are assisted by 'bull-dogs', i. e. college scouts, who are employed as emissaries and, in cases of necessity, as enforcers of the proctors' wishes. A proctor requires firmness, tact and good sense. Meetings between proctors and undergraduates, however unfortunate, are usually conducted with politeness and good humour. The fine for not wearing cap and gown is five shillings. Serious offences are punished by rustication, i. e. by prohibition to attend the university for a term, or by 'sending down', in which case the student leaves the university for good. It should be mentioned that students very rarely change either their university or their college. As regards expense, the most important items after the initial expenses are the terminal bills, 'battels' as they are called, presented by the college. These include the charges for food and lodging (when the student lives in college), tuition and lectures, wine, tobacco, servants, and generally an amalgamated athletic subscription. A man of modest tastes may easily restrict his battels to £ 4 0 a term. Everything included, a man may live like a [gentleman on from £ 1 7 5 to £ 2 0 0 a year, though he misses much. A good allowance is from £ 2 5 0 u p w a r d s ; but if the undergrad wishes to keep horses or motor-cars his expenses will naturally be greater. It is possible to live on £ 1 2 5 a year, but in addition to the fact that bread and butter and herrings will

59 u n d e r t h e s e c i r c u m s t a n c e s t a k e an n e n t p l a c e on t h e bill of fare,

undesirably

the student

c l u d e d f r o m m u c h of t h e s o c i a l t r a i n i n g

promi-

will b e

ex-

that f o r m s

i m p o r t a n t a part of r e s i d e n t i a l u n i v e r s i t y e d u c a t i o n . * t h e least

potent

f a c t o r s in

e x e r t s a r e found in t h e in t h e s u b t l e itself.

Few

roundings.

but

all

escape

the

influence

interplay of

permeating

that

the i n f l u e n c e

Oxford

social forces,

power of

of

their u n i q u e

sur-

A n d by s o c i a l t r a i n i n g is m e a n t n o t m e r e l y

but a c u l t u r e

of t h e m i n d

p h r a s e at first s u g g e s t s . c o n s o r t with

men

than

of

his

of his

deeper

other he

and

wider

convictions,

society, than

The undergraduate

own,

his social inferiors; sacrifice

and

the place

a t r a i n i n g in the m a n n e r s a n d m a n n e r i s i m s of

bringing,

so Not

the

learns

to

other

up-

with his s o c i a l s u p e r i o r s

and

learns

self-respect

to

or

do

of

this w i t h o u t

theirs,

rendering

the unto

C a e s a r t h e t h i n g s that a r e C a e s a r ' s , a n d e x p e c t i n g a like treatment

of h i m s e l f .

He

strengthens

within

him,

or

a c q u i r e s , t h o s e h a b i t s of t h o u g h t a n d f e e l i n g , that c o n venient, recognised manner

of

expression

which

cha-

r a c t e r i s e what m a y b e c a l l e d the r u l i n g c l a s s e s in E n g land.

H e d o e s this with a d v a n t a g e

to h i m s e l f in that,

a p a r t f r o m the p r o v e d w o r t h of t h e h a b i t s of m i n d a c q u i r e s , he o b t a i n s

along

with t h e m

he

a p a s s into

any

g r a d e of s o c i e t y t o w h i c h his o t h e r c a p a c i t i e s a n d

cir-

c u m s t a n c e s g i v e h i m a c c e s s ; with a d v a n t a g e in t h a t h i s t r a i n i n g m a k e s h i m a u s e f u l , standardised public servant rely

f o r the

A n d a s an

possession educator

of

upon

a n d test the

this

intercourse

close,

exclusive

world

state

valuable

of c h a r a c t e r

s u b s t i t u t e s for life in

could for

others

clean-handed,

whom the

certain

to

be

can

qualities. few

better

found

months

in

than the

* There are a number of un-attached students whose expenses are probably less than those of the most economical college student, but it is most emphatically to be desired that a student should, if possible, belong to a college.

60 year with men of every shade of conviction and moral principle. T h e very fact that the undergraduate lives aloof from the world intensifies these influences which are brought to bear upon him by his fellows, by his work, and by the place. For awhile he lives as did an Athenian in the best time of Athens. No echo of the world where men toil for money penetrates into his charmed life; Greece and Rome and the great men of all time speak to him directly across the gulf of years. He lives undisturbed, face to face with the problem of his own life and his own personalty, free to choose and to think. And, lest the result should be discord, there is the ever-present, all-reconciling beauty of his surroundings. " T h e world surely", says Hawthorne, " h a s not another place like Oxford." T h e teaching at Oxford has been the subject of a g o o d deal of criticism. It is complained that the Pass School is too easy, and that the higher courses, especially that for Litt. Hum., are a mere training in scepticism. There is justification for both complaints, but the truth of the accusations must be admitted with qualification. It is true that the student who has taken a Pass School has not strained himself intellectually; but the possibility of his having employed his time usefully is by no means excluded. It must be emphasised that other factors in Oxford besides the teaching courses work upon the undergraduate. T h e student in question may have been learning men and manners, thinking, pursuing a hobby, or even simply enjoying himself; and none of these ways of passing the time are without their utility as a preparation for later life. At the same time a university that deliberately countenanced such a loose curriculum would be wanting in its duty, and it must be recognised that the number of those who take a higher course is year by year increasing.

61

As regards the course in Litt. Hum. the complaint made has also some justification. The undergraduate is taken from one philosopher to another, the historical continuity of philosophic thought is not always made clear, he obtains the 'last word' of criticism, usually destructive, upon the main points of each philosophical system; and often ends by simply thinking them all equally unsound,—a state of mind that is not without its merits, but is perhaps undesirably negative and critical. The same is true of the historical course. Little attempt is made to bring the student into contact with first-hand authorities, i. e. inscriptions and manuscripts; still less is there any attempt to initiate the student into the use of scientific method by any original work such as is required for a German doctorate. The field to be covered is too vast. The result is in some respects disappointing. There is a want of positive opinions, and a still greater want of enthusiasm and conviction. S o m e people preserve through life the condition of suspended judgment that Oxford education encourages. At the same time there is much to be said for the Oxford system. The undergraduate may never know the satisfaction with which a German student working at some petty problem recognizes that he has got down to the bed-rock of fact. But he has an accurate appreciation for the language and contents of the books he has read; and he avoids the pedantry that may ensue from a too great attention to mere details. He has read the best that has been written over a wide field of human experience, and he can handle his material. The psychology of evidence is known to him; he can weigh and discriminate. And if the result from the point of view of the advancement of learning seems unsatisfactory, we may yet claim that in the finished product of Oxford we have a man of admirable discernment for the

62

proportions of things, a man excellently qualified to play his part wherever the practical exigencies of life may call him. Time will bring out the positive in him; and he will decide boldly enough on occasions, if there is any good stuff in him. It is doubtful whether any other places of learning breed men of just this wide culture and potentiality. It must be remembered that the Oxford man very likely has no intention of employing the knowledge he has gained at the university in a direct manner, and the actual school that he takes is in any case only one element in his education. The object of his training is to give him that preliminary foundation of deepseated culture that is desirable in those who fill the greater positions in the service of the state, the professions, or of the arts. Oxford educates the whole man, to the depths of his being. There is room for other ideals of university education; but as long as Oxford continues to produce men who worthily sustain the varied parts that fall to Englishmen in all quarters of the earth, so long she may claim with justice an honourable place amongst the educating factors of the world.

Cambridge. The sister university lies like Oxford at a distance of a little more than an hour by train from London. Its situation is equally unhealthy. As at Oxford, the Vice-Chancellor is in practice the head of affairs. He is assisted by a body of sixteen called the Council of the Senate, which is elected by (roughly speaking) the resident members of the actual Senate. The Senate is composed of all Cambridge Masters of Arts or of Laws. The Council of the Senate is in so far more important than the Senate itself that the latter can only consider proposals already

63 made by the Council. Such proposals, when carried, are called Graces. T h e Senate legislates lor all matters that do not c o m e within the University Statutes. T o alter the University Statutes requires the consent of the King in Council and an Act of Parliament.* T h e university appoints Syndicates to administer university business; and B o a r d s of Studies, each under the control of a professor, to superintend university teaching and examinations. There are only seventeen colleges at Cambridge, but some of them are larger than the colleges in Oxford. Trinity College (not to be confused with Trinity College, Dublin, or a college of the same name at O x ford) contains over five hundred students. A glance at the list of officials may give the reader some idea of the scale on which this college is constructed. There are the Master, the Vice-Master, 4 Tutors, 6 Directors of Studies in Mathematics, Law, Medicine, Oriental Languages, Mediaeval and Modern Languages, and other s u b j e c t s ; no less than 22 Lecturers, and other officials. In all, the Foundation consists of the Master (whose office is within the gift of the Crown) 63 Fellows, 74 Major Scholars, a number of Minor Scholars, 16 Sizars, the Chaplains, the Librarian, and the Regius Professors of Divinity, Hebrew and Greek. It is almost a university in itself. T h e examinations have names not found at Oxford. Before being admitted to the university a student must pass a Previous Examination (Little-Go). F o r a P a s s an undergrad must take a General Examination in two parts (in the third term or later), and a Special E x amination. T h e Tripos Examination, which corresponds to the Honours School in Oxford, is held once a year in the * The same is true of Oxford and other universities.

64

Easter term. Where the exam is divided into two parts, as is the case in the classical tripos, the student usually takes the first part at the end of his third year. It is to be noted that the passing of the first part alone of the tripos entitles the student to apply for the degree of B. A.; and the student can then leave the university. Some students however remain up for a fourth year, and take either the second part of the same tripos or the second part of another. The first man in the mathematical tripos used to be called the Senior Wrangler. Oxford is celebrated for the philosophical character of its final classical school. In Cambridge the principal studies encouraged are classical scholarship, natural science, and mathematics.

Oxford and Cambridge, for all their external similarity, seem to produce two very different types of men. To what exactly this is due it is hard to say. It is probably true that whereas the educational course in Cambridge is distinctly positive, and produces a man with positive qualities, the education at Oxford, at least in the classical and historical schools, is to a considerable extent negative, and destructive. It is said with a certain amount of truth that an Oxford man has no opinion on anything, that a Cambridge man has an opinion about everything. Differently expressed, the distinction between the two types is voiced in the criticism that an Oxford man walks down a street as if it belonged to him; a Cambridge man walks down a street as if he didn't care to whom it belonged. Flippant and popular as these criticisms may appear, they express a generally recognized difference in the typical products of the two universities as well as any criticism that the writer has heard.

65

London

University.

Oxford and C a m b r i d g e , notwithstanding the p r e s e n c e of a large n u m b e r of students to w h o m the s u b s e q u e n t e a r n i n g of a livelihood is a very urgent p r o b l e m , may yet be called the property of the ruling classes. T h e y s h o w a certain aristocratic a l o o f n e s s from material or immediately practical affairs. The education provided is a continuation of the education obtained at the better public s c h o o l s , and takes the latter for g r a n t e d . T h e students are to a c o n s i d e r a b l e extent s e l e c t e d and h o m o g e n e o u s . T h e very distincti v e n e s s of t h e s e two universities leaves r o o m for, or even d e m a n d s the p r e s e n c e of universities of a n o t h e r t y p e ; a n d as an e x a m p l e of such we may take the University of L o n d o n . T h e first c h a r t e r merely instituted ( 1 8 3 6 ) an e x a m i n i n g body with the right to grant d e g r e e s . Candidates w e r e limited to students of University (founded 1828) and K i n g ' s C o l l e g e (founded 1836) respectively. No r e l i g i o u s tests were to be i m p o s e d * ; and the university was to e n d e a v o u r to b e 'on an e q u a l ity in all r e s p e c t s with the ancient Universities, freed f r o m t h o s e e x c l u s i o n s and religious distinctions which a b r i d g e the usefulness of Oxford and C a m bridge'. T h e history of the university has b e e n marked by unusual o p e n - m i n d e d n e s s . T h e students to which the university a p p e a l e d were as a rule less leisured and less wealthy than those of O x f o r d and C a m b r i d g e ; and it was with a p r o p e r appreciation of the essential diff e r e n c e s b e t w e e n the tasks of L o n d o n University and of the older universities that it was d e c i d e d in 1858 * In c o n t r a s t with Oxford and C a m b r i d g e , where t h o s e who did not b e l o n g to the Church of England were s u b j e c t to certain disabilities.

5

66

to abolish college privilege and to admit candidates to examinations and degrees without asking questions as to where or how they acquired their knowledge*—a recognition of the existence of printed books that might be adopted with advantage elsewhere. In a similar spirit of liberality the university in 1878 placed women and men on an equal footing.** So far the university was merely an examining body qualified to give degrees. But it was felt that this was inadequate to the needs of the metropolis, and in 1898 the university was reorganised, given greater powers of directing the course of studies in the affiliated colleges, and assigned jurisdiction over an area of 30 miles radius from its central offices, which were removed in 1900 from Burlington House to South Kensington. As it now exists, the University of London is governed by a Senate consisting of a Chancellor, ViceChancellor, a Chairman of Convocation, and 54 m e m bers appointed some by the Crown and some by the colleges. The university s e n d s one member to Parliament. Convocation is composed of all graduates of proper standing. There are eight Faculties. The colleges or 'schools of the University' now number nearly thirty, of which six are theological, eleven are medical schools attached to the great London hospitals, and three are colleges and institutions for women, residential and other. The students are of two kinds, ' e x t e r n a l ' a n d ' i n ternal'. The external student studies as he or she likes; it is merely required that they shall pass the exams in * Except in the case of medical students, who were and are obliged to follow certain recognised courses of study. ** Except that women may not attend the men's courses in medicine, or (the writer believes) in theology. The same restriction is general at all the universities.

67

due sequence. The internal students attend courses at the recognized schools of the University. But courses may be ' r e c o g n i z e d ' by the University as ' i n t e r n a l ' at other institutions than these. As regards the exams the standard is from the beginning admittedly high. The sequence is as follows:—At or after the age of 17 the students must pass the Matriculation (unless they be graduates of another university, in which case they are merely ' r e g i s t e r e d ' ) ; then after two years comes the Intermediate or Preliminary Arts (or Science) exam, and after another year the Final. Three years must elapse between matriculation and the final exam. Students who are ambitious may seek Honours in one subject of the Intermediate, taking a Pass in the others. In the B. A. exam if they take Honours in one subject they are exempt from the rest. A noticeable feature of the University is the inducements to original work that it offers by means of postgraduate courses and degrees. After two years the Bachelor of Arts may present a thesis or other original work and pass a written and oral exam for his M.A.;* and after that he may proceed to the rarely acquired Doctorate of Literature by presenting ' a published or unpublished work making a distinct addition to learning in one or more of the branches of the Faculty of Arts'. Similarly the B. Sc. may after two years present a thesis for his D. Sc.. The fees to the University itself are small, and the external student, unless he be a student of medicine, can more or less eliminate other expenses. They are:— for Matriculation £ 2, for each Intermediate or Final (including the fee for the degree) £ 5 ; for medicine £ 2 7 in all. But the internal student for the B. A. must attend 810 hours of lectures, and for the B. Sc. 1260 hours. * At London, that is, the M. A. does depend on examination ; at Oxford, as has been remarked, it does not.

5*

68 At present there are no less than 5 0 0 0 candidates annually for degrees. T h e University of London has before it the possibility of a splendid career. But its students are of all kinds. S o m e have leisure, some are already earning their living, s o m e live too far away to be able to attend lectures at head-quarters, s o m e pursue research work only pursuable with the best teaching and the best appliances. F o r these last there must be provided central institutions, for the former decentralised instruction must be arranged. In an area that extends to a radius of thirty miles, and that contains seven million inhabitants, the university has opportunities and powers to inspire, co-ordinate and control instruction that are unique in their magnitude and responsibility. Judging by its past history the University of London will prove itself equal to its task.

The Law. L a w y e r s are two kinds, solicitors a n d barristers. Solicitors do not as a rule take a university d e g r e e , t h o u g h that is s o m e t i m e s r e c o m m e n d e d . T h e usual course is for the intending solicitor to start his preparation directly he leaves school, at s e v e n t e e n or eighteen y e a r s of age. His first step is to get himself ' a r t i c l e d ' to a solicitor or firm of solicitors. In the office he then is initiated into the practical part of his profession, c o n v e y a n c i n g , and so on. For his theoretical k n o w l e d g e of the law the examinations of the Law Society provide a test. He must pass a Preliminary Examination of a simple kind, which is intended to ensure that he shall have the elements of a g e n e r a l e d u cation. T h e n , after at least twelve m o n t h s in articles, his k n o w l e d g e of the e l e m e n t s of English law is tested in the Intermediate E x a m i n a t i o n ; and lastly, generally after five y e a r s of articles, he must p a s s a difficult examination in English law, the Final Law Examination. As English law is in great part e m b o d i e d in the previous decisions of j u d g e s , a retentive m e m o r y and great industry is r e q u i r e d for this. For his articles he must pay M. 80 stamp duty to the g o v e r n m e n t , a n d a p r e m i u m of f r o m £ 100 to M 400 to the firm, a c c o r d i n g to its standing. Before he is entered on the Roll of Solicitors he will have to pay s o m e £ 30 m o r e . A s an articled clerk he receives no salary. An o r d i n a r y solicitor's clerk receives a salary, but has not the prospect or aim to b e c o m e a solicitor. With ability, influence

70 and luck a solicitor may earn a substantial income, o n e or two thousand pounds a year, or more. The prizes of the legal profession, however, fall to the barristers, who have a more brilliant but more precarious career open to them. A barrister should have a university d e g r e e ; and as the knowledge of law required is comparatively small, he often takes a law deg r e e at a university after graduating in another faculty. He should have received the education of a ' g e n t l e m a n ' , at least it eases matters for h i m ; and should be able to think and speak clearly at the same time. At an early period, generally before he leaves the university, he applies to one of the four Inns of Court, i. e. Lincoln's, or Gray's Inn, or the Middle or Inner T e m p l e . T h e Council of Legal Education formed of ' b e n c h e r s ' from these Inns provides examinations, namely, an Entrance Examination to ensure that the candidate has a fair general education, and a Final Examination in Roman and English Law and Equity, which is taken at least a year and a half afterwards. He must eat a few dinners at his Inn every term for three years, but he need not reside there. " T h e student of an Inn of Court is a member of a kind of Legal University, of which his Inn is a constituent C o l l e g e " * . If he passes his examination he can be ' c a l l e d ' after three years from his entrance. His entrance fee is £ 4 0 ; and he must deposit some £ 5 0 as caution money. T h e latter sum however is repaid when the student is 'called to the B a r ' , a process that c o s t s him about £ 100 more. Is is fairly simple to become a barrister, but it is uncommonly hard to earn a living as one. It is a ' g e n t l e m a n l i k e ' profession, but it has the disadvantage that the cleverest man, unless he is backed by good * Jack's Reference Book, p. 751.

7!

solicitors, may have to wait idle, unpaid and absolutely powerless, for many years belore he gets a brief. It is not etiquette for him to be engaged directly by a client. T h e solicitor gets him his clients and pays him his fees. He cannot even sue the solicitor for his fees, though the latter may have been paid them undoubtedly by the client. On the other hand the barrister cannot be obliged to return his fee, even if he has been unable to be present at the case. Altogether a very vague and ' g e n t l e m a n l i k e ' condition of things! In the natural course of affairs a person who wishes to bring an action (the plaintiff in a c a s e ) , or against whom an action is brought (the defendant), applies to a solicitor. T h e latter collects materials, evidence, witnesses, etc., makes the necessary preparations for the case being heard, and engages a barrister*. T h e latter then arranges the materials in such a way as to present his client's case in the most favourable light (he may never have seen his client), and pleads in c o u r t * * . If he is a very busy man he may require a retaining fee of as much as ten guineas. He then considers himself bound to appear when the case comes on. For his actual appearance the fee 'marked on the Brief' may be anything from one to five hundred guineas, or even more. In court the barrister is called * The English solicitor, that is to say, has a considerably larger field of activity than the German 'Notar'. Not the least part of the influence and importance of the solicitor is due to the fact that he acts as the proxy, confidential agent and adviser of the client. In this he trenches upon the province occupied by the 'Rechtsanwalt'; and the sphere of activity of the barrister, who is engaged simply to plead, is correspondingly curtailed. On the other hand the barriers placed by legal etiquette between the barrister and the parties engaged in a suit, may be said to heighten the dignity, at least the social dignity, of the barrister's profession. * * In the smaller courts a solicitor may plead.

72

' c o u n s e l ' . If there are several counsel on a side they are called ' l e a d i n g c o u n s e l ' and ' j u n i o r c o u n s e l ' respectively. Should a barrister be successful he may in c o u r s e of time b e c o m e a King's ( Q u e e n ' s ) C o u n s e l , — ' t a k e silk' as it is called—, which means that he is not allowed to take an adverse side in any case that affects the Crown. But he has otherwise no duties to the Crown, the latter being represented by the Attorney-General and the Solicitor-General, both of whom are barristers, come in and go out with the government, and represent the government in court. In its practical aspect taking silk means that the K. ( Q . ) C. refuses briefs under a certain considerable value. Unless a man is exceptionally brilliant it means a loss of work and of income forced upon him by legal etiquette. A s u c c e s s ful barrister may earn several thousand pounds a year, he may get a j u d g e s h i p * , or some other profitable post. An equally capable man may starve for years. Manymen are called without intending to practise. England has no complete code of laws. The principles that govern the national jurisprudence, like those which lie at the basis of the English constitution, are as much unwritten as written. A distinction must therefore be made between ' c o m m o n law' and 'statute law'. C o m m o n law is unwritten. It is older than statute law, and is founded on considerations of general justice. Nevertheless a j u d g e who is deciding a case of common law does not give his decision arbitrarily. From g e neration to generation the principles of common law have been more and more minutely defined ( ' s a n c t i fied') in the recorded decisions of his predecessors, each of which decisions is binding. A judge, that is * F r o m £ 1 5 0 0 a y e a r for a Metropolitan police to £ 8 0 0 0 for the Lord Chief J u s t i c e .

magistrate

73 to say, must not give a decision in one way when it can be clearly shown that one of his p r e d e c e s s o r s * , in a case that is proved to be substantially similar, decided in another way. During his tenure of office, therefore, the j u d g e will b e c o m e acquainted with thousands of previous c a s e s and d e c i s i o n s ; and the s u c c e s s with which he performs the duty of his office will depend upon his capacity to perceive parallelisms, and his power to see through the ingenious arguments with which counsel on one side or the other attempt to prove points of similarity with a previous case or to disprove them. It need hardly be said that this demands a retentive memory and an extraordinary power of discrimination between true and false parallels. C o m m o n law covers the whole range of law that is not specially covered by statute law. Statute law is the law so far as it has been laid down by parliamentary enactments. In dealing with the law courts it will be best to begin with those constituted to try criminal offences. T h e lowest court is formed by Justices of the Peace sitting in Petty S e s s i o n s (usually called a Police Court). Justices of the P e a c e are local magnates chosen by the Lord Chancellor for this responsible office, generally through the recommendation of the Lord Lieutenant of the county. They have no special training in law, but sit (generally two or more together) to decide specified minor offences in a summary w a y ; and to hold preliminary enquiries to ascertain whether an accusation is of sufficient strength to justify their committing the accused for trial at the Assizes or Quarter Sessions. T h e highest sentence that they can pronounce is imprisonment for six months. They are assisted to a knowledge of the law by the Clerk * E q u a l in

rank.

74 •of the P e a c e for the county,* upon whose advice on points of law they can depend. In populous districts there is sometimes a paid magistrate for the Police Court, who sits every day. T h e Justices in country -districts generally sit once a week. At Quarter Sessions all the Justices of the Peace for the county sit. They are empowered to hear a great many varieties of civil and criminal cases, excepting those involving charges of burglary or murder. They also hear appeals from summary convictions; and decide such cases as appeals from rates, and some local g o v e r n m e n t cases. Towns and boroughs may have courts of their own of a similar character. T h e mayor may take the powers of a J. P. in Borough Petty S e s s i o n s ; and there is often a Borough Quarter Sessions, in which the judge is a Recorder, i. e. a paid barrister appointed by the Crown. For the administration of the law as regards felonies** the whole of England and Wales is divided into circuits, eight in number, namely;—the South Eastern { o r Home), the Midland, Northern, North Eastern, Oxford, Western, North Wales and Chester, and South Wales circuits. In the spring and summer j u d g e s of the High Court of Justice are despatched on circuit to hold the Criminal Assizes*** in the assize towns. In these the most serious criminal offences are decided. Sometimes there are in populous districts additional General Assizes, which are held in the winter and try civil and criminal c a s e s taken from several counties, which are united together for this purpose. In these courts there is usually a jury of twelve men. * Usually some solicitor practising in the locality. ** Verbrechen.

Misdemeanour =

Vergehen.

**• Sometimes called Courts of Oyer and Terminer and Gaol Delivery.

75 Should a j u d g e or J. P. sitting in a criminal court be in doubt as to the exact nature of the law in reference to an offence, he may reserve judgment, and appeal for advice to the Court of Crown Cases Reserved, which is composed nominally of all judges of the High Court of Justice, but in which as a rule only five sit at a time. On the other hand a judgment given in a criminal court may be appealed against by the party to whose disadvantage it has been g i v e n ; though this can only happen with the consent of the j u d g e concerned. On points of fact there was till lately no court of appeal in criminal cases, though the Court of Crown Cases Reserved, when appealed to on points of law, occasionally found that the facts were not proved and ordered a fresh trial on this ground. In 1907, however, a Court of Criminal Appeal, consisting of three or more judges of the King's Bench Division, was instituted for appeals on matters of fact. When we turn to the exclusively civil courts we find on the lowest rung the County Courts. England and Wales are divided for purposes of civil justice into about five hundred districts, in each of which a so-called County Court sits at least once a month. For this purpose there are some sixty (paid) county court judges, who are appointed by the Lord Chancellor. T h e r e is usually no jury. Solicitors often plead in these courts. T h e County Courts decide a multitude of not very important civil cases. They have jurisdiction in claims for debt or damages where not more than £ 1 0 0 is involved; in bankruptcy matters outside the metropolitan area; and in various matters that are also dealt with in the High Court of Justice, to which there is appeal on questions of law, but not of fact. Theoretically the next court for civil matters is the Supreme Court of Judicature, the president of

76 which is the L o r d ( H i g h ) C h a n c e l l o r ; but this exists only in its t w o divisions, t h e C o u r t of Appeal and the High C o u r t of Justice. T h e C o u r t of Appeal consists of the Lord Chancellor, the Lord Chief Justice of E n g l a n d and the Master of the Rolls (all t h r e e of w h o m are m e m b e r s of both divisions), of the P r e s i d e n t of the P r o b a t e Division (see below), and five Lord Justices of Appeal. But no j u d g e may hear an appeal against a j u d g m e n t of his own delivered in a n o t h e r court. C a s e s are heard by t h r e e j u d g e s together, or occasionally by two. T h e High C o u r t of Justice h a s only a theoretical existence; for the p u r p o s e s of a d m i n i s t e r i n g the law it is divided as follows: — (1) T h e C h a n c e r y Division, which deals ( a m o n g s t other things) with m a t t e r s of disputed inheritance, the g u a r d i a n s h i p of heirs, m a t t e r s of equity, etc.. (2) T h e King's ( Q u e e n ' s ) Bench Division, for civil a n d criminal cases of great importance. (3) T h e P r o b a t e , Divorce and Admiralty Division. In all t h r e e divisions c a s e s are heard by one j u d g e , w h o sits in the C h a n c e r y Division without a jury, in the other divisions with, or without, a jury. T h e s u p r e m e court of appeal in civil matters is theoretically the H o u s e of L o r d s . But in fact this court is a Statutary C o u r t of Appeal c o m p o s e d of the Lord H i g h Chancellor, the L o r d s of Appeal in Ordinary, and such m e m b e r s of the H o u s e of L o r d s as have held high judicial office in the United Kingdom. Other p e e r s — b y c u s t o m , it s h o u l d be n o t e d — d o not attend on the occasion of a m e e t i n g of this court. O n e m o r e court that should be noticed is the Judicial C o m m i t t e e of the Privy Council, which h e a r s a p p e a l s f r o m Colonial a n d Indian C o u r t s , and f r o m Ecclesiastical a n d Prize C o u r t s in E n g l a n d . It is note-

77

worthy that in this C o m m i t t e e colonial j u d g e s w h o have held high judicial office a n d a r é m e m b e r s of the Privy C o u n cil are included. Their n u m b e r is h o w e v e r limited to five. T h e head of the judicial hierarchy is the Lord H i g h Chancellor, a political official w h o c h a n g e s with the g o v e r n m e n t and takes p r e c e d e n c e (with £ 10,000 a year) after the Archbishop of C a n t e r b u r y . T h e J u d g e s of the High Court receive £'5000 a year, those of the C o u n t y C o u r t s and Police C o u r t s £ 1 5 0 0 . J u d g e s hold their posts for life, subject to a ' g o o d b e h a v i o u r ' clause, and can only be r e m o v e d f r o m office by an Act of Parliament. T h o u g h the income of a j u d g e in the High Court is certainly lower than that which several p r o m i nent barristers can earn, the p o s t s are much coveted. J u d g e s are recruited exclusively from the ranks of barristers. At the bottom of the judicial hierarchy is the c o n stable or 'Bobby', w h o is recruited either f r o m the r a n k s of old soldiers or f r o m the country labouring-class. T h e ordinary policeman is almost without exception polite and long-suffering. One g u a r d against autocratic b e h a viour on the part of the police is the fact that they are under a local authority; a n d the r e m e d y against acts of o p p r e s s i o n is therefore n e a r at h a n d . No matter w h e t h e r he is acting in his official capacity or not, the policeman is responsible for his actions and can be p u n i s h e d . This is one reason why the policeman is so unwilling to use his t r u n c h e o n — h i s only w e a p o n , except at night on a d a n g e r o u s beat. T h e law is effective in E n g l a n d , but not obtrusive. C o m m o n - s e n s e , and a consideration for the rights of his fellow-citizen of which the f o r e i g n e r will hardly s u s p e c t the Englishman, take its place to a c o n s i d e r a b l e extent. One reason, h o w e v e r , for this is that the e n o r m o u s , r u i n o u s e x p e n s e of g o i n g to law d e b a r s citizens from d o i n g so u n l e s s it is absolutely n e c e s s a r y .

78

Where a criminal matter is urgent, anyone may, with or even without a warrant from a magistrate, arrest the suspected or openly guilty person. In less urgent cases a summons is issued by a magistrate, calling upon the suspected person to appear at a certain time before a certain court, and containing on the face of it the substance of the accusation. If he does not appear, a warrant for his arrest is issued. When the case lies within the magistrate's jurisdiction, he decides it summarily; but if the offence should prove to b e beyond his jurisdiction, and he is of opinion that there are considerable grounds for believing the accused to be the offender, he orders the accused to find bail, or commits him to prison to await his trial at the Assizes or the Central Criminal Court. But before the prisoner or accused again presents himself in court, a bill of indictment is proferred to the Grand Jury, a body of 11—23 ordinary citizens, whose business it is to decide whether there is sufficient evidence to justify proceeding with the case. If they think that the evidence is sufficient they 'find a true bill'; if not, they report 'no true bill found'; and in the latter case the prisoner or accused is considered innocent. But if new evidence be afterwards forthcoming, his case can again be brought up for consideration. Should they find a true bill, the prisoner c o m e s before the judge and the (petty) jury (called sometimes the 'panel'), a body of twelve ordinary citizens. Every man between the ages of twenty-one and sixty years is liable to be called upon to serve on a jury. If counsel for the accused is of opinion that some of the m e m b e r s are partial, and therefore unsuited to serve in the panel, he proceeds to 'challenge' their claims to do so, and may succeed in getting the objectionable jurymen removed. The panel is finally sworn.

7» T h e c a s e is o p e n e d by the C o u n s e l for the C r o w n (for the prosecution), who tells the jury the facts of the c r i m e and states how he intends to prove that the accused is the guilty p e r s o n . After finishing this, the counsel for the prosecution calls his witnesses, and elicits their evidence by a p r o c e s s of questioning. A witness can only give evidence as to what he has himself seen or heard. Hearsay and s e c o n d - h a n d evidence are not permitted. Each witness as he c o m e s into the witness box is required to swear or solemnly affirm that he will tell 'the truth, the whole truth, and nothing but the truth'. Counsel for the prisoner (the pris o n e r can act as his own counsel, if he likes) then crosse x a m i n e s the witnesses for the prosecution and end e a v o u r s to u p s e t their evidence, calls witnesses in favour of the prisoner, and then m a k e s his speech. T h e j u d g e s u m s up and gives his directions to the jury. He explains to them, that it is to say, the nature of the chief points of the trial, and they retire to p r e p a r e their verdict, which must be 'Guilty' or 'Not Guilty'. T h e verdict must be unanimous. If the jury are unable to agree, the case must be tried before a fresh jury.* Let us say that the jury re-enter the court and through their f o r e m a n p r o n o u n c e the verdict, 'Guilty'. The p r o s e c u t o r h a s not till then been allowed to p r o d u c e any facts in the past of the accused that would be likely to p r e j u d i c e him in the eyes of the jury, who are there to try the case strictly on its m e r i t s ; unless the facts directly bear upon the case u n d e r consideration. Only after the verdict of 'Guilty' has been given are such r e c o r d s , p r e v i o u s convictions, general bad reputation, etc., given. T h e j u d g e , with these facts in his mind, p r o n o u n c e s the form and severity of the punishment. * When once an accused person has been declared innocent by such a jury he cannot be tried again for the same offence, whatever evidence against him may subsequently be found.

80

For first offenders the sentence is always much less severe than for hardened criminals. In civil cases of importance the procedure is slightly different. Both parties have to draw up their cases, and these are submitted to a judge in chambers, who brings them into proper legal shape. The trial then takes place before a j u d g e in court,—with or without a jury, according to circumstances. London has special arrangements for the administration of justice. Serious criminal offences are tried at the Central Criminal Court, formerly known as the Old Bailey, presided over by a Recorder and Common Serjeant for the City of London. There are, besides, the Middlesex Sessions and Surrey Sessions for less important criminal offences and certain civil matters, e. g. the licensing of publichouses and the inspection of weights and m e a s u r e s ; fourteen County Courts, each of which has two judges, who sit in turn; and sixteen Police C o u r t s , in each of which there sits a Metropolitan Police Magistrate. Like the County Courts they are open all the year round. Serious criminal cases are reserved for the Quarter (County) Sessions, or for the Central Criminal Court.

The Church of England. The course usually pursued by those who intend to take up the clerical profession*, (is first to take a degree of some sort at Oxford or Cambridge or some other university, and then to go on to their special training. A university degree is not necessary; but it is desirable from the point of view of the candidate's own mental welfare and from that of his prospects of material advancement. The qualifications required for the Church are chiefly settled by the bishops, and a candidate for Holy Orders will do well to place himself in communication with the bishop in whose diocese he intends to be ordained, at the earliest possible opportunity. His special training is obtained at a theological college, where it is usual for a candidate without a university degree to spend two or even three years. Theology and pastoral training are the chief subjects. The [course includes elocution, singing, reading, preaching, etc.; and on the practical side the candidate is given some opportunity for learning parochial work such as visiting, teaching in Sunday-schools, and so on. The average cost is £ 7 5 a year for a resident student, £25 a year for a nonresident,—where such are taken. There are various pecuniary helps to be obtained. The entrance examination is easy, being merely intended to ensure that the candidates have a rudimentary knowledge of Latin and * 'To take Holy Orders, to be ordained, to become a clergyman, a parson, to go into the Church.' 6

82 Greek. T h e bishop's examination is harder. Graduates of a university have usually only a one year course at a theological college. After, or before, completing his course, the candidate makes an application to the bishop by whom he wishes to be ordained. He must be twenty-three years of age and have obtained a 'title', i. e. the offer of a post, a curacy or chaplainship, to g o to when ordained. He is then examined by the bishop for Deacon's Orders. T h e examination is chiefly upon the Bible. It also comprises theology, Latin and Greek, and (optional) Hebrew. T h e candidate remains one year as deacon. He must then pass a more searching examination for Priest's Orders. It is not difficult to get into the Church, but it is not easy to maintain oneself within it. T h e salaries are poor, on an average below ¿ 2 0 0 a year. T h e generally known principle that the English sovereign is the head of the English Church may give rather a misleading idea of the functions and privileges exercised by the temporal power. T h e governing bodies of the Church of England are the two Convocations of Canterbury and Y o r k . * Each convocation is divided into two Houses, the Upper and the Lower. In the Upper House sit the archbishop (of Y o r k or Canterbury, as the case may be) and the bishops; in the Lower the deans, a r c h d e a c o n s and proctors. S o long as their resolutions do not offend those parts of church organisation and ministration which are settled by statute, the royal license is sufficient to enable them to be carried into effect. But where for instance the law of the church has been determined by statute, (i. e. in such matters as c o m e within the scope of the P r a y e r - B o o k ) an Act of Parliament is required to le* By 'Convocation' is often meant the Convocation of Canterbury alone.

83 galise alterations. A new convocation is s u m m o n e d after every general parliamentary election. The C h u r c h of E n g l a n d is E p i s c o p a l i a n ; it preserves, that is, the o r d e r s of bishops, ( a r c h b i s h o p s ) priests and deacons. T h e Minor O r d e r s have h o w e v e r not been p r e s e r v e d . T h e r e are thirty-seven b i s h o p s (including the two a r c h b i s h o p s ) , each of w h o m is in charge of a diocese. T h e b i s h o p s are appointed by the C r o w n ; but the a p p o i n t m e n t must be s e c o n d e d by an election of the candidate by the dean a n d chapter of the cathedral of the diocese in question. T h e b i s h o p h o w e v e r c h o o s e s his suffragen (assistant b i s h o p ) himself. T h e whole of E n g l a n d is divided into ecclesiastical parishes (not always identical with the civil parishes), to each of which there is a parish priest a p p o i n t e d . A g r o u p of parishes f o r m s a rural d e a n e r y , and a g r o u p of rural deaneries an a r c h d e a c o n r y . T w o or m o r e a r c h d e a c o n r i e s form a diocese. T h e b i s h o p h a s generally little or no voice in the g o v e r n m e n t of the d i o c e s a n cathedral, which is m a n a g e d by the dean (appointed by the C r o w n ) and chapter. T h e s e elect the m i n o r canons, w h o sing the daily offices in the cathedral, and other officers. T h e parish clergy are divided into rectors, vicars, and curates. A rector is an i n c u m b e n t (holder of a benefice or living) who receives the whole i n c o m e with which the benefice is e n d o w e d . But if a lay p r o prietor by the t e r m s of his t e n u r e of certain p r o p e r t y is b o u n d , as is s o m e t i m e s the case, to provide an inc o m e for the s u p p o r t of a parish priest, such an inc u m b e n t is called a vicar or perpetual curate. Such a r r a n g e m e n t s w e r e m a d e for instance in the time of Henry VIII., w h e n monastic p r o p e r t y p a s s e d into lay h a n d s . An ordinary curate is an unbenificed assistant priest w h o receives his i n c o m e f r o m the i n c u m b e n t of his parish and may be dismissed u p o n d u e notice. All 6*

84 t h r e e classes, and p e r h a p s s o m e of the others, are called clergymen. A m o n g s t High C h u r c h people the c l e r g y m a n is called the ' p r i e s t ' ; a m o n g s t Low C h u r c h p e o p l e the ' m i n i s t e r ' , which latter term is also used universally to indicate dissenting c l e r g y m e n . In the P r a y e r - B o o k ' p r i e s t ' and ' m i n i s t e r ' are used indifferently. Only a bishop can ordain candidates to the priesth o o d , and only a bishop can confirm. The bishops are well paid. T h e salaries vary from £ 1 5 0 0 0 ( C a n t e r b u r y ) to £ 2 0 0 0 ; but the lower o r d e r s of clergy are not by any m e a n s paid proportionately, a n d little relation s e e m s to exist between the work to be d o n e in a parish and the remuneration. T h e m a n a g e m e n t of the bishop's estates has been taken off their h a n d s by the Ecclesiastical Commission, which administers the estates for the b i s h o p s and pays them a fixed sum yearly. Formerly i n c u m b e n t s received their tithes in kind ( ' i n n a t u r a ' ) , but now tithes are c o m m u t e d into a yearly payment which varies with the price of corn. O w i n g to the depreciation in corn the value of the livings is m u c h lower than in p r e v i o u s centuries. A vicar, in distinction f r o m a rector, only receives a part of the tithes,—the small .tithes. As a c o r p o r a t e body the church d o e s not hold property. The intermediate position held by the C h u r c h of E n g l a n d , with its leanings now in the one direction and n o w in the other, presents a p u z z l i n g a p p e a r a n c e of i n c o n s i s t e n c y ; and the considerable latitude of belief that is permitted to its m e m b e r s m a k e s it still more difficult for the foreigner to g r a s p the points that distinguish it f r o m the R o m a n Catholic C h u r c h on the one h a n d and the Lutheran C h u r c h on the other. T h e best way to u n d e r s t a n d its position is to study that period of history in which its m o r e remarkable doctrines were decided.

85 T h e P r a y e r B o o k and the T h i r t y - n i n e Articles in which the belief of the E n g l i s h C h u r c h h a s been f r a m e d , are in fact t h e result of many y e a r s of religious s t r u g g l e . H e n r y VIM., though obstinate in his s e c e s s i o n from t h e authority of the pope, had little sympathy with the r e f o r m e r s a s personified in L u t h e r and Calvin. T h e c e l e brated S i x Articles, which w e r e published in his r e i g n , are decidedly conservative. In them the following points are insisted u p o n : ( 1 ) Transubstantiation, and the suffic i e n c y of c o m m u n i o n in o n e kind. ( 2 ) T h e c e l i b a c y of priests. ( 3 ) T h e necessity of private auricular c o n f e s s i o n . T h e s e A r t i c l e s m o r e o v e r were repeated in the s u b s e q u e n t reign of E d w a r d VI., when the First P r a y e r B o o k w a s issued, p r e p a r e d chiefly by C r a n m e r . In this liturgy Latin was still used for the most s o l e m n parts of the C o m m u n i o n S e r v i c e , and Holy C o m m u n i o n was to b e a d m i n i s t e r e d in both kinds. T h e a p p e a r a n c e in this liturgy of a g e n e r a l c o n f e s s i o n to be repeated by the w h o l e c o n g r e g a t i o n was indirectly a blow to the p r a c t i c e of private c o n f e s s i o n . In a S e c o n d P r a y e r B o o k , h o w ever, p u b l i s h e d in 1552, and written wholly in E n g l i s h , t h e r e are e v i d e n c e s of a m o r e e x t r e m e reforming spirit; and ;the doctrine of transubstantiation is discountenanced. T h e Forty-two Articles of Religion p u b lished in the s a m e y e a r are practically the s a m e a s t h o s e held now by the C h u r c h of E n g l a n d . Within a few m o n t h s of the a c c e s s i o n of Mary, ( 1 5 5 3 — 1 5 5 8 ) the work of the r e f o r m e r s was, officially speaking, u n d o n e . T h e m a s s was restored and the c l e r g y w e r e b o u n d o n c e m o r e to celibacy. T h e d o c t r i n e of transubstantiation was reaffirmed, the practice of the adoration and reservation of the Host re-established, and c o m m u n i o n in o n e kind b e c a m e o n c e m o r e the c u s t o m . With the a c c e s s i o n of Elizabeth the again in the direction of the R e f o r m a t i o n .

tide turned In 1562, the

86 Forty-two Articles of Belief that had been drawn up in the reign of Edward VI were curtailed to Thirty-nine, and slightly modified; and in this form they are now retained. T h e same is true of the Prayer B o o k . This will be sufficient to explain the absence of such strongly marked Protestant features in the Church of England as are to be seen, for example, in the Lutheran Church. T h e Articles of Belief were not drawn up in the hour of victory or defeat, but are the product of many years of earnest but undecisive religious struggle. In many ways they are a compromise. The following are the doctrines which illustrate most clearly the position taken up by the Church of England:— (1) ' H o l y Scripture containeth all things necessary to Salvation' (Art. VI). T h e Apocrypha is excluded from the list of canonical books. (2) There are three c r e e d s : The Apostles', the Nicene and the Athanasian. (3) " T h e Romish doctrine concerning Purgatory, Pardons, Worshipping and Adoration, as well of Images as of Reliques, and also invocation of S a i n t s " (Art. X X I I ) , is repudiated. (4) Two sacraments are recognized, " Baptism and the Supper of the L o r d " (Art. X X V ) . (5) T h e doctrine of transubstantiation is repudiated, but equally the doctrine that the rite is merely c o m memorative. T h e actual nature of the rite depends upon the faith of the communicant ( X X V I I I — X X I X ) . (6) Communion is to be in both kinds ( X X X ) . (7) Sacrificial masses are not allowed ( X X X I ) . (8) Priests may marry. Anyone who cannot 'quiet his own c o n s c i e n c e ' (Communion Service) by means of the general c o n -

87 f e s s i o n which is made before the c o n s e c r a t i o n of the e l e m e n t s , is advised to resort to a priest and to ' r e c e i v e the benefit of a b s o l u t i o n ' . T h e d o c t r i n e of the Infallibility of the P o p e is of c o u r s e not a c c e p t e d ; that of t h e I m m a c u l a t e C o n c e p t i o n , though not r e c o g n i z e d , is h e l d , and p r o b a b l y has l o n g been held, by a small number. W h e n h o w e v e r we c o m e to c o n s i d e r the actual b e liefs p r o f e s s e d by the official m e m b e r s of the C h u r c h of E n g l a n d , we find c o n s i d e r a b l e d i v e r g e n c i e s . Nev e r t h e l e s s , t h o u g h the d i v e r g e n c i e s of belief in the C h u r c h of E n g l a n d w h i c h will be d e s c r i b e d later may s e e m a s t o u n d i n g , their p r e s e n c e must not be taken as a sign n e c e s sarily that t h e church is nearing a split. It is the p r i d e of E n g l i s h institutions to contain i n c o m p a t i b l e e l e m e n t s , a n d it is p r o b a b l e that during the m o s t v i g o r o u s e p o c h s in the history of the English C h u r c h s i n c e the m i d d l e of the sixteenth century, there w a s little, if any, m o r e unanimity of opinion than exists nowadays. T h e r e is for e x a m p l e and always has been a High C h u r c h Party which leans in a C a t h o l i c rather than a P r o t e s t a n t d i r e c t i o n ; a party which lays stress u p o n the fact and the necessity of the continuity of A p o s t o l i c S u c c e s s i o n in the o r d e r of bishops, and, founded upon t h e theory of this apostolic inheritance, the s o l e right of b i s h o p s to ordain p r i e s t s ; which k e e p s p r o m i n e n t t h e s a c r a m e n t s as a m e a n s of g r a c e , not merely a s a c o m m e m o r a t i o n . T h e (High C h u r c h ) Oxford m o v e m e n t in the earlier half of the nineteenth century, under N e w m a n (afterwards Cardinal N e w m a n ) , P u s e y and K e b l e , w a s not entirely an innovation. T h e aim of its f o u n d e r s may be said to have been the restoration of the c o n c e p t i o n of this Anglican C h u r c h as an integral part of the C a t h o l i c C h u r c h . T h e y desired to obtain for t h e s a c r a m e n t s a m o r e important position in church w o r -

88 ship; and wished to see restored such ceremonials and usages as had been abandoned, as they held, in a spirit of panic or too great reforming z e a l ; but which were valuable in as much as they illustrated ancient Catholic teaching and rites. T h e y intended a restoration. Not least they desired to introduce greater decency and decorum into the services, which at that time were often conducted in a slovenly manner. Anyhow they undoubtedly succeeded in infusing a spirit of personal piety into the English church which was at that time badly wanted. T h e y had at times much to contend against, and the conversion to the Roman Catholic Church of some of their members gave point to the cry of " N o Popery I" which was raised. Nevertheless they did not on the whole overshoot their mark, and the moderate High Churchmen of to-day are probably more in consonance with the English Prayer B o o k than any other party of the church. T h e Anglican High Church party appeal to the customs and doctrines of the first five (or six) centuries as authentic, and accept the decisions of the first four general councils. They teach that there is a visible Church on earth, with authority given to it directly by God, deriving its powers by succession from the apostles. T h e y also maintain (more or less) the principle of authority against that of the right of private judgment. Moreover the High Church party call themselves 'Catholics'; their clergymen are 'priests'; the Communion service is the ' M a s s ' ; and Morning Prayer is 'Matins'. T h e y are unanimous in ascribing more than a commemorative importance to the sacraments, and hold that there are seven of these. T h e y accept the teaching of the Prayer B o o k advocating occasional auricular confession, and maintain that their priests can grant absolution. Many of them however seem to overpass the limits obtainable by any possible interpretation of the Thirty-

89 nine Articles. Many m e m b e r s of this party hold the doctrine of transubstantiation as strongly as Roman Catholics. In some cases, especially in Anglican monasteries and convents, one finds prevalent such usages as the worship of the Blessed Virgin Mary, the use of the Rosary and of the Roman 'Hours', the holding of Masses for the Dead, and the invocation of the saints. Habitual confession is often strongly advocated, and something very like the doctrine of Purgatory is c o m m o n ly held by this party. T h e Ritualists are sufficiently described by their name, which generally covers a High Church spirit that is extreme in other ways than in ritual. If it may be said that the High Church party c o m mits sins of commission, it is equally true that the Low Church party (Evangelical) commits sins of omiss i o n ; and it is unfortunate for the former party that their apparent divergencies from the teaching of the Prayer Book are of a positive order, and therefore easily assailed, while those of the latter party are merely negative. T h e Low Churchman either does not believe in, or does not care about, the apostolic succession. He consequently grants, theoretically, to the minister far less power than the High Churchman. T h e Communion is in his view simply c o m m e m o r a t i v e ; and he denies that the priest has any power to forgive sins,—notwithstanding that the bishop in the Ordination S e r vice, at the 'laying on of hands', places his hand upon the head of each candidate and says, 'Whose sins thou forgive, they are forgiven; and whose sins thou dost retain, they are retained.' It is characteristic of him that he advocates severe simplicity as regards ceremonial. The extreme Low Churchman corresponds pretty closely to the Lutheran. T h e Broad Church Party (Latitudinarian), as its name suggests, takes up a position between these two,