Engineering Properties and Applications of Lead Alloys [1 ed.] 082478247X, 9780824782474, 9780585418100

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ENGINEERING PROPERTIES AND APPLICATIONS OF LEAD ALLOYS

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ENGINEERING PROPERTIES AND APPLICATIONS OF LEAD ALLOYS

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Sivaraman Guruswamy University of Utah Salt Lake City, Utah

Prepared for the International Lead Zinc Research Organization, Inc. Research Triangle Park, North Carolina

M A R C E L

MARCEL DEKKER, INC.

D E K K E R

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zyxwvutsrqponmlk N E WYORK BASEL

ISBN: 0-8247-8247-X

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This book is printed on acid-free paper. Headquarters

Marcel Dekker, Inc. 270 Madison Avenue, New York, NY 10016 tel: 2 12-696-9000; fax: 2 12-685-4540 Eastern Hemisphere Distribution

Marcel Dekker AG Hutgasse 4, Postfach 812, CH-4001 Basel, Switzerland tel: 41-61-261-8482: fax: 41-61-261-8896 World Wide Web

http://www.dekker.com

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The publisher offers discounts on this book when ordered in bulk quantities. For more information, write to Special Sales/Professional Marketing at the headquarters address above. Copyright 0 2000 by Marcel Dekker, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

Neither this book nor any part may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by anymeans,electronic or mechanical,includingphotocopying,microfilming,and recording, or by any information storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publisher. Current printing (last digit): I O 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 PRINTED IN THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA

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To vdsantha, Kavitha, and our parents

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Foreword

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This book represents the first new compilation on lead technology in a half century. Prior to this publication, the definitive source on lead was Wilhelm Hoffman's Leacl and Leacl Alloys-P1.c)pc.r-ties und Technology, the tirst edition of which was published in German i n 1941, based on the research work Hoffman and his colleagues conducted at the Lead Research Center in Berlin. Following World War 11, there was a major expansion in the technical and scientific literature on lead and several years' work was required before the second edition of the book was published in 1962. That book contained virtually all the relevant technical data on lead, its alloys, and its uses, along with processing methodologies. An English translation by Hoffman was published in 1970. It is noteworthy that in the forewordHoffmannotes the initiative of the then relatively young International Lead Zinc Research Organization (ILZRO) to carry out an active international program of research on lead. ILZRO is pleased to have sponsored the work of Sivaraman Guruswamy and trusts that his efforts will ensure that modern technical knowledge of the properties of this ancient metal will be readily available to technologists in the new century. Special acknowledgment must be paid to Jeffrey Zelms, president of the Doe RunCompany,and to CharlesYanke,president of VulcanLead Resources,both of whomrecognized the need for thisbook and urged ILZRO to undertake this project.

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. l e u m e F . Cols President International Lead Zinc Research Organization,

Inc. V

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Preface

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Lead is a rare element in the earth’s crust, but since it is found in concentrated deposits it can be produced atlow cost, and ranks fifthin tonnage consumed after iron, copper, aluminum, and zinc. Some of the many applications of lead are: automobile batteries, uninterruptible power sources for computers that store and process vital national security and business information, solders used in printed circuit boards, radiation shields in nuclear facilities, radiation shields in CAT scanners and other medical X-ray apparatus, keels in yachts, balancing weights in computer hard disk drives, lead and lead-lined vessels in chemical plants, vacuumseals in lightbulbs, the explosive detonation cords in the Space Shuttle, acousticbarrier panels, crystal glasses, fiber-optic cables, and infrared detectors in pollution monitoring. These applications underscore the importance of lead to modern life. The most comprehensive text on this topic is Lead and Lead Alloys by Hoffmann,published by Springer Verlag in 1941andrevised in 1962 and 1970. In response to a recognized need, Frank Goodwin, of the International LeadZincResearchOrganization, initiated andorganizedaconsortium of sponsorsforanup-to-dateandcomprehensivebook on lead. When Dr. Goodwinapproachedmetowrite this book, I wasexcitedand honored to be trusted with this enormous task. The book is intended as an introductory resource on lead and lead alloys, providing information on engineering properties, processing of various lead forms, and engineering applications that takeadvantage of the unique properties of lead and lead alloys. The book will also be a resource for professionals involved in the production and application of lead alloy products. Itis hoped that the text will stimulateimprovements in existing applicationsanddevelopment of new applications to take advantage of the unique properties of lead and lead

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viii

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Preface

alloys. The book focuses on the use of lead in pure or alloy form for engineering applications. In setting boundaries for the scope of the book, we decided not to address the use of lead in the form of chemicals. The book has five chapters. The introductory chapter provides information on worldwide sources of lead, production of refined lead from Pb ores, and key information on pure lead. This is followed, in Chapter 2 , by the presentation of an exhaustive set of data on the physical, mechanical, corrosion, acoustic, damping, and nuclear properties of lead and lead alloys. Adequate background information is given so that the reader can appreciate the importance and limitations of the data. Chapter 3 deals with the processing of lead products and gives the user a general appreciation and background of the processing of commercially available lead product forms. The topics covered include casting, rolling, extrusion, machining, welding, and mechanical joining techniques. New developments in continuous casting of strips for battery grids, continuous casting of rods, friction-stir welding, and water-jet machining of lead products are included in this section. Chapter 4 introduces the reader to a wide spectrum of modern and historic applications in which lead and its alloys have been used and provides a rationalization for the choice of lead in these applications. Most applications involve the use of lead in a form that is recycled. Chapter 5 provides information on health and safety issues, and the recommended guidelines for the safe and appropriate handling of lead products. It is our hope that the book will meet the many needs of experienced and nascent users of lead and lead alloys. Publications by the International LeadZincResearchOrganization (ILZRO), Lead Industries Association (LIA), Lead Development Association (LDA), and Lead Sheet Association (LSA), and the groundbreaking work of Hoffman have been heavily relied on in preparing this book. Many individuals and companies were also helpful.I am grateful for their generosity in providing the information and permission to use it extensively. Special thanks are due to SpringerVerlag for generously allowing use of the material from Dr. Hoffmann’s classic book. I would like to thank the following for responding generously to my requests for information.

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David Wilson, Lead Development Association, London Jerome F. Smith, Lead Industries Association, N Y Michael King, V. Ramachandran, and Alan Kafka, ASARCO, NY Eugene Valeriote and Jennifer Coe, Cominco, Canada Peter Bryant and Paul Frost, Britannia Refined Metals, United Kingdom Stan Hall, Lead Sheet Association, Kent, United Kingdom E. G. Russell, Aberfoyle Limited, Australia

ix

Preface

Masao Hirano and F. Sakurai, Mitsubishi Materials, Japan Tatsuya Yamamoto, Mitsui Mining and Smelting, Japan John Manders, PASMINCO, Australia Takao Mori, Japan Lead Zinc Development Association Chuck yanke and Scott Hutcheson, Vulcan Lead, W1 Toshiharu Kanai, Sumitomo Metal Mining, Japan Kazuyoshi Inoue, Toho Zinc Co., Japan Goran Villner, Boliden Market Research, Sweden Francois Wilmotte, Centre d’lnformation du Plomb, France David Prengaman, RSR Corporation, Dallas, TX Akiro Hosoi, Dowa Mining, Japan Albano Piccinin, Union Miniere, Belgium P. R.JanischandRichardD.Beck,BlackMountainMineralDevelopment, South Africa Shuya Fujie, Nippon Mining, Japan

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I would like to express my great appreciation to Pat Mosley and Robert Putnam of ILZRO, Paul Frost of Britannia Metals, Eugene M. Valeriote and his colleagues at Cominco, and Dr.Venkoba Ramachandran of ASARCO for their critical review of the manuscript and valuable comments. I also would like to thank Janice Atkinson at ILZRO for all her help. I would also like to acknowledge the kindness of all my teachers, in particular John Hirth, who generously shared their knowledge and wisdom. The invaluable, timely, and enthusiastic help of my student Nakorn Srisukhumbowomchai in the preparation of this book is gratefully acknowledged. 1 would also like to thank my other students and colleagues in the Department of Metallurgical Engineering at the University of Utah who have been very supportive and provided a conducive environment during this period. Finally, I would like to take this opportunity to express my deep sense of gratitude to Frank Goodwin, ILZRO, for his confidence in me, providing materials from ILZRO as I needed them, reviewing the manuscript, giving permission to use extensively many of his publications, helping promptly whenever I needed it, and for his friendship. Most of all, I am very lucky to have the unqualified love, encouragement, and support of my wife, Vasantha, and daughter, Kavitha.

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Contents

Foreword Preface 1.

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Jerome F. Cole

1’11

Introduction I. WorldwideSources of Lead 11. Refined LeadProductionandConsumption 111. Production of LeadMetal IV. HealthandSafety Issues V. Properties of PureLead

Patterns

1 2 6 15 18 19

2.

Properties of Leadand Its Alloys I. PhysicalProperties of Leadand Its Alloys 11. Mechanical Properties of Lead and Lead Alloys 111. Creep Behavior IV. Fatigue Strength V. CorrosionProperties VI. AcousticProperties of LeadandLeadComposites VII. NuclearProperties

27 27 57 123 168 192 232 276

3.

Processing of LeadProducts I. MeltingandCasting 11. Metal Forming 111. Joining of Lead

309 310 342

4.

Applications of Lead I. Lead-Acid Batteries

of LeadAlloys

377 429 430 xi

xii

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11. 111. IV. V. VI. VII. VIII. IX. X. XI. XII. XIII.

XIV.

x v.

XVI. XVII. XVIII. XIX.

zyxwvut z zyxwv z Use of Lead in Earthquake Protection Use of Lead in Brick Wall Infills Lead-Tin Alloys in Organ Pipes Use of Lead Sheets in Architecture Lead in Radiation Shielding and Waste Management Use of' Lead Alloys for Printing Types Bearing Metals Packaging and Sealing Fusible Alloys Lead Heat-Treating Baths Use of Lead in Inertial Applications Solders Ammunition Lead Cable Sheathing Insoluble Lead Anodes Use of Lead in Bi-Based Oxide High-T, Superconductors Lead in Glass Lead Chalcogenide Semiconductors

S. Lead in the Environment I . Toxic Properties of Lead 11. Occupational Exposures

4s 8 476 479 483 499 530 534 539 542 546 547 550 5 69 570 585 587 589

S9 1 593

596 599 60.5

Index

62 I

ENGINEERING PROPERTIES AND APPLICATIONS OF LEAD ALLOYS

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Introduction

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In a world of rapidly changing technologies, lead and other classical metals and alloys havecontinued to maintain their importance.Lead (chemical symbol Pb), is an essential commodity in the modern industrial world, ranking fifthin tonnageconsumed after iron,copper,aluminum, and zinc. In 1996, the UnitedStates,China, the UnitedKingdom,Germany,Canada, Japan, South Korea, Italy, France, Mexico, Spain, Taiwan, India, and Brazil accounted for 77% of the 6,045,000 metric tons of refined lead consumed in the world [l]. Slightly over half of the lead produced in the world now comes from recycled sources. Lead,copper, silver, andgoldwere the metals first used by ancient humans[2,3].Leadhasbeenmined and smeltedfor at least 8000 years. Lead beads found in Turkey have been dated to around 6500 B.C. The Egyptians used lead as early as 5000 B.C. A leadmine in RioTinto in Spain B.C. operated in 2300 BC. and the Chineseused lead coinsaround2000 Simplicity of reduction from ores, low melting point, and ease of fabrication presumably led to its use. Leadwasalsowidelyused by the Greeks and Romans. Lead water pipes in 3-m lengths and in 15 different standard diameters have been found in the ruins of Rome and Pompeii, confirming the use of lead during that period. Some pipes still in excellent condition have been found in modern-day Rome and Britain [4]. The toxicity of lead was identified by Marcus Vitruvius Pollio, a first-century Roman architect and engineer, from the poor color of the lead workers of those times [3]. Despite their known toxicity, lead and its alloys can be handled safely and continue to be critical in many areas for the modem society. This continued dependence on lead arises from several of its unique properties. The low melting point, ease of casting, high density, softness and high mallea-

1

2

z zy zyxwvut Chapter 1

bility at room temperature, low strength, ease of fabrication, excellent resistance to corrosion in acidic environments, attractive electrochemical behavior in manychemicalenvironments,chemical stability in air, water, and earth, the highatomicnumber, and stable nuclearstructurehavemadea unique place for lead in our life. Lead affords us the protection from dangerous x-ray, gamma ray, neutron, and other ior.izing radiation. I t serves as one of the most efficient acoustic insulation materials. It also acts as a sealant. It hasuniquedampingcharacteristics that hasservedwell in seismic protection of buildings and other structures. It acts as a space-efficient counterweight. Its chemical and electrochemical characteristics make it useful as the most economically viable material in batteries that serve as a primary electrical powersource in automobiles and asaback up powersupply for computers that store andprocess vital national security andbusiness information. As with many elements used in high technology, health hazards posed by lead is a concern. Lead and its compounds are cumulative poisons and should be handled with recommended precautions. These materials should not be used in contact with food and other substances that may be ingested. A proper understanding and appropriate use of lead and its alloys in existing applications and in applications yet to be conceived require an up-to-date sourcebook on the properties of lead and its alloys, its processing techniques, and their engineering applications. The intent of this book is to serve suchpurpose. In preparing this book, International LeadZincResearch Organization (ILZRO) publications, Lead Industries Association (LIA) publications, LeadDevelopmentAssociation(LDA) publications, Lead SheetAssociation (LSA) publications, help of many in the industry and academia, and the classic work of Professor Hoffman [2] have been relied upon heavily.

I.

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WORLDWIDE SOURCES OF LEAD

Lead constitutes only about 12.5 ppm by weight of the Earth’s crust, and it ranks 34th among elements in relative abundance [S,6]. It ranks well below aluminum (8.23%), iron (5.63%), magnesium(2.33%),titanium (0.57%), zirconium (165 ppm), chromium (100 ppm), nickel (75 pp”), zinc (70 ppm), and copper (SS ppm). However, the occurrence of concentrated and easily accessible lead ore deposits is unexpectedly high, and these are widely distributed throughout the world. This makes lead easily mined and produced at low cost. The most important ore mineral is galena, PbS (87% Pb), followed by anglesite, PbSO, (68% Pb), and cerussite, PbCO,% (77.5% Pb). The latter two

Introduction

3

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minerals result from the natural weathering of some galena. Lead and zinc Ores are frequently found together because of their similar affinity for both oxygen (lithophile) and sulfur (chalcopile) and their transport to the same degree by carbonate solutions [6]. Galena ores may be associated with sphalerite (ZnS), pyrite (Fe$), marcasite (Fe$, a low-temperature polymorph of pyrite), chalcopyrite (CuFeS,), tetrahedrite [ ( C U F ~ ) , ~ S ~ , S cerussite ,,], (PbCO,), anglesite (PbSO,), dolomite [CaMg(CO,),], calcite (CaCO,), quartz (SiO,), and barite (BaSO,), as well as the valuable metals gold, silver, bismuth, and antimony [2,4,7,8]. The formation of lead ore deposits likely occurred by the concentration of metal sulfides in the liquid remaining after the crystallization of silicates from molten magma and the penetration of this liquid under pressure into available channels such asfault fissures. Aqueous solution of these minerals, including PbS, in hydrothermal fluids leads to their transport and the preon cipitation of PbS as the temperature and pressure decreases. Depending the temperature and pressure at which they are formed, the ore deposits are classified into five categories (listed in the decreasing order of temperature and pressure): telethermal, leptothermal,mesothermal,pyrometasomatic, and hypothermal [2,7]. The types of deposits with lead as a major constituent include strata-bound deposits, volcanic-sedimentary deposits, replacement deposits, veins, and contact metamorphic deposits [8]. Strata-bound deposits are bedded layered deposits formed at the same time as the host rock. Volcanic-sedimentary deposits contain massive sulfide bodies commonly interlayered with volcanic or sedimentary rocks. The ore is commonly a finegrained mixture of pyrite or pyrrhotite, sphalerite, galena, and chalcopyrite, withminoramounts of nonmetallicandcarbonateminerals.Replacement deposits of lead and zinc are commonly irregular hydrothermal deposits in carbonate rocks, but some also occur in quartzites or metamorphic rocks. The vein deposits are commonly situated in faults, joints,orformational contacts. The veins are generally arranged in pod-shaped deposits or shoots 3-30 ft long horizontally anddippinghundreds of feet vertically. Many highlyproductivevein-typedeposits are in Europe,CentralAmerica,and South America. Contact metamorphic deposits are found near igneous intrusions, which have either provided the solutions or emanations creating the deposits, or have altered and rearranged a mineral deposit already present prior to the intrusion. Depositsrange in sizefromsmall vein systems to massive pods hundreds of feet long (81. The estimated economic reserves of lead in the world are 71 million tons and are scattered around the world [4,8-10]. Australia(19.4million tons), the United States (8 million tons), Canada (4 million tons), Mexico (3 milliontons), the formerSovietUnion (9 milliontons),andChina (7 million tons) account for over two-thirds of these reserves. The total world

4

Chapter 1

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reserve base (which includes marginal deposits) is estimated at 124 million tons. If lead scrap, now a major source of lead, and less economic lead ore deposits are considered, the entire reserve base for the world is estimated at 140 million tons [4]. The concentration of lead in ore bodies of commercial interest generally ranges from 2% to 6%, with an average of 2.5%. Improvements in ore-dressingtechniqueshavemadepossible the exploitation of deposits having lead contents even less than 2%. Australia, the United States, Canada, Peru, Mexico, China, the former USSR,Sweden,andSouthAfrica are the leadingcountries in leadmine production [l]. Thecombinedproduction in the RussianFederation,Kazakhstan,andUzbekistanhaveprecipitouslydroppedfrom the levels at 1993. In contrast, the production in Chinese mines have doubled between 1993 and 1996. Table 1 presents the levels of lead mined in different countries during 1993- 1996. The total world lead mine production in 1997 and 1998 were 3.03 and 3.1 1 million tons respectively. Most (88%) of the lead mined in the United States comes from 8 mines in Missouri and the rest comes from 11 mines in Colorado, Idaho, Montana, Alaska, Washington, and Nevada. Most of the known U.S. reserves for lead are located in federally owned land in Missouri; future mine development depends on the outcome of the U.S. government’s intent to reform the Mining Law of 1872. The bulk of the Canadian lead mine output comes from Trail MineB.C.;FaroMine, Yukon Territories; No.12Mine at Bathurst, N.B.; andFIin FlonandSnowLake,Manitoba.The principal lead mines in SouthAmerica are CerrodePasco,Milpo,Huanzala,Atacocha,and Colquijirco mines in Peru, Naica, Real de Angeles, Sta Barbara, San Fran del Oro, and El Monte mines in Mexico, Aguilar Mine in Argentina, and Quiomo Mine in Bolivia. About 56% of lead mined in Latin America came from 12 mines and the rest came from over 60 small mines producing lead as a by-product of Zn and/or Ag extraction. Mexico and Peru produce more than 90% of lead mined in Latin America [9- 1 l]. When the newBHPMine at Cannington,Australiareaches its full capacity of 175,000 tons/year, it will be the largest lead mine in the world. This together with the other two largest mines in Australia at Broken Hill (South) (N.S.W.) and Mount Isa (Queensland) will account for the bulk of lead mined in Australia. The other major mines are McArthur River Mine (NT), Hellyer Mine (TAS), Rosebery Mine (TAS), Thalanga Mine (N.S.W), Woodlawn Mine (N.S.W.), and Woodcutters Mine (NT). The lead output of Sweden, the majorproducer in westernEurope, comes from mines at Garpensburg, Laisvall, Langdal, Petiknas, Renstrom, and Ammeberg. In the former USSR, the larger lead mines are in the Leninogarsk region, the Kentau region, and the Karatau region in Kazakhstan, Uchkulachskoye deposits in Uzbekistan, and the Maritime region in the Rus-

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Introduction

Table 1 Total Mine Production in Thousands of Tons [ 11

Annual totals

Europe Austria Bulgaria Czech Republic'' Finland Greece Ireland Italy Macedonia Norway Poland Romania Russian Federation Slovenia Spain Sweden United Kingdom Yugoslavia F.R.

1993

1994

1995

39 1 2 34 2

398 32 0

383 33 -

-

-

-

26 45 7 33 2 49 17 34 1

25 104 1

9

Africa Algeria Morocco Namibia South Africa Tunisia Zambiah

206 I 79 18

Oceania Australia

52 1 521

Americas Argentina Bolivia Brazil Canada Honduras Mexico Peru United States

950 12 23 0 183 4 141 225 362

100

0 8

20 54 14 29 3 53 21 25 0 23 113 2 9 192 1 70 21 96 3

21 46 15

25 1 55 20 23

1996 363 -

28 -

zyx

-

30 100

2 12 186

3 8 45 12 27 2 54 19 18 24 99 2 22

z zy

-

189 1 74 20 89 5 -

487 487

424 424

475 475

979

1047 10 20 7 210 3 164 238 394

I IS5 11 16 8 257 5 172 249 436

1

10

20 1 171 3 170 233 370

1

68 22 88 7

6

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Table 1 Continued

Annual totals

1996

1995

Asia China India

1994

6.54 462 30

Iran 10 Japan Kazakhstan38 Korea, D.P.R. Korea, Rep. 2 2 (Burma) Myanmar Thailand Turkey Uzbekistan19 Other CIS World total Monthly average 226

Western world 2004 Monthly average

1993

632 338 30 15 17 104 70 7 2 S

819 643

35 16

14

18

8

28

S5

21

7

11

10

30 3

1

27 2700 225

2019 I68

10

250

2159 167

Note: Lead content by analysis of lead ores and concentrates ores and concentrates known to be intended for lead recovery. "Prior to 1993, data refer to Czechoslovakia. hContent of ore hoisted.

7 520 34 16 10 40 S0

40

4

4

S 12

2

10 12 1

IO IO

300 2754 230

1

2000 167

2

l80

plus the lead content of other

sian Federation. The principal lead mines in China are the Fdnkau Mine in Guangdong, Mengru Lead/Zinc Mine in Yunan, Changba LeadIZinc Mine in Gansu, Lijiagou Mine in Gansu, QiandongshanMine in Shaanxi,and Hunan Mine in Hengyang. The major lead mine in Thailand is located in Song Toh, 250 km northwest of Bangkok. The major lead mines in India are Rajpura-Dariba Mine and the Zawar Minegroup in Rajasthan. The major lead mines in Japan are at Kamioka in Gifu Perfecture and Toyoha in Akita Perfecture. In Africa, the major mines are located in Bou Jaber (Fedj Hassen Mine) and Bougrine (Tunisia), Black Mountain (South Africa), and Tuissit, Zeida, and Marrakech (Morocco).

II. REFINED LEAD PRODUCTION AND CONSUMPTION PATTERNS

Summaries of the world production ofrefinedlead and lead consumption patterns around the world are presented in Tables 2 and 3. The United States,

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Introduction Table 2

7

RefinedLead:MetalProductioninThousands

of Tons [ I ]

Annual totals

Europe Austria Belgium Bulgaria Czech Republic France Germany Ireland Italy Macedonia Netherlands Poland Portugal Romania Russian Federation Slovenia Spain Sweden Switzerland Ukraine United Kingdom Yugoslavia ER.

1993

1994

I995

I996

I806 21 112 60 23 2.59 334 10 198 22 23 65 8 18 45 12 62 82 6 20 416 6

1839 16 I23 62 25 260 332

1826 23 122 72 22 297 3 l4

I830 24 121 74 22

15

9

Americas Argentina Brazil Canada Colombia Mexico United States Venezuela

1870 28 67 217 3 256 1196 14

32 3

416 4

II

13

91

84 7 21 406 30

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1 54

5

I1

189 22 21 70 8 23 30 14 82 83 7 14 387

75 83 6

Africa Algeria Kenya Morocco Namibia Nigeria South Africa Zimbabwe

7 2 72 31

10

223 21 24 63 13 21 34

30 l

238 12 210 24 22 70 6 19 30

135 6 2 64 24 4 32 3

141 7 2 62 27 8 32 3

131

1915

2059 28 50 28 I 4 230 1358 16

2 142 28 39 309

25 64 252 3 214 I249 16

8

2 62

19

5

32 3

10

222 141I 25

8

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Table 2 Continued

Annual totals

Asia

China India Indonesia

Iran Israel Japan Kazakhstan Korea, D.P.R. Korea, Rep. Malaysia

I994

I995

1996

1401 412 51 35 35 7 309 245 65 128 29 3 23 31 17 4 4

1341 468 70 30 31 8 292 I45 50 130 33 3

1475 608 66 30 30 8 288 93 45

IS28 706 67 30 30 8 287 69 40 141 36 3

17 36 17 4 4

18

6 36 19 4 4

41 18 12 4

242 236 6

243 237 6

234 228 6

5472

5744

5865

181

33 3

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Pakistan

Philippines Saudi Arabia Taiwan, China Thailand Turkey U.A.E.

I993

Oceania Australia New Zealand World total

24 I 236 5

5472

18 15

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Note: Excludes secondary lead recovery by remelting alone

China, Canada, the United Kingdom, France, Japan, Germany, Australia, Mexico, Belgium, South Korea, Spain, and Sweden account for 73% of world production of refined lead. The United States alone accounts for 25% of the world production. The world refined lead production levels in 1997 and I99X were 6.0 and 5.96 million tons respectively. The Doe Run Co. accounts for nearly 100% of primary lead production in the United States. Both companies employ sintering/blast furnace operations at their smelters and pyronietallurgical methods in their refineries. Domestic mine production in 1992 accounted for over 90% of the U S . primary lead production; the balance originated from the smelting of imported ores and concentrates. Secondary lead production made up about 77% of the lead produced in the United States in 1996 versus 54% in 1980 (Table 4). The amount of sec-

6

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Introduction

9

Table 3 RefinedLead:MetalConsumptioninThousands

of Tons [ l ]

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Annual totals

1995

1994

Europe Austria Belgium Bulgaria Czech Republic" Denmark Finland France Germany Greece Hungary Ireland Italy Netherlands Poland Portugal Romania Russian Fed. Slovenia Spain Sweden Switzerland United Kingdom Yugoslavia ER.

1993 1813 62 74 25 23 2 4 226 352 6 8 23 238 48 59 26 20 92 11

102 24 4 353 5

Africa Algeria Egypt Morocco Nigeria South Africa Tunisia

108

Americas Argentina Brazil Canada Colombia Mexico Peru United States Venezuela

1760 33 75 70

18 7 6 5

59 3

II

I57 13 1367 27

1878 64 65 20 18 4 5 237 354 7 8 28 25 1 58 55

34 16 103 13 112 31 8 355

1970 65 69 19 27 4 3 263 360 8 12 25 27 1 62 55 34 19 93 14

1979 58 53 17 32 7 4 255 342 8 12 27 268 57 62 34 22 95

131

137 41

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15

IO

IO

355

5

8

368 12

1IO

112

1 l9

18

19

6

6 9 5 60 5

20 9 7 5 63

7 5

59 5

1925 33 85 73 8

1976 30

5

2087 31 105 63 10 141

161

92 71 9 134

13 1513 28

IO

IO

1592 28

1687 30

10

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Table 3 Continued

Annual totals

1996

Asia

China India

Indonesia Iran Japan

Kazakhstan Korea D.P.R. Korea, Rep. Malaysia Pakistan Philippines Singapore Taiwan, China Thailand Turkcy Oceania 82 Australia 78 New Zealand World total

1995 I993

1994

147 I 300 70 75 60 370 30 40 20 1 51 X 32

1 507 290 90 91 60 345 20 36 233 53 X 25

8

IO

117 48 37

121 62 35

1726 445 96 90 67 334 15 35 272 66 X 27 12 I32 63 34

4

81 77 4

1789 470 1 04 x7 70 330 12 32 290 75 9 26 13 I24 x0 35

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71 67

4

6045 52195865

5 502

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N o f c : The consumption of retined lead. including the Iced content of nntlrnonial lead regardless of source material from which produccd, 1.e.. whether ores, concenlrrrles, lead bullion, alloys. resdues, slag. or scrap. Pig lead and Icnd alloys wlthout undergoing further treatment before reuse are excluded. "Prior to 1993, data refer to Czechoslovakia.

ondary lead produced was 698 X 10' tons in 1988, 888 X I O3 tons in 1990, and 1085 X 10' tons in 1996. The leading secondary lead producers include GNB Battery Technologies (Atlanta, GA), Exide Corporation (Reading, PA), and RSR Corporation (Dallas, TX). In Canada, the leading refined lead producers are Cominco, Hudson Bay Mining and Smelting Co. Ltd. (Minorco), Brunswick Mining and Smelting Co. Ltd. (Noranda), and Anvil Range Mining Co. Secondary lead accounts for about 37% of refined lead production in Canada. In South America, major lead producers include CENTROMIN in Peru and PenBIes and Empresas Frisco in Mexico. In the United Kingdom, the major lead producers are Brittania Refined Metals Co., MIM Holdings,

Table 4

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[l]

Annual totals retined lead and lead alloys"

I995

1994

1993

Europe Austria Belgium France Germany" Greece Ireland Italy Macedonia Netherlands Portugal Slovenia Spain Sweden Switzerland United Kingdom

808 14 25 146 160 4 10 93 3 23

885

8

13 1.5

939 24

4

925 23 30 168 I64 4

IO

11

128 3 24

126

12 144 4 22 6

16 26 155 1S6

5

31

163 I 50 S

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12 62 38 6 204

Africa Morocco South Africa Other

51 3

Americas Argentina Brazil Canada Mexico United States Venezuela Other

IO64 16 39 69 60

Asia India Japan Korea, Rep. Taiwan, China Other

315

Oceania Australia New Zealand

32

16

86 1

14 5

75 43 6 21 I

21

8

14 82 41 7 22 1

49 3 32 14

S4 3 32

1137

1236 26 40 104 60 984 16

18

40 99 60 898

16 6

19

6

13 91

42 7 225 S3

4 32 17

1362 25 39 I 15

60

1085

25 13

404 25 I47 52 16 164

97 43

332 24 1 10 43

15

17

16

142

138

147

27 22

30

5

31 25 6

26 4

28 24 4

Total

2265

2434

2625

2786

Totalrecovery

2654

2829

3026

3185

18

380 26 140 51

"Retined lend and lend alloys (lead content) produced from secondary materials (scraps. wastes and residues). "Dataprior to 1991 include the former Federal Rcpublic only. 'Recovery of secondary mnteriul by renlelting wilhout undergomg further treatment.

11

12

z zyxwvu Chapter 1

and Biliton (U.K.). About 55% of lead produced in the UnitedKingdom comes from secondary lead. Major lead producers in Europe include MetaleuropWeser Blei GmbH,Berzelius Metallhiitten GmbH, and Norddeutsche Affinerie in Germany, Societe Miniere et Metallurgique de PennaroyyaS.A. in France,governmentownedEnirisorse in Italy, Boliden Mineral AB in Sweden, and Metallurgie-Hoboken-Overpelt SA (Union Minere) in Belgium. In Italy, 68% of lead production comes from secondary lead, whereas in France and Germany, secondary lead accounts for about 54% and 6370, respectively. Mitsui Mining and Smelting Co., Mitsubhishi Mining and Smelting Co., Sumitomo Metal Mining Co., and Hosakura Mining Co. are the major lead producers in Japan and secondary lead makes up 5 1% of lead produced in Japan. Other major producersin Asia include Korea Zinc Co. in South Korea and the government-owned Hindustan Zinc Ltd. in India. In Australia, the major lead producers are MIM Holdings, GSM, Pasminco, Aberfoyle, and Biliton. Table 4 provides a summary of the secondary lead component of refined lead in different countries. The data show that the secondaryleadcomponent inlead productionhasbeen steadily increasingworldwide and currently slightly over half (53%) of the lead produced in the world comes from secondary sources. World consumption of lead grew steadily through the mid-1980s at a rate of 3-4% until 1989. The consumptiondecreasedbetween1989and 1993 and was followed by steady growth at 5 % per annum to a level of about 6 million tons. Consumption in the United States followed a similar trend. With the opening of the Communist Bloc production to Western markets in 1989, there was a change in the lead supply situation. The Communist Bloc exported 180,000 tons to the West in 1993, as opposed to a net import of 140,000 tons of lead in 1980. This dramatic change in the market/supply situation impacted on the price of lead. During 1987-1997, the price range for lead ranged from 20 to 40@/lband typically about 25@/lb [ 121. Longterm trends in the price of lead are dependent on the overall world economy as well as on the investments in industrial infrastructure in the former Communist Bloc and Asian economies. The primary market for lead at this time is in energy storage batteries followed by the chemical and cable sheathing applications. In Table 5, consumption patterns of major lead users are provided. The future use of lead may be decided by the resolution of environmental concerns. Some markets for lead are declining or being phased out due to environmental concerns, whereas other segments are growing and newer marketsare being developed. In 1990, the state of California (United States) required that 2% of new cars by 2003. meetzero-emissionstandards in 1998, 5% by 2001,and10% in New York, Massachusetts, and Similar laws were subsequently enacted seven other eastern U.S. states [ 13,141. In 1996, the California Air Resources

zy

zyxwvuts zyxwvu zyxw zyxw 13

Introduction

Table 5 Production and Consumption Patterns and Consumers [ I ]

I996

I995

1994

of Major Producers

1993

France Refined lead Production Primary Secondary Consumption Principal uses Batteries Cable sheathing Sheet/strip Ammunition Alloys Gas. additives Oxides Miscellaneous

259 1 l3 146 226 244 156 16 19 8 4 5 24 12

260 138 105 163 155 255 237 254 170 14 17 8

Germany Refined lead Production Primary Secondary Consumption Principal uses Batteries Cable sheathing Pipe/sheet/shot Chemicals Gas. additives Alloys Miscellaneous Italy Refined lead Production Primary Secondary Consumption Principal uses Batteries Cable sheathing Pipe/sheet Ammunition

24

30 297 129 168 263 279 192 14 18 7 5 6 27

11

IO

334 174 160 352 362 204 9 50 80 2 8 9

332 176 156 150 354 342 378 333 216 194 8 8 49 57 66 77 3 3 9 8 8

3 l4

198 105 93 238 236 107 34 12 24

223 210 66 95 128 25 1 234

189 63 126 27 1 247 125 27

5 5

115

27 12 22

1

150

238 88

164 360 360 207 8 54 73 3 8 7

5

11

24

144

268

14

z zyxwvut zyxw Chapter 1

Table 5 Continued

~

1996

1995

Alloys Gas. additives Oxides Miscellaneous

Japan Refined lead Production Primary Secondary Consumption Principal uses Batteries Cable sheathing Pipe/sheet Chemicals Alloys Miscellaneous United Kingdom Refined lead Production Primary Secondary Consumption Principal uses Batteries Cable sheathing Pipe/sheet Shot Tetraethyl Chemicals Alloys Miscellaneous United States Refined lead Production Primary Secondary Consumption

1994

1993 3 4 42

40

4 4 42

10

10

10

309 212 97 370 37 1 256 7

292 182

288 148 I40 334 334 232 4

287 140 147 330 330 233

11

12 41

10

3

5

I 10

345 346 239 5 10 51

59 14 25

13 28

416 212 204 353 299 103 9 84

416 205 21 1 355 303 100 9 94

46 12 29

387 166

22 1 355 328 109 10

102 6

6

I1

27

zy

406 181 225 368 316 107 9 94

3

5

39 18 21 22

32 18 22 23

19 23 24

38 18 20 25

I l96 335 86 1 1367

1249 3s 1 898 1513

1358 374 984 I592

141I 326 1085 1687

35

5

zyxwvuts

introduction

15

Table 5 Continued

1996

I995

Principal uses Batteries Cable sheathing Pipe/sheet Chemicals Ammunition Alloys Gas. additives Miscellaneous

1994

1993

1286 105 1

17 27 64 65 44 18

1450 I223 16 25 63 62 43

1599 1356 6 30 62 71 47

l68 1 1412

18

27

31

zyxwv 7

37 67

58

69

Boarddecided not to mandate the introduction of zero-emissionvehicles and let the auto companies voluntarily sell zero-emission vehicles from 1998 to 2002. The auto industry committed to reach a goal of 10% of the vehicles sold to be zero-emission vehicles in 2003. Zero-emission vehicles are generallyaccepted to mean electric (i.e., battery-poweredcars) and there is considerable research efforttobringsuitableelectricvehicles to market. Although many battery systems are being investigated for powering electric vehicles, the lead-acid battery is by far the most mature and accepted. If lead-acid battery technology is adopted, the demand for lead is expected to increase strongly. The established world resources of 7 1 X 10' tonscan meet the demand for electric vehicles for a long time. In addition, seismic protection and damping applications are also likely to increase.

111.

zyx zyxwv zy

PRODUCTION OF LEAD METAL

Lead is processedfromore to refined metal in fourstages:oredressing, smelting, drossing, and refining [2-41. The ore-dressing step involves crushing (jaw or gyratory crushers), grinding (rod mill or ball mill or autogenous), and concentration (gravity or froth flotation). Crushing and grinding are done so as to physically liberate galena and other minerals from the interlocking unwanted waste rock or gangue. The mineral ground to smaller than 0.2 mm is separated in the concentrationstepfrom the gangueusing gravity concentrators or froth flotation. Froth flotation is generally used for sulfide ores. The fine slurry is mixed with frothing agents and collector agents and air is pumped through the solution. The collector agent adsorbs to the surface of the mineral, making the particle hydrophobic, and causes the particle to attach to the air bubble and raise to the froth. Frothing agents such as pine

16

Chapter 1

z

zyxw

oil, cresylic acid, polyglycols, and long chain alcohols which stabilize the froth are used along with collectors such as xanthates. The concentrate is obtained by skimming the froth from the cell, dewatering by settling, and vacuum filtering to a moisture content of 15%. The lead concentrate would typically have, by wt.%, 45-75 Pb, 0-15 Zn, 10-30 S, 1-8 Fe, 0.1-2 Sb, 0-3 CaO, 0-3 Cu, 0.5-4 insolubles, and small amounts of Au, Ag, As, and Bi. The concentrate is then smelted using a sinter-blast furnace or Imperial smelt process. In sintering and smelting steps, Pb and other metal sulfides are reduced in a series of steps. Before being fed in to the blast furnace, the concentrate is roasted to remove most of the sulfur and to agglomerate further the fine products so that they will not be blown out of the blast furnace. In this step, the concentrate is mixed with coke and fluxing agents such as limestone or iron oxide, and spread on a moving grate. Airis blown through the grate at a temperature of 1400°C. Sulfur along with coke that has been addedservesasfuel, and the sulfurdioxideformed is recovered for the production of sulfuric acid. The roasting results in a sintered brittle product containing oxides of lead, zinc, iron, and silicon along with lime, metallic lead, and the remaining sulfur. The sinter is broken into lumps as it comes off the moving grate. The prefluxed sinter lumps are loaded on top of the blast furnace along with coke fuel. The blast of air admitted to the bottom of the blast furnace aids the combustion of coke, generating a temperature of 12OO"C, and the carbonmonoxideproducedreduces the metaloxides, producing molten metal and carbon dioxide. Nonmetallic wastes form a slag with the fluxing materials. Typical composition of the slag is, by wt.%, 2533 FeO, IO- 17 CaO, 20-22 SiO,, 1-2 Pb, and 13- 17 Zn. Some lead is trapped in the slag also and this is kept to a minimum. The molten metal is tapped into drossing kettles or molds. The liquid metal containing 95-99% lead and dissolved metallic and nonmetallic impurities is referred to as the base bullion. In addition to noble metals, base bullion contains the impurities Sb, As, Sn, Cu, and Bi. Copper sulfide has a lower solubility in lead and, therefore, some of it is removed as matte (molten sulfide layer). If Sb or As is present, Fe and Cu could react with them to form arsenate or antimonides and removed as a speiss layer (consisting of antimonides and arsenates and having a density of -6). Several new commercialsmeltertechnologieshavebeendeveloped, including KIVCET, Isasmelt, and QSL processes but the sinter-blast furnace and Imperialsmeltfurnace are still widely used [3,4,15]. These new processes are direct smelting processes carried out in relatively small, intensive reactors. These processes require neither the sintering of feed materials nor the use of metallurgical coke. They also produce lower volumes of gas and dust that would require treatmentwith pollution-control equipment.The

zy zyxwvu

Introduction

zy

zyxw zyxw 17

KIVCET and QSL processes consist of a single furnace, and unifyin a single structure all phases of desulfurization and reduction of lead oxide into lead bullion. KIVCET is a Russian acronym for “flash-cyclone-oxygen-electricsmelting.” It employs the autogenous (i.e., fuelless) flash smelting of raw materials, with the heat-producing oxidation of the concentrated sulfide ore raising the temperatureto 130O-140O0C, which is enough to reduce the oxidized materials to metal. The process involves the proportioning, drying, and mixing of the lead-bearing materials and fluxes, followed by their injection into the reaction shaft. The injected materials are ignited by a heated blast of commercially pure oxygen. The smeltedlead bullion and slag collect in the hearth while zinc vapor undergoes combustion with carbon monoxide in the electric furnace to produce zinc oxide. Hot sulfurous gases generated by the smelting process are used to produce steam and sulfuric acid as byproducts. TheKIVCETprocessappears to produce significantly less flue dustthanother direct processes,and its furnacebrickworkhasalonger service life. The QSL (Queneau-Schuhmann-Lurgi) process can handle all grades of lead concentrates, including chemically complex secondary minerals. A pelletized mixture of concentrates, fluxes, recirculated flue dust, and a small amount of coal is dropped into the melt consisting mainly of primary slag in a refractory-lined reactor. Oxygen is blown through tuyeres at the bottom to oxidize the unroasted charge in the molten bath at a temperature of 1000- 1 100°C to produce metallic lead, primary slag with as much as 30% lead oxide, and sulfurous off-gas. The primary slag is reduced via coal injected into the second section of the furnace through submerged tuyeres. In the Isasmelt process, an air lance is brought in through the top of a furnace and its tip is submerged in the melt containing the sulfide concentrate. A blast from the lance produces a turbulent bath in which the concentrates are oxidized to produce a high-lead slag. This slag is tapped continuously and transferred to a second furnace, where it is reduced with coal. Crude lead and slag are tapped continuously from the second furnace and separated for further refining. The final stage is the refining of lead when the impurities are removed to meet the standards for commercial sale and to recover valuable by-products. The impure bullion is cooled so that most of the copper segregates in the kettle due its low solubility in lead at temperatures just above the melting point. The dross that contains Cu is skimmed off along with the remaining CO, Ni, and Zn. The rest of the Cu is removed by treating it with S (10 kg/ ton) (at Cu levels of 0.6TM.The strain rate i n this region is given by an empirical relationship [ 1181

zyx zyxwvuts zyxw

Here D,, is the lattice diffusion co-efficient and A is an empirical constant. The value of observed IZ varies from 3 to about 10. These equations should be treated as empirical because of uncertainties in the relationship

Table 14 Lead-BasedBearingMetals12x1.(Courtesy Association, New York.)

of LeadIndustries

Nominal or preferred composition (wt.%)

onyTin

No.

UNS ~~

13

L54727 L53560 L53620 L53320

-

25 5 I 5

15

15

9

59

x0 0.15 I .4

0.5

-

-

0.6

x2 86

zyxwvutsrqpo zyxwv z zyxwvu zyx zyxwv zyxwvutsrqpo aUTI

Table 15 Lead-Tin Solder Alloys [28]. (Courtesy of Lead Industries Association, New York.) Composition (wt.7c)

UNS No.

L542 10 L54320 L54520 L54560 L547 10

L54720 L.54820 L54850 L549 15

L549.50 L55030 L 13600

L13630

Tin

2 5

10

15 20

?! $ v)

Temperature ("C)

Lead

Solidus

Liquidus

Pasty range

98 95 90 85 80

316 305 267 226 182

32 1 312 302 288 277

5 7 35 62 95

25 30 35 40

75 70 6.5 60

182 182 182 182

266 255 247 237

84 73 65 55

45

55

182

227

45

50

50

182

216

34

60

40

182

190

8

63

37

182

182

0

Uses

Side seams for can manufacturing For automobile radiators For coating and joining metals

For coating and joining metals; for filling dents or seams in automobile bodies For machine and torch soldering

General purpose and wiping solder Wiping solder for joining lead pipes and cable sheaths; for automobile radiator cores and heating units For automobile radiator core and roofing seams For general purpose use; use most popular of all Primarily used in electronic soldering applications where low soldering temperatures are required Lowest melting (eutectic) solder for electronic applications

0, r (D m m

3 P

-

D

2 b

5

86

zyxwvut zyxw Chapter 2

zyxwvutsr Table 16

Most CommonSilver-ContainingSolders [28]. (Courtesy of Lead Industries Association, New York.) Composition (wt.%)

Temperature ("C)

Solidus Liquidus Lead Silver TinNo. UNS

~ _ _

L50131 L55 133 L50151

1

I .5

62

2.0 2.5

-

97.5 36.0 97.5

~~~~

309 179 304

309 189 304

zyxwv

between applied stress and dislocation densities, and theoretical models of flow. The region where creep is limited by core-diffusion-controlled climb is referred to as the "low-temperature-creep" region. Here, the lattice diffusion coefficient is replaced by D,,,,, which varies as (a,Jp)' and, therefore, the creep rate varies as (a,,/p)'i'2. In some materials, at very low stress levels, the strain rate varies linearly with u,,/p,suggesting that the dislocation density under these conditions remains constant. This region, referred to as the Harper-Dorncreep [ 1 19, 1201 regime, is observed in verylarge-grained material, when diffusional creep fields are suppressed. There is a region at In this high stress levels (>lo-.' p) where the powerlawbreaksdown. region, the controlling mechanism transitions from climb-plus-glide to glide alone. At low stress levels (stress < 5 X lo-" p), linear viscous creep occurs at rates higher than that from diffusional creep. The dislocation creep mechanism that results in this linear viscous creep is referred to as Harper-Dom creep and occurs under conditionsthat maintain constant dislocation density. At very high temperatures (>0.6TM)and stress levels, power-law creep may be accompanied by repeated recrystallization. Following each recrystallization step, the dislocation density drops allowing for a period of pri-

Table 17 Typical Solder Alloys with Their Melting Points 1281. (Courtesy of Lead Industries Association, New York.) point ("C)

Composition Melting (wt.%)

UNS No. ~

47 21

~~~

Tin

Bismuth Indium Cadmium

Lead

Solidus Liquidus

~~~~~

22.6L50620 5.3 49.9 12.0 L50640 L50645 50.0 L50665 L56680

8.3 19.1

44.7

9.3 15.5 -

52.5 55.5

.o

-

-34.5 - 95 -

6.2 -95 124 -124

18.0

32.0 44.5

58 70

58

78

z zyxwvutsrq zyxw zyxwvutsrqp zy U

a '0

Table 18 Electrical Properties of Lead Alloys [28]. (Courtesy of Lead Industries Association, New York.) Alloy composition"

Pb >99.94 Pb-( 1.3- 1.7)Ag Pb-1.5 Ag-5 Sn Pb-(2.3-2.7)Ag Pb-(2.3-2.7)Ag Pb-2.5 Ag-2 Sn Pb-5 Ag Pb-5 Ag-5 Sn Pb-5 Ag-5 In Pb-(5-6)Ag Pb-0.15 As-0.1 Sn-0.1 Bi Pb-42 Bi-11 Sn-9 Cd Pb-42.9 Bi-5. I Cd-7.9 Sn-4 Hg- 18.3 In Pb-44.7 Bi-5.3 Cd-8.3 Sn-19.1 In Pb-48 Bi-14.5 Sn-9 Sb Pb-49 Bi-21 In-I2 Sn Pb-50 Bi-10 Cd-13.3 Sn Pb-5 1.7 Bi-8.1 Cd Pb-52.5 Bi-15.5 Sn Pb-55.5 Bi Pb-0.065 Ca-0.7 Sn Pb-0.065 Ca-1.3 Sn

Conductivity (%IACS)

Resistivity

L50OOI -L50042 L50132 L50 134 L50 150 L50151 L50152 L50 170 L19171 L10172 L50 180 L503 10

8.3%

206.43

L50605 L506 10

4%

Fusible Alloy

L50620

4.5%

Fusible Alloy Fusible Alloy Fusible Alloy Fusible Alloy Fusible Alloy Fusible Alloy Battery Grid Alloy Battery Grid Alloy

L50630 L50640 L50650 L50660 L50665 L50680 L50740 L50750

3% 3% 4 Yo

UNS No.

Common name

Corroding Lead Solder Alloy-Grade Ag Solder Alloy-Grade 5s Solder Alloy-Grade Ag Solder Alloy-Grade Ag Solder Alloy Solder Alloy Solder Alloy Solder Alloy Solder Alloy-Grade Ag Arsenical Lead Cable Sheathing Alloy Fusible Alloy Fusible Alloy

1.5

2.5 2.5

5.5

3%

(nn-m)

4 g u)

5

zyx 219 220

03

4

z zyxwvutsrqp zy zyxw zyxwvu a3 a3

Table 18 Continued Alloy composition

Pb-0.07 Ca Pb-0.1 Ca-0.3 Sn Pb-0.1 Ca-0.5 Sn Pb-0.1 Ca-1 Sn Pb-17 Cd

Pb-4.76 In-2.38 Ag Pb-5 In Pb-5 In-2.5 Ag

Pb- 19 In Pb-20 In Pb-25 In Pb-40 In Pb-40 In-40 Sn Pb-50 In Pb-60 In Pb-70 In Pb-80 In-5 Ag Pb-I S b Pb-1.2 Sb-0.8 Ga Pb-2 Sb

Common name

Battery Grid Alloy Battery Grid Alloy Battery Grid Alloy Battery Grid Alloy Lead-Cadmium AlloyEutectic Copperized Lead

Lead-Indium-Silver Solder Alloy Lead-Indium Solder Alloy Lead-Indium-SiIver Solder Alloy Lead-Indium Alloy Lead-Indium Alloy Lead-Indium Alloy Lead-Indium Alloy Lead-Indium Alloy Lead-Indium Alloy Lead-Indium Alloy Lead-Indium Alloy Lead-Indium Alloy 1% Antimonial Lead Lead-Antimony-Gallium Alloy 2% Antimonial Lead

UNS No.

Conductivity (YoIACS)

Resistivity (nR-m)

L50760 L50775 L50780 L50790 L50940

218 219 219 212

L51110-L51123 and L5 1125 L51510

206

5.5%

L51511 L51512

5.5%

L51.530 L5 1532 L51535 L5 1540 L5 1545 L5 15.50 L5 1560 L5 1570 L5 1585 L.52605 LS26 18

L52705

5.1%

4.5%

4.6% 5.2%

7.0% 8.8% 13%

zyxwvutsrqp zyxwvutsrqp z

Pb-2.5 Sb-2.5 Sn Pb-3 Sb-3 Sn Pb-4 Sb Pb-6 Sb Pb-8 Sb Pb-9 Sb Pb-(9.5- 10.5)Sb-(5.56.5)Sn Pb-ll Sb-3 Sn Pb-l 1 Sb-5 Sn Pb-12 Sb-4 Sn Pb-13 Sb-6.5 Sn Pb-14 Sb-6 Sn Pb-( 14- 16)Sb-(4.5-5.5)Sn

Pb-15 Sb-7 Sn Pb-15 Sb-8 Sn Pb-15 Sb-10 Sn Pb-( 14-16)Sb-(9.3- 10.7)Sn Pb-( 14.5-1 7.5)Sb-(0.81.2)Sn Pb-17 Sb-8 Sn Pb-19 Sb-9 Sn

Electrotype-General Electrotype-General 4% Antimonial Lead 6% Antimonial Lead 8% Antimonial Lead 9% Antimonial Lead Lead-base Bearing Alloy

L52730 L52830 L52901 L53105 L53230 L53305 L53346

Linotype Alloy Linotype-Special Alloy Linotype B (Eutectic) Alloy Stereotype-General Alloy Stereotype-Flat Alloy Lead-base White Metal Bearing Alloy Monotype-Ordinary Alloy Stereotype-Curved Alloy Rules Monotype Alloy Lead-base White Metal Bearing Alloy Lead-base Bearing Alloy

L53420 L53425 L53455 L53510 L53530 L53565

6.1%

282

L.53570 L.53575 L53580 L5358.5

6.0% 6.070

286

Display Monotype Alloy Lanston Standard Case Type Monotype Alloy Monotype Case Type Alloy 2% Tin Solder Solder Alloy

L.53650 L53685

L53620

7.7% 7.6% 7.5% 7.4% 6.0%

2.53 26.5 27 1 287

=i v)

2 -

0 Y v)

z

zyxwvutsrqpo

Pb-24 Sb-12 Sn Pb-( 1.5-2.5)Sn Pb-3 Sn-5.1 Sb

L53750 LS42 10 L54280

zyxwvutsrq zyxwvutsrqp zyxwvutsrqp zyxwvuts

zyxwvutsr

Table 18 Continued

~

Alloy composition Pb-4 Sn-3 Sb

Pb-(4.5-5.5)Sn-(O.2-O.S)Sb Pb-5 Sn-4 Sb-0.5 As Pb-8 Sn-0.3 Sb Pb-10 Sn-(0.2-0.5)Sb Pb-(9- 1 1)Sn-( 1.7-2.4)Ag. Y

I

D

C 3

53

07 100

1000

10000

Frequency, Hertz Door: Untreated Hollow Core DoorVs. Lead Sheet Lined WoodDoors With Low DensityAnd High Density Fiberglass Insulation Core Material

-Specimen U2:Hollow core door - caulked perimeter- STC=2O

""_

............

Specimen V2: Wood doorW/ 6-pcf fiberglass - caulked perimeter- STC=31 SpecimenW 2 : Wood doorW/ 1.3-pcf fiberglass- cauked penmeter- STC=38

Figure 139 Sound reduction index curves for panel U2, V2, and W2 in Table 7 3 [248].

zy zyxwv zyxwvuts 273

Properties of Lead andIts Alloys

zyxwvutsr

80

70

2 60 S

50

:I 40 E 30 20 c

a

10

v)

0 100 Frequency, Hertz Wood Door With Double Layer,l-psf Sheet Lead And With 6 p c f Fiberglass Core; Tested WithVarious Edge Sealing Conditions

zyxwvuts

-Specimen V1: Comntionaliy h n g (operable door)- STC=15 SpecimenV2: As abow W/ perimetercallked (inoperable door) - STC.31 .........Specimen V3: Mechanical seals top - bottom (L sides (operable door) - STC=27 -. .- .- .. Speamen V4:As in V3 but W/ ttreshold at door bottom (operable -door) STC=31

Figure 140 Sound reduction index curves for panel VI, V2, V3, and V4 in Table 73 [248].

m

80 70

--

60

--

.-Sv) 50

~-

UI

g

-J

.E 40

-

30

~-

gc

a

v)

zyxwvuts zyxwvutsrqp -

"_

"""

""

."

.._ _-._ . _ _k_ . 1................. ........................................................

*"

/ ; "

(I."..'.....

-._"

>F.!'

zyxwvutsrqpo 20

10

."J "-----

0 1

100

zyxwvutsr zyxwvutsrq 10000

Frequency, Hertz Wood Door With Double Layer, l-psf Sheet LeadAnd With 6-pcf Fiberglass Core;Tested WithVarious Edge Sealing Conditions

W1: Comntionalty hung (operable door) STC=16 -Specimen ""_ Specimen W :As abow W/ perimeter caulked (inoperable door) - STC=38 ........... Specimen W3: Mechanical sealslop - bottom d sldes (operable door)- STC=32 -..-. .-. Specimen W4: As in W3 but w/threshold at door bottom (operable door) - STC=35 ~

Figure 141 Sound reductionindex Table 73 [248].

curves for panelsW1,W2,W3,andW4

in

274

zyxwvut Chapter 2

Table 74 Description of Composites of' Glass Fiber Mat with Lead, Lead-Loaded Vinyl, and Lead-Coated Mat [249]. (Courtesy of ILZRO.) Test No.

303 304 305 306 307 12A 12B 12c 12D 12E

12F 12G LM l LM2

zyxwvut

Septa wt. (PS0

material Septa Lead sheet Lead sheet Lead sheet Lead sheet Lead sheet Lead vinyl (ILZRO # l ) Lead vinyl (ILZRO #2) Lead vinyl (ILZRO #3) Lead vinyl (ILZRO #4) Lead vinyl (ILZRO # l ) Lead vinyl (ILZRO #3) Lead vinyl (ILZRO #4) Lead-coated mat Lead-coated mat

1

2

4 1

Total septa wt. (psf)

I

2 4 2 4 0.143 0.178 0.174 0.193 0.286 0.348 0.386 0.25 0.5

No. of layers 1 1 1

2 2

zyxwvu zyxwvu 2 0.143 0.178

0.174 0.193 0.143 0.174 0.193 0.25 0.25

1 1 1

1

2

2 2 I

2

successiveoscillationsdueto internal friction, and the oscillations are dampedoutwith time. The internal friction is associatedwith different atomic level processes and the nature of the atomic level processes involved depends on the vibrational frequency,composition,andtemperature.The specific damping capacity is the fractional change in amplitude (AEIE) per oscillation, which in a first-order approximation is equal to M I A . Another more commonly used measure of internal friction is the logarithmic decrement, 6, which is defined by

zyxw

In a system that is subjected to a constant vibration, the stress and strain waves lag behind by a phase angle a.An index rate of internal energy loss is Q", the coefficient of internal friction, which is defined by

The coefficient of internal friction has been measured in both single-crystal and polycrystalline lead and lead alloys. The values of Q" in the case of lead andfew of theleadalloys are summarized in Table 75 [252-2613.

zyxwv zyxwv zyxwvutsr 275

Properties of Lead andits Alloys

Test # 303

70

65

60

55 50 45

-

40

m

35 30

zyxwvutsr

25 20 15 10

zyxwvutsrqpon

5 n v

10

100

Frequency (Hz) STC Rating 25

zyxwv 1000

10000

Figure 142 Transmission loss in composite with two layers of814 board with one l-psf lead septa (test panel #303 in Table 74) 12493.

fiberglass

Because of the variations in the purity of lead usedin the investigations, Baralis and Tangerini [262] examined the internal friction in a large number of binary polycrystalline alloys prepared from 99.9999% purity Pb and highpurity alloying additives. The impurity concentration in the alloys was less than 2 ppm. The alloying additives examined by them were Bi, Ag, Sb, Cd, Sn, T1, Cu, Ni, Te, As, Al, Li, Ca, and Ba. In addition, they also examined dispersion strengthened lead alloys as listed in Table 76 [262]. Measurements were made using specimenscutfrom0.7-mm-thick sheets. The measurements were made by subjecting the specimens to flexional vibrations, with electrostatic excitation. The vibration amplitude was kept low enough to avoid amplitude-dependent effects. The specimen length ' was determined both by measuring the width of and width were varied. Q.. the resonance peak and by recording the damping of free vibrations of the specimen after discontinuation of excitation [263]. Measurements were made at room temperature (20-25°C) in air. The velocity of sound and the dynamicmoduluswerecalculatedfromresonancefrequency [2641. Figures

zyxwvu Chapter 2

276

70

65

zyxwvutsrq zyxwv zyxwvuts

60 55

50 45

40

z-

=35

+

1

30

25 20 15 10 5 0 70

100

zyxwvu zyxw

Frequency (Hz) STC Rating 29

1000

10000

zyxwv

Figure 143 Transmission loss in composite with two layers of 814 fiberglass board with one 2-psf lead septa (test panel #304 in Table 74) [249].

159 and 160 present the data for Q - ' as a function of concentration and as a function of frequency, respectively [262]. Their work suggested that the value of Q-' is influenced, although only slightly, by the alloying element concentration. A change in trend is generally observed in correspondence with the solubility limit. The value of Q - ' is slightly affected by the variation of frequency within the range 803600 Hz. Q ~ -values ' were not affected by a light prior deformation, vibration amplitude, or the surface conditions. In single-phase alloys, an increase of Q - with varying concentrations is accompanied by a decrease of hardness.

VII.

NUCLEAR PROPERTIES

Lead and some of its alloys are generally the most cost-effective shielding materials to protect against the effects of gamma rays and x-rays [265]. Lead is especially useful when minimum material weight or shielding thickness is needed or when the shielding is temporary or must be portable. In addition

zyxwv zyxwvutsrq 277

Properties of Lead andIts Alloys 70

65

60 55 50

45

40

S 35 l-

30 25 20 15 10

5

zyxwvutsrq zyxwvuts zyxwvuts

0 10

100

zyxwvu Frequency (Hz) STC Rating 32

1000

10000

Figure 144 Transmission loss in composite with two layers of 814 fiberglass board with one 4-psf lead septa (test panel #305 in Table 74) [249].

to the large attenuation coefficient of lead forgamma

radiation and the stability of the nucleus of lead atoms,importantadvantages of leadfor nuclear applications are its ease of fabrication,highcorrosion resistance, good thermal conductivity, ease of decontamination, resistance to radiation damage, wide range of physical properties (with small additions of alloying elements), ready availability (abundance), and eventual ease of recycling. Thus, lead is used extensively in the nuclear-power-generating industry to protect operating personnel, the general public, and the overall environment from the potentially harmful effects of high-level radiation. Hospitals and diagnostic centers use lead bricks and lead sheets for shielding medical personnel and patients from high-x-ray- and gamma-ray-radiation sources used in radiotherapy, diagnostics, and biological research. Lead sheets weighing 2-4 lb/ft’ are often installed in or on walls around x-ray rooms and, frequently, on floors and ceilings as well. Leaded gloves, aprons, and blankets are used extensively in the operation of x-ray equipment and cobalt-60 therapy devices. In industry, radioisotopes are used for film and gamma radiography to inspect metal welds, for promoting chemical reactions, for oil

278 70

zyxwvu z zyxwvutsr zyxwvuts Chapter 2

Test # 306

65 60 55

50 45

40

s-

535

zyxwvut

I-

30 25 20 15 10

5 0 10

zyxwvu zyxwvu 100

1000

10000

Frequency (Hz) STC Rating 29

Figure 145 Transmission loss in composite with three layers of 814 fiberglass board with two I-psf lead septas (test panel #306 in Table 74) 12491.

exploration, for neutron activation and analysis, and for many other purposes. Cobalt-60 is commonly used for gamma radiography because of its highly penetrating gamma rays of 1.17 and 1.33 MeV. Shielding is required not only during the use of these sources but also during shipping and storage. Containers for these purposes are commonly made partly or almost entirely of lead. In many cases, the same containers serve to provide shielding during actual use of the materials. The smaller containers are generally inexpensive and often decontaminated and recycled, and the partially decayed radioisotopes are appropriately discarded. Lead is first in the materials considered in any design for gamma-radiation shielding. When other materials are considered, comparisons are usually expressed in terms of lead because it represents the best practical gamma-shield material.

A.

The Need for Radiation Protection

The term radiation refers to the process by which energy is propagated through space as particles or waves. Radiation may be emitted in the form

zy zyxwvutsrq 279

Properties of Lead andIts Alloys 70

65 M)

55 50

45

40

30

25 20 15 10

5 n

zyxwvutsr

zyxwvutsrqpo zyxwvut

10

100

zyx zyxw

l000

Frequency (Hz)

STC Rating 38

10000

Figure 146 Transmission loss i n composite with threelayers of 814 tiberglass board with two 2-psf lead septas (test panel #307 in Table 74) 12491.

zy

of electromagnetic waves or photons, or in the form of charged particles such as protons or neutrons moving at high velocities. Ionizing radiations are those that have sufficient energy to interact with matter in such a way as to remove the electrons from the atoms or break molecular bonds. The ionizing radiations commonly encountered are as follows [266,267]:

Alplzu particles: These consist of two protons and two neutrons, like the nucleus of a helium atom. High-energy CY particles are emitted duringradioactive decay of isotopes. Alpha radiation canalso be produced by the acceleration of He ions in particle accelerators. Beta particles: Theseareeitherelectrons with anegativecharge or positrons with a positive charge and are emitted during radioactive decay of radionuclides. Electromagnetic M~(I\VS 01' photons: Of primary concern here are gamma rays and x-rays, which are ionizing and require shielding. Although light waves and radio waves are also electromagnetic,they are generally nonionizing and, as such, do not usually require shielding. Gamma rays areproducedduringradioactive decay and are

280 70

zyxwvut Chapter 2

65

60

zyxwvu

55

50 45

B

40 35

k-

30

25 20 15 10 5 0 100

zyxwvu zyxwv 1000

Frequency (Hz) STC Rating 17

10000

Figure 147 Transmission loss in composite with two layers of 814 fiberglass board with a 0.143-psf lead-vinyl septa (test panel #12A in Table 74) [249].

zyxw zyx zyxwvu

nuclear in origin. X-rays are generated by energy-level transitions of electrons in the atom.

Rays of neutrons by themselves are not ionizing radiation, but they can be absorbed by the nucleus of some elements, which may then become radioactive and emit ionizing a,p, or y radiation. Exposure to ionizing radiation at levels above threshold levels causes predictable biological damage in humans and other living organisms which may result in either immediate or latent genetic change or in different forms of latent cancer. Even below this threshold level, there is a finite but very low probability of risk [268].The radiation exposure rate in air or biological matter is measured by the amount of energy absorbed through the ionization process in a unit volume or mass of material. The unit of radiation absorbed dose (rad) refers to 100 ergs of absorbed energy per gram of material. Equal amounts of doses from different kinds of radiation could produce different biological effects. For the same absorbed dose, the damage caused could be different in different organs. A weighting of the radiation dose for the nature of radiation and the type of organ is done to obtain an effective dose equiv-

z zyxwv zyx zyxwvutsr 281

Properties of Lead and Its Alloys 70

65

Test # 128

60 55

50 45 40

G y 35

zyxwvutsrqpo

I-

30 25

20 15 10

5 0

100

zyxwv zyxwvu 1000

10000

Frequency (Hz) STC Rating 18

Figure 148 Transmission loss in composite with two layers of 814 fiberglass board with a 0.178-psf lead-vinyl septa (test panel #12B in Table 74) [249].

alent. The unit of effective dose equivalent is rem (Roentgen Equivalent Mammal). Maximum permissible occupational exposures for radiation workers are based on the recommendations of the International Council on Radiation Protection (ICRP) and the U.S. National Council on Radiation Protection and Measurements (NCRP) [269-2711. In the United States, the occupational exposure limits are 5 rem for whole-body exposure, 30 rem for forearms, 75 rem for hands, and 15 rem for skin and various other body organs [271]. For pregnant women, the occupational limit is 0.5 rem (500 mrem) fetal exposure during the entire gestation period. For the general public, the limit is 0.5 rem per year for whole-body exposure. A further principle recommended by the International Commission on Radiological Protection (ICRP) is known by the acronym ALARA (As Low As Reasonably Achievable), which means that exposure should be as much below the foregoing limits as reasonably achievable, taking into account the social and economic factors. As a basis for design of facilities, the U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) specifies 1 rem per year maximum for occupational wholebody exposure and 0.17 rem per year for the general public.

zy

282

zyxwvut z zyxwvuts Chapter 2

70

65 60 55 50

zyxwvutsrq

45

k

40

2% 30 25 20

15 10

5

0 100

zyxwvut zyxwvu 1000

10000

Frequency (Hz) STC Rating 18

Figure 149 Transmission loss in composite with two layers of 814 fiberglass board with a 0.174-psf lead-vinyl septa (test panel #12C in Table 74) 12491.

Besides biological damage, radiation exposure may also affect the physical and chemical properties of many materials, such as electronic components or structural materials. Thus, shielding human beings and other materials from the radiation damage is critical. Alpha particles and protons travel only a short distance in air and can be stopped by a single sheet of paper. Beta particles can be stopped by a few millimeters of metal, depending on the energy of the particles and the density of the metal. However, neutrons of high energy, as emitted by some fuels after discharge from a nuclear reactor, travel almost unchecked through most metals. However, hydrogen is effective for slowing down neutrons to low-energy levels, called the thermal region; water and polyethylene are commonly used for this purpose. In turn, thermal neutrons are readily absorbed by many elements; among the most effective are boron, cadmium, gadolinium, and lithium. Neutron attenuation and absorption are accompanied by the emission of energetic photons, so that lead or another gammashielding material is often required in conjunction with a neutron shield. Neutron absorption in the 5yCoisotope transmutes it into “’CO,which decays

Properties of Lead and Its Alloys

zyxw zyxwv 283

Test # 12D

70 65

60 55 50 45

zyxwv

40 I

c J

35

30

25 20 15 10

5 0 100

zyxwvut zyxwv 1000

too00

Frequency (Hz) STC Rating 18

Figure 150 Transmission loss in composite with two layers of 814 fiberglass board with a 0.193-psflead-vinyl septa (test panel #12D in Table 74) [249].

zyxw

with emissions of 1.7- and 1.33-MeV gamma rays. X-rays normally are of lower energy and require relatively less shielding. The higher-energy gamma rays are very penetrating and, in some cases, require more than 8 in. of lead or its equivalent for adequate shielding [265]. Among the alloying elements used in lead alloys, some are prone to gamma-ray emission on the absorption of neutron [265]. Lead-antimony alloys have high tensile strength, hardness, compressive strength, fatigue strength at normal temperatures, and corrosion resistance in most environments, and, in some cases, they form a self-protective, impermeable film even faster than pure lead. Antimony is converted to radioactive forms that emit energetic gamma rays on the absorption of neutrons. Pb-Sb alloys are therefore not suitable for shielding in the presence of neutron irradiation, as the typical Sb content levels are high (about 6%). However, they are satisfactory if used only for gamma shielding. Calcium also emits gamma rays on the absorption of neutrons. However, as only a fraction of a percent is adequate in improving the creep and fatigue resistance of lead, Ca-lead is satisfactory in these applications. Silver hardens lead. It absorbs neutrons and emits strong gamma rays; the

284

Chapter 2

z

70

65 60

55

zyxwvutsr zyxwvutsr

50

45

67 T)

40

135 I-

30 25 20

15 10 5 0 100

zyxwvu zyxwvutsr

zyxwv 1000

10000

Frequency (Hz) STC Rating 22

Figure 151 Transmission loss in composite with two layers of 814 fiberglass board with two layers of a 0.143-psf lead-vinyl septa (test panel #12E in Table 74) [249].

amount of silver in chemical lead may be more than is acceptable for some applications, in which case one might use common desilverized lead. Alloys containing 0.5% silver and 2.5% tin, however, have considerably higher fatigue and creep strength than chemical lead at elevated temperatures. Copper and tellurium are used in small quantities and they do not have any problem with regards to neutron absorption. Copper improves the tensile, creep, and fatigue strengths of lead. The solubility is low and amounts greater than 0.06% segregate out. Chemical lead normally has approximately this percentage of copper, which primarily accounts for its fatigue strength being considerably higher than that of corroding lead. Thus, Pb-Cu and Pb-Cu-Te alloys are satisfactory from the view point of neutron absorption. The hardness of lead is increased significantly by the addition of 12% lithium or sodium. At the same time, the density is reduced by 5-10%. One percent lithium-lead has a hardness about four times that of pure lead, as measured by a diamond pyramid test, and a tensile strength of about 50 MPa at room temperature. Lithium and sodium leads must be protected from attack by water, which causes cracking and further increases in volume.

zyxwvu zyxwv zyxwv zyxwv 285

Properties of Lead andIts Alloys

Test # 12F

70 65 60 55

zyxwvuts

50

45

40

B

335 l-

30 25

20 15 10

5 n

1

zyxwvutsrqp

100

1000

Frequency (Hz) STC Rating 22

10000

zyxw

Figure 152 Transmission loss in composite with two layers of 814 fiberglass board with two layers of a 0.174-psf lead-vinyl septa (test panel #12F in Table 74) [249].

Lithium has the advantage of being a strong absorber of thermal neutrons without a resulting in the emission of gamma rays. Thus, lithium-lead is useful as a component of a combined gamma-neutron shield and effectively reduces the emission of secondary gamma rays.

B.

Forms and Uses of Lead in the Nuclear industry

Lead is available in many forms, including the following: pig lead; sheet, plate, and foil; laminates; plastic composites;lead-cladmetal plate; shot; powder; wool; bricks; putty; waxes; lead epoxies; pipes and sleeves; blankets; andlead glass. A number of fabricated items,suchasvalvesand pumps, are also available. Table 77 provides a summary of the radiationshielding applications of the different forms of lead [265].

C. Shielding Thickness for Gamma Radiation Shieldingcalculations,except in simplecases,require the services of an expert in the field. Complications introducedby irregular geometry, apertures

zyxwv zyxw

286

Chapter 2

Test # 12G

70

65 60 55 50 45 -40

m U ,35

+ 30

25 20

15 10

zyxwvut zyx

5 0 100

1000

10000

Frequency (Hz) STC Rating 23

Figure 153 Transmission loss in composite with two layers of 814 fiberglass board with two layers of a 0.193-psf lead-vinyl septa (test panel #12G in Table 74)

12491.

and crevices, heterogeneous or composite shields, andscattering of radiation by the shield itself (and by the surroundings) usually necessitate the largescale numerical computation using computers. Conservative assumptions are made to allow for uncertainties in the data and for approximations in the computations so that observed radiation levels are commonlylowerthan calculated levels, sometimesbyafactoras large as 10 in complexcases with thick shields. The accuracy of calculation is of particular concern for shipping containers, where it is important to maximize the ratio of payload to gross weight. Gamma rays or photons are emitted uniformly in all directions from eachpoint in aradioactivesource,andspreadout in amanner inversely proportional to the square of the distance. Thus, imposing distance requirements is one effective way of controlling radiation exposure. Provision of shielding and limiting the time of exposure are other methods of control. Photons interact with matter in three principal ways: 1.

zyxwvutsrqpon Pair P~.oduction.A process in which the gamma rayis usedfor the creation of a positron-electron pair is created in the vicinity

zyxw zyxw zyxwvutsrq zyxwvutsrqpo zyxwv zyxwvut zyxwvu 287

Properties of Lead and Its Alloys

Test # LM1

70

65

60 55

50

45

40

6-

2 35 + 30

25

20

15 10

5

0

10

O0

Frequency (Hz) STC Rating 20

1000

10000

Figure 154 STC transmission loss in composite with two layers of 814 fiberglass board with one layer of lead mat septa (test panel #LMI in Table 74) [249].

zyx

of a nucleus. The excess energy appears as the kinetic energy of the particles created. However the positron will be quickly annihilated, producing two photons of 0.51 MeV each. 2. Compton Effect. The photon is deflected in its path and reduced in energy. Many of these lower-energy scattered photons emerge from the shield and account for most of the “buildup” factor described later. 3 . Photoelectric. Egect. The photons are, in effect, absorbed by atoms, by the excitation of electrons to higher-energy levels. The electrons in the excited state emit weak x-rays on subsequent transition to lower-energy levels.

The probability of an interaction (or collision) within a given distance is defined by a material property called the linear absorption coefficient, designated as p. The fraction of photons escaping collision in traveling through a shield is given as e‘-”’ or c‘~”‘)“‘) , where t is the shield thickness in the direction of travel; the term p/p is called the mass absorption or mass attenuation coefficient, where p is the material density. The reciprocal of p,

288

Chapter 2

zyxwvut zyx

zyxwv zyxwvuts zyx

Figure 155 STC transmission loss in composite with two layers of 814 fiberglass board with one layer of lead mat septa (test panel #LM2 in Table 74) (2491.

called the relaxation length, is the distance necessary to attenuate the radiation by a factor of E , or about 2.718, neglecting buildup. The relative frequenciesofthese interactions depend on the atomic number Z , which is the number of protons in the nucleus of the material through which the photons are passing. For lead and uranium, pair production is dominant for photonsenergiesaboveabout 5 MeV, photoelectric effect below about 0.5 MeV, and Compton effect in the intermediate energy range. Figure 161 shows the mass attenuation coefficient (p/p) for leadfor each of the three types of interaction, and the total [265]. Figure 162 gives the values of the total coefficient for several different materials as a function of photon energy [265]. Units used here are cm" for F and &/cm' for p. Table 78 gives the values of the mass attenuation coefficient (p/p) for lead for each of the types of interaction, and for the total attenuation due to all interactions (272,2731. The required thickness and weight of lead are less thanforothercommonlyusedshieldingmaterials(excepturanium) by a large factor at gamma energies below about 1 MeV, as shown in Table 79 [265].As mentioned earlier, lead is not effective shielding material for neu-

zyxwvu 289

Properties of Lead andIts Alloys

zyxwvuts

Figure 156 STC ratingversuslead layer composites (2491.

septaarealdensity

plot for lead-mat-based

trons (Table 80). In the presence of neutron irradiation, lead is used in conjunction with a moderator and absorber for neutrons. Heat is generated in the shield as a result of the photon interactions. For small Curie sources, the heat is usually of minor concern; but for megaCurieamounts, as withspentfuel, dissipation ofheat is amajorconsideration. In practice, radiation sources of various shapes are encountered. Measurements and calculations of radiation attenuation are often made for point or surface sources and this allows measurement data to be converted for use with other shapes [267,274,275]. In fairly straightforward cases, the point kernelmethod is used to evaluate the shieldingthicknessneeded. In this, radiation received at a detector from distributed sources is treated as a summation of radiations received from an equivalent number of point sources. The source strength I , is expressed in mrem/h at a unit distance for unit volume of source. For each location (point) in the radiation source, the corresponding radiation level I, for areceptor at somepointoutside the shield is given by

zyxwvut zyxwv

Chapter 2

290

0.0

z

zyxwv zyxw zyxwvut zyxwvut 0.1

0.2

0.4

0.3

0.5

LEAD VINYL SEPTA WT, PSF

Figure 157 STC rating versus lcad septa areal dcnsity plot for Icad-vinyl-shccthosed layer composites [ 2491.

zyxwvuts zyxw zyxwv

where B is the dose buildup factor and is the distance from the source to the receptor. The value of I, for 1 Ci of the source is given by I, (mrem/h at l cm) = K X 10" FE; F is the fraction of disintegrations yielding photons of energy E (MeV). One Curic of radioactive material, by definition, decays a t the rate of 3.7 X IO"' disintegrations per second. Values of K are given in Table 81 [265]. Some radionuclides emit photons of many different energies; those with very small values of E may be neglected, and, often, thc others can be grouped so as to simplify calculations. Also. the decay process may include it chain of several different radionuclides which must be considered. Cesium- 137, which because of its half-life of about 30 years is of concern in the disposal of high-level waste, does not emit gamma rays, but its short half-life daughteremitsgamma rays of about 0.7 MeV. Mixed fission products emit a wide range of gamma rays, and the emissions change with time. In many cases, the source may be considered a point or a line rather than a volume. If several materials intervene between source and receptor, I'

Properties of Lead andIts Alloys

29 1

zyxwvut zyxwvut zyxwvu

zyxwvu zy

Figure 158 STC rating versuslead septa arealdensity plot for lead-sheet-based layer composites [249].

the weighted average values of B and p. may be used. The source itself may be large enough to provide some shielding; this is known as self-absorption. The total externaldoserate is obtained by integrating Eq. (37) over the entire source. For a relatively thin layer of attenuating material, the probability of scattered radiation particle reaching the detector are small. However, when the shielding material thickness increases, some particles that have suffered two or more scattering collisions may reach the detector. The total fluxis thus greater than the unscattered flux received. The buildup factor is a term introduced to take into account the contribution of scattered radiation to the total radiation flux at the detector. The buildup factor B is dependent on the number of mean freepaths(or p ) as well as the initial photon energy. Different empirical formulas have been used to express B as a function of p.f for a given energy, so that the integration can be performed. The Berger formula, which is described in various shielding manuals, is one of the more useful and accurate formulas.

292

Table 75 Alloy

zyxwvut Chapter 2

Experimental Values of Q

I

in Single-Crystal and Polycrystalline Lead

Q ’

Frequency

Pure polycrystalline lead Single-crystal lead Pb-10% Sn alloy Single-crystal Pb0.033 wt.% Sn Single-crystal Pb0.035 wt.% Bi

16-2000 H z

0.35 X 10-’-4 X 10

17-2X kHz 4-64 kHz

0.2 X 10-’-0.8

Few hundred

1 X 10

Ref.

’

X 10 0.2 X 10-’-0.7 X 10

252-254 255, 256 235, 258-26 1 257

zyxwv zyxwvut Hz 30 kHz

’

’

0.1 1 x 1 0 ? (-deformation of 10 ’, RT) 0.22 x 10 ’ (-deformation of 10 ’, RT) 0.9 X lo-’ (-deformation of 10 ’, RT) 2 X 10 ’ (-deformation of 10 ’) 3 x IO-“ (--deformation of 10 ’)

260

zyxwvu

Single-crystal Pb0.0092 wt.% Cd Single-crystal Pb0.0022 wt.% In Single-crystal Pb- 1.2 wt.% In (unetched surface) Single-crystal Pb- 1.2 wt.% In (chemically etched surface)

30 k H z

30 k H z

4 kHz

4 kHz

3

4 kHz

‘’

X 1 0 ~ (-deformation

260

260 26 1 26 1

26 I

of lo-’)

Table 76 Composition of Dispersion-Strengthened Lead Alloys referred to in Figure 160a [2621 Concentration (wt.%)

PbO cu Bi Sn Sb Ag

MD 104

MD 201

0.7 0.0 I 0.03

0.8 0.0001 80

75 65 70 70

60 60

500 + 600 +

65-75 75-85

500-2000

85 80 80

800+ 1200+

0 0"

1000+

?

250-450 230-345 110

>95

1 ooo+

0.7

200

?

.?

50 90- 120

200-250 400-450

-

P

UI UI

456

Chapter 4

z

wind, hydro, and tidal systems.These energy sources provide fluctuating output. The use of lead-acid batteries is attractive to store excess energy as a way of normalizing output or to get a substantial reserve. Lead-acid batteries with a good deep cycling capability and long life are required. Maintenance intervals are usually a minimum of 6 months, and the cell design must accommodate the necessary amount of electrolyte or be fitted with an automatic watering device. Plant6 cells, tubular cells, and flat-plate cells may allbeused for this application. The discharge times are long. The photovoltaic-based RAPS system on Coconut island, Torres Strait, Australia that provides continuous AC power to 130 inhabitants is a good example of the benefits of the RAPS system [370]. One of the largest projects in Remote Area Power Supplies for the storage and delivery of solar energy using lead acid batteries is being planned for the Amazon region in Peru [371]. A study to assess the potential for RAPS in the Amazon region is funded by ILZRO; this study attempts to define the specific activity to install the first RAPS systems following the agreement signed in June 1997 between the ministry of Energy and Mines (MEM) in Peru, the Solar Energy Industries Association (SEIA) and ILZRO. The project involves the design, manufacture, management, installation, operation, and financing of the first RAPS systems in the Amazon region of Peru. The funding for the project is to be obtained from multilateral financiers, most specifically the Global Environmental Facility at the World Bank. The project will consist of installing six 150-kW h/day power modules into two community power RAPS systems at Padre Cocha (300 kW h/day) and Indiana (600 kW h/day). The project is expected to cost US $1.875 million for these systems, although options are provided for additional or alternative systems. The modular community power RAPS systems will be integrated into existing electric networks and diesel-generator sets; the project is scheduled for completion within 1 1 months after start. RAPS power modules are to be assembled in Peru. The power system will use modular building blocks. These building blocks include gelled VRLA batteries, a power conditioning system, a 15 kW of photovoltaic array, and a local control/monitoring system. A typical community power system will consist of oneormore of these building blocks, along with an interface to the existing diesel generator, a supervisory control system, and a remote monitoring system. The project load increases could shorten this payback considerably. The system has 25% of the fuel consumption and 15% of the maintenance costs of an equivalent system based on a prime diesel generator. The RAPS system, when completed, will eliminate nearly 19,000 tons of COz and over 900,000 lbs of NO,, compared with an equivalent prime diesel generator. The total value for these savings is $2.7 million over the 20-year life of the project. The RAPS system will

zy

Applications of Lead

457

zy

provide much needed electricity for economic development, reduce emissions in the Amazon region, and (with a payback period of 12.8 years or less for the project cost) reduce the costs to the Peruvian government for supplying fuel and electricity to these remote villages.

1.

zyx zy zyxwvu

Recycling of Lead from Batteries

Nearly 71% of thelead produced today is consumed in the production of batteries 13721. Fortunately, for the benefit of the lead industry and environmental protection, batteries are now completely recyclable [373]. Because of the complications involved in determining recovery rates, detailed calculations of recovery rates are not available. Recovery rates of industrial batteries are nearly loo%, whereas the recovery rates for consumer batteries is somewhat less. Conservative estimates suggested a 98% recovery rates in the United States in 1990. Recovery rates in Europe were higher than 85% i n 1993. These rates have steadily increased with improvements in collection schemes for spent batteries, and today, nearly 100% of batteries are recycled and, as mentioned in Chapter 1, more than 50% of lead produced in the world comes from recycled lead. Lead is probably the most recycled element today. Besides Pb and PbO, the plastic cases and other material are also recycled. Batteries represent a relatively concentrated source of lead. Both pyrometallurgical and hydrometallurgical recycling schemes have been pursued. Modern recycling facilities include a first-stage automated breakup, from which polypropylene case material is extracted and reclaimed.Cell parts consisting of grid metal, lead oxide/lead sulfate paste, top lead parts, and separators form the feedstock for the furnace together with controlled amount of lime. The refining stages differ from primary lead production, as few of the natural ore impurities are present in recycled lead. The limits of toxic elements in gas emissions, slag, and effluent water is a major factor in the recycling processes being adopted. Hydrometallurgical recycling schemes are also available. The elements in grid alloys that cause problems in recycling are As, Se, Ag, Cd, Sn, and Cu [374]. The elements that enter the recycling stream from posts and straps in batteries are As, Se, Cu, Ni, Sn, and Ag. Cd is fumed from the metal to dust.Cdemissionhas to be controlled to very low PEL (personnel exposurelimit)levels. Cd is extremely soluble as lead sulfate and causes problems in wastewater. Copper is a major producer of dross in lead refining. About a half of the refining time and treatments involve copper removal. An even higher effort occurs in obtaining low copper levels. Nickel causes drossing and plugging of lines in die casting. It causes gassing even at low levels in VRLA batteries and should be removed to low levels. Nickel enters the stream as stainless-steel nuts and parts. Arsenic is fumed from grid material as As203and can go

Chapter 4

458

zy

zyx

through bag houses using high-temperature bags (gas at 193°C). I t can react with chlorides and fluorides to produce low-boiling-point materials, such as ASCI, (63"C), AsF, (-63°C). The low PEL makes it a difficult element with which to deal. It causes problems in TCLP leach test for slags. Se is fumed from grid materials as SeO, in the furnace. This is also a problem element in TCLP leach tests for slags. It is a problem element in SO, scrubbers producing soluble selenates (Na,Se,03)in scrubber solutionsand wastewater. Sn must be removed by pyrometallurgical refining and most of the Sn is lost in slag. Sn recycling circuits are not adequately developed at the present time. Ag cannot be removed economically at low levels from recycled lead. Buildup can exceed specification limits in lead for pure oxide production. Ag transferred from the positive to the negative grid causes negative voltage changes. Higher Ag content in recycled lead will affect all producers for several years [374]. The future design of batteries and choice of materials for grids and other components will thus be determined by recycling considerations. Some of the suggestions for the future include the elimination of the use of Sb and Cd in battery grids, the reduction and restriction of As to low levels in Pb-Sb grids and strap alloys, the restriction of copper from grids and posts, the substitution ofAg a s an alloying element in positive grids,and the development of Sn-recovery circuits.

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II. USE OF LEAD IN EARTHQUAKE PROTECTION A.

Introduction

The excellent damping capacity of lead and its malleability make it a valuable material in seismic protection devices. The collapse or structural damage to buildings, bridges, and other structures and the toppling of material and equipment under the influence of seismic waves generated by an earthquake is a serious concern,particularly i n areas of the world prone to seismic activity. The economic impact of an earthquake could be devastating, as the recent earthquakes in San Francisco, CA and Kobe, Japan amply demonstrated. Designing and incorporating interfaces between the building and the earth that damp seismic wave or isolates the building and their foundations from the earth's movement could provide the structural stability and minimize the damage due to earthquakes. Such structures protected from earthquakes by isolation and damping are referred to as seismically isolated or base-isolation structures.The lead and its alloys are a key component i n these seismic isolation interfaces [ 375-3781. The isolation interface consists of isolators and dampers i n the lowest floor of the buildings. If this interface is designed appropriately, the behavior

zyxw

Applications of Lead

459

z

of buildings during earthquakes can be controlled to a certain extent. The function of isolators is to support buildings and, in the case of an earthquake, to cause a moderate degree of lateral displacement. These are commonly made from laminated rubber. Dampers, although not effective in supporting the load of a building, are able to dissipate the energy generated by earthquakes and control the deformation of the isolation interface. Steel and lead alloys are commonly used in damping. Isolation system can be of two types: an integrated system and the independent hybrid system. In the integrated system, the damping mechanism is integrated in the isolators such a s a highdamping rubber bearing and a lead-rubber bearing (LRB). In the Independent hybrid system, the damper can be set up separately from isolators. Installing integrated devices such as LRBs is fairly straightforward, but its overall design in integrating the functions of the dampers and isolators could be very complex. If dampers and isolators are fitted separately, their functions are clearly well defined and this provides increased flexibility in design. Dampers installed separately from isolators in this way include hysteresis dampers made traditionally from steel and lead materials as well as others such as viscous oil dampers. Among these, dampers made from lead have superior performance i n dissipating energy and can sustain repeated deformation due to the superior malleability of lead and its recrystallization mechanism based on repeated deformation. There is a growing acceptance of base-isolation structures and the characteristics of base-isolation devices such as lead dampers. Since the Great Hanshin earthquake in Kobe, Japan, base-isolation systems have been installed in over 150 buildings in Japan and the number is expected to increase. A significant amount of LRB arid lead dampers is being utilized in these new base-isolated buildings and the demand for base-isolation devices using lead is consequently expected to increase. The scale of buildings and applications utilizing this base-isolation technology has greatly increased, and in 1997, a base-isolation system was installed in a nuclear power plant. Since 1987, the International Lead Zinc Organization has supported the development of lead dampers and earthquake-protection devices at Mitsubhishi Materials Corporation and Fukuoka University in Japan 1375-3781. Much of the information on the use of lead in earthquake-protection devices is a result of this effort.

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B. Design of Base-Isolated Buildings

z

zyxw

In the design of structures, structural engineers always consider the various external forces on the building, such as earthquakes and typhoons. The anticipated level of external forces is difficult to decide, but it is common now to use a maximum velocity of 50 cmls (or level 2 ) for earthquake tremors

Chapter 4

460

zy

as a likely basis. For design involving critical structures,surveys on past earthquakes and dislocation earthquakes are used to calculate the likely forces to be expected from earthquake tremors. In Japan and other earthquake-proneareas, it is very important to consider the strength and characteristics of earthquake tremors and the buildings' response to earthquakes and to grasp the ultimate perfonnance of buildings in advance. In base-isolated buildings, isolator interfaces composed of isolators and dampers are installed in the lower story of the building to isolate it from ground excitation. It has been possible to accurately confirm the basic features and performance limits of isolators and dampers through laboratory experiments. Thus, it is possible to accurately determine from these results, the characteristics of vibration of base-isolated buildings due to the reliance of such buildings on the characteristics of the isolator interface. During earthquakes, the upper structure oscillates almost rigidly. The deformation of the building and ground acceleration are extremely small and the deformation of the structure is reduced to within the range of elasticity. Because of the reliance on base isolators, uncertainty in the behavior of foundations is reduced. The response behavior of base-isolated buildings during an earthquake can be measured with a high degree of precision, which also allows one to verify earthquake observation results to date. That their probable behavior during an earthquake can be predicted is indeed what makes baseisolated buildings unique structures. Base-isolation systems using rubber include those systems ( I ) where lead plugs are pressed into the core of laminated rubber where the functions of isolator and damper are integrated and (2) where rubber laminate isolators and lead dampers are not integrated. The response of base-isolated buildings during earthquakes is controlled to a large extent by the characteristics of the isolators (period characteristics) and dampers (damping amounts). In the design and selection of isolation members, it is necessary to carry out stringent engineering tests on the ultimate performance limits and characteristics of a structure.

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C. Lead Dampers

The lead dampers used are made from pure lead that has the advantages of being corrosion resistant and having superior plastic deformation and crystallization ability. Thedeformable section could have different shapes. In order to improve the characteristic of the force-displacement relationship, four different damper shapes have been evaluated under an ILZRO program: I-shaped (hourglass), C type, J type, and U type. Nomenclature used to refer to the lead dampers is of the form A-nn where A refers to the type and nn refers to diameter in mm. For example, C75 refers to a C-type damper of 75 mm diameter. Sketches of the four types of dampers are shown in Figure

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Applications of Lead

Steel plate

Steel plate

I - Type

461

Steel plate

C - Type

Steel plate

J - Type

Steel plate

U - Type

Figure 13 Profiles of l-type, C-type, J-type, and U-type dampers 13771.

13 [377]. Earthquake simulation test equipment was used toevaluate the performance of the dampers. The schematic and the actual test equipment are shown in Figs. 14a and 14b, respectively 1375,3771. Specimens were attached to upper and lower H-shape angles by high-tension fasteners. Various wave-pattern forces were applied to specimens by sliding the upper movable angle. Forces were applied in two directions, parallel to the bending plane of the specimens (P direction) and orthogonal to the plane (0 direction), to investigate the force versus displacement hysteresis loop changes depending on the directions. In the case of Fig. 14, the direction of applied force is the P direction. For testing in the 0 direction, the same H-shape angles as shown in Fig. 14 are used, but the specimen orientation is rotated by 90" about the y direction (vertical). Applied forces were measured with actuator load cells and the displacements were measured with linear voltage differential-transformer-type gauges (LVDT). The I-shaped and U-type dampers showed the same yield strength in both directions, whereas the C and J types showed different strengths. The areas of hysteresis loops were plotted versus damper diameter for each type and showed the highest areas (greatest damping) for the C type, followed by the J and U types. The hysteresis area was related to the third or fourth power of the damper diameter, meaning that small diameter adjustments give large changes in damping. The I type has lower damping because a greater proportion of its deformation is tensile strain rather than shear strain.

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D. Performance

of U-Type Dampers

There are many U-type lead dampers in use today. There has been a steady increase in the scale,size, and capacity in the use of these U-type lead dampers in base-isolated buildings. The largest U-type lead damper in use, the U 180, has a shaft diameter of 180 mm. Itis possible to shape lead dampers quite freely by gravity die casting and it is also quite straightforward to develop lead dampersappropriate to the particular properties of

462

Chapter 4

zyxwvut zy zyxwv

Figure 14 Earthquake simulation test equipmentfor the evaluationof the dampers. (a) Schematic and (b) actual test equipment t375.3771.

base-isolated buildings.The challenge one faces today is to begin to develop even larger lead dampers. Dynamic tests using an actual-size Ul80-type damper and a one-quarter size model have confirmed the basic capabilities of dampers, including ultimate deformation, energy dissipation capabilities, and yield strength. Figures 15a and 15b show a schematic indicating the dimensions of the U180type damper and an actual U180-type lead damper [376]. Table 4 gives the specifications of different U-type lead dampers [376]. The lead damper is strengthened at those sections where it is most weak, namelythe deformable section, where the damper has been bent into a U-shaped curve (diameter

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463

Applications of Lead Attached flange

I

-

zy

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Actualsize test plece

Model test plece

(W

Figure 15 (a) A schematic diagram of a U180-type lead damper and (b) an actual size damper [376].

464

Table 4

zyxwvuts zyxw zyxwvuts zyxwvu zyxwvutsr Chapter 4

Main Specifications for U-Type Lead Dampers [376]

Name of test piece

Diameter of deformable section 10 (mm)]

Height of deformable section [ H (mm)]

Length of deformable section [ L (mm)]

50 75 100

550 560 560 560 560

680 73 0 700 638 660

U50 type U75 type U 100 type U 140 type U180 type

140

180

"Calculated values.

180 mm) and at both ends, where the diameter is at its greatest. The maximum diameter of the strengthened sections at the ends of the damper is 360 mm, or twice that of the deformable section. The strengthened sections and flanges are homogeneously bonded and the deformable and reinforced sections are cast together using a special mold. Lead of purity higher than 99.99% is used, and by the virtue of lead being extremely malleable and able to recrystallize even at extremely low temperatures, its repeated deformation capacity is extremely high. For the evaluations of the dampers, both static and dynamic tests have been carried out on the actual size damper. Sine waves were used for applying vibrations in the dynamic testing. For the application of large-deformation vibrations, an actuator able to apply vibrations (load of +50 tons and a displacement of ? 150 mm) was used. The standards for the deformation offset were set at 0 mm, 200 mm, or 400 mm and the amplitude of the vibrations were -1-50 mm. The vibration period was 3 S. In the static tests, monotonic loading from one direction with a displacement of up to 700 mm was used. The loading speed was approximately 1 mm/s. Figures 16a and 16b show the load versus displacement curves of an actual size damper tested in the P and 0 directions, respectively 13751. Both static and dynamic test results are shown in these figures. During an earthquake, there will be repeated dynamic forces and, thus, a need to experimentally prove to what degree the damper can withstand repeated deformation. Figures 17a and 17b show deformation caused by the dynamic tests in the P direction after 30 and 135 cycles, respectively, for a deformation amplitude of 150 mm [376]. Energy dissipated as a function of accumulated plastic deformation is shown in Fig. I 8 13761. The deformation of the lead damper depends on the loading frequency and amplitude, as the yield strength varies with cyclic loading frequency and amplitude of vibration (Figs. 19a and 19b, respectively) 13761.

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Applications of Lead

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Lateral displacement (mm)

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200

1

1

400

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Lateral displacement (mm)

(b)

Figure 16 Load-displacement curves of an actual size U180 damper in (a) the P direction and (b) the 0 direction [375].

In the scale-up of dampers, the law of similitude as shown in the Table 5 are used [376]. However, one must bear in mind that the generation of heat arising from repeated deformation will have an influence on the properties of lead.

E.

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Energy DissipationCapability

The damper must ultimately dissipate all of the input energy brought about by an earthquake. The total energy input can be expressed as E = M(V,)'/

Chapter 4

466

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Flgure 17 Deformation in the U180 damper by the dynamic tests in the P direction after (a) 30 cycles and (b) 135 cycles [375].

Applications of Lead

467

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Figure 18 Encrgy dissipated uctunl size test pieces 13761.

;IS

a function of accumulated plastic tleformation

of

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2, where the equivalent velocity is V, six European unlts. ' A blood lead level between 70 and 80 p . g / I O O mL shall be allowed if the ALAU < 20 mg/g creatinine or ZPP (zmc protoporphysin) < 20 kg/g hemoglobln or the ALAD (delta aminohaevulinlc acld) > six European units. Women under 45 years of age. 'For women over tile age. 'First action levelL-30 p,g/lOO mL: second action Ievel-SO pg/lOo mL. 'Recornmended value for pregnant women IS < 20 &l00 mL and < 30 p,g/lOO mL for women planning pregnancy. 'Workers declared unlit to work if limits are crossed; can return once below 70 p,g/l00 mL (men) and 35 & l 0 0 mL (women). 'The tirst value IS for men and for women over SO years of age. The second value IS f o r women under SO years of age. "'Units are expressed i n pg/IOO g. The worker nust leave the workplace when the average of the last three tests exceeds SO1 p,g/100 g o r when one test exceeds hOY9/100 g. L

602 Table 4

zyxwvuts Chapter 5

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Rcspiratory Protecton for Lead Aerosols

Airborne concentration of lead or condition of use

Not in excess of 0.5 mg/m3

Not in excess of 1.25 mg/m'

Not i n excess of 2.5 m g h '

Required respirator"

Any air-purifying respirator equipped with HEPA tiltcrsh Any powered, air-purifying respirator equipped with HEPA filters Any air-purifying full-face piece respirator equipped with HEPA filters; any powered, air-purifying respirator with a tight-fitting face piece and HEPA filters Any supplied-air respirator that has a fullface piece and is operated in a pressuredemand or other positive-pressure mode Any supplied-air respirator that has a fullface piece and is operated in a pressuredemand or other positive-pressure mode Any self-contained breathing apparatus that has a full-face piece and is operated in a pressure-demand or other positivepressure mode

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Not in excess of 50 mg/m2

Not in excess of 100 m d m '

Greater than 100 mg/m', unknown concentration, or fire fighting

"Respirators specitied for high concentratwns can be used at lower concentrations of lead. "A HEPA tilter is one that is at least 99.97%'efficient against panicles of 0.3 k m in diameter. Sowre: U.S. Occupational Safety & Health Administration (OSHA 3126).

developed that will include proper respirator selection, fit testing, cleaning, and appropriate worker education programs on the use of respirators. Work practice controls are also effective in reducing a worker's exposure to lead. The level of lead to which workers are exposed cannot be accurately determined by personal air monitoring. In a plant where adequate precautions are in force, the main route of exposure is the flouting of rules forbidding eating, drinking, and smoking ina contaminated area, or poor personal hygiene through biting of fingernails or failing to wash properly. These all involve transfer of solid food, not airborne transmission. Personal airmonitoring is effective in measuringtheeffectiveness of engineering process controls or in establishing the need for them. Providing the worker with proper change rooms, showering facilities, a clean lunchroom, and personnelprotectiveequipmentsuchasworkclotheshave a l l beendemonstrated to reduce the exposure of the worker to lead by preventing hand-tomouth transfer of lead. To ensure the effectiveness of the above programs

Lead

the Environment

603

in reducing an employee’s exposure to lead, it is essential that they be enrolled in a medical surveillance program. At a minimum, this would include periodic medical examination and the routine measurement of the worker’s blood lead level. By employing the appropriate engineering controls, usage of respirators in the workplace will ensure that workers will be adequately protected from the workplace hazards associated with an exposure to lead.

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This Page Intentionally Left Blank

References

1.

2.

3. 4.

zyxw zyxwvutsrqp zyxwvu zyxwvu

S. 6.

7.

8. 9. 10.

11.

12. 13.

14. 15.

zyx zyxwvutsrq zyxwv zyxwvut zyxwv zyxwvuts International Lead Zinc Study Group, Lead Zinc Statist 37( 10):s-34 ( 1997). W. Hofmann, Lead m r l L e d Alloys, Springer-Verlag. New York, 1970. F. E. Goodwin, in Tlrc NCM~ Etr~~yc~lopcrliu Britanrrica, Volltnrc 21, (R. McHenry, Ed.) Encyclopedia Britannica Inc., Chicago, 1996, pp. 467-469. M. G. King and V. Ramachandran, in Erlcyclopdiu of Chetnictrl Twhlrolo~yy, Volrrnrc /S, John Wiley & Sons, 1995, pp. 69-1 13. B. Mason, Principles of Gcoc,kPnri.st,:y, 3rd ed., John Wiley & Sons, New York, 1966. D. G. Brookins, Eurrh Re.soul.c~s, Energy u r r d the Ern~irorvncnt,Charles E. Merril Publ. Co., Columbus, OH, 1981. R. Edwards and K. Atkinson, Ore Deposit Geology, Chapman & Hall, London, 1986. G. R. Smith, in Mirwral Year Book, Volltnw I : Matcrls arrd Mineruls, U S . Burcau of Mines, Washington, DC, 1994, pp. 447-460. Mirrcv.ul Y m r Book, Volunrc III: Area Rq)ort.s: IrrtcJrnatiorrul U S . Bureau of Mines, Washington, DC, 1994. Mincrol Year Book, Volunw 111: Arecr Rq>or.ts:Ilrterrratiorrnl U.S. Bureau of Mines, Washington, DC, 1995. International Lead Zinc Study Group, 52nd Meeting, Dublin, Ireland, private communication, ( 1 997). M. G. King, private communication, 1998. D. Sperling, Sci Am (November 1996), pp. 54-59. California Energy Commission-Alternative Fuel vehicle information, www.energy.ca.gov/education/Evs/EV-html/Evs.html,Sept. 29, 1998. K. Moriya, In Proc. of‘tlre Conf. “Laud-Zinc 90,” TMS-AIME, Warrendale, PA, 1990, p. 23.

605

606

zyxwvut z zyxwv zy zyxw zyxw

16.

17. 18. 19. 20.

21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. 28.

29. 30. 31. 32. 33. 34. 35. 36. 37. 38.

39. 40. 41. 42. 43. 44. 45. 46. 47. 48. 49. 50.

51.

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zyxwvutsr

zyxwvutsrq

zyxwvu zy zyxwvuts zyxw zyx zyxwvuts zyxwvutsrq

References 52. 53. 54.

55. 56. 57. 58. 59. 60. 61. 62. 63. 64. 64a. 65. 66.

67. 68. 69. 70. 71.

72. 73. 74. 75. 76. 77.

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C. Kittel, 1rltroclrcc.tiorl t o Solid Sture Physics, John Wiley & Sons, New York. 1976, p. 103. M. Hansen, Corlstirlctiorl of Bir~trryAlloys, 2nd ed., McGraw-Hill, New York, 1958. I. Kakarayaand W. T. Thomson, in Bir~or:yAlloy Phuse Ditrgrcrr?~.~ (T. B. Massalski, H. Okamoto, P. R. Subramanianand L. Kacprzak,eds.),ASM International, Mctals Park, OH, 1990, Vol. I . pp. 72-73. E. Raub, MetalloberHache. Ausg. A 7: 17 (1953). E. Raub and M. Engel, Z . Elektrochem. 4 9 8 9 (1943). E. Krhner, Elektr. Nachr.-Techn. 12:1 13 (1935). J. N. Greenwood and H. K. Worner, Proc. Austral. Inst. Min. Met. N.S. 104: 385 (1936). R. S. Russell, Proc. Austral. Inst. Min. Met. N.S. /01:33 (1936). J. N. Greenwood. Chcm. Eng. Min. Rev. 28:384 (1936). Lcad Industries Association, Lcc7d ,fi)r Cor.rosiotr Resistant App/icutio/l.s-A Guide, Lend Industries Association, New York (1974). N. A. Goken, in B i ~ r Alloy y Pl~useDiucyrunl.s (T. B. Massalski et al., eds.), ASM International, Materials Park, OH, 1990, Vol. I . pp.306-308. 0. Bauer and W. Tonn. Z. Metallkde. 27: I83 (1935). L. M. T. Hopkin and C. J. Thwaitcs, J. Inst. Metals 8/:255 (1952-53). BinaryAlloyPhase Diagrams (T. B.Massalskiet al.. eds.), ASM Intcmational, Matcrials Park, OH. 1990, vol. I , pp. 601-602. G. Grube and A. Dietrich, Z. Elektrochem. 44:755 (1938). B. Pcdel and W. Schwennann. in B i m q Alloy Phc~scDiqqr~unrs(T. B. Massalski. H. Okamoto, P. R. Subramanian and L. Kacprzak, eds.) ASM International, Materials Park, OH 1990. Vol. I , p. 772. C . T. Preston and G. H. Broomfield, J. Inst. Metals 87:240 (1958-59). E.Emrnerich and J. Bcckmann, Felten- und Guillaume-Rdsch.33:294 (1951). J. N. Greenwood and H. K. Worner,Proc.Austral.Inst. Min. Met. /0/:57 (1936). K. W. Grosheim-Krisko, W. Hofnlann, and H. Hanemann, Z. Metallkde. 36: 85, 88 (1944). V.P. Itkin and C. B. Alcock, in Birzu,;v Alloy Pkuse Diugrunls (T. B. Massalski, H. Okamoto, P. R. Subramanian and L. Kacprzak, eds.). ASM International, Materials Park, OH, 1990, Vol. I , pp. 940-942. E. Zintl and S. Neumayr. Z. Elektochem. 39:86 (1933). E. E. Schumacher and G. M. Bouton, Metals Alloys l:405 (1930). F. K. Goler and N.Weber, in Wc,rk.stc$fk jY;r Gleitlu~yer(R.Kuhnel,ed.), Springer-Verlag. Berlin, 1939, p. 367. G. Falkenhagen and W. Hofmann, Z. Metallkde. 43:69 (1952). 0. Heckler, W. Hofmann, and H. Hanemann, Z. Metallkde. 30:419 (1938). J. Dutkiewicz, Z. Moser, and W. Zakulski, in Birlcrp Alloy Phusc Diu,qrurxs (T.B. Massalski, H. Okamoto, P. R. Subramanian and L. Kacprzak, eds.), ASM International, Metals Park, OH, 1990, Vol. 2, pp. 1008-101 1. E. C. Rollason and V. B. Hysel, Monthly J. Inst. Mctals S: 187 (1938).

zy

608

zyxwvut z zyxwv zyxw zyxw zyxwvu zy zyxw

79.

80. 81.

82. 83. 84. 85. 86. 87. 88. 89.

90. 91 92. 93.

v4. 95. 96.

97. 98. v9. 100.

101. 102. 103.

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J. Campbell, Castings, Butterworth-Heineman, Oxford, 199 1. R . Snelling and E. R. Thews, Dtsch. Goldschmiede-Ztg. 41:413 (1938). H. Krause, Metallfijrbung, Springer-Verlag, Berlin, 1937. Die Korrmron MetalH. Krause. 0. Bauer, 0. Krohnke, and G. Masing, lischer Werkstoffe, Vol. 111, Hirzel, Leipzig, 1940, p. 392. Metal Ind. X2:360 (1953). W. Priimm, Felten Guilleaume Rdsch. 13/14:20 (1934). W. Stockmeyer and H. Hanemann, Z. Metallkde. 33:67 (1941). L. Jacoby and J. A. Vero, Met. Abstr. l6:484 (1949). E. Sheil, Z . Metallkde. 2 9 4 0 4 (1937). Properzi web page. G. Tammann and K. L. Dreyer, Z. Metallkde. 25:64 (1933). J. H. Westbrook, Bull. Virginia Polytech. Inst. Engrs., Exper. Sta. Series Bull. 13, 1933, p. l . S. Whillock, J. A. Charles, and G. C. Smith, in Proc. Ninth Intl. Lead Co~lf., Goslur, G e ~ m m y Oct. , 20-22, 1986, Lead Development Association, London,1986, pp. 151-156. A.DugastandC.Pascon, in Proc. Tenth Intl. Lend Col$, Nice, Fruncc, May 29-31, 1990, Lead Development Association, London, 1990, pp. 209221. A. M. Vincze, The Battery Man 9:26 (1992). A. M. Vincze, T. J. Seymour, P. Culkeen, N. Y. Tang, G. P. Lewis, P. Niessen, and J. V. Marlow, U.S. Patent 5,462,109 (1995). A. I. Vincze, Lead AcidTechnology, Trends and Forecast, (personal communication) (May 1996). COMINCO brochure on Multialloy strip caster. COMINCO brochure on Rotary expander and plate making line. P. Rao, T. F. Uhleman, J. Larsen, and S. R. Larsen, U.S. Patent 5,434,025 ( I 995). T. Altan, S.-I. Oh, and H. Gegel, Metul Forming: Fur~darnentc~/s and Applic'utiotrs, ASM International, Materials Park, OH, 1983. C. E. Pearson and I. A. Smythe, J. Inst. Metals 45:345 (1931). C. E.Pearson and R. N.Parkins, Thc Estrrtsion of Metals, 2nd rev. ed., Chapman & Hall, London, 1960. W. F. Hosford and R. M. Cadell,Merd Forwing: Machanics rind Merallwpv, Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ, 1993. E. Siebel, Die Formgchtng in? hildsnnze~rZustande, Verlag Stahleisen, Dusseldorf, 1932. W. Eisbein andG.Sachs, Mitt. dtsch. Mat.-Priif.-Anst., Sonderheft16:67 (1931). E. Siebeland E. Fangmeier, Mitt.Kais.-Wilh.-Inst. Eisenforschg. 13:29 (1931). S. A. Hiscock, Lead atld Lead Cable Alloys, Ernest Benn Ltd., London, 196 I . C. E. Pearson and J. A. Smythe, BNFMRA Research Report A283, 1931. N. Loizu and R. B. Sims, J. Mech. Phys. Solids 1:234 (195.3).

zyxw

zyxwvut z zyxwvuts zyxwv zy zyxwvu zy

616

334.

335. 336. 337. 338.

339. 340. 341. 342. 343.

344. 344a. 345. 346.

347. 348. 349. 350. 351. 352. 353. 354.

355.

356.

References

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References 3.57. 358. 359. 360. 361. 362. 363. 364. 365. 366. 367.

368. 369. 370.

371. 372. 373. 374. 375. 376. 377. 378.

379. 380. 381.

382.

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618

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F. Wilmote, in Proc. 10th Intl. Cot$. on Leacl, 1990, Nice, France, May 2931, 1990, Lead Development Association, London, 1990, pp. 312-320.

384. 385. 386.

St. Paul’s Cathedral web page. Lead Industries Association web page. R. Murdoch, in Proc. 11711.Conf. on Lead, 1990, Nice. France, May 29-31, 1990, Lead Development Association, London, 1990, pp. 307-31 1. J. F. Smith, in Proc. 11th Intl. Lcad Cor$, Venice, Italy, May 24-27, 1993, Lead Development Association, London, 1993, Paper 10.6. R. J. Muth and J. R. Smith, in Proc. lOth Intl. Cot$. on Lead, 1990, Nice, France, May 29-31, 1990, Lead Development Association, London, 1990, pp. 400-4 16. R. A. G. Welsher, in Pt.oc. First Intl. Conf. on Lead, L O I I ~ ( JOctober I?, 1962, Lead Development Association, London, 1962, pp. 141-149. E E. Goodwin and J. F. Cole, in PIVC. Ninth Intl. Leacl Conj:, Gernlnny, Oct. 20-22, 1986, Lead Development Association, London, 1986, pp. 10511I . P. M. Mathew and P. Krueger, 1986 Annual Report for Project ILZRO, LM349, AECL Canada. R. J. Guenther, S. G. Pitman, and R. E. Westerman, Annual Project Report, ILZRO LM-337, Battele Northwest Lab., December 1984. R. J. Guenther, S. G. Pitman, and R. E. Westerman, Annual Project Report, ILZRO LM-337-4, Battele Northwest Lab., December 1985. F. E. Goodwin, in Proc. of the Senlinur “Lead: Its Role i n Nuclear Waste Munu~en?ent,” Brussels, Nov. 20, 1984, Lead Development Association, London, 1985. F. E. Goodwin and J. F. Cole, in Proc. 10th Intl. Leacl Corlf., Nice, France, May 29-31. 1990, Lead Development Association, London, 1990, pp. 417434. R. E. Westerman, K. H. Pool, S. G. Pitman, and M. R. Telander, 1989 Annual Project Report LM-337-8, Battele Pacific Northwest Lab., May 1990. R. J. Guenther, S. G. Pitman, and R. E. Westerman, Annual Project Report, ILZRO LM-337-5, Battele Northwest Lab., June, 1986. P. M. Mathew and P. Krueger, 1991 Semi-Annual Report for Project ILZRO LM-349, AECL Canada. P. M. Mathew and P. Krueger, 1988 Annual Report for Project ILZRO LM349, AECL Canada, July 1989. B. E. Stern and D. Lewis, X-rays, Pitman, London, 1970. Lead Industries Association, A Guide t o the Use c#Lead in Racliotion Shieldiqq, Lead Industries Association, New York (1984). S. Epstein and B. Epstein, The First Book of Printing, Frankin Watts Inc., NewYork, 1955. Encylopedia of Science and Technolo,qy, 8th ed., J. Weil, B. Richman, G. Berman, and G. C. Butler, eds. McGraw-Hill, New York, 1997, Vol. 14, pp. 351-389. A.W. Worcester and J. T. O’Reily, ASM Handbook, ASM International, Metals Park, OH, 1990, Vol. 2, p. 552.

387. 388.

389. 390.

391. 392. 393. 394.

395.

396. 397. 398. 399. 400. 401. 402. 403.

404.

zyxwvutsrqp

zyxwv

zyxw

zy zyxwvuts zyxw zyxwvut zyxwvuts zyxwvu zyxwvu zyxwvut zyxwvu

References 405. 406. 407.

408. 409.

410. 41 I . 412. 413.

4 14. 415. 416. 417.

418. 419. 420. 421.

422. 423.

424.

425.

619

R. J. Welsch. Plain Bcwrittg Hartclbook, Butterworths, London, 1983. ASTM B23-1994, American Society for Testing Materials, West Conshohocken, PA, 1996. F. E. Goodwin, Starrclar.d Handbook,for. Mechanical Engineers, 10th ed. (E. A. Avallone and T. Baumeister 111, eds.), McGraw-Hill, New York, (1996), pp. 6-75-6-76. ASTM B774-95, American Society for Testing Materials, West Conshohocken, PA, 1996. B. L. Bramfitt and A. K. Hingwe, ASM Handbook, ASM International, Metals Park, OH, 1991, Vol. 4, p. S S . Solders and Solderin,q: A Primer, Lead Industries Association, New York (1996). P. T. Vianco, ASM Handbook, ASM International, Materials Park, OH, 1993, Vol. 6, pp. 985-1000. J. H. Lau, Handbook of Surface Mount Technology (J. H. Lau,ed.), Van Nostrand-Reinhold, NewYork, 1994, pp. 1-54. M. L. Buschrom, W. H. Schroen, and E.R. Wolfe, Handbook of Sutfafirc.c2 Morrtzt Technology (J. H. Lau. ed.), Van Nostrand-Reinhold, New York, 1994, pp. 55-80. S. A. Hiscock, in Second Intl. Cot$. on Lead, Ar-nhem, Netherlands, Oct. 4 7, 1965, Lead Development Association, London, 1965. P. M. Dejean, in Proc. 10th Intl. Cot$. on Lead, Nice, France, May 29-31, 1990, Lead Development Association, London, 1990, pp. 106-122. P. Brock and J. McKeown, Proc. IEE 110:174 ( 1 963). S. A. Hiscock, Lead Development Association, London Publication that combines papers presented in Electrical Journal, April 15, April 29, and May 13, 1960 issues, Lead Development Association, London (1960). F. E. Goodwin and P. Nguyen-Duy, J. Test. Eval., 19:41 (1991). Okonite Web Page Catalog. J. F. Giblin, in First Intl. Lead Cot$, London, Oct. 1962, Lead Development Association, London, 1962, pp. 1- 1 1. T. Uematsu and I. Iwata, in Proc. Conj: “Lead CableSheathing-New Techniques for Inlprowd Endurance,” London, Nov. 1990, Lead Development Association, London, 1990, pp. 1 1 1-133. S. Sahay, S. Guruswamy, and F. E. Goodwin, Proc. IEEE Electr. Insul. Magazine I I : 12 (1995). M. B. Makogen, T. F. Elsukova, A. Ahtenberg, V.V. Derzhavinskii, and A. P. Zhuchenkov, in Proc. Conf. Advances In Lead Cablc Sheathing Technology, Vienna, Austria, September,1993, Lead Development Association, London, 1993, pp. 1.2.1-1.2.34. C. Favrie and J. L. Caillerie, in Proc. ofEighth Intl. Lead Con$ Pb-83, The Hague, Nethet-lands, October, 1983, Lead Development Association, London,1983, pp.1-13. W. Hoffman, in Proc. Cot$. on Lead Cable Sheathing-New Techniques f o r Inrpr-oving Endurance, London, November, 1990, Lead Development Association, London, 1990, pp. 69-76.

620

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426.

427.

428.

429.

430. 431. 432.

433. 434. 435. 436.

437. 438.

439. 440. 441. 442. 443. 444. 445. 446. 447.

References

B. Drugge and R. Attermo, in Proc. of Cot$. on Lead Cable Sheathin‘qNew Techniques for Improving Endwance, London, November, 1990, Lead Development Association, London, 1990, pp. 90-95. E. Vasseur, in Proc. of Conf. on Lead Cable Sheathing-New Techniques for Inlpr-oving Endurance, London, Nolwnber, 1990, Lead Development Association, London, 1990, pp. 77-89. E. Vasseur, J. L. Caillerie, and A. Limare, in Proc. of 11th Intl. Lead Conf., Venice, Italy, May 24-27, 1993, Lead Development Association, London, 1993, pp. 6.1.1-6.1.6. J. L. Caillerie, presented at Proc. of Symp. “Lead Cables: A Look to the Future,” Turin, Italy, May 13-14, 1996, pp. 1 15-120. P. Frost, personal communication, December 1998. R. D. Phelke, Unit Processes in Estracfive Metalllrr;qy, American Elsevier, NewYork, 1973. K. Koike, H. Watanabe, and N. Masuko, in Proc. Irrtl. Syrnp. on the Extract i o n and Applications of Zinc and Lead, Zinc & Lead ’95, Sendai, Japan, May 22-24, 1995, The Mining & Materials Processing Institute of Japan, Tokyo, 1995, pp. 373-383. R. Heiderbach, ASM Handhook, ASM International, Metals Park, OH, 1987, Vol. 13, pp. 466-477. K. N. Bamard, G. L. Christie, and D. G. Gage, Corrosion IS( 1 1):581 (1959). J. T. Reding and T. D. Boyce, Mater. Perform. (September 1974) Vol. 37(9) (1974) pp. 37-40. G. Michal, F. E. Goodwin, A. Marder, and R. Patil, TMS Short Course on Fundamentals of Galvanizing, San Antonio, TX, February 15, 1998. H.Maeda, in Bi-Based High-Temper-ataweSuperconductors, (H. Maeda and K. Togano, eds.) Marcel Dekker, New York, 1996, pp. 1-5. J. Takada, Y. Ikeda, and M. Takano, in Bi-Based High-Ternperature Superconductors, (H. Maeda and K. Togano, eds.) Marcel Dekker, NewYork, 1996, pp. 93-128. P. J. Majewski, in Bi-Based High-Tempc~raturu Slcper-c,or?ductors, (H. Maeda and K. Togano, eds.) Marcel Dekker, New York, 1996, pp. 129- 15 1. R. A. McCauley, ILZRO Report LC-368, July I , 1990. A. I. Kingston and C. C. Koch, ILZRO Report LC 368A, June 1991. G. Jeannin, in PI-OC.10th Intl. Cm$. on Lead, Nice, France, May 29-31, 1990, Lead Development Association, London, 1990, pp. 129-138. P. K. Cheo, Handbook of Solid State Lasers. Marcel Dekker Inc., New York, 1989. J. Stoemenos, J. Crystal Growth, 97:443 (1989). H. Krenn, Superlattices Microstruct. 9:255 (1991). M. Kriechbaum, H. Krenn, H. Enichlmair, N. Frank and G. Bauer, Surf. Sci. 267349 (1992). S. R. Das, J. G. Cook, M. Phipps, and W. E. Boland, Thin Solid Films, 181: 227 ( 1989).

zyxwvut

Index

zyxw

zyxw zyxw zyxwvut

Acoustic barriers, 2, 20, 232-291 Activation energy, 30, 81, 104, 105, 111-114,148,168 for creep in lead, 148 grain boundary migration, 112 for grain boundary sliding, 148 grain growth, I 12 recovery, 1 12 for steady state creep, definition, 148 Activation polarization, 432 Age-hardening, 32, 38, 40, 41, 43, 44, 46, 49, 50, 142, 143, 156, 334, 444, 566 Airborne noise, 234 Airborne sound insulation, 234 ALABC, 443 ALARA, 281 Allowable sound levels, 233, 234 Alternating stress, 17 1 Ammunition, 330, 3.55, 569, 570 lead shot, 327, 569 nitroglycerin, lead-lined vessel for, 570 Amplitude ratio, I7 1 Ancient use of lead, I toxicity of lead, discovery of. 1 Andrade’s creep expression, 146

Antimonial lead, 31, 40, 46, 106, 162, 201, 206, 232, 322-323, 325, 342, 360, 374, 375, 377, 407, 415 (see ulso Lead and lead alloys: lead-antimony alloys) Architecture, 483-499 building facings, 332, 483 corrosion of lead sheet, 496 creep of lead sheet in roof, 497 fatigue of lead sheet in roof, 497 tixings, 490-493 flashing, 46, 192, 332, 377, 412, 483, 486, 488, 489, 492, 496, 497 Hagia Sophia in Istanbul, 483 Hanging Gardens of Babylon, 483 House of Blues in Chicago, 483 lead sheet (see Lead sheet) Pantheon in Rome, 483 rooting, 192, 205, 206, 330, 332, 377, 380, 394, 401, 407, 425, 430, 472,483-487, 489, 492, 493, 497-499 standard lead sheet sizes used in, 489, 490 use of lead in historic structures, 483-486

621

z zyxwvu zyxwv zyx Index

[Architecture] waterproofing, 483 (see also Waterproofing) weatherings, 377, 488, 489, 49 1, 493, 497 World Trade Center in New York City, 486, 488 ASTAG alloys, 446 ASTATIN alloys, 446 Atomic sizes, common alloy elements in lead, 28 Audible frequency range, 233 Automotive fuel tank production, 406 Babbit alloy, 531. 534, 538, 539 Bahnmetall, 539 Barton Pot process, 437 Base bullion. 16 Base-isolation structures, definition, 458 Basic lead, 225, 309, 340, 342 cast forms, 340 anodes, 342 pumps, 340 valves and pipe fittings, 340 vessels, 342 Batteries, 12, 35, 39, 325, 430-458, 570 emergency supplies, 430 industrial, 325, 430, 447, 457 lead-acid, 430-458 load leveling, 430, 452, 453 rotary expanded grids, 339 specific energy, 430, 449, 450 specific power, 430, 443, 446, 450 storage battery grids, 3 1, 35, 40, 310, 324, 332, 444, 446, 458 telegraphy, 43 1 Battery energy storage plants, 452454 Battery systems competing with leadacid battery, 430, 455 Bearing metal, 31, 32, 35, 39, 46, 323, 420, 534-539 boundary layer lubricants, 537

[Bearing metal] boundary lubrication of, 534 compositions and properties of, 538, 539 hydrodynamic lubrication of, 534 load-velocity (PV) curves, 536 mixed friction, 536 service requirements, 536-538 Bel, 233 Bell-and-spigot joints. 400 Bending stiffness, 234, 237, 238 Bipolar batteries, 446, 447 current discharge curve, 447, 448 Bird-shot, 328 (see ulso Lead shot) Bismuth removal from lead, 18, 35 Boiling water reactor (BWR), 505507, 520 Bonded lead, 4 12-41 5 cold rolling, 414 spot bonding, 415 welding and casting, 415 Breaking strain, I 18 (see also Elongation) Brick lead, 416-418 Brick wall infills, 476-479 Build-up factor, 287, 290, 291, 294, 304, 504 Burial caskets, 541

zyx

Cable sheathing, 12, 31, 35, 39, 40, 46. 48, 50, 163,168,183,196, 228, 229, 343, 360-370, 398, 407,430, 570-584 buried cables mechanical darnage, 576 protective coating, 577 communication cable, 57 I fatigue failure, 168, 572 gas-filled cables, 572 high voltage oil filled cables, 571 inclusions, 58 1 mechanical damage, 584 paper insulated lead power cable (PILC), 573-574 power cable, 571 production, 582

Index

zyxwvut zy zyxwvu zyxw zyxwvutsrq 623

[Cable sheathing] Ingot sizes, 583 service requirements, 57 1 types of insulation, 573 Cable sheathing alloys, 39, 361, 579, 582, 584 (see also Cable sheathing) compositions, 579 influence of alloying additions, S79 intermetallic precipitates, 584 mechanical properties on storage, 142 Capture gamma ray emission from alloying elements in lead, 289 Castability, 40, 336, 444, S39 Casting of lead and lead alloys, 3 10342 lead shot, 327, 569 influence of arsenic addition, 327 linear shrinkage allowance for lead, 319 mold materials, 316 pattern makers allowance, 319 volume change on freezing, 320 ( s e c d s o Properties of lead and lead alloys: mass) CCD (see Circumscribing-circle diameter) Chemical lead, 46, 206, 207, 225, 232, 284, 342, 356, 418 Church organ, 482 Circumscribing-circle diameter, definition, 344 Coble creep, 92 Coefficient of internal friction, definition, 274 lead and lead alloys, 292-295 concentration and frequency dependence, 276 Coffin-Manson relationship, 180 Coincidence dip, 237 Coincidence region, 237 Collapsible tubes, 40, 360, 539 Cominco’s rotary expansion process, 332

Commercial high level waste (CHLW), 509 (see also Highlevel nuclear waste) Common solder alloys, 55 1 Composites of lead, 234, 238, 245 Concentration polarization, 432 Constant stress creep tests, 141 Constitutional supercooling, 3 18 Continuous casting, 328-340, 435 CEAc grid casting process, 332 Cominco’s multi-alloy strip caster, 332 Continuous Properzi process, 329 DM process, 331 melt drag, 329 melt extraction, 329 twin roll casting, 329 Continuous Properzi ingot casting, 327 Controlled collapse chip connection (C4), 563 Copper-bearing lead, 203, 232, 488 Corrosion resistance of lead and lead alloys, 39, 46, 47, 50, 192, 197-232, 277, 283, 309, 337, 342, 356, 360, 412, 414, 418, 42 I , 424, 435, 444, 445, 487, 508, 509, 512, 550-573, 585 Creep creep strength-temperature-stress plot, 167 definition, 123 different stages, 145 influence of additions in solid solution, 155 influence of age-hardening, I 56 influence of prestrain, I 57 data of lead alloys, 162 lead single crystals, 152 influence of solutes, 152 measurement, 149 under multi-axial stress state, 159 polycrystalline lead influence of grain size, 154 influence of stress, 154 temperature, 154

zyxw

zyxwvutsrqpon

z zyxw zy Index

624 [Creep] strength of lead single crystal, 153 tests, 141, 163 Creep curve, idealized, 145 Creep design of lead pipes, 160 Creep-fatigue interaction, 169 Critical frequency, 237, 238, 240 Critical resolved shear stress, 106, 107, 152 for creep of lead single crystal, 152 Crystal ware, 589 Dampers, 458 Damping capacity, 458 DC continuous casting, 327 Decibel, 232, 233 Deep discharge recovery, 336 Defense High Level Waste (DHLW), 509 Deformation mechanism, 57, 104 Deoxidation of the melt, aluminum addition, 316, 321 Desilverization of lead, 49 Diffusional creep, 84, 86, 92, 104, 106, 153-155, 579 Dip casting, 329 Directional solidification, 3 1X Dispersions in lead alloys, 1 12, 361 Drag soldering, 559 Dross, 15-17, 35, 310, 312, 313, 316, 415, 44.5, 446, 457, 539 Drossing, 313, 314, 316 in agitated lead melt, 314 effect of alloying elements, 314 in still air, 314 Drossing of lead antimony alloys, influence of arsenic addition, 316 Dual battery concepts, 450 Dual-in-line packages (DIP), 562 Dynanlic hardness, 122 Dynamic recrystallization, 92, 105, 114

[Earthquakes] Northridge earthquake, Los Angeles, 470, 472-474 simulation test equipment, 461 Effective strain rate, 159 Effective stress, 159 Effect of grain size on the fatigue strength, 185 Electric arc spray process, 422 (s(v ulso Spray coatings) Electrodeposited coatings, 426 Electrolytic lead, 20, 30, 113, 116 Electrolytic refining, 18 Electronic packaging, chip level connections, 563 Electroplating, 229, 327, 426, 586 Electrotypes, 53 1 Elongation, 118, 123, 141, 149, 160, 566 Encephalopathy, 597 Endurance limit, detinition, 172 Expanded lead-lined pipe, 41 2 Extrusion cable sheathing, 360-370 continuous screw presses, 361, 362 Pirelli press, 370 ram type presses, 361 extrusion pressure estimations of, 346 influence of extrusion rates, 350 influence of reduction ratio, 350 influence of temperature, 347 shape factor, 350 flow process, modeling, 353 impact, 360 pipes, 355 process modeling tinite element analysis, 355 lower bound analysis, 355 slip-line filed analysis, 355 upper bound analysis, 355 rods, 355-360 wires, 355-360

zyxwvu zyxwvu

Earthquakes Great Hanshin earthquake in Kobe, Japan, 459, 474-476

Index

zy zyx zyxwvut zyxwvu 625

Extrusion of lead and lead alloys. 343, 344, 349, 354, 355, 582 direct extrusion, 344, 347, 354, 355, 356 extrusion pressure, 344 geometries, 344 indirect extrusion, 344, 356 lubrication, effect of, 344, 375, 534. 536, 538 Extrusion presses, 326, 355 horizontal presses, 355 hydraulic presses, 355 vertical presses, 355 Extrusion ratio, definition, 344

Fatigue crack initiation,182, 183 definition, 168 plastic strain range, 180 structural features in, 180 types of fluctuating stress, 170 Fatigue failures, in cable-sheathing, 168, S72 Fatigue limit, definition, 172 Fatigue strength, 172 Field dry wells, 520 Flame spray process, 422 (see also Spray coatings) Flat roof, use of lead sheet in, 499 Fluidity definition, 3 16 factor determining, 3 17 spiral fluidity test, 317 Flux cored solder wire, 370 Fluxes for soldering, 557 Frictional forces in load leveling, 162 Fusible alloys, 430, 542-546, S53 designations and compositions, 543 engineering uses, 545 Fusible links, 545 Fusion welded joints, 377 Fusion welding of lead, 380 lead pipe positions, 393 oxy-acetylene gas welding, 380, 389 oxy-hydrogen gas welding. 380

[Fusion welding of lead] oxy-natural gas welding, 380 oxy-propane gas welding, 380 pipe joints, 384 sheet lead positions, 389 flat position, 389 overhead position, 392, 393 vertical position, 384, 39 l , 394, 400 undercut seams, 387 welding positions, 387 welding techniques, 387

Gal, definition, 474 Gamma ray attenuation coefficient of lead, 277 Gamma ray interaction with matter, 286 General Motors EVI electric vehicle, 449 Geological nuclear waste repositories corrosion performance of lead in, 513 factors influencing, 5 12 ground water chemistry, 5 14 peak operating temperatures, 5 12 Geologic environments for nuclear waste disposal, 51 I Glasses, flint, 590 Glover tray system. 361 Grain boundary migration, 112, I14 Grain-boundary sliding, 147 Grain growth, 35, 106, 1 IO, I 1 I , 112, 116, 147, 185, 573 Grain refinement, 29, 38, 39, 116, 117, 327 Grain retining, 35, 116, 117 Grain size, 38, 48, 92, 104, 106, 1 10, 112, 114, 116-1 18, 121, 141, 154, 185, 190, 426, 444, 445. 573, 579 Gravity die casting, 322-324 antimony lead blocks, 322 automobile battery grid plates, 322 lead bricks for radiation protection, 322

zyxwvuts

zyxwv

626

zyxwvu z zyxwvu index

zyxwv zyxwvu zyxw

Hansson-Robertson extruders, 362, 363, 367, 370 lists of machines in operation, 363 Hardness of lead and lead alloys, 3 I , 32, 34, 38, 39, 41, 44, 46, 11 I , 120-123, 188, 190, 206, 225, 226, 232, 276, 283, 284, 321, 377, 424, 445, 532, 536, 539, 550, 569 Harper-Dorn creep, 86, 104, 106 Harris process, 18 Heat treating baths, S46 High cycle fatigue, definition, 172 High-level nuclear waste, 290, 303, 304, 307, 5 13 High pressure die casting, 324, 325 die materials, 325 heat transfer coefficients, 324 lead alloy parts made by, 325 lead pot temperatures, 324 High purity lead, 106, 114, 313, 437 Hot-cells, 500 Hot dipped coating, 424 Hot dip soldering, S59 Human voice range, 233 ICRP. 281 Impact extrusion (SW Extrusion) Impact resistance, 123 Imperial smelt process, 16 Infilled frame structures. 476 lead alloys for, 477 load transmission, 477 Ingot casting, 325, 327 cast texture, 326 columnar crystal growth, 326 long range segregation, 327 Internal friction, 26 1, 274-276, 292295 Isasmelt process, 16 IV-VI compounds, S91

Journal bearings, 536 KIVCET process, 16, 17

Large scale energy storage instantaneous reserve, 452 load frequency control, 452 load leveling, 45 1 worldwide installations, 453 Larsen-Miller parameter, 152 Lattice bending, 147 Lattice parameter, 19, 52 Lead ( w e also Chemical lead; Electrolytic lead; High purity lead; Pattinson lead; Secondary lead; Sheet lead; Sintered lead; Soft lead) atomic weight, 19, 20, 296 compression modulus, 20 consumption, 6 world ranking among metals, 1 corrosion data in different chemical environments, 203 corrosion rates in acids in acetic acid, 202 in acid sodium sulfate, 202 in chromic acid, 201 in fluosilicic acid, 207 in formic acid, 202 in hydrochloric acid, 201 i n hydrofluoric, 202 i n mixed acids containing sulphuric acid, 203 in nitric acid, 202 i n phosphoric acid, 201, 202 in sulfuric acid, 201 i n sulfurous acid, 201 corrosion resistance (.see ulso Corrosion resistance of lead and lead alloys) in atmospheric exposure, 204 in chemical process solution, 208 classifications in different environment, 2 I O i n contact with passivated stainless steel, 198 in contact with steel, AI, Zn, Cd and Mg, 198 in contact with titanium, 198 different forms of, 200

zyx

index

zy zyxwvut

zyxwvu 627

[Lead] in distilled water free of oxygen and carbon dioxide, 225 in distilled water, effect of dissolved oxygenkarbon dioxide ratio, 225 in domestic water, 226, 227 in industrial water, 226, 227 in natural outdoor atmosphere, 224 nature of protective films, 198 in natural water, 225, 227 in sea water, 226 in soft aerated waters, 226 in soil, 228 in soil, bacterial, 229 in soil, effect of stray currents, 229 solubility of lead compounds in water,198, 199 solubility of lead nitrate in nitric acid, 200 solubility of lead sulphate in sulphuric acid, 199 solubility of PbS04 film in sulfuric acid. 198 in various chemical solutions, 207 in water, 22.5 crystal structure, 19, 27,36, 104 drossing, 15, 16, 310, 314, 445, 446, 457, S39 ( w e c r l s o Dross; Drossing) economic reserves, 3 electrochemical properties, 24, 25 fatigue strength data, 193 health and safety, 2.18 air and biological exposure limits, 600 chronic overexposure, 19, 599 lead absorption into the body, 18, 594 lead aerosols, respiratory protection, 600 lead exposure, 594 lead pathways to human. S94

[Lead] occupational exposure, 600 work practice controls, 603 major consumers, I nature of corrosion in aqueous electrolytes, 197 ore minerals, 2 associated minerals, 3 Poisson’s ratio, 20 primary market, 12 production of refined, 6, 8 recovery, 17, 18, 109,110, 111, 112,146, 309, 336, 374, 429, 457, 458, 559, 567, 585 recrystallization, 29, 30, 34, 38, 86, 92, 105, 110, 111, 112, 113, 114,116,146,156, 185, 309, 339, 374,443, 459. S73 regulatory standards, 19 relative abundance in earth’s crust, 2 relative isotopic abundance, 19 shear modulus, 20,80,104,108 sources of, 2 theoretical density, 20 velocity of sound, 20, 237, 275 Young’s modulus, 20 Lead-acid batteries, IS, 433, 430, 433, 438, 441, 443, 444, 44X, 451, 456 a-Pb02, 431,436, 437 basic electrochemistry, 43 1 basic design, 433 battery grid alloys with IOW antimony, 444 P-Pb02, 431, 436, 437 cell voltage, variation with temperature, 432 current-voltage curves, 432 equilibrium cell voltage, 432 equilibrium voltage, 43 1 expanders, 438 GM Electric Vehicle EV 1, 449 grid production techniques, 435 insulating separator sheets, 438

zyxwvuts zyx zyxwvutsr

z zyxwv Index

[Lead-acid batteries] lead-antimony alloys, influence of As, Sn, Ag, Se, Cu, S, and Cd as ternary additions, 444 maintenance free, 438 manufacture, 438 monolithic battery cases, 438 motive power, 448 negative electrode, 43 1 negative electrode paste, 437 negative electrodes, 437 overvoltage, 432 for hydrogen evolution, 433 for oxygen evolution, 433 portable sealed VRLA, 451 positive electrode, 43 1, 433-435, 437. 440, 441 positive electrode grid paste, 434 positive plate, degradation mechanisms. 445 self discharge, 433 specific power, factors controlling increase, 450 standby batteries, 450 theoretical storage capacity, 432 tubular plate electrode, 437 valve-regulated with immobilized electrolyte. 440 water decomposition, 432 Lead and lead alloys assigned UNS numbers, 58 compositions as per UNS, 59 corrosion resistance in environment, 192 factor responsible for, 192 in soils, 192 in sulphur containing environments, 192 in water, 192 creep-fatigue interaction, 185 fatigue, 168- 197 choice between bending strain vs bending stress criteria, 187 intergranular fracture, 190 intragranular fracture, 190 fatigue strength, 183

[Lead and lead alloys] effect of environment, 183 effect of grain size on, 185 frequency dependence, 183 temperature dependence, 189 internal friction behavior, 261 lead-antimony alloys, 35, 39-46, SO, 114, 117-119, 147, 155, 156, 162, 163, 167, 171, 174, 175, 177-180. 185, 187-190, 22.5, 283, 315-318, 320. 321, 323-325, 327, 331, 335, 336, 342, 349, 370, 373-375, 397, 433, 437, 444-446, 458, 477, 488, 532, 539, 547, 586 lead-arsenic alloys, 31, 162. 174, 189, 317 lead-barium alloys, 3 1 lead-bismuth alloys, 34, 35, 153, 163, 175. 292, 543 lead-cadmium alloys, 39, 40, 155, 156, 292. 542 lead-calcium alloys, 31, 34, 35, 38, 39, 1 15, 116, 156, 162, 163, 167, 171. 172, 174, 190, 191, 283, 314, 323, 324, 331, 335337, 342. 437, 444-446, S85 lead-copper alloys, 39, 48, 109, 1 IO, 116,117.153-155, 157, 161, 163, 167.172-174,177, 178-180, 284,477,479 lead-gold alloys, 1 15 lead-indium alloys, SO, 52, 155, 156, 292 lead-lithium alloys, SO, 5 I , 116, 284, 446 lead-nickel alloys, I17 lead-silver alloys, 29-3 I , 50, 1 15, 116. 153, 163, 167. 322, 335, 551, 585, 586 lead-strontium, 445 lead-tellurium alloys, 30, 48, 116118, 120, 153, 163.167, 171, 178-180, 284, 314. 477 lead-tin alloys, 46-48, 50. 54, 107, 109, I IO, 112, 113, 117, 118,

zy

zy zyxwv zyx

Index

zy zyxwvut zyxwvu zyxwvu zyxwvuts zyxwvu

[Lead and lead alloys] 147, 155, 157, 158, 171,174, 175, 185, 187, 225, 292, 318, 319, 342, 360, 397, 401, 404, 414, 424, 479, 480, 48 I , 53 1, 534, 537, 539, 541, 542, 551, 566, S67 lead-zinc alloys, 49, S0 Pb-Ag-In alloys, S0 Pb-alkali alloys, S39 Pb-As-Sn alloys, 3 1, 4 4 , 163 Pb-Bi-Sn alloys, S43 Pb-Bi-Sn-Ca alloys, S43 Pb-Bi-Sn-Cd alloys, S43 Pb-Bi-Sn-In alloys, SS5 Pb-Ca-Ag alloys, 335, 339, 444, 585, S86 Pb-Ca-AI alloys, 444 Pb-Ca-Sn-Ag alloys, 335, 337, 339, 44s Pb-Ca-Sn-Ag-AI alloys, 446 Pb-Ca-Sn alloys, 35, 37, 39, SO, 56, 335, 336, 342, 444, 445, S79 Pb-Cd-Bi-Sn alloys, S43 Pb-Cd-Sb alloys, 184, 189, 349, 444 Pb-Cd-Sn alloys, 184, 186, 349, 444, S42 Pb-Cd-Sn-Zn alloys, S42 Pb-Cu-Te alloys, 48, 176, 477, 579, S84 Pb-Sb-Ag alloys, SO, 53, S86 Pb-Sb-As alloys, 31, 120,156,159, 169, 190, 206, 445 Pb-Sb-As-Sn-Bi alloys, 188 Pb-Sb-Cu-Te alloys, S84 Pb-Sb-Sn alloys, 35, SO, S S , 185, 316, 318, 320, 323, 325, 444, S3 1, 532, S87 Pb-Sb-Sn-As alloys, 187, 188, 397, 424 Pb-Sb-Sn-Cu alloys, S38 Pb-Sb-Znalloys, 188, 190 Pb-Sn-Ag alloys, 3 1, SO, 54, SS 1, 554, S86

629

[Lead and lead alloys] Pb-Sn-Ag-In alloys, SS5 Pb-Sn-alkali alloys, S39 Pb-Sn-Cd-Zn alloys, S42 Pb-Sn-Cu alloys, S37 Pb-Sn-Cu-Sb alloys, 538 Pb-Sn-Li alloys, 145 phase diagrams lead-antimony-silver alloys, S3 lead-antimony-tin alloys, S S lead-arsenic alloys, 32 lead-barium alloys, 33 lead-bismuth alloys, 36 lead-cadmium alloys, 40 lead-calcium alloys, 37 lead-calcium-tin alloys, S6 lead-copper alloys, 4 1 lead-indium alloys, S2 lead-lithium alloys, S1 lead-silver alloys, 30 lead-tellurium alloys, 48 lead-tin alloys, 47 lead-tin-silver alloys, S4 lead-zinc alloys, 49 Lead and lead based laminates, acoustic data, 234 Lead anodes, 3 I , 342, 585, S86 cathodic protection, S85 ship hulls, S86 electrogalvanizing, 585, S86 electrowinning, S85 performance, comparison with other anode materials, S86 Lead-based composite laminates, 234 Lead-based noise control materials, 234, 235 Lead-based semiconductors, S9 1 Lead beads, l Lead brick, 277, 500, S30 Lead bullets, 32.5, 569, S70 Lead burning, 380, 499 (see also Fusion welding of lead) Lead cames, 487 Lead chalcogenides, S9 1 Lead chalcogenides use in IR detector, S92

zyx

630

zy zy Index

zyxwvuts

Lead clad detonation cords jetcord, S41 x-cord, S41 Lead coated fiberglass mat, 261 Lead coatings, 42 I Lead coins, I Lead collapsible tubes, S39 Lead collimator, 526 Leaded glass, 530, S90 Leaded vinyl aprons, S26 Leaded vinyls, S30 Lead-fiberglass mat composites, 26 I Lead floor linings, 410 Lead foil, 375, 539, S41 Lead form, 309 basic lead, 309, 340 bonded lead, 229, 309, 340, 412, 416 brickbead, 309, 416-418 lead coatings, 309, 426 supported lead, 309, 407 Lead free solders, 567 Lead glasses Cerenkov detectors, S91 chrominance delay lines, S90 fiber optic cable, 591 Lead glasses, optical, S90 Lead glass windows, 526, 590 Lead in atmosphere, international standards, 595 Lead in drinking water, international standards, 595 Lead in glass, S89 Lead in packaging, S39 Lead in sealing, S39 Lead in the environment, 594 Lead-lined blocks, 530 Lead melting pot, elimination and trapping of inclusions, S83 Lead mine production, 4 Lead mines, 4, 6 Lead ore deposits. 2, 3, 4 formation, 3 Lead ore minerals anglesite, 2, 3 crussite, 2, 3 galena, 2, 3, 15

Lead pipes. 160, 185, 192,343, 356, 399 Lead poisoning, 19, 594, 597 Lead producers, I O Lead sheet, 2, 161, 206, 240, 24 I , 248, 249, 261, 277, 310, 332, 371-377, 380-384, 387, 389394, 397, 399, 407-410, 414, 419, 421, 422, 43.5, 446, 483499, 501, 526, 530, S70 Lead sheet joints, 381 Lead sheets in architecture, 483 Lead-shielded cask for radioactive transport and storage, S04 Lead shot calibrated, 330 high precision, S70 influence of arsenic addition, S69 Lead strip, 329, 330, 331, 332, 334, 335, 355, 3.56, 375, 529 Lead-tin alloys for organ pipes, 480 Lead-tin based bearings, S34 Lead-tin solders, S42 commercial forms, S S 1 melting characteristics, S S 1 Lead tube clad detonating cords, S42 Lead-vinyl composite sheet, 248 Lead water pipes, 1 Lead weights. 547 Leaning Tower of Pisa, S47 Light bulbs, SS0 Linear absorption coefficient, 287 Linotype, 53 1 Logarithmic decrement, 20, 274 Long freezing range alloys, 3 l8 Low cycle fatigue, definition, 172 Low-level waste, 301, 304, 306, 307, 504 Low melting point alloys (see Fusible alloys) Low specific activity, S02

zyx

zyxwvu Machining of lead, 418 die cutting and stamping, 418 waterjet cutting, 419 Maintenance free batteries, 438

Index

zy zyxwvut zyx 631

Malleability, I , 458, 459, 493, 539 Mansford roofs, 490 Martens mirror extensometer, 149 Mass attenuation coefficient, 287, 288 Mass attenuation coefficient for lead, 288 Matte, 16, 226, 229, 279, 280, 286, 422, S05 Mean stress, 17 1 Measurements of airborne sound transmission, 242 Mechanical fastening cage supported equipment, 408 lead sheet to steel vessels, 407 loose-lined equipment, 407 Mechanical joints, 377 batten seam, 377 bossing, 377 drip joints, 377 flat-lock seam, 377 hollow roll, 377, 491 standing seam, 377, 49 I , 492 wood-cored roll, 377, 491 Mechanically fastening, 407 lead sheet to wood/concrete walls, 407 Melting of lead, 310, 362 furnaces, 3 I O pots, 310 Metal forming process, 342-377 Miner’s rule in fatigue, 180 Mixed fission products, 296 Moh’s hardness, 120 Molten lead in heat transfer, S47 Patenting, S46 Monitored retrievable storage (MRS), 506, 508, S20 Monotype, S3 I , S33 Moss growth, treatment of, 497

Neutron activation, 278 Nitroglycerin, 570 Nuclear reactors, 303, 499 Nuclear radiation shielding, 20, SO, 276-307, 499-526 Nuclear waste disposal plans of different countries, 5 10 Nuclear waste, geologic disposal, S08 Nuclear waste package, lithostaticpressure-protection, S09 Nuclear waste transport and storage containers, 304

Octave bands, 242, 243 Organ pipes, 46, 479 church organs, pipes in, 482 lead alloy sheet, manufacturing, 480 stop pipes in, 482 Tabernacle in Salt Lake City, 481 Oxidation of lead, 31 1 blue film formation time, 316 influence of alloying elements, 3 13 influence of antimony content, 3 15 kinetics, 3 12 lead controlling step, 312 parabolic rate constant, 312 Parkes zinc desilvering process, 18 Patenting, S46 Patina, 497 Patination oil, 496 Pattinson lead, 18, 1 16 Pattinson process, l 8 PbO, 311, 312, 316, 431, 433, 436, 44 I , 445,457, 509, 589-59 1 PbS, S9 1 PbSe, S91 PbTe, S91 for thermo-electric applications, S92 Peierls’ stress, 80 Performance of creep tests, 149 Phase diagrams (SWulso Lead and lead alloys: phase diagrams) Pilling and Bedworth ratio, 3 12

zyxwvut zyxwvuts zyx

Nabarro-Herring creep, 92 Narrow band gap semiconductors, S9 1 Neutron absorption by alloying elements in lead, 283

632

zyxwvu zy Index

zyxwvu zyxwvu zyxwvut zyxwvu

Pipe alloys. 39 Pirelli press, 370 Pitched roofs, 492, 498 Plain bearing, 534 Plant6 plates, 35. 433 Plasma spray process. 422 (see ulso Spray coatings) Plaster mold process, 322 Plate making line, 334 Plumber’s joint, S78 Plumber’s soil, 400 Polygonization, 1 1 I , 155 Positive plate production. factors considered in, 336 Power law creep, X 1, 84, 86. 92, 105, 154, 155, S79 Precipitates in lead alloys, 36. 38. 46, 49, 81, 109, 112, 117, 146, 156. 162. 579. 582, 584 Premature capacity loss (PCL), 445 Pressure-equalizing material ( s e c crlso Frictional forces in load leveling) Pressurized water reactor (PWR), 505, S20 Primary creep. 145 Printing types, 530, 53 1 Production of lead metal. 15 drossing. IS, 16, 310. 314. 445. 446, 457, 539 froth flotation. 15 lend concentrate, I6 ore dressing, 15 relining. IS. 17. 18. 31, 35, 40, 116, 117. 301. 327, 342, 4.57. 458, 539, S85 coppcr rcmoval, 17 softening. I8 slag composition. I6 smelting. X. IS, 16, 17 Properties of lead and lead alloys acoustic. 20. 25, 232-295, 480 mass law, 235. 237, 241 damping. 2, I S, 20. 159, 234. 237, 238. 274. 275. 429, 458-46 I . 474. 548

[Properties of lead and lead alloys] elastic, 20, 476 clectrical. 38, 52, 87, 547 electrochemical, 27, 444, 445 mass, 52, 93 mechanical, 25. 35, 39, 57-192, 331, 361, 381, 412, 435. 445, 446, 547, 553, 579, 583 natural logarithmic damping constant, 20 nuclear, 276 physical, 20, 25, 29-57, 229, 277, 490, 567, 574 thermal, 57, 98 viscosity, 4 1 Properzi continuous casting and direct rolling, 329 QSL process, 16, 17 Quantum well type structures, 592

Radiation definition, 278 gamma, 2, 20, 40, 276. 277, 278, 279, 282, 283, 285, 286, 288, 290, 295, 296. 298, 303. 499. 504, 505, 590 ionizing. 2, 279, 280 neutron, 2, 20, 35, 40. 5 0 , 278, 279, 280, 282, 283, 284, 285, 288, 289, 296, 298, 504, 505 x-ray. 2. 147, 418. 419. 527, 528, 529, 530, 590 Radiation attenuation, calculation. 289 Radiation shiclding. 20, 34. 35. 48, 192. 278. 285. 356. 430, 499, 50 1, 504, 526, 527, 590 (sec o l s o Nuclear radiation shiclding) CT scanner. S26 forms of lend used, 2x5 industrial and medical, 526 industrial radiography. S28 lead bricks. casting, S00 nuclear facilities, 499 nuclear wastc packages, 499

zyxwvut

zy

Index

zy zyxwvut zyxwvu

[Radiation shielding] in portable nuclear reactors, 501 x-ray installations, 529 Radiation shielding windows, 590 Radioactive transport and storage containers, use of lead, 501 Radon shield, 498 RAPS, 456 Recrystallization diagrams, 1 16 Recrystallization temperature, 1 14 Recycling of lead from batteries, 457 hydrometallurgical schemes, 457 problem elements, 457 pyrometallurgical schemes, 457 Red lead oxide, 31 1 Reduction in area, 118, 151 Relaxation length, 288 Relaxation tests, 141 rem (see Roentgen equivalent mammal) Remote area power supplies, 456 Reprocessed nuclear waste, SOX, 509, 520 Required lead shield thickness for gamma radiation. 295 Resonance frequency, 235, 275 Roentgen equivalent mammal, 281 Rolling, 370 antimonial lead sheets, 377 duplex lead sheets, 377 lead sheets/foils, process of, 229, 375 process description, 37 1 resistance to deformation, 373 spreading of the strip, 371 torque, 37 1 Rolling mills, types of, 371 Rose’s metal, 543 Rotary expander, 334 Rupture strength, 15 1

633

Sand cast parts, 321 Screen printing, 565 Sealants, in roofing, 496 Sealed storage casks, 520 Seals, 539, 541, 545 Secondary creep, 145 Secondary lead, 8, 10, 12, 582 Seismic isolation interfaces, 458 Seismic protection, 2, 15, 20, 458 base-isolation, cost versus benefit, 476 buildings using base isolation system, 470 City Hall, Salt Lake City, 470 dampers, 458 accumulated plastic deformation, 464, 467, 469 energy dissipation capability, 465 yield shear coefficient, 467 dampers yield strength, sQy, 469 dampers yield strength, detinition, 470 Great Hanshin earthquake, performance of base isolated buildings, 474 isolation interface, base shear coefficient, 467 isolation system integrated, 459 independent hybrid. 459 isolators, 458-460, 474 lead dampers, 459-462, 476 lead damper shapes, 460 lead-rubber bearing, 459 Northridge earthquake, performance of base-isolated buildings, 470 period of the base-isolated building, 469 rubber bearing dampers, 459, 474 selected base-isolated buildings in Japan, 470 shock wave, equivalent velocity, V,, 467 U-type dampers, 461 law of similitude, 465 scale up, 465

zyxwvutsrq

Sabine equation, 242 Safety devices, 542 Salinity, definition, 226 Sand casting, 310, 321, 322

zyxw

Index

634 [Seismic protection] U-type lead dampers, 461, 462 energy dissipation, 464 energy dissipation, frequency and amplitude dependence, 464 evaluation, 464 specifications, 462 Seismic protection devices, 458 Seismically isolated structures, detinitioln (see Base isolated structures) Semi-Durville casting, 327 Sheet lead used in radon shielding, 497 (sce also Lead sheet) Sherby-Dorn parameter, 1S 1 Shielding thickness for gamma radiation, 285 Short freezing range alloys, 3 I8 Shot (see Lead shot) Shot towers, S69 Shrinkage, 31, 41 Sinter-blast furnace, 16 SLI batteries, 332, 430, 447-449 Slip-band extrusions, 1 82 Slip-band intrusions, 182 Slipsystems, 107, 109 S-N curves, 172, 185 Sodium treatment, lead melts, 582 Softlead, 40, 168, 187,S41 Softening, 18, 31, 40, 1 10, 113, 114, 566, S90 Solderability of different metals, SS9 Soldering joint types branch joints, 400 butt joints, 399 cup joints, 400 lap joints, 398 lock joints, 399 pipe joints, 399 wiped joints, 400 lead to other metals, 401 non-CFC fluxes, 56.5 process description, 397 solder alloys, 397, 550, SS3 surface preparation for, SS6 wiping, 397

Soldering fluxes, 397 inorganic type, 558 no clean fluxes, SS9 organic type, SS8 rosin, S S 8 Soldering in electronic assemblies, S62 Soldering process description, SS0 Soldering processes, SS9 Solder joint design, SS3 Solders, 550-568 Sound levels, 232 Sound level unit (see Bel, decibel) Sound reduction index, 235, 238, 240-243, 245 Sound transmission class, 243, 248, 26 1 Sources of radiation, nuclear fuel cycle, 295 Specific work of impact, 122 Speiss layer, 16 Spent fuel storage, 307, SOS, SO8 Spent nuclear fuel elements, 303, 304, 307, S06 Spotty metal, 48 1 Spray coatings, 421 porosity, 422 SRI (see Sound reduction index) Stacking-fault energy of lead, 147 STC (see Sound transmission class) Steady state creep, 84, 147, 149, 152, 160 Stereotype, S3 I , S32 Storage of renewable energy, 453 Strainhardening, 108,113,146,152, 309 Stress ratio, 171 Stress-rupture curves, 162 Stress-rupturedata, 141, 162 Stress-rupture test, IS 1 Strip uncoiler, 334 Structural changes during creep, 147 Structural stability, 39, 458, 572, 573, S84 Subatomic particle detectors, S27 Subgrain growth, 1 I I

z

zyxwvu zyxwvuts zyxwvu zyxwvu zyxwv zyxw

Index

zyxwvu z 635

zy zyxwvu zyxwvu zyxwvu

Subgrain structure, 147 Superconductors, high temperature containing lead, 587 Surface mount technology (SMT), 562

Tape automated bonding (TAB), 563 TCLP leach test, 458 Telephone cables, 185, 573 Tensile strength, 39, 50, 113, 117120, 283, 284, 444,469, 566 Terne (see Terneplate) Terneplate, 47, 192, 3 10, 377, 401, 402, 404, 406, 425, 429 soldering, 404 welding, 401 arc and oxyfuel welding, 404 resistance seam welding, 402 resistance spot welding, 404 welding automotive fuel tanks (sce Automotive fuel tank product ion) Tertiary creep, 146 Tetraethyl lead, 594 Thermal activation, 57, 81 Thermal neutron capture cross-section of alloying elements in lead, 289 Through-hole technology. 562 Tin-free solders. 55 I Transmission loss, 233, 238, 242, 248, 249, 261 Type metals, compositions and properties, 5 3 I , 532 Ultrasonic soldering, 561 Underground waste repositories, 228, 506

Unified Numbering System (UNS), 52 U.S. Nuclear Waste Policy Act, 508 Vacuum seals, light bulbs, 541, 550 Valve-regulated lead-acid (VRLA) batteries, 440, 449 VRLA batteries corrosion of positive grid, 443 oxygen cycle in, 441

Waste immobilization in vitreous glass, 509 Waste packages, roll of lead, 508 Waterprooting, 192, 332, 430, 483, 485 Wave soldering, 559 Weight balancing applications, 547 computer disk drives, 547 Welding of lead electrical welding, 396 friction stir welding, 394 loose-lock mechanical joints, 380 terneplate (see Terneplate) Welding safety, 396 White metals, 537-539 Wire bonding, 563 Wood’s metal, 543 X-ray housing, 526 X-ray intensifying screens, 527

Yellow lead oxide, 31 1 Yield strength, 104, 117, 120, 123, 185, 344, 346, 444, 46 I , 462, 464,469,470 Zero emission vehicle, 12, 15 Zone melting, 18