Energy conversion systems : an overview 9781536191318, 1536191310

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ENERGY SCIENCE, ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY

ENERGY CONVERSION SYSTEMS AN OVERVIEW

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ENERGY SCIENCE, ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY

ENERGY CONVERSION SYSTEMS AN OVERVIEW

SAURABH MANI TRIPATHI AND

SANJEEVIKUMAR PADMANABAN EDITORS

Copyright © 2021 by Nova Science Publishers, Inc. All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means: electronic, electrostatic, magnetic, tape, mechanical photocopying, recording or otherwise without the written permission of the Publisher. We have partnered with Copyright Clearance Center to make it easy for you to obtain permissions to reuse content from this publication. Simply navigate to this publication’s page on Nova’s website and locate the “Get Permission” button below the title description. This button is linked directly to the title’s permission page on copyright.com. Alternatively, you can visit copyright.com and search by title, ISBN, or ISSN. For further questions about using the service on copyright.com, please contact: Copyright Clearance Center Phone: +1-(978) 750-8400 Fax: +1-(978) 750-4470 E-mail: [email protected].

NOTICE TO THE READER The Publisher has taken reasonable care in the preparation of this book, but makes no expressed or implied warranty of any kind and assumes no responsibility for any errors or omissions. No liability is assumed for incidental or consequential damages in connection with or arising out of information contained in this book. The Publisher shall not be liable for any special, consequential, or exemplary damages resulting, in whole or in part, from the readers’ use of, or reliance upon, this material. Any parts of this book based on government reports are so indicated and copyright is claimed for those parts to the extent applicable to compilations of such works. Independent verification should be sought for any data, advice or recommendations contained in this book. In addition, no responsibility is assumed by the Publisher for any injury and/or damage to persons or property arising from any methods, products, instructions, ideas or otherwise contained in this publication. This publication is designed to provide accurate and authoritative information with regard to the subject matter covered herein. It is sold with the clear understanding that the Publisher is not engaged in rendering legal or any other professional services. If legal or any other expert assistance is required, the services of a competent person should be sought. FROM A DECLARATION OF PARTICIPANTS JOINTLY ADOPTED BY A COMMITTEE OF THE AMERICAN BAR ASSOCIATION AND A COMMITTEE OF PUBLISHERS. Additional color graphics may be available in the e-book version of this book.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data ISBN: H%RRN

Published by Nova Science Publishers, Inc. † New York

CONTENTS Foreword

vii Jens Bo Holm-Nielsen

Preface

xi

Acknowledgments Chapter 1

Chapter 2

Chapter 3

Chapter 4

xiii

Converter Technologies for PV Systems: A Comprehensive Review Mehdi Niroomand and Fatemeh Nasr Esfahani

1

Control Structures of Grid-Tied Photovoltaic Systems Mehdi Niroomand and Fatemeh Nasr Esfahani

59

Development and Performance Analysis of Solar Tracking PV Systems Shashwati Ray, Abhishek Kumar Tripathi and Gourav Shankar Hybrid PV-Wind Energy Conversion System Hocine Belmili, Ahmed Medjber and Ridha Chikh

135

159

vi Chapter 5

Contents A Review on Wind Farm Reliability with Hybrid Cable Connection Vasundhara Mahajan, Atul Kumar Yadav, Doma Pranav, Ankireddy Aravind Reddy, Soumya Mudgal and Lalit Tak

Chapter 6

Hydrogen Fuel Cells: A Comprehensive Insight Anuradha Tomar and Ayush Mittal

Chapter 7

Energy Storage Systems: A Comprehensive Review Arvind Pratap, Prabhkar Tiwari, Bindeshwar Singh, Sumit Tiwari and S. N. Singh

Chapter 8

Introduction to Hydroelectric Power Generation Mahamad Nabab Alam

Chapter 9

Energy from Waste: A Case Study of the Energy Production Estimative from Biogas at the Sewage Treatment Plant in Itajubá, Minas Gerais, Brazil Alexandre Calixto Figueiredo, Bruno de Nadai Nascimento, Diogo Marujo, Denisson Queiroz Oliveira and Francisco Martins Portelinha Júnior

193

239

275

303

333

List of Reviewers

355

About the Editors

359

Index

363

FOREWORD Renewable Energy Sources (RESs) for electric-power conversion technologies grown-up promptly with a modern revolution in digital electronics. Today, energy and power engineers put up their innovation and discoveries to reach with the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals (UN SDG 17). In specific, to 7. Affordable and Clean Energy, 9. Industry, Innovation and Infrastructure, 11. Sustainable Cities and Communities, and 13. Climate Action, for 100% green energy-based solutions. Future of electric-power generation purely depends on photovoltaic (PV), wind, hydro-power, batteries, fuel-cell, tidal, biomass/biogas, etc. and new renewable available within the local society. Further, the application of power electronics, modern control system and advanced digital processors, safe-guard the specific distribution of power transfer to load demands. Such technologies lighten up the electric-power facilities from smart cities to remote areas, where electric-grid are not accessible. Gratified with my read through the book; it acquainted the strategic components of renewables to power generation technology for green architecture. Book served as a resource material for engineers, scientists and specialists, who involved or in becoming familiarized with green energy conversion for a clean atmosphere with an adaption of ‘more-renewable’ for power generation. Henceforth, it is my enormous gratification to preface this

viii

Jens Bo Holm-Nielsen

book input by the editors, Dr. Saurabh Mani Tripathi, KNIT, Sultanpur, India, and my colleague Dr. P. Sanjeevikumar, Aalborg University, Esbjerg, Denmark and contributed authors whosoever to this entitled ‘Energy Conversion Systems: An Overview’. The book volume includes nine original chapters dealing with the state-of-the-art with the exercises on the power conversion to storage technologies, and fundamental illustrations as below: In Chapter 1, Mehdi Niroomand and Fatemeh Nasr Esfahani present an extensive review on PV energy conversion approaches, involving the practical design of various PV plants and the circuit configuration of PV converter topologies suitable for the grid-tied PV systems. In Chapter 2, Mehdi Niroomand and Fatemeh Nasr Esfahani present an in-depth investigation of theoretical and up-to-date control procedures carried out in the grid-tied PV systems. They likewise reveal the smart PV systems which besides the vital element of transferring the solar PV source to electricity, regulates other facilities such as fault-ride-through (FRT) capability, grid support and flexible power controllability. In Chapter 3, Shashwati Ray, Abhishek Kumar Tripathi and Gourav Shankar describe the method, progression and fabrication of two prototypes tracker for PV panel systems built with a single-axis and dual-axis solar tracking controllers to transmit a maximum output of the solar panel. In Chapter 4, Hocine Belmili, Ahmed Medjber and Ridha Chikh present some models for fundamental factors driving up the hybrid energy systems. They likewise recommend a comparative review of different sizing methods of hybrid energy systems to designate the technique that delivers excellent accuracy and yield. In Chapter 5, Vasundhara Mahajan, Atul Kumar Yadav, Doma Pranav, Ankireddy Aravind Reddy, Soumya Mudgal and Lalit Tak present an examination on optimization technique on economic conditions of offshore wind cable connection. They also illustrate the life expectancy of the subseacable, which is mainly concerned because of abrasion and corrosion. In Chapter 6, Anuradha Tomar and Ayush Mittal present an extensive survey on fuel cell technology with insight details emerging from the invention and how it gained as an origin of energy in automobiles.

Foreword

ix

In Chapter 7, Arvind Pratap, Prabhkar Tiwari, Bindeshwar Singh, Sumit Tiwari and S.N. Singh present a thorough analysis on presently available energy storage technologies via classifying them based on the storage of energy form, technological and economic characteristics. In Chapter 8, Mahamad Nabab Alam presents an extensive summary on hydroelectric power generation, which involves the classification and designs of hydroelectric power plants, hydro-power system planning, hydro generating equipment and electrical layout of hydro-power plants. They also highlight the comprehensive growth of the hydro-based power sources and their additions in full electrical energy generation. In Chapter 9, Alexandre Calixto Figueiredo, Bruno de Nadai Nascimento, Diogo Marujo, Denisson Queiroz Oliveira and Francisco Martins Portelinha Júnior present a real case review on energy from waste, seeking to quantify methane from the biogas produced at the sewage treatment plant of (Sanitation Company of Minas Gerais State) COPASA at Itajubá, Minas Gerais, Brazil. I trust that this published volume has made up a broad collection of the courses on the subject; the readers are expected to inspiring and while carrying out their research in the sphere of Renewable Energy to Electric Power. Finally, I praise the editors, authors, press production group, and Nova Publishers for bring-up this book grant outcomes for the readers.

Jens Bo Holm-Nielsen, M.Sc., Ph.D. Head of the Center for Bioenergy and Green Engineering, Department of Energy Technology, Aalborg University, Esbjerg, Denmark.

PREFACE This edited book is intended to serve as a resource for engineers, scientists and specialists engaged in becoming familiarized with green energy conversion for a clean atmosphere with an adaption of ‘morerenewable’ for power generation. The book is comprised of nine original chapters dealing with state-of-the-design exercises on power conversion/storage technologies. It highlights the critical features of energy technology for green engineering for the future. This edited volume is an extensive collection of state-of-the-art studies on the subject.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS The editors would admire to acknowledge all the authors who have established their value besides this published, edited volume book. We likewise recognize all the experts who have generously granted their chance of examining the chapter manuscripts. Our heartfelt thanks also extend to the Nova staffs for their collaboration, and uninterrupted encouragement throughout the press production process of this published edited book in the current form. Saurabh Mani Tripathi, Ph.D. Department of Electrical Engineering, Kamla Nehru Institute of Technology, Sultanpur, India. Sanjeevikumar Padmanaban, Ph.D. Department of Energy Technology, Aalborg University, Esbjerg, Denmark.

In: Energy Conversion Systems ISBN: 978-1-53619-131-8 Editors: Saurabh Mani Tripathi et al.© 2021 Nova Science Publishers, Inc.

Chapter 1

CONVERTER TECHNOLOGIES FOR PV SYSTEMS: A COMPREHENSIVE REVIEW Mehdi Niroomand1,* and Fatemeh Nasr Esfahani2 1

Department of Electrical Engineering, University of Isfahan, Isfahan, Iran 2 Department of Energy, Lancaster University, Lancaster, United Kingdom

ABSTRACT Over the past decade, photovoltaic (PV) sources have experienced an average annual growth of 60%, and electricity generation using PV sources outstrips one-third of those by the entire installed wind-generation capacity, and has incremented by a factor of 483, within a period of less than 30 years, from 1.2 GW in 1992 to 580 GW in 2019. Rooftops-mounted solar PV systems as well as PV farms alongside the roads in the suburbs are from objective evidence of the increase in the installed PV capacity. Indeed, descending and ascending trends in cost and efficiency of PV panels, respectively are the driving force that turn PV energy into the primary source of energy worldwide. In addition, raising environmental *

Corresponding Author’s Email: [email protected].

2

Mehdi Niroomand and Fatemeh Nasr Esfahani consciousness, seeking fossil fuels free energy supply, and popular political rules or regulations issued by local governments such as increasing funding for renewable energy sources by creating feed-in tariffs, are among other factors affecting the installed PV capacity. To achieve cost-effective PV systems with the highest possible power conversion efficiency, maximum power density as well as system reliability, conventional single-stage grid-connected DC-AC power converters are replaced by advanced and therefore further complicated power converter topologies. A comprehensive review on present PV energy conversion systems, including the system structure of various types of PV plants as well as circuit configuration of PV converter topologies applicable for gridtied PV systems is presented in this chapter.

Keywords: AC-module inverters, central PV inverters, grid codes, leakage current, photovoltaic (PV) systems, protections, string/multistring inverters

PHOTOVOLTAIC MODULES The most conspicuous elements in PV systems are PV panels, which are a bunch of PV modules and can be installed on rooftops and open sites (Alam 2015, 982-997). A PV module itself is an assembly of PV cells that are mounted in a frame for installation. PV cells utilize sunshine as a source of energy and turn solar PV energy directly into electricity by the PV effect. Hence, the efficiency and reliability of PV cells is of great significance to pick up solar power to the greatest degree possible. PV cell modeling, PV curves, and the PV system behavior under non-uniform solar irradiances (or partial shading conditions) will be discussed in the following subsections.

PV Model and Equations The improvement of PV cells' efficiency and the reduction of their costs have recently been a major area of interest within the field. New technologies are emerging to make PV cells, such as thin, multifunctional films, perovskite, organic, and color-sensitive cells. However, they are still

Converter Technologies for PV Systems

3

mostly made up of crystalline silicon (Si), especially the PV cells used in grid-tied PV systems (Levi 2017). Hence, in the following subsection, the detailed modelling of crystalline silicon (Si) PV cells is presented. Accurate modelling (or emulating) of PV cells and modules is of great significance as it can provide in-depth insights into the performance of the PV system under different circumstances. As a result, appropriate control strategies and methodologies can be adopted to address unpredicted circumstances. In addition, simulations can be conducted based on the emulated model, especially for high-cost large-scale PV plants. Powerhardware-in-the-loop (PHIL) technologies are currently used to directly connect the emulated PV array to the PV inverter hardware (Mai 2017, 62556264; Johnson 2018, 565-571). In other words, the PV array is emulated in the software environment and controls the power supply which is supposed to be connected to the hardware, giving rise to providing the possibility of controlled indoor experiments as many as desired. Moreover, the faults observed on the PV side, which are practically demanding and dangerous to carry out in real-world tests, can be emulated. The single-diode electric model for the forward-bias operation of a PV cell is illustrated in Figure 1.1, where hγ symbolizes photons striking the PV cell. This non-linear model is still the most frequently utilized PV model and, as can be seen, it is made up of four circuit components. The photonto-electron flow process, which is a procedure by which the power provided by a flow of photons is converted into the electricity, is modeled as a current source Iph (the first component in the model). The amount of the current generated is directly proportional to the intensity of solar irradiance G (in W/m2). The surface of the PV cell is created by a p-n semiconductor junction, and the diode D symbolizes this junction. The current source Iph and the diode D are generally used to represent the ideal model of a PV cell. However, there are extra parasitic components in practical applications that need to be considered, where accurate modeling is required. In fact, only when a simple representation of a PV cell is required, parasitic components can be overlooked. As for diode D, the parasitic component is parallel resistance Rp. Series resistance Rs also denotes the parasitic component of the wire leads connected to the PV cell.

4

Mehdi Niroomand and Fatemeh Nasr Esfahani

h

Ideal model

id

I ph

i PV P

 vd

D N





ip

v PV

RP

Rs



Figure 1.1. Single-diode electric model for the forward-bias operation of a PV cell.

Among all the ambient-related parameters affecting the performance of a PV cell, two key factors of solar irradiance G (in W/m2) and temperature T (in degree Celsius (°C)) are responsible for the greatest impact on the amount of PV power generated. The mathematical relationship between the PV performance characteristics and these two factors is modeled here. The amount of photo-current Iph is highly dependent on the intensity of the radiation to the PV cell and its temperature as follows   G  R R     p s    ( )    i ph  I scn  K i T T n  .   Rp    Gn

(1.1)

where Iscn and Ki represent the nominal short-circuit current and the current temperature coefficient, respectively. Gn is the nominal value for solar radiation (often 1000 W/m2) and Tn denotes the nominal value of the cell temperature (often 25°C) to which the real values are compared in the singlediode model illustrated in Figure 1.1. All these nominal values are available from the specifications provided for each commercial solar cell (or panel). The current through diode D and its voltage have an exponential relationship as presented in (1.2). It should be mentioned that for the ideal model, the diode voltage Vd is to that at the terminals of the PV cell VPV.

  v d      1 i d  I s  exp     V t    

(1.2)

Converter Technologies for PV Systems

5

where α represents the diode identity factor. Vt refers to the thermal voltage of the p–n semiconductor junction as (1.3) and Is denotes the diode saturation current which is influenced by temperature T and can written as (1.4). Vt

Is 

Tk B q

(1.3)

I scn  K i(T T n )  V ocn  K (T T n )   1 v exp   V t  

(1.4)

where kB being the Boltzmann’s constant (about 1.3827×10-23 J.K-1), q being the electron charge (1.60217662 × 10-19 C), and Ns being the number of PV cells connected in series. Vocn and Kv are also the nominal open-circuit voltage and the voltage temperature coefficient, respectively. By applying Ohm’s law, the current passing through parallel resistance RP is obtained as

ip 

vd Rp

(1.5)

Then, by using the Kirchhoff’s current law (KCL), the PV current can be calculated as i PV

 i ph  i d  i p

(1.6)

Substituting iph, id and ip into (1.6) results in a non-linear equation for iPV. Therefore, to specify the diode voltage vd a nonlinear solver is required. Finally, by using the Kirchhoff’s voltage law (KVL), the PV voltage can be expressed as

v PV  v d  i PV Rs

(1.7)

6

Mehdi Niroomand and Fatemeh Nasr Esfahani

PV Curves Using the relationships provided in (1.1)–(1.7), a PV cell or module can be modeled. The current-voltage (I-V) and power-voltage (P-V) characteristics of an example PV cell using the single-diode model under a typical solar irradiance and PV cell temperature (G = 1000W/m2 and T = 25°C) are plotted in Figure 1.2 and 1.3, respectively. Although there still exist some restrictions, the single-diode model is relatively accurate around the nominal values of cell temperature and solar radiation. However, some applications call for a more accurate PV model. To achieve higher accuracy throughout a more extensive range of operation for the PV cells operating in the forward-biased region, more detailed PV models have been presented in the literature (Ortiz-Conde 2012, 261-268; Hejri 2014, 915-923). 4

PV current (A)

3.5

MPP

I SC

3

2.5 2 1.5 1 0.5 0

V OC 0.1

0.2

0.3

0.4

0.5

0.6

PV voltage (V)

Figure 1.2. I-V characteristic for a typical PV cell (G = 1000W/m2 and T = 25°C).

The most notable point on the PV characteristics shown in Figure 1.2 and 1.3 is the maximum power point (MPP), which is the point whose power is the maximum value generated by the PV cell. MPP voltage reflects that the PV cell behaves as either a voltage source or a current source, so that for voltages below the MPP voltage, when voltage alters, as current is rather constant, the PV cell operates like a current source. On the other side, for voltages above the MPP voltage, the voltage is relatively invariable when current varies, so the PV cell performs the same as a voltage source.

Converter Technologies for PV Systems

7

1.8

MPP

PV power (W)

1.4

1

0.6

0.2

V OC

0

0.1

0.2

0.3

0.4

0.5

0.6

PV voltage (V)

Figure 1.3. P-V characteristic for a typical PV cell (G = 1000W/m2 and T = 25°C). 4

PV current (A)

3.5 3

2.5 2

G =1000W/m G =750W/m

2

G =500W/m

2

G =250W/m

2

2

1.5 1 0.5

(a)

0

0.1

0.2

0.3

0.4

0.5

0.6

PV voltage (V) 4

3 2.5

1 0.5 0

o

o

o

1.5

T =25 C

T =50 C

2

T =75 C

PV current (A)

3.5

(b) 0.1

0.2

0.3

0.4

0.5

0.6

PV voltage (V)

Figure 1.4. IV curve under variations in: (a) solar irradiance (b) PV cell temperature.

There are two other noticeable points on the PV curves labeled as ISC and VOC. The former represents the short-circuit current corresponding to VPV = 0 and the latter refers to the open-circuit voltage of a PV cell relating

8

Mehdi Niroomand and Fatemeh Nasr Esfahani

to IPV = 0. The nominal open-circuit voltage Vocn and short-circuit current Iscn highly influence the voltage and current characteristics of normal operation. These parameters are available from the specifications presented for each commercial solar PV cell (or PV panel), and provide an insight into the expected voltage and current ranges of a solar cell. Figure 1.4 depicts I-V curves under various irradiances and temperatures, which as a result of variations in environmental circumstances can alter slowly or rapidly during a day. From Figure 1.4(a), the I-V curve is directly proportional to solar radiation G, so that when the lightening level increments, ISC and MPP move upward. By contrast, the curve is inversely proportional to cell temperature T, and an increase in T leads to a reduction in VOC and MPP. Thus, the highest MPP corresponds to high solar radiation and low temperature. Nevertheless, in reality, any increase in the lightening level yields an increment in the PV cell temperature (Serna 2013, 30053010).

Partial Shading PV panels may undergo different unusual ambient circumstances adversely impacting the PV power generated, such as non-uniform or uneven solar radiation. In such cases, solar irradiance on part of PV cells, modules or panels may not be uniform (or even) due to partial shading phenomenon led by the shadows of passing clouds, trees, poles, or nearby buildings or even rain, snow and dust. Newfound PV applications such as wearable PV devices and building integrated PV (BIPV) are also other cases that are exposed to uneven lightening. Partial shading or uneven lights is a typical of PV systems. Therefore, the analysis of PV modules under nonuniform radiation patterns is required (Patel 2008, 1689-1698; Ishaque 2011, 1613-1626).

Converter Technologies for PV Systems

9

120 GMPP

PV power (W)

100

LMPP

80

LMPP

60 40 20

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

40

PV voltage (V) Figure 1.5. An example PV curve for a shaded PV array.

For a shaded (and also damaged) PV cell, the amount of photo-current produced is much lesser than that for an unshaded PV cell, giving rise to the power generated by other PV cells to be lost. Consequently, extreme local power losses will be observed, which have a detrimental effect on the shaded PV cells. To prevent extreme local power losses, bypass diodes are added into the PV array (Patel 2008, 1689-1698). These diodes are reverse- and forward-biased during uniform and non-uniform solar irradiances, respectively, in such a way that under partial shading condition, the current flows through the bypass diode instead of passing through the PV module. Due to bypass diodes, the PV characteristics have more than one MPP under partial shading, namely local extrema (Patel 2008, 1689-1698; Ishaque 2011, 1613-1626). The PV curve for a shaded PV array with two local maximum power points (LMPP) and one global maximum power point (GMPP) is shown in Figure 1.5. Under partial shading conditions, the output power of the PV array at the global MPP is degraded drastically, and is much lesser than the total maximum output power generated by the PV array. The arrangement of PV panels within a PV array in addition to shading pattern region, and geometry are the key factors determining the position of local and global extrema.

10

Mehdi Niroomand and Fatemeh Nasr Esfahani

STANDARDS AND REQUIREMENTS FOR PV SYSTEMS There exist various standards set by several associations and countries with which grid-tied PV systems must be adapted. A quick review of some standards and grid codes for grid-tied PV systems is presented in this section. Critical grid codes are illustrated in Table 1.1, and a comprehensive survey of these standards is provided in the literature (IEEE Std. 1547.1-2005; FNN/VDE 2011; IEC Stand 61727 2004; Hester 2002; Emissions 2010; Wu 2017, 3205-3216). To realize a satisfactory level of operation for a grid-tied PV system, the most influential parameters that must be taken into account include total harmonic distortion (THD), injected DC current, grid operating frequency fg range, power factor cosφ, and leakage current icm range. In terms of THD of the output current, the maximum acceptable value in the majority of PV standards is limited to 5%, which results in the power quality (PQ) at distribution power-lines being enhanced to a large extent. In the case of injected DC current, which is hard to be exactly measured using present inverter circuits, it must remain within the range of 0.22% - 1% of the output current nominal value. Although the allowable range of grid operating frequency fg is provided based on various standards in Table 1.1, it may change beyond the restriction due to unusual variable circumstances. According to standard VDE 0126-1-1 (see Table 1.2), for the fault break time (fault discontinuity time) up to 40ms, the allowable range of leakage current 𝑖𝑐𝑚 cannot be greater than 100 mA. Based on IEEE 929-2000, IEEE-1547, VDE-AR-N 4105, and IEC 61727 standards, considering the oscillations in grid voltage and frequency ranges, grid-tied PV systems are required to comply with active and passive anti-islanding guidelines, where the majority of these standards are restricted within the range of 3%-5% with respect to voltage variations. In addition, according to IEEE 1547 standard, the maximum amount of voltage oscillation has to be maintained in the range of ±5%.