Encyclopedia of Ukraine: Volume IV: Ph-Sr 9781442632899

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Encyclopedia of Ukraine

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Encyclopedia of

UKRAINE VOLUME IV

Ph-Sr Edited by DANYLO HÚSAR STRUK under the auspices of the Canadian Institute of Ukrainian Studies (University of Alberta), the Shevchenko Scientific Society (Sarcelles, France), and the Canadian Foundation for Ukrainian Studies

U N I V E R S I T Y OF TORONTO PRESS I N C O R P O R A T E D Toronto Buffalo London

© University of Toronto Press Incorporated 1993 Toronto Buffalo London Printed in Canada ISBN 0-8020-3994-4 Collector's Edition: ISBN 0-8020-3009-2

Canadian Cataloguing in Publication Data Main entry under title: Encyclopedia of Ukraine Revision of: Entsyklopediia ukraïnoznavstva. Vols. 1-2 edited by Voldymyr Kubijovyc; vols. 3-5 edited by Danylo Húsar Struk. Includes bibliographical references. Contents: Map and gazetteer volume. V. 1. A-F - V. 2. G-K - V. 3. L-PF - V. 4. PH-SR - V. 5. ST-Z. ISBN 0-8020-3994-4 (V. 4)

i. Ukraine - Dictionaries and encyclopedias. 2. Ukraine - Gazetteers. i. Kubijovyc, V. (Volodymyr), 1900-85. IL Struk, Danylo Húsar, 1940-. m. Canadian Institute of Ukrainian Studies. iv. Naukove tovarystvo imeny Shevchenka. v. Canadian Foundation for Ukrainian Studies. vi. Title: Entsyklopediia ukraïnoznavstva. DK508.E522131984 fol

947/.7i/oo3

€84-099336-6

Design on front cover by Jacques Hnizdovsky

Volodymyr Kubijovyc, Editor-in-Chief, volumes i, 2 Danylo Húsar Struk, Editor-in-Chief, volumes 3,4,5

The publication of this volume has been made possible in part through a federal grant in recognition of the contribution of Ukrainian pioneers to the development of Canada.

Danylo Húsar Struk Editor-in-Chief EDITORIAL BOARD Olexa Bilaniuk Bohdan Krawchenko Danylo Húsar Struk Frank Sysyn Arkadii Zhukovsky SUBJECT EDITORS Art Biology Chemistry Church Diaspora

Economics Education Ethnography, Folklore Geography History Law Linguistics Literature Mathematics Medicine Military History Music Philosophy Physics Political Science Press Sociology Sport Theater

Daría Zelska-Darewych IhorMasnyk Swiatoslaw Trofimenko Wasyl Lencyk; Arkadii Zhukovsky Ihor Gordijew (Australia); Nadia Kerechuk (South America); Manoly Lupul (Canada); Halyna Myroniuk (United States); Arkadii Zhukovsky (Europe) Volodymyr Bandera; Bohdan Krawchenko Danylo Húsar Struk Bohdan Medwidsky; Mykola Mushynka Ihor Stebelsky John-Paul Himka; Arkadii Zhukovsky Theodore Ciuciura Jacob Hursky Ivan Koshelivets; Danylo Húsar Struk Wolodymyr Petryshyn Pavlo Dzul Petro Sodol Roman Savytsky Taras Zakydalsky Olexa Bilaniuk Bohdan Harasymiw Roman Senkus Bohdan Krawchenko Osyp Zinkevych Valerian Revutsky

Cartography Stefania Kucharyshyn Maps drawn by Rick Checkland; Kim Davis; Rod Dunphy; Ihor Kucharyshyn; Stefania Kucharyshyn; Inge Link-Wilson; Roy Svenson Illustrations Roman Senkus; Danylo Húsar Struk; Daria Zelska-Darewych

EDITORIAL STAFF Roman Senkus Taras Zakydalsky Boris Balan; Andrij Makuch; Oksana Maryniak; Natalka Stecura Krencil Mary Pasieka Borysa Struk George Kostiuk Anna Biscoe; Andrij Wynnyckyj

Chief Manuscript Editor Senior Manuscript Editor Manuscript Editors Word Processor and Office Manager, 1984-1990 Word Processor and Office Manager, 1991-1993 Computing Consultant Editorial Assistants

CONTRIBUTORS M. Adams, M. Antokhii, M. Arkas, I. Bakalo, B. Balan, V. Bandera, I. Bandura, E. Bej, A. Beniuk, 0. Bilaniuk, Ya. Bilinsky, S. Bilokin, A. Bilynsky, B.R. Bociurkiw, M. Bohachevsky-Chomiak, Yu. Boiko, M. Borovsky, V. Borovsky, B. Budurowicz, N. Chernysh, A. Chojnowski, S. Cipko, W. Daschko, P. Dzul, G. Foty, C. Freeland, N. Freeland, O. Gerus, D. Goshko, F. Haienko, J.-P. Himka, K. Hohol, V. Holubnychy, O. Horbach, M. Horbatsch, S. Hordynsky, S. Hryniuk, J. Hursky, Ya. Isaievych, W. Isajiw, M. Ivanek, I. Kachurovsky, I. Kamenetsky, H. Kasianov, N. Kerechuk, I. Khoma, T. Kis, B. Klid, R. Klymkevych, Z. Kokhanovsky, I. Korovytsky, I. Koshelivets, J. Koshiw, M. Kovaliuk, I. Kozak, B. Kravtsiv, B. Krawchenko, V. Kubijovyc, T. Kuzio, I. Kuzych-Berezovsky, M. Labunka, W. Lencyk, V. Lev, A. Lushnycky, J. Mace, T. Mackiw, P.R. Magocsi, S. Makeev, G. Makhov, S. Maksymiuk, A. Makuch, V. Malanchuk, M. Marunchak, O. Maryniak, I. Masnyk, B. Medwidsky, M. Miller, M. Mushynka, I. Myhul, N. Mykytyn, I. Nazarko, O. Ohloblyn, L. Okinshevych, V. Omelchenko, L. Onyshkevych, A. Ovcharenko, Ya. Padokh, Ya. P asternak, M. Pasternakova, I. Patrylo, N. Pavlenko, V. Pavlovsky, M. Pavlyshyn, A. Pekar, A. Perkovsky, L. Petrushevska, W. Petryshyn, S. Pirozhkov, V. Pliushch, N. Polonska-Vasylenko, P. Potichnyj, B. Procko, M. Prokop, S. Protsiuk, J. Radziejowski, J. Reshetar, V. Revutsky, S. Ripetsky, O. Rohach, V. Ruban, A. Rudnytsky, I.L. Rudnytsky, M. Savaryn, R. Savytsky, H. Schultz, R. Senkus, O. Sereda, L. Shankovsky, G.Y. Shevelov, A. Shtefan, O. Skrypnyk, W. Smyrniw, P. Sodol, I. Sokhotsky, B. Somchynsky, M. Stakhiv, Ye. Stakhiv, Yu. Starosolsky, I. Stebelsky, M. Stepovy, D. Stepovyk, D.H. Struk, I. Svit, 1. Sydoruk-Pauls, R. Szporluk, M. Tarnawsky, L Teslia, S. Trofimenko, M. Trukhan, P. Trylovsky, A. van Goudoever, M. Vavryk, I. Voitovych, I. Vytanovych, B. Wynar, L. Wynar, W. Wytwycky, S. Yaniv, V. Yaniv, M. Yurkevich, M. Yurkevych, T. Zakydalsky, P. Zeleny, D. ZelskaDarewych, E. Zharsky, M. Zhdan, A. Zhukovsky, O. Zilynsky, O. Zinkevych, C. ZumBrunnen

p Phanagoria. An ancient Greek colony on the Taman Peninsula at the site of present-day Sinna, Krasnodar krai, RF. It was founded in the middle of the 6th century BC by colonists from the Ionic city of Teos, and in the 5th century BC it became part of the *Bosporan Kingdom. Phanagoria flourished in the 5th to 2nd centuries and formed an independent state in the ist century BC. Its inhabitants (Sindians, Maeotians, Sarmatians, and Greeks) engaged in agriculture, animal husbandry, fishing, various crafts, and trade with neighboring tribes and Mediterranean states. In the 4th century AD the city was razed by the Huns but was rebuilt by the end of the century. It died out in the nth to 12th century. Excavations of Phanagoria began in the icth century. More systematic digs conducted in the late 19305 and after the Second World War have uncovered the ruins of palaces, houses, wells, the city walls, a gymnasium, the acropolis, and the port. Pharmacology. The science of drugs and their effect on or interaction with a living organism. In Kievan Rus' *Yevpraksiia Mstyslavna, the granddaughter of Volodymyr Monomakh, gathered information about medicaments and wrote the treatise Mazi (Salves). The preparation and administration of medicaments was largely in the hands of folk healers or sorcerers, of whom it was generally believed that they possessed magic powers (see *folk medicine). They prepared their concoctions mostly from ^medicinal plants, infrequently from animal tissues, wine, or honey, and handed down their recipes shrouded in secrecy. After the Christianization of Ukraine the preparation of drugs was taken up by monasteries. Lviv pharmacists are mentioned in chronicles as early as the 14th century. By the loth and iyth centuries handwritten books of remedies existed, called travnyky, zeleinyky, or vertohrady. The first pharmacies in Left-Bank Ukraine were founded in major cities at the beginning of the i8th century by the decree of Peter I and were government-owned or privately operated. The Ukrainian obstetrician N. *Ambodyk-Maksymovych wrote an encyclopedic treatise on medical plants that is regarded as the first pharmacological textbook in the Russian Empire (1783). By the 19th century pharmacology was being taught in medical and veterinary institutes as well as at most universities. The foundations of experimental pharmacology in Ukraine were laid by V. Dybkovsky, H. Shkavera, O. *Cherkes, and Yu. Petrovsky. After the 1917 Revolution the system of training pharmacologists resulted in the creation of related disciplines: pharmacy (the preparation and dispensation of drugs), pharmacognosy, pharmaceutical chemistry and technology, pharmacotherapy (the application of drugs in treating disease), toxicology (the study of drug poisoning), and veterinary pharmacology. Further evolution in pharmacology led to the establishment of its specialized subdivi-

sions: clinical pharmacology, immunopharmacology, chemotherapy, psychopharmacology, pharmacogenetics, and molecular and biochemical pharmacology. Research is conducted at the Kharkiv Chemico-pharmaceutical Research Institute and at the Kiev Scientific Research Institute of Pharmacology and Toxicology and in pharmacological laboratories at other medical and scientific research centers. The Scientific Pharmacological Society of Ukraine was founded in 1961 in Kiev and belonged to the All-Union Scientific Society of Pharmacologists. The collection Farmakolohiia i toksykolohiia is published in Kiev. The Lviv Pharmacy Museum (on Rynok Square) is one of the city's oldest museums, with an exceptionally large collection of pharmaceutical items. It is located in the three-story premises of the original pharmacy (est 1735), and its collection includes scales, mortars, crucibles, manuscripts and incunabula, herbaria, and recipe books, totaling over 2,000 items. In the diaspora, a department of pharmaceutics existed at the ^Ukrainian Technical and Husbandry Institute in Munich in 1945-51. P. Dzul Pheasant (Phasianus; Ukrainian: pantarka,fazari). Birds of the family Phasianidae that are related to the quail, partridge, peacock, and jungle fowl. Pheasants are long-tailed birds of open woodlands and fields, where they nest on the ground and lead a sedentary life. They were naturalized in Ukraine and raised for hunting as excellent game birds. They inhabit the regions of Kiev, Kherson, Mykolaiv, the Crimea, and Transcarpathia. Philadelphia. A city and port (1991 pop 1,585,000) in southeastern Pennsylvania, at the junction of the Delaware and Schuylkill rivers. It has been one of the main centers of Ukrainian settlement: 28,000 of its residents claimed Ukrainian origin in 1980 but other estimates have put this figure as high as 52,740. Ukrainians from the Lemko region began to settle in Philadelphia in the i88os. Later arrivals came from Transcarpathia and then from Galicia. They were attracted to the city by jobs in locomotive plants, steelworks, sugar refineries, railway transport, and port facilities. Women worked mostly as domestic help. The earliest organized community structure in the city was a Transcarpathian congregation which established the parish of the Holy Spirit in 1891. Galician immigrants, who were displeased by the Hungarian influence in the parish, soon organized their own St Michael's parish. With the coming of Bishop S. *Ortynsky, the city developed into a religious and educational center. The Cathedral of the Immaculate Conception was opened in 1908. National Prosvita conferences were held in Philadelphia in 1905 and 1909, and a network of reading rooms and Ukrainian schools was set up. The first branch of the Ukrainian National Association was es-

2

PHILADELPHIA

Ukrainian Catholic Cathedral of the Immaculate Conception in Philadelphia tablished in 1905, and in 1909 the Society of RuthenianAmerican Citizens was founded and housed in its own building. The Basilian order of nuns set up an orphanage in 1911. St Paul's Institute (Minor Seminary) was founded by Bishop K. Bohachevsky in 1925 (transferred to Stamford, Connecticut, 1933). The ^Providence Association of Ukrainian Catholics established its head office in Philadelphia in 1914, and the Ruthenian Bank was founded in 1915 on Ortynsky's initiative. When the Greek Catholic exarchate was divided into separate Ukrainian and Byzantine Catholic (Transcarpathian) jurisdictions in 1924, the former established its seat in Philadelphia. In 1958 it was raised to the status of a metropoly. Archbishop I. *Teodorovych moved the seat of the Ukrainian Orthodox Church in the USA from Chicago to Philadelphia in 1925. During the interwar period Philadelphia's Ukrainian community developed rapidly. In October 1922 the founding conference of the United Ukrainian Organizations in America was held in Philadelphia, and until 1930 its head office was located there. In July 1936 the Ukrainian Catholic Youth League staged a Ukrainian-American Olympiad there. By 1936 there were two Ukrainian Catholic churches, one Byzantine Catholic church, one Orthodox church, six community halls, a regular parish school, a girls' secondary school (both schools run by the Basilian nuns), six evening schools of Ukrainian language and culture, four library-reading rooms, three printing presses, and over a dozen women's youth, fraternal, sports, and choral organizations. The Catholic triweekly Ameryka, the Transcarpathian weekly Rusyn, the Orthodox journal Dnipro, the Catholic monthly Misionar, and the Russophile Pravda all came out in Philadelphia. The founding of the "Ukrainian Congress Committee of America (UCCA) took place in 1940 in Philadelphia, which also is the site of the head office of the ""United Ukrainian American Relief Committee since its establishment in 1944. In 1948 the *World Federation of Ukrainian Women's Organizations was founded in Philadelphia. During the postwar years almost 6,000 Ukrainian refugees settled in Philadelphia. By 1981 the number of churches had increased to ten Catholic, three Orthodox,

two Evangelical-Baptist, and two Pentecostal. A host of new political, social, women's, veterans', professional, youth, and sports organizations appeared. The Trident sports club won six championships of the American Soccer League. Three financial institutions prospered: the Ukrainian Savings and Loan Association, the Self-Reliance Credit Union (est 1948), and the Trident Savings Association. Most of the local organizations were affiliated with the local branch of the UCCA till 1980, when the latter was split into two rival organizations. A number of national organizations had their head offices in Philadelphia, including the "Ukrainian National Women's League of America (1943-74), the ""United Ukrainian War Veterans in America (1949-), the "Ukrainian Music Institute of America (1952-9), the "Ukrainian Patriarchal Society in the United States (1970-9), and the Saint Sophia Religious Association of Ukrainian Catholics (1977-). The main research and educational institutions in Philadelphia include "Manor Junior College (est 1947), the Ukrainian Art Studio (est 1952), the *Lypynsky East European Research Institute (est 1963), and a branch of the Ukrainian Catholic University (est 1977). The Ukrainian Educational and Cultural Center was established in 1980 to provide physical facilities for a wide range of community activities. It services over 40 organizations, including Saturday school, performing ensembles, professional groups, and youth organizations. In 1982 the UNR government-in-exile moved its head office to Philadelphia. The city was home to the "Ukrainian Theater in Philadelphia (1949-57) and Teatr u Piatnytsiu (until 1974) under the direction of V. Blavatsky and V. Shasharovsky. In 1953 the Kobzar chorus, conducted by A. Rudnytsky, was founded. In the 19705 it was succeeded by the Prometheus chorus, under M. Dliaboha. A Ukrainian radio program has served the local community since 1939, followed by Blavatsky's Radio Hour (1951-), Holos Myrian (1971-), and the Ukrainian Hour (1973-). Publications coming out of Philadelphia in the postwar period include the daily (since 1950) Ameryka, Misionar, and literary magazine Kyïv (1950-64); the quarterly Ukraïns'ka knyha (1971-82); the women's monthly Nashe zhyttia (1944-74); the Catholic weekly Shliakh - The Way (1940-); and the art magazine Notatky z mystetstva (1963-). Since the beginning of the century Philadelphia has been an important Ukrainian publishing center. Economic prosperity has enabled Ukrainians to move to residential areas in the suburbs. A few old community centers have survived in the inner city, most notably the Catholic community in the Franklin Street vicinity. It encompasses a new cathedral designed by Yu. Yastremsky, several religious institutions, and a senior citizen's home. BIBLIOGRAPHY

Shistdesiat' lit orhanizatsiinoho zhyttia ukraïntsiv u Filadel'fiï (Philadelphia 1944) Zolotyi iuvilei ukraïns 'koi hromady v Filiadel 'ffi (Philadelphia 1967)

Lushnycky, A. (ed.) Ukrainians in Pennsylvania (Philadelphia 1976) V. Protsko, M. Labunka, V. Markus

Philanthropic Society for Publishing Generally Useful and Inexpensive Books (Blagotvoritelnoe obshchestvo izdaniia obshchepoleznykh i deshevykh knig). The Russian name adopted by the publishing society of the Ukrainian *Hromada in St Petersburg because of se-

PHILOSOPHY

veré censorship. The society was founded in 1898 on the initiative of Gen M. Fedorovsky. It was headed first by D. *Mordovets, then by O. *Rusov, and later by P. *Stebnytsky, who initially, together with O. *Lototsky, conducted all of the society's activities. Among its members were hundreds of Ukrainians from various provinces. By 1917 the society had published 80 popular Ukrainian brochures (more than a million copies) on agriculture, hygiene, and, particularly, history. In 1904-5 the society addressed petitions to the supreme imperial institutions demanding the annulment of restrictions on Ukrainian publishing. Together with the auxiliary Shevchenko Society in St Petersburg, the society published the first complete edition of T. Shevchenko's *Kobzar in 1907. Philately. See Ukraine-Philatelisten Verband, Ukrainian Philatelic and Numismatic Society, and Postage stamps. Philipps, Tracy, b November 1890 in the United Kingdom, d 21 July 1959 in London. Journalist and international affairs expert. Educated at Oxford and Durham universities, Philipps was an enigmatic figure with connections to the British intelligence community. In addition to holding postings in East Africa and the Near East, he served as the British relief commissioner in Ukraine in 1921. Between the two world wars he was a foreign newspaper correspondent specializing in the Balkans and Eastern Europe. He came into contact with V. *KayeKysilewsky in London during the 19305, and in 1940 went to Canada, where he played an important role (together with Kaye-Kysilewsky and G. *Simpson) in establishing the ^Ukrainian Canadian Committee (now Congress). In 1941-3 he was an adviser to the Canadian Department of War Services on European immigrant communities and their role in war industry. He was chief of planning, resettlement of displaced persons, United Nations Administration, in Washington and Germany in 1944-5. For a time (from 1939) he was married to L. *Kolessa, the daughter of O. *Kolessa. His writings included monographs and articles on zoology, Islam, ethnology, international affairs, and refugee and minority problems. Philosophy. An intellectual discipline (literally, love of wisdom7 in classical Greek) that, in the course of its history, has been variously defined as the study of the basic principles of being, the testing of the foundations of knowledge, the general guide to the good life, the analysis of basic scientific concepts and methods, and the examination of certain concepts of ordinary language. Unlike the specialized sciences, it does not have its own subject matter or distinctive method. Hence, only a vague definition, such as 'the critical and systematic reflection on questions of the greatest concern to man/ may be broad enough to cover the various forms assumed by philosophy. Because it was adopted from other cultures to address certain pressing political or religious needs, philosophy in Ukraine has been preoccupied with practical rather than theoretical problems. The political calamities and attendant cultural disruptions in Ukraine's history account to a large extent for the lack of durable philosophical tradition in Ukraine and for the absence of a distinctively Ukrainian system or worldview. For this reason some important Ukrainian thinkers (eg, H. *Skovoroda) have been assigned mistakenly to Russia's more stable philosophical

3

culture; others (P. *Yurkevych, V. *Lesevych) did in fact work in a non-Ukrainian tradition. Lacking its own philosophical literature and institutions, Ukrainian culture could be considered to have been incomplete during some periods of its development. At such times writers and poets rather than philosophers were the propagators of philosophical ideas and theories among the Ukrainian public. Medieval period. The period from the adoption of Eastern Christianity to the Mongol invasion (ioth-i3th centuries) was marked by vigorous intellectual development. The assimilation of Byzantine culture was not passive, but an active rethinking that gave rise to original speculation. Because of a common literary language and alphabet, the work of Bulgarian translators and thinkers was readily transferable to Rus'. The ideas of Greek philosophers and the Church Fathers entered Rus' through Bulgarian translations of Greek collections or original Bulgarian compilations, including the *lzbornik of Sviatoslav (1073), Zlatostrui, Pchela (The Bee), the chronicles of John Malalas and Georgios Hamartolos, the Lives of SS Cyril and Methodius, the Hexaemeron of Exarch John of Bulgaria, The Source of Knowledge of St John of Damascus, and apocrypha. The new, imported ideas, which themselves were not systematized and were often opposed, did not displace old popular beliefs, but were set alongside them. Thus, many conflicting answers to the same basic questions were found in different and even the same sources. Neither a single dogmatic scheme not a unified worldview was worked out. Since political motives played a decisive role in the religious conversion of Rus', the emergent philosophical thought was focused on political rather than religious questions. Authors of the first original works produced in Rus' were not concerned much with personal salvation or the defense of Christian doctrine, but with a higher justification of the political order. Metropolitan Ilarion's *Slovo o zakoni i blahodati (Sermon on Law and Grace), the finest theoretical work written in Rus', shows how the Christianization of Rus' is the fulfillment of universal history. Grand Prince Volodymyr Monomakh's *Pouchenie ditiam (Instruction for [My] Children) and the Rus' chronicles portray the ideal prince, a combination of the pagan warrior and the fatherly Christian ruler. Besides these works, the sermons of Bishop Cyril of Turiv, the letters of Metropolitan Klym Smoliatych (reputedly the best philosopher in Rus'), and the writings of Nestor the Chronicler contain philosophical ideas, but fall far short of the kind of articulated, systematic thinking characteristic of scholasticism. The worldview expressed in the literature and folklore of Rus' was practical, optimistic, and life-asserting. The Church Fathers' Christian Neoplatonism reinforced the sense of divine presence in the world and the expectation of happiness in this life that were characteristic of the earlier pagan outlook. The sharp opposition between God and nature, as well as the spirit and the body, and its attendant rejection of the joys of this world was confined to a relatively narrow class of ascetic works. The Mongol invasion of the mid-i3th century began a long period of political turmoil and cultural decline in Rus'. For almost three centuries nothing significant was added to the Kievan intellectual heritage. As a mood of historical pessimism set in, people turned to religion and mysticism for comfort. In the mid-i4th century Hesy-

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PHILOSOPHY

chasm, a form of monastic mysticism, spread from Bulgaria to Ukraine, and in the i^th century a rationalist sect of *Judaizers appeared in Kiev. Renaissance period. Philosophical ideas and methods of argument gained a new importance in the period of religious struggle in Europe. At the end of the 15th century the ideas of ^humanism were brought to Ukraine by foreign travelers and by Ukrainians studying at foreign universities. The ^Reformation, which was carried into Galicia and Volhynia by rationalist sects, such as the *Socinians, was very different in origin and purpose from the humanist movement, yet their programs coincided and reinforced each other on many points: the extension of education and learning, the use of the vernacular, the right to individual opinion, and the need to return to the original sources and to reassess critically the traditions built on them. Protestant anticlericalism, public-mindedness, and national awareness had an important influence on the church ^brotherhoods in Ukraine. Although these two movements contributed to the cultural revival in Ukraine, it was the Counter-Reformation spearheaded by the ^Jesuits that threatened the very existence of the Orthodox faith and Ukrainian culture and aroused the Ukrainian Orthodox nobility and burghers to vigorous organized action. At first the Orthodox adopted a defensive strategy: they turned inward toward their own Greco-Slavonic tradition and rejected anything belonging to the Latin-Polish tradition. Returning to the roots of their culture, they revived the use of Greek and Church Slavonic, translated the Bible, and studied patristic theology. The achievements of the Catholic West scholastic theology, philosophy, and logic - were viewed with suspicion as a devilish ploy to lure believers away from the true faith. New institutions were set up toward the end of the loth century to carry out this program: the Ostrih cultural center, consisting of the Ostrih Academy Press, a learned circle, and a string of brotherhoods modeled on the Lviv Dormition Brotherhood. The leading Orthodox proponents were I. *Vyshensky, V. Surazky, Kh. Filalet, H. Smotrytsky, Ostrozkyi Kliryk, Z. Kopystensky, K. Stavrovetsky, I. Kopynsky, and Y. Boretsky. To them philosophy was part of theology, and most of their ideas were derived from the same sources on which medieval thinkers had drawn - Pseudo-Dionysius, St John Chrysostom, St John of Damascus, and Exarch John of Bulgaria (see ^Polemical literature). This defensive strategy led to isolation from the larger society and from the dominant culture. Withdrawal from this world for the sake of another world did not appeal to the upper classes of the nobility, clergy, and burghers, who continued to drift away from the Orthodox faith and culture. The Orthodox countered by proposing to study and assimilate the tools (Latin, Polish, rhetoric, and logic) and ideas (scholasticism) of their rivals. This was a dangerous policy, for it diminished the differences between the competing cultures, but it was the only policy that offered some hope of success. The turn to scholasticism was a return to an outlived intellectual tradition, but it created the preconditions for the separation of philosophy from theology and the introduction of modern ideas into Ukraine. The chief proponents of the new strategy were M. Smotrytsky, K. *Sakovych, L. Zyzanii, and P. Mohyla. The Kievan Mohyla College (later Academy) was the leading institution to carry out this program.

In spite of royal prohibition, philosophy began to be taught at the Kievan Cave Monastery School (1631), and the practice was continued when the school was reorganized into the Kievan Mohyla College, later Academy (1632-1817). The philosophy courses, read in Latin, usually required three years and covered three main fields, logic, physics (natural philosophy), and metaphysics. Each instructor prepared his own course; hence, the courses differed significantly in content and style. Some of the professors who offered philosophy courses at the academy were Y. *Kononovych-Horbatsky (1639-42), I. *Gizel (1645-7), Y. *Krokovsky (1686-7), S. *Yavorsky (1691-3), I. Popovsky (1699), Y. Turoboisky (1702-4), Kh. Charnutsky (1704-5), T. *Prokopovych (1707-8), Y. Volchansky (171518), I. Levytsky (1723-5), I. Dubnevych (1725-6), A. *Dubnevych (1727-8), S. Kalynovsky (1729-30), S. Kuliabka (1735-9), M. *Kozachynsky (1741-5), H. *Konysky (1749), T. *Shcherbatsky (1751-3), and D. *Nashchynsky (1753-5). The general character of these courses was syncretic the result of blending elements of Christian Neoplatonism with Aristotelian doctrines. The academy's professors drew ideas freely from the ancient philosophers (mostly Aristotle and Plato, but also the Stoics and Ptolemy), the patristic tradition (Origen, St Basil the Great, St Augustine, Pseudo-Dionysius), medieval scholasticism (Albertus Magnus, Thomas Aquinas, J. Duns Scotus, and William of Ockham), and neoscholasticism (T. Cajetan, F. Suárez, P. Fonseca, L. de Molina, R. de Arriaga, and F. de Oviedo). They often criticized Thomas Aquinas, using the arguments of his scholastic opponents. Aristotle was quoted more than any other thinker but was not treated as an infallible authority. The logic course, which consisted of an introductory part called dialectic or minor logic and a more sophisticated part called major logic, was based on Aristotle's Organon and supplemented with refinements introduced by scholastic logicians. On the central problem discussed in logic - universals - the academy's professors rejected Platonism and accepted some version of Aristotelian realism. In natural philosophy they adopted Aristotelian hylomorphism, but tended to stress the ontological primacy of prime matter over form. Shcherbatsky was the first to proffer the Cartesian concept of matter instead of Aristotle's. While accepting creation the Kiev thinkers tended to minimize God's subsequent intervention in the natural world. This deis tic tendency contrasted sharply with their Neoplatonist metaphysics, which emphasized God's immanence in nature. A growing interest in modern science and philosophy is evident in their discussion of Copernican, Galilean, and Cartesian theories (Shcherbatsky first adopted the heliocentric theory and Descartes's vortex theory) and the rejection of Aristotle's distinction between celestial and sublunar bodies (Prokopovych, Kozachynsky, Konysky, Shcherbatsky). Some added ethics treatises to their courses (Prokopovych, Kalynovsky, Kuliabka, Kozachynsky, Konysky, Shcherbatsky). They tended to reject a narrow, ascetic view of life and to assert the desirability of happiness in this as well as the next life and its attainability in an active, rationally governed life. In style the courses looked much like scholastic treatises: the chief problems of philosophy were discussed one by one by proposing a thesis, listing objections, and replying to the objections. Modern period. During the second half of the i8th century the Kievan Mohyla Academy and the colleges in

PHILOSOPHY

Chernihiv, Pereiaslav, and Kharkiv were gradually reduced to mere seminaries. At the beginning of the 17605 the Kiev metropolitan ordered philosophy at the academy to be taught according to C. Baumeister's texts based on C. Wolffs system, and thus discouraged any individual originality and intellectual independence. Ukraine's loss of the last vestiges of political autonomy under Catherine II and its swift cultural decline account for the weak impression that the Enlightenment made on Ukrainian thought. Without royal encouragement or interest and without vigorous institutions of higher learning independent of church control, the Enlightenment could not grow into a full-fledged movement. It is represented by a few individual thinkers, such as Ya. *Kozelsky, P. *Lodii, I. *Rizhsky, and J. *Schad, and propagandists, such as V. *Karazyn, H. *Vynsky, O. Palytsyn, and V. Kapnist. A conservative form of Enlightenment based on G. Leibniz's and C. Wolffs ideas was propagated by the higher schools; the more radical form articulated by F. Voltaire, J.-J. Rousseau, D. Diderot, C.-A. Helvétius, P.-H. Holbach, and Montesquieu was cultivated and propagated by small circles of educated nobles. Some Ukrainians (H. *Kozytsky, S. *Desnytsky, Kozelsky, I. Vanslov, Ya. Kostensky, H. *Poletyka, V. Ruban, and I. Tumansky) belonged to a society in St Petersburg (1768-83) that translated and published books by several French thinkers. ^Kantianism was propagated by the German thinker L. Jacob, who was a professor at Kharkiv University (1807-9), and by Rev V. Dovhovych, a member of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences in Budapest. Kanfs moral theory made a strong impression on Schad. Grounding a doctrine of natural rights in an ahistorical concept of human nature, the enlightened thinkers proposed to realize these rights (to individual freedom, equality before the law, and enjoyment of property) by restructuring society. All of them were opposed to serfdom, but apart from Kozelsky and Karazyn they urged the restriction of landowners' rights rather than abolition. Karazyn and Lodii preferred constitutional monarchy while Kozelsky preferred a republic. Following Rousseau, Kozelsky advocated not merely equality before the law, but limits to economic disparity. All of them believed in peaceful social reform through education and the moral improvement of the monarch and small elite. Karazyn pointed also to the importance of scientific and technological development for social progress. In its practical (moral and social) consequences the philosophy of H. *Skovoroda is very close to the teachings of the Philosophes, although it has no direct tie with the Enlightenment. It is rooted not in the new natural sciences, but in the humanist tradition going back to the ancient philosophers and in Christian Neoplatonism. In his writings Skovoroda denounced the injustice and exploitation he observed around him, and in practice he renounced this society by turning down a career in the church. His ideal society, which can be realized only by individual moral rebirth, is based on the fulfillment of each member's inner nature. In this context equality is the full (hence equal) realization by all individuals of their unequal potentialities. A number of Ukrainians played an important role in the growth of mysticism in the 18th-century Russian Empire. This trend of thought paved the way for the Romantic worldview and German idealism.

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The development of Ukrainian culture, particularly literature and art, in the icth century was influenced decisively by German ^romanticism. The Romantic outlook attained its fullest philosophical expression in the German idealists - J. Fichte, F. *Schelling, and G. Hegel - and it was those thinkers who had a determining influence on philosophical thought in Ukraine during the first half of the 19th century. Fichte's ideas were introduced at Kharkiv University by J. Schad (1804) and were spread to other educational institutions by his students. The first translation of Fichte was done at Kharkiv by one of Schad's students in 1813. Schad also acquainted his students with some of Schelling's doctrines, and his successor to the university's chair of philosophy, A. Dudrovych (1818-30), absorbed Schelling's mystical spirit and taught Schellingian psychology. J. Kroneberg, who taught classical philosophy at Kharkiv University (1819-37), attempted to construct his own esthetic theory using Schelling's ideas. M. *Maksymovych, the first rector of Kiev University, formulated his ideas on nature under the impact of Schelling's and L. Oken's doctrines and was inspired in his later ethnographic work by Schelling's views. K. Zelenetsky, who tried to reconcile Schelling and Kant, and N. Kurliandtsev, who translated Schelling and H. Steffens, taught at the Richelieu Lyceum in Odessa in the first half of the century. P. Arsenev followed C. Carus in his psychology lectures at the Kiev Theological Academy and Kiev University in the 18405 and probably had some influence on the Cyril and Methodius Brotherhood. But the most influential German thinker was Hegel, whose system encompassed all the diverse trends within romanticism (moral, religious, esthetic) and subsumed them all under reason. Hegel's historicism and dialectic made a strong impression on O. *Novytsky, O. *Mykhnevych, and S. *Hohotsky. They not only adopted some of his ideas but also tried to apply his methods of interpretation. Hegel's theory of history influenced a number of historians, such as M. Lunin, who in turn influenced M. Kostomarov, and P. Pavlov, some literary historians such as A. Metlynsky and M. Kostyr, and the philosopher of law P. Redkyn (see *Hegelianism). The Christian Romantic ideology of the *Cyril and Methodius Brotherhood is the finest example of a creative response by young Ukrainian intellectuals to new ideas from the West. As expressed in the *Knyhy bytiia ukraïns 'koho narodu (The Books of the Genesis of the Ukrainian People), their theory was a mixture of Enlightenment political ideals (equality, democracy, parliamentarism), pietist sentiment, and Romantic notions of historical providentialism and national messianism. A religiously colored faith in Ukraine's mission to unite the Slavs in a federation of free national republics inspired the writings of the leading Ukrainian writers of the mid-century and stimulated the growth of national consciousness. As the prestige of the natural sciences rose, the Romantic Weltanschauung lost its credibility. But the ambition to unify all human experience in one all-embracing philosophical system remained strong throughout the second half of the century. P. *Yurkevych, probably the sharpest philosophical mind in Ukraine at the time, set out to reconcile idealism and materialism. Although he did not complete this project, his critique of materialism, interpretation of Platonism, and suggestions for an integrated concept of human nature were promising beginnings. A

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PHILOSOPHY

unified metaphysical system was worked out by A. Kozlov, who taught at Kiev University from 1876. Influenced by Leibniz, I. Kant, and A. Schopenhauer, he proposed a theory of critical spiritualism that admitted a multiplicity of spirits and denied the reality of matter. A similar system of 'synechiological spiritualism' was proposed later by A. *Giliarov, who viewed the universe as an infinite hierarchy of organisms. Positivism was more popular among scientists than among philosophers in Ukraine. A Ukrainian positivist of particular note was V. *Lesevych. He accepted A. Comte's teachings at first, but later rejected them in favor of a stricter empiricism and worked out his own theory of knowledge, which was close to empiriocriticism. Some positivist ideas can be found in G. Chelpanov, who taught philosophy at Kiev University (1892-1906), P. *Linytsky, and N. Grot, who began his academic career at the Nizhen Lyceum and Odessa University (1883-6). All of them tried to make room for religious faith without weakening the authority of science. Following Kant they drew a clear line between knowledge and faith; they restricted the first to the realm of phenomena and accounted for it in empiriocritical terms. M. *Drahomanov developed his political and social theory in a positivist framework. The sociologist M. *Kovalevsky was influenced strongly by A. Comte, while B. *Kistiakovsky worked out a neo-Kantian foundation for the social sciences. F. *Zelenohorsky of Kharkiv University emphasized the importance of the inductive method without denying the role of deduction and imagination in scientific knowledge. *O. Potebnia's and D. *Ovsianiko-Kulikovsky's philosophy of language was based on associationist psychology. After the First World War philosophy developed very differently in Western Ukraine under Polish rule, in Soviet Ukraine under the stifling restrictions of official ideology, and among Ukrainian émigrés. Denied their own university by the Polish authorities, Galicia's Ukrainians were unable to compete with the Poles in the quality of philosophical education and writing. Some philosophy was taught at the Lviv (Underground) Ukrainian University (eg, by S. *Balei) and at the Greek Catholic Theological Academy by Rev Y. *Slipy (scholasticism), M. *Konrad (ancient philosophy), and H. *Kostelnyk (epistemology). The Western Ukrainian and émigré proponents of different political ideologies, such as ^conservatism, integral ^nationalism, ^socialism, and ^Marxism, discussed, with varying sophistication and objectivity, the philosophical grounds of their outlook. Soviet period. In Soviet Ukraine, for the first few years philosophical activity developed in a normal way: philosophers expressed their views freely, formed associations, and published their own journals. In 1922 the government dismissed some of its ideological opponents from their academic posts and banished them from the Ukrainian SSR, thus warning intellectual circles that it would no longer tolerate criticism of the official ideology. Gradually the regime imposed its control over ideas by dissolving all independent associations and publications and by establishing its own institutions for defining and propagating the approved ideology, ^Marxism-Leninism. As political interference increased, philosophical debate degenerated quickly into servile dogmatism, invective, and denunciation. By 1931 all creative thinking on philosophical issues had been stifled.

The first philosophical institution in Ukraine set up by the Soviet regime was the Department of Marxism and Marxology in Kharkiv. It was established in the fall of 1921, and a year later it was reorganized into the Ukrainian Institute of Marxism, renamed the "Ukrainian Institute of Marxism-Leninism (UIML) in 1927. The institute had three divisions, each with three departments. The Philosophy-Sociology Division (chaired by S. *Semkovsky) consisted of the departments of Philosophy (headed by Semkovsky), Sociology (headed by V. *Yurynets), and, from 1928, Law (headed by Yu. Mazurenko). Members of the philosophy department included Ya. Bilyk, Z. Luzina, P. Demchuk, and T. Stepovy, who also lectured at other institutions in Kharkiv. Philosophical research was published in the institute's journal Prapor marksyzmu (192730). In 1927 the Ukrainian Society of Militant Materialists (later of Militant Materialists-Dialecticians) was organized at the institute. At the same time (from 1921) two departments of the Social-Economic Division of the YUAN - those of the History of Philosophy and Law (headed by A. *Giliarov) and Sociology (headed by S. Semkovsky) - functioned in Kiev. In 1931 they were replaced by the YUAN Philosophical Commission in Kharkiv, which was to prepare a philosophical dictionary. In 1926 the Kiev Scientific Research Department of Marxism-Leninism (headed by R. Levik and then O. Kamyshan) was set up under the YUAN. Its philosophical-sociological section (chaired by S. Semkovsky) formed special commissions devoted to scientific methodology, historical materialism, the sociology of law, the sociology of art, the methodology of the history of technology, and atheism. Leading associates of the department were V. Asmus, Ya. Rozanov, M. Perlin, O. Zahorulko, M. Nyrchuk, and V. Yurynets. In 1930 the department was turned into the Kiev branch of the UIML. The UIML and the YUAN departments had two chief tasks: to articulate and propagate Marxism-Leninism and to train political specialists and propagandists for work in higher educational institutions. Besides translating the basic works of K. Marx, F. Engels, and V. Lenin and preparing anthologies and textbooks, their associates conducted prolonged discussions on the nature of philosophy, the place of the Hegelian dialectic in the physical world and the natural sciences, and the weight of Lenin's contribution to philosophy. Since dialectical materialism claimed to be both a scientific theory and a method of studying reality, its relation to the natural sciences and, particularly, the new theories of relativity and quantum mechanics aroused much interest (see ^Philosophy of science). The third branch of philosophy to receive some attention was the history of philosophy, which was limited to the philosophical traditions from which Marxism-Leninism had sprung: B. Spinoza and the French materialists, Hegel and L. Feuerbach among the German philosophers, and N. Chernyshevsky, L. Tolstoi, and G. Plekhanov among the Russians. In 1930 P. Demchuk's book on Spinoza and V. Bon's book on 18th-century French materialism came out. Hegel's Science of Logic was translated in 1929. Although the philosophy department at the UIML had a special commission for the history of philosophy in Ukraine (chaired by S. Semkovsky), little was accomplished in this area. Only a collection of articles on H. Skovoroda (1923), some booklets, and a solid monograph on him by D. Bahalii (1926) were published. The so-called philosophical discussion in Ukraine cul-

PHILOSOPHY minated at a conference in Kharkiv in January 1931, where accusations of nationalism, mechanism, and Menshevik idealism were directed at the leading figures of the philosophical establishment. Despite the absurdity of the charges, everyone admitted his 'errors' in a published self-criticism. The Party was thus able to call for a reorganization of the institutional system of research and the eradication of the vestiges of ^bourgeois science/ In June 1931 the UIML was converted by Party decree into the * AllUkrainian Association of Marxist-Leninist Scientific Research Institutes (VUAMLIN). The UIML's three divisions were turned into three VUAMLIN institutes - Philosophy and Natural Science, Economics, and History - of the six that were created. Each institute had a three-year graduate program. The Institute of Philosophy and Natural Science (directed by R. Levik and then O. Vasileva, and A. Saradzhev) was divided into four sectors: dialectical materialism (including a section on the history of philosophy in Ukraine), historical materialism, natural science (with the Association of Natural Science), and antireligion. It published the journals *Prapor marksyzmu-leninizmu (1931-3), Pid markso-lenins 'kym praporom (1934-6), and Za marksysts'ko-lenins'ke pryrodoznavstvo (1932-3). Among its leading associates were S. Semkovsky, V. Yurynets, T. Stepovy, O. Bervytsky, Ya. Bilyk, and V. Bon. So-called Red Professors institutes (est 1932) assumed the responsibility of training research and teaching cadres within each of the VUAMLIN institutes. At the Philosophy Institute of Red Professors (directed by S. Bludov and then O. Adrianov), V. Yurynets held the chair of dialectical materialism, T. Stepovy the chair of historical materialism, and O. Bervytsky the chair of the history of philosophy. In 1936 the separate institutes were merged into one Institute of Red Professors, with six departments. The philosophy department was chaired by A. Saradzhev and then Yu. Olman and M. Yushmanov. Philosophical research at the VUAMLIN had been long extinct by the time it was abolished in 1937. Many of the aforementioned leading thinkers perished in the terror of the 19305. After the Second World War research and teaching continued to be assigned to two distinct types of institution: research to institutes, and teaching to higher educational institutions, including universities. In 1946 the AN URSR (now ANU) "Institute of Philosophy was established in Kiev. It published Naukovi zapysky Instytutu filosofiï (195161, 7 vols) and the bimonthly Filosofs 'ka dumka (est 1969), which in 1989 became the monthly Filosofs 'ka i sotsiolohichna dumka. Another research body - the Department of Philosophy of the AN URSR Presidium - was established in early 1950. It was headed by M. *Omelianovsky and then M. Ovander and I. Holovakha. Since any new work in dialectical and historical materialism was ruled out by Stalin's treatment of the topic in the offical short course on the history of the Bolshevik party (1938), and since the methodology of the natural and social sciences remained an uncharted mine field, the history of philosophy in Ukraine became the most promising area in philosophy. A few monographs and numerous articles on the philosophical ideas of 19th-century scientists (M. Maksymovych, V. Danylevsky, and I. Mechnikov) and the so-called Russian and Ukrainian revolutionary democrats (A. Herzen, N. Chernyshevsky, N. Dobroliubov, D. Pisarev, T. Shevchenko, P. Myrny, I. Franko, M. Pavlyk, O. Terletsky, P. Hrabovsky, Lesia Ukrainka, and M. Kotsiubynsky) ap-

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peared. In a crude and obvious manner their authors imposed a predictable interpretation on their subject: materialist, atheist, or social revolutionary. In the 19505 some work, which was equally tendentious, was done also on i7th- and 18th-century writers, such as I. Vyshensky, L. Baranovych, H. Skovoroda, and Ya. Kozelsky. Such studies proliferated in the 19605; a collection of articles on the history of Ukrainian philosophy came out almost every year. The most important accomplishment of the period was the publication in 1961 of the first full and scholarly collection of Skovoroda's work. The Latin transcripts of philosophy courses taught at the Kievan Mohyla Academy began to be studied and translated, and excerpts appeared regularly in Filosofs'ka dumka. A Ukrainian translation of T. Prokopovych's courses was readied for publication, but appeared more than a decade later, in 1979-81. On the 25Oth anniversary of H. Skovoroda's birth a second, improved edition of his works (2 vols, 1973), a new biography by L. Makhnovets (1972), and several collections of articles on Skovoroda came out. The more important contributors in the field of Ukrainian philosophy were I. Ivano, D. *Ostrianyn, V. Dmytrychenko, A. *Brahinets, I. *Tabachnikov, V. Horsky, P. Manzenko, M. Rohovych, V. Yevdokymenko, and V. *Shynkaruk. A wave of arrests throughout Ukraine in January 1972 launched a concerted campaign to suppress Ukrainian culture and language. At mid-year the Institute of Philosophy was purged: two of its associates, V. *Lisovy and Ye. *Proniuk, were imprisoned for criticizing the Party's policy, and a number of junior researchers and graduate students were expelled. The number and quality of the institute's publications declined: hardly anything was printed in Ukrainian, and the Ukrainian accomplishments had to be described as accomplishments of the three 'fraternal' (Russian, Ukrainian, Belarusian) peoples. The pace of publication picked up only in the 19805. V. Nichyk's monograph on the philosophical tradition at the Kievan Mohyla Academy (1978) was followed by a series of related studies by Ya. Stratii (1981), I. Zakhara (1982), I. Paslavsky (1984), and V. Lytvynov (1984), and a catalogue of surviving transcripts of the rhetoric and philosophy courses at the academy (1982). The scope of research was broadened to include the medieval era, on which several collections of articles appeared (1983, 1987, 1988, 1990). Before his untimely death, Ivano finished his survey history of esthetics in Ukraine (1981) and his notable study of Skovoroda's thought (1983). Volumes i and 2 of the ANU multiauthor three-volume history of philosophy in Ukraine were published in 1987. The most significant recent achievement has been the publication of primary sources of Ukrainian thought of the i6th to i8th centuries in Standard Ukrainian translation: ethics courses at the Kievan Mohyla Academy (1987), the works of professors of brotherhood schools (1988), and H. Konysky's (1990) and S. Yavorsky's (1992) philosophy courses at the academy. Among the leading scholars in the field today are V. *Nichyk, M. Kashuba, V. Horsky, Ya. *Stratii, I. *Zakhara, V. *Lytvynov, I. Paslavsky, M. Luk, and A. *Pashuk. Since 1972 the "Ukrainian Philosophical Society has promoted and co-ordinated philosophical studies in Ukraine. Outside Ukraine. In the interwar period philosophy was taught in Prague at the Ukrainian Higher Pedagogical

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Institute, at which the Skovoroda Philosophical Society (1925-30) was active, and at the Ukrainian Free University (uvu) by D. *Chyzhevsky, who established himself as the leading authority on the history of Ukrainian philosophy with his two monographs on philosophy in Ukraine, two books on Skovoroda, and a study of Hegel's influence in the Russian Empire. I. *Mirchuk, a historian of Ukrainian culture and philosophy, began his academic career at the uvu. M. *Shlemkevych, who completed his PH D under M. Schlick in Vienna, developed a philosophical genre of journalism dealing with fundamental psychological-cultural problems of Ukrainian society. After the Second World War Mirchuk continued his work on the history of philosophy. Some contributions were made by his colleagues at the uvu in Munich O. *Kulchytsky and V. *Yaniv. K. Mytrovych, a specialist in contemporary existentialism, has done some work on Skovoroda. Ye. Lashchyk, a professor of philosophy in the United States, has worked on V. Vynnychenko's 'concordism/ Among Ukrainian émigré scholars who have gained a world reputation are G. *Malantschuk, for his work on S. Kierkegaard's thought, and R. *Rozdolsky, for his interpretation of Marx's Das Kapital. (For recent work in other fields of philosophy, see "Logic, *Marxism-Leninism, and ^Philosophy of science). BIBLIOGRAPHY Chyzhevs'kyi, D.Fil'osofiia na Ukrdini(sproba istoriografn) (Prague 1926; rev edn 1928) - Narysy z istornfilosofiïna Ukrdini (Prague 1931) Ostrianyn, D; etal (eds). Z istoriisuspiV no-polity chndi ta filosofs'kdi dumky na Ukrdini (Kiev 1956) - Z istorn vitchyznianoi filosofs 'koï ta suspil 'no-politychnoï dumky (Kiev 1959) - Z istorïi filosofs 'koï dumky na Ukrdini (Kiev 1963) levdokymenko, V; et al (eds). Borot'ba mizh materializmom ta idealizmom na Ukrdini v xix st. (Kiev 1964) - Z istorn filosofs 'koï dumky na Ukrdini (Kiev 1965) Ostrianyn, D.; et al (eds). Narys istorn filosofiï na Ukrdini (Kiev 1966) levdokymenko, V; et al (eds). Z istorn filosofiï na Ukrdini (Kiev 1967) - Rozvytok filosofîi v Ukrdins 'kii RSR (Kiev 1968) - Z istorn filosofiï ta sotsiolohiï na Ukrdini (Kiev 1968) Korchyns'ka, T.; Lavrova, O.; Proniuk, le. (comps). Bibliohrafiia prats ' Instytutu filosofiï AN URSR (1946-1967) (Kiev 1969) Oleksiuk, M. Borot 'ba filosofs 'kykh techii na zakhidno-ukrdins 'kykh zemliakh u zo-jo-kh rokakh xx st. (Lviv 1970) Ostrianyn, D. Rozvytok materialistychnoïfilosofîi na Ukrdini (Kiev 1971) levdokymenko, V. (ed). Filosofs'ka dumka na Ukrdini (Kiev 1972) Nichyk, V. (ed). Vid Vyshens'koho do Skovorody (Kiev 1972) Nichik, V. Iz istorn otechestvennoi filosofii kontsa xvn-nachala xvm v. (Kiev 1978) Stratii, la. Problemy naturfilosofii v filosofskoi mysli Ukrainy xvn v. (Kiev 1981) Shynkaruk, V.; et al (eds). Filosofskaia mysl' v Kieve (Kiev 1982) Stratii, la.; Litvinov, V.; Andrushko, V. Opisanie kursov filosofii i ritoriki professorov Kievo-Mogilianskoi akademii (Kiev 1982) Zakhara, I. Bor'ba idei v filosofskoi mysli na Ukraine na rubezhe xvnxvín w. (Stefan lavorskn) (Kiev 1982) Gorskii, V. (ed). Uistokov obshchnosti filosofskikh kul'tur russkogo, ukrainskogo i bolgarskogo narodov: Sbornik nauchnykh trudov (Kiev 1983) Lytvynov, V. Ideï rann 'oho prosvitnytstva u filosofs 'kii dumtsi Ukrdiny (Kiev 1984) Paslavs'kyi, I. Z istorn rozvytku filosofs 'kykh idei na Ukrdini v kintsi xvi-pershii tretyni xvn st. (Kiev 1984) Gorskii, V. (ed). Chelovek i istoriia v srednevekovoi filosofskoi mysli

russkogo, ukrainskogo i belorusskogo narodov: Sbornik nauchnykh trudov (Kiev 1987) Pamiatniki eticheskoi mysli na Ukraine xvn-pervoi poloviny xvm st. Tr. M. Kashuba (Kiev 1987) Shynkaruk, V.; et al (eds). Istoriia filosofii na Ukrdini u 3 tomakh, vols 1-2 (Kiev 1987) Gorskii, V. Filosofskie idei v kul'ture Kievskoi Rusi xi-nachala xn v. (Kiev 1988) Shynkaruk, V.; Nichyk, V.; Sukhov, A. (eds). Pam'iatky brats 'kykh shkil na Ukrdini: Kinets' xvi-pochatok xvn st: Teksty i doslidzhennia (Kiev 1988) Gorskii, V. (ed). Slovo o polku Igoreve i mirovozrenie ego epokhi (Kiev 1990) Kashuba, M (ed). Filosofiia Vidrodzhennia na Ukrdini (Kiev 1990) Luk, N. (ed). Filosofskaia kul'tura Ukrainy i otechestvennaia obshchestvennaia mysl' xix-xx v.v. (Kiev 1990) T. Zakydalsky

Philosophy of science. A branch of philosophy dealing with the distinctive nature of scientific knowledge - its logical structure, its relation to experience, and its growth. Formerly discussed among more general problems of epistemology, these questions received increasing attention in the 19th century and are accepted today as a separate field of philosophy. In Ukraine the first contributions to the subject were made by scientists rather than philosophers. V. *Vernadsky tried to define the key features of science in his extended article on the scientific worldview (1902), and B. *Lichkov discussed the fundamental issues of the field in his books in Russian on the limits of knowledge in the natural sciences (1914) and on description and explanation in science (1919). During the early period of the Soviet regime, philosophers tried to define the relation of the new official ideology, ^Marxism-Leninism, to the natural sciences instead of exploring the nature of scientific knowledge for its own sake. Nevertheless, many questions that belong to the philosophy of science were discussed, and some variety of views was tolerated until the early 19305. In the 19205 a special commission on scientific methodology was set up within the philosophy department of the ^Ukrainian Institute of Marxism-Leninism in Kharkiv to study the implications of dialectical materialism for the natural sciences. Besides the philosophers S. Semkovsky (chairman), V. Berkovych, P. Biliarchyk, P. Demchuk, V. Yurynets, T. Stepovy, R. Levik, and V. Chuchmarov, the commission's membership included prominent scientists, such as I. Sokoliansky, D. Tretiakov, O. Korshykov, A. Palladin, L. Pysarzhevsky, O. Goldman, D. Syntsov, and D. Grave. In Kiev a special commission on scientific methodology was set up within the VUAN Scientific Research Department of Marxism-Leninism in 1926. The All-Union Conference on the Philosophical Problems of Science in 1958 marked a turning point in the history of the subject: by condemning the imposition of ideological dogma on science, it permitted the philosophy of science to develop independently of dialectical materialism. In 1962 a new Department for the Logic of Scientific Knowledge was set up at the AN URSR (now ANU) Institute of Philosophy. First chaired (1962-6) by the institute's director, P. *Kopnin, the department soon became one of the largest and most productive sections of the institute. Its first two collections of articles on logic and the methodology of science (ed P. Dyshlevy, 1964; ed M. Omelianovsky, 1967) and the multiauthor monograph on the logic of scientific research (ed P. Kopnin, 1965) outlined the depart-

PHOTOGRAPHY

ment7s research program. The nature of scientific theory has been analyzed in a multiauthor monograph (ed P. Dyshlevy, 1965) and in individual monographs by P. Kopnin (1963), M. Popovych (1966, 1971), V. Ryzhko (1975), V. Kuznetsov (1977), and V. Khramova (1984). The distinctive character of scientific explanation has been defined by M. Rozhenko (1970), E. Bystrytsky (1986), and N. Depenchuk, P. Dyshlevy, and N. Kyvenko (1981). Books by M. Vilnytsky (1965), P. Dyshlevy (ed, 1966), V. Khramova (1974), and V. Kyzyma (1976) dealt with the nature of scientific experiment and its role in theory confirmation. The problem of scientific discovery and growth has been discussed in a book by S. Krymsky (1974) and a collection of articles edited by M. Popovych (1983). The influence of general philosophical ideas in science has been explored by V. Chornovolenko (1970), S. Krymsky and V. Kuznetsov (1983), and L. Ozadovska (1989), and the problem of values in science has been approached from different perspectives by V. Zahorodnyk (1984), P. Yolon, S. Krymsky, and B. Parakhonsky (1989), and M. Burgin and V. Kuznetsov (1991). A number of collections have been devoted to the special methodological problems of biology (1966, 1968, 1970) and ecology (1974). In the 19605 many of the collections and monographs in the philosophy of science came out in Ukrainian. Since the abrupt change in policy at the beginning of the 19705, all of the department's publications have been published only in Russian. Thus, in spite of its USSR-wide reputation as a leading philosophy of science center, except for a few individuals among its members, the department stands strangely aloof and alienated from Ukrainian intellectual life. BIBLIOGRAPHY Kopnin, P. Gipoteza i poznanie deistvitel 'nosti (Kiev 1962) Dyshlevyi, P. (ed). Lohika i metodolohiia nauky (Kiev 1964) - (ed). Pobudova naukovoï teorïi (Kiev 1965) Kopnin, P.; Popovich, M. (eds). Logika nauchnogo issledovaniia (Moscow 1965) Vil'nyts'kyi, M. Eksperyment v suchasnii nautsi (Kiev 1965) Popovych, M. O filosofskom analize iazyka nauki (Kiev 1966) Omelianovs'kyi, M. (ed). Lohika i metodolohiia nauky (Kiev 1967) Krymskii, S. Nauchnoe znanie i printsipy ego transformatsii (Kiev 1974) Popovich, M. (ed). Puti formirovaniia novogo znaniia v sovremennoi nauke (Kiev 1983) Bistritskii, E. Nauchnoe poznanie i problema ponimaniia (Kiev 1986) Ozadovskaia, L. Filosofsko-metodologicheskie reguliativy fizicheskogo znaniia (Kiev 1989) Burgin, M.; Kuznetsov, V. Aksiologicheskie aspekty nauchnykh teorii (Kiev 1991) T. Zakydalsky

Photography. In 1841, four years after the invention of the daguerreotype, Professor J. Gleister began making daguerreotypes in Lviv. In Kiev the first daguerreotype portraits were made in December 1844 or in early 1845 by a Prussian, K. Shchodrovitsky. In 1858 in Odessa, Y. Mihursky, a graduate of the Richelieu Lyceum and a member of the Parisian photographic society, tried to form a society of amateur photographers but was unable to do so because of the opposition of Governor-General A. Stroganov. In 1863, however, he managed to establish an institute of photography, where he taught the theory and practice of the art. In 1859 O. Pokorsky-Zhoravko, a noble from Mglin, Chernihiv gubernia, and the Kievan photographer Chekhovych tried unsuccessfully to launch a

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photography journal in Kiev. In 1852-3 the Englishman }. Bourne was invited to photograph the new bridge in Kiev. The 13 large prints he produced were the first calotypes made in Kiev. L. Plakhov, a graduate of the St Petersburg Academy of Arts, worked in various cities in Ukraine with a camera obscura. The English photographer R. Fenton documented the Crimean War in 1855. O. Ivanov from Kharkiv captured images of the Russian-Turkish War in the Balkans in 1877-8 and compiled an album of nearly 170 photos. The Odessa photographer M. Raul took many photos of daily life in Kiev, Poltava, Chernihiv, and Katerynoslav gubernias throughout the 18705 and received awards at the 1875 Paris Geographic Exhibition and the 1878 World Exposition. Nineteenth-century portrait photographers in Kiev included I. Hudovsky (three portraits of T. Shevchenko in 1859), V. Vysotsky, Y. Kordysh, and F. de Mezer; H. Chuhaievych specialized in urban scenes. Y. Khmilevsky from Poltava left a substantial collection of photos of the folkways of the Poltava region in the 18805 and 18905, an album entitled Gogol' na rodine ([N.] Gogol in His Homeland, 1902), a collection of photos taken at the unveiling of the I. Kotliarevsky monument in Poltava in 1903, and a large series of photos of the Poltava Zemstvo building (1908-9). Ethnographic albums were also produced by Kh. Parfenenko. A. *Fedetsky, the first filmmaker and tricolor photographer in Ukraine, worked in Kharkiv from 1884 to 1902. The first commercial photography studios in Ukraine were established in the early 18705 in Balta, Berdychiv, Bila Tserkva, Kamianets-Podilskyi, Korsun, Lypovets, Skvyra, Uman, Vinnytsia, Yampil, and other Ukrainian towns. On the eve of the First World War there were approx 70 commercial studios, 40 of them in Odessa, and 6 photographic-equipment stores in Kiev. At the end of the 19th century, technological innovations facilitated the growth of photographic arts. In 1891 the Odessa Photographic Society (headed by M. Balikhov) was formed. By 1900 it had 192 members. It issued the periodicals Vestnik Odesskogo fotograficheskogo obshchestva (1912-14) and Russkii fotograficheskii vestnik (1915-16). Photography sections of branches of the Russian Technical Society were formed in Kharkiv (1891), Odessa (1897), and Kiev (1899). The Daguerre Society (1901-17) was established in Kiev by M. Bobyr, the author of Khudozhnia fotografiia (Art Photography, 1907), and others. In 1906-12 its president was M. *Petrov; he later lectured at the Kiev State Institute of Art and Institute of Cinematography. The only school of photography in the Russian Empire, the Art and Craft Printing Workshop, was opened in Kiev in 1903. It was founded by V. *Kulzhenko. It was also in Kiev that the first international photo exhibition in the empire took place, in December 1908. It displayed over 500 works, including examples of X-ray photography. Kiev was also the venue for the Second Congress of Russian Photographers (1908) and an international salon of art photography (1911). Technical advances were made by V. Favorsky, a pioneer in microphotography, and in the 19105 the Kiev journal Iskusstvo i pechatnoe délo documented developments in color photography. Ukrainians who wrote theoretical pieces on art photography included M. *Biliashivsky and I. *Trush. In 1914 Biliashivsky proposed that a systematic photographic census of Kiev be conducted. Articles on photography were published in Ukrainian periodicals (eg, H. Kovalenko's

10

PHOTOGRAPHY

on domestic photography in Literaturno-naukovyi vistnyk [1899]), and photos of individuals were used as illustrations in works such as O. Shalatska's Taiemnytsi mista Kyieva (The Secrets of Kiev, 1904). Trush wrote about the relationship between painting and photography in 1905. In Austrian-ruled Western Ukraine, Polish organizations, such as the Club of Photographic Art Amateurs in Lviv (1891-1903) and the Lviv Photographic Society (1903-14,1924-39), were founded in Lviv, and a German Camera Club was created in Chernivtsi. Photography periodicals appeared in Lviv - Przeglqd Fotograficzny (1895), Kronika Fotograftczna (1898-9), Wiadomosci Fotograficzne (1903-6) and Miesiçcznik Fotograficzny (1908-11). The pioneers of photography in Galicia were A. Karpiuk, V. *Shukhevych, and M. Petriv in Lviv; S. Dmokhovsky and Ye. Liubovych in Peremyshl; and F. Velychko in Stanyslaviv. Liubovych organized a photography club at the Peremyshl gymnasium in 1911. In 1912 the archeologist Ya. Pasternak called on photographers to document the ethnography and architecture (particularly wooden churches) of Galicia. At a combat photography exhibition held in Vienna in 1916, the Ukrainian Sich Riflemen's pavilion displayed photos of I. *Ivanets, M. *Uhryn-Bezhrishny, and others. In September 1918 the Riflemen's exhibit was brought to the National Museum in Lviv, becoming the first Western Ukrainian photographic exhibition. In the interwar years of Soviet Ukraine the Kiev Photographic Institute enjoyed a brief existence, and in 1922 it organized an exposition. Original literature in Ukrainian emerged, the first example of which was L. *Skrypnyk's photographer's guide (1927). The photos of S. Arshenevsky, D. *Demutsky, M. Lishchynsky, D. Sotnyk, and P. Yezersky were landmarks of creative achievement, and periodicals such as Foto-kino (Kharkiv 1922-3) and Foto sotsbudivnytstvu (Kharkiv 1928-34) popularized the art. During the terror of the 19305, Soviet Ukrainian photography suffered the same tragic fate as other branches of Ukrainian culture. The first All-Ukrainian Exhibition of Photographic Art was held in 1936, but its catalog was suppressed soon afterward. The first ail-Union photography exhibit was brought to Kiev in 1938. Photography continued to develop in interwar Western Ukraine and in the Ukrainian émigré community. In October 1920 a photography circle headed by O. Balytsky was established in the Ukrainian internment camp in Libérée, Bohemia, and it held a show within a year. In November 1930 the first general meeting of the Ukrainian Photographic Society was held in Lviv, and S. Dmokhovsky was chosen to head it. The society, which had 216 members in 1936, held regular exhibitions and published illustrated catalogs of works by Yu. Dorosh, R. Myrovych, O. *Mokh, and D. Figol and the journal Svitlo i tin ' (1933-9), edited by S. Shchurat and O. Mokh. The Polish journals Miesçcznik Fotograficzny (1925-31), Kamera Polska (1932-3), and Przeglad Fotograficzny (1935-9) were also published in Lviv, and the second (1928) and sixth (1932) international photographic salons were held there. The Ukrainians L. Yanushevych and Ya. Shalabavka had commercial studios in Lviv. In 1957 a photographers' section of the Union of Journalists of Ukraine was formed. The more prominent photojournalists include Ya. Davydzon, M. Kozlovsky, M. Melnyk, and H. Uhrynovych. Professional portrait

First issue of the new Ukrainian photography magazine, Svitlo i tin ' (1991)

studios have been under the supervision of the Ministry of Consumer Services. Until the late 19805 the activity of amateur clubs was limited by government policy and the lack of equipment. Nonetheless, talented photo artists such as R. Baran, Ye. Derlemenko, I. Kostin (who documented the Chornobyl nuclear disaster), I. Kropyvnytsky, S. Marchenko, and V. Lysenko have left their mark. I. Ronchar has amassed a large collection of ethnographic photographs from all parts of Ukraine. The first museum of photography in Ukraine was opened as a division of the ^National Museum in Lviv. S. Bilokin Physical anthropology. The study of the physical characteristics of the human race with respect to origin, development, classification, and distribution. The subject can be subdivided into somatology and paleontology. The first describes and measures discrete bodily members, skin color, height and weight, blood type, and the structure of the internal organs (see *Races). The second deals with early human history on the basis of archeological evidence. The earliest information about the physical characteristics of Ukraine's inhabitants is in Herodotus' and Hippocrates' accounts of the Scythians. Medieval Byzantine and Arab authors, such as Procopius, Zacharias Rhetor, Ibn Dast or Ibn Rosta, and Ibn Fadlân, provided further data on Ukraine's population. Descriptions of Ukrainians are also found in the works of i/th- and 18thcentury travelers. From impressionistic descriptions of the population of Kievan Rus' two anthropological types can be distinguished. The princes, knights, and merchants possessed mostly Nordic traits, whereas the general population consisted of short-headed Trypilians (or Armenoids). According to archeological excavations the following anthropological types once inhabited Ukrainian territories: Neanderthal (Upper to Middle Paleolithic period), Mediterranean (Middle Paleolithic period), Cro-Magnon (Upper Paleolithic period), Lapponoid (Upper to late Paleolithic period), Southern Mediterranean with Negroid features (late Paleolithic to early Mesolithic period), Nordic Cro-Magnon (Neolithic and Eneolithic period), Armenoid (beginning of the Bronze Age), and Mediterranean (Bronze Age). The intermingling of these chief types led to the development of the East European or Sub-Nordic type (from the Lapponoid and Nordic types), the Adriatic or Dinaric type (from the Nordic and Armenoid types), and the Alpine type (from the Sub-Nordic and Dinaric types). The inhabitants of protohistoric and early

PHYSICAL EDUCATION historic Ukraine consisted of three main strata: people of the Trypilian culture, chiefly Armenoid in type; the Iranian (Sakian) people, chiefly Nordic and Mediterranean in type; and the Slavs, Nordic-Armenoid in type. According to F. Vovk's findings at the beginning of the 2Oth century, the population of Ukraine can be divided into three anthropological belts: (i) the northern belt (southern Kursk, Chernihiv, northern Kiev, northern Volhynia, and Kholm regions); (2) the middle belt (southern Voronezh, Kharkiv, Poltava, and Kiev regions, northern Podilia, southern Volhynia, and eastern Galicia [excluding the Hutsul and Boiko regions]); and (3) the southern belt (Backa [Yugoslavia], Transcarpathia, the southern Boiko and Hutsul regions, southern Podilia, and the Kherson, Zaporizhia, Tavriia, and Kuban regions). Most Ukrainians of the northern belt are of medium height, with fairly light hair and eyes, semiround heads with high foreheads, medium faces, and fairly wide noses, often snubbed. Ukrainians of the middle belt are mostly above medium height, with darker hair and eyes, round heads, high foreheads, medium-broad faces, narrow and straight noses. Most Ukrainians of the southern belt are tall with even darker hair and eyes, round heads, high foreheads, medium-broad and elongated faces, and narrow, mostly straight but sometimes curved and aquiline, noses. Racial types

Territories

Adriatic; East European, dark and light

Regions of Kharkiv, southwestern Poltava, southwestern and northeastern Galicia; south and north Boiko region, Lemko region, Kholm region

Adriatic with an admixture of Armenoid Nordic

Hutsul region; north Podilia, Backa, west Boiko, Kherson, and Odessa regions

Nordic with an admixture of Adriatic

Northern Kiev, Volhynia, Kuban

Adriatic, Mediterranean, dark Eastern European

Regions of Chernihiv, southern Voronezh, northeastern Poltava, central and southern Kiev, Katerynoslav, southern Podilia, central Galicia; central part of the Boiko region

In R. *Yendyk's findings this classification is modified and replaced by four territorial areas (see table). V. Diachenko's data (1965) suggest four central and one peripheral anthropological area. BIBLIOGRAPHY Volkov (Vovk), F. 'Antropologicheskie osobennosti ukrainskogo naroda/ Ukrainskii narod v ego proshlom i nastoiashchem, vol 2 (St Petersburg 1916) lendyk, R. Antropolohichni prykmety ukraïns 'koho narodu (Lviv 1934) Diachenko, V. Antropolohichnyi sklad ukraïns 'koho narodu (Kiev

1965)

B. Medwidsky

Physical education (PE). The system of organized instruction in hygiene, calisthenics, and organized sports. Western Ukraine to 1914. Until the early 2Oth century,

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PE in Western Ukraine left much to be desired. For adults it was limited to sporadic training in hunting, swimming, rowing, skating, sledding, and fencing (training in the last was given by the Sich and Rus' student societies in Vienna and Graz, respectively). In elementary and secondary schools PE was usually taught by poorly qualified instructors. Instruction improved somewhat in the years immediately preceding the First World War, thanks to the efforts of the Sokil society and individual promoters of PE, such as I. Bobersky. At first, one to two school hours per week was devoted to PE. Eventually, extracurricular groups for tennis, track-and-field sports, hiking, swimming, skiing, sledding, and skating were organized. PE for girls and women, which had been neglected previously, began receiving some attention. In 1887, using Czech examples, V. Lavrivsky drafted the first charter for a Ukrainian gymnastics society in Lviv. The Austrian authorities, however, did not permit a Ukrainian PE society to be set up until 1894. That year the *Sokil society was established in Lviv, and branches were soon founded throughout Galicia. The first Ukrainian exercise manual, by O. Popovych, was published in Chernivtsi in 1889; it was followed by I. Bobersky7 s books on games (2 vols, 1904-5) and soccer (1906), T. Franko's book on tennis, and O. Tysovsky's handbook for the Plast Ukrainian Youth Association (1913). During Bobersky's presidency (1908-14) the central Sokil society in Lviv purchased its own stadium and trained many PE instructors and teachers. Paramilitary riflemen's units were organized and trained in 1912-14 by S. Goruk as part of the program of the Sokil societies in Lviv, Drohobych, and other towns; they formed the nucleus of the "Ukrainian Sich Riflemen during the First World War. PE in Galicia was also promoted by the *Sich society, founded by K. Trylovsky in 1900. Its branches in Galicia and Bukovyna operated independently until 1912, when they were integrated into the Ukrainian Sich Union. Ukraine under tsarist rule. As in Western Ukraine, PE in Russian-ruled Ukraine was sporadic and amateurish. In the early 2Oth century, interest in PE increased with the introduction of a Sokil-style gymnastics program and track-and-field meets as part of the secondary-school curriculum, as well as of the scouting movement. There was, however, no organized Ukrainian PE movement before the 1917 Revolution, although a number of sports clubs were established in Kiev, Odessa, and other cities. During the First World War, gymnastics in the secondary schools was replaced by military drills. During the revolutionary period of 1917-20, PE continued to be part of the secondary-school curriculum. Sports activities were organized by various Ukrainian youth and school clubs and by the first Ukrainian boy scout troops that appeared in Kiev, Chernihiv, Bila Tserkva, and other cities. The *Free Cossack movement also promoted PE among its ranks. As a result, semimilitary, semiathletic youth detachments fought on the side of the UNR in many parts of Ukraine. Western Ukraine, 1918-44. Under Polish, Czechoslovak, and Rumanian rule, the development of Ukrainian PE organizations was to some extent obstructed by the authorities. In the Polish-ruled territories, PE in the schools improved considerably over what it had been under prewar Austrian rule. Besides calisthenics based on the Swedish, Danish, and German systems, the school pro-

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PHYSICAL EDUCATION

grams included outdoor activities and games. Extracurricular sports, hiking, and camping activities were organized by Ukrainian groups such as the Plast Ukrainian Youth Association, branches of the revived Sokil and Sich societies, local branches of the Orly Catholic Association of Ukrainian Youth and the Union of Ukrainian Progressive Youth, and, after the Sich society was banned in 1924, the *Luh society. Many new Ukrainian sports societies were founded. In 1925 the sports section of Sokil central in Lviv, together with various sports societies, set up a central coordinating and planning agency, the "Ukrainian Sports Union (uss), which organized soccer tournaments, regional and provincial athletic competitions, PE courses, and training camps and introduced a general test culminating in a physical competence badge. During the Second World War, PE in the German-occupied Generalgouvernement was co-ordinated by the Office of Physical Education of the Department for Youth Care of the Ukrainian Central Committee in Cracow. It organized a network of new clubs in the Lemko and Kholm regions. After the Germans occupied most of Ukraine, PE was able to develop only in Western Ukraine. In 1943 there were 124 PE societies there (including 22 in the Ternopil area, 16 in the Lviv region, 16 in the Stanyslaviv region, 13 in the Stryi region, 11 in the Peremyshl region, and 5 in the Kholm region) and 177 PE groups organized by Ukrainian educational societies, with a total membership of 11,000. Soviet Ukraine. PE in Soviet Ukraine was part of the allSoviet PE system. In the 19205 all existing sports organizations were quickly dissolved, and many of their leaders were persecuted. For most of the Soviet period, PE served the interests of the totalitarian state and was organized and controlled by it to prepare the masses for 'highly productive socialist labor' and for the defense of Soviet communism. All PE organizations and sports associations outside the school system created and controlled by the Communist Youth League or trade unions, themselves strictly subordinated to the Party and state. In 1918-19 the first PE teaching institutions were established, and PE became part of military training and the school curriculum. In the early 19205 special councils assumed control over PE on the local level. In 1930 centralized state control of PE in the USSR became official with the creation of the All-Union Council on Physical Culture, to which the existing Higher Council on Physical Culture of Ukraine was subordinated. In 1936 the All-Union Council was reorganized into the All-Union Committee on Physical Culture and Sports of the USSR Council of People's Commissars. Under this system all Komsomol and workers' sports organizations at educational institutions and industrial plants were subordinated to oblast councils of sports associations, and these are subordinated to councils of the central committees of the Komsomol or trade unions. From 1931 Soviet PE was based on the so-called GTO (Ready for Labor and Defense of the USSR) mass fitness program introduced by the Komsomol. The revised program (1972) had five levels: (i) for children aged 10-13, (2) for adolescents aged 14-15, (3) for adolescents aged 16-18, (4) for men aged 19-39 and women 19-34, and (5) for men aged 40-60 and women 35-55. At each level certain physical testing was compulsory. All young people were taught and participated in cross-country running and skiing, in running obstacle courses, swimming, and gymnastics; other sports were elective. Testing reflected the

purpose of the program - to raise labor productivity and military readiness. According to official figures, approx 6.8 million people in Ukraine qualified for the GTO badge in 1982. PE in nursery and elementary schools consisted of an approved program of lessons, exercises, and games. In elementary schools students were taught calisthenics and simple active games and were gradually introduced to gymnastics, track-and-field sports, swimming, skiing, and team sports. In Ukraine there were also over 800 'children's and youth sports schools,' at which more than 321,000 7- to 14-year-old children received preliminary training for future careers in sports. Selected for their athletic talents, the children usually specialized in one, two, or three of 43 sports. Those who went on received curricular and extracurricular training in sports proficiency schools (ages 16-18) and higher sports proficiency schools (ages 18 and over). Exceptionally promising children (ages 7-18) were sent to republican sports boarding schools (26 in the USSR), where they were trained to compete in the Olympic Games. As sports contacts and competitions with the West increased after the Second World War, Soviet PE and sports training intensified. In 1959 the Committee on Physical Culture and Sports was replaced by the Union of Sports Societies and Organizations. Oblast, municipal, raion, and local PE councils supervised all existing *sports societies and clubs and physical-culture collectives at plants, factories, and collective and state farms. In 1981 there were in Ukraine approx 150,000 professional PE workers (65,000 of them with higher education) and 3,000 trainers, 2,500 registered referees, and over 315,000 GTO instructors. In 1987, training and sports facilities in the republic included 112,000 playing courts and fields, 13,600 gyms, 354 swimming pools, 600 skiing bases, 8,000 rifle ranges, 894 stadia, a swimming center in Kharkiv, and a rowing center in Kherson. PE instructors, trainers, referees, and coaches were educated at specialized secondary PE tekhnikums in Donetske, Dniprodzerzhynske, and Ivano-Frankivske; at PE departments of the Lutske, Mykolaiv, Odessa, Ternopil, Kharkiv, Cherkasy, Chernihiv, Luhanske, Vinnytsia, Zaporizhia, Kamianets-Podilskyi, and Kirovohrad pedagogical institutes; and at the *Kiev, *Lviv, and Dnipropetrovske institutes of physical culture. Sports medicine was taught at the Kiev Scientific Research Institute of the Medical Problems of Physical Culture (est 1969). Most recently, the Sokil society was revived in Lviv (1990). Abroad. The Ukrainian interwar émigrés in Czechoslovakia had the best organized PE activities. These began in the internment camps and were continued by the Ukrainian Sokil and Sich unions abroad. PE was also part of the activities of the Sokil and Sich societies in the United States, Canada, and Argentina. After the Second World War, refugees in Germany founded the "Ukrainian Council for Physical Culture in Augsburg (November 1945). Led by I. Lukiianenko, V. Blavatsky, I. Krasnyk, and S. Kikta, it introduced a physical fitness badge; organized skiing, volleyball, and basketball courses and a school for PE instructors in Mittenwald in 1947; and arranged soccer games and athletic competitions among sports clubs in the DP camps. PE among the postwar Ukrainian immigrants in North America, South America, and Australia has been part of the activities of Plast, the Ukrainian Youth Association, and the Ukrainian Democratic Youth Association. Competitions have been

PHYSICS

sponsored by the ^Ukrainian Sports Federation of the United States and Canada. BIBLIOGRAPHY Chernova, le. Rozvytokfizychnoïkul'tury i sportu v Ukraïns'kii RSR (Kiev 1959) Entsiklopedicheskii slovar' po fizicheskoi kul'ture i sportu, 3 vols (Moscow 1960) Usykova, N. Metodyka fizychnoho vykhovannia v shkoli (Kiev 1960) Samoukov, F.; et al (eds). Fizicheskaia kul'tura i sport v SSSR (Moscow 1967) Shneidman, N. The Soviet Road to Olympus: Theory and Practice of Soviet Physical Culture and Sport (London and Henley 1979) Riordan, J. Soviet Sport: Background to the Olympics (Oxford 1980) E. Zharsky

Physical-Mechanical Institute of the Academy of Sciences of Ukraine (Fizyko-mekhanichnyi instytut ANU). A research institute in Lviv, founded in 1951 as the Institute of Mechanical Engineering and Automation and renamed in 1964. It has 21 departments, a special designs office, an experimental construction plant, and a graduate program. Its chief areas of research are the physicochemical mechanics of the brittle destruction of construction materials, metal corrosion and its prevention, the theory of the perception and processing of information for the purpose of simple image searching and recognition, the design of special systems and devices for investigating submarine and subterranean depths, nondestructive tests for the reliability of materials, and the automation of scientific experimentation. Among its notable scientists are H. Karpenko, K. Karandeev, V. Mykhailovsky, and H. Savin. The institute publishes the journal Fiziko-khimicheskaia mekhanika materialov and the collection Otbor i peredacha informatsii, both in Russian. Physical-Technical Institute of the Academy of Sciences of Ukraine (Fizychno-tekhnichnyi instytut ANU). A research institute in Kharkiv established in 1928. Until 1938 it was called the Ukrainian Physical-Technical Institute and was under the jurisdiction of the Supreme Council of the National Economy and the People's Commissariat of Heavy Industry. It now has approx 2,500 employees in 14 departments; sections devoted to physical materials science, nuclear physics, and plasma physics; a technological design office; and an experimental plant. Its main fields of research are the behavior of electrons in the normal and superconducting state, methods of obtaining superpure metals, solid-state physics, and controlled nuclear fusion. The institute's accomplishments include the first induced nuclear transmutation in the USSR (1932), the production of liquid hydrogen (1931) and helium (1932), and the construction of the first three-co-ordinate radiolocator in the USSR (1938) and of the torsatron (1970). The directors of the institute have been I. Obreimov (1928-32), A. Leipunsky (1932-7), O. Shpetny (1937-44), K. Synelnykov (1944-65), V. Ivanov (1965-80), and V. Zelensky (since 1980). Many other noted scientists have worked at the institute, including L. Landau, G. Latyshev, L. Vereshchagin, L. Shubnikov, A. Walter, O. Akhiiezer, V. Bariakhtar, B. Lazarev, B. Verkin, O. Halkin, A. Prykhotko, V. Tolok, Ye. Borovyk, and O. Sytenko (see also *Physics). BIBLIOGRAPHY Ivanov, V. (ed). ^oletKhar'kovskomufiziko-tekhnicheskomu institutu AN USSR (Kiev 1978) L. Onyshkevych

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Physics. Originally 'physics' referred to the study of all aspects of nature. In the mid-i9th century it was still synonymous with 'natural philosophy.' The earliest extant Ukrainian source on natural philosophy is the retelling of Aristotelian ideas in the *Izbornik of Sviatoslav (1073). In Ukraine attention was first devoted to quantitative problems in the Protestant schools, which appeared at the end of the i6th century (eg, Berestechko in Volhynia and Khmilnyk in Podilia). They produced mathematical and technical manuals for artisans and merchants, handwritten in the Ukrainian vernacular. Arithmetic and astronomy were taught in the *Ostrih Academy (est ça 1576), the first institution of higher learning in Ukraine. Considerable attention was devoted to the natural sciences in the *Kievan Mohyla Academy (est 1632). T. *Prokopovych's lectures on natural philosophy, physics, and mathematics at the academy were lucid treatments of much that was known on those subjects at the time. From the 17305, natural philosophy was taught at *Kharkiv College; in 1765 physics-related subjects, such as structural engineering, geodesy, and artillery and ballistics, became part of trie curriculum; and in 1795, after the college merged with the Kharkiv Central Public College, physics was taught as a separate subject. In the early 19th century, Kharkiv University was the center of physics research in Ukraine. The first professor of physics there was A. *Stojkovic (1805-13). T. *Osipovsky studied atmospheric optics and argued against the Kantian concept of space and time. His former student M. *Ostrohradsky was the first Ukrainian to contribute to the development of physics and mathematics on the international level. He copostulated the Gauss-Ostrohradsky theorem on the transformation of a volume integral into a surface integral, one of the cornerstones of continuum mechanics and electrodynamics, and solved a number of outstanding theoretical physics problems. In 1882 a Kharkiv University lecturer, M. *Pylchykov, investigating the polarization of light scattered by the atmosphere, found that blue light is scattered more than red, and corrected the prevailing view that the sky is blue because of air fluorescence. Fundamental discoveries in theoretical mechanics were made at the university in the last decade of the 19th century. By generalizing S. Kovalevska's 1889 theoretical studies of dynamical instabilities, A. *Liapunov provided a starting point for applied areas, such as radio technology and control theory. Recently, interest in his work was revived in studies of nonlinear dynamics and chaotic systems; the so-called Liapunov exponent is now an established indicator for determining if a motion is chaotic. At Kiev University the basis for experimental physics research in Ukraine was laid by M. *Avenarius from 1866 on. Avenarius is best known for his discovery of the temperature dependence of the electromotive force of thermoelements (Avenarius's law) and for his systematic measurements of the critical temperatures of fluids. In 1884 the first chair of theoretical physics in Ukraine was founded at Kiev University. It was first held by N. *Shiller, who made important contributions to electrodynamics (highly regarded by J. Maxwell) and showed that differential equations describing the second law of thermodynamics contain an integrating factor that is a universal function of temperature. Shiller also founded the *Kiev Physics and Mathematics Society (1890); it played an important role in the development and popularization of physics in Ukraine.

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Substantial contributions were also made by physicists working at the university in Odessa. There N. Umov introduced the concepts of energy density and the vector property of energy flow in 1874, and M. Pylchykov conducted the first measurements of radioactivity in Ukraine in 1900. Soviet Ukraine Kiev. From 1918 important work in mathematical physics, in particular on approximate integration of differential equations, was carried out in the PhysicalMathematical Division of the newly founded Ukrainian Academy of Sciences. Papers published in the 19205 in the academy's serials and subsequently abroad brought international recognition to those doing theoretical work in Ukraine. Of special significance was M. *Krylov and his student N. *Bogoliubov/s (M. Boholiubov) development of modern nonlinear mechanics. Subsequently, Bogoliubov became world-renowned for his seminal contributions to statistical, nuclear, and particle physics and quantum-field theory. The department of experimental physics organized in 1923 at the Kiev Polytechnical Institute by O. *Goldman was the first modern physics research center in Ukraine. Properties of dielectrics and semiconductors were investigated there. In 1929 the department was transformed into a multifaceted Physics Scientific Research Institute, which in 1936 was renamed the AN URSR (now ANU) ^Institute of Physics. In 1927 Goldman started Ukrains'ki ftzychni zapysky (later Fizychni zapysky, 1926-41), the first Ukrainian serial devoted exclusively to physics. By that time Ukrainian physics and other scientific ^terminology had been largely codified. Fizychni zapysky contributed substantially to the further development of physics terminology. In 1926 N. Morgulis established, as part of the department of physics at Kiev University, a laboratory for physical electronics, where experimental and theoretical work was conducted on the ionization of surfaces. In 1930 the laboratory became part of the Physics Scientific Research Institute. Ten other ANU physics-related research establishments have been based in Kiev: the "Institute of Mechanics (est 1919); the Institute of Hydromechanics (est 1926); the Main *Astronomical Observatory (est 1944); the ^Institute of Electrodynamics (est 1947);tne "Institute of Metal Physics (est 1955); the ^Institute of Semiconductors (est 1960), where theoretical and applied laser physics is studied; the "Institute of Geophysics (est 1960), which also develops and improves geophysical methods for discovering new mineral deposits; the "Institute of Technical Thermophysics (est 1947), which directs its efforts at investigating alternative and renewable energy sources; the "Institute of Theoretical Physics (est 1966); and the "Institute for Nuclear Research (est 1970). The last two institutes have in short order acquired international renown, the former for its research in quantum-field theory (O. Parasiuk, P. Fomin, V. Miransky, O. Parasiuk, G. Zinovev), nuclear and plasma theory (O. Sytenko, I. Simenoh, V. Kharchenko, I. Yakymenko), condensed-matter physics (V. Bariakhtar, I. Dziub), and quantum biophysics (O. Davydov, V. Hachok, E. Petrov, I. Ukrainsky), and the latter for its experimental facilities and a strong theoretical group (V. Strutynsky, V. Fushchych, D. Petryna of the Institute of Mathematics). Some of the other scientists who have contributed significantly to the advance of physical knowledge are V. Stryzhak (neutron physics at Kiev University, 1960-76), M.

Brodyn, I. Horban, A. Lubchenko, M. Shpak (optical properties of solids), and S. Pekar (polaron theory). In 1990 the founding congress of the Ukrainian Physics Society was held in Kiev; V. Bariakhtar was elected president. Kharkiv. In many respects, scientific research output from Kharkiv has rivaled and even surpassed Kiev's. In 1919 D. Rozhansky established a radio-physics laboratory at Kharkiv University, and in 1924-5 magnetrons for radio-wave generation were developed at the Kharkiv Institute of People's Education (KhINO) by A. Slutskin and D. Shteinberg. The All-Ukrainian Association of Physicists was founded at the KhINO in 1926; headed by -A. Zhelekhivsky, it also had branches in Kiev (headed by O. Goldman), Dnipropetrovske (by A. Malinovsky), and Odessa (by E. Kirilov). A department of physics was founded at the KhINO in 1927; it was directed by D. Rozhansky. In 1928 the Ukrainian Physical-Technical Institute (uPTl) was established. It developed rapidly into a major physics center for the entire USSR. The vigorous development of experimental nuclear physics at the institute was exemplified by the 4OO-KeV electrostatic accelerator brought online in 1932 and by the 3.5-MeV facility made operational in 1937 (the most powerful in Europe at the time). Soviet heavy-water production was first achieved there by A. Brodsky in 1934. Major contributions were also made to theoretical and experimental nuclear, high-energy, plasma, low-temperature, and solid-state physics. Important discoveries were made in the areas of antiferromagnetism, ideal diamagnetism of semiconductors, nuclear magnetism, dynamics of magnetic moments, interacting spin waves (magnons), and magnetoacoustic resonance. In 1938 the UPTl was renamed the AN URSR *PhysicalTechnical Institute (PTl). Today substantive theoretical work on supersymmetry is conducted there (D. Volkov). Salient postwar experimental achievements are exemplified by the bringing on-line in 1964 of a 2-GeV electron accelerator (K. Synelnykov, I. Hrishaiev), and by the breakthroughs in high-frequency and turbulent-plasma heating and in the confinement and control of thermonuclear plasma (Ya. Fainberg). Research in advanced fusion technology is pursued with the torsatron SATURN (1970, the world's first) and the Uragan 1-3 series of stellarators (V. Tolok). Notable scientists have been associated at one time or another with the UPTI and PTL In 1932 A. Leipunsky, K. Synelnykov, A. Walter, and G. Latyshev were the first in the USSR to induce the disintegration of a stable nucleus (lithium) by means of accelerated protons. Leipunsky became internationally known in 1934 while working in England in E. Rutherford's laboratory; there he obtained the first experimental evidence for the existence of the neutrino. In 1930, while working at the UPTI, the Russian physicist V. Fock became well known in the atomic and nuclear physics community for his contribution to the Hartree-Fock self-consistent field approximation. The 1962 Nobel Prize winner L. Landau headed the UPTI theoretical department in 1932-7. His imprint has been strongly felt there to the present day. There he and his student E. Lifshits wrote the landmark ten-volume Course of Theoretical Physics, which is still used world-wide. I. Pomeranchuk, author of the Pomeranchuk theorem, worked at the PTl, as did O. Akhiiezer and O. Sytenko, who are known for their theory of plasma fluctuations, I. Lifshits (theory

PHYSICS of metals), M. Asbel and E. Kahner, who discovered cyclotron resonance in metals, and V. Zelensky (materials science). In 1960 the Physical-Technical Institute of Low Temperatures was founded as a PTI offshoot, where fundamental and applied investigations have been conducted in superconductivity, the electronic properties of solids, the molecular physics of heat exchange, macromolecules, and cryogenics (see L. *Shubnikov). Physics research has also been conducted at Kharkiv University; the Kharkiv Polytechnical (formerly Technological) Institute; the Kharkiv Astronomical Observatory; and the ANU "Institute of Radio Physics and Electronics (est 1955), known for the discovery of the io.4-Hz acoustic laser. A recent outgrowth of the latter institute is the Radio Astronomy Institute (est 1986), directed by S. Braude. It has operated the decameter-band radio telescope UTR-2, the largest in the world (in 1989) in the 10- to 25-MHz range, which has located some 60 new discrete decameter sources. The UTR-2 is the main component of the new system of four decameter-band interferometers (dubbed URAN, an acronym for Ukrainian Radiointerferometers of the ANU) with baseline lengths of between 40 and 900 km. Lviv. Under Austrian rule, pioneering work was done at Lviv University in 1900-13 by Prof M. Smoluchowski on the theory of fluctuations. He contributed greatly to a microscopic understanding of the second law of thermodynamics. Under Polish rule, in 1935-6 L. Infeld worked there on general relativity and nonlinear electrodynamics. In the early 19605 strong spectroscopy and solid-state research groups were formed at Lviv University under the direction of A. Glauberman, and Ukrainian textbooks on quantum mechanics and atomic physics were written. It was also at Lviv University that O. Vlokh discovered the phenomenon of electrogyration, and I. Stasiuk provided a theoretical explanation for it. In the 19705 and 19805 major research in statistical condensed-matter physics was carried out at the Lviv branch of the ANU Institute of Theoretical Physics (since 1991 a separate ANU institute) under the guidance of I. *Yukhnovsky. Yukhnovsky's school developed the collective-variable method for the study of electrolytes (the first microscopic treatment including all interparticle forces), was the first to model successfully second-order phase transitions in several areas of physics, and obtained significant results in the theory of metals and in crystal optics. Physics research was also conducted by the Ail-Union Scientific Research Institute of the Metrology of Measuring and Control Systems (est 1977); the Lviv Astronomical Observatory (research in astrometry, solar physics, and theoretical astrophysics); the Lviv Polytechnical Institute, where the school of V. Milianchuk has worked on atomic spectroscopy, quantum electrodynamics, and general quantum-field theory; and the ANU Institute for Applied Problems in Mechanics and Mathematics (est 1978). Odessa. As a professor (1918-22) at the Odessa Polytechnical Institute, the Soviet physicist L. Mandelshtam made substantive contributions to the theory of and experiments on light scattering from crystals (Raman scattering, Brillouin-Mandelshtam scattering). In 1926 a State Physics Scientific Research Institute was founded. There a group under E. Kirilov investigated photochemical and photoelectric reactions in the photographic process and obtained new and extensive data on the photoelectric effect

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in semiconductors and on the luminescence of dyes and crystals. In 1933 the institute became part of Odessa University. In the late 19405 V. Fedoseev and D. Polishchuk conducted work at the university on evaporation, burning, and gas dynamics of liquid and solid fuels, which found applications in jet engines and rocket motors. Physics research is also done at the ""Odessa Astronomical Observatory (est 1871), which operates five reflector and five refractor telescopes, a URAN-4 radio telescope (since 1981), and a synchronized satellite-tracking facility in co-ordination with additional observation stations in Kiev, Lviv, and Uzhhorod; the Odessa Electrotechnical Institute of Communications (est (1930); the Odessa Hydrometeorological Institute (est 1932); the Odessa Institute of Navy Engineers (est 1930); and the Odessa Technological Institute of the Refrigeration Industry (since 1970). The Crimea. There are two important physics-related research institutions in the Crimea: the ^Crimean Astrophysical Observatory (est 1945) near Bakhchesarai, with Europe's largest reflector telescope, a 22-m radio telescope, and a solar telescope (with which A. Severny discovered rapid solar pulsations), and whose research laboratories developed a solar telescope for the SALUT space laboratory and have collaborated with Canadian astrophysicists on very long baseline high-precision interferometry (ASTRON); and the ANU *Marine Hydrophysical Océanographie Institute, based in Symferopil since 1963. Donetske. At the ANU Physical-Technical Institute (est 1965), an offshoot of the ANU Physical-Technical Institute of Low Temperatures in Kharkiv, the main thrust of research has been in materials science (the effects of high pressures and intense magnetic fields at low temperatures on the magnetic and electronic properties of solids). O. *Halkin, director of the institute from its inception until 1982, V. Bariakhtar, and K. *Tolpyho are largely credited with establishing and maintaining the high scientific level. Among its significant achievements are the discovery of an intermediate state in ferromagnetics and the determination that the transition from fragility to plasticity constitutes a phase transition linked to the number of mobile dislocations. Applied physics research on nonlinear systems is conducted at the ANU "Institute of Applied Mathematics and Mechanics (est 1970). Dnipropetrovske. Notable physics research dates back to G. Kurdiurnov' s school on phase transitions in metals at the Dnipropetrovske Physical-Technical Institute (193244). The ANU Institute of Technical Mechanics (est 1980) specializes in the dynamics of complex mechanical and hydromechanical systems. Of note is its research on highspeed transportation involving magnetic lévitation. Dnipropetrovske University (est 1918) has an applied physics research laboratory. Poltava. Since 1926 the Poltava Gravimetric Observatory has carried out high-precision measurement of the precession and nutation of the earth's rotational axis and of the tides of the earth's mantle and crust. Chernivtsi. Research has been conducted at a branch of the ANU Institute of Semiconductors (interesting results on narrow-band semiconductors have been obtained by K. Tovstiuk), at Chernivtsi University (theoretical solid-state physics), and at a branch of the Lviv-based Institute for Applied Problems in Mechanics and Mathematics. Uzhhorod. Research in theoretical high-energy physics, axiomatic quantum-field theory (Y. Lomsadze), and ex-

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PHYSICS

perimental atomic physics (J. Zapesochny) has been carried out at Uzhhorod University and at a branch of the ANU Institute for Nuclear Research. Serials. Physics research has been published in Ukraine mostly in YUAN and ANU serials: Protokoly zasidan ' Fizychnomatematychnoho viddilu Ukrdins 'koi akademïi nauk u Kyievi (1918-19); Dopovidi Akademn nauk Ukrains'koi RSR, Seriia 'A' (since 1918); Zapysky Fizychno-matematychnoho viddilu (1923-31); Trudy Fizychno-matematychnoho viddilu (1923-9); Zbirnyk prats' Instytutu tekhnichnoi mekhaniky (1926-9); Fizychni zapysky (1932-41); Physikalische Zeitschrift der Sowjetunion (1932-8), published by the ANU Physical-Technical Institute in Kharkiv in German and English; Visti Instytutu hidrolohïi (1938,1940); Visti Instytutu hidrolohi'i i hidrotekhniky (1948-51,1963); Izvestiia Instituía gidrologii i gidrotekhniki (1951,1953-6,1959-63); Zapysky Kafedry matematychnoi fizyky (1937-9); Dopovidi Viddilu fizyko-khimichnykh i matematychnykh nauk (1944); Trudy Instituía fiziki (1951-6); *Ukrams'kyi fizychnyi zhurnal (1956-78 and since 1989), Ukrainskii fizicheskii zhurnal (1978-88), Fiziko-khimicheskaia mekhanika materialov (since 1965), Fizika nizkikh temperatur (since 1975), Visnyk Kyws'koho universytetu: Seriia fizyky (since 1962), Visnyk Lvivs'koho universytetu: Seriia fizyky (since 1962), Fizika mnogochastichnykh sistem (since 1972), and Fizika, khimia i mekhanika materialov (since 1988). Starting in the 19305 Ukrainian physics periodicals came under strong government pressure to publish in Russian (see ^Russification). The premier Ukrainian physics journal, Ukrdins 'kyi fizychnyi zhurnal, which appeared in Ukrainian until 1972, had a parallel Russian edition from 1972 until 1978, and from 1978 was published in Russian only. Since 1989 this journal has published contributions in Ukrainian, Russian, and English. BIBLIOGRAPHY Khramov, lu. Fizyky: Dovidnyk (Kiev 1974) Shul'ha, M. Khronolohichnyi dovidnyk vitchyznianoi fizyky (Kiev 1980) Azarov, A.; et al (eds). Istoriia Akademn nauk Ukrdins 'koi RSR (Kiev 1982) Khramov, lu. Fiziki: Biograficheskii spravochnik (Moscow 1983) - Biografía fiziki: Khronologicheskii spravochnik (Kiev 1983) O. Bilaniuk, M. Horbatsch

Physiology. A discipline that employs anatomical, chemical, and physical means to inquire into the causes and mechanisms of the activities of all living things, particularly healthy humans. The first centers to study physiology in Ukraine were established in Kiev, Odessa, Kharkiv, and Lviv at their respective universities in the first half of the 19th century. In the second half of the 19th century departments of physiology were established at existing veterinary and agronomy institutes. Among the Ukrainian scientists active in the field of physiology were M. Biletsky, V. *Danylevsky, G. *Folbort, O. *Nahorny, Ye. *Prykhodkova, V. *Nikitin, and I. Shchelkov (in Kharkiv); V. *Bets, V. *Chahovets, O. *Bohomolets, A. *Yemchenko, A. *Walter, and D.v *Vorontsov (in Kiev); and B. Babkin, P. *Spiro, and B. Verigo (in Odessa). The first journal of physiology in the Russian Empire was published by the brothers O. and V. Danylevsky in Kharkiv (1888-91). Because of the human impact on the environment and the important question of world ecology, comparative physiology is regarded as one of the most pressing problems of our time on both medical and economic levels. The

Ukrainian Society of Physiologists, Biochemists, and Pharmacologists was founded in 1929, and split into three independent societies in 1961, including the Ukrainian Physiological Society (UFT). By 1984 the latter had 15 city chapters and 1,345 members. Physiological research in Ukraine is also conducted at the ANU "Institute of Physiology, co-ordinated by the UFT and the ANU Scientific Council for Problems of Animal and Human Physiology. Journals published in Ukraine include Fiziologicheskii zhurnal (since 1955) and Neirofiziologiia. BIBLIOGRAPHY Vorontsov, D.; Nikitin, V.; Sierkov, P. Narysy z istoríi fiziolohn na Ukraini (Kiev 1959) Kostiuk, P. Fiziologiia tsentral'noi nervovoi sistemy (Kiev 1977) Obshchaia fiziologiia nervovoi sistemy (Lviv 1979) Chastnaia fiziologiia nervovoi sistemy (Lviv 1983) Nikitin, V. Istoricheskii ocherk razvitiia fiziologii cheloveka i zhivotnykh (Kharkiv 1983) P. Dzul

Phytogeography. The study of the geographical distribution of plants. Like many other sciences, it developed into a formal science during the i8th century, although some elements of plant geography appeared in ancient writings. The botanical-geographical regionalization of Ukrainian flora has been studied by P. Pallas, S. Korzynsky, A. Kryshtofovych, M. Maksymovych, N. Vavilov, M. Popov, M. Klokov, M. Kotov, Ye. Lavrenko, and others. Piarists (piiary). The popular name of the Order of Poor Clerics Regular of the Mother of God of the Pious Schools, a congregation of priest-teachers established in 1597 in Rome by J. Calasanctius to provide free education for children. Piarists first appeared in the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth in 1682. They rapidly established a host of colleges, which they operated in competition with the Jesuits, particularly after the school reforms of 1754. In Polish-controlled Right-Bank Ukraine the Piarists maintained monasteries and schools in Kholm, Zolochiv, Lviv, Mezhyhiria, and other locations. The order was liquidated in Russian-controlled territories in 1832, following the Polish uprising. Piasetsky, Andrii [Pjasec'kyj, Andrij], b 27 August 1909 in Reklynets, Zhovkva county, Galicia, d 25 November 1942 in Lviv. Forester, community figure, and an active member of Plast. A graduate in forestry engineering from the Lviv Polytechnical Institute, he was appointed inspector of forests in the Lviv archdiocese by Metropolitan A. Sheptytsky in 1935. Before the Second World War he purchased 150 ha of forests in Lozyna, near Yaniv (Horodok county), for a Ukrainian forestry research station. During the Soviet occupation he taught in the forestry department of the Lviv Polytechnical Institute (1939-41). In 1941 he was a member of the Ukrainian State Administration in Lviv. During the German occupation he published a work on the building and biological development of Ukrainian forests (1942), founded and ran a forestry institute, and acquired the Yaniv research station for it. He was arrested and shot by the Gestapo. Piatakov, Georgii (Yurii) [Pjatakov, Georgij (Jurij)], b 6 August 1890 in Horodyshche, Cherkasy county, Kiev gubernia, d January 1937. Russian Bolshevik revolutionary

PICHETA and Soviet leader. After the February Revolution Piatakov headed the Kiev Bolshevik Committee and represented it in the Central Rada. Although he opposed the Rada's separatist policies, for tactical purposes he co-operated with it and even sat on the Little Rada (August-November 1917). In September 1917 he became the chairman of the Kiev Council of Workers' Deputies, and after the Bolshevik coup he was called to Petrograd to oversee the State Bank. In April 1918, after returning to Ukraine, he became the first chairman of the Organizational Bureau of the newly founded CP(B)U and the CC secretary. To gain Ukrainian support for the Bolsheviks, he promoted, contrary to his principles, CP(B)U autonomy vis-à-vis the Russian Party. When the peasant uprising he had organized failed, Moscow loyalists (the Katerynoslav group) took control of the CP(B)U, and in September 1918 Piatakov was replaced as CC secretary. After the German retreat from Ukraine Piatakov headed the Soviet ^Provisional Workers' and Peasants' Government of Ukraine (November 1918 to January 1919) and implemented some ultraleft social and economic policies. While he demanded military and political autonomy from Moscow, he waged war against the UNR Directory and an ideological struggle against the *Borotbists. In January 1919 he was replaced as head of the government by V. Lenin's supporter, Kh. Rakovsky. From 1920 Piatakov supported L. Trotsky's positions. As director of the mining industry in the Urals (1920) and the Donbas (1921) he restored order and production by 'militarizing' and thenceforth was considered a leading Soviet administrator and economic expert. A key figure in Soviet economic debates of the mid-i92os, Piatakov elaborated a five-year plan for capital accumulation that provided for the accelerated industrialization of Ukraine instead of the Urals. After the defeat of the Left Opposition in 1927, Piatakov was removed from the USSR Supreme Council of the National Economy (VSNKh) and expelled from the Party. He recanted and in 1929 was readmitted into the Party and appointed chairman of the State Bank in Moscow. As a member of the VSNKh and deputy commissar of heavy industry, he was responsible for much of the industrial success of the Second Five-Year Plan. In the fall of 1936 he was arrested. At the second Moscow show trial of the 'anti-Soviet Trotskyist center' in January 1937, Piatakov 'confessed' to heading a 'Ukrainian Trotskyist center' whose goal was Ukraine's secession from the USSR. He was executed with 12 codefendants immediately after the trial. V. Holubnychy, R. Senkus Piatakov, Leonid [Pjatakov], b 4 October 1888 in Horodyshche, Cherkasy county, Kiev gubernia, d ca 7 January 1918 in Kiev. Bolshevik revolutionary; brother of G. *Piatakov. A graduate of the Kiev Polytechnical Institute (1908), he joined the Bolsheviks in 1915. After the February Revolution he helped organize the Red Guard in Kiev and was a member of the Kiev Bolshevik Committee, the Executive Committee of the Kiev Council of Workers' Deputies, and, briefly, the Central Rada. In December 1917 he was elected a candidate member of the Chief Committee of Social Democracy in Ukraine (the supreme Bolshevik body in Right-Bank Ukraine) and a member of the Bolshevik All-Ukrainian Central Executive Committee.

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Piatnytska Church. See Good Friday, Church of. Piatnytsky, Ihor [P'jatnyts'kyj], b 5 November 1910 in Kiev. Analytical chemist. A graduate of Kiev University d937)/ he taught there and became a professor and chairman of the analytical chemistry department in 1960. He published over 80 papers on the reaction of metal complexes with oxyacids and their use in analytical chemistry, on the characterization of complexes derived from fatty acids and metal cations, and on their extractive behavior. He coauthored three textbooks on analytical chemistry, including Analytical Chemistry of Cobalt (English trans 1969). Piatnytsky, Ivan [P'jatnyc'kyj], b 1856, d ? Church historian. A graduate of the St Petersburg Theological Seminary, in the 18905 he lectured at the Mahiliou Theological Academy (in Belarus) and edited the Mahiliou eparchial organ. He is the author of a history of sectarianism in the Russian Orthodox church (1884), Ocherk istorii kievskoi mitropolii v period vremeni otdeVnogo ee sushchestvovaniia ot mitropolii moskovskoi, 1459-1686 (A Brief History of Kiev Metropoly during the Period of Its Separation from Moscow Metropoly in 1459-1686,1891), and other works. He also edited and published the sermons of H. Konysky (1892). Piatnytsky, Porfyrii [P'jatnyc'kyj, Porfyrij], b 15 September 1859 in Riga, d 30 December 1940 in Kiev. Geologist. After graduating from Kharkiv University (1896) he lectured there (1903-20) and served as rector (1918-20) of the university. He worked as a geologist in Krasnodar (1920-2), Moscow (1922-6), and Leningrad (1926-32) before returning to Ukraine in 1932 to become a research associate at the Ukrainian Geological Administration and the AN URSR (now ANU) Institute of Geological Sciences (from 1938). His major research interests included Precambrian crystalline schists of Ukraine, particularly of the Kryvyi Rih Iron-ore Basin. Piatnytsky, Serhii [P'jatnyc'kyj, Serhij], b 15 March 1905 in Kharkiv gubernia, d 2 May 1971 in Kharkiv. Silviculturist; corresponding member of the All-Union Academy of Agricultural Sciences. He graduated from the Kharkiv Agricultural Institute (1925), and from 1934 he headed the selection department at the Ukrainian Scientific Research Institute of Forest Management and Agroforest Amelioration in Kharkiv. From 1949 he was also a professor at the Kharkiv Agricultural Institute. He wrote on the theoretical foundations of agroforest amelioration, silviculture, and forest selection and genetics and developed new varieties of oak trees able to survive in a steppe environment. Piatykhatky [P'jatyxatky]. v-i4. A city (1989 pop 21,600) and raion center in Dnipropetrovske oblast. The town arose ca 1886 as a railway junction and attained city status in 1938. It is now an industrial and communications center with railway servicing enterprises, a clothes factory, and a food industry. Pich. See Stove. Picheta, Volodymyr [Piceta] (Vladimir), b 22 October 1878 in Poltava, d 23 June 1947 in Moscow. Historian and

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Ukrainian history (1947).A bibliography of his works was published in Minsk in 1978. A. Zhukovsky

Pid markso-lenins'kym praporom. See Prapor marksyzmu-leninizmu.

Volodymyr Picheta

Slavist of Serbian and Ukrainian descent; full member of the Academy of Sciences of the Belorussian SSR from 1928 and of the USSR from 1946. A graduate of Moscow University (1901), he taught in secondary schools in Moscow (1901-2, 1905-10), Korostyshiv (1902-3), and Katerynoslav (1903-5) and was a member of the Katerynoslav Learned Archival Commission. He was a privatdocent at Moscow University (1910-11) and then taught at Moscow's School of Higher Courses for Women and Practical Academy of Commercial Sciences. He received his PH D in 1918. Under Soviet rule Picheta was a lecturer and professor at Moscow University (1918-21) and the first rector of the Belarusian University in Minsk (1921-30). He was arrested by the OGPU in September 1930, tried on fabricated charges of belonging to counterrevolutionary and Belarusian bourgeois nationalist organizations, and exiled in August 1931 to Viatka. He was released in 1934 after E. Benes, then Czechoslovakia's foreign minister, told J. Stalin he wanted to meet Picheta while he visited Moscow. Picheta then taught at two Voronezh institutes (1934-6) before returning to Moscow to become a senior associate of the USSR academy's Institute of History (1937),a professor at Moscow's university and pedagogical institute (1938), a corresponding member of the academy and chairman of the Institute of History's Sector of Slavic Studies (1939), and chairman of the department of the history of the Western and Southern Slavs at Moscow University (1943). From 1946 he was one of two deputy directors of the academy's Institute of Slavic Studies. Picheta's works in Slavic history include a historical survey of the Slavs (1914) and monographs on Bulgaria's struggle for national unification (1915), the agrarian reform of King Sigismund II Augustus in the Lithuanian-Ruthenian state (master's and doctoral diss, 2 vols, 1917; 2nd edn 1958), Russian historiography (1922), the beginnings of industrialization and the disintegration of the serf economy in Russia (1923), peasant wars in Russia (1923), the history of Belarus (1924), the history of agriculture and land ownership in Belarus to the late loth century (1927), principal moments in the history of Western Ukraine and western Belarus (1940), the history of Bohemia (1947), and 15th- and loth-century Belarus and Lithuania (1961). Some of his studies were published in Letopis' Ekaterinoslavskoi uchenoi arkhivnoi komissii, Ukraïns'kyi naukovyi zbirnyk (1915), Ukrainskaia zhizn' (1915, 1917), and YUAN collections. He wrote numerous articles on the history of the Cossack period, a brochure about the 17th- to i8thcentury Cossack state in Ukraine (1945), and a survey of

Pid praporom leninizmu (Under the Flag of Leninism). A semimonthly journal of political propaganda and agitation published by the CC CPU in Kiev in 1941 and from 1944 to 1991. Its previous names were Na dopomohu ahitatoru (1941) and Bloknot ahitatora (1944-69). A Russian-language version of the journal, Pod znamenem leninizma, was published from 1953. In 1980 the circulation of the Russian edition was 229,000, and of the Ukrainian edition, 230,000. Piddubny, Hryhorii [Piddubnyj, Hryhorij] (real surname: Tovmachiv), b 1882 in Tetleha, Pryluka county, Poltava gubernia, d 3 November 1937 in the Solovets Islands. Journalist, writer, and political activist. He emigrated to Austria before the First World War and returned to Ukraine in 1917. After joining the Ukrainian Party of Socialist Revolutionaries he coedited its organ Trudova respublika (1918-19). In 1919-20 he belonged to the External Group of the Ukrainian Communist party in Vienna and contributed to its weekly Nova doba. Then he worked for Soviet intelligence and as a correspondent of the Kiev daily Proletars'ka pravda. In 1928 he returned to Ukraine, and in 1935 ne was imprisoned in the Solovets Islands. His writings include political and historical works, such as Za Radians 'ku Ukraïnu (For Soviet Ukraine, 1921) and Bukovyna: Timynule i suchasne (Bukovyna: Past and Present, 1928), short stories, and translations of A. Chekhov, G. Sand, and H.G. Wells.

Ivan Piddubny

Volodymyr Pidhaietsky

Piddubny, Ivan [Piddubnyj], b 8 October 1871 in Krasenivka, Zolotonosha county, Poltava gubernia, d 8 August 1949 in Yeiske, Krasnodar krai, RSFSR. Wrestler. From 1898 he performed as a strongman and wrestler in circuses that toured the Russian Empire and, later, the USSR. In 1905-9 he won six world championships in professional wrestling. In 1926-7 he fought in the United States. In his 40year career he did not lose a single championship fight, and he became known around the world as the 'champion of champions/ A museum in his honor was opened in Yeiske in 1971.

PIDHAITSI

Piddubyk-Sushchevsky, Petro [Piddubyk-Suscevs'kyj], b 1756 in the Chernihiv region, d 4 September 1811 in Chernihiv. Orthopedist and traumatologist. A graduate of Chernihiv College and the medico-surgical school at the St Petersburg Military Hospital, he served as an army medic and in 1788 obtained the rank of staff physician. From 1797 he worked on the Little Russia Medical Board. Pidhaichyky Yustynovi. A multi-occupational archeological site near Pidhaichyky, Terebovlia raion, Ternopil oblast. Excavations by W. Demetrikiewicz in 1900 uncovered a Neolithic stone burial vault, a Trypilian settlement, a cache of Roman coins from the ist to 2nd century, and a 4th- to 5th-century early Slavic burial ground. Pidhaietsky, Volodymyr [Pidhajec'kyj], b 23 July 1889 in Kamianets-Podilskyi, Podilia gubernia, d 3 November 1937. Hygienist and civic leader. He was a member of the Central Rada in 1917-18, a professor of occupational hygiene at the Kiev Medical Institute (1921-30), director of the Institute of Physical Culture in Kiev, and a senior research associate of the All-Ukrainian Academy of Sciences. Accused of being a member of the *Union for the Liberation of Ukraine, he was sentenced in 1930 to eight years' confinement and three years' deprivation of personal rights. In October 1937 an NKVD tribunal sentenced him to death. The Ukrainian SSR Supreme Court rehabilitated him in 1989.

Bohdan Pidhainy

Semen Pidhainy

Pidhainy, Bohdan [Pidhajnyj], b 2 January 1906 in Polonychna, Kaminka-Strumylova county, Galicia, d i September 1980 in Toronto. Mechanical engineer and political and civic activist. A graduate of the Danzig Polytechnic, he joined the Ukrainian Military Organization and in the 19305 became operations chief in the home executive of the OUN in Galicia. He was sentenced in 1935 to life in prison in connection with B. *Pieracki's assassination and in 1936 to 15 years as a member of the OUN Home Executive. During the Second World War he took part in the eastward march of the OUN expeditionary groups and in the operations of the Division Galizien. Later he was interned as a POW in Rimini, and served on the executive of the OUN (Bandera faction). After emigrating to Canada in 1956, he became a member of the Political Council of the OUN Abroad and Canadian president of the Brotherhood of Former Soldiers of the First Ukrainian Division of the Ukrainian National Army.

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Pidhainy, Leonyd [Pidhajnyj], b 1899 in Yabluniv, Kaniv county, Kiev gubernia, d 15 December 1950 in Kiev. Literary scholar and critic. From 1931 to 1941 he was a docent at the Kiev Institute of People's Education (Kiev University from 1934). He was first published in 1928. His monographs are Lesia Ukraïnka (1929), Literaturnye kommentarii k proizvedeniiam M. Kotsiubinskogo (Literary Commentaries on the Works of M. Kotsiubynsky, 1931), Franko i Zolia (Franko and Zola, 1936), and Lesia Ukraïnka (1941). Pidhainy, Oleh [Pidhajnyj], b 1933 in Kharkiv. Historian; son of S. *Pidhainy. He graduated from McGill University in Montreal (1962) and taught at Auburn University in Alabama. He has published works on the history of Ukraine in 1917-20, including The Formation of the Ukrainian Republic (1966) and The Ukrainian Republic in the Great East-European Revolution: A Bibliography (coeditor, 2 pts, 1971,1975). Pidhainy, Semen [Pidhajnyj], b 17 April 1907 in Novominska Stanytsia, Kuban, d 14 November 1965 in Toronto. Historian, writer, civic and political activist. A graduate of the Kiev Institute of People's Education and the Kharkiv Scientific Research Institute of Material Culture, he worked at the Museum of Slobidska Ukraine and the Kharkiv Institute of People's Education and was a research associate of the All-Ukrainian Academy of Sciences. From 1933 to 1941 he was an inmate of Soviet labor camps, mostly in the Solovets Islands. He fled from the USSR in 1943 and emigrated to Canada in 1949. He was deputy secretary of the Ukrainian Revolutionary Democratic party and a member of the Ukrainian National Council. He organized and headed the ^Ukrainian Association of Victims of Russian Communist Terror and the World Federation of Ukrainian Former Political Prisoners and Victims of the Soviet Regime. He wrote a number of works on Soviet terror, including Ukraïns'ka inteligentsiia na Solovkakh (The Ukrainian Intelligentsia in the Solovets Islands, 1947) and Nedostriliani (Those Left Unshot, 2 vols, 1949; Eng trans Islands of Death 1953), and edited The Black Deeds of the Kremlin: A White Book (2 vols, 1953). He also published the New Review. Pidhaitsi [Pidhajci]. lv-6. A city (1973 pop 3,277) on the Koropets River in Berezhany raion, Ternopil oblast. The town is first mentioned in historical sources in 1463. It was granted the rights of Magdeburg law in 1539. When Podilia was annexed by Poland, the town became part of Halych county in Rus' voivodeship. It was owned by the Buczacki and then the Potocki magnate family. In the 17th century it was the site of many battles among the Cossacks, Poles, and Turks and Tatars. The Tatars destroyed Pidhaitsi in 1667 and again in 1675. After the partition of Poland in 1772, the town came under Austrian rule. In 1919 it was acquired by Poland, and in 1939, by the Ukrainian SSR. Today Pidhaitsi has a canning, a mixed-feed, and a metalworking factory. Its historical monuments are a Roman Catholic church built in the Renaissance style in 1634, the Dormition Church, built in the 16505, and the remnants of a castle from the loth and 17th centuries. BIBLIOGRAPHY Hunczak, T. (ed). Pidhaiets 'ka zemlia (New York-Paris-SydneyToronto 1980)

20

PIDHIRIANKA

secretary of the CC CPU. In spite of Pidhirny's failure to increase farm production N. Khrushchev promoted him to the Presidium of the CC CPSU (1960-77) and to the office of secretary of the CC CPSU (1963-5). After helping L. Brezhnev to overthrow N. Khrushchev Pidhirny was removed from the center of power by being appointed chairman of the Presidium of the USSR Supreme Soviet (1965) and member of the CC CPSU Politburo (1966). In 1977 he was retired from those positions.

Mariika Pidhirianka

Pidhirianka, Mariika [Pidhirjanka, Marijka] (pseud of Mariia Lenert), b 29 March 1881 in Bili Oslavy, Nadvirna county, Galicia, d 20 May 1963 in Rudno (now part of Lviv). Writer and teacher; wife of A. *Dombrovsky. A teacher from 1900, in the 19205 and early 19305 she taught in Transcarpathia. From 1902 until the Second World War her poetry, stories, fables, and plays appeared in Galician, Transcarpathian, and émigré periodicals and children's magazines, primers, and chrestomathies. She is the author of the poetry collections Vidhuky dushi (Echoes of the Soul, 1908) and Zbirnychok virshiv alia ditei (A Small Collection of Verse for Children, 1920); the plays Son na mohyli (A Dream at the Grave, 1916), Vertep (1921), and V chuzhim pir'iu (In Someone Else's Feathers, 1922); the narrative poem Maty-stradnytsia (The Mother-Martyr, 1922, 1929; repr in Duklia, 1984, no. i); and three books of poetry, folklore, and translated literature for schoolchildren, Lastivochka (The Little Swallow, 1925-7). Her Ukrainian translation of Robinson Crusoe (1925) was widely read in Western Ukraine. Three collections of her poetry for children appeared posthumously, in 1970,1978, and 1981. Pidhiriany settlement. A multi-occupational archeological site near Pidhiriany, Terebovlia raion, Ternopil oblast. Excavated by W. Demetrikiewicz (1899) and by Ya. *Pasternak (1931, 1937), it yielded the remains of a *Trypilian settlement, late ""Bronze and *Iron Age burials (the latter containing Daco-Thracian pottery fragments), a 2nd- to 3rd-century AD burial ground (containing mainly cremated bodies), and a Rus' settlement. Pidhirny, Mykola [Pidhirnyj] (Podgorny), b 18 February 1903 in Karlivka, Kostiantynohrad county, Poltava gubernia, d 11 January 1983 in Moscow. Soviet official and Party leader. A graduate of the Kiev Technological Institute of the Food Industry (1930), he worked as an engineer at sugar refineries in Ukraine and rose to the position of deputy people's commissar of the food industry in Ukraine (1939-40, 1944-6) and the USSR (1940-2). At the same time (1944-6) he oversaw the "resettlement of Ukrainians from the bo derlands retained by Poland. After serving as permanent representative of the Ukrainian Council of Ministers in Moscow (1946-50) he advanced quickly in the Party from the positions of first (1950-3) and second (1953-7) secretary of the CPU Kharkiv Oblast Committee to those of second (1953-7) and first (1957-63)

Pidhirny, Volodymyr [Pidhirnyj], b 4 October 1928 in Verkhnobohdanivka, Luhanske okruha. Composer and pedagogue. After graduating from the Kharkiv Conservatory (1956) he began lecturing at the Kharkiv Art Institute. His works include a symphony (1956), chamber pieces, vocal works, and songs for children.

Samiilo Pidhirsky

Pidhirsky, Samiilo [Pidhirs'kyj, Samijlo], b 20 September 1888 in Liublyntsi, Kovel county, Volhynia gubernia, d 1945. Lawyer and civic and political leader. After graduating from St Petersburg University (1914) he practiced law in Kiev and founded a society of Ukrainian lawyers. A year later he moved to Zhytomyr, where he was active in local government and was elected president of the gubernial zemstvo and the Volhynian Prosvita society. In 1917 he edited Hromadianyn, the first Ukrainian newspaper in Volhynia, and then Volyns'ka hazeta (1918-19) and Hromada (1920) in Lutske. A radical populist by conviction, he was a member of the Central Rada and of the Labor Congress in Kiev. In 1922 he was elected to the Polish Sejm, where he served as chairman of the Ukrainian Parliamentary Representation. He also acted as defense counsel in many political trials. At the end of the Second World War Pidhirsky was executed by the Soviets. Pidhirtsi [Pidhirci]. iv-5. A village (1972 pop 1,400) in Zolochiv raion, Lviv oblast. It is first mentioned, as Plisnesk or Plisnysk, in chronicles in 1188 and 1233. The town's ruins - a complex of ramparts and moats covering nearly 160 ha - are the largest and finest of old Rus' fortifications to survive. In the 12th and 13th centuries Plisnesk was one of the largest cities of the Halych and GalicianVolhynian principalities and an important trade center. It was destroyed in 1241 by the Mongols, and had disappeared by the mid-i5th century. The village of Pidhirtsi was founded close by. It is first mentioned in historical documents in 1432. The Polish grand hetmán S. Koniecpolski built a fortified Renaissance palace there in 1635-40. Besides the palace a number of architectural

PIDKARPATS'KA

RUS'

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a collection of his writings on musical themes (1970) were published in Kiev. Pidhorny, Anatolii [Pidhornyj, Anatolij], b 5 April 1932 in Andrushivka, Kiev oblast. Mechanics and machine scientist; corresponding member of the AN URSR (now ANU) since 1973. He studied and taught at the Kharkiv Polytechnical Institute. He headed the Kharkiv branch of the ANU Institute of Thermodynamics (from 1971) and became director of the ANU Institute for Problems of Machine Building (in 1972). His main contributions are in the fields of dynamics and the strength of machines. He has developed mathematical methods of solving nonlinear equations in the theory of plastic deformation and creep, which helped in the understanding of failure mechanisms in loaded structures. He has worked also on methods of hydrogen utilization in engines. Pidhirtsi palace (i/th century)

monuments, including a Basilian monastery from 1659 and an Orthodox church from 1726, have been preserved. Pidhirtsi settlement. A settlement of the 5th to 4th century BC near Pidhirtsi, Obukhiv raion, Kiev oblast. Excavations in 1950 unearthed an early *Iron Age settlement where weaving, bronze casting, and iron working were well developed. A hoard of artistic bronze objects from the same era and a cache of objects of Caucasian origin ca 9th to 8th century BC were found nearby.

Borys Pidhoretsky

Pidhoretsky, Borys [Pidhorec'kyj], b 6 April 1873 in Lubni, Poltava gubernia, d 19 February 1919 in Moscow. Composer, music critic, folklorist, pedagogue, and conductor. He graduated from the Warsaw Institute of Music, and from 1900 lived in Moscow, working as a teacher and studying composition with A. Ilinsky. In 1912 he was sent by the Russian Geographical Society's ethnomusicological commission to study folk music in Ukraine, where he collected over 120 folk songs. From 1915 he taught choral singing at the Moscow Conservatory and was a music critic for several newspapers, among them GO/OS Moskvy and Izvestiia. His works include the operas Kupal'na iskra (The Kupalo Spark, 1901) and Poor Liza (1916); choral pieces; and music to words of T. Shevchenko, I. Franko, and Ye. Hrebinka. His biography, by K. Cherpukhova (1968), and

Pidhoroddia. A multi-occupational site near Pidhoroddia, Rohatyn raion, Ivano-Frankivske oblast. Excavated intermittently from 1882 to 1951, the site yielded the remains of a Neolithic settlement, several early Slavic settlements, a large number of Roman coins, the foundations of six medieval churches, and the remains of boyar and merchant homes, which at one time made up a suburb of princely *Halych. Pidhorodetsky, Vasyl [Pidhorodec'kyj, Vasyl'], b 1926. Freedom fighter and political prisoner. A soldier in the UPA, he was captured in 1951 and sentenced to 25 years in Siberian labor camps. In 1955 he was one of the organizers of the prisoners' revolt in the Taishet camp, for which he was sentenced to an additional 15 years in 1956. He continued to participate in the strikes and protests of the political prisoners, and in 1975 he renounced his Soviet citizenship. In the late 19605 or early 19705 he was transferred to a camp in Perm oblast. He was released in 1981, but was once again arrested and incarcerated in 1982-3 and 1984-5. Pidhorodne. v-i6. A city (1966 pop 16,500) on the Kilchen River in Dnipropetrovske raion. The earliest settlement arose at the beginning of the 17th century through the merging of several Cossack homesteads. In 1688 a fortress was built to protect the village from Tatar raids. After the destruction of the Zaporozhian Sich (1775) the Cossacks of Pidhorodne served in the Katerynoslav Cossack Army. After its abolition in 1796, many of them emigrated to the Kuban. Today, near the suburbs of Dnipropetrovske, the city is known for its fruit growing and hothouse farming. Pidkarpats'ka Rus' (Subcarpathian Ruthenia). A monthly journal of regional studies and pedagogy, published by the Pedagogical Society of Subcarpathian Ruthenia in Uzhhorod from 1923 to 1936. Until 1935 it was called Podkarpatska Rus'. The chief editors were P. Yatsko, V. Hadzhega, and A. Shtefan, but the de facto editor was I. *Pankevych. The journal published source materials on the history, literature, geography, and economics of Transcarpathia and many articles on local folklore, ethnography, and dialectology, written mostly by village teachers and students. The main contributors were Pankevych, A. Voloshyn, M. Lelekach, O. Markush, L. Demian, and I. Kondratovych.

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PIDKARPATSKII

HOLOS

Pidkarpatskii holos (Subcarpathian Voice). A weekly newspaper published by the Ukrainian Social Democratic party in Drohobych in 1907-11. Edited by S. Vityk, it was the first Ukrainian-language newspaper in the city. It published articles on the workers' movement in Galicia and abroad, political commentary, and valuable descriptions of the lives of workers in Drohobych. It was succeeded by the weekly Holos Pidkarpattia (1911-13). Pidkomorskyi court. A type of land court in medieval Poland, the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, and Right-Bank Ukraine. Pidkomorski courts were based on the Second (1566) and Third (1588) ^Lithuanian Statute, and functioned in Ukraine until 1654. Initially they consisted of representatives of each of the sides in a land dispute, but eventually they were reduced to a single judge (pidkomorii) appointed by the king. The judge could choose an assistant. They were closely connected with the *land courts and their verdicts could be appealed to the ""marshal-commissioner courts. After a one-century interval these courts were re-established by Hetmán K. Rozumovsky in 1763. Each regiment of the Hetmán state set up its own court, consisting of the pidkomorii, komornyk, and scribe, who were elected by the landowners and regimental starshy na. The courts were again abolished, by Catherine II, in 1783, and again re-established in 1796. Renamed boundary courts in 1834, they continued to function until 1840.

Ivan Pidkova

Pidkova, Ivan (Moldavian: Potcoavâ, loan), b ?, d 16 June 1578 in Lviv. Cossack otaman and Moldavian hospodar. In 1577 Pidkova and Otaman Ya. Shakh led a force of 1,200 Zaporozhian Cossacks into Turkish-controlled Moldavia, defeated the forces of Hospodar Peter Çchiopul, and occupied lasi on 29 December. There Pidkova was proclaimed the new hospodar, but soon thereafter the Cossacks were forced to retreat to Ukraine by the TurkishWallachian army. Pidkova was seized through treachery in Nemyriv by J. Zbaraski, the voivode of Bratslav. He was executed by order of King Stephen Báthory. His exploits were glorified in Cossack songs, and he is the hero of T. Shevchenko's narrative poem Ivan Pidkova' (1840) and two novels by the Rumanian writer M. Sadoveanu, §oimii (The Victors, 1904) and Nicoarâ Potcoavâ (1952). Pidliashia. See Podlachia.

Pidliute [Pidljute]. A village under the jurisdiction of the Osmoloda rural council, in Rozhniativ raion, IvanoFrankivske oblast. The village is situated on the Limnytsia River in the heart of the Gorgany Mountains. Before 1939 it was the site of a small health resort with sulfur-iodic mineral springs, the summer residence of the Greek Catholic metropolitan, and the camping grounds of the *Plast Ukrainian Youth Association.

Valeriian Pidmohylny

Ivan Pidoplichko

Pidmohylny, Valeriian [Pidmohyl'nyj, Valerijan], b 2 February 1901 in Chapli, Katerynoslav county, d 3 November 1937 in the Solovets Islands. Writer and translator. He graduated from high school in Katerynoslav in 1918 and then continued his studies at Kiev University. In 1921 he began working with various publishing houses and joined the editorial board of Zhyttia i revoliutsiia. The first of his stories to be published were 'Vania' and 'Haidamaky' (Haidamakas), which appeared in 1919 in Sich, a journal in Katerynoslav. He also contributed to the almanac Vyr revoliutsn(i92-L). He was a member of the literary organization Lanka (see *MARS). His published collections of stories include Tvory (Works, vol i, 1920), V epidemichnomu baratsi (In the Quarantine Ward, 1922), Povstantsi i ynshi opovidannia (The Insurgents and Other Stories, 1923), Viis'kovyi litun (Army Pilot, 1924), and Problema khliba (The Problem of Bread, 1927,1930). He also wrote the novelette Ostap Shaptala (1922). Pidmohylny's early works focus on various pre- and postrevolutionary realities, such as the famine of 1920-1. His most notable work is the novel Misto (The City, 1928), one theme of which captures the relationship between the city and the village against the backdrop of the New Economic Policy. His last published work was Nevelychka drama (A Little Drama), a novel about people in the 'era of socialist reconstruction/ which was serialized in Zhyttia i revoliutsiia in 1930 but first released separately in Paris in 1956. It appeared in translation as A Little Touch of Drama (trans by G.S.N. and M. Luckyj, 1972). Pidmohylny's translations, particularly those of the works of H. de Balzac, D. Diderot, A. France, G. de Maupassant, and Stendhal, significantly influenced the development of Ukrainian literature in the 19205. Pidmohylny's early works were subjected to severe official criticism. Some were even attacked for 'romanticizing Makhnovism' (A. Khvylia). The novel Misto was also denounced. Pidmohylny was expelled from his editorial position in 1930 and was arrested in 1934. He was incar-

PIDSUKHA

cerated in various prisons and concentration camps until he was shot, along with many other Ukrainian writers. He was rehabilitated in 1956. Misto and some other stories were republished in Ukraine in 1989. A selection of stories, including some previously never published, appeared in 1991 as Istoriia pañi îvhy (The Story of Mrs Ivha). B. Kravtsiv Pidoima (Lever). An organization that represented Ukrainian landholders in the *Drohobych-Boryslav Industrial Region and negotiated royalties paid by the government for extracting oil and gas from their land. Centered in Drohobych, the organization was founded in 1917 but began to function only in 1923, when it was recognized by the Polish government. From then until 1939, Ukrainian landholders were paid almost 10 million dollars in royalties. Pidoima collected a commission of i percent, which it used for its own needs and to support Ukrainian cultural and social causes. The directors of the organization were V. *Ilnytsky, M. Terletsky, R. Savoika, and S. Sasyk. V. Patslavsky and then P. Ilkiv headed the advisory board. Pidoplichko, Ivan [Pidoplicko], b 2 August 1905 in Kozatske, Zvenyhorodka county, Kiev gubernia, d 20 June 1975 in Kiev. Zoologist and paleontologist; full member of the AN URSR (now ANU) from 1967. A graduate of the Leningrad Institute of Applied Zoology and Phytopathology (1927), he was a longtime associate of the ANU Institute of Zoology (department head in 1935-41 and 1947-73 and director in 1965-73), a lecturer and professor at Kiev University (1939-59), associate editor of Ukraïns 'ka radians'ka entsyklopediia (The Ukrainian Soviet Encyclopedia, 1958-67), and director of the ANU Central Scientific Museum of Natural History (1973-5). Pidoplichko took part in research excavations at several late Paleolithic sites, notably in Mezhyrich and Mizyn, and wrote Material^ do vyvchennia mynulykh faun URSR (Materials for the Study of Past Fauna of the Ukrainian SSR, 2 vols, 1938,1956), Korotka istoriia Zemli (A Short History of Earth, 1958), and Okhorona pryrody na Ukra'íni (Protecting Nature in Ukraine, 1958). Pidoplichko, Mykola [Pidoplicko], b 3 April 1904 in Kozatske, Zvenyhorodka county, Kiev gubernia, d 27

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March 1975 in Kiev. Botanist and mycologist; corresponding member of the AN URSR (now ANU) from 1957. He completed study at the Kiev Institute of People's Education (1929) and then worked at the ANU Institute of Microbiology and Virology, where he founded and directed the mycology division (from 1933). He wrote over 100 works dealing with the systemization and flora of fungi, including the world's first field guide to fungi (1938), and compiled Ukrainian mycological terminology. Pidpaly, Volodymyr [Pidpalyj], b 13 May 1936 in Lazirky, Orzhytsia raion, Poltava oblast, d 24 November 1973 in Kiev. Poet of the *shestydesiatnyky. After graduating from Kiev University (1962) he worked as an editor at the Dnipro and Radianskyi Pysmennyk publishing houses. He began publishing in 1958 and wrote the collections Zelena hilka (The Green Branch, 1964), Povesinnia (After Spring, 1964), Trydtsiate lito (The Thirtieth Summer, 1967), V dorohu - za lastivkamy (On the Way - After Swallows, 1968), and Vyshnevyi tsvit (Cherry Blossoms, 1970). His collections Syni twiandy (Blue Roses, 1979) and Poezii (Poems, 1982,1986) were published posthumously. Pidriz, Apollinarii (Podrez), b 30 November 1852 in Kupianka county, Kharkiv gubernia, d 22 November 1900 in Kharkiv. Surgeon and urologist. A graduate of Kharkiv University (1875), he was a lecturer (from 1884) and professor (from 1887) at the university. He wrote over 50 works on field surgery, heart surgery, urology, and bone and joint tuberculosis, including the first urology textbook in Russian. He was the first in the Russian Empire to perform a spleen removal operation (1887) and to remove a foreign body from the heart (1897). Pidstryhach, Yaroslav [Pidstryhac, Jaroslav] (Podstrygach), b 25 May 1928 in Samostrily, Rivne county, Volhynia voivodeship. Mechanics scientist; full member of the AN URSR (now ANU) since 1972. He graduated from Lviv University (1951) and worked at the ANU Institute of Physical Mechanics. He headed the Lviv branch of the ANU Institute of Mathematics (1972-8) and became director of the ANU Institute of Applied Problems in Mechanics and Mathematics (in 1978). He made contributions in theoretical mechanics, particularly in the field of the thermomechanics of amorphous solids, and in hydroacoustics. His mathematical models of the deformation of solids under stress are widely used in engineering design. Pidsudky. Members of *land courts in the 14th to i8th centuries in the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, Poland, and the Hetmán state. Pidsudky were elected by the nobility of a county in Lithuania and Poland and by the officers of a regiment in the Hetmán state, and were confirmed by the king or hetmán.

Mykola Pidoplichko

Yaroslav Pidstryhach

Pidsukha, Oleksander [Pidsuxa], b 16 October 1918 in Nizhylovychi, Radomyshl county, Kiev gubernia, d 1990. Socialist-realist writer. He graduated from the Kharkiv Pedagogical Institute of Foreign Languages (1939), and after the Second World War he taught at the Donetske Industrial and Kiev Pedagogical institutes. He was managing editor of the journal Dnipro (1953-8) and then editor in charge of novels at the Dnipro publishing house. From 1973 to 1979 he headed the *Ukraina Society for Cul-

24

PIDSUKHA

tural Relations with Ukrainians Abroad. Between 1948 and 1980 he published many poetry collections, the novel in verse Polis 'ka trylohiia (Polisian Trilogy, 1962), the prose collection Vich-na-vich: Nevyhadani istorïï (Face to Face: Uncontrived Histories, 1962), the four-play collection Komu kuiut ' zozuli (For Whom the Cuckoos Cry, 1973), and the plays Nespodivana pisnia (Unexpected Song, 1973), and Zhyvy, Krutoiare (Live, Krutoiar, 1975). A two-volume edition of his selected works was published in 1978. Pidsusidky. See Landless peasants. Pidtychenko, Mania [Pidtycenko, Marija], b 6 June 1912 in Chornohlazivka, Pavlohrad county, Katerynoslav gubernia. Pedagogue; full member of the USSR Academy of Pedagogical Sciences from 1968. After graduating from Kharkiv University in 1934, she taught at various educational institutions in Dnipropetrovske, where she held several important Party positions. In 1956-70 she was rector of and from 1970 a professor-consultant at the *Kiev Pedagogical Institute. She is the author of works dealing with the socialization of young people in a communist spirit. Pidvolochyske or Pidvolochysk [Pidvolocys'ke or Pidvolocys'k]. IV-7. A town smt (1986 pop 8,300) on the Zbruch River and a raion center in Ternopil oblast. The town is on the site of an ancient settlement dating from the 3rd and 4th centuries AD. In the 15th century two villages, both called Volochyshche, arose on opposite banks of the Zbruch. One of them, mentioned in documents in 1463, was renamed Pidvolochyske in the mid-i7th century. A road linking Pidvolochyske with Ternopil was built in 1786, and contributed to the growth of the local economy. After the partition of Poland in 1772, the town was acquired by Austria. In 1919-39 it was under Polish rule. Today the town has a plastics factory and food industry. Pidvysotsky, Kost [Pidvysoc'kyj, Kost'], b 28 June 1851 in Korzhova, Pidhaitsi county, Galicia, d 12 June 1904 in Medukha, Stanslaviv county, Galicia. Actor, stage director, and dramatist. He acted in O. Bachynsky's troupe (1875-81 and 1882-5) and acted and directed in the Ruska Besida Theater (1881-2,1886-9,1893-7, and 1900-2), in M. Kropyvnytsky's and M. Starytsky's troupes (1889-92), and in M. Yaroshenko's and O. Sukhodolsky's troupes (1898-1902). As a director Pidvysotsky first staged I. Franko's Ukradene shchastia (Stolen Happiness), in which he acted the part of Mykola, and staged M. Kropyvnytsky's Nevol'nyk (The Captive), I. Karpenko-Kary's Burlaka (The Vagabond), and M. Arkas's opera Kateryna. He wrote the comedy Pidshyvanets' (The Impostor, 1888) and adaptations of J. Korzeniowski's Pomsta hutsula (A Hutsul's Revenge, 1893) and Hal'ka (1899, based on W. Wolski; music by S. Moniuszko). Pidvysotsky, Volodymyr [Pidvysoc'kyj], b 5 June 1857 in Maksymivka, Borzna county, Chernihiv gubernia, d 4 February 1913 in St Petersburg. Pathologist, microbiologist, and endocrinologist. A graduate of Kiev University (1884), he was a professor at Kiev (1887-1900) and Odessa (1900-5) universities and directed the Institute of Experimental Medicine in St Petersburg (1905-13). His publications dealt with the microscopic structure of the pancreas,

Volodymyr Pidvysotsky

Fedir Pigido

regeneration, and the etiology of malignant tumors. He wrote one of the first textbooks in general and experimental pathology (1891-4,1905). Among his followers were I. Savchenko, O. Bohomolets, L. Tarasevych, F. Omelchenko, D. Zabolotny, and S. Shchasny. Pieracki, Bronislaw, b 28 May 1895at Gorlice, d 15 June 1934 in Warsaw. Polish politician and government official. One of the leading activists of the *Sanacja regime, he headed the Nonparty Bloc of Co-operation with the Government. He supported 'strong-arm' tactics with respect to national minorities and the introduction of the so-called active policy with regard to the Ukrainians. In 1930 he directed the ^Pacification in Lviv and then (as minister of the interior) was responsible for similar actions in Lisko county in 1931 and in Volhynia and Polisia in 1932. In 1931 he made some concessions in economics and education to the Ukrainian minority. In June of that year he held several meetings with UNDO leaders and Metropolitan A. Sheptytsky. He was assassinated by H. Matseiko, an OUN follower. The assassination was used by the Polish government to justify the creation of a concentration camp for political prisoners at Bereza Kartuzka. The organizers of the assassination, with the exception of Matseiko, who managed to escape, were tried from September 1935 to January 1936 at the so-called Warsaw OUN Trial. A study of the trial by Z. Knysh appeared in Toronto (2 vols, 1986). Pietros, Mount. One of the higher peaks (elevation, 2,020 m) in the Ukrainian Carpathian Mountains. It is located in the northwestern part of the Chornohora Massif. Its slopes, marked by glacial deposits, are covered with brush, forests, and upland meadows. The mountain is a popular tourist site. Pigido, Fedir (Pihida), b 18 September 1888 in Stoiky, Kiev county, Kiev gubernia, d 11 November 1962 in Munich. Economist, publicist, and civic and political activist. After graduating from an industrial institute in 1921, he worked in various building-materials concerns in Ukraine. He became active in politics only after emigrating to Germany in 1944: in 1949 he joined the Ukrainian Revolutionary Democratic party (URDP) and was admitted to its Central Committee, and in 1953 he represented a faction of the URDP on the Ukrainian National Council. From 1957 he served as vice-president, press and information

PILGRIMAGE secretary, and finance secretary in the council's executive. In addition to articles in Ukraï'ns'ki visti, Prometei, and Nashi pozytsiï he wrote a number of books, such as 5,ooo,ooo (1951), The Stalin Famine (1954), and Materials Concerning Ukrainian-Jewish Relations during the Years of the Revolution, 1917-1921 (1956). Pihrov, Kostiantyn (Pigrov, Konstantin), b 7 November 1876 in Malaia Dzhalga, Stavropol gubernia, d 22 December 1962 in Odessa. Choir conductor and pedagogue. In 1901 he completed his studies in conducting with the St Petersburg court kapelle and began working in various cities as a pedagogue and conductor of church choirs. In 1920 he started teaching choral conducting at the school which later became the Odessa Conservatory. In 1930 he founded an independent Moldavian choral ensemble that in 1936 became the Doina Choir. His students included the conductors A. Avdiievsky, M. Hrynyshyn, Ye. Dushchenko, and D. Zahretsky. He is the author of textbooks on choral conducting (1956) and solfeggio (1970).

Yerotei Pihuliak

Yustyn Pihuliak (self-portrait, 1885)

Pihuliak, Yerotei [Pihuljak, Jerotej] (Pihuleak, Hierotheus), b 1851 in Novi Mamaivtsi, Chernivtsi county, Bukovyna, d 1924 in Chernivtsi. Political and civic figure. He was one of the leaders of Bukovyna's Ukrainian populist movement and National Democratic party. As a member of the Bukovynian provincial diet (1890-1918), the Austrian parliament (1898-1918), and Bukovyna's Provincial Executive and School Council he defended the interests of the Ukrainian community and Orthodox church. Thanks to his efforts Bukovyna's Ukrainian Orthodox were granted religious equality with the Rumanians on the eve of the First World War. Pihuliak was elected the first president of the People's Home society in Chernivtsi (1884) and president of the Ruska Besida (1884) and Ruska Rada (1885) societies there. He participated in the Ukrainian takeover in Bukovyna in November 1918. He contributed articles on cultural and religious affairs to Bukovyna's Ukrainian and German press and wrote two brochures in German on the religious question (1909,1914), as well as some poetry and prose. Pihuliak, Yustyn [Pihuljak, Justyn], b 1845 in Novi Mamaivtsi (now Novosilka), Bukovyna, d 2 June 1919 in Chernivtsi. Painter; brother of Ye. *Pihuliak. After gradu-

25

ating from the Vienna Academy of Arts in 1874, he taught painting at the Higher Realschule in Chernivtsi until 1906. He did genre paintings (eg, Hutsuls, Bukovynian Girl, Love and fidelity), landscapes, paintings inspired by T. Shevchenko's poems, and portraits of Yu. Fedkovych (1886), I. Vorobkevych (1887), Shevchenko (1889), and O. Kobylianska (1916). Pike perch (Lucioperca or Stizostedion; Ukrainian: sudak). A genus of fish resembling the pike that belongs to the Percidae family. Pike perch have greenish gray, smallscaled bodies up to 130 cm in length; they weigh 12-20 kg. The common pike perch (L. or S. luciopercd) is the largest and most commercially important perch species in Europe; a minimum catch size has been established at 35-40 cm for the *fishing industry. In Ukraine pike perch inhabit the Black Sea and the Sea of Azov and occasionally enter the waters of the Dnieper and Buh rivers. Common pike perch are also cultivated in fisheries and stocked in natural and man-made lakes. Other species found in Ukraine are the European pike perch or zander (L. or S. marina-, Ukrainian: sudak morskyi) and the smaller Volga pike perch (L. or S. volgensis). Pikhno, Dmitrii [Pixno, Dmitrij], b 13 January 1853 near Chyhyryn, Kiev gubernia, d 11 August 1913 in Kiev. Economist, statistician, publisher, and politician. After graduating from Kiev University (1874) he taught economics and law there (1877-1902). He was an adviser to the Russian Ministry of Finance and a member of the State Council from 1907. As an economist he was a follower of the English classical school and a believer in market competition and the capitalist rationalization of industry and agriculture. His theories and research were summarized in several monographs and articles. From 1878 he was the publisher of the reactionary monarchist and anti-Ukrainian newspaper *Kievlianin, the leader of the Union of the Russian People in Kiev, and a member of the *Kiev Club of Russian Nationalists. Pilger, Martin-Heinrich (Pilher, Pedir), b 5 June 1761 in Wetzlar, Germany, d 25 April 1828 in Kharkiv. German veterinarian. A graduate of Erlangen University (1779), he was one of the first professors of veterinary medicine in Ukraine, where he headed the veterinary department at Kharkiv University (from 1806). In 1817 he established Ukrainskii domovod, the first veterinary journal in the Russian Empire. He wrote Systematisches Handbuch der theoretisch-praktischen Veterinarwissenschaft (2 vols, 1801-3). Pilgrimage. Travel to sacred places became fairly common among Ukrainians after the introduction of Christianity and has remained a prominent public manifestation of faith. Individual pilgrimages to the Holy Land from Ukraine were known to have taken place as early as the nth century (eg, by Hegumen Varlaam in 1062). *Danylo, the hegumen of a Chernihiv monastery, left an account of the pilgrimage he made in 1106-8, and St Anthony of the Caves traveled to Mount Athos in the early 12th century. The shrines of Rome and the relics of St Nicholas in Bari, Italy, also attracted pilgrims from Ukraine. Such treks became so common that some churchmen even warned against the exaggeration of their spiritual significance. Pilgrimages to the Holy Land, especially

26

PILGRIMAGE

"Jerusalem, continued" despite the fall of Constantinople, and accounts of these trips were widely read in Ukraine. Particularly valuable descriptions of pilgrimages in the i8th century were left by V. *Hryhorovych-Barsky and the monk Serapion of the Motronynskyi Trinity Monastery. The most popular pilgrimage destinations in Ukraine have been the many churches and monasteries in Kiev, particularly the *Kievan Cave Monastery. Although the Soviet authorities actively discouraged pilgrimages, ruined many shrines, and turned others into museums, factories, or administrative buildings, this repression did not stem the annual flow of thousands of pilgrims. The greatest flow of pilgrims occurred on days of particular celebration at the shrines, such as the feast of Yov Zalizo (10 September [28 August OS]) and the festival of the Dormition (28 August [15 August OS]) in Pochaiv. Pilgrimages to the *Pochaiv Monastery began in the i8th century, and it remains the second most popular destination, although it too had been subjected to depredations under Soviet rule. In Galicia the more prominent holy sites are Zarvanytsia in Podilia, Hoshiv in the Carpathian foothills, and the Krekhiv Monastery in the Buh region. Others include Chernecha Hora, near Mukachiv, in Transcarpathia, and Suceava and Khreshchatyk in Bukovyna. In the 19305 in Turkovychi, in the Kholm region, some Ukrainian Orthodox pilgrimages became national, patriotic demonstrations against Polish persecution. In recent times, particularly during the celebrations of the millennium of the Chris tianization of Rus'-Ukraine, many pilgrims gathered around the monument to St Volodymyr the Great in Kiev, and in Galicia large gatherings were held at the Church of the Three Saints in Hrushiv, in the Boiko region near Drohobych, where people were said to have witnessed apparitions of Mary. Emigré Ukrainians (esp Catholics) frequently travel on pilgrimages to Rome and Lourdes, France, the site of the Dormition Church for pilgrims. Pilhuk, Ivan [Pil'huk], b 20 December 1899 in Reshetylivka, Poltava county, d 18 July 1984 in Kiev. Literary scholar and writer. From 1932 he lectured on the history of Ukrainian literature in institutions of higher learning, and from 1948 he was a professor at the Kiev Pedagogical Institute. He is the author of a series of textbooks for high schools and philological faculties. Pilhuk began to publish his work in 1929. He produced the collections of short stories Sutsil'ni lany (Undivided Grainfields, 1931), Nazustrich strumovi Dniprohesu (Welcoming the Current of the Dnieper Hydroelectric Station, 1932), and Atañas Kyrylo Fedorovych Peichov (1932). His major scholarly works are on Yu. Fedkovych (1943), I. Kotliarevsky (1943,1954), M. Kotsiubynsky (1950), T. Shevchenko (1950, 1951, 1954, 1958,1961,1965), S. Rudansky (1956), and M. Kropyvnytsky (1960). He is also the author of the novels Hrozovyi ranok (Stormy Morning, 1968) and Povii, vitre (Blow, Wind, 1969).

served a dominant role for Poland, it did not receive much Polish public support. Consequently, after coming to power, Pilsudski actively backed Polish revanchist territorial claims to Western Ukraine. In April 1919 he sent J. *Haller's army into Galicia (see ""Ukrainian-Polish War in Galicia). To counter the Red Army offensive against Poland he concluded the Treaty of *Warsaw with the UNR government in April 1920. After the allied Polish-UNR forces were forced to retreat from Ukraine and Belarus, he organized a successful counteroffensive in which the UNR Army played a major role (see ^Ukrainian-Soviet War). Pilsudski's signing of the Peace Treaty of *Riga, which partitioned Ukraine and Belarus between Poland and Soviet Russia, put an end to his dreams of East European 'federalism/ Resistance to the Polish occupation of Galicia and Volhynia continued after the war: in September 1921 S. Fedak, a member of the Ukrainian Military Organization, tried to assassinate Pilsudski. With the election of the new Polish president, G. Narutowicz, in December 1922, Pilsudski remained chief of the Polish General Staff. When a right-wing government took power in May 1923, he retired. Disturbed by the political and economic chaos in Poland, he came out of retirement in May 1926 to lead a military coup d'etat. Thenceforth Pilsudski, as defense minister, controlled Poland, while preserving the trappings of parliamentary rule. Western Ukrainians remained suspicious of Pilsudski's new regime, supported as it was by the conservative Polish nobility in Western Ukraine. Although some of Pilsudski's closest associates (eg, T. Holdwko, P. Dunin-Borkowski) sympathized with Western Ukrainians, and his government subsidized the UNR government-in-exile, nothing was done to stem Polonization and the administration's anti-Ukrainian policies in Western Ukraine. The Ukrainian-Polish conflict grew steadily and assumed mass proportions in the 1930 *Pacification of Galicia. In September 1934 Pilsudski proposed an agreement protecting Poland's national minorities, but his foreign minister, J. Beck, would not endorse it. The political unrest that followed Pilsudski's death considerably weakened the Polish state. (See also *Poland.) BIBLIOGRAPHY Pilsudski, J. Pisma zbiorowe, 10 vols (Warsaw 1937-8) Rothschild, J. Pitsudski's Coup d'Etat (New York 1966) Dziewanowski, M. Joseph Pilsudski: A European Federalist, 19181922 (Stanford, Calif 1969) B. Budurowycz

Pillipiw, Ivan. See Pylypiv, Ivan. Pilsudski, Jozef, b 5 December 1867 in Zulavas, Svencionys county, Lithuania, d 12 May 1935 in Warsaw. Polish military leader and statesman. Before coming to power Pilsudski had advocated the dismemberment of the Russian Empire and an East-European federation of Poland, Ukraine, Lithuania, and Belarus. Although his scheme re-

Mariia Piltser

P I O N E E R O R G A N I Z A T I O N OF U K R A I N E

27

Piltser, Mariia [Pil'cer, Marija], b 27 November 1912 in Nyzhnia Hrabivnytsia, Transcarpathia, d 21 March 1976 in Uzhhorod. Stage actress; wife of H. Ihnatovych. She studied drama in Uzhhorod (1934-6) and then worked as an actress in the National Drama Theater in Prague (19367). From 1946 she was the leading actress and one of the founders of the Transcarpathian Ukrainian Music and Drama Theater in Uzhhorod. Pinchuk, Vadym [Pincuk], b 28 December 1930 in Poltava. Oncologist; corresponding member of the AN URSR (now ANU) since 1973. A graduate of the Kiev Medical Institute (1954), he was the first deputy director (1971, director since 1979) of the ANU Institute for Problems of Oncology. His publications deal with the mechanisms of carcinogenesis. Pine (Pinus; Ukrainian: sosna). A genus of the family Pinaceae, normally tall evergreen conifers (up to 50 m high) and occasionally spreading shrubs. Pines occupy about 2.5 million ha of land in Ukraine, 34 percent of all forest land. Predominantly pine forests are widely spread in the forest and forest-steppe belts and in the mountain forest zones of Ukraine (Polisia and the Buh and Sian valleys). Pines rarely grow in the steppe zone. Of the nine species of Pinus found in Ukraine, the most prevalent is the common or Scots pine (P. silvestris). The trees live hundreds of years and require full sun and clean air. Pinewood is used for making masts, poles, interior construction lumber, furniture, plywood, and paper, and is burned as fuel. Pine yields a gum used in the production of turpentine, pitch, tar, and resin. Pine needles yield vitamin C and essential oils. Mountain pine (P. mugo) is used as a cover for rocky spills, to strengthen steep slopes, to prevent washouts and landslides, and to protect against flash floods. Chalk pine (P. cretaceae) is found along the Donets River; European cedar pine (P. cembra) and *juniper grow in the Carpathian Mountains; and P. pallasiana, P. stankeviczi, P. zerovii, and P. rostellata are common on the Crimean peninsula. Pinot-Rudakevych, Yaroslav [Rudakevyc, Jaroslav], b 22 June 1910 in Zakomaria, Zalochiv county, Galicia. Stage actor. He began his theatrical career in Y. Stadnyk's troupe (1931-3) and then worked in the Zahrava Theater (19338), the Kotliarevsky Theater (1938-9), the Lesia Ukrainka Theater (1939-41), and the Lviv Opera Theater (1941-4). Having fled from Ukraine during the Second World War, he acted in the Ensemble of Ukrainian Actors in West Germany (1945-9) and, after emigrating to the United States, in the Ukrainian Theater in Philadelphia (from 1963). Pinsk. See Pynske. Pinzel, Johann (Pinsel, Pincel, Pintsel), b and d ? Eighteenth-century sculptor. In the 17505 and 17605 he worked in Galicia. The most famous of his surviving works are the rococo stone statues of SS Louis, Athanasius, and George on the façade of St George's Cathedral in Lviv (1759-61) and the wood statues of the side altars in the Roman Catholic church in Monastyryska (1761). The stone carvings on the façade of the Buchach town hall, the figures and basreliefs in the Buchach Holy Protectress Church, and the sculpted church decorations in Horodets are attributed to him. He carved several crucifixions, the most interesting

Johann Pinzel: St Felix Holding a Child (painted wood, 17605)

of which was in St Martin's Roman Catholic Church in Lviv. Pioneer Organization of Ukraine (Pionerska orhanizatsiia Ukrainy). A communist mass organization in Soviet Ukraine for children aged 10 to 15. It was an integral part of the Ail-Union Pioneer Organization; its direction was assigned by the CPSU to the All-Union Communist Youth League (Komsomol). The Republican Council of the All-Union Pioneer Organization formed the leadership of the organization in Ukraine, under the control of the ^Communist Youth League of Ukraine. The precursors of the Pioneer organization were youth groups established in 1920-1 by various CP(B)U branches, such as the Children's International in Kiev and the Soviet of Children's Deputies in Katerynoslav. In addition groups of Young Communist Scouts or Young Communists were organized in many cities in Ukraine. Modeled on the Boy Scouts organization, they were disbanded by a 1919 decree of the Second All-Russian Congress of the Komsomol. Because those diverse children's groups often did not address the political priorities of the communist leadership, in 1922 the Komsomol called for the fusion of all children's and youth groups into a single organization. In Ukraine the organization was called Yunyi Spartak

28

PIONEER ORGANIZATION OF U K R A I N E

(Young Spartacus), and published a newspaper by that name. Under the leadership of the Komsomol its groups participated in the rebuilding of the ruined economy, in spreading atheist propaganda, and in helping the large number of orphans left homeless by the Ukrainian-Soviet War. In July 1922 the CC of the Komsomol of Ukraine approved the statute of a new children's organization, and in January 1923 it created the Central Bureau of the Communist Children's Movement, with bureaus at the gubernial level. In 1924 the Yunyi Spartak groups were renamed Young Pioneers, and a centralized organizational structure was established, with 360,000 members in Ukraine. The First All-Ukrainian Rally of Young Pioneers took place in Kharkiv in 1929. That year the organization had 550,000 members. Following the April 1932 resolution of the CC of the AllUnion Communist party, which criticized the Pioneer organizations for their tendency to merge completely with the schools, the Pioneers were given responsibility for intensifying school discipline and actively promoting industrialization and collectivization. Between 1930 and 1940, Pioneers were encouraged to co-operate with the police and the *NKVD in exposing 'enemies of the people' and reporting their parents' opposition to collectivization. Military defense training was also introduced in Pioneer groups. During the Second World War many Pioneers were active in the Soviet underground and war effort. Following the Soviet occupation of Western Ukraine in 1939, the Pioneer organization was established there. (In the 19205 and 19305 there existed a small illegal organization called the Red Pioneers of Western Ukraine. In 1938 it was dissolved by the Comintern, together with its parent organization, the ^Communist Party of Western Ukraine.) All schoolchildren of appropriate age were eligible to join their local Pioneer organization at their school or apartment building, and virtually all did so. Entrants took the Pioneer oath, observed Pioneer laws, and wore a red Pioneer neckerchief, the three corners of which represented the unity of the Pioneers, the Komsomol, and the Party. Pioneers held regular meetings to discuss organizational matters and films, books, and other subjects; they also paraded on numerous occasions, visited local places of communist or military significance, formed honorary guards at war memorials, and attended summer camps. Military rituals were widely used, especially from the 19605, to develop positive identification with Soviet state symbols and to foster Soviet patriotism. Although Pioneers were eligible to join the Komsomol upon reaching the age of 14, a significant number of them chose not to do so. Most children, prior to joining the Pioneers, were members of the Young Octobrists (Zhovteniata), an affiliated organization for children aged seven to nine. The Ukrainian Pioneers had their own newspapers (*Zirka and the Russian *Iunyi leninets], journals (*Pioneriia and, for younger children, *Barvinok and *Maliatko), daily radio program (Tioner Ukrainy'), and television program ('Vpered, orliata'). In the 19805, Pioneer membership declined (in 1981 there were some four million members). In 1986 there were over 3.5 million Pioneers in Ukraine. That year the Pioneer organization ran 16,700 summer camps. With the erosion of communist power an increasingly large number of parents (especially in the western oblasts) refused to enroll their children in the Pioneer organization. The Pio-

neers' militarism and veneration of Soviet state symbols were criticized, and the organization was enjoined to focus more on pedagogical and humanistic goals. With the dissolution of the USSR and the disbanding of the CPU the Pioneer organizations ceased to function, although they were not officially liquidated. Many of their functions were taken over by newly formed youth organizations.

I. Bakalo, D. Goshko, B. Krawchenko

Pioneer palaces and houses (palatsy i budynky pioneriv i shkoliariv). Centers of extramural education and activities for schoolchildren in Soviet Ukraine. They were under the jurisdiction of the various republican ministries of education in the USSR. The first such palace was opened in Moscow in 1923-4. In Ukraine the role of the palaces was filled by children's clubs in the 19205, and the first Pioneer palaces were opened only in 1934-5 in Kharkiv, Kiev, Poltava, and Donetske. Palaces existed in almost all urban centers. They operated under the supervision of the appropriate organs of public education, the Communist Komsomol Youth League, and the Pioneer organization. Their primary function was to support the school system, to inculcate communist values, and to prepare children for membership in the Pioneers and, eventually, the Komsomol. The Pioneer palaces organized classes in industrial arts, art, and physical education and sports and organized trips and tours. They hosted large concerts and celebrations, sporting meets, artistic competitions, and meetings with important or interesting citizens. Children's choirs, orchestras, dance and drama troupes, and the like were based at palaces. The largest Pioneer palace in Ukraine was in Kiev. In 1980 there were 804 Pioneer palaces and houses in the Ukrainian SSR, 135 more than in 1959. They served a total of 573,000 children. In 1987 there were 820 palaces and houses, which served 935,000 children. Pioneriia (Pioneering). A monthly children's magazine published by the Communist Youth League of Ukraine and the Tioneer Organization of Ukraine from 1931 to 1992. It succeeded the magazines *Chervoni kvity and Bil'shovycheniata. It appeared in Kharkiv until the outset of the Second World War and was renewed in March 1950 in Kiev in parallel Ukrainian and Russian editions. Pioneriia included articles on the lives of Pioneers and schoolchildren and on artistic and popular-science topics, games, songs, riddles, and so on. Each year one issue of the magazine was prepared by children. Piontek, Liutsiana, b 1899 in Lubni, Poltava gubernia, d 25 September 1937. Ukrainian writer of Jewish descent; wife of I. *Kulyk. She lived in Canada with her husband (1924-7), where she took part in Ukrainian community life and belonged to the Canadian branch of the proletarian writers' group *Hart. Upon her return to Ukraine in 1927 she joined the All-Ukrainian Association of Proletarian Writers. Her first published work appeared in 1917. Her works were printed in the Kharkiv journals Hart and Chervonyi shliakh. She also published collections of verse, Tykhym dysonansom (In Quiet Dissonance, 1927), and of short stories, Balaklava (1929). She was arrested during the Stalinist terror and eventually shot.

29

PIROGOV

Piotrków Trybunalski (Ukrainian: Petrykiv). A city (1989 pop 80,500) and voivodeship center in Poland. In 1921 it was the site of an internment camp for soldiers of the UNR Army. As in other internment camps, the Ukrainian administration in Piotrków organized cultural and educational programs, including literacy, foreign language, and history classes, a students' club, and a choir. Pip Ivan. ¥-5. One of the highest Carpathian peaks (elevation, 2,022 m) in Ukraine, located in the southeastern part of the Chornohora mountain group. The slopes are covered with mixed-fir forest to approx 1,200 m and then with fir to approx 1,550 m. Above that point pines and green alders, brush, and subalpine vegetation can be found. Pipeline transportation. Pipeline transportation is the most modern and economical way to transport gases, liquids, and slurries from the source to the point of processing or consumption. The transportation system consists of many complex components, such as pipelines, reservoirs, compressor stations, controls, and pumping stations. The pipeline network has three major parts: (i) the main lines, to carry the material over long distances; (2) the local lines, to collect the material and deliver it from the source to the main lines and then to distribute it from the main lines; and (3) the internal lines, to carry the material for short distances within a city, enterprise, or building. Pipeline transportation is operational all year round and is nonpolluting. In Ukraine the first pipeline was built in 1924 to carry natural gas from Dashava to Stryi (14 km). In 1940 the line was extended to Lviv (72 km), and in 1948 to Kiev. At that time it was the longest gas pipeline in Europe. In 1951 the Dashava line reached Moscow: 851 km of it ran through Ukrainian territory. Another 477 km of pipeline were added as feeders to more than 20 Ukrainian cities along its route. With the exploitation of the *Shebelynka gas fields in the mid-1950s, three gas lines were constructed: the first reached Kharkiv and was extended later to Briansk (RF) and joined to the Dashava-Moscow line; the second ran to Kiev via Dykanka and then to Western Ukraine; and the third ran to Dnipropetrovske, Kryvyi Rih, and Izmail. Besides those major lines, shorter lines, such as the Shebelynka-Belgorod (RF) and the Shebelynka-Slovianske, were built. In the 19605, additional gas pipelines were built from the Subcarpathian deposits at Stryi and Buche-Volytsia to Minsk, Belarus (approx 665 km), and to Poland. In 1967 a main line was laid from Dolyna to Sala, Czechoslovakia. In 1966-70,8,700 km of new gas line were built in Ukraine, including the long Yefremivka-Kiev-Kamianka-Buzka and the Dykanka-Kryvyi Rih lines. In the 19705 two international gas lines were laid through Ukraine: the Soiuz line, originating at Orenburg and stretching to Chop, Transcarpathia oblast (annual capacity: 28 billion cu m), and the Urengoi-Uzhhorod line, carrying gas from western Siberia to several European countries (annual capacity: 32 billion cu m). In the 19405 and 19508, when significant petroleum deposits were discovered in western Ukraine at Dolyna, Oriv, and Bytkiv, in Poltava oblast at Hlynske, and in Chernihiv oblast at Leliaky, Hnidyntsi, and Kachanivka, oil pipelines were laid from Dolyna to Drohobych (80 km)

Basic indexes of pipeline transportation in Ukraine, 1960-86 Category

1960

1970 1980

1. Length of main lines (in 1,000 km) Gas 9.8 10.9 Oil 1.2 2. Output of oil and oil products 0.1 11.2 (in billion Tkm)* 3. Volume of oil and oil products 1.3 22.4 (in million t) 4. Average trip distance per t (in km) 76.9 500.0 5. Share of oil pipeline output in total transportation output (percentage) 0.05 1.8

1986

18.6 24.0 2.0 3.0 54.6 56.5 101.6 124.2 537.4 454.9 7.0

6.0

*Tkm = tonnes per kilometer.

and from Hnidyntsi to Kremenchuk (approx 200 km) and to Michurinsk (RF). Most oil lines, including the Kremenchuk-Kiev (330 km), Kremenchuk-Cherkasy (260 km), Kherson-Rozdilna (340 km), Lysychanske-MariiupilBerdianske (300 km), and Drohobych-Stryi (30 km) lines, transport both oil and oil products. In 1981-5 work began on the longest petroleum pipeline, from Lysychanske to the Crimean Peninsula. Several branch lines will serve the neighboring industrial centers. All pipelines were under the control of the central government and were built according to Union plans. Some matters, such as personnel, the regulation of flow, and timetables, were in the hands of local management. In recent years pipeline transportation growth has been spectacular: output in tons per kilometer grew fivefold between 1970 and 1986. Although the volume of goods carried by pipeline is rising faster than in other modes of transportation, its share of the total volume transported is low, because relatively few substances can be transported by pipeline. Basic indexes of pipeline transportation are given in the table. E.Bej Piradov, Volodymyr, b 14 February 1892 in Warsaw, d 20 April 1954 in Kiev. Opera conductor. He graduated from the Tbilisi music school and from 1914 worked in the opera theaters of Tbilisi, Baku, Minsk, and Moscow. In 1936-41 he was a conductor at the Kiev Theater of Opera and Ballet, and in 1950-4 its main conductor. In 1944-7 he conducted the Kharkiv Opera. From 1950 he also served as a professor at the Kiev Conservatory. The K. Dankevych opera Bohdan KhmeVnyts'kyi was his last work, mounted by the Kiev Opera in 1953. Pirogov, Nikolai, b 25 November 1810 in Moscow, d 5 December 1881 in Vyshnia, Vinnytsia county, Podilia gubernia. Russian surgeon, anatomist, educator, and civic figure; corresponding member of the Russian Academy of Sciences from 1847. A graduate of Moscow (1828) and Dorpat (1832) universities, he was a professor of surgery at the latter (1836-40) and then a professor at the hospital surgery clinic at the St Petersburg Medico-Surgical Academy (1841-56). During the Crimean War (1853-6) he made a classic description of hemorrhagic and traumatic shock and proposed a conservative management of gunshot fractures of extremities. As superintendent of the Odessa (1856-8) and Kiev (1858-61) school districts he expanded the school system, initiated the founding of Odessa University, and encouraged the opening of Sunday schools in

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the Kiev district and the use of Ukrainian in them. He opposed early specialization and discrimination based on class or nationality and was released from his post because of his liberal educational policy. From 1866 he lived on his estate in Vyshnia, and there he worked as a consultant on military medicine and surgery during the FrancoPrussian (1870-1) and Russo-Turkish (1877-8) wars. He wrote on anesthesia, the foundations of bone and plastic surgery, and surgical technique. Pirogov's estate was converted into a museum in 1947, and his collected works were published in Moscow (8 vols, 1957-62). The medical institutes in Odessa and Vinnytsia were named after him. BIBLIOGRAPHY Mohylevs'kyi, B. Zhyttia Pyrohova (Kiev 1953) Aronova, F.; et al. N.L Pirogov na Ukraine: Bibliograficheskii ukazateV literatury (Kiev 1961)

Kostiantyn Piskorsky: Kozak-Mamai (watercolor, 1920)

Piskorsky, Kostiantyn [Piskors'kyj, Kostjantyn], b 18 May 1892 in Kiev, d 9 March 1922 in Kiev. Painter; son of V. *Piskorsky. In 1919-20 he studied under H. *Narbut. His paintings (mostly watercolors) evolved from flatly rendered, simplified, natural forms to abstract compositions. They ranged from bold, stylized ornamental forms, highly reduced symbolist images, and geometricized landscapes marked by repetitions of figurative patterns (eg, Forest Fire, 1919) to nonrepresentational geometric paintings (eg, White World, 1919). His works are preserved at the Archive-Museum of Literature and Art in Kiev. Hryhorii Pisetsky

Pisetsky, Hryhorii [Pisec'kyj, Hryhorij], b 12 February 1907 in Korniv, Horodenka county, d 20 July 1930 near Bibrka, Galicia. Nationalist revolutionary; member of the Ukrainian Military Organization and of *Plast. He participated in an expropriation raid on a Polish postal wagon, in which he was killed. His unintended participation in the raid while wearing the Plast uniform gave Polish authorities a pretext for banning the organization in Polish-ruled Galicia. Pishchane [Piscane]. A village in Zolotonosha raion, Cherkasy oblast near which remains of a Black Sea merchant were buried. Discovered by chance in 1960-1, the find revealed that the individual was buried in a dugout canoe and with 15 pieces of bronze. From the bronze items, many of them vessels for storing and serving wine, the burial is dated late 6th to early 5th century BC. Pishchanka [Piscanka]. ¥-9. A town smt (1986 pop 6,400) and raion center in Vinnytsia oblast. It was first mentioned in historical documents in 1734, under the name Pishchana. In 1784 it was renamed. At the Second Partition of Poland in 1793, the town was acquired by Russia. It became part of Yampil county in Podilia gubernia. Until the early 19th century it was owned by the Lubomirski family. Today the town has a food industry and a limestone quarry. Piskivka. m-io. A town smt (1986 pop 7,700) in Borodianka raion, Kiev oblast. Piskivka was founded at the beginning of the 17th century. In 1760 a foundry was built there. Today the town has a forest industry and a glass factory.

Piskorsky, Volodymyr (Vladimir) [Piskors'kyj], b 10 August 1867 in Odessa, d 16 August 1910 in Kazan, Russia. Historian; father of K. *Piskorsky. He studied at Kiev University (1896-90) under I. Luchytsky and was a privatdocent there (1893-5) and a professor of world history at the Nizhen Historical-Philological Institute (1895-1906) and Kazan University (1906-10). A specialist in the history of medieval Spain, Portugal, and Italy, he wrote monographs in Russian on the Castilian Cortes in 1188-1520 (master's thesis, 1897; Spanish trans 1930,1977), F. Ferrucio and his era (1891), the meaning and origin of the six l3ad customs' in Catalonia (1899; Spanish trans 1929), and serfdom in medieval Catalonia (doctoral diss, 1901). He is also the coauthor of a Russian-language history of Spain and Portugal (2nd rev edn 1909). Piskunov, Fortunat, b and d ? Ukrainian lexicographer and ethnographer of the second half of the 19th century. He compiled the 8,ooo-word Ukrainian-Russian Slovnytsia ukmïnskoï (abo iuhovo-rus'koï) movy (Dictionary of the Ukrainian [or South Ruthenian] Language, 1873), and its revised, 15,000-word second edition, Slovnyk zhyvoï narodneï, pis 'mennoï i aktovoï movy rus 'kykh iuhivshchan Rossiis'koï i Avstriis'ko-Vengers'koï tsesaní (Dictionary of the Current Folk, Literary, and Chancery Language of the Ruthenian Southerners of the Russian and Austro-Hungarian Empires, 1882), much of it taken from M. Zakrevsky's 1861 dictionary of 'Little Russian' idioms. The lexicon was printed in a Cyrillic phonetic orthography but in the order of the letters in the Latin alphabet (ie, a, b, c, d, e, je, f, g [in the Latin grapheme], h, x, etc) and consisted of many archaisms, little-used dialectal words, garbled loanwords,

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and even Piskunov's neologisms (eg, bylynar 'botanist7, vsedijma 'history', hojnyk 'surgeon', hnita 'print'). Many of the definitions were incorrect. In their time the two editions of the dictionary were sharply criticized and rejected by B. *Hrinchenko and K. Sheikovsky, and today they have only a historical value. Piskunov also published Chaika (The Seagull, 1876), an album of Ukrainian songs, dumas, tales, fables, and poems (including several of his own); a collection of articles about T. Shevchenko (1878); and a posthumous edition of Ya. Kukharenko's works (1880). Pislanets' pravdy (Messenger of Truth). An evangelical Baptist journal published bimonthly in Lodz (1927-31) and then Rava Ruska (to 1939). It was edited by S. Bilynsky and then V. Peretiatko, and in 1930 it appeared in a pressrun of 1,000 copies. The journal was renewed in the United States in 1949 as the organ of the All-Ukrainian Evangelical Baptist Fellowship. It was published in Chester, Pennsylvania (ed L. Zhabko-Potapovych), and later, from 1966, in Evanston, Illinois (ed O. Harbuziuk). Pisniachevsky, Dmytro [Pisnjacevs'kyj], b 22 January 1898 in Podilia gubernia, d 12 January 1966 in Paris. Economist and co-operative leader. He left Ukraine in 1920 and lived as an émigré in Poland, Czechoslovakia, and France (from 1927). Until 1939 he was the representative in France of the *Audit Union of Ukrainian Co-operatives. He wrote articles on economic and co-operative topics for the Ukrainian, French, and Czech press. He also wrote the monograph Vid kapitalizmu do kooperatyzmu (From Capitalism to Co-operativism, 1945).

Viktor Pisniachevsky

Pisniachevsky, Viktor [Pisnjacevs'kyj], b 1883 in Podilia gubernia, d 11 October 1933 in Bratislava, Czechoslovakia. Physician, journalist, and civic leader. As a student at the Military Medical Academy in St Petersburg he took part in organizing the Ukrainian caucus in the First State Duma and in founding and editing its organ Ridna sprava - Dums 'ki visti (1907). Under the pseudonym A. Horlenko he contributed to the Kiev daily Rada. While working as a physician and lecturer at Odessa University, he founded and edited the Russian-language daily Odesskii listok in 1917 and Molodaia Ukraina in 1918. In the following two years he published and edited the weekly *Volia in Vienna. Having exhausted his financial resources he moved to Bratislava and confined himself to practicing medicine. Besides articles on political and social issues he wrote several dozen scientific articles on medicine.

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Pisochyn [Pisocyn]. iv-iy. A town smt (1986 pop 12,400) on the Udy River in Kharkiv raion, Kharkiv oblast. It was founded in 1732. Today it lies just outside Kharkiv on the Kharkiv-Kiev highway and railway line. Its factories produce furniture, rubber toys, and metal goods. Pisotsky, Anatol. See Richytsky, Andrii. Pit-Grave culture. A Copper-Bronze Age culture of the late 3rd to early 2nd millennium BC that existed along the Dnieper River, in the steppe region, in the Crimea, near the Danube Estuary, and in locations east of Ukraine (up to the Urals). Sites have been excavated since the mid-i9th century, and the culture was classified by V. *Gorodtsov in the early 2Oth century. This culture took its name from pit graves used for burials in family or clan kurhans. Corpses were covered with red ocher and laid either in a supine position or on their sides with flexed legs. Grave goods included egg-shaped pottery containing food, stone, bone, and copper implements, weapons, and adornments. The culture's major economic occupation was animal husbandry, with agriculture, hunting, and fishing of secondary importance. Excavations at Pit-Grave sites also revealed primitive carts that were pulled by oxen and stelae bearing images of humans. The people of this culture usually lived in surface dwellings in fortified settlements. They had contacts with tribes in northern Caucasia and with Trypilian tribes in Ukraine. Significant culture sites include the *Mykhailivka settlement and *Storozhova Mohyla. Pitschmann, Josef, b 1758 in Trieste, Italy, d i September 1834 in Kremianets, Volhynia gubernia. German painter. He graduated from the Vienna Academy of Art and became a member of it in 1787. After working as a portraitist in Lviv (1794-1806) he settled in Kremianets and taught painting at the lyceum there. He produced over 500 portraits, including ones of King Stanislaus II Augustus Poniatowski (ca 1792), T. Czacki, and Counts J. and F. Tarnowski, and many paintings on mythological and biblical themes, such as Adam and Eve in Paradise, Sleeping Nymph and Satyr, and Achilles over Patroclus's Corpse. Pitted-Comb Pottery culture. A Neolithic archeological culture which existed in northeastern Ukraine during the mid-4th to 3rd millennium BC. It was first studied in the early 2Oth century by V. *Gorodtsov, M. *Rudynsky, and others. The people of this culture generally settled along river banks or terraces near lakes. Their major defining feature was slightly oval pottery decorated in the upper portions (and occasionally on the inside near the crown) with bands of pit marks and combed lines. The pottery was usually well-fired and thin-walled. The culture was adept with microlithic and macrolithic flint technology. Studies at sites have revealed a variety of implements, including axes, chisels, cutters, arrowheads, and awls. Several epochs of the culture have been identified. Scholars believe that the Pitted-Comb culture may have been a predecessor of the *Marianivka culture. Pittsburgh. The second-largest city in Pennsylvania and the center of Allegheny County. The population in 1980 was 423,938 (metropolitan area, 2.3 million). An estimated 34,000 Ukrainians live in the greater Pittsburgh area. The first Ukrainian immigrants to the city were four

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St George's Ukrainian Catholic Church in Pittsburgh

young men from the Lemko region, who arrived in 1878. More emigrants followed in the i88os and 18908, most of them from the Lemko village of Hanchova and Klymkivka of Gorlice county, Galicia. The first Ukrainian church in Pittsburgh, the Ruthenian Greek Catholic Church of St John the Baptist, was established in 1891. It is now known as St John the Baptist Ukrainian Catholic Church. Other Ukrainian churches include a second St John the Baptish church (1900), St George's Ukrainian Catholic Church (1918), and St Volodymyr's Ukrainian Orthodox Church (1926), which served as a cultural and social center during the depression years. In 1903 the Ukrainian Presbyterians also established a church, which was later incorporated into the presbytery of Pittsburgh. The earliest secular organizations to appear were mutual aid and fraternal associations. The first and oldest fraternal organization was the "Ukrainian National Association, whose Branch 53 was organized in 1888 and officially established in 1892. Today the local branches of the larger fraternal associations include four branches of the Ukrainian National Association, three branches of the ^Ukrainian Fraternal Association (1911), and three branches of the ^Providence Association (1912). In 1914 the Pittsburgh Ukrainians organized a fraternal benefit and insurance association, the ^Ukrainian National Aid Association of America (UNAAA). The UNAAA, with its headquarters in Pittsburgh in 1921-81, publishes the newspaper Ukraïns 'ke narodne slovo. In 1910 the Ukrainian Bookstore (Knyharnia Novostei) was opened. The Ukrainian Beneficial Union was organized in the south side in 1919, and moved in 1962 to a new location, where it be-

came known as the Ukrainian Home. In 1974 the Self-Reliance Association of American Ukrainians of Western Pennsylvania was affiliated with the Ukrainian Home. The Ukrainian women of Pittsburgh are organized into the Ukrainian Women's League (Branch 27), the Ukrainian Gold Cross, and numerous church sisterhoods. The first Ukrainian school was organized in 1895 at St John the Baptist Church. In the late 19205 a Ukrainian school was established by St Volodymyr's Ukrainian Orthodox Church. In 1933 an all-day school was instituted at St John the Baptist Church, and in the 19705 a Saturday Ukrainian heritage school was founded in the city. The first youth organization, Zaporizska Sich, originated in 1908 and endured throughout the First World War. Since 1930 the University of Pittsburgh has had an active Ukrainian Club, which initiated the monthly Trident (later the club became the League of Ukrainian Catholics). During the 19405, branches of the Ukrainian Catholic Youth League and the Ukrainian Orthodox League were formed. Drama and choir ensembles of note include the Western Pennsylvania Regional Choir. Among the early newspapers to appear in Pittsburgh were Amerikanskaia Rus' (1909-14), Rusyn (1911-17), and the weekly Soiuz (191115), which in time became affiliated with the Ukrainian Presbyterian Movement in Pittsburgh and then the Ukrainian Evangelical Alliance of North America. In the post-Second World War era approx 3,500 new immigrants came to Pittsburgh. This influx helped launch numerous organizations, including the Organization for the Defense of Four Freedoms for Ukraine, the United Ukrainian-American Organizations of Western Pennsylvania, the Ukrainian Youth Association of America, the Ukrainian-American Citizens' Club, the Ukrainian Theological Society, the Ukrainian Students' Organization of Michnovsky, the Ukrainian Beneficial Society, and the Pittsburgh Ukrainian Festival Committee. Pittsburgh is also the home of two Ukrainian art and book stores, Dniester (1946) and Howerla (1956); two general-interest Sunday Ukrainian radio programs; and two Ukrainian religious programs (Baptist and Catholic). A. Lushnycky

Pittsburgh metropoly. A Byzantine rite Catholic church province in the United States that primarily consists of emigrants (and their descendants) from the Transcarpathia region (Hajdudorog, Mukachiv, and Presov eparchies) and Yugoslavia (Krizevci eparchy). In general the members of the church do not consider themselves to be Ukrainian and have a weakly developed sense of their national origin, most viewing themselves as Ruthenians (Rusyns). Although initially united with Galician Ukrainians in a single Greek Catholic church in the United States (the first bishop, S. *Ortynsky), the priests and leading activists of the community demanded a separate eparchy after 1916. It was granted them by the Vatican in 1924, with the creation of the Pittsburgh exarchate under Bishop V. *Takach. The exarchate was reconstituted as an eparchy in 1963, when another eparchy centered in Passaic, New Jersey, was formed. In 1969 Pittsburgh eparchy was raised to the status of an archeparchy and metropolitan see, and a new eparchy in Parma, Ohio, was formed. Finally, in 1981 a fourth eparchy was established in Van Nuys, California. The Pittsburgh metropoly has approx 80 priests and

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153,000 faithful. Bishop Takach was succeeded by D. Ivancho (1948-54), N. Elko (1954-67), S. Kotsisko [Kocisko] (1968; from 1969 to 1991 as metropolitan), and metropolitan T. Dolinay (since 1991). Passaic eparchy, headed by Bishops S. Kotsisko (1963-8) and M. Dudyk (since 1968), has approx 115 priests and 87,000 faithful. Parma eparchy, headed by Bishops E. Mihalik (1969-84) and A. Pataki (since 1984), has approx 60 priests and 26,000 faithful. Van Nuys eparchy, headed by Bishop T. Dolinay (1981-1991), and G. Kuzma (since 1991), has approx 25 priests and 9,000 faithful. The metropoly maintains the Cyril and Methodius Seminary in Pittsburgh to train priests for all of the eparchies. The official organ of Pittsburgh eparchy in 1924-55 was the monthly *Nebesnaia tsaritsa. Since then the church's official paper has been the weekly *Byzantine Catholic World, while the official paper of Passaic eparchy has been The Eastern Catholic Life (since 1964). Several monastic orders are active in the metropoly. Although most of the church's adherents identify themselves as Ruthenians, Rusyns, or Carpatho-Rusyns, there are also some Hungarian and Slovak faithful. In general the church has been subjected to strong Latinizing (all parishes have adopted the Gregorian calendar) and Americanizing influences (English has been used widely in liturgies since 1964). In 1963 a special commission was established to standardize observances and to translate liturgical books into English. The Pittsburgh metropoly maintains no formal relationship with the ""Ukrainian Catholic church. Dissension over the Latinization of the church, especially the introduction of compulsory celibacy, led several parishes and priests to leave the church and create the separate American Carpatho-Russian Orthodox Greek Catholic church in 1937. BIBLIOGRAPHY Pekar, A. Our Past and Present: Historical Outline of the Byzantine Ruthenian Metropolitan Province (Pittsburgh 1974)

W. Lencyk, A. Pekar

Pitukhivka settlement. A village and archeological site in Ochakiv raion, Mykolaiv oblast. Excavations in 1940-50 revealed a 4th- to 3rd-century BC Scythian settlement containing fine examples of metalwork. Nearby on the Boh Estuary a 2nd-century BC to 4th-century AD town was unearthed. Its spacious houses were solidly built with stone foundations and walls of unbaked brick.

Bohdan Piurko

33

Piurko, Bohdan [Pjurko], b 4 July 1906 in Nemyriv, Rava Ruska county, Galicia, d 23 October 1953 in Detroit. Conductor and teacher. He studied with V. Barvinsky at the Lysenko Higher Institute of Music in Lviv, and then graduated from the Prague Conservatory in 1930. He was concertmaster at the Kiev Opera Theatre in 1930-2 and director of the Music Institute and Boian choir in Drohobych from 1933. He emigrated after the Second World War, conducted the Ukrainian Opera Ensemble in Germany in 1947-9, and then settled in Detroit, where he worked as a teacher. Pius IX (secular name: Giovanni Maria Mastai-Ferretti), b 13 May 1792 in Senigallia, Italy, d 7 February 1878 in Rome. Pope of the Catholic church in 1846-78. During his lengthy tenure he elevated the Galician metropolitan M. *Levytsky to the rank of cardinal (1856), founded the ^Congregation for Eastern Churches (1862), enacted a ""concordat regulating relations between Ukrainian and Polish Catholics in Galicia, established canonical chapters (capitula) in Lviv and Peremyshl eparchies (1867), and protested the liquidation of the Ukrainian Catholic church in the Kholm and Podlachia regions by the Russian authorities (1864-75). Pius X (secular name: Giuseppe Melchiorre Sarto), b 2 June 1835 in Riese, Italy, d 20 August 1914 in Rome. Pope of the Catholic church in 1903-14. He appointed Ukrainian bishops for the United States (1907) and Canada (1912) and granted Metropolitan A. *Sheptytsky authority over Ukrainian and Belarusian territories formerly within the jurisdiction of the Kievan metropoly (liquidated by the Russian government in 1839). Pius XI (secular name: Ambrogio Damiano Achille Ratti), b 31 May 1857 in Desio, Italy, d 10 February 1939 in Rome. Pope of the Catholic church in 1922-39. As papal nuncio in Poland (1919-21) he intervened against Polish assaults on the Ukrainian Catholic church following the occupation of Galicia. Later he oversaw the conclusion (1925) of a concordat to regulate relations between Ukrainian and Polish Catholics in Galicia; this agreement, however, did not extend to Volhynia, and the Ukrainian hierarchy had no authority there. He also sought to shore up the Ukrainian church hierarchy in Czechoslovakia, Rumania, Canada, Brazil, and the United States. Other initiatives during his papacy included the building of *St Josaphat's Ukrainian Pontifical College in Rome (1931), the transfer of the Basilian order's administrative center to Rome and the addition of Hungary and Rumania to its jurisdictions, and the establishment of a pontifical commission for the codification of Eastern rite canon law (1935). Pius XII (secular name: Eugenio Pacelli], b 2 March 1876 in Rome, d 9 October 1958 in Castel Gandolfo. Pope of the Catholic church in 1939-58. He issued an encyclical to the Catholic church in 1946 on the occasion of the 35Oth anniversary of the Church Union of Berestia in which he protested Soviet repressions against the Ukrainian Catholic church. In the postwar period he helped Ukrainian refugees and the ^Division Galizien and worked to prevent their forcible repatriation to the USSR. He created metropolies for the Ukrainian Catholic church in Canada (1956)

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and the United States as well as exarchates in Great Britain, Brazil, and Australia (in 1958). Pivdendiprobudm (full name: Derzhavnyi instytut po proektuvanniu pidpryiemstv promyslovosti budivelnykh materialiv pivdennykh raioniv krainy, or State Institute for the Design of Enterprises of the Building-Materials Industry in the Southern Regions of the Country). A planning office of the Chief Administration of Scientific Research and Design Organizations of the former USSR Ministry of the Building-Materials Industry, located in Kiev. Founded in 1944, the office designed factories and other enterprises of the *building-materials industry, including mineral enrichment factories and mines. It also studied problems of production planning and plans for the rationalization of production. The institute has 17 departments and a branch in Kharkiv.

Pivustav script. A Cyrillic script used in East and South Slavic manuscripts from the 13th century on and in early Cyrillic printed books. It was freer and more minuscule than the older *ustav script, the letters were quite often slanted and more irregular, and spacing was unequal. Abbreviations, superscripts, accents, and aspirates were used more frequently. The pivustav evolved in the second half of the 15th century into the skoropys script - the foundation of unified 19th-century Cyrillic handwriting which omitted the etymological jers, the jus vowel (ÍK), Greek letters, and accents and aspirates; had more rounded letters with ascending and descending strokes; and was more cursive. Forms of the skoropys varied according to chancery school and local tradition, particularly in the loth and 17th centuries.

Pivdendipronaftoprovid (full name: Derzhavnyi instytut po proektuvanniu naftoprovodiv, naftoproduktoprovodiv i naftobaz, or State Institute for the Design of Oil Pipelines, Oil Products Pipelines, and Oil Storage Bases). A design office of the former USSR Ministry of the Petroleum Industry, founded in 1972 in Kiev. Organized in 21 departments with 7 subdepartments, the office planned and designed oil pipelines and other facilities of the oil industry in Ukraine. Pivdendiprosklo (full name: Derzhavnyi instytut po proektuvanniu pidpryiemstv sklianoi promyslovosti, or State Institute for the Design of Enterprises of the Glass Industry). A planning office of the Chief Administration of Scientific Research and Design Organizations of the former USSR Ministry of the Building-Materials Industry, located in Kiev. It was founded in 1960 as a branch of Diprosklo in Leningrad, and assumed its current name in 1975. The institute designed factories and other enterprises for the glass industry and prepared plans for remodeling, reconstructing, and upgrading existing facilities. It also designed systems for improving production. Pivdenna pravda (Southern Truth). A daily newspaper of the Mykolaiv oblast and city CPU committees and soviets. It began publication in Mykolaiv in Russian in 1917 as Proletarskoe znamia. After several name changes it became Krasnyi Nikolaev in 1921. From 1930 it was published in Ukrainian as Chervonyi Mykolaiv, Shliakh industrializatsn (1930-7), and Bil 'shovyts 'kyi shliakh (1937-41,1943-4), and Pivdenna pravda (1944-91). From 1959 it appeared also in a parallel Russian edition, luzhnaia pravda. Pivdenne. iv-i7. A city (1989 pop 10,400) in Kharkiv raion, Kharkiv oblast. The city was formed in 1963 by the amalgamation of the towns of Komarivka, founded in the 17th century, and Pivdenne, founded in 1906, and was granted city status. Its yards service the railway industry, and its factories manufacture plastic goods and textiles. There are some health resorts on its outskirts. Pivnichne siaivo (Northern Lights). A miscellany of literature and art, five issues of which were published in Edmonton from 1964 to 1971 by Ya. *Slavutych.

Serhii Plachynda

Mykola Plakhotniuk

Plachynda, Serhii [Placynda, Serhij], b 18 June 1928 on Shevchenkove khutir, near present-day Kirovohrad. Writer, journalist, and literary critic. He graduated from Kiev University (1953), did graduate work at the Institute of Literature of the AN URSR (now ANU), and worked for the paper Literaturna Ukraïna (contributing editor) and the Molod publishing house. He is the author of the novels Tania Solomakha (1959), Syn'ooka sestra (Blue-Eyed Sister, 1962), De lany shyrokopoli (Where the Broad Fields, 1963), Duma pro liudynu (Duma about a Person, 1974), Stepova saha (Steppe Saga, 1977), Vziaty na sebe (To Take upon Oneself, 1981), Shuhaï (The Shuhais, 1986), and Revuchyi (The Roaring [Dnieper], 1988). He has also written the historical prose collections Neopalyma kupyna (The Burning Bush, coauthor, 1968) and Ky'ivs 'kifresky (Kievan Frescoes, 1982), several collections of essays, a collection of fairy tales (1967), two books about the works of Yu. Yanovsky (1957, 1969), a book about O. Dovzhenko (1964), the biographical novels Oleksandr Dovzhenko (1980) and lurii lanovs'kyi (1986), and a biography of P. Zhytetsky (1987). Plague (chuma). An infectious, often fatal disease caused by the microbe Pasteurella pestis. There are two main forms: (i) the bubonic plague, characterized by swollen glands in the groin, armpit, or neck, which is transmitted by fleas from rodents to humans and kills 50-80 percent of the infected victims within 10 days; and (2) the rare pneumonic plague, which is transmitted directly from human to human and kills all infected victims within 3 days. Before the exact cause was identified in 1894, the various

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35

forms of plague were treated as different diseases. Reports of plague epidemics in Ukraine date from as early as the nth century: in 1090 over 10,000 people in Kiev died of plague within two weeks. The Black Death that killed off a quarter of Europe's population in the mid14th century was brought to the Crimea in 1346 and then through Poland to Ukraine and Russia in 1351; it killed off all the inhabitants of Pereiaslav. There were widespread epidemics affecting Ukraine and Russia in 1414,1420, and 1423. Epidemics broke out in Kiev in 1630, in Right-Bank Ukraine in 1654,1709-12,1738-9, and 1770-2, in Southern Ukraine in 1783-4, and in Volhynia in 1798. In the 19th century plague was imported to Odessa from Turkey and Persia (1812-13,1828-30,1837) and to Ukraine from Russia (1878 and 1896). The last outbreaks occurred in Odessa in 1901-2 and 1910. One of first detailed clinical accounts of the disease in the Russian Empire was written by D. *Samoilovych. He also proposed treatment methods and preventive measures, which were tested in his fieldwork. D. *Zabolotny did extensive research on the disease and proposed a hypothesis about the natural breeding grounds of plague. At the beginning of the 2Oth century several scientists, among them V. Vysokovych, I. Mechnikov, and M. Hamaliia, devoted some attention to plague. BIBLIOGRAPHY Zabolotnyi, D. Chuma (St Petersburg 1907) Alexander, J. Bubonic Plague in Early Modern Russia: Public Health and Urban Disaster (Baltimore 1980) H. Schultz

Plai (Mountain Path). A regional-studies and hiking society, founded in Lviv in 1924. Until 1939 it also had branches in Peremyshl, Sambir, Stryi, and Ternopil. In 1931, after the Polish authorities banned the Plast scouting organization, two sports sections, Plai and Chernyk, were set up as part of the Lviv society to carry on Plast activities. The society published a special page in the Lviv paper Novyi chas in 1925 (ed I. Krypiakevych) and the 19305 (ed Ye. Pelensky); its own magazine, Nasha bat'kivshchyna (1937-9); and hiking guides to the Opir i Stryi valleys by Ye. Pelensky and the Lemko Beskyd by Yu. Tarnovych. The presidents of Plai were S. Starosolsky, D. Korenets, and K. Pankivsky. Plakhotniuk, Mykola [Plaxotnjuk], b 8 May 1936 in Fosforit, Shchigry raion, Kursk oblast. Dissident. A physician working near Kiev, he published an article in the samvydav journal Ukrains 'kyi visnyk (no. 2,1970) defending several political prisoners and analyzing Russification in Dnipropetrovske. For this he lost his position at the Kiev Medical Institute. He was arrested in January 1972 for his involvement in Ukrains 'kyi visnyk and sentenced in November to an indefinite term in psychiatric prisons in Dnipropetrovske, Kazan, and Smila. After being released in March 1981, he was rearrested in September and sentenced in 1982 to four years in labor camps. He was released soon afterward. Plaksii, Borys [Plaksij], b 21 August 1937 in Smila, now in Cherkasy oblast. Painter and sculptor. He studied at the Dnipropetrovske Art School and graduated from the Kiev State Art Institute (1965). In the 19605, together with A. Horska and V. Zaretsky, he created decorative murals for various restaurants and buildings in Kiev. Because of his

Borys Plaksii: sculpture in the Mykhailo Kotsiubynsky Memorial Museum in Chernihiv

unorthodox depictions and because he signed a political petition in 1968, he was denied membership in the Union of Artists. His murals at the Khreshchatyi Yar café, which depicted historical events and contemporary writers in a powerful, expressionist manner, were destroyed by the authorities in 1971. Plaksii survived by ghost-painting for officially recognized artists, painting portraits on commission, and working in Siberia. His oils are distinguished by a dark palette and tragic subject matter. They include Shackles (1971), He Who Is Coming (1973), Female Friends (1981), Chornobyl (1986), Anathema (1989), and Pain (1990). Plaksii's murals and many wood sculptures can be found at the Mykhailo Kotsiubynsky Memorial Museum in Chernihiv. Over half of his more than 1,000 works are in private collections. The first solo exhibition of his works was held in Toronto in 1991. Plaksii, Oleksandr [Plaksij], b 13 August 1911 in Kursk, Russia. Theatrical designer. In 1936 he completed study at the Kharkiv Art Institute (pupil of O. KhvostenkoKhvostov and S. Prokhorov). He worked in the Kharkiv Young Spectator's Theater (1937-40) and then in the Chernivtsi Oblast Ukrainian Music and Drama Theater (from 1947 as principal designer). His notable designs were for the Chernivtsi Theater's productions of O. Korniichuk's Zahybel' eskadry (The Destruction of the Squadron), M. Andriievych's Lesia, and B. Brecht's Mutter Courage una ihre Kinder.

36

PLAMENYTSKY

Plamenytsky, Anatolii [Plamenyc'kyj, Anatolij], b 19 November 1920 in Yagodnoe, Orenburg gubernia, d 10 September 1982 in Kiev. Painter. A graduate of the Kiev State Art Institute (1953), he taught there from 1963. He did genre paintings, portraits, and landscapes, such as Evening (1957), Rain (1960), Mother (1961), and Election Day (1971). Planning. See Economic planning, Five-year plan, and State Planning Committee of the Ukrainian SSR. Plant cultivation. See Crop cultivation. Plant physiology. The processes governing the life of plants: the ways they absorb water and minerals, the ways they grow, develop, and bear fruit, photosynthetic processes, respiration, biosynthesis and storage of the necessary substances, and so on. Knowledge of plant physiology provides a basis for the rational planting of crops, their acclimatization, and the maintenance of proper ecological balance. The founder of the Ukrainian school of plant physiologists was Ye. *Votchal, who investigated the relationship between photosynthesis and water metabolism. His students and followers include V. *Zalensky (who studied water balance regulation in plants), V. Kolkunov (who studied the correlation between the anatomic structure of beet roots and their sugar content), and V. *Liubymenko (who discovered that the chlorophyll present in chloroplast is bound to proteins and does not exist in a free state). Other Ukrainian plant physiologists include M. *Kholodny (auxins), A. Nychypurovych (the composition of the organic substances produced by a plant and its relationship to the conditions of photosynthesis), Y. *Baranetsky (the water regimen of plants and their resistance to drought), D. *Hrodzinsky (plant biophysics), R. Butenko (the physiology of plant morphogenesis), A. *Manoryk, F. *Matskov, A. *Okanenko, K. Sytnyk, and A. *Zaikevych. The principal center for plant physiology studies in Ukraine has been the AN URSR (now ANU) Institute of Plant Physiology in Kiev. It has published the journal Fiziologiia i biokhimiia kul 'turnykh rastenii since 1969. I. Masnyk

Plantain (Plantago-, Ukrainian: podorozhnyk). A plant of the family Plantaginacae, a perennial grass with a rosette of leaves and leafless stalks bearing a terminal spike of small flowers, usually found in temperate zones. In Ukraine it grows in meadows, in steppes, among weeds, and along country roads. The most common species are the greater plantago (P. major), the hoary plantago (P. media), and the ribwort (P. lanceolata). Widely used in folk medicine to treat cuts and boils and to stop bleeding, the plants were also used as laxatives and expectorants, as agents to improve digestion, and as a treatment for gastritis and enteritis. Plast Ukrainian Youth Association (Plast, Orhanizatsiia ukrainskoi molodi). A Ukrainian scouting organization, based on universal Scout principles adapted to the needs and interests of Ukrainian young people. Its main goals include nurturing skills (particularly camping and outdoor activities), developing moral character and leadership qualities, and fostering a sense of Ukrainian patri-

Emblem of the Plast Ukrainian Youth Association

otism among its members. The organizational name Plast is derived from the Ukrainian word plastun, a scout of the Zaporozhian Cossacks. History to 1945. Ukrainian scouting organizations emerged almost simultaneously in both the Russian and the Austro-Hungarian empires not long after Lord BadenPowell introduced the scouting concept to the world in 1907. After the struggle for Ukraine's independence, however, they survived only in Western Ukraine. In the Ukrainian SSR scouting was suppressed and replaced by the Pioneer and Komsomol organizations. The driving force behind scouting in Western Ukraine was O. *Tysovsky, the founder of Plast. In 1911 he formed an extracurricular scouting group at the Academic Gymnasium of Lviv, where he was a teacher. Similar groups were formed concurrently by P. *Franko and I. *Chmola. The Plast scouting movement spread quickly to other cities and towns. By 1913 an organizational framework had begun to evolve, and two organizational handbooks had been published, Tysovsky's Plast and Franko's Plastovi hry i zabavy (Plast Games and Activities). With the outbreak of the First World War Plast activities decreased considerably, as many older members volunteered for military duty with the *Sich Riflemen and later the "Ukrainian Galician Army. In 1915 a girls' Plast organization arose. Scouting groups emerged in Russian-controlled Ukraine as early as 1909 and included up to 50,000 adherents by 1917. The activity was initially unstructured, but it started to organize according to the Baden-Powell model with an institutional base when officials of the Kiev educational district, led by a Russian, A. Anokhin, began promoting scouting as an extracurricular program. Specifically Ukrainian scouting troops were first formed in 1917, when Ye. *Slabchenko organized a scouting troop in Bila Tserkva. Similar groups were formed shortly thereafter in Kaniv, Kiev, Katerynoslav, Vinnytsia, and other locations. After the establishment of Soviet rule in Ukraine, these groups were disbanded. In some locations (Kiev, Odessa, Chernihiv) former scout leaders re-established their troops nominally as 'young Communist' scout groups, but these were judged by the authorities to be apolitical and were disbanded. The socializing of young people carried out by scouting was eventually taken over by the *Pioneer Organization of Ukraine. After the First World War Plast entered its most active phase in Western Ukraine. For a short period (1918-20) Plast activities were carried out under the auspices of the

PLAST U K R A I N I A N YOUTH ASSOCIATION

legally sanctioned ^Ukrainian National Society for Child and Adolescent Care. By 1920-1 Plast had resumed operations under its own name. It soon developed a network of groups affiliated with secondary schools in Galicia and with *Prosvita societies in Volhynia. A highly successful Plast movement was started in Transcarpathia in 1921, but it remained independent of the Plast mainstream. The organization's core group, Ulad plastovoho yunatstva, or UPYu, for 12- to 18-year-olds (equivalent to Scouts and Guides), was supplemented with Ulad plastovoho novatstva, or UPN, for 7- to 12-year-olds (equivalent to Cubs and Brownies) in 1924; with Ulad star shykh plastuniv, or USP, for 18- to 3O-year-olds (Rovers), in 1924-5; and with Ulad plastovykh senioriv, or UPS, for those over 30 years of age (Senior Scouts), in 1930. Organizational journals began to be published, including *Molode zhyttia, which also had a general circulation. Special courses for training group leaders were organized, and an organizational handbook, Zhyttia v Plasti (Life in Plast), was prepared by Tysovsky in 1921. Support materials for group leaders often appeared in specialty publications, such as *Plastovyi shliakh, Plastovyi provid, and Ukrams'kyi Plast. Organizers were designated to provide assistance in forming new groups. Finally, an economic co-operative was formed under the Plast name.

Plast members and Metropolitan Andrei Sheptytsky Plast failed to develop in Bukovyna during the interwar period because of the suppression of Ukrainian cultural activities by the Rumanian authorities. Some furtive attempts were made in the early 19305 to establish semilegal Plast groups at a number of secondary schools and gymnasiums, and individuals and clubs maintained ties with Plast in Galicia. By 1930 Plast had developed a wide-ranging organizational structure, with over 6,000 members in 10 regional districts, and was able to sponsor diverse programs, including a series of highly successful summer camps, for young people. Even more significant, Plast was becoming a popular movement with support emerging from beyond urban educational circles and slowly developing among the working class and at the village level throughout Western Ukraine. It had developed a definite group ethos, part of which included a strong Ukrainian consciousness. Concern about Plast's growing influence on Ukrainian young people, as well as the tendency for nationalist organizations to recruit Plast members after they left the ranks, led the Polish government to bar the organization from

37

forming in state schools (1924), from operating in Volhynia (1928), and finally from operating altogether in Polish-controlled territory (1930). With most of its assets confiscated, its publications banned, and a number of its leading members arrested, Plast was forced underground. Throughout the 19303 it operated illegally or through other bodies, such as the ""Ukrainian Hygienic Society (in organizing summer camps) and the *Plai hiking society, and thus managed to maintain certain aspects of its program. More routine Plast activities were continued in Transcarpathia (until it was occupied by Hungary in 1939) and in individual Central and Western European cities in which Plast units had been formed. The latter were organized into the Prague-based Union of Ukrainian Plast Emigrants, or SUPE, in 1931. In October 1939 under German occupation, M. Ivanenko revived Plast in Sianik (Sanok), but soon thereafter the German authorities ordered the organization to disband. Still, during the Second World War Ukrainian scouting activities in Western Ukraine continued to be carried out through other agencies, the "Ukrainian Youth Educational Societies. The Soviet occupation of Western Ukraine in 1944 brought an end to all Plast activity there. Development in the West. Plast re-established itself in the West after the Second World War. The groundwork for the new wave of activity was laid in 1945-8 in the Misplaced persons7 camps of Germany. In October 1945 a gathering in Karlsfeld (near Munich) revived SUPE and developed general guidelines for conducting organizational activity in the camps. Plast attracted a membership of approx 4,800, renewed programs, and resumed its publishing activity (*Iunak, Plastovyi shliakh, *Hotuis '). Subsequent gatherings in 1947and 1948 established more formal organizational structures (specifically the Plast International Council, or HPR, and the International Executive, or HPB) and guidelines for developing Plast branches (stanytsi) in the West. After the mass resettlement of displaced Ukrainians in 1948-52, Plast branches were established in Australia, Argentina, Canada, Great Britain, Germany, and the United States. The First National Plast Conference was held in Toronto in 1949. In 1954 the first Conference of Ukrainian Plast Organizations, or KUPO (which replaced SUPE), was organized in order to elect new members to the HPR and HPB. Since that time KUPO elections have taken place every three years. The HPB co-ordinates the program and gives directives to Plast National Executives, which in turn direct their respective local branches. Methodological training for scouting leaders is also governed by the HPB. Training of scoutmasters for the UPN is organized by Orlynnyi kruh. Notable members include L. Bachynsky, T. Bilostotsky, T. Samotulka, A. Horokhovych, L. Khraplyva, and Ye. Hoidysh. Training of leaders of the UPYu is carried out by Lisova shkola (for males) and Shkola bulavnykh (for females). Notable organizers of Lisova shkola have included M. Rakovsky, Yu. Kryzhanivsky, and P. Sodol. Organizers of Shkola bulavnykh have included O. Kuzmovych, T. Boiko, and D. Horbachevska. Specialty camps have been organized by specific kurini (companies) of USP and UPS: the kurin Pershi stezhi, for example, organizes the Stezhky kultury (Paths of Culture) camp; the Burlaky (Vagabonds) specialize in ski and mountain-climbing camps; and the Chornomortsi (males) and Chornomorski khvyli (females) organize special water-sports camps. In 1991 there were 27

38

PLAST U K R A I N I A N YOUTH ASSOCIATION

different kurini of USP and UPS: Kurin im. Tysovskykh, Ti shcho hrebli rvut, Lisovi Chorty, Kharakternyky, Chervona Kalyna, Zakarpattsi, Kurin im. A. Voinarovskoho, Kurin im. H. Orlyka, Chornomortsi, Dubova Kora, Burlaky, Pershi Stezhi, Chota Krylatykh, Khrestonostsi, Buryverkhy, Karpatski Vovky, Khmelnychenky, Chortopolokhy, Kniahyni, Verkhovynky, Siromantsi, Blyskavky, Vovkulaky, Stepovi Vidmy, Braty Movgli, Shostokryli, and Pobratymy, as well as three that are still waiting registration, Spartanky, Chornomorski khvyli, and Lisovi Mavky.

Plastun (Scout). The first Ukrainian scouting journal in Transcarpathia, published in Uzhhorod in 1923-31 and Sevliush (now Vynohradiv) in 1934-5. m 1923~7 PlastunJunák-Cserkesz appeared in Ukrainian, Czech, and Hungarian one to six times a year as the joint publication of the three national scouting associations in the Czechoslovak Republic. From 1928 Plastun appeared eight times a year as the independent organ of the Plast Ukrainian scouting organization. It was edited by O. Vakhnianyn (1923-4), L. Bachynsky (1924-9), Yu. Revai (1929-32), and A. Voron (1934-5). Among the contributors were S. Cherkasenko, V. Grendzha-Donsky, V. Pachovsky, M. Pidhirianka, B. Zaklynsky, and Yu. Borshosh-Kumiatsky. Plateau landscape. One of several landscape types in Ukraine, characterized by wide plains dotted with hills and dissected by deep valleys formed by water erosion. It is found in the *Podolian, *Volhynia-Kholm, and *Pokutian-Bessarabian uplands as well as the *Roztochia region.

1957 Plast jamboree at the Plast camp near Grafton, Ontario

The titular head of the whole Plast movement is the Nachalnyi Plastun (Head Scout). To date, two have been elected, S. *Levytsky (1947-62) and Yu. *Starosolsky (1972-91). In 1990 Plast was legally restored in Ukraine as the Plast Ukrainian Scout Association; it is currently active in the cities of Kiev, Lutske, Lviv, Ternopil, and Zhytomyr. The movement is spreading rapidly to other cities and towns. Plast has been restored also among Ukrainians in Poland and in the Presov region of Slovakia. Plast in the diaspora has remained active to the present day. Activities include weekly meetings of UPN and UPYu, lectures, sports events and competitions, hikes and tours, and winter and summer camps. In August 1991 Plast was still independent of the International Scouting Organization and other national scouting movements. Yu. Starosolsky

Plastovyi shliakh (Plast Way). An ideological and programmatic journal of the *Plast Ukrainian Youth Association. The first three issues appeared in Lviv in 1930 under the editorship of S. *Levytsky. The journal stopped appearing when Plast was outlawed by the Polish government in that year, but it was renewed in Munich in 1950. Four issues appeared there until 1954. Since 1966 the journal has been published in Toronto. In Germany and Canada the journal has been edited by an editorial board, members of which have been L. Onyshkevych, A. Horokhovych, O. Kuzmovych, Yu. Piasetsky, O. Tarnavsky, and V. Sokhanivsky. Plastovyi shliakh publishes articles on Ukrainian émigré community life, on political, historical, and cultural topics, and, especially, on the ideals and activities of Plast.

Platonov, Khariton, b 1842 in Vorona, Yaroslavl gubernia, Russia, d 5 September 1907. Painter. A graduate of the St Petersburg Academy of Arts (1870), he was elected its full member in 1893. He lived in Kiev from 1879 and taught at the *Kiev Drawing School (1880-1900). In his work he was close to the *Peredvizhniki. He produced genre paintings, such as Beggar (1874), Servant Girl (1887), Little Nurse (1881), and Berries for Sale (1888), and also painted a portrait of the kobzar O. Veresai (1885). Platonov, Kostiantyn, b 30 October 1877 in Kharkiv, d 8 August 1969 in Kharkiv. Psychoneurologist. A graduate of Kharkiv University (1904), he worked in V. Bekhterev's psychiatric clinic in St Petersburg (1909-12), Kharkiv University (1919-28, from 1921 the Kharkiv Medical Institute), and the Kharkiv Railway Psychoneurological Clinic. From 1920 he conducted research at the Ukrainian Psychoneurological Scientific Research Institute. The founder of the Kharkiv school of psychotherapists, he published works dealing with the treatment of neuroses using hypnosis, and with painless childbirth. His Slovo iak ftziolohichnyi i likuvaVnyi faktor (The Word as a Physiological and Therapeutic Factor, 1957) nas been translated into many languages. Plaviuk, Mykola [Plavjuk], b 5 June 1925 in Rusiv, Sniatyn county, Galicia. Economist and political leader. He

Mykola Plaviuk

PLETENETSKY

joined the OUN during the war and fought in its partisan units. After the war he studied economics at the University of Munich and was an executive member of the Central Union of Ukrainian Students (1947-9). After emigrating to Canada in 1949, he was active in the *Zarevo Ukrainian Student Association and the "Ukrainian National Federation. As president of the latter organization (1956-66) he played a key role in organizing the *World Congress of Free Ukrainians and served as its general secretary (19679), vice-president (1973-8), and president (1978-81). At the same time he was vice-president of the Ukrainian Canadian Committee (now Congress, 1966-71). The head of the OUN Melnyk faction since 1979, he was elected vicepresident of the *Government-in-exile of the Ukrainian National Republic in June 1989 and served as its last president (1990-92). Pleiada (Pleiad). A literary group established in 1888 by Lesia Ukrainka and her brother, M. Kosach, in Kiev. It was modeled on the French school of poetry the Pléiade. Its members included M. Bykovska, H. Hryhorenko, M. Komarov, A. Krymsky, V. Samiilenko, M. Slavinsky, L. Starytska-Cherniakhivska, I. Steshenko, and Ye. Tymchenko. Their meetings took place in various homes and were attended by M. Lysenko, P. Kosach, K. Mykhalchuk, M. Starytsky, and others. The group also held literary evenings and contests and translated the works of non-Ukrainian authors, such as H. Heine, Dante, P. de Déranger, Molière, and V. Korolenko. The members prepared three collections for publication, 'Vesna' (Kiev), 'Desna' (Chernihiv), and 'Spilka' (Odessa), but all three were banned by the Russian censor. Pleiada was active until 1893-

39

such as 'Boats on the Dnieper' (1925), 'Kiev: Landscapes on the Dnieper's Banks' (1927), 'Dnieper Motifs' (194761), and 'Ukrainian Landscapes' (1935-9). A book about him was published in Kiev in 1964. Pleshkan, Olha [Pleskan, Ol'ha], b 15 June 1898 in Chortovets, Horodenka county, Galicia, d ? Painter. She studied at the Novakivsky Art School in Lviv (1925-32) and exhibited her works at shows organized by the Ukrainian Society of Friends of Art. She painted landscapes, portraits, and genre paintings, such as Self-Portrait (1928), Apple Tree in V. Stefanyk's Orchard (1927), Washerwoman (1932), Corn Cleaning (1961), and View ofTulova (1963). Pleshkevych, Omelian [Pleskevyc, Omeljan], b 1897in Makovysko, Jaroslaw county, Galicia, d 7 July 1960 in Chicago. Conductor. In 1931-7 he conducted the Banduryst male student choir in Lviv, and in 1937-44 the St George's Cathedral choir and Surma male choir. He continued as conductor of the émigré Surma choir in Germany (1945-9) and Chicago (1951-4), helping to make it one of the most important Ukrainian choral ensembles in the United States. He also arranged a number of UPA songs.

Archimandrite Yelysei Pletenetsky

Ilarion Pleshchynsky: The Shevchenko Memorial Preserve in Kaniv (pencil, 1937)

Pleshchynsky, Ilarion [Plescyns'kyj], b 28 April 1892 in Dokshitsy, Vitsebsk gubernia, Belarus, d 6 February 1961 in Kiev. Graphic artist. After graduating from the Kazan Art Institute (1921) he moved to Kiev and taught at the Kiev State Art Institute (1925-34, 1944-61) and the Kiev Civil-Engineering Institute (1934-44). His works consist of prints depicting landscapes, posters, and book illustrations. He produced many series of etchings and drawings,

Pletenetsky, Yelysei [Pletenec'kyj, Jelysej], b 1550 in Pletenytsi, near Zolovchiv, Lviv region, d 29 October 1624 in Kiev. Orthodox churchman and cultural leader. He was archimandrite of a monastery in the Pynske region (159599) and participated in the church sobor of Berestia (1596). He then became archimandrite of the Kievan Cave Monastery (1599-1624) and secured the right of stauropegion for it. With the assistance of the Cossacks and Hetmán P. *Sahaidachny he reclaimed the monastery's valuables that had been given to the Uniates by the Polish king Sigismund m in 1614. He sought to reform monastic life, organized a women's monastery near the Cave Monastery, and restored the Church of the Caves. He also established a hospital for the poor at the monastery. Pletenetsky attracted a group of notable church and cultural figures at the monastery, including P. and S. Berynda, Y. Boretsky, H. Dorofeievych, Z. Kopystensky, T. Zemka, and L. Zyzanii. He also founded the *Kievan Cave Monastery Press, wrote introductions to many of its earliest publications, and established a paper factory in Radomyshl to provide paper for it. His introductions were published in Kh. Titov's Materiialy alla istoriïknyzhnoïspravy na Vkraini v xvi-xvm vv. (Materials for the History of Publishing in Ukraine in the i6th-i8th centuries, 1924).

40

PLEVAKO

Plevako, Oleksander, b 9 May 1899 in Dvorichna, Kupianka county, Kharkiv gubernia, d 14 February 1990 in Kamianske (former Dniprodzerzhynske), Dnipropetrovske oblast. Economic historian; brother of M. and P. Plevako. After graduating from the Kiev Institute of the National Economy in 1922, he worked as a research associate of the YUAN and in 1925-7 published lengthy articles on the history of the sugar industry in Ukraine. He was arrested in 1928 and exiled to the Urals and Siberia. After returning to Ukraine he wrote short stories about animals, which came out in four collections (1960,1964,1969, and 1978). In 1954 he was rehabilitated.

Mykola and Oleksander Plevako

Plevako, Mykola, b 9 December 1890 in Dvorichna, Kupianka county, Kharkiv gubernia, d 25 May 1941 in Vishneva raion, Kazakhstan. Literary scholar and bibliographer. He studied under M. Sumtsov at Kharkiv University, from which he graduated in 1916. He was a professor of Ukrainian literary history at the Kamianets-Podilskyi Ukrainian State University (1919-21), a professor at the Kharkiv Institute of People's Education (from 1921), and director of the bibliography cabinet of the Taras Shevchenko Scientific Research Institute in Kharkiv (1926-33). In 1938 he was exiled to Kazakhstan, where he died in unknown circumstances. Plevako published studies of L. Hlibov and M. Shashkevych, Zhyttia ta pratsia B. Hrinchenka (The Life and Work of B. Hrinchenko, 1911), O stile i iazyke povesti G.F. Kvitky 'Marusia' (The Style and Language of H. Kvitka's Novelette Marusia, 1916), Shevchenkiv shchodennyk (Shevchenko's Diary, 1924), Shevchenko i krytyka (Shevchenko and Criticism, 1924), Shevchenko v tsyfrakh (Shevchenko in Numbers, 1926), and other works. He edited a number of readers, including Khrestomatiia po ukraïns 'kii literaturi (An Anthology of Ukrainian Literature, coedited by M. Sumtsov, 1918) and Khrestomatiia novoï ukraïns'koï literatury (An Anthology of Modern Ukrainian Literature, 2 vols, 1923,1926; includes biographies and comprehensive bibliographies of 75 writers, from I. Kotliarevsky to M. Khvylovy). He also edited Tvory L. Hlibova (The Works of L. Hlibov, 1927, with I. Kapustiansky) and T. Shevchenko's Kobzar (1930, with Ya. Aizenshtok). His Bio-bibliohrafichnyi slovnyk ukraïns 'kykh pys 'mennykiv (Biobibliographical Dictionary of Ukrainian Writers), which he worked on for 10 years (1924-34), has been lost. A compilation of his works was published posthumously, Mykola Plevako: Statti, rozvidky, i bio-bibliohrafichni materiialy (Mykola Plevako: Articles, Studies, and Biobibliographic Materials, 1961). I. Koshelivets

Petro Plevako

Paul Plishka

Plevako, Petro, b 21 December 1888 in Dvorichna, Kupianka county, Kharkiv gubernia, d 4 February 1986 in Paris. Political, civic, and church leader; brother of M. *Plevako. A legal assistant of M. Mikhnovsky, he became a member of the Central Committee of the Ukrainian Party of Socialist Revolutionaries and of the Central Rada. He was appointed department director in the UNR Ministry of Roads and vice-chairman of the Ukrainian Committee of Railwaymen (1918-19). After emigrating to Vienna in 1919 and then to Paris in 1925, he was active in émigré affairs. In 1953 he became a member of the Metropolitan's Council of the Ukrainian Autocephalous Orthodox church in Europe, and for many years he was chairman of the board of directors of the Petliura Library in Paris. He published his brother's works in 1961. Pliatsko, Hryhorii [Pljacko, Hryhorij], b 14 April 1928 in Ostrovok (Ostriv), Sokal county, Galicia. Mechanics scientist. He graduated from the Lviv Polytechnical Institute (1950) and worked at the AN URSR (now ANU) Physical-Mechanical Institute (from 1957) and the Lviv branch of the Institute of Mathematics (since 1973, and since 1975 as department head). He has made contributions in the fields of thermal conductivity and thermoelasticity and in various areas of solid state physics. He has studied and developed theoretical models of the behavior of solids under conditions in which very high energy flows through them. Plisetsky, Marko [Plisec'kyj], b 14 January 1909 in Chernihiv. Literary scholar and folklorist. A graduate of Kiev University (1937), he worked in journalism and publishing and lectured at Kiev University and other higher

PLIUSHCH

schools. A specialist in Ukrainian and Russian folklore studies, particularly in the development of the Slavic folk epos, he wrote a book on Ukrainian lyrical folk poetry (1941), on dumas and historical songs (1944), and on the ties between Russian and Ukrainian epos (1963). Plishka, Paul [Pliska], b 28 August 1941 in Old Forge, Pennsylvania. American opera and concert singer (bass) of Ukrainian descent. He studied under A. Bohajian and at Montclair State College. Plishka's lyrical singing bass extends easily into the baritone range. In 1967 he made his New York Metropolitan Opera (Met) debut as the Monk in A. Ponchielli's La Gioconda. Plishka's main roles include Sarastro, Figaro, and Leporello in W. Mozart's Die Zauberflôte, Le Nozze di Figaro, and Don Giovanni; Colline in G. Puccini's La Bohème; Oroveso and Sir George in V. Bellini's Norma and I Puritani; Ramfis and Procida in G. Verdi's Aida and / Vespri siciliani; Mephistopheles in C. Gounod's Faust; Varlaam and Pimen in M. Mussorgsky's Boris Godunov; and Prince Gremin in P. Tchaikovsky's Eugene Onegin. Altogether he has sung more than 40 roles at the Met. Plishka performed leading parts in recordings of Bellini's Norma and I Puritani, G. Puccini's Turandot, Massenet's Le Cid, and G. Donizetti's Gemma di Vergy. He has been a guest performer at the opera houses of Chicago, San Francisco, Dallas, and Philadelphia; since 1974 he has toured major European theaters, including Milan's La Scala, the Vienna State Opera, the Paris Grand Opera, and Covent Garden. He is frequently heard in the United States as a concert soloist with leading symphony orchestras, performing works by C. Monteverdi, D. Scarlatti, F. Schubert, R. Schumann, S. Rachmaninoff, and J. Niles. In 1978-9 Plishka included in his recitals Ukrainian art songs and folk song settings by M. Lysenko (texts by T. Shevchenko), V. Barvinsky, K. Stetsenko, L. Revutsky, M. Verykivsky, M. Fomenko, and I. Sonevytsky. He recorded an album titled Songs of Ukraine. R. Savytsky

Plisnesk. A fortified Rus' settlement located on the banks of the Buh River near Pidhirtsi, Brody raion, Lviv oblast, and excavated in 1880-3 and 1940-54. Mentioned in medieval chronicles and in Slovo o polku Ihorevi as an important center of the Principality of *Galicia-Volhynia, Plisnesk was founded in the 7th to 8th century as an unfortified settlement. By the nth century it had grown into a major trading center (with a total area of 160 ha) surrounded by moats and walls with towers. Its inhabitants engaged in metalworking, weaving, jewelry and pottery making, and woodworking. The town was sacked by the Mongols in 1241 and it never recovered. It disappeared completely in the 14th century. Pliuiko, Serhii [Pljujko, Serhij], b 20 November 1887 in Dykanka, Poltava county, d ? A professor of zootechnology and dean of the Kamianets-Podilskyi Agricultural Institute (from 1923), he was arrested by the GPU during the early 19305 and sentenced to a five-year term of hard labor on the White Sea Canal. Although his subsequent fate cannot be confirmed, it is believed that he was given a second term after his sentence was completed, and that he died in a Soviet prison camp.

41

Pliukfelder, Rudolf [Pljukfel'der, Rudol'f], b 6 September 1928 in Novorlivka, Shakhtarske raion, Donetske oblast. Light-heavyweight weight lifter. He won the 1964 Olympic gold medal in his class; the world championship in 1959 and 1961; and the European championship in 1959, 1960, and 1961. He set 13 world records in weight lifting. At the end of the 19705 he was the trainer of the USSR weight-lifting team.

Leonid Pliushch

Pliushch, Leonid [Pliusc] (Pliouchtch), b 26 April 1939 in Naryn, Kirgizia. Ukrainian mathematician, dissident, and literary critic. He completed his studies at the University of Kiev with a degree in mathematics in 1963 and worked at the Institute of Cybernetics of the AN URSR (now ANU) until 1968. In 1969 he joined the Initiating Group for the Defense of Human Rights. He was dismissed from his job in 1969 and arrested in 1972 for writing articles and signing letters of protest against the violation of human rights. He was declared mentally ill and incarcerated in the Dnipropetrovske psychiatric prison. Pressure from various groups in the West, most notably from French mathematicians, led to his release and his summary expulsion from the Soviet Union to France in 1976, where he has resided since then. In 1977 his autobiography appeared, Na karnavali istoriï(At the Carnival of History; also in English as History's Carnival, and in French, Italian, and German translations). Fascinated by the Tartu structuralist school (lu. Lotman) and the Moscow mythologists (V. Ivanov), Pliushch turned to the study of literature. His approach to literature, somewhat influenced also by M. Bakhtin's notions of the 'carnival,' permits free-ranging associative interpretations. He made his debut as a literary scholar and critic with an insightful study of T. Shevchenko as mythologizer, Ekzod Tar asa Shevchenka: Navkolo 'Moskalevoi krynytsi' dvanadtsiat' stattiv (Taras Shevchenko's Exodus: Twelve Essays apropos The Soldier's Well,' 1987). This was followed by a similarly stimulating examination of the most influential writer of the 19205, M. *Khvylovy, in loho taiemnytsia (His Secret, 1990). Pliushch is active in the External Representation of the Ukrainian Helsinki Union and publishes in various Ukrainian and Russian newspapers and journals on literary and political subjects. D.H. Struk Pliushch, Oleksii [Pljusc, Oleksij] (pseuds: O. Dafnenko, O. Dame-Hederenko, Smutnenko), b 25 May 1887 in Olenivka, Borzna county, Chernihiv gubernia, d 26 May 1907. Writer. He studied at the Nizhen Historical-Philo-

42

PLIUSHCH

logical Institute. From 1905 his populist stories, poems, and plays appeared in Ukrainian literary miscellanies and periodicals. His collected works (2 vols, 1911, 1912) and novelette Velykyi v malim i malyi u velykim (The Great in the Small and the Small in the Great, 1930) were published posthumously. A selection of his works appeared as Spovid' (The Confession, 1991). Pliushch, Pavlo [Pljusc], b 31 December 1896 in Volodkova Divytsia, Nizhen county, Chernihiv gubernia, d 4 March 1975 in Kiev. Linguist and pedagogue. After graduating from the Nizhen Pedagogical Institute (1923) and the Dnipropetrovske Institute of Social Education (1931) he completed his graduate studies under A. Krymsky and from 1937 taught Ukrainian at Kiev University, where he became head of the Ukrainian language department (1955). He published over 100 works, including a collection of exercises in syntax and punctuation (with O. Sarnatsky, 1938; 8th edn 1954); his doctoral dissertation on the history of the Ukrainian language (1958); books on I. Kotliarevsky's humorous linguistic devices in Eneida (1959) and on the language of T. Shevchenko's Kobzar (1964); a history of the Ukrainian literary language (1971); and articles on the history, periodization, and development of the Ukrainian language and on the language and style of the Peresopnytsia Gospel, M. Kotsiubynsky, I. Tobilevych, and V. Stefanyk.

Vasyl Pliushch

Vladyslav Ploshevsky

Pliushch, Vasyl [Pljusc, Vasyl'], b 10 January 1903 in Warsaw, d 16 November 1976 in Munich. Physician and political figure; full member of the Shevchenko Scientific Society. A graduate of the Kiev Medical Institute (1928), he directed an interraion tuberculosis dispensary in Rivne and conducted research at the Odessa Scientific Research Institute for Tuberculosis. He began to work as a specialist in tuberculosis at the Ukrainian Scientific Research Institute for Tuberculosis in Kiev in 1932 and at the Kiev Institute for the Upgrading of Physicians. In 1938 he helped organize the Ukrainian Scientific Society of Phthisiatrists and became its first scientific secretary. During the Soviet occupation of Western Ukraine he was sent as a tuberculosis inspector to Lviv, where he implemented a plan for a network of dispensaries and organized and directed the Lviv Tuberculosis Institute. A postwar refugee, he worked in West Germany and was president (1951-3) of the Supreme Council of the ^Central Representation of the Ukrainian Emigration in Germany, and founder and pres-

ident of the Association for the Liberation of Ukraine abroad. His scientific publications include papers and monographs, such as Klinika gematogenno-disseminirovannogo tuberkuleza legkikh (Clinic of Hematogenetically Dissemi-nated Lung Tuberculosis, 1938) and Narysy z istoriï ukraïns 'koïmedychnoïnauky ta osvity (Outlines of the History of Ukrainian Medical Science and Education, 2 vols, 1970,1983). He contributed medical articles to Entsyklopediia ukraïnoznavstva (Encyclopedia of Ukraine, 10 vols, 1955-84) and wrote publicistic articles in Ukrainian, English, and German. Pliushch, Yefrem [Pljusc, Jefrem], 1872-? Civil engineer and specialist in bridge and rail construction. During the rule of Hetmán P. Skoropadsky he served as an inspector of roads in the Ministry of Transportation, and in 1919 he was director of railroads for the UNR government. After the war he worked as a railway construction engineer in Poland. A prolific inventor, he developed new construction methods, among them methods of building concrete structures under water, laying rail lines over swamps, and preventing derailing on bridges. Plokhii, Serhii [Ploxij, Serhij], b 23 May 1957 in Gorky (now Nizhnii Novgorod), Russia. Ukrainian historian. He graduated from Dnipropetrovske University (1980) and received his doctorate in history from Kiev University (1990). He has headed the department of general history at Dnipropetrovske University (as a professor from 1990) and directed a study of German and Mennonite settlements in Southern Ukraine. Since 1992 he has been head of a department in the ANU Institute of Ukrainian Archeography in Kiev. Among his published works are OsvoboditeVnaia voina ukrainskogo naroda v latinoiazychnoi istoriografii serediny xvn v. (The Liberation War of the Ukrainian People in the Latin-Language Historiography of the Mid-i7th Century, 1983) and Papstvo i Ukraina: Politika rimskoi kurii na ukrainskikh zemliakh (xvi-xvn vv.) (The Papacy and Ukraine: The Policy of the Roman Curia in Ukrainian Lands [i6th-i7th Centuries], 1989). Plokhynsky, Mykhailo [Ploxyns'kyj, Myxajlo], b 1864 in Kursk gubernia, d 1906 in Kharkiv. Historian and archivist. He graduated from Kharkiv University, taught history at a Kharkiv gymnasium, and managed the archive of the Kharkiv Historical-Philological Society (1888-97). In its Sbornik Khar'kovskogo istoriko-filologicheskogo obshchestva he published studies on the social history of Left-Bank Ukraine, trapping and hunting, Hetmán I. Mazepa as a Russian gentry landowner, and T. Kaplonsky's voyage to Italy in the late 17th century. He also wrote monographs on the archives of Chernihiv gubernia (1899) and on Greeks, Gypsies, and Georgians in Old Little Russia (1905). Ploshchansky, Venedykt [Ploscans'kyj], b 1834, d 1902. Galician historian and publicist; corresponding member of the Moscow Archeological Society from 1874. He was the last editor of the Lviv Russophile newspaper Slovo (1871-87). In 1882 he was a codefendant in the Lviv trial of Russophile leaders accused of treason. In 1887 he emigrated to the Russian Empire and worked in the Vilnius Commission for the Analysis of Ancient Documents and as a government censor. He wrote articles

PLUH

about Galician towns and villages (published mostly in the collections of the Halytsko-Ruska Matytsia society), books about several Galician villages (1872) and the history of the Kholm region according to archival documents and other sources (2 vols, 1899, 1901), an account of the 1882 trial (1892), and a study of the acts of the loth- and 17th-century Kholm courts (1895). Ploshevsky, Vladyslav [Plosevs'kyj] (Ploszewski, Wladyslaw), b 1853 in Nyzhankovychi, Peremyshl county, Galicia, d 29 January 1892 in Lviv. Actor and scenery designer of Polish origin. He began his career in the Lviv Polish Theater (1873) and then was a leading actor in the Ruska Besida Theater (1874-80,1882-3, and 1886-92). He also designed scenery for those theaters' productions. He played Peter the Great in Y. Barvinsky's Pavlo Polubotok and sang Gaspar in R. Planquette's Les Cloches de Corneville. His acting talents, particularly his natural pathos in tragedies, were praised by I. Pelekh and M. Yatskiv. After his portrayal of Franz Moor in F. von Schiller's Die Rauber he became insane; he died days later.

43

the wooden plow merely cut the earth without turning it over or breaking it up. The furrow it produced was symmetrical, narrow, and shallow. Because of its lightness and the shallow incision it made the wooden plow could be drawn by one or two oxen or horses. The true plow, which is characterized by its ability to undercut and overturn the soil, appeared in Ukraine only at the end of the 17th century. In addition to an iron share it possessed an asymmetrical moldboard which turned the soil over and pushed it to one side. The addition of wheels made for heavier plows that were capable of working the heavier and deeper chernozem of the steppe. The introduction of the tractor made still larger and heavier plows possible. The first serial plows in the USSR were built in Odessa in 1925. Today plows of different construction - disk, chisel, rotary, combination - are adapted to various soils and special functions.

Plotkin, Hryhorii, b 22 December 1917 in Odessa, d 9 February 1986 in Kiev. Socialist-realist writer of Jewish origin. From 1936 to 1941 he headed the Odessa branch of the Writers' Union of Ukraine. He began publishing in 1931. He wrote over 10 poetry collections, a novelette in verse about the Decembrists, Visnyky svobody (Heralds of Liberty, 1955), publicistic accounts of his travels to Israel (1959) and India (1963), over 10 plays, opera librettos, and documentary-film scripts. A two-volume edition of his selected poetry and plays was published in 1987. Plotnikov, Vladimir, b 19 May 1873 in Orel, Russia, d 11 September 1947 *n Kiev. Physical chemist; full YUAN/ AN URSR (now ANU) member from 1920 and corresponding member of the USSR Academy of Sciences from 1932. A graduate of Moscow University (1895), ne worked at the Kiev Poly technical Institute (1899-1941), from 1910 as a professor, and directed the ANU Institute of Chemistry (1931-41) and the Laboratory of Nonaqueous Solutions of the ANU Institute of General and Inorganic Chemistry (1945-7). Plotnikov's research focused on inorganic chemistry, notably of aluminum salts and complexes, and on nonaqueous electrochemistry. He established the close relationship between electrolytic dissociation and complex formation in solutions; was the first to obtain aluminum at room temperature through electrolysis in nonaqueous solvents; and introduced an original theory of electrochemical resonance to account for electrochemical conductivity. Plow (pluh). The most important farm implement for working the soil in preparation for planting. The first plow was no more than a digging stick pushed or pulled to break the surface of the ground. In Ukrainian territories the plow evolved over many centuries through the same stages as in other countries. During the ist millennium BC and the first few centuries AD the wooden plow (Ukrainian ralo) was widely used among the East Slavs. It consisted of a wooden draft beam, to which a draft animal was tied, a wooden (later iron-tipped) share beam, which cut into the soil, and a tail handle, which the plowman used to control the motion of the plow. Unlike later types of plow

Members of the Pluh writers' association in Kharkiv (1923)

Pluh. An all-Ukrainian peasant writers' union based in Kharkiv, with branches throughout Ukraine, founded in 1922 by H. *Koliada, A. *Paniv, S. *Pylypenko, I. *Senchenko, and I. *Shevchenko. Other members included S. Bozhko, D. Humenna, H. Epik, A. Hai-Holovko, I. Kyrylenko, O. Kopylenko, V. Mynko, P. Panch, V. Mysyk, P. Usenko, and N. Zabila. Its stated aim was to 'educate its members and the broad peasant masses in the spirit of proletarian revolution and to draw them into active creative work in this vein/ With that goal in mind, its chief ideologue, Pylypenko, made an orientation to the masses the principal objective for the whole organization. His doing so resulted in sharp polemical exchanges with M. Khvylovy in the ^Literary Discussion of 1925-8. Khvylovy was harshly critical of the organization's provincialism and simplistic didacticism. In the course of the discussions many members left Pluh. Usenko, along with other Komsomol writers, departed to form Molodniak. A. Dyky, Kyrylenko, Zabila, and others joined the All-Ukrainian Association of Proletarian Writers. In 1931, in connection with the new collectivization drive, the organization changed its name to the Proletarian Collective-Farm Writers' Union. A year later, by decree of the Central Committee of the Communist Party (Bolshevik) of Ukraine, issued on 23 April 1932, the union was dissolved. Its leaders were either shot or imprisoned (Bozhko, Epik, V. Gzhytsky, Paniv, Pylypenko, and others). Its official organ was the journal Pluzhanyn, renamed *Pluh in 1928. I. Koshelivets

44

PLUH

First almanac of Pluh (1924)

Pluh (Plow). A monthly journal of literature and the arts of the *Pluh writers' association. It was published in Kharkiv and edited by S. *Pylypenko, I. Senchenko, A. Holovko, I. Kyrylenko, D. Zahul, and others. It was established in 1925 as Pluzhanyn, but its name was changed to Pluh in 1928, and as such it was known until 1932. In 1933 its last two issues appeared, as Kolhospna Ukra'ina. Pluh is also the name of a collection of essays, writings and statutes of Pluh, edited by Pylypenko, which was issued in 1922. Pluh also issued three almanacs bearing the same title (1924-7, edited by Pylypenko). They included M. Yashek's bibliographical index of the Literary Discussion of 1925-8 and another bibliography, Tluzhans'ka tvorchist" (The Works of Pluh). Plum, European (Prunus domestica; Ukrainian: slyva domashnia). A fruit plant of the family Rosaceae that grows as a tree or shrub. Plums grow in all regions of Ukraine, especially the Podilia, Pokutia, Transcarpathia, Kharkiv, and Kiev regions, and account for 15.5 percent of all fruit trees planted in Ukraine (or 50 million trees).

Pluzhanyn. See Pluh.

time he published only two poetry collections, Dni (Days) in 1926 and Rannia osin ' (Early Autumn) in 1927; a third, Rivnovaha (Equilibrium), first appeared posthumously in an émigré edition in Augsburg in 1948. He also wrote the novel Neduha (Illness, 1928), which was banned from circulation shortly after its publication. Two of his plays, Profesor Sukhorab and U dvori na peredmisti (In the Courtyard in the Suburb), appeared in Zhyttia i revoliutsiia in 1929; a drama in verse, 'Shkidnyky' (Wreckers), was never published. He also translated Russian literature into Ukrainian and compiled (with V. Pidmohylny) a dictionary of Ukrainian official phraseology (1926) and (with V. Atamaniuk and F. Yakubovsky) an anthology of Ukrainian poetry (1930-2). Although Pluzhnyk was one of the finest Ukrainian poets of the 19205 (he has been compared to R.M. Rilke), Party criticism was hostile to his contemplative, laconic, and frequently gloomy lyricism and depiction of revolutionary atrocities and Soviet reality. After his novel was banned from circulation, he published very little. In December 1934 he was arrested together with many other Ukrainian figures, and in March 1935 he was sentenced by a military tribunal to death by firing squad. The verdict was commuted to 10 years' imprisonment in the Solovets Islands in the White Sea, where he soon died of the tuberculosis that had afflicted him since 1926. He was rehabilitated posthumously in 1956, and editions of his collected poems were published in Kiev in 1966 and 1988. An uncensored edition appeared in Munich in 1979. R. Senkus

Plyhunov, Oleksandr (Pligunov, Alexandr), b 26 May 1904 in Verkhnie, Starobilske county, Kharkiv gubernia, d 26 October 1975 in Kiev. Chemist. After graduating from the Kiev Polytechnical Institute (1930) he worked there and became a professor and rector (1943-52,1955-72). His research dealt with optimizing technological processes and using novel resources for producing cement and other construction materials. Plykhanenko, Sava [Plyxanenko], b ?, d 1768 in Kodnia, Zhytomyr region. Peasant leader during the *Koliivshchyna rebellion. In the spring of 1768 he organized peasants in and around the village of Malopolovetske, near Fastiv (Khvastiv), into a haidamaka contingent. Under his leadership and with the help of the Zaporozhian Cossacks the rebels fought in the Bila Tserkva district. Plykhanenko was captured and executed by Polish forces.

Yevhen Pluzhnyk

Pluzhnyk, Yevhen [Pluznyk, Jevhen], b 26 December 1898 in Kantemyrivka, Bohuchar county, Voronezh gubernia, d 2 February 1936 in the Solovets Islands. Writer. In the years 1923-8 he belonged to the Kiev writers' groups *Aspys and Lanka (see *MARS) and contributed poetry to several Soviet Ukrainian journals. During his life-

Pneumoconiosis. A disease of the lungs caused by the habitual inhalation of inorganic, organic, or chemical irritants. It is an occupational disease, and in Ukraine an overwhelming number of cases are found in the Donbas and Kryvyi Rih regions, where there is an extraordinary concentration of mining and heavy industry. The least severe forms of pneumoconiosis occur when coal dust is inhaled by coal workers (anthracosis or black lung disease); iron dust by welders and hematite and magnesite by miners (siderosis); and tin, barium chromate, and clay by miners. The inhalation of dust containing silicon is far more serious in effect and is widespread among those with occupations in mining, sandblasting, and pottery making. Known as silicosis, it is the most common form of pneumoconiosis. The generally old, dilapidated, and

POBUT

poorly ventilated condition of factories and mines in Ukraine increases the frequency of its occurrence. The Kiev Scientific Research Institute of Tuberculosis and Pulmonary Surgery (founded in Kharkiv in 1922 on the basis of a local tuberculosis clinic and moved to Kiev in 1930) works on problems pertaining to cases of pneumoconiosis, silicosis, and other lung diseases from the Donbas and Kryvyi Rih regions. The solutions lie not only in the treatment of those who already have the disease, but even more in the elimination of the heavy ^pollution which now plagues Ukraine. P. Dzul Po, Lina (pseud of Polina Horenshtein), b 18 January 1899 in Katerynoslav (now Dnipropetrovske), d 26 November 1948 in Moscow. Sculptor and dancer. She studied sculpture at E. Blokh's studio in Kharkiv and at the Higher Artistic and Technical Workshop in Moscow (1920-4). At the same time she studied ballet in Moscow, and from 1924 she performed in Kiev. In 1934 she lost her eyesight, and from then on she devoted herself to sculpture. Her work consists of plasticine and clay statuettes on dance themes (eg, Dance Suite [1937], Dance with a Scarf [1937], and Dances of the Peoples of the USSR [1946-7]), portraits, and thematic scenes. Poale Zion (Workers of Zion). A moderate Jewish socialist movement that originated in Ukraine (Katerynoslav, Odessa, and Poltava), Vilnius, and Vitsebsk at the beginning of the 2Oth century and spread to the Austrian Empire, Britain, the United States, Palestine, and Argentina. Although it did not advocate Ukrainian independence, Poale Zion maintained strong contacts with Ukrainian activists, particularly with the Ukrainian Social Democratic Workers' party, and later entered the Central Rada and the UNR Directory. Some of its members, such as S. *Goldelman, were strong supporters of the Ukrainian national movement. The party split into factions after the October Revolution and was banned by the Soviet government in 1928. Pobedonostsev, Konstantin [Pobedonoscev], b 2 June 1827 in Moscow, d 23 March 1907 in St Petersburg. Russian government official and chief procurator of the *Holy Synod. After graduating from the Moscow School of Jurisprudence (1846) he worked in the civil service and was a professor of civil law at Moscow University (1859-65). Over time he was granted the posts of senator (from 1868), member of the Council of State (from 1872), and lay director (procurator) of the Holy Synod of the Russian Orthodox church (1880-1905). He also had considerable influence as a personal adviser to Emperor Alexander ill, particularly after the assassination of Alexander II in 1881. Pobedonostsev was a relentless propagator of the concepts of a state based on Orthodoxy, autocracy, and Russian identity. He played a central role in the campaign launched during the i88os to Russify the empire's Baltic holdings and in efforts to contain the Poles and Polish influences. He instigated the conversion of Uniates in the Kholm region to Russian Orthodoxy in 1875 and established numerous restrictions on Greek and Roman Catholics. He did not allow Russian sermons in Roman Catholic churches or the translation of the Bible into Ukrainian. He also supported anti-Semitic legislation that restricted the

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social mobility and access to education of Jews and continued their confinement within the *Pale of Settlement. Pobedonostsev harbored aspirations for the annexation of Galicia and Transcarpathia, believing the predominantly Uníate Ukrainian inhabitants there to be Orthodox Russians who would have been part of the empire and church if not for centuries of Polish and Catholic oppression. He arranged for generous subsidies to *Russophile currents in both regions and maintained personal contacts with figures such as I. Naumovych and A. Dobriansky. He caused the Holy Synod to underwrite Russian Orthodox mission work among Ukrainian immigrants in Canada and the United States, in the belief that inroads there would assist similar efforts in Western Ukraine. A collection of his ideological essays was published in Moscow in 1896 as Moskovskii sbornik (Moscow Collection; trans edn pub as Reflections of a Russian Statesman, 1965). BIBLIOGRAPHY Byrnes, R. Pobedonostsev: His Life and Thought (Bloomington, IllLondon 1968) A. Makuch

Poberezny, Paul [Pobereznyj, Pavlo], b 14 September 1921 in Fort Leavenworth, Kansas. American pilot and aviation promoter, of Ukrainian descent; member of the Society of Experimental Test Pilots (1978), the Fédération Aéronautique Internationale, and the Wisconsin Air National Guard Hall of Fame (1988). The son of Ukrainian immigrants from Galicia, he became the only person in the US armed forces to attain all seven aviation wings before retiring at the rank of colonel in 1970. During his flying career Poberezny piloted 378 types of flying craft, accumulated 29,000 hours of flight time, and designed and built 13 different airplanes. In 1953 he founded the Experimental Aircraft Association (EAA), which promotes amateur aircraft building and sport aviation. In 1991 the EAA numbered over 125,000 members in 100 countries. Poberezny also initiated the EAA's international Fly-In Convention in Oshkosh, Wisconsin, the largest event of its kind in the world (i million people and 13,000 aircraft annually). The publisher of five EAA monthly magazines and numerous technical manuals, Poberezny received the US Federal Aviation Administration Award for Extraordinary Service (1972) and the first-ever Charles A. Lindbergh Award for lifetime contribution to aviation (1990). Pobodailo, Stepan [Pobodajlo] (Podobailo), b ? in the Chernihiv region, d 1654. Cossack officer. He served in the private forces of A. Kysil until 1648 and then joined B. Khmelnytsky's forces, with which he took part in numerous battles, as captain (1651) and colonel (1651-4) of Chernihiv regiment and as the hetmán's deputy for LeftBank Ukraine (1652). He was an opponent of the Treaty of Bila Tserkva. He fought Polish-Lithuanian forces in the Chernihiv region in 1652, and he participated in negotiations for the Pereiaslav Treaty of 1654. He was killed during the Belarusian campaign at Stare Bykhovo and was buried in the Trinity-St Elijah's Monastery in Chernihiv (the restoration of which he had funded). Pobut (Way of Life). An organ of the ^Ethnographic Society, published in Kiev in 1928-30 (seven issues altogether). It contained reports on the society's activities and ethnographic expeditions and articles on ethnographic

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POBUT

methodology and Ukrainian folk culture. The journal was edited by a committee that included O. Malynka, A. Onyshchuk, and N. Malecha. Pobuzke [Pobuz'ke]. v-n. A town smt (1986 pop 7,000) on the Boh River in Holovanivske raion, Kirovohrad oblast. The town was founded in 1959. It produces building materials and fruit conserves. Pochaiv [Pocajiv]. m-6. A city (1989 pop 11,000) in Kremenets raion, Ternopil oblast. It is first mentioned in historical documents in 1450 and was known as Yerofeivka until the loth century. In that century an Orthodox monastery was founded there, and at the beginning of the i/th century the monastery acquired a printing press. In 1795 Pochaiv was annexed by Russia. Its monastery was raised to the status of lavra in 1833. In the interwar period the town belonged to Poland, and since 1939 it has been part of Ukraine. In 1978 it was granted city status. Its main industry is food processing. Pochaiv's architectural monuments include the monastery complex and the wooden Church of the Holy Protectress, from 1643. Pochaiv Monastery (Pochaivska lavra). The largest monastery in Volhynia, and the second largest men's monastery in Ukraine, after the Kievan Cave Monastery. Initially called the Pochaiv Dormition Monastery, it was founded, according to some accounts, by monks who fled from the Kievan Cave Monastery at the time of the Tatar invasion of 1240. The first written mention of it dates to 1527. In 1597, the noblewoman A. Hoiska donated a large estate to the monastery, as well as a miracle-working icon that had been brought to Volhynia by a Greek metropolitan in 1559. The cloister flourished during the tenure of Hegumen St Yov *Zalizo in the early 17th century. In 1649 F. and Ya. Domashevsky funded the construction of the monastery's Holy Trinity Church. In 1675 the monastery was attacked by Turks and Tatars but was reputedly

Fedir and Yavdokha Domashevsky, benefactors of the Pochaiv Monastery (1649)

saved by an apparition of the Mother of God; this event has been immortalized in many songs, including 'Oi ziishla zoria vecherovaia' (Oh the Evening Star Appeared). In 1713 the monastery officially joined the Uniate church and became a center of the Basilian monastic order, which developed it into an important cultural and publishing center and founded the *Pochaiv Monastery Press in 1730. In 1771-83, the Holy Trinity Church was demolished and replaced by the Dormition Cathedral, funded by M. Potocki. In 1831, the Russian government gave the monastery to the Russian Orthodox church on the pretext that its monks supported the Polish Insurrection of 1830-1. It also raised its status to that of a *lavra. In 1833-41 the monastery was the see of the bishop of Volhynia, and after that its archimandrites were named Bishop of Ostrih. In the late 19th century an icon painting workshop and a historical museum were established, and many buildings were rebuilt or expanded. In the i8th to 19th centuries the monks of the monastery developed a distinctive style of liturgical singing. A number of hermitages were controlled by the monastery. In the 20th century, under the Volhynian archbishop A. *Khrapovitsky, the Pochaiv Monastery became a strategic center of Russification, reactionaryism, and anti-Ukrainianism. The archimandrite V. Maksymenko was an influential supporter of the *Black Hundreds movement and of publications such as Pochaevskii listok. During the interwar period, its archimandrite was the metropolitan of Warsaw of the Polish Autocephalous Orthodox church, but now he is the bishop of Lviv and Ternopil. After western Volhynia was incorporated into the Ukrainian SSR following the war, the Pochaiv area was annexed to Ternopil oblast, and the hierarch of Lviv-Ternopil served as archimandrite. The monastery lost its estates, falling victim to the antireligious policies of the Soviet regime. The number of monks declined sharply, from 200 in 1939 to 74 in 1959 and approx 12 in 1970. Nonetheless, efforts by the Soviet authorities to close the monastery outright in 1964 were met by protests of local Ukrainians and of the international community. The monastery remained open, but many of its artifacts were confiscated and housed in the Pochaiv Museum of Atheism, located at the monastery. Before the revolution, the Pochaiv Monastery was a popular destination for religious pilgrims, tens of thousands of whom came to celebrate the feasts of the Dormition (28 August) and of St Yov Zalizo (10 September). Among its most revered artifacts are a 'footprint' of the Mother of God, a miracle-working icon, and the relics of StYov. Architecturally, the Pochaiv Monastery appears as a complex of buildings uniquely adapted to the natural environment. The buildings are set on a cliffside, rising to a three-story terrace with a parapet. The terrace is the site of the central Dormition Cathedral, built in 1771-83 in the Rococo style by the Silesian architect G. Hoffman. The vast cathedral (it can accommodate 6,000 people) has eight large and seven smaller cupolas, and two large arches at the front. The sculptures within were created by M. Poleiovsky (1781-6), and the fresco on the dome was rendered by P. Preniatytsky. L. *Dolynsky painted the icons for the iconostasis, the 'Miracle of Christ' cycle, and 50 other smaller works, all in the classical style, and L. and I. Bernakevych crafted the engravings for the church. The cathedral suffered a fire in 1869, and only four of Dolyn-

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of its editions - eg, *Narodovishchanie (1756), a collection of catechismal and didactic literature, and *Bohohlasnyk (1790), a collection of poems and religious songs - were among the highest achievements of Ukrainian publishing and literature of the time. The press's publications were known for their artistic ornamentation and the quality of their paper and print. Many were printed in the so-called Pochaiv cursive, a typeface based on Ukrainian calligraphy of the loth to i8th centuries. Illustrations and engravings were done by well-known artists, such as N. Zubrytsky, A. and Y. Hochemsky, A. Holota, and F. Strilbytsky. After the Pochaiv Monastery was taken over by the Russian Orthodox church in 1831, the press continued printing religious and secular books, including several on the history of Volhynia. It printed the eparchial newspaper of Volhynia gubernia (1867-1915) and the reactionary newspaper Pochaevskii listok, later a major organ of the Union of the Russian People. The press was closed down in 1918, and part of its equipment was moved to Kiev and thence to Moscow and finally Warsaw.

The Dormition Cathedral (1771-91) at the Pochaiv Monastery

sky's works were saved, but the original appearance of the interior has been preserved in a drawing by T. Shevchenko (1846). The cathedral was renovated in 1876 by local icon painters. Other buildings in the Pochaiv Monastery complex include the monks' cells (1771-80), which surround the cathedral, the bishop's residence (1825), built in the classical style, and a large bell tower (1861-71). The Trinity Church, constructed in 1910-13 after a design by A. Shchusev, was built in the Novgorod style of the 12th to 13th centuries, and differs markedly from other structures in the complex. BIBLIOGRAPHY Khoinatskii, A. Pochaevskaia uspenskaia lavra: Istoricheskoe opisanie (Pochaiv 1897) Antonovych, S. Korotkyi istorychnyi narys Pochaïvs 'koï uspins 'koï lavry (Kremianets, 1938; San Andres, Argentina 1961) Ilarion (Ohiienko, I.). Fortetsia pravoslaviia na Volyni: Sviata Pochaïvs 'ka lavra (Winnipeg 1961) Dubylko, I. Pochaïvs 'kyi manastyr v istoriï nashoho narodu (Winnipeg 1986)

Pochaiv Monastery Press (Pochaivska drukarnia). An important early press in Ukraine, established at the Pochaiv Monastery in 1730 after it became a Basilian monastic center. Granted royal charters in 1732 and 1736, the press was subsidized by Bishop T. Rudnytsky-Liubienitsky of Lutske. Between 1731 and 1800 it published over 355 books, most of them liturgical ones, but also didactic, theological, and polemical works, literary works in Polish and Latin, collections of documents on Ukrainian church history, primers, textbooks, and educational works. Some

BIBLIOGRAPHY Tikhovskii, lu. 'Mnimaia tipografiia Pochaevskago monastyria (s kontsa xvi do i-i chetverti xvm v.), KS, 1895, nos 7-9 Svientsits'kyi, I. Pochatky knyhopechatannia na zemliakh Ukraïny (Lviv 1924) Ohiienko, I. Istoriia ukraïns 'koho drukarstva: Istorychno-bibliohrafichnyi ohliad ukraïns 'koho drukarstva xv-xvn v.v. (Lviv 1925; Winnipeg 1983) Boiko, M. Knyhodrukuvannia v Pochaievi i Kremiantsi ta mandrivni drukari (Bloomington, Ind 1980) Zapasko, la.; Isaievych, la. Pam'iatky knyzhkovoho mystetstva: Kataloh starodrukiv, vydanykh na Ukraïni, vol 2, pts 1-2 (Lviv 1984) B. Kravtsiv

Pochapy settlement. A multilayered archeological site near Pochapy, Zolochiv raion, Lviv oblast. The site was excavated by Ya. *Pasternak and T. Sulimirski in 1931-2. Paleolithic flint remains, traces of a Mesolithic settlement, an early Bronze Age burial site, and indications of an early Iron Age settlement were found there. Pochasky, Sofronii [Pocas'kyj, Sofronij] (secular name: Stefan), b and d ? Church activist, pedagogue, and writer of the first half of the 17th century. He studied at the Kiev Epiphany Brotherhood School and possibly abroad before becoming a preacher at the Kievan Cave Monastery and a professor of rhetoric at the monastery school (1631-2). He was a professor at and rector of (1638-40) the Kievan Mohyla College (later Academy) and cofounded an Orthodox school in lasi (Moldavia). From 1640 until his death he was hegumen of the Three Hierarchs Monastery in lasi. He edited and published a collection of panegyric poems by the students of the Kievan Mohyla College, entitled Eucharisterion ... (1632), dedicated to Metropolitan P. *Mohyla. Pochatkova shkola (Primary School). A pedagogical organ of the Ukrainian Ministry of Education, published monthly in Kiev since 1969. The journal addresses questions of the organization of education and upbringing in primary schools and contains materials to aid teachers, educational administrators, and parents. It also prints articles about artists, authors, and composers whose works

48

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SHKOLA

are studied in the elementary school program. In 1982 it appeared in a pressrun of 82,000. Pochep [Pocep]. 1-14. A town (1959 pop 15,700) on the Sudost River and a raion center in Briansk oblast, RF. It was first mentioned in historical documents in the 15th century. In 1503 it was transferred from Lithuanian to Muscovite control, and in 1616, to Polish control. From the mid17th century it was a company center of Starodub regiment in the Hetmán state. In 1686 it came under Russian rule, and during the 19th century it was a trading town in Mglin county, Chernihiv gubernia. In 1917 it became a county center. According to the census of 1926, Ukrainians accounted for 11.7 percent of the population in Pochep county. Pochynok, Tymotei [Pocynok, Tymotej], b 26 February 1885 m Uhryn, Chortkiv county, Galicia, d 3 November 1962 in Detroit. Pioneer of the Ukrainian socialist movement in the United States. Influenced by the writings of M. Drahomanov, he supported the "Ukrainian Radical party in his youth. He emigrated to the United States in 1908. The following year he organized a Ukrainian branch of the Socialist party and the Volia society in Scranton, Pennsylvania. After moving to Detroit in 1910, he set up another branch there. The Ukrainian Federation of the Socialist Party (est 1912) appointed him editor of its paper Robitnyk in 1914. A consistent defender of Ukrainian independence, Pochynok resigned from the federation when it assumed a communist orientation in 1917. He joined the Federation of Ukrainians in the United States and then Oborona Ukrainy (1923). In 1930 he began to publish the paper Pora (later called Ukraïns 'ka hromads 'ka pora), which supported the policies of the Ukrainian Radical party. After the dissolution of Oborona Ukrainy in the 19405, he joined the Ukrainian Free Society of America. Pochynok, Viktor [Pocynok], b i May 1915 in Kiev. Organic chemist. After graduating from Kiev University (1939) he worked there and became a professor (1962) and chairman of the monomers and polymers department (1963). His work on heterocyclics, polymers, and monomers was directed at the chemistry of photographic processes (in particular at silver-free photographic emulsions) and biologically active polymers. He discovered the azido-tetrazole tautomerism and was the first to introduce long chain-substituted aromatic triazenes as alkylating agents. Podëbrady. A city (1985 pop 15,000) in Czechoslovakia on the Laba River approx 50 km east of Prague. The city was the site of the "Ukrainian Husbandry Academy (UHA, 1922-35) and the ^Ukrainian Technical and Husbandry Institute (1932-45). In 1926 there were 800 Ukrainians there. It also served as a center for 52 Ukrainian organizations, of which 38 were connected to the UHA. Among the latter were the Academic Hromada of the UHA, the Community of Students of the UHA, an academic choir of 50 singers, a writers7 group, a drama group that staged over 30 productions, a banduryst association, and a sporting club. The Academic Hromada published a journal, Nasha hromada. Podëbrady was the center for the *League of Ukrainian Nationalists (headed by M. Stsiborsky) in 1925-9- Local branches of the Plast Ukrainian Youth Association and Sokil were also active there.

Poderviansky, Serhii [Poderv'jans'kyj, Serhij], b 15 July 1916 in Kiev. Painter. After graduating from the Leningrad Institute of Painting, Sculpture, and Architecture (1952) he began teaching at the Kiev State Institute of Art. His watercolor and tempera works consist of portraits and genre paintings, such as Valia (1958), Abandoned (1961), Behind a Living Wall (1965), and In the Days of Occupation (1980), and posters. Podgorny, Nikolai. See Pidhirny, Mykola.

Podil district in Kiev (lithograph, 1862)

Podil (originally Podoliie, or lower part'). The northern part of the old city of Kiev, situated on the lower terrace of the Dnieper's right bank between the mouth of the Pochaina River and the slopes of the Starokyivska, Zamkova, Khorevytsia, and Shchekavytsia hills. During the Princely era, beginning in the 9th century, Podil was the heart of commerce and artisanry in Kiev. Separate districts of potters, pitch makers, and tanners and the town's harbor and customs house were located there. At the center was a large marketplace, Torzhyshche. After the sack of Kiev's upper town by the Mongols in 1240, Podil became the central part of Kiev. In the loth century the town hall, the *Kiev Epiphany Brotherhood and its monastery and school, and the *Kievan Mohyla Academy were built there, and from 1798 the annual *Kiev Contract Fair was held there. Much of Podil was destroyed in the great fire of 1811, but the district was rebuilt, and new streets were created. In the 19th and early 2Oth centuries Podil was the main commercial district of Kiev. Today it is located in Kiev's Podilskyi raion.

Mykhailo Podilchak

PODILIA

Podilchak, Mykhailo [Podil'cak, Myxajlo], b 14 August 1919 in Korovytsia, Liubachiv county, Galicia. Surgeon. A graduate of Prague University (1942), he worked at a pédiatrie surgery clinic in Lviv and was a professor at the Lviv Medical Institute and from 1961 head of the hospital surgery department. His more than 170 publications include Vplyv mikrobnoï infektsiï na rak (The Influence of Microbe Infection on Cancer, 1950) and Khronicheskoe vospalenie i opukholevyi rost (Chronic Inflammation and Tumor Growth, 1965). Podilia (Podolia). A historical-geographical upland region of southwestern Ukraine, consisting of the western part of the forest-steppe belt. Podilia is bounded in the southwest by the Dniester River, beyond which lie the Pokutian-Bessarabian Upland and Subcarpathia. To the north it overlaps with the historical region of Volhynia, where the Podolian Upland descends to Little Polisia and Polisia. In the west it is bounded by the Vereshytsia River, beyond which lies the Sian Lowland. To the east Podilia passes imperceptibly into the Dnieper Upland, with the Boh River serving as part of the demarcation line, and in the southeast it descends gradually toward the Black Sea Lowland and is delimited by the Yahorlyk and the Kodyma rivers. The Podilia region thus coincides with the Podolian Upland, which occupies an area of approx 60,000 sq km. The name Podilia has been known since the mid-i4th century, but it did not originally refer to the aforementioned geographical region or to a single administrativeterritorial unit. It usually meant the land between two leftbank tributaries of the Dniester, the Strypa River in the west and the Murafa River in the southeast, and the Boh River in the east, an area of approx 40,000 sq km. Podilia voivodeship, established at the beginning of the 15th century, encompassed only the central part of Podilia. During the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth Podilia was understood to include not only Podilia voivodeship but also Bratslav voivodeship and the northeastern part of Rus' voivodeship. Its southern and southeastern areas, however, remained unsettled, and the border between the commonwealth and the Ottoman Empire marked by the Kodyma and the Syniukha rivers was only conventional. In the 19th century eastern Podilia often meant Podilia gubernia, which consisted approximately of the former Podilia and Bratslav voivodeships, whereas western Podilia meant the eastern part of Galicia. At the beginning of the 2oth century the name Podilia was applied to lands as far west as the Zolota River. Today Podilia encompasses Ternopil oblast (although the Kremianets area historically belonged to Volhynia), almost the whole of Khmelnytskyi and Vinnytsia oblasts, and small parts of Lviv and Ivano-Frankivske oblasts. The history of Podilia was strongly influenced by its proximity to the steppe, for centuries the source of nomadic raids. For a long time much of Podilia was under the control of the Pechenegs, Cumans, and Tatars. From the mid-i5th century Podilia was the favorite target of Tatar raids. When they diminished, the fertile region attracted Polish colonists from the northwest, who filled the political power vacuum. Physical geography. Structurally, Podilia is connected to the following tectonic regions: the western slope of the ^Ukrainian Crystalline Shield, the *Volhynia-Podilia

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Plate, and the Galician-Volhynian Depression. The Precambrian foundation of Podilia is exposed in the east by the Boh River, which has eroded the thin Tertiary deposits. To the southwest the shield dips (down to 6,000 m) below Paleozoic deposits of Silurian limestones and sandstones and Devonian red Terebovlia sandstones, marls, and dolomites, which constitute the bedrock of 'Paleozoic Podilia' between the Zolota Lypa and the Murafa. Jurassic deposits appear on the surface only in western Podilia along the Dniester. Thick deposits of Cretaceous chalk and marl (exposed in western Podilia and in deep ravines) and of middle Miocene sands, sandstones, marls, and limestones are found throughout Podilia. They are covered with layers of Quaternary clays, silts, and loess (up to 20 m thick). Podilia is a plateau dissected by valleys that has an elevation of 300-400 m above sea level. The region may be differentiated into a number of landscapes according to geological formation, elevation, distance from the baseline of erosion (for most of Podilia, the Dniester), and tectonic movement. The highest part of Podilia is its northern rim, known as the *Holohory-Kremianets Ridge, approx 350-470 m above sea level (Kamula, 473 m). From there elevations drop sharply (150-200 m) to Little Polisia. The western part of Podilia, west of the upper reaches of the Zolota Lypa, the Koropets, and the mouth of the Strypa, is known as Opilia Upland. With elevations ranging from 350 to 470 m, Opilia has a foundation of soft gray Cretaceous marl, which was eroded vertically and laterally by rivers to produce a hilly landscape. East of Opilia, Podilia is divided from the northwest to the southeast by a low ridge, the *Tovtry, into western and eastern Podilia. Western Podilia consists of the Ternopil Plain in the north and the gullied fringe along the Dniester in the south. The Ternopil Plain is characterized by relatively flat interfluves and broad, often swampy river valleys (now containing many artificial ponds) in the soft chalk bedrock. Farther south, as the rivers cut into the Devonian sandstones and then into the Silurian shales, their profile becomes steeper, white water and waterfalls appear, and the valleys turn into deep ravines. The deepest and most spectacular ravine is that of the Dniester: it is carved approx 100-150 m below the adjacent uplands, sometimes in a straight line but more frequently in tightly twisting meanders. The upland between the ravines is a gently undulating plateau. Wherever chalk deposits come close to the surface along the Dniester, karst phenomena abound - sink holes, temporarily or permanently filled with water, and caves, notably at Bilche Zolote and Kryvche. The mostly featureless plain of Podilia proper is interrupted by the Tovtry or Medobory. East of them lies eastern Podilia, of which the northern and southern parts are different. The northern part, which encompasses the headwaters of the tributaries of the Prypiat and the Dniester rivers as well as the drainage basin of the upper Boh River, resembles the Ternopil Plain. Reaching 360 m above sea level, the upland consists of broad intervalley crests rising slightly above broad, often swampy and ponded valleys. The highest elevations occur along the watersheds between the Prypiat drainage basin to the north and the Dniester and the Boh drainage basins to the south and between the Boh and the Dniester drainage basins. The southern fringe of eastern Podilia is a continuation of the Dniester region, a zone of ravines and gullies

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PODILIA'S LANDFORM REGIONS flanking the northern bank of the Dniester River. Near Yampil the deep Dniester Gorge exposes the granite foundation of the Ukrainian Crystalline Shield. The easternmost part of Podilia, often called the Podolian Pobozhia region, is a transition zone between Podilia and the Dnieper Upland, from a plateau to a granitic landscape. Elevations there reach 300 m above sea level, and the rivers cut deep ravines and valleys (500-570 m), especially to the south. The climate of Podilia is temperate continental. The continentality increases from the northwest to the southeast, as is evident in the increasing annual temperature range, from 23°°C in Opilia to 25.5°c in the east. The number of days with temperatures above 15°C also increases, from 100 in the west to 120 in the southeast. The greatest precipitation occurs in Opilia and along the northern rim, where it exceeds 700 mm per year, and along the Tovtry, and the lowest, along the southern slopes, where it is approx 475 mm. Most of the precipitation occurs in the summer, often in the form of downpours. There is a marked difference in temperature between northern and southern Podilia: whereas in Ternopil the average January temperature is ~5.5°C, in Zalishchyky (100 km south, on the Dniester), it is -4.7°C; and the corresponding average July temperatures are i8.3°C and 19.4°C. The growing season is

203 and 215 days. The warmest areas are the sheltered, south-facing slopes in the Dniester Gorge. The river network of Podilia is fairly dense. The densest drainage network consists of the numerous south-flowing streams that empty into the Dniester River. The drainage system of the Boh River Basin and the network contributing to the Prypiat River are less dense. Only the Dniester River can be navigated by shallow-water rivercraft. The hydroelectric potential of the rivers has not been fully exploited. In the south the rivers provide some water for irrigation. The most common soils in Podilia are (i) the moderately fertile gray and light gray podzolized soils on loess, mostly in the southeast, (2) the hilly, fertile degraded chernozems and dark gray podzolized soils on loess, mostly in the west, and (3) the highly fertile, low-humus typical chernozems on loess, mostly in the northeast. The soil types are frequently interspersed among one another, especially in the deeply sculpted and therefore highly varied Dniester region. The vegetation of Podilia is influenced by its transitional location, between the Carpathian Mountains in the southwest, Polisia in the north, and the steppe in the south, and by its special morphology and soils. Most of Podilia belongs to the forest-steppe belt. Forests cover less

PODILIA

than 10 percent of the region: substantial tracts are found only in the Tovtry, in the Dniester Gorge and its tributaries, and along the Boh River. The distribution limits of a number of eastern and western plant species run through Podilia. The eastern limits of the beech, yew, fir, and spruce lie in western Podilia. The most common trees found in central and eastern Podilia, therefore, are the oak and hornbeam, with admixtures of ash, maple, elm, and cherry. By human intervention mixed oak groves are being replaced by uniform woods of hornbeam. The underbrush is dominated by hazel, snowball tree, buckthorn, and red bilberry. Some of the eastern species, such as the common maple, do not penetrate farther west. A peculiar vegetation complex is found in the ravines of Podilia and on the rock outcrops and detritus. The meadow steppes of Podilia are fully cultivated. At the end of the icth century, the last remnant of the steppe, between the Seret and the Strypa rivers, was known as the Pantalykha Steppe. It contained a great variety of herbs and broad-leaved grasses typical of the meadow-steppe, including the lungwort, nettle, and madder. The transitional nature of Podilia also determines its fauna. The more densely forested western part is inhabited by the fox, the rabbit, two kinds of marten, the squirrel, and the now-rare wolf and boar. Valuable fur-bearing animals, such as the mink and otter, lived along the rivers. Among forest birds the goldeneye, and in the meadows the partridge and quail, were common. In western Podilia near Subcarpathia the typical animals were the ermine, weasel, wildcat, boar, and muskrat; among the ungulates, the chamois and deer; in wet areas, the salamander; and among the birds, the bullfinch. The peripheral location of western Podilia was suited to some West European fauna, including certain varieties of bat, vole, and insect. At the same time some steppe fauna, such as the mole-rat, polecat, field vole, gopher, steppe lark, black-headed yellowhammer, and, less frequently, the bustard, the steppe snake, the green lizard, the boa, and a variety of mollusks, insects (including beetles), and spiders, intruded into Podilia. In the southeast most of the steppe fauna was adapted to wide open spaces and a rather dry climate. As farming spread, so did various mice, field voles, and other small rodents, as well as various insect pests. Prehistory. The oldest traces of human habitation in Ukraine are found in Podilia and the Crimea. The site at Luka-Vrublivetska belongs to the Acheulean culture (400,000-100,000 years ago) of the Lower Paleolithic Period. From that time Podilia was continuously inhabited, by Neanderthal humans of the Mousterian culture of the Lower Paleolithic Period, by Cro-Magnon humans of the Aurignacian, Solutrean, and Magdalenian cultures of the Upper Paleolithic Period, and finally by humans of the Campignian culture of the Mesolithic Period. History. According to Herodotus the forest-steppe belt, including Podilia, was inhabited by Scythian farmers, whose way of life differed from that of Scythian nomads in the steppe. Beginning in the 2nd century BC the Scythian nomads were displaced by the Sarmatians, who often raided the Podolian settlements. At the end of the 1st millennium BC the warlike Venedi and the Celtic Bastarnae crossed Podilia, but neither left a significant cultural impact on its population, which continued to grow grain and sell its surplus to the Greek colonies on the Black Sea and the Roman merchants in Dacia. From the ist to the 4th

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century the Cherniakhiv culture prevailed in the Ukrainian forest-steppe belt, including Podilia. The early Slavic tribes, known as the *Antes in Byzantine sources, were the most likely bearers of that culture. They survived the invasion of the Goths (4th century) and the Huns (5th century) and finally collapsed under the onslaught of the Avars (/th century). According to the Primary Chronicle Podilia was settled by several Ukrainian tribes: the Ulychians (along the Boh River), the Tivertsians (along the Middle and Lower Dniester River), the White Croatians (in Subcarpathia, in the southwest), and the Dulibians (in the northwest along the Buh River). During the reign of Princes Oleh and Ihor Podilia became part of the Kievan state. At the same time the southern part of Podilia was seized by the Pechenegs, who forced the Ulychians and the Tivertsians to move north. As Kiev's power waned, it lost interest in eastern Podilia, and the region became a marchland of Galicia. The Tatar Burundai's campaign against Galicia (1259) sealed Podilia's fate for a century. Western Podilia along with Galicia remained under the Romanovych dynasty, and middle and eastern Podilia was administered directly by the Tatars of the Golden Horde. Under Lithuanian-Polish rule. The political situation changed radically in the mid-14th century. The Lithuanian grand duke Algirdas defeated the Tatars at Syni Vody (1363), captured middle Podilia, and granted it as a fiefdom to his relatives, the Koriiatovych family. The new masters built fortified towns, including Smotrych, Bakota, and Kamianets-Podilskyi. After the death of the last Galician prince, Yurii II Boleslav, Casimir III annexed Galicia (1349) and western Podilia (1366), which was integrated with Poland in 1387. The conflict between Poland and the Lithuanian grand duke Vytautas over middle Podilia and its principal town, Kamianets-Podilskyi, led to the expulsion of F. Koriiatovych in 1393. Vytautas kept eastern Podilia (the Bratslav and Vinnytsia regions) and ceded middle Podilia to Jagielio of Poland (1395) but later reclaimed it (1411). After the duke's death the pro-Polish gentry of middle Podilia declared it Polish and turned it into *Podilia voivodeship. Western Podilia was incorporated into *Rus' voivodeship. Polonization in Podilia was promoted not only by the Polish administration but also by the Roman Catholic church, which established a diocese in Kamianets-Podilskyi. Ukrainians became a minority among the nobility, and eventually only the petty gentry, who served in the borderland forts, remained Ukrainian. Meanwhile the population of Podilia grew, because the fertile soil and the relatively undemanding corvée attracted peasants. The towns attracted mainly Poles and Jews as well as some Germans and Armenians. After 1430 only eastern Podilia, with the towns of Bratslav and Vinnytsia, remained under Lithuania. The Poles made every effort to annex that part and succeeded in doing so in the Union of Lublin (1569). From then, Polish magnates swarmed into eastern Podilia, where they set up enormous estates and seized key administrative positions. Eastern Podilia became *Bratslav voivodeship. Crimean Tatar raids, which began in the second half of the 15th century, crippled Podilia's developing economy. The Crimean Horde regarded Podilia not only as an object of prey but also as a gateway, via the Kuchmanskyi Route and the Black Route, to the more populous lands of Vol-

52

PODILIA

PODILIA, 16TH AND 17TH C E N T U R I E S hynia, Galicia, Kholm, and Poland proper. At the beginning of the i6th century southeastern Podilia became deserted, and the advances in colonization made during the 15th century were lost. Colonization resumed in the mid-loth century. As the demand for grain rose in Western Europe, the large landowners in Podilia developed commercial farming and raised the corvée obligations of the peasants. The *Cossacks and the alienated Ukrainian burghers came to the defense of the peasantry. The Cossack state set up by B. Khmeinytsky encompassed only a part of Podilia; namely, Bratslav and Kalnyk regiments. When Poland and Muscovy divided Ukraine into the Right-Bank and Left-Bank hetmanates in 1667, Podilia became part of Right-Bank Ukraine. Hetmán P. Doroshenko's attempt to reunify Left-Bank and Right-Bank Ukraine with Turkey's help ended with Turkey's annexation of Podilia voivodeship (1672). Although Doroshenko retained control of the Bratslav region, continuous warfare, Tatar raids, and Turkish oppression caused mass migration into Left-Bank Ukraine. In 1699 Podilia was taken by Poland. In 1712, after an unsuccessful rebellion, the Cos-

sack regiments were disbanded. In the first half of the i8th century Podilia was colonized intensively. Peasants, mostly from Rus' voivodeship and Volhynia but also from Left-Bank Ukraine, Moldavia, and Poland proper, poured into the depopulated territory. By the mid-i8th century Podilia voivodeship had the highest population density in the Polish Commonwealth. Although Tatar raids had ceased, there was no lasting peace in the region. National and religious oppression along with increasing corvée provoked the so-called *haidamaka uprisings against the Polish nobility. Centered in the southern part of the Kiev region and the southeastern part of the Bratslav region, theyencompassed all of eastern Podilia. The modern period. With the First Partition of Poland (1772) western Podilia, east to the Zbruch River, was annexed by Austria, and with the Second Partition (1793) eastern Podilia was transferred to Russia. A portion of Austrian-ruled Podilia (Ternopil and Zalishchyky counties) was held briefly (1809-15) by Russia. After the division each part of Podilia developed differently. In eastern Podilia the intensification of serfdom gave rise to peasant

PODILIA

53

P O D I L I A , 1861-1917 discontent and U. *Karmaliuk's revolts. Kamianets-Podilskyi became the administrative center of Todilia gubernia and *Podilia eparchy. The Ukrainian national and cultural movement developed slowly in Podilia, mainly at the end of the icth century. Its centers were KamianetsPodilskyi and Vinnytsia. Social and economic progress in the gubernia was also slow: a zemstvo was set up only in 1911 In western Podilia, as in all Galicia, the Polish population continued to increase and to dominate the administration of the land. Nevertheless western Podilia, along with the rest of Galicia and Bukovyna, became the base of the modern Ukrainian national and political movement. Because of their proximity to Lviv the towns of western Podilia (Ternopil, Berezhany, Buchach, and Chortkiv) did not develop into great cultural and political centers. During the struggle for Ukrainian independence (191720) Podilia was a battleground for the Ukrainian, Polish, Russian, and Bolshevik armies. In the interwar period western Podilia was ruled by Poland and was known as Ternopil voivodeship. Eastern Podilia, meanwhile, was part of the Ukrainian SSR. After the Second World War all Podilia became part of the Ukrainian SSR. It consisted of three oblasts: Ternopil, Khmelnytskyi (formerly Proskuriv), and Vinnytsia. It remains one of the most agricultural and least industrialized regions of Ukraine.

Population. Since the middle of the i8th century Podilia, together with Pokutia and Subcarpathia, has been the most densely populated part of Ukraine. Today those regions as well as lowland Transcarpathia have the highest rural population densities. In 1860 western Podilia was settled more densely (63 persons/sq km) than eastern Podilia (43 persons/sq km), but eventually the gap narrowed (in 1897 the figures were 96 and 75, and in 1932, 99 and 98). With a low level of urbanization (approx 10 percent) Podilia, especially its western part, was one of the most land-hungry regions of Ukraine. The peasants of western Podilia responded to the problem of employment with mass emigration (over 200,000 people between 1890 and 1913) to the New World and a reduced rate of natural increase. Emigration from eastern Podilia was smaller, partly because there was local employment in the sugar industry. Sizable population losses occurred in eastern Podilia during collectivization and in all of Podilia during the Second World War (1940-6). By 1959 the population of Podilia was still 14.5 percent smaller than in 1926. The process of urbanization was slower there than anywhere else in Ukraine. The changes in the composition and density of the population in the three Podilia oblasts (Ternopil, Khmelnytskyi, and Vinnytsia) are given in table i. Podilia's migration balance has continued to be negative. In the six years from 1963 to 1968 the region's natural in-

54

PODILIA

Traditional dress of Podilia crease was 210,000, and its net population increase only 20,000. Despite a positive natural increase the population of Podilia has declined since 1970. Population distribution, expressed as rural population density, does not vary greatly from one raion to another. Rural population densities range from 50 to 80 persons per sq km but usually lie between 60 and 70. The settlements in Podilia are concentrated along rivers in the valleys or wide canyons, and the interfluves of the plateau are occupied by cropland. Only where the ravines are too narrow to accommodate them are villages built along the rim of the plateau. Before industries developed, the towns of Podilia were administrative and trading centers. The smaller towns enTABLE 1

Population changes in Podilia, 1926-89 Urban Total population population

Rural population

Year

Density/ % of (1,000s) sq km (1,000s) total

Density/ (1,000s) sq km

1926 1959 1970 1989

5,690 4,840 4,900 4,628

5,000 3,990 3,660 2,571

93.4 79.5 80.5 76.0

690 850 1,240 2,057

12.1 17.6 25.3 44.4

82.1 65.5 60.1 42.2

gaged in local trade and services for farming. Now all the more important towns of Podilia have industries, but in comparison to other parts of Ukraine they are relatively small. In 1989 only four cities had over 100,000 residents: Vinnytsia (374,000), Khmelnytskyi (237,000), Ternopil (205,000), and Kamianets-Podilskyi (102,000). In Opilia, the westernmost part of Podilia, the smaller towns (1980 population estimates) include Berezhany (13,500), Bibrka (3,100), Khodoriv (10,000), Monastyryska (5,100), Peremyshliany (4,100), Pidhaitsi (3,300), and Rohatyn (5,500). The southwestern gullied part includes the towns of Borshchiv (8,600), Buchach (11,400), Chortkiv (20,000), Kopychyntsi (7,500), Terebovlia (10,700), and Zalishchyky (8,400), and the flat northern part of western Podilia includes Ternopil, Zalistsi (2,200), Zbarazh (8,400), and Zboriv (3,900). On the northwestern rim are Brody (13,500), Kremianets (20,500), and Zolochiv (13,100). The more important economic and cultural centers are Ternopil, Berezhany, Buchach, Chortkiv, and Kremianets. In eastern Podilia, along the Dniester, the main center is Kamianets-Podilskyi; it is followed by Mohyliv-Podilskyi (26,000), Yampil (8,000), and Rybnytsia (32,300, in Moldova). The northern plain of eastern Podilia is dominated by Khmelnytskyi and, to a lesser extent, by Starokostiantyniv (22,000). On the northern border with Volhynia are Iziaslav (14,700), the rail hub Shepetivka (39,100), and Polonne (22,400). Along the Boh River Vinnytsia predominates among the small towns, such as Liatychiv (or Letychiv, 9,100), Lityn (5,300), Tulchyn (14,300), Bratslav (4,400), Bar (13,500), Khmilnyk (18,500), Derazhnia (7,900), Medzhybizh (2,800), the important railway hub Zhmerynka (36,200), and a smaller hub, Vapniarka (7,500). To the southeast are located Bershad (11,400), Balta (20,000, although in the mid-i9th century it was, after KamianetsPodilskyi, the second-largest town in Podilia), Kotovske (34,300), and Ananiv (18,900). In past centuries there was a steady flow of Poles (particularly in the first half of the i8th century) and Jews into Podilia. The Jews constituted a majority in most of the towns. The Poles were concentrated in the north, on both sides of the Zbruch River. Some of the Poles living among the Ukrainians became linguistically assimilated and retained only their Roman Catholic faith. During the 19th and 2Oth centuries interethnic relations evolved very differently in western (under Austria and Poland) and eastern Podilia (under Russia and in the Ukrainian SSR). In the eastern region the Polish and Roman Catholic element was deprived of government support and reinforcements from the west, and began to succumb to Ukrainization and, in the cities, to a degree of Russification. Most Roman Catholics were Ukrainianspeaking (in 1926, 50 percent; by 1959, up to 85 percent). The proportion of Jews in the population grew until the end of the 19th century and then began to decline. Russians were a small minority (7 percent in towns and cities, i percent in the villages). In southern Podilia along the Dniester (within today's Moldova) some 50,000 Moldavians were concentrated in one area. As a result of the Second World War the Jewish population fell drastically, the Polish element declined, and the Russian element increased substantially (see table 2). In western Podilia for two centuries, particularly after the mid-i9th century, the proportion of Poles increased at the expense of Ukrainians. There was a continuous flow of

PODILIA

TABLE 2 Ethnic composition of Khmelnytskyi and Vinnytsia oblasts, 1897-1989 (percentages) Nationality

1897

1926

1959

1979

1989

Ukrainian Jewish Polish* Russian Other

75.3 12.3 8.8 2.3 1.3

85.1 7.8 3.7 1.7 1.7

91.3 1.8 2.4 4.4 0.1

91.4 1.3 1.5 5.2 0.6

92.4 1.0 1.1 4.9 0.6

Including Ukrainian-speaking Roman Catholics

Poles from the western (Polish) part of Galicia to the towns dominated by a Polish administration and to farmlands sold off by Polish landowners. Emigration to the New World, which drew proportionally more Ukrainians than Poles, and the Polonization of Ukrainians through conversion from the Uniate (Greek Catholic) faith to Roman Catholicism were less significant. The changes in the composition of the population according to religion are shown in table 3. The greatest loss of Ukrainians occurred in a zone extending from Lviv to the Zbruch River, where the Poles and the Ukrainian-speaking Roman Catholics represented about one-third of the population. Most of the residents in the towns of western Podilia were Jewish; in number they were followed by Poles or Ukrainians. By contrast, in eastern Podilia one-half of the urban population was Ukrainian, over one-third was Jewish, and an insignificant proportion was Polish. As a result of the Second World War the ethnic composition of western Podilia changed dramatically, and today it resembles that of eastern Podilia. In Ternopil oblast the ethnic composition for 1959 and 1979 indicates the persistent growth of the Ukrainian element: Ukrainians made up 90.2 and 96.6 percent, Russians, 2.5 and 2.2 percent, Poles, 2.2 and 0.9 percent, and Jews and others, 5.1 and 0.3 percent. TABLE 3

Religious affiliation in western Podilia, 1857-1931 (percentages) Religion

1857

1880

1900

1910

1921

1931

Uniate Roman Catholic Jewish Other

63.0 25.4 10.9 0.7

62.0 24.1 13.3 0.6

61.0 26.6 11.9 0.5

60.3 28.4 11.2 0.1

59.2 32.2 8.3 0.3

54.9 37.2 7.7 0.2

Economy. Agriculture has always been the foundation of the Podilian economy. In the 19205 nearly 80 percent of the population was employed in farming and less than 10 percent worked in the trades and industry. Until the mid19305 only the food industry, consisting of the sugar industry and liquor distilling, was developed. The sugar industry was limited to eastern Podilia, because Czech competition and Polish competition after the war blocked its growth in western Podilia. During the Soviet period industrializaion was speeded up, but Podilia remains one of the least industrialized regions in Ukraine. Agriculture. Most of the land in Podilia is tilled (72 percent). The rest is devoted to hayfields, meadows and pastures (7 percent), orchards and berry plantings (3 percent), and forests (nearly 15 percent). The sown area in the three

55

oblasts of Podilia in 1987 totaled 4,187,000 ha, of which 2,014,000 ha (48.1 percent) were devoted to grain. As in the rest of Ukraine the share of the grain area has declined, from about 75 percent in the 19205, and the share of land given to industrial crops (especially in Galician Podilia) and fodder crops has increased. Sugar beet is Podilia7s predominant industrial crop; it occupies 489,000 ha (88 percent of all industrial-crop land, or 12 percent of all crop land) and represents 23 percent of the sugar-beet area in Ukraine. The sugar-beet area has increased by almost two and a half times since 1940 (especially in western Podilia). Other industrial crops include sunflower (50,000 ha, mostly in Vinnytsia oblast), rape, tobacco, hemp, aromatic oil seeds, and medicinal herbs. The area of feed crops has increased by 2.45 times since 1940; it amounted to some 1,305,000 ha, or 31.2 percent of the sown area, in 1987. Besides perennial and annual grasses, corn and other feed crops are raised. The sown area in potatoes and vegetables has declined from 424,000 ha in 1940 to 314,000 ha (7.5 percent of the sown area), a reflection of the falling demand for potatoes. After Southern Ukraine Podilia is the second most important fruit-farming region in Ukraine. Orchards in Podilia occupy over 200,00 ha, and vineyards, over 5,000 ha. The most common fruit trees are apple, plum, pear, cherry, morello cherry, apricot, peach, and walnut. In animal husbandry the leading branches are dairy and beef farming and hog raising (see table 4). TABLE 4 Livestock and livestock products in Podilia in 1975 Land productivity

Per 100 ha of agricultural land

% of Ukraine's

Livestock (head) Cattle of which cows Hogs Sheep and goats

3,157,000 1,207,000 2,950,000 713,000

67.5 25.8 63.0 15.2

12.1 12.2 12.8 6.7

Products (t) Meat and fat Pork only Milk Wool

471,000 235,000 2,733,000 1,800

10.10 5.00 58.40 0.04

12.1 13.4 11.6

5.7

Podilia produces commercial surpluses of sugar beets, which are processed locally, fruits, and animal products. There is little regional specialization in agriculture, but the region south of Ternopil is known for its tobacco, and the regions along the Dniester in eastern Podilia, to the south of Khmelnytskyi and to the southwest of Vinnytsia, are known for their fruits and vegetables. Industry. Podilia lags considerably behind other parts of Ukraine in industrial development. Its main industry is food processing, which accounts for about 60 percent of the value of its industrial output; food processing is followed by machine building and metalworking (15 percent), light industry (13 percent), and the buildingmaterials industry (6 percent). The dominant branch of the food industry in Podilia is sugar refining (39 enterprises in Vinnytsia oblast alone); in 1987 that branch produced some 2.1 million t, or 28 percent of Ukraine's output of

56

PODILIA

sugar. Liquor distilling is another important branch. Its raw materials are molasses (a by-product of the sugar industry), potatoes, and grain. Over 30 enterprises in the region produce alcohol. Their subsidiary operations include the production of feed yeast and vitamins. The largest distilleries are located in Bar and Kalynivka, in Vinnytsia oblast. The meat-processing industry is highly developed. Large meat packing plants are located in the three oblast centers. The dairy industry, which produces 42,000 t of butter per year (14 percent of the republic's total), is widely distributed. Its largest plant is in Horodok. The largest urban (fluid milk) dairies are located in the oblast centers. Podilia contributes about 12 percent of the republic's canned fruits and vegetables. Oil pressing, flour milling, baking, confectionery manufacturing, brewing, and tobacco processing are mostly of regional or local significance. The machine-building and metalworking industries arose in Podilia mostly in the 19508 and 19605, along with related electrotechnical and chemical industries, and continue to grow in importance. Their main products are electrotechnical equipment, tractor assemblies and bearings, equipment for sugar refineries, transformer substation equipment, foundry equipment, and sheet-metal presses, tractor parts, electrical equipment, and agricultural machinery. The Vinnytsia Chemical Plant, which produces granulated superphosphate with manganese, was one of the largest fertilizer plants in the Soviet Union. Podilia's light industry manufactures textiles, garments, and footwear. Its textile plants produce nearly 12 percent of the cotton cloth and 7 percent of the woolen cloth manufactured in Ukraine. The building-materials industry includes the quarrying and finishing of granite and marble blocks, the mining and processing of limestone and chalk, brick-making, and tile manufacturing. Wood, mostly from Polisia, is used to make cellulose and paper in Poninka and paper in Slavuta, Polonne, and Rososha. Altogether the industry contributes nearly 23 percent of Ukraine's paper production. The fuel and power industries of Podilia depend on coal, petroleum products, and natural gas brought in from the Donbas, Subcarpathia, and Shebelynka respectively. Electricity is generated principally at small thermal stations in Vinnytsia, Mohyliv-Podilskyi, Khmelnytskyi, Kamianets-Podilskyi, Shepetivka, Ternopil, and Kremianets, but their output has not met the needs of the region. It is supplemented by the new Ladyzhyn thermal-electric station on the Boh River, the Dniester Hydroelectric Station, and the Khmelnytskyi Nuclear Power Station. Most of the power from Ladyzhyn and the other new generating stations is slated for export to Hungary, Rumania, and Bulgaria. Transport. Railways, which carry up to nine-tenths of the freight, are Podilia's most important means of transportation. Podilia has 2,542 km of track, about 11.5 percent of the republic's network, and a density of 42 km per 1,000 sq km, or 112 percent of the mean density of Ukraine. A three-pronged trunk line forms the skeleton of the railway system: it joins Lviv with Odessa through Ternopil and Khmelnytskyi and branches off at Zhmerynka through Vinnytsia to Kiev. The other major lines that pass through Podilia and are connected to the trunk are: ZhmerynkaMohyliv-Podilskyi-Chernivtsi, Koziatyn-ShepetivkaRivne, Shepetivka-Ternopil-Chortkiv-Chernivtsi, and

Korosten-Shepetivka-Khmelnytskyi-Kamianets-Podilskyi. The most important railroad junctions are Zhmerynka, Koziatyn, Shepetivka, and Vapniarka as well as the major cities of Ternopil, Khmelnytskyi, and Vinnytsia. Highways are of less importance, although they are necessary for truck transport, which serves agriculture and the food-processing industries. Podilia has 22,800 km of roads, of which 16,300 km are hard surface. Those figures represent 14 percent and 12 percent of the republic's road networks respectively. The principal highway from Kiev and Zhytomyr to Chernivtsi crosses Podilia running through Vinnytsia, Khmelnytskyi, and Kamianets-Podilskyi. Several other major highways cross Podilia from west to east - Kremianets-Koziatyn, Lviv-TernopilKhmelnytskyi-Vinnytsia-Uman, Ivano-FrankivskeBuchach-Chortkiv-Dunaivtsi-Mohyliv-Podilskyi - and from north to south - Lutske-Kremianets-TernopilChortkiv-Zalishchyky-Chernivtsi and Novohrad-Volynskyi-Shepetivka-Khmelnytskyi. Three major gas trunk lines cross Podilia from east to west. The Dashava-Kiev-Moscow line supplies natural gas to Khmelnytskyi, Vinnytsia, and other towns in Podilia. The newer pipelines, such as the Soiuz line (1978), from the southern Urals to Czechoslovakia, and the Urengoi-Czechoslovakia line (1983-4), are used exclusively for exporting gas. (See ^Pipeline transportation.) Transport on the Boh River is negligible, and on the Dniester River, limited. Recent completion of the Dniester Hydroelectric Complex has extended navigation on the Dniester. BIBLIOGRAPHY Marczynski, W. Statystyczne, topograficzne i historyczne opisanie gubernii Podolskiej, 4 vols (Vilnius 1820-2) Molchanovskii, N. Ocherk izvestii o Podols'koi zemle do 1434goda (Kiev 1885) Batiushkov, P. Podoliia: Istoricheskoe opisanie (St Petersburg 1891) Janusz, B. Zabytki przedhistoryczne Podóla galicyjskiego (Lviv 1918) Bialkowski, L. Podóle w xvi wieku (Warsaw 1920) Sitsins'kyi, le. Narysy z istoriï Podillia, i (Vinnytsia 1927) Chyzhov, M. Ukrains 'kyi lisostep (Kiev 1961) Serczyk, W. Gospodarstwo magnackie w wojewodstwie podolskim w drugiej polowie xvm wieku (Wroclaw 1965) Shliakhamy zolotoho Podillia, 3 vols (Philadelphia 1960,1970,1983) V. Kubijovyc, I. Stebelsky, M. Zhdan

Podilia Church Historical-Archeological Society (Podilske tserkovne istorychno-arkheolohichne tovarystvo). A scholarly society established in 1903 in Kamianets-Podilskyi. Its forerunner, the Podilia Eparchial Historical-Statistical Committee (est 1865), published several volumes of Trudy (12 vols, 1876-1916) containing valuable historical, statistical, geographic, and ethnographic studies of Podilia and Podilia eparchy's parishes and monasteries. Under its permanent president, Rev Yu. Sitsinsky, the society ran the Kamianets-Podilskyi Church Museum of Antiquities (now the Kamianets-Podilskyi Historical Museum and Preserve). In 1919 it was amalgamated with the Podilia Society. The society was forced to dissolve in late 1920. It was replaced by the KamianetsPodilskyi Committee for the Protection of Ancient, Artistic, and Natural Monuments, under the direction of P. Klymenko, and, in 1925, by the vUAN-affiliated Kamianets-Podilskyi Scientific Society, headed by V. Chuhai, O. Polonsky, Sitsinsky, and V. Zborovets. The latter soci-

PODILIAN DIALECTS

ety was abolished in the early 19305, and many of its 70 members suffered Stalinist repression. Podilia eparchy. An Orthodox eparchy comprising the territory of Podilia gubernia, with its see in KamianetsPodilskyi. It was established in 1795, after the partitions of Poland, out of territory that had formerly belonged to the eparchy of Kiev and then Halych. Initially the see was in Bratslav, so afterward the eparchy was often referred to as Podilia-Bratslav eparchy. At the turn of the 2Oth century the eparchy had almost 1,700 parishes and 5 men's and 5 women's monasteries. In 1917, in addition to the titular bishop, the eparchy had two vicar bishops (in Vinnytsia and Balta). The Podilia Church Historical-Archeological Society published several volumes of materials on the history of the eparchy, and Yu. Sitsinsky published several histories and descriptions of the eparchy in the 19th and early 2Oth centuries. The eparchial organ, Podol'skie eparkhial'nye vedomosti, appeared from 1863 to 1917. In the 19205 the ^Ukrainian Autocephalous Orthodox church established a church okruha in Podilia, which, under Bishop I. *Teodorovych, was for some time the largest eparchy in the church. Part of the Podilia eparchy was included in the Khmelnytskyi eparchy created by the Russian Orthodox church after 1945. Podilia gubernia. An administrative-territorial unit created in Russian-ruled Right-Bank Ukraine in 1797 out of 7 counties of Podilia vicegerency, 9 counties of Bratslav vicegerency, and 4 counties (3 in part) of Voznesenske vicegerency. Its territory (42,017 sq km) was subdivided into 12 counties: Balta, Bratslav, Haisyn, Kamianets-Podilskyi, Letychiv, Lityn, Mohyliv-Podilskyi, Olhopil, Proskuriv, Vinnytsia, Nova Ushytsia, and Yampil. The capital was Kamianets-Podilskyi. In 1811 the gubernia had 1,297,800 inhabitants. In 1897 it had 3,018,300, of whom only 7.5 percent were urban. Ukrainians constituted 80.2 percent of the total population but only i percent of the urban population. The major ethnic minorities were Jews (12.2 percent), Russians (3.3), Poles (2.3), and Rumanians (0.9). The gubernia was an economically backward, predominantly agricultural region. Its main industry was sugar refining. In 1914 only 8.8 percent of the population was urban. The gubernia was devastated during the First World War and Ukrainian-Soviet War and suffered many human losses. In 1923,11.5 percent of its 3,457,000 inhabitants were urban; 31 percent of the urban population was Ukrainian, 55 percent was Jewish, and 9 percent was Russian. That year the counties were replaced by Haisyn, Kamianets-Podilskyi, Mohyliv-Podilskyi, Proskuriv, Tulchyn, and Vinnytsia okruhas, and in 1925 the gubernia was abolished. Podilia regiment. See Mohyliv-Podilskyi regiment. Podilia vicegerency. An administrative territory in Right-Bank Ukraine, set up in 1783 after the partition of Poland. It consisted of the former Podilia voivodeship, and its administrative center was Mohyliv-Podilskyi. In 1797 the vicegerency was abolished, and its territory was divided between Podilia and Volhynia gubernias. Podilia voivodeship. An administrative territory formed under Polish rule in the mid-i5th century. It incor-

57

porated most of western Podilia and consisted of Kamianets, Letychiv, and Chervonohorod counties. Its administrative center was Kamianets-Podilskyi. The Poles were expelled from the territory for a brief period during the Cossack-Polish War (1648-57) and the Turkish occupation (1672-99). During the partitions of Poland the voivodeship was divided between Austria, which annexed Chervonohorod county in 1772, and Russia, which took the rest of the territory in 1793. Podilian dialects. The eastern group of the *southwestern dialects, bordering on the *South Volhynian dialects to the north, the *steppe dialects to the east, the ^Dniester dialects to the west, and the *Bukovyna-Pokutia dialects to the southwest. They are used on the territories of what are today the southern parts of Khmelnytskyi and Vinnytsia oblasts, the northern part of Odessa oblast, the northwestern part of Mykolaiv oblast, and the western part of Kirovohrad oblast. The eastern Podilian dialects share common traits with the South Volhynian dialects, while the western dialects are most akin to the Dniester dialects, particularly in morphology. In the Podilian dialects the pronunciation of consonants before i (from o) is hard (except in the east where, eg, Standard Ukrainian [su] stil 'table' is pronounced s't'il/s'c'il; and in sing fern adjectives in the dat and loc cases and in pi adjectives in the nom case, eg, corn 'i koróvi, corn 'i kón 'i [su córnij koróvi, córni kóni] 'to/on the black cow, black horses'). The pronunciation of unstressed o, e, u is raised to u, y, i, particularly before a syllable with (unstressed) u, i (eg, bujites'a, pisit, vis'il'a [su bojüésja, pysít', vesíllja] 'you are afraid [pi], write [pi imperative], wedding'). Some typical pronunciations are mn'áso (su m'jáso) 'meat', rybl'acyi (su rybjacyj) 'fishy', rímnyj (su rívnyj) 'straight', pysan 'a (su pysánnja) 'writing', fist (su xvist) 'tail', lóska (su lózka) 'spoon', zorá (su zorjá) 'star'. A prothetic h- is used, eg, hyndyk (su indyk) 'turkey' (except in the west, where a prothetic v- is used instead, eg, vóstryj [su hóstryj] 'sharp', and partly in the east, where SU ískra 'spark' is pronounced yskra). There are Western Ukrainian-type pronunciations and stress; eg, xustyny (su xustyny) 'kerchiefs', jamy (su jámy) 'pits', cytan 'a (su cytánnja) 'reading', xódzujxód'u (su xodzú) 'I go', byrém (su beremô) 'we take', byréty (su bereté) 'you take', pjéty (su p'jete) 'you drink'. In nouns there is a definite influence of the hard nominal declension on the soft; eg, kon 'óvi (su konévi) 'horse' dative, nozóm (su nozém) 'with a knife', pál'c'om (su pal'cent) 'with a finger', póVom (su pólerri) 'field' instrumental, tyl'óm (SU teljáni) 'cal' instrumental, na córniml-omu kon'óvi/zyml'í (su na córnomu koní/zemlí) 'on the black horse/earth', c'óju zyml'óju (su cijéju zemléju) 'with this black earth', móju t 'in 'uju (su mojéju tinnju) 'with my shadow', picuju (su piccju) 'with the stove', d'üyj (su ditéj) 'of the children'. In the Vinnytsia region forms such as na pal'c'ox, v dyn'ox (su na pál'cjax, v dynjax) 'on the fingers, in the melons' are used, and the dual form of feminine and neuter nouns, eg, dvi s'c 'in 'i, jabluc'i (su stiny,jábluka) 'two walls, two apples', has been preserved. Adjectives are only of the hard type (eg, synyj [SU synij] 'blue'), except in the east, where the soft type prevails in adjectives in which the stress is on the stem (eg, córn'ij, syvij, l'úc'k'ij [su cornyj, syvyj, ljuds'kyj] 'black, gray, human'), and where the suffix forming the comparative degree of adjectives is -iscyj (su -isyj), eg, bil'iscyj 'whiter'. In pronoun declension there are forms such as

58

PODILIAN DIALECTS

moho, mojí, móju (su moho, mojéji, mojéju) 'of my (mase, neut), of my (fern), with my (fern)7, jakys ' (su jakyjs ') 'some sort of (mase), tota, toté (su ta/te) 'that' (fem, neut), sys 'à, sysé (su cja, ce) 'this' (fem, neut). Some typical verbal forms are pykty (su pekty) 'to bake', falytys 'a or (in the east) falytys ' (su xvalytysja) 'to boast, be proud of, xódzu or (in the east and southeast) xód 'u, xódyt/ xódy, xód'at (su xodzú, xódyt', xódjat') 'I walk, he walks, they walk', nysém (su nesemó) 'we carry', xod'ím (su xodím[o]) 'let's go', xodzî (su xodû') 'you go' (imp), robyujem, robyüjes ', robylys 'mo, robylys 'te (su ja robyv, ty robyv, my robyly, vy robyly) 'I made, you (sing) made, we made, you (pi) made', búdu robyü (SU búdu robyty) 'I will make',;0 s'a zabúü (su ja zabúvsja) 'I forgot', gerunds such as xódzyn 'a (su xódzennja) 'walking', and participles such as zróbl 'anyj (su zróblenyj) 'made' and (in the east) kupynyj, vykosynyj (su kúplenyj, vykosenyj) 'bought, mown'. In the southwest along the Dniester, the influence of the Pokutia and Dniester dialects is evident in pronoun forms, eg, t 'i/t 'a (SU tebé) 'you' accusative, and in the partial retention of soft-type endings in nouns; eg, xlópec, xlópcevy/xlópcovy, xlópca (SU xlópec', xlópcevi, xlópcja) 'boy' nominative, dative, accusative, na zymly/k'inc'í/pól'u (su na zemlí/kincí/ poli) 'on the land/end/field', v hrúdex (su v hrúdjax) 'in the chest', toü doróhoü (su tóju doróhoju) 'that road' instrumental (in the northwest, torn doróhom/zeml 'óm/kós 't 'om [su tóju doróhoju/zemléju/kístju] 'that road/land/bone' instr). Elements of the Podilian dialects, particularly lexical ones, can be found in the works of writers such as A. Svydnytsky, S. Rudansky, M. Kotsiubynsky, H. Zhurba, M. Stelmakh, and Ye. Hutsalo. Articles on the dialects have been written by H. Holoskevych, V. Ostrokovsky, A. Sorochan, V. Zborovets, B. Yatsymyrsky, Ye. Rudnytsky, M. Khrashchevsky, Ye. Hrytsak, O. Melnychuk, I. Hrytsiutenko, A. Derdiuk, T. Babina, A. Ocheretny, H. Pelykh, L. Tereshko, and K. Batsenko. O. Horbach

Podil's'ka volia (Podilian Freedom). A weekly and later semiweekly newspaper published in Vinnytsia from July 1917 to 1918. It was nonpartisan but supported the Central Rada. The editor was D. Markovych. Podil's'ke slovo (Podilian Word). A weekly and later semimonthly newspaper published from January 1909 to 1912 in Ternopil. It was edited by P. Chubaty and then Y. Kovalsky, who was also the publisher. PodiVs'kyi holos (Podilian Voice). A newspaper published semimonthly, then weekly, and from 1906 monthly in Ternopil from January 1904 to 1908. The organ of the Ternopil People's Organization, it was edited and published by S. Holubovych and O. Postryhach. Podil's'kyi holos (Podilian Voice). A semimonthly newspaper published in Ternopil in 1928-30 by S. Baran. Edited by V. Bachynsky, it printed articles on politics, popular enlightenment, and farming and supported the Ukrainian National Democratic Alliance. In 1930 it had a pressrun of 1,200. Podkarpatska Rus'. See Pidkarpats'ka Rus'.

Podlachia (Ukrainian: Pidliashshia; Polish: Podlasie). A historical-geographical region along the middle stretch of the Buh (Bug) River between the Kholm region in the south and the Narva River (the Belarus border) in the north and between Mazovia in the west and Volhynia and Polisia in the east. A part of the region consists of the Podlachian Lowland. The Ukrainian name is derived from the word liakh 'Pole' and means 'near Poland/ whereas the Polish name is derived from las 'forest,' and means 'near the forest.' The name was first used in 1520 to designate Podlachia voivodeship, which extended at that time as far north as the sources of the Borba River. In the 19th century the name was applied generally to the part south of the Buh River and within the Kingdom of Poland. The northern part of Podlachia, approx 2,700 sq km, constituted Bielsk county in Hrodna gubernia. Southern Podlachia was often assigned to the Kholm region, because it lay within Kholm eparchy and (from 1912) within Kholm gubernia. The region had an area of approx 5,350 sq km and included Biala Podlaska, Volodava, and Kostiantyniv counties. Because of its peripheral location Podlachia did not develop strong ties with other parts of Ukraine or a sharp sense of national identity. In the northern part the national distinctions between Ukrainians and Belarusians did not crystallize. Podlachia's proximity to the Polish heartland facilitated Polish expansion into the region. Flanked by Prussia on one side and the marshlands of Polisia on the other, Podlachia served as a corridor between Poland and Lithuania (the Warsaw-Vilnius route), Belarus, and Russia. Physical geography. The geological foundation of the region consists of white chalk, which comes to the surface only near Melnyk and Volodava, in the Buh River Valley. The chalk is overlain with thick layers of glacial and alluvial deposits and here and there with thin Paleogene deposits. The landscape is typically a uniform plain. The Bielsk, Dorohychyn, and Siedlce-Janow uplands, which reach an elevation of 200 m, are separated by broad river valleys formed by meltwaters and covered with thick alluvial deposits. The rivers are sluggish and lined with marshes. The highest parts of the region consist of terminal moraines: a northern belt runs from Siedlce through Melnyk to Vysoke, and a southern belt, from Lubartdw to Volodava. Southeastern Podlachia, west of Volodava, with its marshes, peat bogs, sandy soils, and numerous small lakes, resembles Polisia in landscape and is known as Volodava Polisia. The most varied topography in all Podlachia is found in the Buh Valley, which cuts deeply (up to 80 m) into the elevated plains. Podlachian soils are poor, mostly gray loamy or gray sandy soils and sometimes bog soils. The rivers draining the region, the Buh with its tributaries (the Volodavka, the Krzna, the Mukhavets, the Nurets, the Narva, and the Lisna) and the Vepr (or Wieprz), empty into the Vistula River. Podlachia has a transitional climate between a continental and an oceanic one. Winters are mild (the average January temperature is between -3.5 and -4.5°c), and summers are cool (the average July temperature is between 18 and i8.5°c). The spring and the fall are long. Temperatures dip below the freezing point for 60 to 80 days of the year, and snow cover lasts for 80 to 100 days. The annual precipitation is approx 500 to 600 mm. The vegetation is typical of the northern forest belt, although

PODLACHIA

PODLACHIA the southwestern part of Podlachia borders on the Central European forest belt. The eastern limit of the beech, spruce, larch, and hornbeam and the southwestern limit of the fir run through Podlachia. History. The earliest signs of human habitation in Podlachia date back to the Upper Paleolithic and Mesolithic periods. In the Neolithic Period the region was occupied by carriers of the Pitted-Comb Pottery culture and the Buh culture. During the Bronze Age it was invaded from the west by bearers of the Lusatian culture and then,

59

toward the end of the Iron Age, by the Venedi. Later evidence of cremation shows that by the beginning of the modern era Podlachia was settled by Slavs from the Dnieper region. It can be assumed that by the 3rd century the region was being crossed by the Goths en route to the Dnieper region. The earliest signs of trade between Podlachia and the Kiev region date back to the 4th century. In the 9th and loth centuries most of the territory was settled by the Derevlianians. The Drehovichians occupied the land to the north beyond the Narva River, and the Dulibians, probably the land to the south. By that time a major trade route from Poland and the Baltic countries to Ukraine and the Near East ran through Podlachia. The medieval period. In the loth century Podlachia became a part of Kievan Rus'; it constituted the western portion of Berestia land and then the separate Dorohychyn land. It was annexed to Volhynia principality in the nth century and then to Turiv-Pynske principality (10881157). In 1238 Prince Danylo Romanovych added it to Halych principality. Until 1340 it belonged to the Principality of Galicia-Volhynia. The border between the Kievan state (Volhynia principality) and the Polish state (Mazovia principality) ran west of Briansk and Dorohychyn-Miedzyrzec territories and remained stable during the period. Mazovian attempts to annex the region succeeded only for a brief period in the 12305. Because of their security from Tatar raids and their lively trade with the Poles and the Teutonic Knights, Dorohychyn and Berestia lands played an important role in the Galician-Volhynian state in the 13th and 14th centuries. They served as launching sites of Danylo Romanovych's and his successors' campaigns against the Yatvingians. In 1253 Danylo's coronation took place in Dorohychyn. Podlachia was one of the most heavily populated regions of Ukraine at that time. As the Galician-Volhynian state declined, the Lithuanian grand duke Gediminas occupied the Berestia region, in 1320, and then Kestutis annexed all Podlachia, which he passed on to his son, Vytautas. During the territorial struggle between Lithuania and Poland Dorohychyn land came under Mazovian rule only briefly, in 1391-2 and 1440-3. Polish influence in the region was nevertheless strong. The influx of Polish colonists, particularly of the petty gentry, began in the second half of the 14th century. By the 15th century the local wealthy nobility of Ukrainian origin had been Polonized, and the petty gentry had lost its influence. In 1501 Polish law was introduced for the Polish gentry in the north (Bielsk land), and in 1516 it was extended to all the gentry in Dorohychyn land. In 1516 Grand Duke Sigismund restricted the right to stand for election to the land and city courts to Catholic inhabitants of the region. Latin replaced Ruthenian as the official language in the Ukrainian territories of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. In 1520 Podlachia, consisting of the lands of Dorohychyn, Bielsk, and Berestia, was established as a separate voivodeship with its center in Dorohychyn. In 1566 Berestia land was amalgamated with Turiv-Pynske land into the new Berestia-Lithuanian voivodeship, and in 1569 the remaining Podlachian territory was divided into Dorohychyn, Bielsk, and Melnyk lands and incorporated into Poland. Podlachia, particularly Dorohychyn land, prospered in the 15th and loth centuries, because the Cracow-Vilnius and Warsaw-Vilnius trade routes merged there. The Polish offensive against the Ruthenian faith and

6o

PODLACHIA

the Orthodox clergy persisted even after the Church Union of Berestia in 1596. During B. Khmelnytsky's uprising the Cossacks briefly captured southern Podlachia, in 1648. Col M. Krychevsky was a native of the region. In 1657 Col A. Zhdanovych's Cossack force, which took part in a joint Ukrainian-Swedish-Transylvanian campaign against Poland, operated in Podlachia. i^th and 20th centuries. After the partition of Poland in 1795, southern Podlachia (up to the Buh River) was annexed by Austria, the northern part by Prussia, and the Berestia region by Russia. During the Napoleonic Wars the northern part was transferred to Russia, and the southern part to the Grand Duchy of Warsaw and then, in 1815, to the Congress Kingdom of Poland. In 1842 the northern part (Bielsk county and the Berestia region) was assigned to Hrodna gubernia, and the southern part ended up in Warsaw general gubernia. The two regions developed very differently. The history of southern Podlachia was closely linked with that of the *Kholm region. The two regions even became known by one name, Kholm Rus', Transbuh Rus', or simply Kholm region. Both were subjected to the same oppression by the Poles. In 1829 the Uniate Kholm eparchy was removed from the jurisdiction of Halych metropoly and subjected to long-term Latinization. The linguistic Polonization of the clergy and local population gathered momentum. The abolition of the Uniate and the imposition of the Orthodox church by the Russian authorities in 1874 only reinforced the Polonization process, because most Uniates clung to Catholicism and, after the edict of toleration (17 April 1905), adopted the Roman Catholic faith. In 1905-8 the Orthodox church in Podlachia lost 58 percent of its members (compared to 22 percent in the Kholm region). Thus a *Kalakut community arose in Podlachia. To limit Polish influence Kholm gubernia was set up in 1912 out of those parts of Podlachia and the Kholm region where Ukrainians constituted a majority. The end of the 19th century marked the beginning of the Ukrainian national revival in Podlachia, particularly among young teachers. During the First World War Ukrainians in Podlachia suffered heavy losses. In 1915 over 80 percent of them were evacuated by the retreating Russians. For Ukrainians left behind under the German occupation, the *Union for the Liberation of Ukraine organized at the beginning of 1917 a string of Ukrainian schools taught by POWs from the Bluecoats. The Ukrainian Hromada, a central organization for Podlachia, and the Ukrainian School Council were set up in Biala. In June 1917 the first Ukrainian newspaper in Podlachia, Ridne slovo, appeared. From early 1918 the cultural work continued under the leadership of O. Skoropys-Yoltukhovsky and V. Dmytriiuk and spread to the Berestia and Pynske regions. According to the terms of the Peace Treaty of BrestLitovsk all Kholm gubernia was to belong to the UNR, but by the end of 1918 that region had been occupied by the Poles. Podlachia was subsequently incorporated into Lublin (Biala, Kostiantyniv, Volodava, and Radzyñ counties) and Bialystok (Bielsk county) voivodeships. The Berestia region became part of Polisia voivodeship. In 1918-23 only some of the evacuated Ukrainians returned. Ukrainian political and cultural life in Podlachia revived in spite of Polish interference. Some Ukrainian candidates were

elected to the Sejm and Senate in 1922. The Ridna Khata society headed the educational and cultural movement. In the 19305, however, all Ukrainian activities were banned by the authorities. They resumed only in 1939-44, when Podlachia became part of the Generalgouvernement. Under the German occupation Ukrainian mutual aid committees, schools, co-operatives, cultural societies, and churches were organized. The major centers of Ukrainian life were Biala and Volodava. The northern part of Podlachia (Bielsk county) did not experience the change in national consciousness or the religious strife that occurred in the south in the 19th and 2Oth centuries. In the 18305 the Ukrainian and Belarusian population converted from the Uniate to the Orthodox faith without much opposition and escaped Polonization. There were no Ukrainian organizations there, however. Only in 1941-4, when northern Podlachia became a part of the German Reich, was a branch of the Ukrainian National Alliance formed in Bielsk. After the Second World War Podlachia was restored to Poland and was divided among Lublin, Warsaw, and Bialystok voivodeships. Most Ukrainians were resettled in the Soviet Union or in the newly acquired lands in western or northern Poland. (For 20th-century history see also *Kholm region and *Kholm eparchy.) Population. In 1931 Podlachia's population density was 46 people per sq km (45 in 1964). Then, as now, the highest density was in the fertile southwest near the Kholm border, and the lowest was in the marshy area of Bilovezha Forest and Volodava Polisia. Most of the population was rural: in 1931 only 15 percent (in 1964, 20 percent) of the population was urban. The larger towns in the central and southern regions are Volodava, Biala, Miçdzyrzec, and Parczew, and the smaller ones are Vyshnytsi, Slaviatychi, Janów, Kostiantyniv, and Terespil. In the north Bielsk, Melnyk, Dorohychyn, and Semiatycze are the larger settlements. The city of Brest (Berestia), on the border between Podlachia and Polisia, can be considered the main center of eastern Podlachia. TABLE 1

Orthodox inhabitants of Podlachia, 1905-31 (thousands; percentage of total inhabitants in parentheses) County Year

Biala Podlaska

Volodava

Radzyñ*

1905 1908 1921 1931

69.0 27.7 12.0 18.1

71.4 46.5 22.5 30.6

52.2 6.1 2.9 3.1

(57.0) (23.2) (14.2) (15.6)

(58.0) (37.5) (26.8) (27.0)

(32.0) (3.8) (1.4) (1.4)

"Including parts of Siedlce and Sokolów TABLE 2 Religious composition of Podlachia, 1905-31 (thousands; percentage of total in parentheses) Year

Roman Catholics

Orthodox and Greek Catholics

1905 1908 1921 1931

140 256 232 280

194 79 37 52

(34.3) (62.5) (72.5) (71.9)

(47.5) (19.3) (11.6) (13.3)

PODLACHIAN DIALECTS

At the beginning of the 2Oth century almost half (47.5 percent) of Podlachia's population was Greek Catholic or Orthodox. Roman Catholics accounted for a third (34.3 percent), and Jews for a sixth (16.8 percent). Resettlement and government policy brought about a dramatic change. By 1931 the Uniates and Orthodox constituted only 13.3 percent of the population, Roman Catholics, 71.9 percent, and Jews, 13.8 percent (see table 2). The predominantly Ukrainian territory shifted 20 to 30 km east of the Puhachiv-Parchiv-Miçdzyrzec-Dorohychyn line. Until 1945, Ukrainians formed a majority only in a narrow strip along the Buh River. West of that strip lay a mixed zone, with a Polish and Kalakut majority, and then a zone containing only small islands of Ukrainians. In southern Podlachia (excluding the western zone) the ethnic composition was 20.4 percent Ukrainians, 29.2 percent Kalakuty, 35 percent Poles, and 13.7 percent Jews. In northern Podlachia no comparable religious or demographic shift was experienced. In Bielsk county the ethnic mix of the population remained about the same as in 1931: Ukrainians, 70.9 percent, Poles, 21.5 percent, and Jews, 6.5 percent. Before the Second World War the Ukrainian population of Podlachia could be divided into three main groups, the Podlachians proper (Pidliashany), the Buhians (Buzhany), and the Khmaks (Khmaky). The first group inhabited the northwestern part of the region and were distinguished by their somber dress and manner. The second occupied a wide strip of land on the west bank of the Buh River and were noted for their tall stature, light features, and love for elaborate dress, music, and dancing. The Khmaks settled the southwestern part of Podlachia around Volodava and were known for their archaic dress. Their name was derived from their use of -khmo instead of -s 'mo for the past tense ending of 'to be' (eg, bulyxmo instead of bulys 'mo 'we were'). Economy. Before the Second World War Podlachia was an agricultural region, in which almost 80 percent of the population was occupied in farming. Some industrial development began to occur outside the Ukrainian parts of the region. The towns engaged in trade and the crafts. The old forests of Podlachia survived only in the northeastern part around Bilovezha Forest. In general only small pockets of forest are left. Much of the southeastern region (Volodava Polisia) consists of wasteland and hayfields. Arable land accounts for 47 percent of the land area, forests, for 23 percent, meadows and pastures, for 21 percent, and other land, for 9 percent. The main crops are rye (42 percent of the seeded area), potatoes (17 percent), oats (14 percent), animal feed (12 percent), wheat (7 percent), and barley (4 percent). The region produces a surplus of pork and dairy products. BIBLIOGRAPHY Batiushkov, P. Kholmskaia Rus' (St Petersburg 1887) Karetnikov, S. Kholmskaia guberniia (Lubny 1913) Korduba, M Pivnichno-zakhidna Ukra'ina (Vienna 1917) - Istoriia Kholmshchyny i Pidliashshia (Cracow 1941) Pasternak, le. Narys istorii Kholmshchyny i Pidliashshia: Novishi chasy (Winnipeg 1968) Martyniuk, M. (ed). Nadbuzhanshchyna, i (New York 1986) V. Kubijovyc

Podlachian dialects. The westernmost group of the *Polisian dialects, spoken by the inhabitants of Podlachia

6l

and a small number of pockets in the Kholm region. East of the Buh and Lisna rivers they merge with the western Polisian dialects. During the past century their territory has drastically decreased, particularly in southern Podlachia, and has been transformed into linguistic islands in a Polish environment. Intense Polonization pressures resulted in the emergence of several transitional mixed Ukrainian-Polish dialects, which have gradually become Polish ones. The mixed dialects in the vicinity of Siemiatycze and Bielsk Podlaski, for example, absorbed mazurzenie, ie, the Polish dialectal substitution of dental stops and affricates for alveolar stops and affricates (eg, káze, súsyt, xóce, sadzáje [su káze, súsyt', xóce, sadzáje] 'he says, he dries, he wants, he seats'), the Polish change o f t ' , d ' into c',dz' (eg, nedz'íel'a [su nedilja] 'Sunday7), and forms without /' after labials before once iotated vowels (eg, kupjú, kúpjat [su kupljú, kúpljat'] I/they will buy'). North of the Narew River certain typical Ukrainian features (eg, hard consonants before e, i) have given way to Belarusian ones, such as palatalization and sporadic dzekan'e (eg, ós'en', n'e xócu, kos'íc'i [su ósin', ne xócu, kosyty] 'autumn, I don't want, to mow'). Others - diphthongs with o, e, ë, a softened c' - have been retained (eg, s'ieno, mied, pryv'uoz, p'játn'ic'a [su sino, med, pryviz, p'jatnycja] 'hay, honey, I transported, Friday'). The influence of the '''South Volhynian dialects is evident in the Buh valley. Under the impact of Polish, hard dentals before e and i did not develop in the western and northwestern dialectal belts (eg, pól'e, hovoryl'i, zobácyt'i, s'élam'i [su pôle, hovoryly, zobácyty, sélamy] 'field, they said, to see, villages' instr). In the west and north the diphthongs uo, ue, uy, uy, yy, ie from o, ë, ë appear in a stressed position (eg, hnuoj, zam 'juol, s 'ieno, jacm 'ien ' [su hnij, zamív, sino, jacmín '] 'manure, he swept, hay, barley'). In the southeast they have been simplified into y, ye (eg, hnyj, sobjé [su hnij, sobí 'manure, to myself) and, in the unstressed position, u, y/i (eg, pudrusl'í, jáscurka, pópyl, zyncy [su pidrosly, jáscirka, pópil, zinci] 'grew-up, lizard, ashes, to the woman'). In the west, e, i appear in place of 'a from ç in an unstressed position (eg, pametáju, kolódz'iz'a [su pam'jatáju, kolódjazja] T remember, of the well'). Unstressed o, e are articulated high as u, y (eg, purubyü [su porobyv] 'I made'). The groups ky, gy, hy, xy, are articulated high as k 'i, g 'i, h 'i, x 'i (eg, kolosk 'í, x'ítry [su kolosky, xytryj] 'grain stalks, sly'), and the unstressed groups ça, za, sa, r'a are articulated as c'ja... around Biala Podlaska (eg, s'jápka [su sápka] 'hat') and as c'e in the south (eg, c'es [su cas] 'time'). Sporadically e changes into 'o (eg, viet'or, byróza, ukrad'óny [su viïer, beréza, ukrádenyj] 'wind, birch, stolen'). Initial o-, i- are preceded by a prothetic h- (eg, hórut, hínyj [su or jut ', inej] 'they plow, frost'). The soft r' became hard (eg, vyradyü [su vyrjadyv] 'he equipped'), the cluster si ' is pronounced s 'c ' (eg, sers'c',s'c'iény [su serst', stíny] '[animal] hair, walls'). Declension forms are of the type kon'óm (su koném) 'with a horse', kon 'urn (su kónjam) 'to the horses', na kón 'ux (SU na kónjax) 'on the horses', zeml'óju (su zemléju) 'with the earth', na muludómu kun 'óvy (su na molodómu koní) 'on a young horse', tel 'át 'a (su teljáty) 'of the calf, tel 'át 'ovy (SU teljati) 'to the calf, tel'át'om (su teljám) 'with the calf, mórovy (su mórju) 'to the sea', noc'íéj (su noce]) 'of the nights'. In certain nominal cases both hard and soft masculine, feminine, and neuter nouns, in which the stress is on the stem, have the same endings; eg, nóhi, zéml'i (SU nóhy, zémli) 'legs, lands', zúby, kóny (su zúby, kóni) 'teeth,

62

PODLACHIAN DIALECTS

horses', na koróvy, v néby (su na koróvi, v nebí) 'on the cow, in the sky'. Dual forms are also present; eg, 2 ukn 'i, styn '/, pól 'i, kon 'íe (su 2 vikná, stiny, pólja, kóni) '2 windows, walls, fields, horses'. In adjectives, long forms are used; eg, molody, -aja, -úju, -óje, -yji (su molodyj, -á, -ú, -é, -í) 'young7 masculine and feminine nominative singular, feminine accusative singular, neuter nominative singular, nominative plural. Short forms are used when the stress is on the root; eg, zytny, -na, -ne, -ny (su zytnij, -nja, -nje, -ni) 'rye' masculine, feminine, neuter nominative singular, nominative plural. Nas 'our' has both long and short forms; eg, nasaj-aja feminine nominative, nasuj-uju feminine accusative, nasej-oje neuter nominative. Pronouns have forms such as ton, taja, teje, tyji, vsen ' (su toj, ta, te, ti, uves ') 'that one' masculine, feminine, neuter singular, 'those ones', 'all'. Postprepositional third-person forms omit n-, eg, v jóho, na jyj, z jimy (su v n 'óho, na níj, z nymy) 'in him, on her, with them'. The influence of soft-type endings is evident in possessive and demonstrative pronouns; eg, méji, téji, méju, téju (SU mojéji, tijéji, mojéju, tijéjú) 'of my, of that, with my, with that' feminine. In conjugation, forms such as napecy (su napekty) 'to bake' and infinitives ending in -ie, eg, itie, pecye 'to go, to bake' in the northwest along the Buh are, perhaps, evidence of a Yatvingian substratum. Typical verbal forms are xódyt, budút', pytájec'c'a, zn'íem, id'íete, púojd'um, búd 'orno, búdu/máju nocovát 'i, kupyvem, kupyves ', kupyl 'is 'mo (su xódyt', búdut', pytájetsja, znemó, ideté, pidemo, búdemo, búdu/máju nocuváty, ja kupyv, ty kupyv, my kupyly) 'he walks, they will be, he asks, we reap, you (pi) go, we will go, we will be, I will be spending/am supposed to spend the night, I (masc) bought, you (mase sing) bought, we bought'. In the northwest the reflexive particle -sja is used separately from the verb. The lexicon of the Podlachian dialects has many Polonisms, as well as expressions unknown elsewhere that are etymologically identical with Polish ones; eg, knjázyc 'the moon', divosnuby 'matchmaking'. The dialects have been studied by M. Yanchuk, I. Bessaraba, J. Polivka, P. Rastorguev, I. Zilynsky, W. Kuraszkiewicz, Ja. Tarnacki, M. Lesiv (Lesidw), and G. Vinokur. O. Horbach

Podolchak, Ihor [Podol'cak], b 9 April 1962 in Lviv. Artist. He graduated from the Lviv Institute of Applied and Decorative Arts in 1984. His graphic works have received recognition at international expositions in Spain (1988) and Canada (1989). He won second prize at the International Ex Libris Exhibition in Germany (1987) and the Johnson Graphic Prize in the United States (1990). He has exhibited in group shows since 1985 and has had one-man shows in Lodz, Poland (1988); Cadaqués, Spain, Paris, and London (1990); and Lviv, Haifa, and Moscow (1991).

punitive expedition and handed over to the tsarist authorities; his further fate is unknown. Podolian Upland or Podolian Plateau. An upland in the *Podilia region of southwestern Ukraine on the left bank of the Dniester River. Elongated in shape, the upland has declining elevations along its length from 380 to 320 m in the northwest and from 220 to 130 m in the southeast. Its relatively flat surface is dissected by many parallel, canyonlike valleys joining the Dniester River valley to the south. The upland is underlain by limestones, marls, sandstones, and shales, and in its eastern part by granites and gneisses covered with layers of loess. As a result of intensive erosion its northern rim is a hilly escarpment, rising to over 400 m. The Dniester side is deeply incised by rivers, and the changing base levels of erosion are reflected in a series of steplike terraces. Once covered by a varied forest-steppe vegetation, the surface of the Podolian Upland is now extensively cultivated. Together with the Volhynia-Kholm Upland to the west-northwest, it forms the Volhynia-Podilia Upland. Podolianochka. A group dance for girls, accompanied with song. Traditionally a spring rite, the dance was performed by girls in a circle with one girl in the middle. While the girls in the circle sang, the 'Podolian girl' in the middle illustrated the song by mimicry or gesture. Then she chose someone else to be in the middle. The dance music is in 4/4 time with an extra beat at the end of each stanza. The podolianochka melody has been used by L. Revutsky and A. Kos-Anatolsky in their compositions. Podolinsky, Andrei [Podolinskij, Andrej] (Podolynsky, Andrii), b 13 July 1806 in Kiev, d 16 January 1886 in Kiev. Russian Romantic poet of Ukrainian descent; father of S. Podolynsky. In the 18205 his long poems, particularly 'Div i Peri' (Div and Peri) and 'Smert' Peri' (Peri's Death), and the novelette in verse Borskii were well received by Russian critics and readers. From 1839 to 1854 he did not publish. By the 18605 he was considered old-fashioned. His posthumously published novelette Zmei (The Dragon) is based on Ukrainian folkways and folklore. Editions of his works were published in 1837,1885, and 1936. Podolinsky, Sergei. See Podolynsky, Serhii.

Podoliak, Borys. See Kostiuk, Hryhorii.

Podolynsky, Mykhailo [Podolyns'kyj, Myxajlo], b 1844 in Dolyna county, Galicia, d 1894. Publicist, translator, and community activist; son of V. *Podolynsky. He was a founder and leader (1868-9) of the Sich student society in Vienna. He taught in gymnasiums in Lviv and Brody and contributed to the newspapers Pravda, Dilo, and Zoria. He wrote pedagogical essays, literary and art criticism, travelogs, and translations of Russian, Italian, and French works.

Podoliaka, Ivan [Podoljaka], b and d ? Haidamaka leader from Kropyvna, Pereiaslav regiment. During the 17305 he worked at the Zaporozhian Sich, and in the late 17405 he joined a haidamaka rebel group that was active in the Smila, Chyhyryn, and Cherkasy districts. After forming his own rebel detachment in 1750, he conducted raids in the Hornostaipil, Chornobyl, and Khabne districts, and even as far as Radomyshl. He was captured by a Polish

Podolynsky, Serhii [Podolyns'kyj, Serhij] (Podolinsky, Sergei), b 31 July 1850 in Yaroslavka, Zvenyhorod county, Kiev gubernia, d 12 July 1891 in Kiev. Socialist theoretician and activist, and physician. Podolynsky studied science and medicine in Kiev, Paris, Zurich, and Breslau (now Wroclaw). He published a number of works on medical topics, including a long study titled Zhyttia i zdorovia liudei na Ukraïni (The Life and Health of People in

PODY

Ukraine, 1879). He worked as a physician in Ukraine in the mid-iS/os, but in 1878 he settled in Montpellier, France, where he continued to practice medicine and also lectured at the famous Montpellier medical school. In the early 18705 he became involved both with the Russian populist P. Lavrov's Vpered! group and with the *Hromada of Kiev, particularly with the Hromada's most radical members, the socialist M. *Drahomanov and the Marxist M. *Ziber. To the end of his active life Podolynsky combined a revolutionary socialist perspective with devotion to the Ukrainian nation. In 1875 he broke with the Russian Lavrovists over the national question and spoke of the formation of a separate 'Ukrainian social-democratic party/ In the same year he wrote two brochures that were the first works in the Ukrainian language to advocate socialism, Parova mashyna (The Steam Engine) and Pro bidnist' (On Poverty). Podolynsky produced more popular socialist literature in Ukrainian over the next few years as well as some longer tracts on agrarian problems and the development of Ukrainian industry. He co-operated closely with Drahomanov and his journal Hromada, to which he contributed several articles and of which he formally became coeditor in 1881. He was also involved in the international socialist movement, contributed to German-, Italian-, and especially French-language socialist journals, and reported on international socialist affairs in Vpered! and Hromada. Podolynsky made an important contribution to theory in his article 'Socialism, or Human Labor and the Unity of Physical Forces/ which was published in several versions and four languages in 1880-3. Although the theory was rejected by F. Engels and then long forgotten, it came to light again in the 19705 and 19805. The Ukrainian dissident M. *Rudenko drew on Podolynsky's ideas for his Ekonomichni monolohy (Economic Monologues). Podolynsky has also come to be regarded as a precursor of energy economics or socioenergetics. His activities were cut short in January 1882 when he suffered a mental collapse, from which he never recovered. BIBLIOGRAPHY Mytsiuk, O. Ukrains'kyi ekonomist-hromadivets' S.A. Podolins'kyi (Lviv 1933) Martines, A; Naredo, J. 'A Marxist Precursor of Energy Economics: Podolinsky/ Journal of Peasant Studies, 9, no. 2 (January 1982) Podolyns'kyi, S. Vybrani tvory, ed R. Serbyn (Montreal 1990) Zlupko, S. Serhii Podolyns'kyi - Vchenyi, myslytel', revoliutsioner (Lviv 1990) J.-P. Himka

Podolynsky, Vasyl [Podolyns'kyj, VasyF], b 14 or 15 January 1815 in Bilych, Sambir circle, d 24 August 1876 in Maniv, Lisko county, Galicia. Priest and publicist; father of M. ^Podolynsky. As a student at the Greek Catholic Theological Seminary in Lviv (1837-41) he belonged to the Polish clandestine Union of Sons of the Homeland. He was ordained in 1843, and served as a priest in Vetlyn, Peremyshl circle. During the Revolution of 1848 he published in Sianik a Polish brochure, Slowo przestrogi (A Word of Warning), in which he analyzed the pro-Polish, pro-Russian, pro-Austrian, and pro-Ukrainian political orientations among Galicia's Ukrainians, defended the use of Ukrainian as a separate language, and substantiated the idea of an independent, united Ukrainian state and

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a federation of free Slavic peoples. The brochure influenced the politics of the ^Supreme Ruthenian Council. Podolynsky was arrested while on his way to join the Hungarian revolutionaries. After the revolution he was persecuted by the church hierarchy. He was a pastor in Maniv from 1852, and he established an elementary school there in 1859. Podushko, Zinovii [Podusko, Zinovij], b 29 October 1887 in Ocheretyne, Izium county, Kharkiv gubernia, d 3 March 1963 in Lodz, Poland. Painter. A graduate of the Kiev Art School (1911) and St Petersburg Academy of Arts (1917), from 1919 he lived in Poland. In Lodz he worked as a scenery designer for local theaters and as a draftsman for the city planning bureau. His early works were exhibited in Lviv, Cracow, Warsaw, and Lublin. He was known for his many realist oil landscapes, such as Sunset, Evening in the Steppe. Most of them perished during the Second World War. Podvezko, Mykhailo [Podvez'ko, Myxajlo] (Podvesko), b 14 November 1901 in Riabushky, Lebedyn county, Kharkiv gubernia, d ? Lexicographer. A graduate of the Ukrainian Institute of Linguistic Education in Kharkiv (1935), he taught in secondary and postsecondary schools in Kiev until 1941. From 1945 ne worked as an editor and lexicographer. He compiled the first Soviet English-Ukrainian dictionaries (50,000 words, 1948; 25,000 words, 1955; 65,000 words, with M. Baila, 1974) and, with the help of K. Hryhorenko, the first Soviet Ukrainian-English dictionary (60,000 words, 1952; rev edn 1957). Podvorniak, Mykhailo [Podvornjak, Myxajlo], b 24 December 1911 in Khotovytsia, Kremianets county, Volhynia gubernia. Writer. A postwar refugee, he settled in Winnipeg in 1949. There he has edited the Baptist monthly Khrystyians 'kyi visnyk and been secretary of the Research Institute of Volyn. He is the author of the story collections Na shliakhu zhyttia (On Life's Road, 2 vols, 1951,1953), Zelenyi hai (The Green Grove, 1959), Bozhyi spokii (Divine Tranquility, 1966), Vidpavshi (Those Who Fell Away, 1968), Zapashnist' polia (The Field's Fragrance, 1971), Zolota osin' (Golden Autumn, 1974), Daleki berehy (Distant Shores, 1975), Odnoho dnia (One Day, 1977), and Stezhky i dorohy (Paths and Roads, 1981); the novels Nedospivana pisnia (The Unfinished Song, 1967), Brat i sestra (Brother and Sister, 1979), and Persha liubov (First Love, 1986); and the memoirs Daleka doroha (The Long Road, 1963), Nebesnyi dim (The Celestial Abode, 1965), and Viter z Volyni (Wind from Volhynia, 1981). He has also translated Russian religious literature into Ukrainian. Pody (aka pady, zapadyny, or chapli). Flat-bottomed depressions commonly found in Ukraine on the loessial plains of the forest-steppe and steppe zones. They are circular, oval, or elongated in form and range from 0.2 to 10 km across and 0.5 to 17 m in depth. They are particularly numerous between the Dnieper and the Molochna rivers and also between the Dnieper and the Boh rivers. In the spring pody collect meltwater and frequently form seasonal lakes. They thereupon accumulate a greater quantity of moisture and support rich meadows for use as pastures or hayfields. One of the larger pody contains part of the Askaniia-Nova Nature Reserve.

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PODY

The origins of pody in Ukraine have been associated with various processes. P. Tutkovsky considered that they were formed by means of wind deflation. M. Dmytriiev associated their genesis with karst phenomena in the underlying Pontic Sea limestones that caused a subsidence of the surface loess. V. Bondarchuk, however, correlated their formation with the late Pliocene epoch surface of the area, after the Pontic Sea had receded but before the accumulation of loess. Expanding on that idea P. Zamorii considered the large pody as remnants of bays from the receding sea; the smaller ones he accounted for as loessial subsidence that resulted from differentiated leaching or loessial karst. A. Mulika suggested a mix of the aforementioned factors and added that some pody were actually dried-up lakes. Related to the pody are small depressions in the loessial plains known as bliudtsia. Common in nearly all of the steppe and forest-steppe zones of Ukraine, they are often considered to be small pody. They range from a few meters to several hundred meters across and may be from 0.5 to 4 m deep. I. Stebelsky

Podzhio, Aleksandr [Podzio] (Poggio), b 8 May 1798, d 18 June 1873 in Voronky, Kozelets county, Chernihiv gubernia. Russian nobleman and Decembrist of Italian origin; son of an early architect of Odessa. He became a member of the Northern Society in 1821 while serving as an officer in the Preobrazhenskii Regiment. In 1823 he retired as a reserve colonel of the Dnieper Regiment and moved to his mother's estate in Kiev gubernia. There he joined the ^Southern Society and became a close associate of P. *Pestel. After the revolt of the Chernihiv Regiment failed, Podzhio was arrested, tried for treason, and sentenced to death. The verdict was commuted to 20 years of hard labor in Siberia. After his release in 1859, he lived abroad (mostly in Switzerland) for several years and became a close friend of A. Herzen. Podzhio's memoirs of the Decembrist movement were published in 1930. Podzhio, Borys [Podzio], b 1875? d 1920. UNR Army general. A brigadier general in the Russian army, in 1917 he commanded a division. Upon joining the UNR Army he was assigned to command a division in the Second Ukrainian Corps. In 1918 he commanded the Third Kherson Corps, and in 1919, briefly, the Zaporozhian Corps. Poetics (from Greek poietike). The term, in its broadest sense, refers to works on the theory of literature and esthetics, the first such being Aristotle's renowned treatise Poetics. More specifically, poetics embraces that segment of literary studies which is concerned with the structure of a work of literature, its language, its tropes, and so on. In its narrowest sense the term is used to describe a work devoted to the nature and laws of poetry. In Ukraine the heyday of poetics occurred in the 17th and i8th centuries and was closely tied to developments in education and the curriculum of the *Kievan Mohyla Academy. At the academy poetics, together with rhetoric and philosophy, was a compulsory subject taught in Latin. It was not customary to publish the texts for the courses, but as many as 15 exist in manuscript form, mainly from the end of the 17th century. The first such manuscript, Liber arïis poëticae ... anno Domini 1637, is dated five

years after the establishment of the academy. Even earlier, some rules of versification were included in the grammars of L. Zyzanii (1596) and M. Smotrytsky (1619). Both Zyzanii and Smotrytsky, as well as all of the later school poetics, tried to impose Greek and Latin versification rules on Ukrainian verse. Not until the poetics of M. Dovhalevsky (1736) and H. Slomynsky (1744-5) was any attention given to contemporary Ukrainian verse. Another important work of the i8th century was the De arte poética libri tres ... of T. Prokopovych, written in 1705-6 but published only in 1786 by H. Konysky, as a textbook. In the 19th century no new poetics were written, but interest in the subject appears toward the later part of the century, in some works of O. Potebnia, M. Drahomanov, and I. Franko and especially in K. Luchakovsky's Nacherk stylistyky, poetyky i retoryky (Outline of Stylistics, Poetics, and Rhetoric, 1894), which was part of the high school curriculum in Galicia at that time. A renewed interest in the more narrow sense of poetics occurred in the 2Oth century, during the 19205; several works appeared in the new Soviet Ukraine: S. Haievsky's Teoriia poezii (Theory of Poetry, 1921), B. Yakubsky's Nauka virshuvannia (Study of Versification, 1922), D. Zahul's Poetyka (Poetics, 1923), and B. Navrotsky's Mova ta poeziia (Language and Poetry, 1925). Other more broadly defined works on poetics also appeared: H. Maifet's collection Teoriia literatury (Theory of Literature, 2 vols, 1931-2), M. Yohansen's Iak buduiet'sia opovidannia (How a Story Is Constructed, 1928), and several works on various aspects of creativity by such scholars as M. Zerov and P. Fylypovych. Western Ukraine also saw a revival in the study of poetics, in such works as V. Dombrovsky's Ukraïns 'ka stylistyka i rytmika (Ukrainian Stylistics and Rhythmics, 1923), M. Rudnytsky's Mizh ideieiu i formoiu (Between the Idea and the Form, 1932), and several works by F. Kolessa. Work on poetics continued among émigrés after the Second World War: S. Hordynsky's Ukraïns'kyi virsh (The Ukrainian Poem, 1947), I. Koshelivets's Narysy z teoriï literatury (Outlines of the Theory of Literature, 1954), and I. Kachurovsky's Strofika (Strophes, 1967), Fonika (Phonics, 1984), and Narys komparatyvnoi metryky (Outline of Comparative Metrics, 1985). Work on poetics became revitalized in Ukraine in the 19605, when several studies appeared: V. Kovalevsky's Rytmichni zasoby ukrains'koho llteraturnoho virsha (The Rhythmic Devices of Ukrainian Literary Verse, 1960) and Ryma (Rhyme, 1965), H. Sydorenko's Virshuvannia v ukraïns 'kii literaturi (Versification in Ukrainian Literature, 1962), and P. Volynsky's Osnovy teoriï literatury (Fundamentals of the Theory of Literature, 1962). Structuralist theory found its proponent in the work of M. Laslo-Kutsiuk in Rumania, in Pytannia ukraïns 'koï poetyky (Studies of Ukrainian Poetics, 1974). BIBLIOGRAPHY Petrov, N. 'O slovesnykh naukakh i literaturnykh zaniatiiakh v Kievskoi akademii ot nachala ee do preobrazovaniia v 1819 godu/ TKDA, 1866, nos 7,11-12; 1867, no. i; 1868, no. 3 Syvokin', H. Davni ukraïns'ki poetyky (Kharkiv 1960) Krekoten', V. 'Kyïvs'ka poetyka/ in Literaturna spadshchyna Kyïvs'koï'Rusi i ukraïns'ka literatura xvi-xvmst., ed O. Myshanych (Kiev 1981) Sulyma, M. Teoriia virshuvannia na Ukraïni v xvi-xvn st. (Sproba opysu i rekonstruktsfí)/ in Literaturna spadshchyna Kyïvs 'koï Rusi i ukraïns'ka literatura xvi-xvmst., ed O. Myshanych (Kiev 1981) I. Kachurovsky, D.H. Struk

POETRY

Poetry (from Greek poiesis, meaning creativity). In its original sense the term 'poetry7 is synonymous with creative artistic literature. In a stricter and more conventional sense 'poetry' refers to that genre of literature which is written in verse as opposed to *prose. Although poetry is a highly developed genre in classical and modern Ukrainian literature, it nonetheless shares general outlines of development with all Ukrainian literature, especially in the first two periods, the Kievan and the Cossack (see ditera ture for periodization). The Kievan period. Like all of the other literary genres poetry was at first imported in translations together with liturgical material. It consisted mainly of Byzantine and Old Bulgarian hymns as well as poetic introductions to the Gospels, such as Tokhvala tsariu Symeonu' in the Izbornik of Sviatoslav of 1073, or the prologue to the didactic Gospel of K. Preslavsky, the so-called 'alphabet prayer/ Those and other church-related poems (introductions, praises, alphabet poems - the latter often used to teach the Slavonic alphabet) as well as numerous Byzantine liturgical hymns played an important role in the formation of original Ukrainian poetry. Such hymns were compiled in menaia, triodia, octoechos, and psalters and had a profound influence on poetic perception. The translated corpus of hymns served as a source for the imagery, comparisons, and epithets in the literary monuments of the period. The first known original Ukrainian poem is the song of praise to SS Boris and Hlib from the chronicle *Povist' vremennykh lit. The work, written by an anonymous author (some say Metropolitan loann i), is poetically similar to various Byzantine hymns of praise, and its verse elements are derived from a syntactical parallelism based on the repetition of the word 'rejoice/ Similar syntactic versification is found in another original work, 'Slovo v novu nediliu po Pastsi' (A Word on the First Sunday after Easter, ca 1170), by the noteworthy 12th-century sermonizer Bishop Cyril of Turiv. Many translated texts lost their graphic designation of verse and were written out in proselike lines, but there seems little doubt that the old Rus' scribes and translators were familiar with Greek poetics and the rules governing the structure of hymns. It is not surprising, therefore, that quite complicated poetic forms have been found, where lines of various syllables exist, and where no rhyme is present. The unifying poetic structure emanates from a contextual semantic line, syntactic parallelism, and various other poetic or rhetorical devices. Such free nonsyllabic verse is derived from Byzantine models, the original of which go back to biblical verse. A sample of such a semantically structured poem is found in Moleniie Danyla Zatochnyka (Supplication of Daniel the Exile, end of the 12th or beginning of the 13th century), in the anonymous 'Slovo pro pohybel' rus'ko'i zemli' (The Tale of Disintegration of the Rus' Lands, ca 13th to 14th century), and in the anonymous 'Slovo o Lazar e vim voskresinni' (Tale of Lazarus's Resurrection). In the multisyllabic line and the recitative nature of those poems there is much similarity to various samples of folk poetry. Both the Byzantine and the native folk influence found their reflection in the most outstanding poetic work of the Kievan period, the epic poem *Slovo o polku Ihorevi (The Tale of Ihor's Campaign, ca 1187). I. *Franko pointed out (1907) that the versificatory underpinnings of the epic and other 'slovos' were based on church hymns, and at the

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same time coincided with the syllabic and syntactic structures found in folk songs. His claim that there existed a 'retinue-chivalrous' (druzhynno-lytsars 'ka) school of poetry to which all those and many nonextant works belong is unverifiable precisely owing to the paucity of existing examples. As with other genres there are no samples of poetry from the 14th and 15th centuries. The Cossack period. Although there are some poems from the beginning of the loth century (eg, P. *Rusyn's songs from 1509), most of the poetry begins in the second half of the century, since it is closely tied to the establishment of ^brotherhood schools. As the numerous extant copies of ""poetics attest, versification was a compulsory subject in the schools, and all pupils were taught poetic models based first and foremost on Polish syllabic verse and even on ancient Greek and Latin models (eg, M. Smotrytsky's Gmmatiki...). The other major influence on early Ukrainian poetry was the poetic structure inherent in folk songs - a syllabic versification with determined ictuses, and thereby readily congenial to both the syllabic verse imported from Poland and the individual modulations which later became the basis for the emergence of the tonic principle of versification. The 'school poetry/ as the vast production of the period is called, although often imitative and stilted, varies in the language used (Latin, Polish, Old Ukrainian, or Church Slavonic) and can be roughly divided into three groups: (i) strict school-type poems, written in accordance with poetic rules, often in Latin, Polish, or Church Slavonic, as well as various trick-poems, acrostics, and the like; (2) poems that took their cue from folk poetry and even became part of the folk repertoire (some poems by H. *Skovoroda and S. Klymovsky's 'ïkhav kozak za Dunai' [The Cossack Rode beyond the Danube], which was made eternal by L. van Beethoven's variations on the song); and (3) humorous and satiric poems and travesties. Into the first group fall the Latin hexameters of Klymovych, S. Pekalid, and H. Vyshnevsky as well as the Old Ukrainian, Polish, and Church Slavonic syllabic verses of L. Baranovych, M. Smotrytsky, O. Mytura, K. Sakovych, and S. Pochasky. Interesting are A. Kalnofoisky, the author of Temturhima (1638), for his epitaphs written in Polish, I. Maksymovych for his 25,ooo-line hymn to the Virgin (Bohorodytse Divo [Virgin Mother of God, 1707]), and T. *Prokopovych for the sheer variety of his creativity. The poets belonging to the second group are more stimulating in that they pushed the confines of school poetics to the limits and thus paved the way for the poetry which was to follow in the 19th century. Skovoroda is the best known and most gifted of the group. Interesting verses with a syllabic structure approaching folk styles are found among the poems of I. Velychkovsky, I. Pashkovsky, Z. Dziubarevych, and, especially, K. *Stavrovetsky-Tranquillon (Perlo mnohotsinnoie [A Priceless Pearl, 1646]), who uses lines of irregular syllables close to those of folk *dumas. P. *Berynda's use of poetic dialogue in 1611 is expanded further by S. Divovych in 'Razhovor Velikorossii s Malorossiei' (The Conversation of Great Russia with Little Russia, 1762). The most notable works of the third group are, for their sheer number (369), the opinionated poems of K. Zynoviev, written sometime at the beginning of the i8th century; the Polish verses of D. Bratkovsky; the satiric poems of the monk Yakiv; and the facile and loquacious verses of I. Nekrashevych.

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Although no major poet emerged, and few of the poets have any consistency in their writings, many wrote poetry which could fit all three of the aforementioned categories. Poetry was more an adjunct of an educated man than a creative art; hence, it was used for various purposes - religious, polemical, humorous, and as a means of expressing gratitude (the numerous panegyrics, heraldic poems, and epigrams). Few works were published, and many remained in manuscript form; they are unknown except to specialists in the period. A notable place is occupied by the folk *dumas composed during the period; their influence on later Romantic poets was profound. The vernacular period. Classicism with its strict dicta on use of language, together with the nascent tonic versification in Russia, contributed to the birth and the nature of vernacular Ukrainian poetry. I. *Kotliarevsky wrote a travesty of Virgil7 s Aeneid in contemporary spoken Ukrainian and composed the Eneida in a io-line strophe of fourfoot iambs, thereby giving a start to syllabo-tonic metrics in Ukrainian literature. Two poets who still wrote within the classicist dicta were P. *Hulak-Artemovsky, with his translations and travesties, and Ye. *Hrebinka, who wrote versified fables (Malorossiiskie prikazki [Little Russian Proverbs, 1834]). Other poets of the first half of the 19th century were already under the influence of romanticism, the tenets of which were highly propitious to the development of literature in the vernacular and to an intensification of the influence of folk poetry. Members of the *Kharkiv Romantic School, most notably L. *Borovykovsky, with his ballads, and A. *Metlynsky, full of nostalgia for the heroic past of the Cossacks and pessimism for the future, were soon followed by a more ideological group in Kiev, the *Cyril and Methodius Brotherhood. By far the greatest poet of that group and the greatest poet in Ukrainian literature, T. *Shevchenko, led Ukrainian poetry firmly out of travesty and burlesque and established its canons by skillfully blending the popular *kolomyika syllabic structure (two lines of 4 + 4 + 6 syllables, variously rhymed) and other folk syllabic structures with a tonic system of various metric feet. Overshadowed by Shevchenko but more conscious of his poetic role was M. *Kulish, who experimented with language (the conscious introduction of Church Slavonic into the vernacular) and with structure (the attempt to domesticate various ancient and canonical strophes). Another prominent member of the Kiev group was the historian M. *Kostomarov, who wrote historical ballads under the pseudonym Yeremiia Halka. The symbiotic relationship between folk poetry and literary creation is seen in the works of several poets whose poems have entered the folk-song repertoire: S. Pysarevsky ('De ty brodysh moia dole?' [Where Do You Wander, My Fate?]), M. Petrenko ('Dyvlius' ia na nebo' [I Gaze at the Sky]), K. Dumytrashko ('Chorniï brovy, kariï ochi7 [Black Eyebrows, Hazel Eyes]), and P. Nishchynsky ('Zakuvala ta syva zozulia7 [The Gray Cuckoo Has Called]), to name just the most famous. Poetry played a key role in spreading the vernacular to other parts of Ukraine. The *Ruthenian Triad of I. Vahylevych, Ya. Holovatsky, and M. *Shaskevych (the most gifted poet of the three) introduced the vernacular to Galicia in their Rusalka Dnistrovaia (Dniester Nymph, 1837). Yu. *Fedkovych7s ballads and soldier poems did the same for Bukovyna (first collection in 1862), and O. *Dukhnovych7s poems for

Transcarpathia. Other poets of note in the first half of the icth century were the Galician A. *Mohylnytsky, S. *Vorobkevych, V. *Mova, the sensitive lyricist L. *Hlibov, and S. *Rudansky, known chiefly for his collection of verse based on folk humor and wisdom, Spivomovky. The second half of the century saw a decline in poetry, partly because of the overwhelming weight of Shevchenko7 s influence, which encouraged a proliferation of epigones, but mainly because of the dominance of realism and naturalism, the esthetic programs of which lent themselves to prose. No small part in the decline of the quality of poetry and of literary activity in general was played by the tsarist prohibitions of Ukrainian letters, the Valuev circular (see P. *Valuev) and the *Ems Ukase. What poetry appeared was mainly directed to the advancement of the struggle of the downtrodden - the peasant, the artisan, the worker, or the Ukrainian people in general. A major part of the poetic output by such populist writers as Ya. Shchoholiv, B. *Hrinchenko, P. *Hrabovsky, and I. Manzhura consisted of rather standard quatrains with regular meters and rhymes, devoted thematically to 'realistic7 depiction of the difficult conditions, and of exhortations to persevere and to struggle for a better future. Somewhat more lyrical were the poems of V. Shchurat, S. Yarychevsky, M. Kichura, and the feminist U. Kravchenko. The unfavorable climate for poetry was overcome by Franko and Lesia *Ukrainka. Franko's mastery of form and wealth of themes (from revolutionary hymns such as 'Ne pora ../ [It Is Not Time Now ...] to the exquisite personal lyricism in Ziv'iale lystia [Withered Leaves, 1896]) greatly advanced the development of Ukrainian poetry. Similarly, Lesia Ukrainka enhanced the Ukrainian poetic tradition by her poetic dramas, in which she skillfully domesticated world themes and revealed a masterful command of iambic pentameter. The influences of Western ""symbolism, supported by similar developments in Russia and in Poland, gave rise toward the end of the century to a new esthetic perception. M. *Vorony launched Ukrainian modernism by issuing a manifesto (1901) calling for broader esthetic horizons7 and publishing an almanac, Z nad khmar i dolyn (From above the Clouds and from Valleys, 1903), which attempted, with little success, to publish only 'modern7 works. Neither Vorony7s poetry nor that of other modernist poets was exceptional. Such poets as P. *Karmansky, V. *Pachovsky, S. Tverdokhlib, O. Lutsky, S. Charnetsky (all part of *Moloda Muza in Lviv) and K. *Alchevska, M. Sribliansky (Mykyta *Shapoval), who contributed to the modernist journal *Ukraïns'ka khata, pursued the idea of 'art for art's sake,7 often embraced the fin-de-siècle despair in pessimistic outpourings, and, in general, greatly expanded the borders of the acceptable in Ukrainian poetry. M. *Cherniavsky, a poet from an older generation, V. *Samiilenko, with his satiric verse, and A. *Krymsky, with his exoticism, all contributed to the revival of lyrical poetry. Symbolism, especially P. Verlaine7s notion of 'music above all else,7 found many adherents, especially O. *Oles, by far the most popular lyricist of the time, and H. *Chuprynka. Poetry also expanded into prose in the miniatures of M. *Yatskiv and in some works of poetic prose by O. Kobylianska ('Bytva7 [The Battle]), V. Stefanyk ('Moie slovo' [My Word] and 'Moia doroha7 [My Road]), and M. Kotsiubynsky ('Intermezzo7).

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The literary renaissance of the 19205 was all-embracing, but poetry was a dominant genre. P. *Tychyna's unique poetic expression, a revitalized, skillfully structured folk idiom imbued with contemporary symbols and tropes, placed Ukrainian poetry on the first truly new course since Shevchenko. Out of the hundreds of poets who appeared, many were excellent, but none were as influential with respect to the development of Ukrainian poetry as Tychyna. The poetry of other symbolists, such as Ya. *Savchenko, O. *Slisarenko, M. *Tereshchenko, D. *Zahul, and V. *Svidzinsky, was close to Tychyna's. More unconventional poetry was written by the proponents of 'futurism M. *Semenko, G. *Shkurupii, and O. *Vlyzko. Deriving from futurism but original and forceful was the poetry of M. *Bazhan. French Parnassian poetry influenced several poets, including M. *Zerov, M. *Rylsky, M. *Drai-Khmara, P. *Fylypovych, and Yu. *Klen, who were unofficially united in the group of *Neoclassicists. More traditional and without a specific 'ism7 was the poetry of V. *Blakytny, V. *Polishchuk, V. *Chumak, D. *Falkivsky, M. *Yohansen, and Ye. *Pluzhnyk. Lyrical, prolific, and popular was the poet V. *Sosiura. The mass phenomenon in the literature of the period did not bypass poetry, and there were multitudes of 'poets' who wrote contemporary verses singing the praises of the proletariat. Better examples of such poetry can be found in the works of T. Masenko and V. Mysyíc. But the renaissance was short-lived. Few of the many poets and writers managed to survive the terror of the 19305 and the difficult years that followed until the death of }. Stalin. Some, such as T. *Osmachka, I. *Bahriany, and V. *Barka, not only survived but managed to emigrate and thus provide a continuity between the poetry of the 19208 and that of later decades. Western Ukraine in the interwar period produced one major poet, B.I. *Antonych. Whereas Tychyna brought a fresh new sound to Ukrainian poetry, Antonych refurbished its imagery. During and immediately after the struggle for national independence, certain poets wrote poetry celebrating the movement and exploits of the *Sich Riflemen. Much of it was written in the genre of folk songs, by R. *Kupchynsky, L. Lepky, Yu. Shkrumeliak, and others. Other poets in Western Ukraine grouped themselves around various journals according to ideological or esthetic conviction. Antonych was the main poet of the Catholic journal Dzvony. The pro-Soviet Novi shliakhy and Vikna featured A. *Kolomyiets and V. *Bobynsky. Bobynsky and O. Babii also wrote for *'My'tusa, and S. *Hordynsky and V. *Lesych contributed to Nazustrich, both of which journals espoused art above ideology. The majority of poets were in the nationalist camp and grouped themselves around *Vistnyk, whether in Lviv (eg, B. *Kravtsiv), Prague (eg, Yu. Darahan, O. *Liaturynska, L. *Mosendz, O. *Stefanovych, O. *Olzhych, and O. *Teliha), or Warsaw (eg, Yu. *Lypa, N. *Livytska-Kholodna, and Ye. *Malaniuk). Their poetry, often written in regular meters and strophes and employing heroic imagery, was aimed chiefly at furthering the struggle for national liberation. Somewhat apart geographically but not ideologically or in matters of form were the poets of Transcarpathian Ukraine, among whom the most noted were V. *Grendzha-Donsky, I. *Irliavsky, and A. *Harasevych. Rylsky, Bazhan, and Tychyna were the few great poets who survived the purges and continued writing through the artistically barren years of the 19405 and 19505. They

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were joined by other, younger poets, such as A. *Malyshko, P. *Voronko, O. Pidsukha, R. *Bratun, and D. *Pavlychko, whose talents could not always develop freely in the difficult political circumstances. Through the 19405 and 19505 they, like everyone else, wrote what was demanded and expected of them by the Party. Rarely did their verse have anything to do with poetry. Others, from both Soviet and Western Ukraine, such as Osmachka, Bahriany, Barka, Klen, Malaniuk, Mosendz, Kravtsiv, Lesych, Liaturynska, Hordynsky, and M. *Orest, emigrated and continued to write after the Second World War. Some new poets appeared during the literary heyday that took place after the war in the displaced persons' camps. Poets such as Ya. *Slavutych, L. *Lyman, P. *KarpenkoKrynytsia, and H. *Cherin remained true both thematically and stylistically to the nationalistic poetry of the preceding generation. Somewhat different were the symbolistic and hermetic poetry of O. *Zuievsky, the philosophical sonnets of O. *Tarnavsky, and the introspective lyricism of B. *Oleksandriv and V. *Skorupsky. All continued to write after resettling outside of Europe, mostly in Canada (Slavutych, Zuievsky, Oleskandriv, Skorupsky, and others) or the United States (Tarnavsky, Cherin, Lyman, Hordynsky, and others). There are Ukrainian poets in every country to which Ukrainians emigrated. In Australia the best known are Z. Kohut, P. Vakulenko, and V. Onufriienko; in Great Britain, B. Bora, H. Mazurenko, and A. Lehit; in France, M. Kalytovska; in Germany, E. *Andiievska, I. *Kachurovsky, and the more recent émigré from Ukraine, M. Fishbein; and in Belgium, R. Baboval. When the émigrés resettled in North America after the Second World War, they found a poetic tradition cultivated by the earlier émigrés, especially in Canada. Most of the poetry written in the first half of the 2Oth century consisted of folksy verses expressing longing for the homeland and the hardships of pioneer life. Such were the poems of P. Bozhyk, S. Palamariuk, T. *Fedyk, and others. More imbued with interwar nationalism were the poems of V. Kudryk, M. Gowda, I. Novosad, T. Kroiter, and, later, M. *Mandryka. (For fuller lists see *Canada.) A major shift in Ukrainian poetry occurred in the late 19505. After the death of Stalin in 1953 and the 'de-Stalinization' speech by N. Khrushchev at the 2Oth Party Congress in February 1956, literature, expecially poetry, revived. The so-called *shestydesiatnyky were able to overcome the destruction wrought by Stalinism for three decades and proceeded with the development of poetry where it had left off in the 19208. A vitality and freshness permeates their lyricism. More than 60 new poets appeared; others, such as Pavlychko, were able to show their real talent for the first time. The foremost poets of that generation were L. *Kostenko, I. *Drach, V. *Korotych, M. *Vinhranovsky, and V. *Symonenko. Although new repressions occurred in the 19705, a second generation of poets managed to appear. Among them the most noted were I. *Kalynets, V. *Stus, V. *Holoborodko, and I. *Zhylenko. Kalynets gave promise of moving Ukrainian poetry, as Tychyna had done before him, onto a new plane, in his synthesis of elemental Ukrainian spirituality and modern versification, but the repressions of L. Brezhnev prevented his doing so. The almost-official poet of Ukraine of the 19805 was B. *Oliinyk, although Drach, Pavlychko, and Kostenko retained their prominence. Some younger poets who showed promise in the 19805 were V. Zatuly-

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viter, O. Slonovska, S. Yovenko, N. Davydovska, N. Bilotserkivets, and M. Barandii. Almost simultaneously with the appearance of the shestedysiatnyky a modernization occurred in Ukrainian poetry outside of Ukraine. The *New York Group embraced younger poets who rejected the nationalist poetry of their predecessors and were searching for a new synthesis and expression capable of absorbing their peculiar situation as permanent émigrés. Their methods varied, from the surrealism of Andiievska to the depoetizations of G. *Tarnawsky, the sensuality of B. *Boychuk, the exoticism of V. Vovk, the intellectualism of B. *Rubchak, and the estrangement of P. Kylyna (*Warren). A decade later the Prague Spring also brought a revival in the poetry of Ukrainians living in Czechoslovakia, most notably that of S. *Makara and S. *Hostyniak. Of interest also is the poetry of P. Romaniuk in Rumania. Despite various political intrusions the writing of poetry continues to be the major Ukrainian literary activity. Among the émigrés there are many versifiers but few poets. There is some promise, however, in the youngest generation, namely, M. Revakovych, L. Gavur, and Dzhaveh [A. Wynnyckyj] in North America. In Ukraine in the late 19805 a most interesting phenomenon was the appearance of new poetic groupings, such as the avant-garde Bu-BaBu, with the satiric, often parodie verses of V. Neborak, Yu. Andrukhovych, and O. Irvanets; LuHoSad, embracing the neofuturistic wordplay of I. Luchuk, N. Ronchar, and R. Sadlovsky; and Propala Hramota, composed of the equally verbally daring and playful poets of Kiev O. Semenchenko (pseud: Semen Lybon), Yu. Lysenko (pseud: Yurko Pozaiak), and V. Lapkin (pseud: Viktor Nedostup). Under the new conditions of literary freedom some poets of previous generations were finally published (eg, M. *Vorobiov and T. *Melnychuk). Among the many younger poets of interest who appeared in the 19805 are V. Herasymiuk, I. Malkovych, I. Rymaruk, L. Taran, O. Lysheha, and O. Zabushko. BIBLIOGRAPHY Lepkyi, B. Struny: Antol'ogiia ukraïns'koï poeziï (Berlm 1922) Kravtsiv, B. (ed). Obirvani struny: Antolohiia poeziï poliahlykh, rozstrilianykh, zamuchenykh i zaslanykh, 1920-1945 (New York 1955) Stel'makh, M.; Synytsia, I. (eds). Narodna liryka (Kiev 1956) Derzhavyn, V. (ed). Antolohiia ukmïns'koï poeziï (London 1957) Sydorenko, H. Virshuvannia v ukraïns 'kii litemturi (Kiev 1962) Andrusyshen, C.H.; Kirkconnell, W. (eds). The Ukrainian Poets, 1189-1962 (Toronto 1963) Mykytas', V.; Rudlovchak, O. (eds). Poety Zakarpattia: Antolohiia zakarpatoukraïns'koï poeziï (xvi st.-1945 r.) (Presov 1965) Kravtsiv, B. (ed). Shistdesiat poetiv shistdesiatykh rokiv (New York 1967) Mishchenko, L. (ed). Trydtsiat' ukraïns'kykh poetes: Antolohiia (Kiev 1968) Polishchuk, F. (ed). Ukraïns 'ka narodna poetychna tvorchist': Khrestomatiia (Kiev 1968) Boichuk, B.; Rubchak, B. (eds). Koordynaty: Antolohiia suchasnoï ukraïns 'koï poeziï na zakhodi, 2 vols (Munich 1969) Hrytsai, M. Davnia ukraïns 'ka poeziia (Kiev 1972) Dobrians'kyi, A. (ed). Ukraïns'kyi sonet: Antolohiia (Kiev 1976) Slavutych, la. Ukraïns 'ka poeziia v Kanadi (Edmonton 1976) Ukraïns 'ki poety v Avstraliï: Z-pid evkaliptiv: Poeziï (Melbourne 1976) Mykytas', V. (ed). Ukraïns'ka poeziia: Kinets' xvi-pochatokxvmst. (Kiev 1978) Krekoten', V. (ed). Apollonova liutnia: Kyïvs'ki poety xvu-xvmst. (Kiev 1982)

Antolohiia ukraïns'koï poeziï, 4 vols (Kiev 1984-6) Sulyma, M. Ukraïns'ke virshuvannia kintsia xvi-pochatku xvn st. (Kiev 1985) Struk, D.H. 'Ukraïns'ka radians'ka poeziia v 1984 rotsi/ Suchasnist ', 1986, no. 4 Rymaruk, I. (ed). Visimdesiatnyky: Antolohiia novoï ukraïns'koï poeziï (Edmonton 1990) D.H. Struk

Pogodin, Mikhail, b 22 November 1800 in Moscow, d 20 December 1875 in Moscow. Russian historian, philologist, and journalist; corresponding member of the Russian Academy of Sciences from 1841. He graduated from Moscow University (1823) and taught there from 1826 to 1844. He advocated the *Normanist theory and opposed M. Kachenovsky's theory of the Khazar origin of Rus'. Pogodin published the nationalist journals Moskovskii vestnik (1827-30) and Moskvitianin (1841-56). During the reign of Nicholas I he developed and defended the reactionary theory of official nationality. Pogodin was an ideologue of tsarist Tan-Slavism and the spiritual mentor of Galician *Russophiles (eg, D. Zubrytsky). He visited Lviv in 1835 and 1839-40, after which a Togodin colony' was established there. From 1844 he worked for the Ministry of Education. In three articles (1856-7) on the language of ancient Rus' Pogodin argued that before the Mongol invasion the Dnieper River Basin was inhabited by Russians, that Ukrainians (migrants from Subcarpathia) did not settle in the evacuated territories until the i6th century, and that the Cossacks were a separate Slavic-Turkic tribe. His views (later echoed by A. *Sobolevsky) provoked a debate, in which they were proved unfounded and unscholarly by prominent historians (M. Maksymovych, V. Antonovych, M. Vladimirsky-Budanov, M. Dashkevych, M. Hrushevsky) and philologists (O. Kotliarevsky, P. Zhytetsky, V. Jagic, A. Krymsky). Pogodin did pioneering research on the Rus' chronicles. He wrote books on Nestor the Chronicler and the origin of the Rus' chronicles (his PHD diss, 1839), the Norman period of Russian history (1859), and pre-Mongol Rus' history (3 vols, 1871), and studies, notes, and lectures on pre-Mongol Rus' (7 vols, 1846-57). His letters to M. Maksymovych were published in 1882, and a biography of him and his works were published by N. Barsukov (22 vols, 1888-1910). Pogrom. In its widest meaning the term refers to a violent attack on the persons and property of any weaker ethnic, religious, or national group by members of a dominant group. The measures taken against the Ukrainian population during the Russian occupation of Galicia in 1914-15, for instance, sometimes figured as the 'Galician pogroms' in contemporary accounts. In its most common sense, however, the term 'pogrom' refers to the attacks accompanied by looting and bloodshed against the *Jews of the Russian Empire in the late 19th and early 2Oth centuries. More precisely the term refers to three waves of widespread assault on the Jewish population that occurred in 1881-4,1903-6, and 1918-21 as offshoots of larger crises in the Russian Empire as a whole. The first disturbances of the sort actually occurred in 1859, following the Crimean War (1853-6), and in 1871 in Odessa, when Greeks and Jews clashed over the grain trade. The first major series of pogroms took place after members of *Narodnaia Volia assassinated Alexander II on 13 March 1881. The attacks began in Yelysavethrad at the end

POGROM

of April and spread to the gubernias of Chernihiv, Katerynoslav, Kherson, Kiev, Odessa, Poltava, and Tavriia in early May. In July and August they flared anew in Poltava and Chernihiv provinces. Pogroms also took place in Warsaw, Balta, and several towns of Belarus and Lithuania. Pogrom activity largely ceased after a decree issued by the new interior minister, D. Tolstoi, on 21 June 1882, although there were isolated outbreaks in the spring of 1883 in Rostov and Katerynoslav and in the summer of 1884 in Nizhnii Novgorod. In Ukraine the attacks were carried out largely by urban dwellers, mainly seasonal workers in factories, railways, and ports who had migrated from Russia. They did not spread to the villages in a significant way. Destruction and looting of property and beatings were characteristic of the pogroms. A relatively small number of people were killed. The pogroms had an electrifying effect on the Jewish population and provided an impetus for the *Zionist movement as well as emigration to the New World. Ironically the imperial Russian government responded to the attacks by instituting further legislative restrictions on the Jews within and outside the *Pale of Settlement and expelling Jews en masse from Moscow in 1891-2. A common explanation offered for that wave of pogroms has been that a spontaneous uprising resulted from rumors that Jews had been instrumental in the tsar's assassination. A more likely explanation is that alienated (and commonly migrant) workers were venting personal and economic frustration. The attacks were not officially condoned, although the imperial authorities showed their duplicity by failing to maintain public order. The pogroms of 1903-6 had a different character. Faced with growing unrest (see ^Revolution of 1905) and hoping to divert discontent arising from the empire's losses in the Russo-Japanese War, the imperial authorities granted reactionary newspapers and ultraconservative loyalist groups known as *Black Hundreds a free hand to agitate against 'Jewish machinations' as the cause of the social upheavals of the time. The pogroms followed as an intensification of that campaign. The first in a series of attacks occurred in Chisináu (Kishinev), in Bessarabia, during Passover in 1903, and the next in Homel, in Belarus, in September. In the fall of 1904 army recruits and local rabble perpetrated a series of pogroms in Ukraine, in Oleksandriia, Rivne, Smila, and elsewhere. As the revolutionary movement gained strength in 1905, the attacks intensified. In February a pogrom took place in Teodosiia, in April in Melitopil, and in May in Zhytomyr. The severest pogroms followed the proclamation of the October Manifesto, particularly in the first week of November 1905, when the non-Jewish intelligentsia was also attacked. In Ukraine major pogroms occurred in Kamianets-Podilskyi, Katerynoslav, Kiev, Kremenchuk, Mykolaiv, Odessa, Romen, Chernihiv, Symferopil, and Yelysavethrad. Altogether about 700 pogroms were recorded. The scope of the attacks went beyond the wholesale destruction of property seen in 1881-2, to include rape and the killing of several hundred Jews. Again the most prominent participants were industrial and railway workers, small shopkeepers, and artisans. Peasants mostly joined in order to loot property. The second wave of pogroms intensified the desire of Jews to emigrate from the Russian Empire. The last wave of pogroms took place in connection with the Revolution of 1917 and the chaos that accompanied the ^Ukrainian-Soviet War of 1917-21. Those pogroms far

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exceeded the earlier outbreaks in both size and severity. According to somewhat conservative (but wide-ranging) estimates made in the 19205 by N. Gergel, 887 major pogroms and 349 less severe attacks against Jews took place in Ukraine in 1918-20 and resulted in the death of 31,071 people and the injury of tens of thousands of others. Other estimates have put the number of dead as high as 60,000. The Gergel figures put the annual figure for pogroms at 80 in 1918, 934 in 1919, and 178 in 1920. Most (80 percent) were perpetrated in Right-Bank Ukraine, where the majority of the Jewish population in the Russian Empire lived. The pogroms began with the slaughter of Jews by Bolshevik units in the spring of 1918 in Hlukhiv and Novhorod-Siverskyi. In time, however, the Red Army was able to restore military discipline (and curb pogrom activity) among its troops, and it eventually established itself in the minds of Jews as the only force capable of protecting them. The Army of the UNR, under the command of S. *Petliura, was unable to control its troops in the same manner. A decree from Petliura in January 1919 to stem a growing wave of violence was ineffectual, and several of his commanders carried out a series of violent attacks against Jews in Berdychiv, Gvardiiske, Zhytomyr, (particularly) Proskuriv, and other locations. In spite of petitions from Jewish representatives Petliura remained silent on the pogrom issue until April. By that time Jewish leaders had lost faith in the Directory. Gergel's figures attributed 40 percent of the pogroms carried out in 1918-20 (355) to Directory troops, as well as nearly 54 percent of the resulting deaths (16,706). Various independent leaders of the ^partisan movement in Ukraine (known commonly as otamans) also perpetrated pogroms (estimated at 28.8 percent of the total number of pogroms, and 26 percent of the total mortalities). They included otamans N. Hryhoriiv (who led the bloodiest of the pogroms), Anhel, and D. Terpylo (Zeleny). The Russian Volunteer Army commanded by Gen A. Denikin, often inspired by a Black Hundreds ideology, perpetrated numerous pogroms. In Ukraine alone it was responsible for 183 pogroms (20.6 percent of that country's total) and an estimated 5,235 deaths (nearly 17 percent). Its largest action took place in Khvastiv in September 1919 and claimed approx 1,500 lives. Because the majority of Jews within the Russian Empire lived in Ukraine, the majority of pogroms in the Russian Empire were perpetrated there. Their number and intensity there has given rise to the assumption that they were carried out by the local population, and to a stereotypical image of the Ukrainian as an inherently anti-Semitic pogromchik. The notion became particularly widespread in the West as a result of the public sensation caused in France by the *Schwartzbard Trial, which followed the assassination of Petliura in Paris in 1926. Petliura was assassinated by a Bessarabian Jew on the grounds that Petliura personally was responsbile for the horrors of the pogroms in Ukraine. BIBLIOGRAPHY Heifetz, E. The Slaughter of the Jews in the Ukraine in 1919 (New York 1921) Krasnyi-Admoni, G.Ia. (ed). Materialy alia istorii antievreiskikh pogromov v Rossii, vol 2, Vos 'midesiatyie gody (15 aprelia 1881 g-29 fevralia 1882 g.) (Petrograd-Moscow 1923) Tcherikower, E. Antisemitizm i pogromy na Ukraine 1917-1918 gg. (K istorii ukrainsko-evreiskikh otnoshenii) (Berlin 1923)

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Rybynsk'kyi, V.P. Trotyievreis'kyi rukh r. i88i-ho na Ukra'mi/ Zbirnyk prats ' levreis 'koï istorychno-arkheohrafichnoï komisiï (Vseukraïns'ka akademiia nauk, Zbirnyk Istorychno-filolohichnoho viddilu, 73), vol 2 (1929) Tcherikower, E. Di ukrainer pogromen in yor 1919 (New York 1965) Hunczak, T. 'A Reappraisal of Symon Petliura and UkrainianJewish Relations, 1917-1921,' Jewish Social Studies, 31 (1969) Szajkowski, Z. "A Reappraisal of Symon Petliura and UkrainianJewish Relations, 1917-1921: A Rebuttal/ Jewish Social Studies, 31 (1969) Dubnow, S.M. History of the Jews in Russia and Poland from the Earliest Times to the Present Day, 3 vols (Philadelphia 1916-20; new edn, New York 1975) Szajkowski, Z. An Illustrated Sourcebook of Russian Antisemitism, 1881-1978 (New York 1980) Pritsak, O. The Pogroms of i88i/ BUS, 11, no. 1/2 (June 1987) P. Potichnyj

Pohlmann, Friedrich, b 1805, d 16 August 1870 in Lviv. Scenery designer of German origin. He was the first designer in the Ruska Besida Theater, for which he created scenery for the productions of Marusia (1864, based on H. Kvitka-Osnovianenko), T. Shevchenko's Nazar Stodolia (1865), and H. Yakymovych's Roksoliana (1865). In 1842-70 he worked in F. Skarbek's Polish theater in Lviv.

at Kharkiv University (professor from 1950). He also headed a department at the ANU Physical-Technical Institute of Low Temperatures in Kharkiv (since 1960) and the Northeast Scientific Center of the ANU (1978-81). Pohorielov's fundamental and lasting contributions are in the field of geometry in large. V. Drinfeld, one of the scholars from Pohorielov's school, was awarded the Fields Medal in 1990. He solved completely a number of outstanding problems, including the classical problem of the unique determination of a convex surface by its internal metric, the external regularity of convex surfaces with regular internal metric, the celebrated Hubert's fourth problem, the Minkowski multidimensional problem, and the problem of Weil concerning the isometric immersion in the large of a two-dimensional Riemannian manifold into a three-dimensional one. He developed the nonlinear theory of elastic shells and obtained fundamental results regarding such difficult problems as the regularity of convex surfaces under various conditions and infidecimal bending of convex surfaces. His work has had a great impact on the theory of partial differential equations. W. Petryshyn

Pohorilivka archeological site. A late Neolithic (mid to late 3rd millennium BC) site near Pohorilivka, Krolevets raion, Sumy oblast. Excavations since the 19205 have revealed a variety of hunting and fishing utensils and remains of pottery decorated by pitting and combing. Pohost (Russian: pogost). An administrative term, dating from the time of Kievan Rus', denoting a territorial unit that usually encompassed a rural community. Under the Hetmán state (i7th-i8th centuries) in Starodub regiment a resettled colony of Russian Old Believers was called a pohost. In other regions during the 15th to 17th centuries, particularly Novgorod, a pogost signified a village with a church and cemetery or simply a rural cemetery. The term was used in the latter sense in folk literature at the end of the 19th century.

Mykhailo Pohoretsky

Oleksii Pohorielov (Aleksei Pogorelov)

Pohoretsky, Mykhailo [Pohorec'kyj, Myxajlo] (Pohorecky, Michael), b 21 December 1899 in Hadynkivtsi, Kopychyntsi county, Galicia, d 26 July 1964 in Winnipeg. Journalist. A former officer in the ""Ukrainian Sich Riflemen, he studied in Lviv at the underground university and at the Ukrainian Free University. Pohoretsky emigrated to Canada in 1927 and edited Zakhidni visti in Edmonton with V. *Kaye-Kysilewsky before establishing *Novyi shliakh and serving as its longtime editor (1930-54,19604). He was a founding member of the ^Ukrainian National Federation and its president in 1936. For many years he was on the presidium of the Ukrainian Canadian Committee (now Congress). Pohorielov, Oleksii [Pohorjelov, Oleksij] (Pogorelov, Aleksei), b 3 March 1919 in Korocha, rsk gubernia, Russia. Mathematician; full member of the AN URSR (now ANU) since 1961 and of the USSR (now Russian) Academy of Sciences since 1976. After completing his studies at the Military-Aviation Academy in 1945, he worked at the Central Aerohydrodynamics Institute (1945-7) anc* then

Pohrebennyk, Fedir, b 29 June 1929 in Rozhniv, Stanyslaviv county, Galicia. Literary scholar. He completed a degree in literature at Chernivtsi University and since 1959 has worked at the Institute of Literature of the AN URSR (now ANU). Except for some articles on T. Shevchenko, Pohrebennyk has concentrated on the turn-of-thecentury writers from his native region. He coedited Pys'mennyky Bukovyny (Writers of Bukovyna, 1958) and edited a book on M. Cheremshyna (1975) and a book on O. Kobylianska (1982). He wrote Osyp Makovei: Krytyko-biohraftchnyi narys (Osyp Makovei: A Critical-Biographic Sketch, 1960). The majority of his works, however, are devoted to V. *Stefanyk: besides the three-volume collection of Stefanyk's works, which he coedited with V. Lesyn in 1964, he edited Spivets' znedolenoho selianstva (The Singer of the Unfortunate Peasantry, 1974) and wrote Vasyl ' Stefanyk u slov'ians'kykh literaturakh (Vasyl Stefanyk in Slavic Literatures, 1976), Vasyl' Stefanyk: Seminarn (Vasyl Stefanyk: Seminars, 1979), and his doctoral study, Storinky zhyttia i tvorchosti Vasylia Stefanyka (Pages from the Life and Creativity of Vasyl Stefanyk, 1980). Pohrebennyk's approach, like that of the majority of Soviet literary scholars, avoided the ideological pitfalls of interpretive reading and concentrated on biographical details. D.H. Struk

POKALCHUK

Pohrebinsky, Solomon [Pohrebins'kyj], b 19 March 1924 in Kiev. Computer scientist. He graduated from the Kiev Polytechnical Institute (1949) and worked at the AN URSR (now ANU) institutes of Exact Mechanics and Computing Technology (1949-56), Mathematics (1956-7), and Cybernetics (since 1957). His main contributions are in the field of computer theory. He was a member of the teams which designed the earliest Soviet computers, including the *MEOM and MIR. Pohrebniak, Petro [Pohrebnjak], b 10 July 1900 in Volokhiv Yar, Chuhuiv county, Kharkiv gubernia, d 25 July 1976 in Kiev. Forester and soil scientist; full member of the AN URSR (now ANU) from 1948. He graduated from the Kharkiv Agricultural Institute (1924) and worked for the Ukrainian Scientific Research Institute of Forest Management and Agroforest Amelioration (1931-3). He was a department head at the Kiev Institute of Forest Management (1933-41), taught at Kiev University (1944-56), headed the ANU Institute of Forestry (1945-56), and served as vicepresident of the ANU and chairman of its Economic Production Studies Committee (1948-50). He was an acting department head of the Central Republican Botanical Garden (1956-60) and the geography division of the ANU, and of the Institute of Botany (from 1964). Pohrebniak's major scholarly interests included forest typology and the physiology of trees and shrubs, forest hydrology, plant ecology, forest soil study, and forestation techniques in sandy soils. He undertook pioneering work in the field of phytoecology and is known for his classifications of soil systems, particularly his articulation of the idea of a soil continuum. He wrote numerous works, including Osnovy lesnoi tipologii (The Foundations of Forest Typology, 1955) and a book coauthored with N. Remezov and translated as Forest Soil Science (1969). He also served as head of the Ukrainian Society for the Protection of Nature in 1950-62. Pohrebniak, Yakym [Pohrebnjak, Jakym], b ? in Nova Vodolaha, in the Kharkiv region, d ? Eighteenth-century master builder. He built cruciform wooden churches with pyramidal roofs, including the five-cupola churches in Merefa and Artemivka (1761, destroyed by the Soviets) and the largest wooden structure in Ukraine of the i8th century - the Trinity Cathedral in Novomoskovske, with nine frames and nine cupolas almost 65 m in height (1773-8). Pohrebyshche [Pohrebysce]. iv-io. A city (1989 pop 11,700) on the Ros River and a raion center in Vinnytsia oblast. In the 12th century the town of Rokytnia stood at the site. After its destruction by the Tatars in 1240, the new settlement was called Pohrebyshche. At the beginning of the i6th century it came under Polish rule. In the 15805 a fortress was built there, and in 1595 it was captured by rebellious peasants and Cossacks. The town's inhabitants took part in B. Khmelnytsky's uprising, and in 1648 Pohrebyshche became a company center in Bratslav regiment. By the Treaty of Andrusovo (1667) it was ceded to Poland, and after the partition of Poland in 1793, to Russia. It attained city status in 1984. Today it produces sugar, powdered milk, animal feed, reinforced concrete, brick, and construction materials.

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Pohribniak, Mykola [Pohribnjak], b 5 December 1885 in Kozatske, Zvenyhorodka county, Kiev gubernia, d 30 May 1965 in Dnipropetrovske. Painter and graphic artist. He studied under O. Slastion at the Myrhorod Applied Arts School (1903-8) and later taught at the Dnipropetrovske Art School. His work consists of genre paintings and landscapes, such as After the Rain (1912), In the Kiev Region (1913), Evening (1937), anc* Snowstorm (1945), and illustrations for children's books and school texts. He amassed a large collection of Ukrainian decorative designs. Pohribny, Mykola [Pohribnyj], b 13 May 1920 in Mochary shche, Kozelets county, Chernihiv gubernia. Lexicographer. A graduate of the Zaporizhia Pedagogical Institute, he taught secondary school and worked as a radio announcer. He compiled the first dictionary of stresses in Standard Ukrainian (1959,1964), an orthoepic dictionary (1984), and a dictionary of proper names (unpublished). His studies of current usage are published in the methodological collection Teleradiovisnyk Ukramy (Television-Radio Herald of Ukraine), and his column on norms appears in the radio magazine Slovo. Poiarkov, Yurii [Pojarkov, Jurij], b 10 February 1937 in Kharkiv. One of the best volleyball players in the history of the sport. He played on more winning teams of world, Olympic, and European championships than any other male player. A regular player on the Kharkiv Burevisnyk team, he played on the USSR teams that won the 1964 and 1968 Olympic gold medals, the 1972 bronze medal, the 1960 and 1962 world championships, and the 1967 and 1971 European championships. Poida, Dmytro [Pojda], b 3 November 1908 in Borodaivski Khutory, Verkhnodniprovske county, Katerynoslav gubernia. Soviet Ukrainian historian. He graduated from the Kharkiv Pedagogical Institute (1936), and from 1937 ne taught in Dnipropetrovske at the higher CP school, the Mining Institute, and (from 1965) the university, as head of the department of the history of the USSR and the Ukrainian SSR. He wrote Krest'ianskoe dvizhenie na Pravoberezhnoi Ukraine v poreformennyi period (1866-1900 gg.) (The Peasant Movement in Right-Bank Ukraine in the Post-Reform Period [1866-1900], 1960) and Z istori'iborot'by ukraïns'koho selianstva proty dukhivnytstva v dorevoliutsiinyi chas (On the History of the Struggle of Ukrainian Peasants against the Clergy in the Prerevolutionary Period, 1961). Pokalchuk, Volodymyr [Pokal'cuk], b i July 1897 m Velyka Fosnia, Ovruch county, Volhynia gubernia, d 5 January 1985 in Lutske. Philologist and teacher; father of Yu. Pokalchuk. During the 19205 he studied at the Kiev Institute of People's Education (1923-8) and was active there in the Group for the Culture of the Ukrainian Word (HuKUS). In 1928 he began postgraduate studies under M. Zerov at the Taras Shevchenko Scientific Research Institute. His book reviews and articles on 19th-century Ukrainian writers were published in Zhyttia i revoliutsiia. Pokalchuk was one of the many Ukrainian intellectuals arrested by the GPU in 1930 in preparation for the show trial of the so-called *Union for the Liberation of Ukraine. He was released from a Kiev prison in 1932 but was barred from pursuing a scholarly career. After a few years he was

72

POKALCHUK

allowed to teach, and lectured at the pedagogical institutes in Poltava and Kremianets (1939-41). After the Second World War he taught at the Lutske Pedagogical Institute and researched the dialects, ethnography, and regional history of Volhynia. Until his retirement in 1980, he suffered occasional persecution by the Soviet authorities, including dismissal from the Lutske institute for one year. Pokalchuk, Yurii [Pokal'cuk, Jurij], b 24 January 1941 in Kremianets, Ternopil oblast. Writer, literary scholar, and translator; son of V. *Pokalchuk. He graduated from Leningrad University (1964) and did graduate work at the AN URSR (now ANU) Institute of Literature. After receiving a candidate's degree in 1969, he worked as a scholarly associate of the institute (until 1977) and wrote books about postwar American literature (1972) and contemporary Latin American prose (1978). He began writing fiction in 1965 and is the author of the prose collections Khto ty? (Who Are You?, 1979), Kol'orovi melodiï (Colored Melodies, 1984), Velykyi i malyi (The Big and the Small, 1986), and Kava z Matagal 'py (Coffee from Matagalpa, 1987) and of the novels I zaraz, i zavzhdy ... (Now and Forever, 1981), Shablia i strila (The Sword and the Arrow, 1988), and Modérât (1990). Pokhodenko, Vitalii [Poxodenko, Vitalij], b 9 January 1936 in Komunarske, Luhanske oblast. Physical chemist; AN URSR (now ANU) corresponding member since 1973 and full member since 1985. After graduating from Kiev University (1958) he joined the ANU Institute of Physical Chemistry and became its deputy director in 1971 and director in 1983. He has studied the effects of structure on the spectral properties, kinetics, and mechanism of free radical reactions; determined the electronic structure of various free radicals, proving the radical mechanism of many reactions; discovered a new reaction type involving single electron transfers; and determined the effect of a reagent's electronic structure on free radical redox reactions. Pokhodnia, Ihor [Poxodnja], b 24 January 1927 in Moscow. Ukrainian metallurgist; full member of the AN URSR (now ANU) since 1976. He graduated from the Kiev Polytechnical Institute (1949) and since 1952 has worked at the ANU Institute of Electric Welding. In 1970 he became chief academic secretary of the ANU. He headed the developmental effort in the area of vacuum welding, which was later successfully used in space, particularly during the flight of the satellite Soiuz-6. Pokhozhi peasants (pokhozhi seliany). A category of formally free peasants who lived on and utilized stateowned lands in the 14th- to loth-century LithuanianRuthenian state. In exchange they paid tribute or taxes in cash or kind and fulfilled basic agricultural and labor obligations to the state (eg, plowing and harvesting land on the grand duke's estates and around castles, delivering hay and wood to castles, building roads, bridges, and fortifications, hunting and fishing for the grand duke). Those obligations were collectively called tiahlo ('draft,' from the use of draft animals; thence the term tiahlo peasants). The pokhozhi ('mobile') peasants had the right to move to other places. Their personal property, and their inheritance rights, which were regulated by customary law, were diminished over time. Pokhozhi peasants who moved onto

lands owned by feudal lords, or who lived on lands granted by the grand duke to such lords, no longer had obligations to the state, but paid quitrents to and performed corvée for the lords. Their freedom to leave was subject to restrictive loan agreements with the lord and excessive penalties for breaking their contracts. After 10 years they became *nepokhozhi peasants; that is, they lost their freedom to move and were partially enserfed.

Dmytro Pokhylevych

Pokhylevych, Dmytro [Poxylevyc], b 22 September 1897 in Vodotni, Zhytomyr county, Volhynia gubernia, d 29 May 1974 in Lviv. Historian. A graduate of the Kiev Institute of People's Education (1924), he taught in postsecondary institutes in Ukraine and Russia. From 1946 he was in charge of medieval history at Lviv University, and in 1952-73 he chaired the department of South and West Slavic history there. Pokhylevych wrote numerous articles, mainly on agrarian relations and the history of the peasantry of Ukraine, Belarus, Lithuania, and Poland, and monographs on the loth- to 18th-century Belarusian and Lithuanian peasantry (1957), Poland in the feudal era (1965), and the Belarusian and Lithuanian peasantry in the second half of the i8th century (1966). Pokhylevych, Lavrentii [Poxylevyc, Lavrentij], b 1816, d 1893. Regional historian. He worked as a clerk in the Kiev Consistory and wrote books in Russian on tales about the populated places of Kiev gubernia (1864) and the populated places of Kiev and Radomyshl counties (1887). They contain a wealth of topographic, statistical, economic, religious, ethnographic, and historical information, not all of which is accurate. Pokhytonov, Ivan [Poxytonov], b 8 February 1850 in Motronivka, Oleksandriia county, Kherson gubernia, d 12 December 1923 in Liège or Brussels. Painter; full member of the St Petersburg Academy of Arts from 1904. From 1876 he lived in France and Belgium and was influenced by the Barbizon school. In 1891 he joined the ""Society of South Russian Artists. In 1903-5 he worked in Belarus, and in 1905 he became a member of the *Peredvizhniki society. In 1913 he returned to the Kherson region. From 1919 he lived as an émigré in Belgium. He is known for his small but masterly landscapes, including many of Ukraine, such as Peasant Wedding, In the Reeds, Winter Dusk, Potato Gathering, Evening in Ukraine, and Harvest. A catalog of his works was published in Moscow in 1963.

POKUKHOVNE

Ivan Pokhytonov: Winter Dusk in Ukraine (oil, 1886)

Pokotylivka. iv-vj. A town smt (1986 pop 10,800) in Kharkiv raion, Kharkiv oblast. The town was formed in the 1959 by the amalgamation of two villages, Karachivka and Pokotylivka. Many of its residents work in Kharkiv, which is only 8 km away. Pokotylivka has a fruit-canning factory and a reforestation station. Pokotylo, Mykhailo, b 21 June 1906 in Borshna, Pryluka county, Poltava gubernia, d i September 1971 in Kiev. Stage and film actor and director. He studied in the Kiev (1927-8) and Kharkiv (1928-30) music and drama institutes and then worked in the Kharkiv Chervonozavodskyi Ukrainian Drama Theater (1931-3), the Kharkiv Ukrainian Drama Theater (1934-61), and the Kiev Ukrainian Drama Theater (1961-71). He acted in the films Pedahohichna poema (A Pedagogical Poem, 1955, based on A. Makarenko's novel) and Shel'menko-denshchyk (Shelmenko the Orderly, 1957, based on H. Kvitka-Osnovianenko's comedy). Pokrovsk. See Engels. Pokrovske [Pokrovs'ke]. ¥1-17. A town smt (1986 pop 11,900) on the Vovcha River and a raion center in Dnipropetrovske oblast. It developed out of a Cossack homestead (est in 1760) into a military settlement. Today it has a food industry. Pokrovsky, Andrii [Pokrovs'kyj, Andrij], b and d ? Navy admiral. A vice-admiral in the Russian navy during the First World War, in 1918 he served the UNR as commander of Black Sea ports and was promoted to admiral by the Hetmán government. In November-December 1918 he was minister of the navy in the Hetmán government of S. Gerbel. Pokrovsky, Mikhail, b 29 August 1868 in Moscow, d 10 April 1932 in Moscow. Russian Marxist historian. Pokrovsky studied at Moscow University (1887-91) under P. Vinogradov and V. *Kliuchevsky. A member of the Bolshevik party from 1905, he was an important organizer of Soviet historical scholarship after the revolution until the Stalin period. He headed the Institute of Red Professors and edited the journal Krasnyi arkhiv. One of his major

73

works, Russkaia istoriia s drevneishikh vremen (A History of Russia from the Earliest Times, 5 vols, 1910-13), had a long chapter titled The Struggle for Ukraine/ It interpreted Ukrainian history from the i6th through the i8th century as essentially social strivings under the guise of national or national-religious struggle. The chapter was omitted from the authorized English translation, A History of Russia, prepared by J.D. Clarkson and M.R.M. Griffiths in 1931. Pokrovsky's work was marked by an absence of Russian nationalism. He respected the historiographical contributions of M. *Kostomarov and M. *Hrushevsky and considered that Ukraine had been in a colonial relationship to tsarist Russia. Pokrovsky's historical methods had a major influence on the Ukrainian Marxist historian M. *Yavorsky. A collection of Pokrovsky's articles on Ukraine, edited by M. Popov, was published in Kiev in 1935. A critical edition of Pokrovsky's selected works appeared in Moscow in 1965-7. R. Szporluk edited a collection of Pokrovsky's articles in English translation in 1970. J.-P. Himka

Pokrovsky, Mykola [Pokrovs'kyj], b 28 October 1901 in Tulchyn, Bratslav county, Podilia gubernia, d 16 July 1985 in Odessa. Opera conductor. A graduate of the Kiev Institute of Music and Drama (1925), Pokrovsky studied under M. Leontovych. In 1924-6 he was music director of the Berezil theater and then conducted opera in Odessa (192633, 1944-75), Kharkiv (1934-40, 1941-4), and Lviv (1940i). He premiered B. Yanovsky's The Black Sea Duma (1929), V. Kostenko's Karmeliuk (1930), and K. Dankevych's Bohdan Khmelnytsky (1951). From 1947 he taught at the Odessa Conservatory. Pokrovsky, Vasilii [Pokrovskij, Vasilij], b 1839 near Kaluga, Russia, d 31 January 1877 m Kiev. Russian physician. A graduate of the St Petersburg Medico-Surgical Academy (1861), from 1867 he was a professor at Kiev University, where he taught in the fields of pediatrics, skin diseases, otolaryngology, and nervous and psychic disorders. He was also director of the internal medicine clinic at the Kiev Military Hospital; he died directing efforts to control an outbreak of typhus in Kiev. Pokrovsky, Yosyp [Pokrovs'kyj, Josyp], b 5 September 1868 in Hlukhiv county, Chernihiv gubernia, d 14 May 1920 in Moscow. Legal scholar. After graduating from the law faculty of Kiev University and the seminar on Roman law at Berlin University, he lectured at Yurev (now Tartu) (1894-6), Kiev (1896-1902), St Petersburg (1902-17), and Moscow (1918-20) universities. A specialist in Roman and civil law, Pokrovsky accepted the concept of natural law and defended the absolute freedom of the individual. His chief books are Pravo i fakt v rimskom prave (Law and Fact in Roman Law, 1898) and Osnovatel 'nye problemy grazhdanskogo prava (Fundamental Problems of Civil Law, 1917). Pokukhovne. A tax on liquor sales under the Hetmanate. It was introduced during B. Khmelnytsky's uprising (1648-57) and was collected from innkeepers according to the number of casks (kufy) sold. Monasteries and certain estates were exempted from the tax. The income generated was divided among the regimental starshyna. The tax was abolished in the 17805, when the tsarist regime reorganized the administrative system in Ukraine.

74

POKUTIA

Pokutia (Rumanian: Pokucia). A historical-geographic upland region bounded by the Dniester River and the Podolian Upland to the north, the Prut River and Subcarpathia to the south, the Stanyslaviv Depression to the west, and the Kitsman Depression and the Sovytsia River to the east. Extending up to 100 km from east to west and 25-40 km from north to south, Pokutia covers about 3,000 sq km and has a population of about 400,000. Users of the Pokutian dialects (see *Bukovyna-Pokutia dialects) also inhabit a portion of Subcarpathia. Because of their presence there, the term Pokutia has been used to refer to the entire southeastern corner of Galicia between historic Hungary to the southwest and Moldavia to the southeast. Occasionally the term even included a part of Bukovyna. Physical geography. Pokutia is the northwestern part of the Pokutian-Bessarabian Upland. Tectonically, it is the southwestern branch of the Ukrainian Crystalline Shield. The old Paleozoic sedimentaries lie far below the Miocene marls, limestones, shales, and gypsum, which in turn are covered by thick layers of loess. At the end of the Tertiary period Pokutia was a flat lowland crossed by the meandering Dniester River. At the end of the Pliocene and the beginning of the Pleistocene epoch an uplift caused the Dniester and the Prut to cut deeply into the sediments, thereby setting off subsequent erosion by their tributaries and the dissection of the Prut-Dniester interfluve. At that time a relative downwarping formed the Stanyslaviv Depression and caused the Bystrytsia River to change direction and to flow into the Dniester instead of the Prut. Today Pokutia is a gently undulating plain sloping to the southeast. Elevations range from 300 to 350 m above sea level. In general the western part is more dissected than the eastern part. The landscape is divided into a number of alternating rises and shallow basins. Widespread gypsum deposits account for the abundance of karst features, such as sink holes, dolines, caves, karst lakes, disappearing rivers, and bare gypsum cliffs, particularly in the Tovmach-Horodenka Basin. The Dniester region, a narrow (10-15 km) band along the right bank of the Dniester River, has a different landscape. It is as deeply dissected as the opposite bank on the Podilia side. In the south the long Kolomyia-Chernivtsi Depression forms a terraced alluvial lowland along the Prut River. The river network of Pokutia has a radial character. Short rivers flow northward into the Dniester River, longer ones flow southward into the Prut River, and a few join Bystrytsia (tributary of the Dniester) to the west. The network is poorly developed because of the karst landscape. The rivers are short, shallow, and deeply incised in the soft, relatively soluble rock. The climate of Pokutia is temperate continental: the average annual temperature ranges from 6.9°c to 7-6°c, the average January temperature, from ~4.8°C to ~5.i°C, and the average July temperature, from i8.2°c to i8.8°c. The number of days with temperatures above 15°C ranges from 96 to no. Precipitation is adequate to fairly abundant, from 550 to 640 mm per year, depending on the elevation of the region. Soils are mostly podzolized chernozems (with up to 4 percent humus). In western Pokutia there are also gray forest podzolized soils (1-3 percent humus). The natural vegetation is typical of the Central European broad-leaved forest zone and the East European forest-steppe. Very little of Pokutia7s original

vegetation has survived. The forests have been reduced to barely 10 percent of the land area in western Pokutia and 7 percent in the east. The forests usually consist of hornbeam and oak, and the groves along the rivers, of alder. Remnants of steppe vegetation include wormwood, esparto grass, thistle, and sage. History. Greek and Roman accounts of widespread Slavic settlement have been confirmed by archeological finds in Pokutia. In the 4th and 5th centuries the Slavs of Pokutia were members of the Antes tribal alliance, in the 6th and 7th centuries, of the Dulebian alliance, and in the 8th and 9th centuries, of the Tivertsian alliance. In the loth century Pokutia was part of Kievan Rus', and after the *Liubech congress of princes it became part of the Halych principality. Although it was sparsely settled, there were some towns, such as Sniatyn (known since 1158) and Kolomyia (since 1240), in the region. In the second half of the 14th century Poland annexed Galicia, including Pokutia, which was claimed by the emerging principality of Moldavia. The name Pokutia was first mentioned in 1395 in a Moldavian charter, and again in a 15th-century Polish chronicle by J. Dlugosz. In 1388, for a loan of 3,000 gold coins Jagiello of Poland placed Pokutia under the administration of the Moldavian voivode P. Mu§at. ^Stephen m of Moldavia (1457-1504) led two campaigns to Pokutia (1498, 1502) and pushed the Poles back beyond the Bystrytsia. His son, Bogdan ill (1504-17), disclaimed Pokutia and then occupied it briefly, in 1509-10. Voivode P. Rares's attempts to recapture Pokutia (1531, 1535) failed. The last Moldavian attempt to seize Pokutia was made by John the Terrible in 1572. The Moldavian-Polish wars caused the local population much suffering. Many Pokutians were captured and resettled in Moldavia and Bukovyna, where they strengthened the Ukrainian element. Along with western Ukraine Pokutia remained under Polish rule until 1772, when it became part of the Austrian Empire. In the 17th to 19th centuries the Ukrainian *opryshoks were active in the region. When the Austrian Empire collapsed, most of Pokutia became part of the Western Ukrainian National Republic (1919). Except for the eastern extremity (east of Sniatyn), which was taken by Rumania, Pokutia was occupied by Poland in 1919-39 and then incorporated into Soviet Ukraine. Most of its territory lies in Ivano-Frankivske oblast. The eastern part lies in Chernivtsi oblast. Population. Along with Subcarpathia Pokutia belongs to the most densely populated part of Ukraine. The average density approaches 130 people per sq km, and the rural density, 100 people per sq km. The highest densities occur in southern Pokutia along the Prut River. Less than 30 percent of the population is urban. Cities such as IvanoFrankivske and Chernivtsi lie outside the region. The Pokutian cities of Kolomyia (1989 pop 63,000), Sniatyn (7,300), and Zabolotiv (4,200) are all located on the Prut River. The former county towns of Horodenka (8,100) and Tovmach (5,100) and the urban-type settlements of Obertyn (3,700), Hvizdets (1,500), and Otynia (3,900) are located in the upland. At the end of the i8th century Pokutia was inhabited by Ukrainians, who constituted nearly 90 percent of the population, some Jews, and a small number of Poles and Armenians. With time more Poles settled in the region, especially in the 19205 and 19305. A small number of Ger-

POL

mans lived in Kolomyia and its vicinity. In 1939, Ukrainians constituted 74 percent of Pokutia's population, Poles, 9 percent, Ukrainian-speaking Roman Catholics, 7 percent, and Jews, 9 percent. In the 19903 Ukrainians account for 97 percent, Russians, 2 percent, Poles, less than i percent, and Jews, 0.2 percent of the population. Economy. Pokutia was and remains predominantly agricultural. Nearly 76 percent of the land is cultivated, 9 percent is hayfield and pasture, and 9 percent is forest. The sown area is distributed approximately as follows: grains occupy 44 percent, including some 20 percent occupied by wheat, 10 percent by corn, 7 percent by barley, 4 percent by rye, 2 percent by oats, and i percent by millet and buckwheat; potatoes and vegetables together take up 15 percent; technical crops another 14 percent, including 10 percent occupied by sugar beets; and feed crops, the remaining 27 percent. The area devoted to corn, sugar beets, and tobacco increases toward the east. Livestock husbandry is concentrated on meat and milk production. Industry does not play an important role in the region. Only Kolomyia, the largest city, has a broad base of light industries (cotton textiles, knitting, clothing, curtain-making, and footwear), food processing (meat packing, meat canning, dairying, grist milling, distilling), woodworking (furniture and paper manufacturing), and agricultural machine building. Traditional handicrafts are maintained, such as wood carving, embroidery, and kilim weaving. Other towns have a food industry: sugar refining in Kostryzhivka and dairying (butter, cheese, and milk products) in Horodenka and Sniatyn. The deposits of phosphorites, gypsum, and limestone have not been exploited on a large scale by the chemical or building-materials industries.

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south) the Pokutian Upland, the Berdo-Horodyshche Elevation, the Khotyn-Soroky Divide, the Beltsi (Balji) Plain, and the Kodry Hills. The northern and northeastern sections of the upland are settled by Ukrainians, and the rest by Rumanians. The region was ¡formerly a part of Galicia, Bukovyna, and Bessarabia, but now it forms parts of Ivano-Frankivske and Chernivtsi oblasts and Moldova. The Pokutian Upland is a plateau (elevation 300-350 m) with karst features and few intersections. The BerdoHorodyshche Elevation in northern Bukovyna is covered with beech forest and rises to over 516 m in places. It extends into the Khotyn-Soroky Divide (also known as the Khotyn or Khotyn-Sadhorod Elevation), the watershed between the Dniester and the Prut rivers, which descend from 460 m near Khotyn to 300 m in the southeast. The Rumanian portions of the upland have a few pockets of Ukrainian settlement. V. Kubijovyc

Pokutian-Bukovynian Carpathians. See Hutsul Beskyd. Pokuts'ke slovo (Pokutian Word). A semimonthly newspaper published in Stanyslaviv (now IvanoFrankivske) and then Kolomyia in 1926-7 by the Ukrainian Socialist Radical party (see ^Ukrainian Radical party). Pokuts'kyi vistnyk (Pokutia Herald). An organ of the Kolomyia regional council of the Ukrainian National Rada. It was published twice and then three times a week from November 1918 to May 1919 and was edited by Ya. Navchuk and, after the fourth issue, O. Karashkevych.

BIBLIOGRAPHY Korduba, M. 'Moldavs'ko-poFs'ka hranytsia na Pokutiu do smerty Stefana Velykoho/ Naukovyi zbirnyk prysviachenyi profesorovy Mykhailovy Hrushevs 'komu (Lviv 1906) Czyzewski, J.; Koczwara, M.; Zglinicka, A. Pokucie (Lviv 1931) Kvitkovs'kyi, D.; Bryndzan, T.; Zhukovs'kyi, A. (eds). Bukovyna, ïi mynule i suchasne (Paris-Philadelphia-Detroit 1956) Koinov, M. Pryroda Stanyslavivs'koï oblasti (Lviv 1960) Istoriia mist i sil Ukraïns'koï RSR: Ivano-Frankivs'ka oblast' (Kiev 1971) V. Kubijovyc, M. Kovaliuk, I. Stebelsky, A. Zhukovsky Pokutian dialects. See Bukovyna-Pokutia dialects.

Pokutian-Bessarabian Upland. The southwesternmost section of the Ukrainian uplands, situated between the Prut River and the Stanyslaviv Depression to the west, the Dniester River (bordering on the Podolian Upland) to the east, and the Black Sea Lowland to the south. It lies on the southwestern border of the Ukrainian Crystalline Shield. Paleozoic and Upper Mesozoic strata are found in the upland only in the Dniester Valley. The rest of it consists of middle Miocene strata (Pokutian clay, gypsum, and limestone) covered by strata of later Miocene (sands, limestone, and clay). In the south the latter are covered with layers of Pliocene sand and clay. The entire upland is covered by a deposit of loess up to 30 m in depth. The average elevation of the upland is 300-400 m; the upland forms an undulating plateau that is dissected by valleys and ravines and bears certain characteristics of foothills. It is commonly divided into (from north to

Oleksander Pol

Pol, Oleksander [Pol'], b i September 1832 in Malooleksandrivske, Verkhnodniprovske county, Katerynoslav guberniia, d 7 August 1890 in Katerynoslav. Entrepreneur and collector of historical artifacts. The grandson of a German settler, Pol recognized the potential of the *Kryvyi Rih Iron-ore Basin deposits and played an important role in their development. His true passion, however, was regional history - possibly because his mother was Hetmán P. Polubotok's granddaughter. After finishing law studies at Dorpat (now Tartu) University, he travelled throughout the Katerynoslav region, learning its history, taking part in archeological digs, and collecting artifacts. He pursued this hobby to the point of near financial ruin. Eventually he gathered a collection of 5,000 artifacts from prehistoric to Cossack times, estimated to be worth 200,000

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rubles. After his death, Pol's collection was donated to the Katerynoslav Museum of Antiquities, which was subsequently named in his honor; it is now the *Dnipropetrovske Historical Museum. Pol, Wincenty, b 20 April 1807 in Lublin, d 2 December 1872 in Cracow. Polish Romantic poet, geographer, ethnographer, and founder of the anthropogeographic method in ethnography. After graduating from Lviv University in 1827, he lectured at Vilnius University (1830-2). In 1849 ne became the holder of the first chair of geography in Poland at Cracow University. He was the first professor in Poland to give a course in general ethnography. His books about his travels in Ukraine (1835), the philosophy and proverbs of the people in Poland (1836), episodes from his life and travels (1846), the northern slopes of the Carpathians (1851), and the natural environment of northeastern Europe (1851) contain much information about Ukrainian folklore and folkways. He also wrote a book on the Hutsuls (1847) and published a collection of Ukrainian songs in German translation (1853). Many of his manuscripts have been preserved at the Tarry Museum in Zakopane and Cracow University. Some of them, including several articles on the Hutsuls, Lemkos, and Boikos, were published in Wincenty Pol: Prace z etnografn pólnocnych stoków Karpat (Wincenty Pol: Works in the Ethnography of the Northern Slopes of the Carpathians, 1966). Poland. A country extending south to the Sudety and western Carpathian mountains, which separate the area of Polish settlement from that of the Czechs and Slovaks and the Polish state from the Bohemian and Hungarian kingdoms (as of 1526 the Habsburg monarchy, as of 1918 Czechoslovakia), north to the Baltic sea, west to Prussia (as of 1871 Germany, as of 1949 the German Democratic Republic, as of 1991 Germany), east to Ukraine and Belarus, and northeast to Lithuania and Eastern Prussia (as of 1945 Kaliningrad oblast of the RSFSR, as of 1992 the Russian Federation). The ethnic and state borders of Poland have remained stable in the south; in the north Poland did not always extend to its natural boundary, the Baltic. Poland's western and eastern borders underwent great changes over the centuries. A Polish state existed from the midloth century until 1795; it was restored in 1918, dismantled in 1939, and restored once again in 1945. The Polish state incorporated Ukrainian ethnic territory from the middle of the 14th century, when it annexed the Principality of Galicia. In 1569 it acquired a major part of Ukraine, from Lithuania. In the mid-17th century it lost Left-Bank Ukraine to the Hetmán state (which was subsequently subsumed by the Russian Empire), and in the late i8th century it lost Galicia to Austria and the remainder of its Ukrainian holdings to Russia. As restored after the First World War, Poland included much of Western Ukraine (Galicia, Volhynia, Polisia); as restored after the Second World War, it included only part of the westernmost extensions of Ukrainian ethnic territory. History. Both Poland and Ukraine emerged as political entities at approximately the same time in the 9th and loth centuries. The relationship between Poland and *Kievan Rus' was marked by occasional military intervention as each party pursued its own aims or threw its support to a feuding faction in the neighboring state as well as by routine dynastic marriages formed for purposes of achieving

diplomatic security. Each faced ongoing warfare with external foes (the Germans and the steppe nomads respectively) that made all-out hostilities between them (aimed at territorial aggrandizement) an unlikely prospect. The two powers lived in a state of approximate equilibrium (although Rus' remained the greater power), and for nearly 300 years the borders dividing them did not change significantly. The Mongol invasion in the mid-i3th century devastated the Ukrainian principalities of Rus', which already faced serious problems due to internecine strife. The Grand Duchy of ^Lithuania was soon able to incorporate large tracts of Ukrainian territory into its realm and establish a joint *Lithuanian~Ruthenian state. Poland was held off by the continued existence of the Principality of ^Galicia-Volhynia. With the demise of that principality in 1340, the Polish king Casimir III the Great initiated an extended period of territorial expansion eastward, taking most of the principality by 1349. Poland's acquisitions in Ukraine subsequently were realized through more peaceable means. The Union of *Krevo (1385), which established a dynastic link between the Lithuanian grand duke Jagiello and the Polish queen Jadwiga, allowed Poland to extend its cultural and political influence into the affairs of the Lithuanian state as well as to consolidate its control over Galicia and expand into Podilia. For several centuries the ^history of Ukraine, particularly that of ^Galicia, was inextricably bound to that of Poland. The growing influence of Poland resulted finally in the Union of *Lublin (1569), which united Poland and Lithuania into a single Commonwealth (Rzeczpospolita). In practical terms the union was dominated by the Poles, who now took direct control over most of Ukraine. The Polish influence on Ukraine was profound. Most of the Ukrainian nobles, granted equal rights with their Polish counterparts, were quickly Polonized, and Ukraine was thus bereft of its own social elite. The last vestiges of the Rus' state disappeared as the Ukrainian lands were divided into six voivodeships, or provinces. Large tracts of land were granted to Polish nobles, who established sizable estates (filvarty) that could produce effectively for the booming European grain trade. Some of the largest estates (latifundia) in the Commonwealth were situated in Ukraine. Greater demands were placed on the Ukrainian peasantry, which was being reduced to serfdom. The religious tolerance in the Commonwealth, phenomenal for its times, also had an impact in Ukraine, as the Reformation period saw the influence of Protestant groups, such as the Socinians and Lutherans, spread into Ukraine through Poland. Nevertheless pressure was put on the predominantly Orthodox population of Ukraine to convert to Catholicism, and it resulted indirectly in the establishment of the "Ukrainian Catholic church by the Union of *Berestia (1596). At the same time Ukraine experienced a tremendous revival. Theological and secular education, literature, and the fine arts all began to flourish, and printing was introduced. The ideas of the Renaissance began to work their way into Ukraine through Poland as the 'Golden Age7 of loth-century Polish culture left its mark. The situation in Ukraine under Polish rule became increasingly more volatile in the first half of the 17th century as socioeconomic, religious, and national tensions grew. The most obvious sources of dissatisfaction lay with the peasantry, which historically had not been tied to manorstyle economies; the Orthodox, who were relegated to a

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second-class status within the Commonwealth; and the *Cossacks, who defended the borderlands of the Polish state against Crimean Tatar and Turkish attack but were granted few of the privileges of a military class. The Cossacks were regarded as troublesome and problematic by the ruling elite of the Commonwealth, and constant attempts were made to control them. Tensions peaked in 1648, when a full-scale uprising led by B. *Khmelnytsky erupted in Ukraine and engulfed the Commonwealth in the ^Cossack-Polish War. The uprising represented a fundamental turning point. Ukraine might have re-entered the Polish state on the basis of equality within a tripartite Commonwealth (that was an option favored by Khmelnytsky and others), but the instability of the times prevented even a serious discussion of the possibility. Unable to assert full independence alone, Khmelnytsky turned to the Russian tsar Aleksei Mikhailovich for assistance and concluded the ^Pereiaslav Treaty of 1654 with the Russians. That treaty set in motion the gradual process by which most of Ukraine moved from the Polish sphere of influence into the Russian. An attempt was made to abrogate the Pereiaslav agreement with the Treaty of *Hadiache (1658), which would have brought Ukraine back into the Commonwealth as an autonomous administrative unit. Ultimately approved by the Commonwealth diet, the agreement was opposed by a large segment of the Cossacks, who did not wish to return to the Polish sphere of

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influence. At the same time the Russians invaded Ukraine, and their invasion signaled the start of a period of protracted fighting and political instability known as the *Ruin. Turkey even entered the fray by occupying a large section of the Right-Bank region. A preliminary agreement to resolve the situation was made between Poland and Russia in 1667 with the Treaty of *Andrusovo. The division of Ukraine into Right and Left banks was confirmed (with a provision for Moscow's control of Kiev) in the "Eternal Peace of 1686. Poland had regained full control of Right-Bank Ukraine by 1714, after an extended period of occupation of the region by Ottoman forces and Cossacks. The largely devastated region once again saw the return of large estates and increased corvée obligations for the peasantry, of which the consequence was a series of *haidamaka uprisings. The Polish Commonwealth, by now rendered largely ineffectual because of the weakness of its elected kings and the chaotic state of its parliament, was forced to rely on Russian assistance in quelling the worst of the uprisings. The Russian intervention in Poland's internal affairs culminated in that country's active role in the partitioning of Poland (1772, 1793, and 1795), whereby Russia acquired all of Poland's Ukrainian possessions other than Galicia and Bukovyna (which were annexed by the Austrian Empire). Russian Empire, 1795-1917. For some time after Poland's incorporation into the Russian Empire the Ukrainian

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P O L A N D ' S GROWTH IN THE 15TH-18TH C E N T U R I E S lands west of the Dnieper were treated as Polish territory. The socioeconomic order inherited from Poland, with its domination by Polish magnates and gentry, remained intact, and serfdom became even more intensive. The Russian monarchs Paul I (1796-1801) and Alexander I (180125) preserved the hegemony of the Polish nobility in the region. Polish culture and education in Volhynia and Right-Bank Ukraine developed more dynamically under tsarist rule than it had under Poland owing to the establishment of the *Kremianets Lyceum and the Vilnius (Wilno) School District, which co-ordinated Polish cultural self-government in Russia throughout the formerly Polish territories. The *Polish Insurrection of 1830-1, the leadership of which called for the restitution of Poland in its boundaries of 1772, was primarily based in the ^Congress Kingdom of Poland, but Polish gentry and clergy from Ukraine also participated. Gen J. Dwernicki's campaign of April 1831 failed to spread the insurrection to Podilia and Volhynia. Punitive policies implemented by the Russian government in Ukrainian territories after the suppression of the insurrection included the liquidation of Polish educational institutions and the removal of many Poles from the local administration. Nevertheless the Polish nobility's economic domination was unaffected, and its cultural he-

gemony, though weakened, was not eradicated. With the defeat of the 1831 insurrection Polish political life became centered in the emigration, particularly in Paris. Two broad currents developed: a conservative one headed by Prince A. *Czartoryski, who sought the fulfillment of Polish aspirations primarily through the aid of some foreign power, and a democratic one, which urged another insurrection that would aim for social reform as well as Polish independence and thereby attract popular support. Both currents essentially considered the Ukrainian question an internal Polish one, but each in its own way also contributed to the development of the Ukrainian national revival. Czartoryski fostered various schemes aimed at enlisting Ukrainian support, including the creation of a Cossack legion in Turkey during the "Crimean War (which fought under the command of M. *Czajkowski). The democrats founded conspiratorial groups in Right-Bank Ukraine that aimed at the restoration of Poland to its boundaries of 1772 and the establishment of an egalitarian social order in which serfdom was abolished. The most significant of the groups were connected with the Association of the Polis People (Stowarzyszenie Ludu Polskiego), led in Ukraine in 1835-8 by S. Konarski. The groups, which sometimes wrote revolutionary literature in the Ukrainian language and appealed to Cossack

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traditions, spurred the development of a Ukrainian political consciousness. Russia's defeat in the Crimean War of 1853-6 saw a resurgence of Polish political activity in Ukraine. Polish young people founded secret patriotic societies, particularly in Kiev. The movement in Poland and Ukraine culminated in the ""Polish Insurrection of 1863-4, in which Poles from Ukraine played a prominent part. Partisan warfare encompassed the Right Bank and Volhynia. The brutal and systematic repressions that followed the defeat of the insurrection (as well as the abolition of serfdom prior to the insurrection in 1861) destroyed Polish hegemony in Ukrainian lands under Russian rule. Although Poles continued to be active in Ukrainian political life (Polish socialists organized workers7 circles in Ukraine in the 18708, for example), the real revival of Polish political life was toward the end of the icth century and particularly after 1905. Of the various Polish political currents only the Polish Socialist party declared its support for the Ukrainian movement. The commercial agreements of Russia with Austria and Prussia in 1818 included Right-Bank Ukraine in the Polish customs territory, and the tariff of 1819 separated RightBank Ukraine and the Congress Kingdom from the rest of the Russian Empire. The Right Bank remained an important market for the Polish textile industry, even after the abolition of the Polish-Russian customs border in 1850. With the construction of railroads commercial relations between the Congress Kingdom and Ukraine expanded considerably. In 1895 Ukraine began to export iron ore to Poland; it became the main raw material for Polish metallurgy. Ukraine also exported to Poland rails, agricultural

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machines, grain, flour, cattle, salt, sugar, tobacco, flax, and wool. From Poland Ukraine imported woolen and cotton textiles, paper, chemical products, soap, and leather. Ukrainian and Polish coal competed intensively for the central Russian market. Poland maintained a favorable balance of trade vis-à-vis the rest of the Russian Empire. Austrian Empire, 1772-1918. After its third partition in 1795, Poland ceased to exist as a political polity. The mainstay of Polish national consciousness remained until the 2Oth century with its nobility, the szlachta, and the geographical center of hope for a national revival became those Polish territories within the Austrian Empire, specifically the Crownland of Galicia, which Austria acquired from Poland in 1772. Galicia, however, consisted of two historically and ethnically distinct regions: the west, which was largely Polish, formed from the former Cracow and Sandomierz voivodeships, and the east, which was largely Ukrainian, formed from the former Rus' voivodeship (originally the Prinicipality of Halych), with parts of the Belz, Volhynia, and Podilia voivodeships. Galicia also became a focal point of Ukrainian national aspirations during the 19th century. Until the mid-i9th century no specifically contentious issues emerged between the Ukrainians and the Poles in Galicia. Only with the respective national revivals of the two nations did antagonism begin to grow. In 1848, Ukrainians started organizing themselves politically (with the ""Supreme Ruthenian Council), achieving recognition as a separate people, and demanding a division of Galicia into two crownlands along ethnic lines. The Poles maintained, however, that, historically, Galicia in its entirety belonged to Poland. They established the pro-Polish *Ruthenian

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Congress, which published the newspaper Dnewnyk Ruskij and worked to counter Ukrainian claims. The subsequent political realignment of the Austrian Empire exacerbated Polish-Ukrainian tensions. The appointment of A. Goluchowski as governor of Galicia in 1849 (his tenure lasted until 1875, with only minor interruptions) heralded a political understanding between the central government and the Poles that the Poles would, by and large, have control of the Galician provincial administration. Such control was solidified after the reorganization of the empire into a dual monarchy in 1867. The perception among Poles that Galicia was the most likely base for a Polish national revival grew after the failure of the Polish Insurrection of 1863-4. For Ukrainians, after the *Ems Ukase banned Ukrainian publications in the Russian Empire, the center of Ukrainian national life moved to Galicia - now called the 'Piedmont' of Ukraine. Until the outbreak of the First World War both Ukrainians and Poles maintained aspirations for statehood and took many steps toward that goal within their respective territories under Austro-Hungarian rule. In some cases the efforts of the one were mirrored by those of the other (for example, in the creation of sporting or paramilitary groups as the precursors of a national army). 20th century. With the end of hostilities in 1918 and the collapse of the Habsburg Empire Poland moved to reestablish its historical state, as much as possible in accordance with its pre-1772 borders. The effort brought Poland into conflict with Ukrainians, who had proclaimed the ^Western Ukrainian National Republic (centered around the territory of Galicia). The rival territorial ambitions finally erupted in the "Ukrainian-Polish War in Galicia (1918-19), which commenced with the ^November Uprising in Lviv. Poland benefited in its efforts because of Entente fears of a Bolshevik offensive westward: on 28 June 1919 the Supreme Council of the Paris Peace Conference allowed Poland to occupy all of eastern Galicia (subject to a review of its international status). After the Ukrainian Galician Army was pushed out of Galicia in the summer of 1919, the newly restored Polish state occupied the region. On 18 March 1921 Poland, Soviet Russia, and Soviet Ukraine signed the Peace Treaty of *Riga, which ended the Soviet-Polish War and established the Soviet-Polish border. The agreement ceded Galicia as well as Polisia and westernVolhynia (formerly within the Russian Empire) to Poland. On 15 March 1923 the *Conference of Ambassadors also recognized that border. Ukrainians protested with a mass demonstration in front of St George's Cathedral in Lviv on 24 March 1923. Galicia, Polisia, and Volhynia remained within the boundaries of the Polish state until September 1939, when Poland was divided between Germany and the Soviet Union. In order to win recognition of Poland's eastern boundaries by the Council of Ambassadors, the Polish Sejm had passed a law on 26 September 1922 which provided for autonomous government for Galicia, prohibited Polish colonization there, and projected the establishment of a Ukrainian university; those remained paper declarations. On 28 June 1919 Poland had agreed at Versailles to respect the national and religious rights of its national minorities, but it unilaterally repudiated that agreement, which it had never honored, on 13 September 1934. When the former socialist Marshal J. *Pi!sudski took power in a coup in May 1926 and established the *Sanacja

C H A N G E S IN THE U K R A I N I A N POLISH B O U N D A R Y regime, the national minorities looked forward to an improvement in their situation. In fact Pilsudski and his successors continued the previous governments' policies of denationalization and Polonization.

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The rights of the Ukrainian language in the administration, the judiciary system, and the school system were severely restricted, and in Kholm region and Podlachia even the minimal legal norms existing in Galicia, Volhynia, and Polisia were bypassed. Most Ukrainian-language schools that had existed from Austrian times were changed into bilingual Polish-Ukrainian schools, and in the Kholm region and Podlachia only Polish-language schools existed. Not only did the Polish government prevent the establishment of a Ukrainian university, but it closed down all the Ukrainian-language chairs that had existed at Lviv University under Austrian rule. The Orthodox church in Poland was completely dependent on a government which tried to Polonize it and convert Orthodox Christians to Roman Catholicism. Orthodox churches in the Kholm region and Podlachia were destroyed en masse in 1938, and in Volhynia (notably the village of *Hrynky) there were instances of forcible conversion from Orthodoxy to Roman Catholicism. Another Polish initiative was the *neounion campaign, which sought to spread Eastern rite Christianity (under Latin rite jurisdiction) among Ukrainians outside Galicia. In spite of agrarian overpopulation the Polish government and voluntary associations implemented a program of colonization in Western Ukraine by Poles. In 1920-3, state lands in Volhynia and Polisia were distributed to Polish veterans, most of whom were not even peasants. During implementation of the land reform some great estates were subdivided in Western Ukraine (so called 'parcelation'), but most of the 800,000 ha thus obtained were sold to Poles. The Polish state pursued a policy of 'divide and rule7 in Ukrainian territories, and established the *Sokal border as part of that effort. In the Kholm region and Podlachia it denied local Ukrainians any cultural rights whatsoever. In Polisia it tried to cultivate a purely local, non-Ukrainian consciousness by encouraging the population to define itself only as tuteishi, or 'people who live here/ In Volhynia it sought out local Ukrainian leaders willing to collaborate with the Polish authorities (they helped to establish the *Volhynian Ukrainian Alliance), and in particular it sought to isolate Ukrainian institutions there from contacts with their Galician counterparts. In Galicia, where Ukrainian national consciousness was most intense, the authorities tried overtly to curb Ukrainian political, social, cultural, and economic activities; they also made efforts to divide Ukrainians there by supporting the otherwise moribund *Russophiles, by encouraging the formation of separate national identities for *Lemkos and *Hutsuls, and by seeking to draw Roman Catholic Ukrainians (*latynnyky) and Ukrainian *petty gentry into the Polish nation. The failure of the interwar Polish state to accommodate Ukrainian interests in even the slightest way helped to provoke a militant backlash. In the 19205 the ""Ukrainian Military Organization carried out a number of sabotage actions against the regime, and in the 19305 its work was continued on an even broader scale by the "Organization of Ukrainian Nationalists. The Polish government attempted to cow its Ukrainian population by carrying out the ^Pacification in 1930. That action prompted the Ukrainian political mainstream to attempt a rapprochement with the government - the so-called ^Normalization. But it proved to be a fiasco. Ukrainians by and large remained extremely dissatisfied with the Polish regime.

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After Poland was once again divided, in September 1939, that time by Germany and the Soviet Union, most of the Ukrainian territories of the interwar Polish state fell under Soviet control in 1939-41, with a small westerly strip remaining in the Generalgouvernement. In 1941 the remainder fell to the Germans. Throughout the war Poland maintained the recovery of eastern Galicia as one of its territorial imperatives. That goal proved a stumbling block for effective co-operation between Ukrainian resistance forces and the underground *Polish Home Army. With the reoccupation of Western Ukrainian lands in 1944 and the establishment of a Soviet satellite regime in Poland after the Second World War, Poland's relationship to Ukraine changed fundamentally. The borders between the two states were re-established, and a subsequent resettlement of populations between the two states, in which Ukrainians in Poland were moved to the Ukrainian SSR and Poles in the Ukrainian SSR moved to Poland, was completed in 1947 with ""Operation Wisla, which cleared the Polish-Ukrainian borderland area of most Ukrainians. The extensive Ukrainianization of Galicia in the postwar era and the specter of a common foe, the Russiandominated Soviet Union, resulted in improved relations between Ukraine and Poland after 1945. Official relations were conducted largely under the rubric of Eastern Bloc institutions and state-sanctioned cultural exchanges. On a more informal level political dissenters found a common cause, and Poland, with a somewhat more relaxed political atmosphere, served as a conduit for (among other things) political ideas and literature to Ukraine. Poland was the first state to recognize Ukrainian independence after the referendum of i December 1991. Ukrainians in Poland. Although many Ukrainians lived within Polish national territory before the 2Oth century, relatively few of them were located within ethnic Polish lands. A substantial number of Ukrainians lived in the borderland Lemko, Sian, Podlachia, and Kholm regions, but only approx 20,000 lived in Poland proper. Many of that group left Poland during the First World War. They were replaced in the interwar period with a very different type of Ukrainian community. After the Second World War the nature of the Ukrainian presence in Poland again changed drastically. Pre-1914. Within the Polish territories of the AustroHungarian Empire *Cracow was the only city with a large concentration of Ukrainians. A Ukrainian Catholic parish had been established there in the late i8th century, and by 1910 there were approx 1,500 Ukrainians living in the city. Within Polish territories under the Russian Empire ""Warsaw was the main center. Even within the Rzeczpospolita the city attracted a substantial number of Ukrainian gentry, merchants, and Cossacks. In 1721 a Ukrainian Basilian monastery was established there. By the early 2oth century there were some 5,000 to 10,000 Ukrainians living there. Many were civil servants, members of the Russian imperial bureaucracy, or students at Warsaw University and other postsecondary institutions. Smaller numbers of Ukrainians lived in Lublin and Siedlce, the administrative centers of the Kholm region and Podlachia. On the eve of the First World War there were up to 50,000 Ukrainians living in Poland proper (not including the Kholm region). The majority of those left in 1915 during the general Russian evacuation before the advancing German and Austro-Hungarian armies.

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Interwar era. A new Ukrainian community emerged in Poland in the interwar period. With the final defeat of the UNR Army approx 30,000 Ukrainians, mostly military personnel, remained or were interned in Poland. Camps were situated in *Kalisz, Lañcut, *Szczepidrno, Piotrkdw, *Strzalkdw, *Tarndw, *Wadowice, and other locations until 1923. Thereafter most of the internees left for France or Czechoslovakia, but a group remained and settled throughout the country. Poland became a major center of Ukrainian émigré political activity until 1939, and Warsaw emerged as an important cultural center. Poland served as the home base of the UNR government-in-exile until 1923, and Ukrainians pressed their case for independence through bodies such as the Warsaw-centered ^Promethean movement. Important scholastic work was undertaken by the ""Ukrainian Scientific Institute in Warsaw and other bodies. By the late 19308 there were about 20,000 Ukrainians living in central Poland, of whom most were in Warsaw (ca 3,000), Cracow (ca 2,000), and smaller centers, such as Katowice, Kielce, Lodz, *Lublin, *Poznan, Radom, and Rzeszdw. That number included political émigrés, students, and several thousand professionals and laborers who had migrated from Western Ukraine to central Poland in search of employment. During the early part of the Second World War (193941) the number of Ukrainians in Poland increased dramatically as a result of the influx of refugees from the Bolshevik-occupied territories to the German-controlled Generalgouvernement. Cracow became the new hub of Ukrainian life, with a community numbering approx 3,000 (compared to Warsaw's 5,000 and Lublin's 1,000). Ukrainian community life became more vibrant as a result of the work of the "Ukrainian Central Committee. After the Germans occupied Western Ukraine, a substantial number of the refugees returned there. Post-Second World War. Ukrainian life in Poland changed completely in the postwar period. Most Ukrainians who lived in central Poland left for the West before it was occupied by Soviet forces in 1944-5, and most of those remaining were resettled in ethnic Ukrainian territory as a result of the final alignment of borders between the Polish People's Republic (PPR) and the Ukrainian SSR. Approx 500,000 Ukrainians living in the PPR were resettled in the Ukrainian SSR. Nevertheless a substantial Ukrainian minority remained within the newly drawn Polish border in northwestern Galicia, the Sian region, Podlachia, and particularly the Lemko region, which was controlled by the UPA in 1946-7. In April-July 1947 tne Polish government mounted Operation Wisla, a wholesale forced deportation of Ukrainians from their ethnographic territory. They were resettled in the so-called regained lands (Ziemie Odzyskane), the former territories of eastern and northern Germany and East Prussia acquired by Poland after the Second World War. A very small number of Ukrainians managed to stay in Ukrainian ethnographic territory, mostly in Podlachia. The hostility afforded Ukrainians as individuals was also evident in official and general societal attitudes toward them (there was a general refusal to recognize Ukrainians in Poland as a distinct national minority) and made it extremely difficult for Ukrainians to organize and present their demands. Only in 1956, after a liberalization of the communist regime, were Ukrainians granted certain rights and allowed to form their own organization,

the "Ukrainian Social and Cultural Society (USKT; since 1990 the Alliance of Ukrainians in Poland [OUP]). In spite of numerous petitions by the resettled Ukrainians the Polish government continued to enforce a ban on their return to their former homelands. In 1957-8 up to 11,000 requested permission to resettle. Approx 2,000 to 3,000 managed to do so (mainly back to the Lemko region), but at their own risk. Ironically, large sections of the Lemko region continued to be sparsely settled (in the 19608 there were 27 inhabitants/sq km, whereas in 1939 there had been 70), and the Boiko region remained virtually depopulated. The exact number and distribution of the Ukrainian population in postwar Poland can only be estimated, as census figures did not record information regarding ethnic background or language use. Official estimates put the total number of Ukrainians at 180,000; unofficial figures commonly range as high as 300,000. The largest single concentration of Ukrainians is found in the Olsztyn voivodeship, in northern Poland, where they number 50,000 to 60,000 and constitute approx 6 percent of the region's population. Other major areas of Ukrainian settlement in Poland include the voivodeships of Koszalin in the northwest (30,000), Wroclaw in the west (approx 20,000), Szczecin in the west (over 10,000), and Zielona Gdra in the west (approx 10,000). Another 2,000 live in the south-central voivodeship of Opole. The Lemko region, the Sian region, and northwestern Galicia are now part of Nowy Sacz, Krosno, and Peremyshl voivodeships. The Lemko region was inhabited by about 10,000 Ukrainians in the 19605, and in some districts (such as Komañcza, Mokre, and Morochdw) they even constitute a majority. In the Sian region a substantial number of Ukrainians live in the Peremyshl (in the city and in Ukrainian villages, such as Pozdiacz and Kalnikdw) and Jaroslaw districts. There were approx 20,000 Ukrainians in what are now Zamosc, Kholm, Biala Podlaska, and Bialystok voivodeships, mainly in the Biala Podlaska and Volodova regions of Podlachia, particularly in the area of Siemiatycze, Bielsk Podlaski, and Hainivka (Hajndwka). They are officially considered Belarusians, however. Relatively few Ukrainians live in central Poland, and those who do live in cities. Nearly 90 percent of Ukrainians lived in rural areas in the 19605. Since then there has been a degree of urbanization. The largest urban concentrations of Ukrainians are in Cracow, Legnica, Lublin, Peremyshl, Szczecin, Warsaw, and Wroclaw. Conditions for community life. In 1956, Ukrainians were permitted to form the OUP, the single Ukrainian institution allowed to educate and encourage cultural activity among Ukrainians. It also served as a representative body and assisted the authorities in deciding questions regarding the Ukrainian minority in Poland. Its headquarters were in Warsaw. It was under the direct control of the Polish Communist party (formally named the Polish United Workers' party) and the government and was a semiofficial organization. In 1958 it was given authority over 8 voivodeship and 34 district administrations, which oversaw 270 communities, of which some were in cities and some in the countryside. Its membership was 7,000. In 1970 the OUP had 5 voivodeship executives, 14 district administrations, 205 groups, and 4,750 members. The Ukrainian community, however, faced consider-

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able hostility from virtually all segments of Polish society, particularly Poles resettled from the Ukrainian SSR. Local officials were commonly the ones who immediately made community work difficult among Ukrainians, although the upper reaches of the Polish government also fomented hatred and distrust of Ukrainians by issuing publications and films about the 'bestial acts' of the UPA and the 'Banderites' (using that term in a specifically pejorative manner), the 'collaboration' of Ukrainians with the Nazis, and the alleged participation of Ukrainians in the suppression of the Warsaw Uprising of 1944. Many Ukrainians, particularly those in cities, concealed their national identity. The loss of a traditional territorial base, their wide dispersal, and the small size of the intelligentsia resulted in widespread denationalization among Ukrainians, particularly the younger generation. The situation was exacerbated by the policy of Russification within the USSR and the total indifference of the government of the Ukrainian SSR to the fate of Ukrainians in Poland; Ukrainian diplomatic representation in Poland, visits by official or semiofficial delegations, and the sponsorship of summer camps for Ukrainian children in Poland or of instructional sessions for teachers were all either minimal or nonexistent. Church life. Ukrainians in Poland adhere to the Ukrainian Catholic and Orthodox faiths in roughly equal numbers. Both traditional churches have been beset with a wide range of problems in the post-Second World War period. In the immediate postwar period the ""Ukrainian Catholic church was not formally liquidated as it was in the Ukrainian SSR at the Lviv Sobor of 1946. Its institutional structure, however, was effectively dismantled with the deportation of its spiritual head, Bishop Y. Kotsylovsky of Peremyshl, and other priests to the USSR. After Operation Wisla the church hierarchy was physically eliminated. Many priests were incarcerated in the Jaworzno prison. Those priests remaining free were forbidden to practice in their rite. Pope Pius XII responded to those developments by rejecting the dissolution of the Ukrainian Catholic church in Poland. He appointed A. Hlond (primate of Poland) and then (after Hlond's death) S. Wyszyñski (archbishop and later primate) as ordinary of the Eastern rite Catholics in Poland. Wyszyñski, himself imprisoned by the Polish authorities in 1953-6, was incapable of assisting the Ukrainian church: he recommended that Eastern rite priests save themselves by converting to the Latin rite. It was in that spirit that the Basilian monastery in Warsaw converted to the Latin rite. Meanwhile the Polish (Roman Catholic) church proceeded with numerous claims on the properties of the paralyzed Ukrainian Catholic church. After the liberalization of 1956, Ukrainian Catholics were finally allowed liturgies in their own rite but not separate parishes: they could maintain only priests who would be subservient to a Roman Catholic hierarchy. In some instances (one notable example being in Katowice under Bishop H. Bednorz) the arrangement worked well, and the local hierarch actively promoted the development of the Ukrainian church; in many, however, problems arose through both misunderstandings and deep-rooted prejudices. Some church communities converted to Orthodoxy. By 1977tne Ukrainian Catholic church, however, had developed a network of 77 centers. Several religious orders have been formed since the 19505, and in 1969 an Eastern rite theo-

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logical seminary was established in Lublin. In 19891. Martyniak was consecrated the first Ukrainian Catholic bishop in Poland, and in 1991 he assumed the re-established see of Peremyshl. Estimates of the number of Greek Catholics in Poland range as high as 400,000, although many Ukrainians have identified themselves as Roman Catholics in order to avoid harassment. The *Polish Autocephalous Orthodox church (PAOC) emerged in the 19208 as a body serving the needs of the approx four million Ukrainian, Belarusian, and (to a lesser extent) Russian and Polish adherents of Orthodoxy. The majority of them were located in the areas of interwar Poland that had been in the Russian Empire (notably the Kholm region). In the interwar era the PAOC maintained a strong Ukrainophile current, and during the Second World War PAOC bishops played an important role in the establishment of the Ukrainian Autocephalous Orthodox church. Nevertheless a strong Russophile current existed within the church hierarchy. The Poles maintained their efforts to convert the Orthodox population to Catholicism, in some cases by force and in general through the launching of the neounion campaign. After the Second World War the PAOC, under pressure from the Soviet authorities, lost its independence. In 1945 Metropolitan D. *Valedinsky was removed from his post; it was filled in 1951 by a Russian Orthodox hierarch. More significant, the 1924 Tomos issued by the Patriarch of Constantinople, which provided the PAOC with its autocephaly, was revoked in 1948 by the Patriarch of Moscow, who now brought the church under his jurisdiction. Since then the Russian language has occupied a more prominent position in ecclesiastical affairs, and much of the Ukrainian character of the church has been muted. At present the PAOC has approx 500,000 faithful (primarily Ukrainians and Belarusians) and is centered in Bialystok voivodeship, with smaller concentrations in the other voivodeships.

The Ukrainian Millennium choir from Koszalin, Poland (artistic director and conductor: Yaroslav Poliansky)

Schools, education, press, publishing houses. After the liberalization of 1956 the Polish educational administration, in association with the OUP, began introducing Ukrainian language courses in elementary schools. Since then primary education in Ukrainian has been available in schools numbering from two to nine (reaching a maximum of 583 pupils in 1960-1). Ukrainian was also introduced as a sub-

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ject and taught in as many as 152 schools (1958-9) and to as many as 2,711 pupils (1963-4). Ukrainian-language education was also introduced into two secondary schools (Legnica and Gdrowo Ilawskie). A department of Ukrainian philology was established at Warsaw University in 1953, and for a period university-level Ukrainian courses were offered in Szczecin (1957-65) and Olsztyn (1965-7). Ukrainian has also been taught at the pedagogical institute in Bartoszice. The proportion of Ukrainian students receiving instruction in their native language has been very low, and the number of fully qualified Ukrainian teachers assigned to Ukrainian classes has also been small (commonly the authorities refused to appoint them to schools where Ukrainian courses are offered). Extracurricular education is weakly developed. The OUP organized about 18 clubs and 60 independent choir, drama, and dance groups, with a membership of about 600. In 1967, the OUP began organizing annual festivals of Ukrainian music and song (first held in Sianik [Sanok]). In 1959 a section of the OUP devoted to the preservation and development of Lemko culture was formed. The only Ukrainian newspaper in Poland is the weekly Nashe slovo (est 1956), which is published by the central administration of the OUP along with its supplements Lemkivs 'ke slovo and Svitanok (for children) and the monthly journal Nasha kul'tura (from 1958). Nasha kul'tura provides some information about cultural life in what was Soviet Ukraine and in the diaspora. Since 1957 the OUP has also published the almanac Ukraïns 'kyi kalendar, in a pressrun of 9,000. In the 19805 the students of Ukrainian philology at Warsaw University began to publish an irregular journal named Zustrichi, which over time has expanded its format and begun to address broad issues of community concern. The respective Ukrainian religious dominations now publish Orthodox (since 1986) and Catholic (since 1987) church almanacs in Ukrainian. In Olsztyn and Rzeszdw weekly Ukrainian radio programs are transmitted regionally; in the 19605 and 19705 programs existed in Koszalin and Lublin. There are few titles pubished in Ukrainian other than the almanacs and texts for elementary schools issued by the OUP. The demand for Ukrainian publications was only partially satisfied by Soviet Ukrainian production. Literature, art, and scholarship. The Ukrainian poets in Poland include Ya. Dudra, Ya. Hudemchuk, O. Lapsky, I. Reit, Ye. Samokhvalenko, O. Zhabsky, and I. Zlatokudr. The prose writers include H. Boichuk, D. Halytsky, S. Kozak, K. Kuzyk, I. Sheliuk, and A. Serednytsky (Verba). An anthology of works by those authors was published by the OUP in 1964 as Homin (Echo). The Ukrainian artists in Poland include J. *Nowosielski and V. Savuliak (who were professors at the art academy in Cracow), *Nykyfor, L. Gets, A. Mentukh, V. Pankiv, H. Petsukh, Z. Podushko, M. Smerek, V. Vaskivsky, and T. Venhrynovych. Other noted cultural figures include S. Cherhoniak, Ya. Konstantynovych, and V. Hodys, who are art scholars; T. Demchuk, a theater critic; Ya. Toliansky, a composer of music and organizer of choirs; and D. Denysenko, A. Matsihanovska, M. Shchutska, and O. Tabachnyk, Ukrainian actors who appeared on the Polish stage. Centers of Ukrainian scholarship in Poland are the Ukrainian departments (language and literature) at the Institute of Slavic Studies of the Polish Academy of Sciences, the department of Ukrainian philology at Warsaw

University, and departments of Slavic studies at other universities. Among Ukrainian scholars in Poland are the historians A. Serednytsky and Ya. Yurkevych; the linguists and literary scholars M. Lesiv, S. Kozak, V. Mokry, and W. Witkowski; the psychologists S. *Balei and V. Shevchuk; and the musicologist J. *Chominski. BIBLIOGRAPHY Dragomanov, M. Istoricheskaia Pol 'sha i velikorusskaia demokratiia (Geneva 1881) Jablonowski, A. Pisma, vol i, Ziemie Ruskie Rzeczypospolitej (Warsaw 1910); vol 2, Kresy Ukrainne (1910); vol 3, Ukraina (1911); vol 4, Wotyrí, Podóle i Rus Czerwona (1911) Halecki, O. Dzieje Unii Jagiellorískiej, 2 vols (Cracow 1919-20) Wojnarowskyj, T. Das Schicksal des ukrainischen Volkes unter polnischer Herrschaft (Vienna 1921) Wasilewski, L. Ukrairíska sprawa narodowa w jej rozwoju historycznym (Warsaw 1925) Sprawy Narodowosciowe (Warsaw 1927-39) Kutschabsky, W. Die Westukraine im Kampfe mit Polen una dem Bolschewismus in den Jahren 1918-1923 (Berlín 1934) Bocheñski, A.; Los, S.; Baczkowski, W. Problem polsko-ukrainski w Ziemi Czerwienskiej (Warsaw 1938) Zóltowski, A. Border of Europe: A Study of the Polish Eastern Provinces (London 1950) Rhode, G. Die Ostgrenze Polens: Politische Entwicklung, kulturelle Bedeutung und geistige Auswirkung, vol i, Im Mittelalter bis zum Jahre 1401 (Cologne-Graz 1955) Lewyckyj, B. Warszawa-Kijów: Informacja o stosunkach polityc, z, s], the hardening of soft labials, prothetic sounds before initial vowels, the change ô > y [eg, vyn instead of on 'he7]), morphology (eg, types of end-

POLISHCHUK ings in nominal declension, -mo/-mu ending of ist per pi verbs [eg, musimo instead of musimy (cf Ukrainian musymo) 'we must']), and syntax (eg, the absence of special endings indicating male persons in the nom case of pi adjectives and in verbs). The Polish peasant dialects of Podlachia and the Kholm region developed out of the Polonization of originally Ukrainian villages (see *Podlachian dialects). Many Polish writers who were born or lived in Ukraine phonetically assimilated Ukrainian words and phrases in their writings (eg, M. Rej, S. Orzechowski, S. Szymonowic, J. Zimorowicz, S. Trembecki, H. Rzewuski, J. Slowacki, J. Zaleski, A. Malczewski, S. Goszczyñski, J. Korzeniowski, M. Grabowski, M. Czajkowski, Z. Milkowski, J. Kraszewski, A. Fredro, W. Loziñski, J. Lam, K. Ujejski, J. Parandowski, and J. Iwaszkiewicz). Others (eg, W. Potocki, H. Sienkiewicz) used Ukrainianisms for local color in their works on Ukrainian-Polish themes. (See also ""Poles in Ukraine.) BIBLIOGRAPHY Kremer, A. 'Slowniczek prowincjonalizmów podolskich, ulozony w Kamiencu Podolskim w r. 1863,' Rocznik T-wa Naukowego Uniwersytetu Krakowskiego, 18 (1870) Kurka, A. Slownik mowy ztodziejskiej, 3 edns (Lviv 1896,1899, 1907) Estreicher, K. Szwargot wiçzienny (Cracow 1903) Harhala, W. 'Gwara polska okolic Komarna/ Lud Slowiaríski, IIA, 156-77 (Cracow 1931) Hrabec, S. Elementy kresowe w jçzyku niektórych pisarzy polskich xvi i xvn w. (Toruñ 1950) - 'O polskiej gwarze wsi Duliby w b. powiecie buczackim/ Rozprawy Komisji Jçzykowej Lódzkiego Towarzystwa Naukowego, 3 (1955) Dejna, K. 'Gwara Milna/ Rozprawy Komisji Jçzykowej Lódzkiego Towarzystwa Naukowego, I, i, vol 4 (Lódz 1959) Verenich, V. (ed). Polskie govory v SSSR, i-n (Minsk 1973) Kurzowa, S. Elementy kresowe w jçzyku powiesci powojennej (Warsaw 1975) Rieger, J.; Verenich, V. (eds). Studia nad polszczyznq. kresowa, i-vi (1982-91) (vol vi provides a bibliography) Czyzewski, F. Atlas gwar polskich i ukrainskich okolic Wtodawy (Lublin 1986) O. Horbach

Polish law. From the 15th century to the partitions of Poland, and in the interwar period of the 2Oth century, Ukrainian territories under Polish rule were governed by Polish law. The law was introduced in the 14303 in Rus' and Podilia voivodeships and parts of Bratslav voivodeship, and from 1501 in the Kholm region. It was used along with older laws, such as *Rus', Armenian, *Wallachian, and ^Germanic law. The Jewish community, meanwhile, had its own system. The sources for Polish law were primarily customary law and, later, written statutes. There were many attempts to codify the law, but the first comprehensive effort was made by Casimir m the Great. His Wislica Statute of 1347 was translated partly into Ukrainian and was used mostly in Western Ukraine. A second, superior code, called the Laski Statute, was ratified by the Sejm in 1506. In 1522 the Sejm decided to have all customary laws codified, but this project was later reduced to codifying only private, criminal, and procedural law. A special commission prepared the so-called Correctura Irium, but the Sejm rejected it (1534). The Constitution of 1791 reformed political law and provided for the publication of a new legal code, but this was not carried out be-

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cause of the partitioning of Poland. Thus, Poland had been governed only by statutes and, apart from procedural law, lacked any legal codes. Various territories had their own provincial statutes, which they defended jealously. The fundamental characteristics of Polish law were reliance on custom, unevenness, particularism, and insufficient codification. The guiding legislative principle was the protection of the privileges of the nobility and the interests of the state and the church; the Catholic hierarchy was particularly influential. Until the loth century the legal system was distinctively Polish, with few borrowings from foreign sources. Then, many elements of Roman law were adopted. It was only at the end of the i8th century that some modern ideas from Western Europe were imported into Polish law. After the partitions of Poland, Polish law was replaced by Austrian and Prussian law, the Napoleonic Code in the Kingdom of Poland, and the ^Lithuanian Statute, which was more sophisticated than any of the Polish projects. The statute remained in force in Right-Bank Ukraine until 1840, when it was replaced by Russian law. During the Polish occupation of Western Ukraine in 1919-39, the former Austrian and Russian laws were gradually replaced by new Polish laws: the constitutions of 1921 and 1935, the law on the justice system (1928), the law on criminal and civil procedure (1930), a criminal code (1932), and part of a civil code (1933). The development of the Polish law in this period was marked by an increasing tendency toward authoritarianism. Compared with the liberal Constitution of 1921, the Constitution of 1935 was restrictive: it limited the rights of civil society, abolished juries in criminal trials, and introduced emergency courts (1932) and concentration camps (1934). Polish Second Corps. An Allied military formation during the Second World War. It comprised approx 45,000 Polish nationals, including some 2,000 Ukrainians who had been interned in Soviet prisons or labor camps following the 1939 partition of Poland. The Soviet government agreed to set up this force during negotiations with the London-based Polish government-in-exile in August 1941. Gen W. *Anders was chosen as commander. After many delays and prolonged political wrangling, the corps was assigned, finally, to the British army and in 1942 sent to northern Iran. By the end of 1943 it had joined the British forces in the Italian campaign, and it distinguished itself in the Battle of Monte Cassino (11-12 May 1944). Many of its veterans later emigrated to the West. Polishchuk, Klym [Poliscuk] (pseuds: Volyniak, K. Lavrynovych, Ivan Mecheslavenko, O. Cherednychenko, and others), b 25 November 1891 in Krasnopil, Zhytomyr county, Volhynia gubernia, d 1937? Writer. He studied at the St Petersburg Academy of Arts (1909-12) and then worked for the Volhynia gubernia zemstvo. During the Revolution of 1917 he worked as an editor of Ukrains 'kyi holos and Narodna volia and as a member of the editorial boards of Narodna sprava, Mystetstvo, and other periodicals. In 1919 he joined the symbolist group *Muzahet. In 1920 he moved to Galicia, where most of his works were published. He returned to Kiev in 1925. Polishchuk was arrested in 1935 and imprisoned in the Solovets Islands in the White Sea; he was last heard from in 1937. He began writing poetry early in his life, and his first poems ap-

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Klym Polishchuk

Valeriian Polishchuk

peared without his knowledge in the paper Volyn'. He published his first story in 1909. In 1913 he published a collection of Ukrainian songs. Most of his stories and his three novels are about the revolutionary years in Ukraine. Polishchuk was a prolific writer, with numerous collections of short stories, such as Daleki zori (Distant Stars, 1914), Sered mohyl i ruin (Among Graves and Ruins, 1918), Tini mynuloho: Volyns 'ki legendy (Shadows of the Past: Volhynian Legends, 1919), Vesele v sumnomu (The Joyful in the Sad, 1921), Zhmenia zemli: Halyts 'ki legendy (A Handful of Earth: Galician Legends, 1921), Zoloti zerniatka (Golden Kernels, 1921), Skarby vikiv: Ukrains'ki legendy (Treasures of the Ages: Ukrainian Legends, 1921), Anhel's'kyi lyst (The Angel's Letter, 1923), and Zhertva (The Sacrifice, 1923). He also wrote the novels Otaman Zelenyi (1922), Svit chervonyi (The Red World, 1923), and Huliaipil's'kyi 'bat'ko' (The Huliai Pole 'Father/ 2 vols, 1925); the poetry collections Spivy v poliakh (Singing in the Fields, 1917), Poezii (Poems, 1919), and Zvukolirnist' (Sound-Lyricalness, 1921); the drama Trivozhni [sic] dni (Turbulent Days, 1924); and memoirs about literary life in Kiev in 1919, Z vyru revoliutsii (From the Vortex of the Revolution, 1925). R. Senkus

Polishchuk, Petro [Poliscuk], b 23 December 1913 in Nosivtsi, Ternopil county, Galicia, d 17 June 1987 in Zurich. Educator and Jungian psychoanalyst. From 1933 he studied law at Lviv University and helped edit luni druzi. In 1937 he worked in Tsentrobank. During the first Soviet occupation of Western Ukraine he was in charge of the youth section of the Ukrainian Central Committee in Cracow. Following his arrest by the Gestapo in 1941, the rest of his war years were spent in concentration camps. After the war he worked for the Ukrainian Medical-Charitable Service in Munich (1945), the Ukrainian Relief Committee in Rome (1945-8), and the Shevchenko Scientific Society in France. He also served as general secretary of the Union of Ukrainian Workers in France. Upon graduating from the Jung Institute in Zurich (1967) he practiced psychotherapy and lectured at that institution. Polishchuk, Valeriian [Poliscuk, Valerijan] (pseuds: Vasyl Sontsetsvit, Mykyta Volokyta), b i October 1897 m Bilche, Dubno county, Volhynia gubernia, d 11 November 1937 on Solovets Islands. Writer and literary critic and theorist. His first published work appeared in 1918. In 1923

he joined Hart and in 1925 in Kharkiv he founded the organization *Avanhard, which advanced a program of constructivist dynamism (or spiralism) and relied heavily on Russian (I. Selvinsky), Western European (E. Wergarn), and American (W. Whitman) avant-garde literature. Polishchuk aimed to sing the praises of modern civilization and its technological revolution. He wrote poetry, prose, and children's literature. Initially he wrote historical fiction, such as Skazannia davnieie pro te, iak Ol'ha Korosten' spalyla (An Ancient Account of How Olha Burned *Korosten, 1919), but then he began to praise the Bolshevik regime and the world communist revolution. His communism is most evident in pieces such as Lenin (1922), Duma pro Barmashykhu (A Duma about a Barmash Woman, 1922), Zhmutok chervonoho (A Shred of Red, 1924), Evropa na vul'kani (Europe on a Volcano, 1925), Metalevyi tembr (The Metal Timbre, 1928), and Elektrychni zahravy (Electric Dawns, 1929). In his theoretical writings he conceived of the idea of khvyliady, or 'wave cycles/ a form of free verse used in his works. Polishchuk was arrested in the 19305, and died in a prison camp. He was posthumously rehabilitated, in the late 19505. Editions of his selected works were published in 1960 and 1987. I. Koshelivets

Polishchuk, Vasyl [Poliscuk, Vasyl'], b 25 May 1918 in Mikhailovskoe, now in Novosibirsk oblast, Russia, d 19 July 1979 in Uzhhorod. Writer and journalist. He graduated from the Communist Institute of Journalism in Kharkiv (1940) and the Higher Party School of the Central Committee of the CPSU in Moscow (1955). He worked on the editorial board of the oblast newspapers Chervone Zaporizhzhia and Radians 'ke Zakarpattia and was a correspondent for Pravda Ukrainy, covering Transcarpathia. He published prose, including Dzveniat ' strumochky (The Burbling Brooks, 1958), Zustrinemos' na Menchuli (We Will Meet on the Menchul, 1959), Entuziiasty (The Enthusiasts, 1964), Kazky karpats 'koho lisu (Tales of the Carpathian Forest, 1968), and Lisova povist' (The Forest Story, 1971). Polishchuk, Vitalii [Poliscuk, Vitalij], b 6 April 1931 in Kiev. Metallurgist. He graduated from the Kiev Polytechnical Institute (1954) and has worked at the AN URSR (now ANU) Institute for Problems of Casting (since 1958). He specializes in the area of metal casting, and his main contributions are in applications of magnetohydrodynamics to the casting process. Polisia (Polish: Polesie). A physical-geographical region of lowlands and mixed forests lying between the Belarusian Upland to the north, the Volhynia-Kholm Upland and the Dnieper Upland to the south, the Buh River and Podlachia to the west, and the Dnieper Lowland to the east. Polisia is a large, flat lowland covered with glacial, fluvioglacial, and alluvial deposits. Low river gradients and shallow groundwater levels account for extensive marshes. Large areas are occupied by sands. The entire region is well forested. Boundaries. Under the broad definition Polisia covers a territory of over 200,000 sq km. Under the narrow definition, which excludes Chernihiv Polisia, Little Polisia, and Volodava Polisia, Polisia proper occupies about 160,000 sq km (see map). Unlike its northern boundary, Polisia7s southern boundary is sharply defined. It extends from Kholm in the west through Volodymyr-Volynskyi,

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POLISIA Lutske, Rivne, and Korets. East of Korets the southern boundary shifts southward to Shepetivka and then continues through Zhytomyr to Kiev. On the left bank of the Dnieper the southern boundary of Chernihiv Polisia runs through Nizhen, Komarivka, Baturyn, Krolevets, and Hlukhiv but is not as sharply defined. The Ukrainian-Belarusian ethnic border crosses Polisia from west to east approx along the line Pruzhany-Bereza Kartuzka-Vyhonivske Lake, down the Bobryk and along the Prypiat to Mozyr, south to the Slovechna River and east along the Ukrainian-Belarusian border to the Dnieper, and then north along the Dnieper. In the west the political-administrative border between Ukraine and Belarus does not correspond to the ethnic border, because the Soviet regime ceded the northwestern portion of Ukrainian ethnic territory (approx 27,000 sq km) to the Belorussian SSR. Today Ukrainian Polisia is defined as Ukraine's forest belt (including Little Polisia and Chernihiv Polisia), which covers approx 100,000 sq km. Ukrainian Polisia encompasses most of Volhynia and Rivne oblasts, about twothirds of Zhytomyr oblast, the northern third of Kiev oblast, and the Ukrainian-settled parts of Brest oblast (over one-half) and Homel oblast (about one-sixth) in Belarus.

Geology and geomorphology. The oldest geostructural region of Polisia is the northwestern part of the Ukrainian Crystalline Shield, which is most prominent in Zhytomyr oblast. The region consists of Precambrian rocks, whereas the adjacent Ovruch Ridge is built mostly of quartzites and Proterozoic pyrophyllitic schists. The Precambrian foundation supports thin deposits from the Cretaceous and Paleocene periods here and there and a thin Quarternary overburden almost everywhere. The northwestern part of Polisia consists of the Brest Depression, which is filled to some 2,500 m with old Paleozoic, Jurassic, Cretaceous, and Tertiary sedimentaries, covered with a layer of Quarternary deposits. It is separated from the Prypiat Trough by the Polisia Arch, built on Precambrian and Devonian deposits. The arch runs northward toward the Belarusian Anticline and comes to the surface at several points. In earlier geological periods it separated two large troughs, the North Ukrainian from the Mazovian. Continental glaciers, which twice covered parts of Polisia, left stretches of ground and terminal moraines with erratics (boulders), thus smoothing out the preceding stream-eroded relief. Meltwaters carrying large quantities of sand and silt were joined by renewed small rivers that

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flowed to the north. The Styr-Slovechna spillway was formed along the edge of the glacier and carried the meltwaters to the Dnieper River. As the glacier receded to the Mozyr stage, the Prypiat River resumed its function and took up the waters of the Buh River, which was still blocked by the ice sheet to the northwest. Thus, the wide Old Buh-Prypiat spillway was formed. Glacial meltwaters and river waters washed away the moraines, which now occupy only small areas, and formed large lakes, because the flow of the Prypiat River was impaired by terminal moraines and the Ukrainian Crystalline Shield. The subsidence of Polisia's axis also led to widespread ponding. After the Prypiat broke through the terminal moraines between Mozyr and Yurevychi, the Polisian lakes were partially drained, and turned mostly into swamps. But the Prypiat lacked the power to remove the sands and alluviums that filled its valley, for the Buh River was captured by the Vistula, the base level of erosion of which, with the emergence of the Baltic Sea, was lower than that of the Dnieper. Consequently, large areas of Polisia, both valleys and interfluvial lowlands, remained covered with marshes and sands. The fluctuation of glacial and interglacial periods, the epeirogenic movements, such as the subsidence of Polisia's axis and the isostatic recovery and rise of its southern rim, and the alternation of erosion and accumulation resulted in the appearance of terraces in the river valleys. There are also small pockets of loess which belong to the Quaternary deposits. Generally Polisia is a uniform lowland plain, broken here and there by a few higher elevations, hills, or ridges of glacial, fluvioglacial, eolian, or denudational origin and by valleys. The axial part of Polisia is the broad, low floodplain that extends along both sides of the Prypiat River and its tributaries. Its relief does not exceed 5 m, and its width varies from 5 to 35 km. Flooded by meltwaters each spring, the bottomlands consist of thick layers of alluvial deposits, mud, sand, and peat. The river terraces are low there, rising to 7 m above the bottomlands, but to the south their relief increases to 15 m or more. The alluvial-outwash deposits in Little Polisia between Shepetivka and Zhytomyr and along the lower Teteriv River, and the outwash plain along the Ubort River, are related to those alluvialaccumulation lowlands.

A Polisia landscape

The southern, elevated part of Polisia, as well as Kiev Polisia, is less swampy. The swamps alternate with dry land, and the valleys are lightly incised. Those denudational plains are covered with a thin layer of outwash sands. In the southwest the relief of Volhynian Polisia is broken occasionally by chalk ridges. To the northeast the lowland is disrupted here and there by long and narrow ridges up to 60 m above the plain, including the Ovruch and Ozeriany ridges. Another kind of elevation consists of hills of terminal moraines. The best example of the formation is the Volhynian moraine ridge, which extends from the west through Liuboml, Kovel, Dubrovytsia, and Stolyn to the northeast. Small moraines occur on the Mozyr and Chornobyl 'islands/ Large areas of Polisia are covered with sand dunes, wind-blown sands, and blowouts. In some places the sand dunes form chains or entire dune fields. On wide sandy plains and floodplains the sand dunes stand out as the highest points of relief and are called mountains by the local inhabitants. They were formed at the end of the Pleistocene Epoch, when large quantities of sand accumulated in front of the terminal moraines under conditions of a dry climate and prevailing easterly winds. Many of them were later partially covered by marshes and peat bogs. Sand dunes influence not only the landscape but also the river network and the way of life of the people. Lowland rivers can penetrate dune fields only with great difficulty. Because they are rarely flooded, dunes have long served as sites for settlement and roads. In more recent times the dunes were cleared for plowland and were quickly turned into a sandy wasteland by the wind. Climate. Polisia has a temperate continental climate with a warm and humid summer and a mild, cloudy winter. The Atlantic air mass dominates during the winter, and a modified continental air mass prevails in the summer. Continentality increases from west to east. The average annual temperature varies from 6.5°C to 7.5°C; the average January temperature decreases from ~4°C in the west to ~7°c in the east, and the minimum temperature drops from ~32°c to -39°c. Summer temperatures are nearly the same: the average temperature is i8°c in the northwest and i9°C in the southeast. The frost-free period is 170 days in the northeast and 180 days in the southwest. The annual precipitation varies from 600 to 650 mm, although in any year it may vary from 300 to 950 mm. The maximum is obtained in June and July, when heavy rains and even downpours are frequent. The snow cover lasts from 90 to 100 days, and its depth varies from 15 cm in the west to 30 cm in the east. Fogs occur often - 60 to 70 days per year, mostly from October to January. Water resources. Polisia is well supplied with water. It has a dense network of rivers, lakes, and marshes and large reserves of groundwater. Nearly all of Polisia lies within the Dnieper drainage basin. Only a small western segment is drained by the Buh, which flows into the Vistula. The main artery of Polisia is the Prypiat River. Its system is asymmetric: the northern tributaries (the Pyna, the Yaselda, the Lan, the Sluch, and the Ptsich) are short and small in volume, whereas the southern tributaries (the Turiia, the Stokhid, the Styr, the Horyn, the Stvyha, the Ubort, the Slovechna, the Zholon, and the Uzh) are mostly long and voluminous. The Teteriv and the Irpin are direct tributaries of the Dnieper. Polisia is rich in groundwater,

POLISIA

which is found at various levels according to the geological structure. Quarternary deposits contain shallow groundwater. The best potable water in Kiev Polisia is obtained from Paleocene deposits, and in Volhynia, from Cretaceous deposits. Polisia, especially its western part, contains more lakes (nearly 550) and ponds (nearly 1,000) than any other region of Ukraine. The largest lake in Polisia, Chervone (area, 38.5 sq km; maximum depth, 9 m), formerly known as Kniazhe and Zhyd, belongs to Belarus. In Ukrainian Polisia the largest lakes are Svytiaz (area, 27.5 sq km; maximum depth, 58 m) and Vyhonivske (area, 26.5 sq km; depth, 2.7 m). About one-third of Polisia is covered with bogs and marshes. The flat terrain, the shallow depth of the groundwater, and the low gradient of the rivers account for the poor drainage. The marshes are concentrated along the Prypiat and the Horyn rivers. Soils. Nearly 70 percent of Polisia is covered with podzolic soils. Their natural fertility is low and proportional to their clay content. The least fertile sandy podzols are most common, the more fertile sandy loams cover the interfluves, and the most fertile loams cover small areas in Volhynian and Zhytomyr Polisia. Muck and bog soils occupy 15 percent of Polisia, mostly river valleys and depressions. With melioration they become the most fertile soils in Polisia. The most fertile natural soils are the rendzina soils, which occur on the chalk and marl deposits of Volhynian Polisia, the gray forest soils, which form 'islands' in the loessial loam deposits near Ovruch, Zhytomyr, Novohrad-Volynskyi, and Mozyr, and tiny areas of degraded chernozems on the border between Polisia and the forest-steppe. Vegetation. Polisia belongs to the mixed forest subzone of the East European broad-leaved forest zone. In the past the whole of Polisia was completely covered with forest and marshland. As a result of deforestation, mostly in the second half of the icth century, and the growth of swamps, forests now occupy scarcely one-third of the land area. Plowland accounts for over one-quarter of the land, and hayfields, pastures, and meadows for about one-fifth. Generally the forests alternate with the marshes. The most widespread tree is the pine (Pinus silvestris, 58 percent); it is followed by the oak (Quercus robur, 15 percent), birch (Betula verrucosa, 12 percent), and black alder (Alnus glutinosa). Small areas are occupied by the aspen (Populus trémula), hornbeam (Carpinus betulus), and rare silver fir (Abies alba), only in northern and Volhynian Polisia.

Marshy forest near the Lva River in Polisia

107

The wetlands vegetation displays pronounced differentiation. The greatest variety occurs on the lowland swamps enriched with mineral salts. The prevalent plants belong to the sedge complex, the hypnum mosses-sedge complex (some with willow and birch brush), and the cereal-sedge-hypnum mosses complex. The vegetation of the upland bogs is considerably poorer: it consists of various kinds of peat (notably sphagnum), scattered dwarf pines, and shrub containing heather, bilberry, and several grasses. A considerable area is occupied by meadows, either floodplains or deforested tracts. Fauna. Part of the Eurasian forest zone, Polisia contains a richer complex of fauna than the forest-steppe or the steppe of Ukraine. Among the forests of Polisia the richest fauna is found in the mixed forests, which contain the lynx, wolf, forest marten, chamois, fox, squirrel, weasel, ermine, wild boar, and bear and are visited by the elk (Alces alces, now very rare) from the marshy forest. The rivers support the valuable fur-bearing beaver (in the nature preserves), otter, and mink. Two other furbearing animals were successfully introduced, the muskrat and the nutria. The most common waterfowl species are ducks, snipes, black-headed gulls, mallards, bank swallows, and blue kingfishers. The rivers are full of various species of the carp family, such as the carp, gardon, chub, bream, roach, tench, and crucian carp, as well as the pike, sheatfish, loach, perch, and ruff. The eel from the Baltic Basin has entered the Prypiat river system through canals. In the 17th century bison and aurochs still inhabited Polisia; in the i8th century, the flying squirrel; and in the 19th century, numerous wolverines, bears, and elk. Overhunting, the impact of human activities, and the reduction of the natural habitat have contributed to the extinction of some species or their displacement to the north. History. Evidence of human habitation in Polisia dates back to the Upper Paleolithic Period (10,000-8000 BC). Considerably more evidence from the Mesolithic Period (8000-5000 BC) has been found on sand dunes along the rivers. In the 9th century Polisia was inhabited, according to the Primary Chronicle, by the following tribes: along both sides of the Buh River to the Yaselda in the north lived the Dulibians (later known as the Volhynians); to the southeast and south of the Prypiat River were the Derevlianians (their main towns, Iskorosten and Ovruch); and to the north along the Prypiat were the Drehovichians (main towns, Turiv and Mozyr). Thus the Yaselda-Prypiat line, which now forms the ethnic border between Ukrainians and Belarusians, marked off tribal territories long ago. In the loth century Polisia became part of the Kievan state. *Turiv-Pynske principality, which occupied the central part of Polisia, became part of Kievan Rus' at the end of the loth century and regained independence at the beginning of the 12th. A century later it was divided into a number of small principalities, Pynske, Turiv, Dorohobuzh, Peresopnytsia, Davyd-Horodok, and others, which were dominated alternately by Kiev and Volhynia principalities. Eastern Polisia belonged to Kiev principality, southwestern Polisia to Volhynia principality, and the Brest land to Turiv-Pynske principality and later to Volhynia principality. After the Tatar invasion almost the whole of Polisia became part of the Principality of GaliciaVolhynia. At the beginning of the 14th century northern

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POLISIA

and Prypiat Polisia were annexed by the Lithuanian grand duke Gediminas. After the collapse of the Galician-Volhynian state the whole of Polisia became part of Lithuania. In the middle of the 15th century most of Polisia was administered by the Olelkovych princes of Kiev. From 1519 the Pynske land belonged to Queen Bona, the wife of the Polish king Sigismund I. She settled it with Polish peasants and petty gentry and made the first major attempt to drain the Polisian marshes. After the Union of Lublin (1569) Polisia was divided: the northern part remained in the Grand Duchy of Lithuania (all of Brest, part of Minsk, and slices of Novhorod voivodeships), whereas the southern part was acquired by Poland (parts of Kiev and Volhynia voivodeships and the Kholm land). The major cities and the more populated parts of those territories, with the exception of Brest, were located beyond Polisia or on its periphery. Polisia gained importance in Ukraine's history during the Tatar conquest of the forest-steppe in the 13th century and the Crimean Tatar raids after the mid-i5th century. A large proportion of the Ukrainian population of the forest-steppe sought refuge in Polisia, which was less vulnerable to attack. After the partitions of Poland the whole of Polisia was incorporated into the Russian Empire. The southern part was assigned to Volhynia and Kiev gubernias (which formed a part of the Southwestern krai), and the central and northern parts were incorporated into Hrodna and Minsk gubernias (part of the Western krai). A large part of Ukrainian Polisia was thereby incorporated into gubernias with a Belarusian majority. Polisia was the most neglected and poorest part of Ukrainian territories within the Russian Empire. Conditions improved somewhat when the I. Zhilinsky expedition drained some parts of the region, although its work was confined mostly to state and nobles7 estates. Railroads brought a significant improvement in Polisia's economy. According to the Peace Treaty of Brest-Litovsk the whole of Ukrainian Polisia became part of the Ukrainian state. In 1917-18 the same Ukrainian national movement encompassed western Polisia and Podlachia. It was spearheaded by the Bluecoats Regiment and the Ukrainian administration. The Prosvita society, with its head office in Brest, organized 150 reading rooms. Ukrainian schools, co-operatives, and the newspaper Ridne slovo were established. The Peace Treaty of Riga resulted in the partition of Polisia between Poland and the USSR. Almost the whole of eastern Polisia, settled by Ukrainians, became part of the Ukrainian SSR. Only a small portion of it around Mozyr (6,400 sq km) was made part of the Belorussian SSR. Most of western Polisia, which was acquired by Poland, was formed into Polisia voivodeship, with its center in Brest; its southern part was joined to Volhynia voivodeship. Taking advantage of the low level of national consciousness among both Ukrainian and Belarusian Polisians, the Polish administration tried to Polonize them and to increase the Polish population in the region, which in 1920 accounted for under 5 percent of the total. Poland did not recognize Ukrainians or Belarusians in Polisia but set up the artificial category of local people' (tuteshni). In the 1931 census 62.4 percent of the inhabitants were registered as speakers of the 'local language,' 6.7 percent as Belarusian, and only 4.8 percent as Ukrainian. Moreover, the Ukrainian language in Polisia received no recognition.

Polish was the only language taught in schools, and eventually it became the official language of the Orthodox church. No Ukrainian political, social, or cultural life was permitted: Ukrainian institutions, such as the Brest Prosvita and Ukrainian schools, were closed down. All Ukrainian activities were strictly controlled by the local administration, the police, and, in border counties, the military. The policy was enforced from 1932 by Voivode W. Barnacki-Kostek. In 1920-31 about 40,000 Poles, mostly colonists and military settlers, were resettled on former Russian nobles' estates and state lands. In the years just before the Second World War the authorities attempted to Polonize and Catholicize the petty Orthodox gentry in Polisia. The 'Polish Holland' that was to be created on drained wetlands was to attract a new influx of Polish peasants, but the plan was defeated by the Polish general staff, who wanted to use Polisia as a buffer zone with the USSR. In September 1939 western Polisia was occupied by the Soviet Army. Only a small part of the former Polisia voivodeship (7,200 sq km) settled by Ukrainians was attached to the Ukrainian SSR; most of it (20,500 sq km) was assigned to the Belorussian SSR. The partition occurred according to the 'will' of the people's deputies of western Belarus, expressed by their convention in Bialystok on 28 October 1939. The demands of rural delegations to oblast centers in Brest and Pynske for union with the Ukrainian SSR were of no avail. Belarusian, or even Russian, was imposed as the language of instruction in schools, which the local population had started to Ukrainize. In the first months of the German occupation (summer 1941) Ukrainian life in Polisia revived, only to be stifled by the Nazis. Taking advantage of the swampy, wooded terrain the Ukrainian resistance became active, in the form of the *Polisian Sich, which later became part of the Ukrainian Insurgent Army. Soviet partisan groups also operated in the region. After the Soviets reoccupied Polisia, the previous borders were renewed. The Ukrainians (approx 800,000), who live compactly in Brest oblast and on the southern fringe of Homel oblast, are officially considered Belarusian. Ukrainian has not been recognized in the government or schools and is not used in print. Ukrainians in Belarus are threatened with assimilation to the Belarusian culture in the rural areas and to the Russian culture in the cities. Population. The distribution of the population and the way of life were strongly affected by the geographical conditions in Polisia. Its inaccessible terrain protected the inhabitants from invasion and isolated them from foreign influences. Polisian people retained the ancient wooden

A village in Volhynian Polisia

POLISIA

109

U K R A I N I A N POLISIA architecture, the ancient dress with traces from the Princely era, and a rich store of customs, traditions, and folklore, which are closely related in content and style with those of the rest of Ukraine. The people preserved many carols with ancient themes and old ritual songs, some of which have been adopted by the Belarusians. Since the end of the 19th century, however, the accelerated pace of change, improved transportation, the two world wars, and, especially, Soviet integration policies have forced out the ancient forms. Because of their isolation the inhabitants of Polisia never had a strong sense of national identity. They always felt and continue to feel that they are different from their neighbors the Poles, Russians, and Jews, and usually referred to themselves as locals7 (tuteshni), 'simple folk7 (prosti), or 'Orthodox7 (pmvoslavni). The names polishchuk and pynchuk, derived from place-names, were usually used by outsiders. The distinction between Ukrainian and Belarusian Polisians is not settled but can be drawn more or less along the linguistic border. The Polisians themselves recognize the difference in the hard and soft pronunciation of similar words (eg, the Ukrainian khodyty or khodity, and the Belarusian khadzity 'to walk7) and distinguish Ukrainians from Belarusians without any difficulty. Ukrainian Polisians called the Belarusians lytvyny or lytsvyny (Lithuanians) and sometimes hedyky or, pejora-

tively, lapatsony. The Belarusians, in turn, called the Ukrainians hiduni or hetuni. The Ukrainians of Polisia regarded themselves as different from the Belarusians and the Ukrainians of Volhynia and the Kiev region. Their pilgrimages to the Kievan Cave Monastery and especially to the Pochaiv Monastery in Volhynia contributed to that sense of affinity. There is no agreement on the demarcation of Ukrainians from Belarusians in Polisia. The Russian census of 1897 recognized the inhabitants of Brest and Kobryn counties, in Hrodna gubernia, as Ukrainians but regarded the people of Pynske and Mozyr counties as Belarusians, although specialists on Polisia, such as K. Mykhalchuk, E. Karsky, D. Shendryk, and M. Dovnar-Zapolsky, clearly claimed that they were Ukrainian. The Soviet censuses of 1926 and 1959 took the border between the two republics as the Ukrainian-Belarusian demarcation line. The Polish censuses of 1921 and 1931 treated the nationality and language questions quite arbitrarily: the 1921 census, for example, 'discovered7 a sizable Polish population in Kobryn county, which disappeared from the 1931 census by its being merged with the 'locals.7 There were marked differences between the Ukrainians and Belarusians of Polisia in their folklore, dress, anthropological features, and psychology. The differences in their economic life and material culture were considerably smaller. Furthermore, the

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Land use and population density by natural region in Polisia, 1931

Natural region

Area (1,000 sqkm)

Land use (% of area)

Population

Plowland

Hayfields & pastures

Forests

Other

Total (1,000s)

Density (persons /sq km)

Dry Polisia Zahorodia Volhynian Polisia Western Eastern Crystalline Shield Western Eastern Kiev Polisia

54.5 6.5 13.7 4.7 9.0 24.7 11.0 13.7 9.6

36 37 33 39 30 33.5 17 46.5 44

18 35 23 33 19 12.5 13 12.5 14

33 15 28 13 35 41 52.5 31.5 32

13 13 16 15 16 13 17.5 9.5 10

2,778 369 694 256 438 1,167 317 850 548

51 57 51 54 49 47 29 60 57

Marshy Polisia Zarichia North Polisia Zahorynia Mozyr Polisia

51.0 15.9 14.0 7.2 13.9

18 20 13 12 26

24 33 24 17 18

33 24 38 37 35

25 23 25 34 21

1,321 495 267 78 81

26 31 19 11 35

105.5

27

21

33

19

4,099

39

All Polisia

line of ethnic demarcation is not always sharp: there are transitional dialects as well as 'islands' of Belarusian settlers on Ukrainian territories. Nor is the Ukrainian population ethnically homogeneous: it is divided into a number of tribes distinguished by geographical conditions (history, and distance from developed Ukrainian lands and from Belarus). Those tribal differences have not been studied and are quickly disappearing. Because of its poverty Polisia did not attract foreigners. By the i86os no more than 20 percent of the population consisted of Jews, Poles, Ukrainian-speaking Roman Catholics, and a few Russians, concentrated in the cities. Among the Ukrainians the petty gentry constituted a separate group. After the abolition of serfdom the landowners in southern Polisia sold off some of their land to Polish and German colonists. The proportion of Ukrainians in Ukrainian Polisia declined to 71 percent, the Jews made up 15 percent (the highest in all Ukrainian lands), the Poles and Roman Catholics, 7 percent, the Russians, 4 percent, and the Germans, 3 percent. As a result of the hostilities during 1914-20 and postwar adjustments the share of the Jewish population declined to 13 percent, and the German and Russian, to 2 percent each, whereas the Polish and Roman Catholic increased to 9 percent in western Polisia and declined in eastern Polisia, and the Ukrainian increased to 74 percent. As a result of the Second World War and the population exchange between the USSR and Germany, the Germans were no longer registered (in the 1959 census), the Jews declined to 2 percent, and the Poles, to 2.5 percent (only i percent in western and 3-4 percent in eastern Ukrainian Polisia), whereas the Russians increased to 5 percent, and the Ukrainians, to 90.5 percent. Belarusians numbered less than 0.4 percent in 1959. Polisia, especially its marshy part, is the least populated region of Ukraine. The population density in Ukrainian Polisia is 43 persons per sq km, and in rural areas as low as 25 (in 1987). In the early 19305 the population density in dry Polisia was 51 persons per sq km; in marshy Polisia it was 26. In dry Polisia plowland occupied 36 percent of the land area, hayfields and pastures, 18 percent, and forests,

33 percent. In marshy Polisia, by contrast, the corresponding figures were 18,24, and 33 percent (see the table). A unique pattern of temporary settlement arose in marshy, forested Polisia. With their arable land scattered on small Islands' remote from the village, the farmers moved there for the spring fieldwork and the harvesting and lived there in primitive shelters. Haying required a stay of two to three weeks. The harvest was brought in when the marshes froze over, and the snow made sleigh transportation possible. Shepherds and fishermen spent even longer periods away from the village. As the population grew, groupings of seasonal shelters developed into permanent settlements. The population of Ukrainian Polisia grew rapidly in the decades before the First World War. From 1856 to 1914 it increased by 180 percent. The increase was a result not only of natural growth but also of the heavy influx of Ukrainians, Poles, Germans, and Belarusians, who bought up partitioned estates. At the same time nearly one-third of the forests were cleared for farming. After the war the population continued to grow rapidly: in western Polisia, despite some emigration overseas, it increased by 51 percent in 1921-31, as a result of a high rate of natural increase (2.6 percent), the return of wartime evacuees, and the influx of Polish colonists. During the Second World War the population dynamics in Polisia was the same as in other parts of Ukraine. By 1956 the population of Polisia had reached its 1939 level. Because jobs were scarce, people left Polisia in 1963-8. Polisia's net population increase amounted to only 35 percent of the natural increase. The population of Ukrainian Polisia was estimated at 4.5 million in 1970 and at almost 4.7 million in 1987. Polisia had and still has the lowest level of urbanization in Ukraine: in 1914 scarcely 10 percent of its population was urban, and in 1989, under 50 percent. In the same period the urbanization of Ukraine as a whole rose from 34 to 67 percent. Urban centers developed only in dry Polisia or on the dry 'islands' of marshy Polisia. Lacking large manufacturing enterprises, the cities of Polisia until the 19308 were dependent on trade, crafts, and administrative

POLISIA

jobs. Jews comprised 60 percent of their population. Today all the larger cities have manufacturing enterprises. Economy. For centuries most inhabitants of Polisia lived off the forest and wetlands resources. Farming was important economically only in dry Polisia. The forests supported beekeeping and pitch-, potash-, and charcoalmaking. Wood was the basic material for various implements, from plow to bastshoes. Flax, hemp, and wool were the raw materials for cloth-making, and clay was the basis for pottery. Even iron was smelted locally from bog ores, using charcoal. Forest products, such as furs, honey, potash, pitch, tar, and lumber, were exported. Agriculture in Polisia had a number of distinctive features: deep furrows were used to drain the soil, haystacks were raised on poles, and grain was dried on separate, high palings. In the second half of the icth century the plow replaced the hooked plow (sokha) and wooden plow (ralo). In dry Polisia the tiny, scattered parcels of farmland began to be consolidated before 1914. After the war the process was accelerated in western Polisia. In eastern Polisia collectivization resulted in consolidation on a large scale. The main crops in Polisia were rye (41 percent of the sown area), potatoes (16 percent), oats (13 percent), buckwheat (6 percent), barley (6 percent), and millet (3 percent). Among technical crops the most important was flax; hemp and hops were less important. The grain yields averaged only 7-10 centners per ha and the potato, 70-100.. Forest products were Polisia's most valuable exports. Lumber became an important export at the end of the i8th century, when the canals connecting Polisia to the Baltic Sea were completed, and even more so when the railways were built in the i88os. Polisia was one of the poorest agrarian regions of Ukraine. Although its peasants had more land than the peasants of the forest-steppe, the soil was poor, and the yields low. Farming, especially in wet Polisia, was primitive and backward and had little connection with the markets. It produced a small surplus in cattle and forest products (mushrooms, berries). Home-manufactured goods were seldom marketed, except for clay pottery from Horodnytsia and baskets from Khliaby. The forest industry provided many jobs. Other industries were poorly developed and along with trade were controlled by foreigners. Many peasants emigrated to Asia (from eastern Polisia) or to America (from western Polisia). The inflow of Polish colonists into western Polisia under the Polish regime only added to the hardships of the Ukrainian peasants. Industry is still relatively weak in Polisia, although it has grown considerably since the 19605. Most of it is involved in processing local agricultural, forest, and mineral raw materials. The food industry accounts for the largest share of the gross production. Its main branches include alcohol distilling, butter- and cheese-making (Kovel, Radomyshl, Olevske), meat packing (Kovel, Brest, Pynske, Kobryn, Sarny), fruit canning (Ovruch, Zhytomyr), grain milling, and brewing. The lumber, woodworking, furniture, and paper industries are widespread. Their main plants are in Pynske, Kobryn, Kovel, Kyvertsi, Tsuman, Orzhiv, and Kostopil. Prefabricated houses are manufactured in Kostopil and Irpin. Furniture factories are found in Malyn, Zhytomyr, Kostopil, and Brest; paper plants, in Malyn, Korostyshiv, Myropil, Poninka, Chyzhivka, Slavuta, and Mokvyn; wood-chemicals plants, in Korosten, Ovruch, and Slavuta; and a match factory, in Pynske.

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Light industry in Polisia includes the linen manufacturing complex in Zhytomyr (the largest in the former USSR) and a similar one in Rivne; smaller linen plants in Kovel, Korostyshiv, Novohrad-Volynskyi, Yemilchyne, and Ovruch; sewing factories in Zhytomyr, Korosten, Novohrad-Volynskyi, Rivne, Lutske, Kovel, Brest, Kobryn, and Pynske; cotton-textiles factories in Brest and Korostyshiv; and leather footwear factories in Zhytomyr, Lutske, and Brest. The machine-building and metalworking industries have been established in Polisia since the 19605. Their more important enterprises include agricultural machinery plants in Kovel, Rozhyshche, Rivne, Zdolbuniv, and Novohrad-Volynskyi; the tractor factory at Olevske; the automobile plant in Lutske; the electrotechnical factories in Brest, Lutske, and Rivne; the instrument-making factories in Lutske and Zhytomyr; the chemical machinery and highway machinery plants in Korosten; and a boat-building plant in Pynske. The chemical industry is also new to Polisia. Its representative enterprises are the fertilizer plant in Rivne, the petroleum refinery in Mozyr, the petrochemical refinery and the synthetic-fiber factory in Zhytomyr, the plastics plants in Lutske and Mozyr, and the paint and dye factories in Pynske. Various building materials are mined and processed in Polisia: pink granites and black labradorites, kaolin (for ceramics, tiles) and quartzites (for glass), and basalts on the Horyn River. Bricks and tiles are manufactured from clay in many towns, and cement from marl in Zdolbuniv. Because of the abundance of kaolin the porcelain and faience industries in Polisia are more developed than in other regions of Ukraine. Their major enterprises are located in Baranivka, Horodnytsia, Korosten, and Dovbysh. The glass industry, with a large plant in Zhytomyr, is based on local deposits of quartzite sands. Energy for Polisia7 s industries comes from imported coal and oil (some from Rechytsa, in Belarusian Polisia) and from the unified electric grid, which encompasses some power plants in Polisia: the Chornobyl (at Prypiat) and the Rivne (at Kuznetsovsk) atomic power stations and the thermal power stations in Zhytomyr, NovohradVolynskyi, Korosten, Bereza, and Mozyr. Polisia has the lowest density of roads and railways in all Ukraine. In 1880-5 a railway line from Homel to Brest through Kalinkavichy and Pynske was built. In 1902 a second parallel line through southern Polisia, KievKorosten-Sarny-Kovel-Kholm, was added. Of the two perpendicular lines, which connect Volhynia with the Belarusian Upland, the first was built in 1885 from Baranavichy through Lunynets and Sarny to Rivne, the other during the First World War from Zhlobin through Kalinkavichy, Mozyr, Korosten, and Zhytomyr to Berdychiv and Shepetivka. During the Soviet period the lines Chernihiv-Ovruch and Khvastiv-Zhytomyr-NovohradVolynskyi were built. Many narrow-gauge lines, built mostly during the First World War, are used for moving timber and cordwood. The major railway junctions are Brest, Lunynets, Kalinkavichy, Zhytomyr, Korosten, Sarny, and Kovel. Most all-weather roads in Polisia were built during the Soviet period. The main east-west highways are the Kiev-Brest highway (Kiev-ZhytomyrNovohrad-Volynskyi-Rivne-Lutske-Kovel-Brest) and the Brest-Homel highway through Pynske and Kalinkavichy. The major north-south highways are the Kiev-Chernihiv-Homel stretch of the Odessa-St Petersburg highway,

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which essentially bypasses Polisia in the east, and the Zhytomyr-Korosten-Ovruch-Mozyr-Babruisk stretch of the Vinnytsia-Minsk highway. An all-weather road connects Rivne with Pynske through Sarny and Stolyn, and a perpendicular all-weather road from Kholm to Kiev follows the railway line through Kovel, Sarny, Korosten, and Malyn. The waterways in Polisia are an important part of the transport network. Navigable routes include the Dnieper, the Prypiat (and its tributaries), the Styr, and the Horyn rivers, and the Dnieper-Buh Canal. Many other rivers are used for rafting timber. BIBLIOGRAPHY Zhilinskii, I. Ocherk rabot Zapadnoi ekspeditsii po osusheniiu bolot (1873-1898) (St Petersburg 1899) Tutkovskii, P. Ortogmficheskii ocherk Tsentml'nogo iluzhnogo Poles'ia (Moscow 1913) Kubijowicz, W. 'Rozmieszczenie ludnosci na Polesiu/ in Sprawozdanie Krakowskiego Kota Geografow (Cracow 1925) Mondalski, W. Polesie (Brest 1927) Prace Biura Meljoracji Polesia (Brest 1929-33) Kysilevs'ka, O. Po ridnomu kraiu: Polissia (Kolomyia 1935) Narysy pro pryrodu i sil 's'ke hospodarstvo Polissia (Kiev 1955) Odrach, F. Nashe Polissia (Winnipeg 1955) Zapadnoe Poles 'e USSR (Kiev 1956) Povarnitsyn, V. Lisy Ukraïns 'koho Polissia (Kiev 1959)

POLISIA'S L I N G U I S T I C B O U N D A R I E S

Korzhuev, S. Rel'ef Pripiatskogo Poles'ia (Moscow 1960) Marynych, O. Ukrains'ke Polissia: Fizyko-heohrafichnyi narys (Kiev 1962) Marinich, A. Geomorfologiia luzhnogo Poles 'ia (Kiev 1963) Bondarchik, V. (ed). Poles'e: MateriaVnaia kul'tura (Kiev 1988) V. Kubijovyc, I. Stebelsky, I. Sydoruk-Pauls

Polisia Nature Reserve (Poliskyi zapovidnyk). A state nature reserve set up in 1968 to preserve the characteristic landscape, vegetation, and animal species of Polisia. It covers 20,100 ha of land in Olevske and Ovruch raions of Zhytomyr oblast. Its forests and wetlands are inhabited by species such as the lynx, moose, beaver, forest marten, black stork, and hazel grouse. The reserve's research laboratories, museum, and administrative offices are located in Selezivka. Polisian dialects. The Polisian dialects constitute, together with the *Podlachian dialects in northwestern Ukraine, the archaic group of the ^northern dialects spoken north of the Kholm-Kiev-Putyvl line. As a result of the unequal northward spread of Ukrainian phonetic traits (ie, hard consonants before e, i) and the expansion of Belarusian traits to the south and southeast (ie, akan'e [pronunciation of unstressed o as a, eg, nahá (Standard

POLISIAN DIALECTS

Ukrainian [su] nohá) 'leg'] and dzekan 'e [eg, dziéci, cf su díty 'children'), a belt of transitional (in places, mixed) Ukrainian-Belarusian dialects developed. The main feature of the dialects is the use of diphthongs (no, i/o, uy, ie) or the vowels u, y (y in the south) in place of o and e before the lost *jer, and also in place of a stressed e, and the use of o, e, e/y in unstressed positions (eg, duom domky [su dim - dimky] 'house - little houses', jacmién ' popel [su jacmin' - pópil] 'barley - ashes', miésec - mysec'ie [su mísjac' - misjací] 'moon - moons'). Dual reflexiveness is characteristic of ç and ja-, alternating with 'a, ja- in a stressed position and e, je- in an unstressed position (eg, pjat ' - péta [su p'jat ' - p'jatá] 'five - heel', jak - jek Y [su jak jakyj] 'as - which', particularly in the east). The Polisian dialects are divided into (i) the eastern, or Left-Bank/Chernihiv, dialects (EPD), east of the Dnieper River; (2) the middle, or Right-Bank, dialects (MPD), between the Dnieper and Horyn rivers; and (3) the western, or Volhynian, dialects (WPD), between the Horyn and Buh/Lisna rivers. Most of them share the following traits: (i) traces of the semipalatalized pronunciation of several consonants before i, e (eg, d'éüka, pl'éten' [su dívka, pletín'] 'girl, wattle' in the EPD, sv'et [su svit] 'world' in the MPD), particularly of the sibilants c, z, s (eg, s'est', mez'éju [su sist ', mezéju] 'six, along the boundary'), and, in the WPD, in the form of ; before a stressed a (eg, zjába, cjas, sjápka [su zába, cas, Mpka] 'frog, time, hat'); (2) a hard r (eg, zorá [su zorjá] 'star') and, except in most WPD, a hard c (eg, úlyca, zájec, tancovát' [su vúlycja, zájac', tancjuváty] 'street, hare, to dance', and, in the north EPD, z'en'ícca [su zenytysja] 'to marry'); (3) aphaeresis of the initial vowel in a word following a preposition ending in a vowel (eg, do dnohó [su do odnohó] 'to one'); (4) eastern-Ukrainian stress types in word formation (eg, zacíska [su záciska] 'hairdo') and in verbs (eg, xvaljú: xválys [SU xvaljú: xválys] T praise: you praise', (po)nesty, (po)neslá, (po)nesló, (po)nesly 'to carry, she/it/they carried', nosú: prynósu, prynósyty [su nosú: prynósu, prynósyty] 'I carry: I bring, to bring', cf WPD nesémo, neséte [su nesemó, neseté] 'we/you [pi] carry'); (5) no stress shift in pronouns after prepositions (eg, do mené, pry sobí, do tohó [su do mène, pry sóbi, do tóho] 'to me, with oneself, to that'); (6) a weaker morphological use of stress in juxtaposing plural and singular nouns, particularly in the EPD (eg, xáty, xátam, xátax [su xáty, xatám, xatáx] 'houses' nom, dat, loc); (7) noun forms of the type zyt 't 'é, pysán 'n 'e (SU zyttjá, pysánnja) 'life, writing'; (8) the ending -u in the dative singular of masculine and neuter nouns (eg, brátu, kon 'ú [su brátovi, konévi] 'brother, horse'), and, in the WPD, also -ovy (eg, xlópc'ovy/xlópc'u [su xlópcevi] 'boy'); (9) the use of the collective-plural ending -a in the nominative plural of some masculine nouns, particularly in the EPD (eg, xolodá [su xolody] 'cold weather'); (10) the ending -(an)e in the nominative plural of other nouns (eg, sel'áne, l'úde [SU seljány, Ijúdy] 'peasants, people'); (11) frequent use (less so in the WPD) of the ending -éj in the genitive plural of nouns (eg, xlebéj, storozéj, poléj, xatéj [su xlibw, storoziv, poliv, xat] breads, guards, fields, houses'); (12) long forms of adjectives and pronouns (eg taja, násaja, molodája [SU ta, nasa, molodá] 'that, our, young' fern), in the WPD mostly in adjectives only with stressed endings; (13) the loss of -;' (except in the WPD) in the nominative singular masculine adjectives (eg, vesély, l'iétn'i [su vesélyj, lûnij] 'happy, summery'; (14) postprepositional forms of the personal pronoun without the prothetic n- (eg, do její, na jyj [su do néji, na nij] 'to her, on her'), as well as old plural

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forms of the type fix, t'im, t'imy (su tyx, tym, tymy) 'those' genitive, dative, instrumental; (15) in verbs, infinitives ending in -ovaty (-ovaf in the EPD, -ovat'/-ovat in the MPD), second person imperative plural ending in -ite (eg, nés 'iéte, xod'iéte [su nesít', xodít'] 'carry, walk'), and two forms of the future tense, eg, büdu robyty/-yt' and robytymu 'will do' (particularly in the MPD and WPD, in which the form máju robyty 'I am supposed to do' is also used); (16) sporadic use in certain expressions of a soft n after y/i (eg, pin 'a, slyn 'a [su pina, slyna] 'foam, saliva'). The EPD north of the Desna River have retained archaic diphthong forms and some phonetic features similar to Belarusian (semipalatalized consonants before e and y [also from bi, which can sound like /]). The southern Desna dialects use sporadic akan 'e (eg, násaha, kan 'óm [su násoho, koném] 'of our, with a horse') and a palatalized c'. In conjugation endings of the third person singular and plural, e influences y/ji in verbs with the stress on the root (eg, xóde, xód'ut' [su xódyt', xódjat'] 'he walks, they walk'). In the southeast there are dual forms for feminine nouns in the instrumental singular in which the stress is on the root (eg, xátoju/xátoj 'with a house'), pronominal forms such as sej, s 'aja, séje (su cej, cja, ce) 'this' masculine, feminine, neuter, and a number of lexical features. In the MPD the following forms are more frequent: pojes, predút'Ipredút (su pojas, prjadút') l^elt, they spin [yarn]'; akan 'e (eg, vadá [su vodá] 'water'), including the syncopated pronunciation of unstressed a as o (eg, storuxa [su starúxa] 'old woman'); a hard -t' in verbal endings (eg, róbyt'/róbyt, robyt'/robyt [su róbyt', robyty] 'he does, to do'; endings in the instrumental singular of the type kon 'óm, dusóju [su koném, duséju] 'horse, soul'; differentiation of tejí toj (su toj/vin) 'that one, he'; constructions of the type ja loerú serpa, meníbolyt' holová (su ja berú serp, u mène bolyt' holová) 'I take the sickle, I have a headache'; lexical parallels with south Belarusian dialects; and mostly monophthongized diphthongs (eg, vuz [su viz] 'wagon', but pjyena, obyéd [su pina, obid] 'foam, dinner'). The distinctive features of the WPD are the labial-labial (and labial-dental) pronunciation of postvocal v (eg, dav, not daü [su dav] 'I gave'); prothetic consonants (eg, hulyc'a, hynácyj [su vúlytsja, ináksyj] 'street, different'); hard consonants before unstressed -y from -£ (thence forms of fern nouns in the dat-loc such as xáty, klúny [su xáti, klúni] 'house, threshing barn', and of nouns in the nom pi such as kóny [su kóni] 'horses'); the influence of soft pronominal endings on feminine singular adjectives in which the stress is on the root (eg, méji, büeji, büeju [SU mojéji, bíloji, büoju] 'of my, of white, with white'); endings of feminine nouns in the instrumental singular of the type t'in'n'u, mysju, kostéju (su tínnju, myseju, kistju) 'shadow, mouse, bone'; endings of neuter singular nouns of the type tel'a, -ata, -átovy, -atom, -áty/-átovy (su teljá, -játy, -játi, -jám, -jatï) 'calí' nominative, genitive, dative, instrumental, locative, or v uxóvy (su u vúsi) 'in the ear'; endings of masculine and neuter nouns in the dative and locative plural of the type -am/-om and -ax/ox (particularly in the northeast, eg, na vozáxj-óx, vozámj-óm 'on the wagons, to the wagons'); verbal forms of the type bíxcy, pecy (su bíhty, pekty) 'to run, to bake'; adverbs of degree of the type horíej, dályj (su hírse, dál'se) 'worse, farther'; the prefix ny- (eg, nyxtó [su nixtó] 'nobody'); the suffixal particle of indefiniteness -s'a (eg, kotryjs'a [su kotryjs'] 'some'; and lexical connections with the Podlachian and Volhynian dialects. Traits of the EPD can be found in the works of I. Nekra-

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shevych, P. Kulish, B. Hrinchenko, P. Tychyna, and other writers. The Polisian dialects have been studied by V. Hantsov, P. Hladky, V. Kaminsky, E. Karsky, W. Kuraszkiewicz, O. Kurylo, P. Lysenko, T. Nazarova, L. Ossowski, P. Popov, P. Rastorguev, S. Smal-Stotsky, J. Pauls, O. Syniavsky, J. Tarnacki, Yu. Vynohradsky, and others. BIBLIOGRAPHY Tarnacki, J. Studia porównawcze nad geografiq. wyrazów (Polesie Mazowsze) (Warsaw 1939) Dyialektalahichny atlas belaruskai movy (Minsk 1963) Leksika Poles 'ia: Materialy alia polesskogo dialekticheskogo slovaria (Moscow 1968) Poles 'ie (lingvistika, arkheologiia, toponimika) (Moscow 1968) Lysenko, P. Slovnyk polis 'kykh hovoriv (Kiev 1974) Nykonchuk, M. Materialy do leksychnoho atlasu ukrams '/coi' movy (Pravoberezhne Polissia) (Kiev 1979) Atlas ukraïns'koï movy v tr'okh tomakh, vol i, Polissia, serednia Naddniprianshchyna i sumizhni zemli, ed I. Matviias (Kiev 1984) O. Horbach

Polisian Sich (Poliska sich). A Ukrainian insurgent formation, organized in June 1941 by T. *Borovets under the aegis of the UNR government-in-exile. Its earliest anti-Soviet activities in Sarny county consisted of attacking NKVD jails and Red Army mobilization centers and capturing arms and ammunition. In July 1941 the Sich was recognized by the German authorities as a local militia, whose primary mission was to clear Polisia of the remnants of the Soviet army before they regrouped into partisan detachments. In August Borovets obtained the support of the OUN (Melnyk faction) and, assisted by a cadre of UNR Army officers, expanded his force to several thousand men. The Sich's chief of staff was P. Smorodsky, a lieutenant colonel of the UNR Army. After defeating a Soviet force at Olevske on 21 August, Borovets established his headquarters there. With the elimination of the Soviet partisan threat, the Germans forced the Polisian Sich to demobilize (15 November 1941). In March 1942 Borovets reactivated it, this time as an anti-Nazi insurgent force, and renamed it the Ukrainian Insurgent Army (UFA). The five-company army began its anti-Nazi activities in late April 1942. Its best-known operation took place at Shepetivka on 19 August. In the autumn of 1942 Borovets signed an armistice with Soviet partisans, but failed to reach an agreement with the Germans, and hostilities with the Soviet partisans and the Germans resumed in February 1943. By that time, partisan units controlled by the OUN (Bandera faction) had become the dominant Ukrainian force. The two Ukrainian insurgent forces shared a common name, the UPA, without merging into one army. The steady loss of men to the rival UPA and the decline in peasant support prompted Borovets to rename his force the Ukrainian People's Revolutionary Army. On 18 August 1943 the force was surrounded and disarmed by the UPA. Borovets and his staff escaped and remained active until November 1943. BIBLIOGRAPHY Borovets', T. Armiia bez derzhavy: Slava i trahediia ukrams'koho povstans 'koho rukhu (Winnipeg 1981)

P. Sodol

Poliske [Polis'ke]. 11-10. A town smt (1986 pop 11,300) on the Uzh River and a raion center in Kiev oblast. The town, which is first mentioned in historical documents in 1415, was called Khabne until 1958. In the loth century it was

owned by King Sigismund I of Poland. When Right-Bank Ukraine was acquired by the Russian Empire in 1793, Khabne became part of Radomyshl county, Kiev gubernia. At the beginning of the 19th century the town belonged to the Radziwill family, who built a cloth factory there in 1809. Today the town manufactures textiles as well as furniture, hemp, lumber, and building materials. Poliszczuk, Orest [Poliscuk], b 7 January 1942 in Lviv. Painter, graphic artist, and sculptor. A refugee in the United States since 1949, he studied at the University of Maryland. Since 1960 he has taught at Montgomery College in Rockville, Maryland. Solo exhibitions of his works have been held in Detroit (1975,1979), New York (1976), Toronto (1978), Baltimore (1980), and Rockville (1982). Politburo (abbreviation for Politychne biuro). The top policy-making body of the CC CPSU and of the central committees of the republican organizations of the Party. The first Politburo of the CC CP(B)U was set up on 6 March 1919. In Ukraine it was called the Bureau of the CC CPU (1952-3), the Presidium of the CC CPU (1953-66), and then by its original name of Politburo. Until its dissolution in the wake of the M. Gorbachev reforms, the Politburo consisted of 10 to 11 full (voting) and 3 to 7 candidate members, who were elected by the CC CPU. These were secretaries of the CC, the head of the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet, the president of the Council of Ministers and some of his deputies, the commander of the Kiev Military District, and sometimes several first secretaries of oblast Party committees. The body was controlled directly by the Politburo of the CC CPSU and oversaw all political work in Ukraine. It worked closely with the ^Secretariat of the CC CPU, which was responsible for organizational matters, and there was usually some overlap in their membership. Political commissar (polity/ the first major study on Shevchenko the artist; and Ya. Yarema wrote Uiava Shevchenka (The Imagination of Shevchenko, I9i4>/ focusing on metaphor in Shevchenko's poetry. A major contribution to Shevchenko studies outside of Ukraine came from the Swedish Slavist A. Jensen, whose monograph Taras Schewtschenko: Ein ukrainisches Dichterleben (1916) pointed to the universal themes and concerns of Shevchenko's poetry. Of interest as the first attempt at a psychological approach to Shevchenko's work was S. Baler's Z psykholohiï tvorchosty Shevchenka (On the Psychology of Shevchenko's Creativity, 1916). Shevchenko studies continued to develop during the struggle for Ukraine's independence and under the new Soviet regime. The All-Ukrainian Academy of Sciences (YUAN), established in 1918, embraced several scholars working on Shevchenko and using various approaches, such as factual research and documentation (S. Yefremov, M. Novytsky, V. Miiakovsky, Ye. Markovsky), the sociology of literature (D. Bahalii, Y. Hermaize, O. Doroshkevych, M. Plevako, V. Koriak), esthetic criticism (P. Fylypovych, V. Petrov, P. Rulin, B. Varneke), and formalism (B. Yakubsky, A. Shamrai, Ya. Aizenshtok, B. Navrotsky). Soviet Ukrainian Shevchenko studies begin with the publication of the collection of essays Taras Shevchenko, edited by Ye. Hryhoruk and Fylypovych, which was published in 1921 to mark the 6oth anniversary of the poet's death. Most Shevchenko studies in the 19205 were published as articles collected in jubilee editions (Shevchenkivs'kyi zbirnyk [The Shevchenko Miscellany, 1924], Shevchenko ta ioho doba [Shevchenko and His Era, 2 vols, 1925-6]), but separate studies also appeared, notably Aizenshtok's Shevchenkoznavstvo - suchasna problema (Shevchenko Studies: A Current Problem, 1922), Plevako's Shevchenko i krytyka (Shevchenko and Criticism, 1924), Bahalii's T.H. Shevchenko i Kyrylo-Metodiïvtsi (T. Shevchenko and the Cyrillo-Methodians, 1925), and O. Bahrii's T.G. Shevchenko v literaturnoi obstanovke (T. Shevchenko in a Literary Setting, 1925). In Galicia, under Polish rule, two works of importance appeared, I. Svientsitsky's Shevchenko v svitli krytyky i diisnosty (Shevchenko in the Light of Criticism and Reality, 1922) and M. Vozniak's Shevchenko i kniazhna Repnina (Shevchenko and Princess Repnina, 1925). In 1926 the Taras Shevchenko Scientific Research Institute was established in Kharkiv, with a branch in Kiev. It was devoted to the collection of Shevchenko's autographs and artworks, to the study of his biography, and to textological studies of his poems. The results of those efforts were published in annual collections of the institute (Shevchenko, 1928,1930) as well as in the institute's organ Literaturnyi arkhiv, which appeared bimonthly in 1930-1. The Kiev branch of the institute prepared for publication a dictionary of Shevchenko's language and a dictionary of Shevchenko's acquaintances, but neither was published owing to the political repressions of the 19305. One of the foremost Shevchenko scholars of the first

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quarter of the 2Oth century was Yefremov. His many articles, written over a period of more than 15 years, were collected in a single volume, Taras Shevchenko (1914). In 1921 Yefremov became head of the YUAN Commission for the Publication of Monuments of Modern Literature. One of the objectives was the preparation of an academic edition of Shevchenko's works. Only two volumes appeared, vol 4, Shchodenni zapysky (Daily Notes, 1927), and vol 3, Lystuvannia (Correspondence, 1929). The volumes were edited by Yefremov and annotated by the scholars A. Loboda, Miiakovsky, M. Novytsky, O. Novytsky, D. Revutsky, Rulin, and Fylypovych. The remaining volumes, as well as O. Novytsky's volume devoted to the artistic works of Shevchenko, were never published, because most of the scholars perished in the wake of the trial of the *Union for the Liberation of Ukraine. The terror of the 19305 put a stop to meaningful study of Shevchenko. The YUAN was closed, and the scholars at the institute were arrested. Most perished. Those who remained were placed under the control of Party officials, not necessarily connected with Shevchenko scholarship, whose main role was to liquidate all expression of true scholarship. The era of systematic falsification of Shevchenko's works began, and it lasted, to a greater or lesser degree, throughout the remainder of the Soviet regime. Although works on Shevchenko did not cease to be written, most of them, by such Party scholars as V. Zatonsky, A. Khvylia, and Ye. Shabliovsky, merit little discussion. Meanwhile Shevchenko studies continued outside of Soviet Ukraine. D. Doroshenko prepared a popular scholarly work, Schewtschenko, der grosse ukrainische Nationaldichter, and published it in Berlin in 1929. The work was republished in French (Prague 1931), English (Prague, Winnipeg, and New York 1936, and Augsburg 1946), and Italian (Prague 1939). Doroshenko also presented a concise survey of Shevchenko studies in the 19205 in 'Die Forschung über T. Sevcenko in der Nachkriegszeit,' published in Zeitschrift fur slavische Philologie (vol 9, 1932). E. Borschak pointed to Shevchenko's role in the struggle for Ukrainian self-determination in the study 'Le mouvement national ukrainien au xixe siècle,' which appeared in Le monde Slave (November 1930). The Shevchenko Scientific Society (NTSh) in Lviv published Borschak's study Shevchenko u Frantsiï: Narys iz istoriï franko-ukraïns 'kykh

Books about Taras Shevchenko in French and Italian

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SHEVCHENKO

vzaiemyn (Shevchenko in France: Sketch of the History of French-Ukrainian Relations, 1933). P. *Zaitsev prepared Szewczenko a Polacy (Shevchenko and the Poles, 1934), in which he studied Shevchenko against the background of Ukrainian-Polish relations in the mid-i9th century. V. Simovych's popular study Taras Shevchenko: loho zhyttia i tvorchist' (T. Shevchenko: His Life and Works) was published in several editions (1934, Í941/ !944)- Simovych also prepared an annotated Kobzar in 1921. S. Smal-Stotsky's study Taras Shevchenko: Interpretatsiï (T. Shevchenko: Interpretations, 1934) emphasized Shevchenko's critical attitude to Russia and his contention that Ukraine's greatest misfortune lay in its domination by Russia. In 1937 the Ukrainian Scientific Institute in Berlin published the collection Taras Schewtschenko, der ukrainische Nationaldichter (1814-1861), which contained articles and some translations. Of note was the publication Studiï nad poetychnoiu tvorchistiu T. Shevchenka (Studies on the Poetic Creation of T. Shevchenko, 1939) by F. Kolessa, which consisted of two monographs, 'Folkl'ornyi element u poeziï T. Shevchenka' (The Folkloric Element in the Poetry of T. Shevchenko) and 'Virshova forma poezii T. Shevchenka' (The Verse Forms in the Poetry of T. Shevchenko), which remains a basic work in the field. The main center of Shevchenko studies in the 19305 was the Ukrainian Scientific Institute in Warsaw, which published 13 volumes of a i6-volume set of the complete works of Shevchenko (1934-8). The Soviet occupation of Poland put an end to the edition. A biography of Shevchenko by Zaitsev, which had been planned for the first volume, did not appear until 1955 in the United States. Vols 2-4 and 6-12 were edited by Zaitsev, vol 14 by B. Lepky, vol 15 by R. Smal-Stotsky; vol 16, which consisted of a bibliography, was compiled by V. Doroshenko. That incomplete full edition of Shevchenko's works was the greatest achievement of prewar Shevchenko scholarship. The volumes contained commentaries and annotations by the editors and such Shevchenko scholars as L. Biletsky, I. Bryk, Doroshenko, O. Lototsky, Ye. Malaniuk, S. Siropolko, and D.Chyzhevsky. Works which appeared during the Second World War were Aizenshtok's lak pratsiuvav Shevchenko (How Shevchenko Worked, 1940), O. Borshchahivsky and M. Yosypenko's Shevchenko i teatr (Shevchenko and the The-

Books in Shevchenko studies by Western authors

ater, 1941), M. Hrinchenko's Shevchenko i muzyka (Shevchenko and Music, 1941), S. Hordynsky's Shevchenko maliar (Shevchenko the Painter, 1942), Ye.Yu. Pelensky's Shevchenko - kliasyk (Shevchenko: A Classic, 1942), and some articles by L. Bulakhovsky and O. Doroshkevych. The first postwar work on Shevchenko, which appeared in English in the United States, was Taras Shevchenko: The Poet of Ukraine (1945) by C.A. Manning, who provided the translations and annotations. In Soviet Ukraine the AN URSR (now ANU) Institute of Literature was re-established after the war, but the Shevchenko section was slow to produce any studies. Its main work centered on the completion of a io-volume full collection of Shevchenko's works, begun before the war: vols 3-4 (dramatic works) appeared in 1949, and vol 5 (the diary and autobiography) in 1951; vols 1-2 (the poems) were republished from the 1939 edition in 1951-3, and vol 6 (letters, notes) in 1957; finally, vols 7-10 (the artistic works) appeared in 1961-4. Unfortunately the io-volume 'full academic' edition was not free of the standard censorship and the falsifications which marred Shevchenko scholarship in Soviet Ukraine. Some of those deficiencies were removed from the subsequent full edition in six volumes, which appeared in 1963-4. Shevchenko's artistic oeuvre was republished in a separate four-volume edition in 1961-4. Beginning in 1952 the institute held annual conferences on Shevchenko, the proceedings of which were published in collections. Their content on the whole reflected the Party line in Shevchenko studies and the want of scholarly rigor. Somewhat more scholarly were the works of S. Chavdarov (Pedahohichni ideï Tarasa Hryhorovycha Shevchenka [Pedagogical Ideas of T. Shevchenko, 1953]), V. Shubravsky (Dramaturhiia Shevchenka [Shevchenko's Dramaturgy, 1957,1959,1961]), Yu. *Ivakin (Satyra Shevchenka [Satire of Shevchenko, 1959, 1964]), Ye. Nenadkevych (Z tvorchoi laboratorii T.H. Shevchenka [From the Creative Laboratory of Shevchenko, 1959]), and D. lofanov (Material]/ pro zhyttia i tvorchist' Tarasa Shevchenka [Material on the Life and Works of T. Shevchenko, 1957]). Many works appeared to mark the 1961 and 1964 anniversaries, some of which reflected the political 'thaw.' Among the more notable were Ivakin's Styl' politychnoï poeziï Shevchenka (The Style of Shevchenko's Political Poetry, 1961) and his two-volume commentary on the Kobzar (1964-8), V. Vashchenko's Mova Tarasa Shevchenka (The Language of T. Shevchenko, 1963), P. Prykhodko's Shevchenko i ukraïns 'kyi romantyzm (Shevchenko and Ukrainian Romanticism, 1963), H. Verves's T.H. Shevchenko i PoVshcha (Shevchenko and Poland, 1964), and a two-volume dictionary of Shevchenko's language (1964). A two-volume bibliography of Shevchenko's life and works (1963) contains information only about works written in the territory of the former USSR in the years 1839-1959. It was augmented in 1968 by F. Sarana's bibliography of the jubilee literature of 1960-4, but that bibliography also excluded works written outside of the USSR. Some work in presenting a bibliography of Shevchenko translations and foreign-language criticism was done by H. Hresko, N. Andriianova, M. Zanichkovsky, and V. Kulyk in 1967-8 in Lviv. Their works had too small pressruns, however, and are not readily available. An attempt at summarizing the work done on Shevchenko studies in Soviet Ukraine was the institute's compendium Shevchenkoznavstvo: Pidsumky i problemy (Shevchenko Studies: Summations and Problems, 1975) and the

SHEVCHENKO

two-volume Shevchenkivs 'kyi slovnyk (A Shevchenko Dictionary, 1978). Also notable for its breadth was the collective volume Tvorchyi metod i poetyka T.H. Shevchenka (The Creative Method and the Poetics of T. Shevchenko, 1980). In the emigration after the Second World War Shevchenko studies have been continued in the publications of the Ukrainian Free Academy of Sciences (UVAN) in Canada and the United States. The UVAN in Canada republished the four-volume Kobzar, edited and annotated by Biletsky, and the UVAN in the United States prepared the English-language volume Taras Sevcenko, 1814-1861: A Symposium (1962), edited by G.Y. Shevelov and Miiakovsky. The NTSh established the Shevchenko Studies Commission, headed by Zaitsev, which published Zaitsev's^biography of Shevchenko (1955) as well as Yu. Boiko's Sevcenko: Sein Leben und sein Werk (1965). Studies on Shevchenko were published in ZNTSh (vols 161 [1953], 167 [1958], 176 [1962], 179-80 [1965]), and 214 [1991]. The NTSh also prepared guides to Shevchenkiana in the libraries of Paris (1961) and Munich (1964). The Ukrainian Free University (uvu) published Boiko's Shevchenko i Moskva (Shevchenko and Moscow, 1952), Tvorchist ' Tarasa Shevchenka na tli zakhidn 'o-evropeis 'koï literatury (The Creativity of Shevchenko in Relation to Western European Literature, 1956), and, in conjunction with the University of Munich, the collection Taras Sevcenko, 1814-1861 (1964). The uvu published a four-language collection of Shevchenko's poems (Ukrainian, English, French, and German) in 1961. Hordynsky's book on Shevchenko as an artist was translated into German as Taras Schewtschenko als Maler (1964), and a new work on Shevchenko the artist by I. Keivan and Hordynsky, Taras Shevchenko, obrazotvorchyi mystets ' (Taras Shevchenko the Painter Artist), appeared in 1964. The M. Denysiuk publishing firm in Chicago republished the Warsaw edition of the works of Shevchenko in 1959-63 (14 volumes). Vol 13, edited by B. Kravtsiv, was devoted to Shevchenko scholarship and contained articles by Kulish, Franko, Shchurat, M. Hrushevsky, Yefremov, O. Novytsky, S. Smal-Stotsky, Navrotsky, and Kolessa. In 1961 V. Barka published his Pravda Kobzaria (The Truth of the Kobzar). L. Lutsiv published T. Shevchenko, spivets' ukraïns'koïslavy i voli (T. Shevchenko, the Singer of Ukrainian Glory and Freedom, 1964), and K. Uhryn and A. Zhukovsky edited a collection of articles and translations, Taras Chevtchenko, 1814-1861: Sa vie et son oeuvre (1964). G. Luckyj edited a compendium, Shevchenko and the Critics, 1861-1980 (1980), which contained original essays and translations from Ukrainian. In response to the paucity of such studies in Soviet Ukraine, some monographs appeared dealing with Shevchenko's religious beliefs, such as Biletsky's Viruiuchyi Shevchenko (Shevchenko the Believer, 1949), V. Yashchun's Relihiine i moral'no-etychne oblychchia Tarasa Shevchenka (The Religious and Moral-Ethical Aspect of T. Shevchenko, 1959), I. Vlasovsky's Obraz Tarasa Shevchenka v svitli relihiinoï dumky (A View of Shevchenko in the Light of Religious Thought, 1961), D. Buchynsky's Khrystians'kofilosofichna dumka Tarasa Shevchenka (The Christian-Philosophic Thinking of T. Shevchenko, 1962), and Metropolitan Ilarion's (I. Ohiienko) Relihiinist' Tarasa Shevchenka (T. Shevchenko's Religiosity, 1964). A new mythopoeic and psychoanalytic approach to the study of Shevchenko was proposed by G. Grabowicz in The Poet as Mythmaker: A Study of Symbolic Meaning in Taras

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Sevcenko (1982; Ukrainian trans 1991) and by L. Pliushch in Ekzod Tarasa Shevchenka ... (The Exodus of Taras Shevchenko, 1986). BIBLIOGRAPHY 1. Bibliographic Guides: lashek, M. T. Shevchenko: Materiialy do bibliohrafn(rr. 1903-21) (Kharkiv 1921) Bilets'kyi, O. (ed). Opys rukopysiv T.H. Shevchenka (Kiev 1961) Kyryliuk, le. (ed). T.H. Shevchenko: Bibliohrafiia bibliohrafii 18401960 (Kiev 1961) Velinská, E.; Zilynskyj, O. Taras Sevcenko v ceské kulture: Bibliografie (Prague 1962) Kyryliuk, le. (ed). T.H. Shevchenko: Bibliohrafiia literatury pro zhyttia i tvorchist', 1839-1959, 2 vols (Kiev 1963) Bahrych, M. T.H. Shevchenko: Bibliohrafichnyi pokazhchyk (19171963) (Kiev 1964) Kaspert, A. Shevchenko i muzyka: Notohrafichni ta bibliohrafichni materiialy (1861-1961) (Kiev 1964) Hres'ko,M. T. Shevchenkofrantsuz'koiu movoiu (1847-1967): Bibliohrafichnyi pokazhchyk (Lviv 1967) Hres'ko, M.; Andrianova, N. T.H. Shevchenko movamy italiis'koiu, espans'koiu, portuhal's'koiu, ta esperanto: Bibliohrafichnyi pokazhchyk (Lviv 1968) Hres'ko, M.; Zanichkovs'kyi, M.; Kulyk V. T.H. Shevchenko v nimets'kykh perekladakh ta krytytsi (1843-1917): Bibliohrafichnyi pokazhchyk (Lviv 1968) Borodin, V. (ed). T.H. Shevchenko: Bibliohrafichnyi pokazhchyk (1965-1988) (Kiev 1989) 2. Dictionaries: Nestor Litopysets' [N. Malecha]. Slovnychok Shevchenkovoïmovy (Mykolaiv 1916) Vashchenko, V., Petrova, P. Shevchenkova leksyka: Slovopokazhchyk do poezi'i T.H. Shevchenka (Kiev 1951) Mytropolyt Ilarion [I. Ohiienko]. Hramatychno-stylistychnyi slovnyk Shevchenkovoï movy (Winnipeg 1961) Vashchenko, V. (ed). Slovnyk movy Shevchenka, 2 vols (Kiev 1964) Marakhov, H. T.H. Shevchenko v koli suchasnykiv: Slovnyk personalii (Kiev 1976) Kyryliuk, le. (ed). Shevchenkivs'kyi slovnyk, 2 vols (Kiev 1978) Slovar iazyka russkikh proizvedenii T.G. Shevchenko v dvokh tt. (Kiev 1985-6) 3. Collections: Zbirnyk pam'iati T. Shevchenka (Kiev 1915) Pam'iati T.H. Shevchenka: Zbirnyk filolohichnoho fakuVtetu Kyïvs'koho universytetu (Kiev 1939) Shevchenko ta ioho doba: Zbirnyk UVAN (Augsburg 1947) T.H. Shevchenko v krytytsi (Kiev 1953) Zbirnyk prats' naukovykh Shevchenkivs'kykh konferentsii, vols 1-27 (Kiev 1954-86) Pytannia Shevchenkoznavstva (Kiev 1958) Stetsiuk, V.; Kravtsiv, B. (eds). T. Shevchenko: Zbirnyk dopovidei Svitovoho kongresu ukraïns 'koï vil 'noï nauky alia vshanuvannia storichchia smerty patrona NTSh, vol 176 of ZNTSh (New YorkParis 1962) T.H. Shevchenko v vospominaniiakh sovremennikov (Moscow 1962) T.H. Shevchenko: Dokumenty i materialy, 1814-1963 (Kiev 1963) Dzherela movnoï maisternosti T.H. Shevchenka (Kiev 1964) Shevchenko i mirovaia kul 'tura (Moscow 1964) Sbornik Sevcenkovsy (Bratislava 1965) T.H. Shevchenko: Dokumenty ta materiialy do biohraftï (1814-1861) (Kiev 1975) Der Revolutionare Demokrat Taras Sevcenko, 1814-1861 (Berlin 1976) T.H. Shevchenko v internatsional'nykh literaturnykh zv'iazkakh (Kiev 1981) Spohady pro Tarasa Shevchenka (Kiev 1982) 4. Monographs: lefremov, S. Taras Shevchenko, zhyttia ioho ta dila (Kiev 1908,1917) levshan, M. Taras Shevchenko (Kiev 1911) Jensen, A. Tarns Schewtschenko: Ein ukrainisches Dichterleben (Vienna 1916) Hrushevs'kyi, O. Zhyttia i tvorchist' T.H. Shevchenka (Kiev 1918)

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Koriak, V. Borot 'ba za Shevchenka (Kharkiv 1925) Smal'-Stots'kyi, S. Rytmika Shevchenkovoï poezti (Prague 1925) Bilets'kyi, L. Poetychna evoliutsiia naiholovnishykh obraziv ta idei Tarasa Shevchenka (Prague 1926) Navrots'kyi, B. Haidamaky Tarasa Shevchenka: Dzherela, styl', kompozytsiia (Kharkiv 1928) Doroshkevych, O. Etiudy z shevchenkoznavstva (Kharkiv-Kiev 1930) Navrots'kyi, B. Shevchenkova tvorchist' (Kharkiv-Kiev 1931) Revuts'kyi, D. Shevchenko i narodna pisnia (Kiev 1939) Shaginian, M. Taras Shevchenko (Moscow 1941,1946,1957,1964) Matthews, W.K. Taras Shevchenko: The Man and the Symbol (London 1951, Winnipeg 1961) Pil'huk, I. T.H. Shevchenko - Osnovopolozhnyk novoïukraïns'koï literatury (Kiev 1954) Khinkulov, L. Taras Grigor'evich Shevchenko, 1814-1861 (Moscow 1957,1960,1966) Kyryliuk, Ye. T.H. Shevchenko: Zhyttia i tvorchist' (Kiev 1959,1964, 1979) Nenadkevych, Ye. Z tvorchoï laboratoriï T.H. Shevchenka (Kiev 1959) Nevrly, M. T. Sevcenko - Revolucny básnik Ukrajiny (Bratislava 1960) Domanyts'kyi, V. Taras Shevchenko: Syntetychno-natsiolohichni studiï ioho zhyttia i tvorchosty (Chicago 1961) Mol'nar, M. T. Shevchenko u chekhiv ta slovakiv (Preso v 1961) Ryl's'kyi, M. Poetyka Shevchenka (Kiev 1961) Solovei D. Shevchenko i samostiinist ' Ukraïny (Munich 1962) Pil'huk, I. Tradytsi'iT.H. Shevchenka v ukraïns'kii literaturi (dozhovtnevyi period) (Kiev 1963) Shubravs'kyi, V. Shevchenko i literatury narodiv SRSR (Kiev 1964) Kodats'ka, L. Odnoimenni tvory T.H Shevchenka (Kiev 1968) Palamarchuk, H. Neskorenyi Prometei: Tvorchist ' Shevchenka-khudozhnyka 1850-1857 rr. (Kiev 1968) Borodin, V. T.H. Shevchenko i tsars 'ka tsenzura (Kiev 1969) Zhur, P. Tretia zustrich: Khronika ostann 'oïmandrivky T. Shevchenka na Ukrainu (Kiev 1970) Borodin, V. Nad tekstamy T.H. Shevchenka (Kiev 1971) Zhur, P. Shevchenkivs 'kyi Peterburg (Kiev 1972) Chamata, N. Rytmika T.H.Shevchenka (Kiev 1974) Zhur, P. Lito pershe: Z khroniky zhyttia i tvorchosti T. Shevchenka (Kiev 1979) Smilians'ka, V. Styl ' poeziï Shevchenka (Kiev 1981) Grabowicz, G. The Poet as Mythmaker: A Study of Symbolic Meaning in Taras Sevcenko (Cambridge, Mass 1982) Serhiienko, H. T.H. Shevchenko i Kyrylo-Mefodtivs'ke tovarystvo (Kiev 1983) Chub, D. Shevchenko the Man: The Intimate Life of a Poet (Melbourne 1985) Tarakhan-Bereza, Z. Shevchenko - poet i khudozhnyk (Kiev 1985) Borodin, V. Tekstolohiia poetychnykh tvoriv T.H. Shevchenka (Kiev 1986) Pliushch, L. Ekzod Tarasa Shevchenka (Edmonton 1986) Fedchenko, P. Taras Hryhorovych Shevchenko (Kiev 1989) M. Antokhii, D.H. Struk, D. Zelska-Darewych

Shevchenko, Valentyna [Sevcenko], b 2 March 1935 in Kryvyi Rih, Dnipropetrovske oblast. Soviet government leader and Party functionary. A graduate of Kiev University (1960), she taught secondary school and advanced through the Party hierarchy to membership in the CC CPU (by 1976), the CPU Politburo (by 1985), and the CC CPSU (by 1986). In Ukraine's government she served as deputy minister of education (1969-75) and deputy chairman (197585) and then chairman (1985-90) of the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet. Identified with Brezhnev's regime in Ukraine, she was criticized in the late 19805 by the Ukrainian democratic opposition. She withdrew her candidacy in the 1990 elections to the Ukrainian Supreme Soviet and disappeared from public life.

Shevchenko, Volodymyr [Sevcenko], b 23 December 1929 in Balta (now in Odessa oblast), d 30 March 1987 in Kiev. Cinematographer and director. He graduated from the State Institute of Cinema Arts in Moscow (1967) and in 1971 became a director in the Ukrainian Studio of Chronicle-Documentary Films. Among his films are Drevnyi horodL'va (The Ancient City of the Lion [Lviv], 1970), Bytva za Kyw (The Battle for Kiev, 1973), the trilogy Radians 'ka Ukraina: Roky borot'by i peremoh (Soviet Ukraine: The Years of Struggle and Victory, 1974-7), Poïzd nadzvychainoho pryznachennia (The Train with a Singular Assignment, 1980), all propaganda films, and a documentary about Chornobyl (1986).

Yona Shevchenko

Shevchenko, Yona [Sevcenko, Joña], b 26 April 1887 in Hnidyn, near Boryspil, Pereiaslav county, Poltava gubernia, d 1940. Actor and drama critic. After completing study at the Lysenko Music and Drama School he worked in Molodyi Teatr (1917-19) and Berezil (1922-4). He is the author of Ukrains 'kyi suchasnyi teatr (Ukrainian Contemporary Theater, 1929) and Ukrains'ki dramaturhy (Ukrainian Playwrights, 1929). In 1936 he was arrested. He died in prison. Shevchenko, Yurii [Sevcenko, Jurij], b 8 July 1926 in Kiev. Scientist in mechanics; corresponding member of the ANU (formerly AN URSR) since 1982. He graduated from Kiev University (1951) and taught at the Kiev Polytechnical Institute (1956-61). He has worked at the ANU Institute of Mechanics since 1961 (as a department head since 1972). He has developed methods of calculating loading stresses in machine components and a theory of thermoplasticity, including numerical methods of calculation that are widely used today in various types of machine design. Shevchenko Company (Rota im. Tarasa Shevchenka). A unit of the 13th International Brigade that fought in the ^Spanish Civil War. Organized in June 1937, it was composed of Ukrainians, Belarusians, Poles, and Spaniards and was staffed mostly by communists. The commander was a Belarusian communist, S. Tomashevych. The company was dissolved in the autumn of 1938. Shevchenko First Theater of the Ukrainian Soviet Republic (Pershyi teatr Ukrainskoi Radianskoi Respubliky im. T. Shevchenka). A theater established in March

SHEVCHENKO SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY 1919 in Kiev on the basis of the forced unification of the ""State Drama Theater and *Molodyi Teatr (and later joined by the First Youth Theater of the Kiev Soviet of Workers' Deputies). Among its actors were H. Borysohlibska, V. Vasylko, L. Hakkebush, P. Samiilenko, M. Tereshchenko, and H. Yura. The theater's repertoire consisted mostly of Soviet and classical dramas. Its artistic directorship consisted of an artificial union (O. Zaharov from the school of realistic-psychological theater and the experimentalist stage director L. Kurbas) and did not have positive results. The only exception was Kurbas's adaptation of T. Shevchenko's The Haidamakas in 1920. In early 1920 Yura departed with his conservative Molodyi Teatr group to form the touring Franko New Drama Theater (see *Kiev Ukrainian Drama Theater), and Tereshchenko's radical Molodyi Teatr group formed Tsentrostudiia (later the *Mykhailychenko Theater). In the summer of 1920 Kurbas left the theater to form *Kyidramte, and in 1921 Zaharov also left. Financial difficulties and demands for service in many Ukrainian cities resulted in the regrouping of the remaining ensemble as a touring theater until 1927, when it became the *Dnipropetrovske Ukrainian Music and Drama Theater. V. Revutsky

Shevchenko Gallery (Halereia kartyn T.H. Shevchenka). A collection of T. Shevchenko's paintings established in Kharkiv in 1933 on the basis of the Literary Museum at the Taras Shevchenko Scientific Research Institute. Its original holdings consisted of 137 canvases, most of them donated by the Russian Museum and Hermitage in Leningrad and the Tretiakov Gallery, the Pushkin Museum, and the Historical Museum in Moscow. In 1933 the Chernihiv and Kiev historical museums transferred most of the literary and artistic works by Shevchenko in their collections to the gallery, and on the 125th anniversary of Shevchenko's birthday almost all of his artistic works were displayed there. During the Second World War the collection was evacuated. In 1944 it was returned intact, and in 1948 it was transferred to the *Kiev Shevchenko Museum. Shevchenko Museum. See Kiev Shevchenko Museum. Shevchenko Peak [Sevcenka pik]. A mountain peak (elevation, 4,200 m) in the Great Caucasus Range. The peak is covered with snow and ice. It was first scaled in 1938 by an expedition of Ukrainian mountaineers, who named it in honor of T. ^Shevchenko. Shevchenko prizes. See Prizes and awards. Shevchenko Scientific Society (Naukove tovarystvo im. Shevchenka, or NTSh). The oldest, and for a long time the only, prominent Ukrainian scholarly society. It was founded on 11 December 1873 in Austrian-ruled Lviv as the Shevchenko Society (Tovarytsvo im. Shevchenka) with the aim of fostering the development of Ukrainian literature. The society's initiators were leading Ukrainian community and cultural figures on both sides of the Austrian-Russian border, headed by O. *Konysky. Its benefactors included Ye. *Myloradovych, D. *Pylchykov, M. *Zhuchenko, and Rev S. *Kachala. The Shevchenko Society's first act was the purchase of a press and the establishment of its own publishing house in 1874. By 1891 it had

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The building of the Shevchenko Scientific Society in Lviv

published 20 books, including O. Ohonovsky's pioneering three-volume history of Ukrainian literature and the periodicals Pravda (1878-9) and *Zoria (from 1885). The society's first presidents were K. *Sushkevych (1874-85), S. *Hromnytsky (1885-6, 1887-90), D. *Hladylovych (18867,1890-2), and Yu. *Tselevych (1892). 1893-1914. Because the publication of Ukrainian literature and scholarship in Russian-ruled Ukraine was severely restricted after the imposition of the 1876 *Ems Ukase and subsequent tsarist edicts, in 1893 the Shevchenko Society was reorganized on the initiative of Konysky and V. *Antonovych 'to foster and develop science and art in the Ukrainian-Ruthenian language [and] to preserve and collect... the monuments of antiquity [and] the scientific objects of Ukraine-Rus'.' Renamed the Shevchenko Scientific Society and modeled on Western European scientific institutions, the NTSh pursued the aim of becoming 'the progenitor of a future Ukrainian-Ruthenian academy of sciences.' Under the leadership of O. *Barvinsky (1893-7) a library (70,000 cataloged volumes and 500 manuscripts in 1914 - the fullest and most systematic collection of Ucrainica in the world), museum (15,047 artifacts in 1920), and bookstore were established in Lviv. The NTSh's 137 members were divided among three sections - Philological (directed by O. Ohonovsky), Historical-Philosophical (A. Vakhnianyn), and Mathematical-Natural Sciences-Medical (I. Verkhratsky). The NTSh acquired a pan-Ukrainian importance and scholarly prestige under the presidency (1897-1913) of M. *Hrushevsky, who was also director of the HistoricalPhilosophical Section from 1894. Assisted by V. *Hnatiuk as NTSh secretary (1898-1926) and head of the Ethnographic Commission, and I. Franko as director (18981908) of the Philological Section, Hrushevsky turned the NTSh into a de facto academy of sciences to which virtually all Ukrainian scholars belonged. On his suggestion, in 1899 the NTSh was divided into 32 prominent full members, who represented the sections, and many regular members, who could not vote on scholarly matters at section meetings. As a result Lviv acquired the status of a Ukrainian cultural and scholarly capital. Seminars were created within the various NTSh commissions and other bodies, and younger scholars were gainfully employed, the NTSh thereby being given a quasi-university function. Under Hrushevsky and Franko the Historical-Philosophi-

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cal and Philological sections grouped together all the major Ukrainian historians and philologists. Contacts with foreign learned institutions were established by the participation of NTSh members in international congresses and conferences, and by an exchange of publications with nearly 250 foreign institutions. The primary NTSh organ, *Zapysky NTSh (est 1892), became a quarterly (1895) and then a bimonthly (1896) under Hrushevsky's editorship (1895-1913). A second periodical, the quarterly Khronika NTSh, was founded in 1900 to provide information about NTSh activities. Pioneering and fundamental research was also published in the NTSh Legal Commission's *Chasopys ' pravnycha (from 1893); the Archeographic Commission's *Zherela do istorïï Ukraïny-Rusy (from 1895)and *Pam'iatky ukmïns'ko-rus'koï movy i literatury (from 1896); the Ethnographic Commission's *Etnohrafichnyi zbirnyk (from 1895) and *Materiialy do ukraïns'koïetnolohiï(from 1899); the Mathematical-Natural Science-Medical Section's series *Zbirnyk Matematychno-pryrodopysno-likarskoi sektsii NTSh (from 1897); the Historical-Philosophical Section's series *Rus'ka istorychna biblioteka (from 1894) and *Zbirnyk Istorychno-filosofichnoi sektsii NTSh (from 1898), and an annual monograph series, Ukraïns'ko-rus'kyi arkhiv (from 1905); the Philological Section's series *Zbirnyk Filolohichnoii sektsi NTSh (from 1898); and the Bibliographic Commission's *Materiialy do ukraïns'koïbibliohrafn (from 1909). In addition the NTSh published the *Ukrainska biblioteka series of annotated Ukrainian literary classics (24 vols, 1901-4) and the prominent cultural-political monthly *Literaturno-naukovyi vistnyk (1898-1906). Changes occurred in the NTSh's role and scope after tsarist restrictions on Ukrainian writing and scholarship were lifted in the wake of the Revolution of 1905. The ""Ukrainian Scientific Society in Kiev (est 1907), for example, took over publication of Literaturno-naukovyi vistnyk. Nonetheless, the NTSh retained its importance in the Ukrainian scholarly world, even after Hrushevsky resigned as president in 1913 and his functions were assumed by the vice-president, S. *Tomashivsky (1913-18). 1915-44. The First World War interrupted all NTSh activities, including plans to transform the NTSh into an academy of sciences in 1916. During the occupation of Galicia in 1914-15, the NTSh was outlawed, and its buildings and presses were confiscated. Many of its members died at the front or were civilian casualties, and many of its valuable library, archival, and museum holdings and scholarly acquisitions, as well as its student residence, were destroyed. The NTSh was revived during the interwar Polish occupation of Western Ukraine, but it functioned on a lesser scale. Many of its members became political émigrés in the West, some emigrated to Soviet Ukraine, and the influx of new scholarly cadres declined (in 1923 the NTSh had 106 full members, 30 of them foreign scholars). Polish interference and taxation, the slashing of government subsidies, the withdrawal of rights to print schoolbooks, and the confiscation of most Ukrainian-American and Soviet Ukrainian publications addressed to its library also impinged on the NTSh's activities, income, and ability to publish. With the establishment of the All-Ukrainian *Academy of Sciences in Kiev and Ukrainian scholarly institutions in Poland and Bohemia in the 19205, the NTSh was no longer the primary Ukrainian scholarly center.

The NTSh continued its activities under the presidency of V. *Shchurat (1919-25), K. *Studynsky (1925-31), V. *Levytsky (1931-5), and I. *Rakovsky (1935-49). The NTSh Museum's collections were divided up to form the new NTSh museums of Culture and History (1920, with departments of archeology, ethnography, art, numismatics, and historical monuments [75,000 artifacts in 1927]), Natural Science (1920), and the Ukrainian Military (1937). The NTSh Library was rebuilt and expanded (over 300,000 vols in 1939) under the directors I. Krevetsky and V. Doroshenko. In 1921 the Institute of Normal and Pathological Psychology (directed by S. Balei) and the BacteriologicalChemical Institute (directed by M. Muzyka) were created as part of the NTSh. In the early 19205 the NTSh organized the *Lviv (Underground) Ukrainian University and *Lviv (Underground) Ukrainian Higher Polytechnical School. It established relations with the YUAN in Kiev and co-operated with it in many matters, particularly ^orthography. An outstanding example of such collaboration was a Ukrainian mathematical dictionary (1926), which was prepared jointly by the academy's Institute of the Ukrainian Scientific Language and the NTSh. The NTSh's three scholarly sections and Legal, Statistical, Classic Philology, Linguistic, Archeological, Ethnographic, Art History, Physiographic, Bibliographic, and Publishing commissions remained active. The Shevchenko Studies Commission, with its own Serial, Terminological, Scientific-Technical, and Scientific-Agronomical commissions, and two other journals, *Stara Ukraïna (1924-5) and *S 'ohochasne i mynule (i939\ were established. In the 19305 the NTSh sponsored the preparation of an atlas of Ukraine (ed by V. *Kubijovyc) and copublished the serials *Ukraïns'ka knyha, *Ukraïns'ka muzyka, and *Likars'kyi vistnyk. With the Stalinist suppression of Soviet Ukrainian culture in the 19305, the NTSh partly regained its earlier status in the Ukrainian scholarly world. Its international prestige remained high, as attested by the acceptance of membership in the NTSh by M. Planck (in 1923), D. Hubert (in 1924), and A. Einstein (in 1929). From its founding in 1873 until 1939 the NTSh issued 591 serial volumes (including 155 vols of Zapysky NTSh, 121 of them in 1891-1914), 352 individual scholarly publications, textbooks, and maps, 103 books of literary journalism, 95 belletristic works, and 31 informational publications. During the first Soviet occupation of Galicia (1939-41) the NTSh was shut down. In 1940 it was forced by the Soviet authorities to dissolve, and its properties were expropriated by the state. Many of its members disappeared or were repressed, and others fled to German-occupied Poland. During the German occupation of Galicia (1941-4) the Nazi regime did not allow the NTSh to be publicly active. Before the Soviet reoccupation of Lviv in 1944, most remaining NTSh members fled to the West. After 1947. On the initiative of Kubijovyc and Rakovsky, the NTSh was revived in Munich in June 1947 by members who had sought refuge in postwar Germany. Rakovsky was re-elected president (1947-9) and was succeeded by Z. *Kuzelia (1949-52); Kubijovyc was elected general secretary. New full members, particularly postwar émigré scholars from Soviet Ukraine, were elected, and the sections and several commissions resumed their work. New Nationality Research, Encyclopedia, Bibliological, and Ukrainian Language institutes were estab-

S H E V C H E N K O S C I E N T I F I C SOCIETY

Some of the members of the first émigré executive of the Shevchenko Scientific Society (Mittenwald, 1947). Sitting, from left: Yevhen Khraplyvy, Volodymyr Kubijovyc, Zenon Kuzelia, Leonyd Biletsky; standing: Yaroslav Padokh, Ivan Rozhin, Bohdan Lonchyna, Ivan Mirchuk, Rev Vasyl Laba, Yuliian Pavlykovsky

lished, and the journal S'ohochasne i mynule (1948-9) was revived. After the mass emigration of Ukrainian refugees from Germany and Austria to countries of the New World in 1947-9, chapters of the NTSh were established in the United States (1947), Canada (1949), and Australia (1950). In 1951 the NTSh executive center, library, and archives were transferred from Munich to *Sarcelles, near Paris. In 1952 the American chapter purchased its own building in New York City and established a library and archives there. In 1953 the NTSh had 126 full members and 226 regular members; in 1964 it had 139 full members and 485 regular members, over half of them in the United States. In 1955 the European, American, Canadian, and Australian chapters became autonomous NTSh societies, headed by Kubijovyc, V. Yaniv, and A. Zhukovsky in Sarcelles, by M. Chubaty, R. Smal-Stotsky, M. Stakhiv, O. Andrushkiv, Ya. Padokh, and L. Rudnytzky in New York City, by Ye. Vertyporokh and B. Stebelsky in Toronto, and by Ye. Pelensky, P. Shulezhko, I. Rybchyn, T. Liakhovych, I. Vashchyshyn, and R. Mykytovych in Melbourne. The NTSh General Council was established in 1978. Consisting of representatives from the four societies and the three sections, it was successively headed by Smal-Stotsky, Vertyporokh, Andrushkiv, V. Mackiw, and Padokh, with Rudnytzky as scientific secretary, W. Lencyk as general secretary, and I. Sierant as secretary-treasurer. The four NTSh societies co-operated in the work of the NTSh sections and 16 commissions. The Historical-Philosophical Section (70 members in 1985) was based in Sarcelles and New York City and directed by I. Mirchuk, Kubijovyc, and V. Markus; the Philological Section (59 members) was based in New York City and directed by Z. Kuzelia, K. Kysilevsky, and V. Lev; and the Medical-

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Natural Sciences-Mathematical Section (54 members) was based in New York City and directed by M. Zaitsev, W. Petryshyn (mathematics and physics), and R. Osinchuk (chemistry, biology, and medicine). The NTSh has continued publishing Zapysky NTSh (vols 156-220, 1948-91); many of the volumes have doubled as collections of the various sections and as festschriften, and others have been monographs. It has also published 13 volumes (1949-89) of ^encyclopedias of Ukraine, which have served as the basis of Ukraine: A Concise Encyclopaedia and Encyclopedia of Ukraine-, 57 monographs in its Biblioteka ukrainoznavstva series (since 1951); and over 40 valuable collections of historical and memoiristic articles about regions and vicinities of Galicia in its Ukrainskyi arkhiv series (since 1960). Beginning in 1949 it renewed the publication of its chronicle, Khronika NTSh, of which nos 75-81 have been issued. In addition the American NTSh has published 14 volumes of Proceedings (since 1951), over 40 issues of scholarly Papers (since 1958), several literary works, and a few dozen other books and brochures. It has also copublished several books with the Ukrainian Academy of Arts and Sciences in the US and the periodicals Ukmïns'ka knyha (since 1971) and Nationalities Papers (since 1973). The Canadian NTSh has published over 20 volumes of conference materials, collections of articles, and monographs. Of special interest are two volumes of Zakhidn'okanads'kyi zbirnyk (1973, 1 975)/ which describe the history of Ukrainian settlement, schools, and churches in western Canada, the works of I. Kiriak and O. Luhovy, and Ukrainian place-names in Canada. In Lviv the Shevchenko Scientific Society was reactivated on 21 October 1989. It adopted the original NTSh statutes (from 4 July 1874, modified in 1904,1909, and 1949) as well as the statutes of the NTSh General Council (from 27 October 1978). It is headed by O. *Romaniv (also head of the Natural Sciences Section), with Yu. Babei as vicepresident in charge of the scientific sections, Ya. Isaievych as vice-president in charge of the humanities sections, and O. Kupchynsky as scientific secretary; other members of the presidium (and heads of sections) are Ya. Burak (Physical-Mathematical), M. Ilnytsky (Philological), R. Kyrchiv (Ethnography and Folkloristics), V. Ovsiichuk (Art Studies), and Yu. Slyvka (Historical-Philo-sophical). In addition to the six sections the Lviv NTSh established ecological (M. Holubets), medical (Ya. Hanitkevych), Slavic studies (V. Chornii), Oriental studies (Ya. Dashkevych), bibliographic and bibliological (M. Lizanets), publishing and printing (R. Mashtalir), and economic (S. Zlupko) commissions. It also took over the publishing of Zapysky NTSh (from vol 221), began issuing the proceedings of the medical section, Likars 'kyi zbirnyk, and in 1991 started an international edition of the NTSh Visnyk. BIBLIOGRAPHY Khronika Naukovoho tovarystva im. Shevchenka, nos 1-80 (1900-66) Hnatiuk, V. Naukove tovarystvo imeny Shevchenka u L 'vovi (Istorychnyi narys pershoho 50-richchia-i873-1923) (Lviv 1923; 2nd edn, Munich-Paris 1984) - 'Naukove tovarystvo imeny Shevchenka u L'vovi/ LNV, nos 1-9 (1925) Istoriia Naukovo tovarystva im. Shevchenka z nahody 7$-richchia ioho zasnuvannia, 1873-1948 (New York-Munich 1949) Doroshenko, V. Ohnyshche ukraïns 'koï nauky - Naukove tovarystvo im. Shevchenka (New York-Philadelphia 1951)

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- Biblioteka Naukovoho tovarystva im. Shevchenka u L'vovi (New York 1961) Naukove tovarystvo im. Shevchenka v ZDA (New York 1963) Vynar, L. Mykhailo Hrushevs'kyi i Naukove tovarystvo im. Tarasa Shevchenka 1892-1930 (Munich 1970) Kubiiovych, V. 'Naukove tovarystvo im. Shevchenka u 19391952 rr./ iff, 10, nos 1-2 (1973) Lew, W. A Century of Dedicated Work for Scholarship and Nation: A Brief History of the Shevchenko Scientific Society (New York 1973) Vertyporokh, L. /25-richchia Kanads'koho NTSh/ in luvileinyi zbirnyk naukovykh prats ' z nahody ioo-richchia NTSh i 2^-richchia NTSh u Kanadi (Toronto 1977) Publications of the Shevchenko Scientific Society, 1945-1980 (New York 1980; Munich 1983; Lviv 1991) Boiko, M. Index to the Memoirs of the Shevchenko Scientific Society, 1892-1982 (Bloomington, Ind 1984) Romaniv, O. Rozvytok pryrodnycho-tekhnichnykh nauk na zakhidnii Ukraïni v NTSh (Lviv 1989) B. Kravtsiv, V. Kubijovyc

Shevchenko Society in Saint Petersburg (Tovarystvo im. T.H. Shevchenka v Peterburzi). A charitable organization founded in St Petersburg in 1898 to aid needy students from Ukraine enrolled in the city's higher schools. The society covered school fees, the cost of books and equipment, and the medical costs of sick students. It helped students find jobs and living accommodation. To raise funds it collected membership dues and donations and organized concerts, public lectures, and bazaars. By 1900 its membership was over 200, and by 1907, almost 550. Of the 280 members in 1902, only half lived in St Petersburg; the others belonged to branches of the society in Kiev, Kharkiv, Odessa, Vilnius, Sukhumi, Baku, Irkutsk, Ashkhabad, Katerynodar, and Tbilisi. In 1905 a proposal to merge with the Philanthropic Society for Publishing Generally Useful and Inexpensive Books was rejected by the general meeting, but the two societies worked closely together. They collaborated in publishing T. Shevchenko's Kobzar under V. Domanytsky's editorship (1907; 2nd edn 1908). The first president of the society was A. *Markovych, and the first board of directors included prominent cultural figures, such as D. Mordovets, V. Lesevych, I. Repin, and V. Korolenko. With the outbreak of the First World War the number of students in St Petersburg declined, and membership fell to 67. The society decided to discontinue its activities. Shevchenko Ukrainian Drama Theater. See Shevchenko First Theater of the Ukrainian Soviet Republic. Shevchenkove [Sevcenkove]. iv-i8. A town smt (1986 pop 6,500) and raion center in Kharkiv oblast. It was established at the beginning of the 2Oth century as a railway settlement called Bulatselivka on the Kupianka-KharkivBelgorod line. In 1922 it was renamed, and in 1935 it became a raion center. Shevchenkove has a food and a building-materials industry. Shevchenkove [Sevcenkove]. iv-i2. A village (1972 pop 3,800) in Zvenyhorodka raion, Cherkasy oblast. Until 1929 its name was Kyrylivka. Its significance lies in the fact that T. ^Shevchenko grew up there (1816-28). He also visited the village in 1843,1845, and 1859. Today an obelisk marks the site of his home. The graves of his parents and the 18th-century cottage in which Shevchenko attended his

first school lessons have been preserved. His parents' cottage has been converted into a literary memorial museum. Shevchuk, Anatolii [Sevcuk, Anatolij] (pseud: Ivan Yavtushenko), b 6 February 1937 in Zhytomyr. Writer and political prisoner; brother of Valerii *Shevchuk. A typesetter by profession, he published 10 stories and a few poems in Soviet Ukrainian periodicals (1962-4). He was arrested by the KGB in Zhytomyr in May 1966 and sentenced at a closed trial in September to five years' imprisonment in a Mordovian strict-regime labor camp. A collection of prose he had prepared for publication was confiscated and never published. Three of his stories and excerpts of letters to his brother were first published in V. Chornovil's Lykho z rozumu (Woe from Wit, Paris 1967). In the late 19805 he began publishing stories again in periodicals. Shevchuk, Hryhorii [Sevcuk, Hryhorij], b 8 February 1916 in Krasnohirka, Skvyra county, Kiev gubernia. Historian. A graduate of the Kiev Pedagogical Institute (1938), he worked at the AN URSR (now ANU) Institute of History (1946-67) and the Kiev Institute of Culture (from 1968). He contributed to the collective works Istoriia Ukraïns 'koï RSR (History of the Ukrainian SSR, 2 vols, 1967) and Rozvytok ukraïns'koïkul'tury za roky Radians 'koï vlady (The Development of Ukrainian Culture during the Years of Soviet Rule, 1967) and wrote Borot'ba trudiashchykh Radians'koï Ukraïny proty kontrrevoliutsiïna Pivdni v 1920 r. (The Struggle of the Workers of Soviet Ukraine against the Counterrevolution in the South in 1920, 1956) and Kul'turne budivnytstvo na Ukraïni u 1921-1925 rokakh (Cultural Construction in Ukraine in 1921-5,1963).

Valerii Shevchuk

Shevchuk, Valerii [Sevcuk, Valerij], b 20 August 1939 in Zhytomyr. Writer. He is a master of psychological prose on contemporary themes. His collections include Sered tyzhnia (Midweek, 1967), Naberezhna, 12 (12 Naberezhna Street, 1968), Seredokhrestia (The Intersection, 1968), Vechir sviatoï oseny (An Evening of the Sacred Autumn, 1969), Kryk pivnia na svitanku (Cock's Crow at Dawn, 1979), Dolyna dzherel (The Valley of Springs, 1981), Tepla osin ' (The Warm Autumn, 1981), and Dzygar odvichnyi (The Eternal Clock, 1987). He is adept at perceiving the extraordinary in the ordinary and at exalting simple humanity to greatness. His masterful construction of themes serves as a backdrop for wide-ranging portraits of life, from concise realistic descriptions to those bordering on the fantastic (particularly in 'Zhyttia ta pryhody Vitaliia Voloshyns'koho' [The Life and Adventures of Vitalii Voloshynsky]). His terse expression, the sophisticated psychological motivation of his characters (departures from the

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officially sanctioned divisions between 'positive' and 'negative' ones), and his bold unwillingness to adhere to the dogmas of ^socialist realism and official ideology set him apart from other writers of Soviet prose but also attracted the hostility of the Soviet literary hierarchy. His works were not fully recognized for their merit until the late 19805. In such works as his novelette-preamble Dim na hori (The House on the Hill, 1983) Shevchuk has combined the native folkloric tradition of the fantastic, as in N. Gogol, with historical themes and a philosophical quest for the meaning of life and self, in multilevel prose which some critics call khymerna proza (chimerical prose - somewhat reminiscent of the magic realism of Latin American prose). Shevchuk has also drawn on the medieval Kievan period for his novels Na poli smyrennomu (On the Peaceful Field, 1982) and Petro uteklyi (Peter the Fugitive, 1985), the novelistic essay Myslenne derevo (The Thinking Tree, 1986), and the trilogy tracing the secularization of Ukraine through the i/th, i8th, and 19th centuries, Try lysiky za viknom (Three Leaves outside the Window, 1986). He has also translated Litopys Samiila Velychka (The Chronicle of Samiilo Velychko, 1986-7) and love lyrics of the i6th to 19th centuries (in Pisni Kupidona [Cupid's Songs] 1984) into contemporary Ukrainian. I. Koshelivets, D.H. Struk

Shevchuk, Vasyl [Sevcuk, VasyF], b 30 April 1932 in Barashi, Yemilchyne raion, Zhytomyr oblast. Writer of historical fiction. He graduated from Kiev University (1955) and worked as an editor for Pioneriia, Literaturna Ukraïna, the Dnipro publishing house, and the Kiev Artistic Film Studio. From 1953 to 1959 he published four children's poetry books and a collection of lyrical poetry (1958). He then switched to prose and wrote the novelettes Horobynoï nochi (A Stormy Summer Night, 1960), Zelenyi shum (The Green Murmur, 1963), Vitryla (Sails, 1964, about T. Shevchenko), and Trubliat' lebedi nad Slavutychem (The Swans Are Trumpeting above the Slavutych, 1967); a story collection for children (1965); a novel about H. Skovoroda, Hryhorii Skovoroda (1969; rev edn: Predtecha [The Precursor, 1972]); the Cossack novel Pobratymy ... (1972; English trans: Bloodbrothers, 1980); the novelle collection Den ' - iak zhyttia (A Day Is like a Lifetime, 1979); Veselych (1980), a novel about the medieval author of *Slovo o polku Ihorevi; the contemporary novelette Tepla osin" (A Warm Autumn, 1981); a reinterpretation of the Slovo ... titled Slovo pro Ihoriv pokhid (1982); the novel Zlam (The Break, 1982); two critically acclaimed novels about T. Shevchenko, Syn voli (The Son of Liberty, 1984) and Ternovyi svit (The Thorny World, 1986); and the historical fantasy novel Feniks (The Phoenix, 1988). Shevchukevych, Opanas [Sevcukevyc], b 17 March 1902 in Vyzhenka, Chernivtsi county, Bukovyna, d ? Sculptor; physician by profession. A graduate of the medical faculty of Freiburg University (1929), he studied sculpture under K. Kollwitz at the Berlin Academy of Arts. The first exhibitions of his works in Germany and Chernivtsi in the late 19205 were favorably received by the critics. He did portraits of K. Kollwitz (1928), M. Ivasiuk (1957-8), O. Kobylianska (1962-3), T. Shevchenko (1963), and M. Drahomanov (1970) and compositions such as Beggar (1925) and Death over the Dancer.

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Shevchyky. A folk dance performed by one or two people to instrumental music in 2/3 time. It mimics the movements of a shoemaker (shvets) through pantomime. Shevel, Heorhii [Sevel', Heorhij], b 9 May 1919 in Kharkiv, d 16 November 1988 in Kiev. Party and Soviet government leader. A graduate of Kharkiv University (1941), he served as a secretary and first secretary of the Lviv Oblast Komsomol Committee (1944-6), a secretary (1946-50) and first secretary (1950-4) of the Ukrainian Komsomol CC, a CC CPU member (1952-80), second secretary of the CPU Kiev City Committee and agitation and propaganda secretary of the CPU Kiev Oblast Committee (1954-61), and CC CPU chief of agitation and propaganda (1961-70). As the Ukrainian minister of foreign affairs (1970-80) he headed the Ukrainian delegation at the United Nations General Assembly. Shevelev, Arnold [Sevelev, Arnol'd], b 28 November 1928 in Balakliia (now in Kharkiv oblast). Soviet historian and CPSU functionary; corresponding member of the ANU (formerly AN URSR) since 1972. He graduated from Kiev University (1948) and taught in institutions of higher education from 1954 (from 1968 as a professor). He served as secretary (1969-72) and assistant director (from 1972) of the Kiev branch of the CPU. As director of the ANU ''"Institute of History (1973-8) he was instrumental in curtailing its autonomous research and eliminating most of its pre1917 publications. He wrote many works on the history of the CPSU and the CPU and a collection of essays on the development of research in Soviet and foreign history in the Ukrainian SSR (1975). He was editor in chief of Istoriia Ukraïns'koï RSR (History of the Ukrainian SSR, 8 vols in 10 books, 1977-9). Sheveliv, Borys [Seveliv], b 2 April 1893 in Chernihiv, d ? Literary scholar. In the 19205 and early 19305 he was a member of the YUAN Chernihiv Scientific Society and an associate of the YUAN Commission for the Study of LeftBank Ukraine. He published articles on L. Hlibov, P. Kulish, S. Nis, A. Svydnytsky, O. Lazarevsky, and the Chernihiv Hromada in YUAN serials (Za sto lit, Ukraïna) and compendiums, and edited an edition of Hlibov's works (1927). He stopped publishing during the Stalinist terror, and his fate is unknown. Shevelov, George Yurii [SeveFov, Jurij] (pseuds: Yurii Sherekh, Hryhorii Shevchuk, Yur. Sher., Yu. Sh., Hr. Sh.,

George Shevelov

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et al), b 17 December 1908 in Lomza, Poland. Slavic linguist, philologist, essayist, literary historian, and critic; full member of the Shevchenko Scientific Society since 1949 and of the Ukrainian Academy of Arts and Sciences since 1945. After studying under L. Bulakhovsky at Kharkiv University (candidate 1939) he lectured there in Slavic linguistics (1939-43). Having emigrated to Germany, he taught at the Ukrainian Free University in Munich (1946-9) and obtained a doctorate there (1949). He was also vice-president of the *MUR literary association (19459). After settling in the United States he served as lecturer in Russian and Ukrainian at Harvard University (1952-4), associate professor (1954-8) and professor of Slavic philology at Columbia University (1958-77), and president of the "Ukrainian Academy of Arts and Sciences (1959-61, 1981-6). He was a founding member of the *Slovo Association of Ukrainian Writers in Exile. Shevelov is the author of some 500 articles, reviews, and books on Slavic philology and linguistics and the history of literature. In Slavic linguistics he has contributed to such areas as phonology, morphology, syntax, lexicology, etymology, literary languages, and onomastics. He has devoted special attention to Old Church Slavonic, Belarusian, Polish, Russian, Slovak, Serbo-Croation, Macedonian, and above all Ukrainian. In his most important work, A Historical Phonology of the Ukrainian Language (1979), Shevelov demonstrated the historical continuity of the language. His other important publications in linguistics are Do henezy nazyvnoho rechennia (On the Genesis of the Nominal Sentence, 1947), Halychyna vformuvanni novoï ukraïns 'koï literaturnoï movy (Galicia in the Formation of the Modern Ukrainian Literary Language, 1949, 1975), Nary s suchasnoï ukraïns'koï literaturnoï movy (An Outline of the Contemporary Ukrainian Literary Language, 1951), The Syntax of Modern Literary Ukrainian: The Simple Sentence (1963; Ukrainian version 1951), A Prehistory of Slavic: The Historical Phonology of Common Slavic (1964,1965), Die ukrainische Schriftsprache, 1798-1965 (1966), Teasers and Appeasers: Essays and Studies on Themes of Slavic Philology (1971), and The Ukrainian Language in the First Half of the Twentieth Century, 1900-1941: Its State and Status (1989; Ukrainian version 1987). His numerous articles in the field of literature, literary criticism, and theater were collected in Ne alia ditei (Not for Children, 1964), Druha cherha: literatura, teatr, ideolohn (The Second Round: Literature, Theater, Ideologies, 1978), and Tretia storozha (The Third Watch, 1991). He was one of the organizers of émigré literary life in Germany after the Second World War. Shevelov was editor or coeditor of many scholarly and literary journals, serials, books, and other publications, including *Arka (1947-8), The Annals of the Ukrainian Academy of Arts and Sciences in the us (1960i), Historical Phonology of the Slavic Languages (5 vols, 197383), and Suchasnist' (1978-87). He was also linguistics subject editor for Entsyklopediia ukraïnoznavstva (Encyclopedia of Ukraine, 1949-52,1955-89), Ukraine: A Concise Encyclopaedia (vol i, 1963), and Encyclopedia of Ukraine (vols 1-2, 1984,1988), to which he contributed numerous articles. A bibliography of his works by J. Hursky appeared in Symbolae in honorem Georgii Y. Shevelov (1971) and Studies in Ukrainian Linguistics in Honor of George Y. Shevelov (1985). J. Hursky

Shiller, Nikolai [Siller, Nikolaj], b 13 March 1848 in Moscow, d 23 November 1910 in St Petersburg. Physicist. A graduate of Moscow University (1868), he did postgraduate work at Berlin University (1871-4). In 1876 he was appointed a professor at Kiev University, and there in 1884 he assumed the first chair of theoretical physics in Ukraine. His major contributions were in the fields of thermodynamics and electromagnetism. He showed that the differential equations describing the second law of thermodynamics contain an integrating factor that is a universal function of temperature, and developed what became known as the Shiller (i9Oo)-Caratheodory (1909) formulation of the second law of thermodynamics. His work on dielectric susceptibility and displacement currents was highly regarded by J. Maxwell. Shiller was the founder of the *Kiev Physics and Mathematics Society (1890) and served as its president until 1904. In 1903 he became the rector of the Kharkiv Applied Technology Institute. Shilov, Evgenii [Silov, Jevgenij], b 10 August 1893 in Serpukhov, Moscow gubernia, d 22 July 1970 in Kiev. Organic chemist; AN URSR (now ANU) full member from 1951. A graduate of Moscow University (1917), he taught at the Ivanovo-Voznesensk Polytechnical (1919-30) and Chemical-Technical institutes. From 1947 he directed the Laboratory of Organic Reaction Mechanisms at the ANU Institute of Organic Chemistry. Shilov's research was devoted to organic reaction mechanisms and analytical chemistry. He introduced (jointly with Ya. Syrkin) the concept of cyclic four- and six-center transition states in bimolecular reactions, and contributed to the theory and practice of bleaching natural fibers by processes involving chlorine or peroxides. Shimanovsky, Yulii [Simanovskij, Julij], b 8 February 1829 in Riga, d 25 April 1868 in Kiev. Russian surgeon. A graduate of Tartu University (1856), he taught surgery at Helsinki University. In 1861 he was appointed a professor of operative surgery at Kiev University and director of the surgery department at the Kiev Military Hospital. He invented about 80 surgical instruments and a number of new surgical methods. He wrote a large number of articles and books, including the monographs Operativnaia khirurgiia (Operative Surgery, 3 vols, 1864-9) and Voennokhirurgicheskiepis'ma (Military-Surgical Letters, 1868). Shipbuilding. A branch of the *machine-building industry that builds and repairs cargo, passenger, fishing, military, and other ships, as well as barges and floating docks, cranes, derricks, and other equipment. In Ukraine the first shipbuilding facilities were constructed in Mykolaiv in 1788 by the Russian Admiralty to build sailing ships for the Russian Imperial Black Sea Fleet. Later they became the *Mykolaiv Shipyard. The first steamships were produced in the Russian Empire in 1815. A machinebuilding plant built in Kiev in 1862 changed to shipbuilding later in the 19th century. Two other shipyards built in Mykolaiv in the 18905 merged in 1907 to form the *Black Sea Shipyard. By 1913 in Russian-ruled Ukraine there were seven dockyards that built and repaired ships (in Odessa, Mykolaiv, Kherson, and elsewhere) and several smaller facilities that built river craft, barges, and so on. Ukraine accounted for about 13 percent of all shipbuilding in the Russian Empire.

SHKLIAREVSKY

The shipbuilding industry developed more rapidly after the Revolution of 1917. In the interwar period most of the existing factories were reconstructed, and several new ones were built. By 1928-9 shipbuilding accounted for 14 percent of all machine building in Ukraine, and Ukrainian output constituted a major share of Soviet production. The industry built ships for river and sea transportation and the fishing fleet. It was devastated during the Second World War and reconstructed after the war. Today many different types of ships are built in Ukraine, including transport ships, tankers, whaling ships, research ships, trawlers, passenger ships, and dredges. Some of the ships weigh up to 150,000 t. In general, however, Soviet sources provided little information about the shipbuilding industry, especially about its military sector. It is known that until 1941 Ukrainian shipyards produced 15 to 20 warships annually. Shirokov, Aleksandr [Sirokov], b 18 September 1905 in Ivanovo, Russia. Geologist; corresponding member of the AN URSR (now ANU) since 1957. He graduated from (1930) and taught at (from 1946) the Dnipropetrovske Mining Institute. His major fields of interest include mining geology and estimations of the extent and quality of coal deposits in Ukraine and the European section of Russia, particularly the Donets Basin. He served as deputy head of the Supreme Soviet of the Ukrainian SSR in 1963-6. Shishmanov, Dimitar [Sismanov], b 1889 in Sofia, Bulgaria, d 1945. Writer and literary scholar; son of I. Shishmanov and M. Drahomanov's daughter, Lidiia. Besides contributing short stories, novels, and plays to Bulgarian literature, he acquainted the Bulgarian reader with the history of Ukraine and its literature. He accompanied his father to Kiev in 1918, where he became familiar with contemporary Ukrainian literature and translated a shortened version of S. Yefremov's history of Ukrainian literature (published in Sofia in 1919). He contributed articles on Ukrainian writers and on M. Hrushevsky (1935) to Ukrains 'ko-bolhars 'kyi ohliad and edited some of the Bulgarian translations of writers such as M. Kotsiubynsky, I. Franko, O. Oles, and Yu. Fedkovych, which appeared in the journal. In 1945 he was executed by Bulgarian Communists. Shishmanov, Ivan [Sismanov], b 4 July 1862 in Svishtov, Bulgaria, d 22 July 1928 in Oslo. Bulgarian literary scholar, folklorist, and civic figure; full member of the Bui-

Ivan Shishmanov

Mykhailo Shkilnyk

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garian Academy of Sciences and the Shevchenko Scientific Society. After studying at Jena, Geneva, and Leipzig universities he was a professor at Sofia University (from 1894). Through his father-in-law, M. *Drahomanov, and his wife's cousin, Lesia Ukrainka, he developed friendships with other Ukrainian writers (I. Franko) and scholars (V. Hnatiuk). He later became Bulgaria's minister of education (1903-7) and Bulgarian emissary to the Central Rada in Kiev (1918-19). In 1920 he initiated the creation of the Bulgarian-Ukrainian Society. Among his many works are articles on Ukrainian literature (particularly on T. Shevchenko) and its influence on the Bulgarian revival. His collected works were published in two volumes (1965-6). Shkandrij, Myroslav [Skandrij], b 17 March 1950 in Leeds, England. Literary scholar. A graduate of the University of Toronto (PR D, 1980), he has taught at the universities of Calgary (1978-83), Manitoba (1983-5), Ottawa (1985-7), and, since 1987, Manitoba again, where beginning in 1990 he has served as a department head. Shkandrij is the author of articles on contemporary Ukrainian literature. He has translated and edited Mi/kola Khvylovy, The Cultural Renaissance in Ukraine: Polemical Pamphlets, 1926-1927 (1985) and written the monograph Modernists, Marxists, and the Nation: The Ukrainian Literary Discussion of the 19205 (1992). Shkarivka settlement. A Middle *Trypilian culture (late 4th to early 3rd millennium BC) settlement located near Shkarivka, Bila Tserkva raion, Kiev oblast. Excavations in 1967-73 uncovered the remains of rectangular and L-shaped houses with domed ovens, imprinted pottery, and ritual hearths. Shkavrytko, Myroslav [Skavrytko], b 18 October 1922 in Galicia, d 16 September 1984 in Winnipeg. Journalist and religious leader. In Galicia he studied at Lviv University and then worked as a teacher. As a postwar refugee he organized Ukrainian theaters in Italy and worked with the Ukrainian press service in Great Britain. He emigrated to Canada in 1953; in 1963-73 he was chief editor of *Kanadiis'kyi farmer in Winnipeg. From the 19705 Shkavrytko was one of the leaders of the Ukrainian Native Faith church. He wrote the church's creed and many of its prayers. Shkilnyk, Mykhailo [Skil'nyk, Myxajlo], b 19 September 1891 in Surokhiv, Jaroslaw county, Galicia, d 14 November 1972 in Toronto. Jurist and political activist. He completed his law studies in Lviv, Cracow, and Kiev. In 1918-20 he worked in the UNR Ministry of Trade and Industry and headed the consular department at the Ministry of Foreign Affairs. After returning to Galicia, from 1921 he worked as a judge in Peremyshliany. In 1945 he left for Germany and then emigrated to Canada. In the 19605 he served as president of the Association of Ukrainian Lawyers. In addition to numerous articles on the revolutionary period, he wrote Ukraína u borot'bi za derzhavnist' v 1917-1921 rokakh (Ukraine in the Struggle for Statehood in 1917-1921,1971). Shkliarevsky, Oleksii [Skljarevs'kyj, Oleksij], b 3 April 1839 in Krasnopillia, Krolevets county, Chernihiv gubernia, d 5 July 1906 in Kiev. Pathologist and biophysicist. A graduate of Moscow University (1862), he taught general

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pathology at Kiev University (from 1869) and hygiene at the Higher Courses for Women (1878-80). His publications deal with the inflammation process and blood diseases. His lectures on medical physics were published in the university's Izvestiia (1881-2). ShkoVna chasopys' (School Periodical). A semimonthly paper of pedagogical and scholarly affairs, published in Lviv from September 1880 to May 1889. In 1882-3 it was the organ of the Ruthenian Pedagogical Society (later *Ridna Shkola). ShkoVna chasopys' published articles on pedagogy, extracurricular education, and educational policies; literary works; ethnographic studies; and professional news for teachers. The editor and publisher was H. Vretsona. The journal was succeeded by *Uchytel\

shown at exhibitions in Ternopil (1884), Cracow (1887), Lviv (1894, 1905), and Kolomyia (1880,1912). Mykola introduced a pitted background to heighten the contrast with the carved design. His favorite motif was the rosette. Mykola taught the family craft to his sons, Fedir (b 28 April 1893, d 10 November 1960) and Vasyl (b 1900), and Fedir passed it on to his son, Dmytro (b 20 October 1925). Similar work has been done by the *Korpaniuk brothers (the sons of Kateryna, the daughter of Yurii Shkribliak) and their descendants. An album of works by the Shkribliak family was published in Kiev in 1979.

Shkolnyk, Arkadii [Skol'nyk, Arkadij], b 22 February 1916 in Kharkiv, d 28 October 1986 in Kharkiv. Dramatist. From 1942 on he wrote a number of plays, including Liudyna shukaie shchastia (A Person Seeks Happiness, 1955), lunist' moia (My Youth, 1959), Za tse ne sudiat' (For This They Don't Judge, 1967), and Pereval (The Mountain Pass, 1969). He also wrote several plays for children. A collection of his selected plays was published in 1985. Shkraba, Orest [Skraba], b 1898, d ? Civic and political leader in Bukovyna. In the 19205 he was active in the Zaporozhe student organization. After opening a law office in Kitsman he became active in politics and joined the Ukrainian National party. In 1930 and 1932 he was elected to the Rumanian parliament.

A sugar container by Vasyl Shkribliak, jug by Mykola Shkribliak, and plate by Yurii Shkribliak

Shkribliak [Skribljaky]. The family name of a group of Hutsul folk artists from Yavoriv, Kosiv county, Galicia (now Kosiv raion, Ivano-Frankivske oblast), who have specialized in wood carving and inlay. Yurii Shkribliak (b 28 April 1822, d 1884) was the founder of the family tradition. He made wooden flasks, miniature barrels, goblets, plates, spoons, crosses, cups, axes, pistols, rifles, and powder horns decorated with geometrical carvings and copper-wire or sheep-horn inlay. Noted for their original forms and fine technical execution, they were displayed at agricultural fairs in Vienna (1872), Lviv (1877), Trieste (1878), Stanyslaviv (1879), and Kolomyia (1880). Yurii taught his craft to his sons, Vasyl (1856-1928), Mykola (1858-1920), and Fedir (1859-1942). Vasyl specialized in flat carving and inlay of variously colored wood, beads, metal, and mother-of-pearl. His best works are plates, shelves, and furniture. In 1905-15 he taught at the provincial wood carving school in Vyzhnytsia. His works were

Yurii Shkrumeliak

Shkrumeliak, Yurii [Skrumeljak, Jurij] (pseuds: Ivan Sorokaty, Yu. Ihorkiv, O. Pidhirsky, Smyk], b 18 April 1895 in Lanchyn, Nadvirna county, Galicia, d 20 October 1965 in Lviv. Writer and journalist. A veteran of the Ukrainian Sich Riflemen, in the 19205 he studied at Lviv and Prague universities and the Ukrainian Higher Pedagogical Institute in Prague. In Lviv he worked as a coeditor for the Svit Dytyny (1920-30) and I. Tyktor (1928-9) publishers and was chief editor of the popular weekly Narodnia sprava (from 1928) and the children's monthly Dzvinochok (1931-9). He began publishing in 1915. In the in ter war years he wrote many children's books, notably lurza-Murza, Zapysky Ivasia Krilyka (The Notes of Ivas Bunny), Strilets ' Nevmyrakha (The Rifleman Nevmyrakha), Mova vikiv (The Language of Ages), and a four-part history of Ukraine for children. He also translated into Ukrainian stories for children from The Thousand and One Nights (tales of Aladdin, Ali Baba, and Sinbad the Sailor). His poems, stories, feuilletons, and belletristic reminiscences appeared in Mytusa, Students'kyi visnyk, Svit dytyny, and Narodnia sprava and in the Chervona Kalyna publishing house annual Istorychnyi kalendar-aVmanakh Chervonoï kalyny. Published separately were his long poem Son Halycha (The Dream of Halych, 1920), the memoirs Poizd mertsiv (The Train of the Dead, 1922), the poetry collection Aveleva zhertva (Abel's Sacrifice, 1926), and the novels Cheta Krylatykh (The Squadron of the Winged Ones, 1928), Vohni z polonyn (Fires from the Mountain Pastures, 1930), and Vysoki hory i nyz'ki dolyny (High Mountains and Low Valleys, 1939). Although he had published a pro-Soviet poetry collection in 1941, from 1946 to 1955 Shkrumeliak was a Soviet political prisoner in Siberia. He was rehabilitated in 1956, and the regime published his poetry collection Sopilka spivaie (The Sopilka Is Singing, 1957) and a book of selected works, Pryvit Hoverli (Greeting to Hoverlia, 1964). R. Senkus

SHLEMKEVYCH

Shkurat, Stepan [Skurat], b 8 January 1886 in Kobeliaky, Poltava gubernia, d 26 February 1973 in Romen, Sumy oblast. Stage and film actor and singer. He began his acting career in an amateur troupe in Romen (1910-28). In 1918 the troupe came under the direction of I. Kavaleridze, who invited Shkurat to act in his film Zlyva (A Downpour, 1929). Shkurat later became a leading heroic and character actor in O. Dovzhenko's films, including Zemlia (The Earth, 1930); he also appeared in I. Savchenko's Vershnyky (The Riders, 1939) and I. Kavaleridze's Poviia (The Strumpet, 1961, based on P. Myrny's novel). A biography, by V. Oleksenko, was published in Kiev in 1983.

Geo Shkurupii

Mykola Shlemkevych

Shkurupii, Geo [Skurupij] (Yurii), b 20 April 1903 in Bendery, now in Moldova, d 8 December 1937. Writer of poetry and prose. His first published work appeared in the almanac Hrono in 1920. He was an active member of the Association of Panfuturists, and his works were published in Vyr revoliutsïï, Shliakhy mystetstva, Hlobus, Hrono, Semafor u maibutnie, Zhyttia i revoliutsiia, Nova generatsiia, Chervonyi shliakh, and Literaturna hazeta. His collections of poetry include Psykhotezy (Psychotheses, 1922), Baraban (The Drum, 1923), Zharyny sliv (The Embers of Words, 1925), More (The Sea, 1927), and Dlia druziv poetiv - suchasnykiv vichnosty (To My Friends the Poets, Contemporaries of Eternity, 1929). His short stories include Teremozhets' drakona' (The Slayer of the Dragon, 1925), Tryhody mashynista Khorpa' (The Adventures of Khorp the Machinist, 1925), 'Shtab smerty' (Death Staff, 1926), 'Sichneve povstannia' (The January Uprising, 1928), 'Zruinovanyi polon' (Ruined Captivity, 1930), 'Strashna myt" (A Terrible Moment, 1930), and those collected in Monhol's'ki opovidannia (Mongolian Stories, 1930). His novellas and novels include Dveri v den ' (The Door to the Day, 1929), Zhanna batal 'ionerka (Zhanna the Battalion Member, 1930), and Mis Andriiena (Miss Andriena, 1934). He was arrested in 1934, sentenced to 10 years in concentration camps, resentenced by a special NKVD tribunal, and shot. I. Koshelivets

Shkval (Squall). A political and literary journal in Odessa, published by the CP(B)U semimonthly in Russian (1924-5), weekly in Russian (1926-9) and Ukrainian (1929), and three times a month in Ukrainian (1930-3). From mid-1929 it was a supplement to the Odessa newspaper Chornomors'ka komuna. The journal issued supplements devoted to science and technology (1926), sports

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(1926), women's affairs (1926-7), and science and art (1927). After three issues in 1933, Shkval was merged with the journal Metalevi dni (1930-3) to form the monthly journal Literaturnyi zhovten ', six issues of which appeared in 1934-5. m *929 Shkval had a pressrun of 33,439 copies. Shlapak, Dmytro [Slapak] (pseuds: D. Lisovy, D. Pidhainy, D. Yakovenko), b 5 May 1923 in Yasynuvate, now in Borova raion, Kharkiv oblast. Literary scholar and critic. He graduated from the CC CPU Higher Party School (1949) and worked as deputy chief editor of Molod' Ukraïny and editor of *Vechirnii Kyïv in 1945-52, a lecturer at Kiev and Lviv universities and a department head and dean at the Ukrainian Printing Institute in Lviv in 195363, an officer of the Ministry of Culture, and a docent at the Ukrainian Institute of Theater Arts in Kiev. He is the author of many articles and books on Soviet Ukrainian literature, including studies of Soviet Ukrainian publicism during the Second World War (1955), Yu. Zbanatsky (1963), O. Dov-zhenko (1964), Soviet Ukrainian dramaturgy (1970, 1981), M. Zarudny (1981), and A. Malyshko (1982), and Literatura heroïky i krasy (A Literature of Heroics and Beauty, 1972). Shleifer, Georgii [Slejfer, Georgij], b 16 June 1855 in Kiev, d 9 April 1913 in Kiev. Architect; son of P. *Shleifer. After graduating from the St Petersburg Institute of Civil Engineering he worked in the Kiev Department of Public Works and developed the city's water-supply and sewage systems. He also designed apartment buildings and the building that is now the Kiev Ukrainian Drama Theater. Shleifer, Pavel [Slejfer], b 20 June 1814 in Kiev, d 24 April 1879 in Kiev. Portrait painter and architect. In 183640 he audited lectures at the St Petersburg Academy of Arts. He taught painting at the Kiev Institute for Daughters of the Nobility (1846-9) and then served as architect of the Kiev School District (1852-79). He designed the Kiev Stock Exchange (destroyed in 1875) and painted portraits of a woman (1836), man (1842), and his wife (late 18405). Shlemkevych, Mykola [Slemkevyc] (pseuds: M. Ivaneiko, S. Vilshyna, R. Sribny), b 27 January 1894 in Pyliava, Buchach county, Galicia, d 14 February 1966 in Passaic, New Jersey. Philosopher, publicist, and political figure; full member of the Shevchenko Scientific Society from 1941 and the Ukrainian Academy of Arts and Sciences in the US. His studies at Vienna University were interrupted by the First World War, and in 1915 he was deported by the Russian occupational authorities from Galicia to Siberia. As editorial secretary of the paper Robitnycha hazeta in Kiev (1917-19) he witnessed the rebirth and defeat of Ukrainian independence. While completing his studies at Vienna University (PH D, 1926) he began contributing to Literaturno-naukovyi vistnyk. After studying at the Sorbonne (1928-9) he returned to Lviv, became an ideologue of the *Front of National Unity, and edited its journal *Peremoha (1933-9) and paper Ukrams'ki visty (1935-9). During the Second World War he headed the publishing department of the Ukrainske Vydavnytstvo publishing house in Cracow and Lviv (1941-4). As a postwar refugee in Vienna and then Munich, he was a founding member of the ""Ukrainian National State Union, the deputy chairman of

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SHLEMKEVYCH

its executive council, a founding member of the Ukrainian National Council, and a member of *MUR. After emigrating to New Jersey in 1949, he cofounded the ""Union of Ukrainian National Democrats (1950), founded and edited *Lysty do pryiateliv (1953-66), and founded the Kliuchi publishing house (1956) and ""Ukrainian Research and Information Institute (1961). Besides many articles in the Galician and émigré press, he wrote several books on Ukrainian culture and political thought, including Ukraïns 'ka synteza chy ukraïns 'ka hromadians 'ka viina (A Ukrainian Synthesis or a Ukrainian Civil War, 1946; 2nd edn, 1949), Zahublena ukraïns 'ka liudyna (The Lost Ukrainian Person, 1954), and Halychanstvo (Galicianness, 1956). His chief philosophical work, Filosofiia (Philosophy, 1934; 2nd edn: Sutnist' filosofiï [The Essence of Philosophy], 1981), a revised translation of his PH D dissertation, criticizes absolutist (W. Windelband, H. Rickert, W. Wundt, G. Fechner, M. Schlick, A. Comte, and E. Mach), relativist (K. Fischer and W. Dilthey), and classical (Plato and I. Kant) definitions of philosophy and argues from the historical evidence that philosophy has three tasks: to criticize the existing spiritual culture (science, art, and religion), to articulate problems to the point at which they can be handled by science, and to unify the different spheres of spiritual culture in a coherent worldview. T. Zakydalsky

Shliakh continued the traditions of Shapoval's earlier journal, *Ukraïns'ka khata. Among its contributors were some of the most distinguished cultural figures of the time, such as M. Vorony, O. Oles, H. Chuprynka, Ya. Mamontov, Khrystia Alchevska, O. Kobylianska, P. Tychyna, M. Rylsky, and Mykyta Shapoval (pseud: Sribliansky). The journal also contained translations of Western European literature, a cultural chronicle, and reviews. A total of 25 issues appeared. Shliakh (Path). A monthly and later semimonthly journal published by the Orthodox Petro Mohyla Society in Lutske from May 1937 to September 1939. Shliakh printed articles on religious, cultural, and historical topics. The editor was Ye. Bohuslavsky. Shliakh (The Way). A weekly organ of the Ukrainian Catholic metropoly in the United States, published in Philadelphia since 1940. Since 1946 a parallel English-language version has been published as The Way. Both papers contain articles on church history, popular theology, news, and belles lettres, mostly on religious themes. The editors of Shliakh have been V. Fedash (1946-9), P. Isaiv (1949-54), L. Mydlovsky (1954-75), M. Dolnytsky, and I. Skochylias. The Way has been edited by Revs M. Fedorovych, R. Moskal, R. Popivchak, and others. Shliakh do zdorov'ia (Way to Health). A magazine published in Kharkiv (1925-36) and then in Kiev (1937-41) by the People's Commissariat of Health of the Ukrainian SSR. It appeared monthly in 1925-8, semimonthly in 192930, every 10 days in 1931-2, and again monthly in 1933-41. It published the supplements Za tverezist' (1929-32), Za zdorove kharchuvannia (1931-2), and Zdorova zmina (19313). The editor of the magazine was D. Yefymov.

Arnold Shlepakov Shlepakov, Arnold [Slepakov, Arnol'd], b 16 June 1930 in Vinnytsia. Historian; full member of the ANU (formerly AN URSR) since 1982. After graduating in international relations from Kiev University (1952; PH D, 1966) he worked for the ANU (from 1955), directed the Department of Contemporary History in its Institute of History (from 1969), served as director of the ANU Institute of Social and Economic Problems of Foreign Countries (until 1991), and taught at the Kiev Institute of Culture (1968-70) and Kiev University (from 1970). He wrote Ukrams'ka trudova emihratsiia v SShA i Kanadi (kinets' xix-pochatok XX st.) (Ukrainian Labor Emigrants in the United States and Canada [Late 19th to Early 2Oth Century], 1960), worked with UNESCO as an expert on international migration (1967), and was a member of the editorial board of Ukraïns 'kyi istorychnyi zhurnal and Istoriia Ukraïns'koï RSR (History of the Ukrainian SSR, 8 vols, 1977-9). Shliakh (Path). A monthly journal of literature, the arts, and politics, established in Moscow in March 1917 by Mykyta Shapoval and O. Mytsiuk. In August 1917 the journal was transferred to Kiev, where it appeared until 1919. The publisher and editor was F. Kolomyichenko.

Shliakh osvity (Path of Education). A monthly organ of the People's Commissariat of Education. It first appeared in Kharkiv in 1922 as the Russian-language Put' prosveshcheniia, which in 1923-6 was published in Russian and Ukrainian. From 1926 Shliakh osvity appeared only in Ukrainian. In 1931 it was renamed Komunistychna osvita, and from 1936 to June 1941 it was published in Kiev. After the Second World War it was revived as *Radians 'ka shkola. Shliakh osvity published articles on pedagogy, educational theory and practice, and the organization and administration of education; preschool, professional, political, and social education; education in Western Europe; and book reviews, sample curricula, and news of the teaching profession in Ukraine. The journal, which advocated the creation of a distinct Ukrainian educational system, was an important achievement of the *Ukrainization policy directed by the people's commissar of education, M. Skrypnyk. For most of the 19205 it was edited by Ya. *Riappo. In 1927 it had 7,000 subscribers. Shliakh peremohy (Way to Victory). A weekly newspaper of the OUN (Bandera faction), published in Munich since February 1954. It supports the Anti-Bolshevik Bloc of Nations and publicizes the history of the OUN, Ukrainian Insurgent Army, and Ukrainian Supreme Liberation Council, stressing the anti-Soviet and anti-Nazi activities of these organizations during the Second World War. It has devoted separate pages to music, the Ukrainian Youth Association, the Mikhnovsky Student Association, and

SHLIKHTER

Shliakh peremohy

women. The chief editors have been P. Kizko, D. Shtykalo, D. Chaikovsky, M. Styranka, B. Vitoshynsky, S. Lenkavsky, H. Drabat, V. Kosyk, A. Bedrii, S. Halamai, A. Haidamakha, I. Kashuba, and V. Panchuk. Contributors have included prominent émigré publicists and activists associated with the Bandera faction. Shliakh vykhovannia i navchannia (Path of Upbringing and Teaching). An educational journal published monthly in 1927-31 and then quarterly to 1939 in Lviv. Until 1930 it was called Shliakh navchannia i vykhovannia, and appeared as a supplement to *Uchytel's'ke slovo. It published articles on educational theory and practice and sample elementary-school curricula and lessons. The journal's editors and regular contributors included distinguished pedagogues in Western Ukraine, such as P. Bilaniuk, M. Vozniak, A. Zeleny, D. Kozii, Ye. Pelensky, D. and I. Petriv, S. Rusova, V. Simovych, S. Siropolko, I. Stronsky, M. Taranko, and I. Fylypchak.

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Shliakhy mystetstva (Paths of Art). A literary and art journal, five issues of which were published in Kharkiv in 1921-3 by the art sector of the Ukrainian SSR Chief Political Education Committee. It was edited by V. Blakytny and H. Kotsiuba and then V. Koriak, and its aim was to become the main forum for pro-communist writers and artists in Ukraine. It promoted several styles that became characteristic of Soviet Ukrainian art of the 19203, such as monumentalism, constructivism, revolutionary realism, and anti-impressionism. Some of the major figures involved with the journal were former *Borotbists. Since it appeared before the fragmentation of the Ukrainian literary community into several competing groups, it published works by almost every prominent Soviet Ukrainian writer and critic of the time. After the dissolution of Shliakhy mystetstva, most of its supporters joined the *Hart literary group.

Shliakhta. See Nobility. Shliakhy (Paths). An illustrated biweekly journal of literature and community affairs, published in Lviv from 1913 to 1918; from April 1913 to March 1914 it was the organ of the Ukrainian Student Union, and from December 1915 to August 1916 it was funded by the Press Committee of the Ukrainian Sich Riflemen. Among its editors were R. Zaklynsky, M. Strutynsky, O. Kohut, Yu. Okhrymovych, F. Fedortsiv, and D. Dontsov. It published literary contributions by V. Atamaniuk, P. Karmansky, R. Kupchynsky, V. Birchak, M. Pidhirianka, Yu. Shkrumeliak, and M. Yatskiv; Ye. Olesnytsky's memoirs; translations of works by R. Tagore, G. Hauptmann, M. Konopnicka, and D. Merezhkovsky; publicism by D. Dontsov, V. Zalizniak, V. Starosolsky, O. Nazaruk, and F. Fedortsiv; S. Balei's long work on the psychology of T. Shevchenko's works; M. Holubets's and I. Krypiakevych's articles on art; O. Zalesky's articles on music; and news and reviews.

Shliakhy mystetstva

Oleksander Shlikhter

Shlikhter, Oleksander [Slixter] (Aleksandr), b ^ November 1868 in Lubni, Poltava gubernia, d 2 December 1940 in Kiev. Bolshevik revolutionary, economist, diplomat, and functionary; full member of the YUAN from 1929. After studying at Kharkiv and Bern universities (1889-91) he worked in the Russian Social Democratic Workers7 party underground in Kiev and Zlatopil and was arrested and exiled several times. He joined the Bolsheviks and helped organize a general strike in Kiev in 1903. During the Revolution of 1905-6 he organized railway workers' strikes in Ukraine, the Kiev general strike, and other revolutionary actions. In November 1917 he took part in the Bolshevik coup in Petrograd, and in 1918-19 he was V. Lenin's commissar of requisitions in Russia and Siberia (1918) and Ukraine (1919). Under Soviet rule Shlikhter served as chairman of the Tambov Gubernia Executive Committee (1920); member of the All-Russian, USSR, and All-Ukrainian central executive committees; plenipotentiary of the USSR People's Commissariat of Foreign Affairs in Ukraine and member of its collegium (1923-7); head of the Ukrainian Association of Consumer Co-operative Societies (1923); member of the Presidium of the All-Ukrainian Central Executive Committee (1923-37); a CP(B)U Organizational Bureau member (1924-6); rector of the Artem Communist University in Kharkiv (1924-7); a CC CP(B)U member (1925-37) and Politburo candidate member (1926-37); commissar of agriculture in Ukraine (1927-30); director of the YUAN Institute for the Socialist Reconstruction of Agriculture (1928-34); director of the Ukrainian Institute of MarxismLeninism (1930-1) and president of the All-Ukrainian Association of Marxist-Leninist Scientific Research Institutes

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(1931-3); YUAN and AN URSR (now ANU) vice-president (1931-8); and chairman of the Council for the Study of the Productive Resources of the Ukrainian SSR (1934-7). Even though he was an opponent of M. Skrypnyk's views on the national question, Shlikhter was arrested in 1937, but he survived the Stalinist terror. He wrote articles on economic, historical, and political subjects. Editions of his selected works were published in Kharkiv (4 vols, 1930-2) and Kiev (1959), and a volume of his writings on the agrarian question and early Soviet requisitioning policy appeared in Moscow in 1975. R. Senkus Shlopak, Tetiana [Slopak, Tetjana], b 18 September 1918 in Kiev. Ophthalmologist. After graduating from the Odessa Medical Institute in 1946, she worked at the institute until 1953. Then she headed the ophthalmology department of the Ivano-Frankivske (1954-66) and Kiev medical institutes. Her publications deal with the pathogenesis and treatment of myopia, glaucoma, and eye tuberculosis, the theory of elastotonometry, and the biochemistry of a normal and a diseased eye. Shlykevych, Oleksander [Slykevyc], b 1849, d 1909. Statistician and zemstvo activist. He was president of the Kozelets county zemstvo and an executive member of the Chernihiv gubernia zemstvo. In the i88os he studied the economy of each county of Chernihiv gubernia and then worked on a synthetic description of the gubernia and a comprehensive map of its soils. His invention of the socalled combinatorial tables was an important contribution to statistical methodology. An advocate of converting marshes into farmland, he oversaw the construction of a drainage canal from Zavorychi (northeast of Kiev) to the Poltava gubernia border in 1895-8. Shmaida, Mykhailo [Smajda, Myxajlo], b 2 November 1920 in Krásny Brod, near Medzilaborce, in the Presov region. Writer and ethnographer. He began publishing stories, poems, and plays in Presov periodicals in 1948. He wrote the first two Ukrainian novels published in postwar Slovakia, Parazyty (Parasites, 1955) and Trishchat' kryhy (The Ice Floes Are Breaking Up, 1957),tne story collection V'iazka kliuchiv (Chain of Keys, 1956), and the novels Lemky (Lemkos, 1965) and Rozïzdy (Travels, 1970). His works, which have served to reinforce the national identity of the Presov region's Ukrainians, depict their society in the interwar, wartime, and postwar years. Since 1960 Shmaida has worked as an ethnographer at the *Svydnyk Museum of Ukrainian Culture; he has published transcriptions of Transcarpathian Christmas carols and oral folklore in Duklia and Nove zhyttia and has drawn on that folklore in his literary works. Shmalhauzen, Ivan [Smal'hauzen] (Schmalhausen) b 23 April 1884 in Kiev, d 7 October 1963 in Moscow. Biologist, zoologist, and theorist in evolutionary studies; full member of the YUAN and AN URSR (now ANU) from 1922 and the USSR Academy of Sciences (AN SSSR) from 1935; son of I. ^Schmalhausen. A graduate of Kiev University (1907), he was a professor at the university (1921-41) and director of the ANU Institute of Zoology (1930-41) and the AN SSSR Institute of Animal Morphology in Moscow (1935-48). He wrote Osnovy sravniteVnoi anatomii pozvonochnykh (Foun-

Ivan Shmalhauzen

Andrii Shmigelsky

dations of Comparative Vertebrate Anatomy, 1923) and conducted innovative embryological studies of the dynamics of growth. In 1938 he became a professor of Darwinism at Moscow University, and in the next decade he developed a modern evolutionary theory that integrated systematics, morphology, embryology, and population genetics. His four major publications in this field were Organizm kak tseloe v individual'nom i istoricheskom razvitii (The Organism as a Whole in Individual and Historical Development, 1938; repr 1982), Puti i zakonomernosti evoliutsionnogo protsessa (Trends and Laws of the Evolutionary Process, 1939), Faktory evoliutsii (Factors of Evolution, 1946; English edn 1949), and the innovative textbook of evolutionary biology Problemy darvinizma (Problems of Darwinism, 1946). Shmalhauzen was an outspoken critic of T. *Lysenko's 'creative Darwinism' and was removed from his appointments in 1948. For the remainder of his career he worked at the AN SSSR Institute of Zoology on the origin of terrestrial vertebrates and on cybernetic approaches to evolutionary theory. M. Adams Shmidt, Otto [Smidt], b 30 September 1891 in Mahiliou, Belarus, d 7 September 1956 in Moscow. Mathematician, astronomer, and geophysicist; full member of the AN URSR (now ANU) from 1934 and of the USSR Academy of Sciences from 1935. A student of D. Grave, he completed his studies at Kiev University in 1913. He continued to work with Grave and taught at Kiev University (1917-20) before moving to Moscow. His main interest in mathematics was the abstract theory of groups. His first monograph on the subject was published in Kiev in 1916. In the 19305 he showed how the theory of groups can be applied to topology, theoretical physics, and quantum physics. Shmigelsky, Andrii [Smigel's'kyj, Andrij], b 1866 in Zaluzhe, Zbarazh county, Galicia, d 1920 in Proskuriv (now Khmelnytskyi). Civic and political activist. A farmer by vocation, he was active in the Ukrainian Radical party and, from 1899, in the Ukrainian Social Democratic party. He was a leading organizer of Ukrainian economic and civic institutions in Zbarazh county and a contributor to Narod and Zemlia i volia. In 1907 he was elected for a brief term to the Galician Diet. In December 1918 he was delegated to the Ukrainian National Rada and was appointed to its executive. In 1919 he attended the Labor Congress in

SHOLOM A L E I C H E M

Kiev. After retreating west across the Zbruch River with the Ukrainian Galician Army he died of typhus.

Fedir Shmit

Shmit, Fedir [Smit],b 3 May 1877 in St Petersburg, d 10 November 1942 in Tashkent, Uzbekistan. Art historian of German origin; vuAN /AN URSR (now ANU) full member from 1921. A graduate of St Petersburg University (1900), he researched the architecture and painting of Byzantium, the Balkans, the Near East, and Kievan Rus'. In 1912 he became chairman of the department of art history at Kharkiv University; later he chaired the museum section of the AllUkrainian Committee for the Protection of Monuments of Antiquity (1919-20). In 1921 he moved to Kiev. There he chaired the St Sophia Cathedral Commission, served as the first head of the All-Ukrainian Archeological Committee, was a professor at the Architectural Institute and the Lysenko Music and Drama Institute, and became rector (in 1922) of the Archeological Institute and director (in 1923) of the Museum of Religious Cults and the Museum of the St Sophia Cathedral. In December 1924 he was appointed a professor at Leningrad University and the director of the Russian Institute of Art History. Shmit published a book in Russian on art, its psychology, its stylistics, and its evolution (1919) and books in Ukrainian on the art of ancient Rus'-Ukraine (1919), the psychology of painting (1921), monuments of Rus' art (1922), and art as a subject of study (1923). Shmorhun, Petro [Smorhun], b i lanuary 1921 in Oslamiv, near Vinkivtsi, Nova Ushytsia county, Podilia gubernia. Historian. A graduate of the Kiev Pedagogical Institute (1948), he worked at the Institute of Party History of the CC CPU (1951-68) and as deputy chief editor of Ukraïns'kyi istorychnyi zhurnal (1962-5,1967-8). From 1970 he was director of the Department of CPSU History in the Institute for the Upgrading of Social Science Instructors at Kiev University. He is the author of Rady robitnychykh deputativ na Ukraïni v 1905 r. (Councils of Workers' Deputies in Ukraine in 1905,1955) and Lenin i bil'shovyts'ki orhanizatsnna Ukraïni (1907-1917 rr.) (Lenin and Bolshevik Organizations in Ukraine [1907-17], 1960) and a contributor to Narysy istorti Komunistychnoï partit Ukraïny (Outlines of the History of the Communist Party of Ukraine, 1970). Shmyhelsky, Anton [Smyhel's'kyj], b 23 July 1901 in Pluhiv, Zolochiv county, Galicia, d 4 November 1972 in Lviv. Poet. After the February Revolution of 1917 he lived

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in Kiev. There he headed the council of L. Kurbas's literary study group (1922) and was a founding member and secretary in charge of the Kiev branch of the writers' group Pluh (1923). After moving to Kharkiv he worked as an editor of Narodnyi uchyteV and Hart. From 1927 to 1933 he belonged to the writers' groups Zakhidnia Ukraina and the All-Ukrainian Association of Proletarian Writers. After the Second World War he lived in Lviv. He began publishing in 1923 and wrote 11 poetry collections, including Pamolod' (The Young Generation, 1927), Pokhid (The Military Expedition, 1933), Vokzaly (Train Stations, 1939), Velinnia sertsia (The Heart's Command, 1955), Povnolittia (Adulthood, 1958 [selected poetry]), Stiahy nad Karpatamy (Banners above the Carpathians, 1962), Zemli okrasa (The Earth's Adornment, 1964), and Veresneve polum'ia (September's Glow, 1973). He also translated Russian, Belarusian, Polish, and Armenian poetry into Ukrainian. Shniukov, Yevhen [Snjukov, Jevhen], b 26 March 1930 in Arkhangelsk, Russia. Geologist; member of the AN URSR (now ANU) since 1982. He graduated from Kiev University (1953) and worked at the Institute of the Geochemistry and Physics of Minerals (1967-77) and the ANU Institute of Geological Sciences (as director from 1977). His scientific contributions are devoted to problems of the genesis and distribution patterns of manganese and other ores, to the impact of mud volcanoes upon ore formation, and to the geological structure and mineral resources of the oceans (particularly the Azov and Black seas). He discovered several deposits of iron ore in the Kerch area.

Shock-worker movement. See Socialist competition.

Memorial plaque on the building in Lviv where Sholom Aleichem lived in 1906

Sholom Aleichem [Solom Alejxem] (pseud of Sholom Rabinovich), b 2 March 1859 in Pereiaslav (now Pereiaslav-Khmelnytskyi), Poltava gubernia, d 13 May 1916 in New York. Yiddish writer. He became a rabbi in Lubni (1880-3) and later moved to Kiev and then Odessa, where he devoted his time to writing. Beginning in 1905 he traveled to England, the United States, Switzerland, Germany, and Italy. He settled in New York City in 1914. From 1883

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on he published novels, stories (including the first Yiddish stories for children), and plays. Most of them depict shtetl life in Ukraine and include Ukrainian proverbs, folk songs, and folklore and Ukrainian characters (children, workers, and revolutionaries). Over 30 editions of Aleichem's works have been published in Ukrainian translation. In Ukraine his plays have been staged (eg, by L. Kurbas), and films based on his works have been made. A. Kahan's Ukrainian novel about him was published in Kiev in 1963. A memorial museum was founded in Sholom Aleichem's honor in Pereiaslav-Khmelnytskyi in 1978, and a monument was erected there in 1984.

Zoltan Sholtes: After the Rain (1958)

Sholtes, Zoltan [Soltes], b 21 July 1909 in Prykopa, Preeov region, d 16 December 1990 in Uzhhorod. Painter. He studied under Y. Bokshai and A. Erdeli at the Uzhhorod Art School (1930-3). A resident of Uzhhorod, he has painted many Transcarpathian landscapes, such as Spring (1945), Winter Evening (1956), Highland (1958), Storm above the Beskyds (1968), and View of Rivna Meadow (1979), and portraits. Sholudko, Panas [Solud'ko], b and d ? Master carpenter from Nizhen. In 1759-61 he built the Assumption Church in Berezna, in the Chernihiv region. This masterpiece of Ukrainian wooden architecture had five domes and two additional domed towers at the entrance. Measuring 27.5 by 19.6 m and 35 m in height, it was one of the largest wooden buildings in Ukraine in the i8th century. The church was destroyed by the Soviet authorities in the 19305. Shonk-Rusych, Konstantyn [Sonk-Rusyc] (SzonkRusych), b 3 June 1915 in Zhytomyr, Volhynia gubernia, d 3 July 1983 in New York. Enamelist and editor. He studied cinematography in Kiev and then worked as a scenery designer. A postwar émigré in the United States from 1949, he developed his own technique of enameling on copper and silver and created colorful portraits of historical figures, miniatures of animals and plants, linocuts, and mosaics. His book Lino-Block Prints was published in 1966. He edited the magazines Dnipro (1958-62) and Nash litopys (1980-1), wrote an illustrated history of Ukrainian art (1978) and a book on wood carving in Ukraine, and compiled Ukraine in Postcards (1981).

Panas Sholudko: the Assumption Church in Berezna

Shooting (striletskyi sport). The sport of firing at targets with rifles, shotguns, handguns (pistols or revolvers), and air guns. In Ukraine the sport dates from the late medieval period, when rifle brotherhoods appeared in towns of Western Ukraine, and members competed each year for the title of Rifle King. In the early 2Oth century, smallcaliber competitions were first held in Galicia, by the *Sokil sports society. The first shooting competition in the Russian Empire took place in 1898. In Soviet Ukraine shooting competitions were first held in Zaporizhia in 1925, and then in other cities. The first all-Union meet was held in Kharkiv in 1927. Since 1952 Soviet marksmen have competed in the Olympic Games and in world and European championships; Ukrainians have been part of USSR teams. H. Kupko, D. Dobruk, M. Prozorovsky, N. Kalenychenko, V. Zemenko, V. *Romanenko, Ya. *Zheliezniak, and S. Tiahnii have won world or European championships. Olympic gold medals have been won by V. Borisov (1956, free rifle, three positions OR [prone WR]), Romanenko (1956, running-deer shooting OR), Zheliezniak (1972, moving-target WR), and D. Monakov (1988, trapshooting). Borisov also won Olympic silver (1956, small-bore rifle, prone) and bronze (1960, free rifle) medals. Shopinsky, Vasyl [Sopins'kyj, VasyP] (né Zhonochyn), b 22 July 1887 in Tereshivtsi, Letychiv county, Podilia gubernia, d 26 August 1967 in New York. Communist activist and writer in the United States. After emigrating to the United States in 1908, he worked at various jobs and in

SHOVHENIV

67I

1919 began to contribute to the paper Robitnyk, the Soviet journals Chervonyi shliakh and Pluzhanyn, and the Galician Sovietophile journal Nova kul'tura. His collection of short stories, Fabrychna nevolia (Factory Slavery, 1925), and three plays, Zhebrats'ka Ameryka (Beggar's America, 1930), Peony (Peons, 1930), and Zmova pinkertontsiv (Conspiracy of the Pinkerton Guards, 1931), were published in the Ukrainian SSR. Short story. See Prose. Short-fallow system (parova systerna). A system of farming that divides the arable land into two parts, a sown part and a fallow part. Under a two-field fallow system, which developed out of the long-fallow (perelohova) system, half of the farmland lies fallow, whereas under a three-field system the farmland is divided into three parts - the winter field (in Ukraine usually sown with winter rye), the spring field (devoted to barley, oats, and wheat), and the fallow field. The three-field system predominated in central and eastern Ukraine as late as the 19205. The main shortcoming of the system was that soil fertility was not restored. The fallow field was usually used as cattle pasture; hence, it became less porous and lost moisture. The cultivation of the same cereal crops year after year increased weed contamination. The shortage of fodder held back the growth of animal husbandry. For those reasons the fallow-field system was replaced by *crop rotation. In Western Ukraine the change took place in the mid-i9th century, but in central and eastern Ukraine it occurred mostly in the 19205. At the same time the amount of land that was left fallow was sharply reduced. With the development of agrotechnology the fallow field becomes a part of the system of crop rotation. Fallow land is plowed and harrowed to destroy weeds, preserve moisture, and accumulate plant nourishment. There are two types of fallow, true fallow and occupied fallow. True fallow land is plowed in the fall (bare fallow) or in the spring (early fallow). This type of fallow is common in Ukraine in the forest-steppe and steppe belts. Its total area was about 5,000 ha in 1913, 3,900,000 ha in 1940,2,200,000 ha in 1958,700,000 ha in 1960, and 200,000 ha in 1962 (as a result of N. Khrushchev's agrarian policy). Occupied fallow is an important advance in agriculture. Under this system the fallow land is not only tilled, as under true fallow, but planted with fast-growing crops that ripen during the first half of the summer, mostly feed crops that restore nitrogen to the soil (peas, vetch, esparcet, lupine, etc) or corn for silage or early potatoes. Occupied fallow is more common in moist regions, such as Polisia and the forest-steppe belt. Lupine is grown on the fallow land in Polisia, where the soil is sandy. In dry regions tall plants, such as corn and sunflowers, are grown in strips to protect other plants from the sun and wind and to hold the snow in place. When the fallow crops are gathered, the occupied fallow land is plowed, fertilized, and seeded with winter crops. Shostak, Peter [Sostak, Petro], b 30 January 1943 in Bonnyville, Alberta. Artist and teacher. A graduate of the University of Alberta (1965; M ED 1970), Shostak taught curriculum development at the University of Victoria, British Columbia (1969-79), before embarking upon a fulltime artistic career. His oils and serigraphs depict scenes

A 1985 painting by Peter Shostak reproduced on a Christmas card from his childhood in the Ukrainian bloc-settlements in east central Alberta. He has published three collections of his work, When Nights Were Long (1982), Saturday Came But Once a Week (1984), and For Our Children (1992). Shostak is active in the Ukrainian community in Victoria and is one of the most popular Ukrainian-Canadian artists today. His works have been exhibited across Canada. Shostakivska, Yuliia [Sostakivs'ka, Julija], b 31 May 1871 in Poltava, d 12 July 1939 in Dnipropetrovske. Stage actress. She worked in the troupes of M Starytsky (188891), M. Kropyvnytsky (1892-3 and 1895-7), H. Derkach (1893-4), and her husband, D. Haidamaka (1898-1919). She later toured with Haidamaka in various troupes (1918-26) and worked in the Donetske (1927-34) and Dnipropetrovske (1934-9) Ukrainian Music and Drama theaters. Shostka [Sostka]. 11-14. A city (1990 pop 94,000) on the Shostka River and a raion center in Sumy oblast. It originated as a workers' settlement that sprang up around a gunpowder factory built in 1739. From 1782 it belonged to Novhorod-Siverskyi vicegerency, from 1796, to Little Russia gubernia, and from 1802 to 1925, to Chernihiv gubernia. A railway built in 1893 linked Shostka with other industrial centers and stimulated its growth. In 1924 it attained city status. It has several large chemical plants, including the Svema Manufacturing Consortium, a number of building-materials factories, and a large food industry. Shovheniv, Ivan [Sovheniv], b 25 September 1874 in Kamianka, Kupianka county, Kharkiv gubernia, d 13 April 1943 in Danzig (now Gdansk, Poland). Hydraulic engi-

Ivan Shovheniv

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neer; father of O. *Teliha. He graduated from the St Petersburg Institute of Communications (1899) and directed engineering projects on the Volga, Oka, and Moskva rivers. He then studied in Germany (1910-12), was director of an irrigation project in Turkestan, taught at the St Petersburg Polytechnical Institute, and was deputy director of the melioration department of the Imperial Russian Ministry of Agriculture. He returned to Ukraine in 1918 and became director of the Hetmán government's Department of Water Communications. He worked in the YUAN melioration section, and was a professor at the Kiev Polytechnical Institute (1918-20). He emigrated in 1920 and helped found the Ukrainian Husbandry Academy in Podëbrady, Bohemia (1922-8), of which he was the first rector (1922-6). From 1929 he worked in Warsaw for the Ministry of Agriculture and the Ukrainian Scientific Institute and headed the Ukrainian Black Sea Institute (19412). He wrote numerous articles and larger works, including ones on water management in Ukraine (1923) and in the Dnieper Basin (1936), the hydraulics of groundwaters (1929), floods in Ukraine (1936), Ukraine's energy resources (1940) and water management (1941), and the Black Sea (1941). He also wrote textbooks on plane analytic geometry (1923), hydraulics (2 vols, 1923, 1927), hydrology (1924), and hydraulic engineering (1924,1925). Shovkoplias, Ivan [Sovkopljas], b 8 April 1921 in Lazirky, Lubni county, Poltava gubernia. Archeologist. A graduate of Kiev University (1945), he worked in the Historical Museum of Ukraine (1945-9) and then at the AN URSR (now ANU) Institute of Archeology (since 1949). A specialist in the Late Paleolithic and the history of archeology in Ukraine, he is best known for his survey work Arkheolohichni doslidzhennia na Ukraïni, 1917-1957 (Archeological Studies in Ukraine, 1917-57) and the bibliographical Rozvytok radians'koï arkheolohn na Ukraïni, 1917-1966 (The Development of Soviet Archeology in Ukraine, 191766,1969). He also wrote a monograph on the Stone Age in Ukraine (1962) and a general survey of archeology (1964), and served as a member of the editorial committee for the three-volume Arkheolohiia Ukraïns 'koï RSR (The Archeology of the Ukrainian SSR, 1971-5). Shovkoplias, Yurii [Sovkopljas, Jurij], b 6 February 1903 in Kharkiv, d 12 October 1978 in Kharkiv. Writer and teacher. In Kharkiv he worked as a teacher (1923-30), be-

Yurii Shovkoplias

Marat Shpak

longed to the writers' group *Prolitfront (1930), and headed Kharkiv University's department of journalism (194951), the literature and art department of the CP(B)U city committee (1951-3), and the Kharkiv branch of the Writers' Union of Ukraine (1953-6). Later he was editor in chief of the literary journal Prapor. He began publishing stories in 1926 and wrote the novels Vesna nad morem (Spring at the Seashore, 1929), Proiekt elektryfikatsn (The Project of Electrification, 1929), Zavtra (Tomorrow, 1931), Zemlianyi pokhid (The Land March, 1933), Inzhenery (Engineers, 2 vols, 1934,1937; rev edn 1964), Pochynaietsia iunist' (Youth Begins, 1938), and, a trilogy, Liudyna zhyve dvichi (A Person Lives Twice, 1964); the story collections Henii (A Genius, 1929), Pronyklyvist ' doktora Piddubnoho (The Insight of Doctor Piddubny, 1930), Profesor (1930), and Studenty (Students, 1930); the essay collections Elektrychnyi SRSR (The Electrical USSR, 1932) and Narodzhennia elektrychnoho strumu (The Birth of the Electrical Current, 1936); and a few children's books. An edition of his selected works (2 vols) appeared in 1973.

Oleksii Shovkunenko and his Old Oak (oil, 1955)

Shovkunenko, Oleksii [Sovkunenko, Oleksij], b 21 March 1884 in Kherson, d 12 March 1974 in Kiev. Painter and educator; full member of the USSR Academy of Arts from 1947. A graduate of the Odessa Art School (1908) and the St Petersburg Academy of Arts (1917), he took part in the exhibitions of the ^Society of South Russian Artists (1913-19) and was a member of the Kostandi Society of Artists (1924-9). He taught at the Odessa Art Polytechnic (1926-9) and Art Institute (1929-35) and at the Kiev State Art Institute (1936-63). He painted portraits, including ones of prominent Ukrainian cultural figures, such as Yu. Yanovsky, P. Tychyna, M. Rylsky, I. Le, L. Pervomaisky, M. Lytvynenko-Volgemut, V. Zabolotny, N. Uzhvii, M. Lysenko, and O. Bohomolets, and many natural, urban, and industrial landscapes of Ukraine, Caucasia, Moscow, the Urals, Moldavia, and Bashkiria, including series depicting the Odessa shipyard (1925-35) and the construction of the Dnieper Hydroelectric Station (1930-2). For the latter series he was awarded the grand prize at the Art and Technology in Contemporary Life Exhibition in Paris

SHRAH

(1937). A volume of recollections about Shovkunenko was published in 1980, and L. Vladych's books about him appeared in 1960 and 1983. Shpak, Marat [Spak], b 13 April 1926 in Chupakhivka, now in Okhtyrka raion, Sumy oblast. Experimental physicist; AN URSR (now ANU) corresponding member since 1969 and full member since 1990. A graduate of Chernivtsi University (1951), he joined the ANU Institute of Physics in 1955 and served as its director in 1970-87. His major contributions are in solid-state physics, where he discovered the exciton luminescence of molecular crystals, and in quantum optics, where he contributed to the development of highly stabilized lasers. Shpak, Mykola [Spak] (pseud of Mykola Shpakovsky), b 23 February 1909 in Lypky, Skvyra county, Kiev gubernia, d 19 July 1942 in Kiev. Poet. He was a member of the literary organization *Molodniak and the Literary Union of the Red Army and Navy. In the 19205 and early 19305 he worked for provincial newspapers, in which he began to publish his poetry in 1928. During the Second World War he was imprisoned by the Germans, escaped, and organized a partisan group. He was captured in Kiev and shot to death. During the German occupation he wrote patriotic Soviet verse under the pseudonym Pylyp Komashka. He wrote collections in the official Soviet patriotic manner: Narkomu raport (Report to the People's Commissar, 1933), V dorozi (On the Road, 1934), Moia liubov (My Love, 1936), Bahatstvo (Riches, 1938), and Syla zemna (Earthly Strength, 1940). Some posthumous editions of his works have been published: Poezïi (Poems, 1946), Zhyttia krasuiet'sia (Life Parades Itself, 1947), Vybrani poezïï (Selected Poems, 1950, and a few revised editions), and Kazky (Tales, 1960). Shpakov, Anatolii [Spakov, Anatolij], b 8 June 1926 in Novohradkivka, Odessa okruha. Art scholar. A graduate of Leningrad University (1951), he has written articles on Ukrainian art and monographs on the artists O. Murashko (1959)/ V. Kasiian (1960), and M. Hlushchenko (1962), on Soviet Ukrainian painting (coauthor, 1957), and on Soviet Ukrainian book graphics (1973). Shpol, Yuliian. See Yalovy, Mykhailo. Shpola [Spola]. iv-i2. A city (1989 pop 22,400) on the Shpolka River and a raion center in Cherkasy oblast. The village was first mentioned in the i8th century, when it was under Polish rule. In 1768 it participated in the Koliivshchyna rebellion. After the partition of Poland in 1793, it became part of Bratslav vicegerency, Voznesenske vicegerency (1795-7), and then Kiev gubernia. A sugar refinery was built there in 1851, and a railway station in 1874. In 1938 the town attained city status. Most of its inhabitants are employed in light industry and the food industry. Shpyhotsky, Opanas [Spyhoc'kyj], b and d ? Writer and folklorist of the early 19th century. He studied at Kharkiv University and belonged to the *Kharkiv Romantic School. He began publishing his works in Ukrainskii al 'manakh (1831). His works include 'Malorosiis'ka balada' (Little Russian Ballad, 1831), which initiated the form of

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the folkloric ballad in Ukrainian literature. He also wrote sonnets (eg, Til'ky tebe vbachyla' [I (female) Only Noticed You] and 'Znaiesh, Saniu-serden'ko' [You Know, Sania Dearest Heart]). His works were republished in H. Nedilko's Ukraïns 'ki poety-romantyky 20~40-ykh rokiv xix st. (Ukrainian Romantic Poets of the 18205 to 18405,1968).

Archbishop Bohdan Shpylka

Osyp Shpytko

Shpylka, Bohdan [Spyl'ka], b 1892, d i November 1965 in Ottawa. Archbishop of the Ukrainian Orthodox Church of America in 1937-65. Originally from Galicia, he emigrated to the United States in 1936 to assume church duties. He wrote Orthodox catechisms in both Ukrainian and English and published a variety of propagandistic brochures. Shpytko, Osyp [Spytko] (pseud: Hryts Shchypavka), b 1869 m Horodnytsia, Husiatyn county, Galicia, d 1942 in Brazil. Writer. He edited the newspaper Bukovyna (1899) and satirical periodical Antsykhryst (1906) in Chernivtsi, the literary paper Dzvin (1906) in Lviv, and the newspaper Pidhirs'kyi dzvin (1912) in Sianik. A member of the Lviv modernist writers' group Moloda Muza in the 19005, he wrote stories, the autobiographical novella Vyrid (The Degenerate), humor and satire, the poetic parody collection Novomodnyi spivannyk (A New-fashioned Songbook, 1901), and the lyric poetry collection Osinni kvity (Autumn Flowers, 1910). After emigrating to Brazil in 1912, he continued writing and published in Portuguese the collection No túmulo da vida (1930) under the pseudonym Ossep Stefanovetch. Shrah, Illia [Srah, Illja], b 23 August 1847 in Sedniv, Horodnia county, Chernihiv gubernia, d 11 April 1919 in Chernihiv. Civic and political activist; son of a Saxon German who worked for the Lyzohub family. Shrah studied law at St Petersburg University, from which he was expelled in 1869 for participating in a student demonstration. Later he was admitted to Kiev University. From 1869 he was a councillor in the Chernihiv gubernia zemstvo administration, and in 1906 he was elected to the First Russian State *Duma, where he headed the 40-member Ukrainian caucus. He was also vice-president of the Autonomists' Union (1905-6) and the Society of Ukrainian Progressives. He belonged to the Radical Democratic party, out of which the Ukrainian Party of Socialists-Federalists was formed in 1917. He was a representative of

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SHRAH

and from 1966 he was a professor at the Lviv Polytechnical Institute. He published various articles on economics and socialist politics, as well as a book of translations of G. de Maupassant's stories called Na vodi (On Water, 1923).

Illia Shrah Chernihiv gubernia in the Central Rada. Shrah contributed articles to the periodicals Zapysky Naukovoho tovarystva im. Shevchenka, Pravda in Lviv, Rada and luzhnye zapiski in Kiev, Ukrainskii vestnik in St Petersburg, and Literaturnonaukovyi vistnyk. His autobiography (annotated by S. Yefremov) was published in Nashe mynule (1919, nos 1-2).

Mykola Shrah (portrait by Mykhailo Zhuk, 1915)

Shrah, Mykola [Srah], b 4 May 1894, d * February 1970. Economist and political leader; son of I. *Shrah. He studied in Moscow. He was vice-president of the Central Rada from 28 June 1917 to 29 March 1918 and a member of the CC of the Ukrainian Party of Socialist Revolutionaries (UPSR). After the 4th congress of his party (May 1918) he joined the 'center current/ In 1919 he was a consul for the Ukrainian diplomatic mission in Budapest, and from 1920 to 1924 he was a member of the Foreign Delegation of the UPSR in Vienna and a coeditor of Boritesia - poborete!, in which he published 'Slova i dila sotsiialistiv v natsional'nii spravi' (Words and Deeds of Socialists in the National Cause, 1920, no. 2) and 'Vidrodzhennia Zakordonnoï hrupy Ukraïns'koï komunistychnoï partir (The Rebirth of the Foreign Group of the Ukrainian Communist Party, 1920, no. 4). In 1924 he returned with M. Hrushevsky to Ukraine, where he worked in Kharkiv with the Society of Technical and Scientific Workers (1928-31). He was imprisoned during the Stalinist terror. From 1952 he was a lecturer at the Kharkiv Institute of the National Economy,

Leontii Shramchenko

Mykola Shramchenko

Shramchenko, Leontii [Sramcenko, Leontij], b 17 November 1877 in Oleshivka, Chernihiv county, Chernihiv gubernia, d 21 June 1954 in Geneva. Economist, political activist, and educator. After graduating in law from Moscow University (1907) he worked as a zemstvo statistician in Chernihiv and Tbilisi (1910-17). In 1918 he was delegated by the Ukrainian Transcaucasian Territorial Council to the Ukrainian National Union. In the following year he served in the UNR government as deputy economics minister during B. Martos's premiership and as state secretary under Prime Minister I. Mazepa. He taught statistics at the Ukrainian Husbandry Academy in Podëbrady from 1922 and at the Ukrainian Free University in Prague from 1930. After being promoted to the rank of full professor in 1934, he served as dean of the law and social sciences faculty at the Ukrainian Free University (1937-45), dean of the economics department at the Ukrainian Technical and Husbandry Institute (1947), and director of the Ukrainian Institute of Sociology (1935-40). He wrote two statistics textbooks (1936) and studies of several Ukrainian statisticians, among them F. Shcherbyna (1929) and O. Rusov (1938). Shramchenko, Mykola [Sramcenko], b 24 April 1909 in Chernihiv, d 26 September 1968 in Washington, DC. Painter. In 1933 he graduated from the Kiev State Art Institute, where he studied under M. Boichuk. A postwar émigré in the United States from 1949, he taught painting at the National Academy of Arts in Washington and took part in Ukrainian-American art exhibitions. Evolving in his style from realism to expressionism, he specialized in portraits, among them ones of Ye. Malaniuk and M. OmelianovychPavlenko. He also painted several series depicting the atrocities of the Soviet regime ('Prodigal Son/ The Power of Darkness/ and 'Messiah') and illustrated a Department of State publication about the NKVD massacre of Polish officers at Katyn. Shramchenko, Oleksander [Sramcenko], b 26 March 1859 in Voronezh, Russia, d 29 April 1921 in Kiev. Ethnographer. After graduating from Kiev University in 1887, he taught school in Caucasia and the Kholm region and collected ethnographic materials. From 1909 he worked in

SHTEFAN Kiev as an associate and longtime treasurer of the Ukrainian Scientific Society, editor of its journal Ukraïna and its Ukraïns'kyi etnohrafichnyi zbirnyk, and scientific secretary of the Committee of the National Library of Ukraine. Some of his ethnographic materials collected in the Kholm region were published in the zbirnyk. He also translated many of V. Antonovych's works from Russian into Ukrainian.

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al implements and the history of ancient iron metallurgy. Shramko has written works on the prehistory and ancient peoples of the Donets Basin (1962), the economy of the prehistoric tribes inhabiting Ukraine's forest-steppe (1971), excavations of early Iron Age kurhans in Kharkiv oblast (1983), the archeology of the early Iron Age in Eastern Europe (1983), and the *Bilske fortified settlement (the city Helon, 1987). Shreier-Tkachenko, Onysia [Srejer-Tkacenko, Onysja], b 10 January 1905 in Krasnostavtsi, Kamianets-Podilskyi county, Podilia gubernia, d 16 October 1985 in Kiev. Musicologist. She completed her undergraduate (1940) and graduate (1947) degrees at the Kiev Conservatory. She lectured at the Kiev Conservatory from 1944, and in 1960 was appointed head of the department of music history. She edited and contributed chapters to Istoriia ukraïns'koïdozhovtnevoïmuzyky (History of Pre-Soviet Ukrainian Music, 1969), was a coauthor of the two-volume Narysy z istorti ukraïns 'koïmuzyky (Essays in the History of Ukrainian Music, 1964), and wrote Istoriia ukraïns 'koïmuzyky (History of Ukrainian Music, 1980) as well as numerous articles and brochures on musicians and the history of music in Ukraine.

Sviatoslav Shramchenko

Avhustyn Shtefan

Shramchenko, Sviatoslav [Sramcenko, Svjatoslav], b 3 May 1893 in Baku, Transcaucasian krai, d 24 June 1958 in Philadelphia. Naval officer. A graduate of the Alexander Military Law Academy in St Petersburg, in 1917 he was a member of the Ukrainian Military Revolutionary Staff of the Baltic Fleet. Later he served as senior adjutant to the UNR minister for naval affairs (1918), deputy minister for naval affairs (1919), deputy commander of the UNR naval school (1919), and chief of the organizational department of the Naval General Staff (1920). He was promoted to the rank of naval commander. During the Second World War he chaired the Ukrainian Relief Committee in Kholm (1941-4). He wrote over 200 articles on naval history, which appeared in journals such as Za derzhavnist ' and Tabor, and books, including Istoriia ukraïns 'koho vus 'ka (History of the Ukrainian Armed Forces, 1936). After the Second World War he emigrated to the United States. Shramenko, Mykola [Sramenko], b 9 May 1891, d 14 August 1974 in Dornstadt, West Germany. Military and political figure. During the Ukrainian-Soviet War he was a colonel in the UNR Army. In 1919-20 he commanded the Kiev Division and took part in two Winter campaigns (1919-20,1921). After emigrating to Poland and Germany he headed the Breslau (Wroclaw) chapter of the Ukrainian National Alliance (1941-4). A postwar refugee in Germany, he was secretary of the Ukrainian National Council and a member of the UNR government-in-exile in charge of military affairs. Shramko, Borys [Sramko], b 17 January 1921 in Homel, Belarus. Archeologist and ancient historian. He graduated from Kharkiv University (1949) and taught there in 1950 (as a professor of ancient history and archeology from 1966). In the 19605 he became a member of UNESCO international committees and studied the history of agricultur-

Shrew (Ukrainian: zemleryika, bilozubka, burozubka). An insectivorous, mouselike mammal of the family Soricidae, including the genera Sorex and Crocidura. Shrews are chiefly terrestrial animals; some are burrowers, some arboreal, and some semiaquatic. They feed on invertebrates and worms and are helpful in controlling noxious insects. In Ukraine the common shrew (S. araneus) is the smallest mammal. Musk shrews (C. suaveoleus and C. leucodon) have few enemies because they emit an extremely unpleasant scent. Shtaierman, Illia [Stajerman, Hija], b 10 April 1891 in Kamianets-Podilskyi, Podilia gubernia, d 24 July 1962 in Moscow. Mathematician; corresponding member of the AN URSR (now ANU) from 1939. After completing his studies at Kiev University (1914) and the Kiev Polytechnical Institute (1918), he taught at the institute (1920-41) and the university (1930-41) and worked at the ANU Institute of Mathematics (1934-41). From 1943 he was a professor at the Moscow Institute of Civil Engineering. His works deal with applied mathematics, particularly the theory of elasticity and mechanics. Shtanhei, Volodymyr [Stanhej], b 1895 in Moshuriv, Uman county, Kiev gubernia, d 1937. Writer. He published his first stories as a German POW in 1916-17 in the Union for the Liberation of Ukraine newspapers Prosvitnyi lystok and Hromads'ka dumka. After returning to Ukraine following the Revolution of 1917, he worked as a teacher and functionary in Uman county. Until 1932 he belonged to the writers' group Pluh. From 1927 to 1933 he published many story collections, including Batrachka (The Female Farmhand, 1927), Obraza (The Insult, 1929), Udruhe narodzheni (Born Again, 1931), and Tom novel (A Volume of Novellas, 1932). He was arrested during the Stalinist terror in 1934 and was imprisoned on the Solovets Islands, where he was shot by the NKVD. Shtefan, Avhustyn [Stefan], b 11 January 1893 in Poroshkove, Transcarpathia, d 4 September 1986 in Philadel-

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phia. Teacher, civic activist, and Transcarpathian state figure; member of the Shevchenko Scientific Society. After completing studies in theology in Uzhhorod and in philosophy in Budapest he became a teacher in Uzhhorod (1917). A founding member of the Ruthenian People's party (1920-4), in 1922 he established and directed the State Commercial Academy in Uzhhorod (moved to Mukachiv in 1926), an institution which trained and educated an entire generation of Ukrainophile students in that region. He retained that post until 1938, after which he served as minister of educational and religious affairs in the republic of Carpatho-Ukraine. With the fall of the state to the Hungarians he fled to Bratislava, where he was director of the Ukrainian Academy of Commerce (193940) and the Ukrainian Gymnasium in Prague (1940-5). He oversaw the evacuation of the school to Augsburg, Germany, where he directed it in 1945-9, and then emigrated to the United States, where he taught at a Ukrainian Catholic academy for girls until 1969. Shtefan was a leading Ukrainophile community figure in Transcarpa thia. He was a cofounder of the Pros vita and Teachers' Hromada societies in the region, head of a municipal cultural-educational council for the town of Mukachiv, editor of the newspaper Rusyn (1921-3), and coeditor of the journals Pidkarpats 'ka Rus ' (1924-38), Uchytel 's 'kyi holos (1930-9), and Zemlia i volia (1934-8), the organ of the Ukrainian wing of the Czechoslovak Agrarian party. He was a long-standing member of the presidium of the Ukrainian (Ruthenian) National Council of Transcarpathia and (in addition to his ministerial duties) president of the Carpatho-Ukrainian Diet. He took an active role in émigré politics and served as deputy premier of the Government-in-exile of the UNR. He also wrote extensively; his major works include From Carpatho-Ruthenia to CarpathoUkraine (1969), Avhustyn Voloshyn, prezydent Karpats'koï Ukraïny (Avhustyn Voloshyn, President of CarpathoUkraine, 1977), and Za pravdu i voliu: Spomyny i deshcho z istorii Karpats 'koï Ukraïny (For Justice and Freedom: Memoirs and Some of the History of Carpatho-Ukraine, 2 vols, 1973,1981). Shtein, Leonid [Stejn], b 12 November 1934 in Kamianets-Podilskyi, d 4 July 1973 in Lviv. Chess grand master. After settling in Lviv following the Second World War, he joined the city's new chess club and studied the game with O. Sokolsky. In 1960 and 1962 he won the chess championship of Ukraine, and in 1964 and 1965, the USSR championship. He took second place at international tournaments in Mar del Plata in 1966 and Kislovodsk in 1967, first and second place at Sarajevo in 1967 and Las Palmas in 1972, and first place at the grand master tournament in Moscow in 1967, Parmi in 1971, and Zagreb in 1972. E. Lazarev wrote a biography about him in 1980. Shteingel, Teodor [Stejngel'], b 1870 in Horodok, Rivne county, Volhynia gubernia, d 1946 in Dresden. Political and cultural leader and diplomat. A graduate of Kiev University, he set up a school, hospital, co-operative, and reading room in Horodok, as well as a museum (1902) to house his valuable archeological, historical, and ethnographic collections. He excavated burial sites of the medieval period in Rivne county. Although he was a Russian baron, he supported the Ukrainian national movement. In

Teodor Shteingel

Vasilii Shternberg (selfportrait)

1906 he served as deputy from Kiev to the First State Duma, where he joined the Ukrainian caucus. He was a member of the Society of Ukrainian Progressives and vicepresident of the Kiev Scientific Society. After the February Revolution of 1917 he chaired the executive committee of the Kiev City Duma, the precursor of the Central Rada. In 1918 the Hetmán government sent him as a diplomatic envoy to Berlin. He returned to live in Western Ukraine during the interwar era but left for Germany in 1939. Shtendera, Yevhen [atenderá, Jevhen] (nom de guerre: Prirva), b 2 January 1924 in Galicia. Librarian and journalist. From 1943 he fought in the ranks of the UFA as captain of the Danyliv Tactical Sector (1945-7) and commander of the raid into Eastern Prussia (1948). After making his way to West Germany he studied at the Ukrainian Free University (1949) and was coeditor of Do zbroi (1950-6), Suchasna Ukraïna (1951-6), Ukraïns 'kyi samostiinyk (1953-6), and Rozbudova (1956-7). He emigrated to Canada in 1956, where he studied library science at the University of Alberta (1959-73) and coedited Ukraïns'ki visti (1957-64). Since 1976 he has been managing editor of the multivolume Litopys UPA (Chronicle of the UPA). Shtepa, Anton [Stepa], b 22 September 1903 in Svarychivka, Borzna county, Chernihiv gubernia. Wood carver. He made liras and banduras and carved thematic sculptures, such as The Kobzar Was Going to Kiev and Sat Down to Rest (1966), Lirnyk (1968), and Partisans (1974), and bas-reliefs, including some inspired by T. Shevchenko's poetry. A catalog of his work was published in 1976. Shtepa, Kostiantyn [Stepa, Kostjantyn] (Shteppa, Konstantin), b 15 December 1896 in Lokhvytsia, Poltava gubernia, d 19 November 1958 in New York. Ancient and medieval historian. He studied at the Poltava Theological Seminary (1910-14), Petrograd University (1914-16), and the Nizhen Historical-Philological Institute and received a doctorate in 1927. He was a professor at the Nizhen Institute of People's Education (1922-30) and Kiev University (1930-8). In the 19308 he was also the chairman of the YUAN Byzantological Commission. He was imprisoned by the NKVD in 1938-9. During the German occupation he

SHTOHRYN

was briefly rector of Kiev University and then editor of Kiev's Novoe russkoe slovo (1941-3). A postwar refugee, he taught Russian at the US Army school in Oberammergau (1950-2) and served on the Council of the Institute for the Study of the USSR in Munich. In 1952 he emigrated to the United States, where he worked as an analyst for the American Committee for Liberation. Shtepa wrote books in Ukrainian on ancient and Christian demonology (2 vols, 1926-7) and peasant revolts in the Roman Empire (1934); in Russian on slave revolutions in the ancient world (1941) and the Soviet system of governing the masses and its psychological consequences (pseud: V. Lagodin, 1951); and in English, titled Russian Purge and the Extraction of Confession (pseud: W. Godin, with F. Beck, 1951) and Russian Historians and the Soviet State (1962). He also wrote articles in Ukrainian on ancient religious syncretism in relation to early Ukrainian folk motifs (1927), the persecution of witches in Ukraine (1928), and Ukrainian legends about the creation of the first people (1928). Shtepa, Pavlo [Stepa], b 12 September 1897 in Novodmytriivska Stanytsia, Kuban region, d 2 March 1980 in Toronto. Engineer and political activist; full member of the Shevchenko Scientific Society. A graduate of the Kuban Technical School (1919), he took part in the liberation struggle in the Kuban and then emigrated to Prague. After specializing in agronomy at the Ukrainian Husbandry Institute (1925-7) he emigrated to Canada in 1927. There he contributed to Novyi shliakh and served as vicepresident of the Ukrainian War Veterans7 Association of Canada. He wrote a number of publicistic works, including Ukraïnets' a moskvyn (What's a Ukrainian and What's a Muscovite, 1959), Moskovstvo (Muscoviteness, 1968), and Mafiia (Mafia, 1971), as well as two specialized Ukrainian dictionaries. Shternberg, Vasilii [Sternberg, Vasilij], b 12 February 1818 in St Petersburg, d 8 November 1845 in Rome. Russian painter. A graduate of the St Petersburg Academy of Arts, during a three-year stay in Ukraine (1836-9) he did many Ukrainian landscapes and genre scenes (eg, the lithograph Market in Ichnia, 1836; the painting Windmills in the Steppe, 1836). A friend of T. *Shevchenko, he made the frontispiece etching to the poet's Kobzar (1840) and drew several portraits of him. Shevchenko dedicated his poems Ivan Pidkova' and 'Na nezabud" (Don't Forget) to Shternberg. Shtets, Mykola [Stec'l, b 16 March 1932 in Habura, Humenné county, Slovakia. Ukrainian linguist in the Presov region. A graduate of Kiev University (candidate's diss, 1964), he has taught Ukrainian phonetics and historical grammar in the department of Ukrainian language and literature at the Presov Philosophical Faculty of Kosice University since 1959. He became department head in 1968 and faculty dean in 1976. He has written several articles on the Ukrainian dialects in the Presov region and Transcarpathia, the local literary language, and Ukrainian-Slovak comparative grammar and linguistic relations; a popular booklet (with Yu. Bacha and A. Kovach) on Ukrainians in Czechoslovakia (1967); and a monograph on the post-1918 literary language of the Ukrainians in Transcarpathia and eastern Slovakia (1969).

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Shtilman, Illia [Stil'man, Hija], b 3 December 1902 in Kiev, d 11 August 1966 in Kiev. Painter and educator. In 1927 he graduated from the Kiev State Art Institute, where he studied under F. Krychevsky and M. Burachek. He subsequently taught there (1933-64) and served as its director (1940-4). He painted landscapes and genre paintings, such as Seamstresses (1927), the series The Dnieper Dresses in Granite' (1936-7), Collective-Farm Field (1950), The Storm Approaches (1951), and Sedniv Vistas (1966).

Andrii Shtoharenko

Dmytro Shtohryn

Shtoharenko, Andrii [Stoharenko, Andrij], b 15 October 1902 in Novi Kaidaky, now part of Dnipropetrovske. Composer and pedagogue. In 1912 he entered the Russian Musical Society's music school in Katerynoslav. He organized his own orchestra in Dnipropetrovske during the 19205 and taught singing in high schools. Shtoharenko was recruited in 1930 to study composition with S. Bohatyrov at the Kharkiv Conservatory. He graduated in 1936 and gained immediate recognition with the symphonic cantata Pro kanal's'ki roboty (About the Canal Work, 1936). He occupied several key administrative positions in the musical hierarchy of the Ukrainian SSR. In 1944 he became vice-chairman of the Union of Composers of Ukraine, and in 1948-54 he was vice-chairman of the USSR Union of Composers. In 1954-68 he was a teacher of composition and rector of the Kiev Conservatory. In 1968 he became head of the Faculty of Composition there and head of the Union of Composers of Ukraine. Shtoharenko's works include the symphonic cantata Ukraino moia (My Ukraine, 1943), the Kiev Symphony (1972), symphonic suites, a violin concerto, chamber and choral pieces, songs, incidental music, and film scores. His biography, by M. Borovyk, was published in Kiev in 1965. Shtohryn, Dmytro [Stohryn], b 9 November 1923 in Zvyniach, Chortkiv county, Galicia. Librarian and educator; full member of the Shevchenko Scientific Society. After emigrating to the United States in 1950, he completed his studies in Ukrainian literature and library science at the University of Ottawa (PHD, 1970). From 1960 he served as the Slavic cataloger at the library of the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign. In 1961 he was appointed associate of the university's Russian and East European Center, where he has organized annual Ukrainian studies conferences. He has lectured on Ukrainian

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literature since 1970 and served as president of the Ukrainian Librarians7 Association of America in 1970-8. He reprinted Kataloh vydan' Ukraïns'koï akademii nauk, 1918-1930 (Catalog of Publications of the Ukrainian Academy of Sciences, 1918-30,1966), wrote Svitla i Uni ukraïns 'kykh studii v Harvardi (Lights and Shadows of Ukrainian Studies at Harvard, 1973), and edited the biographical guide Ukrainians in North America (1975).

tory of Ukrainian mathematics. In addition to articles on mathematics in Ukraine and articles about M. Ostrohradsky and H. Vorony, he edited the three-volume collections of Vorony's (1952-3) and Ostrohradsky's (195961) works, a Russian-Ukrainian mathematical dictionary (1960), and approx 18 other Russian-Ukrainian terminology dictionaries. He was the editor (with O. Boholiubov and A. Yushkevych as associates) of the four-volume Istoriia otechestvennoi matematiki (A History of the Fatherland's Mathematics, 1966-70), for which he and his associates received the prestigious A. Koyré award from the International Academy of the History of Sciences in 1970. W. Petryshyn

Shtoliuk, Myron [Stoljuk] (aka Shtola), b ? in Roztoky, near Kolomyia, Galicia, d 2 June 1830 in Vyzhnytsia, Bukovyna. Rebel leader. After deserting the Austrian army in 1817, Shtoliuk led a band of Hutsul *opryshoks that attacked noble estates in Pokutia and Bukovyna. He was captured in 1829, tortured in prison, and then tried and hanged. Folk songs and legends about him were collected and published by I. Franko and others. Zinovii Shtokalko

Yosyp Shtokalo

Shtokalko, Zinovii [Stokalko, Zinovij], b 25 May 1920 in Berezhany, Galicia, d 28 June 1968 in New York. Bandura virtuoso, composer, and writer. A medical doctor by profession, he studied music with the bandurysts B. Klevchutsky and Yu. Singalevych (Lviv). He improved bandura playing techniques and developed his own distinct style of interpretation. He also acquired one of the most valuable collections of *dumas outside Ukraine. Shtokalko's legacy includes independent works for bandura ('Atonal Etude' and others); a large methodological study of the instrument, published posthumously as A Kobzar Handbook (1989); and a definitive recording of dumas and other Ukrainian songs (recorded for M. Surmach in New York, 1952). His literary works appeared under the pen name Zinovii Berezhan in the posthumous collection Na okrainakh nochi (On the Edges of Night, 1977). Shtokalo, Yosyp [Stokalo, Josyp], b 16 November 1897 in Skomorokhy, Sokal county, Galicia, d 5 January 1987 in Kiev. Mathematician and science historian; full member of the AN URSR (now ANU) since 1951. After graduating from the Dnipropetrovske Institute of People's Education in 1931, he taught at Kharkiv University and other higher schools. He worked in Kiev at the ANU Institute of Mathematics (1942-9, 1956-63) and Kiev University (1944-51, 1956-72), chaired the presidium of the Lviv branch of the ANU (1949-56), and headed the natural sciences and technology section of the ANU Institute of History (from 1963). Shtokalo's works deal with differential equations, operational calculus, the history of mathematics, and Ukrainian terminology in various sciences. After 1945 he became particularly interested in the qualitative and stability theory of solutions of systems of linear ordinary differential equations in the Liapunov sense and in the 19405 and 19505 published a series of articles and three monographs in these areas. He is regarded as one of the founders of the history of Soviet mathematics, and particularly of the his-

Shtolko, Valentyn [Stol'ko], b 14 November 1931 in Viknyna, now in Haisyn raion, Kirovohrad oblast. Architect. A graduate of the Kiev State Art Institute (1956), he collaborated in designing the Tarasova Hora Hotel in Kaniv (1962), the Turyst Hotel in Cherkasy (1967), the Hradetskyi Hotel in Chernihiv (1980), pavilions at the Exhibition of the Achievements of the National Economy in Kiev (1977, 1979), the Podil Covered Market in Kiev (1980), and the covered market in Chernivtsi (1981). He has written articles on architectural problems and a book on the architecture of constructions with hanging roofs (1979).

Oleh Shtul

Dmytro Shtykalo

Shtul, Oleh [Stul'l (pseuds: O. Zhdanovych, O. Shuliak), b i July 1917 in Lopatychi, Ovruch county, Volhynia gubernia, d 4 November 1977 in Toronto. Political activist, publicist, and editor. He studied philology and history at Warsaw University (1934-9). From 1939 he was active in the cultural arm of the Leadership of Ukrainian Nationalists (PUN), in which he collaborated closely with O. Olzhych, served as cultural representative for the OUN executive in the Generalgouvernement, and represented

SHUHAIEVSKY

central Ukrainian territories in the Central Executive of the OUN (1941-3). From 1941 he participated in the OUN expeditionary groups, and in 1942 he began training partisan cadres in Volhynia. In 1943 he was proxy for the OUN colonel A. Melnyk at the UFA Polisian Sich under T. Boro vets (later the Ukrainian People's Revolutionary Army) and coeditor of its organ Oborona Ukraïny. Shtul was imprisoned by the Germans in the Sachsenhausen concentration camp in 1943-4. He remained as an émigré in Germany and Austria after 1945. Continuing his activities as a journalist and publicist, he contributed to several OUN publications, Za samostiinist', Orlyk, and the weekly Promin '. In 1948 he moved to Paris, where he edited the weekly Ukraïns 'ke slovo until 1977. He was also press and information secretary for PUN (member from 1955) and later became its vice-president (1964) and president (until his death). Shtul was an active member of the Ukrainian National Alliance in France and the Ukrainian Orthodox parish in Paris, as well as head of the controlling commission of the Shevchenko Scientific Society in Europe in 1966-77. Apart from his many articles he wrote the surveys of Ukrainian history Viky hovoriat' (The Ages Speak, 1940, 1941, 1954), V im'ia pravdy (In the Name of Truth, 1947, 1948,1991), about the origins and actions of the UPA, and Na zov Kyieva (Heeding the Call of Kiev, 1977), about the life and works of O. Teliha, and edited the anthology Olena Teliha (1977). Shtul was buried in South Bound Brook, New Jersey. Memoirs about him and a selection of his articles were published by the Shevchenko Scientific Society in Europe under the title Paryzh Olehovi Shtulevi (Paris to Oleh Shtul, 1986). A. Zhukovsky

Shtykalo, Dmytro [Stykalo], b 7 November 1909 in IIkovychi, Sokal county, Galicia, d 4 November 1963 in Munich. Journalist and political activist. As a law student at Lviv University he was active in student organizations and the OUN: he headed the Union of Ukrainian Student Organizations under Poland (1932-3) and contributed articles on ideological and political issues to nationalist periodicals, such as Students'kyi shliakh and Nash klych. He was arrested several times and imprisoned in *Bereza Kartuzka for two years (1934-6). After joining the Bandera faction of the OUN, during the Second World War he edited its underground publications and the broadcasts of the OUN-UPA radio station in the Carpathian Mountains. After the war he directed a Ukrainian radio program in Madrid and coedited the nationalist periodicals Ukraïnets'-Chas in Paris, Vyzvol 'nyi shliakh in London, and Ukrains 'kyi samostiinyk and Shliakh peremohy in Munich. Of his poems, the duma on Bereza Kartuzka (1938) was the most popular. Shubenko-Shubin, Leonid [Subenko-Subin], b 7 August 1907 in Kars, Turkey. Specialist in energetics; full member of the ANU (formerly AN URSR) since 1967. He graduated from Leningrad University (1930) and the Leningrad Boiler Turbine Institute (1931). He became director of the Central Boiler Turbine Scientific Research Institute in Leningrad (1944-50) and worked as chief designer at the Kharkiv Turbine Plant (1950-67) and the ANU Institute for Problems of Machine Building (from 1968). He contributed to the fields of steam and gas turbines, the optimization of processes and construction, and automated design.

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Lev Shubnikov

Shubnikov, Lev [Subnikov], b 29 September 1901 in St Petersburg, d 8 November 1945 in a Gulag labor camp. Experimental low-temperature physicist. A graduate of the Leningrad Polytechnical Institute (1926), from 1926 to 1930 he worked at the Cryogenic Laboratory in Leiden, Holland, where he distinguished himself as a crystal grower. Using his high-purity bismuth monocrystals, the low-temperature quantum oscillation of electrical magnetoresistance (now known as the Shubnikov-de Haas effect) was discovered in 1930. In 1930 he joined the Ukrainian Physical-Technical Institute in Kharkiv, and in 1931 he became director of its cryogenic laboratory, the first such laboratory in the USSR. From 1934 to 1937 a number of breakthrough discoveries were made by Shubnikov and his collaborators: the full diamagnetism of superconductors, the transition from the paramagnetic to the antiferromagnetic state (1934), the existence of two critical fields in superconducting alloys (1935), and the detailed conditions for the breakdown of superconductivity (1936). In 1935 Shubnikov also assumed the chair of solid-state physics at Kharkiv University. After L. *Landau was dismissed from Kharkiv University on trumped-up political charges in December 1936 and subsequently arrested, Shubnikov wrote a letter of protest to the university rector and resigned. He was arrested by the NKVD in August 1937 on fabricated charges of espionage and sentenced to 10 years' imprisonment. Attempts by the Soviet physicist P. Kapitsa to obtain his release (he succeeded in obtaining a release for Landau) remained fruitless, and Shubnikov died in a labor camp. He was posthumously rehabilitated in 1957. A book containing his selected works and memoirs about him was published in Kiev in 1989. O. Bilaniuk

Shuhaievsky, Valentyn [Suhajevs'kyj], b 15 April 1884 in Kiev, d 2 November 1966 in the United States. Historian, numismatist, and archeologist. He graduated from the St Petersburg Archeological Institute (1908) and was appointed to the position of department director at the Chernihiv Museum of Ukrainian Antiquities (1917, now the Chernihiv Historical Museum). He became director of the numismatic collections at the All-Ukrainian Museum Quarter on the grounds of the Kievan Cave Monastery (1919) and the Kiev Historical Museum. He was a professor of numismatics at Kiev University and a senior associate of the Kiev Institute of Archeology. During the Second World War he worked in museums in Lviv, Sambir, and Prague. He emigrated from Germany to the United States

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in 1949, where he became an assistant director of the Ukrainian desk at the Voice of America. Shuhaievsky's brochures describe coins discovered in Chernihiv gubernia (1915), coins and currency in 17th-century Left-Bank Ukraine (1918), the collection and preservation of monuments of antiquity (1920), coins and currency in 17th-century Ukraine (1924, 1926, 1928, 1951 1952), 18th-century Chernihiv (1927), and the Cossack figure Yu. Dunin-Borkovsky (1925,1928).

Hermina Shukhevych

Iryna Shukhevych: Portrait of Marta Rozhankovska (oil)

Shukhevych, Hermina [Sukhevyc] (née Liubovych), b 1852 in Peremyshl, d 1939 in Lviv. Women's leader and civic activist; wife of V. *Shukhevych. She was a founder of a number of women's organizations in Lviv: the *Club of Ruthenian Women (which she also headed), the *Trud women's co-operative, and the *Ukrainska Zakhoronka society. She also served as director of the St Olha Institute for Girls. She helped her husband organize the ethnographic march to the Vysokyi Zamok in 1887 and the Ukrainian ethnographic section at the Lviv Exhibition of 1894. Shukhevych, Iryna [Suxevyc] (née Velychkovska), b 21 November 1885 in Vyshniv, Rohatyn county, Galicia, d 17 February 1979 in Stamford, Connecticut. Portrait and icon painter. She studied painting in Lviv and Cracow (191112) and painted the murals of village churches in Galicia, first with M. *Sosenko and then alone. She was a member of the Zarevo art society in Cracow and the Ukrainian Association of Artists in Lviv. A postwar émigré, from 1950 she lived in the United States. Her icons can be found in churches in Galicia, Bukovyna, Rome, and the United States. Shukhevych, Osyp [Suxevyc], b 4 January 1816 in Rakiv, Stryi circle, d 1870 in Tyshkivtsi, Horodenka county, Galicia. Priest, writer, and translator; father of V. ^Shukhevych. As a student at the Greek Catholic Theological Seminary in Lviv (1835-8) he became a member of the circle headed by the *Ruthenian Triad. From 1848 he was parish priest in Tyshkivtsi. In the years 1848-9 he translated into the Galician dialect of Ukrainian works by W. Scott, Virgil, and J.G. von Herder. An edition of Shukhevych's translations, with an introduction by I. Franko, was published in 1883 by his son.

Gen Roman Shukhevych (portrait)

Shukhevych, Roman [Suxevyc] (noms de guerre: Dzvin, Shchuka, Tur, Taras Chuprynka, R. Lozovsky), b 17 July 1907 in Krakovets, Yavoriv county, Galicia, d 5 March 1950 in Bilohorshcha, near Lviv. Supreme commander of the "Ukrainian Insurgent Army, head of the OUN Home Leadership, chairman of the General Secretariat of the "Ukrainian Supreme Liberation Council (UHVR), and its general secretary for military affairs. He joined the Ukrainian Military Organization in 1923 and the OUN in 1929; he was active in their combat branches and known as Dzvin. In 1926 he took part in the political assassination of the Lviv school superintendent S. Sobiñski. In 1930-4 he headed the OUN combat branch in Galicia and Poland. After being arrested in connection with B. *Pieracki's assassination, he was held for six months in the Bereza Kartuzka concentration camp and sentenced in 1936 to four years' imprisonment, which was reduced by an amnesty to two years'. During 1938-9 he was staff officer in the Carpathian Sich. In 1941 Shukhevych was briefly chief of the OUN (Bandera faction) in Ukrainian territories within the Generalgouvernement. He joined the Nachtigall Battalion (see *Legion of Ukrainian Nationalists) in April 1941 and became its top OUN liaison and political officer. When the Nachtigall and Roland battalions were merged in October 1941 to form Schutzmannschaftbataillon 201, Shukhevych was appointed deputy battalion commander and commander of its first company with the rank of captain. The battalion was disarmed and demobilized, and its officers were arrested in January 1943. Shukhevych, however, managed to escape and join the UPA. At the Third OUN Congress on 25 August, he was confirmed as head of

SHUKHEVYCH

the OUN Home Leadership, and in November he was appointed supreme commander of the UFA in the rank of lieutenant colonel. The UHVR elected him on 15 July 1944 to head its General Secretariat and to hold the portfolio of military affairs, and confirmed his appointment to the top post in the UPA. In 1946 he was promoted to brigadier general. Shukhevych died in combat with special units of the MVD. Posthumously, he was awarded the UFA'S highest decorations: the Gold Cross of Combat Merit First Class and the Cross of Merit in gold.

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valuable museum pieces, which he donated to the National Museum in Lviv. In 1902-8 he was custodian of the Dzieduszycki Museum, at which he set up a natural science and ethnographic section. In 1894 he organized an ethnographic section at the Provincial Exhibition in Lviv. Shukhevych7 s major work, which is unsurpassed to this day, is his five-volume ethnographic and folkloric study Huculszczyzna (The Hutsul Region, 1899-1908; in Polish, 4 vols, 1902-8), which propagated knowledge about the Hutsul folk life. M. Mushynka

BIBLIOGRAPHY laniv, V. Shukhevych-Chuprynka: Liudyna i symvol (Munich 1950) Kravtsiv, B. Liudyna i voiak (New York 1952) Mirchuk, P. Roman Shukhevych (New York 1970) P. Sodol

Yurii Shukhevych

Stepan Shukhevych

Volodymyr Shukhevych

Shukhevych, Stepan [Suxevyc], b i January 1877 in Serafyntsi, Horodenka county, Galicia, d 6 June 1945 in Amberg, Germany. Lawyer and civic activist. During the First World War he commanded a regiment of the Ukrainian Sich Riflemen (1914-15) and then (1919) the Fourth (Zolochiv) Brigade and was in the Supreme Command of the Ukrainian Galician Army. In 1920 he returned to Lviv and opened a law office, and thenceforth often defended members of the ^Ukrainian Military Organization and the OUN. For many years he chaired the audit committee of the *Chervona Kalyna publishing house, which he helped organize. He wrote short stories and a book of memoirs (1919)Shukhevych, Volodymyr [Suxevyc], b 15 March 1849 in Tyshkivtsi, Kolomyia circle, Galicia, d 10 April 1915 in Lviv. Ethnographer, civic leader, educator, and publicist; full member of the Shevchenko Scientific Society from 1908. After graduating from Lviv University he taught secondary school in Lviv. He founded several educational societies, such as Ruska (*Ukrainska) Besida, which he headed in 1895-1910, the *Boian society (1891), and the *Lysenko Music Society in Lviv, which he headed in 190315. He served on the executive of the Prosvita society. He founded and edited the journals Dzvinok (1890-5) and UchyteV (1893-1905) and edited the newspaper Zerkalo. Many of his articles appeared in Zoria and Dilo. He wrote a chemistry textbook (1884) and compiled several anthologies for school use. On his expeditions to the Hutsul and other regions he collected ethnographic materials and also

Shukhevych, Yurii [Suxevyc, Jurij], b 28 March 1933 in Lviv county, Galicia. Soviet political prisoner; son of R. ^Shukhevych. In 1945, after his mother had been sentenced to 10 years in labor camps, he and his sister were sent to orphanages in Chornobyl and then Staline (now Donetske). He was first arrested in August 1948, simply because he was his father's son, and was sentenced to 10 years in the Vladimir prison near Moscow. In April 1956 he was officially recognized as unjustly persecuted and released, but intervention by the Soviet procurator general, R. Rudenko, resulted in his rearrest in the fall of that year and his return to Vladimir prison. The day his io-year term ended in 1958, he was again arrested on fabricated charges of spreading 'anti-Soviet agitation and propaganda' among his fellow inmates; he was tried in Lviv, and sentenced in December of that year to 10 years in labor camps in the Mordovian ASSR. There he participated in hunger strikes to protest the unlawful acts of the camp authorities, and in July 1967 he wrote a letter of protest to the chairman of the Presidium of the Ukrainian Supreme Soviet. When he was released in August 1968, he was forbidden to live in Ukraine for five years, and he settled in Nalchik in the Kabardino-Balkar ASSR, where he worked as an electrician. In March 1972, during the wave of arrests among the intelligentsia in Ukraine, he was arrested a third time, for compiling his prison memoirs, and sentenced to nine years in labor camps and five years' exile. In 1973, while in a Mordovian camp, he was arrested a fourth time, for writing a document in his own defense, and resentenced to 10 years in prison and 5 years7 exile. Until 1978 he served his term in Vladimir, and then he was transferred to the prison in Chistopol, in the Tatar ASSR. During his imprisonment Shukhevych demanded reviews of his case, participated in campaigns for the official recognition of political-prisoner status, and sought the right to leave the USSR. In 1979 he renounced his Soviet cit-

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izenship and joined the ^Ukrainian Helsinki Group. In March 1982 he was exiled to Tomsk oblast, in Siberia. Altogether Shukhevych was subjected to 35 years of incarceration and exile for refusing to denounce his father and the Ukrainian liberation movement. As a result he was often seriously ill; in 1982 he completely lost his sight. In 1981 the us Congress passed a resolution calling for his release and for permission for him to emigrate, and about 200 Canadian mayors and members of Parliament also spoke out on his behalf. In February 1982 he was declared 'prisoner of the month7 by Amnesty International, and in August 1986, 40 US senators signed a petition to M. Gorbachev calling for his release. In 1989 he was finally allowed to return to Ukraine, where he has remained politically active. BIBLIOGRAPHY Shukhevych, lu. 'Holovi Prezydii VR URSR/ U pivstolittia radians'koï vlady (Paris 1968) lurii Shukhevych: Son of a Ukrainian General (Smoloskyp 1973) Sorokowski, A. 'Guilty by Birth/ Barrister, 7, no. i (1980) O. Zinkevych

Shul, Andrii [Sul', Andrij] (Szul, Andrij), b 21 August 1944 in Neutitschein, Germany. Musicologist, educator, and conductor; son of R. *Smerechynska-Shul. He studied piano in New York with R. Savytsky (1952-4) and at the Juilliard School of Music (1954-62). He obtained a PH D in musicology at the Ukrainian Free University in 1971 with a dissertation on the choral style of D. Bortniansky's 35 sacred concertos. Shul's writings include Tvorchist ' Dmytra Bortnian's'koho: Krytychnyi ohliad (The Works of Dmytro Bortniansky: A Critical Survey, 1980), and miscellaneous articles and reviews. In 1972 he was appointed staff editor of Ukrainian studies for the Repertoire International de Littérature Musicale (RILM Abstracts) in Pennsylvania. He has also appeared as a pianist and entertainer on American radio, television, and stage. Shulaivskyi camp site. A multi-occupational Neolithic Surskyi-Dnieper culture settlement (6th millennium BC) on Shulaivskyi Island in the Dnieper River near Zvonetske, Solone raion, Dnipropetrovske oblast. Excavations in 1946 revealed the remains of pit-houses, stone tools (including some for woodworking), microlithic flint pieces, wild and domestic animal bones, and pottery fragments. Shulezhko, Pavlo [Sulezko] (Shuleshko, Paul), b 28 June 1902 in Zolotonosha, Poltava gubernia, d 8 July 1984 in San Francisco. Mechanical engineer, physicist, and mathematician; full member of the Shevchenko Scientific Society from 1960. He studied in Poltava and Kharkiv, worked as an engineer in Kharkiv (1928-38), and taught at Kharkiv University (1938-42). As a postwar émigré he was a professor at the Ukrainian Technical and Husbandry Institute in Regensburg, Germany (1945-9), the University of New South Wales in Australia (1953-9), and the Rochester Institute of Technology in Rochester, New York (1960-73). His main contributions were in the areas of the strength of materials and boundary-value problems. He wrote over 100 technical papers and several books, including books in Ukrainian on theoretical mechanics (1947) and the strength of materials (1947). In 1958-9 he headed the Australian chapter of the Shevchenko Scientific Society.

Pavlo Shulezhko

Illia Shulha

Shulgin, Vasilii [Sul'gin, Vasilij], b 13 January 1878 in Kiev, d 15 February 1976 in Vladimir, RSFSR. Russian conservative political leader and publicist. A graduate of the law faculty at Kiev University (1900), he was a deputy from Volhynia to the Second and Fourth Russian State Dumas. Before the First World War he was a leading member of the Ukrainophobic *Kiev Club of Russian Nationalists and editor (1913-19) of the reactionary newspaper *Kievlianin. An opponent of the UNR, during the Russian Civil War he was an ideologue of the White forces and one of the founders of the Russian Volunteer Army in the Don region and the Kuban. In 1920 he fled abroad, and in the 19205, while living in Yugoslavia, France, and Poland, he was a leading figure among the White émigrés. He published several books in the West, including the anti-Ukrainian diatribes Ukrainstvuiushchie i my! (The Ukrainianizers and We!, 1929) and Le plus grand mensonge du xxe siècle: L'Ukraine (1939), as well as several antiSemitic tracts. His strong sense of Russian nationalism led him to accept the Soviet state as the continuation of the Russian Empire, and he appreciated the Soviet leadership's ability to control the various nationalities, especially the Ukrainians. In 1961 he published an open letter urging Russian émigrés to stop criticizing the Soviet Union. His memoirs of the 1917 Revolution (1925), of the year 1920 (1927), and of his time in the State Duma (1979) were published in Moscow; the last appeared in English translation as The Years: Memoirs of a Member of the Russian Duma, 1906-1917 (1984). Shulgin, Vitalii [Sul'gin, Vitalij], b 1822 in Kaluga, Russia, d 1878 in Kiev. Publicist and pedagogue. He grew up in Nizhen and studied (1838) and taught history at Kiev University (1849-62). In 1863 he founded the ultraconservative, anti-Ukrainian newspaper *Kievlianin (which he edited until his death). His writings include the monograph lugo-Zapadnyi krai v poslednee 2$-letie (1838-1863) (The Southwestern Land [Ukraine] in the Past 25 Years [1838-63], 1863), numerous publicistic works, and a series of history textbooks. They are characterized by a strong pro-Russian bias. Shulha, Illia [Sul'ha, Illja], b 20 July 1878 in Kropyvna, Zolotonosha county, Poltava gubernia, d 19 December

SHULHYN

1938 in Petropavlovsk, Kazakhstan. Realist painter. He graduated from the Kiev Drawing School (1899), the Moscow School of Painting, Sculpture, and Architecture (1903), and the St Petersburg Academy of Arts (1909), where he studied under I. Repin. He taught art in Vinnytsia (1910-19), Zolotonosha, and Kiev (1928-38; from 1934 at the Kiev State Art Institute). He produced over 1,000 impressionist and realist works. They included historical paintings, such as Col Dzhedzhalii and His Regiment Entering Kropyvna (1913) and Cossack Scouts (1916); genre scenes, such as Young Women at Home (1918), Blessing of the Water (1914); landscapes, such as Church in Vinnytsia (1913) and Winter in the Woods (1937); and portraits, including ones of his wife (1906) and T. Shevchenko (1926) and self-portraits (1928, 1936). He was arrested by the NKVD in March 1938 and died after a few months of imprisonment. His life is documented in an article by Yu. Slastion in VyzvoVnyi shliakh (1961, nos 9-10).

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Leaving (1909), Cossack Campaign (1915-17), The Lena Executions (1926), Collective Fish Farm (1932), T. Shevchenko's Meeting with I. Soshenko (1938), Cossack Song (1945), anc^ The Pereiaslav Council (1951). A catalog of his posthumous exhibition was published in 1962. Shulha, Pelaheia [Sul'ha, Pelaheja], b 30 October 1899 in Viazivok, Cherkasy county, Kiev gubernia, d 7 September 1986 in Kiev. Geologist. She graduated from the Kiev Institute of People's Education (1929) and was a scholarly associate of the AN URSR (now ANU) Institute of Geological Sciences in 1930-76 (department head, 1950-62). Her main research interest was sediment formations in Ukraine. She wrote Paleontologiia i stratigrafiia verkhnego dokembriia i nizhnego paleozoia iugo-zapada Vostochno-Evropeiskoi platformy (The Paleontology and Stratigraphy of the Late Precambrian and Early Paleozoic in the Southwestern Part of the East European Platform, 1976).

Oleksander Shulhyn

Ivan Shulha: Portrait of a Girl in a Green Kerchief (oil, 1917)

Shulha, Ivan [Sul'ha], b 31 October 1889 in Mykhailivka, Oleshky county, Tavriia gubernia, d 23 April 1956 in Kiev. Painter. He studied at the Odessa Art School (1906-11) under K. Kostandi and at the St Petersburg Academy of Arts (1911-17). From 1922 he lived in Kharkiv, and in the 19205 he was a member of the *Association of Artists of Red Ukraine. During the period 1919-21 he painted propaganda posters and wall panels. His work consists mainly of historical and genre paintings, such as The Cossacks Are

Shulhyn, Oleksander [Sul'hyn] (Choulguine, Alexandre), b 30 July 1889 in Sokhvyne, Poltava gubernia, d 4 March 1960 in Paris. Political leader, community and cultural activist, historian, and sociologist; full member of the Shevchenko Scientific Society from 1948 and of the Ukrainian Academy of Arts and Sciences; son of Ya. *Shulhyn. He studied history and philosophy at St Petersburg University (1908-15) and worked there until 1917. He joined the St Petersburg branch of the Society of Ukrainian Progressives and became a member of the CC of the Ukrainian Democratic Radical party (UDRP) and a delegate to the Soviet of Workers' and Soldiers' Deputies. Returning to Kiev after the February Revolution, Shulhyn was elected to the Central Rada and its Little Rada. From July 1917 to 30 January 1918 he served as general secretary for nationality (later international) affairs. He was a coauthor of the ^Statute of the Higher Administration of Ukraine and a co-organizer of the Congress of the Peoples of Russia in Kiev (held September 1917). During his tenure as director of foreign policy Great Britain and France officially recognized the UNR, and Ukraine began peace negotiations with the Central Powers in Brest. Under the Hetmán government he worked in the Ministry of External Affairs of the Ukrainian State, and from July 1918 to the end of the year he was Ukrainian ambassador to Bulgaria. In 1919 the Directory of the UNR appointed him as a delegate to the Paris Peace Conference, and in 1920 he was head of the Ukrainian delegation to the first assembly

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of the "League of Nations in Geneva. From 1921 he headed the UNR extraordinary diplomatic mission in Paris. From 1923 to 1927 Shulhyn lived in Prague, where he was a professor of history and the philosophy of history at the Ukrainian Free University and the Ukrainian Higher Pedagogical Institute, and head of the Prague committee of the renewed UDRP. In 1926 he became minister of external affairs of the *Government-in-exile of the UNR and director of its foreign policy (1926-36,1939-40, and 1945-6). In 1927 Shulhyn moved to Paris. There he served as head of the "Supreme Emigration Council (1929-39), head of the UNR government-in-exile (1939-40), and coeditor of the weekly Tryzub (editor in 1940). From 1933 to 1938 he protested against the Bolshevik terror, forced labor, and man-made famine in the Ukrainian SSR. In an open letter to F. Nansen, published as the brochure La Société des Nations et les réfugiés ukrainiens (1929), he petitioned for the official recognition of Ukrainian refugees. During the German occupation Shulhyn was arrested in Paris (1940-1) as a Ukrainian pro-French political activist. After 1945 he devoted himself to scholarly work. He founded and headed the "Ukrainian Academic Society in Paris (1946-60) and initiated the "International Free Academy of Arts and Sciences (vice-president in 1952-60). He was also the Ukrainian representative in the International Refugee Organization (1948-52) and a consultant to French organizations for the protection of refugees and stateless persons (1952-60). Shulhyn wrote a number of studies about Ukraine's struggle for "independence (1917-20) and the activities of the UNR government-in-exile, including Polityka (Politics, 1918), L'Ukraine, la Russie, et les puissances de l'Entente (1918), Les problèmes de l'Ukraine (1919; also in English, Dutch, and Hungarian [1920] edns), Chronologie des principaux événements en Ukraine, 1917-19 (1919), L'Ukraine et le cauchemar rouge: Les massacres en Ukraine (1927), Derzhavnist' chy Haidamachchyna? (Statehood or Haidamaka Insurgency?, 1931), Bez terytoriï (Without a Territory, 1934), and L'Ukraine contre Moscou, 1917 (1935; English trans 1959)- Among his sociological and historiographie works are Narysy z novoi istoriï Evropy (Essays on Modern European History, 1925), Uvahy do istoriï rozvytku ranishn'oho kapitalizmu (Remarks on the History of the Development of Early Capitalism, 1928), Les origines de l'esprit national moderne et /.-/. Rousseau (1938), L'histoire et la vie: Les lois, le hasard, la volonté humaine (1957), and Michel Hrouchevskyj et sa conception de l'histoire de l'Est Européen (1959). He also contributed to émigré encyclopedias of Ukraine (Ukraïns'ka zahal'na entsyklopediia and Entsyklopediia ukramoznavstva) and various journals and anthologies, including Tryzub, Prométhée (1926-38), La Revue de Prométhée (1938-40), and Ukraïns'ka literaturna hazeta (1956-60). A biography of Shulhyn, in French, was edited by O. Perrin (1961), and a festschrift in his honor was edited by V. Yaniv (ZNTS/z, no. 186 [1969]). A. Zhukovsky Shulhyn, Yakiv [Sul'hyn, Jakiv], b 19 February 1851 in Kiev, d 28 November 1911 in Kiev. Community activist, pedagogue, and historian; member of the Shevchenko Scientific Society. He graduated from Kiev University (1874), where he studied under V. Antonovych and M. Drahomanov. Shulhyn was an important figure in the Ukrainian cultural renaissance of the late 19th and early 2oth centuries. He belonged to the Old Hromada of Kiev, and in 1876

Yakiv Shulhyn

Nadiia Shulhyna-Ishchuk

he donated his inheritance of 12,000 rubles to fund Drahomanov's emigration and the publication of *Hromada in Geneva. He continued his studies abroad (1876-7) and then taught in gymnasiums in Kiev and Odessa. Shulhyn was arrested in 1879 because of his national and cultural activities and for importing a printing press for the Old Hromada. He was exiled to Siberia for four years, and upon his return he worked in a bank in Yelysavethrad. In 1899 he returned to Kiev, where he resumed teaching, contributed to the work of the Southwestern Branch of the Imperial Russian Geographic Society, wrote articles for Kievskaia starina, and assisted the Vik publishing house. He was a member of the Historical Society of Nestor the Chronicler and a founding member and secretary of the Ukrainian Scientific Society in Kiev. Later in life Shulhyn wrote articles on the history of 17th- and 18th-century Left-Bank Ukraine (1899; pub under the cryptonym 'L.Ch.'), the Koliivshchyna rebellion (1890), Right-Bank Ukraine in the mid-i8th century (1891), and P. Polubotok (1890). Memoirs of him were published by M. Hrushevsky (ZNTS/z, vol 107 [1912]) and V. Shcherbyna (ZNTK, vol 10 [1912]). A. Zhukovsky Shulhyna-Ishchuk, Nadiia [Sul'hyna-Iscuk,Nadija],b 1888 in Kiev, d 10 April 1979 in Philadelphia. Pedagogue, mathematician, and women's activist; daughter of Ya. "Shulhyn. After graduating from the Bestuzhev Courses in St Petersburg and Kiev University, she taught mathematics in secondary schools in Kiev (1913-23). Emigrating from Soviet Ukraine, she taught at the Ukrainian Higher Pedagogical Institute in Prague (1926-7) and at the Ukrainian gymnasium in Rivne (1928-44). As a postwar displaced person she emigrated to the United States in 1950. Before the First World War Shulhyna-Ishchuk was a member of the Society of School Education and contributed to the development of Ukrainian mathematical terminology and wrote the first Ukrainian-language mathematics primer in Russian-ruled Ukraine. She wrote articles on the methodology of teaching mathematics, which appeared in journals such as Ukraïns'ka shkola. In the United States she served as a member of the Education Commission of the World Federation of Ukrainian Women's Organizations.

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Shuliar, Andrii [Suljar, Andrij], b 15 December 1918 in Maidan, Stanyslaviv county, Galicia. Architect. A graduate of the Lviv Polytechnical Institute (1947),ne to°k Part in drawing up the general city plans for Lviv, Sokal, Chervonohrad, and Truskavets, and in the restoration of architectural monuments in Lviv and other cities. He designed the Staryi Dub restaurant in Truskavets (1979) and the village center of Vuzlove, in Lviv oblast (1982), and prepared the architectural design for over 50 monuments. He is the author of articles and books on urban planning and architectural history. Shulte, Yurii [Sul'te, Jurij], b 30 July 1910 in Debaltseve, Bakhmut county, Katerynoslav gubernia. Metallurgist; corresponding member of the ANU (formerly AN URSR) since 1969. He graduated from the Dnipropetrovske Metallurgical Institute (1931) and worked at the Zaporizhia Dniprospetsstal Electrometallurgical Plant and the Zaporizhia Machine-Building Institute (from 1947). His main technical work is in the area of improving steel manufacturing productivity and increasing the quality of cast and forged steels. Shumborsky, Felitsiian [Sumbors'kyj, Felicijan] (secular name: Pylyp), b 14 October 1771 in Ostrih, Volhynia, d 1851. Uniate bishop of Kholm. In 1811 he became secretary to the bishop of Kholm, F. Tsikhovsky, his first appointment in a steady rise in the ecclesiastic administration until his consecration as bishop of Kholm in 1830. Under his administration, jurisdiction over Kholm eparchy was transferred from the metropolitan of Halych to the Vatican, and the eparchy's ties to the rest of the Ukrainian Catholic church were thereby cut. At the same time Shumborsky was pressured to convert to Orthodoxy by the Russian church and authorities, and he was summoned to St Petersburg in 1840 by Tsar Nicholas I. He resisted these pressures, but the eparchy was finally converted in 1875. A biography of him was published in Polish by A. Kossowski (1937), and the journal of his 1840 trip to St Petersburg appeared in Bohosloviia, no. 45 (1981). Shumelda, Yakiv [Sumelda, Jakiv], b 1914 in Bushkovychi, Peremyshl county, Galicia, d 3 February 1993 in San Francisco. Political figure, economist, and lawyer. In the 19305 he was active in Ukrainian student organizations in Prague and Berlin and became a member of the Leadership of Ukrainian Nationalists. During the Second World War he was a leading member of the OUN Melnyk faction's expeditionary groups in central Ukraine and a member of the Kiev city administration (1941). A postwar émigré, he taught in San Francisco and wrote Vid Marksa do Malenkova (From Marx to Malenkov, 1955), works on changes in the USSR after Stalin (1957) and the strategy and tactics of the Ukrainian liberation movement (1966), the memoirs Na polovyni dorohy (Halfway, 1985), and a biography of M. Kapustiansky (1985). He also wrote articles on Ukrainian historiography and the history of Ukrainian nationalism. Shumeyko, Stephen [Sumejko, Stepan], b 17 January 1908 in Newark, New Jersey, d 12 August 1962 in New York. Editor and community leader. After graduating in law (1931) he joined the staff of Svoboda and served as the first editor (1933-58) of the Ukrainian National Association's Ukrainian Weekly. He was a founder and the first

Stephen Shumeyko president of the ^Ukrainian Youth League of North America (1933-6). As president of the Ukrainian Congress Committee of America (1944-9) ne promoted the cause of Ukraine's independence at the founding conference of the United Nations in San Francisco. He also served as general secretary of the Pan-American Ukrainian Conference. His writings include Ukrainian National Movement (1939) and translations of P. Kulish's Chorna rada (The Black Council) and other works of Ukrainian literature. Shumka. A Ukrainian dance company founded in Edmonton in 1959 by C. Kuc. Consisting of approx 50 nonprofessional dancers, the troupe has developed an international reputation for the quality of its dancing and the staging of its productions. In addition to touring extensively (Tunisia, Japan, Hong Kong, Ukraine), the group held a command performance for Queen Elizabeth II in Edmonton (1978), was featured at a gala for President R. Reagan in Ottawa (1981), and performed at the opening ceremonies of the 1988 Calgary Winter Olympics. The ensemble's artistic directors have included C. Kuc, O. Semchuk, and J. Pichlyh; G. Zwozdesky has served as its longtime musical director. Shumka. A Ukrainian folk song and dance. With its 2/4 time the shumka is similar to the *kolomyika. The dance is accompanied by the song. A. Kotsipynsky published a collection of shumka songs. Shumliansky, Oleksander [Sumljans'kyj], b 1748 in Yakivtsi, near Poltava, d 6 July 1795 in Moscow. Physician; brother of P. ^Shumliansky. After being educated at the Kievan Mohyla Academy (1758-71) and the medical school at the St Petersburg Military Hospital (1773-6), he wrote a doctoral dissertation at Strasbourg University on the structure of the kidney (1782), in which he gave the first scientific description of Bowman's capsule (Shumliansky's capsula and loop). From 1786 he served as a professor of internal medicine and obstetrics in Moscow's medical schools. The founder of histology in the Russian Empire, he translated medical books into Russian and wrote Mnenie odnogo istinoliubtsa o popravlenii naipolezneishei alia liudei nauki (The Opinion of a Lover of Truth on the Improvement of the Science Most Useful to Man, 1787). Shumliansky, Pavlo [Sumljans'kyj], b 1752 in Mali Budyshcha, near Poltava, d 1821 in Kharkiv. Physician;

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brother of O. *Shumliansky. He was educated at the Kievan Mohyla Academy (1763-70), the St Petersburg Medical School (1773-4), and Strasbourg University (1784-9), where he wrote a doctoral dissertation on local inflammation. He lectured at the St Petersburg Medical School and in 1795 became a professor of surgery and pharmacology at the Moscow Medical School. In 1805-17 he served as a professor of surgery at and the dean of the medical faculty of Kharkiv University. His publications deal with the medicinal properties of water, mineral waters in Poltava gubernia, and bone dislocations. He contributed to the reorganization of medical education in the Russian Empire. Shumliansky, Yosyf [Sumljans'kyj, Josyf] (secular name: Ivan), b 1643, d 1708. Bishop of Lviv. The scion of an Orthodox noble family, he grew up with close ties to the court of Jan m Sobieski and even joined him in defending Vienna from a Turkish onslaught in 1683. In spite of strong opposition from church authorities, Shumliansky was made Orthodox bishop of Lviv in 1676. A year later he secretly converted to Catholicism and then used his position to steer the eparchy to a union with Rome. His secret negotiations with the Vatican and preparatory work among the eparchy's clergy culminated in 1700 in the conversion of the entire eparchy (with the exception of the Lviv Dormition Brotherhood, which accepted the union in 1708, and the Maniava Hermitage). M. Andrusiak published a biography of Shumliansky in Lviv in 1934. Shumovska-Horain, Oleksandra [Sumovs'ka],b 1896 in Volhynia gubernia, d 1985 in Paris. Music teacher and composer. She studied music at the Warsaw and Paris conservatories. From the 19205 she lived in Paris and taught music. In 1927 she organized a female quartet known as Lei and for 12 years she toured with it through France, Belgium, Spain, and Holland. Its repertoire included Ukrainian works. She wrote music for female voice and for children, piano pieces (for four hands), and church music.

Pavlo Shumovsky

Oleksander Shumsky

Shumovsky, Pavlo [Sumovs'kyj], b 1899 in Myrohoshcha, Dubno county, Volhynia gubernia, d 27 January 1983 in Paris. Biologist, agronomist, and political and civic figure; full member of the Shevchenko Scientific Society from 1950. He studied agronomy at Kiev (1918-19), Berlin (1921-4), and Cracow (1925-6) universities and taught at

the Higher Agricultural School of Warsaw University (1927-39) and the Lviv Polytechnical Institute (1939-41). During the war he served as director of the Department of Animal Husbandry at the Chamber of Agriculture in Lviv, and, as a founding member of the "Ukrainian Supreme Liberation Council (UHVR), took part in the resistance movement. After emigrating to France he became a research associate and then head of the biochemistry and physiology laboratory of the State Veterinary School in Maisons-Alfort (1945-65). He did research on animal hybridization, artificial insemination, and sperm storage and published numerous scientific papers in various languages. He was active in the External Representation of the UHVR. He was a professor at the Ukrainian Technical and Husbandry Institute and president of the board of directors of the Petliura Ukrainian Library in Paris (196881). Shumske [Sums'ke]. 111-7. A town smt (1986 pop 4,700) on the Viliia River and a raion center in Ternopil oblast. It was first mentioned, as the fortress of Shumsk, in the Hypatian Chronicle under the year 1149. In 1224 it was briefly an independent principality. Then it became part of the Principality of Galicia-Volhynia. On Burundai's demand the town's fortifications were dismantled in 1261. From the mid-i4th century Shumske was ruled by the Lithuanian dynasty. Under Polish rule (1569-1793) a Basilian monastery was built in 1637 but was transferred to the Franciscan order in 1676. In 1715 a Roman Catholic church was built. In the 19th century Shumske belonged to Kremianets county of Volhynia gubernia. By mid-century it had a distillery, a brewery, a brick factory, tanneries, and weaving factories. In the interwar period (1919-39) Shumske was ruled by Poland. Today it is an agricultural town, with a farm machinery repair plant and a consumergoods plant. An old Slavic settlement has been discovered in its vicinity. Shumsky, Oleksander [Sums'kyj], b 2 December 1890 in Zhytomyr county, Volhynia gubernia, d 18 September 1946 in the Solovets Islands. Revolutionary and nationalcommunist leader. He joined the Ukrainian Social Democratic Spilka in 1908. After the February Revolution he worked for the Kiev Gubernia zemstvo administration and became a leading member of the ^Ukrainian Party of Socialist Revolutionaries (UPSR), which he represented in the Central Rada. In January 1918 a UPSR group including Shumsky conspired to overthrow the Rada. At the Fourth UPSR Congress in May 1918, he was a leader of the left faction of the *Borotbists, and in the autumn he was a member of the Borotbist Chief Revolutionary Committee that took part in the popular insurrection against the Hetmán government. In January 1919, together with the Russian Bolsheviks, he organized a rebellion in Left-Bank Ukraine against the UNR Directory. During the second Soviet occupation of Ukraine the Borotbists entered into an entente with the CP(B)U, and Shumsky was appointed commissar of education in Kh. Rakovsky's Soviet Ukrainian government. He introduced policies to combat Russification and foster a Ukrainian cultural rebirth. In March 1920 Shumsky merged the Borotbists with the CP(B)U, and in April he was appointed to the cc CP(B)U Politburo and Organizational Bureau and the Comintern Executive Committee. That same year he became commissar of internal affairs in

SHUMUK

Ukraine and chairman of Poltava okruha's executive committee. After participating in negotiations on the Peace Treaty of Riga he served as the first and only Soviet Ukrainian ambassador to Poland. After returning to Ukraine in February 1923, Shumsky edited the monthly Chervonyi shliakh (until November 1926) and directed the CP(B)U Department of Agitation and Propaganda (May-September 1924). He replaced V. Zatonsky as Ukraine's commissar of education (September 1924 to February 1927) and actively implemented social and cultural *Ukrainization policies. In 1925 he protested to J. Stalin against the appointment of the new CP(B)U general secretary, L. *Kaganovich, and urged that he be replaced by a Ukrainian, V. Chubar. Shumsky called for accelerated Ukrainization and recruitment of Ukrainians to leadership positions in the CP(B)U and the trade unions in order to facilitate the de-Russification of Ukraine's working class. As a result of his conflicts with Kaganovich in 1925-6, a national-communist oppositional current, popularly known as Shumskyism, developed within the CP(B)U. Shumsky's ideas were echoed in the writings of M. *Khvylovy, whom Shumsky refused to condemn at a CP(B)U Politburo meeting. Shumsky's line was supported by the CC of the ^Communist Party of Western Ukraine (KPZU) until Moscow, acting through the Comintern, managed to split the CC. In February 1927 Shumsky was relieved of all his posts in Ukraine (he was replaced by M. *Skrypnyk) and transferred to Moscow. Thereafter the Party officially referred to Shumskyism as a 'nationalist deviation.' Shumsky was appointed rector of the Leningrad Institute of the National Economy and the Polytechnical Institute (September 1927), deputy head of the mass-agitation department of the All-Union Party CC (February 1930), chairman of the Trade Union of Educational Workers, and a member of the All-Union Central Council of Trade Unions (February 1931). In May 1933 he was arrested and accused of leading an anti-Party, counterrevolutionary, nationalist struggle in the CP(B)U and KPZU, of belonging to the Ukrainian Military Organization, and of preparing an armed uprising in Ukraine. He was imprisoned in a concentration camp in the Solovets Islands, where he committed suicide to protest his unlawful incarceration. BIBLIOGRAPHY Majstrenko, I. Borot'bism: A Chapter in the History of Ukrainian Communism (New York 1954) Mace, J. Communism and the Dilemmas of National Liberation: National Communism in Soviet Ukraine, 1918-1933 (Cambridge, Mass 1983) Panchuk, M. 'Zhyttia i smert' Oleksandra Shums'koho/ Literaturna Ukraïna, 26 January 1989 R. Senkus, A. Zhukovsky

Shumsky, Yurii [Sums'kyj, Jurij] (real surname: Shomin), b 17 November 1887 in Tyraspil, Kherson gubernia, d 7 June 1954 in Kiev. Actor. He first appeared on stage in an amateur circle in Kherson (1907). Later he organized an amateur theater (1917) and a theatrical studio (1919-21), and did agitprop theater work (1921-4) for the People's Commissariat of Education. His professional career was spent in the Odessa Ukrainian Drama Theater (1925-34) and the Kiev Ukrainian Drama Theater (1934-54). Shumsky7 s repertoire (Ukrainian and non-Ukrainian) included such characters as Bzhostovsky in I. Kocherha's Feia hirkoho myhdaliu (The Fairy of the Bitter Almond, 1926), the title

Yurii Shumsky

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Danylo Shumuk

character in O. Korniichuk's Bohdan Khmel'nyts'kyi (1939) and P. Beaumarchais's Le manage de Figaro (1927), and Philip II in F. Schiller's Don Carlos (1936). In silent cinema he played the title role in Benia Krik (1927), Benedio Synytsia in Boryslav smiiet'sia (1927, based on I. Franko), and Sylin in Maiak na Chornomu mori (The Lighthouse on the Black Sea, 1928). A biography, by B. Stepanov, was published in Kiev in 1971. Shumuk, Danylo [Sumuk], b 30 December 1914 in Boremshchyna, Volodymyr-Volynskyi county, Volhynia gubernia. Longest-serving prisoner of conscience in the USSR. He spent 44 years of his life in prison or exile, 38 of them under Soviet rule. He was arrested in January 1934, and in 1935 he was sentenced by the Polish court in Kovel to eight years' imprisonment for his role in the underground Communist Party of Western Ukraine in Volhynia. After being amnestied by the Polish government in May 1939, he was conscripted into a Red Army penal battalion in May 1941, was captured by the Germans, and spent several months in a concentration camp holding Soviet prisoners of war, near Poltava. After managing to escape he returned to Volhynia. There he joined the antiSoviet, anti-German ^Ukrainian Insurgent Army in 1943. In February 1945 he was captured in Kiev oblast and sentenced to death by a secret military court in Rivne; the sentence was commuted to 20 years in Norilsk, Taishet, and other labor camps in Siberia, and in the Vladimir prison near Moscow. In August 1956, after a review of his case, he was freed before completing his term, and returned home. In November 1957 ne was rearrested. Having refused to become a KGB informer, he was accused of 'antiSoviet propaganda and agitation/ and in May 1958 he was tried in Lutske and sentenced to 10 years in labor camps in Siberia. After his release in 1967 he lived in Bohuslav and Kiev. In January 1972 he was again arrested, for writing memoirs, and in July he was sentenced in Lviv to 10 years in special-regime camps in Mordovia and Perm oblast, followed by five years' exile in Kazakhstan. In the camps Shumuk renounced his Soviet citizenship (in 1972) and participated in campaigns for the acknowledgment of political-prisoner status, in strikes, and in other political protests. In 1979 he cofounded a Helsinki Accords monitoring group in the camp and joined the ^Ukrainian Helsinki Group. For many years he demanded the right to join his relatives in Canada. Amnesty Interna-

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tional and Ukrainian community campaigns for his release took place in many Western countries, and the Canadian government repeatedly appealed on his behalf to the USSR government. As a result he was finally allowed to emigrate, in April 1987, to Canada, after he had completed his term of exile. Shumuk's memoirs were smuggled out and published in the West in Ukrainian (1974; rev edn 1983) and English (Life Sentence, 1984). Selections of essays and reminiscences by Shumuk, Perezhyte i peredumane (My Life and Thoughts in Retrospect) and Iz Gulagu u vil 'nyi svit (From the Gulag into a Free World), appeared in Detroit in 1983 and in Toronto in 1991, respectively. O. Zinkevych

Shumylo, Mykyta [Sumylo], b 10 June 1903 in Mykhailivka, Cherkasy county, Kiev gubernia, d 8 March 1982 in Kiev. Writer and teacher. He concluded his studies at the Institute of Cinematography in Moscow in 1938 and taught in schools until the outbreak of the Second World War. He published collections of short stories: Vada (The Defect, 1934), Urozhai (The Harvest, 1934), Holubyi zenit (The Azure Zenith, 1948), Shchedri sertsem (Generous of Heart, 1952), and la - tvii brat (I Am Your Brother, 1961). He also wrote the novel Prokuror respubliky (Prosecutor of the Republic, 1958), a collection of stories for children De ty, moia chaiechko? (Where Are You, My Little Seagull?, !979)/ a volume of literary criticism titled Oles' Honchar (1950,1951), and literary scenarios, and translated works of Russian and Belarusian writers. Shumytsky, My kola [Sumyc'kyj], b 30 April 1889 in Chernihiv, d February 1982 in Paris. Architect and civic leader. A graduate of the Kiev Polytechnical Institute, he was active in the revolutionary events of 1917-19 as chairman of the Council of Railways of Ukraine (1917), deputy of the railway workers to the Central Rada, and member of the Ukrainian Military Council. In September 1919 he was sent as a member of the UNR delegation to the Paris Peace Conference. In 1921 he was appointed head of the Ukrainian diplomatic mission in Paris. He worked closely with S. Petliura. He was the sole president of the *Union of Ukrainian Emigré Organizations in France (1925-42) and its representative in the Advisory Council on Refugees of the League of Nations. His publications include articles on Ukrainian architecture and wooden churches and recollections of the revolutionary period. Shut, Andrii [Sut, Andrij], b ?, d 1873. The most talented kobzar of the Chernihiv region. After losing his sight at 17 as a result of smallpox, he learned to play the kobza from P. Kozel. His repertoire included the dumas about the Widow and Her Three Sons, the Cossack Fesko Handzha Andyber, Khmelnytsky and Barabash, Khmelnytsky and Vasile of Moldavia, the death of Bohdan Khmelnytsky, Ivan Konovchenko, the Bila Tserkva peace treaty, the Flight of the Three Brothers from Azov, Oleksii Popovych, Samiilo Kishka, and the Oppression of Ukraine by the Polish Gentry. He also sang historical and lyrical songs and psalms. Shut's songs were transcribed and published by P. Kulish, H. Bazylevych, and A. Metlynsky. Shut, Vasyl [Sut', Vasyl'], b 26 April 1899 in Zolotonosha, Poltava gubernia, d 23 August 1982 in Chicago. Composer, conductor, and teacher. He graduated from

Vasyl Shut

the Lysenko Drama and Music Institute in Kiev in the composition class of V. Zolotarev (1930). In the 19303 he was composer-conductor in music-drama theaters in Kiev and the Donbas region, and he wrote music for nearly 30 plays. In 1950 he settled in Chicago, where he taught piano and conducted the St Nicholas Cathedral choir. His compositions include four symphonies; piano and violin concertos and sonatas; seven string quartets; three piano trios and a piano sextet; and 34 published solo songs to texts by T. Shevchenko, I. Franko, Lesia Ukrainka, O. Oles, O. Teliha, T. Kurpita, and others. Shutenko, Taisiia [Sutenko, Taïsija], b 5 October 1905 in Kharkiv, d 14 September 1975 in Kiev. Composer and educator. A graduate of the Kharkiv Music and Drama Institute (1930) and the Moscow Conservatory (1937), she taught in vocational music schools and secondary music schools in Kharkiv. In 1956 she moved to Kiev. She wrote orchestral works, such as the symphony Karmeliuk (1937), an overture, and a string quartet; works for folk instruments (including 16 pieces for bandura); and musical scores for plays, such as Marusia Bohuslavka, Princess Victoria, Macbeth, and Puss in Boots. Shutko, My kola [Sut'ko], b 19 December 1927 in Kryvyi Rih (now in Dnipropetrovske oblast). Stage and film actor. He completed study at the Dnipropetrovske Theater school in 1948 and then worked in the Chernivtsi Oblast Ukrainian Music and Drama Theater (1950-63), the Kiev Ukrainian Drama Theater (1963-82), and the Kiev Artistic Film Studio (1982). He acted in the films Vony bylysia za bat'kivshchynu (They Fought for the Fatherland, 1975) and Vavilon xx (Babylon xx, 1979). Shvachka, Mykyta [Svacka], b ca 1728, d after 1768 in Nerchinsk, Siberia. Zaporozhian Cossack and haidamaka leader. At the outbreak of the *Koliivshchyna rebellion (1768) he joined forces with M. Zalizniak. Together with a detachment led by A. Zhurba he took the town of Khvastiv and established it as a rebel operations center. In the summer of 1768 he was captured by tsarist troops near Bohuslav and sentenced to hard labor in Siberia, where he died. Shvachka became a folk hero and the subject of a poem by T. Shevchenko. Shvachko, Oleksii [Svacko, Oleksij], b 18 January 1901 in Chopylky, near Pereiaslav, Poltava gubernia, d 28 March 1988 in Kiev. Film director and stage actor. He was a student at the Lysenko Music and Drama Institute in

SHYDLOVSKY

Kiev (1920-2) and completed his studies at the Kiev Institute of People's Education (1925). He acted in Berezil (1922-5) and in the Odessa (1925-8) and Kiev (from 1928) artistic film studios. He directed the film productions of I. Karpenko-Kary's Martyn Borulia (1953) and Zemlia (Land, based on O. Kobylianska, 1954) and the documentaries Daleko vid batkivshchyny (Far from the Fatherland, 1965) and Rozvidnyky (The Scouts, 1968). Shvarno Danylovych [Svarno Danylovyc] (Lithuanian: Svarnas), b ca 1230, d 1269. Kievan Rus' prince and grand duke of Lithuania (from 1267); younger son of Danylo Romanovych. He married the daughter of Grand Duke Mindaugas in 1254 to strengthen a treaty between Lithuania and Galicia-Volhynia, and was given rule over Chorna Rus'. After Danylo's death in 1264 he also ruled the Halych, Kholm, and Dorohychyn principalities. When Mindaugas was assassinated (1263), Shvarno assisted his son, *Vaisvilkas, in securing the Lithuanian throne. Vaisvilkas, a monk, abdicated in 1267 in favor of Shvarno, who ruled as grand duke until his death. Shvetlosts (Enlightenment). A literary and art quarterly published for the Ruthenians of Yugoslavia by Ruske slovo in Ruski Krstur in 1952-4 and 1966-7 and since 1967 in Novi Sad. It contains poetry, prose, and popular and scholarly articles on the language, history, and folklore of the Ruthenians, and it serves as a bridge between Yugoslavian culture and the culture of other countries, particularly Ukraine and Czechoslovakia. The centerpiece of the journal consists of the literary works of Ruthenian writers, such as Ya. Feisa, M. Vinai, M. Kovach, Ye. Kochish, and H. Nad (of the older generation); M. Kochish, V. Mudry, V. Kostelnyk, M. Koloshniai, M. Budynsky, L. Budynsky Faits, and M. Skuban (of the middle generation); and D. Paparhai, H. Hafich, A. Prokop, M. Striber, B. Vesermini, I. Hardy, and D. Hrubenia (of the younger generation).

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where he served as a professor at the Ukrainian Free University (from 1923) and the Ukrainian Higher Pedagogical Institute (1924-9). He published numerous geological studies. Shvets, Ivan [Svec'l, b 25 May 1901 in Khutir Mykhailivskyi (now Druzhba), Hlukhiv county, Chernihiv gubernia, d 5 September 1983 in Kiev. Energy research scientist; full member of the AN URSR (now ANU) from 1950. He studied and taught at the Kiev Industrial (now Polytechnical) Institute and became director of the ANU Institute of Thermoenergetics (1942-54). He was rector of Kiev University (1952-72), and worked at the ANU Institute of Technical Thermophysics (from 1975). He developed new steam and gas turbines, served on various energy and electrification committees, and was active in energy administration and energy politics in the USSR. Shvets, Vasyl [Svec', Vasyl'], b 17 January 1918 in Ivankiv, Radomyshl county, Kiev gubernia. Writer. He began publishing in the 19305 and has published many poetry collections, the most recent being Spodivannia (Expectations, 1984), and one novel, Lysty v okopy (Letters to the Trenches, 1985). The Second World War is a constant theme in his works. In 1982 he became the first recipient of the V. Sosiura Prize.

Anatolii Shydlovsky

Fedir Shvets

Ivan Shvets

Shvets, Fedir [Svec'l, b 1882 in Cherkasy county, Kiev gubernia, d 20 June 1940 in Prague. Geologist and political activist. He graduated from Dorpat University (1910) and taught as a professor of geology at Kiev University (191718). He was a member of the CC of the Peasant Association and of the 'central current7 of the Ukrainian Party of Socialist Revolutionaries. He was also a member of the Directory of the UNR (1918-19). He emigrated to Prague,

Shydlovsky, Anatolii [Sydlovs'kyj, Anatolij] (Shidlovsky, Anatol), b 10 October 1933 in Vepryk, Bobrovytsia raion, Chernihiv oblast. Electrical and electric power engineer; full member of the ANU (formerly AN URSR) since 1985. He studied at the Kiev Polytechnical Institute and has worked since 1959 at the ANU Institute of Electrodynamics, where he has been director since 1973. He also served as secretary of the ANU Division of the PhysicalTechnical Problems of Energetics. He has made contributions in the areas of multiphase electric circuitry and the stabilization of electric power networks. Shydlovsky, Andrii [Sydlovs'kyj, Andrij] (Shidlovsky, Andrei), b 17 November 1818 in Voronezh gubernia, Russia, d 7 May 1892 in Karabachyn, Radomyshl county, Kiev gubernia. Astronomer and geodesist. A graduate of Kharkiv (PH D, 1837) and Dorpat (M PHIL, 1841) universities, he worked as an astronomer at the Pulkovo Observatory (1841-3) and was a professor at Kharkiv University (1843-56) and Kiev University (1856-68), where he also di-

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rected the Kiev Astronomical Laboratory. Shydlovsky took part in a major geodesic survey under the leadership of V. Struve; as part of this effort, he measured the exact geographic co-ordinates of a number of locations in Ukraine. He also took part in other surveys and expeditions. Shyian, Anatolii [Syjan, Anatolij], b 5 April 1906 in Borysivka, now in Belgorod oblast, Russia, d 11 May 1989 in Kiev. Writer. He completed studies at the Kiev Institute of Forest Technology in 1929. He is the author of many novels and short stories, such as Balando. (Prison Soup, 1930), Na kryzhyni (On the Ice Floe, 1930), Opovidannia (Stories, 1931), Kateryna Kozhushana (1938), Magistral' (The Highway, 1934), and Khurtovyna (The Storm, 1979, 1984). His stories for children include Ivasyk-Telesyk (1947), Kotyhoroshko (1947), lalynka (The Christmas Tree, 1947), P'iesykazky (Plays - Fairy Tales, 1951), Pro khloptsiv-iuntsiv, dobrykh molodtsiv (About the Boys - Good Fellows All, 1955), and Ivan - muzhyts 'kyi syn (Ivan, the Peasant's Son, 1959, 1982). Shyian, Kyr [Syjan], b 21 June 1902 in Berezova Luka, Myrhorod county, Poltava gubernia, d 1974. Historian. He graduated from the Nizhen Institute of People's Education (1930) and taught in Kharkiv at the Scientific Research Institute of the History of Ukrainian Culture (1930-4), the Pedagogical Institute (1939-56), and the university (from 1956; director of the department of the history of the USSR from 1963). He wrote Borot'ba robitnychoho klasu Ukrainy za vidbudovu promyslovosti (1921-1926 rr.) (The Struggle of the Working Class of Ukraine for the Rebuilding of Industry [1921-6], 1959), coauthored Mynule i suchasne sela (The Past and Present of the Village, 1963), and contributed to the collective works Istoriia robitnychoho klasu Ukraïns 'koï RSR (History of the Working Class of the Ukrainian SSR, vol 2, 1967) and Rozvytok narodnoho hospodarstva Ukraïns'koï RSR, 1917-19(57 (Development of the National Economy of the Ukrainian SSR, 1917-67,1967). Shyianiv, Hryhorii [Syjaniv, Hryhorij], b 30 November 1874 in the Chernihiv region, d 23 December 1955 near Podëbrady, Czechoslovakia. Lawyer, judge, and civic figure. In 1918 he was a member of the UNR General Court and the Hetmán government's State Senate (supreme court). An émigré in Bohemia from 1920, he taught law at the Ukrainian Husbandry Academy in Podëbrady and was a member of its last senate. He wrote for the academy the first Ukrainian textbook about automobiles and a textbook on private law. Shylo, Havrylo [Sylo], b 26 March 1910 in Dereviane, Rivne county, Volhynia gubernia, d 17 January 1988 in Lviv. Linguist. A graduate of Warsaw University (1937), he defended his candidate's dissertation on the palatography and phonemic system of Ukrainian at the University of Lviv (1947) and taught at pedagogical institutes in Lviv (1947-59) and Drohobych (from 1959). He wrote a monograph on the southwestern Ukrainian dialects (1957) and articles on their lexicon, phonetics, syntax, and toponyms and on Slavic prothesis. He also prepared a linguistic atlas and dictionary of the dialects of the Dniester Basin, which remain unpublished.

Kostiantyn Shylo

Yurii Shymko

Shylo, Kostiantyn [Sylo, Kostjantyn], b 11 June 1879 in Orlovskoe, Primore oblast in the Far East, d 1933. Civic and cultural activist; father of M. *Shylo. The commissioner of education in Kiev gubernia under the Central Rada, in the 19205 he headed the editorial department at the Kiev branch of the All-Ukrainian Academy of Sciences and lectured at the Kiev Agricultural Institute. He was arrested in 1929, tried for belonging to the *Union for the Liberation of Ukraine, and given a suspended three-year sentence. After the trial he worked briefly in the laboratory of a veterinary institute. Shylo, Mykola [Sylo], b 6 September 1913 in Kiev, d 22 April 1982 in Kiev. Architect; son of K. Shylo. A graduate of the Kiev Civil-Engineering Institute (1939), in 1953 he was appointed director of the Kiev Planning Institute of Residential-Civil and Communal Construction. In Kiev he designed the building of the Ministry of Agriculture (1955-6) and residential buildings. He also helped to plan the expansion of the city center (1970). Shymanovsky, Oleksander [Symanovs'kyj], b 16 July 1860 in Ukraine, d 3 January 1918 in Kiev. Ophthalmologist. A graduate of Kiev University (1884), he worked there from 1891 and taught at the Higher Courses for Women (1910-11). His publications deal with conjunctivitis, eye traumas, tuberculous infections of the eye, and the transplantation of the anterior part of the eye. Shymanovsky, Vitalii [Symanovs'kyj, Vitalij], b 12 November 1928 in Antonivka, Bila Tserkva okruha. Specialist in construction mechanics and design; corresponding member of the ANU (formerly AN URSR) since 1982. He graduated from the Kiev Hydromelioration Institute (1954). From 1962 to 1980 he worked at the USSR Institute of Building Constructs as assistant director, and in 1980 he became director of the Ukrainian Scientific Research and Development Institute of Steel Construction. He has developed new methods of constructing and calculating loading and stresses in suspension bridge structures. Shymanovsky, Vsevolod [Symanovs'kyj], b 1866 in Kiev, d 1934 in Krymske, Krasnodar krai. Apiarist. He completed military training and served on the general staff of the Russian army, and then taught in rural schools in Kiev and Volhynia gubernias. In 1910-26 he taught at

SHYPYNTSI

the Boiarka Apiarian School. He wrote Metody pchelovozheniia (Methods of Beekeeping, 1926). Shymchuk, Mykola [Symcuk], b 9 January 1949 in Kopytkove, Zdolbuniv raion, Rivne oblast. Artist. He completed study at the Lviv Institute of Applied and Decorative Arts (1973), where he specialized in decorative glass. Since 1975 he has participated in international, local, and all-Union group exhibitions. He has shown his stained glass at solo exhibitions in Lviv (1980, 1983, and 1987). Shymko, Yurii [Symko, Jurij], b 6 September 1940 in Kozle, Silesia, Poland. Community leader and politician leader. After emigrating to Canada with his parents (1953) he graduated from the University of Toronto (1961) and the Ontario College of Education (1963). He taught secondary school and was active in the Progressive Conservative party. In 1978 he was elected in the High Park electoral district to the Canadian House of Commons, and in 1981 and 1985 as a member of the provincial parliament in Ontario. He has been active in a number of Ukrainian organizations, particularly the Canadian League for Ukraine's Liberation. In 1973-8 he served as general secretary of the *World Congress of Free Ukrainians, and in 1988 he was elected its president.

loanikii Shymonovych

Volodymyr Shynkaruk

Shymonovych, loanikii [Symonovyc, loanikij], b 16 November 1885 in Husiatyn, Kamianets-Podilskyi county, Podilia gubernia, d 1938? Economist and statistician. He studied at St Petersburg University and was active in the Ukrainian Hromada there. In 1917 he was elected to the Ukrainian Central Rada in Kiev and appointed to the position of aide to the UNR minister of postal and telegraph services. Later he taught political economy at the Kamianets-Podilskyi Ukrainian State University (1920-1) and in Lviv. In 1926 he emigrated to Soviet Ukraine. He was a member of the Scientific Research Department of Agricultural Economics in Kiev. He taught at the Kiev Agricultural Institute and in Kazan, Russia, and Staline (Donetske). He was imprisoned in Stalinist concentration camps in the 19305, and his fate after 1938 is unknown. Shymonovych wrote works on Ukrainian industry (1920), Ukrainians in the Soviet Far East (1923), Galicia (1928), and agricultural co-operatives in Ukraine, and a history of political economy (1923).

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Shymonovych-Semyhynovsky, Yurii [SymonovycSemyhynovs'kyj, Jurij] (Polish: Jerzy Eleuter Szymonowicz Semiginowski), b ca 1660 in Lviv, d 1711. Galician painter and engraver. After studying at St Luke's Academy in Rome he was appointed painter to the court of King Jan m Sobieski in 1687. He painted allegorical presentations of the four seasons on the plafonds in the Wilanów royal castle in Warsaw and portraits of the royal family and of the royal couple on horses. The icons of St Anne at St Anne's Church in Cracow and of St Sebastian at the Holy Cross Church in Warsaw, as well as the pictures of Bacchus, Ariadne, and the Holy Family now in the Lviv Art Gallery, are attributed to him. Shynkaruk, Volodymyr [Synkaruk], b 22 April 1928 in Haivoron, Bila Tserkva okruha. Philosopher; full member of the ANU (formerly AN URSR) since 1978 and corresponding member of the USSR (now Russian) Academy of Sciences since 1981. Since graduating from Kiev University (1950; candidate of sciences, 1954) he has lectured there on the history of philosophy. He was appointed dean of the philosophy faculty in 1965 and head of the department of ethics, esthetics, and logic in 1967. Since 1968 he has directed the ANU Institute of Philosophy, and he was the first editor of its journal Filosofs'ka dumka (1969-71, 1979-88). He served three terms (1972-86) as president of the Ukrainian Branch of the Philosophical Society of the USSR and vice-president of the society. His numerous (over 250) publications deal chiefly with the history of dialectical materialism, the relationship between the dialectic in its ontological, logical, and epistemological sense, and the role of Marxism- Leninism, the Soviet worldview, and Soviet culture. His chief works are books in Russian on the logic, dialectic, and theory of knowledge of G. Hegel (1964) and I. Kant (1974); on the unity of the dialectic, logic, and theory of knowledge (1977); and on the humanism of the dialectico-materialistic world view (coauthor, 1984). As chief editor of complete editions of the works of H. Skovoroda (2 vols, 1973) and T. Prokopovych (3 vols, 1979-81) and the ANU history of philosophy in Ukraine (2 vols, 1987), he has contributed to the study of Ukrainian intellectual history. In 1989 he was elected to the USSR Congress of People's Deputies as the head of the *Znannia Society of the Ukrainian SSR, and chaired the Ukrainian Supreme Soviet's working group on drafting new language legislation. T. Zakydalsky

Shypyntsi [Sypynci]. v-6. A village (1989 pop 3,160) in Kitsman raion, Chernivtsi oblast. It is a historical site on the left bank of the Sovytsia River (a tributary of the Prut River), first mentioned in documentary sources in 1433. Its name probably derived from the hissing (shypinnia) of water flowing into a nearby hollow known as Kruhle Bolo to. In the 13th to 15th centuries Shypyntsi was the center of the *Shypyntsi land. Many Neolithic artifacts of the Trypilian culture have been found there, including painted ceramics and figurines. A bracelet and a hatchet date from the Bronze Age, and Roman coins have also been found. Archeological digs were conducted by J. Szombathy (1893) and E. Kostin (1904-14), and their findings were transferred to the Chernivtsi Museum and the Vienna Museum of Natural History. Some of the earliest immigrants to Canada came from Shypyntsi; they established a like-named settlement near Smoky Lake, Alberta (1896).

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Shypyntsi land (Shypynska zemlia; Terra Sepinecensis). The historical name of a territory in *Bukovyna from the time of the Principality of Galicia-Volhynia to the establishment of the Principality of ^Moldavia (from the late 13th to the mid-i5th centuries). The beginning of its existence has been variously fixed at after the Tatar invasion in the mid-i3th century (M. Korduba), after the dissolution of the Galician-Volhynian principality in the mid-i4th century (B. Tymoshchuk), and during the migration of Rumanian peoples from Transylvania in the mid-i4th century (T. Balan). The first mention of the Shypyntsi land occurs in J. Dhigosz's account of Casimir m the Great's campaign against Moldavia in 1359; the last extant document to mention it is from 1444 (in E. Hurmuzaki [ed], Documente privitoare la istoria Românilor, vol i, no. 2 [1874]). The Shypyntsi land was made up of sections of northern Bukovyna and Bessarabia, covering approx the same area as present-day *Chernivtsi oblast; its capital was *Shypyntsi. The land was divided into three volosti, Tsetsyn (east of Chernivtsi), Khotyn, and Khmeliv (near Karapchiv, in the Cheremosh River valley). The volost centers were fortified settlements known in various documents as hrady. The Shypyntsi land developed successfully because of its relative isolation from Tatar nomads and its position on the Lviv-Suceava trade route; Shypyntsi was particularly known for its large livestock markets. In the 14th and 15th centuries there were more than loo villages in the land, some of which had existed since the Princely era (Kitsman, Kuchuriv, Onut, Repuzhyntsi, Vasyliv); others had been established at the end of the 13th and the beginning of the 14th centuries (Hlyboka, Luzhany, Vashkivtsi). Among the few that arose after the arrival of the Rumanians in the 14th century were Rokytna and Tarasivtsi.

Because it was essentially a borderland between Moldavia and Poland, the Shypyntsi land was in most respects autonomous and sovereign until the Moldavian principality extended its control over it. The territory was then settled by ^Ukrainians, who continue to make up the population. BIBLIOGRAPHY Korduba, M. 'Moldavs'ko-pol's'ka hranytsia na Pokutti do smerty Stefana Velykoho/ Zbirnyk NTSh (Lviv 1906) Balan, T. Jara Çipenitului (Chernivtsi 1926) Tymoshchuk, B. Shypyns 'ko. zemlia za arkheolohichnymy danymy: Mynule i suchasne Pivnichnoï Bukovyny (Kiev 1973) A. Zhukovsky

Shyriaieve [Syrjajeve]. vi-n. A town smt (1986 pop 7,400) on thé Velykyi Kuialnyk River and a raion center in Odessa oblast. It was founded at the end of the i8th century by Bulgarian settlers and runaway Ukrainian serfs, and was called Stepanivka until 1918. It is an agricultural town with several food-processing plants. Shyroke [Syroke]. ¥1-14. A town smt (1986 pop 11,700) on the Inhulets River and a raion center in Dnipropetrovske oblast. It originated in the second half of the i8th century as a Cossack wintering settlement in Inhulets palanka of the New Sich territory. In the 19th century it belonged to Kherson gubernia and developed as a farming and trading town. In 1938 it attained smt status. Today the town has a brewery and a chicken incubating station. Shyroke burial site. A *Cimmerian burial ground of the 9th to early 8th century BC near Shyroke, Skadovske raion, Kherson oblast. Excavations in 1961-3 uncovered approx 130 flexed burials pointing south. Grave goods recovered included pottery, adornments, and stone tools. Shyrokov, Oleksander [Syrokov] (Shirokov, Aleksandr), b 5 September 1905 in Ivanovo, Russia. Geologist; corresponding member of the AN URSR (now ANU) since 1957. He graduated from the Dnipropetrovske Mining Institute in 1930 and worked there from 1946, becoming professor and department head in 1979. His research involved the elucidation of patterns of coal-vein formation in the major basins of the European part of the USSR, with particular emphasis on the Donetske Basin. His numerous publications include Bol'shoi Donbass (The Great Donbas, 1957). Shyrotsky, Kostiantyn [Syroc'kyj, Kostjantyn] (Sherotsky; pseuds: Kost, K. Ladyzhenko, K. Sushchynsky), b 7 June 1886 in Vilshanka, Olhopil county, Podilia gubernia, d 13 September 1919 in Bilousivka, Bratslav county, Podilia gubernia. Art historian and community figure. A graduate of the St Petersburg Archeological Institute (1911) and St Petersburg University (1912), he lectured in the university's department of art history and was active in the Ukrainian Hromada in St Petersburg. He devoted himself to the study of Ukrainian and Russian art and architecture and collected Western Ukrainian folk art. He contributed to Rada, Ukrainskaia zhizn', and Zapysky NTSh. After the February Revolution he was appointed commissioner of Horodenka county in Galicia by the Russian Provisional Government, and in 1918 he organized the UNR Secretariat of Education. He wrote 16 articles

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much information about Ukrainian folklore and ethnography. His own works include a historical and ethnographic study of Olyshivka (1854), a collection of 'Little Russian' sayings and proverbs (1857), and a two-volume collection of poetry (1856-7).

Kostiantyn Shyrotsky

on T. Shevchenko's artworks (1911-14), books on H. Levytsky (1914), the first volume of a history of Ukraine's decorative art (1914, dealing with interior home decoration), and an illustrated guide to Kiev (1917). Under the pseudonym K. Baladyzhenko he and P. Balytsky wrote, in Russian, an illustrated history of Galicia (1915), a book on Bukovyna and its past (1915), and a brief history of the Principality of Galicia (1915). Shyshaky [Sysaky]. 17-15. A town smt (1986 pop 5,100) on the Psol River and a raion center in Poltava oblast. The village probably originated in the 14th century. It was first mentioned in historical documents in the 17th century. Under the Hetmán state it was a company center of Myrhorod regiment. In the 19th century it belonged to Myrhorod county in Poltava gubernia. Today the town has a cheese, a brick, and a mineral-water bottling factory.

Serhii Shyshko: Kiev: Khreshchatyk (oil, 1973)

Shyshko, Serhii [Shysko, Serhij], b 25 June 1911 in Nosivka, Nizhen county, Chernihiv gubernia. Painter. He studied at the Kiev State Art Institute (1929-33) under F. Krychevsky and at the Leningrad Institute of Painting, Sculpture, and Architecture (1936-43). Athough he paints portraits and still lifes, he is best known for his landscapes, many of which constitute the 'Kiev Suite' begun in 1944. He has also painted series depicting the landscapes of Samarkand (1942), the Carpathians (1947), Crimea (1956), and places connected with T. Shevchenko's life. His work has been shown in numerous exhibitions in Ukraine and abroad and reproduced in three albums (1971,1977,1987).

Shyshatsky, Varlaam [Sysac'kyj], b 1751 in Shyshaky, Poltava region, d 23 July 1820 in Novhorod-Siverskyi. Orthodox churchman. He probably studied at the Kievan Mohyla Academy before taking his monastic vows in 1776. He was prefect and rector of the Pereiaslav College. At the same time he served as hegumen of the Moshnohorskyi and Pereiaslav-St Michael's monasteries. He served as rector of the Novhorod-Siverskyi Seminary (1785-7), overseer of the Holy Spirit Monastery in Vilnius (1787-9), and head of several other monasteries in the Novhorod-Siverskyi region before being consecrated bishop of Zhytomyr in 1795. Subsequently he was bishop of Volhynia and of Mahiliou and Belarus (1805) and archbishop of Mahiliou and Vitsebsk (1808). In these positions he often supported the principle of an autocephalous Ukrainian-Belarusian Orthodox church, independent of the Moscow Patriarchate. During the French army's occupation of Mahiliou in 1812, he became a supporter of Napoleon Bonaparte and praised him in sermons. After the Russian army recaptured the town in 1813, Shyshatsky was defrocked and sentenced to life imprisonment in the Novhorod-Siverskyi Transfiguration Monastery.

Siabry. A class of peasants in Kievan Rus' and later in the Lithuanian-Ruthenian state who communally farmed land or engaged in other production, such as beekeeping, fishing, or the salt trade. The siabr system of ownership and economy is interpreted in different ways by historians. It is mentioned in the missive of Metropolitan K. Smoliatych, who equates the status of siabry to that of *izhoi. In the laws of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania (the Lithuanian Statute of 1529) they are described as participants in peasant husbandry who do not necessarily have the same rights as ^landless peasants. The siabr economy expanded rapidly in central and eastern Ukraine in the loth and 17th centuries, when those regions were colonized, but it was gradually displaced by the rule of hereditary nobles. Vestiges, such as community use of pastures and fields, remained until the early 2Oth century.

Shyshatsky-Illich, Oleksander [Sysac'kyj-Illic], b 1828 in Krasylivka, Kozelets county, Chernihiv gubernia, d 1859 in Chernihiv. Poet and ethnographer. A graduate of the Chernihiv Theological Seminary, he edited the Chernigovskie gubernskie vedomosti (1854-9), which printed

Siadrysty, Mykola [Sjadrystyj], b i September 1937 in Kolisnykivka, Kupianka raion, Kharkiv oblast. Master of microscopic miniatures. A graduate of the Kharkiv Agricultural Institute (1960) and the Kharkiv Art School (1961), he has created microscopic bas-relief portraits of T.

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Franko, O. Oles, M. Vorony, M. Rylsky, and others; literary criticism (eg, about the works of V. Vynnychenko, Yu. Fedkovych, and M. Kotsiubynsky); and reproductions of the works of T. Shevchenko, M. Burachek, F. Krasytsky, M. Pymonenko, O. Sudomora, M. Paraschuk, F. Balavensky, and other artists. The journal was closed down by the Russian government following the outbreak of the First World War.

Mykola Siadrysty

Shevchenko, S. Krushelnytska, and Dante in cherrystones or thorn-berry stones and watercolor portraits of I. Franko, V. Symonenko, Michelangelo, and E. Hemingway on pear or apple seed sections. He has also produced some of the world's smallest books, including a o.6-sq-mm version of Shevchenko's Kobzar, a synchronous motor 200 times smaller than a poppy seed, and a 3.5-mm-long frigate with 337 details. He is the author of two books, Chy vario pidkuvaty blokhu? (Is It Worth Shoeing a Flea?, 1966) and Tainy mikrotekhniki (Secrets of Microtechnology, 1969). His unbelievable works have been exhibited around the world. Siaivo (Aura). A publishing house in Kiev, established in 1913 to publish the journal *Siaivo. Its first book was M. Vorony's poetry collection V siaivi mrii (In the Aura of Dreams, 1913). In 1914 Siaivo was closed down in the tsarist crackdown on Ukrainian-language publications after the outbreak of the First World War. Revived in 1918 by P. Kovzhun and M. Semenko, it published several important books of poetry and prose: P. Tychyna's Soniashni klarnety (Sunny Clarinets, 1918), O. Slisarenko's Na berezi kastal's'komu (On the Castalian Shore, 1918), V. Yaroshenko's Svitotin' (Lightshadow, 1918), M. Semenko's Déviât' poem (Nine Poems, 1918) and P'iero kokhaie (Pierrot Loves, 1918), M. Ivchenko's Shumy vesniani (Murmurs of Spring, 1919), and H. Zhurba's Pokhid zhyttia (The March of Life, 1919). Siaivo ceased publishing in 1919, but it was again renewed during the period of the Ukrainization policy (1926-9). In that period it published a series of classic Ukrainian novels, a library of world literature (translations of V. Hugo, U. Sinclair, S. Zweig, and others), a Desheva biblioteka (Inexpensive Library) of Ukrainian literature, a two-volume edition of T. Shevchenko's works, L. Hlibov's poetry, and a 12-volume edition of J. London's works in Ukrainian translation. Siaivo (Aura). A monthly journal of literature and the arts published in Kiev from January 1913 to September 1914 (a total of 21 issues). It was established on the initiative of its illustrator, P. Kovzhun. The formal editor and publisher was the actor O. Korolchuk, but the actual editor was I. Steshenko. Siaivo published articles by prominent cultural figures: V. Krychevsky wrote on architecture; P. Chaika, Ye. Kuzmin, A. Sereda, and O. Sudomora on art; M. Biliashivsky and D. Shcherbakivsky on folk art and ethnography; V. O'Connor-Vilinska, V. Boretsky, and V. Verkhovynets on music; and M. Vorony, M. Sadovsky, I. Steshenko, S. Rusova, and K. Shyrotsky on theater. It also published original literary works by I.

Sian dialects. Ukrainian dialects spoken in a narrow belt running along the Sian River from the upper Sian in the south to the Polish dialectal zone in the north and west. Except for a small northeastern section, the Sian dialectal area remained after 1945 within the political borders of Poland. Its speakers were dispersed as a result of postwar 'repatriation' to Soviet Ukraine and the forced resettlement of those left behind in 1947 in western and northern Poland. It is likely that the Sian dialects (and part of the contiguous *Lemko dialects) constituted a prehistoric transitional Ukrainian-Polish dialect, whose speakers in the west (between the Wislok [Vyslik] and Sian rivers) became Polonized during the 14th to 19th centuries. The dialects had the following phonetic traits: (i) retention of the distinction between the ancient i and w, though not in the groups k'i, h'i, x'i and dbi, zw, Sbi, rbi (eg, zbiti [Standard Ukrainian (su) zyty] 'to live'); retention of the groups kbi, hbi, xbi in the south and north, but their change into k'e, h'e, x'e when stressed, and into k'i, h'i, x'i when unstressed in the center; (2) evolution of the groups pë, be, vë, me into pji, bji, vji, mn 'i (eg, bjuyj, mn 'ira [su bílyj, mira] 'white, measure'); (3) tense pronunciation of stressed e and raised pronunciation of unstressed e, o as i, u (eg, verx, muludíc'i [SU verx, molodycja] 'top, young woman'), and lowered pronunciation of stressed y, i (eg, bek [SU byk] 'bull'); (4) lowered pronunciation of e as a before and after r and after c, z, s, j (eg, saradina, sastyj [su seredyna, sostyj] 'middle, sixth'); (5) retention in certain dialects of 'u from ê (eg, t'útka [su tftka] 'aunt'), and of o, ou, bi, y from ô (eg, myst [SU mist] 'bridge'); (6) retention of 'a in the north and south, but its alteration into 'e in the middle of the zone (and '/ when unstressed [eg, muludic'i (su molodyci) 'young women']); (7) labialization of the group av into ou (eg, stou [su stav] 'he stood'); (8) semisoft / before e, i (eg, bbili [su buly] 'they were'); (9) change of / into ü after a vowel at the end of a syllable (eg, viü [SU vil] 'ox'); (10) absence of epenthetic / ' after labials in verb forms (eg, lómju [SU lomljú] 'am breaking', but ziml 'ê [su zemlja] 'land'); (11) hardening of the group r'u (and sporadically r'e from r'a) (eg, zúrus 'i, purédok [su zurjusja, porjadok] 'I worry, order'); (12) hardening of -t ', -s ', -c ' at the ends of words and of the suffixes -s'k-, -c'k-, -ycju (eg, xódit, vés [fs'on in the north], xlópic, rubítnicu [su xódyt', ves', xlópec', robitnycju] 'he walks, entire, boy, worker [fern ace]'); (13) absence of lengthened consonants in nouns of the type vis'il'e (su vesillja) 'wedding'; (14) prothetic v-/u-, j-, and (rarely) hbefore initial vowels (eg, vóku, hós 'in, jincuj [su óko, ósin ', ínsyj] 'eye, autumn, other'); (15) the changes vn, bn > mn, st' > s'c', n'k > jk (eg, mnuk, drimnbij, s'c'iná, malêjk'ij [su vnuk, dribnyj, stina, malen 'kyj] 'grandson, petty, wall, little'); (16) postpalatal rj in the groups rj/c, rjg (eg, rwrjfaz 'skillet'); (17) progressive assimilation of the groups zk, zc' as zg, zdz' (eg, knízga, knízdz'i [su knyzka, knyzci] 'book' nom and loc); (18) palatalization of consonantal groups before i (eg, z 7 'is, d 'vi [su zliz, dvi] 'he got off, two'); and (19) phonetics between words of the type d'it, malízmu [su did, my

SIAN REGION

maly] 'grandfather, we had', with changes of the preposition/prefix v into f/x before unvoiced consonants and into h before voiced consonants (eg, hdóma, xpaü [SU vdóma, vpav] 'at home, he fell'). In declension, the dialects had features such as endings of the type kós'c'om, torn mom rukóm/toü moü rukóü, f süú, pal'c'ima, pu pul'óx [su kístju, cijéju, mojéju rukóju, v sell, pal 'cjamy, po poljáx] 'with a bone, with my hand, in the village, with the fingers, on fields'); separate dual forms (eg, d'vi ruc'í [su dvi ruky] 'two hands'); use of nominative instead of vocative singular forms, except in personal names with zero endings (eg, mam [SU mamo] 'mother!'); uncontracted adjectival forms (eg, ládnuji poli [su harm pole} 'fine field') and widespread use of soft-type adjectives (eg, rid'n 'ij [su ridnyj] 'native'); and enclitic pronominal forms (eg, mi, t'i, ti,s'i, si,ji,ju/n'u [su mene/meni, tebe, tobi, sebe, sobi, jiji/jij, jiji] 'myself/to me, you, to you, oneself, to oneself, her/to her, her [ace]'). In conjugation, the dialects had infinitive forms such as mucy, picy(su mohty, pekty) 'to be able, to bake'; presenttense forms such as hádam, -as, -at (su hovorju, -rys, -rjat') 'I/you/they speak'; past-tense forms such as pisáüjim, -is, -álam, -alas, -álizmu, -álisti (su ia pysáv, ty pysáv, ja pysála, ty pysála, my pysály, vy pysály) 'I/you/I (fern)/you (fern)/ we/you (pi) wrote'; future-tense forms such as búdu pisáü, búdu písala (su budu pysaty) 'I (mase, fern) will write'; conditional forms such as xudiu bum, xudiu bus, xudüi bbizmu, xudüi bbisti (suja b xodyv, ty b xodyv, my b xodyly, vy b xodyly) 'I/you sing/we/you (pi) would go'; and imperative forms such as xot', xód'mu, xót'ti (su xody, xodímo, xodit') 'you/let us/you (pi) go'. Other traits included adverbs ending in - 'i (eg, lad 'n 'i [su hamo} 'nicely'); the suffix -isku (eg, ¿bitnisku [su zytnycja] 'rye store'); the suffixes - 'ê, - 'êti added to the surnames of unmarried girls (eg, Kuval'ê [su Kovalivna] 'Koval's daughter'); the prefixes na- (in superlatives, eg, naiad'n 'íssbij [su najharnisyj] 'most beautiful') and pry- (instead of pro-, eg, pryrok [su prorok] 'prophet'); prepositions and conjunctions such as biz, bêstu, zy, zyby (su bez/kriz ', prote, sco, scob) 'without/through, however, that, so that'; and characteristic stresses and lexemes, many of which are Polonisms, particularly caiques and, along the linguistic border, phonetic substitutions. BIBLIOGRAPHY Verkhrats'kyi, I. Tro hovor dolivs'kyi/ ZNTSh, 35-6 (1900) Pshep'iurs'ka, M. Nadsians'kyi hovir (Warsaw 1938) Pshepiurs'ka-Ovcharenko, M. 'Na pohranychchiakh nadsians'koho hovoru/ ZNTSh, 162 (1954) O. Horbach

Sian Lowland (Nadsianska kotlovyna). A triangleshaped lowland along the Sian River situated between the Little Polish Upland, the Carpathian foothills, and the Opilia Upland and Roztochia. It merges with the Dniester Lowland in the southeast. With the exception of its southeastern tip, located in Ukraine, the lowland is situated in present-day Poland. The western section of the formation, including the Sian region and the southern Kholm region, has historically been inhabited by Ukrainians. The Sian Lowland is a tectonic depression along the Carpathian foothills filled in by Miocene strata (up to 300 m thick) covered with glacial and alluvial deposits. It consists of elevated plateaus (the tallest being Tarnohorod) dissected by the valleys of rivers, such as the Tanev, the

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Liubachivka, the Shklo, and the Vyshnia. Loess can be found in parts of the plateaus, and dunes are situated in some of its sandy reaches. A large proportion of the lowland's forests have been cleared out, although pine forests mixed with firs and birches occur in the region's sandy areas, and fir forests mixed with hornbeams and maples grow in its heavier soils. The lowland has a population density of 80 persons/sq km; the population is predominantly (75 percent) rural. Sian River [Sjan] (Polish: San). The largest (right-bank) Carpathian tributary of the Vistula River. It is 444 km long and drains a basin area of 16,730 sq km. It flows quickly near its headwaters in the Beskyds. The cities of Peremyshl and Jaroslaw are situated on it. Although only the source of the river is located in Ukraine itself, the Sian runs for 50 km along the Polish-Ukrainian border and then continues through a large section of Ukrainian ethnic territory in Poland, notably the *Sian region. Sian region [Sjan] (Posiannia, also Zasiannia). A name occasionally used to designate the area situated approx along both sides of the Sian River north of the Lemko region and the city of Sianik along the border between Ukrainian and Polish ethnic territory. The Sian region includes sections of the Low and Middle Beskyds, the Carpathian foothills, and the Sian Lowland. Its major centers include the cities of *Peremyshl, *Jaroslaw, and *Sianik as well as Brzozdw (Bereziv), Radymno, Przeworsk (Perevorsk), and Lezajsk. It was part of the Kievan Rus' state and the Galician-Volhynian principality before coming under Polish control, as part of the Rus' voivodeship, in 1340-1772. In 1772-1918 the Sian region was part of the Austrian Empire, in 1918-19, part of the Western Ukrainian National Republic, and in 1923-39, part of the Polish state. In 1939 the region was divided between Germany (in the Generalgouvernement) and the Soviet Union along the Sian River, and then in 1941 occupied totally by the Germans. It was subsequently taken over by the Soviet Union and then ceded once more to Poland in a treaty signed on 16 August 1945. Only a tiny corner of the region, around Peremyshl, was incorporated into the Ukrainian SSR. Starting in the 15th century the Sian region was subjected to extensive Polonization with the colonization of lands by Polish settlers, the Polonization of incoming German settlers, and the common switch of religious and linguistic affiliation among the local population to the Roman Catholic rite and the Polish language. Over time the area's Ukrainian population became a definite minority, and the boundary between Polish and Ukrainian ethnic territory was rolled back approx 50 km to the east, from near the Vistula River to the Sian. Only a few pockets of Ukrainians remain in those easternmost reaches, the furthest afield being in the village of Ternavka, in the Przeworsk region. Other villages in those eastern areas generally had an ethnically mixed population in which the Ukrainians (commonly known as *zamishantsi) generally spoke Polish even though they understood the Ukrainian language and were adherents of the Greek Catholic church. It is estimated that in 1939 approx 40,000 Ukrainians lived in the Sian region west of the Polish-Ukrainian border. That number included about 50 per cent of the Ukrainian population that used Polish as its home language, but not the zamishantsi.

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SIAN REGION After the establishment of postwar boundaries in 19456, most of the Ukrainian population in the Sian region was resettled in the Ukrainian SSR. A smaller proportion was resettled in western or northern Poland, and only a tiny rump of Ukrainians was left in and around Peremyshl. The only completely Ukrainian settlement remaining in the region was the village of Kalnykiv, east of Radymno.

second half of the 19th century the town grew as a railway link and attracted industry. Its population increased from 2,500 at mid-century to 5,100 in 1880, 9,000 in 1900, and 12,100 in 1921. At the same time Ukrainian residents of Sianik were subjected to strong Polonization pressures.

V. Kubijovyc

Sianik or Sianok [Sjanik or Sjanok] (Polish: Sanok). iv-3. A city (1989 pop 39,400) on the Sian River and a county center in Krosno voivodeship, Poland. It was first mentioned, as a fortified town of Kievan Rus', in the Hypatian Chronicle under the year 1150. Later it was part of Peremyshl and then Galicia principalities. It was granted the rights of *Magdeburg law by Yurii II Boleslav in 1339, and developed into an important trade center. In the mid-i4th century Sianik was annexed by Poland and turned into the capital of Sianik land in Rus' voivodeship. In 1550, during the course of Catholic persecution of the Orthodox, St Demetrius's Church was closed. Toward the end of the loth century the town declined. With the partition of Poland in 1772, it was transferred to Austria, and became a county center of the Galician crownland. In the

Ukrainian peasant homes in the open-air museum in Sianik

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From 1880 to 1900 the Ukrainian population fell from 18 percent to 13.5 percent. In the interwar period the town remained a center of Ukrainian cultural life in the eastern Lemko region. In 1930 the *Lemkivshchyna Museum was established there, and in 1936 Sianik was chosen as the seat of the *Lemko Apostolic Administration. At the beginning of 1939, 1,800 (11.5 percent) of the town's residents were Ukrainian, 8,700 (56 percent) were Polish, and 5,100 (32.5 percent) were Jewish. Under the German occupation (1939-44) the Ukrainian population increased to 3,000, and Ukrainian cultural life revived. A Ukrainian secondary school was set up, and the Ukrainian Relief Committee, under P. Bilaniuk, was active. In 1946-7, during ^Operation Wisla, Ukrainians were deported from the town, and all signs of community life died out. Today Sianik is an industrial city. Its regional museum contains many Ukrainian monuments, including some icons from the former Lemkivshchyna Museum. The open-air Museum of Folk Architecture (est 1958) contains many exhibits by Boiko, Lemko, and other Ukrainian folk artists. Its periodical (published from 1969) often deals with Ukrainian folklore. The city's chief architectural monuments are the castle (built in 1523-48, renovated in 1672-7 and 1952-3), the Franciscan church and monastery (i7th and 19th centuries), and a church in the classical style (1784-9). An Orthodox parish and a branch of the Ukrainian Social and Cultural Society have been set up. BIBLIOGRAPHY Tarnovych, lu. Kniazhe misto Sianik (Cracow 1941)

V. Kubijovyc

Siberia. A large portion of Russia's territory in Asia, stretching from the Arctic Ocean south to Kazakhstan and Mongolia (3,500 km), and from the Urals east to the Pacific watershed (7,000 km). The region has an area of about 10 million sq km and a 1989 population of 26 million. In preSoviet usage Siberia included the *Far East and had an area of 12.5 million sq km. Its southern border with the socalled Steppe krai coincided largely with the present border, except that Omsk county belonged to the Steppe krai. Physical features. The main geomorphological regions of Siberia are the West Siberian Lowland (a huge plain of about 2 million sq km) and its southern continuation, the South Siberian Lowland; the Central Siberian Plateau, between the Yenisei and Lena rivers (average altitude 500700 m); the mountains of southern Siberia (Altai, Saian, Yablonovyi, and Stanovoi ranges); and the mountains of northeastern Siberia (Verkhoiansk, Cherskii, and Momskii ranges). Siberia is rich in natural resources: it had 75 percent of the former USSR coal deposits, petroleum and natural gas, iron ore, rare (gold) and nonferrous metals, and diamonds. The climate of Siberia is continental and for the most part moderately cold: subpolar and polar in the north and moderately warm and dry in the southwest. The average annual temperature is almost everywhere below o°c (-15 to -i8°c in the northeast); the average July temperature is 2 to 5°C in the extreme north and 22°c in the southwest; and the average January temperature is -i6°C in the southwest and -5O°C in the northeast. The world's lowest temperatures, adjusted for elevation, were recorded at Verkhoiansk (-68°c) and Oimiakon (-7i°c). Precipitation (coming mostly in the summer) ranges from 150-250 mm

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in the northeast to 500-530 mm in the west and reaches 2 m in the mountains. Snow cover lasts 5 to 10 months; much of the area is covered by permafrost. The dense river network empties mostly into the Arctic Ocean. The largest rivers are the Ob, Yenisei, and Lena. Ice-free for 5 to 8 months of the year, they are important transportation routes and sources of power. Ukrainians in Siberia. Information about Ukrainians in Siberia before the close of the 19th century, which marks the onset of mass peasant colonization, is rather incidental and inaccurate. Ukrainians made a significant contribution to the economic and cultural development of the region. There were Ukrainians among the Russian traders and state servitors who colonized Siberia and the Far East in the 17th and i8th centuries and then Kamchatka and Alaska. There were many Ukrainians among the exiles from various social strata who were banished by the authorities to Siberia. In 1642 'Cherkes' (as Ukrainians were known in Muscovy in the 17th century) families from *Slobidska Ukraine (188 people altogether) were deported to the Lena River, where they arrived only in 16467. This deportation was followed by others in 1646 and 1649. Even more Ukrainians were deported in the second half of the 17th century. Most of them were political exiles - opponents of Moscow's policy in Ukraine or persons suspected of Vacillation' or treason. Among them were the relatives and supporters of Hetmán I. *Vyhovsky, the opponents of the Moscow appointee I. Briukhovetsky (i66os), Hetmán D. *Mnohohrishny and his relatives (16705), and Hetmán I. *Samoilovych, with his son Yakiv and nephew Mykhailo (i68os). After I. Mazepa's defeat at Poltava (1709) many 'Mazepists/ such as General Judge V. Chuikevych, Col H. Novytsky, and the Myrovych family, ended up in Siberia. In 1723 Mazepa's nephew, A. *Voinarovsky, was exiled to Yakutsk. In the 17605 participants in the Koliivshchyna rebellion were condemned to Siberian penal colonies, and in the 17705, after the destruction of the Zaporozhian Sich, some of its officers were exiled to Siberia. In the 19th century Ukrainian revolutionaries (the ^Decembrists), populists (A. Krasovsky, S. Bohomolets, S. Kovalyk, Ye. Kovalsky, and Ya. Stefanovych), Social Democrats, and Bolsheviks (H. Petrovsky and M. Skrypnyk) were exiled there by court sentence or administrative order. Participants in peasant uprisings, such as U. *Karmaliuk, were deported there as convicts or so-called free settlers. Some Ukrainian civic and cultural figures suspected of 'separatism' by the authorities were transferred to government positions in Siberia. Many Ukrainians served in the Siberian Cossack hosts. Ukrainians played an important role in the economic, administrative, and cultural life of Siberia. They were found also in the higher administrative ranks: Gen M. Sulyma, the governor general of East (1833-4) and West (1834-6) Siberia, Gen P. Kaptsevych, the governor general of Tobolsk and Tomsk gubernias (1822-6), and several other governors of Siberian gubernias were of Ukrainian origin. They were also prominent in the church hierarchy of Siberia: F. *Leshchynsky (1702-21), I. *Maksymovych (1711-15), A. Stakhovsky (1721-40), A. *Matsiievych (1741-2), and P. Koniuskevych (1758-68) were metropolitans of Tobolsk and Siberia, and I. Kulchytsky (1727-31), I. Nerunovych (1732-47), and S. Krystalsky (1753-71) were bishops of Irkutsk. They surrounded themselves with clergy, mostly of Ukrainian origin, who contributed

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significantly to the cultural development of Siberia. Some of them (notably H. Novytsky) did research on Siberia and the Far East. The mass immigration of Ukrainian peasants to Siberia began in the late i88os. In 1885-1914,1,742,000 people (almost all of them Ukrainians) from nine Ukrainian gubernias and over 2,000,000 from all Ukrainian territories emigrated beyond the Urals. Of these, almost 35 percent settled in Siberia; the remaining settled mostly in the Steppe krai (now Kazakhstan) and the Far East. According to the 1897 census there were 142,000 Ukrainians in Siberia, 120,000 of them in the western regions. The real figure was unquestionably much higher. The proportion of Ukrainians in the population was highest in the southwestern part of Tomsk and Tobolsk gubernias. This sort of concentration reflected a desire by the Ukrainians to settle near their own people and in a forest-steppe or steppe environment with which they were familiar. During and immediately after the First World War there was little immigration to Siberia from Ukraine. Hence, the Ukrainian population of Siberia in 1914 was only slightly lower than in the 1926 census. This figure was about i million, or 12 percent of the total population. Since in fact about 19 percent of the inhabitants of Siberia originated from Ukraine, the actual figure was probably higher. 1917-20. The February Revolution in Russia sparked a vigorous political movement in Siberia. Ukrainians created various organizations: the Ukrainian Free Community in Omsk, the Regional Council in Tomsk, the Altai Gubernia Council in Kainsk, and other associations in Slavgorod, Kurgan, and Busk. Branches of Kievan relief institutions for deportees from Galicia and Bukovyna and captured Ukrainian soldiers of the Austrian army were set up in Omsk and other towns. Some Ukrainian POWs became active in Ukrainian communities in Siberia. Ukrainian papers appeared, among them Ukraïns'kyi holos in Omsk and Ukraïns'ke slovo in Tomsk. At the same time military organizations were formed, and at the end of 1917 several separate Ukrainian units were set up, including the Sahaidachny Battalion in Omsk and a battalion in Irkutsk. At the beginning of August 1917 the First Ukrainian Congress of Siberia took place in Omsk and established the Supreme Ukrainian Council of Siberia. Headed by H. Kontsevych (vice-president, M. Novoselsky), the council sent a delegate to the Central Rada in Kiev. In early October 1917 the democratic parties of Siberia held a conference which proclaimed Siberia's autonomy and convened the Extraordinary Congress of Siberia in Tomsk on 6-15 December 1917. The congress set up a provisional government consisting of the Siberian Provisional Oblast Duma (which included five Ukrainian deputies), an oblast council (responsible to the Duma), and an executive body (which included a Ukrainian member named Sulyma). The congress greeted the Central Rada in Kiev on the proclamation of the Third Universal, and the oblast soviet refused (7 January 1918) to recognize the Bolshevik government in Petrograd. At the end of January 1918 the Tomsk soviet of workers and soldiers disbanded the Siberian oblast council, but the provisional government continued to operate. Thus, there were two governments in Siberia. The position of the oblast council and the Provisional Autonomous Government was bolstered by the landing of Japanese and British troops at Vladivostok in April, the offensive of the Czechoslovak Corps against the

Bolsheviks in May, and the landing of American troops in August 1918. The Second Siberian All-Ukrainian Conference took place in Omsk on 11-13 August 1918 while these events unfolded. It was an important milestone in the history of Ukrainians in Siberia. It demanded that the Siberian oblast duma proclaim the independence of Siberia, give selfgovernment to the various nationalities (including Ukrainians), and form a Siberian army for the country's defense. These hopes were quickly dashed. The Whites had entered the military contest in Siberia and had forced the abdication of the democratic Provisional Autonomous Government in November 1918 to the central Russian Provisional Government (later headed by Admiral A. *Kolchak). This development represented a major setback to the Ukrainian movement in Siberia. A second major blow for the Ukrainians occurred in late 1919, when the Sahaidachny Battalion was dissolved after suffering heavy casualties against the Bolsheviks on the Ural front. This disaster was followed in January 1920 by the defeat of Kolchak's forces by Bolshevik forces, who then advanced and had taken control of the entire Far East by November 1920. 19205. The population of Siberia remained fairly stable during and after the war, with relatively few casualties during the revolution but little influx, since the flow of immigrants from west of the Urals was interrupted until the end of the civil war. Immigration increased somewhat after 1924, with a planned resettlement program. As a result the population of Siberia grew only modestly, from about 10 million at the beginning of 1915 to about 11 million (including Ishim and Kurgan okrugs, which belonged officially to Ural krai) by the end of 1926. The percentage of Russians, Ukrainians, and Belarusians together was practically the same (86.9) as in 1911 (86.7); the indigenous population declined from 10.6 to 7.5 percent. Ukrainians lived mainly in large groups on the arable lands of southwestern Siberia, which was part of the socalled Central Asian Steppe krai. In the Siberian part of this Steppe krai, consisting of almost the entire Slavgorod and parts of Omsk and Kamensk okrugs, Ukrainians formed a majority of the population: of 580,000 inhabitants, 310,000 (53.4 percent) were Ukrainians, 200,000 (34 percent) were Russians, and 25,000 (4.3 percent) were indigenous peoples. In the 17 raions of the Siberian part of the Central Asian Steppe krai Ukrainians formed a majority in 12. Another 400,000 Ukrainians lived in the part of west Siberia where Russians formed a majority. There they accounted for 10 to 40 percent of the population and lived usually in separate villages. Most of the 115,000 Ukrainians in east Siberia settled on pockets of fertile chernozem soils. According to the 1926 census they constituted 8.8 percent of the total rural population. Their largest urban concentrations in Siberia were in Omsk (9,700), Slavgorod (4,100), Krasnoiarsk (1,600), Irkutsk (1,300) and Tomsk (1,200). Ukrainians accounted for a notably high percentage of the population in Slavgorod and Omsk okrugs. Since the 19305. Siberian development played a key role in the long-range economic planning of the Soviet Union with the institution of *five-year plans. The region was to be developed for the exploitation of its industrial natural resources. Starting in the 19305 a number of measures were taken to facilitate these changes: new energy

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699

SIBERIA sources (such as the Kuznetsk Coal Basin) were developed; a second Siberian railway line was built; and mining and metallurgical facilities were built in Norilsk in order to obtain the strategic nickel and stimulate development in the far north. Millions of victims of Stalin's terror, imprisoned in Siberian forced-labor camps, worked and died in the process. Some impressive gains were made in industry; they are reflected in the growth of the urban population from i.o to 4.4 million (from 9.2 to 31.3 percent of the total). In the same period agriculture declined, largely as a result of the collectivization campaign. During the Second World War Siberia's economy grew at a tremendous pace as a massive effort was made to supply the Soviet Union's military demands. About one million people and hundreds of industrial plants (mainly from Ukraine) were evacuated there; hundreds of new factories were built; and coal mining (to replace the Donets Basin deposits), heavy industry, and the chemical industry were expanded. Gross industrial production

almost doubled in 1940-5. In the postwar period the region has continued to grow, with special emphasis placed on heavy industry, machine building, coal and oil extraction, the chemical industry, and hydroelectric power. Agricultural production has also grown, mostly as a result of an increase in the area sown. As the Siberian economy expanded, its population grew through natural increase and as a result of immigration from the western regions of the Union. In the 19505, because of hydroelectric power dam construction and the development of resource-based industries, population growth was more rapid in east than in west Siberia. By 1960-73 the emigration of people from Siberia, particularly west Siberia, was greater than the immigration thereto. In the 19605 the population exchange between Ukraine and Siberia proved to be in Ukraine's favor for the first time: in 1968-9, 50,000 Ukrainians emigrated to Siberia, and 68,000 Siberians came to Ukraine (most of them returnees). Ukrainian workers continue to take temporary

700

SIBERIA

(two- to three-year) jobs in Siberia, particularly on major projects in east Siberia (the Baikal-Amur Mainline) and the northern districts of west Siberia (the oil and gas fields), because wages in Siberia are two to three times higher than in Ukraine. The national composition of Siberia has changed considerably in the last 50 years. From the end of the 19205 there has been a steady flow of Ukrainians into Siberia: deportees and prisoners of concentration camps (where Ukrainians constituted a majority), settlers of virgin steppes in the 19505, and voluntary workers attracted by better living conditions and a more open political atmosphere. In the 19408 between 300,000 and 400,000 Germans from the Volga region and Ukraine were resettled in Siberia. The 1959 and 1970 censuses provide nationality figures only for separate oblasts and not for Siberia as a whole, and tend to underestimate the number of Ukrainians and other non-Russian Europeans. Siberia's national composition according to the 1979 census is shown in table i. TABLE 1

National composition of Siberia (1979 census) Nationality

Population (in 1,000s)

Ukrainian Russian German Tatar Buriat Yakut Other

682 19,972 460 445 128 314 1,558

2.9 84.8 2.0 1.9 0.5 1.3 6.6

Total

23,559

100.0

Percent

Between 1926 and 1959 the number of Ukrainians and indigenous peoples declined in absolute and relative terms, and the number of Russians increased. The group called 'others' grew, mainly because of the influx of Germans. In the 19605 the number of Ukrainians and other European non-Russian people continued to decline (in part because of the Soviet regime's policy of Russification), but the absolute and relative numbers of indigenous people increased, mostly because of their high birth rate (table 2). The distribution of Ukrainians in Siberia has undergone great changes, according to the Soviet censuses. Their numbers in west Siberia fell dramatically, from 738,000 (9.8 percent of the population) in 1926 to 463,000 (3.8 TABLE 2

Changes in national composition of Siberia, 1926-1970

1959

1926

1970

Nationality

1,000s

%

1,000s

%

1,000s

%

Ukrainian Russian Belarusian Indigenous Other

853 8,304 323 841 586

7.8 76.2 3.0 7.7 5.3

692 16,075 139 1,062 1,244

3.6 83.6 0.7 5.6 6.5

580 18,121 141 1,455 1,027

2.7 85.1 0.6 6.8 4.8

Total

10,907 100.0

19,212 100.0

21,324 100.0

percent) in 1959 and 360,000 (2.7 percent) in 1970, and then rose, with new immigrants, to 387,000 (3.0 percent) in 1979; the number of Ukrainians in east Siberia grew from 115,000 (3.4 percent) in 1926 to 229,000 (3.3 percent) in 1959, then fell to 220,000 (2.7 percent) in 1970, and rose again to 227,000 (2.8 percent) in 1979. The number of Ukrainians declined mainly in southwestern Siberia, where in the 19205 they accounted for one-third or more of the population (in the part that belonged to the Central Asian Steppe krai). Their numbers increased in east Siberia, however, particularly in the far north. In the Yakutsk ASSR, for example, Ukrainians increased from 100 (0.03 percent) in 1926 to 1,200 (0.2 percent) in 1959, 20,300 (3.1 percent) in 1970, and 46,300 (5.4 percent) in 1979. By contrast, the number and proportion of Ukrainians in Omsk oblast in 1979 was only 103,800 (5.3 percent), a decline from 104,600 (5.8 percent) in 1970,128,000 (7.8 percent) in 1959, and 166,000 (22.2 percent) in 1926 (within the present Omsk oblast borders). The figures on national composition do not coincide with the figures on language use, because increasingly the non-Russian immigrants and their descendants have adopted Russian. In the 1959 census 54 percent of Ukrainians in Siberia listed Ukrainian as their mother tongue, compared with 49.3 percent in 1979. In 1979 only 85,000 Ukrainians (12 percent) spoke Ukrainian fluently. Linguistic Russification is higher in those regions where Ukrainians settled at the turn of the century, and lower in areas of recent settlement, such as east Siberia and the far north. Soviet statistics on nationality and language were not entirely reliable. It is probable that there are over 2 million Siberian inhabitants of Ukrainian origin. The longterm Russification of Ukrainians in Siberia has been facilitated by urbanization and the mixing of different nationalities in the state farms. A high percentage of Ukrainians have intermarried. At the same time there are no Ukrainian schools (at the beginning of the 19305 they operated briefly in west Siberia) and no local Ukrainian press or books. The other peoples of European origin (except for the Germans) have been subjected to the same kind of Russification. Russification, however, has made little headway among the more numerous of the indigenous peoples who have had their own autonomous republics or oblasts. BIBLIOGRAPHY Kiselev, S. Drevniaia istoriia luzhnoi Sibiri, 2nd edn (Moscow 1951) Pokshishevskii, V. Zaselenie Sibiri (Irkutsk 1951) Problemy izucheniia natsional 'nykh otnoshenii v Sibiri na sovremennom étape (Novosibirsk 1967) Istoriia Sibiri s drevneishikh vremen do nashykh dnei, 5 vols (Leningrad 1968-9) Zapadnaia Sibir' (Moscow 1971) Morozova, T. Ekonomicheskaia geografiia Sibiri (Moscow 1975) Krestianstvo Sibiri v epokhu feodalizma (Novosibirsk 1982) Krestianstvo Sibiri v epokhu kapitalizma (Novosibirsk 1983) Obshchestvennyi byt i kul'tura russkogo naselenniia Sibiri, xvmnachalo xx v. (Novosibirsk 1983) Stebelsky, I. 'Ukrainian Peasant Colonization East of the Urals, i896-i9i4/ Soviet Geography, 1984, no. 9 Kul 'turno-bytovye protsessy u russkikh Sibiri (Novosibirsk 1985) V. Kubijovyc, O. Ohloblyn, I. Svit

Sich. A mass physical-education and fire-fighting organization that was active in Galicia from 1900 to 1930 and spread from there to Bukovyna, Transcarpathia, and

SICH

Officers of the Sich society in Lviv county

Ukrainian communities abroad. Beyond its immediate practical purpose, it strove to promote national consciousness and to raise the educational and cultural level of the peasantry and working class. Organized by leading members of the ""Ukrainian Radical party, its ideology was secular and somewhat anticlerical. The first Sich society was founded by K. *Trylovsky in Zavallia, Sniatyn county, in May 1900. In the next few years similar societies arose in Kolomyia and Horodenka counties, and then in other counties of Galicia and Bukovyna. Local village and town societies were grouped first into county organizations. A central association for all of Galicia was formed in Stanyslaviv in 1908. Its head office was located in Kolomyia. The chief executive body, the Supreme Sich Committee, consisted of Trylovsky (president), I. Sanduliak (vice-president), I. Chuprei (secretary), and M. Lahodynsky (treasurer). In 1912 it was renamed the Ukrainian Sich Union (usu), and its office was moved to Lviv. USU executive members were Trylovsky (general otaman), Ya. Vesolovsky (general osaul), M. Balytsky (secretary), S. Vynnykiv (general treasurer), D. Katamai (general quartermaster), and F. Kalynovych (general chetar). In addition to those already named, the key organizers were A. Kuzmych, Yu. Solomiichuk-Yuzenchuk, P. Shekeryk-Donykiv, A. Chaikovsky, R. Stavnychy, L. Lepky, R. Dashkevych, H. Nychka, V. Hurkevych, V. Lysy, V. Bemko, D. Vitovsky, S. Ripetsky, M. Uhryn-Bezhrishny, O. Demchuk, M. Khrobak, and O. Semeniuk. The number of local societies increased steadily; by 1913 there were over 900 branches, with a combined membership of 80,000. Sich members wore the local folk costume, a crimson sash over the shoulder inscribed with the wearer's place-name, and a hat decorated with a red feather and a star-shaped badge. From 1910 a special uniform was worn by members of urban and some rural branches. Each member carried a long-handled wooden Hutsul ax. Village and county branches had their own flags. The Sich societies held annual county and, later, province-wide congresses. Their program included a parade, choreographed exercises, and a concert. The first congress was held in Kolomyia in 1902. Larger ones took place in Stanyslaviv in 1911 and Sniatyn in 1912. The largest, known as the Shevchenko assembly, was held in June 1914 in Lviv. Approx 12,000 members of the Sich, Sokil,

701

and Ukrainian Sich Riflemen's societies, the Plast scouting association, and sports clubs took part, and Czech, Croatian, and Slovenian Sokol and other physical education organizations sent observers. After Trylovsky founded the ""Ukrainian Sich Riflemen (USS) society in March 1913, a riflemen's section, chaired by D. Katamai, was set up in the USU to train young men in the military arts. Eventually the section broke away from the USU and formed separate Sich Riflemen's units (96 in 1914). Their field exercises were conducted according to O. Demchuk and O. Semeniuk's infantryman's manual (1914). In August 1914 the USS Legion within the Austrian army was formed out of volunteers belonging to the USS, USU, and Sokil societies. To popularize and promote the Sich movement, Trylovsky and Chuprei edited and published songbooks; annual almanacs (11 by 1914); magazines, such as the monthly *Zoria (1902-3) and the biweekly Khlops 'ka pravda (1903, 1909) in Kolomyia; and the official Sich organ *Szchovi visty (1912-14,1922-4) in Lviv. After the First World War, the Sich societies resumed their activities in many localities of Galicia, until the Polish authorities prohibited them, in 1924 (the last local society, in Horbachi near Lviv, was closed down in 1930). Their restricted physical-education and sports program was continued by branches of the *Luh society. In Bukovyna the first Sich society was founded in 1903 in Kitsman by S. Yarychevsky and O. Popovych. The central body, the Union of Siches, was set up in 1904 in Chernivtsi. The presidents were Ye. Pihuliak, T. Halip, and R. Siretsky; other leading members were I. Popovych, H. Hordy, Yu. Lysan, L. Yasinchuk, and D. Rusnak. A panBukovynian Sich assembly took place in Chernivtsi in 1912. By then there were 112 local branches, with a combined membership of 9,000. Under the interwar Rumanian occupation the societies were banned. In Russian-ruled Ukraine, community leaders followed the development of the Sich movement in Galicia with great interest, but were not permitted to set up similar societies. After the 1917 Revolution they established a Sich society in Kiev, and its statute was approved in 1918 by the Ukrainian government. In February 1919 Trylovsky and O. Andriievsky organized the Supreme Sich Committee in Vinnytsia, and in October 1919 P. ShekerykDonykiv and A. Shmigelsky formed a Sich society in Kamianets-Podilskyi. Its membership grew to 300, but the Soviet occupation of Podilia ended all efforts to build a Sich network in the region. In Transcarpathia a Sich Committee was formed in 1920 in Uzhhorod at the initiative of Trylovsky. That year, D. and V. Klempush founded the first Transcarpathian Sich society in Yasinia. In 1938-9 the ""Carpathian Sich grew out of the Transcarpathian Sich movement. In the United States and Canada, the Sich movement began with the founding of the physical education and rifle society of the First Branch of the Ukrainian Sich Riflemen in New York in July 1915. A central organization, the Sitch Ukrainian American Athletic Association, was set up in November 1916 under the leadership of P. Zadoretsky. By 1920 it had approx 60 branches and over 3,000 members. Besides physical education, the association was involved in various sports and in paramilitary training. It ran a commercial firm called the Sitch Bazaar, which included a publishing house and bookstore, and published physical education manuals and the magazine

702

SICH

al and international news of interest to the Ukrainian community. The editors were O. Nazaruk and, from 1926, M. Bodrug. In 1934 it was succeeded by *Nash stiah.

American officials preparing to review a parade of Sich (Sitch) guards in Chicago in the 19305

*Sichovi visty (1918-24). In 1924-5, as the Ukrainian community became politically more differentiated, some Sich societies joined the hetmanite Sitch organization, others formed the *Chornomorska Sich athletic society, and the rest remained independent organizations. In Canada the Sitch Organization was founded in 1924. In 1927 it had 21 branches, and in 1928 it was renamed the Canadian Sitch Organization. At first it was connected with the Sitch Ukrainian American Athletic Association, and in 1934 it became part of the "United Hetmán Organization, with 50 branches in Ontario and the prairie provinces. In Western Europe the first Sich society was organized in 1912 by Ukrainian workers in Hamburg. In 1921 in Vienna, Trylovsky set up a workers' physical education society, which eventually evolved into the External Committee of Siches, consisting of former members of the Sich societies in Galicia. Emigrés in Czechoslovakia founded Sich societies in Podëbrady (1926), Prague (1927), and other cities. In 1927 they held their first congress and formed the Ukrainian Sich Union. Its members belonged to local workers' gymnastics clubs and took part in international workers' olympiads in Prague in 1927 and 1934 and in Vienna in 1931. The leaders of the union were V. Petrov, I. Sokalsky (i933~8), and O. Bezpalkq. BIBLIOGRAPHY

Tryl'ovs'kyi, P. (ed). Hei, tam na hori 'Sich' idel Propam'iatna knyha 'Sicheï (Edmonton 1965) P. Trylovsky, E. Zharsky

Sich. See Zaporozhian Sich. Sich. A semimonthly organ of the hetmanite *Sich society in the United States, published in Chicago from July 1924 to May 1934. It succeeded *Sichovi visty. The newspaper published memoirs, political commentaries, ideological articles, reports on the activities of Sich locals, and nation-

Sich Council (Sichova Rada). The highest governing body in the Zaporozhian Sich from the loth to i8th centuries; also called the Military Council. It was empowered to decide legislative, executive, and judicial matters, as well as the participation of the army in war and the settlement of peace. It elected and summoned the officer staff (starshyna), with the kish otaman at its head. The Sich Council also received foreign diplomats and determined the course of diplomatic relations. It fulfilled certain economic functions, such as the distribution of the communal agricultural and fishing districts among the kurins of the Sich. As an organ of direct self-government the Sich Council upheld the right of every Cossack to participate in its meetings, but the poor Cossacks (siromy) and *holota were excluded from deliberations. The council met irregularly on the central square of the Sich; in the i8th century, it met twice a year. Measures were adopted by a majority vote, which was estimated visually with no exact count of hands. Before the demise of Zaporozhian Sich the authority of the Sich Council was supplanted by that of the Sich ^Council of Officers. Sich Riflemen (Sichovi Striltsi, Kyivski Sichovi Striltsi [KSS]). A leading regular unit of the *Army of the UNR which operated from 1917 to 1919 under different organizational forms: as the Galician-Bukovynian Kurin of Sich Riflemen, the First Kurin of Sich Riflemen, the Regiment of Sich Riflemen, the Separate Detachment of Sich Riflemen, the Division of Sich Riflemen, the Siege Corps of Sich Riflemen, the Corps of Sich Riflemen, and the Group of Sich Riflemen. Its name was derived from the Ukrainian Sich Riflemen in Galicia. The Galician-Bukovynian Kurin of the KSS was established in Kiev on 13 November 1917 by the *GalicianBukovynian Committee. Its first recruits were former soldiers of the Austro-Hungarian army who had escaped from Russian POW camps and come to Kiev to participate in the building of a Ukrainian state. By the end of January 1918 the kurin had about 500 men organized in three companies, commanded by Capts R. Sushko, I. Chmola, and V. Kuchabsky. Under Col Ye. Konovalets's command it defended Kiev against a Bolshevik insurrection and, later, the invading Bolshevik forces, and then secured the UNR government's retreat to Zhytomyr. After recapturing Kiev on i March 1918, the First Kurin of the KSS was assigned the task of guarding government institutions and preserving public order in the city. It expanded into the Regiment of KSS, consisting of two infantry kurins and a reserve kurin, a cavalry recognizance unit, and an artillery battery. A third of its approx 3,000 men were from the Dnieper region of Ukraine. When P. Skoropadsky came to power on 29 April 1918, the KSS declined to serve under him and were disarmed by German troops. The regiment's soldiers joined other military or militia units. Many of them transferred to the Second Zaporozhian Regiment (commanded by P. Bolbochan), where they formed the Third Kurin under R. Sushko's command. With the hetmán's consent to a partial regrouping of the KSS, the Separate Detachment was formed at the end of August 1918 in Bila Tserkva. Its ap-

SICH R I F L E M E N

703

Officers of the Sich Riflemen and representatives of the Ukrainian Sich Riflemen in Kiev in 1918. First row, from left: Ivan Rykhlo (ist), Yevhen Konovalets (5th), Teodor Rozhankovsky (6th), Andrii Melnyk (8th), Roman Sushko (9th); second row: Ivan Chmola (5th), Mykhailo Matchak (6th); third row: Ivan Andrukh (3rd), Vasyl Kuchabsky (4th), Hryts Hladky (6th); fourth row: Ivan Rogulsky (3rd), Ostap Hrytsai (4th)

prox 1,200 men were divided into an infantry regiment consisting of a machine-gun company, a reconnaissance troop, an artillery battery, and a technical unit. The detachment played a key role in overthrowing the Hetmán: it began the revolt in Bila Tserkva and scored a decisive victory over his guard on 18 November at *Motovylivka. During the siege of Kiev the detachment grew into the Division of KSS (11,000 men) and in early December into the Siege Corps of KSS (approx 25,000 men) by incorporating two Dnieper and the Black Sea divisions. After taking Kiev on 14-15 December 1918, the Siege Corps was dissolved into its constituent units.

assigned to Col A. Wolfs army group for the Kiev offensive. The KSS Group (approx 8,600 men) consisted of six infantry regiments, six artillery regiments, a cavalry regiment, an automobile unit, and four or five armored trains. After fighting its way toward Korosten the group had to fall back to Shepetivka when a new front with A. Denikin opened up. In mid-October the Riflemen were transferred to the Denikin front. The group suffered heavy battle losses and was racked by disease. Pinned down near Starokostiantyniv on 6 December 1919, the KSS decided to demobilize. Some of the members joined partisan units; others were interned by the Poles until the spring of 1920. The Sich Riflemen was one of the chief regular units of the UNR Army. As the driving force behind the anti-Het-

Sich Riflemen listening to a kobzar in Kiev

At the beginning of the second phase of the UkrainianSoviet War, in January 1919, the Division of KSS was divided into three combat groups, which set out in different directions to block the Bolshevik offensive in Kiev. Having suffered heavy losses, the KSS fell back at the end of February and regrouped as the Corps of KSS (approx 7,000 men). Despite a severe setback at Berdychiv (29-30 March) the corps continued to fight in the Shepetivka and Kremianets region. In July it was renamed the Group of KSS and was

Members of the last supreme command of the Sich Riflemen (Lutske, January 1920). Sitting, from left: Capt Mykhailo Matchak, Col Andrii Melnyk, Col Yevhen Konovalets, Col Roman Sushko, Capt Ivan Dankiv; standing: Capt Ivan Andrukh, Col Roman Dashkevych, Capt Vasyl Kuchabsky, Capt Yaroslav Chyzh

704

SICH R I F L E M E N

man coup, it was very influential with the Directory. After the war some of the KSS officers founded and led the "Ukrainian Military Organization. BIBLIOGRAPHY Konovalets', le. Prychynky do istorti ukmïns 'koï revoliutsiï (Prague 1928) Bezruchko, M. Sichovi stril 'tsi v borot 'bi za derzhavnist ' (Kalisz 1932) Zoloti vorota: Istoriia Sichovykh stril'tsiv 1917-1919 (London 1937) Ripets'kyi, S. Ukraïns'ke sichove striletstvo (New York 1956) Dashkevych, R. Artyleriia Sichovych stril 'tsiv u borot 'bi za Zoloti kyïvs 'ki vorota (New York 1965) Babii, O. (ed). Korpus sichovych stril'tsiv (Chicago 1969) levhen Konovalets ' ta ioho doba (Munich 1974) L.Shankovsky Sich student societies. The name of Ukrainian student societies active in Lviv, Chernivtsi, Vienna, and Graz from the late icth to the mid-2Oth century. The first society of this type was formed in Lviv (1861-3). In Chernivtsi a Sich student society was formed in 1902 by members of the *Soiuz (est 1875) and *Moloda Ukraina (est 1900) Ukrainian student associations. The group was active in Ukrainian life throughout Bukovyna, in helping establish Sich societies in villages, publishing occasional brochures and journals, and sponsoring a drama group and choir. It was disbanded by the Rumanian government in 1923. The Rus' student society of Graz changed its name to Sich in 1910. It remained active until the end of the 19405. The longest-lasting and most active of these organizations was the *Sich student society of Vienna (1868-1947). Sich student society of Vienna (Ukrainske akademichne tovarystvo 'Sich7 u Vidni). One of the oldest and most active of Ukrainian student associations. The society was formed in 1868 by A. *Vakhnianyn and Yu. Tselevych. It was the first Ukrainian student organization to adopt an openly populist approach to Ukrainian affairs. Over the years the society lent its support to leading Ukrainian causes, and many community leaders emerged from its ranks. Thus it played a significant role in the national revival in Ukrainian lands under Austro-Hungarian rule. In the 18703 the Sich society was active in popularizing the political ideas of M. *Drahomanov and, under the leadership of O. *Terletsky, in promoting the development of a socialist movement among Ukrainians. Such activity caused it to be temporarily disbanded (1877). After its reconstitution the group tended to maintain more mainstream Ukrainian positions. In 1901-2 it supported the movement for the ^secession of Ukrainian students from Lviv University; in the early 19005 it engaged in the struggle for a Ukrainian university in Lviv; in 1913 it organized riflemen detachments in anticipation of the war, and in 1914-18 assisted the *Union for the Liberation of Ukraine; in 1917 it called for the union of all Ukrainian lands into one state (for which it was again temporarily disbanded); and in 1930 it sharply protested the Tarification of Ukrainians in Galicia. The society also engaged in a certain amount of publishing activity. In the 18705 it prepared booklets for general distribution among the population. In 1920-4 it published the journal Molode zhyttia. Other publications included Nash svit (prepared by the Drahomanov Hromada, affiliated with the society), the humor journal leretyk, and several anniversary almanacs

(1898,1908, and 1932). The society was also active in cultural, educational, and intellectual work among Ukrainians in Vienna. Sich members also maintained active ties with non-Ukrainian individuals and groups and had a significant impact in establishing a profile for Ukrainians in such circles. During the wars society members provided assistance to injured Ukrainian soldiers and deported workers. Sich actively promoted co-operation among various student groups. It initiated the first meeting between Galician and Bukovynian students, which took place in Kolomyia in 1881. It provided the earliest call for a central body for Ukrainian student groups outside the Ukrainian SSR (leading eventually to the formation of the ^Central Union of Ukrainian Students in 1922). The vitality of the Sich society in Vienna reflected the fact that for many years Vienna was the major European center of study for Ukrainians outside of Ukraine. In the early 19205 Prague overtook Vienna in this respect, and Sich, although remaining active, was somewhat diminished in status. In 1941 the association became a branch of the ^Nationalist Organization of Ukrainian Students in Germany (while retaining its own name). In 1947, a^er tne Soviet occupation of Vienna, almost all of the members of Sich left Vienna, and the last president of Sich, S. Naklovych, was arrested and sent to Siberia by the Soviet authorities. Z. Kokhanovsky Sicheslav. See Dnipropetrovske. Sichko, Petro [Sicko], b 18 August 1926 in Vytvytsia, Dolyna county, Galicia. Freedom fighter and political prisoner; husband of S. *Sichko and father of V. *Sichko. An officer in the Ukrainian Insurgent Army, he studied at Chernivtsi University, where he founded the underground organization Fighters for a Free Ukraine. It was uncovered by the Stalinist authorities, and in January 1947 Sichko was arrested. A few months later he was sentenced to death; his sentence was commuted to 25 years in labor camps. Sichko was amnestied in January 1957, settled in Dolyna, and worked as an economist and engineer. He was subjected to ongoing KGB persecution. In February 1978 he joined the "Ukrainian Helsinki Group. He was arrested in July 1979, and in December he was sentenced in Lviv to three years in a strict-regime camp near Brianka, Luhanske oblast. In May 1982, 40 days before his term ended, he was rearrested for writing letters of protest; in July he was sentenced on fabricated charges to three more years in a camp near Kherson. He was released in 1985. Sichko, Stefaniia [Sicko, Stefanija] (née Petrash), b i April 1925 in Zalukva, Stanyslaviv county, Galicia. Freedom fighter and political prisoner; wife of P. *Sichko and mother of V. *Sichko. She was imprisoned in 1947-57 in a labor camp near Magadan, in far eastern Siberia, for involvement in the Ukrainian Insurgent Army. After her release she lived in Dolyna, Ivano-Frankivske oblast, and wrote appeals for the release of her husband and sons after they were arrested in 1979-80. She joined the Initiative Group for the Defense of Rights of the Believers and the Church in Ukraine in 1982, and was active in the underground Ukrainian Catholic church.

SICHYNSKY

705

Arts and Crafts School in Lviv (1920-30) and the Cracow academy (1930-9). With genre painting his specialty, he devoted much of his work to the life of the Hutsuls. Some of his better-known works are Black Lamb (1904), Procession from the Mountain Meadow (1925), Hutsul Wedding, and Old Woman with Rooster (1926). He also created mosaics and stained-glass windows and designed furniture.

Denys Sichynsky

Petro and Stefaniia Sichko and their children (standing, from left) Volodymyr, Oksana, and Vasyl

Sichko, Vasyl [Sicko, Vasyl'], b 22 December 1956 in Magadan, Soviet Far East. Dissident; son of P. and S. *Sichko. He was expelled from Kiev University in 1977 for refusing to become a KGB informer, and joined the *Ukrainian Helsinki Group in February 1978. In July 1979, after renouncing his Soviet citizenship while making a speech at V. *Ivasiuk's grave, he was arrested and sentenced to three years' imprisonment. In 1982 he received another three years for allegedly possessing drugs. Since his release (1985) he has been active in the Ukrainian Catholic movement. In November 1988 he was elected president of the Ukrainian Christian Democratic Front. Sichovi visty (Sich News). Monthly organ of the Galician *Sich society, first published in Lviv in 1912-14 as a monthly supplement to Hromads'kyi holos. It contained articles on sports and other subjects of popular interest, and reports of Sich activities. The editor was D. *Katamai. The paper was renewed in 1922 and published separately until 1924 under the editorship of R. Dashkevych.

Myroslav Sichynsky

Sichynsky, Denys [Sicyns'kyj], b 2 October 1865 in Kliuvyntsi, Husiatyn county, Galicia, d 6 June 1909 in Stanyslaviv. Composer, conductor, and teacher. He received his musical training in Ternopil and at the Lviv Conservatory (1888-91) and then organized and conducted the choral association *Boian in Lviv, Kolomyia, Stanyslaviv, and Peremyshl. From 1899 he lived in Stanyslaviv, where he founded a music school and organized the Muzychna Biblioteka music publishing association, which printed numerous works by Ukrainian composers. He was also active in establishing the Union of Song and Music Societies. Sichynsky is considered to be the first professionally trained Western Ukrainian composer. His compositions include the opera Roksoliana (libretto by V. Lutsyk and S. Charnetsky, 1908); works for symphony and chamber orchestras; piano solos; choral works, including the cantata Lichu v nevoli (I Count the Days and Nights in Bondage; text by T. Shevchenko); a score for a liturgy; approx 20 songs for solo voice to texts by T. Shevchenko, I. Franko, Lesia Ukrainka, B. Lepky, U. Kravchenko, and H. Heine; and folk song arrangements. His biography, by S. Pavlyshyn, was published in Kiev in 1956 (2nd edn, 1980).

Sichovi visty (Sich News). A biweekly organ of the *Sich societies in the United States, published in 1918-23 in New York and in 1924 in Chicago. In 1920-3 the editor was S. Musiichuk. The paper was succeeded by *Sich.

Sichynsky, Mykola [Sicyns'kyj], b 1850, d 1894. Greek Catholic priest and civic activist. An organizer of the Ukrainian community in Husiatyn county, he was elected to the Galician Diet in 1883. In 1884 he was appointed to a parish in Chernivtsi. He opposed the Russophile movement and helped found the populist People's Council. In politics he supported the *New Era policy.

Sichulski, Kazimierz, b 17 January 1879 in Lviv, d November 1942 in Lviv. Polish painter. A graduate of the Cracow Academy of Fine Arts (1904) and the Vienna Kunstgewerbeschule (1908), he taught at the State Applied

Sichynsky, Myroslav [Sicyns'kyj], b 11 October 1886 in Chernykhivtsi, Zbarazh county, Galicia, d 16 March 1979 in Westland, Michigan. Civic and political activist; son of Rev M. *Sichynsky. On 12 April 1908 he assassinated the

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viceroy of Galicia, A. Potocki, in protest against Polish violence and fraud in the 1908 election. After his death sentence was commuted to life imprisonment by the Austrian emperor, he escaped (1911) and eventually (1915) was accepted as a political refugee by the United States. He then immersed himself in Ukrainian-American community activity as a founder of the Ukrainian Federation of the Socialist Party and editor of its weeklies *Robitnyk (1914-17) and Narod (1917). As a leading activist of the Federation of Ukrainians in the United States, he was appointed editor of its Ukraïns'ka hazeta. In 1920 he helped found the *Oborona Ukrainy organization and edited its paper Ukm'ins 'ka hrornada. He was president of the "Ukrainian Fraternal Association in 1933-41. During the 19405 Sichynsky adopted an increasingly pro-Soviet stance, which helped precipitate the crisis that led to Oborona Ukrainy's dissolution. His recollections were published by M. Shapoval in 1928. Sichynsky, Teodosii [Sicyns'kyj, Teodosij], b and d ? Church painter and sculptor at the beginning of the i8th century. He painted the iconostasis of the Krasnopushcha monastery church and served as hegumen of the Basilian monastery in Vyspa, near Bibrka.

Volodymyr Sichynsky and his drawing of the ruins of Hetmán Kyrylo Rozumovsky's palace

Sichynsky, Volodymyr [Sicyns'kyj], b 24 June 1894 in Kamianets-Podilskyi, d 25 June 1962 in Paterson, New Jersey. Architect, graphic artist, and art scholar; son of Ye. *Sitsinsky; full member of the Shevchenko Scientific Society from 1930. Having interrupted his studies at the St Petersburg Institute of Civil Engineers (1912-17) he helped organize the Architectural Institute in Kiev (1918-19) and served as director of the construction department of Podilia gubernia. After fleeing from Soviet rule to Lviv, he taught at the Academic Gymnasium there (1921-3) and then moved to Prague to study at Charles University (PH D, 1927) and teach at the Ukrainian Higher Pedagogical Institute (1923-33). He chaired the Library and Bibliographic Commission of the ^Ukrainian Society of Bibliophiles in Prague from 1927 and served as the society's president (1934-43). In *93° ne cofounded the *Association of Independent Ukrainian Artists in Lviv. In 1942 he was appointed an associate professor of art history at the Ukrainian Free University. In 1944-5 ne was imprisoned

and tortured by the Gestapo in Prague. A postwar refugee in Germany, in 1949 he emigrated to the United States. As an architect he adapted the styles of Kievan Rus' and the Cossack baroque to modern techniques and materials. He designed the Redemptorist Church of the Holy Spirit in Michalovce (1933-4) and the Boiko-style wooden Church of the Nativity of the Mother of God in Komarnyky (1937), both in the Presov region; the Ukrainian churches in Whippany, New Jersey (1949), and Porto Uniâo, Brazil (1951); and the Orthodox cathedral in Montreal (1957). He also designed many private and public buildings and a number of grave monuments, in which he employed folk forms of the many-armed cross, and the covers of over 70 books and journals. Sichynsky systematically researched Ukrainian architecture and art, and he wrote over 500 articles and reviews. He is the author of books on loth- to 13th-century Ukrainian architecture (1926); the history of world art to the Renaissance (a textbook, 1926, 1928); Ukrainian publishing logos (1926, 1938); the architecture of Potylych (1928), Bardejov (1931), Lavriv (1936), and the Korniakt Tower and Residence (1932), St George's Cathedral (1934), and St Nicholas's Church (1936) in Lviv; Ukrainian wooden architecture and carving (1936); and the history of i6thto 18th-century Ukrainian engraving (1937). He also wrote essays on the history of Ukrainian industry (1937), an introduction to Ukrainian regional studies (1937), Ukraine in Foreign Comments and Descriptions from the Sixth to the Twentieth Century (1938; English trans 1953), and books on wooden architecture in Transcarpathia (1940, in Czech) and Hetmán I. Mazepa (1951). He compiled and illustrated the albums Monumenta Architecturae Ukrainae (1940, 1946; 300 illustrations) and albums of ornaments in historical styles (1940), Ukrainian historical (1943) and folk (1943, 1946) ornaments, applied art (1943), folk furniture (1945), and embroidery (1947). He also wrote booklets on artists, such as O. Tarasevych (1934), H. Levytsky (1936), T. Shevchenko (1937), and H. Narbut (1943), and on the towns of Zboriv (1939), Bardejov (1939), and Kholm (1941). His magnum opus, on the history of Ukrainian architecture, was published in 1956. A biobibliography of Sichynsky by I. Keivan was published in Toronto in 1958. S. Hordynsky

Sichynsky, Yukhym. See Sitsinsky, Yevtym. Siderite. A common mineral, iron carbonate (FeCO3); member of the calcite group. Siderite ores contain iron used in the manufacture of iron and steel. They usually lie in thin beds with shale, clay, or coal seams, and in hydrothermal metallic veins. The largest concentration of siderite ores in Ukraine is found in the *Kerch Iron-ore Basin. Smaller deposits, which are not mined, are located in the Donets Basin and the Carpathian Mountains near Rakhiv. Sidorov, Aleksei, b 13 June 1891 in Mykolaivka, Putyvl county, Kursk gubernia (now in Sumy oblast), d 30 June 1978 in Moscow. Russian art scholar and bibliologist; corresponding member of the USSR Academy of Sciences from 1946. He is the author of studies on the history of Russian drawing and on book art, and of articles on I. Hrabar, O. Shovkunenko, H. Narbut, I. Fedorych, and T. Shevchenko.

SIERKOV

Siechkin, Vitalii [Sjeckin, Vitalij], b 5 September 1927 in Kharkiv, d 3 May 1988 in Kishinev. Composer, pianist, and teacher. After obtaining undergraduate degrees from the Kharkiv State Conservatory in piano (1947) and composition (class of M. Tits, 1950) he completed graduate studies at the Moscow Conservatory (1954). From 1955 to 1984 he was affiliated with the Kiev Conservatory, as instructor, assistant professor (1965), head of the piano department (from 1971), and full professor (1976). His works include the overture Mii kokhanyi kraiu (My Beloved Country, 1951) for symphony orchestra, a concerto for piano and orchestra (1962), 'Andante cantabile' for string quartet (1951), sonatas and other works for solo piano, the suite Estonian Impressions (1967) for cello and piano, and works for chorus and for solo voice. Siedin, Mytrof an [Sjedin], b 1861 in the Kuban, d 1918. Writer. He wrote Shcho posiiesh, te i pozhnesh (What You Sow, That You Will Reap, 1899), Na Chornomor'ï (At the Black Sea, 1910), and other Ukrainian plays, and poetry and prose in Russian. From 1915 to 1917 he published the Katerynodar journal Prikubanskiia step'. He was killed by soldiers of A. Denikin's army. A biography of him by his daughter appeared in Krasnodar in 1965. Siedlce. 1-3. A city (1989 pop 70,500) and a voivodeship center in Poland. It was first mentioned in the chronicles in 1448, and it received the rights of Magdeburg law in 1547. Under Russian rule, in 1837-45 and 1867-1912 Siedlce was the center of gubernias that included Ukrainian-populated regions of Podlachia. In the i86os the Russian authorities established a Russian gymnasium in Siedlce, which attracted many Ukrainian students from Podlachia. I. *Nechui-Levytsky taught at the school in 1861-72. Siedlce was one of the centers of Russophilism in Podlachia. In 1874, during the forcible conversion of Greek Catholic Podlachians to Russian Orthodoxy, many of them were imprisoned in Siedlce jails. Siege Corps of Sich Riflemen (Osadnyi korpus Sichovykh striltsiv). An operational grouping of units of the Army of the UNR formed on 3 December 1918 for the purpose of capturing Kiev. Its principal combat units were the Division of Sich Riflemen, the Black Sea Division, and the Dnieper Division. It was augmented with partisan detachments, and at its peak reached a strength of 50,000 soldiers. On 15 December 1918 its units entered Kiev, and in early 1919 the corps was deactivated. Its commander was Otaman Ye. *Konovalets. Siemiatycze (Ukrainian: Semiatychi or Simiatychi). 1-3. A town (1989 pop 13,900) in northern Podlachia and a county center in Bialystok voivodeship, Poland. Over onethird of the county's population is Ukrainian. The Ukrainians are regarded as Belarusians. Many of them accept the classification; others call themselves simply 'locals' or 'Orthodox/ Siemieriski, Lucjan, b 13 August 1807 in Kamiana Hora, near Rava Ruska, Galicia, d 27 November 1877 in Cracow. Polish revolutionary, writer, and ethnographer. After the Polish Insurrection of 1830-1 he lived in Lviv, where he was close to S. Goszczyñski and other writers of the Ukrainian school in Polish literature. He lived as a po-

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litical émigré in Strasbourg, Poznan, and Brussels from 1837to ^48 and then settled in Cracow. Among his literary works are Dumki (Little Dumas, 1838), a poetry collection based on Ukrainian folk and historical songs, and a Polish translation of fragments of Slovo o polku Ihorevi (The Tale of Ihor's Campaign). In Poznan he published a book of Polish, Ukrainian, and Lithuanian legends (1845). Ukrainian historical themes are found in some of his stories and other writings, and the Ukrainian legendary figure *Vernyhora appears in his long poem Trzy wieszczby (Three Prophecies, 1843). Sieniawski. A Polish magnate family which was influential in Polish political and military affairs in the i6th to i8th centuries and had extensive landholdings in Galicia (around Sieniawa) and Podilia. Some of its members played a significant role in Ukrainian history. Mikolaj (ca 1489-1569) was a royal field hetmán (from 1539), voivode of Rus' (from 1553), and royal grand hetmán (from 1561). He defended Poland's southeastern frontier against the Tatars. His son, also Mikolaj (7-1587), was a royal field hetmán (from 1569) and castellan of Kamianets-Podilskyi (from 1576). Mikolaj Hieronim (1645-83) was voivode of Volhynia (from 1680) and royal field hetmán (from 1682). He fought against the Cossacks, Tatars, and Turks (in 1683 at Vienna). He was the father of A. ^Sieniawski. Sieniawski, Adam, b ca 1666, d 1726. Polish magnate; last of the Sieniawski dynasty. He was the voivode of Belz (from 1692), royal field hetmán (from 1702), royal grand hetmán (from 1706), and castellan of Cracow (from 1710). He fought against the Cossack forces led by S. Palii (17034) and was supported by Muscovy in his (unsuccessful) candidacy to the Polish throne (1706). His correspondence in 1704-8 with Hetmán I. Mazepa, who hoped to bring him into a coalition against Muscovy, was published by the Ukrainian Academy of Arts and Sciences (ed O. Subtelny). As a consequence of the marriage of his daughter, Zofia, Sieniawski's considerable properties were transferred to the Czartoryski family after his death. Sienkiewicz, Henryk, b 5 May 1846 in Wola Okrzejska, Podlachia, d 15 November 1916 in Vevey, Switzerland. Polish writer. His first novel, Na marne (In Vain, 1872), was set in Kiev. In Ogniem i mieczem (With Fire and Sword, 1884), the first part of his famous historical trilogy, he depicted in a crude, chauvinistic manner the Cossack-Polish War, Hetmán B. Khmelnytsky, and the Ukrainian Cossacks. His approach was condemned by both Ukrainian (I. Franko) and Polish (Z. Kaczkowski, A. Swiçtochowski, B. Prus, E. Orzeszkowa) contemporary writers, and the novel's historical distortions have been criticized in books by the Polish historians O. Gdrka (1934) and Z. Wdjcik (1960), and in an essay by V. Antonovych. Sierkov, Pylyp [Sjerkov] (Serkov, Filipp), b 9 October 1908 in Forpost, Smolensk gubernia, Russia. Physiologist; full member of the AN URSR (now ANU) since 1978. A graduate of the Smolensk Medical Institute (1931), he was an associate of the Kiev Medical Institute (1935-41), a department head and prorector of Vinnytsia (1944-53) and Odessa (1953-66) universities, and assistant director of the ANU Institute of Physiology. His research concerns the physiology of skeletal muscles, the myoneural transmis-

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sions and electrical activity in the brain, and epilepsy, as well as the history of physiology in Ukraine.

Sieverodonetsk. See Siverskodonetske. Sighetul Marma^iei (Ukrainian: Syhit Marmaroskyi; Hungarian: Máramoros Sziget). vi~4. A city (1971 population, 39,300) in northern Rumania near the Ukrainian border. Situated on the Maramure§ Basin along the Tysa River, the city has a diverse population of Ukrainians (1520 percent), Rumanians, Hungarians, and Jews. Its major economic activities include construction, textile manufacturing, lumbering, and the food industry. A number of Ukrainian villages surround the city in the *Maramure§ region. The earliest references to the settlement are from the 13th century. By 1394 it had become the principal city of Máramoros komitat. In the 19th and 2Oth centuries the Greek Catholic church and a Ruthenian student residence were active there. The city was the site of notorious show trials early in the 2oth century when the Hungarian government, fearing pro-Russian sentiment in its borderland regions, tried recent converts to Orthodoxy for treason. In 1904-6, 9 people were sentenced to varying terms of imprisonment, and in 1913 a total of 94 people from the region were tried, of whom 32 were convicted and sentenced to fines and prison terms. The trials became a cause célèbre in both the Slavic world and Western Europe. The city was also the site of a meeting of representatives from the Maramure§ region on 8 December 1918, who voted to unite Transcarpathia and Ukraine, as well as the site of a battle between the Ukrainian Galician Army and Rumanian troops on 15-17 January 1919. Sigillography. See Sphragistics. Sigismund I the Old (Polish: Zygmunt Stary), b i January 1467 in Cracow, d i April 1548 in Cracow. King of Poland and grand duke of Lithuania; son of Casimir IV. After obtaining Lithuanian territories in 1506 as an inheritance from his brother, Alexander Jagiellonczyk, he was elected king of Poland in 1507. He brought in fiscal and monetary reforms, but his extensions of royal power resulted in clashes with the nobility. In Galicia, Volhynia, and Podilia his reign was marked by increased Polish control over Ukrainian lands and a growing Polonization of the Ukrainian nobility. In 1535 he defeated the invading forces of Muscovy. Sigismund II Augustus (Polish: Zygmunt), b i August 1520 in Cracow, d 7 July 1572 at a private estate in Knyszyn (near the Polish-Lithuanian border). King of Poland and grand duke of Lithuania; son of Sigismund I the Old. The last of the Jagiellon dynasty, he became grand duke of Lithuania while still a minor and was crowned king (and coruler) of Poland in 1530. In 1548 he assumed full control of both domains. His reign continued the *voloka land reforms (1557) and the promotion of Renaissance culture initiated during his father's era. It also saw the incorporation of the Ukrainian provinces of Podlachia, Volhynia, and Kiev directly into the Polish realm, shortly before the formal merger of Poland and Lithuania by the Union of *Lublin in 1569.

Sigismund III Vasa (Polish: Zygmunt m Waza; Lithuanian: Zygimantas), b 20 June 1566 in Gripsholm, Sweden, d 30 April 1632 in Warsaw. Grand duke of Lithuania and king of Poland (1587-1632) and king of Sweden (1592-9); son of the Swedish king John in Vasa and Katarzyna, the daughter of Sigismund I. He was a zealous Catholic, and during his rule the pivotal Church Union of *Berestia was signed (1596). He transferred the capital of Poland from Cracow to Warsaw. He supported the Jesuits and tried to suppress the Orthodox church in Ukraine. The restrictions placed by Sigismund on the Cossacks sparked rebellions led by K. Kosynsky (1591-3), S. Nalyvaiko (1595-6), and T. Fedorovych (1630). The strength of the Cossack armies grew and resulted in the first clashes of the Polish-Cossack wars. Sigismund briefly held Moscow during the Time of Troubles (1610-12). In his wars against Turkey, particularly in the Battle of *Khotyn (1621), Sigismund enlisted the aid of the Cossacks, led by P. Sahaidachny. Sihorsky, Vitalii [Sihors'kyj, Vitalij], b 19 November 1922 in Bubnivska Slobidka, Zolotonosha county, Poltava gubernia. Electrical and electronic engineer. A graduate of the Lviv Polytechnical Institute (1949), he taught there and then served as assistant director of the AN URSR (now ANU) Institute of Machine Science and Automation (19539). From 1959 to 1964 he headed departments at the Automation and Mathematics institutes in Novosibirsk and taught at the Electric Technology Institute and university there. Since 1964 he has held the chair of technical electronics at the Kiev Polytechnical Institute. A specialist in circuit theory, he developed powerful mathematical methods of analysis and synthesis of complex electronic circuits. He has written over 150 works, including textbooks and monographs. Siiach (Sower). A publishing house in Cherkasy in 191718. It republished new editions of works by P. Hulak-Artemovsky, Ye. Hrebinka, B. Hrinchenko, A. Kashchenko, H. Kovalenko, I. Nechui-Levytsky, I. Franko, P. Kulish, M. Levytsky, I. Manzhura, and S. Cherkasenko, and textbooks for elementary schools. Siiach (Sower). Monthly organ of the Ukrainian Evangelical Reformed church, published in Kolomyia in 1932-3. It was edited by T. Dovhaliuk and V. Borovsky. After 1933 Siiach appeared as a supplement to *Vira i nauka. Siiach. See Dnipro. Siiak, Ivan [Sijak], b 8 April 1887 in Liashky Murovani, Lviv county, Galicia, d after 1939? in the Far East (Soviet sources cite December 1937 with no location). Civic, military, and political figure. A lawyer by training, by 1914 he was a leading member of the Ukrainian Social Democratic party. During the First World War he fought for the Sich Riflemen and led the Railway Engineering Corps of the Ukrainian Galician Army. After being captured by Bolshevik forces near Stavyshche in 1919, he joined the Red Army and directed the activities of the Galician Revolutionary Committee (1920). During the 19205 he taught at educational institutions in Kiev and Kharkiv, held a position with the Soviet embassy in Warsaw, and became a member of the CC CP(B)U. From 1930 he directed the Ukrainian Institute of Linguistic Education in Kharkiv. He was

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709

land) and commander in chief of the Polish forces and *Polish Home Army. In July 1941 he negotiated an agreement with the USSR and the creation of Gen W. * Anders's army from among Polish soldiers (including some 2,000 Ukrainians) who had been deported and interned in the USSR. His request that the International Red Cross investigate the Katyn Massacre of Polish officers resulted in J. Stalin's severing diplomatic relations with the Polish government-in-exile in April 1943. Sikorski died in an airplane crash.

Ivan Siiak

Gen Volodymyr Sikevych

arrested in 1933 during the Stalinist terror, sent to a labor camp, and later shot. Sikalo, Ivan, b 6 June 1909 in Sosnytsia, Chernihiv gubernia, d 24 March 1975 in Vinnytsia. Stage actor and director. He studied drama in Donetske (1930-5) and worked in the Donetske Ukrainian Drama Theater (193541) and the Izmail Ukrainian Music and Drama Theater (1945-8), and from 1949 at the Vinnytsia Ukrainian Music and Drama Theater. Sikevych, Volodymyr [Sikevyc], b 5 September 1870 in Tarashcha, Kiev gubernia, d 27 July 1952 in Toronto. Military and political leader. He served as a colonel in the general staff of the Russian army. During the Ukrainian struggle for independence he served as brigadier general of the Army of the UNR and head of the Repatriation Commission of the UNR consulates in Hungary and Austria (1919-20). From 1924 he lived in Canada (Winnipeg and Toronto) and was active in Ukrainian veterans' organizations. He wrote Storinty iz zapysnoïknyzhky (Pages from a Notebook, 7 vols, 1943-51). Sikorski, Wladyslaw, b 20 May 1881 in Tuszów Narodowy, Poland, d 4 July 1943 near Gibraltar. Polish general and statesman. From 1908 he was one of the leaders of the clandestine Polish Union of Active Struggle and its paramilitary organizations in Galicia. After the creation of the Polish Republic in November 1918, Sikorski commanded the Peremyshl Military District. During the UkrainianPolish War of 1918-19 he commanded Polish divisions that fought the Ukrainians for Lviv and fought at Horodok and Chortkiv; and during the Polish-Soviet War of 1919-20 he commanded the Polisian Group and the Polish Third and Fifth armies. After the war he served as Poland's chief of general staff (1921-2), prime minister (1922-3), minister of military affairs (1922-3, 1924-5), inspector general of the infantry (1923-4), and commander of the Lviv Military District (1925-8). An opponent of J. Pilsudski's 1926 coup, in 1928 he was forced into retirement. In 1936 he was a leader of the Front Morges, the centrist opposition to the Sanacja government. After the German invasion of Poland in September 1939, Sikorski fled to France; he served as prime minister of the Polish government-in-exile in France (from June 1940 in Eng-

Ihor Sikorsky

Sikorsky, Ihor (Igor) [Sikors'kyj], b 25 May 1889 in Kiev, d 26 October 1972 in Easton, Connecticut. Aeronautical engineer and designer and pioneer of aviation technology; son of I. *Sikorsky. While studying at the Kiev Polytechnical Institute (1908-12) he designed two helicopters, among the first such designs in the world, as well as a series of biplanes. He was a member of the pioneering Kiev Aeronautical Society. On 29 December 1911 he established the world speed record (111 km/hr) for a loaded plane (three passengers) in a plane of his own design, the C-6. From 1912 to 1917 he worked as chief designer of a Russian-Baltic aviation company, where he designed and built the first airplanes with multiple engines, including the Illia Muromets and the Vytiaz. In 1918 he emigrated to France, and in 1919 to the United States, where he founded a number of aviation companies and headed several design teams which constructed various airplanes and hydroplanes. In 1939 he perfected the design of the first successful helicopter in the world. His Sikorsky Helicopter Co developed military and civilian helicopters and was considered the world leader in its field. Sikorsky, Ivan [Sikors'kyj], b 7 June 1842 in Antoniv, Skvyra county, Kiev gubernia, d 14 February 1919 in Kiev. Psychiatrist and psychologist; father of I. *Sikorsky. A graduate of Kiev University (1869), he worked there and (from 1873) at I. Balinsky's clinic in St Petersburg. In 1885 he became head of the department of psychiatry and nervous diseases at Kiev University. He founded and edited the journal Voprosy nervno-psikhologicheskoi meditsiny (1896-1905). He was the founder of the Medical-Pedagogical Institute for Pédiatrie Anomalies in Kiev and president of the Scientific Society of Psychiatrists and the Kiev Froebel Society. One of the founders of child psychology, he set up the world's first institute of child psychology, in

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Kiev (1912). He wrote numerous works (approx 20 in child psychology), including Vseobshchaia psikhologiia s fiziognomikoi v illiustrirovannom izlozhenii (General Psychology with Physiognomy in an Illustrated Presentation, 1912). He also published a collection of his scholarly articles (5 vols, 1899-1900).

Mykhailo Sikorsky

Metropolitan Polikarp Sikorsky

Sikorsky, Mykhailo [Sikors'kyj, Myxajlo], b 1923 in Chyhyryn, Cherkasy okruha. Museologist and historian. He graduated from Kiev University in 1951 and was appointed director of the *Pereiaslav-Khmelnytskyi Historical Museum. He founded most of the city's 17 museums and personally collected a large proportion of their holdings. His accomplishments include the Museum of Folk Architecture and Folkways, the Archeological Museum, the Museum of Kobza Playing, and the Folk-Art Museum of the Kiev Region, as well as memorial museums dedicated to A. Kozachkovsky (est 1954), H. Skovoroda (est 1972), V. Zabolotny, and Sholom Aleichem. Sikorsky also helped organize regional museums in Brovary, Tarashcha, Berezan, and Chyhyryn. He wrote numerous scholarly works, including Na zemli pereiaslavs 'kit (In Pereiaslav Land, 1983, coauthor). A documentary novel about Sikorsky was written by M. Makhinchuk (1989). Sikorsky, Polikarp [Sikors'kyj] (secular name: Petro), b 20 June 1875 in Zelenky, Kaniv county, Kiev gubernia, d 22 October 1953 in Aulnay-sous-Bois, near Paris. Metropolitan of the Ukrainian Autocephalous Orthodox church (UAOC). A graduate of the Kiev Theological Seminary (1898) and the law faculty of Kiev University (1910), he was a member of the *Hromada of Kiev and worked as an official of the Orthodox consistory office in Kiev (190818); a section head in the UNR government-in-exile7 s Ministry of Religious Faiths (1918-19); and deputy director of that government's Department of General Affairs in Tarnow, Poland (1919-21). He also served as a member of the All-Ukrainian Church Council and Sobor in 1917-18. An émigré in the interwar Polish Republic, he became a hieromonk in 1922 and served as superior of Orthodox monasteries in Derman, Myltsi, and Zahaitsi Mali in Volhynia and Vilnius in Lithuania; dean of the VolodymyrVolynskyi Cathedral (1925-7); and superior of the monas-

tery in Zhyrovichy, Belarus (1927-32). In April 1932 he was consecrated Orthodox bishop of Lutske and vicar of Volhynia eparchy by Metropolitan D. Valedinsky of the Polish Autocephalous Orthodox church, but he was unable to function fully because of Polish administrative sanctions. A member of the Commission for the Translation of the Bible and Liturgical Books (1932-9) of the Ukrainian Scientific Institute in Warsaw, he organized and headed its section in Lutske from 1937. During the 1939-41 Soviet occupation of Western Ukraine, Sikorsky refused to recognize the authority of the Patriarch of Moscow. In August 1941, during the German occupation, Metropolitan Valedinsky elevated him to the office of archbishop of Lutske and Kovel, and in December appointed him provisional administrator of the revived UAOC in Reichskommissariat Ukraine. In February 1942 Sikorsky consecrated the first two bishops of the UAOC on Ukrainian territory (N. Abramovych and I. Huba), and in May 1942 the Kiev sobor of UAOC bishops elected him their head and a metropolitan. In January 1944 he fled from the Soviet reoccupation of Volhynia to Warsaw, and thence, in July, to Germany. From 1945 he headed the UAOC abroad from Gronau, near Hannover; from Heidenau, near Hamburg; and, from April 1950 to his death, from Paris. He is buried at the Pères-Lachaise cemetery in Paris. BIBLIOGRAPHY Vlasovs'kyi, I. Arkhypastyrs'kyi iuvilei Vysokopreosviashchenishoho Mytropolyta Polikarpa, 1932-1952 (London 1952)

Sikorsky, Yakiv [Sikors'kyj, Jakiv], b 8 November 1904 in Dzhuryntsi, Bratslav county, Podilia gubernia, 2 November 1980. Writer. He is the author of books of prose, including Matrosova topolia (The Sailor's Poplar, 1956), Narodzhennia (Birth, 1957), Shturm (The Storming, 1958), Maiak u stepu (The Lighthouse in the Steppe, 1961), Ne khody manivtsiamy (Don't Lose Your Way, 1963), Tak pochalasia vesna (Thus Spring Began, 1964), Aistry (Asters, 1966), Suvora pam'iat' (A Grim Memory, 1973), and Smertiu khorobrykh (With the Death of the Brave, 1980), and a few books in Russian. Silberfarb, Moisei. See Zilberfarb, Moyshe. Silicosis. See Pneumoconiosis. Silk industry. A branch of the ^textile industry that produces silk thread and cloth from natural and synthetic silk and related fibers. The main raw materials for the industry are natural and synthetic silk fibers. Silk cloth has been known in Ukraine since the time of Kievan Rus'. In the 14th to loth centuries artisans producing clothes from silk, especially women's clothes and men's shirts, formed separate guilds. Natural silk was not produced in Ukraine, but imported from Asia and sometimes Western Europe. In the 17th century the first workshops for making silk cloth appeared. A state-owned silk enterprise was established in Kiev in 1725. V. Ivanov and R. Smorazin operated small weaving shops in Kiev in the 17505 and 17605. The Nova Vodolaha silk manufactory was opened in 1774. No silk factories were set up in the 19th century, and the silk industry in Ukraine was poorly developed until the 2Oth century.

SILSKYI HOSPODAR

Silk production began to grow after 1930. That year 881 of silk cocoons were produced in the Ukrainian SSR. By 1940 production had reached 4121. The real development of the industry, however, began only after the Second World War. Several large factories were established, including the Darnytsia Silk Manufacturing Complex in Kiev, which produces synthetic silk, the *Kiev Silk Manufacturing Complex, and the Cherkasy and Lutske silk complexes, both of which have produced synthetic silk since 1969. In addition silk cloth for industrial purposes is produced in Kiev, Lysychanske, and some cotton factories. In 1960,110,0001 of synthetic and natural silk thread were produced, and by 1970 the output had reached 167,000 t. Silk production peaked in the mid-1970s. It dropped to 151,0001 in 1980,137,0001 in 1985, and 109,000 t in 1987. The decrease is probably owing to the lack of commitment on the part of economic planners and managers to producing expensive silk cloth and clothing: the number of silk dresses produced in Ukraine, for example, increased from 1.7 million in 1970 to 2.8 million in 1980 and then dropped to 1.5 million (1987). Of the 159.2 million sq m of silk cloth produced in 1975, 89 percent was made from synthetic silk fibers, 9 percent from staple fiber, and the rest from natural silk. Overall, silk cloth accounts for 16 percent of all textiles produced in Ukraine (1982).

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Sil's'ke budivnytstvo (Rural Construction). A monthly magazine of the Ministry of Rural Construction and Ukrainian Inter-Collective Farm Construction Alliance, published from 1951 in Kiev. It published articles on rural housing construction, architecture, planning, and engineering. Its pressrun declined from 22,900 in 1970 to 16,500 in 1975. SiVs'ki visit (Village News). A daily organ of the cc CPU and the Ukrainian SSR Ministry of Agriculture until 1991, published in Kiev since 1939. It was originally called Kolhospnyk Ukraïny. In 1949 this paper was merged with Tvarynnytstvo Ukraïny and Radians'kyi selianyn to form Kolhospne selo, which was renamed SiVs'ki visti in 1965. The paper reported on rural life in Soviet Ukraine and promoted labor productivity and socialist values among the peasantry. In 1975 the paper's pressrun was 649,000; by 1980 it had increased to 834,000. After the Ukrainian declaration of independence the newspaper continued to appear as a government publication. In 1992 its pressrun was 2,268,000.

B. Wynar

Silkor. See Robselkor. Silkworm breeding. A branch of agriculture that breeds and raises silkworms for use in the *silk industry. Silkworms of the genus Bombyx are an important source of commercial silk. The native Chinese silkworm was introduced in Ukraine in the i8th century with the encouragement of the Russian government, which hoped to develop a source of inexpensive domestic silk. Silkworm breeding spread slowly because of inhospitable conditions and the reluctance of the population to experiment. Some silk was produced in Kiev gubernia and Slobidska Ukraine. At the beginning of the 19th century some 1,000 kg of raw silk was produced in Russian-ruled Ukraine, much of it in the southern steppe gubernias. At the end of the 19205 the Soviet government began to encourage silkworm breeding in Ukraine. In 1930, 88 t of cocoons were produced. The figure increased to 347 t in 1945, 1,400 t in 1970, and 33,200 t in 1984. In 1984 almost 50,000 ha of land were devoted to mulberry trees, on which silkworms feed. In 1991, silkworms were bred in 18 oblasts of Ukraine and on over 2,700 collective and state farms. The most productive areas were Crimea, Dnipropetrovske, Zaporizhia, and Odessa oblasts. Many silkworm cocoons were produced on private plots. Research in silkworm breeding was conducted at the "Ukrainian Research Station for Silk Production in Merefa, Kharkiv oblast, and at the department of general entomology at the Ukrainian Academy of Agricultural Sciences in Kiev. BIBLIOGRAPHY Shovkivnytstvo (Kiev 1956) Dovidnyk po shovkivnytstvu (Kiev 1962) Ponomar'ov, O. 'Do istorii shovkovoho vyrobnytstva na Ukraïni v xvm stolitti/ Istoriia narodnoho hospodarstva ta ekonomichnoï dumky Ukraïns'koï RSR, 1970, nos 3-4 B. Wynar

Members of the supreme council of the Silskyi Hospodar society in 1900. Sitting, from left: Rev Yosyp Folys, Rev T. Dutkevych, Yevhen Olesnytsky (chairman), Ivan Kyveliuk, Rev Stepan Onyshkevych; standing: Oleksander Harasevych, Hryn Tershakovets, Kyrylo Kakhnykevych, Mykhailo Kotsiuba, Andrii Kornelia, Hryhorii Velychko, Andrii Zhuk

Silskyi Hospodar (Farmer). The most important Ukrainian agricultural organization in Galicia. In was founded in 1899 in the town of Olesko, Zolochiv county, by Revs T. and Yu. *Dutkevych with the goal of raising the living standard of the peasantry by improving agriculture and education. Initially the organization limited its activities to the Zolochiv region (Brody county and Olesko judicial district). In 1903 its headquarters was transferred to Lviv, and in 1904 it was reorganized into the Silskyi Hospodar Provincial Agricultural Society with a mandate to organize branches throughout Galicia. The organization grew slowly: in early 1909 it had only five branches and 700 members. The rapid development of Silskyi Hospodar (SH) began with the first agricultural exhibition, organized in 1909 in Stryi by the *Prosvita society. At the annual meeting of SH held during the exhibition, its statute was amended to expand its range of activities and restructure it into a threetiered organization, with a central office, county branches, and village locals. At the same time Ye. *Olesnytsky replaced T. Dutkevych as president of SH. Assisted by S.

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Onyshkevych and H. Velychko, he extended the organization's activities to all parts of Galicia and took over almost all agricultural work formerly done by the Prosvita society and by various co-operatives. In 1910 SH had 85 branches, 317 locals, and 12,500 members. SH acted as the legal representative of Ukrainian peasants before the government. It organized courses and lectures for agricultural instructors and farmers; established research stations and model farms, orchards, apiaries, and livestock and poultry farms; instructed peasants about agricultural machinery and equipment, the collective use of machines, and effective land management; and organized a school of orcharding and farming. It published the journal *Hospodars'ka chasopys' (1910-18, 1920) and 27 brochures in its book series. In 1911 it established a syndicate for the distribution and sale of farm products (see *Tsentrosoiuz) and the Provincial Union for the Breeding and Raising of Livestock. Profits from those two organizations were used to fund SH's other activities. The First World War interrupted the operations of SH. In 1915 it began to rebuild its facilities. The effort was assisted financially by the Austrian government, which recognized the organization as the central union of Ukrainian peasants. From the end of 1918 until May 1919 it functioned in the areas controlled by the Western Ukrainian National Republic, which granted it official recognition. After the consolidation of Polish rule in Galicia, SH operations were suspended for a brief period.

and his executive, which included M. Kholievchuk, I. Lapchuk, I. Lysy, B. Hnatevych, and A. Romanenko. The primary goal of the organization was to provide peasants with theoretical and practical training in agriculture. The most significant development in that area was the introduction of the *Khliborobskyi Vyshkil Molodi program in 1932. A section of SH organized courses in home economics for peasant women. Formed in 1936, the section was headed by O. Kysilevska, assisted by I. Pavlykovska. Its organizers included Kh. Kononenko and I. Dombchevska. SH published several periodicals: *Sil's'kyi hospedar, *Ukraïns 'kyi pasichnyk, Praktychne sadivnytstvo (1933-8, edited by M. Borovsky), *Khliborobs 'ka molod', and Sad i horod (1939). During its history it published almost 180 textbooks and popular manuals on all aspects of agriculture, almost 120 of them in the interwar period. From 1928 SH issued an annual calendar, and just before the outbreak of the Second World War it began to publish an agricultural encyclopedia, edited by Khraplyvy. SH also printed hundreds of pamphlets, leaflets, and posters. In the interwar period it operated eight model farms, an agricultural school in Korshiv, and an advanced school in Yanchyn, where instructors and assistant agronomists were trained. The growth of SH is summarized in the table below. Growth of Silskyi Hospedar, 19KM4

1910 1918 1927 1932 1939 1944

Directors and administrators of the Silskyi Hospodar society in 1938. Sitting, from left: Ivan Lapchuk, Illia Lysy, Mykhailo Kholievchuk, Myron Lutsky (chief administrator), Yevhen Khraplyvy (chairman of the board of directors), Antin Romanenko, unidentified person; standing: I. Rybak, Roman Holod, Mykhailo Borovsky, N. Onyshkevych, I. Kiliar, Petro Zeleny, Kharytia Kononenko, I. Myhul, M. Kliufas, M. Lokshynsky, V. Dzerovych-Sobolta, R. Doberchak, Olha Duchyminska-Myhul

SH resumed its activities in 1920, but on a very limited scale. The number of branches fell drastically (in 1924 there were only 10), and its new organ, *Hospodars 'ko-kooperatyvnyi chasopys, was taken over by the Audit Union of Ukrainian Co-operatives (RSUK). From 1927 it increased its activity quickly, supported by the Association of Ukrainian Agronomists and various Ukrainian co-operatives, which provided funds. In 1929 SH was reorganized. A board of directors, headed by Yu. Pavlykovsky (1924-9), T. Voinarovsky-Stolobut (1929-36), and M. Lutsky (19369), was responsible for its general policy. The administration was left to the chairman, Ye. *Khraplyvy (1928-39),

Branch es

Locals

Members

Professional staff

85 88 52 73 60 66

317 1,815 112 1,928 2,040 2,040

12,500 83,400 18,400 45,400 160,000 250,000

4 5 15 25 167 250

SH attempted to extend its activities to Volhynia during the interwar period, and from 1928 it operated a branch in Lutske, directed by V. Ostrovsky and then R. Klos, but the branch was closed by the Polish authorities in 1937. For a short period SH also maintained a branch in Kremianets, directed by B. Kozubsky. Throughout the period SH worked closely with RSUK, sometimes sharing personnel and facilities. In 1939 the Soviet authorities liquidated SH. It continued its work in the German-occupied Generalgouvernement and established a headquarters in Jaroslaw (directed by L. Bachynsky and M. Kaplysty). In practice its work was limited to the peasants of the region. That office published 17 issues of the monthly Su 's 'kyi hospedar, several booklets, and a calendar. A regional SH organization was established in Cracow in 1940-1 and was affiliated with the Ukrainian Central Committee. It included 130 locals in the Lemko and Sian regions. When all of Galicia was occupied by the Germans in 1941, SH renewed its activity in Lviv under the presidency of Khraplyvy and the directorship of Ya. Zaishly. It worked closely with the Lviv Agricultural Chamber, which was directed by Khraplyvy, and was recognized as the main professional association of Ukrainian farmers. It renewed the publication of Sil's'kyi hospodar and Ukraïns 'kyi pasichnyk and issued a few booklets and calendars. With the second Soviet occupation of Galicia in 1944, SH was dissolved.

SILVAI

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SH not only improved the economic standing of the Ukrainian peasantry but also did much to raise their national consciousness. Among its prominent activists, in addition to ones already mentioned, were O. Duchyminska, P. Zeleny, M. Khronoviat, M. Tvorydlo, and V. Vakulovsky. BIBLIOGRAPHY Dubrivnyi, P. (ed). Kraiove hospodars'ke tovarystvo 'Sil's'kyi hospodar' u L'vovi, 1899-1944 (New York 1970) P. Zeleny

Silskyi Hospedar (Farmer). The central organization of agricultural co-operatives in the Ukrainian SSR, founded by the government at the beginning of the New Economic Policy in 1922 in place of the *Tsentral union. By 1928 it represented over 22,000 co-operatives and had over 2.9 million members. Its turnover that year was 169 million rubles; the turnover of its member co-operatives was 448 million rubles. In 1927 3,594 general and 8,606 specialized agricultural co-operatives belonged to the organization. Of the specialized co-operatives, 582 specialized in dairy and livestock, 615 in sugar beets, 209 in fruit and vegetables, and 189 in beekeeping. There were also 3,119 machine and tractor co-operatives. The primary co-operatives were organized into 24 general, 46 specialized, and 18 credit associations. They included Dobrobut, a livestock and dairy co-operative that marketed over 16 million kg of meat and 1.6 million kg of dairy products in 1925-6; Plodospilka, an association of orcharding, gardening, grape-growing, and beekeeping co-operatives established in 1925; Buriakspilka, an association of sugar-beet producers; and Ukrkooptakh, an association of poultry farmers. All of these associations ran their own processing and distribution facilities, and many published books and brochures on the co-operative movement. Silskyi Hospodar also published * Sil's'kyi hospodar (1923-7), which later became Kooperovane selo (1927-8) and then Kooperovana hromada (1928-30). The organization and almost the entire *co-operative movement were dissolved in the early 19305 with the introduction of collectivization. Sil's'kyi hospodar (Farmer). A semimonthly organ of the *Tsentral union of agricultural co-operatives, published in Kiev from July 1918 to the end of 1919 (a total of 35 issues). It contained articles on farming and the cooperative movement in Ukraine. Sil's'kyi hospodar (Farmer). A semimonthly organ of the *Silskyi Hospodar agricultural co-operative union, published in Kharkiv from 1923. In 1927 it was renamed Kooperovane selo, and in mid-1928 it was merged with Radians'kyi kredyt to form Kooperovana hromada, which appeared semimonthly until January 1930. Sil's'kyi hospodar (Farmer). A popular farming journal published by the *Silskyi Hospodar society semimonthly in Lviv (1926-39,1942-4) and monthly in Jaroslaw (1940i). The editors were Ye. Khraplyvy (1928-34,1938-42), V. Sozansky (1925-9), P. Dubrivny, M. Borovsky (1932-6), P. Zeleny, L. Bachynsky (1940-1), and I. Drabaty. Sil'sk'kyi hospodar appeared in a pressrun of 5,000 to 10,000 in the interwar period and up to 50,000 during the Second World War. The monthly supplement Ukrams 'kyi pasichnyk was published in 1928-39 and 1941-4.

SU 's'kyi hospedar (1926-44)

Sil's'kyi svit (Rural World). A popular agricultural monthly and, from 1926, semimonthly published in Peremyshl (1923-4) by S. Dmokhovsky and in Lviv (1925-8) and Lutske (1928-31) by Ye. Arkhypenko (from November 1924). It issued the supplements Supriaha, Ukrams'ke molocharstvo, and Ukraïns 'ke pasichnytstvo.

Sil's'kyi teatr. See Masovyi teatr.

Ivan Silvai

Silvai, Ivan [Sil'vaj] (pseud: Uriil Meteor), b 15 March 1838 in Suskove, d 13 February 1904 in Nove Davydkove, Bereg komitat, Transcarpathia. Priest and Russophile writer. He began writing in 1855 in the *yazychiie but later switched to Russian. His lyric poems, epic ballads ('Fedor Kor'iatovich/ 'L'voborets')/ satirical stories and novelettes ('Kraitsarovaia komediia' [The Kreutzer Comedy], 'Millioner') about the Magyarone clergy and Transcarpathian rural society, and anecdotal and historical tales appeared in Tserkovnaia gazeta (Budapest), Svit", Novyi svit ' ', Sova, Karpat ' ', Lystok' ', and Misiatseslov (Uzhhorod), and Slovo (Lviv). He also wrote two volumes of sermons, a short autobiography, articles on Ruthenian life under Hungarian rule and on his enemy, Bishop S. Pankovych (I. Pankovics) of Mukachiv, and a study of Transcarpathian miracle-working icons. A book of his religious poems was published in 1903, and a Russian edition of his collected works appeared in Presov in 1957.

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Silvansky, Mykola [Sil'vans'kyj], b 5 January 1916 in Kharkiv, d 5 March 1985 in Kiev. Composer, pianist, and pedagogue. A graduate of the Moscow Conservatory (1944), he studied composition with V. Barabashov in Kharkiv and, in 1944-53, was a soloist with the Kharkiv Philharmonic. In 1947 he began teaching at Kharkiv music schools, and from 1955 at the Kiev Conservatory. His works include the ballets Nezvychainyi den ' (Unusual Day, 1964) and MaVchysh-KybaVchysh (1981), the musical The Magical Power of Tsar Dobrylo (1982), the symphonic tale Ivasyk-Telesyk (to the words of P. Tychyna, 1965), five piano concertos, chamber works, pieces for piano and bandura, art songs, arrangements of Ukrainian folk songs, and music for radio.

Gold ornaments found in the Sim Brativ kurhans

Sim Brativ kurhans. A group of seven (hence the name 'Seven Brothers') 5th- to 4th-century BC Sindian kurhans located by the mouth of the Kuban River to the west of the *Sim Brativ fortified settlement. Excavations in 1875-8 by V. Tisenhausen revealed tombs made from stone and unfired brick, in which the remains of humans and horses, weapons, vases, gold ornaments, and harnesses were found.

Tiberii Silvashi: Summer in Mukachiv (oil, 1985)

Silvashi, Tiberii [Sil'vashi, Tiberij], b 13 July 1947 in Mukachiv, Transcarpathia oblast. Painter. A graduate of the Kiev State Art Institute (1971) and a secretary of the Union of Artists of Ukraine in Kiev, he has worked within the representational framework. His brush stroke is gesturally abstract, however, with drips of paint and an expressionist palette; his compositions are sometimes unusual or off-balance; and the subject matter may be somewhat enigmatic (eg, There, beyond the Window, 1984). At the Young Ukrainian Artists Exhibition in Moscow in 1985, his works attracted international recognition (eg, Dedication to My Daughter, 1983; Weekend, 1983). Silvestrov, Valentin. See Sylvestrov, Valentyn. Sim Brativ fortified settlement. A Black Sea trading center of the 6th to 2nd century BC on the lower Kuban River near Varenykivska, Krasnodar krai, RF. The site was first excavated in 1878 and again in 1938-40 and 1949-50 by N. Anfimov. It originated as one of the major settlements of the Sindians, a Maeotan tribe eventually assimilated by the Sarmatians. It was fortified in the 5th century BC with walls, towers, and a moat. The inhabitants engaged in agriculture, fishing, handicraft production, and trade. Archeological excavations uncovered the remains of a large (420 sq m) 3rd-century BC stone house with an inner court. The site's archeological name is derived from its proximity to the *Sim Brativ kurhans.

The Simeiz sanatorium

Simeiz [Simejiz]. ix-15. A town smt (1986 pop 4,700) on the southern shore of the Crimea, administered by the Yalta city council. Sheltered from northern winds by the Crimean Mountains, it is a health resort area. Its sanatoriums employ climatotherapy and baths to treat pulmonary tuberculosis. A branch of the Crimean Astrophysical Observatory is located there. Simenovych, Volodymyr [Simenovyc], b 14 January 1858 in Filvarky, Buchach county, Galicia, d 13 June 1932 in Chicago. Physician, journalist, and community leader; brother of O. *Kysilevska. After graduating in law from Lviv University (1884) he emigrated to the United States and settled in Shenandoah, Pennsylvania, in 1887. He edited the weekly *Ameryka, organized co-operative stores in Pennsylvania, obtained a medical degree (1892), and moved to Chicago, where he taught obstetrics at the National Medical University (1905-7). An active member of the Ukrainian community, he founded the Brotherhood of the Ukrainian National Association and the Ukrainian So-

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Simferopol. See Symferopil. Simiantsev, Valentyn [Simjantsev], b 23 April 1899 in Velykyi Burluk, Vovchanske county, Kharkiv gubernia, d ? Sculptor and writer. An engineer by training, during the Ukrainian-Soviet War he served in the cavalry of the Khmelnytsky Regiment (1917-20). As an interwar émigré in Czechoslovakia, he studied art at the Ukrainian Husbandry Academy in Podëbrady (to 1929) and worked as an engineer. A postwar refugee, in 1949 he settled in the United States and worked as sculptor for the US Military Institute of Pathology in Washington. He has sculpted busts and medallions and has written four volumes of memoirs (1963,1973,1976,1978). Volodymyr Simenovych

Myroslav Simenovych-Simens

cial Club, chaired the education commission of the Ukrainian National Association (1912-14), and edited the weekly Ukraïna (1930-2). Simenovych-Simens, Myroslav [Simenovyc-Simens], b 16 February 1885 *n Chernivtsi, Bukovyna, d 14 March 1967 in Chicago. Physician and community leader. After emigrating to the United States in 1907, he graduated from Loyola University (1912) and practiced medicine in Chicago. In 1920 he served in the mission of the Western Ukrainian National Republic to London. In the interwar period he organized the hetmanite movement in the United States and served as chief otaman of the *Sich societies in the United States and Canada (1927-40). In 1933 he chaired the exhibition committee which set up the Ukrainian pavilion at the Chicago World's Fair. He was one of the founders of the Ukrainian Congress Committee of America in 1940 and then the United Ukrainian American Relief Committee. After the war he revived the United Hetmán Organization and served as its president (19529), and helped establish the League of Americans of Ukrainian Descent and the Ukrainian Medical Association of North America. He was elected the first president of the Ukrainian Museum in Chicago, which he helped found in 1953. In recognition of his contributions to the Ukrainian cause he was awarded an honorary doctorate by the Ukrainian Free University (1959).

Valentyn Simiantsev: Portrait of Gen Mykhailo OmelianovychPavlenko (1948)

Ludwyk SimiginowiczStaufe

Kostiantyn Siminsky

Simiginowicz-Staufe, Ludwyk Adolph [Symyhynovyc] (pseuds: Adolph Sand, Adolph Staufe), b 28 May 1832 in Suceava, Rumania, d 19 May 1897 ui Chernivtsi. German writer and ethnographer; the first German poet in Bukovyna. The son of a Ukrainian father and a German mother, he was educated in Chernivtsi and Vienna. After debuting as a poet in Chernivtsi (1848) he worked as a teacher there (1849-52,1857-8,1876-97) and in Kronstadt (Braçov), Transylvania (1858-71), and as a journalist and critic in Vienna (1852-6). His literary and theater reviews, stories, poems, and translations of Ukrainian, Rumanian, and Polish fairy tales were published in German periodicals in Vienna, Chernivtsi, Lviv, and elsewhere. He wrote poetry collections and compiled the first album of German poetry published in Bukovyna (1852). He also compiled and translated Marchen aus der Bukowina (2 vols, 1853,1855), Ruthenische Sagen una Marchen aus der Bukowina (1880), and Kleinrussische Volkslieder (1888). Siminsky, Kostiantyn [Simins'kyj] (Syminsky), b 6 March 1879 in Myleichytsi, Brest county, Hrodna gubernia, d 13 June 1932 in Kiev. Civil and construction mechanics engineer; full member of the YUAN from 1926. He studied at the Kiev Polytechnical Institute and in 1914 became a professor there. He taught and conducted research at various institutions in Kiev. He became director of the YUAN Institute of Technical Mechanics (in 1921) and the Kiev branch of the Scientific Research Institute of Structures of the YUAN (in 1929) and was vice-president of the YUAN (1931-2). He studied fatigue effects in metals and wood, particularly in bridges, and developed the method

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SIMINSKY

of determining fatigue effects by drilling holes in materials. He also studied the strength of other building materials (eg, granite) and developed new equations and measuring methodology for structures. Among his numerous works are monographs, including textbooks on the statics of structures (1930), technical mechanics (1931), and spatial forms (1934).

Alex Simirenko

orchestra (Philadelphia, 19505), and the orchestra of the Ukrainian Music Institute of America (Philadelphia, 196173). Simovych, Roman [Simovyc], b 28 February 1901 in Sniatyn, Galicia, d 30 July 1984 in Lviv. Composer and teacher. He graduated in composition and piano from the Prague Conservatory in 1933 and completed its Master School in 1936 in the composition class of V. Novak. From 1936 he taught at the Lysenko Higher Institute of Music in Drohobych and Stanyslaviv. From 1951 he lectured at the Lviv Conservatory (professor in 1963). His compositions include the ballet Dovbush's Sopilka (1948), seven symphonies (including the Hutsul [no. i] and the Lemko [no. 2]); the symphonic poems Maksym Kryvonis (1954), Dovbush (1955), and In Memory of Ivan Franko (1956); overtures for symphony orchestra; a string quartet; numerous works for piano (two trios and two sonatas, three suites, a sonatina, and a fantasia); and works for choir with orchestra and for choir a cappella.

Roman Simovych

Simirenko, Alex [Symyrenko, Oleksa], b 6 September 1931 in Kiev, d 27 April 1979 in Philadelphia. Sociologist; son of V. *Symyrenko. He and his mother fled from Soviet Ukraine in the late 19303 and lived as refugees in Prague and postwar Bavaria. In 1950 they emigrated to the United States. Simirenko graduated from the University of Minnesota (PH D, 1961) and was a professor of sociology at the University of Nevada (1960-9), California State University (Northridge, 1968-71), and Pennsylvania State University (from 1969). A specialist in American ethnic studies and Soviet sociology, he wrote Pilgrims, Colonists, and Frontiersmen: An Ethnic Community in Transition (1964), about the Transcarpathian community in Minneapolis, and edited, with introductions, the collections Soviet Sociology: Historical Antecedents and Current Appraisals (1966) and Social Thought in the Soviet Union (1969). An edition of his selected articles, The Professionalization of Soviet Society, was published posthumously in 1982. Simon (Symon), b ca 1166, d 22 May 1226. Churchman and literary figure. A monk of the Kievan Cave Monastery, he became bishop of Vladimir-Suzdal in 1215. His correspondence with the monk Polikarp provided the basis for the redaction of the *Kievan Cave Patericon. He was buried at the Cave Monastery, where he lived as an ascetic before his death. He was later canonized by the Orthodox church. Simovych, Oksana [Simovyc] (née Boiko), b 18 August 1914 in Ternopil, Galicia, d 15 January 1986 in Philadelphia. Violinist and teacher; wife of R. *Simovych. A graduate of the Chopin School of Music in Stanyslaviv (1938), she also studied at conservatories in Warsaw, Vienna, and Philadelphia. From 1930 she performed as a solo violinist or in ensemble in Ukraine, Western Europe, and the United States. She was a member of the Munich Symphony Orchestra (19405), the Settlement Music School

Vasyl Simovych

Simovych, Vasyl [Simovyc, Vasyl'] (pseud: V. Vernyvolia), b 9 March 1880 in Hadynkivtsi, Husiatyn county, Galicia, d 13 March 1944 in Lviv. Linguist, philologist, and cultural figure; member of the Shevchenko Scientific Society (NTSh) from 1923. As a student at Chernivtsi University (1899-1904), where his mentor was S. *SmalStotsky, he joined the ^Revolutionary Ukrainian party and in 1902-3 was a coeditor of its journals Haslo and Selianyn and of the newspaper Bukovyna. He defended his PH D dissertation on the verb in I. Galiatovsky's works in 1913. During the First World War he worked with the *Union for the Liberation of Ukraine as a cultural organizer and teacher in German and Austrian POW camps holding 40,000 Ukrainian soldiers of the Russian Army. He produced for them a synchronie grammar of Ukrainian (1918); its expanded 2nd edition (1921) incorporated elements of scholarly grammar. In 1919-20 he headed the Cultural-Educational Department of the Ukrainian Military Mission for Ukrainian Prisoners in Germany, edited its periodical, Shliakh (Salzwedel), and wrote a popular booklet on how to become literate. In Berlin (1920-3) he worked as an editor and translator for the Ukrainska Nakladnia publishing house and prepared annotated editions of T. Shevchenko's *Kobzar (1921) and of works by I. Franko and B. Lepky (1922). Then, while serving as a professor (1923-33; and rector, 1926-30) at the ^Ukrainian

SINKLER

Higher Pedagogical Institute in Prague and at the Higher Trade School in Prague, he played an active role in Ukrainian life in Czechoslovakia. He was a member of the Prague Linguistic Circle, and produced a textbook of Old Church Slavonic grammar (1926), an anthology of Old Ukrainian literature (1932), and articles in Ukrainian historical morphology (eg, on the pronoun sco 'what, that7, masculine nouns and male names ending in -o, and adjectives) and phonology (the interplay of e and o) and the history of Ukrainian linguistics and orthography (I. Galiatovsky's translations of the Bible, M. Luchkai's grammar, the drahomanivka script, J. Jirecek's proposal for a Ukrainian Latin alphabet). After 1933, in Lviv, Simovych worked as an editor of the Pros vita society's publications (including the journal Zhyttia i znannia, in which he published articles on the Ukrainian language), Ukraïns'ka zahal'na entsyklopediia (The Ukrainian General Encyclopedia), the cultural-literary journal Nazustrich (1934-8), and the scholarly journal S 'ohochasm i mynule (1939). He was a member of the NTSh board of directors and the NTSh Language Commission. He devoted his attention to Ukrainian modern and historical phonology and morphology, the history of Ukrainian orthography, and the practical problems of the normative language. The first and most prominent Ukrainian phonologist of the Trague structuralist school/ he combined its ideas with the approaches of W. Humboldt and O. *Potebnia. During the first Soviet occupation of Galicia (1939-41), Simovych served as professor, dean of philology, and rector (1941) at Lviv University. Under the German occupation (1941-4) he was briefly imprisoned, and then worked as an editor for the Lviv branch of the Ukrainske Vydavnytstvo publishing house and played an active role in the Ukrainian Central Committee's Scholarly Fund and Relief Committee for Eastern Ukrainian Refugees. A detailed evaluation of his scholarly contributions is found in the two-volume collection of his works Ukraïns'ke movoznavstvo (Ukrainian Linguistics, 1981, 1984), edited by G.Y. Shevelov. G.Y. Shevelov

Simpson, George, b 24 March 1893 in Chatsworth, Ontario, d 6 March 1969 in Saskatoon. Historian and civic figure; full member of the Shevchenko Scientific Society from 1948 and of the Ukrainian Academy of Arts and Sciences in Canada. After studying at the University of Saskatchewan (1919), the University of Toronto (1920), and the University of London he became a lecturer in history at the University of Saskatchewan in Saskatoon in 1922 (professor in 1928, department head in 1940). Simpson developed a considerable empathy for Ukrainians, through his contacts with them in the 19205, which led him to learn the Ukrainian language and to organize the first department of Slavic studies at a Canadian university, in Saskatoon in 1945. He edited an English translation of D. Doroshenko's History of the Ukraine (1939), prepared a series of radio broadcasts in 1939 on the Ukrainian question, and wrote several items about Ukrainian history, including a historical atlas of Ukraine (1941). He was an adviser to public officials in Canada on Ukrainian matters and a participant in the negotiations leading to the formation of the Ukrainian Canadian Committee (now Congress).

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Sindians (syndy). A Maeotian tribe which inhabited the Taman Peninsula, the Black Sea coastal region adjacent to it, and a portion of the Kuban during the 1st millennium BC. The Sindians practiced agriculture, fishing, manufacturing, and trade. They formed a state in the 5th century BC, and a century later they became part of the Bosporan Kingdom. The Greeks exerted a major influence on the Sindians, particularly with respect to language and religion. In the ist to 2nd century AD they were assimilated by the Sarmatians. Many archeological remains in the Taman and Kuban regions can be traced to the Sindians. The most noted among them are the *Sim Brativ fortified settlement and the *Sim Brativ kurhans.

Volodymyr Singalevych

Gen Volodymyr Sinkler

Singalevych, Volodymyr [Singalevyc] (originally Schilling), b 1880 in Galicia, d 1945 in Austria. Politician and civic figure of German heritage. A lawyer by training, he was a member of the National Democratic party, an elected representative to the Austrian parliament from the Peremyshl region (1911-18), and a member of the Galician Diet (1913-14). From 1914 he was in Vienna as deputy chief for the military administration of the Ukrainian Sich Riflemen and as a member of the National Council of the Western Ukrainian National Republic (1919-23, responsible for finances and, later, internal affairs). In 1930-9 he was director of the Land Mortgage Bank in Lviv. Sinkevych, Dionisii [Sinkevyc, Dionisij], b ? Rozdilie, Galicia, d ? Engraver. The hegumen of the Krekhiv (16901700) and St George's (Lviv) monasteries, he did a large wood engraving of the Krekhiv monastery (1699), which is of interest to historians of wooden architecture, and illustrated the Akathist (1699), Hiermologion (1700), and Triodion for Eastertide (1701) published in Lviv. Western influences are evident in his work. Sinkler, Volodymyr, b 12 January 1879 in Novoi Margelan, Fergana oblast, Turkestan, d 1945 in Kiev. UNR Army general. A graduate of the General Staff Academy in St Petersburg, during the First World War he reached the rank of brigadier general in the Russian army. In 1918 he joined the Ukrainian State army and served as general quartermaster on the General Staff. In 1919 he was chief of staff of the UNR Army, and in 1920 he became chief of the General Staff and a member of the Higher Military Council. He was promoted to major general by the UNR govern-

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SINKLER

ment-in-exile. When the Red Army occupied Poland in 1945, he was arrested by the NKVD. He died in prison.

Sion ruskii. See Ruskii Sion. Siret. See Seret. Siretsky, Bohdan [Sirec'kyj], b 1907, d 1941 in Mykolaiv. Civic figure. A secondary school teacher in Bukovyna, he was one of the leading members of the Chornomore student society. In the 19305 he revived the Plast Ukrainian Youth Association in Bukovyna and served as its leader (1933-4). During the Second World War he joined the *OUN expeditionary groups and was arrested and shot by the Germans.

Title page of Sinopsis (1674)

Sinopsis (Synopsis). One of the first synthetic surveys of Ukrainian and East European history. It was first published by the Kievan Cave Monastery Press in 1674, and some 30 more printings had appeared by 1836,21 of them in St Petersburg. The author is believed to have been I. *Gizel or a monk at the Kievan Cave Monastery, P. Kokhanovsky. Sinopsis covers events from the time of the early Slavs (relating an account of them as descendants of Mosoch, the son of Japheth) to the mid-i/th century. The third Kiev edition (1680) includes an account of the Chyhyryn campaigns of 1677-9 and the reign of Tsar Fedor Alekseevich. Based on historical works by M. Stryjkowski, M. Bielski, M. Kromer, and A. Guagnini, as well as the Primary, Hustynia, and other Rus' and Cossack chronicles, it attempts to justify historically the unification of Ukraine and Russia. It devotes particular attention to the political history of Kievan Rus' and includes lists of Rus' princes, Polish palatines, Cossack hetmans, Russian tsars, and metropolitans of Kiev. The Sinopsis was for many years the standard text on the history of Kievan Rus'. It gained great popularity throughout Ukraine and Russia and was translated into Latin, Greek, and Rumanian. Siolo (Hamlet). A bilingual Polish-Ukrainian miscellany, four volumes of which were published in the Polish alphabet in Lviv in 1866-7. The editor and publisher was P. *Svientsitsky (Swiecicki), who had as his aim the strengthening of Ukrainian-Polish understanding and the combating of Galician Russophilism and Russian imperialism. Siolo contained articles on Ukrainian Cossack history and T. Shevchenko; prose and poetry by Svientsitsky, Shevchenko, Yu. Fedkovych, H. Kvitka-Osnovianenko, and M. Vovchok; a Ukrainian translation of the Primary Chronicle; poems dedicated to Shevchenko by Polish émigré authors; and bibliographic surveys of Ukrainian publications. Sion, tserkov', shkola (Zion, Church, School). A semimonthly supplement to *Vistnyk, the official newspaper for Ukrainians in the Austrian Empire, published in Vienna in 1858-9 (a total of 53 issues). It contained belles lettres, news, sermons, and articles on current affairs, culture, and education. The editor and publisher was V. Zborovsky (pseud of Yu. Vyslobotsky).

Ivan Sirko's gravestone

Sirko, Ivan, b ca 1605-10 in Merefa, Kharkiv region, d 11 August 1680 in Hrushivka, (now Illinka, Tomakivka raion, Dnipropetrovske oblast). Zaporozhian Cossack military leader. He served as colonel of Vinnytsia regiment (1658-60) and was elected Kish otaman of the Zaporozhian Host eight times in the i66os and 16705. Sirko participated in the Cossack-Polish War (1648-57), campaigned against the Tatars in the lower Dnieper region and the Perekop Isthmus in the late 16505, and joined the Varenytsia Uprising (1664-5). He led Cossack campaigns against the Crimean Tatars (1668) and against Turkish fortifications in Ochakiv and Islamkermen (1670-1). In 1678, together with the army of Hetmán I. Samoilovych and the Russian army of G. Romodanovsky, he halted the advance of Turkish and Tatar forces on Right-Bank Ukraine. Sirko often changed his political orientation. He opposed I. *Vyhovsky, Yu. Khmelnytsky (whom he had previously supported against Vyhovsky), and P. Teteria for their pro-Polish policies, and during their hetmancies he was not hostile toward Muscovy. After the Treaty of *Andrusovo (1667), however, he became openly anti-Muscovite. Disregarding his own animosity toward the Turks and Tatars, Sirko supported Hetmán P. *Doroshenko for a lengthy period before severing ties with him. Sirko's military exploits against the Turks and Tatars became the subject of folk legends and dumas. His letters to Doroshenko (of i October 1673) and the Crimean khan (of 1679) have been preserved (by S. Velychko, A. Rigelman, and N. Markevych). He is associated with a famous letter written by the Zaporozhian Cossacks in reply to the demands of the Turkish sultan to surrender voluntarily (depicted in a painting by I. Repin, 1891). The historian D. Yavornytsky composed two dumas about Sirko and published a biography in 1894. O. Ohloblyn

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Shkoloznavstvo (Pedagogy, 1926), Narodnia osvita na Soviets'kii Ukraïni (Public Education in Soviet Ukraine, 1934), and Istoriia osvity na Ukraïni (The History of Education in Ukraine, 1937). Sirozhupannyky. See Graycoats. Siry, Yurii. See Tyshchenko, Yurii.

Vasyl Sirko

Stepan Siropolko

Sirko, Vasyl, b 5 March 1899 in Kinashiv, Rohatyn county, Galicia, d 3 November 1937. Galician Communist leader. In 1919 he was active in the communist underground in Stanyslaviv and took part in the founding conference of the Communist Party of Eastern Galicia. In 1920 he conducted agitation and propaganda within the Ukrainian Galician Army (UHA), helped organize Red UHA units, and, in the summer, headed the Terebovlia county Revolutionary Committee of the *Galician Socialist Soviet Republic. In 1921 he taught at the Second Kiev Red Officers School until April and then supervised CP(B)U agitation and propaganda work in Galicia. He served as a CP(B)U functionary in Kiev, Donetske, Makiivka, and Kryvyi Rih until he was arrested during the Stalinist terror in 1933. He either died in a Soviet concentration camp or was executed by the NKVD. Siromantsi. See Graywolves Company of the Ukrainian Insurgent Army. Siropolko, Stepan, b 1872 in Pryluka, Poltava gubernia, d 21 February 1959 in Prague. Pedagogue and bibliographer. He graduated from Moscow University, where he was an active member of the Ukrainian Hromada and coeditor of the periodical Ukrainskaia zhizn '. In 1917 he became director of public education in Kiev. While in Kiev he lectured at the Froebel Pedagogical Institute. He also acted as consultant to the General Secretariat of the Central Rada on educational matters. After 1921 he emigrated, first to Poland and then to Czechoslovakia. He was an active member of the Ukrainian community, in Prague in particular: he taught at the Ukrainian Higher Pedagogical Institute (1925-32), he organized and was head of the "Ukrainian Society of Bibliophiles in Prague and edited its journal *Knyholiub, and he headed the Ukrainian Pedagogical Society in Prague and the Union of Ukrainian Journalists and Writers Abroad. He was also a member of the Ukrainian Historical-Philological Society and became an honorary member of the *Prosvita society in Lviv. He wrote articles on pedagogical topics for Ukrainian- and foreign-language periodicals. His published works include Vzirtsevyi katalog shkilnoï i narodn'oï biblioteky (A Model Catalog for the School and Public Library, 1918), Narodni biblioteky (People's Libraries, 1919), Zavdannia shkoly (The Task of the School, 1919), Korotkyi kurs bibliotekoznavstva (A Short Library Science Course, 1924),

Sisters of Saint Josaphat (Sestry Sviatoho Sviashchenomuchenyka Yosafata, or Yosafatky). A Ukrainian Catholic order of nuns founded in 1911 by Rev O. Dyky of St George's Cathedral in Lviv with the assistance of Rev I. Zhygal. Its members ran orphanages, homes for the aged, and nurseries; provided religious guidance to young female domestics and workers; and assiduously disseminated the Catholic press. Its rule (388 regulations) was confirmed by Metropolitan A. Sheptytsky and reconfirmed in 1943 by Bishop H. Khomyshyn and in 1975 by Cardinal Y. Slipy. In 1939 the order had 40 members and 16 novices, who lived in eight houses in Lviv archeparchy and two in Stanyslaviv eparchy. It was abolished after the 1944 Soviet reoccupation of Galicia and has since been inactive. Sisters of Saint Joseph (Sestry Sviatoho Yosyfa, or Yosyfitky). A Ukrainian Catholic order of nuns founded in 1894 by Rev K. *Seletsky, the curate of Zhuzhil, Sokal county, Galicia. Its first convent was opened in 1909 in nearby Tsebliv. After Seletsky's death in 1918, Bishop Y. Kotsylovsky, the order's new guardian, modified and approved the order's rule. The sisters promoted the veneration of St Joseph; performed acts of charity; ran nurseries; and cared for orphans, the infirm, and the aged. They received spiritual guidance from the *Redemptorist Fathers. Before the order was abolished by the Soviet regime in 1945, it had 25 houses and approx 100 sisters in Galicia. Today the order exists in Poland (12 houses and approx 25 members in 1990), Brazil (4 houses and approx 30 members in 1990), and Canada (2 houses in Saskatoon and i in Winnipeg and 10 members in 1990). It has operated St Joseph's Home for the Aged in Saskatoon since 1964.

The first home and chapel of the Sisters Servants of Mary Immaculate in Mundare, Alberta (1903)

Sisters Servants of Mary Immaculate (Sestry sluzhebnytsi Neporochnoi Divy Marii). A congregation of Ukrainian Catholic nuns established in 1892 in Zhuzhil, Sokal county, Galicia, by the local priest, K. *Seletsky, un-

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der the spiritual guidance of Y. Lomnytsky of the Basilian order. The first charter was approved by Metropolitan S. Sembratovych in May 1892, and in September of that year a novitiate was opened in Zhuzhil, with nine novices. The first prioress was Sister Y. Hordashevska. In 1894 the novitiate was moved to Krystynopil. The congregation's aims were to educate children; to perform acts of charity; and to run nurseries, orphanages, schools, hospitals, and homes for the aged and infirm. Members of the order also assisted in various church work. Convents of the congregation were established in Canada (1902), Yugoslavia (1906), Brazil (1911), Czechoslovakia (1928), the United States (1935), and Argentina (1965). The constitution of the Sisters Servants was revised at its first congress, held in 1907 in Galicia, and again in 1929. In 1932 the Congregation for Eastern Churches raised the status of the Sisters Servants of Mary Immaculate to that of a congregation of papal law, thereby standardizing its rules and administration, and in 1934 divided it into three provinces (Europe, Canada, and Brazil). Each province was to govern itself but accepted a common constitution and the authority of the general curia, which was initially in Zhuzhil, then in Krystynopil, and after 1934 in Lviv. After the Second World War the general curia was moved to Rome. At the same time the congregation was suppressed in Galicia by the Soviet authorities, and many of its members who did not flee the Red Army were imprisoned or exiled.

BIBLIOGRAPHY Velykyi, A. Narys istoriï zhromadzhennia ss Sluzhebnuts' PNDM (Rome 1968) ' I. Khoma

Sitch. See Sich. Sitnytsky, Mykola [Sitnyc'kyj], b 1884, d 1934. Galician pedagogue. He taught German and Ukrainian language in the Zalishchyky Seminary and, from 1924 to 1932, in the Ukrainian Girls' Institute in Peremyshl, where for a time he was director. In the period of the Western Ukrainian National Republic he was director of the radio station of the Ukrainian Galician Army.

Yevtym Sitsinsky

The novitiate of the Sisters Servants of Mary Immaculate in Ancaster, Ontario

Before the war the Sisters Servants had 107 houses in Ukraine, all of which were closed after its abolition by the Soviets. They also maintained 15 orphanages for approx 380 orphans (1938) and provided religious instruction for over 4,200 children. The next largest province was Canada, where by the end of the First World War there were 100 members in 20 houses. Today the Sisters Servants are organized into five provinces (Ukraine, Canada, Brazil, United States, and Poland), two vice-provinces (Czechoslovakia and Yugoslavia), and one delegature (Argentina) and have over 1,000 members in approx 120 houses. The liberalization in Ukraine since the late 19805 has permitted the congregation to re-establish itself there after almost 50 years.

Sitsinsky, Yevtym (Yukhym) [Sicins'kyj, Jevtym (Juxym)] (Sichynsky, Sitsynsky), b i October 1859 in Maznyky, Letychiv county, Podilia gubernia, d 7 December 1937 in Kamianets-Podilskyi. Historian, archeologist, teacher, and civic activist; member of the Shevchenko Scientific Society from 1894; father of V. *Sichynsky. A graduate of the Kiev Theological Academy (1885), he taught in the Kuban and then was ordained and stationed in Kamianets-Podilskyi (1889), where later he became archpriest of the cathedral parish. He established an eparchial historical-archeological museum in 1890 and directed it until 1922, headed the eparchial historical society (1903-21) and edited its publications Podol'skie eparkhial'nye vedomosti and Trudy (vols 6, 8-12), helped establish the Prosvita society in Podilia (1905), and carried out extensive field research throughout the region, during the course of which he studied architecture and collected museum pieces. His magnum opus was Istoricheskie svedeniia o prikhodakh i tserkvakh Podol'skoi eparkhii (Historical Information about the Parishes and Churches of Podilia Eparchy, 7 vols, 1895-1911), and his other works included Arkheologicheskaia karta Podol'skoi gubernii (Archeological Map of Podilia gubernia, 1901), Ischezaiushchii tip dereviannykh tserkvei Podolii (The Vanishing Type of Wooden Churches in Podilia, 1904), Oboronni zamky Zakhidn 'oho Podillia (Defensive Castles of Western Podilia, 1928), and Narysy z istoriï Podillia (Studies of the History of Podilia, 2 vols, 1928). His most popular monograph was Gorod Kamenets Podol'skii: Istoricheskoe opisanie (The City of Kamianets-Podilskyi: A Historical Description, 1895). In 1918 he helped establish a state university in Kamianets-Podilskyi, at which he taught archeology and Podilian history (1918-20). Under Soviet rule he was given a lowly teaching position at the Institute of People's Ed-

SIVERSKODONETSKE

ucation (1920-6) and eventually dismissed. Sitsinsky was arrested in 1929, and spent 10 months in prison. Upon his release he worked for a short time at the museum of the Kievan Cave Monastery. He returned to Kamianets-Podilskyi, where, forbidden to teach, he lived out his days in poverty. Siuren camp sites. Two Stone Age cave sites near the village of Tankove (formerly Siuren), Bakhchesarai raion, the Crimea. Siuren was excavated in 1879-80, in 1924-29 by G. Bonch-Osmolovsky, and in 1954-5 by E. Vekilova. Siuren I revealed three Upper Paleolithic occupations containing the remains of hearths, flint and bone tools, and wild animal bones. Of particular interest was the discovery of a piece of a deer antler inscribed with crooked lines and notches. Siuren n contained two Mesolithic occupations in which geometrically shaped flints pieces, arrowheads, and stone and flint tools were found. Sivach (Sower). A monthly religious journal published in Lviv in 1936-9. The contributors were Revs H. Kubai, O. Gorchynsky, P. Dzedzyk, O. Hodunko, V. Rabii, I. Myroniuk, M. Mosora, and V. Popadiuk. It contained sermons and catechismal materials. Sivach/The Sower. The semimonthly organ of the Stamford Ukrainian Catholic eparchy. It was founded by Bishop B. Losten in February 1986 and is published in English and Ukrainian. The editor of the English section is Msgr L. Mosko, and the editors of the Ukrainian section are B. Tarnavsky, O. Roshka, and W. Lencyk. The newspaper reports on religious life in the eparchy and on developments in the Ukrainian Catholic church, and includes articles on cultural and historical issues. Siverianians (siveriany).Ai\ East Slavic tribe that lived in the Desna Basin and the upper reaches of the Seim, the Sula, the Psol, and the Vorskla rivers late in the ist millennium AD. Their main settlements included *Chernihiv, Novhorod-Siverskyi, Putyvl, Kursk, and Liubech. The Siverianian territories bordered on those of the Polianians and Drehovichians in the west and the Radimichians, Krivichians, and Viatichians in the north. They settled the uninhabited southern steppes. The Siverianians were primarily farmers, herders, hunters, fishermen, and artisans. In the 8th and early 9th centuries they paid ^tribute to the Khazars. Later, together with other East Slavic *tribes, they belonged to the Kievan Rus' state. According to the Primary Chronicle Oleh conquered the Siverianians in 884, and imposed a light tribute upon them and forbade them to give the Khazars any further payments. In 907 they took part in Oleh's campaign against Byzantium. The Siverianians lost their distinctive tribal features, and after 1024 they are not mentioned in the chronicles. A vestige of their name remained in *Siversk principality: the Siversk land was known as such until the i6th or 17th century. Many Siverianian settlements of the 8th to loth centuries have been discovered near Romen (Monastyryshche, Petrivske, and Novotroitske), as well as kurhan burial sites (with evidence of the tribe's practice of cremation) and valuable treasures. BIBLIOGRAPHY Samokvasov, D. Severianskaia zemlia i severiane po gorodishcham i mogilam (Moscow 1908) A. Zhukovsky

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Siversk principality. One of the appanage principalities of the Chernihiv-Siversk land. It was founded in 1097 and was also known as Novhorod-Siverskyi principality (after its capital). Initially its territory extended along the Snov and the middle Desna rivers, and after the mid-ii3os it expanded along the Seim River as far as Kursk. The region around the upper Desna and the Oka rivers, settled by the ^Viatichians, also came under its control. The first ruler of the Siversk principality was *Oleh Sviatoslavych; his successors, the Olhovych dynasty, frequently also controlled *Chernihiv principality and often contended for the Kievan throne. In the 11405 and 11505 Siversk principality separated from the Chernihiv region, and by the end of the 12th century it had been divided into several small principalities around Kursk, Putyvl, and other cities. Princes of Siversk clashed with the Cumans, particularly in the late 12th century. One of those campaigns, led by *Ihor Sviatoslavych in 1185, was celebrated in the epic poem *Slovo o polku Ihorevi (The Tale of Ihor's Campaign). When Batu Khan attacked Eastern Europe in the 12405, Siversk principality was ravaged, but it continued to exist under Tatar hegemony. In the mid-i4th century it came under the Grand Duchy of Lithuania; the first Lithuanian prince of Siversk was Dmytro Olgierdovych (son of Algirdas). Muscovy controlled Siversk principality from 1503 and liquidated it in 1523. The territory was later briefly held by Poland (1618-48). BIBLIOGRAPHY Golubovskii, P. Istoriia Severskoi zemli do poloviny xiv st. (Kiev 1881) Bagalei, D. Istoriia Severskoi zemli do poloviny xiv st. (Kiev 1882) Hrushevs'kyi, M. 'Chernyhiv i Sivershchyna v ukraïns'kii istoriï/ in Chernyhiv i pivnichne livoberezhzhia (Kiev 1928) Rymut, K. 'Nazwy miejscowe dawnego ksiestwa Siewierskiego/ Onomástica, 1970, nos 1-2 Drevnerusskie kniazhestva x-xm vv. (Moscow 1975) Rybakov, B. 'Chernigovskoe i Severskoe kniazhestva/ in Kievskaia Rus ' i russkie kniazhestva xn-xin vv. (Moscow 1982) A. Zhukovsky

Siverske [Sivers'ke]. ¥-19, DB 11-4. A city (1989 pop 15,000) on the Bakhmutka River in Artemivske raion, Donetske oblast. It originated as a workers7 settlement around the dolomite-processing plant built in 1913. In 1961 it attained city status. Its original name, Yama, was changed to Siverske in 1973. Today, besides the dolomiteprocessing complex, it has a brick factory. A literary memorial museum dedicated to V. *Sosiura is located in the city. Siverskodonetske [Sivers'kodonec'ke]. ¥-19, DB 11-4. A city (1990 pop 132,000) on the Donets River in Luhanske oblast. It was founded in 1934 as the Lyskhimbud builders' settlement during the construction of a nitrogenfertilizer manufacturing complex in the suburbs of Lysychanske. In 1950 the settlement was renamed, and in 1958 it was granted city status. Today the city is the largest center of the chemical industry in Ukraine. It is the home of the Azot and the Skloplastyk manufacturing consortiums, the Impuls Research and Manufacturing Consortium, a chemical-metallurgical plant, building-materials plants, construction enterprises, and woodworking factories.

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Siverskodonetske Azot Manufacturing Consortium (Siverskodonetske vyrobnyche obiednannia Azot). A chemical manufacturing enterprise located in Siverskodonetske, Luhanske oblast. It is based on a chemical manufacturing complex which came into operation in 1951. The consortium produces over 100 items, including ammonium and potassium nitrate, carbamide, ammonium sulfate, ammonia water, ammonium, methanol, formalin, glues, paints, polyethelene, and adipic and sebacic acids. Siverskodonetske Skloplastyk Manufacturing Consortium (Siverskodonetske vyrobnyche obiednannia Skloplastyk). A fiberglass manufacturing consortium located in Siverskodonetske, Luhanske oblast. It was founded in 1977 on the basis of the first specialized fiberglass factory in the USSR, which came into operation in 1963. It produces over 160 items, including pipes and tubes, noncorroding machine parts, fiberglass sheets, and thermal plastics. Siverskyi Donets River. See Donets River. Siverskyi Donets-Donbas Canal. See Donets-Donbas Canal. Sixth Sich Division of the Army of the UNR (Shosta sichova dyviziia Armii UNR). A military force recruited in the spring of 1920 from among Ukrainian rows (soldiers of the UNR Army and the Russian Volunteer Army) in Polish internment camps at Lañcut and Brest-Litovsk. Its commander, Col M. Bezruchko, and chief of staff, Col V. Zmiienko, had been senior officers in the demobilized Sich Riflemen Group of the UNR Army. Its 250 officers and 1,770 soldiers were organized into the loth Infantry Brigade (under Col R. Sushko), the 17th Infantry Brigade (Col O. Voroniv), the 6th Sich Cavalry Battalion (Lt V. Herasymenko), the 6th Light Artillery Brigade (Col Nasoniv), the 6th Sich Technical Battalion (Capt V. Bokitko), and several reserve units. As part of the Third Polish Army, the division advanced in early May 1920 from Brest-Litovsk through the Soviet rear to Berdychiv. From 8 May to 9 June it held Kiev, and then if fought the Red Army at Ihnatpil, Perha, Kovel, and Kholm. In late August it distinguished itself in the defense of Zamosc. After being transferred to Galicia with the remainder of the UNR Army in September, the division suffered many casualties in the final battles with the Red Army at Popivtsi in November. After the Polish-Soviet armistice in October, most of the remaining soldiers retreated into Poland and were interned in camps at Aleksandrdw Kujawski and Szczepidrno. A reserve brigade commanded by Gen Fedyniuk-Bilynsky remained on active duty at Brest-Litovsk until the Second Winter Campaign. L.Shankovsky Sixtus Erasmus (Sykst Erazm), b ca 1570 in Lviv, d ca 1635 in Zamostia. Philosopher and physician. After graduating from Cracow University (PH D, 1596) he taught there until 1600 and then studied medicine in Padua (MD, 1602). He worked at the Lviv Catholic Hospital and taught medicine at the Zamostia Academy (1614-29). He wrote a number of scientific books, including an analysis of the mineral waters of the Shklo resort, a study of the curative benefits of mud baths, and a medical commentary on Seneca.

Skaba, Andrii, b 12 December 1905 in Khorishky, Kobeliaky county, Poltava gubernia, d 26 June 1986 in Kiev. Soviet Party and state activist and historian; member of the AN URSR (now ANU) from 1967. After graduating from Kharkiv University (1934) he worked at the Kharkiv Pedagogical Institute and Kharkiv University (1936-40) and headed the departments of contemporary history at the universities of Lviv (1940-1) and Kharkiv (1946-9). He served as director of the Central State Archive of the October Revolution of the Ukrainian SSR in Kharkiv (1946-9) and as editor of the oblast newspaper, Sotsialistychna Kharkivshchyna. He was secretary of the Kharkiv oblast committee of the CPU (1951-9), minister of higher and secondary special education of the Ukrainian SSR (1959), and secretary of the CC CPU (1959-68). From 1968 to 1973 he was director of the ANU "Institute of History. Skaba published works on the history of Soviet society and of the Communist party, including a monograph on the Paris Peace Conference and foreign intervention in Soviet territory in 1919 (1971). He was editor in chief of Radians'ka entsyklopediia istoriï Ukraïny (The Soviet Encyclopedia of the History of Ukraine, 4 vols, 1969-72). Skaba was a hardline ideologue of the CPSU, particularly regarding *nationality policy, and a proponent of Russification. He persecuted the *shestydesiatnyky and supported the repression of opposition groups. A. Zhukovsky Skadovske [Skadovs'ke]. vn-i3. A city (1989 pop 22,900) on Dzharylhach Bay and a raion center in Kherson oblast. It was founded in 1894 as a seaport on the site of the fishing village of Ali-Ahok. In 1961 it attained city status. Skadovske is an industrial, transportation, and health resort center. It has a building-materials and a food industry.

Mykola Skadovsky: Along Volodymyrka (oil, 1891)

Skadovsky, Mykola [Skadovs'kyj], b 16 November 1846 in Bilozerka, near Kherson, d 10 June 1892 in Bilozerka. After graduating from the Moscow School of Painting, Sculpture, and Architecture (1869) he studied at the Dusseldorf Academy of Arts. He was a founder of the ^Society of South Russian Artists and specialized in genre painting. His works include Hunting (1879), Before the Storm (1881), Tavern Orator (1881), The Homeless (1886), Hunting by His Excellency (1886), and Along Volodymyrka (1891). He also painted some landscapes and portraits.

SKALAT

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Bishop Yov Skakalsky

Skakalsky, Yov [Skakal's'kyj, Jov], b i January 1914 in Kremianets, Volhynia, d 18 February 1974 in Curitiba, Brazil. Orthodox bishop. He graduated from the theological seminary in Kremianets and was ordained a hieromonk of the Pochaiv Monastery in 1938. During the Second World War he worked in the theological consistory in Kholm and, later, as a chaplain for Orthodox soldiers of the ^Division Galizien. In 1951 he emigrated to Canada, where he served as secretary to Metropolitan I. Ohiienko (1953-64) and then as chaplain of St Andrew's College. In 1967 he moved to the United States, and in 1968 he was consecrated a bishop of the Ukrainian Orthodox Church in the USA and vicar for South America. In 1971 he was elevated to the rank of archbishop. He is the author of Palomnytstvo po sviatykh mistsiakh skhodu (Pilgrimages to Holy Places in the East, 1966).

The castle ruins in Skala-Podilska

perished from the plague. The town prospered under Austrian rule (1772-1918). In the interwar period it was under the rule of Poland. Today it has an asphalt, a fruitcanning, and a food-processing plant. Its monuments include the ruins of a castle, a baroque palace, a Roman Catholic church (1719), and one of Ukraine's finest parks (34 ha). Skala-Starytsky, Myroslav. See Starytsky, Myroslav.

Skakandii, Vasyl [Skakandij, VasyF], b 4 March 1941 in Serednie, Transcarpathia. Graphic artist. A graduate of the Kiev State Art Insitute (1965), he has made prints and illustrated books. He has produced the linocut series 'Oleksa Borkaniuk' and 'Legends of the Carpathians' (1967) and a portrait of V. Stefanyk (1970); illustrated S. Petdfi's poem Az Apóstol (Apostle, 1968) and a collection of Transcarpathian folk songs (1968); and designed the jacket for P. Skunts's Na hrani epokh (At the Turn of Epochs, 1968). Skala (The Rock). A Ukrainian Catholic reading-room society organized in the Stanyslaviv eparchy of Galicia by Bishop H. Khomyshyn in 1931 as part of *Catholic Action. Skala reading rooms were similar to those of the *Prosvita society. They were normally under the jurisdiction of the local parish priest. In 1936 there were 187 branches of Skala, with some 5,500 members, and by 1939 there were some 3,075 branches, with a membership of 360,000. With the Soviet occupation of Western Ukraine in 1939, Skala was banned by the authorities. Skala-Podilska [Skala-Podil's'ka]. ¥-7. A town smt (1986 pop 5,200) on the Zbruch River in Borshchiv raion, Ternopil oblast. Until 1940 it was known as Skala or Skala-nadZbruchem (Skala-on-the Zbruch). It is first mentioned in historical documents in the early 14th century. In 1518 it was granted the rights of *Magdeburg law, and in 1538 S. Lanckoroñski built a fortress to defend the town from the Tatars and Turks. Nevertheless they destroyed the fortress and town in 1539 and 1615. In 1648 M. Kryvonis captured Skala, but the Poles soon recovered it. The town declined under Turkish rule (1672-99). In the i8th century the Poles tried to Polonize it, and in 1719 they built a Roman Catholic church there. In 1770 half the population

Remnants of the castle in Skalat

Skalat. iv-6. A town (1989 pop 5,100) on the Hnyla River in Pidvolochyske raion, Ternopil oblast. The village was first mentioned in a historical document in 1564. In 1600 it was granted the rights of *Magdeburg law, and in 1630 its Polish landlord built a castle there. In 1648 the castle was captured by the Cossacks, and in 1672 it was destroyed by the Turks. At the partition of Poland in 1772, Skalat was annexed by Austria, and in 1867 it became a county center

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SKALAT

of Galicia crownland. In the interwar period (1919-39) the town was under Polish rule. Today it is an industrial center with a radio factory, a chemical products plant, an asphalt factory, and a mixed-feed factory. The old castle was renovated at the end of the 19th century and is a tourist attraction. Skalii, Raisa [Skalij, Rajisa], b 11 December 1938 in Bilashky, Pohrebyshche raion, Vinnytsia oblast. Theater and cinema critic. She completed study at the Kiev Institute of Theater Arts (1967) and since 1971 has headed the art section of Litemturna Ukraïna. She is the author of many articles about L. Kurbas and established the date of his death from her research in the Solo vets Islands. Skalkovsky, Apolon [Skal'kovs'kyj], b 13 January 1808 in Zhytomyr, Volhynia gubernia, d 9 January 1899 in Odessa, Kherson gubernia. Economist and historian; corresponding member of the Russian Academy of Sciences from 1856. He studied law at the universities of Vilnius and Moscow. He was one of the founders of the *Odessa Society of History and Antiquities and an active participant in the ^Society of Agriculture of Southern Russia. During the preparations for the peasant reforms of 1861 he defended the serfs. Skalkovsky wrote numerous works on the history and economics of i8th- and 19th-century Southern Ukraine, including Khronologicheskoe obozrenie istorii Novorossiiskogo kraia, 1730-1823 (A Chronological Survey of the History of New Russia Land, 1730-1823, 2 vols, 1836, 1838), Opyt statisticheskogo opisaniia Novorossiiskogo kraia (An Attempt at a Statistical Description of New Russia Land, 2 vols, 1850, 1853; vol 3 remained in manuscript), and Pervoe tridtsatiletie Odessy, 1795-1825 (The First Thirty Years of Odessa, 1795-1825, 1837). He discovered and preserved the archives of the 18th-century Zaporozhian Sich (now in Kiev) and published a number of studies based on them, particularly Istoriia Novoi Sechi Hi posledniago Kosha Zaporozhskogo (History of the New Sich or the Last Zaporozhian Kish, 3 vols, 1840; 2nd edn 1846; 3rd edn 1885-6). He also published documentary studies on the history of the 18th-century Zaporizhia and Right-Bank Ukraine (mostly in Kievskaia starina). His historical works were written from a Romantic perspective and are imbued with an idealized view of the Zaporizhia. His interpretation of the haidamaka uprisings is from the point of view of the Polish gentry. His works are a valuable historical source because of the scope of their documentation. Skalkovsky also wrote publicistic articles and several novels. His archives, including an unpublished journal (begun in Polish during his student days and later written in Russian), are preserved in St Petersburg and Odessa. O. Ohloblyn, A. Zhukovsky Skansens. See Museums of folk architecture and folkways. Skarga, Piotr, b February 1536, d 27 September 1612 in Cracow. Polish Jesuit Counter-Reformation polemicist. He taught at the Jesuit academy in Vilnius and then served as an adviser on religious affairs to King Sigismund ill Vasa. He engaged in polemics with both Protestants and Orthodox in the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. An early proponent of the union of the Orthodox

church with Rome, in 1577 he wrote O jednosci Kosciola Bozego pod jednym pasterzem (On the Unity of God's Church under One Shepherd), one of the first examples of ^polemical literature involving the Ukrainian church. Dedicated to Prince K. *Ostrozky, the most influential Ukrainian Orthodox leader, the tract outlined the ideological basis for a church union. In 1595-6 Skarga participated in the synods and discussions that culminated in the Church Union of *Berestia; he delivered the closing speech at the synod, in October 1596, and wrote the treatise 'Synod brzeski i jego obrona' (The Berestia Synod and Its Defense), translated and published in Ukrainian in 1597. His other polemical works include O rzçdzie y jednosci Kosciola Bozego pod jednym pasterzem (On the Order and Unity of God's Church under One Shepherd, 1590) and Na treny i lament Theofila Ortologa do Rusi greckiego nabozeristwa przestroga (On the Threnos and Lament of Theofilus Ortologion, a Warning to the Greek Faithful of Rus', 1610). BIBLIOGRAPHY Tretiak, J. Piotr Skarga w dziejach i literaturze uniji brzeskiej (Cracow 1912) Tazbir, J. Piotr Skarga: Szermierz kontrreformacji (Warsaw 1978) W. Lencyk

Skarzhynsky [Skarzyns'kyj]. A family line of nobility and Cossack officers of Belarusian origin. OleksanderMykhailo Skarzhynsky (d ca 1753) graduated from Orsha College and in the 17305 served as a translator from Latin and Polish in the Russian army. He resettled in Ukraine and became captain of Lubni regiment (1737-50). His sons were Ivan, the flag-bearer of Lubni regiment (1773) and later a marshal of the nobility in Zolotonosha county; Mykhailo, captain of Lubni regiment (1765-73) and marshal of the nobility in Lubni county; and Petro. Three branches of the Skarzhynsky family originated from them and intermarried with many Ukrainian starshy na families in the i8th and 19th centuries (the Skoropadsky, Zakrevsky, Znachko-Yavorsky, Myloradovych, Myklashevsky, and Sudiienko families). The Lubni branch included Kateryna Skarzhynska (1853-1924), who founded the Museum of Ukrainian Antiquities of Lubni (in Kruhlyk village, 1874). The Chernihiv branch included the brothers Matvii (b 1830) and Ivan (1836-97) Skarzhynsky, who were noted activists in Chernihiv gubernia in the later 19th century. They assisted O. Lazarevsky in gathering archival materials on the history of the Hetmanate. The Kherson branch included a number of noted military and zemstvo administration officials in the 19th and zoth centuries, such as Viktor *Skarzhynsky. O. Ohloblyn Skarzhynsky, Viktor [Skarzyns'kyj], b October 1787 in Trykraty, Yelysavethrad county, Katerynoslav vicegerency, d 1861. Landowner and developer of new farming methods. He graduated from Moscow University (1805) and worked with the Department of Public Education. He returned to his family's estate and introduced crop rotation and modern methods of land cultivation in Southern Ukraine. In addition to breeding fine horses, he acclimatized a breed of Caucasian sheep and a breed of Hungarian cattle. He also acclimatized various tree and bush varieties, from Western Europe and North America, to Ukrainian conditions and developed a fruit orchard with

SKIING

221 varieties, a dendrological park with 281 varieties, a mulberry plantation of 150 ha, and a vineyard (100 ha). He was a strong promoter of steppe forestation and planted about 400 ha of forest on his estate. To share his experience and encourage others to follow his example, Skarzhynsky published many articles on farming and forestation, most of them in Zapiski Imperatorskogo obshchestva sel 'skogo khoziaistva luzhnoi Rossii. Skating (kovzaniarskyi sport}. Figure skating and speed skating were introduced in Ukraine in the icth century. They have become well developed under Soviet rule. The Skating Federation of the USSR joined the International Skating Union in 1947, and Soviet skaters have competed in world and European competitions since 1948 and in Olympic speed skating since 1956. Medals in world skating championships have been captured by the Ukrainian athletes O. Honcharenko (1953, 1956, 1958), V. Bryndzei (1977), and T. Tarasova (1981). In 1983 N. Horbenko won the gold medal at the 1984 world junior championships. In 1984 V. Huk won two men's gold medals (500 m, 1,500 m) and one silver (3,000 m) in the world junior speed skating championships and was chosen the overall world champion. In 1987 R. Popadchuk set a world junior record in the men's 5OO-m (37.58). V. Petrenko won a bronze medal in men's figure skating at the 1988 Winter Olympics, a silver at the 1990 and 1991 world championships, and a gold at the 1992 Winter Olympics. O. Baiul won the world championship in women's figure skating in Prague in 1993. Skazaniie i strast' i pokhvala sviatuiu muchenyku Borysa i Hliba (The Tale and Passion and Glorification of the Holy Martyrs Borys and Hlib). One of the oldest monuments of Ukrainian literature. It describes the murder of *SS Borys and Hlib by their brother, Prince Sviatopolk I, after the death of their father, Volodymyr the Great, in 1015. The oldest extant manuscript of the tale dates from the late nth century and is found in the *Uspenskii sbornik of the 12th century. More than 170 manuscript copies of the tale have survived, in six redactions, many of them with different titles. They all deal with the same central issues and use a rhythmical prose, stylized laments, and complex literary devices, based in part on the Bible and other liturgical books. The tale was used to promote the cult of Borys and Hlib and their canonization and to condemn the fratricidal struggle among the Rus' princes.

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Canada in 1908 and then to the United States in 1919, he graduated from Northwestern University (DDS, 1923) and practiced dentistry in Chicago. He was active in the Organization for the Rebirth of Ukraine and a contributor to many Ukrainian papers in Canada and the United States. From 1938 he reviewed books on Ukrainian history and literature for Books Abroad. For many years he served as secretary of the Ukrainian Center in Los Angeles. In 1940 he published his recollections, titled Po Amerytsi (Through America). Skhidnii svit (Oriental World). A scholarly journal of the *All-Ukrainian Learned Association of Oriental Studies (VUNAS), published bimonthly in Kharkiv in 1927-31 (a total of 17 issues). It succeeded Biuleten' VUNAS (5 issues, 1926). After the first issue the articles appeared in Ukrainian with Russian, English, French, and German résumés. The journal published articles on the history, archeology, culture, economy, literature, and contemporary politics of the Near, Middle, and Far East; Soviet Central Asia; the Crimea; and Caucasia. Many articles focused specifically on Ukraine's relations with these areas. Attention was also devoted to contemporary political and economic developments. The journal also contained book reviews and notices and reports on VUNAS activities and Oriental studies in Ukraine and abroad. Among its 180 contributors were prominent scholars, such as A. Krymsky, V. Dubrovsky, A. Kovalivsky, V. Buzeskul, P. Ritter, M. Horban, O. Hrushevsky, V. Parkhomenko, and Ya. Riappo. In 1929 Skhidnii svit had a pressrun of 600. In late 1930 it was renamed Chervonyi skhid; under its new name it ceased publication after its third issue. An index to it was published in Kharkiv in 1964.

Skehar, Hryhorii, b 30 August 1891 in Pohorylivka, Kitsman county, Bukovyna, d 31 August 1957m Los Angeles. Civic activist and journalist. After emigrating to The skiing team of Peremyshrs Berkut sports society in the Carpathian Mountains (1931)

Hryhorii Skehar

Skiing (lyzhnyi sport, leshchetarstvo). Skiing was introduced in Western Ukraine in the 18905 and was promoted there by A. Budzynovsky and I. Bobersky in the early 2Oth century. The sport became popular in the 19205, thanks to the efforts of the "Carpathian Ski Club in Lviv, which organized Alpine and Nordic competitions in Lviv and the Carpathian Mountains, and the Sokil and Luh athletic societies and Plast scouting organization. Because of central and eastern Ukraine's flatness, skiing was less popular there. In the 19205 it began developing in the Donbas, and

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a Soviet Winter Spartakiad was held there in 1927. In time Alpine and Nordic skiing became a significant part of Soviet military training in various regions of Soviet Ukraine. After the Second World War, the Carpathian region, particularly the resorts of Vorokhta and Slavske, became Ukraine's main skiing center. Skiing was part of the school and Ready for Labor and Defense of the USSR physical education programs. Republican and USSR skiing championships were held annually. The Carpathian Ski Club was revived in the United States and since 1955 has cosponsored annual skiing competitions with the Ukrainian Sports Federation of the USA and Canada. Skirgaila (Skyrhailo, Ivan), b 1354, d 1397 in Kiev. Lithuanian prince and ruler of Kiev in 1395-7; son of Algirdas. A strong supporter of his brother, Wladyslaw II *Jagiello, he was his vicegerent from 1386 until 1392, and, being Orthodox, encouraged Ruthenian activity in the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. He lost his influence when Jagiello relinquished Lithuania to their cousin, Vytautas. In 1395 he was granted Kiev after the death of Volodymyr, the son of Algirdas. Skirgaila died under mysterious circumstances, probably from poison. Skivsky, Ivan [Skivs'kyj], b 1777, d 1850. Basilian priest and professor. He was raised in the Volhynia region, and studied at Vilnius University and then taught at Basilian schools in Uman, Bar, and Liubar. In 1824 he became archimandrite of the Pochaiv Monastery. In 1831 he was arrested by tsarist authorities during the suppression of the Uníate church in the Russian Empire and exiled to the Kostroma region. Upon his return to Kiev in 1848, he served as a priest in a Latin rite church.

Skladka (no. i, 1887)

Skladka (The Contribution). The title of four literary almanacs edited by V. Aleksandrov (Kharkiv 1887, 1893) and K. Bilylovsky (Kharkiv 1896, St Petersburg 1897). Published in them were poems by Aleksandrov, Bilylovsky, V. Samiilenko, B. Hrinchenko, Ya. Shchoholev, P. Hrabovsky, I. Franko, M. Vorony, V. Shchurat, I. Steshenko, L. Starytska-Cherniakhivska, P. Richytsky, S. Shelukhyn, H. Kerner, F. Korsh, and N. Shamraiev; prose by Bilylovsky, H. Barvinok, M. Hrinchenko, Starytska-Cherniakhivska, Lesia Ukrainka, D. Mordovets, I. NechuiLevytsky, S. Nis, and A. Krymsky; V. Samiilenko's drama Marusia Churawna and M. Kropyvnytsky's opera Vii

(based on N. Gogol's story); Bilylovsky's memoirs and bibliography of Aleksandrov; and oral folklore transcriptions and ethnographic articles by D. Yavornytsky. Skladkowski, Felicjan, b 9 June 1885 in Gabin, Warsaw gubernia, d 31 August 1962 in London. Polish military and state figure; a doctor by training. He was a close associate of J. Pilsudski, and as minister of internal affairs (1926-31) he implemented the ""Pacification operation aimed against Ukrainians. He was appointed premier of Poland by E. Rydz-Smigly (1936-9); as such he was also partly responsible for the harsh anti-Ukrainian policies of the Polish government in the prewar period. He emigrated after the Second World War. His writings were published in Nie ostatnie slowo oskarzonego: Wspomnienia i artykuty (Not the Last Word of the Accused: Memoirs and Articles, 1964). Sklavenes (sklaviny). The Greek name for West Slavs, used by Byzantine writers of the 6th to 8th centuries AD. The term was used to distinguish the Slavic tribes inhabiting the territory between the Dniester and the Danube rivers, including southern Poland, Slovakia, and Transylvania, from the *Antes to the east. The Sklavenes practiced agriculture, animal husbandry, craft manufacturing, and trade. They formed a strong tribal confederation, which was destroyed by the *Avars in the second half of the 6th century. Skliar, Ivan [Skljar], b 21 February 1906 in Myrhorod, Poltava gubernia, d 26 October 1970 in Myrhorod. Banduryst. He joined the Myrhorod Banduryst Ensemble in 1927 and served as its director in 1933-43. From 1943 he sang as a soloist with the Verovka State Chorus. He composed many songs and pieces for folk instruments and made technical improvements to the bandura and other instruments that allowed them to be played in a broader range of keys. Skliarenko, Semen [Skljarenko], b 26 September 1901 in Keleberda, Zolotonosha county, Poltava gubernia, d 8 March 1962 in Kiev. Writer. In the 19205 he worked as a journalist, first in Chernihiv and then at the Kiev newspaper Proletars 'ka pravda. He began to publish his poetry in 1918 and was coeditor of one of the first Soviet literary journals, Vyr revoliutsn (1921), and, later, of the journal Zhyttia i revoliutsiia. Skliarenko published prose works from 1930; he wrote over 60 books of stories, novelettes, and novels. During the 19305 he wrote a series of major prose works on the subject of construction, including a novel about the construction of the Dnieper Hydroelectric Station, Burun (The Billow, 1932). The novel-trilogy Shliakh na Ky'w (The Road to Kiev, 1937-40), an attack aimed at 'Ukrainian bourgeois nationalism/ distorts, according to the official Soviet interpretation, the historical events of the Ukrainian liberation struggle. During the Second World War, Skliarenko was a war correspondent and wrote the war novels Ukraïna klyche (Ukraine Calls, 1943) and Podarunok z Ukraïny (Gift from Ukraine, 1944). Critics noted the formulaic nature of Skliarenko's postwar novel Khaziaïn (Farmer, 1948), about the rebuilding of the co- operative farms, and, similarly, his adherence to a fixed formula and his lack of knowledge of pre-Soviet Transcarpathian life in Karpaty (The Carpathians, 1952). Skliarenko's greatest achievements are the historical

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initiated the Pirogov medical conferences and edited a number of medical journals. His publications dealt with the improvement of medical services in the military, bone surgery, and abdominal operations.

Semen Skliarenko

Volodymyr Skliarenko

novels Sviatoslav (1959) and Volodymyr (1962). Editions of his works have been published in five (1965) and three (1981) volumes. I. Koshelivets

Skliarenko, Volodymyr [Skljarenko], b 7 June 1907 in Kiev, d 8 May 1984 in Kiev. Theater director; pupil of L. *Kurbas. He completed study at the Lysenko Music and Drama Institute in Kiev and worked in *Berezil (director's workshop, 1926) until 1933. He was artistic director of the Kharkiv Young Spectator's Theater (1935-44), the Lviv Young Spectator's Theater (1944-7), the Lviv Opera Theater (simultaneously he taught in the Lviv Conservatory, 1947-52), the Kharkiv Opera Theater (1952-4), the Kiev Opera Theater (1954-62), and the Kiev Ukrainian Drama Theater (1962-7). He taught at the Kiev Institute of Theater Arts (1967-75) and the Kiev Institute of Culture (1967-84). He produced approx 200 dramas, operas, and operettas, including M. Zarudny's Man/na, M. Lysenko's Taras Bul'ba, and H. Maiboroda's Mylana. Skliarenko, Yevhen [Skljarenko, Jevhen], b 18 January 1924 in Baitsury, Belgorod region, Russia. Historian. He graduated from the Kiev Pedagogical Institute (1951), and in 1956 he began working at the AN URSR (now ANU) Institute of History. From 1966 to 1970 he headed its Department of Scientific Information and Propaganda. He published works on the CPU and on the history of the working class. Skliar-Otava, Polina. See Otava, Polina. Sklifosovsky, Nikolai (Sklifasovsky), b 6 April 1836 in Dubossary, Tyraspil county, Kherson gubernia (now Moldova), d 13 December 1904 in Yakivtsi (now part of Poltava). Russian surgeon. A graduate of Moscow University (1859), he practiced medicine in Odessa and defended a doctoral dissertation at Kharkiv University (1863). He was a professor of surgical pathology at Kiev University (1870) and the St Petersburg Medico-Surgical Academy (1871), head of the surgical clinic of Moscow University and consultant to the surgical department of the Moscow Military Hospital (1880), and director of the St Petersburg Institute for the Upgrading of Physicians (1893-1900). One of the leading military surgeons in Russia, he pioneered the use of anesthetics and aseptic methods in operations and promoted medical education for women. He

Sklovsky, Yevhen [Sklovs'kyj, Jevhen], b 13 April 1869 in Kiev, d 10 October 1930. Pediatrician. A graduate of Kiev University (1891), he worked as a zemstvo doctor (1892-6) and at the university (from 1896), where he organized the first neonatal consultation service (1906) and the first nursery (1911) in Ukraine. He directed the maternity and childhood care section of the Kiev Regional Health Department (1918-20) and the Department of Children's Diseases at the Kiev Clinical Institute (1920-8). From 1929 he worked at the Kiev Scientific Research Institute of Maternity and Childhood Care. His publications dealt with child tuberculosis, diphtheria, and infant mortality. Skoba, Antin, b 1856 in Bahachka, Myrhorod county, Poltava gubernia, d after 1908 in Bahachka. Lirnyk. His repertoire included dumas, humorous and historical songs, and psalms. F. Kolessa and O. Slastion transcribed many of the songs he performed. Some of them were recorded by phonograph, and some were published in 1910 in Materiialy do ukraïns koïetnolohn (Materials in Ukrainian Ethnology). Skobelsky, Petro [Skobel's'ky], 1849-1912. Teacher and historian. A graduate of the theological seminary in Lviv, he started out on a promising career as a historian until material circumstances forced him to become a teacher. He then taught at the Academic Gymnasium in Lviv (1879-90), a gymnasium in Brody (1890-1902), and several gymnasiums in Lviv (from 1902). While in Lviv he wrote several essays, edited the literary journal Zoria (1889-90), and published collections of historical documents about the Sanguszko family (1886) and the Stauropegion Institute (1887). He also translated several works by T. Shevchenko into German and several German works into Ukrainian. Skoblykov, Oleksander, b 25 February 1929 in Druzhkivka, Staline okruha. Sculptor. In 1954 he graduated from the Kiev State Art Institute, where he studied under M. Lysenko. He has sculpted genre compositions, such as On Virgin Land (1960); portraits, such as Yuliia (1958), T. Shevchenko (1964), and B. Patón (1980); and monuments, such as those to T. Shevchenko in Châlette-sur-Loing, France (1974), V. Vernadsky in Kiev (1981), the unification of Ukraine and Russia in Kiev (1982), and A. Tsereteli in Batumi (1984). Skocen, Alexander. See Skotsen, Oleksander. Skochok, Pavlo [Skocok], b 5 May 1935 in Ostriv, Rokytne raion, Kiev oblast. Journalist and political prisoner. In the 19605 he published articles concerning the ecology of Ukraine and contributed to the literary section of Radians 'ka Ukraïna. Several of his articles were circulated in samvydav form. He was arrested in December 1978 in Kiev and sentenced to an indefinite term in the Dnipropetrovske psychiatric prison. He was released in the spring of 1987. Since that time he has been a member of the editorial board of *Ukraïns'kyi visnyk.

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Skok, Volodymyr, b 4 June 1932 in Kiev. Physiologist; full member of the AN URSR (now ANU) since 1979 and its vice-president since 1988; full member of the USSR Academy of Sciences since 1987. He graduated from Kiev University (1955) and worked at its Institute of Physiology (1956-62), and then became an associate (1962), department head (1970), and assistant director (1980) at the ANU Institute of Physiology. His main research is on the physiology of the autonomie nervous system. Skole. iv-4. A city (1989 pop 6,700) on the Opir River in the High Beskyd and a raion center in Lviv oblast. It was first mentioned in historical documents in 1397. Under Polish rule the village was destroyed by the Tatars (1594) and by the Hungarians (1610,1657). In the 17th and i8th centuries *opryshoks were active in the area. After the partition of Poland in 1772, the town belonged to Austria, and in 1912 it was granted city status. In the interwar period it was held by Poland (1919-39). Today its main industries are lumbering, woodworking, building materials, and handicrafts. Its most valuable monument is the tripartite wooden Church of St Panteleimon (i7th century), which contains a unique baroque iconostasis.

Lviv. Sculptor. He studied at the Lviv Arts and Crafts School (1939-41) and sculpted mostly portraits and monuments. His works include busts of V. Stefanyk (1953), Lesia Ukrainka (1958), I. Franko (1972), and L. van Beethoven (1954); statues of O. Dovbush (with M. Riabinin, 1951) and T. Shevchenko as a soldier (1963); and monuments to V. Stefanyk in Lviv (1971) and Edmonton (1971). An album of his works was published in 1990. Skomorokhov, Oleksander [Skomoroxov], b 6 March 1874 in Stavropol, d 22 August 1946 in Kiev. Electrical engineer. He studied in St Petersburg and from 1911 taught at the Kiev Polytechnical Institute. In 1933-41 he taught at the Kharkiv Electrotechnical Institute, and from 1944 he held the chair of electrical engineering at the Kiev Polytechnical Institute. He was the author of one of the first textbooks on electrical machinery and transformers in the Russian Empire (1914).

Skolozdra, Volodymyr, b 20 August 1912 in Drohovyzhe, Zhydachiv county, Galicia, d 7 August 1980 in

nth-century fresco depicting skomorokhy in Kiev's St Sophia Cathedral

Volodymyr Skolozdra: the monument to Vasyl Stefanyk in Lviv (granite, 1971)

Skomorokhy. Itinerant minstrels in Kievan Rus'. The first written reference to them dates back to 1068, but they were active in Rus' long before then. They are depicted in the frescoes of the St Sophia Cathedral in Kiev. According to some scholars the skomorokhy developed under the influence of foreign models. Others suggest that they evolved from pagan priests in the rural areas of Rus'. The latter hypothesis is supported by the recorded condemnation by the church authorities of the skomorokhy as representatives of paganism. By the nth century the skomorokhy had become professional entertainers who

SKOROKHOD

performed songs, dances, mime shows, acrobatics, games, puppet shows, short dramatic scenes, and animal tricks for the common people as well as for nobles and court dignitaries. By the 12th century, when court singers started joining their troupes, the skomorokhy added *bylyny to their repertoire. As Kievan Rus' began to decline in the 12th and 13th centuries, many skomorokhy moved to safer principalities in the north and particularly to Novgorod. There they survived as a social group until 1572, when they were forcibly moved to Moscow by Ivan IV. In 1648 they were proscribed by Aleksei I, a blow from which they never recovered. The influence of the skomorokhy in Ukraine can be seen in Ukrainian theatrical productions of the loth century. BIBLIOGRAPHY Zguta, Russell. Russian Minstrels: A History of the Skomorokhi (New York 1978)

Skomorovsky, Kelestyn [Skomorovs'kyj] (pseud: Kelestyn Dolynianenko), b 16 April 1820 in Dolyniany, Berezhany circle, d 16 April 1866 in Os tapie, Ternopil circle, Galicia. Poet and priest. In the years 1840-9 he studied at the Greek Catholic Theological Seminary in Lviv, during which time he became a sympathizer with the Polish revolutionary movement. Inspired by the Romantic poetry of M. Shashkevych, T. Shevchenko, and K. Ujejski, he wrote poems in the Galician dialect of Ukrainian. Only three are extant: 'Ptytsi-posly' (Birds-Envoys), in the literary miscellany *Vinok rusynam na obzhynky (Vienna 1847), Na czest' bratej powernuwszych z newoli (In Honor of Brothers Who Have Returned from Imprisonment, 1848), and a translation of A. Khomiakov's Ermak (1849). From the early 18505 he was parish priest in Ostapie, where he wrote poems and translated the Epistles; none of those works has ever been published. The manuscripts were analyzed by Ya. Hordynsky in Zapysky NTSh (vol 128). The materials Skomorovsky collected for a German-Ukrainian dictionary were supplemented and published by O. Party tsky in 1867.

Viktor Skopenko

Anatolii Skorokhod

Skopenko, Viktor, b 18 December 1935 in Novhorodka, now in Kirovohrad oblast. Chemist; AN URSR (now ANU) corresponding member since 1978 and full member since 1987. After graduating from Kiev University (1958) he taught there and became a professor in 1971, prorector in

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1975, and chairman of the inorganic chemistry department in 1977. He is currently rector of Kiev University. His research deals predominantly with co-ordination chemistry in nonaqueous solvents and on the surface of various support matrices. He developed extensively the co-ordination chemistry of linear and particularly nonlinear pseudohalide ligands, and he contributed to and, with A. Golub and H. Kohler, edited the definitive monograph Chemie der Pseudohalogenide (1979; English trans: Chemistry of Pseudohalides, 1986). He also introduced new catalysts based on metal complexes adsorbed on silica gel and modified with organic additives. Skoreyko, William [Skorejko, Vasyl'], b 8 December 1922 in Edmonton. Businessman and politician. After studying commerce and opening his own business, he served as member of parliament for Edmonton East in 1958-74. Skorobohatko, Vitalii [Skorobohat'ko, Vitalij], b 18 July 1927 in Kiev. Mathematician. After graduating from Lviv University in 1951, he taught there and then worked at different institutes of the AN URSR (now ANU): the Institute of Mathematics (1961-6), the Physical MechanicalInstitute (1967-73), and the Institute of Applied Mathematics and Mechanics (since 1973). His studies deal mostly with partial differential equations, mathematical physics, computational mathematics, and geometry. Skorodynsky, Andrii [Skorodyns'kyj, Andrij], b 1850, d 1912 in Lviv. Educator. He was director of the Prosvita society's head office (1882-1908), a founder of the society's Lviv branch, and the founder of the first Prosvita reading room in Lviv. He was also active in the Zoria society. Skorokhod, Anatolii [Skoroxod, Anatoli]], b 10 September 1930 in Nykopil, Kryvyi Rih okruha. Mathematician; full member of the AN URSR (now ANU) since 1985. After graduating from Kiev University in 1953 he worked at the ANU Institute of Mathematics and taught at Kiev University. His monograph on the theory of random processes (1961) developed certain probabilistic methods in the field of stochastic differential equations and limit theorems of Markov processes and substantially extended the existence, uniqueness, and other results for stochastic differential equations obtained independently by Y. Hikhman in Kiev and K. Ito in Japan. These were the first results in the field to be obtained by probabilistic methods. Skorokhod explored a number of new notions which became known as the Skorokhod space, Skorokhod topology, and the Skorokhod version of weak convergence. In the theory of Markov processes, one of the major fields of study at the Institute of Mathematics, he demonstrated that (under weak additional conditions and manipulation) a continuous, homogeneous, and strongly Markov process in a finite-dimensional space becomes quasi-diffusive. In the early 19705 Skorokhod and Hikhman wrote a three-volume treatise on the theory of stochastic processes. In another series of monographs Skorokhod made fundamental contributions to the theory of random processes with independent increments (1964), intequation in Hubert space (1974), random linear operators (1978), stochastic equations for complex systems (1983), processes with independent increments (1986), and asymptotic

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methods in the theory of stochastic differential equations (1987). Many of these works have been translated into English. The work of Skorokhod, Hikhman, B. Hniedenko, and V. Koroliuk has established the reputation of the Kiev school of probability theory.

vate secretary, and in 1959 she assumed the leadership of the hetmanite movement from her recently deceased sister, Mariia, who had succeeded their brother, D. *Skoropadsky.

W. Petryshyn

Skorokhodko, Antin [Skoroxod'ko], b 13 March 1883 in Kaniv, Kiev gubernia, d 26 February 1954 in Kiev. Veterinarian and specialist in zoohygiene. A graduate of the Kharkiv Veterinary Institute (1909), he worked as a zemstvo veterinarian, chaired the department of zoohygiene at the Kiev Veterinary-Zootechnical Institute (1922-9), and served as rector of the institute (1924-6). From 1947 he was a professor at the Kiev Veterinary Institute (now the veterinary faculty of the Ukrainian Agricultural Academy). His publications dealt with the hygiene, care, and feeding of farm animals.

Yelysaveta Skoropadska

Skoropadska, Yelysaveta [Skoropads'ka, Jelysaveta] (married name: Kuzhim), b 27 November 1899 in St Petersburg, d 16 February 1976 in Obertsdorf, near Bremen, Germany. Civic leader and sculptor; daughter of Hetmán P. *Skoropadsky. She studied sculpture in St Petersburg before the Revolution of 1917. She continued her studies in the 19205 in Berlin and Florence. Her works were exhibited in Germany, Holland, Finland, and the United States. She assisted her father in his political activities as his pri-

Coat of arms of the Skoropadsky family

Skoropadsky [Skoropads'kyj]. A family line of state, military, and community leaders, known since the 17th century. It was founded by Fedir Skoropadsky, who was reportedly slain in the Battle of Zhovti Vody (1648). His grandson, Ivan ^Skoropadsky, was hetmán of Ukraine from 1708 to 1722. Ivan had no sons; his brothers, Vasyl (d 1727) and Pavlo (d before 1739), continued the Skoropadsky line. Vasyl served as a military chancellor (1676), captain of Berezna company (1697-1709), quartermaster of Chernihiv regiment (1713-21), and a fellow of the standard (1726); his branch of the Skoropadsky family line continued into the 2Oth century. Pavlo Skoropadsky served as a fellow of the standard (1712); his branch of the line died out in the late i8th century. Vasyl's more distinguished descendants included his son, Mykhailo (b ca 1697, d 2 January 1758 in Hlukhiv), a graduate of the Kievan Mohyla Academy and a political activist in the Hetmanate. He served as a fellow of the standard (1715; honored as 'first among fellows' in 1733) and as general treasurer (1741-58), and he participated in the Persian and Caucasian campaigns (1720-30), the Polish campaign (1733-4), and the Russo-Turkish War (17359). Mykhailo's older son, Ivan (b 9 August 1727 in Sorochyntsi, d 1782), was a noted Ukrainian autonomist and a candidate for hetmán. He studied at the Kievan Mohyla Academy and in Germany and served as general osaul (1762-81) and as deputy of the nobility of Hlukhiv county (1767). Ivan's great-great-grandson, Heorhii (b 11 October 1873 in Avdiivka, Chernihiv gubernia, d ?), served as head of the Sosnytsia county zemstvo administration (1905-7) and was elected to the Third (1907) and Fourth (1912) Russian State Dumas. Mykhailo Skoropadsky's younger son, Yakiv (b 1730, d ca 1785), served as major of a cuirassier regiment (1764). Yakiv's grandson, Ivan (b 30 January 1805, d 8 February 1887), served as marshal of Pryluka county (1844-7) and Poltava gubernia (1847-52); he supported the 1861 agrarian reforms, and he built one of the finest palaces and gardens in Left-Bank Ukraine (see *Trostianets Dendrological Park). Ivan's son, Petro (b 6 March 1834, d 30 June 1885), was a colonel of the Cavalry Guard and a veteran of the Caucasian wars (1863); he served as marshal of Starodub county (1869-85) and was a local zemstvo activist. Ivan's daughter and Petro's sister, Ye. *Myloradovych, was a noted Ukrainian activist. Petro's son, P. Skoropadsky,

SKOROPADSKY

was hetmán of the Ukrainian State in 1918. Pavlo's son, D. *Skoropadsky, succeeded his father as head of the emigré hetmanite movement. After his death his sister, Mariia Skoropadska-Montresor (d 11 February 1959), headed the movement.

Danylo Skoropadsky

Hetmán Ivan Skoropadsky

Skoropadsky, Danylo [Skoropads'kyj], b 13 February 1904 in St Petersburg, d 22 February 1957 *n London. Political and civic figure; son of Hetmán P. Skoropadsky. He was heir apparent (announced in 1938) to P. Skoropadsky as leader of the hetmanite movement, and he assumed that role from his mother in 1948. He traveled to Canada and the United States in 1937-8 and 1953 in order to meet with hetmanite supporters. He moved to England in 1938, where he published (with V. Korostovets) an Englishlanguage journal about the Ukrainian question, took an active role in the Scottish League for the Liberation of Europe, and was honorary head of the Association of Ukrainians in Great Britain. Skoropadsky, Ivan [Skoropads'kyj], b 1646 in Uman, d 14 July 1722 in Hlukhiv. Cossack leader and hetmán of Ukraine (1708-22). After the Turks leveled Uman in 1674, he moved to Left-Bank Ukraine, where he served under Hetmán I. Samoilovych as military chancellor (1675-6), secretary of Chernihiv regiment (1681-94), general standard-bearer (1698), and second general osaul (1701). He was sent on many diplomatic missions: on behalf of Samoilovych he went to Moscow (1675 and 1676) and the Crimea (1681), and on behalf of Hetmán I. Mazepa he went to Poland (1690), Moscow (1693 and 1696), and the Zaporozhian Sich (1703). In 1706 Mazepa appointed him colonel of Starodub regiment. Skoropadsky was elected hetmán at the Council of Officers in Hlukhiv on 6 November 1708. Peter I never fully trusted him, however; he refused to ratify the *Reshetylivka Articles (1709) drawn up by Skoropadsky for a new agreement between Ukraine and Russia, and he held up the official documents confirming Skoropadsky as hetmán until 1710. Skoropadsky nevertheless fought alongside Russian troops in the Battle of Poltava. The Russian victory freed Peter from any further restraint in his policy toward Ukraine. Devastated by war, Russian repressions, and a plague epidemic, Left-Bank Ukraine became a military colony. Not only did Peter sta-

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tion 10 dragoon regiments on Ukrainian territory at the expense of the local population, he also interfered increasingly in Ukraine's internal affairs, which previously came under the jurisdiction of the hetmán. The Cossack army was put under Russian command, and the general artillery was deported to Russia. The capital of the Hetmanate was moved to Hlukhiv in 1709, and the hetmán became subject to constant supervision by Russian residents of the tsar. The Russian tsar reserved the right to appoint higherechelon officers (the general starshyna, colonels, and even captains), and he replaced Ukrainians with Russians, Moldavians, Serbs, and Poles. On 27 May 1722 Peter set up the *Little Russian Collegium, which sharply reduced the powers of the hetmán and the Ukrainian government. Cultural and religious life was also subjected to restrictions: Ukrainian printing was proscribed in 1720, and the Kievan Mohyla Academy was repressed. The terrorized Ukrainian people began to turn against the hetmán and his government. Skoropadsky's protests against Russian actions had little influence on the tsar, who had already decided to limit Ukrainian autonomy and abolish the Hetmán state when Mazepa allied with Sweden. Skoropadsky was buried in the Hamaliivka Monastery near Hlukhiv. BIBLIOGRAPHY Kostruba, T. Het'man Ivan Skoropads'kyi 1709-1722 (Lviv 1932) Ohloblyn, O. Ukraïna za chasiv Skoropads 'koho i Polubotka (Kiev 1941)

O. Ohloblyn

Hetmán Pavlo Skoropadsky

Skoropadsky, Pavlo [Skoropads'kyj], b 15 May 1873 in Wiesbaden, Germany, d 26 April 1945 in Metten, Bavaria. Ukrainian noble, general, and statesman; scion of the ^Skoropadsky family. He grew up on his father's estate in Trostianets (Pryluka county, Poltava gubernia), studied at the Starodub gymnasium, and graduated from the elite Page Corps cadet school in St Petersburg. He served in a cavalry guard Regiment and commanded a company of the Chita Cossack Regiment in the Russo-Japanese War. He was appointed aide-de-camp to Emperor Nicholas II in 1905, a colonel in 1906, commander of the 2Oth Finnish Dragoon Regiment in 1910, and a major general and commander of a cavalry regiment in the emperor's House Guard in 1911. During the First World War he command-

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ed the ist Brigade of the ist Cavalry Guard Division, then the 5th Cavalry and ist Cavalry Guard divisions, and the 34th Army Corps (at the rank of lieutenant general). After the February Revolution of 1917 Skoropadsky oversaw the Ukrainization of the 34th Corps as the ist Ukrainian Corps. He was elected honorary otaman of the Ukrainian *Free Cossacks at their first congress in October 1917. In October-November of that year the disciplined 6o,ooo-man First Corps and the Free Cossacks under his command controlled the Vapniarka-Zhmerynka-Koziatyn-Shepetivka railway corridor. It disarmed and demobilized pro-Bolshevik military units returning from the southwestern and Rumanian fronts and thereby prevented them from attacking Kiev and plundering Ukraine. As an opponent of the Central Rada7 s socialist policies (especially its agrarian reforms) Skoropadsky initiated a rightwing conspiracy known as the Ukrainian People's Hromada, consisting of his fellow noble landowners and loyal officers. Its plans to overthrow the Rada and establish an authoritarian state ruled by the Skoropadsky dynasty gained the support of the ^Ukrainian Democratic Agrarian party and the * All-Ukrainian Union of Landowners. On 24 April 1918 Skoropadsky was assured by Gen W. Groener, the German chief of staff, that the German army would support a coup d'etat. On 29 April 1918 the German-backed coup proved successful. Skoropadsky was proclaimed hetmán of the Ukrainian State (as the UNR was renamed) at an agrarian congress convened by the Union of Landowners. The Central Rada and all land committees were dissolved, all UNR ministers were removed, the Rada's laws and reforms were revoked, and censorship of the press was introduced. The *Hetman government appointed by Skoropadsky included members of the Russian ^Constitutional Democratic party and even anti-Ukrainian Russian monarchists (who were major figures in S. Gerbel's November-December cabinet). The government's social and economic policies were subject to and shaped by Germany's imperialistic aims, as well as the interests of Ukraine's large landowners, industrialists, and capitalists. The Hetmán government also allowed Russian anti-Bolshevik political leaders and military organizations to turn Kiev into one of their staging areas. Ukrainian democrats refused to take part in the government, and in late May 1918 they formed the "Ukrainian National-State Union (later renamed the "Ukrainian National Union [UNS]) to co-ordinate political opposition. The left (including the Bolsheviks) exploited the dissatisfaction, and it soon erupted in the form of agrarian uprisings (see ^Partisan movement), railway and other strikes, sabotage (bombings and arson in Kiev, Odessa, and elsewhere), and assassinations (eg, of the German field marshal H. von *Eichhorn). The government and the German and Austrian military responded with repressive measures. Skoropadsky's attempts in October 1918 to diffuse opposition to his regime by entering into negotiations with the UNS and asserting his support for Ukraine's independence from the Central Powers proved unsuccessful, and his November manifesto of federation with a future non-Bolshevik Russia only accelerated the momentum of the UNS-led popular rebellion against his regime. On 14 December 1918, after German troops abandoned Kiev, Skoropadsky abdicated and fled to Germany by way of Switzerland, and his government sur-

rendered power to the ^Directory of the UNR. For most of the interwar years Skoropadsky lived in Wannsee, near Berlin, and received German financial support. From there he headed the hetmanite movement, consisting of monarchist émigré organizations such as the ""Ukrainian Union of Agrarians-Statists in Europe, the "United Hetmán Organization in Canada and the United States, and the Ukrainian Hetmán Organization of America. He was also honorary president of the Ukrainska Hromada society in Berlin. Because of his links with governing Junker circles, in 1926 he was able to initiate the creation of the "Ukrainian Scientific Institute in Berlin. Skoropadsky never relinquished his claim to Ukraine. During the Second World War he lobbied the Nazi government for the release of OUN leaders imprisoned in German concentration camps. He was mortally wounded during an Allied air raid on the railway station at Plattling, in Bavaria, and was buried in Wiesbaden. Excerpts from his memoirs appeared in Khliborobs 'ka Ukraïna (vols 4 and 5 [1922-3,1924-5]). O. Ohloblyn, A. Zhukovsky

Oleksander SkoropysYoltukhovsky Skoropys-Yoltukhovsky, Oleksander [Skoropys-Joltuxovs'kyj] (pseuds: H. Budiak, L. Halin, O. Vyshnevsky), b 1880 in Podilia gubernia, d 1950. Revolutionary figure and civic leader; son-in-law of Ye. *Chykalenko. He joined the ^Revolutionary Ukrainian party (RUP) in 1901, became a member of its editorial committee in Lviv in 1903, and wrote one of its pamphlets (pub 1904). After the 1904-5 split in RUP he became one of the leaders of the Ukrainian Social Democratic *Spilka. During the Revolution of 1905 he established a strong Spilka network that organized peasant disturbances in Kherson and Kiev gubernias. He was arrested in September 1906 and imprisoned. In 1909 he escaped from exile in Siberia to Central Europe. After the outbreak of the First World War he became a member of the presidia of the émigré *Union for the Liberation of Ukraine (svu, 1914-18) and the ^General Ukrainian Council in Vienna (1915-16). In 1915 he established the svu Central Bureau in Berlin and became the leading svu organizer in German prisoner-of-war camps. In February 1918 he negotiated at Brest-Litovsk the prisoners' release and formation as the UNR Army's *Bluecoats divisions. From March 1918 he served as the UNR commissioner and Hetmán government's starosta in the Entente-occupied Kholm region and Podlachia. He was arrested by the Poles in Brest and interned at Kalisz in December 1918. He was released in 1920 and lived thereafter in Berlin, where

SKORYNA

he became a leading member of the conservative monarchist ""Ukrainian Union of Agrarians-Statists. In 1926 he helped P. Skoropadsky establish the ^Ukrainian Scientific Institute in Berlin and was appointed vice-chairman of its board of governors. Skoropys-Yoltukhovsky was arrested in 1945 after the Soviet occupation of Berlin, and perished in a Soviet concentration camp. He wrote political works, such as Na perelomi: Uvahy pro suchasni vidnosyny Rosii (At the Turning Point: Observations on Contemporary Russian Relations, 1905) and Znachinnia samostiinoï Ukraïny alla evropeis'koï'rivnovahy (The Significance of an Independent Ukraine for European Stability, 1913); the afterword to the SVU1917 edition of the first RUP pamphlet, M. Mikhnovsky's Samostiina Ukraïna (Independent Ukraine); a booklet about Ukrainians in the POW camps (1918); and memoiristic articles about the RUP, the Spilka, and the svu. R. Senkus

Skorulska, Nataliia [Skorul's'ka, Natalija], b 20 February 1915 in Zhytomyr, d August 1982 in Kiev. Ballerina, ballet master, and scenarist. In 1930 she completed study at the Zhytomyr ballet school, and in 1934, the Kiev Music and Choreography College. In 1934-56 she was a soloist in the Kiev Theater of Opera and Ballet (from 1957 its ballet master). She is the scenarist of A. Svechnikov's ballet Marusia Bohuslavka and H. Zhukovsky's ballet The Forest Song. From 1972 she taught at the Kiev Institute of Culture.

Mykhailo Skorulsky

Myroslav Skoryk

Skorulsky, Mykhailo [Skorul's'kyj, Myxajlo], b 6 September 1887 in Kiev, d 21 February 1950 in Kiev. Composer, pedagogue, and music critic. A graduate in composition from the St Petersburg Conservatory (1914), he taught music theory in Zhytomyr (1915-33) and at the Kiev Conservatory (1933-50). His works include the opera Svichchyne vesillia (Svichka's Wedding, 1948); the ballets Bondarivna (The Barrelmaker's Daughter, 1939) and Lisova pisnia (Forest Song, 1946); the oratorio Holos materi (Mother's Voice, 1943); two symphonies (1923, 1932); the symphonic poem Mykyta Kozhumiaka (1949); choral and chamber pieces; incidental music; songs to works by Lesia Ukrainka, P. Tychyna, and V. Sosiura; and arrangements of Ukrainian folk songs. A monograph on him has been written by M. Mykhailiv (1960). Skorupsky, Volodymyr [Skorups'kyj], b 29 November 1912 in Kopychyntsi, Husiatyn county, Galicia, d 11 De-

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cember 1985 in Toronto. Poet. His law studies at the University of Lviv (1935-9) were interrupted by the Second World War. He emigrated to Austria in 1945 and to Canada in 1948. From 1977 to 1984 he was editor of the weekly Novyi shliakh in Toronto. He began his literary career with lyrical poems, which were published in the semimonthly Nazustrich in 1938; his first separate collections, Vesnianyi homin (Spring Din, 1946) and Zhyttia (Life, 1947), were published in Austria. While in Canada Skorupsky continued writing lyrical poetry with a contemplative mood and national consciousness expressed in rather classical stanzas. Seven more collections appeared during his life: the nostalgic Moid oselia (My Homestead, 1954), Li dorozi (Along the Way, 1957), and Bez ridnoho poroha (Without a Native Threshold, 1958); the reflective Iz dzherela (From the Source, 1961), Aistry mvidtsvili (Asters Still Blooming, 1972), and Spokonvichni luny: Legendy i mity (Eternal Echoes: Legends and Myths, 1977); and Nad mohyloiu: Vinok sonetiv (At the Grave: A Wreath of Sonnets, 1963), commemorating his mother's death. Skoryk, Myroslav, b 13 July 1938 in Lviv. Composer and musicologist. He graduated (1960) from the Lviv Conservatory in the classes of A. Soltys and S. Liudkevych and then completed graduate studies (1964) at the Moscow Conservatory in the composition class of D. Kabalevsky. He subsequently lectured in composition at the Lviv Conservatory (1964-6) and the Kiev Conservatory (1966-88), returning to Lviv in 1988. One of the most notable contemporary Ukrainian composers, Skoryk has written the ballet score Stonecutters (1967), the symphonic Waltz (1960), the symphonic poem Stronger than Death (1963), Hutsul Triptych (1965, based on his film score to Tini zabutykh predkiv [Shadows of Forgotten Ancestors]), Carpathian Concero (1972), and the cantatas for voice and orchestra Spring (1960, text by I. Franko) and The Person (1964). He has also written concertos for violin (1969), for piano (1977 and 1982), and for violoncello (1983); Suite (1961) and Partita (1966) for string orchestra; Partita II (1970) for chamber orchestra; film scores; and music for theater. Skoryk also completed M. Leontovych's opera Na rusalchyn velykden ' (On Rusalka Easter) in 1978 and published a study of S. Prokofiev's system of harmonics in 1969. A biobibliographic work on Skoryk has been prepared by Yu. Shyrytsia (1979). Skoryna (Skaryna), Frantsisk or Georgii, b ca 148590 in Polatsk, Belarus, d before 1552. Pioneering Belarusian printer, physician, writer, and translator. He studied humanities at Cracow University (1504-6), and received a medical degree from Padua University in 1512. He then settled in Prague, where he established a press and published a Church Slavonic Psalter (1517) and his translations of 22 books of the Old Testament in Bibliia ruska (Ruthenian Bible, 1517-20). This achievement marked the beginning of publishing among the East Slavs. Ca 1520 he founded a press in Vilnius, and printed in Church Slavonic the prayer book Malaia podorozhnaia knizhnitsa (Small Travel Book, 1522) and an Apóstol (1525). Skoryna's books were noted for their ornamentation, engravings, and high technical quality. The first East Slavic books with title pages, they contained extensive introductions, notes, glosses, and postscripts in the 'Ruthenian' (Belarusian-Ukrainian) literary language of the time, which feature makes them

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SKORYNA

an invaluable source for the study of East Slavic linguistic history. The books were widely distributed and copied throughout Ukraine and may have influenced early printing in Lviv and Ostrih (I. *Fedorovych and his successors), as well as Moscow, and even the language of Ukrainian manuscripts (eg, the *Peresopnytsia Gospel). Skotsen, Oleksander [Skocen'] (Skocen, Alexander), b 28 July 1918 in Lviv. Soccer star. In 1935-9 he distinguished himself as the center forward of Lviv7s Ukraina team. During the Soviet occupation of Galicia he played on Kiev's Dynamo team (1940-1), and under German rule he played again for Ukraina (1941-3) and coached Kolomyia's Dovbush team (1943-4). As a postwar émigré, he played on Ukrainian DP teams, both named Ukraina, in Salzburg, Austria (1945), and Ulm, Germany (1946-7). After turning professional he played for two years (1948-50) on Nice's team in France's highest soccer league and was recognized as the best center forward in France. After emigrating to Canada in 1950, he served as captain of the teams Ukraina in Edmonton and Ukraina (1951) and Trident (1951-4) in Toronto. In 1953 the Toronto and District Football Association awarded him the Holland Cup as best player. He then coached the Ontario All-Star team in 1956 and was a referee and sports commentator for the Ukrainian-Canadian press and radio. His memoirs, Z futbolom u svit (With Soccer into the World, 1985), are a valuable source on soccer and sports in Ukraine and in the postwar émigré community.

Hryhorii Skovoroda (lithograph by Mykhailo Zhuk, 1925)

Skovoroda, Hryhorii, b 3 December 1722 in Chornukhy, Lubni regiment, d 9 November 1794 in PanIvanivka, Kharkiv vicegerency (now Skovorodynivka, Zolochiv raion, Kharkiv oblast). Philosopher and poet. He was educated at the Kievan Mohyla Academy (1734-53, with two interruptions). He sang in Empress Elizabeth's court Kapelle in St Petersburg (1741-4), served as music director at the Russian imperial mission in Tokai, Hungary (1745-50), and taught poetics at Pereiaslav College (1751). He resumed his studies at the Kievan academy, but left after completing only two years of the four-year theology course to serve as tutor to V. Tomara (1753-9). He spent the next 10 years in Kharkiv, teaching poetics (175960), syntax and Greek (1762-4), and ethics (1768-9) at Kharkiv College. After his dismissal from the college he abandoned any hope of securing a regular position and spent the rest of his life wandering about eastern Ukraine, particularly Slobidska Ukraine. Material support from friends enabled him to devote himself to reflection and

writing. Most of his works were dedicated to his friends and circulated among them in manuscript copies. Although there is no sharp distinction between Skovoroda's literary and philosophical works, his collection of 30 verses (composed from 1753 to 1785) titled Sad bozhestvennykh pesnei (Garden of Divine Songs), his dozen or so songs, his collection of 30 fables (composed between 1760 and 1770) titled Basni Khar'kovskiia (Kharkiv Fables), his translations of Cicero, Plutarch, Horace, Ovid, and Muretus, and his letters, written mostly in Latin, are generally grouped under the former category. Some of his songs and poems became widely known and became part of Ukrainian folklore. His philosophical works consist of a treatise on Christian morality and 12 dialogues. Skovoroda's thought has been interpreted in different ways: as an eclectic, loose collection of ideas (F. Kudrinsky); as a strict, rationalist system (A. Efimenko, H. Tysiachenko); as a form of Christian mysticism (V. Ern, D. Chyzhevsky); as a version of Christian Platonism in the patristic tradition (D. Bahalii); and as a moral philosophy (F. Zelenohorsky, I. Mirchuk, I. Ivano, V. Shynkaruk). There have been disagreements about the character of his metaphysical doctrine (dualism vs monism, idealism vs 'semi-materialism'). The debates about its nature to a large extent have arisen because of Skovoroda's style of writing, which is literary rather than philosophical. His ideas are not organized and presented in a systematic way, but are scattered throughout his dialogues, fables, letters, and poetry. Skovoroda preferred to use symbols, metaphors, or emblems instead of well-defined philosophical concepts to convey his meaning. Moreover, he delighted in contradiction and often left it to readers to find their way out of an apparent one. In the absence of explicit statements of doctrine and expected solutions to obvious problems, it is sometimes uncertain what exactly Skovoroda had in mind. For Skovoroda the purpose of philosophy is practical to show the way to happiness. Hence, the two central questions for him are what happiness is and how it can be attained. For him happiness is an inner state of peace, gaiety, and confidence which is attainable by all. To reach this state, some understanding of the world and oneself and an appropriate way of life are necessary. Skovoroda approaches metaphysics and anthropology not as a speculative thinker, but as a moralist: he does no more than outline those truths that are necessary for happiness. His basic metaphysical doctrine is that there are two natures in everything: the ideal, inner, invisible, eternal, and immutable; and the material, outer, sensible, temporal, and mutable. The first is higher, for it imparts being to the second. This dualism extends through all reality - the macrocosm or universe, and the two microcosms of humanity and the Bible. In the macrocosm the inner nature is God, and the outer is the physical world. Skovoroda's view on God's relation to the world is panentheist rather than pantheist. In man the inner nature is the soul; the outer, the body. In the Bible the inner truth is the symbolical meaning; the outer, the literal meaning. From this metaphysical scheme Skovoroda drew a number of fundamental conclusions for practical life. Since the universe is ordered by a provident God, every being has been provided with all that is necessary for happiness. The assurance that what is necessary is easy and what is difficult is unnecessary (for happiness) brings

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peace of mind. It also serves as a criterion for the material conditions of happiness: we need only those goods that are necessary to health and are available to all people. But to dispel anxiety about material security is not enough for happiness. Active by nature, humans must also fulfill themselves in action by assuming the congenial task or vocation assigned to them by God. To pursue one's task regardless of external rewards is to be happy, while to pursue wealth, glory, or pleasure through uncongenial work is to be in despair. Furthermore, since vocations are distributed by God in such a way as to ensure a harmonious social order, to adopt an uncongenial task leads to social discord and unhappiness for others. The doctrine of congenial work is the central doctrine in Skovoroda's moral system. Although it is not metaphysically plausible, it expresses his faith in the creative potential of human beings and the possibility of self-fulfillment in this life for everyone. Although they were never presented in a systematic fashion, Skovoroda's ideas form a remarkably coherent system. His chief authorities are the ancient philosophers (the Stoics, the Cynics, Epicurus, Plato, and Aristotle), from whom he selects the basic elements of his own teaching. Following the patristic tradition, he treats the Bible allegorically: he holds that its literal meaning (anthropomorphic God and miracles) is external and false, and that its inner, symbolic meaning coincides with the truth known to the ancient philosophers. In this way he reconciles secular learning with Christian faith. Skovoroda's influence in the 19th century on writers such as I. Kotliarevsky, H. Kvitka-Osnovianenko, T. Shevchenko, and P. Kulish was minimal. But his poetic style, ideas, and moral example have played an important role in the rebirth of Ukrainian culture in the 2Oth century. Poets such as M. Filiansky, P. Tychyna, V. Barka, V. Stus, H. Chubai, I. Kalynets, and I. Drach have found inspiration in him. The fullest editions of Skovoroda's works were published in Kharkiv in 1894 (ed D. Bahalii), in St Petersburg in 1912 (ed V. Bonch-Bruevich), in Kiev in 1961 (2 vols) and 1973 (2 vols), and in Moscow in 1973 (2 vols). An English translation of Skovoroda's fables and aphorisms, together with a biography and an analysis of the works, was published by D.B. Chopyk in 1990. BIBLIOGRAPHY Ern, V. Grigorii Savvich Skovoroda: Zhizn' i uchenie (Moscow 1912) Bahalii, D. Ukraïns'kyi mandrovanyi filosof Hryhorii Savych Skovoroda (Kharkiv 1926) Chyzhevs'kyi, D. Filosofiia H.S. Skovorody (Warsaw 1934) Red'ko, M. Svitohliad H.S. Skovorody (Lviv 1967) Berkovych, E.; Stavyns'ka, R.; Shtraimysh, R. (comps). Hryhorii Skovoroda: Biobibliohrafiia (Kharkiv 1968) Popov, P. Hryhorii Skovoroda (Kiev 1969) Nizhynets', A. Na zlami dvokh svitiv (Kharkiv 1970) Kovalivs'kyi, A. (ed). Hryhorii Skovoroda: Biobibliohrafiia (Kiev 1972) Makhnovets', L. Hryhorii Skovoroda: Biohrafiia (Kiev 1972) Shynkaruk, V. (ed). Filosofiia Hryhoriia Skovorody (Kiev 1972) Tschizewsky, D. Skoworoda: Dichter, Denker, Mystiker (Munich 1974) Myshanych, O. Hryhorii Skovoroda i usna narodna tvorchist ' (Kiev 1976) Ivan'o, I. Filosofiia i styl' myslennia H. Skovorody (Kiev 1983)

T. Zakydalsky

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Skovoroda Society of Higher School Teachers (Tovarystvo vchyteliv vyshchykh shkil im. H. Skovorody). An organization of Ukrainian secondary-school teachers, founded in 1908 in Bukovyna and centered in Chernivtsi. In 1913 it had 80 members. Its goal was to organize teachers in Bukovyna, to improve the general level of Ukrainian schooling and instruction, and to publish school hand-books and textbooks. Together with the Teacher's Hromada in Lviv it published, from 1911, the pedagogical journal *Nasha shkola. The leaders of the organization were I. Pryima, A. Artymovych, M. Korduba, and V. Kmitsykevych. It ceased operation in 1914. Skovoroda-Zachyniaiev, Oleksander [SkovorodaZacynjajev] (real name: Zachyniaiev], b 22 August 1877 in Voskresenka, Zadonsk county, Voronezh gubernia, Russia, d ? Educator and psychophysiologist. He was a gymnasium principal in Kiev (until 1919) and (in the 19205) a research associate of the YUAN Scientific-Pedagogical Commission, the director of the reflexology laboratory of the YUAN, a lecturer at the Kiev Veterinary-Zootechnical, Art, and Music and Drama institutes, and a docent of the Kiev Medical Institute. He was arrested in the 19305, and his further fate is unknown. Skriaha, Prokip [Skrjaha], b ? in Ostapy, near Luhyny, in the Zhytomyr region, d 13 January 1770 in Kodnia, near Zhytomyr. Banduryst. He accompanied detachments of haidamakas and Don Cossacks during the Koliivshchyna rebellion of 1768 and provided them with songs and entertainment. He was captured and executed by Polish forces. His exploits were chronicled in Kievskaia starina (1882, no. 4).

Rev Yosaf at Skruten

Skruten, Yosafat [Skruten', Josafat] (secular name: Ivan), b 24 February 1894 in Parkhach, Sokal county, Galicia, d 12 October 1951 in Rome. Basilian priest, church historian, and journalist; full member of the Shevchenko Scientific Society from 1930. He studied at the Gregorian University in Rome and at Lviv University and was ordained in 1918. He edited the journal Postup (1921-4) and coedited the newspaper Nyva and the theological journal Bohosloviia. He also founded and edited *Anakcta Oramis S. Basilii Magni (1924-39), the theological journal of the Basilian Fathers, and contributed to Duo, Nova zona, Novyi chas, Khrystyians 'kyi holos, Krakivs 'ki visti, and other periodicals. In 1923 he cofounded the ""Ukrainian Theological Scholarly Society, and in 1929 he became a professor of philosophy at the Greek Catholic Theological Academy in Lviv. He emigrated to Bavaria in 1939 and then to Rome

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in 1949, where he was chaplain of St Josaphat's Ukrainian Pontifical College. Skruten published several articles and reviews on the history of the Basilian order, on Y. Kuntsevych, and on other subjects in church history, mostly in the Analecta. Skrutok, Oleksa (Skrutka), b 1861 in Peremyshl, Galicia, d 1914. Painter. After graduating from the Cracow School of Fine Arts (1891) he studied in Munich and then worked in Lviv and Peremyshl. From 1898 he belonged to the ^Society for the Advancement of Ruthenian Art in Lviv and took part in its exhibitions. He painted portraits (eg, of V. Nahirny [1912]); landscapes, such as Evening (1893), In the Meadow (1893), Silence (1894), and Landscape with a Pond (1895); genre paintings, such as Dutch Fisherman (1892) and Old Woman in a Window (1898); iconostases; religious paintings, such as Resurrection of Lazarus (1900); and historical paintings depicting the Cossack period.

Basilian monastery in Dobromyl and training as a church painter (1750-4), he painted at St Onuphrius's Monastery in Lviv and the Zhovkva and Univ monasteries. Skrypnyk, Ihor, b 13 November 1940 in Zhmerynka, Vinnytsia oblast. Mathematician, full member of the AN URSR (now ANU) since 1985. After completing his graduate studies at Lviv University in 1965, he taught there and in 1967 moved to Donetske, where he has worked at the ANU Institute of Applied Mathematics and Mechanics (director from 1977) and at Donetske University. Skrypnyk's main works are in nonlinear functional analysis, nonlinear partial differential equations (PDES) of mathematical physics, and function theory. In the early 19705 he introduced the notion of the topological degree for a wide class of nonlinear maps type (a) and developed the complete theory for a single-valued degree analogous to that for the Brouwer degree. He used the latter to extend many classical theorems to his general class of mappings. The topological degree theory developed by the American mathematician F. Browder in the 19805 for maps of type (S+) is essentially the same as Skrypnyk's for type (a). Skrypnyk used his topological results to obtain weak solutions of boundary value problems in physics, elasticity, and mechanics. He also obtained important results in his study of the regularity theory of these solutions and summarized them in a monograph on nonlinear elliptic equations of higher order (1973). He extended many of his results to nonelliptic PDES and to elliptic PDES that are not in divergent form. He also studied the solutions of Monge-Ampère equations and wrote a study of investigation methods for nonlinear elliptic boundary value problems (1990). W. Petryshyn

Yosyp Skrypa

Ihor Skrypnyk

Skrypa, Yosyp (pseud: Vronsky) b i March 1894 in Siedliska, Zamosc county, Poland, d 12 February 1929 in Prague. Civic and political activist in the Kholm region. After being evacuated to Baku during the First World War, he completed a pedagogical course and then returned to his home village to work as a teacher and organizer of farmers and youth groups. He was also vicepresident of the Kholm National Committee. In 1922 he was elected to the Polish Sejm, where he belonged to the Ukrainian caucus, then to a faction of the Ukrainian Social Democrats, and finally to the Communist Party of Western Ukraine. Skrypchynska, Eleonora [Skrypcyns'ka], b 11 October 1899 in Dubno, Volhynia gubernia. Choir conductor and pedagogue; wife of H. *Verovka. A student of B. Yavorsky and V. Pukhalsky, she taught music in Kiev from 1919. She was affiliated mainly with the Lysenko Music and Drama Institute (1923-34) and its successor, the Kiev Conservatory (from 1934). She also conducted numerous professional and amateur choirs in 1920-44, and the *Verovka State Chorus in 1944-66, serving as its artistic director and principal conductor in 1964-6. Skrypetsky, Samson [Skrypec'kyj] (secular name: Stepan), b 1723 in Khyriv (near Sambir), Galicia, d after 1784. Basilian priest and church painter. After entering the

Skrypnyk, Leonid (pseuds: Leonid Lain, M. Lansky), b 1893, d 23 February 1929 in Kharkiv. Futurist writer and theorist. He graduated from the Kiev Polytechnical Institute and was involved in flying experiments at N. Zhukovsky's Aerodynamics Institute near Moscow before the First World War. In the Soviet period he worked in Kiev in the administration of the Southwestern Railway and then operated the film laboratory at the Odessa factory of the All-Ukrainian Photo-Cinema Administration. He published prose, reviews, and criticism in the journals Chervonyi shliakh (the novelette Ivan Petrovych i Feliks/ 1928, no. 11), Zhyttia i revoliutsiia, Nova generatsiia, and Vsesvit (as its associate editor) and in KuVtura i pobut, the supplement to Visti VUTsVK. From 1928 he belonged to the futurist writers' group Nova Generatsiia. He wrote the first Ukrainian reference book for the photographer (1927), the first Ukrainian book of essays on the history of cinematic art (1928), and the experimental 'screen novel' Inteligent (The Intellectual, 1929; repr in Suchasnist' in 1984), and translated into Ukrainian U. Sinclair's wo Percent, the Story of a Patriot (1928). His book on art and social culture and his novel 'Epizod z zhyttia chudnoï liudyny' (Episode from the Life of a Strange Person) were not completed. Skrypnyk, Lev, b 1903 in Yasynuvata, Bakhmut county, Katerynoslav gubernia, d 1939 in Poltava. Writer. While working as a miner in the Donbas in the 19205, he became a member of the Zaboi writers' group and the All-Ukrainian Association of Proletarian Writers. He wrote Vybukh (Explosion, 1928), Dvisti p'iatdesiat persha verstva (The

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25ist Verst, 1929), Z0 vse (For Everything, 1930), Malen 'ka stepova rudnia (The Little Steppe Mine, 1930), Smertna kamera (Death Cell, 1931), and other 'proletarian' prose collections; Budynok prymusovykh prats' (The Forced Labor Building, 1930), the first novel set in a Soviet Ukrainian prison; and the novels Rudnia (The Mine, 1930) and Novosmolianka (1930). Skrypnyk died in a hospital for the mentally ill (according to Soviet sources) or was a victim of the Stalinist terror. Skrypnyk, Mary, b 11 December 1915 near Timmins, Ontario. Editor, translator, and community leader; a Communist party member since 1932. From 1960 she was an editor of the ^Ukrainian Canadian. In this capacity she began translating works of Ukrainian literature into English; these were published by the Dnipro publishing house in the Ukrainian SSR. She is best known for her translations of works by T. Shevchenko, I. Franko, Lesia Ukrainka, H. Kvitka-Osnovianenko, and O. Kobylianska. Skrypnyk was awarded the Maxim Gorky Prize by the Writers' Union of the USSR in 1976. She has also translated several Ukrainian-Canadian historical works by P. Krawchuk.

Patriarch Mstyslav Skrypnyk

Mykola Skrypnyk

Skrypnyk, Mstyslav (secular name: Stepan), b 10 April 1898 in Poltava. Orthodox patriarch. A nephew of S. *Petliura, in 1917-21 he served in the UNR Army. When the army retreated to Poland, he was interned in a camp in Kalusz. After his release he lived in Galicia and then Volhynia, where from 1926 he worked with the local government. In 1930 he completed a degree in political science in Warsaw. In the 19305 Skrypnyk was a leading member of the *Volhynian Ukrainian Alliance. He served as a member of the Polish Sejm (1930-9), where he was especially active in defending the Ukrainian Orthodox church. He participated in church life, as a delegate to various church councils and a permanent executive member. He was ordained a priest and made bishop of Pereiaslav in 1942 (he received his chirotonium in Kiev), but was persecuted by the Gestapo in 1942-3. He emigrated to Germany in 1944 and was active in organizing émigré church life in Western Europe. In 1947-9 he was acting bishop of the Ukrainian Greek Orthodox Church of Canada. In 1950 he

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became head of the consistory and deputy metropolitan of the Ukrainian Orthodox Church in the USA. In 1969 he became metropolitan of the "Ukrainian Autocephalous Orthodox church (UAOC) in Western Europe, and in 1971, metropolitan of the church in the United States. In 1990, after the revival and legalization of the UAOC in Ukraine, Skrypnyk was installed as its patriarch. He was the founder of the religious and cultural center in South Bound Brook, New Jersey, and a supporter of the unification of all Orthodox jurisdictions. He was given an honorary doctorate from St Andrew's College in Winnipeg and made an honorary member of the Shevchenko Scientific Society in the USA. He has published a number of articles and served as editor of various periodicals and collections of works. I. Korovytsky

Skrypnyk, Mykola, b 25 January 1872 in Yasynuvata, Bakhmut county, Katerynoslav gubernia, d 7 July 1933 in Kharkiv. Bolshevik leader and Soviet Ukrainian statesman; YUAN full member from 1929. After his first arrest in 1901, Skrypnyk abandoned his studies at the St Petersburg Technological Institute and became a full-time Marxist revolutionary in St Petersburg, Odessa, Katerynoslav, Riga, and Moscow. By 1917 he had been arrested 15 times and exiled 7 times to places such as Yakutia (1909-13) and Tambov gubernia (1914-17). During the Bolshevik coup in Petrograd in November 1917, he was a member of the supreme command of the military-revolutionary committee. In December 1917 he was elected in absentia to the "People's Secretariat, the first Soviet government in Ukraine, and in March 1918 he was appointed its chairman by V. Lenin. At the *Tahanrih Bolshevik Conference Skrypnyk was chosen chief of the bureau that was to set up the CP(B)U. Although he delivered the keynote address at the Party's first congress (July 1918), he was not elected to the CP(B)U leadership. Until January 1919 he was a member of the All-Russian Cheka collegium in charge of the section for combating counterrevolution. He returned as a Bolshevik commissar to Ukraine, where he served as people's commissar of worker-peasant inspection (1920-1), internal affairs (1921-2), justice (1922-7), and education (192733); general procurator (1922-7); and, briefly (FebruaryJuly 1933), head of the Ukrainian State Planning Commission and deputy premier of the Ukrainian Council of People's Commissars. At the same time he rose in the CP(B)U to the positions of CC member (April 1920) and Politburo candidate (1923-5) and member (1925-33), and in the AllUnion Communist Party (Bolshevik), CC candidate (19235) and member (1927-33). He also took part in organizing the ""Communist International, was a member of its Executive Committee, and headed its CP(B)U delegation. As a leading Party scholar he directed the All-Ukrainian Commission for the History of the October Revolution and the CP(B)U, the "Ukrainian Institute of Marxism-Leninism (1928-30), and its chair of the national question (1926-31), and presided over the Ukrainian Society of Marxist Historians (from 1928). Among the non-Ukrainian members and leaders of the CP(B)U (eg, E. Kviring and D. Lebid) he encountered Russian chauvinism and a rejection of all things Ukrainian as counterrevolutionary. To overcome this attitude Skrypnyk persuaded the CC CP(B)U to introduce *Ukrainization policies and actively advocated the development

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of a Ukrainian 'proletarian7 culture and literature and Ukraine's political and economic autonomy. As people's commissar of education he Ukrainized the press and publishing, elementary and secondary education, and, to a significant extent, higher education. In 1927 he convened an all-Ukrainian conference (attended also by Western Ukrainian specialists) to standardize Ukrainian *orthography. Its so-called Skrypnykivka spelling system was officially adopted in 1928. A dogmatic Leninist, he remained a determined enemy of the opponents of Soviet rule, including the Ukrainian 'nationalists/ He participated in the military and ideological struggle that led to the physical destruction of the postrevolutionary Ukrainian intelligentsia and the Party supporters of ^national communism. At the same time he saw Russian great-power chauvinism and centralism as the chief threats to Ukrainian culture and fought against them. Convinced of the need to unite all Ukrainian ethnic territories within one Soviet Ukrainian state, he opposed Russian Bolshevik plans to establish a separate *DonetsKryvyi Rih Soviet Republic in 1918. Later he demanded that the Ukrainian parts of adjacent Russian gubernias and the regions of compact Ukrainian settlement in Central Asia and the Far East be incorporated in the Ukrainian SSR. Throughout the 19205 he devoted much attention to the cultural needs of Ukrainians in these regions as well as in Polish, Czech, Hungarian, and Rumanian territories. Skrypnyk's activities contradicted the imperialistic plans of the central leadership in Moscow. In January 1933 J. Stalin sent P. *Postyshev to Ukraine to take control of the CP(B)U. Skrypnyk's policies and theories were condemned, and he was removed as education commissar. Foreseeing the reversal of Ukrainization and his inevitable liquidation as an old opponent of Stalin, he committed suicide. Skrypnyk's undeniable contributions to and defense of Ukrainian culture made him a symbol of Ukraine's struggle for sovereignty. He was rehabilitated in the mid-1950s. His policies, views, speeches, brochures (partly collected in 4 vols in 1929-30), and over 800 articles have been republished in Ukraine in a selected edition (1991). BIBLIOGRAPHY Babko, lu.; Bilokobyl's'kyi, I. Mykola Oleksiiovych Skrypnyk (Kiev 1967) Koshelivets', I. Mykola Skrypnyk (Munich 1972) Skrypnyk, M. Statti i promovy z natsional 'noho pytannia, ed I. Koshelivets' (Munich 1974) Mace, J. Communism and the Dilemmas of National Liberation: National Communism in Soviet Ukraine, 1918-1933 (Cambridge, Mass 1983) I. Koshelivets

Skuba, Mykola, b 6 December 1907 in Horbove, Novhorod-Siverskyi county, Chernihiv gubernia, d 24 October 1937 in Kiev. Writer. A member of the writers' groups Molodniak and Nova Generatsiia, he began publishing in the Kharkiv press in 1927 and wrote the poetry collections Perehony (Races, 1930), Demonstratsiia (The Demonstration, 1931), Pisni (Songs, 1934), and Novi pisni (New Songs, 1935). He was arrested during the Stalinist terror in 1937, and executed by the NKVD. He was posthumously rehabilitated, and a book of his poems was published in Kiev in 1965.

Skubii, Ivan [Skubij], b 1858 in Leliukhivka, Kobeliaky county, Poltava gubernia, d after 1909 in Leliukhivka. Lirnyk. Blind from the age of 10, he became a well-known performer of dumas. His style of playing was closer to the kobzar style. His dumas were written down by F. Kolessa and O. Slastion and published in Materiialy do ukraïns 'koï etnolohiï, 14 (1913). Skubova, Mariia, b 1880 in Ivanivka, Skalat county, Galicia, d 11 April 1952 in New York. Civic activist. After emigrating to the United States in 1907, she founded the Ukrainian Besida society, which helped young emigrant girls. During the First World War she served as a nurse in the Austrian army and, upon being captured, in a hospital in Kiev. She returned to Lviv in 1916 through a prisoner exchange and continued to work in Ukrainian hospitals. In 1921 she returned to the United States, where she collected funds for the needy in Ukraine, organized exhibits of Ukrainian art and customs, set up women's organizations, and (after visiting Galicia in 1930) rallied public support to protest the 1930 Polish Pacification. After the Second World War she organized aid for Ukrainian refugees in DP camps. She supported the Ukrainian Academy of Arts and Sciences in the US financially and was a member of its executive board. Skulsky, Andrii [Skul's'kyj, Andrij] (Skolsky), b in the late loth century in Lviv, d ca 1655 in Lviv. Printer and writer. He studied at the Lviv Dormition Brotherhood School and then worked at and directed (1630-3,1641-3) the brotherhood's press. He also co-owned, with M. Slozka, a press in Lviv (1638-40); worked as a printer in Moldavia; and directed the press established by Bishop A. Zhelyborsky at St George's Church in Lviv (1643-6) and the Univ Monastery (from 1646). In 1651 Skulsky was arrested near Sokal by the Poles, accused of spying for the Cossacks, and tortured, but he was eventually released. Skulsky wrote and published Virshi z trahodii Khristos paskhon Hryhoriia Bohoslova (Verses from the Tragedy of the Paschal Christ by Gregory the Theologian, 1630). Skunts, Petro [Skunc'L b 20 May 1942 in Mizhhiria, Transcarpathia. Poet of the *shestydesiatnyky generation. He graduated from Uzhhorod University (1963) and has worked as a newspaper and book editor in Uzhhorod. He is the author of the collections Sontse v rosi (Sun in the Dew, 1961), Verkhovyns'ka pisnia (Highland Song, 1962), Poliusy zemli (The Earth's Axis, 1964), Pohliad (A Look, 1967), Na hranytsi epokh (On the Threshold of Epochs, 1968), Vsesvit, nory i ia (The Universe, Mountains, and I, 1970), Rozryv-trava (Impatiens, 1979), and Seismichna zona (The Seismic Zone, 1983). He has also edited a book of Transcarpathian legends (1972). Skurykhin, Volodymyr [Skuryxin], b 17 April 1926 in Viatka (now Kirov), Russia. Systems theoretist; full member of the AN URSR (now ANU) since 1978. He studied in Ivanovo and since 1958 has worked at the ANU Institute of Cybernetics. His main contributions are in applying cybernetics and computers to the automation of manufacturing processes. He was instrumental in creating the first automated and computerized industrial control system in the USSR. He also designed and put into operation some early CAD /CAM systems and other automated design and data-processing systems.

SLABCHENKO

Skvarko, Zakhar, b 27 September 1870 in Kormanychi, Peremyshl county, Galicia, d 2 August 1925 in Kolomyia, Galicia. Co-operative and civic leader. After graduating from Lviv University he practiced law in Mostyska and organized a People's Home credit union and a branch of the Prosvita society. A member of the National Democratic party, in 1907 he was elected to the Galician Diet. In 1910 he was appointed director of the Pokutia credit union in Kolomyia. During the First World War he left for Vienna (1914-15), where he organized relief for Ukrainian office workers and edited the popular National Democratic organ Svoboda. In 1919, after returning to Kolomyia, he was elected county president of the Ukrainian National Rada. SKVU. See World Congress of Free Ukrainians. Skvyra. iv-io. A city (1989 pop 18,900) on the Skvyrka River and a raion center in Kiev oblast. It was first mentioned in historical documents in 1390, when it was a frontier settlement of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. In 1482 it was destroyed by the Tatars. From 1569 it was under Polish rule. In 1616 it was granted the rights of *Magdeburg law. Under the Hetmán state Skvyra was a company center of Bila Tserkva (1648-51) and Pavoloch (1651-74) regiments. It was recaptured by Poland in 1686, and supported the haidamaka rebellions of 1736 and 1768. It was acquired by Russia in 1793, and from 1797 it was a county center in Kiev gubernia. In 1938 it attained city status. Today it is an industrial and agricultural town. Its main industries are food processing, clothing, and sanitary technology. It is the home of the Selection and Seed Research Station of the Ukrainian Scientific Research Institute of Orcharding.

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ing figure in Cossack uprisings against the Poles, including one in 1637 led by P. Pavliuk and one in 1638 with Ya. Ostrianyn. Skydan was recruiting in Cherkasy later in 1638 and, returning to the aid of D. Hunia, was seriously injured in a battle near Zhovnyn, captured by Polish forces, and presumably executed. Skyrda, Liudmyla, b 15 September 1945 in Kirovohrad. Writer and literary scholar. She graduated from Kiev University (1968), where she has lectured in the department of the history of Ukrainian literature since 1972. She has written the poetry collections Chekannia (Waiting, 1965), Skhody (Stairs, 1976), Kryla (Wings, 1979), Elehiia vechirn 'oho sadu (Elegy of the Evening Garden, 1983), Muzyka alia dvokh (Music for Two, 1986), and Dni i nochi (Days and Nights, 1987). Her scholarly publications include books about contemporary Ukrainian poetry (1983), Ye. Pluzhnyk (1989), and the contemporary Ukrainian narrative poem (1990). Skytsiuk, Ivan [Skycjuk], b 12 August 1907 in Chornyi Ostriv, Proskuriv county, Podilia gubernia. Decorative artist; husband of M. *Tymchenko. In 1941 he graduated from the Kiev School of Applied Art. He painted dishes with floral motifs; plates, such as Firebird (1967) and Red Bird (1967); decorative panels, such as Fishes among Flowers (1963) and May Bugs Hum above the Cherry Trees (1964); and the murals in the Kazka toy store in Kiev (1978-9, with M. Tymchenko).

Skybenko, Anatolii, b 10 October 1924 in Kiev, d 17 July 1981 in Kiev. Stage director, actor, and pedagogue. He completed study at the Kiev Institute of Theater Arts (1949) and then worked in theaters in Drohobych and Vinnytsia (1950-4) and in the Kiev Ukrainian Drama Theater (1954-81). In 1956-81 he taught in the Kiev Institute of Theater Arts. Skybynsky, Hryhorii [Skybyns'kyj, Hryhorij], b in the i66os in Western Ukraine, d 1716 in Moscow. Theologian. In the 16705 he lived in Moscow. Then he moved, for eight years, to Rome, where in 1688 he converted from Orthodoxy to the Uniate faith. After living in France and Germany and studying Calvinism and Lutheranism for several more years, he returned to Moscow and re-embraced the Orthodox faith (although he remained labeled a 'heretic7 and 'Latinizer'). He left several unpublished manuscripts, including 'Brevis poética cum prosodia conscripta'; Terechnevoe skazaniie o myri' (A Listing of the Story of the World); and 'Kratkoe sícazanie i opisanie ... o grade Ryme' (A Brief Story and Description ... of the City of Rome, 4 parts), a polemical work criticizing the papacy and attacking Catholicism. A biography, by A. Sobolevsky, and two of his works were published in Chteniia v Imperatorskom obshchestve istorii i drevnostei rossiskikh (1914, no. 2). Skydan, Karpo, b ?, d 1638. Cossack officer. He was a colonel of unregistered Zaporozhian Cossacks and a lead-

Mykhailo Slabchenko Slabchenko, Mykhailo [Slabcenko, Myxajlo], b 21 July 1882 in Moldavanka, outside Odessa, d 29 November 1952 in Pervomaiske, Mykolaiv oblast. Historian; full member of the AN URSR (now ANU) in 1926-30. A graduate of Odessa University and the St Petersburg Military-Juridical Academy, he completed his studies in Germany. He took an active part in the Ukrainian national movement as a member of student organizations, the Revolutionary Ukrainian party (1903), and the Ukrainian Social Democratic Workers7 party (1906-18). In the 19205 he served as a professor at the Odessa Institute of People's Education (in the chair of Ukrainian history), headed the social-historical section of the Odessa Scientific Society, and directed the Odessa branch of the (Kharkiv-based) Scientific Research Chair of Ukrainian History. He also coedited several publications of the Odessa Scientific Society's historical-philological section (three volumes, 1928-9) and social-historical section (five volumes, 1927-30).

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The main body of his work was devoted to the history of the law and economy of the Hetmanate and the Zaporizhia in the 17th and i8th centuries. His important early studies include Malorusskii polk v administrativnom otnoshenii (The Little Russian Regiment in Its Administrative Aspect, 1909), Opyty po istorii prava Malorossii xvn-xvin st. (Studies of the Legal History of Little Russia in the i/th and i8th Centuries, 1911), Protokol otpusknykh pisem za getmana D. Apostóla 1728 g. (Record of Release Letters under Hetmán D. Apóstol in 1728,1913), Tsentral'nye uchrezhdeniia Ukrainy xvn-xvm st. (Central Institutions of Ukraine in the 17th and i8th Centuries, 1918), and Pro sudivnytstvo na Ukraïni (On the Judicial System in Ukraine, 1920). In the early 19205 Slabchenko began working on a large project dealing with the organization of the Ukrainian economy from the Khmelnytsky period to the First World War. The first part of the undertaking, a series titled Khoziaistvo Getmanshchiny v xvii-xvill stoletiiakh (The Economy of the Hetmanate in the 17th and i8th Centuries), was completed in four Russian-language books; they dealt with land tenure and forms of agriculture (vol i, 1922), the development of factories and industry (vol 2, 1922), the growth of commerce and commercial capitalism (vol 3, 1923), and the state economy of the Hetmanate (vol 4, 1925). The first and fourth books in the series also appeared in Ukrainian. Slabchenko produced the groundbreaking studies Sotsiial'no-pravova orhanizatsiia Sichi Zaporoz'koï (The Social and Legal Organization of the Zaporozhian Sich, 1927) and Palankova orhanizatsiia Zaporoz'kykh Vol'nostiv (The Palanka Organization of Zaporozhian Free Settlements, 1929). Those works tied in with his other studies, a monograph on feudalism in Ukraine (1929) and a collection of materials on the economic and social history of Ukraine in the 19th century (2 vols, 1925, 1927). Slabchenko was instrumental in developing Odessa as a center of Ukrainian historical studies. His work was cut short when he was arrested in 1929 in the first major Soviet assault on the Ukrainian intelligentsia and tried for membership in the so-called *Union for the Liberation of Ukraine (svu). He served his six-year sentence in the Solo vets Islands. After the Second World War he worked in Pervomaiske (he was not allowed to return to Odessa) as a school teacher and then foreign language inspector. He was denounced by a colleague, and died in poverty and obscurity. In 1989 the Supreme Court of the Ukrainian SSR rehabilitated him along with other defendants in the SVU trial. In 1990 his name was restored to the membership list of the AN URSR (now ANU), which had expelled him in 1930. I. Myhul, O. Ohloblyn

Slabchenko, Taras [Slabcenko], b 1904 in Odessa, d 1937 ? Historian; son of M. ^Slabchenko. He worked as a lecturer in the workers' faculty of the Odessa Medical Institute and the Odessa Workers' University. In the 19205 he was a member of the YUAN social-historical section and the secretary of the Odessa Scientific Society affiliated with the YUAN. He wrote many works on general and cultural history, including the monograph Z lystuvannia M.L Kropyvnyts 'koho (From the Correspondence of M.L. Kropyvnytsky, 1927). He was arrested on 20 December 1929 in connection with the show trial of the Union for the Liberation of Ukraine, and sentenced on 19 April 1930 to

Taras Slabchenko

Yevhen Slabchenko

three years' confinement. Further details of his life are unknown, except that on 27 October 1937 he was sentenced to be shot by the military collegium of the USSR Supreme Court. Slabchenko was posthumously rehabilitated in 1959Slabchenko, Yevhen [Slabcenko, Jevhen], b 8 December 1898 in Kiev, d 10 September 1966 in Nice, France. Filmmaker and journalist. He studied at the universities of Prague and Berlin and at the Sorbonne in Paris. He organized the first Plast scouting group in central Ukraine (1917). From the mid-i92os he lived in France under the name Eugène Deslaw. There he was the official representative of the All-Ukrainian Photo-Cinema Administration and film correspondent for the Kharkiv futurist journal Nova generatsiia. In the 19305 he made pioneering short experimental sound films and worked on many French film productions. In 1936 he codirected (with J. Darroy) La Guerre des gosses, which received an award as best European film at a 1939 New York film festival. During the Second World War he worked in Spain and Switzerland, and after the war he worked in French television. His Vision fantastique, the first film with solarized images, received an honorable mention at the 1956 Venice Film Festival. Slaboshpytsky, Mykhailo [Slabospyts'kyj,Myxajlo],b 28 July 1946 in Marianivka, Shpola raion, Cherkasy oblast. Literary critic and writer. He graduated from Kiev University (1971), and from 1975 to 1983 he worked as editor in charge of literary criticism at the newspaper Literaturna Ukraina. Since 1991 he has been executive secretary of the Kiev branch of the Writers' Union of Ukraine. He has written many articles about the works of contemporary Ukrainian writers, and introductions to various literary editions, surveys, and reviews. Published separately have been his book in Russian and English on contemporary Ukrainian literature (coauthor, A. Shevchenko, 1981,1983, 1985, 1987, 1989), a collection of literary profiles (1984), books of stories for children, the novel-essay Mariia Bashkyrtseva (1986), a study of R. Ivanychuk (1989), and the novel Dushi na vitrakh (Souls in the Winds, 1981). He has edited a collection of articles by Russian and other nonUkrainian Soviet critics on Ukrainian writers (1987) and a book of O. Vlyzko's selected works (1988). In August 1992 he was elected head of the newly created Ukrainian World Co-ordinating Council.

SLAVERY

Slang. Unconventional, nonstandard words and phrases used in colloquial speech, particularly in urban environments. Such words and phrases are generally used by various occupational groups (eg, merchants, craftsmen, students, and soldiers) and subcultural groups (criminals, prisoners, and drug users) before they become accepted in the dominant culture. They give new emphasis to certain attitudes or express new shades of meaning, and they can be derogatory, satirical, shocking, or euphemistic. Slang terms in Ukrainian (many of them borrowed from Polish, Russian, and Yiddish) have not been systematically studied. They have been used to achieve special effects by writers such as I. Franko, V. Vynnychenko, M. Khvylovy, Yu. Yanovsky, O. Korniichuk, L. Pervomaisky, I. Mykytenko, and O. Berdnyk. Slanské Mountains (Ukrainian: Soloni hory). Volcanic mountains located in eastern Czechoslovakia between the Kosice-Presov Basin and the Tysa Lowland. A number of Ukrainian villages, including Banske, are situated along the ridge. The highest peak is Mount Simonka, at 1,092 m. Slastenenko, Yefym, b 1902 in the Far East. Zoologist and ichthyologist; full member of the Shevchenko Scientific Society since 1955. He worked at the Ukrainian Scientific Research Institute of Fish Management in Kiev (19303), the USSR Academy of Sciences in Leningrad (1932-8), and Rostov University (1938-42). He emigrated to Canada in 1950. He specialized in the fish of the Black and Azov seas. Slastion, Opanas [Slast'on] (Slaston, pseud: Opishnianskyi Honchar), b 14 January 1855 in Berdianske, Tavriia gubernia, d 24 September 1933 in Myrhorod, Poltava ok-

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ruha. Painter, illustrator, architect, art scholar, ethnographer, and kobzar. After graduating from the St Petersburg Academy of Arts (1882) he worked as an artist for the Ministry of Defense in St Petersburg (1887-1900), where he was able to study materials on the Ukrainian Cossacks, and presided over the Ukrainian Club in the capital (18971900). In 1883-5 he did 55 pen drawings for the 1886 St Petersburg edition of T. Shevchenko's epic poem 'Haidamaky/ His genre paintings and landscapes were reproduced frequently in the journals Niva and Zhivopisnoe obozrenie, and he contributed sketches to Zoria (Lviv) and to satirical magazines, such as Shershen', Oskolki, Strekoza, and Shut. From 1900 to 1928 he taught at the Myrhorod Arts and Crafts School and created illustrations for more of Shevchenko's poems. Slastion's articles were published in periodicals such as Kievskaia starina, Ridnyi krai, Rada, and Siaivo. For many years he wandered about Ukraine, painting landscapes, such as Myrhorod (1901) and Evening: Village (1904), drawing architectural monuments, collecting folklore and folk art, and writing down the songs performed by kobzars (later used by F. Kolessa in his two volumes of materials on Ukrainian ethnology, 1913). He became a skilled performer of Cossack dumas on the bandura. His gallery of kobzars in Left-Bank Ukraine, drawn from 1875 to 1928, was not published until 1961. From the ethnographic materials Slastion collected he prepared albums on Ukrainian and Zaporozhian antiquities (his lithographs of the mid-i89os perished in a flood in 1900), folk dress, folk ornaments, embroidery, wood carvings, ceramics, and architecture. He supported F. *Krychevsky's architectural design of the Poltava Zemstvo Building in the Ukrainian 'folk' style, and in 1910-13 he designed dozens of village public buildings in that style (eg, in Velyki Sorochyntsi). Slastion prepared the materials for a book of Ukrainian folk dumas (1927) and wrote recollections about his friend P. Martynovych (1931). In 1920 Slastion founded the Myrhorod Regional Studies Museum, to which he donated his valuable collection of historical and ethnographic materials, and in 1928 he organized the first peasant banduryst chorus. A biography of Slastion by A. Abbasov was published in Kiev in 1973, and a catalog of a retrospective exhibition of his works appeared in 1975. Slastion, Yurii, b 1903 in Myrhorod, Poltava gubernia. Architect, painter, and composer; son of O. *Slastion; full member of the Ukrainian Academy of Arts and Sciences in the US. A postwar émigré in the United States since 1949, he painted portraits and landscapes, composed choral music to the Liturgy of St John Chrysostom (1956), designed Hetmán P. Skoropadsky's burial chamber in Wiesbaden, Germany, and painted the iconostases of the Ukrainian Orthodox churches in Minneapolis and Denver. Slavechna River. See Slovechna River.

Opanas Slastion: illustration in the 1886 edition of Taras Shevchenko's Haidamaky

Slavery. Slavery existed in Ukrainian territory from ancient times. The first references to it appear in Arab historical sources of the 9th century, which speak of Magyar hordes moving from the Volga to the Pannonian Lowland and enslaving some of the local Slavs and selling them in Black Sea coastal towns to Greek buyers. The accounts of Arab and Jewish travelers attest that from the loth to 13th centuries many slaves were shipped from Kievan Rus'

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through the Black Sea towns to Byzantium, Spain, Turkestan, and Arab countries. The Greek colonies, in particular Chersonese Táurica, acted as middlemen in the slave trade. There was a particular square in Constantinople where Rus' merchants sold slaves (known then as cheliad). The trade in slaves is also mentioned in chronicles and other Ukrainian sources. Slaves were taken mainly from among prisoners of war, people born in captivity or married to slaves, and those guilty of certain crimes (arson, horse theft) or of deliberately defaulting on loans. Ruskaia Pravda specified that slaves were not afforded the protection of the law, and treated them instead as the personal (hereditary) possessions of their owners. Nevertheless slavery in Ukraine remained relatively humane, particularly under the influence of Christianity and the church. The humaneness was already apparent in the Princely era, when (under certain circumstances) slaves could be freed, and sometimes they owned property. (See also *Kholop and *Zakup.} The institution of slavery continued to exist (under various categories and names) in Ukraine although in increasingly milder forms. It disappeared in the 15th century in the Ukrainian lands controlled by Poland and in the loth century in the Ukrainian lands controlled by the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. In the late loth century it was completely replaced by ^serfdom. By the time Ukraine began to fall under the rule of Muscovy (from the mid-i/th century), slavery had largely disappeared as an institution. For Ukrainians in the 15th and loth centuries the greatest threat of slavery was being captured by Crimean Tatars for sale in the slave markets of Turkey. BIBLIOGRAPHY

Zimin, A. Kholopy na Rusi (Moscow 1973)

M. Zhdan

Slavia. A leading Czech journal of Slavic philology, published since 1922 (except in 1941-6) by the *Slavic Institute in Prague. Ukrainian contributors before the Second World War included S. and R. Smal-Stotsky, V. Simovych, I. Pankevych, D. Chyzhevsky, I. Ohiienko, D. Doroshenko, F. Kolessa, L. Biletsky, and K. Chekhovych; after the war, only scholars from Soviet Ukraine and the satellite countries were published, among them O. Melnychuk, M. Onyshkevych, Ya. Dashkevych, B. Struminsky, T. Holynska-Baranova, O. Zilynsky, and H. Koliada. Slavia Orientalis. A quarterly scholarly journal devoted to Slavic studies, published in Warsaw by the Polish Academy of Sciences since 1952. Until 1957 tne journal was called Kwartalnik Instytutu Polsko-Radzieckiego and included articles on political topics. Most of the articles are published in Polish, although some appear in Ukrainian, Russian, and other languages. Contributors are primarily from Poland, republics of the former USSR, and other Slavic countries. The articles on Ukrainian subjects have usually dealt with 19th-century literature and history, early Ukrainian culture, or Western Ukrainian dialects. Books on Ukrainian topics by Soviet Ukrainian and Western scholars have been reviewed. An index to the journal up to 1986 was published in vol 36 (1987). Slavic Congress in Prague, 1848. A congress of representatives of the Slavic peoples of the Austrian Empire,

called at the initiative of P. Safarik and }. Jelacic and organized by Czech activists, such as F. Palacky, K. Zap, K. Havlicek-Borovsky, and F. Rieger. The assembly was convened to consolidate the forces of the Slavs in response to calls for the unification of all German lands (including Austria with Czech-inhabited Bohemia) by the German parliament in Frankfurt; its formal sessions began on 2 June 1848. A number of Galician Ukrainians participated in the congress, including delegates from the ""Supreme Ruthenian Council (I. *Borysykevych, H. *Hynylevych, and O. *Zaklynsky); none were present from Transcarpathia. A delegation from the pro-Polish *Ruthenian Congress led by J. Lubomirski and including L. Sapieha, K. Ciçglewicz, and L. Stecki participated in the assembly. A total of 363 delegates attended the congress, of whom 61 belonged to the Polish-Ukrainian contingent from Galicia. Three working commissions were struck: Czecho-Slovak, Polish-Ukrainian, and Southern Slav. As a result of talks held in the Polish-Ukrainian commission, formed at the initiative of Palacky and M. Bakunin and headed by Sapieha, an agreement was reached concerning the political, cultural, and national equality of Poles and Ukrainians. A majority of the commission accepted a proposal put forward by the Supreme Ruthenian Council to divide Galicia into eastern and western sections, but under Polish pressure the matter was referred to the Galician Diet and the State Council. The congress dealt with other issues, including a formula for the restructuring of the Habsburg empire as a federation of autonomous peoples. The congress also sent a special petition to Emperor Ferdinand I demanding equal rights for all Slavic peoples of the Austrian Empire, which included a call for Ukrainian language rights in Galicia. None of the proposals discussed at the congress was ever officially adopted. Because of an uprising that broke out in Prague, the proceedings of the congress were halted on 12 June 1848. The congress produced no concrete results for Galician Ukrainians. BIBLIOGRAPHY Sozans'kyi, I. 'Do istoríí uchasty halyts'kykh rusyniv u Slov'ians'komu kongresi v Prazi 1848 r./ ZNTSh, 72 (Lviv 1906) Navalovs'kyi, M. Ukraïntsi i Slov'ians'kyi kongres u Prazi 1848 r. (Kharkiv 1930) Zacek, B. (ed). Slovansky sjezd v Praze (Prague 1958) Orton, L. The Prague Slav Congress of 1848 (Boulder, Colo 1978) Kozik, J. The Ukrainian National Movement in Galicia, 1815-1849 (Edmonton 1986) B. Kravtsiv

Slavic Institute (Slovansky ustav). A Czechoslovak state-funded research institution, founded in Prague on the initiative (1920) of President T. Masaryk. It was legally constituted in 1922 to study and develop Czechoslovakia's cultural and economic relations with other Slavic countries. Under the directors L. Niederle (1928-32) and M. Murko (1932-40) the institute was active in the field of *Slavic studies. During that time it published many serials, over 70 monographs, and over 50 annual volumes of Byzantinoslavica, Germanoslavica, *Slavia, and *Slavische Rundschau. Its Slavic Library (Slovanská knihovna, est 1924) was one of the largest Slavic libraries outside the USSR; in 1946 it contained 244,000 monographs and 150,000 annual periodical runs. The institute supported scholarly

SLAVIC STUDIES

institutions and individual scholars engaged in Ukrainian studies. Ukrainian émigré scholars who were members of the institute included L. Biletsky, D. Chyzhevsky, F. and O. Kolessa, O. Lototsky, O. Mytsiuk, I. Ohiienko, S. SmalStotsky, F. Steshko, and V. Timoshenko; they worked on its numerous commissions, particularly on its autonomous Research Board on Slovakia and Subcarpathian Ruthenia. From 1931 to 1940 the Ukrainian Historical Cabinet functioned within the institute. The institute's activities were restricted during the German occupation, and it was closed down in 1943. It was reactivated in 1945, but Soviet repression forced it to suspend its activities in 1948. In 1953 it was revived as part of the Czechoslovak Academy of Sciences. Slavic languages. A group of languages within the Indo-European language family. They developed out of the dialects of Proto-Slavic, an ancestral language that arose between the Oder and Dnieper rivers. Today there are 12 Slavic languages: Belarusian, Russian, Ukrainian, Czech, Lower Serbian, Polish, Slovak, Slovenian, Upper Sorbian, Bulgarian, Macedonian, and Serbo-Croatian. Of the historically recorded languages Polabian is extinct. In the period of its disintegration, Proto-Slavic consisted of a continuum of dialects. The contemporary Slavic languages were formed as a result of the unification of particular dialects around political and cultural centers. The traditional conception of the history of language as constant disintegration is false: the theory that Proto-Slavic split first into Proto-East Slavic, Proto-West Slavic, and Proto-South Slavic is not supported by historical or linguistic facts. The widely accepted division of the Slavic languages into three groups - East, West, and South (or, less accepted, North, Central, and South) - is merely conventional and can be justified only from a geographic perspective. In reality, with the exception of regions of later colonization, the boundaries between the Slavic languages have been fluid. There are transitional dialects between them, and even between the literary languages the transitions are gradual. The principle according to which the Slavic languages have been grouped is primarily a genetic one. Structurally they have much in common if one compares them in geographically contiguous pairs. There are, however, few traits common to all of them. For example, in prosody, phonemically relevant intonation in stressed vowels exists only in Slovene and Serbo-Croatian; lengthened vowels exist in Slovak and Czech; and stress is fixed in Polish, Slovak, Upper and Lower Sorbian, Czech, and Macedonian. In phonetics, Polish has nasal vowels, Czech and Slovak have diphthongs, and Slovenian and Macedonian have no opposition in the palatalization of consonants. In morphology, nouns are indeclinable only in Bulgarian and Macedonian, and conjugation is split only in SerboCroatian, Bulgarian, and Macedonian. Traits common to all the Slavic languages are synchronically evident partly in the principles of their construction and partly in their material elements. Traits of the first type are, for example, the alternation of particular vowels with a zero morpheme (although which vowel alternates varies by language; cf Ukrainian son : snu, Polish sen : snu, Serbo-Croatian san : sna 'dream' nom : gen), similarities in the root structure, the existence of two stems in the verb versus one usually in the noun, and agreement of

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the adjective with the noun. The most obvious material similarities are in vocabulary and, even more, in the repertoire of word roots (often, however, with a semantic shift; eg, Ukrainian hora 'mountain7 vs Bulgarian gora 'forest', Ukrainian sum 'din' vs Serbo-Croatian suma 'forest'), particularly in the set of prepositions and prefixes (with partial differences) and, less often, of suffixes. Slavic studies (slavistyka, slovianoznavstvo). A branch of the humanities and social sciences dealing with the archeology, history, language, literature, culture, folklore, and ethnography of the various Slavic nations and the Slavs as a whole. Until the beginning of the 19th century knowledge about the Slavs was provided by missionaries (eg, ss Cyril and Methodius, J. Krizanic), travelers, Byzantine, Arab, German, and other chroniclers, and early philologists (in Ukraine, primarily loth- and 17th-century grammarians and lexicographers, such as L. Zyzanii, M. Smotrytsky, L Uzhevych, P. Berynda, and Ye. Slavynetsky). The groundwork for modern Slavic studies was prepared by various pre-Romantic archeographers and collectors of Slavic ancient manuscripts, antiquities, and ethnography, as well as by the South and West Slavic liberation struggles. The biblical-textual research of the Czech scholar J. Dobrovsky and his Institutiones linguae Slavicae dialecti veteris ... (1822) provided the basis for including the Slavic languages inJ:he study of comparative Indo-European philology. P.J. Safarik's two epoch-making works, Slovanske starozitnosti (Slavic Antiquities, 1837) and Slovansky národopis (Slavic Ethnography, 1842), placed the study of the origins and history of the Slavs on a scientific basis and thus served as a turning point in the history of Slavic studies. In the early 19th-century Russian Empire the ideological influence of *Pan-Slavism engendered widespread intellectual interest in Slavic history and ethnography (by V. Lamansky and others) in addition to philology and archeology. In 1811 a Chair of Slavic Literature, held by M. Kachenovsky, was created in Moscow University. In 1835 the minister of education, S. Uvarov, established chairs of the 'history and literature of Slavic dialects' at all of the empire's universities. The first generation of Slavists (young university graduates, including the Ukrainians O. Bodiansky, I. Sreznevsky, and V. Hryhorovych) were sent abroad to study and do research in various Slavic countries and Western and Central European universities. With the establishment of the Russian chairs, a Slavic chair at the Collège de France in Paris (1840, first held by A. Mickiewicz), and chairs of Slavic philology at Vienna University (1849, held by the pioneering Slavists F. Miklosich, V. Jagic, and N. Trubetskoi) and other universities in Austria-Hungary and Germany, Slavic studies entered their modern stage of development. Until 1918 Vienna, with its university, academy of sciences, and institutes of Slavic philology (est 1886) and Eastern European history (est 1907), was a major center, where many Western Ukrainian and other European Slavists were trained. In the interwar period Prague (with its Slavic Institute), Cracow, Warsaw, Berlin, Breslau, and Leipzig filled the same role. St Petersburg (Leningrad), Moscow, and Kiev have remained important research centers. Large-scale development and specialization in Slavic studies has occurred during the 2Oth century. Since the end of the First World War, and particularly after the Sec-

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ond World War, Slavic studies institutes, departments, and chairs have been created at many Western universities. The most prominent centers in the English-speaking world have been the University of London, with its School of Slavonic Studies (est 1915), Columbia University, Harvard University, and the University of California at Berkeley. Major books on comparative Slavic grammar have been written by F. Miklosich (4 vols, 1852-75), V. Vondrák (1906,1908), J. Mikkola (3 vols, 1913-50), V. Porzhezinsky (1916), G. Ilinsky (1916), A. Meillet (1924; 2nd edn 1934), A. Vaillant (5 vols, 1950-77), S. Bernshtein (2 vols, 1961, 1974), the Ukrainian linguists G.Y. Shevelov (1964) and O. Melnychuk (1966), Z. Stieber (1969), and S. Ivsic (1970). Comparative Slavic etymological dictionaries have been compiled by Miklosich (1886), E. Berneker (1908,1914), L. Sadnik and R. Aitzetmüller (1963-), F. Koneczny (1973-), F. Slawski (1974-), and O. Trubachev (1974-). T. Lehr and A. Bruckner (1929), M. Weingart-Splawiñski (1937), R. Trautmann (1947), R. de Bray (1951; 3rd expanded edn 1980), T. Lehr-Splawiñski, W. Kuraszkiewicz, F. Slawski (1954), and K. Horálek (1955) have written survey histories of the Slavic languages. Survey histories of Slavic cultures have been produced by T. Florinsky (1895), L. Niederle (1909), the Ukrainian historian D. Doroshenko (1922), and P. Diehls (1963). With the exception of the synthetic comparative histories of A. Pypin and V. Spasovich (1880-4), J. Karásek (1906), J. Mâchai (1922-9), F. Wollman (1928), E. Georgiev (1958-63), and the Ukrainian scholar D. Chyzhevsky (1952,1968), the study of Slavic literatures has been limited to national histories or the history of general developments and literary currents in relation to the non-Slavic world. Synthetic studies have been written on Slavic folk culture by K. Moszyñski (3 vols, 1929-39) and on Slavic archeology by Niederle (11 vols, 1902-25) and members of the Polish archeological-linguistic (LehrSplawiñski [1946], G. Labuda [2 vols, 1960,1964]) and anthropological (J. Czekanowski [1957]) schools. Thousands of Slavic studies monographs have been published around the world. Research has also been published in a multitude of scholarly serials and journals, such as Archivfür slavische Philologie (Berlin, 42 vols, 18761929), Russkii filologicheskii vestnik (Warsaw, 78 vols, 18791918), Zhurnal Ministerstva narodnago prosveshcheniia (St Petersburg, 1834-1917), Prace filologiczne (Warsaw, since 1885), Izvestiia Otdeleniia russkogo iazyka i slovesnosti Akademii nauk (St Petersburg, 1896-1927) and its Sbornik (101 vols, 1867-1928), *Slovansky prehled (Prague, since 1899), Rocznik slawistyczny (Cracow, since 1908), Juznoslovenski filolog (Belgrade, since 1913), Slavia occidentalis (Poznan, since 1921), *Revue des études slaves (Paris, since 1921), *Slavia (Prague, since 1922), The Slavonic and East European Review (London, since 1922), Zeitschrift fur slavische Philologie (Heidelberg, since 1925), *Slavische Rundschau (Prague, Berlin, and Vienna, 17 vols, 1929-40), Eyzantinoslavica (Prague, since 1929), Slavic Review (United States, since 1941), Slavia antiqua (Poznan, since 1948), Pamictnik slowianski (Warsaw, since 1949), Uchenye zapiski Instituía slavianovedeniia (Moscow, since 1949), Oxford Slavonic Papers (since 1950), Wiener slavistisches Jahrbuch (Vienna, since 1950), Osteuropa (Stuttgart, since 1951), Richerche slavistiche (Rome, since 1952), *Slavia Orientalis (Warsaw, since 1952), Scando-Slavica (Copenhagen, since 1954), Studio, slavica (Budapest, since 1955), Canadian Slavonic Papers (since

1956), Die Welt der Slaven (Wiesbaden, Kôln-Vienna, and Munich, since 1956), I'Etudes slaves et est-européenes / Slavic and East European Studies (Montreal, 1956-76), Zeitschrift fur Slawistik (East Berlin, since 1956), Slovo (Zagreb, since 1957), Slovanské stúdie (Bratislava, since 1957), The Slavic and East European Journal (United States, since 1957), R°manoslavica (Bucharest, since 1958), International Journal of Slavic Linguistics and Poetics (The Hague, Lisse, and Columbus, Ohio, since 1959), Slavica Pragensia (Prague, since 1959), Slavica (Debrecen, since 1961), Voprosy istorii slavian (Voronezh, since 1963), Acta Báltico-Slavica (Bialystok, since 1964), Sovetskoe slavianovedenie (Moscow, since 1965), Anzeigerfür slavische Philologie (Wiesbaden and Graz, since 1966), Slavica Slovaca (Bratislava, since 1966), CanadianAmerican Slavic Studies (since 1967), Slavica Wratislaviensia (Wroclaw, since 1969), Zbornik za slavistiku (Novi Sad, since 1970), Folia Slavica (Columbus, Ohio, since 1977), International Review of Slavic Linguistics (Edmonton, since 1979), and Die Slawischen Sprachen (Salzburg, since 1982). In Ukraine. For practical reasons and because of political circumstances, Slavic studies in Ukraine have not focused on the Slavs in general, but on individual Slavic languages and literatures, especially Old Church Slavonic, Russian, and Polish. Until the Soviet period many leading Slavists at universities in Ukraine were Russian (eg, A. Sobólevsky, N. Durnovo) or Polish (eg, Lehr-Splawiñski and Stieber in interwar Lviv). Among Ukrainian scholars, pioneering contributions to the study of comparative Slavic linguistics were made by O. Potebnia in the 19th century and M. Hrunsky and L. Bulakhovsky in the 2oth century. After 1946 Bulakhovsky and his colleagues in Kiev (eg, O. Melnychuk, V. Kolomiiets, I. Bilodid, V. Skliarenko, V. Rusanivsky, Z. Veselovska) created a major center of Slavic accentological and syntactic research. A former student of Bulakhovsky, G.Y. Shevelov of Columbia University, made significant contributions to Slavic phonology. From 1957 Slavic studies in Ukraine were co-ordinated by the AN URSR (now ANU) Presidium's Ukrainian Committee of Slavists, headed by Bulakhovsky (1957-61), M. Rylsky (1961-4), Bilodid (1964-81), and Rusanivsky (from 1981). In addition to the many scholars of Slavic languages and literatures in Ukraine, in 1980 there were 124 professional Slavic historians (including many not specializing in Russian history): 34 in Kiev, 25 in Lviv, 13 in Kharkiv, 13 in Uzhhorod, 8 in Odessa, 5 in Donetske, and 5 in Lutske. Ukrainian Slavists have published in many Ukrainian, Russian, and foreign periodicals and collections and participated in many national and international Slavic studies conferences. The Ninth International Congress of Slavists was held in Kiev in 1983. The Ukrainian-language serials devoted to Slavic studies have been *Slovo (Lviv, 1936-9), Pytannia slov'ians 'koho movoznavstva (Lviv, 8 issues, 194863), Slov'ians 'ke movoznavstvo (Kiev, 4 vols, 1958-62), Mizhslov'ians'ki literaturni vzaiemyny (Kiev, 3 vols, 1958-63), Slov'ians'ke literaturoznavstvo i foVklorystyka (Kiev, since 1965), and Problemy slov'ianoznavstva (formerly Ukraïns 'ke slov'ianoznavstvo, Lviv, since 1976 [no. 39 in 1989]). Old Church Slavonic studies. Until the Revolution of 1917 textbooks of Old ""Church Slavonic (OCS) were available only in Russian in Russian-ruled Ukraine. In Soviet Ukraine in the 19205, such scholars as Hrunsky, P. Buzuk, and H. Holoskevych produced studies of OCS writing and

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grammar in Ukrainian. In the 19308 the Stalinist suppression of Ukrainian culture and the exclusion of OCS as a subject of study in postsecondary schools brought about a decline in the area. Conditions improved significantly in the postwar period, particularly after Stalin's death. Textbooks of OCS have been written by Hrunsky (1941,1946), K. Trofymovych (1958), V. Besedina-Nevzorova (1962), M. Stanivsky (1964), and A. Maiboroda (1975). Studies in OCS morphology have been produced by M. Boichuk (1952), Trofymovych (1958), and others. In Austrian- and interwar Polish-ruled Western Ukraine, studies of OCS texts and language were produced by O. Kaluzhniatsky, P. Kopko, I. Svientsitsky, I. Ohiienko, O. Kolessa, I. Pankevych, and Ya. Hordynsky. OCS grammars for Ukrainian gymnasiums and theological seminaries were written by M. Vozniak (1925), S. Karkhut (1931), A. Hryhoriev (1938), and N. Rusnak (1943) in Western Ukraine, and by the émigré scholars J. Rudnyckyj (1947) and V. Lev (1956). Russian studies. Before the Revolution of 1917 many prominent Russian specialists (eg, I. Rizhsky, Sreznevsky, M. Maksymovych, N. Lavrovsky, Potebnia, M. Khalansky, A. Sobolevsky, D. Ovsianiko-Kulikovsky, P. Vladimirov, D. Zelenin, Durnovo, M. Dashkevych, S. Kulbakin, M. Sumtsov, V. Peretts, Hrunsky, M. Gudzii, B. Liapunov, and V. Mochulsky) taught at universities in Russian-ruled Ukraine and influenced the development of Ukrainian studies. After the revolution many Russian specialists emigrated to the West (eg, Chyzhevsky) or to Russia. Others were repressed during the Stalinist terror. In interwar Lviv Svientsitsky and V. Vavryk were Russian specialists. Because of the Stalinist nationality policy (the promotion of Russian as the second native language in Ukraine), from the 19305 Russian studies had a preferred status in Soviet Ukraine. University departments of the Russian language also doubled as departments of general linguistics, especially after 1945, an¿ Russian subjects were allotted increasingly more space in journals devoted to Ukrainian philology, such as Ukrains 'ka mova i literatura v shkoli, *Movoznavstvo, and Radians 'ke literaturoznavstvo, in addition to having their own Russian-language serials (eg, Voprosy russkoi literatury, Voprosy russkogo iazykoznaniia). The main centers of Russian studies were in Kiev and Kharkiv (and, to a lesser extent, Odessa), which trained the Russian specialists teaching in Dnipropetrovske and (after 1945) in Lviv and Chernivtsi. In the Soviet period efforts were initially applied to the writing of postsecondary textbooks, some of which have been used outside Ukraine. Among the many books published were ones on the history of the Russian language by Bulakhovsky (1929, 1931, 1935; 2 vols, 1941, 1948), O. Finkel and M. Bazhenov (1941), and F. Huzhva (1967); on Russian historical grammar by Bulakhovsky (1921-31, 1935) and N. Bukatevich, S. Savitskaia, and L. Usacheva (1974); on Russian historical syntax by Ya. Sprynchak (2 vols, 1960,1964); on the history of standard Russian by V. Brodskaia and S. Tsalenchuk (1951) and G. Shkliarevsky (1959,1967,1968); on Ukrainian and Russian comparative grammar by T. Baimut, Boichuk, M. Volynsky, M. Zhovtobriukh, T. Malyna, and S. Samiilenko (1957, 1961), and by M. Britsyn, Zhovtobriukh, and Maiboroda (1978); and on East Slavic comparative grammar by Bukatevich, I. Hrytsiutenko, H. Mizhevska, M. Pavliuk, Savitskaia, and

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F. Smahlenko (1958). A Russian etymological dictionary was compiled by H. Tsyhanenko (1970). Russianists in Ukraine studied various aspects of the Russian language, such as phonetics (P. Kryvoruchko, N. Yakovenko, L. Skalozub, L. Tsyptsiura), morphology (H. Kyrychenko, A. Hermanovych, N. Vakulenko), word formation (I. Markovsky, E. Okhomush, V. Franchuk), lexicology (I. Sydorenko, V. Syrotina, M. Muravytska, A. Matveev), intonation (Yakovenko), stylistics (V. Masaisky, L. Loseva, L. Rikhter, S. Puhach), dialectology (M. Tikhomirova, Usacheva, Loseva, V. Stolbunova, L. Buznik, Britsyn), and especially syntax (V. Borkovsky, L. Kirina, V. Rinberg, E. Kuzmicheva, H. Pavlovska, H. Chumakov, R. Shvets, A. Akishyna, N. Arvat, M. Karpenko, Finkel, Huzhva, L. Boldyrev, Loseva, Kryvoruchko, M. lonina, V. Kononenko). Ukrainian specialists on Russian literature wrote about many writers, particularly N. Gogol (H. Izhakevych, N. Krutikova, D. Miroshnyk, Zaslavsky), M. Lermontov (D. lofanov, I. Zaslavsky), A. Pushkin (Bulakhovsky, Gudzii, Rylsky, O. Biletsky, Krutikova), A. Chekhov (V. Kapustin, Krutikova, M. Levchenko), N. Nekrasov (V. Malkin, Ye. Shabliovsky, D. Chaly), L. Tolstoi (A. Chicherin, Krutikova), M. Gorky (Shkliarevsky, O. Burmistrenko, Karpenko, Syrotina, N. Zhuk), V. Maiakovsky (A. Trostianetsky, H. Makarov), M. Sholokhov (S. Koltakov), A. Tolstoi (T. Chertorizhskaia, V. Verbytska, L. Zvereva), K. Fedin (H. Sodol, V. Oleshkevych), A. Fadeev (Izhakevych, S. Tsypin, Tsalenchuk, I. Kruk, H. Samiilenko), L. Leonov (V. Ruban, Kruk, M. Malynovska), V. Shishkov (M. Sydorenko), and A. Tvardovsky (A. Khvylia), as well as the Russian works of H. Kvitka-Osnovianenko (T. Velychko), T. Shevchenko (P. Petrova, Chertorizhskaia, L. Kodatska, and others), and other Ukrainian writers. A two-volume multiauthor monograph on Ukrainian-Russian literary relations (ed Krutikova et al) appeared in Kiev in 1987. Polish studies. Until 1939 Lviv University, the Ossolineum Institute, and numerous Polish scholarly journals and learned societies made Lviv a major center of Polish scholarship, with specialists in the fields of Polish language (A. Malecki, W. Taszycki, S. Rospond, S. Hrabec), literature (R. Pilat, E. Kucharski, J. Kleiner, S. Kolbuszewski, R. Ingarden), and ethnography (A. Kalina, A. Fiszer). Lviv's Ukrainian philologists (eg, O. Ohonovsky, P. Kopko, K. Studynsky, V. Shchurat, I. Franko) also wrote frequently on Polish subjects. In the 19205 and early 19305 the Soviet Ukrainian scholar S. Rodzevych wrote about Polish literature. After the Second World War Galicia's Polish scholars were repatriated, and only a few Ukrainian specialists in the Polish language (eg, L. Humetska, M. Onyshkevych) and literature (eg, T. Pachovsky, R. Kyrchiv) remained active in Lviv. Kiev became a major postwar center of studies in Polish literature (Rylsky, V. Vedina, H. Verves, Yu. Bulakhovska, O. Tsybeníco, S. Levinska, P. Verbytsky, I. Lozynsky, V. Radyshevsky) and language (O. Tkachenko, M. Pavliuk, Levinska, M. Pylynsky, V. Rusanivsky). A few Polonists were active in Chernivtsi (eg, V. Fedorishchev). Postwar émigré scholars who wrote on Polish linguistic subjects included Shevelov and O. Horbach. Belarusian studies. Belarusian studies were less developed in Ukraine. Until 1939 they were cultivated in Lviv by scholars such as Svientsitsky and L. Ossowski. In Soviet Ukraine scholars such as P. Buzuk in the 19205 and L. Humetska, Z. Veselovska, V. Kupriienko, H. Pivtorak,

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I. Vykhovanets, and A. Nepokupny in the postwar period studied Belarusian linguistic problems. In the West, Shevelov also contributed to Belarusian linguistic studies. Slovak, Czech, and Sorbían studies. In the early 2Oth century, Slovak ethnography and history were studied in Lviv by scholars such as V. Hnatiuk and S. Tomashivsky. In the interwar period Slovak linguistic subjects were studied at Lviv University by Stieber. In the postwar period scholars such as Onyshkevych and V. Andel (author of a textbook on the Slovak language [1972]) in Lviv, Y. Dzendzelivsky and M. Symulyk in Uzhhorod, and V. Kolomiiets-Melnychuk, V. Skrypka, and M. Haidai in Kiev wrote on the Slovak language. Slovak literature was studied by H. Syvachenko and others. Scholars living in Slovakia, such as M. Molnar and M. Nevrly in Bratislava and I. Matsynsky in Presov, also wrote on Slovak literature and Slovak-Ukrainian literary relations. In the prerevolutionary period and the 19205 the main centers of Czech philological studies were Kharkiv (Bulakhovsky) and Kiev (Florinsky, A. Stepovych, Ye. Rykhlik). In the postwar period Kiev remained the main research center of Czech linguistics (Bulakhovsky, Melnychuk, Kolomiiets-Melnychuk, R. Kravchuk, V. Pitinov, V. Tsviakh, Y. Andersh), literature (P. Hontar, V. Shevchuk, F. Pohrebennyk, I. Zhuravska, V. Motorny, Syvachenko, and others), and folklore (Skrypka, Haidai). The Czech language was also studied by Lviv scholars, such as Trofymovych, H. Lastovetska, Andel, and M. Pushkar (author of textbooks on modern Czech [1963], historical phonetics [1965], and historical morphology [1970,1972]). In the interwar period the Sorbian languages were researched by the Lviv Polish linguists Taszycki and Stieber. In the postwar period they were studied in Drohobych by I. Kovalyk and in Lviv by Trofymovych (author of a textbook on the Upper Sorbian language [1964] and coauthor, with Motorny, of books on the history of Sorbian literature [1970,1987]). Bulgarian and Serbo-Croatian studies. In central Ukraine the Southern Slavic languages were studied in the context of Old Church Slavonic at Kharkiv, Odessa, and Kiev universities by scholars such as P. Biliarsky, Hryhorovych, A. Kochubinsky, B. Liapunov, Jagic, and M. Popruzhenko. M. Drinov of Kharkiv University wrote pioneering works on Bulgarian and South Slavic history. Bulgarian studies were later pursued in Kharkiv by Kulbakin and Bulakhovsky, and in Kiev by Florinsky, K. Radchenko, and Stepovych. In the 19305 D. Sheludko wrote on Bulgarian literature. In the postwar period modern Bulgarian was studied by Bernshtein (author of an atlas of Bulgarian dialects in the USSR [1958]), Pavliuk, N. Kossek, S. Ovcharuk, T. Nikolaevskaia, I. Stoianov, and others. Studies of Bulgarian literature were written by V. Zakharzhevska, N. Shumada, O. Shpylova, M. Golberg, O. Hrybovska, M. Maliarchuk, and others. O. Mordvintsev studied Bulgarian folklore and ethnography. Serbo-Croatian studies were pursued in the prerevolutionary period by Kulbakin, Florinsky, Radchenko, Stepovych, and Hnatiuk. In the postwar period I. Zheliezniak in Kharkiv and Z. Rozova in Lviv specialized in the SerboCroatian language. Serbian and Croatian literatures were studied by Ye. Kyryliuk, V. Hrymych, P. Rudiakov, I. Yushchuk, and others. Serbo-Croatian folk songs in Ukraine were studied by M. Huts. (See also ""Linguistics, ^Literature studies, *Polish lan-

guage in Ukraine, ""Russian language in Ukraine, and ""Slovak-Ukrainian linguistic relations.) BIBLIOGRAPHY lagich, I. [Jagic, VJ. Istoriia slavianskoi filologii (St Petersburg 1910; repr, Leipzig 1967) Lehr-Splawiñski, T. Zarys dziejów slowianoznawstwa polskiego (Cracow 1948) Manning, C.A. A History of Slavic Studies in the United States (Milwaukee 1957) Kravchuk, R. Z istoriïslov'ians'koho movoznavstva (vydatni slavistymovoznavtsi) (Kiev 1961) Kurz, J.; et al (eds). Slovanská filologie na Université Karlove (Prague 1968) Izhakevich, G.; Romanova, N.; Franchuk, V. (eds). Traditsii russkogo iazi/koznaniia na Ukraine (Kiev 1977) Kudëlka, M.; Simecek, Z.; Stastny, V.; Vecerka, R. Ceskoslovenská slavistika v letech 1918-1939 (Prague 1977) Hroziencik, J. (ed). Stúdie z dejin svetovej slavistiky do polovice 19. storocia (Bratislava 1978) D'iakov, V.; et al (eds). Issledovaniia po istoriografii slavianovedeniia i balkanistiki (Moscow 1981) - Istoriki-slavisty SSSR: Biobibliograftcheskii slovar'-spravochnik (Moscow 1981) Gerhardt, D.; Harder, H.B.; et al (eds). Materialen zur Geschichte der Slavistik in Deutschland, 2 vols (Wiesbaden 1982,1987) Myl'nikov, A.; et al (eds). Slavianovedenie i balkanistika v zarubezhnykh stranakh (Moscow 1983) Slavistyka (Kiev 1983) D'iakov, V. (ed). Istoriograficheskie issledovaniia po slavianovedeniiu i balkanistike (Moscow 1984) Hamm, J.; Wytrzens, G. (eds). Beitrage zur Geschichte der Slawistik in nichtslawischen Landern (Vienna 1985) Markov, D.; D'iakov, V. (eds). Slavianovedenie v dorevoliutsionnoi Rossii: Izuchenie iuzhnykh i zapadnykh slavian (Moscow 1988) O. Horbach, R. Senkus

Slavin, Lazar, b 11 June 1906 in Vitsebsk, Belarus, d 30 November 1971 in Kiev. Archeologist of Jewish origin; corresponding member of the AN URSR (now ANU) from 1939. He studied at Leningrad University (1923-6) before working at the USSR Academy of Sciences Institute of the History of Material Culture (1929-38). He was sent from Leningrad to Kiev in 1938 as the deputy director of the ANU Institute of Archeology, and soon became its director (1939-41 and 1944-6). Slavin was a gifted organizer and he quickly rebuilt the institute, which had been thoroughly savaged by two purges of Ukrainian archeologists (1933 and 1937); however, this was done using mainly Russian archeologists. He remained with the institute as deputy director (1946-9), then as a scholarly associate (1949-71). From 1945 to 1970 he also headed the University of Kiev's Department of Archeology and Museum Studies. His specialization was the archeology of the northern Black Sea region, particularly the *Olbia settlement. He published over 70 scholarly articles and monographs, including Ol'viia (1938) and Drevnii gorod Ol'viia (The Ancient City of Olbia, 1951). Slavinsky, Maksym [Slavins'kyj] (Slavynsky; pseuds: M. Holovaty, S. Lavynsky, Obozrevatel, Observator), b 12 August 1868 in Stavyshche, Tarashcha county, Kiev gubernia, d November 1945 in Kiev. Civic and political leader, publicist, and poet. After graduating from the law faculty of Kiev University he lived in Katerynoslav, where he edited the newspaper Pridneprovskii krai. From 1898 he lived in St Petersburg, where he was a coeditor of the pro-

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Slavistica. A series of booklets and monographs in Slavic and Ukrainian studies, primarily philology and linguistics, published in Ukrainian and English by the Ukrainian Free Academy of Sciences (now ^Ukrainian Academy of Arts and Sciences), initially in Augsburg (3 issues in 1948), then in Winnipeg, and since 1977 in Montreal. Edited until 1973 by J.B. Rudnyckyj, it has published works by Rudnyckyj, V. Chaplenko, R. Smal-Stotsky, G.Y. Shevelov, P. Kovaliv, I. Ohiienko, G. Simpson, W. Kirkconnell, P. Fylypovych, M. Mandryka, C. Manning, S. Hordynsky, M. Ovcharenko, O. Woycenko, O. Baran, P. Odarchenko, and others. Its 87th title appeared in 1986. Maksym Slavinsky

gressive newspaper Severnyi kur'er and the journal Vestnik Evropy. He was editor of Ukrainskii vestnik (1906), the organ of the Ukrainian caucus of the First State Duma, and then official publisher and technical editor of Ukrainskii narod v ego proshlom i nastoiashchem (The Ukrainian People in the Past and Present, 2 vols, 1914, 1916). He became a member of the Ukrainian Party of Socialists-Federalists (1917-18), and in 1917 he was a representative of the Central Rada to the Provisional Government in St Petersburg. He was elected head of the commission to develop proposals for the restructuring of the Russian Empire as a federation. Slavinsky returned to Ukraine in 1918. Under the Hetmán government he was a member of the council of the foreign affairs ministry, ambassador to the Don region, and a participant in the talks with Soviet Russia (MayJune 1918). In the second government of F. Lyzohub (1918) he was minister of labor. Under the Directory he headed the diplomatic mission of the UNR in Prague (1919). From 1923 Slavinsky taught modern history at the Ukrainian Husbandry Academy and the history of Western European literature at the Ukrainian Higher Pedagogical Institute in Prague. He was arrested by the Soviet authorities in Prague in 1945, and died in a Kiev prison. Slavinsky wrote many historical, literary, and publicistic articles on nationhood, including 'Shcho take natsiia?' (What Is a Nation?), 'Natsiia i inteligentsiia' (The Nation and the Intelligentsia), and 'Natsional'na struktura Rosiï' (The National Structure of Russia), as well as a popular textbook on the history of Ukraine (pub in 1947). He also wrote lyric poetry. Together with Lesia Ukrainka Slavinsky translated and published H. Heine's Buch der Lieder as Knyha pisen' (1892); some of the songs became immensely popular, particularly 'Koly rozluchaiut'sia dvoie' (When Two [People] Part; music by M. Lysenko). Slavinsky also translated the works of J. Goethe, A. Mickiewicz, and R. Rolland and works from Czech literature. His memoirs were published in the newspaper Ameryka during the 1950S. A. Zhukovsky

Slavische Rundschau. A German-language journal of Slavic studies, published by the German Society for Slavic Studies in Prague in 1929-40 (a total of 17 volumes). Edited by F. Spina, G. Gesemann, and others, it contained regular chronicles of cultural and scholarly developments in Slavic countries, as well as bibliographies and book reviews, and included separate sections devoted to Ukrainian affairs and publications.

Slavonic-Ruthenian language. The bookish language used in 15th- to 18th-century Ukrainian and Belarusian scholarly, publicistic, and literary works. The term slavenorosskii (Slavonic-Ruthenian [SR]) was introduced in the late 15th century and was popularized by P. *Zhytetsky (1889). SR evolved out of the Ukrainian redaction of nthto 14th-century Church Slavonic, which became archaized and came under the influence of Middle Bulgarian and Serbian in the 14th century as a result of the grammatical and stylistic reforms of the Bulgarian patriarch Euthymius (see ^Orthography). From the mid-i7th century it influenced the norms of literary Russian. From the mid-i8th century its Left-Bank Ukrainian variant became so much like the Russian variant that the latter took precedence. In the 17205 and 17305, SR was introduced in Srem and Backa (now in Yugoslavia) by Russians and Ukrainians teaching there; it remained the ¡foundation of the archaized Serbian bookish language for over a century. In Galicia, Bukovyna, and Transcarpathia, SR survived in the form of a lexically Russified bookish language (*yazychiie) until the first half of the 2Oth century. SR differs from the Old Ukrainian bookish language in its lexicon and style (Latinisms, Polonisms, caiques, hypotactic and periodic sentence construction, and periphrasis). Its norms were laid out in the grammar *Adelphotes (Lviv 1591) and in the grammars of L. *Zyzanii (1596) and M. *Smotrytsky (1619). Its vocabulary was codified in the lexicons of L. Zyzanii (1596) and P. *Berynda (1627,1653), the dictionary *Synonima slavenorosskaia, Ye. *Slavynetsky's Latin-Slavonic (1642) and Slavonic-Latin (1649, with A. Koretsky-Satanovsky) dictionaries, and in smaller Slavonic-Polish dictionaries (anon, Suprasl 1722, repr Pochaiv 1751,1756,1804; Y. Levytsky, 1830). SR avoided clearly Ukrainian and Belarusian phonetic traits (ikan 'je), retained etymological spellings (the letters bi and &), did not mark the secondary doubling of consonants, introduced the hardened c in suffixes, and retained the Church Slavonic cases and their endings in declension and conjugation. The meanings of obsolete verb forms (the aorist and imperfective), artificially created moods based on Greek grammar (the optative and subjunctive), and word-formation devices (eg, -teVnbij [cf -abilis, -andus], xlebotvorec 'baker7) were taken from the Greek and Latin. The system of conjunctions and the wide use of active participles and the 'dative absolute' were taken from Old Slavonic syntax (oriented on the language of the Ostrih Bible and liturgical books). The vocabulary was based on borrowings from the Bible, Greek, Latin, and, to the i8th century, Polish; the use of vernacular dialectal expressions was avoided. The synthetic character of SR resulted in a varied application by authors, depending on

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their erudition and themes. The syntax of SR had a discernible impact on the chancery language. BIBLIOGRAPHY Hrushevs'kyi, M. Istoriia ukraïns'koïliteratury, 5 (Kiev 1926-7; repr, New York 1960) Zhytets'kyi, P. 'Narys literaturnoï istoriï ukraïns'koï movy v xvii st./ in Vybrani pratsi: Filolohiia, ed L. Masenko (Kiev 1987) O. Horbach

Slavophiles. Adherents of a philosophical, ideological, social, and political movement in Russia in 1840-70 that idealized everything Russian; their outlook was opposed to that of the Westerners, who advocated a broad adoption of Western ways in Russia. The Slavophiles celebrated the difference between Russia and the West; they contrasted Orthodoxy ('the only true Christian religion') with Catholicism and Protestantism and Muscovite traditions with Western ones, and advocated a pan-Slavic unity under Russia's hegemony. They praised the old way of life and the social system of Muscovy, particularly of the pre-Petrine period, including the commune, artel, and village council. The chief spokesmen of Slavophilism - A. Khomiakov, I. Kireevsky, I. and K. Aksakov, Yu. Samarin,

O R I G I N A L H O M E L A N D OF THE SLAVS

and I. Belaev - advocated the abolition of serfdom and the introduction of some democratic rights, but they also favored a centralized Russian Empire and Russia's leadership among the Slavic nations. They opposed independence for Ukraine and even for Poland. Among Ukrainians the Slavophiles had little influence. Some ethnographic and historical works of M. Maksymovych and O. Bodiansky (both worked in Moscow) reflect Slavophile ideas. The attempts of the Aksakov brothers to gain the co-operation of T. Shevchenko, M. Kostomarov, and P. Kulish with the Slavophiles proved unsuccessful. Slavs (sloviany). The largest group of ethnically and linguistically related peoples in Europe. They belong to the Indo-European linguistic family and are descended from the ancient Slavs mentioned in Greco-Roman and Byzantine sources. Occupying eastern and southeastern Europe, they are usually divided into the East Slavs (Ukrainians, Russians, and Belarusians), West Slavs (Poles, Czechs, Slovaks, and Wends), and South Slavs (Bulgarians, Serbs, Croats, Slovenes, and Macedonians). The original homeland of the ancient Slavs has not been identified, but by the beginning of the ist millennium BC

SLAVYNETSKY

they were the dominant population in the region extending from the Elbe and the Oder rivers in the west to the upper Dnieper in the east. They were a peaceful people who practiced farming and animal husbandry and developed handicrafts and trade. Their religion was animistic: they worshiped ancestors and various spirits in nature and a pantheon of heavenly deities, such as Perun, Dazhboh, and Svaroh. The division of the ancient Slavs into various branches and tribes began in the 2nd to 4th centuries AD, when the Germanic tribes, such as the Goths, moved south and split the Slavs into eastern and western groups. Then, at the end of the 5th century, when the Huns had been overcome, the Slavs expanded southward. In the south they formed two tribal confederations, of the * Antes and the *Sklavenes. Soon those disintegrated into separate tribes, including the Polianians, Siverianians, Derevlianians, and Volhynians. Some of those tribes were later brought together under Kievan Rus'. In the icth century the idea of Slavic cultural and political unity (see *Pan-Slavism) became influential among Slavic peoples who were undergoing a national revival. Some movements, such as the Slavophile one in Russia, tried to harness that idea to the imperial ambitions of Russia. BIBLIOGRAPHY Niederle, L. Slovanské starozitnosti, 4 vols (Prague 1902-24) Lehr-Splawiñski, T. O pochodzeniu i praojczyznie Slowian (Poznan 1946) Tretiakov, P. Vostochnoslavianskie plemena (Moscow 1953) Dvornik, F. The Slavs: Their Early History and Civilization (Boston 1956) Baran, V. Ranni slov'iany mizh Dnistrom i Pryp'iattiu (Kiev 1972) Petrov, V. Etnohenez slovian (Kiev 1972) Pasternak, la. Ranni slov'iany v istorychnych, arkheolohichnych ta lingvistychnykh doslidzhenniakh (Toronto-New York 1976) Vana, Z. The World of the Ancient Slavs (London 1983) Conte, F. Les Slaves: Aux origines des civilisations d'Europe centrale et orientale (Paris 1986)

Slavuta. 111-7. A city (1989 pop 35,100) on thé Horyn River and a raion center in Khmelnytskyi oblast. In 1634 thé town of Slavutyna arose by the amalgamation of two villages, Derazhnia and Volia. Later it was renamed Slavuta. In 1754 the town was granted the rights of *Magdeburg law. After the second partition of Poland in 1793, Slavuta was annexed by Russia and became part of Iziaslav county in Volhynia gubernia. Its owners, the Sanguszko family, established their residence there and built a horsebreeding stable (1803), a woolen-cloth factory (1818), a paper factory, and a machine factory. Those enterprises grew during the 19th century, particularly after the construction of the Shepetivka-Zdolbuniv railway line. In 1923 Slavuta became a raion center of Volhynia gubernia, and in 1938 it attained city status. Today its chief industries are building-materials manufacturing, woodworking, and metalworking. Slavutych, Yar [Slavutyc, Jar] (né Hryhorii Zhuchenko), b 11 January 1918 in Blahodatne, Oleksandriia county, Kherson gubernia. Poet and literary scholar; president of the Shevchenko Scientific Society in western Canada since 1976. A graduate of the Zaporizhia Pedagogical Institute (1940) and the University of Pennsylvania (PH D, 1955), he taught Ukrainian at the United States Army Language

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School in Monterey, California (1955-60), and the University of Alberta (1960-83). Since 1945 he has published 12 books of poetry, including two volumes of collected works (1963, 1978) and, the most recent collection, Zhyvi smoloskypy (Living Torches, 1983). His poems have appeared in Ukrainian émigré periodicals and anthologies and in Canadian English-language anthologies, and some have been translated into English (Oasis [1959], The Conquerors of the Prairies [trilingual edn 1984]), French (L'Oiseau de feu [1976]), German, Hungarian, Russian, and other European languages. They have also been set to music (by S. Yaremenko, H. Kytasty, and E. Wolf) and have been recorded by the Ukrainian Bandurist Chorus of Detroit. Slavutych has also written a book of memoiristic sketches (1957; 3rd rev edn 1985), the booklets The Muse in Prison (1956) and Modern Ukrainian Poetry (1957), the textbooks Conversational Ukrainian (1959; 4th edn 1973) and Ukrainian for Beginners (1962; 5th edn 1975), a survey of Ukrainian poetry in Canada (1976), and literary and onomastic articles and reviews in émigré and Canadian scholarly periodicals and collections. The editor of the literary almanac *Pivnichne siaivo (5 vols, 1964-71), two volumes of papers on Ukrainian settlers in western Canada (1973, 1975), and an anthology of Ukrainian poetry in Canada (1975)/ ne also compiled an annotated bibliography of books of Ukrainian literature published in Canada (1984; 2nd rev edn 1986) and translated into Ukrainian a book of selected poems by J. Keats (1958). A collection of articles and reviews about his poetic works (1978, ed W. Zyla) and a bibliography of his writings (1985; rev edn 1986) have appeared. R. Senkus

Slavutych [Slavutyc]. A city (1989 pop 15,900) on the left bank of the Dnieper River at the mouth of the Desna River, 50 km from Chornobyl, in Chernihiv oblast. It was founded in 1987 for the workers of the Chornobyl Nuclear Power Station, who had been evacuated from Prypiat and Chornobyl after the accident at the station. In 1988 it was granted city status. Slavynetsky, Yepifanii [Slavynec'kyj, Jepifanij], b ?, d 19 November 1675 in Moscow. Churchman, theologian, philologist, and translator. He studied Greek, Latin, Polish, and theology at the Kiev Epiphany Brotherhood School (until 1632) and then at various European academies. Upon his return to Kiev he took monastic vows and became a hieromonk of the Kievan Cave Monastery (1642-9) and a professor at the Kievan Mohyla College

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(Academy). In 1649 he was summoned by Tsar Aleksei Mikhailovich to Moscow to teach at the monastery school and translate and prepare liturgical books, including a translation of the Bible. While still in Kiev, he compiled a Latin-Slavonic (Ukrainian) lexicon (1642) based on the Polish-Latin lexicons of A. Calepino and G. Knapski. He revised this dictionary with A. Koretsky-Satanovsky in Moscow (1650). He also prepared a Greek-Slavonic-Latin lexicon (before 1675) and compiled a dictionary of religious terms for use in translating church books, and authored over 50 sermons. Although none of these works were published in his lifetime, they circulated widely throughout Muscovy, Ukraine, and Eastern Europe and greatly influenced early Slavic philology. In Moscow, Slavynetsky supported the church reforms introduced by Patriarch Nikon; he drafted many reforms himself and revised numerous church books to bring them into line with the new policies. BIBLIOGRAPHY Rotar, I. Epifanii Slavinetskii, literaturnyi deiateV xvn veka (Kiev 1901) A. Zhukovsky

Slawek, Walery, b 2 November 1879 in Ukraine, d 2 May 1939 in Warsaw. Polish politician. A leading figure in the Polish Socialist party (PPS), he was a close associate of J. Pilsudski. As a representative of the Polish Ministry of Military Affairs he was a signatory to the Polish-Ukrainian army convention of 24 April 1920. After 1926 he emerged as one of the leaders of the *Sanacja regime. He was a cofounder and chairman of the Nonpartisan Bloc of Co-operation with the Government (1927-35), a delegate to the Polish Sejm (1928-38), marshal of the Polish Sejm (1938), and premier of Poland (1930-1 and 1935). Slawek was a moderate in Ukrainian matters, who distanced himself from certain actions of the Polish Roman Catholic church and tried to reach an understanding with the Galician Ukrainian political mainstream (the Ukrainian National Democratic Alliance) following the Tarification in 1930. Sleshynsky, Ivan [Slesyns'kyj], b 23 July 1854 in Lysianka, Cherkasy county, Kiev gubernia, d 9 March 1931 in Cracow, Poland. Ukrainian-Polish mathematician. He graduated from Odessa University in 1875 and continued his studies under the great German mathematician K. Weierstrass at Berlin University (PH D, 1882). He was professor at Odessa (1883-1909) and Cracow (1911-24) universities and did research on continued fractions, the least squares method, and the axiomatic proof theory based on mathematical logic. He was one of the first promoters of mathematical logic in the Russian Empire. Slidamy malot sviatoi (In the Footsteps of the Little Saint). A popular Ukrainian Catholic journal published quarterly, bimonthly, and again quarterly in Bois-Colombes, France (1948-52), Edmonton (1952-66), and, since 1966, Amiens, France. The editors have been S. Saprun and, since 1952, Rev Yu. Prokopiv. Slipansky, Andrii [Slipans'kyj, Andrij], b 5 October 1896 in Nenadykha, Tarashcha county, Kiev gubernia, d ? Agronomist. Upon graduating he worked in different research institutions in Kharkiv and was appointed a professor at the Ukrainian Scientific Research Institute of

Economics and Agricultural Organization. In the 19305 he served as vice-president of the All-Ukrainian Academy of Agricultural Sciences. His publications dealt with agronomy and agricultural economics. He was arrested in the Stalinist terror of the 19305 and sent to a prison camp, where he perished. Slipchenko, Pavlo [Slipcenko], b 12 July 1904 in Synivka, Hadiache county, Poltava gubernia. Specialist in the field of hydro-technology. He studied in Kharkiv and worked on many major hydro-constructions in Ukraine. In 1959-61 he served as director of the Institute of the Organization and Mechanization of Construction of the Ukrainian SSR Academy of Construction and Architecture, from 1960 as a member of the academy's presidium, and in 1962-3 as its vice-president. His main technical contributions concerned the mechanization of construction technology for hydro-structures. Slipchuk, Petro [Slipcuk], b 19 January 1914 in Minyne, Radomyshl county, Kiev gubernia, d 5 November 1979 in Kiev. Poet and humorist. He is the author of collections of humor and satire, among them Baiky (Fables, 1944), Liudozhery (Cannibals, 1945), lak dbaiesh, tak i maiesh (What You Work At Is What You Get, 1955), Otaki dila (That's the Way It Is, 1961), lushka z pertsem (Broth with Pepper, 1967), and Vinok baiok (A Garland of Fables, 1973). Slipko, Yurii, b 26 May 1912 in Slipky (now Vynnyky), Kobeliaky county, Poltava gubernia, d 4 October 1969. Poet. In the early 19305 he worked as a teacher and newspaper editor. He began publishing in 1930 in Nova generatsiia and other journals. He was arrested during the Stalinist terror (1934-5) and imprisoned in a labor camp in the Kolyma region. After being released in 1947, ne worked as a miner in the Donbas. During the post-Stalin thaw he began writing again and published the collections Proloh do pisni (Prologue to a Song, 1966) and Zelena fantaziia (The Green Fantasy, 1968). Published posthumously was the collection Na liudnim vichi (At the Crowded Public Assembly, 1971). Slipko-Moskaltsiv, Kostiantyn [Slipko-Moskal'civ, Kostjantyn], b 3 June 1901 in Warsaw, d ? Painter and art scholar. He taught at the Kharkiv Institute of People's Education (from 1925 to the early 19305) and researched children's art. He published articles on art in Chervonyi shliakh and wrote the books M. Boichuk (1930), S. VasyVkivs'kyi (1930), and O. Mumshko (1931). He was arrested during the Stalinist terror, and his fate is unknown. Sliporid River. A right-bank tributary of the Sula River that flows for 83 km through the Dnieper Lowland in Poltava oblast and drains a basin area of 560 sq km. The river has a width of 4-10 m and is used for irrigation. Five sluices are located on it. Slipy, Yosyf [Slipyj, Josyf] (Slipy-Kobernytsky-Dychkovsky), b 17 February 1892 in Zazdrist, Terebovlia county, Galicia, d 7 September 1984 in Rome. Head of the Ukrainian Catholic church, major archbishop, metropolitan of Halych, archbishop of Lviv and bishop of Kamianets-Podilskyi, cardinal (from 1965), and theologian; full member of the Shevchenko Scientific Society from 1930. Slipy began studying theology in Lviv at the Greek

SLIPY

Cardinal Yosyf Slipy

Catholic Theological Seminary and at the university (1911-12). He was ordained by Metropolitan A. *Sheptytsky in October 1917, continued his studies at the Jesuit theological faculty in Innsbruck (TH D, 1918), and then defended his habilitation at Innsbruck University (1920). He completed his studies in Rome at the Gregorianum with a magister agregatus in dogmatics and a second habilitation (1924). In 1922 Slipy began to teach dogmatics at the Lviv Theological Seminary. He soon showed his abilities as an organizer of Ukrainian theological studies, in helping to found the quarterly *Bohosloviia (which he also edited) and the ^Ukrainian Theological Scholarly Society, whose Pratsi he also edited. In late 1925 he was appointed rector of the theological seminary, where he established the Asketychna biblioteka (Ascetic Library) monograph series. In 1928 he was named the first rector of the *Greek Catholic Theological Academy. This institution soon emerged as the most important center of Ukrainian Catholic theological study and training; it published numerous works on religious topics, developed a large museum of church objects and icons, and trained many priests and theologians. In 1935 Metropolitan Sheptytsky named Slipy canon of St George's Cathedral and archdean of Lviv archeparchy. In October 1939, after the outbreak of the Second World War and the Soviet occupation of Western Ukraine, Sheptytsky nominated Slipy as his coadjutor. The nomination was ratified by Pope Pius XII in November 1939, and in December Slipy was secretly consecrated and given the title Archbishop of Serrei. After Sheptytsky's death on i November 1944, Slipy succeeded him as metropolitan of Halych, archbishop of Lviv, and bishop of Kamianets-Podilskyi. On 11 April 1945, after the consolidation of Soviet rule in Western Ukraine, Slipy, together with all the other Greek Catholic bishops, was arrested. He was sentenced at a secret trial in 1946 to eight years of hard labor for treason. After the completion of his sentence he was taken to Kiev and told to endorse the liquidation of the Greek Catholic church and renounce his ecclesiastical rights and titles in favor of the Patriarch of Moscow. When he refused, he was again deported to a labor camp. He spent a total of over 18 years in the gulag, but he steadfastly refused to break allegiance with Rome and denounce the pope. In 1963, upon the intervention of Pope John xxin and the American president J.F. Kennedy, N. Khrushchev finally agreed to his release from a labor camp in Mordovia and permitted him to emigrate. Slipy arrived in Rome on

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9 February 1963, where he was greeted as a true Christian martyr and a Ukrainian national hero. The Vatican recognized Slipy as the Ukrainian Catholic major archbishop with expanded powers and authority, and in December 1963 Pope Paul vi named him a member of the Sacred Congregation for Eastern Rite Catholic Churches. In January 1965 he was honored with the title and dignity of cardinal. Slipy was especially concerned with improving the organization and prestige of his church. In a 11 October 1963 speech at the Second Vatican Council, he proposed the creation of a Ukrainian Catholic patriarchate (see *Patriarch). He also convoked a *synod of Ukrainian bishops, which the Vatican Congregation for the Eastern Churches refused to sanction. In 1969, at the fourth synod of Ukrainian bishops, Slipy declared that the Ukrainian Catholic church 'is now organized as a patriarchate,' and in 1975 he accepted the title of patriarch; this too was opposed by the Vatican. Slipy's efforts toward realizing the separate identity of the Ukrainian Catholic church did meet with success toward the end of his life, however, when Pope John Paul II, in a 1980 letter to him, recognized the legal role of the synod in the Ukrainian Catholic church. The first officially recognized synod of Ukrainian bishops was then called by the pope in March 1980 and presided over by Slipy. The second synod (January-February 1983), also under Slipy, accepted the Statute of the Synod of the Ukrainian Catholic church. After his 1963 release Slipy also turned his attention to reviving Ukrainian Catholic scholarship. In November 1963 he founded the "Ukrainian Catholic University and an associated publishing house, library, and archive, and revived Bohosloviia as the organ of the Ukrainian Theological Scholarly Society (which had been renewed just prior to Slipy's release). He also renewed publication of Dzvony, a literary and popular-scientific journal, and Nyva, a religious journal. Slipy built the St Sophia Cathedral in Rome, modeled on the St Sophia Cathedral in Kiev, and initiated the publication of Blahovisnyk Verkhovnoho arkhyiepyskopa vizantiis'ko-ukraïns'koho obriadu. He purchased a former procurator general's office for his official abode, and established there the Ukrainian Catholic parish of SS Sergius and Bacchus in Rome. He revitalized the Studite Fathers and acquired a monastery for them in Castel Gandolfo, near Rome. He organized branches of the Ukrainian Catholic University in Washington, London, Chicago, and Philadelphia. As a theologian Slipy was an authority on dogmatic theology and scholastic philosophy. His earliest theological works, including his habilitation theses Die Trinitatslehre des byzantinischen Patriarchen Photios (1921) and De principio spirationis in SS Trinitate (published in 1926), were concerned with the Holy Trinity and attempted to reconcile Eastern and Western Christian differences over the nature of the Trinity and the procession of the Holy Spirit. A series of his works on the Sacraments was smuggled out of Ukraine in manuscript during the war and published in Yorkton, Saskatchewan (5 books in 3 vols, 1953-60). Slipy also published articles on the Church Union of Berestia, the history of the Ukrainian Catholic church, the influence of St Thomas Aquinas on Ukrainian theology, and other subjects; these have been collected and published in Rome in thirteen volumes (1968-84). In recognition of his scholarly work he was made full (1930) and honorary (1964) member of the Shevchenko Scientific

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Society, full member of the Tiberian Academy in Rome (1965), and a member of the Papal Academy of St Thomas (1981). He also received honorary doctorates from the Ukrainian Free University in Munich and from several universities in the United States and Canada. Slipy's remains have been transferred, in accordance with his wishes, to a crypt at St George's Cathedral in Lviv. The ceremony was conducted on 28 August 1992 with more than a million faithful in attendance. BIBLIOGRAPHY Bilaniuk, P. The Father of Modern Ecumenism: Patriarch Joseph Cardinal Slipyj (1892-1984): A Biblio-Biographical Sketch/ Bohosloviia, no. 48 (1984) Chôma, I.; Muzychka, I. (eds). Intrépido Pastori: Naukovyi zbirnyk na poshanu Patriiarkha losyfa v soroklittia vstuplennia na Halyts 'kyi prestil (Rome 1984) Pelikan, J. Confessor between East and West: A Portrait of Ukrainian Cardinal Josyf Slipyj (Grand Rapids, Mich 1990) W. Lencyk

Slisarenko, Anatolii, b 30 March 1923 in Kiev. Film director and screenwriter. He completed study in the actor's (1948) and director's (1949) faculties at the Kiev Institute of Theater Arts. He has worked in the Ukrainian Studio of Chronicle-Documentary Films (1950-6 and since 1963) and the Kiev Artistic Film Studio (1956-61). He has directed four feature films and many documentaries and written two collections of prose (1979,1985).

Oleksa Slisarenko

Fedir Sliusarenko

Slisarenko, Oleksa (pseud of Oleksa Snisar), b 28 March 1891 in Konivtsov khutir (now Shyputove), Vovchanske county, Kharkiv gubernia, d 3 November 1937. Poet and prose writer. In the 19205 he moved to Kharkiv, where he became editor at the Knyhospilka publishing house. He was also coeditor of Universal'nyi zhurnal (1928-9). His first published poems appeared in 1910-11, in the student journal Do pratsi and in Rillia. In Kiev he joined the Bila Studiia group of Ukrainian symbolists and met with members of the Muzahet group. His first anthology of symbolist poetry, Na berezi Kastal's'komu (On the Kastal Coast, 1919), was marked by the influence of P. Tychyna, O. Oles, and K. Balmont and other Russian symbolists. It also evinced some elements of expressionism. He subsequently joined the Panfuturist organizations Aspanfut and Komunkult and published the collections of

futurist poems Poemy (Poems, 1923) and Baida (1928). His attention to form and to poetic expression is evident. He began writing prose in 1924 and published over 20 collections of English- and American-style crime-adventure stories, including Bunt (The Revolt, 1928), Zlamanyi gvynt (The Broken Bolt, 1929), Chornyi Anhel (Black Angel, 1929), Khlibna rika (The River of Bread, 1932), and Straik (Strike, 1932). His prose deals mainly with the period immediately preceding and during the revolution, and his protagonists are antiheroes, people who are thrust into collisions with the revolution. Slisarenko also wrote poetry for children. In 1931 he published a collection of stories under the pseudonym Omelko Buts, Posmertna zbirka tvoriv (Posthumous Collection of Works). A selection of his works appeared in 1930, and a complete six-volume edition was published in 1931-3. Slisarenko was repressed during the Stalinist terror because of his ties to the symbolists and Panfuturists, his membership in Hart and Vaplite, and, particularly, his sharp rebuke of M. Gorky in 1927, after Gorky refused to permit the publication of a translation of Mat' (Mother) into Ukrainian. He was arrested in 1934 and sent to the Solovets Islands, where he was shot. In the late 19505 he was rehabilitated, and his novels Bunt and Chornyi Anhel were republished in 1965 and 1990. B. Kravtsiv

Sliusarchuk, Kostiantyn [Sljusarcuk, Kostjantyn], b 1869 in Stanyslaviv county, Galicia, d autumn 1919 in Hrushky, near Kamianets-Podilskyi. Senior army officer. During the First World War he was an officer in the Austrian army; he supervised the training of the Legion of Sich Riflemen in 1917. Upon joining the Ukrainian Galician Army in November 1918 he was given command of the Southern Group, which was re-formed in January 1919 into the Lviv Brigade. He was promoted to colonel in January 1919 and was assigned to a diplomatic mission for negotiating a permanent armistice with Poland. In August 1919 Sliusarchuk was put in charge of military training. He died of typhus in the so-called Quadrangle of Death. Sliusarenko, Fedir [Sljusarenko], b 1886 in Cherkasy, d 9 May 1958 in Prague. Classical philologist, historian, and educator. A graduate of the St Petersburg Historical-Philological Institute, he was active in the St Petersburg Ukrainian Hromada and read public lectures on Ukrainian history and literature. In 1918 he worked for the UNR government in Kiev. He emigrated to Vienna and then Prague and taught classical philology and archeology at the Ukrainian Free University (uvu, 1924-39), where he also served as dean of the philosophy faculty (1936-9). He also taught Slavic history at the Ukrainian Higher Pedagogical Institute, classical archeology at the Ukrainian Studio of Plastic Arts in Prague, and Latin at the Ukrainian Gymnasium in Modrzany. His studies and articles on the history of ancient Greece and Ukraine (the Greek colonies on the Black Sea littoral) were published in the serials of the UVU and the Ukrainian Historical-Philological Society in Prague. Sliusarivna, Mariia [Sljusarivna, Marija], b 31 August 1912 in Kosiv, Galicia. Stage actress. She acted in the Tobilevych Theater (1932-8), trie Kotliarevsky Theater and the Lesia Ukrainka Theater (1938-41), the Stanyslaviv Franko Ukrainian Drama Theater (1941-4), and the Ukrainian

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theater in Austria under H. Sovacheva (1945-8). From 1948 she appeared sporadically with Ukrainian troupes in Canada. Sliusarsky, Anton [Sljusars'kyj], b 12 January 1901 in Syniukhy, Volodymyr-Volynskyi county, Volhynia gubernia, d 2 March 1980 in Kharkiv. Historian. He graduated from the Institute of People's Education in Kiev in 1929, assumed a lectureship at Kharkiv University in 1934, and served as dean of its Faculty of History in 1947-62. He received his doctorate in history in 1964 and was made a full professor in 1965. He studied the history of the peasantry in central and Slobidska Ukraine, in which field he published Slobids'ka Ukraina (Slobidska Ukraine, 1954), V.N. Karazin, ego nauchnaia i obshchestvennaia deiatel 'nost ' (V.N. Karazyn, His Scientific and Social Activities, 1955), and Sotsial'no-ekonomicheskoe razvitie Slobozhanshchiny xvnxvni vv. (The Socioeconomic Development of Slobidska Ukraine in the lyth-iSth Centuries, 1964). He was coeditor of the volume on Kharkiv oblast (1967) in the series Istoriia mist i sil URSR (History of the Cities and Villages of the Ukrainian SSR). Sliuzar, Volodymyr [Sljuzar], b 20 January 1895 in Chunkiv, Zastavna county, Bukovyna, d 26 December 1976 in Montreal. Ukrainian Orthodox priest and community leader. After serving as a commander in the 14th Brigade of the Ukrainian Galician Army he completed his theological and law studies at Chernivtsi University. He arrived in Canada in 1923, where he was ordained (1924) and appointed pastor of St Sophia Cathedral in Montreal (1926). He subsequently helped organize parishes in Lachine, Ottawa, Oshawa, Hamilton, and Toronto. After the Second World War he was appointed assistant to Archbishop M. Khoroshy. Slobidska Ukraine (Slobozhanshchyna). A historicalgeographic region in northeastern Ukraine that corresponds closely to the area of the Ostrohozke, Izium, Kharkiv, Okhtyrka, and Sumy Cossack regiments. Its name, derived from the *sloboda settlements founded there, came into use in the early 17th century and continued until the early 19th century. Slobidska Ukraine bordered on the Hetmanate to the west, the borderlands of the Crimean Khanate and the Zaporizhia to the south, the Don River to the east, and Muscovy to the north. It included sections of the Central Upland and the adjacent Donets Lowland as well as the southeastern section of the Dnieper Lowland and a small area of the Donets Ridge. Pre-iyth century. The oldest evidence of settlement in the territory dates from the Upper Paleolithic. The territory was subsequently settled by *Siverianians. After being incorporated into the Kievan Rus' state in the late 9th century, it was, in succession, part of the Chernihiv, Pereiaslav, and Novhorod-Siverskyi principalities. After its devastation during the Tatar invasions of the 13th century it remained uninhabited. In the early loth century it came under the control of Muscovy. At that time it was essentially an expanse of wild steppe through which Tatars passed during their raids into Muscovy - usually along the *Murava Road or the Izium and Kalmiius roads. The empty steppes of the region also attracted Ukrainian *ukhodnyky or dobychnyky, who engaged primarily in beekeeping, fishing, and hunting. They developed a regional

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*salt industry (primarily in the Bakhmut region and near Tor [later Slovianske]). From the later loth century there were two contending streams of colonizers in Slobidska Ukraine: from the north came Muscovite service personnel for the construction of defense lines and fortifications (against invaders from the Crimea to the south as well as the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth to the southwest); from the west came Ukrainian agricultural settlers. Some of the latter group were attracted specifically by the resources of the region, and others simply sought to escape the increasingly harsh conditions under Polish rule. There were also some refugees to Slobidska Ukraine and the Don region from exploitative landowners in Muscovy. The Ukrainian migration, however, was much larger than the two sources of Russian colonization. In the late loth century the Muscovite government established a number of advance garrisons in the wild steppe: Orel, Livny, and Voronezh (1585); Yelets (1592); Belgorod, Oskol, and Kursk (1596); and Valuiky (1599). During Muscovy's Time of Trouble (1605-13) that expansion came to a halt, but Vilnyi, Khotmyzsk, Userd, and other centers were built (largely on the ruins of medieval towns) soon thereafter. In the 16305 and 16405 the socalled Belgorod Line was constructed, stretching from Okhtyrka (1653) in the west to Ostrohozke (1653) in the east. A string of other settlements was also founded, including Chuhuiv (1627) and Oboian (1649). In the late 17th century the Izium Line (from the Kolomak River to Valuiky) was constructed. In the early i8th century the Belgorod Line lost its strategic significance owing to the increasingly dense settlement of Slobidska Ukraine and the establishment of the ^Ukrainian Line (1731-3), which drew upon the resources of Slobidska Ukraine to its south. i7th and i8th centuries. The Ukrainian colonization of Slobidska Ukraine proceeded in a number of waves. Immigration was particularly substantial in the 16305 in the wake of unsuccessful Cossack insurrections. A contingent of about 1,000 migrants led by Hetmán Ya. *Ostrianyn settled near Chuhuiv in 1638. Migration increased as a result of the Khmelnytsky uprising, particularly after the Treaty of *Bila Tserkva in 1651. In 1652 some 2,000 Cossacks of Chernihiv and Nizhen regiments, led by Col I. *Dzykovsky, established Ostrohozke. Another detachment, led by H. Kondratiev, moved from Stavyshche, in Bila Tserkva regiment, to Sumy. A similar influx founded Kharkiv in 1654. The *Ruin also resulted in a wave of colonization, primarily from Right-Bank Ukraine, in the 16705 and 16805. Vovcha (Vovchanske) was founded in 1674, and Izium in 1681. The suppression of the rebellion led by S. *Palii prompted another wave of settlement in the early i8th century. The last major surge of colonization occurred in the 1720 and 17305, after the restoration of Polish control in Right-Bank Ukraine, the defeat of the haidamaka uprising of 1734, and the entrenchment of the Cossack starshyna as landowners in the Hetmanate. The influx of Ukrainians into Slobidska Ukraine pushed Russian colonists (as well as some Ukrainians) toward the east and southeast, in the direction of the Don and the Volga rivers. In the late 17th century the population of Slobidska Ukraine was about 120,000. The 1732 census indicated a population of 400,000, and that of 1773, over 660,000. The settling of the region added approx 100,000 sq km to Ukrainian ethnographic territory as its border moved

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SLOBIDSKA U K R A I N E 120-200 km eastward. In the mid-i8th century Slobidska Ukraine constituted 25 percent of Ukrainian ethnographic territory and was inhabited by 10 percent of its population. The Muscovite government initially encouraged Ukrainian immigration to Slobidska Ukraine. Moscow sought to benefit from the resulting economic development of its unpopulated frontier and from a capable military force that could defend its southern borders. The settlement of Slobidska Ukraine also helped to stem the flow of Russian serfs escaping to the Don region. Ukrainian colonists therefore were supplied with weapons and granted the right to establish sloboda settlements with title to the lands, traditional Cossack privileges, and a regimental form of administration. In the 16505 Ostrohozke, Sumy, Okhtyrka, and Kharkiv regiments were established, and in 1685 Izium regiment was partitioned from the Kharkiv structure. In 1734 those regiments were divided into 98 companies. The regiments and their colonels were granted official recognition in a tsar's charter. In the i8th century a more concerted effort was made to centralize the administration of the region in the hands of a higher military official. That official was usually chosen from among the local colonels or from the

ranks of Russian generals. F. Shydlovsky (a colonel of Kharkiv regiment), F. Osypov (a colonel of Okhtyrka regiment), O. Lesevytsky (a colonel of Okhtyrka regiment), V. Kapnist (brigadier general), and others served in that position. In contrast to the Hetmanate, Slobidska Ukraine possessed no territorial autonomy. It was subject directly to Muscovite state authority. Initially it was under the voivode of Belgorod (who in turn was responsible to the War Office [Razriadnyi prikaz]). In 1688 it was placed under Muscovy's Foreign Office (Posolskii prikaz), and in 1708 under the military governor of Azov. In 1711 the administration of Sumy and Okhtyrka regiments was placed in the jurisdiction of the Kiev governor, and Kharkiv regiment followed suit in 1718. That same year the administration of Izium and Ostrohozke regiments was transferred to the Voronezh governor. From 1726 the regiments came under the authority of the War College. The administration of Slobidska Ukraine and the posts therein were similar, with some exceptions, to those of the ^regimental system of the Hetmanate. In the later 17th century the members of the general staff were elected at Cossack (officers') councils and confirmed by Muscovite officials. In the i8th century the positions became Russian

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appointments, the starshyna usually coming from the Cossack elite, and regimental colonels and company captains occasionally being foreigners. A number of leading Cossack families filled regimental and other positions in an almost hereditary manner. Such 'dynasties' included the Kondratiev family in Sumy regiment, the PerekrestovOsypov and Lesevytsky families in Okhtyrka, the DonetsZakharzhevskys and Danylevskys in Izium, the Shydlovskys, Kulykovskys, and Kvitkas in Kharkiv, and the Teviashovs in Ostrohozke. Social organization and economy. Slobidska Ukraine was similar socially and economically to the Hetmanate. The first Ukrainian settlers in the region were divided along social lines into Cossacks, clergymen, burghers (merchants and craftsmen), and common peasants (pospolyii). There was no nobility in the region in the 17th century. The majority of the population consisted of Cossacks, who constituted half of the region's population until the mid-18th century. The Cossacks themselves were divided into *Cossack helpers, *elect Cossacks, and the *Cossack starshyna. In 1732 there were 23,565 elect Cossacks and 72,226 helpers in the four regiments (in 1763, there were 58,231 and 108,301 respectively). ^Landless peasants, mainly former Cossacks and free peasants who had lost their households and land, worked on the estates of wealthier Cossack estate owners. In 1732 there were 12,978 of them in the four regiments. The elect Cossacks gradually became a closed class of freemen, and the landless peasants became enserfed to the starshyna landowners. The common peasants became divided into those working their own land and those on the estates of the starshyna, Russian service personnel, and monasteries. The burghers were few in number. Russians in Slobidska Ukraine formed a separate, socially heterogeneous group. Initially they came in various official capacities, but by the i8th century they had become local landowners, small independent farmers (odnodvirtsi), or common peasants. One estimate put the number of Russians in the four regiments at 1,650, concentrated mainly in the Kharkiv region. As in the Hetmanate the Cossack starshyna amassed progressively larger estates, and the local peasantry was increasingly impoverished. By 1768, 196,336 of 381,745 male peasants in the region were virtual serfs. The largest Cossack landowner families in Slobidska Ukraine were the Danylevsky, Donets-Zakharzhevsky, Kvitka, Kovalevsky, Kondratiev, Kulykovsky, Lesevytsky, Nadarzhynsky, Osypov, Perekrestov, Teviashov, and Shydlovsky. The Kapnist, Myklashevsky, Myloradovych, and Polubotok families from the Hetmanate also had large estates in the region. The Russian landowners included the Dunin, Gendrikov, Golitsyn, Kropotkin, and Yusupov families. Among other foreign landowners was the Moldavian Kantemir family. The local economy was also similar to that of the Hetmanate, with agriculture and animal husbandry the primary occupations. The prevalent form of farming was the rotating field system. In the late i8th century the threefield system came into use. Apart from Cossack and small peasant landholdings, large estates were also established by Cossack officeholders, the Russian aristocracy, and various monasteries. Those grew in size to approach the latifundia of Right-Bank Ukraine. Sheepherding, beekeeping, orchard keeping, fishing,

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milling, distilling, and the production of various handicrafts were also significant contributors to the region's economy. Toward the end of the i8th century there were about 34,000 craftsmen in Slobidska Ukraine. The salt industry was another significant undertaking, with plants in Tor, Bakhmut, and Spivakivka; saltpeter was a particularly important product. In the i8th century, manufacturing plants were established, which concentrated on cloth and clothing manufacture as well as serving the region's agricultural economy. Of specific note was a tobaccoprocessing plant established in Okhtyrka, the first in Ukraine and in the Russian Empire. The focal points of trade were the local markets, of which there were 271 in 1779. In addition there were 10 middle-sized and 2 large markets (Sumy and Kharkiv). The transit trade with Russia, the Hetmanate, Zaporizhia, Southern Ukraine, the Crimea and the Don region, Caucasia, and Iran was also important. Trade between Slobidska Ukraine and the Hetmanate was particularly significant: the Hetmanate exported manufactured goods (such as glass and steel products) in exchange for salt. Political life. Slobidska Ukraine's political life was conducted within the framework of the Russian (later imperial Russian) state, although its frontier location initially offered it semiautonomy. Moreover, the region's geographic location, between Russia and the Crimean Khanate, the Hetmanate, and the Don region, often placed it in the midst of controversies. Slobidska Ukraine was the object of ruinous Tatar attacks from the south that continued until the Russo-Turkish wars of 1768-74 secured its borders by the Peace Treaty of *Kucuk-Kaynarca (1774). Slobidska Ukraine's westernmost regions (Sumy and Okhtyrka) suffered extensive damage during the RussoSwedish conflict of 1708-9. The Russo-Turkish War of 1735-9 was also very damaging. The marked difference in social order between Slobidska Ukraine and Russia gave rise to repeated conflicts and even open rebellion. In 1670 a revolt began in Ostrohozke regiment in support of the peasant rebellion led by S. Razin. The colonel of the regiment, I. Dzykovsky, led the insurgency and briefly expelled all Russian officials from the eastern reaches of the territory. The uprising was suppressed, however, and Dzykovsky was executed along with many of his supporters. The inhabitants of Slobidska Ukraine also participated in the Bulavin rebellion that erupted in 1707. When the Crimean khan Devlet Girei attacked the region in 1711, some of the local population (from Nova and Stara Vodolaha) rose to assist him. Subsequently Peter I had a tenth of the captured rebels executed and the rest exiled along with their families. The RightBank haidamaka uprisings also spread to Slobidska Ukraine, but these resulted only in limited local disturbances. Relations between Slobidska Ukraine and the Hetmanate were strengthened during the tenures of Hetmans I. *Samoilovych and I. *Mazepa. Both sought to expand their jurisdictions to the territory, where a large portion of the Right Bank's population had resettled. Petitions to that end were presented in Moscow in 1680 and 1681 by the hetmán's emissaries, M. Samoilovych (colonel of Hadiache) and I. Mazepa (at that time a notable military fellow). They were rebuffed. Mazepa repeated the request once he became hetmán, and was again refused. A treaty concluded by P. *Petryk with the Crimean

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Khanate in 1692 provided for the joining of the western regiments (Sumy and Okhtyrka) to the Hetmanate, and a transfer of population from the eastern regiments (Kharkiv, Izium, and Ostrohozke) to Right-Bank Ukraine. The territory's starshy na was ambivalent about such plans. The upper echelons of Sumy and Okhtyrka regiments were more closely connected (even related) to their counterparts in the Hetmanate and were therefore positively inclined. The leadership of the eastern regiments preferred the direct rule of the tsar, albeit with greater autonomy for the territory as a whole. Union with the Hetmanate ceased to be an issue after the Battle of *Poltava in 1709, when the Russian government embarked upon an intensified antiUkrainian policy. That development, however, did not affect other relations between the Hetmanate and Slobidska Ukraine. Apart from economic and cultural ties, there were family connections between the leading families of the starshy na. Among those in the Hetmanate with kin in Slobidska Ukraine were the Apóstol, Charnysh, Cherniakh, Chetvertynsky, Hamaliia, Horlenko, Hrechany, Ivanenko, Kapnist, Lisnytsky, Lyzohub, Maksymovych, Markovych, Myklashevsky, Myloradovych, Polubotok, Rodzianko, Savych, Samoilovych, Skoropadsky, Sulyma, Zabila, Zarudny, and Zhurakovsky families. Highly placed people usually did not sever their connections when moving from one territory to another. Conversely, leaders from Slobidska Ukraine often played a part in the political affairs of the Hetmanate. Slobidska Ukraine also offered a refuge for Hetmanate officials and their families during political or military crises (particularly during 1708-9). Church relations also served to bring the two territories together. Although the church hierarchy of Slobidska Ukraine was directly tied to the Moscow patriarchate (later to the Russian Synod), religious life in the region had a distinctly Ukrainian character. The main institution was the Belgorod eparchy, whose bishops (particularly in the i8th century) tended to come from the Hetmanate and were graduates of the Kievan Mohyla Academy or Chernihiv College. Ostrohozke regiment belonged to the Voronezh eparchy, whose hierarchy and clergy also included many Ukrainians educated in Kiev, Chernihiv, or (later) Kharkiv College. The more notable bishops of Belgorod were Ye. Tykhorsky (1722-31), who founded Kharkiv College; Y. *Horlenko (1748-54); Y. Mytkevych (1758-63); S. *Myslavsky (1769-75), a scholar, former rector of the Kievan Mohyla Academy, and future metropolitan of Kiev; and T. Mochulsky (1787-99), a member of the Russian Academy. In 1799 Slobidska Ukraine's religious center moved to the Kharkiv eparchy, whose first bishop (1799-1813) was Kh. Sulyma, a member of a notable family of Cossack leaders. *Kharkiv College became the main institution of higher learning in Slobidska Ukraine in the i8th century. It was modeled on the Kievan Mohyla Academy, and its curriculum was mostly theological. Its professors included scholars educated at the Kievan Academy or Chernihiv and Pereiaslav colleges, as well as some who studied at German universities. The college's students were not only local but from the whole of Left-Bank Ukraine and neighboring districts of Russia. Another major educational center in Slobidska Ukraine was a Latin-Slavic school in Ostrohozke (est 1733, moved to Voronezh in 1737, and then returned to Ostrohozke in 1742). It also had a com-

plement of Ukrainian instructors educated in the Hetmanate, Galicia, and Germany. H. *Skovoroda taught at the colleges in Pereiaslav and Kharkiv. His activities and writings were closely tied to Slobidska Ukraine. Loss of autonomy. Beginning with the reign of Peter I the imperial Russian government intervened increasingly in the internal affairs of Slobidska Ukraine's regiments. Under the empress Anna Ivanovna the territory's autonomy was abolished outright in 1732, but it was renewed by Elizabeth I in 1743. Finally, on 8 August (28 July OS) 1765, Empress Catherine II issued a decree abolishing the Cossack order and the regimental system in Slobidska Ukraine. The Slobidska Ukraine military formations were transformed into the Kharkiv uhlan and the Sumy, Okhtyrka, Izium, and Ostrohozke hussar regiments. The rank-and-file Cossacks and helpers were ranked at a status comparable to that of state peasants, and the officer class was absorbed into the Russian nobility. The territory itself was governed as Slobidska Ukraine gubernia, with its capital in Kharkiv. The abolition of the regimental order caused dissatisfaction among the Cossack starshyna of Slobidska Ukraine. F. Krasnokutsky, the colonel of Izium regiment, together with members of Kharkiv regiment's starshyna, protested openly. This action resulted in a series of arrests and the institution of measures designed to curb a wider movement. Krasnokutsky was divested of his holdings and titles and exiled to the Kuban. Others were sentenced to flogging. Further protests were made during the election of representatives to the Legislative Commission of 17678, including a call for the restoration of the regimental system from the Sumy region. But the Russian government managed to suppress the dissent. In 1835, after a number of administrative changes, the gubernia itself was dissolved. Most of it (the southern section) was reorganized as Kharkiv gubernia, and the rest was assigned to Voronezh and Kursk gubernias. That pattern was continued during the formation of the USSR. Northern Slobidska Ukraine became part of the RSFSR, and the southern section, of the Ukrainian SSR. BIBLIOGRAPHY Gumilevskii, F. Istoriko-statisticheskoe opisanie Khar'kovskoi eparkhii (Kharkiv 1857-9) Golovinskii, P. Slobodskie kozachie polki (St Petersburg 1864) Bagalei, D. Ocherki iz istorii kolonizatsii i byta stepnoi okrainy Moskovskogo gosudarstva (Moscow 1887) Miklashevskii, I. K istorii khoziaistvennogo byta Moskovskogo gosudarstva: Zaselenie i sel 'shoe khoziaistvo slobodskoi okrainy xvn v. (Moscow 1894) Bahalii, D. Istoriia Slobods 'koï Ukraïny (Kharkiv 1918; 2nd edn, 1990) Sumtsov, M. Slobozhane (Kharkiv 1918) lurkevych, V. Emigratsiia na skhid i zaliudnennia Slobozhanshchyny za B. Khmel'nyts'koho (Kiev 1932) Sliusars'kyi, A. Slobids'ka Ukraïna: Istorychnyi nary s xvii-xvmst. (Kharkiv 1954) Sliusarskii, A. Sotsial 'no-ekonomicheskoe razvitie Slobozhanshchiny xvn-xvm vv. (Kharkiv 1964) Diachenko, M. 'Etapy zaselennia Slobids'koï Ukraïny v xvn i pershii polovyni xvm st./ UlZh, 1970, no. 8 V. Kubijovyc, O. Ohloblyn

Slobidska Ukraine dialects. Dialects of the northern part of eastern Ukraine, spoken mainly in the southeastern districts of Sumy oblast, Kharkiv oblast, the northern areas of Luhanske oblast, the southern parts of Kursk, Bel-

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gorod, and Voronezh oblasts, and the northwestern part of Rostov oblast. Their boundaries cannot be defined precisely. These dialects arose from the intermingling in i6thto 17th-century Slobidska Ukraine of settlers from the middle Dnieper region, particularly from the northeastern Poltava area, the Chernihiv region, and the Right Bank. There are fewer local variations among these dialects than among the Middle Dnieper dialects. The distinctive phonetic features are the following: the consonants d, t, n, /, z, s are softened before the / that had evolved from the old ô (eg, s't'il, pod'il 'table, division'); the pronunciation of unstressed e is close to y (eg, ve/ysna 'spring7), of unstressed y to e (eg, ¿y/eve lives'), and of unstressed o to u (eg, t°/ubi 'to you'); r tends to be softened (eg, bazar', komar', r'ama 'market, mosquito, frame') and the alveolar / appears in parallel with the ordinary / (eg, lozka-lozka 'spoon'). The distinctive morphological features are the following: the unstressed endings of the soft noun group are modified toward the hard group (eg, z'at'ov'i, z'at'om [Standard Ukrainian (su) z 'atevi, z 'atem] 'son-in-law' dat, instr); there is no change of d, t, z, s into the corresponding sibilants 3, c, z, s in the conjugation of the first person singular (eg, xod 'u, nos 'u [su xodzu, nosu] 'I go, I carry'; the third person of second conjugation verbs (if the ending is unstressed) takes the form xode, nose [su xodyt', nosyt'] 'he walks, he carries'); and the third person plural of the second conjugation has the same ending as the first conjugation (eg, nos'ut'-nos'ut [su nos'at'] 'they carry'). These dialects also have a distinctive vocabulary; eg, hyr'avyj 'sickly', blahyj 'sick', and burta 'pile'. Slobidskyi Kish. See Haidamaka Battalion of Slobidska Ukraine. Slobidskyi Regiment (Slobidskyi polk). A military formation organized in the mid-i8th century by the tsarist government on the frontier of *New Serbia and the Zaporizhia, in southwestern Ukraine, for the purpose of checking the Zaporozhian Cossacks. Its main base was the St Elizabeth Fortress (now the city of Kirovohrad). Like the five Cossack regiments in Slobidska Ukraine, the regiment enjoyed a measure of autonomy. In 1760 it had 6,536 men, of which 213 were officers. In 1764 its troops were reorganized into a lancer regiment. Sloboda. A self-governing settlement in i6th- to 18thcentury Ukraine. The inhabitants of a sloboda were exempted by the owner (usually a magnate, also the state or the church) from obligations, such as fees and taxes, for an extended period (15 to 25 years). The privileges were offered by owners to attract peasants and skilled workers from other regions. The largest number of slobody sprang up in the first half of the 17th century in Right-Bank and Left-Bank Ukraine. In the 16305 and 16405 hundreds of slobody were created in the border regions of Muscovy, and they attracted peasants from Left-Bank and Right-Bank Ukraine. By the end of the i8th century there were 523 slobody in that territory, which was called *Slobidska Ukraine, and over 100 slobody on the lands of the New Sich. In the icth and early 2Oth centuries the term was sometimes used in central and eastern Ukraine to refer to larger villages as well as to industrial or factory settlements which did not have the status of cities or towns. About 100 places in Ukraine still retain sloboda or slobidka in their

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name, usually with an adjective referring to the larger town or territory where the settlement sprang up, among them Sharhorod (Shahorodska sloboda) and Krasyliv (Krasylivska slobidka) in eastern Podilia. Slobodian, Nataliia [Slobodjan, Natalija], b 27 February 1923 in Kiev. Ballerina. In 1941 she completed study at the Kiev Choreography School (pupil of K. Vasina). In 1944-68 she was a soloist in the Lviv Theater of Opera and Ballet, and from 1968 she was the ballet master there. She was the first performer of the heroic roles in A. Kos-Anatolsky's ballets Orysia, Khustka Dovbusha (Dovbush's Shawl), and Soichyne krylo (The Jay's Wing).

Roman Slobodian

Slobodian, Roman [Slobodjan], b 17 October 1889 in Nastasiv, Ternopil county, Galicia, d 20 May 1982 in Elizabeth, New Jersey. Community leader. After emigrating to the United States in 1906, he joined the ^Ukrainian National Association and, eventually, served as its financial secretary (1920-33) and supreme treasurer (1933-66). He was a founding and leading member of the United Ukrainian Organizations in America and the Ukrainian Congress Committee of America. In the interwar period he organized financial aid for Ukrainian institutions in Galicia, and after the war he was chairman of the audit committee and vice-president of the *United Ukrainian American Relief Committee. Slobodianiuk-Podolian, Stepan [Slobodjanjuk-PodoIjan], b 2 August 1876 in Lityn, Podilia gubernia, d 15 September 1932 in Leningrad. Painter. He studied at the Odessa Art School (1899-1901) and audited courses at the St Petersburg Academy of Arts (1905-12). From 1925 he lived in Katerynoslav. He painted portraits, such as Woman's Portrait (1915), Ukrainian Woman (1916), Sailor from the Cruiser Aurora (1917), Ukrainian Girl (1926), and Moldavian Woman (1928), and canvases on historical subjects, such as Karmaliuk's Funeral (1912), Lenin's Arrival at the Finland Station (1924), and Karmaliuk (1926). Slobodianyk, Hnat [Slobodjanyk], b 1902 in Lysivka, Proskuriv county, Podilia gubernia. Civil engineer. He studied at the Kiev Polytechnical Institute and worked at the Mezhyhiria Ceramics Institute. From 1934 he held the chair of construction materials at the Kiev Civil-Engineering Institute and served as assistant director of the Scientific Research Institute of Building Materials. He specialized in the field of building materials, particularly concrete and bricks, and developed a new method of manu-

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facturing high-grade cement. He published numerous technical papers.

Oleksander Slobodianyk Slobodianyk, Oleksander [Slobodjanyk] (Slobodyanik, Alexander), b 5 September 1941 in Lviv. Pianist. His initial musical education took place in Lviv, where at 6 he appeared on radio and by 14 played with the orchestra of the Lviv Philharmonic. From 1956 he studied at the Moscow Conservatory with H. Neuhaus, and in 1964 he graduated from that school in the class of V. Gornostaeva. He made his debut tour of the United States in 1968 and subsequently appeared in recitals and with orchestras throughout Europe, the Americas, and the Far East. Since 1969 he has made recordings (mainly on the Melodiya and Angel labels) of works by J. Haydn, L. van Beethoven, F. Chopin, F. Liszt, M. Mussorgsky, S. Prokofiev, I. Stravinsky, and B. Liatoshynsky. Slobodivna, Mariia, b 8 December 1876 in Ulhivok, Rava Ruska county, Galicia, d 28 August 1935 *n Kharkiv. Stage actress and writer. She worked in the Ruska Besida Theater (1893-1902) and wrote the collection of stories I khto vona bula? (And Who Was She?, 1901) and the drama Vona (She, 1911). After moving to Soviet Ukraine in 1934, she and her husband, A. *Krushelnytsky, were arrested. Slobodnik, Wlodzimierz, b 19 September 1900 in Novoukrainka, Yelysavethrad county, Kherson gubernia. Polish poet and translator. Since 1927 he has produced numerous poetry collections and several books of satire and poetry for children. Some of his poems are on Ukrainian themes. In the years 1939-41 he lived in Lviv and Kiev and belonged to the Writers7 Union of Ukraine. Since 1958 he has lived in Warsaw, where he has had links with the Ukrainian Social and Cultural Society and contributed to its organs Nashe slovo and Ukraïnskyi kalendar. He has translated into Polish poems by T. Shevchenko, I. Franko, Yu. Fedkovych, Ya. Shchoholev, P. Tychyna, M. Rylsky, M. Bazhan, M. Tereshchenko, L. Pervomaisky, I. Drach, and A. Malyshko; edited Polish editions of Shevchenko's (1955) and Rylsky's (1965) selected poems; and written about Shevchenko. His poems have been translated into Ukrainian by M. Marfiievych, D. Pavlychko, and Pervomaisky.

Slobodyshche, Treaty of (aka Treaty of Chudniv). A pact signed in Slobodyshche, near Chudniv, in eastern Volhynia, on 27 October 1660 by Yu. Khmelnytsky and Poland. It followed Khmelnytsky7s shift to the Poles and the defeat of Russian forces near Liubar. The treaty abolished the Pereiaslav Articles of 1659 and re-established formal ties between Ukraine and Poland. Although the Ukrainians insisted on the full reinstatement of the terms of the Treaty of *Hadiache of 1658, the Poles, represented by S. Potocki and J. Lubomirski, did not agree to a provision for a separate Ukrainian state structure. The treaty thus granted Ukraine a limited autonomy under hetmán rule, with obligations to ally with Poland against Muscovy and to refrain from attacking Crimean Tatar territories. It was approved by a Cossack council in Korsun, but Left-Bank regiments headed by Ya. Somko and V. Zolotarenko maintained their allegiance to Muscovy. That split marked the beginning of the division of Ukraine into the Left- and Right-Bank zones. Slota, Petro [Sl'ota], b 16 October 1911 in Paniutyne, Pavlohrad county, Katerynoslav gubernia, d 25 June 1974 in Kiev. Painter. In 1940 he graduated from the Kiev State Art Institute, where he studied under F. Krychevsky. He painted rural and urban landscapes, such as Kiev: Khreshchatyk (1957), Notre Dame in Paris (1960), first Spring (1964-5), and Azure Morning (1969). An album of his works was published in 1972. Slovakia (Slovensko). A republic in the southwestern Carpathian region, at around the midpoint of the Danube Valley, bordering on Poland to the north, Hungary to the south, the Czech Republic to the west, and Ukraine to the east. Slovakia covers an area of 49,000 sq km and has a population of 5,400,000 (1985), of whom nearly 86 percent are Slovaks, 12 percent are Hungarians, and just over i percent are Czechs. Official figures indicate that 42,000 Ukrainians live in the republic, although the actual number is probably somewhere between 130,000 and 145,000. The capital is Bratislava (1990 pop 440,421). Ukrainians and Slovaks share a 20O-km border in the *Presov region, and both peoples have had similar social structures, daily life, language, and folk art. Both Slovaks and Ukrainians, especially those living in Transcarpathia and a small area of Galicia, also lived for a long period of time under Hungarian rule. Important trade routes that tied Ukraine to eastern, central, and western Europe have passed through Slovakia since the Middle Ages. Itinerant Slovak merchants and tradesmen traveled to Kievan Rus'. A number of leading Transcarpathian clergymen, who later became bishops or professors at theological seminaries, studied in the i8th century at the theological seminary in Trnava. That city was also a publishing center for Transcarpathian Ukrainians and produced works such as Katekhyzys (Catechism, 1698), Bukvar (Primer, 1699), and Kratkoe prypadkov moral'nykh sobraniie (A Short Collection of Moral Parables, 1727). The first Slovak scholars to develop a serious interest in Ukraine were J. Kollár (1793-1852) and P. Safafik (17951861). They maintained direct contact with Ukrainian activists and supported the development of the Ukrainian national revival. Safárik was one of the first Europeans to come out in defense of Ukrainian national, linguistic, and cultural autonomy. In the 18405 L. Stur began studying

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SLOVAKIA Ukrainian folk poetry. The most notable exponent of Ukrainian-Slovak relations in the 19th century was B. Ndsak-Nezabudov (1818-77), whose Slovak translation of the Duma about the Escape of the Three Brothers from Oziv (1848) was the first Ukrainian work to be published in Slovakia. J. Hurban, A. Radlinsky, P. Kellner, and others also devoted much attention to Transcarpathian Ukrainians. At the Slavic Congress in Prague in 1848, Slovaks supported Galician and Transcarpathian Ukrainian motions. In 1850 the first Ukrainian (Ruthenian) literary association was formed, in Presov; it included four Slovaks. A. *Dobriansky, the Transcarpathian Ukrainian who contributed most to Slovak culture, was one of the cofounders (in 1863) of the Matica Slovenská cultural-educational association. In the late 19th century P. Hrabovsky published several of his translations of Slovak classics in the Galician press. In the late 19th century Slovak interest in Ukraine waned as the Slovakian intelligentsia grew increasingly Russophilie in orientation. In the early 2Oth century F. Votruba, a Czech, translated selections of works by I. Franko (collected for a single volume in 1914), B. Hrinchenko, B. Lepky, Lesia Ukrainka, and V. Stefanyk into Slovak, and published a number of articles about the Ukrainian language and Ukrainian literature. T. Shevchenko's works became widely known in Slovakia in 1911-14 because of translations and articles by J. Slavík, S. Vajansky, and I. Lach. Meanwhile V. Hnatiuk, I. Franko, and S. Tomashivsky published articles on Slovak community affairs in the Galician press. Nevertheless, UkrainianSlovak relations deteriorated significantly in the Presov region after the Slovak national movement began to display an expansionist attitude toward Ukrainians. Many Ukrainians still preferred to identify with the Slovaks rather than the non-Slavic Hungarians, and many Ukrainian settlements subsequently were Slovakized. Pressure on Ukrainians in Slovakia to assimilate increased after 1919, when a section of Ukrainian Transcarpathia west of the Uzh River was included in the Slovak republic. The leaders of the Slovak People's party followed a policy of Slovakization toward Ukrainians and declined to enter into a working relationship with Ukrainian politicians from Transcarpathia (although they did

work with the Magyarone A. Brodii). In response, Ukrainians cultivated ties with Czech political parties that were either neutral toward or supportive of Ukrainian concerns. Understandably, Ukrainian-Slovak cultural ties were minimal at the time. A club of friends of Transcarpathia in Bratislava published Podkarpatskâ Revue-, a few books about Transcarpathia were published; and a few works by Transcarpathian authors were translated. The other Ukrainian territories and their cultural characteristics remained totally outside the sphere of Slovak interest. Ukraine was similarly uninterested in Slovakia. In 1938-9 there were official contacts between the governments of Carpatho-Ukraine and Slovakia which led them to issue joint declarations against Hungarian and Czech aggression. The regime of the Slovak People's Republic (1939-44) did not tolerate any manifestations of local Ukrainian national activity, and in 1942 President J. Tiso even declared that the Ukrainian-Ruthenian question no longer existed. This action led some of the Ukrainian population to sympathize with the USSR and to support the partisan movement. During the German-Soviet conflict in Ukraine, there were two divisions of the Slovak army on Ukrainian territory, but they did not participate directly in battle. Many Slovaks, along with Transcarpathian Ukrainians, joined in the Czechoslovak army corps led by Gen L. Svoboda. In 1944 they fought alongside the Soviet army in Ukraine. In 1944 and early 1945tne Ukrainian Division Galizien was stationed in western Slovakia. In 1945-6 detachments of the Ukrainian Insurgent Army crossed into Slovak territory. The lot of Ukrainians improved dramatically after 1945, in no small measure owing to their influence in the Czechoslovakian Communist party. The Ukrainian minority did not manage to secure any political autonomy in Slovakia, but it did make some cultural gains. Ukrainian culture was popularized in Slovakia, and Slovak in Ukraine. In 1948-89 more than 150 titles in Ukrainian literature were translated (by J. Andrejcuk, J. Kokavec, M. Krno, P. and M. Licko, A. Pestremenko, I. Rusanka, R. Skukalko, and others) and published. A number of scholars specializing in Ukrainian (including F. Condor, P. Hapak, D. Haraksim, J. Hroziencik, V. Khoma, V. Latta, M. Molnar, and M.

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Nevrly) were given positions at the Slovak Academy of Sciences and Bratislava University. They have published monographs on the works of I. Franko and T. Shevchenko, on Ukrainian history, and on numerous other subjects. Bratislava and Kiev were proclaimed twin cities, and exchanges of writers, artists, exhibitions, and theater productions between them take place frequently. A Ukrainian cultural society (named after T. Shevchenko) with its own dramatic collective operates freely in Bratislava. In 1988-9 a telebridge program was broadcast between Kiev and Bratislava. Another center of Ukrainian studies in Slovakia is Presov, where, at Safarik University, there is a chair of Ukrainian language and literature and a research department of Ukrainian studies. Ukrainian plays and operas have also been staged in Slovakia, notably those of I. Kotliarevsky, S. Hulak-Artemovsky, I. Franko, L. Dmyterko, O. Korniichuk, Yu. Meitus, T. Shevchenko, V. Sobko, M. Starytsky, and M. Tsehlynsky, many of which have also been broadcast on radio and television. Concert tours of the Verovka State Chorus, the State Dance Ensemble of Ukraine, the State Banduryst Kapelle of Ukraine of Kiev, the Transcarpathian Folk Chorus, the Kiev Ukrainian Drama Theater, the Duklia Ukrainian Folk Ensemble, and the Ukrainian National Theater in Presov have served to popularize Ukrainian culture. Official ties were established between the Kiev Ukrainian Drama Theater and the Zabrosky Theater of Presov, which has resulted in yearly exchanges of productions. A similar affiliation exists with the Ukrainian theater in Uzhorod. There have also been a number of exhibits of Ukrainian books and paintings in Slovakia. Official 'Days of Ukrainian Culture in Slovakia' and 'Days of Slovak Culture in Ukraine' have also been important, as have annual festivals of song and dance held by Ukrainians in Czechoslovakia. The Ukrainian branch of the Slovak Writers' Union and the Ukrainian department of the Slovak Educational Publishing House (which has issued more than 430 Ukrainian publications) also strengthen Ukrainian-Slovak literary ties. The equating of Slovak and Czech culture has made the popularization of Slovak culture in Ukraine more difficult. Of 152 titles of Czech and Slovak authors published in Ukraine before 1968, only 8 were by Slovaks (the first translation appeared in 1951). In order to compensate for this inequality the department of Ukrainian literature of the Slovak publishing house in Presov printed 15 translations of Slovak works in 1958-62, the Cultural Association of Ukrainian Workers published 6 Slovak plays in Ukrainian translation, and the literary journal *Duklia published translations of contemporary Slovak literature. Few of these publications reached Ukraine, however, and eventually such editions were halted. In 1964 an anthology of Slovak poetry was published, which included the verse of 51 Slovak authors translated by I. Drach, H. Kucher, V. Luchuk, A. Malyshko, M. Rylsky, D. Pavlychko, I. Svitlychny, V. Symonenko, B. Ten, V. Zhytnyk, and others. Despite improvements in Ukrainian-Slovak cultural relations, Slovakia has maintained a systematic policy of Slovakization of its Ukrainian population in the Presov region in political, cultural (by closing Ukrainian schools), and religious matters (a Slovak was appointed as administrator of the Presov eparchy in 1968). National hostility to Ukrainians was most openly expressed in 1968-9, during the Dubcek administration, when calls were made for the deportation of all Ukrainians from the Presov region

to the Ukrainian SSR. The other Ukrainian settlements in Slovakia are found mainly around Kosice, a large industrial center that draws many Ukrainians from the Presov region. Every year there is a Ukrainian folk festival at *Svydnyk. Ukrainians are organized in the ^Cultural Association of Ukrainian Workers (renamed in 1990 the Union of Ukrainian-Ruthenians of Czechoslovakia), which has its own choir (Karpaty) and a theater group (Dumka). Ukrainians also live in Bratislava. The difficulties between Ukrainians and Slovaks have been carried over into émigré affairs, particularly in the United States. Attempts have been made to Slovakize Ukrainian emigrants from the Presov region on the grounds that there are no longer any 'Ukrainians' there and that all Greek Catholics are Slovaks. As well, the Vatican has appointed Slovak administrators to a number of Transcarpathian Greek Catholic communities in Canada. BIBLIOGRAPHY Shevchuk, S. Suchasni ukrains 'ko-slovats 'ki literaturni zv'iazky 1945-1960 (Kiev 1963) Mol'nar, M. Slovaky i ukraïntsi (Bratislava-Presov 1965) Nevrly, M. Bibliografía ukrajiniky v slovenskej reel 1945-1964 (Bratislava 1965) Pazhur, O. Ukraïntsi Chekhoslovachchyny 1945-1964 (Presov 1967) Chuma, A. Bondar; A. Ukraïns 'ka shkola na Zakarpatti ta Skhidnii Slovachchyni (Presov 1969) Sirka, J. The Development of Ukrainian Literature in Czechoslovakia, 1945-1975: A Survey of Social, Cultural an[d] Historical Aspects (Frankfurt am Main 1978) Sirka, I. Rozvytok natsional'noï svidomosty lemkiv Priashivshchyny u svitli ukraïns'koïkhudozhnoïliteratury Chekhoslovachchyny (Munich 1980) O. Zilynsky

Slovaks. A people belonging to the West Slavs. Linguistically Slovaks are closely related to the Czechs. Since the dispersal of the Slavic tribes in the 6th and /th centuries from their original homeland between the upper Vistula and middle Dnieper regions, the Slovaks have inhabited the southern slopes of the Carpathian Mountains, especially its western ranges. In 1985 about 5,400,000 Slovaks lived in Slovakia (area, 49,000 sq km), where they made up nearly 86 percent of the population. Another 308,000 Slovaks lived in the Czech lands of Czechoslovakia, and an estimated 600,000 lived abroad, mostly in the United States. A small minority of 12,000 Slovaks lives in Ukraine in the lowlands of Transcarpathia oblast near the border with Slovakia. Slovak-Ukrainian relations. Slovak relations with Ukraine, which date from medieval times, have been limited. Slovaks have maintained strong ties, however, with Ukrainians (Ruthenians) living south of the Carpathians, especially those living in the *Presov region (since 1918, within the boundaries of ^Slovakia). In medieval times trade routes from Halych and later Lviv to Hungary passed through Slovak towns, such as Bardejov, Presov, and Kosice. But not until the Slavic national revivals of the 19th century was a mutual awareness of the distinctness of the Slovak and Ukrainian peoples developed. The influential Slovak Pan-Slavist P. Safarik was one of the first in Europe to argue that Ukrainians were a people distinct from both the Russians and the Poles. Relations throughout the rest of the 19th century took the form primarily of translation of Ukrainian writers for publication in Slovak periodicals. The most ac-

SLOVAK-UKRAINIAN LINGUISTIC RELATIONS

tive translator was B. Ndsak-Nezabudov (1818-77). Both I. *Franko and P. *Hrabovsky translated the Slovak poet S. Chalupka. After 1918 Slovak-Ukrainian relations were basically limited to ties with Ukrainians living in the Presov region and *Transcarpathia. Beginning in 1948, however, when Communist Czechoslovakia became part of the Soviet bloc, Slovak-Ukrainian relations expanded. Communist Ukrainian and Slovak governments encouraged the publication of translations of the other people's classic and contemporary writers, the exchange of folk ensembles, the twinning of cities (Bratislava and Kiev), and the holding of annual festivities, such as the 'Days of Ukrainian Culture in Slovakia' and 'Days of Slovak Culture in Ukraine.' There were also unofficial links between dissidents in Ukraine and the Ukrainian minority in Slovakia. Of particular importance in that regard was the publication program of the Ukrainian Branch of the Slovak Pedagogical Publishing House, based in Presov. The opportunity enjoyed by banned Soviet Ukrainian authors of being published in Presov, as well as the existence of a liberal Ukrainian-language media (radio and newspapers) in Czechoslovakia during the 19605, contributed to the Soviet decision to intervene militarily in Czechoslovakia in 1968. Slovak-Ukrainian relations in the Presov region. Because of geographic proximity Slovak-Ukrainian relations have historically been most intense south of the Carpathians, in particular in the Presov region. In that region Slovak-Ukrainian linguistic contacts are closest, since East Slovak dialects (Saris, Zemplin) form part of a linguistic transition zone with Transcarpathian Ukrainian dialects and Ukrainian dialects of the Presov region. For centuries Slovaks and Ukrainians south of the Carpathians shared the same political, social, and cultural fate within the Hungarian kingdom. In an attempt to improve their status, Slovaks and Ukrainians of the Presov region worked together closely during each group's 19th-century national revival. A. *Dobriansky was elected to the Hungarian parliament from a Slovak-inhabited district and was a founding member of Slovakia's first cultural organization, the Matica Slovenska (1863). Analogously, four Slovaks were among the founding members of the first Ruthenian (Ukrainian) cultural organization, the Presov Literary Society, founded by the national leader O. *Dukhnovych in 1850. Relations between the two national groups have not been completely harmonious in the 2oth century. Throughout the whole interwar period Ukrainians living in the historical counties of Spis (Szepes), Saris (Sáros), and Zemplin (Zemplén) - the so-called Presov region - remained under a Slovak administration. All efforts to unite the Presov region with Transcarpathian Ukraine during the short-lived era of post-Munich federal Czechoslovakia were blocked by the Slovak autonomist government; then, under the Slovak state during the Second World War, Ukrainians experienced various degrees of discrimination. Since the establishment of Communist rule in Czechoslovakia in 1948, Slovak-Ukrainian relations in the Presov region have varied. The Czechoslovak and later Slovak Communist authorities have provided educational and cultural facilities for the national minorities living within their borders.

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Some antagonism between the two groups has been evident also within the Greek Catholic church (forcibly liquidated in 1950, restored in 1968). Traditionally headed by bishops of Ukrainian ethnic background, since 1969 the church has been headed by a Slovak administrator (J. Hirka), who in 1991 was consecrated bishop. He has allowed services in the vast majority of churches to switch from Church Slavonic to Slovak as the liturgical language. The efforts to Slovakize the Greek Catholic church and to claim that all 'Rusnaks' living in Slovakia are by ethnicity Slovak are strongly supported by Slovak Catholic circles in the West, particularly Canada, where a distinct Slovak Byzantine (Greek Catholic) church was established in 1981. Since the Velvet Revolution of 1989, which brought profound political, social, and economic changes to Czechoslovakia, Slovak-Ukrainian relations in the Presov region have at times been difficult. The local Ukrainian intelligentsia is, in particular, critical of several decisions by the Slovak republic government to support that portion of the Ukrainian population which promotes the idea that Ruthenians (Rusyns) form a separate nationality. Whereas Slovakia has welcomed Ukraine's regained independence, relations between the two states have at times been strained because of differing interpretations regarding the divisions (Ruthenian vs Ukrainian) among the Ukrainians in the Presov region. BIBLIOGRAPHY

Hnatiuk, V. 'Slovaky chy rusyny: Prychynok do vyiasnennia sporu pro natsional'nist' zakhidnykh rusyniv/ ZNTSh, 42, no.4 (1901) Húsek, J. Národopisná hranice mezi Slovaky a Karpatorusy (Bratislava 1925)

Mol'nar, M. Slovâky i ukraïntsi (Bratislava and Presov 1965) P. Magocsi

Slovak-Ukrainian linguistic relations. Historically, the linguistic contacts between Ukrainians and Slovaks took place in the western Transcarpathian Presov region. There they have affected the (southern) Lemko and contiguous Ukrainian Carpathian and eastern Slovak dialects and the local variants of the literary languages. Contemporary eastern Slovak dialects reveal several ancient Lechitic traits, and the eastern Zemplin dialects are under the influence of Ukrainian. Their expansion into the Lemko and Middle-Carpathian regions resulted in the development of the so-called Sotak dialect in the Snina (Snyna) vicinity of the Presov region and of the mixed UkrainianSlovak dialects west of Uzhhorod. Among the oldest traits common to western Ukrainian, southern Polish, and Slovak are the endings -ox in the locative plural of masculine and neuter nouns (eg, Ukrainian Dniester dialect u paVc'ox 'in the fingers', Ukrainian western Transcarpathian dialect u I 'isox 'in forests', loth-century Polish w ogrodoch 'in the gardens', Slovak o chlapoch 'about men') and -me in first-person plural verbs (eg, Ukrainian dame, Slovak dame 'we will give'). Remnants of early Ukrainian-Slovak contacts are the Slovak forms cerieslo (cf Ukrainian cereslo) 'plowshare' and the reflex o < & in the eastern Slovak, and perhaps middle Slovak, dialects (eg, moch, vos, piesok [cf Ukrainian moxf vosa, pisok] 'moss, louse, sand'). Greek Catholic eastern Slovaks were also influenced by the Ukrainian variant of Church Slavonic. As a result of 19thand 20th-century Slovakization pressures, many syntactic and phraseological Slovakisms and Slovak caiques en-

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tered the local literary language of the Ukrainians of the Presov region. The influence of Slovak (as that of Polish) on the Ukrainian language was strongest and most enduring in the Lemko dialects. In those dialects (i) the labialization CelC > ColC > ColoC in the word pelevnyk 'grain husk7 is absent; (2) sonorous r, I in weak positions of the groups Cr(l)b(b)C retained longer their sonant character after the disappearance of the weak jer, and therefore the vowel u appeared before them instead of, as in other Ukrainian dialects, after them (eg, kbiwavbij [su) kryvavyj] 'bloody', hbirmity [su hrymity] 'to thunder', sbiüza [su sl'oza] 'tear', bbiüxa [su bloxa] 'flea'); (3) the palatalization of s, z has a dorsal character, n before g, k becomes rj, and / ' after labials in fourthclass verbs is replaced by / (eg, robju [su roblju] 'I make'); (4) contracted verbal endings of the type trymam, -as, -at, âme, -aïe (su trymaju, -ajes, -aje, -ajemo, -ajete) 'I/you (sing)/ he/we/you(pl) hold', sporadic forms with ca < ce (eg, casaty, calo, capiha [su cesaty, coló, cepiha] 'to comb, forehead, plow handle'), and syntactic and aspectual peculiarities (eg, the atemporal use of the present tense of perfective verbs [eg, kvocka vuVahne kur'jata 'the hen broods chicks']) appeared; and (5) numerous Slovakisms entered the southern Lemko (and, to a lesser extent, the northern Lemko, Boiko, and western and middle Transcarpathian) lexicon; eg, words such as bratranec ' 'cousin', pec 'stove', bradlo 'haystack', draha 'road', blanar 'glassmaker', I'adnyk 'vetch', bodak 'bayonet', rixlyk 'fast train', semantic creations and caiques such as pas 'ika 'clearing', poros'acka 'sow', and lexical parallels such as rebryna 'ladder', lyska 'vixen'. Hungarian, German, and other European loanwords entered the dialects partly also via Slovak. Slovak-Ukrainian linguistic relations have been studied by scholars such as O. Broch, V. Hnatiuk, S. Tomashivsky, S. Czambel, A. Petrov, F. Pastrnek, Z. Stieber, O. Halaga, V. Latta, M. Onyshkevych, and Y. Dzendzelivsky.

but since the Second World War it has published works by Ukrainians mainly from Soviet Ukraine or the Soviet-bloc countries and has not devoted attention to Ukrainian émigré affairs. Slovechna River [Slovecna] (also Slavechna). A rightbank tributary of the Prypiat River that flows for 158 km through Polisia, Zhytomyr, and Homel (Belarus) oblasts and drains a basin area of 2,670 sq km. The river is 4-10 m wide, and its valley is approx 2.5 km wide. Its source is in the Ovruch Ridge. The river is used for water-supply purposes, irrigation, and, in its lower reaches, log rafting.

Slovechne-Ovruch Ridge. See Ovruch Ridge.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Onyshkevych, M. 'Slovats' ko-ukraïns'ki movni zv'iazky/ in

Pytannia slov'ianoznavstva (Lviv 1962) Dzendzelivs'kyi, I. Ukrains'ko-zakhidnoslov'ians'ki leksychni paralelí (Kiev 1969) Horbach, O. Pivdennolemkivs 'ka hovirka i diialektnyi slovnyk sela Krasnyi Brid bl Medzhylaborets' (Priashivshchyna) (Munich 1973) O. Horbach

Slovansky pfehled (Slavonic Survey). The leading Czech journal of Slavic studies, literature, culture, and affairs, published in Prague since 1898, except during the Second World War. After the war it was the bimonthly organ of the Institute of the History of European Socialist Countries of the Czechoslovak Academy of Sciences. Founded and edited until 1931 by A. Cerny, Slovansky prehled from the beginning was sympathetic toward Ukrainian concerns and issues. It has published translations of Ukrainian writers (I. Franko, T. Shevchenko, Lesia Ukrainka, B. Hrinchenko, B. Lepky, O. Vyshnia, I. Mykytenko, O. Korniichuk, L. Pervomaisky, and others) as well as articles by Ukrainian scholars and publicists, such as V. Hnatiuk, S. Yefremov, O. Hrushevsky, B. Lepky, D. Doroshenko, O. Mytsiuk, Ye. Vyrovy, H. Bochkovsky, I. Bryk, A. Zhyvotko, O. Zilynsky, and M. Molnar. The journal initially contained much information about Ukrainian-Czech relations and Ukrainian life in general,

The i/th-century limestone church in Slovianohirske Slovianohirske [Slovjanohirs'ke]. iv-i8, DB 1-3. A city (1989 pop 5,600) on the Donets River in Donetske oblast, administered by the Slovianske city council. Its origins can be traced to the village of Banne (or Banivske), which was established by Prince G. Potemkin near his palace and baths at the end of the i8th century. Under the Soviet regime it was converted into a health resort. In 1964 the town was granted city status and renamed Slovianohirske. It has three sanatoriums, a recreational base, and a campsite. A 17th-century limestone church and the *Sviati Hory Dormition Monastery stand within the city limits. Sloviano-Serbia. An administrative-territorial region of the mid-i8th century in Ukraine. The region was created by the Russian government in 1753 to protect the southern borders of the empire against Turko-Tatar attacks and to colonize sparsely inhabited territory; it was situated south of the Donets River in the area between the Bakhmut and

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the Luhanka rivers. It bordered on the Don Cossack lands to the east and partially to the south, on the Zaporizhia to the west, on Slobidska Ukraine to the north, and on the Crimean Khanate to the south. Bakhmut (now Artemivske) became its administrative center. As in the case of *New Serbia, Serbian military units were moved in from Hungary (as well as Bulgarians, Greeks, Wallachians, and other Orthodox peoples from the Ottoman Empire). Some of the military formations, however, consisted of Ukrainian peasants and Cossacks, and the majority of new settlers were Ukrainians. The Serbs, who were granted a certain degree of autonomy, were organized into two regiments (1,300 soldiers), under R. Preradovich and I. Shevich, and placed along the ""Ukrainian Line; their presence gave the region a semimilitary character. According to the census of 1760 there were 112 settlements, with a total population of 26,000, in the new territory. Frequent conflicts arose between the foreign military units and the local Ukrainian population as well as with the Ukrainians of neighboring Zaporizhia. In 1764 the territory was liquidated and included in the Catherinian province of New Russia gubernia. The foreign population eventually assimilated with local Ukrainians. BIBLIOGRAPHY Bahalii, D. Zaselennia Pivdennoï Ukraïny (Kharkiv 1920) Polons'ka-Vasylenko, N. The Settlement of the Southern Ukraine (1750-1775) (New York 1955)

A. Zhukovsky

Slovianoserbske [Slov'janoserbs'ke]. ¥-19, DB 11-5. A town smt (1986 pop 8,000) on the Donets River and a raion center in Luhanske oblast. To protect its southern frontier from the Tatars, the Russian government attracted colonists from Serbia, Croatia, Bulgaria, and Poland and in 1753 set up the military settlement of Pidhirne. In 1784 it was granted town status and renamed Donetske. Because of frequent flooding the town was moved in 1817 and renamed Slovianoserbske. Until 1882 it served as a county center of Katerynoslav gubernia. Many of its residents made their living as chumaks, carrying grain to Azov ports and bringing back salt and fish. In 1964 the settlement attained smt status, and in 1966 it became a raion center. It has a dairy, a bakery, and a fruit-canning factory. Sloviansk [Slov'jans'k] (Russian: Slaviansk-na-Kubani). vm-19. A city (1990 pop 58,000) on the Protoka River and a raion center in Krasnodar krai, RF. Until 1958 it was named Stanitsa Slavianskaia. The city is a highway junction and a river port. It has a large food industry. According to the census of 1926, Ukrainians accounted for 69.1 percent of the Sloviansk raion population. Slovianske [Slov'jans'ke]. v-i8, DB 1-3. A city (1989 pop 143,000) on the Kazennyi Torets River and a raion center in Donetske oblast. It originated as the fortified settlement Tor (est 1645), which developed into a salt manufacturing and trading center. In 1685-1764 it was a company center of Izium regiment. Then it became a county center in Katerynoslav vicegerency. In 1784 Tor was reclassified as a town and renamed Slovenske. A decade later it was renamed Slovianske and became a part of Slobidska Ukraine (from 1835, Kharkiv) gubernia. With the construction of a railway line (1869) nearby, the town grew

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rapidly. Its greatest industrial expansion occurred during the industrialization drive of the 19305. Today the city is an important industrial and health resort center. It has machine-building plants, an electric power station, a soda and a chemicals manufacturing consortium, a salt and a ceramics manufacturing complex, and oil- and meatprocessing complexes. Slovianske Heavy-Machine-Building Plant (Slovianskyi zavod vazhkoho mashynobuduvannia). A factory of the heavy-machine-building industry, located in Slovianske, Donetske oblast. A soda factory was built on the site of the present factory in 1912 by the South Russian Joint-Stock Company. In 1923 the factory began to assemble and repair agricultural machinery. In 1927 it began to repair mining equipment. Since the 19303 it has built primarily spare parts and equipment for the coke and chemical industries. Its machinery was evacuated at the outset of the Second World War, and the facilities were rebuilt after the war. In the early 19705 over 1,300 workers were employed at the plant. Slovianske Pedagogical Institute (Slovianskyi derzhavnyi pedahohichnyi instytut). An institution of higher learning, under the jurisdiction of the Ministry of Education, located in the city of Slovianske, Donetske oblast. It was founded in 1954 on the basis of the Teacher's Institute (1939). In 1982 the institute had five faculties: physicsmathematics, industrial and technical teacher training, elementary-school teacher training, pedagogy with specialization in preschool pedagogy and psychology, and handicapped child education. There was a correspondence and a preparatory section. The institute is fully equipped with study facilities, laboratories, and workshops. The library has 306,500 volumes in its collection. The student enrollment in 1986-7 was 5,100. Slovo (Word). A privately owned publishing house in Kiev that operated from 1922 to 1926. Its shareholders were primarily writers, activists in the Ukrainian co-operative movement, and workers in Kiev's publishing industry. The directors were H. Holoskevych, P. Fylypovych, and S. Tytarenko. Slovo published several poetry collections by the *Neoclassicists M. Zerov, P. Fylypovych, M. Drai-Khmara, and M. Rylsky; H. Kosynka's first story collection (1922); T. Osmachka's first poetry collection (1922); two books of Zerov's essays on Ukrainian literature (1924, 1926); the poetry anthology Siaivo (The Aura, 1922), edited by Zerov; and a collection dedicated to the memory of P. Stebnytsky. Slovo (Word). A newspaper of politics, literature, and current affairs, published in Lviv semiweekly in 1861-72 and then three times a week until 1887. The editor was B. Didytsky (1861-71) and then V. Ploshchansky. Initially Slovo published articles and literary works in the Galician vernacular and was funded by M. *Kachkovsky and Metropolitan H. Yakhymovych. From the mid-i86os, however, it was the main organ of the Russophile movement in Galicia, and published only in the artificial *yazychiie. From 1867 to 1870 it issued a biweekly journal, *Halychanyn. From 1876 it was subsidized by the tsarist government, which it openly supported. Slovo published political commentaries and literary and historical works. It re-

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mains a valuable source for the study of 19th-century Galicia, especially the Russophile movement. Frequent censorship and confiscations by the Austrian authorities and a steady loss of subscribers forced the paper's eventual closure.

several articles on Ukrainian philology. The editor was K. Chekhovych. Slovo (Word). A weekly newspaper published in Regensburg from November 1945 to December 1946. It was one of the first papers established by Ukrainian refugees in Germany after the Second World War. The editor was S. Dovhal. Slovo (Word). A Ukrainian-Canadian evangelical publication. It appeared in 1950 as a bimonthly tabloid in Toronto and then moved in 1951 to Saskatoon, where it became a quarterly journal. Publication soon became less regular, and ceased altogether in 1955. Slovo was the publication of the Independent Ukrainian Evangelical church, a faction of the Ukrainian Evangelical Alliance of North America that hoped to restore a church structure comparable to that of the "Independent Greek church in Canada in 1903-12. The main figures involved with the publication included L. Standret, P. Bodnar, M. Korak, and I. Kudryn; P. Krat and I. Bodrug served as its spiritual mentors.

The editorial board of Slovo (Kiev, 1907-9): from left: Valentyn Sadovsky, Symon Petliura, Yakym Mikhura, Mykola Porsh

Slovo (Word). A weekly newspaper of the ^Ukrainian Social Democratic Workers' party, legally published in Kiev from May 1907 to July 1909 (a total of 105 issues) by O. Koroleva (1907-8) and S. Petliura (1909). The editors were M. Porsh, V. Sadovsky, Ya. Mikhura, and Petliura. The newspaper concentrated on raising the political and social consciousness of its working-class readers, but over time it began devoting more attention to the struggle for Ukrainian political and cultural rights. In addition to the editors, who wrote mostly on political (Porsh), cultural (Petliura), and economic (Sadovsky, Mikhura) topics, regular contributors included A. Zhuk, D. Dontsov, H. Kovalenko, V. and D. Doroshenko, Isaak Mazepa, L. Yurkevych, V. Chekhivsky, and V. Stepankivsky. The newspaper also published prose and poetry by S. Cherkasenko, H. Chuprynka, Dniprova Chaika, and other writers. Slovo (Word). The organ of the "Ukrainian Social Democratic Workers' party. Its aim was to promote national consciousness among Ukraine's working class. Only one issue was published, in Kharkiv in November 1915, before the publication was closed down by the tsarist authorities. It was printed by the Dzvin publishing house (directed by Yu. Tyshchenko) and edited by V. Vynnychenko. Contributors included V. Sadovsky and S. Petliura. Slovo (Word). A daily newspaper published in Kamianets-Podilskyi in 1920. It was edited by Kotliarenko with the assistance of N. Hryhoriiv and P. Bohatsky. Slovo (Word). A semiannual journal of Slavic studies published by the Greek Catholic Theological Academy in Lviv in 1936-8 (a total of six issues). The journal published

Slovo, the organ of the Slovo Association of Ukrainian Writers in Exile

Slovo (The Word). A nonperiodic almanac published by the *Slovo Association of Ukrainian Writers in Exile. The almanac includes poetry, fiction, criticism, memoirs, and documents. The first almanac appeared in 1962 with H. *Kostiuk as editor in chief. The editorial note promised a continuation of the publishing tradition of *MUR and guaranteed publication access to various literary groups, movements, and generations.The editorial promise has held for the 12 issues that have appeared so far, and the almanac has reflected the various literary endeavors of Ukrainian émigré writers. Kostiuk remained editor in chief for vols 2 (1964) and 3 (1968). Vols 4 (1970) and 5 (1973) were under the editorship of S. *Hordynsky, and vol 6 (without a date), of U. *Samchuk. Vols 7-12 (1978, 1980, 1981, 1983, 1987, and 1990) did not indicate who among the editorial committee was the responsible editor. The editorial committee of the almanac consisted of the following: Yu. Boiko-Blokhyn (vols 10-12), O. Chernenko (vol 10), Hordynsky (vols 1-12), S. Hrybinska (Kuzmenko) (vols 9-12), Yu. Klynovy (Stefanyk) (vols 4-11), O. Kopach (vols 8-12), I. Korovytsky (vols i, 3), Kostiuk (vols 1-3, 6-

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12), B. Kravtsiv (vols 1-2), V. Lesych (vol i), D. Nytchenko (vols 10-12), P. Odarchenko (vols 3, 12), B. Oleksandriv (vols 6-8), B. Rubchak (vols 2-3,12), Samchuk (vols 6-11), Yu. Shevelov (vols 6-12), M. Shlemkevych (vols 1-2), O. Tarnavsky (vols 2-12), H. Zhurba (vol i), O. Zinkevych (vol 12), and O. Zuievsky (vols 5-12).

Slovo Association of Ukrainian Writers in Exile

(Obiednannia ukrainskykh pysmennykiv v emigratsii Slovo). An association initiated in New York on 26 June 1954 to continue and develop the ideology and activities of its European predecessor, *MUR, and to embrace within its membership all Ukrainian writers outside of Ukraine, the Soviet Union, and its former satellite countries. There were 13 initiating members: O. Burevii, D. Humenna, I. Kernytsky, H. *Kostiuk, B. Kravtsiv, Yu. Lavrinenko, V. Lesych, L. Lyman, Ye. Malaniuk, O. Tarnavsky, Yu. Sherekh [Shevelov], M. Shlemkevych, and H. Zhurba. Officially the association came into existence on 19 January *957/ when the bylaws of the association were signed by 22 writers in attendance and accepted by proxy by an additional 34 writers. Slovo holds periodic conventions (seven to date: 1958, 1964, 1968, 1970, 1975, 1982, and 1990) attended by delegates from the various national affiliates (the United States, Canada, England, Argentina, Brazil, Australia, Germany, and France). The presidents of the association have been Kostiuk (1954-75), Tarnavsky (197592), and D.H. Struk (since 1992). Since 1962 Slovo has published an irregular literary almanac, *Slovo, which includes contributions by its members. The association also fulfills the function of a publisher by allowing its authors to publish their works under the auspices and name of Slovo. There are two ongoing committees in the association, a biobibliographic one and an archival one, the latter of which also is charged with the preservation and publication of works and papers of deceased authors. In 1964 the association established a financial assistance fund for its members. At the time of the seventh convention in 1990 there were 128 members, of which 63 were in the United States, 46 in Canada, 7 in Germany, 5 in Australia, 3 each in England and France, and i in Brazil. BIBLIOGRAPHY Kostiuk, H. Z litopysu literaturnoho zhyttia v diiaspori (Munich

1971) Tarnavs'kyi, O. 'Ob'iednannia ukraïns'kykh pys'mennykiv "Slovo"/ Slovo, no. 12 (1990) D.H. Struk

Slovo Bozhe (Word of God). A popular monthly religious supplement to the Russophile newspaper *Nauka, published in Lviv from January 1879 to December 1881. It was edited by Rev O. Shcherban. Slovo Dobroho Pastyria (Word of the Good Shepherd). A Basilian publishing house in New York City. From 1950 to 1962 it issued popular-educational bimonthly booklets on religious and social subjects, including the history of the Ukrainian Catholic church and the Basilian order. The editors-in-chief were Revs V. Gavlich (1950-1), S. Sabol (1951-3), M. Vavryk (1953-4), V. Vavryk (1954-61), and M. Solovii. Among the authors were M. Wojnar, A. Velyky, A. Pekar, H. Luzhnytsky, I. Nazarko, and the editors.

Slovo i chas

Slovo i chas (Word and Time). A scholarly journal of literary theory, history, and criticism; an organ of the Institute of Literature of the AN URSR (now ANU) and of the Writers' Union of Ukraine. The journal was established in Kiev in 1957 as Radians 'ke literaturoznavstvo, and was published first as a bimonthly and from January 1965 as a monthly periodical. It was renamed Slovo i chas in 1990. The first editor in chief was O. *Biletsky (1957-61), who was succeeded by I. Dzeverin. As a result of the change in editors the quality of the journal noticeably deteriorated. Its large section on literary theory became limited to fatuous theorizing on the issues of ^socialist realism. In addition to traces of a propagandistic Party-minded tone in the articles on literary history and literary criticism, there is a marked absence of papers on current trends in world literature and on the relationship of Ukrainian literature with foreign literature. The journal further deteriorated with the intensified persecution of the early 19605, which resulted in a narrowing of the issues permitted for discussion and in many authors' being prohibited from publishing their work in the journal (eg, I. Dziuba, I. Svitlychny, Ye. Sverstiuk, V. Ivanysenko). The quality of Slovo i chas, in fact, is indicative of the general deterioration in Ukrainian literary scholarship caused by the gradual loss of scholars of the old school (eg, S. Maslov, Biletsky, P. Popov, Ye. Nenadkevych), who were gradually replaced by scholars educated in the Soviet system. Among the latter group there were few who could be considered authorities in Old Ukrainian literature, and for that reason the scope of the journal was reduced to studies of 19th- and 20th-century literature; typical contributors were those who specialized in the relationship between Ukrainian and Russian literature (N. Krutikova) or in the theory of socialist realism (M. Shamota). The democratization and policy of glasnost announced in 1985, which improved the quality of many other literary journals, have also had some effect on Slovo i chas. I. Koshelivets

Slovo istyny (The Word of Truth). An Orthodox monthly journal published from November 1947 to October 1951 in Winnipeg. Edited by Bishop I. Ohiienko, it contained articles on the history of Ukrainian Orthodoxy, theological, cultural, and historical topics, and the Ukrainian language. It was succeeded by Nasha kul'tura. Slovo na storozhi (The Word on Guard). An annual publication of the Ukrainian Language Association, published from 1964 to 1988, first in Winnipeg and then in

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Montreal (a total of 25 issues). It contained original and reprinted articles on the Ukrainian language and the teaching of it, on the use of Ukrainian in Canada, and on language policies and Russification in the Ukrainian SSR. Its editor was J. *Rudnyckyj. Slovo naroda (The Word of the People). The first and, until 1946, only Ukrainian-language newspaper in the Presov region, published from December 1931 to August 1932 (a total of 15 issues). Edited by I. Nevytska, it was the unofficial organ of the local Prosvita society. Its contributors were local populists and émigrés from Soviet Ukraine. The paper spoke out against both the Russophile and regional 'Ruthenian' political orientations in Transcarpathia; demanded the introduction of teaching in Ukrainian in elementary schools; and promoted Ukrainian culture, a pan-Ukrainian national identity, and the use of Standard Ukrainian. 'Slovo o kniaz'iakh' (Sermon on Princes). A 12th-century monument of homiletic literature. It was delivered as a eulogy in the Chernihiv cathedral ca 1175 by an unidentified cleric during the feast day of the transfer of the relics of SS Borys and Hlib. In it the author spoke of the warring princes Sviatoslav ill Vsevolodovych of Chernihiv and Oleh Sviatoslavych of Novhorod-Siverskyi. He invoked the lives of Borys and Hlib and the peace-loving Davyd Sviatoslavych of Chernihiv to exhort the princes to pursue peaceful coexistence, to respect the princely hierarchy, and to present a united front against the Cumans for the welfare of Rus'. A structurally and stylistically simple but moving sermon, it is thematically reminiscent of the epic Slovo o polku Ihorevi (The Tale of Ihor's Campaign). Slovo o polku Ihorevi (full title: Slovo o polku Ihorevi, Ihoria syna Sviatoslavlia, vnuka Ol'hova [The Tale of Ihor's Campaign, Ihor the Son of Sviatoslav, Grandson of Oleh]). An epic poem of the late 12th century written by an anonymous author. History of the work. The original was discovered in 1795 by Graf A. Musin-Pushkin, ober-prokuror of the *Holy Synod (1791-6), in the archives of Yoil, the archimandrite of the Transfiguration Monastery in Yaroslavl, Russia, and was published in St Petersburg in 1800 with the assistance of the paleographers M. Malynovsky and M. *BantyshKamensky. The original manuscript and many printed copies perished in the Moscow fire of 1812. The want of an original allowed a number of skeptical critics in the early i9th century (I. Belikov, I. Davydov, M. Kachenovsky, O. Senkovsky, and others) to consider the work a falsification of a later date. Subsequent skeptics included the French Slavists L. Léger and A. *Mazon (who believed that either Yoil or Bantysh-Kamensky wrote the work) and the Russian A. Zimin. The majority of scholars, however, believe it to be authentic. In 1818 K. Kalaidovich noticed an epigraph taken from the Slovo in the Pskov Apóstol of 1307. In 1829 R. Tymkovsky published a 15th-century manuscript, Zadonshchina (Past the Don [River]), that was modeled on the Slovo (plagiarized, according to M. Speransky). A wide range of scholars, particularly M. *Maksymovych, demonstrated connections between the Slovo and Ukrainian folk poetry. In the 19th century the poem served as the subject of studies by the Russians E. Barsov, V. *Miller, M. Tikhonov, A. *Veselovsky, and P. Viazem-

Pages from the 1974 Kiev edition of Slovo o polku Ihorevi (translation by Maksym Rylsky, linocuts by Ivan Selivanov) sky. Ukrainian academics, apart from Maksymovych, who published works on the Slovo included O. *Ohonovsky, O. *Potebnia, and P. *Zhytetsky. In the 2Oth century more than 700 major studies of the Slovo have been published in a variety of languages, including works by D. *Chyzhevsky, M. *Hrunsky, V. *Peretts, and O. *Pritsak. In the late 19305 work on the subject was halted in the Ukrainian SSR and was limited to Russian-language studies commissioned by the Academy of Sciences of the USSR. Owing to political circumstances Russian scholars were the leaders in the field; nonetheless, Ukrainians, Belarusians, and Russians all considered the Slovo as belonging to their own literature, because it is a literary monument of Kievan Rus', to which all three East Slavic nations lay claim. But no serious scholar has disputed that it was written in Ukraine, and that much of its semantic and poetic usage is characteristically Ukrainian. In the 19205 M. *Skrypnyk sought to have the Slovo recognized as an exclusively Ukrainian work. Historical basis and content. The subject of the poem is the unsuccessful campaign mounted in the spring of 1185 by Ihor Sviatoslavych, prince of Novhorod-Siverskyi, against the Cumans. Its central theme is the fate of the territories of Rus'. In addressing that theme the author condemns the various princes for their feuding and their selfishness at the expense of the general good. The poem was written in an epic lyrical style. The historical subject matter is interspersed with dreams, laments, nature's reaction to the hero's fate, monologues of princes, and other motifs and devices. The poem begins with an invocation of Boian, who sang the praises of princes of the nth century. The author of the Slovo promises to emulate Boian's style and to join the glories of the past with those of the present. After a description of preparations for the campaign, of the three-day battle, and of Ihor's defeat the author proceeds to analyze the reasons for the decline of the Rus' land. After a description of Ihor's escape from captivity the work concludes with praise of the 'ancient princes' Ihor and Vsevolod and of the 'younger ones,' represented by Volodymyr Ihorevych. Language and poetics. The language of the work is the contemporary Rus' literary language, similar to that of the

SLOVO O POLKU IHOREVI

chronicles, but with a marked increase in the incidence of the vernacular. Most scholars believe that the author was from either Kiev or Chernihiv, but others (A. Orlov, A. Yugov) contend that he was from Galicia. Some have surmised that the copy discovered by Musin-Pushkin had already been modified by succeeding generations of copyists and changed to adhere more closely to the Bulgarian orthography that was in use in the loth century, or that even Musin-Pushkin's copy may not have been a copy of the original but a copy of other copies. Such multicopying could explain a number of obscure passages in the epic. The vocabulary is relatively limited; it consists of slightly more than 900 words, combining literary ChurchSlavonic with contemporary Rus' terms and archaisms preserved in various old dialects. There are also some influences from other languages. The poem is particularly rich in epithets, similes, metaphors, the use of metonymy, and hyperbole. The author frequently personifies nature and represents it as a conscious being that either aids or harms humans. The rhythmic structure of the Slovo is a matter of considerable debate. All efforts to define its rhythmic structure, including those of R. Abicht in 1901 (syllabic verse), F. Korsh in 1909 (4/4 rhythm), V. *Birchak in 1910 (Byzantine church canonic rhythm), E. Sievers in 1926 (theory of random stress), and Metropolitan I. *Ohiienko in 1946 (rhythmic elements from ancient Hebraic verse), have been unsuccessful. Maksymovych sought to prove that the rhythm of the Slovo was a point of departure for the subsequent evolution of the *duma. Zhytetsky underscored the recitative character of the Slovo and claimed that each versesentence, regardless of the number of syllables, formed a poetic whole with a distinctive pattern of stresses. F. *Kolessa demonstrated a connection between the poem and the laments that developed into dumas. The Slovo's poetic form lends itself to a wide scope of expression and can incorporate many different rhythms depending on the theme and mood. Translations. Translations and adaptations of the Slovo have appeared in many languages, but most are in Ukrainian and Russian. Ukrainian verse and prose adaptations have been done by I. Vahylevych (completed in 1836, published 1884), B. Didytsky (in the yazychiie, 1849), Maksymovych (1857), S. Rudansky (completed 1860, published 1896), Yu. Fedkovych (1866,1902), I. *Franko (1873,1952), Ohonovsky (1876), P. Myrny (1883, 1896), O. Partytsky (1884), M. Cherniavsky (1894), I. Steshenko (1899, 1967), K. Zinkivsky (1907, 1967), V. Shchurat (1907, 1912), M. Hrushevsky (1923), P. Kostruba (1928), M. Hrunsky (1931), M. Matviiv-Melnyk (1936), S. Hordynsky (1936, 1950,1989), N. Zabila (1938), V. Svidzinsky (1938), M. Rylsky (1939), Ohiienko (1949), M. Arkas (1951), L. Makhnovets (1953), O. Kovalenko (1954), and M. Kravchuk (1968). Ukrainian adaptations of fragments of the poem have also been published, including those of the 'Lament of Yaroslavna/ by M. Shashkevych (1833), T. Shevchenko (1860), V. Mova (Lymansky, 1893), B. Lepky (1915), and others. Ya. Kupala translated it into Belarusian (prose, 1919; verse, 1921). The first verse translation of the Slovo into Russian was I. Seriakov's (1803); it was followed by those of V. Kapnist (1809), V. Zhukovsky (1817-19), M. Delarue (1839), L. Mei

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(1850), N. Gerbel (1854), A. Maikov (1869), Barsov (1887), K. Balmont (1929), S. Shervinsky (1934), G. Shtorm (1934), I. Novikov (1938), V. Stelletsky (1938), M. Zabolotsky (1946), A. Yugov (1950), S. Botvinnik (1957), and M. Rilenkov (1962). The first edition of 'Slovo' evoked great interest in Germany's literary world. In 1803 J. Richter published one of the first translations of the poem, followed by J. Miller (1811), A. Bolz (1854), F. Bodenstedt (1861), R. Abicht, R.M. Rilke (1904, printed 1930), A. Luther (1923), E. Sievers (1926), K.H. Meyer (1933), H. Raal (1963), H. Baumann (1968), S. Hordynsky and L. Kaczurowskyj-Kriukow (1985). The poem was translated into English by L. Wiener (1902), L.A. Magnus (1905), H. de Veré Beauclerk (1918), B.A. Guerney (1943), S.H. Cross (1948), V. Nabokov (1961), C.H. Andrushyshen and W. Kirkconnell (1963), I. Petrova (1981), D. Ward (1985), and others. French translations have been published by N. Blanchard and N. Ekstein (1823), F. de Bargon (1878), N. Koulman and M. Behagel (1937), and A. Grégoire (1945). Polish translations of the Slovo include those of C. Godebski (1821), S. Krasiñski (1856), Lepky (1899), and J. Tuwim (1927,1944). Czech translations include those of V. Hanka (1921) and F. Kubka (1946). Other languages into which the epic has been translated are Serbian (I. Khadzhevic, 1842; I. Sankovic; and others), Slovene (M. Pletershnik, 1865), Bulgarian (R. Zinzifov, 1863; L. Stoianov, 1954), Italian (D. Ciampolli, 1911; E. Gatto, 1928), Spanish (J. and R. Maikiel, 1949), Danish (T. Lange, 1888), Hungarian (S. Ridl, 1858; H. Strypsky), Hebrew and Yiddish (S. Mendelssohn, 1875; D. Hofstein and I. Feffer, 1938), Abkhaz, Bashkir, Armenian, Georgian, Kazakh, Tatar, Uzbek, Rumelian-Greek, and many other languages. H. Khotkevych wrote a historical play based on the Slovo in 1926. H. Luzhnytsky also adapted it for the stage. I. Borodin used motifs from the poem in his opera Prince Igor, as did M. Lysenko in his Plach Yaroslavny (Yaroslavna's Grief). Painters and graphic artists, such as H. Narbut, P. Kholodny, Sr, O. Kulchytska, P. Andrusiv, J. Hnizdovsky, P. Lopata, as well the Russians V. Vasnetsov and V. Favorsky, drew inspiration from the epic. It is also reflected in the sculpture of M.(B). Mukhyn and A. Pavlos and in the stained-glass compositions of L. Molodozhanyn. BIBLIOGRAPHY Maksymovych, M. Pesn ' o polku Igoreve (Kiev 1837) Ohonovs'kyi, O. Slovo o polku Ihorevi (Lviv 1876) Barsov, E. Slovo o polku Igoreve kak khudozhestvennyi pamiatnik Kievskoi druzhinnoi Rusi, 2 vols (Moscow 1887,1889) Potebnia, A. Slovo o polku Igoreve: Tekst i primechaniia, 2nd edn (Kharkiv 1914) Peretts', V. Slovo o polku Ihorevim: Pam'iatka feodal'noï UkraïnyRusy xii v. (Kiev 1926) Hruns'kyi, M. Slovo o polku Ihorevim (Kharkiv 1931) Orlov, A. Slovo o polku Igoreve (Leningrad 1938,1946) Mazon, A. 'Le Slovo d'Igor/ Revue des Études Slaves, 18-19,21 (1938-9,1944) Dmitriev, L. Slovo o polku Igoreve: Bibliografiia izdanii, perevodov, i issledovanii (Moscow-Leningrad 1938-54) Adrianova-Peretts, V. (ed). Slovo o polku Igoreve: Bibliografiia izdanii, perevodov, i issledovanii (Moscow 1940) Davidova, O.; Poplavskaia, L; Romanchenko, L; Sostavila, O. (eds). Slovo o polku Igoreve: Bibliograficheskii ukazatel' (Moscow 1940) Grégoire, H.; Jakobson, R.; Szeftel, M. (eds). La Geste du Prince Igor (New York 1948)

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Adriano va-Peretts, V. (ed). Slovo o polku Igor eve (Moscow-Leningrad 1950) Likhachev, D. Slovo o polku Igoreve (Moscow-Leningrad 1950) Maslov, S. (ed). Slovo o polku Ihorevi v ukrams'kykh khudozhnikh perekladakh i perespivakh xix-xx st. (Kiev 1953) Slovo o polku Ihorevim (Kiev 1955) Makhnovets', L. 'Slovo o polku Ihorevi' ta ioho poetychni pereklady i perespivy (Kiev 1967) Dmitriev, L. Istoriia pervogo izdaniia 'Slova o polku Igoreve' (Moscow-Leningrad 1960) Hordyns'kyi, S. 'Slovo o polku Ihorevi' i ukraïns'ka narodnia poeziia (Winnipeg 1963) Slovo o polku Igoreve (Moscow 1961,1967) Pritsak, O. The Igor Tale as a Historical Document/ AUA, 12 (1969-72) Mann, R. Lances Sing: A Study of the Igor Tale (Columbus, Ohio 1990) S. Hordynsky

'Slovo o zakoni i blahodati' (Sermon on Law and Grace). A prominent monument of medieval Ukrainian oratorical and political literature. It was written in Kiev between 1037 and 1050, most likely by *Ilarion. In it the politically astute and erudite author affirms the independence of the Kievan Rus' state and its church and denies Constantinople's assumption of ascendancy over Kiev. Using metaphor and antithesis the author contrasts the law7 of the Old Testament (cold, darkness, and enslavement) with the 'grace' of the New Testament (warmth, light, and freedom) and eloquently describes and praises the benefits of the Christianization of Kievan Rus'. The work's central part, a patriotic eulogy to Grand Princes Volodymyr the Great and Yaroslav the Wise, describes Volodymyr's conversion as the result of divine inspiration rather than of Byzantine influence. It ends with a prayer on behalf of 'our entire land' for deliverance from those who would conquer it. Although the sermon was intended for a select audience, its popularity was wide, and its structure and stylistic and rhetorical devices were copied by others (eg, the author of the eulogy to Prince Volodymyr Vasylkovych in the Volhynian Chronicle, and Domentijan, the Serbian author of the lives of SS Simeon and Sava [1253]). An English translation of the Slovo by N.L. Ickler appeared in the journal Comitatus (vol 9, 1978). It has been analyzed by many scholars, notably I. Zhdanov, N. Rozov, L. Müller, and A. Moldavan. R. Senkus

tic poet and dramatist; member of the ^Ukrainian school in Polish literature. He spent parts of his childhood and youth in Kremianets and knew the Ukrainian language and Ukrainian folk songs and folklore. In the summer of 1827 he visited Odessa, Tulchyn, and Uman. Ukrainian linguistic and folkloric elements and themes are found in his first poem, 'Duma ukrainska' (Ukrainian Duma, 1826), in his narrative poem 'Zmija' (The Snake, 1832), and in other poems. He depicted Ukrainian historical events in his narrative poems 'Jan Kazimierz' (1839), 'Bienowski' (1841), and 'Sen srebrny Salomei' (Salome's Silver Dream, 1843) and in the dramatic romance 'Ksiadz Marek' (The Priest Marek, 1843). He also utilized Ukrainian settings and folklore in his plays 'Balladyna' (1834), 'Mazepa' (1839), and 'Lilla Weneda' (1840). Slowacki's works have been translated into Ukrainian by I. Verkhratsky, M. Starytsky, O. Pchilka, V. Shchurat, P. Stebnytsky, S. Tverdokhlib, M. Zerov, M. Rylsky, M. Bazhan, V. Gzhytsky, A. Malyshko, M. Tereshchenko, M. Zisman, B. Ten, Ye. Drobiazko, and others. Ukrainian editions of his works appeared in Kiev in 1959 (2 vols) and in 1969. Books about him have been written by the Soviet Ukrainian scholars Ye. Rykhlik (1929), H. Verves (1959), S. Levinska (1973), and R. Radyshevsky (1985), and a Ukrainian biobibliographic guide was published by V. Stefanovych (1959). R. Senkus

Slozka, Mykhailo [Sl'ozka, Myxajlo] (Sliozka), b ? in Belarus, d 1667 in Lviv. Printer and bookseller. He worked at (1633) and directed (1634-7, 1643-51) the Lviv Dormition Brotherhood Press. From 1638 he also ran his own press in Lviv. Slozka printed over 50 books in Church Slavonic, Latin, and Polish. Among his most important publications were the Apóstol (1639), with illustrations by the renowned engraver *Illia; I. Galiatovsky's Kliuch mzumieniia (The Key of Understanding, 1659) and Nebo novoie (The New Heaven, 1665); Latin works by S. Okolski; and T. Prokopovych's panygeric in honor of Bishop A. Zhelyborsky. Slozka often clashed with the Lviv Brotherhood, who tried to maintain their publishing monopoly; in the prefaces to some of his publications he defended his independence as a publisher. In 1646 Metropolitan P. Mohyla forbade him to print church books, but Slozka disregarded the ban and was anathematized by Mohyla. Only 14 days after Slozka's death was the anathema lifted and his burial allowed.

Slovo o zburenniu pekla (The Tale of the Harrowing of Hell). An Easter drama dating back to the late 17th and early i8th centuries. It is based on apocryphal tales of Jesus's descent into hell, whence he led all the sinners. It is the only example of 17th-century drama that was not written according to the scholastic edicts of poetics. It has neither prologue nor epilogue and does not follow the usual three-to-five-act structure. It is written in syllabically uneven lines of richly rhyming verse and is reminiscent of contemporary Cossack dumas. The language is close to the vernacular of the day, and its robust humor and depiction of everyday life account for its popularity and its influence on contemporary verse. It has been translated into English by I. Makaryk (About the Harrowing of Hell, 1989). (See also *School drama.) Slowacki, Juliusz, b 4 November 1809 in Kremianets, Volhynia gubernia, d 2 April 1849 in Paris. Polish Roman-

The Sluch River in Volhynian Polisia

SLUTSKY

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scribes events in Kievan Rus' from 970 to 1237. The Slutsk Chronicle is a major source for the history of Belarus and Lithuania, and a source for Ukrainian history to the mid15th century. It was published in vol 17 of Polnoe sobranie russkikh letopisei (Complete Collection of Russian Chronicles, 1907). Its language contains Belarusian influences. Slutsk principality. A principality of Kievan Rus', with Slutsk as capital. It was formed out of a portion of TurivPinske principality in the 11905 and was for a period a dependency of the Principality of Galicia-Volhynia. In 1326 it became a vassal of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, and it was ruled by the descendants of Algirdas until 1612, when it was inherited by the Radziwiiis. The principality was abolished in 1791.

Abram Slutskin

Engraving of St John the Evangelist in the 1639 Lviv Apóstol printed by Mykhailo Slozka

Sluch River [Slue]. A right-bank tributary of the Horyn River that flows northward for 451 km through Khmelnytskyi, Zhytomyr, and Rivne oblasts and drains a basin area of 13,900 sq km. Its valley is between 0.2 and 0.8 km wide in its upper reaches and up to 5 km wide downstream. The river itself is 5-50 m wide for most of its course and no m at its widest point. The Sluch is used for industrial and water-supply purposes as well as for irrigation, fishing, and water transportion (it is navigable for 290 km). Its main tributaries include (right) the Tnia and (left) the Korchyk, the Smolka, and the Khomora. A small hydroelectric station exists in its upper reaches. The main centers along the river include Novohrad-Volynskyi and y y Sarny. Slutsk Chronicle. A short redaction of West Ruthenian chronicles. It was compiled in the 15th century at the court of the Slutsk princes, about whom it also contains some information. The Slutsk Chronicle consists of two parts. The first part describes events in the Grand Duchy of Lithuania from the mid-i4th century to 1446. The second part de-

Slutskin, Abram [Sluc'kin], b 5 July 1881 in Borisoglebsk, Voronezh gubernia, Russia, d 13 July 1950 in Kharkiv. Microradiowave physicist; full AN URSR (now ANU) member from 1948. A graduate of Kharkiv University (1916), he conducted breakthrough research on the magnetron generation of centimeter waves there and at the ANU Physical-Technical Institute in Kharkiv, where from 1930 he headed the electromagnetic waves research section. Slutskin is credited with decisive contributions to the creation, in 1939, of the first Soviet decimeter radiolocation system. Slutsky, Hryhorii [Sluc'kyj, Hryhorij], b 8 October 1916 in Kiev, d i March 1990 in Kiev. Architect. A graduate of the Kiev Civil-Engineering Institute (1940), he directed the group that prepared the plan for the general development of Kiev (1964-7) and the plan of development of Kiev's Vidradnyi and Obolon raions, designed residential buildings on Kiev's Bessarabska Square (1948-50) and Engels St (1950-3), collaborated on the design for Kiev's Main Post Office (1952-6) and River Station (1959-60), and wrote articles on architecture. Slutsky, Mykhailo [Sluc'kyj, Myxajlo], b 19 July 1907 in Kiev, d 23 June 1959 in Moscow. Film director. He completed cinematography courses in the Kiev State Institute of Cinema (1932) and then worked as a director of documentary films in 1947-56 at the Ukrainian Studio of Chronicle-Documentary Films. Among his films are Radians'ka Ukraina (SovietUkraine, 1947) and Kvitucha Ukraïna (Flowering Ukraine, 1951).

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Slutsky, Oleksander [Sluc'kyj], b 20 June 1915 in Kiev, d 9 June 1967. Historian. A graduate of Kiev University (1935)/ ne worked at the AN URSR (now ANU) Institute of History (from 1938) and taught at various institutions of higher education in Kiev. He wrote Radians 'ke i kul 'turne budivnytstvo na Ukraïni v pershi roky borot 'by za sotsialistychnu industrializatsiiu kraïny (1926-1929 rr.) (Soviet and Cultural Construction in Ukraine in the First Years of the Struggle for the Socialist Industrialization of the Country [1926-9], 1957) and Rabochii klass Ukrainy v bor'be za sozdanie fundamenta sotsialisticheskoi ekonomiki (1926-1932 gg.) (The Working Class of Ukraine in the Struggle to Lay the Foundation of a Socialist Economy [1926-32], 1963).

Yevhen Slutsky

Gen Oleksander Slyvynsky

Slutsky, Yevhen [Sluc'kyj, Jevhen], b 19 April 1880 in Novoe, Yaroslavl gubernia, Russia, d 10 March 1948 in Moscow. Economist, mathematician, and statistician. After graduating in economics from Kiev University (MA, 1911) he taught economics and statistics at the Kiev Commercial Institute (1913-26). Then he worked in Moscow at the Institute for the Study of Business Cycles (1926-30), the Central Institute of Meteorology (1930-8), and the Mathematics Institute of the USSR Academy of Sciences (1938-48). Slutsky made fundamental contributions to economics and mathematics: he built the basis for modern indifference-curve analysis with its income and substitution effects (1915), developed the theory of stochastic processes and applied it to economic cycles (1927), and reformulated the fundamental concept of economics as part of the general theory of purposive action on praxeology (1925). His work in economics influenced O. Lange and the Polish praxeologist T. Kotarbiñski. In mathematics he made an important contribution to probability theory. Sluzhbovets' (The Civil Servant). A weekly organ of the Central Administration and Kharkiv branch of the Union of Soviet Trade Employees, published in Kharkiv in 192531 (a total of 269 issues). It contained trade union news, political and economic articles, prose, and poetry. Sluzhbovyk (The Employee). A monthly organ of the *Union of Ukrainian Private Office Employees, published in Lviv in 1919-39. Its editors included V. TsmailoKulchytsky, P. Podlevsky, V. Poliansky, O. Navrotsky, and A. Nyvynsky.

Sluzhebnyk. See Liturgicon. Sluzhka, Ivan [Sluzka], b and d ? Ukrainian civil and military engineer during the i6th century. He is mentioned in chronicles of the period as the designer and builder of five churches and the Kyselivka fortifications in Kiev in 1542-8. Slynko, Ivan [Slyn'ko], b 25 November 1902 in Vasylkivka, Pavlohrad county, Katerynoslav gubernia. Historian and civic figure. A graduate of the Dnipropetrovske Metallurgical Institute (1935), he worked as a CP(B)U propagandist (1938), as head of the AN URSR (now ANU) presidium's Commission on the History of the Great Fatherland War (1946-50), and as department director (1950-2) and senior research associate (from 1952) at the ANU Institute of History. His published works are about the popular struggle in Ukraine during the Second World War (coauthor, 1957), socialist reconstruction and the technical rebuilding of agriculture in Ukraine (1961), and the under-ground and the partisan movement in Ukraine in 1944 (1970). Slyvynsky, Andrii [Slyvyns'kyj, Andrij], b 1908 in Dubosari, Tyraspil county, Kherson gubernia. Civil engineer; member of the Ukrainian SSR Academy of Construction and Architecture from 1956. He designed metallurgical and chemical factories in the Donbas, the Urals, and Siberia. He contributed to theoretical foundations in the fields of the organization and mechanization of the construction industry. In 1956-7 he served as assistant minister of the metallurgical and chemical industry of the Ukrainian SSR. Slyvynsky, Oleksander [Slyvyns'kyj], b 1886 in Poltava gubernia, d 1953 in Canada. Senior UNR Army officer. During the First World War he served as chief of staff of a division and a cavalry corps in the Russian army, and received the highest decoration for bravery in combat. In June 1917 he became a member of the General Military Committee of the Central Rada, and in November he was appointed deputy chief and then chief of the General Staff of the UNR Army. During the Hetmán government he continued to serve, at the rank of colonel, as chief of the General Staff. He drafted a comprehensive organizational plan for a regular Ukrainian army. In the interwar period he lived in Germany and then emigrated to Canada. Smakula, Oleksander (Alexander), b 9 September 1900 in Dobrovody, Zbarazh county, Galicia, d 17 May 1983 in Auburndale, Massachusetts. Physicist, crystallographer, inventor; full member of the Shevchenko Scientific Society from 1930 and the Amerian Physical Society and fellow of the American Optical Society. A graduate of Gôttingen University (PH D, 1927), he taught there and then headed the optical laboratory at the Kaiser Wilhelm Institute in Heidelberg (1930-4) and the research laboratory at the Carl Zeiss Optical Co in Jena, Germany (1934-45). From 1951 to 1966 he was a professor at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, where he organized in 1964 and headed until 1975 the Laboratory of Crystal Physics. Smakula wrote over 100 works, among them important contributions on color centers in crystals (his formulae are basic in the field), the optical properties of solids, the measurement of dielectric properties of materials, and interactions be-

SMAL-STOTSKY

Oleksander (Alexander) Smakula

Roman Smal-Stotsky

tween radiation and crystal lattices. He undertook important studies of the optical properties of organic crystals (his crystallographic measurements contributed to the discovery of vitamins A, B2, and D); contributed to the development of quantum theory; and discovered and perfected the standard antireflection coating for lenses, universally used today in photographic cameras, microscopes, telescopes, and other optical lenses and apparatuses. L. Onyshkevych

Smallpox (Ukrainian: vispa). An acute infectious disease caused by a virus (pox virus), for which there is no known cure. Escalating to epidemics and then leveling off through the centuries, smallpox has been known to exist and ravage nations from ancient times. In the Russian Empire 100,000 to 150,000 people succumbed to the disease every year. After the imposition of Soviet rule smallpox was controlled through isolation and vaccination, and it had been eliminated in the USSR by 1936. The campaign of the World Health Organization, begun in 1950, brought smallpox under control throughout the world; the disease was pronounced eradicated in 1977. Smal-Stotsky, Ivan [Smal'-Stoc'kyj], b 1905 in Poltava gubernia. Writer. As a postwar refugee in Australia he published the prose collection Potolocheni khliba (Trampled Grain, 1954), the novel Klepachivskyi reid (The Klepachi Raid, 1968), and the reportage KinofU'mova ekspedytsiia (The Filming Expedition, 1970). He has contributed to many émigré periodicals. Smal-Stotsky, Roman [Smal'-Stoc'kyj] (Smal-Stocki), b 8 January 1893 in Chernivtsi, d 27 April 1969 in Washington, DC. Scholar and political figure; member of the Shevchenko Scientific Society (NTSh) from 1934; son of S. *Smal-Stotsky. He studied at Vienna, Leipzig, and Munich (PH D, 1914) universities. During the First World War he was an emissary of the *Union for the Liberation of Ukraine (svu) in Munich and worked as an svu organizer and teacher among the Ukrainians from the Russian army held in row camps in Germany. After the war he was a representative of the Western Ukrainian National Republic (1918-19) in Berlin and an adviser (1919-21) and extraordinary envoy and plenipotentiary minister (1921-3) of the UNR in Berlin, a professor of comparative Slavic linguistics at the Ukrainian Free University in Prague (1923-

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6), a visiting professor (and unofficial UNR envoy) in London and Cambridge (1924-5), and a professor at Warsaw University (1926-39). In Warsaw he was also the UNR government-in-exile's deputy minister of foreign affairs, minister of culture, deputy premier (1926-44), and minister of foreign affairs; he was a member of the UNR delegation to the League of Nations, secretary of the Ukrainian Scientific Institute in Warsaw (1929-39) and editor of its Pratsi, a leading figure in the ^Promethean movement, and copublisher (with I. Ohiienko) of the series Studïï do ukra'ins'ko'i hramatyky (Studies in Ukrainian Grammar, 7 vols, 1926-9). During the Second World War he lived under Gestapo house arrest in Prague. A postwar refugee in Germany, in 1947ne emigrated to the United States. Until 1965 he was a professor of East European history at Marquette University in Milwaukee, founding director of its Slavic Institute, and editor of the institute's publications. From 1951 he was president of the American NTSh, and from 1955 head of its Supreme Council and a member of the Political Council of the Ukrainian Congress Committee of America. Smal-Stotsky produced studies on Ukrainian word formation (particularly of adjectives); on Rumanianisms, Hungarianisms, and Germanisms in the Ukrainian language; on etymology; and on Soviet (Russian) language policy in Ukraine. His more important works are Abriss der ukrainischen Substantivbildung (1915), Narys slovotvoru prykmetnykiv ukraïns 'koï movy (A Study of the Word Formation of Ukrainian Adjectives, 1925), Znachennia ukraïns'kykh prykmetnykiv (The Significance of Ukrainian Adjectives, 1926), Prymityvnyi slovotvir (Primitive Word Formation, 1929), Ukraïns 'ka mova v Soviets 'kii Ukraïni (The Ukrainian Language in Soviet Ukraine, 1936; 2nd expanded edn 1969), Die germanisch-deutschen Kultureinflüsse im Spiegel der ukrainischen Sprache (1942), The Origin of the Word 'Rus'' (1949), The Nationality Problem of the Soviet Union and Russian Communist Imperialism (1952), The Captive Nations: Nationalism of the Non-Russian Nations in the Soviet Union (1960), and The History of Modern Bulgarian Literature (with C. Manning, 1960). In the United States he published political articles in American newspapers, the Ukrainian Weekly, and the Ukrainian Quarterly, and contributed the chapter on the history of the Ukrainian language to Ukraine: A Concise Encyclopaedia (vol i, 1963). Articles about him and a select bibliography of his works can be found in ZNTSh (vol 177,1963). O. Horbach

Smal-Stotsky, Stepan [Smal'-Stoc'kyj], b 8 January 1859 in Nemyliv, Kamenetsky county, Galicia, d 17 August 1938 in Prague. Philologist, pedagogue, and cultural, economic, and political figure; member of the Shevchenko Scientific Society from 1899 and the YUAN from 1918; father of R. *Smal-Stotsky. He studied at the universities of Chernivtsi (1879-83) and Vienna (PH D, 1884), where he became a disciple of F. *Miklosich. While serving as a professor of Ukrainian language and literature at Chernivtsi University (1885-1918), he played a key role in the national and cultural revival of Bukovyna's Ukrainians: he headed the *Soiuz (1879-82), *Ukrainska Shkola (188791), and *Ruska Rada (1904-14) societies and was a founding member of the People's Home, a leading member of the Ruska Besida society, a deputy from the National Democratic party in the Bukovynian Provincial Diet

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one book, Taras Shevchenko: Interpretatsiï (Taras Shevchenko: Interpretations, 1934; repr 1965). He also wrote a book on the culture and history of Bukovynian Rus' (1897) and articles on the Hankenstein Codex; Ukrainian orthography and etymology; Ukrainian writers, such as I. Kotliarevsky, M. Shashkevych, Yu. Fedkovych, V. Stefanyk (the preface to his first novella collection, 1897), I- Franko, and O. Kobylianska; and his recollections of Nemyliv (1933). BIBLIOGRAPHY

Na poshanu storichchia narodyn Stepana Smal '-Slots 'koho, vol 172 of

ZNTSh, ed K. Kysilevs'kyi (New York-Paris-Sydney-Toronto

1960) Simovych, V. Ukraïns 'ke movoznavstvo: Rozvidky i statti, vol 2, ed G.Y. Shevelov (Ottawa 1984)

Stepan Smal-Stotsky

Mark Smerchanski

(1892-1911) and the Diet's deputy marshal (1904-10), a long-term coeditor of the daily *Bukovyna, and a member of the Provincial Executive Board and Provincial School Council. He organized over 100 village reading houses and, together with M. Vasylko and other Bukovynian leaders, fought for and attained equality for Ukrainians in Bukovyna's civil service and political life. As the head of the Ruska Kasa savings and loan society and *Selianska Kasa union of agricultural credit co-operatives, he helped build the Ukrainian co-operative movement in Bukovyna. From 1911 to 1918 Smal-Stotsky was a member of the Austrian Parliament in Vienna. During the First World War he played a leading role in the *Union for the Liberation of Ukraine. He was a cofounder of the *Graycoats division and represented the Western Ukrainian National Republic's (ZUNR) Ministry of Military Affairs in Vienna. In 1917 he was in charge of the Ukrainian Sich Riflemen's charity work, propaganda, and publishing. From 1919 he lived in Prague, where he served as an envoy of the ZUNR, a professor at the Ukrainian Free University (1921-38), and director of the Museum of Ukraine's Struggle for Independence (1935-8). He was buried in Cracow. Smal-Stotsky was a precursor of the phonological method in Ukrainian linguists. In his works on Ukrainian linguistics and literature he combined positivist language with a national-romantic Weltanschauung. He wrote Über die Wirkungen der Analogie in der Deklination des Kleinrussischen (1886, PH D dissertation) and, with T. Gartner, the influential Grammatik der ruthenischen (ukminischen) Sprache (4 edns, 1893,19°7/ 19M/1928). In it he proved that Ukrainian sprang directly from Proto-Slavic, and vitiated the theory of a Proto-East Slavic language. He propounded the same view in his later works, particularly in his book on the development of views concerning the relatedness of the Slavic languages and their common origin (1925; rev edn 1927). He unequivocally opposed V. *Hantsov's view that Standard Ukrainian developed out of the northern and southern Ukrainian dialects. His obvious exaggerations (eg, regarding the particular closeness of Ukrainian and Serbian and the absence of diphthongs in the northern Ukrainian dialects), however, hindered the acceptance of his many valid views by other linguists. In literature, from 1913 Smal-Stotsky focused his attention on T. Shevchenko's works. His studies were published as

Smerchanski, Mark [Smercans'kyj], b i November 1914 in Malonton, Manitoba. Mining and metallurgical engineer, and politician. After being educated at the University of Manitoba (1937) and Virginia Polytechnical Institute (1938) Smerchanski managed mines in British Guiana (now Guyana) during the Second World War and then established several mining and manufacturing enterprises in Canada. He sat in the provincial legislature as a Liberal for the constituency of Burrows (1962-6) and in the federal House of Commons as Liberal member for Provencher (1968-72). Smerchanski played an important role in the establishment of the department of Slavic studies at the University of Manitoba, as the head of the Ukrainian Studies Fund, and in the building of the Holy Family nursing home in Winnipeg. Smerd. The name given to a member of a class of peasantry of the Kievan state in the nth and 12th centuries. The delineation of the group is somewhat imprecise and a subject of historical debate. Most scholars (M. Braichevsky, B. Grekov, M. Hrushevsky in his early writings, M. Maksymeiko, M. Vladimirsky-Budanov, and others) contend the name was given to two categories of peasants: the free, who gradually lost their freedom with the development of the feudal order, and the dependent peasantry. Others (V. Kliuchevsky, M. Hrushevsky in his later writings, S. Chernov, and A. Presniakov) maintain that only the free peasants, including both those who lived on their own land and those who settled on the estates of princes, were thus designated. The name disappeared from use in the 12th century but resurfaced in the 13th and 14th centuries as a designation of dependent peasants of the Galician-Volhynian state. It sometimes surfaces in documents of the 15th and i6th centuries concerning Ukrainian territories under Poland and Lithuania as a term for people of low station. From the 13th century the name was increasingly replaced by *kmet. The designation was also used by West Slavs, including Serbs (smardi) and Poles (smardowie, smurdowie). BIBLIOGRAPHY Maksymeiko, M. Pro smerdiv Rus'MPravdy (Kiev 1927) Grekov, B.D. Krest'iane na Rusi, vol i (Moscow 1952) A. Zhukovsky

Smerechynska-Shul, Rozha [Smerecyns'ka-SuF, Roza] (née Smereczynska von Dindorf), b 23 April 1914 in Lviv, d 27 October 1986 in Philadelphia. Educator, musicologist, music and art critic. After graduating from the

SMILA M A C H I N E - B U I L D I N G PLANT

Szymanowski Conservatory in Lviv in the theory class of S. Barbag and Z. Lissa (1934) she studied musicology at Lviv University (1935-7) witn A. Chybinski. She then taught piano and theory at the Lysenko Higher Institute of Music (1937-9) and the Lviv State Conservatory (193941). Emigrating to the United States in the 19505, she taught piano at the Ukrainian Music Institute of America in New York, Jersey City, and other cities. Her writings include the handbook Osnovy muzychnoho mystetstva: Teoriia i istoriia (Principles of the Art of Music: Theory and History, 1973), articles, and reviews. Smerechynsky, Serhii [Smerecyns'kyj, Serhij], b 21 September 1892 in Mechetna, Balta county, Podilia gubernia, d ? Archivist and linguist. As director of the Vinnytsia Archives, he published articles on the predicative instrumental and nominative (1928), on relative clauses in Ukrainian (1929) and a book of essays on Ukrainian syntax in relation to phraseology and stylistics (1932), in which he advocated the use of vernacular constructions in all fields of speech and writing, including science and journalism. He was assailed for this stance by Party critics, such as H. Sabaldyr and O. Matviienko. During the terror in the 19305 he was arrested, and his further fate is unknown. Smerek, Myroslav, b 1935 in Manastyr, Jaroslaw county, Galicia. Modernist painter and educator. In 1962 he graduated from the art faculty of Toruñ University. He painted the urban landscape series 'Birth of a Factory' and, from his travels in Ukraine, series of paintings of Ukrainian churches and Crimean landscapes (1964). The influence of the icon tradition is evident in his work. Smereka, Antonina (real surname: Bahlii), b 14 March 1892 in Kiev, d 29 June 1981 in Kharkiv. Actress. She was one of the founders of *Molodyi Teatr (1916-19) and an actress in the Theater of the Western Ukrainian National Republic (1919), Kyidramte (1920-1), Berezil (1922-34), and the Kharkiv Ukrainian Drama Theater (1935-51). SMERSH (Russian acronym for smert shpionam 'death to the spies'). A special division of the *NKVD. Active between 1942-6 under the direction of V. Abakumov and I. Serov, SMERSH acted inside the USSR and among the Russian occupational troops in Europe. Its task was to eliminate alleged opponents of the Soviet regime among Soviet citizens who during the Second World War had spent time outside of the control of Soviet authorities (prisoners of war, *Ostarbeiter, and war refugees). It terrorized its victims outside of the USSR through ^repatriation and within the country by mass arrests, executions, or deportations to the gulag. Smiach camp sites. A group of Mesolithic and Neolithic sites near Smiach, Novhorod-Siverskyi raion, Chernihiv oblast. Excavations in 1925-7 uncovered 18 separate camps and work areas. *Swiderian and *Pitted-Comb Pottery Culture artifacts have been recovered at the site. Smidovych, Antin [Smidovyc], b 10 June 1872 in Kamianets-Podilskyi, Podilia gubernia, d i February 1916 in the Katerynoslav region. Sanitary physician and civic leader. After graduating from Kiev University (1898) he

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worked as a physician for the Odessa (1899-1904), Voronezh (1904-6), and Kherson (1906-8) zemstvos. As director of the sanitation bureau of the Katerynoslav zemstvo (1908-16) he helped reorganize the zemstvo's sanitary system, encouraged technological applications, promoted sanitary education, and edited a zemstvo sanitary magazine. He died taking part in an organized effort to control a cholera epidemic. Smiian, Petro [Smijan], b 13 January 1918 in Borzna, Chernihiv gubernia. Historian. A graduate of the Kiev Pedagogical Institute (1938), he taught and worked in Nizhen, Kiev, Uzhhorod, and Lviv, and from 1955 he taught history at the Lutske Pedagogical Institute. In addition to articles on the history of Volhynia he has written the monographs Revoliutsiinyi ta misional'no-vyzvol'nyi rukh na Zakarpatti kintsia xix-pochatku xx st. (The Revolutionary and National Liberation Movement in Transcarpathia of the Late 19th to Early 2Oth Century, 1968) and Zhovtneva revoliutsiia i Zakarpattia: 1917-1919 rr. (The October Revolution and Transcarpathia: 1917-19,1972). Smiian, Serhii [Smijan, Serhij], b 17 May 1925 in Kiev. Theater director. He completed study at the Kiev Institute of Theater Arts (1948) and then worked as an artistic director in Ukrainian drama theaters in Poltava (1951-6), Dnipropetrovske (1956-9), Lviv (1959-66), Zaporizhia (196670), and Kiev (1970-8); as stage director in the Kiev Theater of Opera and Ballet (1978-81); and as artistic director of the Kiev Theater of Musical Comedy (1981-7). He has taught at the Kiev Institute of Theater Arts since 1970. Smila. iv-12. A city (1989 pop 77,500) on the Tiasmyn River and a raion center in Cherkasy oblast. At the end of the i6th century a Cossack settlement named Tiasmyne arose at the site of a former khutir. In 1633 it became the estate of S. Koniecpolski, and a few years later it was renamed Smila. Under the Hetmán state (1648-67) it was a company center in Chyhyryn regiment. Under Polish rule the town suffered from frequent Tatar raids and feudal oppression. Its inhabitants joined the haidamaka revolts in 1734,1750, and 1769-70. To appease its residents the Polish king granted Smila the rights of *Magdeburg law in 1773. The town was annexed by Russia in 1793, and became part of Cherkasy county in Kiev gubernia. In 1838 it was purchased by the Bobrinsky family, who built two sugar refineries nearby. Industrial development was stimulated by the construction of the Fastiv-Znamianka railway line in 1876. By 1910 there were 23 factories in Smila, and its population had reached 29,000. In 1921, under the Soviet regime, the Institute of the Sugar Industry was established in Smila. The town was granted city status and promoted to the status of a raion center in 1926. Today it is an industrial and transportation center. It has a large machine-building plant, a sugar refinery, a brewery, and a sewing factory. Smila Machine-Building Plant (Smilianskyi mashynobudivnyi zavod). A factory of the machine-building industry in Smila, Cherkasy oblast. It was established in 1930 as a machinery repair plant and began to produce new machines in 1957. Initially it specialized in machinery and equipment for the sugar industry, but now it makes a larger assortment of products for use in the food, trans-

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portation, and other industries, including salt mills, molasses boilers, dough kneaders, distillers, and filters. In 1972 the plant employed some 1,600 workers.

Leonid Smiliansky

Adrian Smirnov

Smiliansky, Leonid [Smilians'kyj], b 27 February 1904 in Konotip, Chernihiv gubernia, d 11 November 1966 in Kiev. Writer and journalist. In 1928 he concluded his studies at the Kiev Institute of People's Education. He belonged to the literary organizations Hart, Molodniak, and the All-Ukrainian Association of Proletarian Writers and was first published in 1925. For some time he worked as a journalist and literary critic for various publications. He also showed talent in the genres of narrative prose, dramaturgy, and the film scenario (in 1956 he worked on the film Ivan Franko, and in 1959 he wrote a film version of the novel Sashko). Smiliansky's first novels were written in the constructivist style, among them Novi oseli (New Settlements, 1928) and Zlochyn brygadyra (The Crime of the Brigadier, 1930). During the Second World War he began writing psychological short stories, such as Na zastavi (At the Outpost, 1941), Topky pohasheni (The Stoves Are Out, 1941), Pidslukhani noveli (Overheard Novellas, 1942), and Sertse (Heart, 1943). Smiliansky's historical and biographical works, marred by the tendency to distort historical fact, consist of Mykhailo Kotsiubyns 'kyi (1940), Zoloti vorota (The Golden Gates, 1942), levshan-zillia (Wormwood, 1943), the two-volume novel about T. Shevchenko Poetova molodist' (The Poet's Youth, 1960-2), the drama about Lesia Ukrainka Chervona trotanda (The Red Rose, 1955), the drama about I. Franko Muzhyts 'kyi posol (The Peasant Delegate, 1956), and others. An edition of his works in four volumes was published in 1970. I. Koshelivets

Smilivsky, Ivan [Smilivs'kyj], b 1762, d 1808. Pathologist and internal medicine specialist. A graduate of the Kievan Mohyla Academy and the St Petersburg MedicoSurgical School (1790), in 1796 he was appointed an adjunct professor of pathology and internal medicine and in 1805 a professor of hygiene, physiology, and pathology at the St Petersburg Medico-Surgical Academy. He translated a number of German medical textbooks into Russian and wrote several works on diseases such as tuberculosis. Smirnov, Adrian, b 16 November 1908 in Novgorod, Russia. Theoretical physicist; AN URSR (now ANU) full

member since 1967. A graduate of Leningrad University (1932), he has worked at the Ural Physical-Technical Institute in Sverdlovsk (1932-9), the Ural branch of the USSR Academy of Sciences (1939-49), and the ANU Institute of Physics (1949-50) and Institute of Metal Physics (since 1950). He served as scientific secretary of the ANU Physics Division (1963-6), ANU vice-president (1970-4), and editor of Ukrainskii fizicheskii zhurnal. Smirnov has contributed to the development of the theory of imperfect metallic crystals, the theory of the electronic energy spectrum of ordered alloys, the quantum theory of electric resistance in metals and alloys, and the molecular-kinetic theory of order and diffusion in metals and alloys. He developed the theory of phase transitions in alloys with several superstructures under high pressures and the theory of the scattering of slow neutrons in ordered alloys. Smirnov, Boris, b 26 March 1881 in Vladikavkaz, North Ossetian region, d 4 December 1954 in Moscow. Painter and graphic artist. A lecturer at the Moscow Art Institute, he prepared illustrations for the 1914 Katerynoslav edition of T. Shevchenko's complete works and for illustrated editions of Shevchenko's Prychynna (The Insane Girl, 1945) and Dumy moi'(My Thoughts, 1945). He also painted landscapes, the canvases Shevchenko's Burial on Chernecha Hill, near Kaniv (1944), Raftsmen Singing [Shevchenko's] 'The Dnieper Is Roaring and Groaning' (1945),and Shevchenko's Final Road (1946), and the album Na Vkraïni mylii (In Dear Ukraine, 1945-7). Smirnov, Mikhail, 1833-77. Historian. His master's dissertation at the Odessa Pedagogical Institute was among the first works to deal with the history of Galicia and Volhynia in the 14th and 15th centuries. It was published as Sud'ba Chervonnoi Hi Galitskoi Rusi (The Destiny of Red or Galician Rus', 1860; Ukrainian trans pub in vol 5 of the Ruska istorychna biblioteka series [1886]). Smirnov taught at the Richelieu Lyceum (from 1861) and Odessa University (from 1868). Smirnov, Pavel, b 21 September 1882 in Simbirsk (now Ulianovsk), d 2 April 1947 in Moscow. Russian historian. He studied history at Kiev University under M. DovnarZapolsky and taught there (1912-20, as professor from 1919) and at the Kiev Institute of People's Education (1921-3). He was arrested and sent to Tashkent, where subsequently he taught at the state university (1927-34). After returning to Moscow he was a professor at the Historical-Archival Institute from 1938 (PH D, 1942). A specialist in the socioeconomic and urban history of Russia (i6th-i9th centuries), he also wrote a monograph about Kievan Rus', published by the vuAN as Volz'kyi shliakh i starodavni rusy: Narysy z rus 'koïistoriï vi- ix vv. (The Volga Route and the Ancient Rus' : Studies of Rus' History of the 6th-9th Centuries, ZIFV, no. 75 [1928]), which challenged the notion that the Russian state descended from Kievan Rus'. Smirnov, Valerii, b 7 March 1937 in Tahanrih, Rostov oblast. Microbiologist and virologist; full member of the AN URSR (now ANU) since 1985. A graduate of the Dnipropetrovske Medical Institute (1961), he worked for the Scientific Research Institute of Epidemiology, Microbiology, and Hygiene of the Ukrainian Ministry of Health (1961-

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tempted to maintain control over all its eparchies from his see in Radomyshl. He ordained P. Biliansky as bishop of Lviv and defended the rights of the Kievan metropolitan to appoint bishops, against Roman Catholic encroachments. Smola, Parf enii. See Kuts, Valentyn.

Valerii Smirnov

Oleksander Smohorzhevsky

74, assistant director from 1963) and directed the Lviv Scientific Research Institute of Epidemiology and Microbiology (1974-7) and the ANU Institute of Microbiology and Virology (from 1977). In T-97& ne became head of the Ukrainian Microbiology Society and editor of Mikrobiologicheskii zhurnal. Smishko, Markiian [Smisko, Markijan], b 7 November 1900 in Lviv, d 20 March 1987 in Lviv. Archeologist. A graduate of the University of Lviv (1931), he taught archeology there (1932-41), then directed the Lviv branch of the AN URSR (now ANU) Institute of Archeology (1940-1 and 1944-51) before joining the ANU Institute of Social Sciences (from 1970 as a senior associate). Smishko wrote several articles about archeological research in Western Ukraine after its annexation by the USSR. A specialist in the formative period of the Eastern Slavs, he wrote several monographs, including Karpats'ki kurhany pershoï polovyny î tysiacholittia nashoï ery (Carpathian Kurhans of the First Millennium AD, 1960). Smohorzhevsky, Oleksander [Smohorzevs'kyj], b 23 February 1896 in Lisovi Berlyntsi (now Lisove), MohylivPodilskyi county, Podilia gubernia, d 7 May 1969 in Kiev. Mathematician. After completing his studies at the Kiev Institute of People's Education in 1929, he worked at the Kiev Polytechnical Institute (professor from 1938). He made important contributions to geometry, particularly to the theory of geometric construction in Lobachevsky space, solved a number of construction problems in hyperbolic geometry, and constructed a two-dimensional metric geometry. He also made contributions to analysis, particularly to the theory of differential equations and orthogonal polynomials. Smohozhevsky, Yason [Smohozevs'kyj, Jason] (Smogorzhevsky), b 1714 in Smorohov, Belarus, d 1788 in Radomyshl, in Right-Bank Ukraine. Uniate metropolitan. He joined the Basilian order and left in 1734 for Rome, where he studied at the St Athanasius College and was ordained (1740). He returned to Polatsk to serve as a preacher and then vicar to Bishop F. Hrebnytsky. In 1762-80 he was archbishop of Polatsk, and in 1780-8 he was Uniate metropolitan of Kiev. Although the 1772 partition of Poland had divided the metropoly among three powers, he at-

Smolensk nobility. The ruling class of the Smolensk region. Largely of Belarusian origin, it defended its rights as a local aristocracy from the encroachments of Muscovy after the territory's annexation by the Muscovite state in the mid-i7th century. Beginning with Peter I Russian authorities incrementally limited the Smolensk nobility's rights despite numerous petitions and protests. In 1764-5 the Smolensk military organization was abolished outright, the territory was reconstituted as a Russian gubernia, and the nobility was incorporated into the Russian nobility. Geographic proximity, historical ties and a similarity of traditions, and an autonomous legal status as well as a distaste for the centralizing tendencies of Moscow helped to develop relations between the Smolensk nobility and Cossack starshyna. Hetmans I. Samoilovych and D. Apóstol and a number of officers' families (Dunin-Borkovsky, Hamaliia, Lyzohub, Myklashevsky, and others) were directly related to Smolensk aristocratic lines (Engelhardt, Khrapovitsky, Korsak, Krasno-Mylashevich, Likoshin, Paseka, Rachinsky, Ridvansky, Savitsky, Voevodsky, and others). Such family, cultural, and economic ties brought about frequent bilateral resettlement, the sale and exchange of estates, and the introduction of Smolensk peasants into Ukraine. A regiment of Smolensk nobility participated in the Chyhyryn, Crimean, and Azov campaigns led by the Cossacks. The ties between the two areas also developed a political dimension. In the i8th century the Smolensk nobility was so impoverished and weakened by Russian policies that it sought even closer ties with Ukrainians. The extent of its effort was great enough to alarm the imperial officials, and Anna Ivanovna noted in a secret ukase to Prince A. Shakhovskoi, dated 31 January 1734, that it was necessary 'to pull the Little Russians away from relations with the Smolenskians.' The Russian government was particularly disturbed by Smolensk ties to the Hetmanate government. The autonomist aspirations of the Smolensk territory, also supported by the Polish Commonwealth, had a certain impact on Ukrainian affairs, particularly in the 17305. The abolition of the autonomy of the Smolensk nobility was part of a broader process of centralization of power within the Russian Empire; it was followed closely by similar moves against the Ukrainian Hetmanate. The last significant episode of Ukrainian-Smolensk relations occurred in the late i8th century, when the Russian government (under Paul i) uncovered the so-called Smolensk conspiracy of 1798; among the participants were several Ukrainian officers of the Russian army (Gen P. BilukhaKokhanovsky, Capt F. Lukashevych, the brother of V. Lukashevych, and others). O. Ohloblyn

Smoliak, Vitalii [Smoljak, Vitalij], b 25 April 1915 in Ivankivtsi, Proskuriv county, Podilia gubernia, d 29 November 1982 in Ivano-Franïdvske. Stage director and actor. He acted in the Kharkiv Oblast Touring Theater and

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the Kiev Theater of Transport Workers (1935-47), directed in the Ivano-Frankivske Ukrainian Music and Drama Theater (1947-55 and 1968-75), and led the Poltava Ukrainian Music and Drama Theater (1955-68). Smoliatych, Klym. See Klym Smoliatych.

Smoloskyp, a magazine published by Smoloskyp

Ivan Smolii

Dmytro Smolych

Smolii, Ivan [Smolij], b 14 August 1915 in Mykhnivets, Turka county, Galicia, d 24 February 1984 in Utica, New York. Writer and journalist; vice-president of the Ukrainian Journalists' Association of America. He debuted as a poet and story writer in Lviv periodicals in 1937, and in 1939 he published the play Zhyttia na vazi (Life in the Balance). As a postwar refugee in Germany and, from 1947, the United States he published the story collections Divchyna z Vinnytsi (The Girl from Vinnytsia, 1947), Manekeny (Mannequins, 1956), and Zrada (Betrayal, 1959), the play Nich nad pshenychnoiu zemleiu (Night over the Wheaten Land, 1954), the fairy tale Sontsebory (The Sun Fighters, 1960), and the novels Kordony padut' (The Borders Are Falling, 1951), Li zelenomu Pidhir'ï (In the Green Pidhiria, 1960), and Nespokiina osin' (Turbulent Autumn, 1981). Most of his prose works are set in wartime Galicia. He also published poems, publicistic articles, and book reviews in the Ukrainian-American press. From 1979 to his death he was chief editor of the Ukrainian Fraternal Association weekly, *Narodna volia. Smoloskyp (Torch). A journal, a publishing house, an information service, and an organization in defense of human rights in Ukraine. O. *Zinkevych is the founder, director, and chief editor. The journal began as a youth supplement to the newspaper Ukrains'ke slovo in Paris (1952-6) under the name Smoloskyp before appearing as an independent journal (1956-68; a total of 130 issues). It devoted attention to émigré student issues and popularized and republished the works of the *shestydesiatnyky. The V. Symonenko Smoloskyp Publishers (named in honor of a prominent shestydesiatnyk) was founded in Baltimore in 1967. It has published works of Ukrainian *samvydav and literature banned in the USSR, such as poetry collections by L. Kostenko, V. Holoborodko, O. Teliha, I. Kalynets, M. Rudenko, M. Kholodny, S. Karavansky, T. Melnychuk, A. Pashko, and O. Berdnyk; novels by O.

Honchar, M. Osadchy, M. Rudenko, B. Antonenko-Davydovych, and O. Berdnyk; publicism by V. Moroz, O. Berdnyk, M. Rudenko, V. Stus, and Ye. Sverstiuk; the collected works of M. Khvylovy (5 vols, 1982-5); a book about L. Kurbas (1989); Martyrolohiia ukraïns 'kykh tserkov (Martyrology of the Ukrainian Churches, 2 vols, 1985,1987); collections of documents of the Ukrainian Helsinki Group; the samvydav journal *Ukraïns'kyi visnyk; the memoirs of D. Shumuk, Ye. Hrytsiak, and Dokia Humenna; and other collections and anthologies. It has also published works in English, such as the pamphlet series Documents of Ukrainian Samvydav, a collection of O. Teliha's poetry (1977), Women's Voices from Soviet Labor Camps (1976), Dissent in Ukraine (1977), The Human Rights Movement in Ukraine: Documents of the Ukrainian Helsinki Group, 1976-1980 (1980), Ethnocide of Ukrainians in the USSR (1980), and A Thousand Years of Christianity in Ukraine: An Encyclopedic Chronology (1988). The Smoloskyp Ukrainian Information Service was founded in 1967. It has informed the émigré Ukrainian and Western media and public about developments in Ukraine, particularly political repression and the arrest and imprisonment of dissidents. To inform better the Western media and governments, an English-language service was established in 1974 (directed by B. Yasen), a Spanish-language service was established in Buenos Aires in 1975 (directed by O. Yakhno), and the English-language quarterly Smoloskyp has been published. The Smoloskyp Organization for the Defense of Human Rights in Ukraine was founded in 1970 (directed by A. Zwarun and A. Fedynsky). It has distributed leaflets and brochures in English about Ukrainian political prisoners, collected thousands of signatures on petitions protesting their treatment, and submitted them to the United Nations and other international bodies. The organization was a member of Amnesty International and has participated in international conferences on human rights. O. Zinkevych

Smoloskypy (Torches). A monthly organ of the *Union of Ukrainian Nationalist Youth (SUNM), published in Lviv in 1927-9. It was edited by O. Bodnarovych, and supported the SUNM faction that advocated co-operation with legal Ukrainian political parties in Western Ukraine (particularly the Ukrainian National Democratic Alliance) and open political activity.

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Yurii Smolych (part of a portrait by Anatol Petrytsky, watercolor and gouache, 1931)

Hryhorii Smolsky: Betrothed Hutsul Woman (1957)

Smolsky, Hryhorii [Smol's'kyj, Hryhorij], b 2 December 1893 in Pidhirky, Kalush county, Galicia, d i February 1985 in Lviv. Painter. He studied at the Novakivsky Art School in Lviv (1923-30) and the Académie Colarossi in Paris (1934-5). He participated in the interwar exhibitions of the Association of Independent Ukrainian Artists, the Ukrainian Art Alliance, and the Lviv Artists' Association. He painted landscapes, particularly of the Hutsul region and Paris (eg, Notre Dame [1934] and Bridge on the Seine [1935]); portraits, such as Self-Portrait (1923), My Father (1925), S. Liudkevych (1953), Betrothed Hutsul Woman (1957), and V. Stefanyk (1959); and many Hutsul genre paintings and still lifes. He wrote accounts of his stays in Rome and Paris and the novel Oleksa Dovbush (1935). Smolych, Dmytro [Smolyc], b 11 April 1919 in Petrograd, d 28 April 1987 in Kiev. Opera director. After graduating from the Stanislavsky Opera and Drama Studio in Moscow (1941), he served as an opera director (1941-53) and the chief director (1970-87) of the Kiev Theater of Opera and Ballet, a founder and the chief director of the Cheliabinsk Opera and Ballet Theater (1955-8), chief director of the Odessa Opera and Ballet Theater (1958-62), artistic director of the Minsk Opera and Ballet Theater (1962-9), and chief director of the Lviv Theater of Opera and Ballet (1969-70). He staged many Ukrainian, Russian, and other European operas, including G. Bizet's Carmen (1947), S. Moniuszko's Halka (1949), K. Dankevych's Bohdan Khmelnytsky (1954) and Nazar Stodolia (1961), Yu. Meitus's Young Guard (1955), and O. Sandler's In the Steppes of Ukraine (1962).

Smolych, Yurii [Smolyc, Jurij], b 7 July 1900 in Uman, Kiev gubernia, d 16 August 1976 in Kiev. Writer and Soviet community activist. He was editor of the journals Sil 's'kyi teatr (1926-9) and UniversaVnyi zhurnal 1928-9), a member of the literary organizations *Hart and *Vaplite, and one of the organizers of the Techno-Artistic Group A. Upon the formation of the Writers' Union of Ukraine, he became editor of Literaturnyi zhurnal (1934) and headed the Kharkiv branch of the Writers' Union until the Second World War. After the war he lived in Kiev and for some time was editor of the periodical Ukralna. Smolych is known as one of the founders of Soviet Ukrainian prose. His first collection of short stories, Kinets' mista za bazarom (The City End beyond the Bazaar, 1924), was followed by the collections Nedili i ponedilky (Sundays and Mondays, 1927) and Pivtory liudyny (One and a Half Persons, 1927). His prose from the 19205 is characterized by searching and experimentation with form, by originality and strong plots. Smolych pioneered the Soviet Ukrainian fantasy novel with Ostannii Eidzhevud (The Last of the Edgewoods, 1926), and continued to develop this genre in the trilogy Hospodarstvo doktora Hal 'vanesku (The Property of Doctor Galvanescu, 1929), Shche odna prekrasna katastrofa (Another Beautiful Catastrophe, 1932), and Shcho bulo potim (What Happened Next, 1934). From the late 19205, the satirical novel, which was mainly directed against the Ukrainian liberation struggle and the Ukrainian national-minded intelligentsia, began to be an important genre in Smolych's work (FaVshyva Mel'pomena [The False Melpomene, 1928], Pô toi bik sertsia [On the Other Side of the Heart, 1930]). His satirical novels were also directed against people of the capitalist world and their reactions upon coming into contact with the Soviet regime, portrayed according to the image of them projected in the Soviet press (Sorok visim hodyn [FortyEight Hours, 1933]). Among Smolych's better works from the second half of the 19305 is an autobiographical trilogy, set in the era of the childhood and youth of his generation: Nashi tainy (Our Secrets, 1936), Dytynstvo (Childhood, 1937)/ Visimnadtsiatylitni (The Eighteen-year-olds, 1938). During the Second World War, Smolych published several collections of short stories (Narod voiuie [The People are Fighting, 1941], Novell [Novellas, 1942], and others). The novel Vony ne prolshly (They Did Not Get Through, 1946) is also on the subject of war. In the 19505, Smolych turned to the events of the Ukrainian-Soviet War in Svitanok nad morem (Dawn by the Sea, 1956) and in the two-part novel Myr khatam, viina palatam

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(Peace to [Peasant] Houses, War on Palaces, 1958) and Rêve ta stohne Dnipr shyrokyi (The Broad Dnieper Roars and Groans, 1960). These latter works are publicistic novels or political pamphlets on the history of the UNR and its activists, and their literary merit is overshadowed by the grotesque style of political propaganda. One of Smolych's greatest literary achievements is the memoir trilogy Rozpovid' pro nespokii (A Tale of Unrest, 1968), Rozpovid' pro nespokii tryvaie (The Tale of Unrest Continues, 1969), and Rozpovidi pro nespokii nemaie kintsia (The Tale of Unrest Has No End, 1970), in which he described literary life in Kharkiv in the 19205 and 19305. Smolych also wrote publicistic political pamphlets directed against Ukrainian nationalism (Vorohy liudstva ta ïkh naimantsi [The Enemies of the Human Race and their Hirelings, 1953]) and popular literary criticism: Persha knyha (The First Book, 1951) and Rozmova z chytachem (Conversation with the Reader, 1953). His collected works have been published in six volumes twice (1958-9 and 1971-3), and in seven volumes (1984). In the role of community activist, Smolych participated in the activities of the Writers' Union of Ukraine, and for many years he headed the *Ukraina Society. In 1970, Smolych was decorated with the highest award of the USSR, Hero of the Soviet Union, mainly for his activities in the society, whose work was directed against Ukrainian émigré groups. BIBLIOGRAPHY

Piskunov, V. Tvorchist' lu. Smolycha (Kiev 1962) Shakhovs'kyi, S. lurii Smolych (Kiev 1970) - Pro lu. Smolycha (Kiev 1980) Holubieva, Z. lurii Smolych: Narys zhyttia i tvorchosti (Kiev 1990) I. Koshelivets Smorhachova, Liudmyla [Smorhacova, Ljudmyla], b 29 November 1950 in Kiev. Ballet dancer. In 1968 she completed study at the Kiev Choreography School and joined the Kiev Theater of Opera and Ballet as leading ballerina. In 1978 she won the first prize gold medal at the Second International Ballet Competition in Tokyo. Smotrych, Oleksander [Smotryc] (pen name of Oleksander Floruk), b 28 April 1922 in Kamianets-Podilskyi. Writer. During the Second World War he worked as a journalist for the nationalist papers Ukraïns 'ke slovo (Kiev) and Holos (Berlin). As a postwar refugee in Germany and, since the late 19405, Toronto he wrote the story collections Nochi (Nights, 1947), Vony ne zhyvut ' bil 'she (They Are No Longer Alive, 1948), Vybrane (Selections, 1952), and Buttia: 16 nikomu nepotribnykh opovidan' (Being: 16 Stories Nobody Needs, 1973). Having switched to poetry, he published on his own nine booklets of satirical and provocative poems titled Virshi (Verses, 1974-5) and the collections 20 korotkykh virshiv (20 Short Verses, 1975) and 1933 (1975). A lyrical collection, Uzhynok (The Reaping, 1985), was published by Suchasnist. His stories and poems have appeared in Novi dnir Suchasnist', and other émigré periodicals. Smotrych [Smotryc]. v-j. A town smt (1986 pop 3,000) on the Smotrych River in Dunaivtsi raion, Khmelnytskyi oblast. It was first mentioned in historical documents in the 13705. In 1448 it was granted the rights of "Magdeburg law. Since the i8th century Smotrych has developed a rep-

utation for ceramic art. On 22 July 1919 a battle between the UNR and the Bolshevik armies took place there. In 1923-62 the town served as a raion center.

The Smotrych River Smotrych River [Smotryc]. A left-bank tributary of the Dniester River that flows southward for 168 km through Khmelnytskyi oblast and drains a basin area of 1,800 sq km. With a width of 10-15 m (40 m at its widest point), the river is particularly notable for its tall banks, which give it a ravinelike appearance. It is used for water supply, irrigation, and fishing. A small hydroelectric station is situated on it, as well as the city of Kamianets-Podilskyi and the town of Horodok. Smotrytsky, Herasym [Smotryc'kyj], b ? in Smotrych (now in Dunaivtsi raion, Khmelnytskyi oblast), d October 1594. Writer and teacher. He was secretary at the Kamianets-Podilskyi county office and in 1576 was invited by Prince K. *Ostrozky to Ostrih, where he became one of the leading activist members of the Ostrih intellectual circle. In 1580 Smotrytsky became the first rector of the Ostrih Academy. He was one of the publishers of the Ostrih Bible, to which he wrote the foreword and the verse dedication to Prince K. Ostrozky. The dedication is one of the earliest examples of Ukrainian versification (nonsyllabic) and is somewhat reminiscent of Ukrainian dumas. Smotrytsky's polemical works against those betraying the Orthodox faith and a satire on the clergy have been lost. Only his book, Kliuch tsarstva nebesnoho (Key to the Heavenly Kingdom, 1587), which is the first printed example of Ukrainian polemical literature, has survived. It is composed of a dedication to the prince of Ostrih, the appeal 'Do narodov ruskykh...' (To the Rus' Peoples ...), and two polemical treatises, 'Kliuch tsarstva nebesnoho ../ (Key to the Heavenly Kingdom ...) and 'Kalendar rymskyi novyi' (The New Roman Calendar). In the last-named Smotrytsky calls for the independence of 'the Rus' faith/ polemicizes with the Jesuit B. Herbest, criticizes the Catholic teaching on the divine origin of the pope's authority, and rejects the Gregorian calendar. Smotrytsky did not always use theological arguments in his work; instead he often used folk humor with anecdotes and proverbs, and he wrote in a language close to the vernacular, which made his work accessible to the broad masses. I. Koshelivets Smotrytsky, Meletii [Smotryc'kyj, Meletij] (secular name: Maksym), b 1577 in Smotrych (now in Dunaivtsi raion, Khmelnytskyi oblast), d 27 December 1633 at the

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ile reprints of most of his collected works were published in 1987 in two volumes introduced and edited by D. Frick. BIBLIOGRAPHY Solovii, M. Meletii Smotryts 'skyi iak pys 'mennyk, 2 vols (RomeToronto 1977-8) Frick, D. 'Meletij Smotryc'kyj and the Ruthenian Question in the Early Seventeenth Century/ HUB, 8 (1984) - 'Meletij Smotryc'kyj and the Ruthenian Language Question/ HUS, 9 (1985) O. Horbach

Archbishop Meletii Smotrytsky

Gen Kost Smovsky

Derrnan Monastery, Volhynia. Philologist, churchman, and polemicist; son of H. Smotrytsky. He studied at the Ostrih Academy; the Jesuit college in Vilnius; and, from 1605, m Leipzig, Nuremberg, and Wittenberg. In 1608, he returned to Vilnius to teach at the Orthodox brotherhood school. There he wrote (in Polish) his famous defense of the Orthodox church, Trenos, to iest lament iedyney s. powszechnej apostolskiey wschodniey cerkwie (Threnos, or the Lament for the One Holy Universal Apostolic Eastern Church, 1610). He entered the Holy Spirit Monastery in Vilnius in 1617 and published a *didactic gospel. He is believed to have served as a professor and rector of the Kiev Epiphany Brotherhood School in 1618-20. In 1620 he was consecrated archbishop of Polatsk by Patriarch Théophanes of Jerusalem. During the next three years he wrote several polemical tracts, including Verificada niewinnosd (A Verification of Innocence, 1620) and Oborona verificadey (A Defense by Verification, 1621), justifying the re-establishment of the Orthodox hierarchy by Theophanes and defending the Orthodox against charges of collusion with the Moslems and Muscovites (see also ^polemical literature). Smotrytsky travelled to Constantinople and the Holy Land, and after his return he joined the Uniate church, in 1627, and entered the Derman Monastery (some scholars believe he may have converted secretly earlier). In 1627-8 he negotiated with Y. Boretsky and P. Mohyla in an attempt to re-create a united Ruthenian church in union with Rome but under its own patriarch. In preparation for the discussions, he wrote Apologia peregrinatiey do kraiów wschodnych (Apology for the Peregrination to Eastern Lands, 1628). When the negotiations failed, Smotrytsky was condemned at the Orthodox church synod in Kiev in 1628 and forced to recant his conversion to Catholicism. Subsequently he returned to the Derman Monastery. Smotrytsky's most significant contribution to philology was Gramatiki slavenskiia pravilnoe syntagma (The Correct Syntax of Slavonic Grammar, 1619; reprinted in 1974 with an introduction by O. Horbach [Horbatsch]). This work influenced the form of the Church Slavonic used in Ukraine, Russia, Rumania, Serbia, and Croatia, and several subsequent editions were published. A shortened version, for use as a school textbook, appeared in Kremianets in 1638. Smotrytsky's grammar has been extensively studied by Ukrainian, Russian, and German linguists. Facsim-

Smovsky, Kost [Smovs'kyj, Kost'], b 21 May 1892 in Poltavska stanytsia, Kuban, d 8 February 1960 in Minneapolis. UNR Army officer. After joining the UNR Army in 1917, he commanded a number of its best units: an artillery battery of the Haidamaka Battalion, which distinguished itself in suppressing the Bolshevik insurrection in Kiev (January 1918); the Black Sea Artillery Regiment (1919); the Lubni Cavalry Regiment; the Tenth Artillery Regiment of the Graycoats, during the First Winter Campaign (1919-20); and the First Cavalry Brigade of the Separate Cavalry Division (1920). He was promoted to the rank of brigadier general. His recollections about the wars for Ukraine's independence were published in Svoboda in 1958. Smt. See Urban-type settlement. Smyk, Oleksander, b 1900 in Nekhvoroshcha, Konstantynohrad county, Poltava gubernia, d 1942 in Kiev. Architect. After graduating from the Kiev State Art Institute in 1928, he worked for various planning and construction agencies in Kiev and taught architecture at the Kiev State Art and Civil-Engineering institutes (1929-41). He designed (with A. Dobrovolsky) the Roads Administration building in Luhanske in 1935 and residential buildings in Kiev. His style displayed elements of classical architectural forms as well as distinctively Ukrainian features.

Peter Smylski

Smylski, Peter [SmyPs'kyj, Petro], b 15 April 1915 in Dauphin, Manitoba. Stomatologist and community activist. A graduate in dentistry from the University of Alberta (1940), he served in the Dental Corps of the Canadian army (1943-6), specialized in dental surgery, and was a professor at the University of Toronto (1965-80) and head of the oral surgery division at the Toronto General Hospital. He has been president of the Ukrainian Canadian Vet-

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erans' Association and chairman of the board of directors of the St Vladimir Institute in Toronto. Smyrnov, Mykola, b 21 January 1912 in Kharkiv, d 4 October 1963 in Donetske. Stage director and actor. He completed study at the Kharkiv Music and Drama Institute (1933) and then worked in the Donetske Ukrainian Music and Drama Theater (1933-41, and 1949-63 as principal stage director).

Snap weed (Impatiens', Ukrainian: rozryv-trava, balzamin). A herbaceous plant of the family Balsaminaceae, of which there are about 400 species worldwide. In Ukraine I. parviflora (introduced from Mongolia) and /. nolitangere (touchme-not) grow naturally in shady forests and ravines and near springs and orchards in Polisia, in the forest-steppe, and in the Carpathian Mountains. Orchard snapweed or garden balsam (I. balsamina) and I. roylei are cultivated as ornamentals. In folklore snapweed figures as a magic herb with powers to break chains, open locks, and so on.

Oleksandra SmyrnovaZamkova Smyrnova-Zamkova, Oleksandra, b 31 May 1880 in Pereiaslav, Poltava gubernia, d 22 September 1962 in Kiev. Pathologist and anatomist; full member of the AN URSR (now ANU) from 1951. A graduate of Montpellier University in France (1905), she taught at the Higher Medical Courses for Women (1908-20), the Kiev Medical Institute (1920-30), and the ANU Institute of Clinical Physiology (1931-53, department head from 1938). She also headed the Department of Pathological Anatomy at the Second Kiev Medical Institute (1933-41) and the morphology laboratory at the ANU Institute of Physiology (1953-62). She published numerous works, of which the most important dealt with the pathological anatomy of infectious diseases, radiation sickness, and the origins of tumors. She wrote Osnovnoe argirofil'noe veshchestvo i ego funktsional'noe znachenie (The Basic Argyrophilic Substance and Its Functional Significance, 1955). Snake (Ukrainian: zmiia, hadiuka, vuzh). Any of numerous limbless, scaled reptiles of the order Squamata, related to *lizards, divided into the suborders Serpentes and Ophidia and, further, into the poisonous family Viperidae and the harmless family Colubridae. In Ukraine there are only two species of poisonous snakes, the common viper (Vípera berus), found in Polisia and the forest-steppe, and the steppe viper (V. ursini). A subspecies of the steppe viper is also found in the Carpathians. Viper bites incapacitate but are not life-threatening to adult humans. The nonpoisonous snakes include the common or grass snake (Natrix natrix) and the water snake (N. tessellata). Snapdragon (Antirrhinum; Ukrainian: rotyky, Vvyni pashchi). A herbaceous plant of the family Scrophulariaceae. Two species are known in Ukraine, wild snapdragons (A. oronthium), which grow as weeds in the fields and occasionally in brushwood, and multicolored garden snapdragons (A. majus), which are cultivated as decorative flowers.

The main street in Sniatyn Sniatyn [Snjatyn]. v-6. A city (1989 pop 10,300) on the Prut River and a raion center in Ivano-Frankivske oblast. It was first mentioned in a historical document in 1158, as a fortified town in Halych principality. From 1387 it was under Polish rule. In 1448 it was granted the rights of *Magdeburg law, and by the i6th century it had developed into an important trade center. After the partition of Poland in 1772, it was annexed by Austria, and in 1919 it fell under Polish rule. In 1939 it became part of the Ukrainian SSR. Today Sniatyn manufactures furniture, cheese, bricks, and reinforced concrete. It has two literary memorial museums, one dedicated to M. Cheremshyna and the other to V. Kasiian. Sniehirov, Yevhen [Snjehir'ov, levhen] (Helii), b 14 October 1927 in Kharkiv, d 28 December 1978 in Kiev. Writer and dissident. He graduated from the Kharkiv Theater Institute and worked as an actor, a lecturer in Ukrainian literature in secondary schools and at the institute, a member of the editorial board of Literaturna Ukraïna, and director at the Kiev Studio of Chronicle-Documentary Films. His first published work appeared in 1954, when he began working as a prose writer and critic. He published a collection of stories, Lito vernet'sia (Summer Will Return, 1957), a novel, Chy ia mav pravo? (Did I Have the Right?, 1962), and a satire cowritten with Yu. Lubotsky, Zolotyi buts (The Golden Boot, 1963). Continued repressions and Russification in Ukraine prompted him to join the Ukrainian dissident movement in the 19705. For doing so he was expelled from the Party and the Writers' Union of Ukraine in 1974. He then began writing letters of protest to the leaders of the USSR, in which he renounced his Soviet citizenship. He also wrote a work circulated by samvydav (1974-7), alternately titled Naboï alia rozstrilu (Bullets

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served as principal of the Peremyshl Polish gymnasium. Yu. Zhelakhovsky published a biography of Snihursky in 1894 in Lviv. Snip (The Sheaf). A literary almanac published in Kharkiv in 1841. Edited by O. Korsun, it contained M. Kostomarov's play Pereiaslavs'ka niai (Pereiaslav Night) and his translation of five of Byron's Hebrew Melodies; poems by M. Petrenko; poetry and fables by S. and P. Pysarevsky and O. Korsun (including his translations of five Czech poems); P. Korenytsky's satirical poem 'Vechernytsi' (Evening Parties); and the first Ukrainian translation of a poem by Petrarch, by M. Pysarevska. Yevhen Sniehirov

Bishop Ivan Snihursky

for Execution) and Nen'ko moid, nen'ko (Oh, Mother of Mine, Mother). In it he denounces the show-trial of the socalled *Union for the Liberation of Ukraine in Kharkiv as a state provocation which brought about the destruction of the Ukrainian intelligentsia in the 19305. On 22 September 1977 he was arrested. On 31 March 1978 he fell gravely ill and was taken from prison to a hospital, where he died. The most complete collection of his samvydav writings was published as Naboï alia rozstrilu (New York-Toronto 1983). It includes the aforementioned work, the satirical story I choho oto ia liapaiu (And Why Am I Babbling?, 1977), an account of his prison experiences, fragments of prose and verse, and recollections about him written by others. In 1990 Naboi alia rozstrilu was republished in Ukraine, and Sniehirov was posthumously reinstated as a member of the Writers' Union of Ukraine. I. Koshelivets

Snihur, Luka, b 1846 in Pohar, Stryi circle, Galicia, d 1928. Builder and wood carver. He built about 35 wooden village churches in Galicia, including those in Rosokhach (1882), Oriava (1882), Husne Vyzhne (1890), Matkiv (1899), Kryve (1922), and Klymets (1925). They are distinguished by their fine construction and original form. He also carved the iconostases in the churches of Kryve, Radych, and Dovzhky. Snihurivka. ¥1-13. A city (1989 pop 18,000) on the Inhulets River and a raion center in Mykolaiv oblast. It was founded in 1812 and granted city status in 1961. Today it is an administrative and agricultural city. Its plants manufacture reinforced-concrete products and dairy products, bottle mineral water, and repair machinery. The main pumping stations of the Inhulets and the Yavkyne irrigation systems are located in Snihurivka. Snihursky, Ivan [Snihurs'kyj], b 8 May 1784 in Berestiany, Sambir circle, Galicia, d 24 April 1847 *n Peremyshl. Church and cultural leader. He studied theology in Vienna (to 1808) and then was pastor at St Barbara's Church there (1808-13) and a professor of theology and dean of the faculty (1817-18) at the University of Vienna. In 1818 he was consecrated bishop of Peremyshl. As bishop he revived the eparchial theological seminary and founded a valuable library and a publishing house. Under his patronage I. Lavrivsky and I. Mohylnytsky organized a comprehensive educational system that by 1832 included almost 400 schools. From 1824 to 1833 Snihursky also

Snip (The Sheaf). A weekly newspaper published by M. Mikhnovsky in Kharkiv from January 1912 to January 1913 (a total of 52 issues). Edited by M. Bilenky, it promoted Ukrainian patriotism among the intelligentsia and was one of the first newspapers to advocate separation of Ukraine from Russia. Among the contributors were I. Franko, L. Pakharevsky, M. Kononenko, and T. Zhoralsky. Snitko, Oleh, b 30 April 1928 in Kiev, d 14 April 1990 in Kiev. Solid-state physicist; AN URSR (now ANU) corresponding member from 1968 and full member from 1985. After graduating from Kiev University (1951) he investigated the properties of semiconductors at the ANU Institute of Physics in Kiev. He joined the ANU Institute of Semiconductors in 1961 and served as a department head (from 1962), a deputy director (1967-70), and director (from 1970). Snitko's primary contribution comes from his investigation of electronic processes on hyperpure semiconductor surfaces. He is author of 250 publications (5 monographs) and has a number of inventions. Snizhne [Snizne]. v-i9, DB 111-5. A city (1990 pop 69,000) under oblast jurisdiction in Donetske oblast. It was founded in 1784 and was known as Vasylivka village until 1864. It belonged to the Don Cossack province. In 1900 anthracite coal began to be mined there, and thereafter the town grew quickly (1939 pop 16,200). In 1938 it attained city status. Today it has seven coal mines, a chemical machinery building plant, a machine repair factory, and several enterprises of light industry. Snov River. A right-bank tributary of the Desna River that flows for 253 km through Briansk oblast (RF) and Chernihiv oblast and drains a basin area of 8,700 sq km. The river is 4-14 m wide in its upper reaches and 20-40 m

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wide downstream (at one point reaching 200 m). The Snov is frozen over from late November to early April. It is used for water supply and irrigation. Its lower reaches are navigable. Snovske. See Shchors. Snowberry (Symphoricarpos; Ukrainian: snizhnoiahidnyk). A shrub belonging to the family Caprifoliaceae, with bellshaped, pinkish or white flowers and two-seeded berries. Three species are cultivated in Ukraine as ornamentals in parks and orchards, snowberry or waxberry (S. albus), Indian currant or coralberry (S. orbiculatus), and wolfberry (S. occidentalis). Snowdrop (Galanthus; Ukrainian: pidsnizhnyk). Bulbous, white-flowered plants of the family Amaryllidaceae. Two species are found in Ukraine, common snowdrop (G. nivalis), which grows in deciduous forests, in brushwoods on the right bank of the Dnieper River, and in Carpathian meadows and is listed as an endangered species in Ukraine, and the folded snowdrop (G. plicatus), native to Crimean forests. The name pidsnizhnyk is also commonly used for Scilla sibirica, Hepática nobilis, and Anemone nemorosa.

Zenon Snylyk

Snylyk, Zenon, b 14 November 1933 in Putiatyntsi, Rohatyn county, Galicia. Journalist and athlete. A graduate of the universities of Rochester and Chicago (MA, 1958), Snylyk was a member of the US soccer team in the 1956, 1960, and 1964 Olympic Games - the only player in us soccer history to appear on three Olympic teams - and served as team captain in 1956 and 1960. He also played on and/ or captained US teams in three Pan-American games and one World Cup series. He taught political science briefly at McGill University in Montreal before becoming chief editor of The ^Ukrainian Weekly in 1962. He served in that capacity until becoming chief editor of the newspaper *Svoboda in 1980. Snylyk was also an assistant editor of Ukraine: A Concise Encyclopaedia, vol 2. Snyna (Slovak: Snina). ¥-3. A town (1970 pop 10,000) in the Chirokha River Valley in the Presov region of Czechoslovakia. It is on the border of Ukrainian ethnic territory. In 1961 there were 44 Ukrainian villages, with a total population of 25,000, in its vicinity.

Soaring or gliding (shyriannia). The sport of soaring in Ukraine began with the pioneering efforts of K. Arzeulov, Yu. *Tereverko, and M. Delone. Arzeulov, who was of Armenian descent, built and flew a glider in the Crimea in 1906, and in 1916 he made aviation history by being the first pilot to master the intentional spin. In 1908-9 Delone, a mechanics professor at the Kiev Polytechnical Institute, directed the construction of several versions of the Chanute glider, which were successfully flown near the village of Dzvinkove in Kiev county. In 1910 he published a pamphlet on how to build and fly a glider. Tereverko was the first to fly with a passenger. By the early 19205 glider building and flying had attracted many enthusiasts, among them S. *Korolov, the chief designer of the Soviet space program, and the aircraft designer O. *Antonov. Antonov's record-setting glider A-9 and his all-metal gliders A-n, A-13, and A-15 played an important role in the development of gliding in the USSR. Dozens of glider clubs sprang up throughout Ukraine. The most prominent were at the Kiev Polytechnical Institute, the Kiev School for Glider Instructors, the Kharkiv Aviation School, and the Odessa branch of the Aviation Society of Ukraine and the Crimea, at which S. Korolov designed and built his 10-5 glider in 1924. From 1923, annual gliding competitions were held near the village of Koktebel, in the Crimea; in 1944 Koktebel was renamed Planerske (from planer 'glider'), and in 1970 a soaring museum was founded there. In 1925, Soviet Ukrainian pilots participated in the sixth international competition on the Wasserkuppe, a hill in the Rhôn Mountains of Germany; one of them (V. Yakovchuk) placed third in the duration category, with a flight of 91 minutes. As a sport, gliding gained great popularity in the USSR in the 19305, and Soviet pilots established several world records. Interwar Western Ukraine. S. Chervinsky of Volhynia designed and built a biplane glider and made successful flights in 1917 in the Crimea. After the First World War he returned to Kovel and built an open-frame monoplane glider in which he made several flights in 1927. In the late 19205, groups of enthusiasts in Dubno, Volhynia, and Zbarazh, Galicia, designed and built gliders. The first true soaring flight in Galicia was made at the Lysa Hora site, near Zolochiv, in 1928 by S. Grzeszczyk. The most active gliding center in Galicia was the Aviation Association of Students at the Lviv Polytechnical Institute. Founded under Austrian rule in 1903, it was revived under Polish rule in 1923, and contributed significantly to advances in glider design and flight in interwar Galicia. Over 400 gliders and sailplanes were built in its government-supported workshops in the 19305; many were exported, and several were used in Polish- and world-record flights. The last ISTUS (International Study Commission for Motorless Flight) conference and glider competition before the Second World War was held in Lviv in May 1939. Postwar Ukraine. After the Second World War, gliding in Ukraine flourished for about two decades. In 1952 the Ukrainian pilot V. Yefymenko established a new world flight record of 636 km (it has since been surpassed) in the glider A-9. In the 1972 world championships in Yugoslavia, the Ukrainian pilot Ye. Rudensky placed second in the standard class. Ukrainians who placed high in Soviet championships are V. Honcharenko, Z. Solovei, and M.

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Verytennykov. Gliding in Ukraine, and in the USSR as a whole, has been conducted under the patronage of various paramilitary defense organizations; in 1951 they were amalgamated into the "Voluntary Society for Assistance to the Army, Air Force, and Navy (DOSAAF). Because gliding could not be practiced in the USSR outside the framework of the DOSAAF, it was wholly contingent on government support. Since the 19705, when relatively expensive fiberglass construction became the norm for high-performance sailplanes, Soviet metal-and-wood gliders ceased to be competitive on the world level. At the world championships in Austria in 1989, Soviet pilots flew sailplanes built in the West, but did not do well. Inside the USSR gliding, as a paramilitary sport, remained as popular as ever. From the 19705 it relied heavily on Czech, Polish, and Lithuanian gliders and sailplanes. Some of the more active soaring centers in Ukraine are Buzova (30 km w of Kiev), Borodianka (55 km NW of Kiev), Kamenka (10 km NW of Dnipropetrovske), Sutysky (45 km S of Vinnytsia), and Voronovo (55 km w of Rivne). BIBLIOGRAPHY Sheremetev, B. Plañen/ (Moscow 1959) Cynk, J. Polish Aircraft, 1893-1939 (London 1971) Antonov, O. Desiat ' raziv spochatku (Kiev 1973) Vetrov, G. S.P. Korolev v aviatsii (Moscow 1988)

O. Bilaniuk

Sob River. A left-bank tributary of the Boh River that flows southward for 115 km through Vinnytsia oblast and drains a basin area of 2,840 sq km. The river originates in the Dnieper Upland; it is 3-5 m wide near its source and 60-80 m wide downstream. It supplies water for industrial and agricultural purposes and feeds a hydroelectric station. It is also used for pisciculture. The city of Haisyn is situated on it.

Hanna Sobachko-Shostak: Whirlwind (wall decoration in gouache and watercolor, 1920)

Sobachko-Shostak, Hanna [Sobacko-Sostak), b 15 December 1883 in Skoptsi (now Veselynivka), Pereiaslav county, Poltava gubernia, d 3 December 1965 in Cherkizovo, Moscow oblast. Master of folk decorative painting. In 1910 she began painting embroidery and kilim patterns in

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A. Semigradova and E. Pribilskaia's folk-art workshop in Skoptsi. From 1932 she lived in exile in Cherkizovo and designed embroidery patterns for the local cloth factory. Her decorative paintings, with floral and faunal motifs, are distinguished by their dynamic composition, asymmetry, and use of intense colors. Sobachko's work was exhibited in Kiev (1913, 1919, 1963, 1965), St Petersburg (1913), Moscow (1915,1927,1936), Paris (i9i3/ *937)/ Ber" lin (1914, 1922), and New York (1939). A book about her by H. Miestiechkin was published in Kiev in 1965. Sobachky archeological site. A Neolithic settlement near Zaporizhia. The site was excavated in 1928-9, then flooded by the Kakhivka Reservoir. Uncovered in the course of excavations were dwellings with stone hearths, stone and bone tools, handmade pottery with imprinted geometric designs, and granite polishing stones. The inhabitants engaged primarily in fishing. Sobkivka settlement. A late Bronze Age *Bilohrudivka culture settlement near Sobkivka, Uman raion, Cherkasy oblast. Excavations in 1951-2 revealed dwellings, a large number of ash pits, handmade pottery (with some imprinted designs), flint tools, and bronze adornments. The settlement's inhabitants engaged in agriculture, animal hus-bandry, hunting, and fishing. Sobko, Petro, b 30 May 1819 in Kiev, d 26 November 1870 in St Petersburg. Civil engineer. He studied and taught at the Engineers7 Corps Institute in St Petersburg. He designed (1839-40) a suspension bridge over the Neva River and introduced steel components in wooden bridge trusses. He initiated the first course on building mechanics in the Russian Empire and set up one of the first laboratories in that field. He was a specialist in railroad construction and held an important position in the St Petersburg-Warsaw Railroad Co. He wrote a number of handbooks and textbooks on structural mechanics and railroad engineering.

Vadym Sobko

Sobko, Vadym, b 18 May 1912 in Moscow, d 12 September 1981 in Kiev. Prose writer and playwright. He graduated from the philological faculty of Kiev University in 1939. He began to publish his work in 1930. He published the poetry collections Pohliad vpered (Looking Ahead, 1932), Traktorobudni (Tractor Days, 1932), and Mil tovarysh (My Friend, 1933), and the narrative poem Mikron (Mi-

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cron, 1934), among others. Sobko published collections of short stories, including Montazhnyky (The Assemblers, 1931) and Liudy ryshtovari (People of Scaffolding, 1933). He achieved some measure of popularity with his adventure novels Hranit (Granite, 1937) and Kreizer (Cruiser, 1940). He wrote the novel trilogy Shliakh zori (Path of the Star), with the parts titled Krov Ukraïny (The Blood of Ukraine, 1943), Kavkaz (The Caucasus, 1946), and Vohon ' Stalinhradu (The Fire of Stalingrad, 1947), which was based on the events of the Second World War. The play Zhyttia pochynaiet 'sia znovu (Life Begins Anew, 1950) and the novel Zaporuka myru (Guarantee of Peace, 1950) deal with postwar life in Germany. Sobko's various other works discuss reconstruction and moral issues; among them are Bile polum'ia (White Flames, 1952), Zvychaîne zhyttia (Ordinary Life, 1957), me plav Ky'ws 'kyi zoshyt (A Kievan Notebook, 1964), and works on youth issues and sports themes, such as the novel Stadion (Stadium, 1954). His selected works have been published as Vybrani ivory v dvokh tomakh (Selected Works in Two Volumes, 1954) and Tvory (Works, vols 1-4,1979-81). I. Koshelivets

Sobol, Mykola [Sobol'], b 19 February 1910 in Velyka Rublivka, Okhtyrka county, Kharkiv gubernia. CPU and Soviet government leader and mechanical engineer. A graduate of the Kharkiv Mechanical and Machine-Building Institute (1936), he directed the Kharkiv MachineBuilding Plant (1954-8), headed the Kharkiv Economic Region's Council of the National Economy (1958-60) and the Ukrainian Council of the National Economy (1960-1), and served as first secretary of the Kharkiv Oblast Party Committee (1961-3), second secretary and member of the CPU Politburo (1963-6), first deputy premier of the Ukrainian SSR (1966-72), and a ce CPSU member (1961-71). Sobol, Naum [Sobol'], b April 1898 in Kodyma, Balta county, Podilia gubernia, d 10 October 1967 in Kharkiv. Scenery designer. He studied in Yu. Bershadsky's private school in Odessa (1916-20). A member of the Association of Revolutionary Art in Ukraine, he created scenery for the Kharkiv Theater of Musical Comedy, the Kharkiv Russian Drama Theater, and the Lviv Theater of Opera and Ballet (eg, L. Minkus's Don Quixote, 1939). Sobol, Oleksander [Sobol'], b 13 January 1909 in Bialystok, Poland. Ballet dancer and pedagogue. In 1925 he completed study in the ballet studio at the Kharkiv Theater of Opera and Ballet, and in 1933 at the Moscow Choreography School. He was a soloist in the Kharkiv Theater of Opera and Ballet (1933-5), the Moscow Bolshoi Theater (1935-9), and the Moscow and Warsaw musical theaters (1945-61). In 1960-77 he taught in the choreography schools in Moscow, Warsaw, Lodz, and Szczecin. Sobolev, Feliks, b 25 July 1931, d 20 April 1984 in Kiev. He completed study in the actor's (1953) and director's (1959) faculties in the Kiev Institute of Theater Arts and then worked for the Kiev Studio of Scientific-Popular Films. His film Mova tvaryn (The Language of the Animals, 1967) won a prize at an international film festival in Leipzig in 1969. Other films are la i druhyi (I and Another, 1971), Biosphere (1973), Koly shchezaiut' bar'iery (When Bar-

riers Disappear, 1980), and Kyws'ka symfoniia (Kievan Symphony, 1982). Sobolevsky, Aleksei [Sobolevskij, Aleksej], b 7 January 1857 in Moscow, d 24 May 1929 in Moscow. Russian Slavist, linguist, paleographer, and folklorist; member of the Russian (later USSR) Academy of Sciences from 1893. A graduate of Moscow (1878,1881) and Kharkiv (PH D, 1884) universities, he taught at the universities of Kiev (1882-8) and St Petersburg (1888-1908). A specialist in Old Church Slavonic and the history of the Russian language, he defended the Russian chauvinist concept of a single Russian language divided into a 'Great Russian' (including Belarusian) and a 'Little Russian' (ie, Ukrainian) dialect. In his books of essays (1884) and lectures (1888, 1891, 1903, 1907) on the history of the Russian language, he described the phonetic features of numerous 12th- to 15th-century manuscripts written in Ukraine. He described them tendentiously as 'Galician-Volhynian' and maintained that 'Great Russian' was spoken at that time in Kiev and Chernihiv. In an article on the 'ancient Kievan dialect' (1905) he explained the presence of Galician-Volhynian features in those manuscripts, as well as in the modern northeastern Ukrainian dialects, as the result of 'in-migration' of Galicians and Volhynians after the Mongol invasion and the northward 'out-migration' of the indigenous 'Russian' population. Sobolevsky's revival of the theories of M. *Pogodin led to a polemic with P. Zhytetsky, K. Mykhalchuk, A. Pypin, A. Shakhmatov, V. Jagic, and A. Krymsky, who wrote a detailed response (five articles in Kievskaia starina, 1898-9). He was the most important contributor to the historical dialectology of the East Slavic languages. In his books on Russian dialectology (1890,1911) and in an article on the 'Little Russian dialect' (1892), he divided the Ukrainian dialects into archaic northern (including archaic Carpathian) and southern groups. In his etymologies of ethnonyms, hydronyms, toponyms, anthroponyms, and contemporary place-names and surnames in Ukraine and Eastern Europe, he often suggested uncritically a derivation from the Scythian and Sarmatian languages. O. Horbach

Sobolevsky, Hryhorii [Sobolevs'kyj, Hryhorij], b 1741 in Hlukhiv, Nizhen regiment, d 16 January 1807. Medical botanist and pharmacologist. A graduate of the school of the St Petersburg General Army Hospital in 1761, he studied in Paris and Leiden, and completed a doctoral dissertation in 1775. He practiced medicine and taught botany in St Petersburg and was director of the botanical garden (from 1779) and a professor of botany (from 1796) at the medical college there. He built a large botanical, mineralogical, and zoological collection and a sizable library. His most important work was a catalog of plants in the St Petersburg region (1796-9). Soboliev, Dmytro [Soboljev] (Sobolev, Dmitrii), b 6 August 1872 in Khripeli, Kostroma gubernia, Russia, d 16 March 1949 in Kharkiv. Geologist. He graduated from Warsaw University in 1899. He then became a professor at Kharkiv University (1914) and chaired its geology department (1922). He conducted research on the Devonian deposits of the East European Platform and the geological

SOBOR-RULED EPISCOPAL CHURCH

structure, paleontology, tectonics, and geomorphology of Ukraine. He was one of the first to assert, in 1933, the presence of petroleum deposits in the Dnieper-Donets Trough.

Participants of the first sobor of the Ukrainian Autocephalous Orthodox church (October 1921)

Sobor. A formal gathering or council of bishops, church officials, and monastic and lay representatives morally representing the whole particular church and dealing with matters of faith, morality, rite, and canonical and cultural life. The term is derived from the Church Slavonic word for an assembly. The sobor is distinguished from the ""synod, which is usually an assembly of bishops. From the earliest days of the Christian church, councils were convened as a means of deciding matters related to church life and policy. The development of a full church infrastructure led eventually to the existence of several types of sobor s reflecting different ecclesiastical jurisdictions. These include ecumenical (vselenskyi), particular (pomisnyi), provincial (provintsiinyi), eparchial (eparkhiialnyi), and minor (sobor chyk) sobors. The ecumenical sobor is a general council of the whole church; it brings together the church hierarchy of the whole Christian world to resolve fundamental matters of faith, morality, and ecclesiastical discipline. According to the Orthodox teaching, only seven ecumenical sobors of the Christian church have been convoked (between 325 and 787). Since the split into the Catholic and Orthodox churches, Catholics have continued to hold ecumenical sobors (8th-2ist), convoked by the pope, which are not recognized but are occasionally attended by the representatives of the Orthodox church. The particular sobor brings together the clergy (occasionally the laity as well) of a particular church; it is presided over by the head of the particular or autocephalous church (ie, a patriarch, major archbishop, or metropolitan). The decisions of the sobor are binding on all the members of the particular church, although in the case of Ukrainian Catholics the decisions must first be approved by the pope. Sobors are also held within specific ecclesiastical jurisdictions. Provincial sobors take place in metropolies not headed by a patriarch or major archbishop. In many respects they resemble particular sobors. Eparchial sobors bring together representatives of the clergy and frequently lay church leaders from within the jurisdiction of a single bishop. Minor sobors are assemblies of representatives from a deanery under the authority of a protopresbyter.

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Chronicles record the first known Ukrainian church sobor as having taken place in Kiev in 1051. Sobors were convened periodically from then on; one notable assembly held in 1415 formed a separate metropoly for the church in Lithuanian lands. Once established in 1596, the Ukrainian Catholic church convened sobors and synods of its own. A particularly notable sobor, held in 1640 under the leadership of Metropolitan P. Mohyla, involved a considerable body of lay people and approved a new profession of faith for the Orthodox church. Ukrainian Orthodox sobors ceased to be held for several hundred years following the church's absorption into the Russian Orthodox church in 1685. Assemblies of this sort were convened once more only in 1918 and 1921, in conjunction with the restoration of the ^Ukrainian Autocephalous Orthodox church. A major tenet of this church was the primacy of the sobor, with the full participation of the laity, in church affairs (see *Sobor rule). Since the Second World War various jurisdictions of the Ukrainian Orthodox church have held a number of major sobors in the West. On 5-6 June 1990 an all-Ukrainian sobor was held in Kiev which revived the Ukrainian Autocephalous Orthodox church and elected Metropolitan M. *Skrypnyk the patriarch of Kiev and all Ukraine. BIBLIOGRAPHY Diiannia i postanovy L 'vivs 'kykh arkhyeparkhiial 'nykh soboriv 194043 pid provodom Sluhy Bozhoho Mytropolyta Andreia Sheptyts 'koho (Winnipeg 1984) I. Korovytsky, I. Patrylo

Sobor of the Greek Catholic church in 1946. See

Lviv Sobor of 1946.

Sobor rule (sobornopravnisf). The principle under which church policy or decisions affecting a church are made by its lay membership together with the ecclesiastical hierarchy. The concept of sobor rule in Ukraine was adhered to until the absorption of the Ukrainian Orthodox by the Russian Orthodox church and its subjugation to the decrees of the Holy Synod. The principle was revived in the 2Oth century with the re-establishment of the Ukrainian Autocephalous Orthodox church in Ukraine and the creation of Ukrainian jurisdictions in the West. Soborna Ukraïna (United Ukraine). A nationalist paper published in Vienna from October 1921 to May 1922. Financed by W. Habsburg-Lothringen (V. Vyshyvany) and edited by V. Andriievsky, it was antisocialist, anti-Russian, anti-Polish, and anti-hetmanite. It advocated the primacy of national over class or party interests, the creation of a national church, absolute reliance on 'our own [Ukrainian] forces/ and an 'aristocratic democracy' (later changed to a 'peasant national democracy'). Sobor-Ruled Episcopal church (Soborno-iepyskopska tserkva). A Ukrainian Orthodox church (officially called the Fraternal Association of Ukrainian Autocephalous Churches or simply the Ukrainian Autocephalous church) formed in 1925 by a group of Ukrainian Orthodox bishops led by T. Buldovsky of Lubni. These clerics had not joined the Ukrainian Autocephalous Orthodox church (UAOC) because of misgivings about its canonicity. At the same time they had become increasingly frustrated with

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attempts to reform the Russian Orthodox church in Ukraine, which rejected Ukrainianization of church life, autocephaly for the Ukrainian church, and sobor rule. It was initially supported by the Soviet government, which hoped to discredit both the Russian church and the UAOC. Although it never attracted a large following, the SoborRuled church did gain adherents, particularly in the Poltava, Katerynoslav, Vinnytsia, and Kherson regions. It went into decline following the normalization of relations between the regime and the Russian church in 1927 and the start of intensive religious persecutions in 1929. Its last church was closed in 1937. Buldovsky himself survived the Stalinist terror and during the Second World War joined the UAOC as bishop of Kharkiv.

Montreal's Ukraina soccer team in 1957

Soccer or football (fútbol, kopanyi m'iach). The most popular team and spectator sport in the world. Soccer was introduced in Ukraine in 1878 by employees of British enterprises in Odessa. In the i88os and 18905 other British, German, and Czechoslovak workers introduced it in the Donbas and Kiev. The first soccer clubs in Ukraine were organized during the early 19003: Pivden (Russian: lug; Kiev 1904), Tekhnika (Mykolaiv 1906), Politekhnika (Kiev 1906), Ukrainskyi Sportyvnyi Kliub (Lviv 1906), Sianova Chaika (Peremyshl 1907), Feniks (Kharkiv 1908), Yuzivka (Kharkiv 1909), Kramatorske (Kharkiv 1909), Ukraina (Lviv 1911), and others in the Donbas region. By the eve of the First World War, soccer was played throughout Ukraine. Various clubs held intercity matches and tournaments; leagues were established in Kiev (1911), Kharkiv (1912), and the Donbas (1913); referee colleges were created; and soccer manuals were published. Odessa, Kiev, and Kharkiv teams participated in the first Russian soccer championship in 1912, and Odessa won the second championship in 1913. Under early Soviet rule, soccer teams were formed within the many sanctioned workers' sports clubs. In 1921 the first republican competition among Soviet Ukrainian city clubs was won by Kharkiv. In 1924 Kharkiv won the USSR championship, and Mykolaiv placed second and Odessa third. The first children's soccer clubs were organized in 1933, and an advanced school for soccer coaches was established in 1935. Beginning in 1936 the republican championships were no longer competed for by city clubs

but by collectives of sport clubs affiliated with various trade unions. That year the USSR league championships and playoffs for the USSR Cup first took place. In 1937 a competition for the Ukrainian Cup was introduced. Today the best-known Ukrainian clubs are Dynamo in Kiev (est 1927), Shakhtar in Donetske (1935), Dnipro in Dnipropetrovske (1936), and Chornomorets in Odessa (1958). In 1961 Dynamo broke the 25-year hold on the USSR championship enjoyed by Moscow teams. It then became the most successful club in Soviet soccer; it won the USSR championship a record 12 times (1961,1966-8,1971,19745,1977,1980-1,1985-6), the USSR Cup 8 times (1954,1964, 1966, 1974, 1978, 1982, 1985, 1987), the European CupWinners' Cup in 1975 and 1986, and the European Supercup in 1975. In 1976 the entire team represented the USSR at the Montreal Olympics and won the bronze medal. Two Dynamo players have been named European Footballer of the Year, O. Blokhin in 1975 and I. Belanov in 1986. Following Dynamo's lead, other Ukrainian clubs claimed Soviet championships. League titles were won by Zoria of Luhanske (1972) and Dnipro of Dnipropetrovske (1983, 1989), and the USSR Cup was won by Shakhtar of Donetske (1961-2,1980,1983), Karpaty of Lviv (1969), and Dnipro (1989). Five Ukrainians (O. Cherednyk, V. Liuty, O. Mykhailychenko, V. Tatarchuk, and V. Tyshchenko) were on the USSR soccer team that won the 1988 Olympic gold medal. In 1979 the Ukrainian SSR had 954,000 registered soccer players in 27,000 collective sport clubs, 20,000 soccer fields, and 900 stadiums. Information and statistics about soccer in Ukraine and the USSR and about international competitions appeared in Fútbol, an annual Ukrainian calendar-reference book, issued in a pressrun of approx 100,000 copies. In Western Ukraine under Polish rule, Ukrainian clubs formed a soccer union in 1921 in Lviv, under the aegis of the *Sokil society and then the "Ukrainian Sports Union. Beginning in 1928 many clubs played in the Polish state league. Soccer also developed successfully in Transcarpathia and Bukovyna, and clubs from Lviv, Chernivtsi, and Uzhhorod participated in competitions against each other. After the Soviet occupation of Western Ukraine all interwar clubs and leagues were disbanded, and new clubs were organized according to the Soviet trade-union model. Postwar Ukrainian refugees organized their own soccer teams, leagues, and competitions in German and Austrian DP camps between 1945 and 1949, and then in Canada, the United States, England, and Australia. O. *Skotsen gained prominence as a professional soccer player in France. With the founding of the ""Ukrainian Sports Federation of the USA and Canada, championship competitions were organized. As members of the semiprofessional American Soccer League, the Ukrainian Nationals of Philadelphia won six championships (1961, 1962, 1963-4, 1968, 1970), more than any other club in the league's history. The us National Open Challenge Cup has been captured by two Ukrainian teams: the Ukrainian Nationals (1960-1, 1963, 1966) and the New York Ukrainians (1965). The Ukraina club of Montreal won the Canadian soccer championship in 1957, and the Newark Ukrainian Sitch captured the Professional American Soccer League's Lewis Cup in 1963. BIBLIOGRAPHY AVmanakh RadyfizychnoikuVtury

(Munich 1951)

SOCIAL M O B I L I T Y Mykhailov, M. Fútbol Ukraïny (Kiev 1968) Riordan, J. Soviet Sport: Background to the Olympics (Oxford 1980) Skotsen', O. Zfutbolom u svit: Spomyny (Toronto 1985) I. Kuzych-Berezovsky, E. Zharsky

Sochi [Soci]. x-20. A city (1989 pop 337,000) on the Black Sea in Krasnodar krai, RF. It was rounded in 1896 at the site of Dakhivskyi outpost. Sochi is the center of the largest tourist and health resort area (350,000 ha) in the RF. The climate is subtropical, and the water is suitable for bathing between June and October. According to the census of 1926, Ukrainians accounted for 16.9 percent of the population of Sochi raion. Sochynsky, Rostyslav [Socyns'kyj], b 10 February 1916 in Vinnytsia, Podilia gubernia, d 17 September 1985 in New York. Physician and journalist. He completed his medical studies at Warsaw and Berlin universities. An active member of the OUN, he was arrested by the Gestapo in 1942, and spent three years in the Sachsenhausen concentration camp. After working as a doctor in DP camps he emigrated to the United States (1950) and opened a private practice in New York. He was president of the Ukrainian Medical Association of North America (1961-3) and sat on the board of directors of the Ukrainian Institute of America (from 1979). He contributed scientific articles to Likars 'kyi visnyk and popular articles on medicine and cultural affairs to the Ukrainian press. Sochyvets, Ivan [Socyvec'l, b 9 May 1917 in Lebedivka, Kozelets county, Chernihiv gubernia. Writer. He graduated from the CC CPU Higher Party School (1958) and has worked as a teacher, journalist, section editor of Radians 'ke Podillia and Radians 'ka osvita, and secretary responsible for the journal Perets'. Since 1958 he has published 20 collections of humorous and satirical prose, the most recent in 1987. He has published in Perets ' under the pseudonyms I. Yosypenko and I. Lebidko. Social insurance. In the USSR and its successor states, public programs that offer financial assistance to people whose income had been reduced because of old age, pregnancy, illness, disability, or temporary unemployment. Social insurance funds are also used to maintain health resorts and sanatoriums. Social insurance is funded directly from the state budget and from contributions by enterprises, collective farms, institutions, and organizations. There have been no deductions for the purpose from employees' wages. Until the mid-1960s, collective farmers were excluded from most social insurance schemes. In Ukraine social insurance has been administered by the Ukrainian Republican Council of Trade Unions. State expenditures on social insurance grew from 1.7 billion rubles in 1970 (12.8 percent of total state expenditures) to 6.1 billion rubles in 1988 (18.6 percent). (See also Tension and ""Social security.) Social mobility. The movement of individuals and groups from one social level and status to another. Under Soviet rule Ukrainian society was transformed from a primarily agrarian society into an industrial one within the span of one generation. In 1940, 47 percent of Ukraine's working population were peasants, but by 1990 only 14 percent of the population still worked in agriculture. The status of peasant is, in practice, no longer inherited. The

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scale of social change has been so immense that one can speak of the mobility of an entire social class and its imminent disappearance as a result of the massive rural outmigration and the catastrophically declining, and now negative, natural ^population growth. ^Migration for purposes of social mobility has generally been one-directional. There has been practically no rural in-migration, because the quality of rural life has been inferior. Young unmarried women in search of a higher social status and better life have been the most active and numerous group involved in rural out-migration to the large cities and oblast centers. After completing their obligatory military service many young unmarried peasant men have followed the same route. Peasant parents have usually encouraged such out-migration, wishing the best for their children, and have provided indispensable financial support to their children while they have studied and established roots and families in the urban environment. Such mobility was intensive even in the Stalinist 19305, 19405, and 19505, despite stringent limitations on the freedom of movement (ie, the internal *passport system). The most fortunate were the many young peasant men and women who, until the mid-1950s, were brought into the cities as part of ongoing labor mobilizations and organized recruitment to study in vocational and technical schools. The peasantry was considered an inexhaustible source of renewal of the urban working class, and the state fostered the creation of such labor reserves/ Upon completion of their compulsory military service young men had the right to choose where they wanted to work, and most chose the city. They circumvented any remaining restrictions by obtaining the documents necessary for relocation through purchase, bribery, or the help of friends or relatives. Most of the young people who have migrated into the cities chose vocations that guaranteed them material wellbeing though not a particularly high social status. Women have been attracted to the teaching profession in particular; men have found work in industry and transportation, where they have constituted two-thirds of the skilled workers. Former peasants, however, have also constituted three-quarters of the low-status manual laborers. Existing limitations on establishing residence in the city and the need to have a document of registered residency have forced young rural out-migrants to seek less attractive, physically demanding jobs at enterprises allowed to hire workers by municipal authorities. Rural out-migrants have not, in fact, had the same employment advantages as urban youths. Because of their upbringing most urban inhabitants aspire to be more educated than their parents. The tendency increases with the level of education the parents have attained. According to a survey of young workers in Ukraine conducted in the late 19805, getting a higher education was a goal for 48 percent of male respondents whose parents had not completed secondary school and were manual laborers, for 54 percent of male respondents whose parents had finished secondary school and were manual laborers, and for 79 percent of male and 83 percent of female respondents whose parents had higher educations. Many urban dwellers begin their adult working lives at the bottom of the social ladder. A mobility study of work-

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ing people living in Kiev conducted by the recently created Institute of Sociology of the Academy of Sciences of Ukraine indicates that the first job of every third man or woman is an unskilled, physically demanding one. Family status (ie, of the parents) does not play a role there. Only i of every 4 children of skilled workers finishes vocational school and becomes a skilled worker, and only i of 20 manages to enter a postsecondary institution immediately after finishing secondary school, compared to 39 percent of children whose parents have higher educations. Even within the latter group, however, i of 5 begins independent life as a manual laborer. By the time they have reached the age of 30, most children have attained the same educational level and qualifications as their parents. By that time only 5 percent of working-class children are still unskilled manual laborers. Among sons of skilled blue-collar workers, only 16 percent have not attained the same qualifications as their fathers, 24 percent have attained the same qualifications, and the remainder have finished secondary-specialized or postsecondary school and become white-collar workers. By the age of 30 only 20 percent of children whose parents do not have higher educations and have simple white-collar jobs have followed in their parents' footsteps; 30 percent are skilled workers, and 50 percent are specialists with higher educations. Only 10 percent of children whose parents have higher educations become manual laborers; 75 percent finish postsecondary school and become part of the same social stratum their parents belong to. Among that group (in contrast to peasant children) there is a high probability that the parents' social status will be inherited through occupational mobility, though in an entirely different occupation. A number of objective factors have influenced young people's choices of what social-mobility route to follow. Skilled blue-collar workers, for example, receive much higher wages than those who begin working only after finishing postsecondary school. The former attain material independence relatively quickly, whereas the latter spend years attaining it. The profession one chooses and the type of educational institution one attends determine the level of one's material and financial well-being basically for life. Until the early 19905 the reality was such that those involved in creative, substantive labor after many years of secondary and postgraduate studies were in effect penalized: they were not able to satisfy basic everyday needs, lagged behind their peers in terms of social status and material well-being, and were forced to prolong their material dependence on their parents and other family members. The principal direction of inter- and intragenerational mobility has been upward. The opposite phenomenon, downward social mobility, has also occurred, however. Today it cannot be said that unattractive, physically demanding jobs are performed solely by any particular group or stratum. Occupational research has shown that the formation of the category of unskilled laborers has been gradual and that it constitutes only 6 or 7 percent of those studied. Jobs not requiring skill were performed by people who earlier had jobs requiring certain qualifications; 40-67 percent of them had vocational training and even higher educations. For them mobility has been a process of self-demotion, of the avoidance of using acquired knowledge and skills, and of descent to the bottom of the social pyramid.

Under Soviet rule upward mobility into the stratum of the Party, state, and economic leadership was different from the mobility experienced by most people. Members of all social strata were recruited, but in a strictly regulated fashion that placed tough demands on them. Candidates were expected to have a higher education, to have graduated as well from a higher Party, trade-union, or economic school that trained leading cadres, and to have practical experience in Komsomol, Party, government, or economic organs. Official cadre policy demanded of candidates work experience in all possible agencies before allowing them into the exclusive ^nomenklatura. Once part of that elite, they remained in it for life. Those involved in scandals or mismanagement were simply transferred, for it was in the best interests of the elite as a whole to protect its corporate status and its individual members. The elite's mechanism of self-preservation functioned accurately until the late 19805. BIBLIOGRAPHY Matthews, M. Class and Society in Soviet Russia (London 1972) Yanowitch, M. Social and Economic Inequality in the Soviet Union: Six Studies (White Plains, NY 1977) Lane, D. The End of Social Inequality?: Class, Status, and Power under State Socialism (London 1982) Yanowitch, M. (ed). The Social Structure of the USSR: Recent Soviet Studies (Armonk, NY 1986) Clark, W.M. Soviet Regional Elite Mobility after Khrushchev (New York, Westport, Conn, and London 1989) S. Makeev

Social security (sotsiialne zabezpechennia). Publicly financed and administered programs intended to maintain, protect, and raise basic living standards. The term covers programs that replace income lost because of pregnancy, illness, accident, disability, the death or absence of a family's breadwinner, unemployment, old age, retirement, and other factors. In the past the provision of social security for the infirm, the ill, and the aged was a family responsibility. Later, community organizations, such as churches and guilds, assumed some of the responsibility. With the development of industry in the second half of the 19th century the state, especially the local authorities, began to play a role in social assistance. Comprehensive social security policies, however, are a 20th-century phenomenon. In Soviet Ukraine social security consisted of programs such as Asocial insurance, ""pensions, benefits for single mothers, family income supplements, benefits for the permanently disabled, health care for old age pensioners, invalids, and war veterans, social and medical rehabilitation, and student stipends. According to Soviet convention holiday pay was classified as a social security benefit. The social security program was funded in part from an earmarked payroll tax (differentiated by sector) and in part from general budgetary revenue derived from indirect and profit taxes. The absolute value of benefits increased with the income of the recipient household. Before 1917 in Russian-ruled Ukraine, social security as a state program was virtually nonexistent. Churches, zemstvo and municipal councils, benevolent associations, and various aid committees and charities provided some relief to the destitute. In 1888 a workmen's compensation scheme for victims of industrial accidents was introduced in some of the larger factories. In 1912 a factory insurance

SOCIAL SECURITY

fund providing social security payments in the case of illness was established. That benefit, however, was offered only in the Donbas and in some of the larger cities. In interwar Western Ukraine under Polish rule, social security provisions provided support to victims of accidents. A1927 law established pensions and disability payments for civil servants and rudimentary unemployment insurance benefits. A 1933 law unified social security benefits for workers and civil servants. Interwar Transcarpathia under Czechoslovak rule was covered by relatively advanced social security legislation from 1924 on. In 1929, pensions were extended to all civil servants. In all of interwar Western Ukraine, apart from Polish, Czechoslovak, and Rumanian state programs, there existed many privately run social insurance schemes based on the contributions of earners. Employee-contribution-based unemployment insurance programs also received subsidies from the various states. Demands for basic social security benefits were articulated in Ukraine during the Revolution of 1917. Although the various Ukrainian governments of 1917-20 had plans to implement such programs, the conditions of war did not allow their realization. Social security (old age, disability, and survivor pensions) in Ukraine was introduced in 1922 for the urban population. All employed persons, students, and servicemen were covered by the scheme. With the adoption of the First Five-Year Plan (1928-32), the social security system was modified to make it less egalitarian and to reinforce the incentives thought necessary for industrialization. It was remodified in 1956, and from then on benefit levels were raised more or less in line with the growth in average earnings. Not until 1965, however, were state pensions provided for the collective-farm population. Other programs were extended to that social group over the next five years. Most Soviet social security payments were related to employment in some way. There were, however, three more general programs available to the population: child allowances, family income supplements, and student stipends. Provisions were also made for burial grants. Nonmilitary and noncooperative state employees were entitled to an old age pension on reaching the age of 60 if they were men or 55 if they were women, provided they had a record of 25 or 20 years of employment respectively. There were lower retirement ages with correspondingly reduced employment requirements for underground workers and certain other designated categories. From 1967, collective farmers were entitled to pensions at the same age and with the same employment record as state employees. The value of a pension was determined by the level of earnings either during the last 12 months before retirement or during the last consecutive five-year period of employment in the last 10 years before retirement. Certain categories of white-collar employees (eg, teachers and physicians) received long-service pensions rather than those just described, and there existed a scheme of retirement pensions for members of the Party elite at more than double the normal maximum rate. In Ukraine between 1970 and 1990 the number of pensioners grew from 8.9 to 13.1 million. Almost 40 percent of retired state employees and 89 percent of collective farmers received less than 60 rubles a month. In 1989 the old age pension was set at a minimum of 70 rubles and a maximum of 120. Because the poverty line was a monthly per

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capita income of 75 rubles or less, almost 40 percent of all pensioners were forced to continue working to supplement their pension incomes. In addition there was and still is an acute shortage of homes for the aged and disabled. In 1988 only i in 80 of that group received accommodation, compared to i in 16 in the United States. A survivors7 benefit program offered entitlements to a deceased state employee's or collective farmer's dependent children, grandchildren, siblings under the age of 16, parents, and surviving spouse (if above working age). The value of the benefit varied according to the number of dependents and the earnings of the deceased. In 1989 the maximum benefit was 60 rubles a month for a single dependent and 120 rubles for two or more dependents. Disability pensions varied, distinctions being made between incapacity resulting from industrial accidents or occupational diseases on the one hand and general loss of working capacity on the other. In 1970 disability pensions were extended to collective farmers. Sickness benefits, including benefits for seven days to those (mainly mothers) who had to remain at home to care for sick children, depended upon earnings, type of employment, and union membership. Those benefits also were extended to collective farmers, in 1970. From 1968 women state employees were entitled to a period of 56 days prenatal and 56 days postnatal paid leave, and they could then take further unpaid leave until their child's first birthday without loss of their jobs or seniority. Maternity benefits were extended to collective farmers in the 19605. Child allowances were paid to single mothers (in 1989, 20 rubles a month per child); mothers with four or more children received payments ranging from 4 to 15 rubles per child from the child's first to fifth birthdays. Single payments were also made on the birth of a child (from 50 rubles in 1989 for the first child to 100 rubles for additional children). Family income supplements of 12 rubles a month per child until the child's eighth birthday were given to families with a per capita income of less than 50 rubles a month. Despite attempts to improve the social security system, social welfare has been and continues to be a major problem in Ukraine. Social security payments have been low. The amount paid to assist large families, for example, remained unchanged from 1944 until December 1990, when the rate was finally increased. In 1988 approx 9 percent of the average income of blue- and white-collar workers and collective farmers came from various social security payments. Yet that same year almost 40 percent of Ukraine's population lived in impoverished circumstances. The situation of the disabled has been particularly critical, because they have had few adequate facilities and programs. According to a 1989 survey, for the majority of old age pensioners and the disabled their families were still the main source of assistance. A major problem with the social security system has been the fact that many benefits have been based on employment instead of need. Because regulations governing entitlements to various benefits have been so complex, some eligible applicants have failed to qualify for assistance. The absence of protection for the unemployed has been a serious flaw remedied only by the unemployment legislation of March 1991. Because of recent economic difficulties, however, it is unlikely that social security benefits will improve. Although Ukrainian state expenditures on pensions and social security bene-

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fits grew from 11.8 billion rubles in 1970 to 39.3 billion in 1988, inflation offset the real value of those increases. BIBLIOGRAPHY A Report on Social Security Programs in the Soviet Union Prepared by the U.S. Team That Visited the U.S.S.R. under the East-West Exchange Program in August-September 1958 (Washington 1960) Fedorov, O. Sotsial'ne zabezpechennia v Ukraïns'kii RSR (Kiev 1969) Lantsev, M. The Economic Aspects of Social Security in the USSR (Moscow 1979) Batygin,K. (ed). Sovetskoe sotsial 'noe strakhovanie: Uchebnoe posobie alia vysshikh profsoiuznykh shkol, 2nd rev edn (Moscow 1985) Pronina, L. Povyshenie eftektivnosti sotsial 'nogo obespecheniia (Moscow 1990) D. Goshko, B. Krawchenko

Social stratification. Social ranking based on differences in age, sex, race, religion, ancestry, class, occupation, wages, material well-being, and social and political status. Because society is structured hierarchically, the ranking, and hence social inequality, is constantly maintained and replicated. In Soviet Ukraine the process of social stratification had four main tendencies. First, certain categories of the population were forcibly excluded from the officially defined social structure and deprived of their basic civil rights and liberties. In the 19205 and 19305 (and in the 19408 and 19505 in newly annexed Western Ukraine) such discrimination affected the so-called socially foreign social strata, that is, the 'bourgeois' intelligentsia, clergy, nobility, landowners, and prosperous farmers (*kulaks). In 1953, 167,000 'socially foreign' Ukrainians were living in the Arctic and Asian parts of the USSR, where they had been deported as 'special settlers.' That social division into those who are and those who are not officially discriminated against was maintained into the 19805. People were persecuted not only because of their social origins but for the way they thought. Also outside the official social structure were vagrants; 36,000 people were registered as such in Ukraine in 1989 (0.15 percent of the employable population). The second tendency was the prevalent one from the 19308 to the mid-1980s. Its distinguishing trait was the Soviet state's monopoly on the right to create social inequality wherever and whenever it chose, with the aim of subordinating individuals and making them totally dependent on the state. To that end all surplus production and a significant part of essential production were taken by the state for its own use before being returned to the producers (workers and peasants) in quantities sufficient only for satisfying their basic needs. The state's view of social equality meant in practice the equalization of wages, regardless of qualifications. Thus, for example, in the late 19705 a professor's salary was no higher than a skilled worker's. The differences in wage incomes that remained were illusory, because there was a permanent shortage of basic goods and services. Wages did not reflect differences in living standards because most people were unable to buy anything with the money they earned. The state was forced, however, to create better conditions for certain groups in order to encourage their loyalty and active support and their enthusiasm for current and prospective goals and tasks. As a rule the privileges and benefits such groups received from the state were not made public. The third tendency consisted of attempts by most indi-

viduals and groups to counter the state's efforts to subordinate them by participating in an illegal or semilegal system of trading and bartering goods and services (see "Underground economy). In order to attain an adequate standard of living, many people moonlighted, worked overtime, became seasonal ^migrant workers at higherpaying construction projects in the Soviet Arctic and Asia, or did mechanical or house repairs in addition to their official jobs. Often materials stolen from state enterprises and offices and official vehicles were used to generate additional incomes. Such unsanctioned economic activity supplemented the official Soviet system of social stratification (ie, inequality between the rulers and the ruled) by creating widespread, partly latent social inequality. It was latent because Soviet ideology stated that rich people should not exist, and the state did not allow personal accumulation of wealth. In a condition of permanent shortages of goods and services only the members of the state and Party elite (see ^Nomenklatura) had full access to limited resources and were able to satisfy all of their basic and more sophisticated needs. A special system of goods and services was created for their exclusive use, and the purchase value of every ruble they earned was guaranteed (unlike the rubles paid to ordinary people). A system of symbols reflecting the inequality that rapidly developed was introduced, and even certain colors became symbols of power (eg, the white stone used for the façades of Party buildings, the black limousines available only to the elite). Prestige and its symbolic trappings became the marks of success. Those in power were credited by their peers with primary responsibility in attaining various goals and rewarded with *prizes and awards and Borders, medals, and honorific titles; some even had towns, squares, and streets named after them. The dichotomy between the ruling elite and the rest of society generally characterized the stratification process. The power structure was not homogeneous, however, and its various participants did not enjoy the same privileges. Closest to the ruling elite were those functionaries, ideologists, writers, artists, and scientists who catered to it and consequently received certain benefits and status. The most oppressed and impoverished class consisted of the collective-farm peasants, who relied on their small ^private plots to eke out a subsistence. In the 19305,19405, and 19505 they were not even paid in money for their labor. In the mid-1950s wage labor was introduced, but in 1960 the collective farmer still received a monthly wage that was less than a third that of an urban worker (in the late 19805 it was 15 percent lower). In the last few decades in rural areas homemade spirits served as the universal form of exchange and were used instead of money as payment for services. Although work absenteeism was not characteristic of the rural population, the number of workrelated accidents in agriculture was higher than in industry and twice as high as in construction. The retirement pensions of collective farmers were always minimal (eg, 51 percent lower than those of urban blue- and white-collar workers in 1980). Whereas urban workers received housing from the state, rural inhabitants had to build homes at their own expense and without government support. Practically all agricultural production was until recently shipped to urban centers, and the peasants sold the

SOCIALISM

products of their private plots at markets to earn money. In the late 19805, rural inhabitants still consumed 30 percent less meat, 25 percent less sugar, 19 percent less milk, but nearly twice as much bread as urban inhabitants. In rural areas services virtually did not exist, qualified medical aid was in chronic short supply, and the quality of elementary education was much worse than in urban schools. Such rural-urban inequality was the primary stimulus of rural out-migration; 130,000 rural homes in Ukraine were uninhabited by 1990. In urban areas inequality also flourished. The material and social status of individuals was determined by ministries, state agencies, and enterprises, which themselves were stratified. Employees in heavy industries received higher wages than those in light or food industries, and wages at different plants, factories, and research institutes varied. Defense-industry employees had better working conditions and wages, the newest technology and equipment, easier access to housing, and more perquisites than employees of civil industries. The goods, services, and benefits people had access to were not determined by what they earned and could afford but by their access to the Party and state functionaries, warehouse managers, and black marketeers who controlled and distributed goods and services. Those in control and those who had access to them constituted an economically privileged stratum (approx 3 to 10 percent of the employed population). Urban housing, which was in chronic short supply, illustrates the state of affairs well. In 1989, for example, of 245,000 families in Ukraine who received new apartments, 89 percent had been on the waiting list for an average of 11 years, whereas 11 percent were not on the list, and received apartments out of turn because they knew the right people. Such privileges were far from available to everyone and were most accessible to denizens of large cities (eg, Kiev, Moscow, Leningrad) where power, goods, and services were concentrated. In 1991 the Ukrainian Branch of the USSR Center for the Study of Public Opinion conducted a sample survey. Of the respondents 0.5 percent defined themselves as upper class; 12 percent, as higher middle class; 57 percent, as lower middle class; and 18 percent, as lower class. Fiftysix percent of the respondents stated that the material well-being of the middle class (the class of 75 percent of the respondents) had worsened, and 68 percent stated that the lot of the 'entrepreneurs' (those involved in co-operative ventures or running their own businesses) had improved. The fourth tendency is one that became pronounced in the late 19805, after the production of goods and provision of services outside the state-controlled sector was officially allowed: a new stratum of people owning private property individually or collectively (through co-operatives). The stratum grew rapidly, from 249,000 persons in 1989 to 779,000 (3 percent of the employed population) in 1990. By 1990 the wages of employees of co-operatives were three times those of blue and white-collar employees of the state. The new stratum was considered 'alien' and inimical to the organizational principles of a socialist society by a large part of the Soviet Ukrainian public, particularly by older people. In a State Statistics Committee public opinion survey of people aged 45 and over, only 33 percent of the respondents stated that employees of co-operatives and self-employed entrepreneurs should receive the same

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old age security as state-employed blue- and white-collar workers; 50 percent stated they should not. The co-operatives' relatively high profits at a time when everyone else's material well-being had worsened created much distrust and dislike of the new stratum. (For a bibliography, see *Class.) S. Makeev

Social welfare departments (Russian: Prikazy obshchestvennogo prizreniia). Agencies set up in 1775 within gubernia administrations of the Russian Empire to oversee primary schools, hospitals, almshouses, orphanages, poorhouses, insane asylums, and homes for the aged. They also distributed welfare funds provided by the state and private contributions. Most of the welfare institutions were supported by the church and private charity. Each department in a gubernia was run by a board chaired by the provincial governor and was provided with a budget of 15,000 rubles. When zemstvos were introduced in the i86os, the social welfare departments were abolished in most of the gubernias, including LeftBank and Southern Ukraine, and their functions were taken over by the zemstvos. They continued to operate in Right-Bank Ukraine until the early 2Oth century. Socialism. A political movement calling for collective ownership of the means of production or an egalitarian distribution of wealth. Socialist ideas first appeared in Ukrainian territory in the 18305 and 18405, but they were limited to the most radical factions of the Polish conspiratorial movement in Galicia and Right-Bank Ukraine, such as the Association for the Polish People. Although individual Ukrainians participated in those vaguely socialist groups, a Ukrainian socialist movement as such did not emerge until the 18705. The most influential Ukrainian socialist thinker was M. *Drahomanov, who adapted Western European socialist theories to the particular situation of the Ukrainian nation; his peasant-oriented, decentralist brand of socialism eventually came to be known as "radicalism. Other Ukrainian socialist theorists of the 18705 were Drahomanov's close associates M. *Ziber, an interpreter and proponent of "Marxism, and S. *Podolynsky, who was influenced by Drahomanov's radicalism, Marxism, and Russian ""populism. Drahomanov, Ziber, and Podolynsky were first active in Kiev, but at the end of the 18705 they emigrated to Western Europe in order to carry on political work without the interference of the tsarist police and censors. Under their influence and also under the influence of Polish socialists Ukrainian university students in Vienna and Lviv were converted to socialism, including I. *Franko, M. *Pavlyk, and O. *Terletsky. Pavlyk and especially Franko participated in the Polish socialist movement in Lviv in the late 18705 and early i88os as well as in carrying on socialist propaganda among Ukrainians. Independently of the rest of the Ukrainian socialist movement, the socialist *South Russian Union of Workers was founded in Odessa in 1875. The first Ukrainian political party was a socialist party, the "Ukrainian Radical party (est 1890 in Lviv). In 1899 the left wing of that party broke off to form the "Ukrainian Social Democratic party (USDP), which espoused Marxist socialism. Branches of both parties also appeared in Bukovyna in the decade before the First World War. In Rus-

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sian-ruled Ukraine a Marxist group calling itself Ukrainian Social Democracy was formed in 1897; although it was small and isolated from the mainstream of Ukrainian politics, its membership included the prominent writers M. *Kotsiubynsky and Lesia *Ukrainka. Another small group, consisting of left-wing Poles who embraced Ukrainian nationality, founded the "Ukrainian Socialist party in Kiev in 1900. Much more substantial was the socialist ^Revolutionary Ukrainian party (RUP), founded in Kharkiv in 1900. In the process of clarifying its ideology, RUP changed its name and split into two groups at the end of 1904. Those who remained in RUP rechristened it the "Ukrainian Social Democratic Workers' party (USDRP). Most of those who left formed the Ukrainian Social Democratic *Spilka, which became an autonomous group within the Russian Social Democratic Workers7 party (RSDRP) (Mensheviks). Both parties were Marxist, but they disagreed over the national question. National minorities in Ukraine also had their own socialist parties. The Marxist RSDRP existed in Ukraine, both its Bolshevik and Menshevik factions, with the latter having by far the larger membership before 1917. The other major Russian socialist party in Ukraine was the nonMarxist, populist Russian Socialist Revolutionary party. Polish socialists in Dnieper Ukraine belonged primarily to the Polish Socialist party, but also to the Social Democracy of the Kingdom of Poland and Lithuania; in Galicia Polish socialists belonged to the Galician (after 1897, Polish) Social Democratic party. Jewish socialists in Dnieper Ukraine belonged to the *Bund (affiliated with the Mensheviks) and to several parties that combined socialism with Zionism: Poale Zion, the Jewish Socialist Labor party, and the Zionist Socialist Labor party (the latter two joined in 1917 to form the United Jewish Workers' party). Jewish socialists in Galicia founded the Jewish Social Democratic party, which had links with the Bund. The revolutionary events of 1917 brought socialism into greater prominence. In April 1917, after tsarism was overthrown, a "Ukrainian Party of Socialist Revolutionaries (SRs) was formed. That agrarian socialist party grew rapidly; it received the greatest number of votes in the Ukrainian elections to the *All-Russian Constituent Assembly in December 1917. Together with the USDRP it dominated the "Central Rada and the government of the "Ukrainian National Republic (UNR). In November 1917, as a result of the ^October Revolution, the Bolsheviks seized power in Russia and attempted to initiate an all-European socialist revolution. The revolutionary Marxist socialism of the Bolsheviks attracted the left wings of the Ukrainian SRs (the *Borotbists) and the USDRP (Independentists), even though the UNR had been at war with the Bolsheviks since December 1917. In 1920 the majority of the Borotbists merged with the Ukrainian branch of the Bolsheviks, the "Communist Party (Bolsheviks) of Ukraine (CP[B]U), and the Independentists and a minority of the Borotbists formed the ^Ukrainian Communist party (Ukapisty). The revolutionary period 1917-20 also gave rise to the "Communist Party of Western Ukraine and the "Communist Party of Transcarpathian Ukraine. By the late 19205 the only political party left in the Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic was the CP(B)U; the rest had been liquidated or, like the Ukapisty in 1925, had liquidated themselves. In Western Ukraine other socialist parties continued to exist alongside the Communist par-

ties. The Ukrainian Radical party in Galicia and the Ukrainian Party of Socialist Revolutionaries in Volhynia merged in 1926 to form the moderate Ukrainian Socialist Radical party (USRP). In both Galicia and Bukovyna the USDP continued to exist, wavering between pro- and anticommunist platforms. An affiliate of the Czechoslovak Social Democratic party was established in Transcarpathia in 1920. Socialist organizations and periodicals also flourished among Ukrainian immigrants in Canada and the United States, especially in the first three decades of the 2Oth century. After the Revolution of 1917 most of the Ukrainian socialists in Canada regrouped around the procommunist "Ukrainian Labour-Farmer Temple Association. In the United States they became associated with either the pro-Communist United Ukrainian Toilers Organization or the Ukrainian Workingmen's Association (which maintained connections with the Ukrainian Socialist Radical party in Galicia). With the consolidation of Stalinism in the 19305, which brought with it forced collectivization, the man-made famine, and the annihilation of the Ukrainian intelligentsia, socialism lost much of its popularity among Ukrainians, particularly in Galicia and Bukovyna and in the emigration. During the Second World War no socialist groups were active in Ukraine, except for the thoroughly Stalinist CP(B)U. In the postwar Ukrainian diaspora the traditional moderate Ukrainian socialist parties were revived - the USDRP, the USDP, and the USRP. In 1950 they joined together to form the Ukrainian Socialist party. The ""Ukrainian Revolutionary Democratic party, a new creation composed largely of émigrés from Soviet Ukraine, was also socialist; the socialist perspective was particularly pronounced in the party's left wing, which published the newspaper Vpered. Under the impact of the new left movement of the 19605 and 19705 a sector of Ukrainian youth in the diaspora, primarily in Canada, adopted a revolutionary socialist and anti-Stalinist ideology; their periodicals were Meta and Diialoh. BIBLIOGRAPHY Borys, J. 'Political Parties in the Ukraine/ in The Ukraine, 19171921: A Study in Revolution, ed T. Hunczak (Cambridge, Mass 1977) Himka, J.-P. Socialism in Galicia: The Emergence of Polish Social Democracy and Ukrainian Radicalism (1860-1890) (Cambridge, Mass 1983) J.-P. Himka

Socialist competition. Various measures used in the Soviet Union to increase worker productivity. They included both noneconomic incentives, or appeals to the 'socialist consciousness' of the workers, and material incentives or rewards. Their use led to the characterization of socialist competition as 'the principal form of the socialist organization of labor' (J. Stalin, 1929) or 'the economic standard of socialism.' In the beginning of the 19705, socialist competition was recognized officially as one of the most important methods for building socialism and communism and one of the moving forces behind the growth of labor productivity. It was even given juridical status in 1977, when the new Soviet constitution declared that 'working collectives develop socialist competition' (Article 8). Soviet sources describe the 'Communist Saturdays' instituted in 1919 as precursors of socialist competition. V.

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Lenin, who himself took part in the exercises, ascribed great significance to these Saturdays of Voluntary7 work for the state, and in 1920 a special law was passed defining them. They were abandoned after a few years, however, when the New Economic Policy was adopted, and a more market-based economic system was introduced. Although the Communist Saturdays did not involve competition among workers, they were the first of the extraeconomic measures used to increase production and labor discipline. Real socialist competition was introduced in the workplace in 1926, when the shock-worker movement began. In that movement individuals, groups of workers (the socalled brigades), or whole factories pledged to increase the quantity and quality of production and challenged others to emulate their initiative. One of the first factories to take part in the movement was the Odessa Factory of Industrial Textiles. The movement acquired a mass character after the First Five-Year Plan (1928-33) was approved, and J. Stalin's plan of rapid industrialization was adopted. Shock workers and shock-worker enterprises were strongly favored: they were given better machinery and equipment and more raw materials and resources so that they could meet their announced production goals. Such favorable treatment was especially significant in the 19305, when many goods were in short supply. The first all-Union congress of shock-worker brigades, held in Moscow in December 1929, appealed to all workers to complete the goals of the First Five-Year Plan in four years. Similar congresses of collective-farm shock workers were held in 1934 and 1935. The next stage in the development of socialist competition was competition among workers, brigades, and enterprises with respect to increases in production goals. In 1932 the Donets miner N. Izotov became the model for a campaign that stressed not only overfulfillment of plans but also the idea that workers should assist other, less productive, workers in the completion of their jobs, and that shock workers should oversee the work of others. Tzotov schools' were even set up, and Izotovites trained novice workers in their techniques. Socialist competition reached its highest stage in 1935 with tne emergence of the Stakhanovite movement. The purpose of that movement was to establish extremely high quotas and standards of production. The campaign was initiated by another Donbas miner, A. *Stakhanov, who set a record for coal mining in a single shift by overfulfilling his quota by a factor of 14. His accomplishments were publicized by the Soviet propaganda machine, and he was held up as an example to other workers. Within weeks hundreds of other workers and work brigades were following his lead and announcing their attainment of much higher production goals. The movement was especially popular among miners and metalworkers, although it spread to almost all branches of the economy. Many of the Stakhanovites were semiskilled workers. Ukraine's prominent Stakhanovites included M. Demchenko, a woman in Cherkasy oblast who harvested 523 centners of sugar beets from a single hectare, and P. Kryvonis, a locomotive engineer who raised his average speed on the Slovianske-Lozova line. Many Stakhanovites became Wooers' or ^ooers,' by overfulfilling their production quotas by 200 or 500 percent. Many of the Stakhanovite achievements were spurious: they were usually attained with the help of other workers, better tools and equipment, or reduced job requirements.

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Socialist competition was widely used after the Second World War, mostly to rationalize production and improve the use and effectiveness of machinery and equipment. Since the late 19505 the main slogan of the movement was 'Learn, Work, and Live in a Communist Manner.' A major innovation was the use of model workers to fight alcoholism and low morale in the workplace, both common problems in Soviet industry. Formally, socialist competition was defined as a voluntary expression of working-class initiative. In reality, however, it was organized from above: resolutions of Party plenums, conferences, and congresses were often filled with directives to organize and conduct worker competitions. The competitions involved most of the working population (58.1 percent in 1930 and 85 percent in 1957). In 1976 some 87 million people in the USSR and 21 million in Ukraine took part in some form of competition. Over the years many different approaches were developed to encourage participation. On the eve of the demise of the USSR, popular programs included various *prizes and awards, often financial ones made by the Party, the Communist Youth League, government, or trade unions. Most of the campaigns were organized by the ""trade unions. Despite all of these efforts, socialist competition was only partially successful. Soviet production in both industry and agriculture continued to lag considerably behind that of the West in both volume and quality of goods. Worker productivity in the USSR was less than half that in the United States. Only a very small number of model workers or record setters benefited from the material incentives provided by socialist competition. In many cases their achievements resulted in higher quotas and goals for other workers, an outcome that often caused animosity among workers. Besides those main forms of socialist competition there were others. Soviet sources have counted as many as 300 different campaigns. The vast majority of them, however, were short-lived and had little impact. Imposed by bureaucratic orders from above, the competitions often degenerated into mere formalities, deception, and record falsification. For that reason other ways to stimulate worker interest and initiative, such as ""production conferences, were tried, but those measures too were only partially successful. BIBLIOGRAPHY Sotsialisticheskoe sorevnovanie: Voprosy teorü i praktiki organizatsii (Moscow 1978) Siegelbaum, L. Stakhanovism and the Politics of Productivity in the USSR, 1935-41 (Cambridge, Mass 1988) F. Haienko

Socialist International. The name of several different international associations and organizations of socialist or Communist parties. The First International, known as the International Workingmen's Association, was founded on 28 September 1864 in London by some of the most influential British and French trade-union leaders of the time. The Second Socialist International was founded in Paris in 1889. Unlike the First International, it was a loose federation of national parties and trade unions without individual membership. After the Bolsheviks seized power in Russia, they established the Third or ^Communist International (Comintern) in Moscow, in 1919. It was totally dominated by the

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Russian Communist Party (Bolshevik) (RKP[B]) and was used as an instrument of Moscow's foreign policy. The Fourth International was a coalition of parties loyal to L. Trotsky and opposed to the Stalinist Third International. It was founded at a congress in France in 1938. Racked by internal dissent, it split into two factions in 1953. Now, only a few small groups declare allegiance to the Fourth International. In 1951 the Committee of the International Socialist Conference called a congress in Frankfurt at which the Socialist International was reconstituted. Its headquarters are in London. The membership consists of parties: each has one vote, regardless of size, and unanimity is required for a resolution to be passed. Stressing democracy and civil rights, this international was decidedly anti-Soviet in orientation. From the 18705 some prominent Ukrainians, such as M. Drahomanov, M. Ziber, and S. Podolynsky, maintained close ties with Western European socialists and socialist organizations. In 1904 the Revolutionary Ukrainian party informed the executive of the Second International about its history and platform. In 1913 delegates of the Ukrainian Social Democratic party (of Western Ukraine) and the Ukrainian Social Democratic Workers' party (USDRP) attended the extraordinary congress of the Second International in Basel. After 1919 the CP(B)U was a member of the Comintern, even though it formed only a section of the RKP(B). The "Communist Party of Western Ukraine was also a member; the "Communist Party of Transcarpathian Ukraine belonged to the Comintern through the Czechoslovak Communist party. In the 19205 Ukrainian issues were raised and discussed frequently in the Comintern. J. Stalin's despotic centralism eventually destroyed the autonomy of Ukrainian Communists. In the interwar period delegates from the émigré USDRP attended congresses and conferences of the Labor and Socialist International, and one of the party's leaders, P. Fedenko, served on the association's executive committee. The Ukrainian Socialist Radical party and the Ukrainian Socialist party also belonged to this international. These Ukrainian parties consistently attacked Soviet Communism and advocated Ukrainian independence at the international forum. BIBLIOGRAPHY

Fedenko, P. Sotsiializm davnii i novochasnii (London-ParisMunich 1968) B. Balan

Socialist realism. The only officially sanctioned socalled 'creative method' in Soviet literature and art from the early 19305. The revolutionary poets of the late 19th century (H.L. Veier, E. Potier) and the Russian revolutionary democrats (V. Belinsky, M. Chernyshevsky, M. Dobroliubov) were considered its forerunners. To a certain extent the title 'revolutionary democrat' was also applied, artificially, to I. Franko, Lesia Ukrainka, and M. Kotsiubynsky. M. Gorky is acknowledged as the writer who laid down the principles of socialist realism before 1917, and who was its leading practitioner in the early years of Soviet rule. Before its official adoption as the prescribed style the *All-Ukrainian Association of Proletarian Writers promoted their version of the form, 'proletarian realism.' The term socialist realism and its theoretical underpinnings were officially adopted by the First Congress of Writers of

the USSR in August 1934, when the Soviet Writers' Union was established. Those active in other fields (theater, painting, sculpture, cinema, music) were also organized into single artistic unions, and also adopted socialist realism as the basic creative method. According to the resolution of the first Writers' Union congress: 'socialist realism demands a true, historical, and concrete depiction of reality in its revolutionary development. The realism and historical concreteness of the artistic rendering of reality must be tied to the ideological reeducation and training of workers in the spirit of socialism. Socialist realism guarantees the artist exclusive control over creative initiative, and choice of form, style, and genre.' As applied, however, those principles had a very narrow meaning. The 'true depiction of reality in its revolutionary development' meant that literature and art were to serve as glorifying illustrations of the CPSU's policies, and to portray what was hoped for in such a way that it seemed real. Deviations into truly realistic portrayals of Soviet reality and its deficiencies were attacked as 'slavishness to facts' or 'anti-Soviet agitation and propaganda.' That response resulted in the formulation of such theoretical conceptions as the 'varnishing of reality' and the 'theory of no conflict/ that is, painting reality with a rosy hue. Socialist realism's need to hide falsity of content gave rise to certain characteristics of style in all Soviet literature and art. In literature it was responsible for the presence of compendiums of useless information and statistical data, the use of artificial verbal ornamentation, the overuse of epithets and similes (even in the works of superior writers, such as O. Ronchar and P. Zahrebelny), a decline in the lexicon to the level of journalistic vocabulary, a reliance on artificial pathos that dipped into sentimentality (in the novels of M. Stelmakh, the biographical narratives of Yu. Martych), and a preponderance of didacticism and moralizing. In painting it resulted in excessive pathos, photographism (with gestures and motion depicted as if frozen by photographs), and the tendency to dwell on luxurious uniforms and interiors. Changes in socialist realism occurred in step with changes in the regime. The initial programmatic resolution that guaranteed choice of form, style, and genre had no practical application. In its first period (1934-41) socialist realism's range in prose and painting was restricted to depictions of industrialization and collectivization (in painting, the focus was mainly on portraits and monuments to J. Stalin). Poetry was reduced to stilted odes to the Party and its leaders (eg, P. Tychyna's Partita vede [The Party Leads the Way] and M. Rylsky's Pisnia pro Stalina [Song about Stalin]). Music consisted of cantatas dedicated to the Party. During the Second World War art was mainly the patriotic poster and the satirical caricature, and literature was dominated by patriotic themes and publicistic style (eg, narratives and articles of O. Dovzhenko). Gradually the theme of glorification of the Russian Trig brother' crept in, and it was intensified after the war. The theme reached a climax in the 'unification celebrations' of 1954. It was reflected in various genres and media: in prose, in works such as N. Rybak's Pereiaslavs 'ka rada (The Pereiaslav Council, 2 vols, 1948,1953), and in painting, in M. Derehus's Pereiaslav Council (1952) and M. Khmelko's Forever with Moscow, Forever with the Russian People (19514). The theme remained constant in Ukrainian socialistrealist literature and art; only its intensity varied.

SOCIETY FOR THE A D V A N C E M E N T OF R U T H E N I A N ART

Socialist realism was enforced in literature and the other arts by means of repressions. In the 19305 over 300 writers were executed or otherwise prevented from publishing. Some painters, such as A. Petrytsky, survived the terror, but their works were destroyed (an extensive series of Petrytsky's portraits). Many others, including M. Boichuk, S. Nalepinska, V. Sedliar, and I. Padalka, were shot. Theater was also decimated in the name of the new form. The Berezil theater was liquidated, and its founder and director, L. Kurbas, died in a prison camp, as did its principal playwright, M. Kulish. Its major actors, such as Y. Hirniak, were imprisoned. Writers of the brief literary renaissance of the 19505 and 19605 were persecuted because of their deviations from the officially sanctioned method. Departures from the norm were labeled 'formalism/ 'abstractionism/ or 'modernism' and proscribed. In its last stage socialist realism was praised for its Party orientation and its 'populism7 (narodnist). Those terms continued to be used as synonyms for devoted service to the interests of the Party. Socialist realism also demanded isolation from the literature and art of the West, with particular emphasis on the 'revisionism' of Western Communist critics (eg, R. Garaudy, Réalisme sans rivages). Theoreticians of socialist realism based their writings on those of K. Marx, F. Engels, and V. Lenin, various resolutions of the CPSU, and the speeches of various Party leaders. A large body of writings created in the last few decades consists entirely of dogmatic pronouncements and tendentious interpretations of artificially chosen quotes from officially accepted works. Since the announcement of Perestroika and Glasnost in 1985, there have been signs that the dogmatic constraits of socialist realism have been widened. Indeed, reference to socialist realism has largely been avoided, especially since the breakup of the Soviet Union. BIBLIOGRAPHY Kryzhanivs'kyi, S. Sotsialistychnyi realizm - tvorchyi metod radians'koï literatury (Kiev 1961) Pytannia sotsialistychnoho realizmu, 5 vols (1961-75) Ovcharenko, O. Sotsialistychnyi realizm i suchasnyi literaturnyi protses (Kiev 1971) Shamota, M. Humanizm i sotsialistychnyi realizm (Kiev 1976)

I. Koshelivets

Socialist Revolutionaries. Representatives of a current within the Russian Empire's revolutionary movement that tried to create a synthesis of ^populism and ^Marxism to appeal to peasants as well as workers and the radical intelligentsia. Socialist revolutionary (SR) groups first emerged in the late 18905. Among the earliest SR formations was the Party of Socialist Revolutionaries, founded in 1897 and known as the Southern party because it had branches primarily in the cities of Ukraine (including Kharkiv and Odessa) and southern Russia. At the end of 1901 the Southern party joined with other SR groups to form the Socialist Revolutionary party. The SRs became particularly interested in the peasantry as a result of the peasant unrest that broke out in Poltava and Kharkiv gubernias in 1902. They formed a Peasant Union in 1902, and in the program adopted at their first party congress in 1905 they called for the socialization of the land. The 1905 congress also created a regional party organization for Ukraine, uniting the pre-existing Kharkiv, Kiev, Poltava, Volhynia, and Voronezh party committees.

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The SR movement in Ukraine was primarily connected with the Russian revolutionary movement, but groups of Ukrainian SRs also appeared between 1905 and 1917. Not until revolution broke out in the spring of 1917, however, was the ^Ukrainian Party of Socialist Revolutionaries (UPSR) formally founded in Kiev. The UPSR played a large role in the revolutionary events in Ukraine during the next few years. The Russian SRs had included federalism in their program prior to the revolution, but in the spring of 1917 they generally adopted a hostile attitude to the Central Rada's strivings for Ukrainian autonomy. Only when the Russian Provisional Government finally made concessions to Ukrainian autonomy in July 1917 did Russian SRs co-operate with the Rada, but they completely opposed the proclamation of Ukrainian independence in January 1918. Prominent Russian SRs in Ukraine during the revolutionary era included A. Zarubin (post and telegraph minister in the autonomous Ukrainian government) and P. Nezlobin (chairman of the Kiev soviet). Although divided over the national question, Russian and Ukrainian SRs ran joint lists in the Kharkiv, Kherson, and Poltava districts during the elections to the all-Russian constituent assembly conducted in late 1917 and early 1918. The election results demonstrated the great popularity of the SRs in Ukraine, where Russian and especially Ukrainian SRs received about two-thirds of the votes cast. Both the Russian and the Ukrainian SRs split into left and right factions after the October Revolution of 1917, with the left SRs supporting the Bolsheviks. After the Bolsheviks solidified their power, SR influence was eliminated in Soviet Ukraine, as right SRs emigrated abroad, and left SRs merged with the Bolsheviks. The Russian SRs disappeared in late 1919, and the Ukrainian SRs (including the pro-Bolshevik *Borotbists), in 1920-1. Ukrainian SRs in western Volhynia, which came under Polish rule in 1920, joined with the Galician-based ""Ukrainian Radical party in 1926 to form the Ukrainian Socialist Radical party. The UPSR also continued to exist in the emigration, although it was riven by factional divisions in 1921. J.-P. Himka

Sociedade dos Amigos da Cultura Ucraniana. See

Society of Friends of Ukrainian Culture.

Society for the Advancement of Ruthenian Art

(Tovarystvo dlia rozvoiu ruskoi shtuky). The first Ukrainian organization in Galicia concerned with the development of 'Ruthenian art in general, and painting, sculpture, and jewelry-making in particular/ the financial well-being of its members, and the organization of exhibitions. The society was founded in 1898 in Lviv. Its board of directors was headed by V. *Nahirny, and Yu. *Pankevych headed its executive. The artists who participated in its first exhibition (1899) were Pankevych, I. Trush, A. Pylykhovsky, O. Skrutok, and K. Ustyianovych. The participants in the society's second exhibition (1900) included the aforementioned and O. Novakivsky, O. Kurylas, T. Kopystynsky, A. Manastyrsky, M. Ivasiuk, Ye. Turbatsky, Ya. Pstrak, O. Kosanovsky, and the wood sculptor A. Kavka. The third exhibition was held in 1903. The society continued to function until the First World War, but after it began accepting folk artisans as members, many of its original members left to join the ^Society of Friends of Ukrainian Scholarship, Literature, and Art.

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SOCIETY FOR THE A D V A N C E M E N T OF U K R A I N I A N SCHOLARSHIP

Society for the Advancement of Ukrainian Scholarship. See Association for the Advancement of Ukrainian Studies.

Society for the Preservation of Soldiers' Graves

(Tovarystvo okhorony voiennykh mohyl). An organization set up in Lviv in 1927 to care for the graves of Ukrainian soldiers who were killed or died during 1914-20. Headed by B. Yaniv, the society ensured that each grave was marked by a military stone cross and kept in good order. It had 32 chapters in Galicia and was active until 1939. Society for the Promotion of the Arts (Obshchestvo pooshchreniia khudozhestv). A philanthropic society of art patrons, established in 1821 in St Petersburg. It organized art exhibitions, lotteries, competitions, and sales of artworks; financed trips abroad for artists; and published art textbooks and journals, such as Iskusstvo i khudozhestvennaia promyshlennost' (1898-1902) and Khudozhestvennyia sokrovishcha Rossii (1901-7). It also maintained a museum of applied art and a drawing school (from 1857). The society supported many Ukrainian artists, including T. Shevchenko, I. Soshenko, A. Mokrytsky, H. Lapchenko, P. Boryspolets, K. Trutovsky, S. Vasylkivsky, and M. Samokysh. It was active until 1929. Society of Agriculture of Southern Russia (Obshchestvo selskogo khoziaistva iuzhnoi Rossii). The first agricultural society in Ukraine and one of the first in the Russian Empire. Founded on the initiative of Prince M. *Vorontsov in 1828, it made its head office in Odessa and extended its operations throughout Kherson, Katerynoslav, Tavriia, and Bessarabia gubernias. To improve farming in the region the society supported scientific research, disseminated agricultural information, and promoted various enterprises related to farming. Besides funding experiments on local and foreign grains, feed crops, and industrial crops, the society ran an experimental fruit farm, helped to introduce meteorological monitoring, prepared soil maps of the southern gubernias, provided financial assistance to university students, held agricultural exhibitions, contests, and conferences, and encouraged railroad construction, the digging of artesian wells, farmmachine building and distribution, and forestation. From its inception the society published its own journal, titled at first Listki and then Zapiski. Its efforts at improving viticulture, sheep raising, and orcharding were particularly important in the economic development of Southern Ukraine. Society of Antiquities and Art (Kyivske tovarystvo starozhytnostei i mystetstva). A society founded in 1897 on the basis of the Kiev Society of Art Promoters and an organizing committee for the creation of a museum in Kiev. It was led by B. Khanenko and numbered about 200 members. The artifacts collected by the society were kept in the Kiev Municipal Museum of Antiquities and Art (later the Kiev Museum of Ukrainian Art). The society existed until 1908. Its historical collections formed the basis of the Historical Museum of the Ukrainian SSR in 1936, and its folk-art collections formed the basis of the Kiev Museum of Ukrainian Decorative Folk Art (1964).

Society of Argentinian-Ukrainian Graduates (Tovarystvo ukrainskykh vysokoshkilnykiv Argentiny, or TUVA; Spanish: La Unión de Graduados Ucranios de la República Argentina). An association of professional men and women established in 1971 in Buenos Aires to promote the development of the Ukrainian community and the growth of Ukrainian culture in Latin America. Its leading founders were O. Yakhno and V. Pokhyliak. Its two professional sections, medical and engineering, maintain contacts with Ukrainian professional associations in North America. The society organizes lectures and panel discussions by Argentinian and Ukrainian scholars and political figures as well as national conferences of Ukrainian graduates in Argentina (1984, 1987). The presidents of the society have included Yakhno and Yu. Ivanyk. Society of Contributors to the Fine Arts in Transcarpathian Ruthenia (Tovarystvo deiatelei zobrazhaiuchikh iskustv na Podkarpatskoi Rusi). A society of artists, established in 1931 in Uzhhorod and headed by A. Erdeli. It had 40 non-Ukrainian and Ukrainian members, including Y. Bokshai, A. Boretsky, A. Dobosh, and E. Kontratovych. The society held annual exhibitions, and its members received government travel grants. After the imposition of Hungarian rule in 1939, the society was renamed the Union of Subcarpathian Artists. Society of Economists (Tovarystvo ekonomistiv pry YUAN). An association formed in 1919 to support research and publications on the economic history and current economic conditions of Ukraine. It consisted of three sections: statistics (headed by M. Ptukha), the study of the Ukrainian economy (headed by K. Vobly), and the study of the cooperative movement (headed by P. Pozharsky). The society was headed by Vobly (president), H. Kryvchenko (vice-president), and A. Laponohov (academic secretary). In 1929-30 it had 135 members. The society sponsored several YUAN publications. In the early 19305 it was abolished along with many other YUAN institutes and societies. Society of Former Combatants of the Ukrainian Republican Democratic Army in France (Tovarystvo buvshykh voiakiv Armfi UNR u Frantsfi). A veterans' organization established in Paris in 1927 for the furthering of traditions of armed struggle for Ukrainian statehood. In 1939 it had 22 branches in France (the number declined to 12 in 1945) with nearly 1,000 members. It published various educational and informative materials until 1939 and worked with the Union of Ukrainian Emigré Organizations in France as well as French veterans' groups and other Ukrainian combatants' organizations. In 1961 the society split into two groups of the same name; they were reunited in 1977. The society has been headed by Gen O. *Udovychenko (1927-75), V. Kalinichenko (1975-9), Ya. Musianovych (1979-82), and (since 1982) Yu. Yeremiiv. Its long-standing secretary was M. Kovalsky. Members included V. Lazarkevych, K. Mytrovych, V. Nedaikaska, M. Panasiuk, A. Polovyk, V. Solonar, L. Vasyliv, P. Verzhbitsky, and P. Yosypyshyn. In 1928-9 the society published the journal Vus 'kova sprava (edited by I. Rudychiv), and later, a bulletin, which continues to appear.

SOCIETY OF SAINT JOHN THE BAPTIST

Society of Friends of Education (Tovarystvo prykhylnykiv osvity). A students' aid society founded in Lviv in 1927 by the Shevchenko Scientific Society. Its aim was to assist needy Ukrainian students attending institutions of higher learning. The society was the guardian of the Academic Students' Home in Lviv; it also helped run the refectory, gave loans to students, and so on. Its heads were V. Detsykevych and, from 1933, O. Kulchytsky. The society was dissolved in 1934 by the Polish authorities. Society of Friends of Ukrainian Culture (Tovarystvo prykhylnykiv ukrainskoi kultury; Portuguese: Sociedade dos Amigos da Cultura Ucraniana). An organization established at the General Congress of Brazilian Ukrainians in Curitiba in 1947. It was based in the country's larger settlements, and it published the Boletim Informativo in Portuguese in 1950-61 and broadcast a radio program during approximately the same period. With an out-migration of active supporters to North America in 1960-5, the society lost much of its dynamism. In 1975 it had three branches in Paraná and one in Rio Grande do Sul. Leading figures in the group included Rev M. Ivaniv, Rev M. Kaminsky, O. Dilai, R. Kupchynsky, and M. Hets. Society of Friends of Ukrainian Scholarship, Literature, and Art (Tovarystvo prykhylnykiv ukrainskoi nauky, literatury i shtuky). A society founded on the initiative of M. *Hrushevsky and I. *Trush in Lviv in 1904. It united scholars, writers, and artists from Russian-ruled and Western Ukraine and popularized their work. In 1904 it organized a summer school for students from Russianruled Ukraine, where were offered courses in Ukrainian literature (taught by I. Franko), history (Hrushevsky), anthropology (F. Vovk), language (I. Bryk), the history of socialism (M. Hankevych), and the history of Galicia (K. Studynsky). In 1905 it sponsored the All-Ukrainian Exhibition of Art and Crafts in Lviv. The society also published several books. Although its activities slowly waned, the society continued to exist until the First World War. Its long-time president was Hrushevsky, and its secretaries were Trush and M. Mochulsky. Among its more prominent members were Franko, M. Arkas, M. Lysenko, V. Hnatiuk, F. Krasytsky, Yu. Pankevych, and M. Boichuk. Society of Kiev Physicians. See Kiev Medical Society. Society of Kuban Researchers (Russian: Obshchestvo liubitelei izucheniia Kubanskoi oblasti). A regional studies society in Katerynodar that was active in the years 1896-1917. Works on the Kuban's natural environment, history, ethnology, and statistics were published in its Izvestiia (6 vols, 1899-1913). Society of Researchers of Ukrainian History, Literature, and Language. See Leningrad Society of Researchers of Ukrainian History, Literature, and Language. Society of Ruthenian Church Communities in the USA and Canada. See Association of Ruthenian Church Communities in the USA and Canada. Society of Ruthenian Ladies (Obshchestvo ruskykh [russkykh] dam). A Russophile women's organization.

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Founded in Lviv in 1878, the society was the first organization of Ukrainian women. Its original aims were to decorate the altar of the Dormition Church in Lviv, to provide educational scholarships for needy Ukrainian girls, and to engage in general philanthropic work. In the mid-i88os it had about a hundred members. It published the children's fortnightly Vinochek (1904-8). Society of Saint Andrew (Tovarystvo sviatoho Andreia). An association of Ukrainian Catholic priests in Galicia founded in 1930 in Stryi deanery. Its statute, which was confirmed by Metropolitan A. Sheptytsky in May 1931, stated that the society's members were to provide moral and material support to each other, their families, and the community at large. The society's chief organizer was Rev Y. Savytsky, a catechist in Stryi and later the director of its central office in Lviv. Its president was Rev Yu. Dzerovych. Deanery chapters were headed by protopresbyters. The society organized religious retreats for priests and missions, published the church statute and a religious almanac, and ran a sanatorium in Hrebeniv, Stryi county. It was forcibly abolished after the 1939 Soviet occupation of Galicia. Society of Saint Basil the Great (Obshchestvo sv. Vasiliia Velikogo). A Russophile cultural-educational society established in Uzhhorod in 1864 by O. Dukhnovych for the purpose of spreading education and preserving the religious and national traditions of the Ruthenian people of Transcarpathia. Headed by I. Rakovsky (president), A. Dobriansky (honorary president), and I. Mondok (secretary) and supported by bishops V. Popovych and Y. Gaganets, the society grew quickly to about 500 members, mostly clerical and secular intelligentsia. It published school texts, literary works, and periodicals, such as *Svit (1867-71), Novyi svit (1871-2), *Karpat" (1873-86), *UchyteV (1867), and *Nauka (1897-1902). The language of its publication was an artificial mixture of Russian, Church Slavonic, and the vernacular. Owing to the intervention of the Hungarian authorities and pressure from Bishop S. Pankovych, the society changed its orientation in the 18705 to a pro-Hungarian one and began to decline. In 1895 a group of young populist-minded priests, including A. Voloshyn, V. Hadzhega, and P. Gebei, tried to revitalize it, but without success. In 1902 the society was dissolved, and its assets were transferred to the new commercial publishing venture *Uniia. Society of Saint John the Baptist (Tovarystvo sv. loana Khrystytelia; also Obshchestvo sv. loana Krestitelia). An educational society founded in September 1862 in Presov by O. *Dukhnovych and A. ^Dobriansky. Its purpose was to promote a national renaissance by providing financial aid in the form of loans and bursaries to poor students as well as peasants and even whole organizations. The society maintained a student residence in Presov under Dukhnovych's management (1863-5). Headed by A. Dobriansky and supported by Bishop Y. Gaganets, the society had a membership of over 400. After Dukhnovych's death in 1865 the society declined, and by the end of the decade it had ceased to exist.

798

SOCIETY OF SAINT PAUL THE APOSTLE

Society of Saint Paul the Apostle (Tovarystvo sv. apostóla Pavía u Lvovi). A Ukrainian Catholic religious society founded in Lviv in 1897. It was formed under the influence of the social action ideas espoused by Pope *Leo XIII. Until the First World War it sought mainly to infuse a (Catholic) religious consciousness into Galician national populism, which had been marked by a spirit of secular liberalism or even radicalism. Indirectly it also promoted a sense of Ukrainophilism among the often Russophile Galician clergy. After the war the society promoted charitable work, particularly among orphans and other war victims. It published a series of nearly 50 popular booklets and the journal *Nyva and led a campaign against attempts to enforce celibacy among the clergy in Stanyslaviv and Peremyshl eparchies. After sending a memorandum to the League of Nations in 1925 regarding the persecution of the Ukrainian clergy by Polish authorities, the society was forcibly liquidated. Society of School Education (Tovarystvo shkilnoi osvity; full name: Society for the Dissemination of School Education in Ukraine [Tovarystvo rozpovsiudzhennia shkilnoi osvity na Ukraini]). A Ukrainian educational and pedagogical society founded in March 1917 in Kiev by Ukrainian teachers. Its goal was to organize Ukrainian education. The ruling body of the society was the Council of the Society, the first head of which was I. Steshenko. The society organized the first all-Ukrainian conference of teachers, held on 5-6 April 1917, and the first Ukrainian gymnasium in Kiev. It set up a string of practical courses in Ukrainian studies for teachers. The society published textbooks and developed a Ukrainian educational terminology. It took part in the operations of the General Secretariat of the Ukrainian Central Rada. During the occupation of Ukraine by General A. Denikin's Volunteer Army, in the second half of 1919, the society assumed complete responsibility for maintaining Ukrainian-language education, for defending it against the administration, and for establishing a financial base to ensure its continuation. It ran its operations on generous donations from the Ukrainian community and the Ukrainian cooperative movement. Society of South Russian Artists (Obshchestvo iuzhnorusskikh khudozhnikov). An association of artists who lived in Southern Ukraine, established in Odessa in 1890. Among its founders were K. Kostandi (its president from 1902 to 1921), M. Kuznetsov, H. Ladyzhensky, M. Skadovsky, M. Kravchenko, V. Edvards, A. Popov, and A. Rozmaritsyn. Later members included I. Aivazovsky, Yu. Bershadsky, Ye. Bukovetsky, P. Volokidin, D. Krainiev, P. Levchenko, M. Pymonenko, V. Zauze, and P. Nilus. The society organized annual general exhibitions and more frequent solo shows of works by its members. It participated in the work of the Odessa Art School and helped found the Odessa City Museum of Art. Its activities ceased in 1922 after the death of Kostandi. A book about the society by V. Afanasiev was published in Kiev in 1961. Society of Teachers in Higher Schools. See Skovoroda Society of Higher School Teachers. Society of Ukrainian Actors (Tovarystvo ukrainskykh artystiv pid orudoiu I. Marianenka). A theater under I.

Marianenko, created in Kiev in January 1915 with some actors who had left *Sadovsky's Theater, among them M. Zankovetska, P. Saksahansky, O. Polianska, T. SadovskaTymkivska, V. Vasylko, L. Linytska, M. Petlishenko, and S. Butovsky; the young actors B. *Romanytsky and I. Kozlovsky began their theatrical careers in this troupe. It successfully toured Kamianets-Podilskyi and Yelysavethrad in the summer of 1915 and spent the winter in Odessa. Its repertoire consisted of Ukrainian classical populist-realistic plays directed by Saksahansky, and O. Koshyts's student choir participated in some productions. The troupe was active until 1916. Marianenko became director of the ^Ukrainian National Theater; Zankovetska and Saksahansky continued working with a group of young actors until early 1918. Society of Ukrainian Co-operators (Tovarystvo ukrainskykh kooperatoriv). An organization of co-operative leaders and theoreticians, established in June 1936 in Lviv by the Audit Union of Ukrainian Co-operatives. In 1937 it had 2,285 members. The president was Yu. Pavlykovsky, and the secretary A. Zhuk. The society organized three co-operative festivals (in 1936,1937, and 1938) with lectures, discussions, and displays of co-operative literature and periodicals. In 1938 it produced Do dobra i krasy (To Goodness and Beauty), a film on the co-operative movement by Yu. Dorosh, written by R. Kupchynsky and V. Levytsky-Sofroniv. The society ceased to exist after the Soviet occupation of Western Ukraine in 1939. Society of Ukrainian Engineers and Associates in Canada (Tovarystvo ukrainskykh inzheneriv u Kanadi, or TUIK). A professional association established in Toronto in 1950 to cultivate social contacts among Ukrainian engineers, further their professional development, and maintain relations with similar non-Ukrainian associations. As branches sprang up in Montreal, Sarnia, Windsor, Winnipeg, Montreal, and Edmonton, a national executive distinct from the Toronto society was set up (1954). From 1953 to 1975 the society was known as the Ukrainian Technical Society of Canada. TUIK organizes scientific lectures, symposia, and conferences; contributes financial aid to Ukrainian academic institutions; and publishes an annual bulletin (since 1984) and the quarterly Visti ukrainskykh inzheneriv (in partnership with the Ukrainian Engineers' Society of America). Since 1955 it has held eight international conferences with its American counterpart. A brief history of the society was prepared by Yu. Kurys in 1987, and in 1992 the society published a book on Ukrainian engineers in the diaspora. Society of Ukrainian Engineers in Prague (Tovarystvo ukrainskykh inzheneriv u Prazi, or TUl). A professional organization set up in 1930 in Prague. During the next nine years it helped members with employment and legal problems, maintained contacts with Czech professional associations and the Ukrainian Technical Society in Lviv, and organized lectures for the Ukrainian community. It was a founding member of the Union of Ukrainian Engineers' Organizations Abroad, from which it seceded in 1932. The society's membership grew from 53 in 1930 to 150 in 1938. Its leading members included A. Halka, V. Domanytsky, P. Stetskiv, M. Hlavach, O. Dolny, F. Serbyn, P. Zeleny, A. Keivan, and R. Karatnytsky.

SOCIETY OF U N I T E D SLAVS

Society of Ukrainian Jurists (Tovarystvo ukrainskykh pravnykiv). A society of legal scholars established in Kiev in 1921 within the All-Ukrainian Academy of Sciences to conduct legal research and disseminate legal knowledge. Its members, varying from 35 to 70 in number, were active in various commissions and sections of the academy. The society's presidents were O. Levytsky, O. Huliaiev, and O. Malynovsky; its secretary was B. Yazlovsky. In the late 19205 the society was suppressed by the Soviet government. Society of Ukrainian Lawyers (Tovarystvo ukrainskykh pravnykiv). An association of various legal specialists, including scholars, in Galicia, founded in Lviv in 1909. Its purpose was to promote the participation of Ukrainian lawyers in public life and to improve their professional qualifications. S. Dnistriansky was the first president. The more notable presidents in the interwar period were V. Detsykevych and Z. Lukavetsky. The society published Pravnychyi vistnyk (1910-13), and in 1914 it organized a national congress in Lviv. Its members collaborated with the Union of Ukrainian Lawyers in publishing the review Zhyttia i pravo (1928-39). After the Soviet occupation of Western Ukraine in 1939, the society was dissolved. Society of Ukrainian Lawyers in New York. See Association of Ukrainian Lawyers. Society of Ukrainian Progressives (Tovarystvo ukrainskykh postupovtsiv, or TUP). A clandestine, nonpartisan political and civic organization of Ukrainians in the Russian Empire. It was founded in 1908 at the instigation of former members of the Ukrainian Democratic Radical party to co-ordinate the Ukrainian national movement and to protect it from the rising wave of reaction by the Russian government and Russian nationalism after the dissolution of the Second State Duma (June 1907). In addition to Democratic Radicals, some Social Democrats and politically unaffiliated people belonged to TUP. Its highest governing body, the annually elected council, included figures such as M. Hrushevsky, Ye. Chykalenko, I. Shrah, S. Yefremov, P. Stebnytsky, S. Petliura, V. Vynnychenko, N. Hryhoriiv, F. Matushevsky, D. Doroshenko, V. Prokopovych, A. Viazlov, T. Shteingel, and L. StarytskaCher niakhivska. The central office of TUP in Kiev, where there were also several branches (hromadas), co-ordinated the activities of about 60 TUP hromadas in Ukraine as well as 2 in St Petersburg and i in Moscow. The group's main aim was to defend the gains of the Ukrainian movement and to demand further rights. Its minimal program was the Ukrainization of elementary education, the introduction of the Ukrainian language and of Ukrainian literature and history instruction in secondary and higher schools, and permission for the use of Ukrainian in public institutions, the courts, and the church. Its political platform demanded constitutional parliamentarism and autonomy for Ukraine. Until 1917 TUP, in effect, directed the Ukrainian movement in central Ukraine, in that it co-ordinated the work of the Prosvita societies and various cultural and educational clubs and collaborated closely with the Ukrainian Scientific Society in Kiev. It owned the Ukrainian bookstore in Kiev (the former publisher of Kievskaia stari-

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na). The Kiev daily *Rada and the Moscow journal *Ukrainskaia zhizn ' were its unofficial publications. Through its hromada in St Petersburg TUP maintained friendly contacts with the opposition in the Third and Fourth state dumas, particularly with the Constitutional Democratic party (P. Miliukov and N. Nekrasov) and a group of autonomists-federalists (V. Obninsky), who recognized Ukraine's right to national and cultural development, and with Russian scholars, such as A. Shakhmatov, F. Korsh, and S. Melgunov. In September 1914 TUP adopted a neutral position on the war and the belligerents: it disapproved of the proRussian declaration of Ukrainskaia zhizn ' and was critical (November 1914) of the activities of the Union for the Liberation of Ukraine in Austria. At the end of 1914, members of TUP (beginning with Hrushevsky) were taken into custody. In December 1914 the society issued the declaration 'Our Position,' in which it supported 'the democratic autonomy of Ukraine, guaranteed also by the federation of equal nations.' In January 1917 it responded favorably to American president W. Wilson's peace efforts and expressed 'the will of the Ukrainian people for independent development.' On 17 March 1917, after the February Revolution, TUP convened a conference of Ukrainian organizations and parties in Kiev and set up the Central Rada. At its final conference on 7 April in Kiev, TUP decided to fight for Ukraine's autonomy by legal means and changed its name to the Union of Ukrainian Autonomists-Federalists, which in June of that year turned into the Ukrainian Party of Socialists-Federalists. BIBLIOGRAPHY Doroshenko, V. Ukraïnstvo v Rosïï: Noviishi chasy (Vienna 1916) Doroshenko, D. Istoriia Ukraïny 1917-23. rr., vol i, Doha Tsentral'noïRady (Uzhhorod 1932; repr, New York 1954) A. Zhukovsky

Society of Ukrainian Writers and Journalists (Tovarystvo ukrainskykh pysmennykiv i zhurnalistiv). An organization uniting nationally conscious Ukrainian writers and journalists in Transcarpathia, based from 1930 to 1938 in Uzhhorod and in 1938-9 in Khust. Leading members were V. Grendzha-Donsky, S. Sabol, D. Popovych, A. Voron, and Yu. Borshosh-Kumiatsky. The society published several literary works and two almanacs. Society of United Slavs (Tovarystvo ziednanykh slovian). A clandestine revolutionary organization founded at the beginning of 1823 in Zviahel by the brothers and officers P. and A. Borysov and the Polish revolutionary J. Lubliñski. It had several dozen members, mostly lowerrank officers of troops stationed in Volhynia and the Kiev region as well as local petty civil servants. Most members were Ukrainian: the Borysov brothers, I. Horbachevsky, Ya. Andriievych, P. Hromnytsky, Ya. Drahomanov, M. Lisovsky, and I. Sukhyniv. The head of the society was P. Borysov, and its ideologists were J. Lubliñski and I. *Horbachevsky. The main aims of the society were to liberate the Slavs from foreign rule, abolish the monarchical system, reconcile the Slavic nations, and set up a federation of democratic Slavic republics, each with its own legislature and executive. The federation was to include Russians (embracing also Ukrainians and Belarusians), Poles, Hun-

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garians (together with Slavs in Hungary), Bohemians, Croatians, Dalmatians, Serbs, and Moravians. The social program of the society proposed to abolish serfdom and to diminish class inequalities. The society believed that the people, not just the army, had to be prepared for the revolution. The ideological principles and political program of the society were formulated in its oath and catechism (consisting of 17 rules). In September 1825 the Society of United Slavs joined with the Southern Society (of ^Decembrists) but retained its own program and separate executive. The society's members were the most active participants in the uprising of Chernihiv Regiment in Trylisy on 10-15 January 1826. Most of them were sentenced to hard labor in Siberia. The society's ideas influenced the program of the *Cyril and Methodius Brotherhood. BIBLIOGRAPHY Bahalii, D. Povstannia dekabrystiv na Ukraini (Kharkiv 1926) Nechkina, M. Obshchestvo soedinennykh slavian (MoscowLeningrad 1927) Luciani, G. La Société des Slaves Unis, 1823-25 (Panslavisme et solidarité slave au xixe siècle) (Bordeaux 1963) Gorbachevskii, I. Zapiski i pis'ma (Moscow 1966)

Society of UNR Army Soldiers (Tovarystvo voiakiv Armii UNR). An organization of UNR Army veterans formed in 1924 in Kalisz, Poland. Its purpose was to help members cope as political émigrés in Poland, and thus to preserve cadres for a future Ukrainian army. Its head office was eventually moved to Warsaw, where it published a bulletin to maintain contact among its four chapters. Its presidents were V. Kushch and M. Bezruchko. In 1939 the society was dissolved by the German authorities. Society of Veterans of the Ukrainian Insurgent Army (UPA) in Canada (Tovarystvo kolyshnikh voiakiv UPA v Kanadi). A veterans' association established in Toronto in 1951 by former UPA members. With a membership based largely in Toronto, Montreal, Winnipeg, and Edmonton, the society has consistently supported the Ukrainian independence movement. It has published or cosponsored a number of brochures and books (including its own commemorative issue in 1982) and has prepared an irregular section for the newspaper Homin Ukraïny under the title 'Voiats'ka vatra' (The Soldier's Campfire) since 1957. It maintains cordial relations with other Ukrainian veterans' associations. Its presidents have included S. Kotelets, M. Koshyk, I. Kozak, V. Kozak, and M. Kulyk. Society of Volyn (Tovarystvo Volyn). An association of Volhynians founded by M. Dzivak in New York in 1951 to maintain contacts among former inhabitants of Volhynia, to provide aid and moral support to needy members, and to publish materials on Volhynia. Branches of the New York society sprang up in Cleveland and Buffalo (1953), and similar societies appeared in Winnipeg (1950) and Toronto (1951). Two issues of the quarterly Volyn' came out in New York in 1951, edited by A. Trachuk. Since 1953 the society has collaborated with the ^Research Institute of Volyn in Winnipeg in publishing the popular chronicle of Volhynian studies Litopys Volyni and various monographs and collections. Society of Writers and Journalists (Tovarystvo pys'mennykiv i zhurnalistiv im. Ivana Franka). A professional

The executive of the Society of Writers and Journalists. Sitting, from left: Ivan Kvasnytsia, Konstantyna Malytska, Vasyl Stefanyk (president), Mykhailo Rudnytsky (vice-president), Kyrylo Valzhetsky; standing: Ivan Nimchuk, Dmytro Paliiv, Lev Hankevych, Vasyl Mudry, Lev Lepky

association of Western Ukrainian litterateurs, which existed from 1925 to 1939. It was based in Lviv, and had about 60 full and candidate members. From 1933 on it held competitions and gave annual awards for the best literary works. The society was headed by A. Chaikovsky, V. Stefanyk, V. Shchurat, B. Lepky, and, from 1934, R. Kupchynsky. Socinian schools (sotsyniianski shkoly). Educational institutions founded in Ukraine by the *Socinians. The schools existed from the end of the loth to the first half of the i/th century. The most significant of the schools was in Kyselyn ([Kysylyn] now in Volhynia oblast); it was founded in 1612. Attempts were made to have it reorganized as an academy. Other well-known schools were in *Hoshcha, Liakhivtsi, and Cherniakhiv. The program of study placed great emphasis on the development of rational thought, mathematics, philosophy, rhetoric, Latin, and anti-Catholic polemics. Protestant scholars and publicists, such as O. Kysil, M. Tverdokhlib, P. Stehman, and S. Nemyrych, taught in these schools. The schools were closed in 1658 after the Socinian sect was banned by the Polish parliament. Socinians (sotsyniiany). A Protestant sect whose name is derived from that of its Italian founders, F. and L. Socinius (Sozzini). The Socinians were Unitarians; they believed that Christ was a man whose divinity arose from his office and not his nature. They rejected communion and prayers for the dead, but respected the Sabbath and condemned war. Elders and deacons were their community leaders, and only their pastors had the right to conduct services and deliver sermons. The emphasis they placed on education led them to establish schools and publishing houses with high standards. F. Socinius moved to Cracow in 1579 and assumed the leadership of the previously established Minor Reformed Church (Polish Brethren). Many existing Protestant communities throughout the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth adopted Socinianism. The movement also attracted adherents throughout Belarus and Ukraine

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(particularly in Volhynia and the Kiev region), including such leading noble families as the Hoisky, Nemyrych, Seniuta, Pronsky, Peresidsky, Chaplych, and Shpanovsky families, many of whom established Socinian schools and communities on their estates. Settlements were also founded in Kyselyn, Hoshcha, Khmilnyk, Liakhivtsi, Cherniakhiv (near Zhytomyr), Berestechko, and elsewhere. Repressions against the Socinians began in 1644 and intensified after the members of the sect showed support for Charles x Gustav of Sweden in the Polish-Swedish War (1655-7). m ï658 the Polish parliament ordered the Socinians either to convert to Catholicism or to face expulsion and the confiscation of their schools and shrines. The Socinians were active in producing ^polemical literature; some examples, as well as some anti-Socinian versified works of the late loth century, have been preserved. Among Ukrainian translations of Socinian texts of that period, the most notable is the *Nehalevsky Gospel, published in 1581. BIBLIOGRAPHY Wilbur, E. The History of Unitarianism: Socinianism and Its Antecedents (Cambridge 1945) Levytsky, O. 'Socinianism in Poland and South-West Rus'/ AIMAS, 3, no.i (1953) Kot, S. Socinianism in Poland: The Social and Political Ideas of the Polish Anti-Trinitarians in the Sixteenth and Seventeenth Centuries (Boston 1957) I. Korovytsky

Sociology. The study of human relationships, the rules and norms that guide them, and the development of institutions and movements that conserve and change society. Sociological methodology includes the analysis of data obtained through questionnaires and surveys, the analysis of official statistics, the observation of human interaction, and the study of historical records. Within the discipline of sociology there are numerous specializations and subdivisions, such as the sociology of the family, of work, of political organizations and behavior, of ethnic and race relations, of sex roles, and of aging, and criminology and statistics. Although sociology as a distinct discipline arose relatively recently, in Ukraine as in other countries elements of sociological thought can be found in earlier periods of history. Sermons and didactic works of the Kievan Rus' period and some of the polemical literature of the Renaissance and baroque periods can be considered forerunners of sociological thought in Ukraine. Ukrainian folklore also provides rich materials for sociological research, with its accurate descriptions of human relations, the nature of kinship ties, and community mores and standards, and Ukrainian ethnographers have contributed significantly to the development of sociology. The works of icth- and early 20th-century Ukrainian writers and publicists are another important source of sociological information, especially on the behavior of various social groups. The origins of sociology as a separate discipline in Ukraine can be traced to M. Drahomanov and his circle of scholars, who worked in Geneva in the i88os. Members of the group included S. Podolynsky, F. Vovk, and V. Navrotsky. Their works appeared in the periodical Hromada (Geneva, 1878-82) and in separate monographs. Because sociology became established as a separate discipline later than other branches of the social sciences, however, the precursors of Ukrainian sociological thought

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have to be sought in disciplines such as philosophy, historiography, geography, law, economics, and statistics. Scholars in those disciplines played an instrumental role in establishing various sociological schools of thought. Philosophers such as P. Yurkevych, V. Lesevych, K. Hankevych, I. Fedorovych, and O.(A.) Stronin played significant roles in the development of sociology in Ukraine. Bold conceptions of the development of Ukrainian society and analyses of the relationship among various social groups in Ukraine were advanced by the 18th-century author of Istoriia Rusov, by 19th-century historians, such as M. Kostomarov, O. Lazarevsky, V. Antonovych, P. Kulish, Drahomanov, and M. Hrushevsky, and by early 20th-century political thinkers of the state school, such as V. Lypynsky and S. Tomashivsky. Rich sociological material can be found in early 20th-century works on the socioeconomic history of Ukraine by D. Bahalii and members of his school, such as M. Slabchenko and O. Hermaize, and in the anthropological-geographical works of S. Rudnytsky and V. Kubijovyc. Economic theorists such as M. Ziber (who stressed the economic factor in the development of society), Maksym *Kovalevsky (who related the early development of the Slavic tribes to a general schema of human social development), and M. Tuhan-Baranovsky (who developed ethical conceptions of understanding social problems) provided many new ideas for the development of Ukrainian sociology. Legal scholars such as B. *Kistiakovsky (who was the first to explore methodological questions) and S. Dnistriansky (who viewed law as a social construct and thus hastened a sociological analysis of law) occupy an important place in the history of sociology in Ukraine, as do the Ukrainian statisticians O. Rusov and V. and F. Shcherbyna. The series Studi'i z polia suspil'nykh nauk i statystyky (Studies from the Field of Social Sciences and Statistics), published in Lviv in 1902-12 by the Shevchenko Scientific Society (NTSh), can be considered a turning point in the history of sociological thought in Ukraine. It provided a forum for researchers in social problems and social theory, such as V. Okhrymovych, V. Starosolsky, V. Levynsky, V. Paneiko, M. Lozynsky, M. Hekhter, Mykola Zalizniak, S. Baran, Yu. Okhrymovych, and Yu. Bachynsky. Works with substantial sociological content by that group were also published in the NTSh serials Chasopys' pravnycha (1889-1900), Chasopys' pravnycha i ekonomichna (1900-6, 1912), and Zbirnyk Pravnychoï komisiï (1925-9). After the First World War the study of social problems and social thought in Ukraine was centered in the NTSh Economic, Sociological, and Statistical Commission in Lviv. None of the works by the aforementioned authors, however, were grounded on the principles and methodology of modern sociological theory, and none advanced a novel theory of the development of society. Only after the cataclysms of the First World War, the Revolution of 1917, and the ensuing Ukrainian-Soviet and Ukrainian-Polish wars shook the foundations of the established social order did the need to study new social phenomena become apparent. Ukrainian social and political thought underwent great development in that period, and its authors began to understand that sociology can offer much in the attempt to understand the dynamics of Ukrainian national development. In the 19205 in the Ukrainian SSR, sociological research was almost entirely conducted by scholars of the YUAN. The YUAN Socioeconomic Division had a department of

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sociology, first headed, in 1918-20, by B. Kistiakovsky. After his death the department was headed by the Marxist S. Semkovsky, under whom, however, it did not leave much of a legacy. A Sociological Commission was also founded within the Socioeconomic Division. After his return to Ukraine in 1924, Hrushevsky devoted much energy to the organization of sociological research in the YUAN. His closest collaborators in that undertaking were Y. Hermaize, P. Klymenko, and K. *Hrushevska. The YUAN Cabinet for the Study of Primitive Culture, headed by Hrushevska, focused on genetic sociology. Its members published their contributions in the journal *Pervisne hromadianstvo ta ioho perezhytky na Ukraïni (1926-9). F. *Savchenko was a major contributor to the field. Institutes in disciplines close to sociology, most notably the YUAN Demographic Institute headed by M. *Ptukha, provided valuable, pioneering analyses of biosociological processes. They include studies by Ptukha on Ukraine's population, its sex and age structure, and its mortality; by Yu. *Korchak-Chepurkivsky on mortality in Ukraine; by P. Pustokhod on Ukraine's demographic characteristics; by M. Tratsevsky on natality in Ukraine; and by I. Kovalenko on suicide in Kharkiv. Ukmïns'kyi visnyk ekspery mental'noïpedagohïky i refleksolohiï (1925-30), published by the Ukrainian Scientific Research Institute of Pedagogy in Kharkiv, carried a number of articles in educational sociology. Research on sociopsychology and collective reflexology was also done by the Ukrainian State Psychoneurological Institute in Kharkiv and the Kiev Psychoneurological Institute. The Ethnographic Society, the Geographic Society, and especially the Anthropological Society in Ukraine also contributed to the development of sociology. Significant were L. Nikolaev's three volumes of materials on Ukraine's anthropology (1926-7) and the three-volume compendium Kryminal'na antropolohiia i sudova medytsyna (Criminal Anthropology and Forensic Medicine, 1926-8). The Ukrainian Institute of Marxism-Leninism (192230) in Kharkiv, despite its partisan approach to problems, published in its journal Prapor marksyzmu (1927-30) considerable descriptive sociological material. The institute also had a philosophical-sociological research section and a sociology department, as did its successor, the AllUkrainian Association of Marxist-Leninist Institutes (1931-6). The Stalinist reorganization of scholarship in Ukraine in the late 19205 and early 19305 resulted in serious restrictions on academic freedom in sociology. The authorities now allowed only a Marxist approach, and 'sociology' and 'historical materialism' were regarded as synonyms. After 1930 the terror and the repression of Ukrainian scholars put an end to serious sociological research. Most of the pre-Soviet generation of scholars were liquidated, and their replacements avoided sensitive, politically dangerous issues and limited themselves to promoting Marxist-Leninist-Stalinist dogmas and Soviet propaganda. Sociology lost its independent status and was condemned as a bourgeois science.' Empirical microsociological and sociometric research was unable to develop, because the use of mathematical statistics, the theory of probability, and structural-functional analysis was banned in the study of Soviet society.

With the Great Terror of 1936-8 sociology disappeared in Ukraine for some 30 years. The first hint that it was being revived came in the early 19605, when the AN URSR Institute of Philosophy's Department of Atheism carried out field research in Western Ukraine. The results, however, were never published. After the reorganization of the Institute of Philosophy in 1963 sociological research was conducted by its departments of the Methodology of Sociological Inquiry, of the History of Philosophical and Sociological Thought in Ukraine, and of Philosophical Questions of the Construction of Communism. In 1969 the institute began publishing the journal Filosofs'ka dumka, which contained some quasi-sociological articles. Because Ukraine did not have a separate scholarly journal devoted to sociology, however, articles on methodological questions and the results of empirical sociological research were never published. The compendium Sotsiolohiia na Ukraïni (Sociology in Ukraine, 1968) carried some research results and was heralded as the first issue of a Ukrainian annual review of sociology, but subsequent volumes never appeared. From the 19605 on, sociological research in Ukraine was carried out by special sociological groups affilliated with various CPU republican, raion, and city committees; by departments of the AN URSR (now ANU) Institute of Philosophy; by sociological laboratories at postsecondary institutes and universities; and by laboratories of the sociology of labor, applied sociology, and the scientific organization of labor at Ukraine's large industrial enterprises. Most Ukrainian sociologists belonged to the USSR Sociological Association, which was founded in 1958 as a professional but not scholarly organization. It had five regional branches in Ukraine. With the establishment of the Moscow journal Sotsiologicheskie issledovaniia in 1974, Ukrainian sociologists had a forum for the publication of their studies. Most of the research done in Ukraine focused on the socioeconomic problems of regional, urban, and industrial-enterprise development, economic administration, demographic trends, inter-nationality and religious relations, the sociology of science and culture, industrial relations, and child socialization. Applied sociology was the norm. Scholars with unorthodox views, or those who sought to show the true sorry state of Soviet society, were not tolerated. In the postwar period sociology was one of the most underdeveloped scholarly disciplines in Ukraine and in the USSR as a whole. Several factors account for that state of affairs: virtual total Party control over the topics and methodology of research; the fact that sociology was not considered a separate discipline but part of the study of historical materialism; the significant political risk in carrying out innovative research; stagnation in the development of alternative theoretical principles and models and the paucity of sources for independent analysis; severe restrictions on the publication of social data collected by the state; a shortage of equipment essential for research, such as computers; inadequate conditions for the training of qualified sociologists in Ukraine and the inability to study abroad; and isolation from the international sociological community. Prohibitions on the publication of sociological research potentially embarrassing to the authorities and their unwillingness to listen to, let alone implement, practical recommendations by sociologists also contributed to the degradation of sociology in Ukraine.

SOCIOLOGY During the 19608 and 19705 the most significant sociological work was done by ethnographers who studied ethno-sociological processes in Ukraine, notably V. Naulko and A. Orlov. Non-Ukrainian sociologists also made important contributions. Yu. Arutiunian's Russian monograph on the sociological study of the village (1968), a politically daring study of a Ukrainian village in Zaporizhia, was widely considered one of the best Soviet sociological studies in the period. Works by dissidents, such as I. Dziuba and V. Chornovil, which circulated in *samvydav form, and articles published in the 19705 samvydav journal Ukraïns'kyi visnyk discussed many interesting sociological questions. The processes of democratization and openness in the late 19805 brought to the fore the need for objective and comprehensive knowledge about society, and a veritable boom of sociological research has taken place. The reorganization of the USSR Institute of Concrete Sociological Research into the Institute of Sociology and the establishment in 1988 of the Ail-Union Center for the Study of Public Opinion are manifestations of the new trend. In Ukraine, within the framework of the ANU Institute of Philosophy, the Department of Sociology, the Subdepartment of the Sociology of Mass Media and Public Opinion, the Sector of the Social and Psychological Problems of Public Opinion, and the Sector of the Sociology of Youth have been established. In Kiev there now also exists the Republican Sociological Center of the Sociological Association of Ukraine. Centers in Kiev, Lviv, and Dnipropetrovske now study *public opinion. In 1990, plans were announced for establishment of sociology faculties at Kiev and Kharkiv universities, and the ANU Institute of Sociology, headed by Yu. Pakhomov, was founded in Kiev. Sociological research is being done in the Center of Political Psychology established in 1990 at Kiev University, and the ANU presidium is also engaged in work in the field. Sociological research is published in the journal Filosofs 'ka i sotsiolohichna dumka, which replaced Filosofs 'ka dumka in 1989, and in separate monographs. Among the leading sociologists in Ukraine today are L. Sokhan, V. Chornovolenko, O. Yakuba, V. Ossovsky, V. Tykhonovych, A. Ruchka, L. Aza, K. Hryshchenko, Ye. Suimenko, M. Honcharenko, V. Piddubny, and V. Paniotto. Some of the more significant books published in Ukraine in recent years are by V. Voitovych, on the dynamics of prestige and the appeal of professions (1989); by Ye. Holovakha, on young people's life perspectives and professional self-definition (1989); by L. Kravchenko and B. Moroz, on the guarantee of societal renewal (1990); by V. Kusherets and V. Poltorak, on elections to soviets and public opinion (1990); by Paniotto and Yu. Yakovenko, on mail surveys in sociological research (1988); by Paniotto, on experience from models of social processes (1989); and by Ruchka, on the value approach in sociological knowledge (1989). Also published have been the collection Profesiine samovyzhachennia i trudovyi shliakh molodi (Professional Self-Definition and the Working Life of Young People, 1987), V. Picha's After Hours: Soviet Worker at Leisure (1989), and a multiauthor collection of sociological research on the consequences of the Chornobyl nuclear accident (1990). Emigré sociology. In the 19203, Ukrainian émigrés began organizing sociological research. The first significant initiatives were taken by M. Hrushevsky, who had a firm

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grasp of the interrelationships among the various social sciences. The ^Ukrainian Sociological Institute (1919-24), established in Vienna under his aegis, published M. Shrah's book on the state and socialist society (1923) and V. Starosolsky's book on the theory of the nation (1922). Ukrainian sociological studies were also continued in Prague, where the Ukrainian Sociological Society was founded in 1923 on the initiative of Mykyta *Shapoval. In 1924 the ^Ukrainian Institute of Sociology was established in Prague; it was headed, until his death in 1932, by Shapoval. That institute published the first and only Ukrainian sociological journal, Suspil 'stvo (6 issues, 19257), and works such as an edition of M. Drahomanov's selected works (vol i, 1937), V. Koval's booklet on the socioeconomic nature of agricultural co-operation (1925), M. Mandryka's booklet on national minorities in international law (1926), V. Petriv's booklet on society and the military (1924), and Shapoval's booklet on Ukrainian sociology (1927), and books on general sociology (1929) and the sociography of Ukraine (1933). Shapoval not only brought together established and young Ukrainian social scientists but also maintained ties with Western sociologists and ensured the institute's participation in international sociological congresses. Under him Suspil'stvo reviewed the latest Western sociological works and published a chronicle of the profession and bibliographies. A real attempt was made at that time to propagate sociological education and studies through the establishment of chairs of sociology at the ^Ukrainian Technical and Husbandry Institute in Podëbrady (headed by O. Bochkovsky), the Ukrainian Higher Pedagogical Institute in Prague (headed by S. Ripetsky), and the Ukrainian Free University in Prague (headed by O. Eikhelman and later V. Domanytsky). Works published by the interwar Prague circle included articles by O. Bochkovsky on 'nationology' and 'nationography' as branches of a special sociological discipline for scientific study of the nation (1927), by V. Domanytsky on 'rurbanism/ by M. Mandryka on sociology and problems of public education in the United States (1925), and by V. Starosolsky on the internal form of the word in sociological terminology (nd); and booklets by M. Shapoval on the army and the revolution (nd) and the city and the village (1926), and his book on the system of the social sciences and sociography (nd). Contributions were also made by S. Goldelman, O. Eikhelman, T. Olesevych, I. Ivasiuk, V. Sadovsky, and O. Mytsiuk. Postwar émigré sociologists and those born in the West have not had the institutional base that existed in interwar Prague, and their research has not been systematic. Much of it has focused on the study of social processes in Ukraine (W. Isajiw, B. Levytsky, A. Simirenko, B. Krawchenko, and S. Protsiuk) and the study of Ukrainian communities in Canada and the United States (Isajiw, V. Nahirny, W. R. Petryshyn, O. Wolowyna, I. Zielyk, W. Darcovich, B. Tsymbalisty), Germany (V. Maruniak), and Brazil (O. Borushenko). Sociological studies about Ukrainians in North America have also been written by nonUkrainian scholars. The "Ukrainian Center for Social Research in New York and the ""Ukrainian Free University in Munich have been the most important communitybased institutions involved in sociological research. Most sociological research about Ukrainians undertaken in the West, however, has been carried out in universities and colleges.

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SOCIOLOGY

BIBLIOGRAPHY Simirenko, A. (ed). Soviet Sociology: Historical Antecedents and Current Appraisals (Chicago 1966) Vytanovych, I. 'Kharakter i orhanizatsiia sotsiolohichnykh doslidzhen' na Ukraïni/ Suchasnist ', 1972, nos 7-8 Weinberg, E A. The Development of Sociology in the Soviet Union (London and Boston 1974) Vucinich, A. Social Thought in Tsarist Russia: The Quest for a General Science of Society, 1861-1917 (Chicago and London 1976) Matthews, M.; Jones, TA. Soviet Sociology, 1964-75: A Bibliography (New York and London 1978) N. Chernysh

Soda industry. A branch of the chemical industry that processes soda, chiefly sodium carbonate as well as sodium hydroxide (caustic soda), crystal carbonate, and sodium bicarbonate decahydrate. Soda is widely used in the making of cleansers, detergents, drying agents, paper, glass, bicarbonate of soda, and other household and industrial products. The first soda factory in Ukraine was established in Lysychanske, in the Donets Basin, in 1890. The second and largest soda plant was founded in Slovianske in 1898. In 1966 a third plant was built in Crimea oblast. Total production of sodium carbonate in the Ukraine increased from 413,000 t in 1940 to 773,000 t in 1960,1,077,0001 in 1980, and 1,325,0001 in 1987, and production of caustic soda increased from 77,600 t in 1940 to 104,4001 in 1960, 396,4001 in 1980, and 488,8001 in 1987. Sodomora, Andrii, b i December 1937 m Vyriv, Kamianka Strumylova county, Galicia. Translator and writer. A graduate of Lviv University (1959), he is an awardwinning Ukrainian translator of classical literature. Published separately have been his translations of Menander's Misanthrope (1962), Aristophanes7 comedies (1980), Horace's works (1982), and Ovid's Metamorphoses (1985). He has also written a novel about Horace, Nache te lystia derev (As If Those Leaves of Trees, 1982), a book of portraits of classical writers, Zhyva antychnist' (Live Antiquity, 1983), and many articles. Sofia. The capital of ^Bulgaria (1989 pop 1,217,024). In 1889-95 M. Drahomanov lived and worked in Sofia. In 1918-21 the UNR maintained an embassy there, headed by O. Shulhyn and then F. Shulha. P. Sikora and Yu. Nalysnyk edited the journal Ukrainsko-bolgarski pregled (191920) in Sofia. After the First World War a small Ukrainian colony, consisting mostly of veterans of the UNR Army, sprang up in Sofia. The sculptor M. Parashchuk worked there from 1921. The head offices of the Ukrainian Hromada in Bulgaria, the Ukrainian Alliance in Bulgaria, and the Union of Ukrainian Organizations in Bulgaria (from 1934) were located in the city. The Bulgarian-Ukrainian Society (headed by I. Shishmanov), the small Ukrainian Student Association, and the Sich physical-education society were also active between the wars. All Ukrainian associations were dissolved after the Second World War, although an extensive cultural exchange between Kiev and Sofia is conducted by official institutions. Sof iia Alekseevna, b 17 September 1657 in Moscow, d 3 July 1704 in Moscow. Regent of Russia; older sister of Peter I. After the death of her brother Fedor Alekseevich in 1682, she assumed power of regency on behalf of her physically and mentally disabled brother Ivan and her half-brother, Peter. During her time in power she brought

the Ukrainian Orthodox church under the control of the patriarch of Moscow, concluded an 'eternal peace' with Poland (1686) which secured Russian control over Kiev and its vicinity, replaced Hetmán I. Samoilovych with I. Mazepa (1687), entrenched Russian supremacy in the affairs of the Hetmanate through the signing of the Kolomak Articles (1687), and undertook two unsuccessful campaigns against the Crimean Tatars (1687 and 1689). She was deposed by Peter in 1689 and kept in a convent for the rest of her life. Sofiivka [Sofijivka]. ¥-14. A town smt (1986 pop 8,200) on the Kamianka River and a raion center in Dnipropetrovske oblast. The region began to be settled at the end of the i8th century, and the village of Sofiivka was founded in 1793 by Gen I. Dunin, who was granted large tracts of land along the Kamianka River. The village developed but remained an agricultural settlement. Today it has a food industry, the administration of an irrigation system, and a regional museum. Sofiivka burial site. A Copper Age burial ground of the mid-3rd millennium BC near Sofiivka, Baryshivka raion, Kiev oblast. Excavated by I. Samoilovsky and Yu. Zakharuk in 1948, the site yielded approx 150 graves with cremated remains either placed in earthenware urns or wrapped in cloth. Imprinted pottery and tools and weapons made of rock, flint, and copper were interred in the graves. Sofiivka and similar ^Middle-Dnieper culture sites constituted a regional variation of the *Trypilian culture.

Sofiivka Park

Sofiivka Park [Sofijivka]. A dendrological park in Uman, Cherkasy oblast. The park was built by L. Metzel for the Polish count S. Potocki, the voivode of Rus' voivodeship in 1782-8, who named it after his second wife. It is situated on a picturesque site featuring many ravines and gullies that straddle both sides of the Kamianka River along the outskirts of the city. Construction began in 1796, and by the summer of 1800 the park was ready for public viewing, although work continued on it until 1805. Sofiivka included extensive landscaping to create or enhance grottoes, rock faces, waterfalls, and a system of wa-

SOIL CLASSIFICATION

terways and lakes. Footbridges, sluice-gates, fountains, sculptures, and buildings were erected throughout the site. As well, a large number of trees - silver spruces, poplars, white pine - were planted in what had previously been a barren area to create the Dubnyk, Hrybok, and Zvirynets forests within the complex. After Potocki died in 1805, possession of the property passed to his brother, who took no interest in its development or maintenance. In 1831, following the Polish uprising, the estate and its park were confiscated, and given by the Russian tsar Nicholas I to his wife. The site then became commonly known as the Empress's Park (Tsarytsyn sad) until 1859, when it was turned into a school for orchard growing. At that time a host of new architectural features were added. In 1899 the park was put under the administration of V. Pashkevych, who introduced foreign tree varieties and developed the site as an arboretum. The park was declared a state nature preserve in 1929, and its historic name was restored in 1946. In 1955 Sofiivka was put under the jurisdiction of the AN URSR (now ANU). It houses nearly 500 local and imported varieties of trees and shrubs and is an important center of the Central Republican Botanical Garden for introduction and acclimatization research. Sofroniv-Levytsky, Vasyl. See Levytsky-Sofroniv, Vasyl. Soft-drink industry. In Ukrainian economic planning the soft-drink industry formally includes all plants making and bottling soft drinks, fruit drinks, soda water, kvass (a sour drink made from bread or malt), and powdered and concentrated drinks. It also includes beer brewers and bottlers, which are treated separately under ^brewing industry. Initially, most soft drinks were made from essences and artificial flavors, but since the 19605 drinks from natural flavors have predominated. Over 50 types of nonalcoholic drinks were produced in the USSR, including some soft drinks produced under license from Western companies. Kvass is especially popular: it accounted for 17 percent of all production in 1987. In Ukaine in 1980 there were almost 900 plants producing nonalcoholic beverages. The plants were distributed throughout the country, but the largest were in Kiev, Zaporizhia, Odessa, Dnipropetrovske, and Vinnytsia. Total production of soft drinks in Ukraine increased from 413 million L in 1940 to 659 million L in 1970, 906 million L in 1980, and 1,253 million L in 1987. In general the development of the industry was not given great priority in Soviet economic planning. Most of the bottling was automated, but packaging and handling were usually not. Kvass is sold on street corners from small tanks; customers drink from the same glass, which is rinsed after each use. S'ohochasne i mynule (The Present and the Past). A scholarly journal of Ukrainian studies, published by the Shevchenko Scientific Society. The first four issues of the journal appeared in Lviv in 1939 under the formal editorship of I. Rakovsky, with V. *Simovych as the de facto editor. The third and fourth issues were devoted to T. Shevchenko. The journal was renewed after the Second World War in Munich. Two more issues appeared there in 1948-9, one under the editorship of Z. Kuzelia and the

805

other of O. Kulchytsky. Both were devoted to matters concerning Ukrainian life in displaced persons camps. Soil. See Soil classification. Soil classification. The grouping of thousands of different soils on the basis of their common characteristics. Soil classification contributes to the organization and communication of information about soils and enhances the understanding of their genesis, the processes within them, their relationships with the physical environment, and their place in the landscape. Despite more than a century of soil science research and international communication, there is no universal soil classification system accepted by all countries. Soil classification in Ukraine follows the Russian system. In that system the broadest soil groups (called 'soil types') are based on the properties of the soil profile (ie, horizons and other phenomena observed in a vertical cross-section of a soil body down to two meters). The old us soil classification system, which recognized three orders ('zonal soils/ 'intrazonal soils/ and 'azonal soils'), employed nomenclature for the 'great soil groups' of the 'zonal soils' and conceptually differentiated them in a way that corresponded to the 'soil types' of the Russian system. Since that classification system is also familiar to many in North America, the terminology from the old US soil classification system is employed here to describe the soils of Ukraine and their distribution. Location and environmental relationship. In Ukraine three broad belts of soils corresponding to the belts of natural vegetation dominate most of the territory. First is the podzols of forested Polisia, formed on outwash sandy plains or on clayey till plains, which contain pockets of bog soils and ribbons of meadow soils on floodplains. The southern boundary of this belt follows along the line Lutske-Rivne-Zhytomyr-Kiev-ChernhivNovhorod-Siverskyi. Second is the belt of soils associated with the forest-steppe, consisting of the gray forest soils (formed under the broad-leaved deciduous forest), the deep chernozems (formed under the prairie), and the transitional podzolized chernozems or degraded chernozems (so modified under conditions of encroaching forest), all of which evolved on calcium-rich loess deposits. This belt also contains some bog soils in depressions and meadow soils in river valleys. The southern boundary of the belt follows along the line Chicinau-PervomaiskeKirovohrad - Kremenchuk - Krasnohrad - Kupianka - Valuiky. Third is a belt of soils associated with the steppe, consisting of common chernozems in the northern part and southern chernozems to the south. This belt arches around the Sea of Azov into the Kuban Lowland and part of the Stavropol Upland and contains chernozems particularly rich in available carbonates. Along the north coast of the Black Sea and along both sides of Syvash Lake are the chestnut soils. Interspersed among the southern chernozems and the chestnut soils, especially between the Inhul River in the west and the Molochna River in the east, are many shallow depressions consisting of leached meadow gley soils (known in Russian as solod and in German as Wiesenboden), and along the coast, solonetz soils (including the salt-laden solonchak soils). In the Crimea there is an analogous, although inverse, sequence of soil belts associated with rising elevation from north to south: in the north, chestnut soils with asso-

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SOIL C L A S S I F I C A T I O N

ciated solonetz and solonchak soils; in the middle, southern chernozems, followed by a carbonate-rich, shallow variant of the common chernozems and small areas of chernozems on heavy clays (Kerch Peninsula); and in the mountains, stony brown mountain forest soils interspersed with small pockets of mountain meadow soils at the highest elevations. On the warm south slopes the soil is transitional into the reddish brown soils typical in a Mediterranean climate. A similar sequence occurs in Subcaucasia, with carbonate-rich variants of the common chernozems and the deep chernozems at low elevations in the north, carbonate-rich brown mountain forest soils on the mountain slopes, and mountain meadow soils at the highest elevations. On the southern slopes to the Black Sea coast are reddish brown soils. Only the broad alluvial plain of the Kuban River is dominated by 'azonal' alluvial soils; its delta contains 'intrazonal' bog soils. In the Carpathian region one can observe both a vertical zonation and a transition to the Central European brown forest soils. With rising elevation the degraded chernozems and the gray forest soils of the Subcarpathian Basin give way to increasingly podzolized meadow gley soils. On higher slopes appear gray mountain forest podzols in areas covered by fir trees and brown mountain forest soils in areas of beech forests. The highest elevations have mountain meadow soils. On the Transcarpathian side of the Carpathians brown forest soils cover the foothills and meadow gley soils prevail in the lowland. Characteristics. The major representatives of the great soils groups in Ukraine include, in order of importance, the chernozems and their related chestnut soils, the various podzolized chernozems of the forest-steppe, and the podzols of the forest. Chernozems occupy 41 percent of Ukraine's surface area and even more of its agricultural land (54 percent) and plowland (58 percent). Chestnut soils, related to the chernozems, occupy only 3.3 percent of the area of Ukraine and 3.4 percent of its agricultural land but account for 3.9 percent of its plowland. Whereas in the chernozems the zone of calcium carbonate accumulation occurs about a meter below the surface, that mineral concentration is characterized in chestnut soils by the presence of sodium cations. Their presence causes the chestnut soils to change gradually into salinized chestnut soils and solonetz. The solonetz is low both in humus (1-3 percent) and in available plant nutrients. In the solonetz the salts are leached to a certain depth, which allows for a broader range of plants to grow. The solonchak, by contrast, is salinized right to the surface, and only salt-loving species of plants (halophytes) can survive. The process of salinization can be reversed only with expensive meliorative measures, such as subsurface drainage, deep plowing, the application of gypsum, or other agronomic techniques. The podzolized soils of the forest-steppe developed with the encroachment of deciduous forest into the domain of the steppe. One-third of the soils in the foreststeppe are podzolized; their area represents 12 percent of the area of Ukraine but 18 percent of its agricultural land and 21 percent of its plowland. Degraded chernozems still retain the chernozem habitus. Chemical analyses of degraded chernozems, compared with analyses of chernozems, reveal some decline in the proportion of absorbed calcium and magnesium

and the presence of hydrogen in the absorbing complex of the soil. Inherent soil fertility is diminished as a result but can be enhanced with the application of chemical fertilizers and manure. Podzolized chernozem is more severely leached than degraded chernozem, as is apparent by the presence of a narrow leached zone at the bottom of the topsoil layer. Gray forest soils, by contrast, have a thinner (20 cm) dark gray layer of topsoil with a lower (1.5 to 3.5 percent) concentration of humus. Podzols of the forest and associated soils are found in northern and northwestern Ukraine. The prevalent soils are the podzols, formed on the fluvioglacial deposits under conditions of humid continental climate and under the cover of coniferous and mixed forests. The podzols occupy about 13.5 percent of the area of Ukraine; another i percent, the remaining part of the region, consists of alluvial and organic soils. Known for their infertility, the podzols account for only 7.8 percent of the agricultural land and 6.8 percent of the plowland of Ukraine. Bog soils, formed under poor drainage conditions, are representative of the hydromorphic suborder of the intrazonal soils. In Ukraine bog soils are abundant in the wet regions of Polisia (the Prypiat River Basin), in Chernihiv Polisia, and in the shallow troughs of small river valleys of the forest-steppe. Because of their high organic content, bog soils can be agriculturally productive, but first they must be drained and then treated with fertilizer. Bog soils occupy about 5.5 percent of the area of Ukraine and 4.5 percent of its agricultural land but only 0.24 percent of the plowland. Meadow soils are formed on the floodplains of streams and rivers, where occasional floods and imperfect drainage provide for increased moisture. Excluding the solonetz, meadow soils occupy 4.3 percent of the area of Ukraine and 4.4 percent of its agricultural land but only 2.1 percent of the plowland. Rendzina soils are thin, stony, dark-colored soils developed from soft limestones, chalk, or marls. Small areas of rendzina soil are found in the Volhynia-Kholm Upland. Soviet classification referred to them as carbonate-rich turfy soils formed on marls, chalk, or limestone, and considered them a subcategory of the chernozems. Azonal soils are determined neither by climate nor by any particular soil-forming process associated with a topographic feature, but by the nature of the parent material. Commonly found on steep slopes, azonal soils show scant soil development and are generally of little significance to agriculture. Mountain soils, developed on weathered solid rocks, are shallow and full of rock fragments. In the Carpathian Mountains, for example, are found gray mountain forest podzols, brown mountain forest soils, and mountain meadow soils. The mountain forest soils scarcely resemble the podzols. The mountain meadow soils developed under alpine meadows (sometimes overgrown with peat moss) are shallow. They usually undergo podzolization and develop a gley horizon. In the Caucasus Mountains the main soils at higher elevations where coniferous forests grow are gray mountain forest podzols. At lower elevations, under deciduous forests, are the brown mountain forest podzolized soils. The latter soils, also found in the Crimean Mountains, are darker than those of the Carpathian Mountains because of the warmer climate and higher concentrations of calcium carbonate; they are also less acidic (pH 5-6).

SOIL C O N S E R V A T I O N BIBLIOGRAPHY Nabokikh, A. Sostav i proiskhozhdenie razlichnykh gorizontov nekotorykh iuzhno-russkikh pochv igruntov (St Petersburg 1911) Krokos, V. Les i fosyl 'ni grunty Pivdenno - Zakhidn 'oi Ukrainy (Kharkiv 1924) Materiialy doslidzhennia gruntiv Ukrainy, 1-7 (Kharkiv-Kiev 1924-8) Makhov, H. Grunty Ukrainy (Kharkiv 1930) Miklaszewski, S. Gleby Polski (Warsaw 1930) Makhov, G. 'A New Soil Map of the Ukraine/ Annals of the Ukrainian Academy of Arts and Sciences in the us, i, no. i (1951) Vernander, N.; et al. Pochvy USSR (Kiev-Kharkiv 1951) Harkusha, I. Hruntoznavstvo (Kiev 1954) Agrogidrologicheskie svoistva osnovnykh tipov pochv Ukrainskoi SSR (Kiev 1955) Ahrokhimiia i hruntoznavstvo, i (Kiev 1966) Agrokhimicheskaia kharakteristika pochv SSSR: Ukrainskaia SSR (Moscow 1973) Atlas pochv Ukrainskoi SSR (Kiev 1979) Priroda Ukrainskoi SSR: Pochvy (Kiev 1986) Krikunov, V.; Polupan, N. Pochvy USSR i ikh plodorodie (Kiev 1987) G. Makhov, I. Stebelsky

Soil conservation. A system of management and landuse methods which safeguard the soil against depletion or deterioration by natural or by man-induced (anthropogenic) factors. Soil conservation methods are usually designed by agronomists, soil scientists, or other specialists in agricultural or earth sciences and are promoted by means of education, extension services, incentives, and laws. The socioeconomic characteristics of the farmers, the organizational structure of agriculture, and the land tenure system usually influence the adoption of soil conservation practices. Since soil is the basic resource for agricultural production, the sustained development of agriculture in Ukraine depends on the maintenance of good soil quality and the retention of land area with good soils for crop production. When it was a constituent part of the USSR, Ukraine played a disproportionately important role in Soviet agriculture. Endowed with relatively excellent climatic and land resources, Ukraine occupied only 2.7 percent of what was the USSR's land area but accounted for 7.5 percent of Soviet agricultural land, 15 percent of cultivated land, 15.6 percent of the sown area, and 22.5 percent of the value of agricultural production (1987). Of certain heat-loving but soil-demanding crops Ukraine contributed an even larger share of the sown area: 30 percent of the vegetables, 37 percent of the sunflowers, 49 percent of the sugar beets, and 53 percent of the corn for grain (1987). Under the pressure of Soviet five-year plans that compelled the republic to maximize the use of its land for agricultural output, the land uses of Ukraine were highly committed to agricultural production (see the table). Over one-half (56.9 percent in 1984) of the total land area of Ukraine is cultivated and thus exposed for at least part of the year to wind and water erosion. Other agricultural lands too are cultivated occasionally, or grazed and trampled by livestock, and thus become susceptible to degradation. Nearly half a million hectares of formerly agricultural land is classified as loose sands and gullies. Only forested lands (16.6 percent of the land area) and wetlands (1.3 percent) provide some ecological protection. Some wetlands and forests, but mostly agricultural lands, have been lost to water reservoirs (especially the very large ones on the Dnieper Cascade, which account for most of the 3.9 percent), to roads (1.6 percent), and to

807

Land uses of Ukraine, 1 November 1984 (in 1,000 ha; percentage of total in parentheses) All agricultural land Cultivated land Orchards, vineyards, and perennial plantings Hayfields, pastures, and fallow

42,558.1 (70.5)

All non-agricultural land Forests, scrublands, and shelterbelts Wetlands Water reservoirs Sands and gullies Roads and trails Other land uses

17,796.9 (29.5)

Total

60,355.0 (100.0)

34,356.9

(56.9)

1,157.7

(1.9)

7,043.5 (11.7)

9,993.5 (16.6) 759.6 (1.3) 2,359.5 (3.9) 487.5 (0.8) 982.8 (1.6) 3,214.0 (5.3) 60,355.0 (100.0)

rural settlements, cities, industrial construction, and open-pit mining (the remaining 5.3 percent). The implementation of soil conservation has several prerequisites: (i) awareness on the part of the agricultural decision-makers (farmers, landlords, government officials) that there is a soil degradation problem; (2) knowledge about soil degradation processes; (3) recognition of their underlying causes (including socioeconomic relations and political institutions); (4) the development of methods that may be employed or the restructuring of systems that may be needed to rectify or prevent soil degradation; and (5) willingness on the part of the decisionmakers to co-operate in the implementation of soil conservation. The prerequisites gradually became present in response to the very severe soil degradation that became evident in Ukraine toward the end of the 19th century (see *Soil erosion). Before the Revolution of 1917, soil scientists, who described and mapped soil erosion in Ukraine, had conducted studies to understand the processes of degradation and worked out methods to combat soil erosion. V. *Dokuchaev (1892) proposed a variety of agronomic measures and established test plots in Ukraine for trials. P. Kostychev (1893) devised special crop rotations for dry farming. O. Izmailsky (1894) recommended snow retention and plowing perpendicular to the slope to conserve soil moisture and reduce the occurrence of dust storms. H. Vysotsky studied soil protective afforestation (1895) and devised effective blow-through *shelterbelts (1898). Cognizant of the problem and aware of local research in soil science, a few landlords and colonists (often German Mennonites) implemented afforestation, shelterbelts, and the retention of gully erosion on their own properties with some success. By contrast the peasantry appeared to be ignorant and, in any case, were economically helpless. The tsarist government neglected agricultural development. Only after pressure was applied by naturalists and physicians, who were appalled by the poverty, the soil erosion, the famines, and the cholera epidemics, did the government commission three exhaustive studies, on gullies, on rural poverty, and on land tenure. Even so, nothing more was done until the peasant revolts of 1905 shocked the Russian imperial autocracy enough to implement land reforms. The Stolypin agrarian reforms (1906-11) began to

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change the socioeconomic relations so as to allow agronomic improvement on peasant farms and the implementation of soil conservation methods. Imperial policy, however, opposed the use of the Ukrainian language in schools and publications and thus hampered the development of literacy among the Ukrainian peasantry and the improvement of agronomic practices. Consequently, efforts to curtail gully erosion by means of ridging, trenching, and the afforestation of gullies became more common on the large estates than on private plots. That whole period of agronomic improvement was curtailed by the First World War and the 1917 revolution. Most of the estate land partitioned among the peasantry during the revolution was kept by the farmers, but it was declared nationalized by the Bolshevik government. Small portions of the estates were retained by the government as state farms, and peasants were encouraged to join into several forms of collective farms. Rural extension service, begun before the revolution, was continued, often by the same specialists who advocated the measures that would facilitate the introduction of improved crop rotation and soil conservation measures - the consolidation of land and the enclosure of land into individual family farms. Basic research was encouraged by the Agricultural Scientific Committee of Ukraine (1920-7), affiliated with the People's Commissariat of Agricultural Affairs of the Ukrainian SSR. The policy of Ukrainization broadened the base from which trained personnel could be drawn, and enhanced the dissemination of proper agronomic practices and soil conservation techniques among the rural population of Ukraine. The mass collectivization of agriculture (1930-4), coupled with the repression of Ukrainian patriots, initiated a new phase in the history of soil conservation. Research was centralized and geared to the implementation of agronomic improvements and soil conservation practices on collective and state farms. The All-Union (soon renamed Ukrainian) Scientific Research Institute of Forest Management and Agroforest Amelioration had developed by 1941 a grandiose shelterbelt scheme for the European steppe and forest-steppe, including the selection of tree species and the planting techniques to be used. Folio wing the Second World War a massive campaign for planting and pond construction in the steppe and forest-steppe culminated with a decree (1948) that became known as 'Stalin's plan for the transformation of nature/ The grass-field crop rotation developed by V. Viliams was touted as a means for improving soil productivity and was propagated for widespread adoption. Boasting about those measures as well as the tempo of mechanization and motorization that enabled deep plowing, the Party generated a sense of euphoria. Subsequent studies of the soil conservation efforts revealed (1954), in fact, severe soil erosion. The problems, commonly associated with large-scale mechanized farming, were aggravated either because the recommended soil conservation measures were not implemented properly or because the fragmented responsibility and narrow incentives in socialized agriculture (such as bonuses paid to achieve specific job targets or production quotas) negated the application of recommended agronomic practices. Disregard for communal land now became a basic problem. Under N. Khrushchev priorities were placed on increasing the output of agricultural production rather than

on soil conservation. Reforms in agriculture (such as disbanding the ^machine-tractor stations and making the tractor drivers directly responsible to collective farms) could have provided the means for implementing improved agronomic practices, but the ambitious programs and erratic 'campaigns' to sow more corn at the expense of small grains or pastures relegated soil conservation to a position of low priority. Severe soil degradation was the result. Much farmland was lost to the creation of water reservoirs on the Dnieper, open-pit mining, and urban growth (for land was considered a free commodity, and the Ministries of Energy and Electrification and of Mining carried more weight than that of Agriculture). In 1963, when the leadership realized that soil conservation was imperative, it commissioned the Ukrainian Planning Institute for Land Organization (Uzkrzemproekt) to devise comprehensive soil protection measures for each watershed in Ukraine. Although Khrushchev was deposed the following year, the project continued its work. L. Brezhnev's agricultural policy involved the adoption of long-term planning and increased capital investment in the agricultural sector. So that agricultural output from the same land area would be increased, more chemical fertilizers, herbicides, and pesticides were made available, and massive drainage and irrigation projects were undertaken. In 1967, in an effort to counteract past soil degradation, a decree was issued 'Concerning the Undeferable Measures to Protect the Soils against Wind and Water Erosion.' Responsibilities for conservation practices were identified, and fines for violations were specified. A land cadastre, designed to serve as a benchmark on soil conditions, was commissioned. In 1970 the land codex of the Ukrainian SSR was prepared, to restrict the allocation of good agricultural land to other uses. Basic research on regional systems of soil conservation practice was undertaken, and its results published, presumably as a guide for central decision-making. In areas susceptible to water erosion, soil-conserving crop rotations with more cover crops were recommended along with the use of terraces and contour strip cropping (perpendicular to upland slopes). In areas susceptible to wind erosion (mostly in the steppe) the alignment of shelterbelts and fields perpendicular to the prevailing direction of the wind was recommended, along with the use of blade cultivators (or sweep plows to avoid the turning of the sod), the retention of stubble cover, and the use of curtains of tall crops to reduce wind velocity. Contour strip cropping was not widely used because it would have necessitated a major reorganization of fields and a greater use of small maneuverable tractors (which, together with skilled operators, were in short supply). Instead, less effective methods, such as trenching, pitting, and other field techniques, were more commonly applied in the areas prone to water erosion. High priority was given to combating wind erosion in the steppe. Machinery for conservation tillage (such as blade cultivators or sweep plows) was pressed into production. By 1983 the plowless tillage had been expanded to 7 million ha in Ukraine. Fertilizers were provided to invigorate overgrazed pastures and treat deficient soils. Earth-moving machinery was supplied to terrace slopes and fill in the gullies. A concerted effort was made at the filling in of gullies and at afforestation to stabilize loose sands. According to official reports, between 1965 and 1983 the area in gullies was re-

SOIL EROSION

duced from 324.1 thousand to 258 thousand ha, and the area of loose sands was reduced from 293.7 thousand to 177.7 thousand ha. Despite well-publicized soil conservation efforts during the Brezhnev period, erosion continued to grow. The area suffering from soil erosion in Ukraine increased from 1961 to 1980 by 1.4 million ha on plowland alone and by more than 2 million ha on all agricultural land. The trend was related to increased soil compaction from heavy machinery, increased mineralization from heavier use of chemicals, greater quantities of industrial emissions, acid rain, and water erosion from sprinkler irrigation on sloping, clayey chernozems. (See also *Land use.) BIBLIOGRAPHY Muntian, V. Pravova okhorona hruntiv URSR (Kiev 1965) Dolhilevych, M. Zakhyst hruntiv vid vitrovoï eroziï na Ukraïni (Lviv 1967) Vedenichev, P. Zemel 'nye resursy Ukrainskoi SSR i ikh khoziaistvennoe ispol 'zovanie (Kiev 1972) Tsemko, V. Pravo sil 's'kohospodars 'koho vykorystannia zemli v Ukraïns 'kii RSR (Kiev 1975) Ekonomicheskie problemy ispol 'zovaniia zemel 'nykh i vodnykh resursov v sel 'skom khoziaistve (Kiev 1978) Ekologo-ekonomicheskie aspekty okhrany pochv Ukrainskoi SSR (Kiev 1980) Morgun, F.; Shikula, N.; Tarariko, A. Pochvozashchitnoe zemledelie (Kiev 1983; 2nd edn 1988) Mikhailiuchenko, M.; Teleshek, lu. Zaslon erozii (Kiev 1987) I. Stebelsky

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Soil erosion. The process by which unprotected soil is washed away by meltwater or rainwater (water erosion) or blown away (wind erosion). In Ukraine soil erosion occurs in regions of enhanced relief, mostly on the high right banks of rivers (as in the Kaniv region along the Dnieper), on the more elevated parts of the Dnieper Lowland, on the strips between the Dnieper and the Boh rivers, between the Dniester and the Prut, in Slobidska Ukraine, on the Donets Ridge, on the Azov Upland, and in the Carpathian Mountains. East and southeast winds (dry winds known as black storms) cause soil loss in the eastern parts of Ukraine. About 12.5 million ha of arable land in Ukraine are affected by water erosion. Erosion has increased as a result of deforestation, the tilling of slopes, and backward agrotechnology. Erosion eventually results in the formation of ravines, an increase in the amount of unusable land, and a loss of soil fertility. The severity of soil erosion in Ukraine varies from place to place, according to natural conditions, land uses, and cultural practices. The forest zone in the northwest of Ukraine is the least susceptible to erosion. The foreststeppe zone suffers much more from water erosion, although the problem varies considerably with topography. The steppe zone, suffering from both wind and water erosion, has some of the most severely eroded soils in Ukraine. The mountain zones, despite their protective forest cover, suffer from high values of soil erosion. BIBLIOGRAPHY Borot'ba z eroziieiu hruntiv (Kiev 1968)

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Ekologo-ekonomicheskie aspekty okhrany pochv Ukrainskoi SSR (Kiev 1980) Gensiruk, S.; Gaidarova, L.; Babich, A. Ovragi i peski: Lesorazvedenie, ekologiia, ekonomika (Kiev 1986) Stebelsky, I. 'Agricultural Development and Soil Degradation in the Soviet Union: Policies, Patterns, and Trends/ in Environmental Problems in the Soviet Union and Eastern Europe (Boulder, Colo, and London 1987) I. Stebelsky

Soil science. The systematized study of soils as an evolving natural resource influenced by living organisms and physical factors. It deals with the origin and formation of soils, their chemical, physical, and biological properties, their classification and geographical distribution, and their fertility. Soil science as a distinct discipline emerged only at the end of the icth century, largely as a result of the contributions of V. *Dokuchaev. The earliest scientific studies of soils in Ukraine, especially the first soil maps, resulted from the surveys of the country's agricultural potential conducted in the i88os by the zemstvos. In 1888-94 Dokuchaev studied the soils of Poltava gubernia and published a detailed (1:420,000) soil map of the region. Previously he had published his research on the chernozem and the genesis of the steppes. In the prerevolutionary period the soils of Ukraine were studied by both Ukrainian scientists and specialists from St Petersburg and Moscow. A. Nabokikh, who polemicized with the Russian soil scientists in Moscow and St Petersburg, researched the soils of Podilia and Kharkiv gubernias and founded a distinct school of soil scientists in Ukraine. F. *Levchenko studied the soils of Volhynia, N. Frolov, those of Kiev gubernia, B. Polynov, those of Chernihiv gubernia, and S. Zakharov, those of Subcaucasia and Caucasia. Methods to combat drought in the steppes were explored not only by Dokuchaev but also by the prominent Russian soil scientist P. Kostychev, the Ukrainian agronomist O. Izmailsky, and the Ukrainian forester-soil scientist Yu. *Vysotsky. K. *Gedroits was director (1922-30) of the agrochemical department of the Nosivka Agricultural Research Station near Nizhen and did research on soil colloids and soil cation-exchange capacity. His laboratory analysis of the chernozems was based mostly on samples collected in Ukraine. The contributors to soil research in Ukraine included the Ukrainian geologist P. *Tutkovsky and the botanist and geographer G. *Tanfilev. Before the 1917 revolution Ukraine was not viewed as a separate country, so integrated studies of Ukraine's soils did not begin until the 19205. They were undertaken mostly by the * Agricultural Scientific Committee of Ukraine and its soil science section (1920-7), which was directed by H. *Makhiv (1923-7). It compiled 10 volumes oîMateriialy doslidzhennia gruntiv Ukraïny (Research Materials on the Soils of Ukraine) and published a large (1:1,000,000) soils map of Ukraine. Soil research in Ukraine was conducted also by scientific research stations (35 in 1927), the Ukrainian Scientific Research Institute of Soil Science in Kiev, and the Ukrainian Scientific Research Institute of Fertilizers in Kiev. Soil science departments were active in postsecondary institutions, particularly at agricultural institutes. When the Agricultural Scientific Committee was abolished and many of its associates were purged during the collectivization, soil science in Ukraine suffered a grave setback.

In the 19205 and 19305 the outstanding soil scientists in Ukraine, besides those already mentioned, were D. *Vilensky, V. *Krokos, and O. *Sokolovsky. Some important contributions were made by I. Bandura, O. *Dushechkin, O. *Hrinchenko, H. Hrin, M. Krupsky, and T. *Taranets. A new phase of soil research in Ukraine began in the second half of the 19305. Its purpose was practical - to raise soil fertility, as promised by the leading Soviet soil scientist, V. Viliams. In the post-Stalin period soil mismanagement on collective and state farms was admitted, and research was diversified in an attempt to aid in the regional application of agronomic practices and the intensification of agriculture. With the full-scale mechanization and motorization of agriculture, the use of chemicals, and the implementation of large-scale drainage and irrigation projects, the assessment of the human impact on soil assumed primary importance. A detailed survey and inventory of soils was commissioned, to be used as a standard for rating soil management. Basic research concerning soil characteristics and soil genesis continued to be closely related to certain branches of geology (mineralogy), geography (climatology, geomorphology), biology (plant physiology), and chemistry. At the same time soil science emerged as the basis of other related applied disciplines, such as agronomy, agrochemistry, and soil mapping, and the development and testing of agrotechnical, agrochemical, and melioration techniques. The major achievements of the post-Stalin period included a comprehensive, detailed, large-scale inventory mapping of the soils of Ukraine. Spearheaded by the Ministry of Agriculture of the Ukrainian SSR and the *Ukrainian Scientific Research Institute of Soil Science and Agrochemistry, the project involved research institutes, universities, and agricultural stations and produced maps to the scale of 1:10,000 or 1:25,000 for each farm and 1:50,000 for each raion, together with soil descriptions and agronomic recommendations (1956-62). Subsequently (1969-72), generalized soil maps were produced for each oblast (1:200,000) and for the entire republic (1:750,000). After numerous studies, such as soil-water characteristics, water-air regimes in the soil, water-salt interactions, the impact of tillage, soil erosion, and soil fertility, a comprehensive soil evaluation and mapping of the distribution of soil quality was undertaken. Some of the findings were generalized in the soils atlas of the Ukrainian SSR. The major contributors to soil science after the Second World War have been Hrinchenko, Hrin, Krupsky, H. Andrushchenko, M. Godlin, I. Hoholiv, O. Mozheiko, G. Sambur, N. Sereda, M. Shykula, S. Skorina, M. Veklich, and especially N. Vernander. Today soil research is conducted principally at the Ukrainian Scientific Research Institute of Soil Science in Kiev, which is affiliated with the Ministry of Agriculture of Ukraine, and the Ukrainian Scientific Research Institute of Soil Science and Agrochemistry in Kharkiv, which was (until 1991) affiliated with the All-Union Academy of Agricultural Sciences in Moscow. Applied research is conducted at numerous agricultural research stations and even at agricultural laboratories on state farms and large collective farms. There are soil science departments in the geology faculties of the universities, agricultural academies, and agricultural and poly technical institutes. Publications in soil science have been almost exclusively in the

SOKAL B R I G A D E

Russian language. The main periodical, Ahrokhimiia i hruntoznavstvo (Kiev 1966-), published by the Ministry of Agriculture of Ukraine and the Ukrainian Scientific Research Institute of Soil Science and Agrochemistry, changed to Russian in the 19805. BIBLIOGRAPHY Vilenskii, D. Istoriia pochvovedeniia v Rossii (Moscow 1958) Kovda, V.; legorov, V. (eds). 100 let geneticheskogo pochvovedeniia (Moscow 1986) I. Bandura, I. Stebelsky

Soiuz (Union). The first Ukrainian student association in Chernivtsi. It was founded in 1875, and existed, except for 1903-5, until 1922, when it was dissolved by the Rumanian authorities. Membership varied from 50 to 100 students. The association took part in political and culturaleducational work and published Bukovyns'kyi al'manakh (Bukovynian Almanac, 1885) and the almanac Soiuz (1875-1903, 1905-10). The association's heads were D. *Vintskovsky (1875-9), S. *Smal-Stotsky (1879-83), O. *Kolessa (1891-4), P. Klym, T. *Halip, Yu. Tevtul, and V. Butsura, among others. When the association was dissolved, its members joined the academic associations *Sich and *Chornomore. Soiuz (Union). A weekly organ of the Ukrainian Presbyterian Mission, published in New York (1908-11) and Pittsburgh (1912-21). It contained articles on religious themes, reports on the activities of Ukrainian Presbyterian and Evangelical congregations, and news relating to Ukraine and Ukrainian communities in North America. Soiuz was especially critical of the Catholic church. The editor was Z. Bychynsky.

The town hall in Sokal

Sokal [Sokal']. 111-5. A city (1989 pop 22,400) on the Buh River and a raion center in Lviv oblast. It was first mentioned in historical documents in 1411, when it belonged to Belz principality. It obtained the rights of *Magdeburg law in 1424, and from 1462 it was a county center of Belz voivodeship. It developed slowly during the 15th and loth centuries because of frequent Tatar attacks. In 1524 the town was rebuilt on the other side of the river, and its fortress was reinforced. During the next century it became an important center for the production of shoes, gold arti-

Sil

facts, and weapons. The Roman Catholics established two monasteries in the town. The Cossacks captured the town in 1648 and 1655, during B. Khmelnytsky's uprising. After the partition of Poland in 1772, Sokal was annexed by Austria and became a county center of the Galician crownland. It prospered as a manufacturing and trading town and by the end of the 19th century had a population of 8,000. In February 1919 the Ukrainian Galician Army successfully resisted the Polish forces, but by the summer the Poles had captured Sokal. The Polish government established the *Sokal border between Galicia and Volhynia. In 1939 the city was occupied by the Soviet army. Today Sokal is an industrial center specializing in the manufacture of synthetic fibers, reinforced concrete, bricks, hosiery, and foodstuffs. Its main architectural monuments are an Orthodox chapel (i5th century), St Nicholas's Church (loth century), the remnants of the town walls and a tower (loth century), a Bernardine nunnery (1604), a Brigittine nunnery (1624), a Roman Catholic church in the Renaissance style (i7th century), and St Michael's Church, in the baroque style (1778-1835). Archeologists have discovered artifacts from the Mesolithic, Neolithic, Bronze Age, and Hellenic and Celtic periods in the Sokal region. Sokal border (Sokalskyi kordon). An administrative division separating the Ukrainian territories of interwar Poland. Its name was derived from the town of Sokal, on the Buh River. The division line ran along the former AustroRussian border and the dividing line between the LvivTernopil and Volhynia voivodeships. It effectively isolated Volhynia and other Ukrainian areas in the interwar Polish state from eastern Galicia. In that respect the Sokal border was regarded as a symbol of the desire of the Polish government to keep Ukrainians regionally fragmented (and thus limit their potential for co-ordinated political, cultural, and economic action). The Sokal border came into existence because of the signing of a Polish-Vatican ""concordat (1925) which restricted the jurisdiction of Ukrainian Catholic bishops to eastern Galicia, and which supported (particularly after 1928) the Ukrainization of the Orthodox Church in Volhynia, the abolition by the Polish government of major Ukrainian co-operative and popular-education societies (Prosvita, the Audit Union of Ukrainian Co-operatives, and the like) north of the border (so that the area of their activities was restricted largely to Galicia), and the sanctioning by the Polish administration of the creation of regional Ukrainian political and economic organizations in Volhynia (such as the Volhynian Ukrainian Alliance). The main architect of the Sokal border was the Volhynia voivode, H. *Jozewski. Its existence exacerbated the regional differences (political, social, and religious) in Ukrainian society in interwar Poland. The impact of the Sokal border began to lessen over time as a result of increased economic integration (through the building of railway lines connecting the regions directly) and the activities of illegal Ukrainian organizations, such as the OUN and the Communist Party of Western Ukraine. A. Ziçba

Sokal Brigade of the Ukrainian Galician Army

(Sokalska [5] brygada UHA). A unit of the First Corps of the UHA formed in January 1919 from units of the Northern Group. The brigade had about 6,000 soldiers, organized into three infantry battalions, a cavalry troop, an engineer-

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ing company, and an artillery regiment. During the winter and spring it operated on the Polish-Ukrainian front around Sokal and in June 1919 it took part in the Chortkiv offensive, in which it distinguished itself in battles around Terebovlia. Its commanders were Capts P. Petryk and V. Kossar. In February 1920 the brigade was reorganized into the Second Cavalry Regiment of the Red Ukrainian Galician Army, which on 28 April surrendered to the Poles. Sokalsky, Ivan [Sokal's'kyj], b 13 May 1830 in Kharkiv, d 12 May 1896 in Kharkiv, d ? Economist and statistician. A graduate of Kharkiv (1850) and Kiev (PH D, 1872) universities, he taught at the Richelieu Lyceum in Odessa and then at Kharkiv University (from 1858), where he offered the first course in the Russian Empire on the history of economic schools. In 1862-4 he traveled and studied industry, finance, and agriculture in Western Europe. After his return to Kharkiv Sokalsky organized and directed the first one-day censuses in Kharkiv (1866, 1873, and 1879) and studied the cottage industry in Slobidska Ukraine. He also edited the monthly journal of the Kharkiv gubernia statistical committee, Statisticheskii listok (1882-5). He wrote many articles and the monograph Reforma na ocheredi (The Coming Reform, 1895), in which he advocated bimetallism.

Petro Sokalsky

Ukrainian translation of this work, and a biography, by T. Karysheva, were published in Kiev in 1959. A collection of his essays and reviews was published in Kiev in 1977. Sokalsky, Volodymyr [Sokal's'kyj] (secular name: Vasyl), b ca 1725, d ca 1790. After studying at the Kievan Mohyla Academy and serving as hegumen of the Samara St Nicholas's Monastery, he became (from 1762) the last pastor at the church of the Zaporozhian Sich and the last archimandrite of the monastery (1774-5). He later became archimandrite of St Nicholas's Monastery near Baturyn (1776-90). Sokalsky, Volodymyr [Sokal's'kyj] (pseud: Don Diese), b 6 May 1863 in Heidelberg, Germany, d 1919 in Sevastopil. Composer and music critic; son of I. *Sokalsky. He graduated in 1885 from the Faculty of Law at Kharkiv University while also studying piano at the Russian Music Society school. In the fields of music history and theory he was self-taught. He was active as both a pianist and a conductor. His works include the Symphony in G Minor (1892); the children's opera Ripka (The Turnip, 1900), based on a Ukrainian folk tale; choruses; piano pieces; and art songs. Sokha. A unit of land taxation used in Rus' from the 13th to the 17th centuries. Until the mid-i6th century it was defined by the size of the work force: in the 13th to 15th centuries it consisted of an area that could be worked by two or three peasants; the size of the unit varied with the region. In the mid-i6th century the great sokha, defined by a spatial unit, the chetvert, was introduced throughout Muscovy. Its size varied according to the quality of the land and the social position of the owner. In 1679 the sokha was replaced by the ^household tax.

Volodymyr Sokalsky (1863-1919)

Sokalsky, Petro [Sokal's'kyj] (Sokolsky), b 26 September 1832 in Kharkiv, d 14 April 1887 in Odessa. Composer, folklorist, and music critic; brother of I. *Sokalsky. He graduated in 1852 from the Faculty of Natural Sciences at Kharkiv University and settled in 1858 in Odessa, where he worked as assistant editor of the newspaper Odesskii vestnik. He was active in the city's musical life as a critic in the newspaper and a promoter for the development of musical institutions. His works include the operas Mazepa (1859), May Night (1876), and The Siege ofDubno (1878); 14 choruses; piano music; and art songs to words by T. Shevchenko, L. Hlibov, and others. He also collected and studied Ukrainian folk songs. His research was published posthumously as Russkaia narodnaia muzyka, velikorusskaia i malorusskaia v ee stroenii melodicheskom i ritmicheskom i otlichiia ee ot osnov sovremennoi garmonicheskoi muzyki (Russian Folk Music, Great Russian and Ukrainian, Its Melodic and Rhythmic Structure, and Its Differentiation from the Principles of Contemporary Harmonic Music, 1888). A

Pavlo Sokhan

Rev Isydor Sokhotsky

Sokhan, Pavlo [Soxan'], b 18 November 1926 in Novoivanivka, now in Bilopillia raion, Sumy oblast. Historian; corresponding member of the AN URSR (now ANU) since 1985. A graduate of the Kharkiv Pedagogical Institute (1953), he joined the ANU Institute of History in 1964 and became assistant director in 1974 and head of the revived Archeographic Commission in 1988 (since 1991, the Institute of Ukrainian Archeography). His specializations include Ukraine's historical ties with East European nations and the history of Bulgaria.

SOKIL

Sokhanivsky, Mykhailo [Soxanivs'kyj, Myxajlo], b 13 June 1915 in Zhyznomyr, Buchach county, Galicia. Stage actor and singer (baritone). He began his theatrical career in Lviv in the Bohema Theater (1936) and then was a member of D. Kotko's choir (1937) and an actor and singer in the Ternopil Ukrainian Music and Drama Theater (193944) and the Ukrainian Theater in Austria under H. Sovacheva (1945-8). After 1948 he appeared sporadically with Ukrainian troupes in Canada. Sokhotsky, Isydor [Soxoc'kyj] (pseud: Sydir Yaroslavyn), b 4 April 1895 *n Lany, Bibrka county, Galicia, d 22 May 1977 in Philadelphia. Church and community activist; member of the Shevchenko Scientific Society from 1965. He studied theology at Lviv University and philosophy at the Lviv (Underground) Ukrainian University before being ordained in 1923 and serving as a village priest. In 1944 he emigrated to Germany, and in 1950 to the United States, where he was pastor in Shamokin, Pennsylvania. He published popular studies on the role of the Ukrainian Catholic clergy (1951) and the Western Ukrainian struggle for independence in 1918-23 (1956), and coedited a history of the Ukrainian Catholic church in the United States (1959). Sokhotsky also wrote Istorychni postati Halychyny xix-xx st. (Historical Figures of Galicia in the i9th-2Oth Centuries, 1961).

Mariia Sokil

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began publishing his poems and short stories during the 19205. His published works include the short stories 'Nadry' (Bowels of the Earth, 1932) and Totoky syl' (Stream of Forces, 1932); the plays Mariia (1947), Dim na hori (The House on the Hill, 1950, coauthored with D. Vyshensky), and Chervona kalyna (Red Viburnum, 1954); the comedy Doroha mamochka (Dear Mother, 1953, coathored with I. Bahmut); and librettos for the operas Pavel Korchagin (1962), Vasilii Gubanov (1970), and Lieutenant Schmidt (1971). Sokil also translated into Ukrainian works of Russian, Belarusian, Polish, and Kirghiz authors. In 1978 he emigrated from Ukraine to the United States, and in 1986 he moved to Australia. While in the United States he published the satirical novelette Taka dovha nich (Such a Long Night, 1984). In addition to his memoirs, Zdaleka do blyz'koho (From Far Away to Close at Hand, 1987), Sokil has published articles in émigré literary journals and newspapers. Sokil, Yurii (Sokol), b 21 September 1937 in Dnipropetrovske. Film producer and cinematographer. He graduated from the Moscow Film Institute in 1961 and then worked at the Mosfilm Studio with directors such as D. Khzhabzovitsky, A. Mitta, and G. Chukry. In 1979 he emigrated to Australia, first to Melbourne, where he shot a number of award-winning films with the director Paul Cox (Lonely Hearts, Man of Flowers, Cactus), and then to Sydney, where he continued to work with such film directors as John Duigan, Lex Marinos, and Bob Ellis. In 1987 he established and developed Waterloo Studios, one of the largest film complexes in Sydney. In 1989 he received a Milli Award, one of the highest Australian professional honors, as cinematographer of the year.

Vasyl Sokil

Sokil, Mariia, b 18 October 1902 in Zherebets (now Kirove), Oleksandrivske county, Katerynoslav gubernia. Operatic soprano; wife of A. *Rudnytsky. She graduated from the Dnipropetrovske Music Conservatory and performed as a soloist in opera theaters in Kharkiv (from 1927) and Kiev (from 1930). In 1932-7 she performed in Lviv, Warsaw, Prague, Vienna, and Berlin, and in 1937-8 she gave concerts in the United States and Canada. From 1958 she lectured at the Philadelphia Music Conservatory and Music Academy. Her notable roles were Marguerite in C. Gounod's Faust, Tatiana in P. Tchaikovsky's Eugene Onegin, Desdemona in G. Verdi's Othello, Eisa in R. Wagner's Lohengrin, Maryltsia in M. Lysenko's Taras Bulba, and Mimi in G. Puccini's La Bohème. Sokil, Vasyl, b 5 March 1905 in Husarka, Oleksandrivske county, Katerynoslav gubernia. Writer and journalist. He graduated from Kharkiv University in 1932 and

The officers of Sokil-Batko with Ivan Bobersky in Lviv in 1928. Sitting, from left: Ya. Vintskovsky, N. Yatsiv, O. Sopotnytsky, S. Lavriv, Bobersky, D. Navrotska, M. Levytsky, T. Franko, S. Lototsky; standing: L. Ohonovsky, O. Liubinetsky, I. Mryts, M. Halibei, S. Haiduchok, T. Bilostotsky, B. Makarushka, I. Panchak, S. Kotsiuba, O. Verkhola, M. Tril

Sokil (Falcon; Czech: Sokol). A mass physical-education movement that played an important role in the national rebirth of several Slavic peoples, particularly the Czechs. The first Sokol society was founded in Prague in 1862. Other Slavic peoples followed the Czechs' example and established their own counterparts. In 1907 the national societies came together to form the Sokol Union, which organized international meets and congresses. After the Soviet occupation of Eastern Europe, the Sokol movement was suppressed. Some societies are still active in the various Slavic émigré communities.

SOKIL

The Polish Sokdl society was founded in Lviv in 1867, and the Ukrainian Sokil society was founded there in February 1894. The latter's statute was based on that of the Czech society, and its activity extended to all of Galicia and Bukovyna. There it propagated national unity, selfconfidence, and dignity through physical education. The first president was V. *Nahirny (1894-1900), and the first director was V. Lavrivsky. A. Budzynovsky initiated the expansion of the society's program to encompass fire fighting (practiced until 1932), hiking, fencing, cycling, and shooting (from 1912). Besides physical activities and sports, the society also encouraged amateur choral, orchestral, and theatrical activities. In 1912 rifle units were organized by S. *Goruk; thenceforth the society was often known as the Sokil Physical Activity and Riflemen's Society. I. *Bobersky, who headed the Sokil teachers' circle from 1901 and presided over Sokil in 1908-12, contributed greatly to Sokil's growth in the decade before the First World War. In Galicia's towns, beginning with Stanyslaviv (1902), branches concentrating primarily on physical education were set up, while those founded in rural areas usually combined physical education and fire fighting. The local branches, which were free to call themselves Sich or Sokil, grew in number from 6 in 1902 to 70 in 1903, 243 in 1905,373 in 1907,601 in 1910, and 974 in 1914. They were concentrated mostly in Lviv county and Galician Podilia. In Pokutia and Bukovyna, where the *Sich societies attracted most of their followers, only a few Sokil branches existed. The combined Sokil membership grew to approx 33,000. The parent organization in Lviv served as the central office of the movement; from 1909 it was called Sokil-Batko ('Soldi-Father7). Like the rival Sich movement, Sokil organized regional (in 1906 in Stryi and in 1910 in Ternopil) and then provincial assemblies (in 1911 in Lviv) of its constituent organizations. In June 1914 the so-called Shevchenko assembly was attended by 12,000 members of Sich, Sokil, and the scouting organization Plast. It was held at the Ukrainskyi Horod, the sports field owned by Sokil-Batko in Lviv. In 1912 Sokil representatives took part in the All-Slavic Sokol congress and games in Prague celebrating the 5Oth anniversary of the Czech society. Before the First World War the more important figures in the Sokil movement were K. Gutkovsky, V. Shukhevych, Yu. Vintskovsky (head of the photography and cycling sections), Ya. Yaroslavenko (composer of the Sokil anthem and other Sokil songs), M. Voloshyn, Y. Domanyk, L. Lepky, and P. Dyhdalevych. In Russian-ruled Ukraine several dozen Russian Sokol gymnastics societies were founded in the early 2Oth century. The largest society was in Kiev. It hosted the 1913 Russian Sokol congress attended by 250 members from Katerynoslav, Odessa, Kharkiv, Chernihiv, Tahanrih, and Kursk. The First World War interrupted the activities of the Sokil society in Galicia. After the war the Polish authorities obstructed the revival of the movement and prohibited its expansion into Volhynia, Podlachia, and the Kholm and Lemko regions. In 1918-20 only Sokil-Batko was able to function, and the 1933 law on associations precipitated the further decline of Sokil. In 1938 the Polish government seized, under the pretext of military need, Sokil-Batko's sports field in Lviv. The number of Sokil branches varied from 6 in 1921 to 37 in 1923,586 in 1928,493 in 1930,370 in

!934/ 233 in Ï936 (23,000 members), and 300 in 1939 (approx 35,000 members). From 1933 Sokil devoted more attention to athletics and sports (volleyball, basketball, track-and-field sports, and boxing); its sports section was headed by O. Navrotsky. Before the ^Ukrainian Sports Union was founded in 1925, and after it was abolished by the Polish authorities in 1937, Sokil-Batko functioned as the central office for the many sports clubs in Galicia. It organized the so-called Zaporozhian Games in 1923 and the third provincial Sokil assembly in 1934. It continued holding various regional Sokil public gatherings and events and conducting courses for physical-education instructors. Prominent figures in Sokil in the 19205 and 19305, in addition to those who had already been important before the war, were M. Zaiachkivsky (president, 1922-33), M. Khronoviat (president, 1934-9), S. Haiduchok, M. Tril, I. Mryts (head of the skiing section), M. Halibei, Ya. and E. Blahitka, T. Bilostotsky, E. Zharsky, and A. Palii. Sokil published the monthly magazines *Visty z Zaporozha (1910-14) and *Sokil's'ki visty (1928-39); annual almanacs from 1894; and many sports, physical education, and organizational booklets by authors such as V. Lavrivsky, A. Budzynovsky, I. Bobersky, S. Haiduchok, M. Tril, O. Verkhola, E. Zharsky, Ya. Blahitka, T. and P. Franko, D. Navrotska, D. Siiak, K. Sukhoverska, and I. Mryts. Outside Ukraine the most active Ukrainian Sokil societies were founded by émigrés in inter war Czechoslovakia. There, beginning in 1922, Sokil branches sprang up in Podëbrady, Prague, Pribram, Libérée, Brno, and other towns. Together they formed the Union of the Ukrainian Sokil Movement Abroad in 1932; in 1934 it had 460 members. The societies took part in Czech Sokol events, sometimes as representatives of the Galician Sokil movement, and maintained contacts with Sokil-Batko and I. Bobersky in Canada and then Yugoslavia. The German occupation of Czechoslovakia brought an end to the Sokil movement in Czechoslovakia. Elsewhere, small Sokil groups existed in Zagreb, Riga, Harbin, Bucharest, Brazil, Paris, and Shanghai. A Sokil society was set up in Buenos Aires in 1931, and several smaller branches were organized in Argentina. In the United States, a small Sokil society was founded in New York in 1913. Unlike Sich, however, the Sokil movement did not take root in North America. E. Zharsky

Sokilka sheep (sokilska poroda ovets). A breed of sheep developed in Ukraine in the village of Sokilka (now in Kobeliaky raion, Poltava oblast) during the 19th century from local sheep and Karakuls imported from the Crimea, selecting for high-quality pelts. These sturdy animals have high-quality pelts, strong bodies, and coarse wool and are highly productive (115-120 lambs per 100 ewes). They are raised principally for lamb pelts, the fine fur of which is usually a gray with a distinctly steel bluish tint. The sheep are now also raised on various farms in Dnipropetrovske oblast (see *Sheep farming). Sokil's'ki visty (Sokil News). Monthly organ of the Galician *Sokil society published in Lviv in 1928-39. It contained articles on physical education, sports, and recreation. The editors of the journal included S. Koretsky, S. Haiduchok, and I. Mryts. In 1930 it had a pressrun of 1,000.

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Ivan Sokoliansky

Sokoliansky, Ivan [Sokoljans'kyj], b 6 April 1889 in Dinska stanytsia, Katerynodar division, Kuban oblast, d 27 November 1960 in Moscow. Specialist in vision and hearing impairment. He worked at the school for deaf-mutes in Oleksandrivske before completing his studies at the St Petersburg Psychoneurological Institute (1913). He taught at the Kiev (1920-3) and Kharkiv (1923-6) institutes of People's Education. In 1925 he organized a school-clinic for deaf and blind mutes and was one of the founders of the Scientific Research Institute of Pedagogy, which he directed from 1926 to 1929. Then he was director of the Scientific Research Institute of Defectology of the Ukrainian SSR. Arrested in 1934, he was soon exonerated and given a position at the Institute of Defectology in Moscow. He introduced a new method of teaching blind and deaf mutes and invented various devices for deaf and blind people. Sokolov, Borys, b 12 September 1897in Kharkiv, d i September 1984 in Dnipropetrovske. Agronomist and selection scientist; member of the All-Union Academy of Agricultural Sciences from 1956. A graduate of the Kharkiv Agricultural Institute (1923), he worked for the Dnipropetrovske Selection and Research Station (192430), where he organized the first maize selection laboratory in the USSR, and the Ukrainian Scientific Research Institute of Seed Cultivation (from 1956 the All-Union Scientific Research Institute of Corn). He demonstrated the effectiveness of heterosis in Soviet selection practices and developed 18 hybrid and 4 new sorts of corn. Sokolov, Ivan, b 10 June 1823 in Astrakhan, Russia, d 12 November 1910 in Kharkiv. Russian painter. After graduating from the St Petersburg Academy of Arts (1855) he was elected a member (1857) and appointed a professor (1864) there. He visited Ukraine often, and in 1860 he settled in Kharkiv, where he was elected vice-president of the Kharkiv Society of Friends of the Fine Arts. He was acquainted with T. Shevchenko, who did an etching based on Sokolov's friends (1858). Sokolov painted many Ukrainian genre scenes and portraits of Ukrainian peasants. They include Kobzar (1857), from the Market (1859), Girls Telling Fortunes on St John's Eve (1859), Seeing Off the Recruits (1860), Ukrainian Woman (1860), and Morning after a Wedding in Little Russia. L. Zhemchuzhnikov made 17 etchings of Sokolov's paintings for the album *Zhivopisnaia Ukraina (Picturesque Ukraine). P. Hovdia's book on Sokolov was published in 1980.

Ivan Sokolov: Girls Telling Fortunes on St John's Eve (oil, 1859)

Sokolov, Teodosii, b 23 January 1870 in Kahul, Bessarabia gubernia, d 1941 in Kiev. Gynecologist and obstetrician. A graduate of Kiev University (1897), ne worked at the university, the Kiev Bacteriological Institute, and the Kiev Medical Institute (professor from 1921). His publications dealt with severe blood loss in women, septic abortions, and myomas. He was one of the early organizers of the system of maternity and childhood care in Ukraine. Sokolov, Viktor, b 17 April 1919 in Taburyshche, Oleksandriia county, Kherson gubernia. Writer. A former steelworker, he headed the Donetske branch of the Writers' Union of Ukraine (1958-66) and later was chief editor of the literary journal Donbas. Since 1949 he has published 19 books of poetry (most recently Chekannia [The Wait, 1984]), the novels in verse Na berehakh Ishymu (On the Banks of the Ishim, 1956) and Moie sertse v Donbasi (I Left My Heart in the Donbas, 1960), and the documentary novels Volodia (1967) and Sertse syVnishe vohniu (The Heart Is Stronger Than Fire, 1973).

Yurii Sokolov (1889-1941)

Sokolov, Yurii, b 20 April 1889 in Nizhen, Chernihiv gubernia, d 15 January 1941 in Kiev. Folklorist and literary scholar; from 1939 full member of the AN URSR (now ANU). After graduating from Moscow University (1911) he worked as a teacher and collected Russian and, later,

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Ukrainian folklore. With his brother, Borys, he founded the journal Khudozhestvennyi fol'klor (1922) and published the anthology Poeziia derevni (The Poetry of the Village, 1926). He helped uproot 'bourgeois7 approaches to folklore and encouraged the growth of 'Soviet folklore7 based on the principles of class consciousness and socialist realism. In 1939 he was appointed director of the ANU Institute of Ukrainian Folklore in Kiev and ordered to rid Ukrainian folklore of 'bourgeois nationalism.7 At his initiative a folk creativity section was founded at the Writers7 Union of Ukraine. He published over 150 works, including the textbook Russkii fol'klor (Russian Folklore, 1938).

Yurii Sokolov (1896-1971)

profession, she joined a partisan military force led by her brothers Omelko and Dmytro in March. After their death in June, she assumed leadership of the 300 cavalry and 700 infantry troops. In August her force was associated with the First Corps of the Ukrainian Galician Army. It was defeated and interned in September by a Hungarian regiment of the 58th Soviet Division, and the injured Sokolovska was captured and tortured to death. Sokolovsky, Oleksander [Sokolovs'kyj], b 8 September 1895 in Konotip, Chernihiv gubernia, d 29 August 1938. Writer. In 1914 he began his studies at the law faculty of Kiev University, but he was arrested in 1915 for circulating antiwar declarations and sentenced to six years of hard labor. After the February Revolution of 1917 he returned to Ukraine. Sokolovsky7s first novel, which was immensely popular, was 'Narodovol'tsi7 (Members of Narodnaia Volia), printed in 1925 in the periodical Zhyttia i revoliutsiia. The next-published novels were Pershi khorobri (The First Brave Ones, 1928), Bohun (1931), Nova zbroia (The New Weapon, 1932), Rokovani na smert' (Destined for Death, 1933), and Buntari (The Rebels, 1934). Sokolovsky was arrested in 1937 and shot. He was rehabilitated in the 19505. His novels Buntari and Rokovani na smert' were republished posthumously in 1960. The historical novel Bohun was republished in 1957 in Munich and in 1964 in Kiev, and a two-volume collection of Sokolovsky7s works was published in 1971.

Oleksander Sokolovsky

Sokolov, Yurii, b 26 May 1896 in Labinska stanytsia in the Kuban, d 2 February 1971 in Kiev. Mathematician and mechanician; corresponding member of the AN URSR (now ANU) from 1939. After graduating from the Kiev Institute of People's Education (1921) he worked in the Division of Applied Mathematics of the YUAN and then at the ANU Institute of Mathematics (1934-71). He also taught at various institutions of higher learning in Kiev. Sokolov made significant contributions to celestial mechanics, hydromechanics, differential equations, and the theory of filtration. He is especially known for his work on the n-body problem and for practical solutions to various problems in the filtration of groundwater. He introduced and rigorously studied a new and effective method for the approximate solution of differential and integral equations, known as the averaging method with functional corrections or the Sokolov method. As shown by Sokolov, the method was useful in various applications to physical sciences. Sokolovska, Kateryna [Sokolovs'ka], b 1840 in Paskivka, Vovchanske county, Kharkiv gubernia, d 24 October 1883. Poet. In the i86os, while working as a teacher in Husynka, near Kupianka, she began writing poetry and plays. An epigone of T. Shevchenko, she published a collection of poetry about peasant life, Zirka (The Star, 1871). An edition of her poems was published in Kharkiv in 1931. Sokolovska, Mariia [Sokolovs'ka, Marija] (Marusia), b 1894 in Radomyshl county, Kiev gubernia, d 1919 (some sources cite 20 November 1921), near Bazar. Military figure in the anti-Bolshevik uprising of 1919. A teacher by

Oleksii Sokolovsky

Sokolovsky, Oleksii [Sokolovs'kyj, Oleksij], b 13 March 1884 in Velyka Burimka, Zolotonosha county, Poltava gubernia, d 25 April 1959 in Kharkiv. Agronomist and soil scientist; full member of the YUAN and AN URSR (now ANU) from 1929, the All-Ukrainian Academy of Agricultural Sciences from 1926, the All-Union Academy of Agricultural Sciences from 1935, and the Ukrainian Academy of Agricultural Sciences from 1956. He graduated from Kiev University (1908) and the Moscow Agricultural Institute (1910) and worked in the laboratories of the soil scientists D. Prianishnikov and V. Viliams. In 1924 he was appointed a professor, and in 1944 director, of the Kharkiv Agricultural Institute. He was the first president of the All-Ukrainian Academy of Agricultural Sciences. In the mid-19305 he was arrested, and spent several years in prison camps. From 1945 he headed the Laboratory of Soil Science at the ANU and then the Ukrainian Scientific Research Institute of Soil Science and Agrochemistry (1956-

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9), into which the laboratory was reorganized. Sokolovsky introduced a new approach in soil colloids research, made important contributions to the theory of the soil's colloidal complex, and proposed a genetic system of soil classification. He discovered new colloidal soil technology and developed a chemical method of improving saline soils and an alkalinization method of dealing with water filtration in irrigation canals. In his numerous publications he dealt with the physical and chemical properties of soil, the effect of cation exchange on the mechanical and hydroscopic properties of the soil, the melioration of podzolic and saline soils, and the role of calcium in the fixation of mineral colloids and humus in the soil. He wrote a textbook on soil science, Kurs sil's'kohospodars'koho hruntoznavstva (A Course in Agricultural Soil Science, 1951), which appeared in Ukrainian and Russian and was reprinted several times. An edition of his selected works came out in 1971.

Yevhen Sokovych

Sokolovsky, Volodymyr [Sokolovs'kyj], b 1916 in Nymburk, Bohemia. Veterinary surgeon; full member of the Shevchenko Scientific Society from 1954. After completing his education in Berlin (1943) and Vienna (DVM, 1945) he worked in Bavaria. He emigrated to the United States in 1951 and settled in Chicago. He published scientific papers on small-animal surgery and artificial insemination and was a coauthor of the handbook Management of Trauma in Dogs and Cats (1981).

Sokovych, Yevhen [Sokovyc, Jevhen], b 1864, d 1946 in Potsdam, Germany. Civil engineer and politician. He served as minister of communications in the UNR Council of National Ministers headed by V. Holubovych (JanuaryApril 1918) and later as Ukrainian consul in Lausanne, Switzerland. He was a specialist in highway construction, and from 1922 he taught at the Ukrainian Husbandry Academy in Podëbrady, Czechoslovakia, where he prepared textbooks on geometry (1922) and melioration (1925).

Sokolovsky, Yurii [Sokolovs'kyj, Jurij], b ? in Poltava, d 1922 in Belgrade, Serbia. Zemstvo activist and political leader. He directed the agronomy department of the Poltava gubernia zemstvo and was one of the founders of an association that helped peasants to resettle in Siberia. He was also a member of the Russian Constitutional Democratic party. Under the Hetmán government of 1918 he served as minister of food supplies in F. Lyzohub's first cabinet. At the end of 1918 the UNR Directory sent him, along with V. Prokopovych and K. Matsiievych, on a diplomatic mission to Rumania and Serbia. He remained in Belgrade as an émigré.

Sokulsky, Ivan [Sokul's'kyj], b 7 July 1940 in Dnipropetrovske oblast, d 22 June 1992 in Dnipropetrovske. Poet, journalist, and dissident. He was expelled from Dnipropetrovske University, and worked as a journalist. In June 1969 he was arrested for composing a letter from 'the creative youth of Dnipropetrovske' protesting the suppression of Ukrainian culture. After serving over four years in a Mordovian labor camp and in the Vladimir prison he returned to Ukraine. In October 1979 he joined the Ukrainian Helsinki Group. He was arrested in April 1980 and sentenced in January 1981 to 10 years in prison and 3 years of exile for 'anti-Soviet agitation and propaganda/ He was released in 1988. His poems were published in the underground Ukraïns'kyi visnyk (nos 1-2,1971).

Sokolowski, Marian, b 1839 in Czyzew Lomzynski, Poland, d 25 March 1911 in Cracow. Polish art historian; full member of the Polish Academy of Sciences. A professor at Cracow University from 1882, he wrote a book on archeological study in Galician Ruthenia (1883) and books on 'Ruthenian' painting (1885), Byzantine and Rus' medieval culture (1888), and church art (1889). Sokolyshyn, Oleksander [Sokolysyn] (Sokolyszyn, Alexander), b 8 September 1914 in Chernivtsi, Bukovyna. Librarian; member of the Shevchenko Scientific Society. After graduating in law from Chernivtsi (1938) and Lviv (1941) universities he obtained a doctorate in political science from Innsbruck University (1947) and an MLS from Columbia University (1958). He emigrated to the United States in 1955 and worked in the United Nations library and the New York and Brooklyn public libraries as well as the law library at Yale University. He compiled Ukrainian Selected and Classified Bibliography in English (1972) and Ukrainians in Canada and the United States: A Guide to Information Sources (1981).

Ivan Sokulsky

Sokyriany [Sokyrjany]. v-8. A city (1989 pop 11,700) on the Sokyrianka River and a raion center in Chernivtsi oblast. It was first mentioned in historical documents in 1666, as Sekuriany. At that time it belonged to the Moldavian principality. It was annexed by Russia in 1812, occupied by Rumania in 1918-40, and then incorporated into the Ukrainian SSR. In 1966 it was granted city status. Sokyriany is an administrative and agricultural center. Its industry includes a beverage and a cheese factory and a stone quarry. Sokyrko, Volodymyr, b 14 January 1892 in Bilohorodka, Iziaslav county, Volhynia gubernia, d 14 October 1983 in Chernivtsi. Stage and film actor. He began his theatrical career in the Odessa Theater of Miniatures (1910) and in D. Haidamaka's troupe, and then was an actor in the Franko New Drama Theater (1921-31), the Kharkiv Theater of the Revolution (1931-41), the Kharkiv Ukrainian Drama Theater (1941-3), and the Chernivtsi Oblast Ukrainian Music and Drama Theater (1944-76). He played Ivonika in O. Kobylianska's Zemlia (The Land) and the title role in W.

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Shakespeare's Othello and acted in the films Mirabeau (1930) and Nad Cheremoshem (On the Banks of the Cheremosh River, 1956).

The palace of the Galagan family in Sokyryntsi (architect Pavlo Dubrovsky, 1829)

Sokyryntsi [Sokyrynci]. A village (1976 pop 2,000) in Sribne raion, Chernihiv oblast. It was first mentioned in the chronicles under the year 1092. As the estate of the Galagan family the locality was developed into a cultural center. A dendrological park was set up in 1763 and redesigned as a landscape park in 1825-35, a vertep puppet theater was established in 1781, and a palace was built by the architect P. Dubrovsky in 1829. The kobzar O. *Veresai lived in Sokyryntsi in the 19th century. One of the first cooperatives in Ukraine, an agricultural credit union, was organized in Sokyryntsi by Hryhorii *Galagan in 1871. Today the Galagan palace and park are used by an agricultural tekhnikum. Solchanyk, Roman [Sol'canyk], b 24 September 1944 in Uzhok, Transcarpathia. Historian and political analyst. He graduated from Rutgers University and the University of Michigan (PH D, 1973), and wrote his PH D dissertation on the Communist Party of Western Ukraine. He taught Eastern European, Russian, and Soviet history at Michigan (1972-3) and Rutgers (1973-5) universities. Since 1977 he has been a research analyst specializing in Ukraine and nationality issues at Radio Liberty in Munich, and in 1988 he became director of program research and development there. His articles have appeared in Radio Liberty Research, The Ukrainian Weekly, and British and North American scholarly journals and collections. He compiled and edited, with T. Hunczak, a collection of documents and materials pertaining to 20th-century Ukrainian socio-political thought (3 vols, 1983). Solenyk, Karpo, b 26 May 1811 in Lepel, Vitsebsk gubernia, Belarus, d 19 October 1851 in Kharkiv. Actor and one of the pioneers of Ukrainian professional theater. He studied at Vilnius University (1829-31) and first appeared on stage in 1832 as part of I. Shtein's troupe in Kharkiv. He worked with L. Mlotkovsky's troupe (1833-42) in Kursk, Kiev, and Kharkiv and then continued acting in Kharkiv, from which he toured extensively as a guest actor

throughout Russian-ruled Ukraine. He twice refused an invitation to join the Imperial Theater in St Petersburg. Solenyk's creative mastery was most evident in comic roles from the Ukrainian repertoire, including I. Kotliarevsky's Natalka Poltavka (Natalka from Poltava) and Moskal'-charivnyk (The Muscovite-Sorcerer), H. Kvitka-Osnovianenko's Svatannia na Honcharivtsi (Matchmaking at Honcharivka) and Shel'menko-denshchyk (Shelmenko the Orderly), V. Dmytrenko's Kum-miroshnyk (The GodfatherMiller), and Vechir na khutori (Evening on a Khutir), based on N. Gogol. He also played over 60 roles (in Russian) from works by Gogol, W. Shakespeare, Molière, F. von Schiller, and D. Lensky. Biographies of Solenyk have been written by O. Kysil (1928), M. Dibrovenko (1951) and A. Hrim (1963). Solianych, Dmytro [Soljanyc], b 1876 in Ustia, Sniatyn county, Galicia, d 1941 in Edmonton. Early Ukrainian-Canadian writer and community figure. As a young man he organized village reading houses and branches of the Sich society in Pokutia. After emigrating to Alberta in 1903, he contributed stories about Pokutian peasant and immigrant life to the Ukrainian press in Canada and the United States. A collection, Khto vynuvatyi ta inshi opovidannia (Who Is to Blame and Other Stories), was published in Edmonton in 1932. Solianyi route (Solianyi shliakh). The overland trade route (mentioned in an 1170 chronicle) by which salt was transported from the Crimea to Kievan Rus'. It began along the left bank of the Dnieper River in the region of Kiev. Near the mouth of the Vorskla River it was met by branches from Pereiaslav and Romen. There the route crossed to the right bank of the Dnieper River and continued southward, avoiding the elbow in the Dnieper and crossing again to the left bank near the mouth of the Konka River, at Kamianka Crossing. From there (near presentday Kakhivka) the route turned toward Perekop and continued farther on to the Crimea, Chersonese Táurica, Sudak, and Teodosiia. The Solianyi route was the most common but not the only route used to transport salt from the Black Sea estuaries to Kievan Rus'. Salt was also brought to Rus' from Kalush and Stryi, in Galicia. Solntsev, Volodymyr [Solncev], b 23 July 1892 in Kiev, d 1973 in Germany. Internal medicine specialist. A graduate of Kiev University (1917), he worked at the internal medicine clinic of the Kiev Medical Institute (docent from 1928, professor from 1937). In 1939 he became chairman of functional diagnostics at the Ukrainian Institute of Clinical Medicine. In 1943 he settled in Germany. His publications, dealing with internal medicine, balneology, and geriatrics, appeared in Ukrainian, Russian, German, and English. Solntseva, Yuliia [Solnceva, Julija], b 7 August 1901 in Moscow, d 29 October 1989 in Moscow. Film director, actress, and producer; wife of O. *Dovzhenko. Using Dovzhenko's scripts she produced the films Poema pro more (A Poem about the Sea, 1958), Povist' polum'ianykh lit (A Chronicle of Flaming Years, 1961), and Zacharovana Desna (The Enchanted Desna [River], 1965), as well as Nezabutnie (The Unforgettable, 1968) and Zoloti vorota (The Golden Gate, 1969), about Dovzhenko. She also edited a five-volume collection of his works (1983-5).

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Moniuszko's Halka. In 1906-14 she performed in Poznan and Milan, notably in the name-parts in G. Puccini's Madame Butterfly and G. Verdi's Aida and La Traviata. She was also well known as a chamber singer in Lviv, Vienna, and a number of Italian cities, where she performed songs by M. Lysenko, A. Vakhnianyn, and O. Nyzhankivsky; folk songs; and operatic arias. She retired from the stage in 1923.

Excavation of the Solokha kurhan

Andrii Solohub at his easel (Paris, 1981)

Solohub, Andrii, b 8 December 1922 in Konotip, Chernihiv gubernia. Sculptor and painter. A postwar émigré, he studied sculpting in Salzburg (1947-9) under F. Yemets and painting at the Ecole nationale des beaux arts in Paris. He has created busts (eg, of S. Petliura) and small sculptures and has painted modernist portraits (SelfPortrait, Daría Siiak, Emma Andiievska, Irena Zhukovska, Oksana and Danylo Struk), still lifes (Still Life with Violin), and landscapes (Toledo, Paris, Istanbul, Venice) and the iconostasis of St Simon's Ukrainian Orthodox Church in Paris (1973). Recently he has devoted himself to landscape aquarelles of Venice, southern France, and Paris. An album of his drawings was published in 1974. Solohub, Vasyl, b 8 September 1928 near Priadivka, now is Tsarychanka raion, Dnipropetrovske oblast. Writer. He has written the poetry collections Students'ki lita (Student Years, 1957) and Trudne shchastia (Hard Luck, 1 959); the children's poetry book la vzhe pidris (I've Already Grown Up, 1960); the prose collections Stezhka vyvodyt ' na shliakh (The Path Leads Out to the Road, 1958), U kraplyni vidbylosia sontse (In a Droplet the Sun Was Reflected, 1960), Vohniana spadshchyna (A Fiery Legacy, 1962), Polynove prychastia (Wormwood Communion, 1972), and Osviachennia liubov'iu (Sanctification by Love, 1978); and the novels Chesnist' (Integrity, 1967) and Sotvory sebe (Create Yourself, 1980). Solohub-Bocconi, Iryna, b May 1885 in Neslykhiv, Kamianka Strumylova county, Galicia, d 1972 in Milan. Opera singer (soprano). A graduate of the Lviv Conservatory (1905; pupil of C. Zaremba and O. Myshuha), she made her debut in the Lviv Opera Theater in the name-part in S.

Solokha kurhan. A Royal Scythian burial mound of the late 5th to early 4th century BC near Velyka Znamianka, now in Kamianka-Dniprovska raion, Zaporizhia oblast. Excavations by N. *Veselovsky in 1912-13 uncovered two burial vaults - a looted central chamber and an intact side chamber, under an 18 m mound. Among the items recovered in the course of excavations were the remains of five horses and their handler, a masterfully executed gold comb with figures of warring Scythians, a Greek helmet, a bronze mace, and domestic items. Solokha was one of the richest of the Royal Scythian kurhans found in Ukraine; the collection is housed in the Hermitage in St Petersburg. Solomarsky, Oleksandr [Solomars'kyj], b 12 July 1897 in Yeiske, Kuban gubernia, d 12 June 1980 in Kiev. Stage director, actor, pedagogue, and public figure. He began his theatrical career in Kiev (1922) and in 1924 organized (with I. Deieva) the *Kiev Young Spectator's Theater, where he worked as actor and director until 1931. He led the Odessa Russian Drama Theater (1944-53) and, again, the Kiev Young Spectator's Theater (1953-61) and taught at the Kiev Institute of Theater Arts (1954-78). Solomon, John, b 24 May 1910 in Zoria, Manitoba, d 25 June 1985 in Winnipeg. Judge, politician, and community leader. After graduating from the University of Manitoba (LLB, 1934) Solomon practiced law. He was elected to the Manitoba legislature as a Liberal-Progressive for Emerson constituency (1941-57) and served as deputy speaker (1953-7). He was appointed county court judge for Winnipeg in 1957 and a member of the Manitoba Court of Queen's Bench in 1970. He was president of the *Ukrainian Self-Reliance League (1941-9), president of the board of directors of St Andrew's College in Winnipeg (1957-85), and a longtime member of the consistory of the Ukrainian Orthodox Church of Canada.

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Dreams/ and 'Ukrainian Folk Songs and Tales' - filled with elements of the fantastic and grotesque (eg, Old Woman and Dog [1982], Hey, Hryts [1983], and Rendezvous in the Steppe [1984]). Solomukha's more recent works are painted in a neoexpressionist manner and make use of signs and symbols as part of an overall painterly surface (eg, Homage to My Chair [1986] and Snail Climbing to Heaven [1986]). He has had numerous solo exhibitions, including Chicago (1990), New York (1991), and annual ones in Paris and Kôln. D. Zelska-Darewych

John Solomon

Solomonik, Ella, b 11 June 1917 in Ekaterinburg, Perm gubernia. Historian. A graduate of Leningrad University (1941), she taught history in high schools and pedagogical institutes in 1941-5. From 1948 she worked in the archeological department of the Crimean branch of the USSR Academy of Sciences (now the Academy of Sciences of Ukraine Institute of Archeology). Among her scholarly works are Sarmatskie znaki Severnogo Prichernomor'ia (Sarmatian Inscriptions of the Northern Black Sea Coast, 1 959)/ Novye epigraficheskie pamiatniki Khersonesa (New Epigraphic Monuments of Chersonesus, 1964), and Graffiti s khory Khersonesa (Graffiti from the Gallery of Chersonesus, 1984).

Solona River. A right-bank tributary of the Vovcha River. It flows for 81 km through Donetske and Dnipropetrovske oblasts and drains a basin area of 946 sq km. The river is used, in parts, for irrigation. Its upper course dries out in the summer. Solonchak soils. See Soil classification. Solone. ¥-15. A town smt (1986 pop 6,400) and raion center in Dnipropetrovske oblast. It was founded at the beginning of the i8th century and named Engelhardtivka after its founder and owner. After being sold to another landowner in the 17805, the village was renamed Solonenke. At the end of the 19th century it had just under 1,800 inhabitants and was known as Solone. In 1960 it attained smt status. Its economy rests on agriculture and food processing. Solonetz soils. See Soil classification. Solonyna, Kostiantyn, b ?, d 1696. Colonel of Kiev regiment in 1669-78 and 1687-8. He was Hetmán I. Mnohohrishny's emissary to Muscovy and his representative at a 1671 conference of Polish and Russian deputies in Myhnovychi. In 1672 he was a candidate for hetmán, and in 1676 he represented Hetmán I. Samoilovych in Moscow. He lost his office because of his opposition to Hetmán I. Mazepa. His nephew, Serhii (b ca 1660, d 1737), became the first in a line of Solonyna captains of Oster company in Kiev regiment (1709-76).

Anton Solomukha in his Paris studio

Solomukha, Anton [Solomuxa], b 2 November 1945 in Kiev. Painter. A graduate of the Kiev State Art Institute (1975), he worked as a muralist. He was allowed to emigrate to France in 1978, after which he participated in exhibitions of Ukrainian nonconformist art held in Munich, London, and New York in 1979 and in a group exhibition (together with V. Makarenko, V. Sazonov, and V. Strelnikov) in Toronto, Winnipeg, Chicago, Detroit, Cleveland, and New York in 1982-3. A versatile artist, in the 19705 he created surrealist compositions, such as Ukrainian Folk Songs No. 3, and experimented with abstraction, in which style he painted intricate compositions of interlocking shapes, such as Symphony (1979) and Conversation (1979). Solomukha has been inspired by his Ukrainian heritage to create series of works - 'Forgotten Ancestors/ 'Cossack

Solonynka, Mariia, b 7 January 1909 in Birky Velyki, Ternopil county, Galicia, d 26 February 1982 in Toronto. Community figure; wife of V. Solonynka. A Maslosoiuz employee, she was jailed by the Polish authorities in 1937 for her membership in the OUN. In 1948 she arrived in Canada, where she headed the Women's Association of the Canadian League for Ukraine's Liberation in 1952-75 and edited the women's section of Homin Ukraïny for many years. Solonynka, Vasyl, b 20 October 1912 in Dovzhanka, Ternopil county, Galicia, d 25 September 1990 in Toronto. Journalist and political figure. He was arrested in 1933 by the Polish authorities for his involvement in the OUN and sentenced in 1934 to eight years' imprisonment. After his release in May 1939, he joined an OUN (Bandera faction) expeditionary group. From July 1941 to May 1943 he was imprisoned in Lviv by the Gestapo. A postwar refugee in Austria, he emigrated to Canada in 1948. There he was a leading member of the ""Canadian League for Ukraine's Liberation, served as editor in chief (1954-78) of its paper,

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ceded to Czechoslovakia in 1920, and was reoccupied by Hungary in 1939. Since 1945 it has been part of Ukraine. In 1947 it was promoted to smt status. Its main industry is salt mining. Two abandoned shafts have been converted into allergy hospitals.

Vasyl Solonynka

*Homin Ukraïny, headed the Ukrainian Journalists' Association of Canada (1970-2), and was a member of the executive of the Ethnic Press Club. Solonytsia, Battle of. The culmination of the uprising led by S. *Nalyvaiko and H. *Loboda in 1594-6. After losing a battle near the landmark Hostryi Kamin, the rebels retreated to Left-Bank Ukraine with their families (altogether nearly 10,000 refugees) and made camp at Solonytsia, near Lubni. Polish forces, led by Crown Hetmán S. Zólkiewski, began a siege of the encampment on 26 May 1596. In secret negotiations with Loboda the Poles promised amnesty for the registered Cossacks. That offer prompted an armed conflict among the Cossacks, in which Loboda was killed. As the Poles prepared for their decisive attack, the registered Cossacks seized Nalyvaiko and the other rebel leaders and turned them over to Zólkiewski (7 June 1596). The Poles attacked anyway and slaughtered everyone in the camp, including the women and children. Only a small contingent of Cossacks broke through and escaped to the Zaporozhian Sich.

One of the Solotvyna rock salt mines

Solotvyna rock salt deposits. Large salt reserves located in Tiachiv raion, Transcarpathia oblast. The salt is of a high quality. The deposit, which is 1,800 m long and 400760 m wide, has been known since the 8th century. Industrial mining began at the end of the i8th century, and by the 2Oth century eight mines had been opened, and seven of them exhausted. In 1982 two underground mines were active. The salt is processed locally for domestic use and for use as feed. In 1981 total recoverable reserves were estimated at 222 million t. In 1970 the deposit yielded 451,000 t. In 1960 the 326,000 t mined there accounted for 10 percent of all Soviet salt production.

Solonytsivka [Solonycivka]. 17-17. A town smt (1986 pop 11,000) on the Udy River in Derhachi raion, Kharkiv oblast. It was founded in the 17th century. It attained smt status in 1938. The town has a furniture and a silicate brick factory. It is the home of a juvenile labor colony. Solotvyn or Solotvyna. 7-5. A town smt (1986 pop 4,100) on the Bystrytsia Solotvynska River in Bohorodchany raion, Ivano-Frankivske oblast. It was first mentioned, as Krasnopol, in the 12th-century Halych Chronicle, and it has been known as Solotvyn since the second half of the loth century. It came under Polish rule in the second half of the 14th century. By the mid-i8th century it was an important center for the manufacture and sale of salt, honey, leather, and lumber. At that time its inhabitants participated in the opryshok movement. After the partition of Poland in 1772, Solotvyn was annexed by Austria, and in 1918 it fell under Polish rule. In 1939 it was incorporated into the Ukrainian SSR. Today it manufactures forest products and has a regional museum. Solotvyna. vi-4. A town smt (1986 pop 9,200) on the Tysa River in Tiachiv raion, Transcarpathia oblast. It was first mentioned in 14th-century sources and has been known as Aknaslatyna, Maramoroska Solotvyna, and Slatynski Doly. The town was under Hungarian rule until 1919, was

Dmytro Solovei

Solovei, Dmytro [Solovej], b 4 November 1888 in Sribne, Pryluka county, Poltava gubernia, d 9 July 1966 in St Paul, Minnesota. Historian, statistician, pedagogue, and publicist; member of the Ukrainian Academy of Arts and Sciences in the US. He entered Kharkiv University in 1910, but was suspended in 1914 for organizing a commemoration of T. Shevchenko and then exiled to Poltava. In 1920 he was arrested by Soviet security forces and sentenced to death. His sentence was commuted, and he was

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allowed to move to Kharkiv to work as a statistician for a government bulletin. In 1926 he undertook graduate studies at the Scientific Research Chair of Ukrainian Culture and established himself there as a research associate. In 1943 he moved to Lviv; subsequently he emigrated to the West. He eventually settled in the United States. Many of Solovei's writings dealt with political issues after the Second World War, and he served as an associate of the Institute for the Study of the USSR. His works include Holhota Ukraïny (The Golgotha of Ukraine, 1953), Ukraïns'ke selo v rokakh 1931-1933 (The Ukrainian Village in 1931-3, 1955)/ Ukraïna v systemi soviets'koho koloniializmu (Ukraine in the Soviet Colonial System, 1959), Holod u systemi koloniial 'noho panuvannia v Ukra'mi (Famine in the System of Colonial Domination in Ukraine, 1959-60), Polityka TsK KPRS u plianuvanni rozvytku promyslovosty ta promyslovykh kadriv na Ukra'ini (The Policies of the cc of the CPSU for Developing Industry and Industrial Cadres in Ukraine, 1960), Ukraïns'ka nauka v koloniial'nykh putakh (Ukrainian Scholarship in Colonial Chains, 1963), and Rozhrom Poltavy (The Destruction of Poltava, 1974). A. Zhukovsky Solovei, Oksana (Solovej), b 2 July 1919 in Poltava. Translator and journalist; member of the Ukrainian Academy of Arts and Sciences in the US; daughter of D. Solovei. A postwar refugee in Germany and Minneapolis, she has contributed literary and cultural articles and reviews and Ukrainian translations of English, French, German, and Russian literature to periodicals such as Suchasnist', Moloda Ukraïna, and Ukrains 'ki visti. Published separately have been her translations of H.W. Longfellow's Song of Hiawatha (1965), A. Camus's Les justes (1968), Vercors's Le silence de la mer (1970), V. Shalamov's Kolyma Tales (1972), and J. Cocteau's La voix humaine (1974). Solovets Islands. A penal colony in the White Sea, Arkhangelsk oblast, Russia. With an area of 347 sq km, the islands are largely covered with forest and many lakes and swamps. The climate is cold and damp. In the 14205 and 14305 monks settled on the islands; they had become a major outpost of Russian monastic life in the far north by the end of the loth century. A strategic frontier fortress was built there. Until 1903 the islands were used by the tsars as a prison or place of banishment for political and religious offenders, but there were seldom more than a few dozen prisoners at one time. Among them were Ukrainians: some confederates of V. *Kochubei and I. *Iskra, who had denounced Hetmán I. Mazepa to the tsar, and who were interned there in 1708-12; some of Mazepa's supporters after 1709, including the general osaul D. *Maksymovych and the colonel Y. Pokotylo of the serdiuk regiment; the archimandrite H. *Odorsky and the protopriest (of Lokhvytsia) I. *Rohachevsky, in 1712; P. *Kalnyshevsky, the last Kish otaman of the New Sich, in 1776-1801; and Yu. *Andruzky, a member of the Cyril and Methodius Brotherhood, in 1850-4. Most of the monks evacuated the islands after the Russian Revolution, and in 1923 the Bolsheviks established the Solovets Special Purpose Camp there, modeled on prisoner-of-war camps. Later it became part of the Northern Special Purpose camp complex, and still later, Section Eight of the White Sea-Baltic camp complex. In 1937 the camp in the Solovets Islands was renamed the Solovets

Special Purpose Prison of the Main Administration of State Security of the USSR. For most of the 19205 the regime in the camp was relatively mild, and the number of prisoners relatively small. With the onset of the Stalinist terror, however, the Solovets Islands were packed with prisoners living in severe conditions, subjected to cold, hunger, punishment cells, and beatings. In 1931-3 many prisoners were sent to work on the *White Sea Canal. Late in 1938 the prisoners were evacuated from the Solovets Islands to other camps, and the islands became a naval base. Ukrainians in the camp in the mid-i92os were primarily Petliurists, anti-Bolshevik insurgents, and clergymen. During dekulakization and ^collectivization in 1928-33 masses of Ukrainian peasants were exiled to the islands; among them were 325 peasants arrested for cannibalism during the man-made *famine of 1932-3. Arrests in the early 19305, following the trial of the *Union for the Liberation of Ukraine, brought much of the non-Communist Ukrainian intellectual elite to the camp, as well as thousands of activists of the "Ukrainian Autocephalous Orthodox church. In 1933 Ukrainian Communists also began to fill the camps. Among prominent Ukrainians who were interned in the Solovets Islands were the physician and political activist A. Barbar; the Communist poet V. Bobynsky; V. Chekhivsky, leader of the Ukrainian Social Democratic Workers' party and later of the Ukrainian Autocephalous Orthodox church; the writer and critic H. Epik; the poet P. Fylypovych; the historian Y. Hermaize; the writer and Communist activist M. Irchan; the Socialist Revolutionary P. Khrystiuk; the Futurist poet H. Koliada; L. Kurbas, the director of the Berezil theater; the writer and political figure A. Krushelnytsky; the playwright M. Kulish; the writer M. Liubchenko; the writer V. Mysyk; the literary historian M. Novytsky; M. Pavlushkov (arrested as head of the Association of Ukrainian Youth); S. Pidhainy, who later did much to document the history of the Solovets camps; the writers V. Pidmohylny, Ye. Pluzhnyk, and K. Polishchuk; M. Poloz, former commissar of finances of Soviet Ukraine; the geographer S. Rudnytsky; the writer M. Semenko a leading exponent of futurism; S. Semko former rector of the Kiev Institute of People's Education; the literary historian Ye. Shabliovsky; the writer G. Shkurupii; O. Shumsky, whose name became synonymous with Ukrainian national communism; the historian M. Slabchenko; the writer O. Slisarenko; the prominent CP(B)U activist P. Solodub; the hygienist V. Udovenko; the poet and journalist M. Vorony; the writer V. Vrazhlyvy; the Marxist historian M. Yavorsky; the memoirist V. Yurchenko; and the Neoclassicist poet and critic M. Zerov. From 1924 until 1930 (perhaps longer) the Solovets camp had its own journal, Solovetskie ostrova. After conditions in the Solovets camp became known in the West, the Soviets released a propaganda film, Solovki, which mendaciously depicted life in the prison camp. BIBLIOGRAPHY

Efimenko, P. 'Ssyl'nye malorossiiane v Arkhangel'skoi gubernii

1708-1802 g./ KS, 1882, no. 9 Kol'chin, M. SsyVnye i zatochennye v ostrog Solovetskogo monastyria v xvi-xix vv: Istoricheskii ocherk (Moscow 1908) Chykalenko, L. (ed). Solovets'ka katorha (dokumenty) (Warsaw 1931)

SOLOVII Pidhainy, S. Ukraïns'ka inteligentsiia na Solovkakh: Spohady 19331941 (Neu-Ulm 1947)

- Islands of Death (Toronto 1953) - 'Solowky Concentration Camp' and 'Portraits of Solowky Exiles/ in Black Deeds of the Kremlin: A White Book, ed S. Pidhainy et al (Toronto 1953)

Solzhenitsyn, A. The Gulag Archipelago, 1918-1956: An Experiment in Literary Investigation, vol 2 (New York 1975)

Frumenkov, G. Uzniki Solovetskogo monastyria, 4th edn (Arkhangelsk 1979) A. Zhukovsky

Solovev, Sergei (Soloviev), b 17 May 1820 in Moscow, d 16 October 1879 in Moscow. Russian historian and historiographer; member of the Imperial Russian Academy of Sciences from 1872. A graduate of Moscow University (1842; PH D, 1848), he was a professor there (1847-77) an¿ served as dean of history and philology (1855-69) and rector (1871-7). He was a leading representative of the statist school of Russian history. Among his many works are a monumental history of Russia and its empire to 1775 (29 vols, 1851-79; loth edn, 15 vols, 1959-66), which contains valuable information on medieval Rus' and the Hetmán state (English trans ed E. Graham and pub as History of Russia, 1976-); a history of relations among the Riurykide princes of Rus' (PH D diss, 1847);a history of the fall of Poland (1863); and articles on Prince Danylo of Galicia (1847), Little Russia up to its subjugation by Tsar Aleksei Mikhailovich (3 pts, 1848-9), Princess Olha (1850), the grandsons of Grand Prince Yaroslav the Wise (1851), Hetmán I. Vyhovsky (1859), the Cossacks up to the time of Hetmán B. Khmelnytsky (1859), and L. Baranovych (1862). An edition of his selected works was published in 1983.

Anatolii Solovianenko

Rev Meletii Solovii

Solovianenko, Anatolii [Solov'janenko, Anatolij], b 25 September 1932 in Donetske. Opera singer (lyric-dramatic tenor). A graduate of the Donetske Polytechnical Institute (1954), he studied singing under O. Korobeichenko (195262), obtained a scholarship to Milan's La Scala, and completed study at the Kiev Conservatory (1978). Since 1965 he has been a soloist of the Kiev Theater of Opera and Ballet. His operatic roles include Andrii in S. Hulak-Artemovsky's Zaporozhian Cossack beyond the Danube, Petro in M. Lysenko's Natalka from Poltava, Lensky in P. Tchaikovsky's Eugene Onegin, Edgar in G. Donizetti's Lucia di Lammermoor, Alfredo in G. Verdi's La Traviata, and Ro-

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dolfo in Puccini's La Bohème. He has concertized abroad, including with the New York Metropolitan Opera (19778). In recital he often performs Ukrainian folk songs. Solovii, Meletii [Solovij, Meletij] (Solovey, Meletius), b 29 April 1918 in Perevoloka, Buchach county, Galicia, d 27 December 1984 in Edmonton. Basilian priest, church historian, and journalist. He entered the Basilian order in 1932 and was ordained in 1941. He studied theology in Olomouc, Czechoslovakia, at the University of Vienna (D TH, 1944), and at the Pontifical Oriental Institute in Rome (D TH, 1950). In 1950 he emigrated to Canada, where he helped edit the Basilian journal Svitlo (1957-64) and other publications and worked as a parish priest. In 1968-71 he was a professor at the University of Ottawa. A specialist in liturgies, he wrote Bozhestvenna liturhiia (1964; English trans The Byzantine Divine Liturgy, 1972), Introduction to Eastern Liturgical Theology (1972), Meletii Smotryts'kyi iak pys 'mennyk (Meletii Smotrytsky as a Writer, 2 vols, 19778), and numerous articles, and coauthored (with A. Velyky) a biography of Y. Kuntsevych (1967). Solovii, Tadei [Solovij, Tadej], b 1857 in Potorytsia, Sokal county, Galicia, d 31 August 1912 in Lviv. Lawyer and civic activist. A law graduate of Vienna University, he opened his own office in Lviv in 1888. He served as legal counsel of the Galician Provincial Bank (1901-12) and of the Greek Catholic metropoly of Halych. He avoided politics and was active in various Ukrainian economic and cultural organizations, as a founding member of the *Land Mortgage Bank, an executive member of Silskyi Hospodar, and a trustee of the National Museum. Many societies, students, and artists enjoyed his generous financial support.

Archbishop Varlaam Solovii Solovii, Varlaam [Solovij] (secular name: Viktor), b 29 November 1891 in Kyryiivka, Sosnytsia county, Chernihiv gubernia, d 31 January 1966 in Sydney, Australia. Community and church activist and bishop of the Ukrainian Autocephalous Orthodox church. He studied at the theological seminaries in Novhorod-Siverskyi and Chernihiv and the law faculty at Warsaw University (1914). During the struggle for Ukrainian independence he served in the Sich Riflemen and then as a legal adviser to the government of the UNR and the Directory. In the interwar period he lived in Poland and was involved in the Ukrainianization of church life in Volhynia and Polisia as an adviser to Metropolitan D. Valedinsky. A postwar ami-

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gré in Germany, he moved in 1950 to Australia, where he was president of the Association of Ukrainians in Australia (1951-2). He was ordained in 1954 and consecrated bishop of Australia and New Zealand in 1958, with his see in Sydney. Solovii, Volodymyr [Solovij], b 1891 in the Lemko region, d 15 November 1958 in Montreal. Political activist; son of T. *Solovii. In 1918-20 he served as secretary of the UNR mission to Switzerland. In the interwar period he was active in the Ukrainian National Democratic Alliance and, in the election of 1930, ran for a seat in the Polish Sejm. In 1939 he left for Paris, and in the following year was sent to London by O. Shulhyn as a representative of the *Government-in-exile of the UNR. In 1948 he emigrated to Canada.

tute (professor from 1930). His publications dealt with the prevention of infectious diseases, particularly cholera, malaria, diphtheria, anthrax, and scarlet fever. Soltan, Yosyf II, b ?, d 1522 in Smolensk, Russia. Orthodox metropolitan of Kiev. A Belarusian noble, he took monastic vows and served as an archimandrite in Slutsk and as bishop of Smolensk (1498-1507) before his elevation to the office of metropolitan of Kiev in 1507. Soltan rejected the Church Union of ^Florence. He assiduously defended the rights of the Orthodox church in Ukraine and Belarus, rid it of administrative faults and abuses, and improved discipline within it. He convoked three sobors, of which the first, in Vilnius in January 1509, was the most important, and he was the author of the regulations adopted at the sobor. In 1511 King Sigismund I granted Soltan a royal privilege reaffirming the authority of Sol-tan and his bishops over all the Orthodox faithful and churches in the Polish Kingdom and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, and forbade individuals of the Catholic faith to interfere in matters of the Eastern church. Soltan traveled throughout the Orthodox East and maintained good relations with the patriarch of Constantinople. His description of the Slutsk monastery was published in Akty Zapadnoi Rossii (vol i). Soltanovsky, Avtonom [Soltanovs'kyj], b 1826 in eastern Podilia, d 1886. Pedagogue. He wrote a valuable series of articles dealing with Right-Bank Ukraine during the years 1846-67, entitled 'Zapysky/ serialized in Kievskaia starina (1892-4). The series is an important source for the history of the region in the 19th century, in particular for the state of secondary education.

Jurij Solovij: Lovers (oil, 1967)

Solovij, Jurij, b 6 June 1921 in Lviv. Painter, sculptor, and art critic. A graduate of the Lviv Arts and Crafts School (1944) and a postwar refugee in Germany and then the United States, he has experimented with several styles (postimpressionism, expressionism, abstract expressionism). Since the 19705 he has used mixed media in unusual combinations. Since the 19508 he has been preoccupied with the themes of birth and death. His later works deal with the universality of pain in human life. Some of his characteristic works are Motherhood (1947), Astral (1948), Crucifixion (1950,1969), and the series '1,000 Heads/ Solo exhibitions of his works have been held in New York (1959,1965,1970,1972), Chicago (1960,1972,1980), Toronto (1963,1972,1973), Munich (1971), and Winnipeg (1973). His art criticism has been published in the émigré press and separately as Pro rechi bil'shi nizh zori (About Things Greater than Stars, 1978). Soloviov, Mykhailo [Solovjov, Myxajlo] (Solovev, Mikhail), b 29 May 1886 in Elets, Orel gubernia, Russia, d 3 March 1980 in Kharkiv. Epidemiologist; full member of the USSR Academy of Medical Sciences from 1945. A graduate of Moscow University (1911), he worked at the Odessa Military Hospital and in the municipal sanitation organization (1914-20), and at the Odessa Medical Institute (1920-5), the Kharkiv Institute of Microbiology and Epidemiology (1925-31), and the Kharkiv Medical Insti-

Soltys, Adam (Soltys), b 4 July 1890 in Lviv, d 6 July 1968 in Lviv. Composer, conductor, and teacher. The son of a well-known Polish conductor and composer, M. Soltys, he studied at the Lviv Conservatory (1903-11), the Berlin State Academy of Music (1911-14), the Berlin State Academy of the Arts (1914-16), and the musicological department of Berlin University (PH D, 1921). He was a professor at the Lviv State Conservatory during 1930-9 and 194568. His main works include the ballet Levy ne sertse (The Lion's Heart, 1930), music for the play Kaminnyi hospedar (Stone Host, by Lesia Ukrainka, 1941), two symphonies (1922 and 1946), works for chorus, solo songs, and arrangements of Ukrainian and Polish folk songs. Soltys (Polish: soltys, from German Schultheiss and Latin scultetus). An official appointed by the feudal owner of a village to act as his deputy in matters of local administration and justice. The office, based on Germanic law, was introduced in Western Ukrainian territories that were acquired by Poland in the 14th century. Until the i6th century the office was hereditary. It was not fixed to a specific class: a soltys could be a nobleman, a burgher, or a wealthy peasant. A military figure could be rewarded for service by becoming a soltys and receiving a soltystvo (a manor estate). In the i4th and 15th centuries those officials came to constitute an influential socioeconomic group. In 1923-39 in Western Ukrainian villages under Polish rule, the soltys was the chief of the local administration and of the territorial government overseen by the village council.

SOMKO

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Solukha, Kost [Soluxa, Kost'], b 1869 in Podilia gubernia, d 1922. Civic and cultural activist and philanthropist. A graduate of Kiev University, he worked as a zemstvo physician in Kamianets-Podilskyi. He was active in the Podilia Prosvita society and served as its president from 1907 to 1914. In 1918 he was one of the founders of the *Kamianets-Podilskyi Ukrainian State University. Solutrean culture. An Upper Paleolithic culture named after the La Solutré settlement site in France. Initially regarded as a separate epoch, it was reclassified (by Soviet Ukrainian archeologists) in the 19505 in conjunction with the Aurignacian culture to form a single AurignacianSolutrean culture. A significant discrepancy exists in the dating of this period, with starting dates ranging from 40,000 to 35,000 BC, and finishing dates from 25,000 to 15,000 BC. Major developments during this time included the appearance of Cro-Magnon man and the development of stable settlement sites and more permanent forms of shelter (specifically pit dwellings). Significant sites of this period in Ukraine include *Pekari and *Molodove. (See also ^Paleolithic Period.) Som, Mykola, b 5 January 1935 in Trebukhiv, Brovary raion, Kiev oblast. Poet of the *shestydesiatnyky generation. He has written the poetry collections Idu na pobachennia (I'm Going for a Rendezvous, 1957), Viknamy do sontsia (With Windows Facing the Sun, 1960), Sviatyi khlib (Sacred Bread, 1961), Mriia (A Dream, 1963), Vyshyvanka (An Embroidery, 1964), Duma nad vohnem (A Duma over a Fire, 1968), Stezhka do okeanu (The Path to the Ocean, 1973), B'iu cholom (I Kowtow, 1978), Tovarystvo (Company, 1979), and Prysviaty i poslannia (Dedications and Epistles, 1983), and many songs. He edited a collection of V. *Symonenko/s poems and reminiscences about him, Z matiriu na samoti (Alone with Mother, 1990). He was awarded the annual V. Sosiura Prize in 1983. Somko, Nadiia, b 15 January 1916 in Konotip, Chernihiv gubernia. Painter and sculptor; wife of S. *Makarenko. From 1934 to 1941 she studied at the Kharkiv and then Kiev State art institutes. As a refugee she has lived in Italy (1943-8), Argentina (1948-60), and the United States (since 1960). She has painted Ukrainian and American landscapes, genre scenes, still lifes, portraits, and historical battle scenes. They include Glory to the Victors (depicting George Washington, donated on the occasion of the US bicentennial to the City of Los Angeles), Prince Ihor's Battle with the Polovtsians, Hetmán Bohdan Khmelnytsky, Battle near Kaffa, and Hetmán Vyhovsky's Victory. In the 19705 she created 23 bronze and terra-cotta sculptures, among them Victory, Prince Oleh, Prince Sviatoslav's Battle with a Khazar, Hetmán Bohdan Khmelnytsky, Jubilant Cossack, farewell, Buffalo Bill, and Don Quixote and Sancho Panza. Solo exhibitions of her works have been held in New York, Los Angeles, Boston, Chicago, Detroit, Cleveland, and Philadelphia. A book about Somko and Makarenko (1971) and an album of her works (1981) have been published. Somko, Yakym, b ? in Pereiaslav, d 28 September 1663 in Borzna. Cossack leader and acting hetmán of Left-Bank Ukraine (1660-3); first father-in-law of B. Khmelnytsky. He was a captain of Pereiaslav regiment in 1654, and in 1658 he became its acting colonel. At the Pereiaslav Coun-

Nadiia Somko: Dreams (oil)

cil of 1660 that followed the conclusion of the Treaty of *Slobodyshche (to which Somko was opposed) he was again elected colonel of Pereiaslav regiment and acting hetmán of Left-Bank Ukraine. In 1660-2 he fought against both the Poles and the Tatars, who sought to occupy his territory. He initially supported Muscovy but gradually became disenchanted with its policies (particularly since they hindered his efforts at uniting all of the Cossack state under his command). His withdrawal of support caused Muscovy to distrust him. Bishop M. Fylymonovych, a stalwart Moscow loyalist and supporter of I. Briukhovetsky, was also ill-disposed toward him. Somko, however, had the backing of the anti-Muscovite Kievan clergy led by I. Gizel and I. Galiatovsky. Somko7 s opponents accused him of secret dealings with Yu. Khmelnytsky and P. Teteria and with Poland and the Crimea. Moscow took advantage of the accusation - and of the fact that it had not yet approved the decision of the Cossack starshyna council at Kozelets in 1662 to recognize Somko's tenure as hetmán - to instigate a *chorna rada in Nizhen (27-28 June 1663). The general gathering of Cossacks was convened to choose a new hetmán. V. Zolotarenko chose to support Somko, but a majority opted for I. Briukhovetsky, who was elected hetmán. As the event became increasingly hostile, Somko, Zolotarenko, and their supporters sought the protection of the Muscovite officials who were present as observers. But the officials imprisoned them and then handed them over to Briukhovetsky, who had them executed in Borzna. Somko is depicted by P. Kulish in his historical novel Chorna rada (The Black Council, 1857). A. Zhukovsky

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Somov, Orest (pseud: Porfirii Baisky), b 21? December 1793 in Vovcha, Kharkiv gubernia, d 8 June 1833 in St Petersburg. Russian Romantic prose writer and critic of Ukrainian origin. As a student at Kharkiv University he collected Ukrainian folklore and contributed poems and fables to *Khar'kovskii Demokrit" (1816) and *Ukrainskii vestnik (1817). From 1817 he lived in St Petersburg, where he was close to Decembrist circles and A. Pushkin and belonged to the Free Society of Devotees of Russian Literature and the Free Society of Devotees of Literature, Sciences, and Arts. He promoted and influenced N. *Gogol as a writer and corresponded with I. Kotliarevsky and M. Maksymovych. His poems (one on B. Khmelnytsky), prose, translations, polemical and literary articles, and reviews appeared in the periodicals Blagonamerennyi, Nevskii zritel', Sorevnovatel', Severnaia pchela, Syn otechestva, Literaturnaia gazeta (of which he was editor, 1830-1), and Utrenniaia zvezda and in literary almanacs. Some of his belletristic works, such as an unfinished novel about S. Harkusha, 'Gaidamak' (The Haidamaka, fragments published in 1827, 1829, and 1830), and the tales 'Gaidamak' (1825), 'lurodivyi' (The Holy Fool, 1827), 'Rusalka' (The Water Nymph, 1829), 'Oboroten" (The Werewolf, 1829), 'Svatovstvo' (Matchmaking, 1831), 'Videnie na iavu' (An Apparition While Awake, i83i)//Nedobryi glaz' (The Evil Eye, 1833), and 'Kievskiia ved'my7 (Kievan Witches, 1833), were based on Ukrainian folktales and legends. Editions of his works were published only recently, in Ann Arbor, Michigan (1974), and Moscow (1984). Z. Kyryliuk's monograph about Somov (Kiev 1965) contains a bibliography of his works. R. Senkus

Sonata. An instrumental composition for one or two instruments, usually in several movements. The first sonatas written by Ukrainian composers were by M. Berezovsky (for violin and cembalo) and D. Bortniansky (for piano). Among M. Lysenko's many instrumental works there is a three-part piano sonata. At the beginning of the 2Oth century, V. Barvinsky, Ya. Stepovy, and L. Revutsky wrote sonatas for piano; in later periods, V. Kosenko, B. Liatoshynsky, M. Tits, R. Simovych, Yu. Shurovsky, and M. Skoryk were some of the most notable Ukrainian composers to use the sonata form. Sonechko (Little Sun). An illustrated children's magazine published semimonthly by the Ukrainska Shkola society in Rivne in 1936-9. It was edited by P. Zinchenko and A. Vivcharuk. Sonevytsky, Ihor [Sonevyc'kyj], b 2 January 1926 in Hadynkivtsi, Kopychyntsi county, Galicia. Composer, musicologist, conductor, and teacher; member of the Shevchenko Scientific Society since 1977. He studied at the Staatliche Hochschule fur Musik in Munich (diploma, 1950) and the Ukrainian Free University (PH D, 1961). Emigrating to the United States after the Second World War, he became a cofounder of the ^Ukrainian Music Institute of America as well as president and artistic director of the Music and Art Center of Greene County, New York. His compositions include the opera Star, the ballet Cinderella, incidental music for numerous theater plays, a Piano Concerto in G Major, variations and miniatures for piano, approx 60 art songs for voice and piano (including cycles to

Ihor Sonevytsky

Leonid Sonevytsky

texts by T. Shevchenko, I. Franko, and V. Symonenko), the cantata Love Ukraine, and liturgical music. He wrote musicological works, such as Artem VedeV i ioho muzychna spadshchyna (Artem Vedel and His Musical Legacy, 1966), Kompozytors'ka spadshchyna Nestora Nyzhankivs'koho (Compositional Legacy of Nestor Nyzhankivsky, 1973), and Muzykolohichni pratsi Zinoviia Lys'ka (Ethnomusicological Works of Zinovii Lysko, 1976), and edited the second edition of M. Hrinchenko's Istoriia ukraïns'koïmuzyky (History of Ukrainian Music, 1961). Sonevytsky, Leonid [Sonevyc'kyj], b 25 April 1922 in Chortkiv, Galicia, d 6 August 1966 in New York. Historian; son of M. ^Sonevytsky. He studied at the universities of Lviv (1940-1), Vienna (1945-6), and Munich (1946-8) and at the Ukrainian Free University (PH D, 1948). He served as secretary of the Historical Commission of the Shevchenko Scientific Society in Europe (1949-50). After emigrating to the United States Sonevytsky studied at Columbia University (1952-3,1957-9), lectured at Seton Hall University, and worked as a librarian at Brooklyn College (from 1960). He served as secretary of the Ukrainian Academy of Arts and Sciences in the us (1954) and editor of its publication, Annals (from 1959), and as editorial co-ordinator (1958-60) of Entsyklopediia ukraïnoznavstva (EU) and Ukraine: A Concise Encyclopaedia. Sonevytsky researched the history of the Ukrainian church and studied Ukrainian diplomatic history of the 2Oth century. Of note is his Istoriia Ukraïny: Synkhronistychno-khronolohichna tablytsia (The History of Ukraine: A Synchronie and Chronological Table), published in vol 3 of EU and separately (1960). Most of Sonevytsky's works appeared in the monograph Leonid Sonevyts 'kyi: Studiïz istoriï Ukraïny (Leonid Sonevytsky: Studies of the History of Ukraine, vol 202 [1982] of Zapysky NTSh). A. Zhukovsky

Sonevytsky, Mykhailo [Sonevyc'kyj, Myxajlo], b 22 April 1892 in Hadynkivtsi, Husiatyn county, Galicia, d 30 November 1975 in New York. Classical philologist; full member of the Shevchenko Scientific Society from 1954; father of I. and L. Sonevytsky. After studying at Chernivtsi (1910-11) and Vienna (1911-14; PH D, 1923) universities he taught Latin, Greek, and classical literature at Ukrainian gymnasiums. A DP after the Second World War, he em-

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Ukraine during the late 19803 with the liberalization following glasnost.

Mykhailo Sonevytsky

igrated to the United States in 1950, and from 1963 was a professor at the Ukrainian Catholic University in Rome. He is the author of the children's books Pryhody Odysseia (Odysseus' Adventures, 1918), Myrmidons 'kyi lytsar (The Mirmidonian Knight, 2 parts, 1936), and Homin davnomynulykh dniv (The Echo of Days Long Past, 1938; repr 1955); a history of classical Greek literature (2 vols, Rome 1970, 1977); a Ukrainian translation of Xenophon's Anabasis (1986); and popular articles on classical culture and pedagogical subjects in Zhyttia i znannia and Ukraïns'ka shkola (1936-9). Song. The solo song with piano accompaniment is one of the most popular genres for Ukrainian composers. M. Lysenko wrote a wide variety of pieces for solo voice. At the turn of the 2Oth century, D. Sichynsky, K. Stetsenko, Ya. Stepovy, and S. Liudkevych were notable composers of songs. During the 2Oth century songs have had a prominent place in the works of B. Liatoshynsky, V. Kosenko, Yu. Meitus, F. Nadenenko, H. Maiboroda, M. Dremliuha, and others. Songbirds. Nearly half of all birds are songbirds; they represent 35-55 families and more than 4,000 species in the suborder Oscines, order Passeriformes. In Ukraine the following families can be heard: larks (Alaudidae), *swallows, *wagtails, wrens (Troglodytidae), *thrushes, *warblers, ""titmice, waxwings, treecreepers (Certhiidae), hedge *sparrows, finches (Fringillidae), ^starlings, orioles (Oriolidae), and *crows. Some songbirds are kept as pets for their melodious tones. Most songbirds living in the wild are valuable because they control various agricultural pests. Songs of the Ukrainian Sich Riflemen. Songs created by the Legion of Ukrainian Sich Riflemen (uss) during the First World War (1914-18). They included marching songs, love songs, laments, and humorous songs. The chief creators of these songs were M. *Haivoronsky (conductor of the USS orchestra), R. *Kupchynsky, and L. *Lepky. Many of the songs of the USS have been arranged for choir or for solo voice, by composers such as S. Liudkevych, L. Revutsky, O. Koshyts, A. Rudnytsky, and N. Nyzhankivsky. Labeled as 'nationalistic7 and banned in Soviet Ukraine, this genre of song soared in popularity in

Sonnet. A 14-line poem (usually in iambic pentameter) consisting of two sections of two quatrains and two tercets. The rhyme scheme of the quatrains is either a regular abba, abba or (less frequently) an alternating abab, abab. The tercets are less restricted, following a cdc, cdc; cde, cde; cde, edc; or other pattern (M. Zerov's tercets followed a ccd, ede tercet scheme). It is believed that sonnets were devised by Provençal troubadours, but they first appear in written form in Italy. F. da Barberini and A. da Tempo are considered to be the first poets to have mastered them. Petrarch (1304-74) set the number of lines and rhyme scheme. There are other forms of the sonnet extant in Italy, some ranging up to 20 or 22 lines with a short coda of i or 2 lines ending the poem. In Ukrainian poetry the first sonnets were O. Shpyhotsky's translations-adaptations of a poem by Sappho and the sonnets of A. Mickiewicz. Sonnets were subsequently written by L. Borovykovsky, M. Shashkevych, Yu. Fedkovych, U. Kravchenko, and S. Charnetsky. The form became particularly common in the late 19th and early 2Oth centuries. I. Franko played an important role in developing sonnets, in his Sonety (Sonnets, 1882) and the cycles Vil'ni sonety (Free Sonnets) and Tiuremni sonety (Prison Sonnets). Lesia Ukrainka and M. Cherniavsky published Donets 'ki sonety (The Don Sonnets) in 1898. The zenith of the Ukrainian form of sonnet was attained by the *Neoclassicists M. *Zerov (his Sonnetarium, published in 1948, contains 85 original sonnets and 28 in translation) and M. Rylsky. Others continued this efflorescence into the 19305, and their products were complemented by the contributions from Galicia of B.I. Antonych (with the cycle Zryvy i kryla [Rises and Wings] and others). In Soviet Ukraine wholesale repressions sent all of literature into decline, and sonnets did not reappear until the mid-1950s. In the 19705 and 19805 they became popular once again. D. *Pavlychko has been particularly productive, largely in translating sonnets from other languages. In émigré literature the form has also been popular, and in some cases the sonnets have been of high quality. E. *Andiievska, S. Hordynsky, I. Kachurovsky, Yu. Klen, B. Kravtsiv, M. Orest, O. Tarnavsky, and O. Zuievsky are among the form's practitioners. Departures from the canonical scheme of the sonnet are known as sonnetoids (examples of which abound in Zerov's Catalepton, 1951). A wreath of sonnets is a complex composition that consists of 14 sonnets, of which the last line of a sonnet is repeated as the first line of the next, followed by a 15th sonnet that consists of the 14 first lines of the preceding sonnets. V. Bobynsky, B. Hrinchenko, Kravtsiv, V. Malyskho, L. Mosendz, O. Tarnavsky, O. Vedmitsky, M. Zhuk, and I. Kalynets are among those who have published wreaths. BIBLIOGRAPHY Chaplia, V. Sonet v ukrams 'kii poezn (Odessa 1930) Koshelivets', I. Narysy z teoriï literatury (Munich 1954) Kachurovs'kyi, I. Strofika (Munich 1967) Moroz, O. Etiud pro sonet (Kiev 1973) Ukraïns'kyi sonet, intro by A. Dobrians'kyi (Kiev 1976) I. Koshelivets

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SONTSETSVIT

Sontsetsvit (Rockrose). An almanac published in 1922 in Tarnow, Poland. It contained works by writers and artists who had fled Soviet-occupied Ukraine, such as the graphic artists P. Kovzhun and P. Kholodny, Jr, and the symbolist poets Yu. Lypa, N. Livytska-Kholodna, M. Obidny, P. Tenianko, and Ye. Ivanenko.

Myroslava Sopilka

John Sopinka

Sopilka, Myroslava (pseud of Yuliia Mysko-Pastushenko), b 29 August 1897 m Vynnyky, now a district of Lviv, d 28 November 1937 near Kiev. Poet. She was a member of the radical group Luch in Vynnyky, and in 1928 she began to publish her poems, such as 'V tserkvi' (In the Church) and 'Son chornoi nochi' (Dream of a Black Night) in the Sovietophile journal *Vikna. She was a member of the literary group *Horno, which was made up of writers dedicated to propagating communism. In 1930 Sopilka moved to the Ukrainian SSR and became a member of the literary organization *Zakhidna Ukraina. In 1931 she published the collection of poetry Robotiashchymy rukamy (With Working Hands). She was arrested in 1937, and shot by the NKVD. Do sontsia: Vybrane (Toward the Sun: Selected Works) was published posthumously in 1973. Sopilka (fipple flute). A wind instrument of varied construction made of wood or bark. Generally cylindrical, blocked at one end, and with 6 to 8 finger holes (up to 10 since 1970), its related forms include the telenka, floiara, and dentsivka. The earliest-known example found in Ukraine is a mammoth-bone flute from the Paleolithic period. The flute is known from the Princely period of the Kievan state and is depicted on an nth-century fresco in Kiev's St Sophia Cathedral. In folk tradition it was commonly the instrument of shepherds or part of trio ensembles (*troisti myzyky). Today it is featured mainly in folk instrumental ensembles. Prominent sopilka performers include I. *Skliar, Y. Bobrovnykov, D. Demenchuk, and V. Zuliak. Sopilnyk, Petro [SopiTnyk], b 14 February 1922 in Sokolove, Katerynoslav gubernia. Painter and decorative artist. In 1961 he graduated from the Institute of Painting, Sculpture, and Architecture of the USSR Academy of Arts. His work consists of decorative wall panels, such as Hutsul Wedding (1963), Kiev Legend (at the Kiev Hotel in Ivano-Frankivske, 1965), and Dniester (at the Dnister Café in Ivano-Frankivske, 1966); and relief sculptures, such as the steel Eternal Revolutionary (1967), at the Ivano-

Frankivske Cinema, and the bronze Danko (1968) and a copper portrait of V. Stefanyk (1971), at the IvanoFrankivske Pedagogical Institute. He has also designed docorative plates and a carved vase commemorating Yu. Fedkovych (1956). Sopinka, John, b 19 March 1933 in Broderick, Saskatchewan. Lawyer and Canadian Supreme Court judge of Ukrainian origin. A graduate of the University of Toronto (LLB, 1958), he became one of the most successful civil litigation lawyers in Canada. He was involved in a number of difficult and controversial trials and served as counsel for several royal commissions. He represented the Ukrainian Canadian Committee before the Royal (Deschênes) Commission of Inquiry on War Criminals in Canada (1985-7). In 1988 Sopinka was appointed a justice of the Supreme Court of Canada. Sopolyha, Myroslav, b 26 March 1946 in Svydnyk (Svidnik), in the Presov region of Slovakia. Ethnographer and museologist; associate of the Slovak Academy of Sciences. A graduate of the Presov Faculty of Kosice University, since 1967 he has worked at the Svydnyk Museum of Ukrainian Culture (now the Dukhnovych Museum). He acquired many of the museum's folk artifacts, organized the creation of its open-air museum, and became deputy director of its scholarly section. In 1979 he received a PH D from Bratislava University. He has published numerous articles on the material culture and folk architecture of the Presov region in the museum's Naukovyi zbirnyk, Slovak scholarly periodicals, and Nashe slovo (Warsaw). He has also written monographs on the region's Ukrainian folk architecture (1976) and peasant dwellings (1983). Sorghum (Sorghum vulgare; Ukrainian: sorho). A strong and hardy cereal grass of the family Gramineae (Poaceae), raised chiefly for grain. The species includes the grain sorghums - durra, milo, and millet - as well as broom corn and Sudan grass (S. sudanense-, Ukrainian: sudanska travo}, grown for hay and fodder. Introduced in Ukraine in 1912, sorghum is raised primarily in southern areas. The grain is rich in carbohydrates (12-18 percent sugars) and proteins (10 percent); it also contains calcium, iron, vitamin B, and nicotinic acid. It is usually ground into a meal used in porridge, flatbreads, and cakes; it is also used in making edible oil, starch, dextrose, and alcoholic beverages. Sweet sorghums, or sorgos, are used for syrup manufacture. Sorochynsky, Lev [Sorocyns'kyj], b 1895 in Haisyn, Podilia gubernia, d 31 January 1963 in Olyphant, Pennsylvania. Conductor, singer, and teacher. He studied under O. Koshyts and then in 1919 became a member of the Ukrainian Republican Kapelle. In 1921-6 he served as an assistant to Koshyts in the Ukrainian Republican Kapelle when it toured Europe and North and South America. From 1926 he conducted Ukrainian choruses in the United States, most notably in Rochester (New York), Chicago, and Olyphant. Sorochynsky, Petro [Sorocyns'kyj], b and d ? Zaporozhian Cossack leader. A representative of the older, more conservative Cossack forces, he was elected Kish otaman in 1701-2, 1796-7, and 1709. He favored an alliance with the Crimean Khanate against Muscovy rather than with

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Poland or Sweden (as promoted by K. Hordiienko). The Muscovite authorities hoped that Sorochynsky's views would reverse the anti-Muscovy policies of the Zaporozhians, but he fought against them in 1709, with the assistance of the Crimea. Hordiienko was re-elected otaman and led the Zaporozhians from the Sich into exile (eventually to establish the Oleshky Sich). Sorochynsky's further fate is unknown. Sorochyntsi. See Velyki Sorochyntsi.

Mykhailo Soroka

Soroka, Mykhailo [Myxajlo], b 27 March 1911 in Koshliaky, Zbarazh county, Galicia, d 16 June 1971 in the Mordovian ASSR. Political prisoner; husband of K. *Zarytska and father of B. *Soroka. In 1938 he was imprisoned by the Polish authorities for his involvement in the OUN. In 1940 he was arrested in Lviv by the NKVD and sentenced to eight years in labor camps in Arctic Russia. After his release he returned to Lviv, but he was rearrested in 1949 and exiled to the Krasnoiarsk territory, in northern Siberia. In 1952 he was again arrested, for allegedly forming an underground organization of Ukrainian political prisoners in a Vorkuta camp, and in September 1953 he was sentenced to 25 years in labor camps in Kazakhstan, Siberia, and Mordovia.

Bohdan Soroka: Carolers (woodcut, 1991)

Soroka, Bohdan, b 2 September 1940 in Lviv. Graphic artist and painter; son of M. *Soroka and K. *Zarytska. A graduate of the Lviv Institute of Applied and Decorative Arts (1964), since the 19603 he has created imaginative, often expressionistic, line engravings and bookplates. His print series 'Folkloric Motifs' (1969), 'Slavic Mythology' (1970-2), 'Children's Games' (1974), 'Kupalo Festival Games' (1974), 'Proverbs' (1976), and 'March of the Gnomes' (1979-84) reveal his fascination with Ukrainian folklore. Soroka has also engraved prints depicting the old architecture (particularly churches) of Lviv, Drohobych, and Zhovkva (now Nesterov), and the series 'Symbols of Hryhorii Skovoroda' (1975), Travels in Uzbekistan' (1981-2), and 'Stations of the Cross' (1990); created graphic illustrations to works by I. Kalynets, Lesia Ukrainka, R. Ivanychuk, V. Stefanyk, and T. Shevchenko; and painted large-scale decorative murals in Lviv, including one inside the Quality Building and the large composition Musicians, on the ceiling of the former Carmelite Sisters' church. Solo exhibitions of his works have been held in Lviv (1983,1989), Kiev (1987,1990), and Toronto, Ottawa, and Edmonton (1991).

Soroka, Oleksander, b 21 April 1900 in Khlypnivka, Zvenyhorod county, Kiev gubernia, d 28 December 1963 in Kiev. Choir conductor. He graduated in conducting from the Kiev Institute of Music and Drama (1930). In 1923 he joined the *DUMKA choral ensemble, and in 1935 he became its conductor and from 1937 its principal conductor. In 1940-6 he was artistic director of the Trembita choir in Lviv, after which he returned to DUMKA as principal conductor. He is best known as an interpreter of large-scale choral works, such as M. Lysenko's Biut' porohy (The Rapids Roar), S. Liudkevych's Kavkaz (The Caucasus), and A. Shtoharenko's Ukraine moia (My Ukraine). Soroka, Oleksander, b 19 December 1901 in Baryshivka, Pereiaslav county, Poltava gubernia, d 12 October 1941. Poet, prose writer, and translator. He was first published in 1925 in the almanac Ky'iv - Hart, and he continued to publish his poetry and prose in periodicals. His poetry was also published in the collections Kymak (1929), Na reikakh (On the Rails, 1931), Zhyttia v rusi (Life in Action, 1936), Horno (The Forge, 1941), and Vybrane (Selected Works, 1959,1966). He was arrested by the NKVD in 1941 and killed on the way to prison in Irkutsk, Siberia. Soroka, Petro, b 3 April 1891 in Lviv, d 1948 in Lviv. Stage actor and director. He began his theatrical career in an amateur group at the Sokil society (1908) and then acted in the Ruska Besida (1912-14) and the Ternopilski Teatralni Vechory and New Lviv theaters (1917-20), led his own troupe (1921-38), and worked in the Lesia Ukrainka Theater, Lviv Opera Theater, and Lviv Ukrainian Drama Theater (1939-46).

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Sorrel (Rumex acetosa; Ukrainian: shchavel). A hardy perennial herb of the buckwheat family Polygonaceae. There are many species common in the temperate zone of the Northern Hemisphere; in Ukraine about 20 are known, of which R. acetosa (Ukrainian: shchavel kyslyi) is widely cultivated. Its leaves contain oxalic acid, vitamin B complex, iron, and minerals. Young leaves are used to make sorrel soup (Ukrainian green borshch), in salads, and as flavoring in omelets and sauces. Extracts from R. confer tus (Ukrainian: shchavel kinskyi) roots were used in folk medicine as an astringent and as purgative agents in treating colitis. Osyp Sorokhtei (self-portrait, oil, 1937) Sorokhtei, Osyp [Soroxtej], b 28 February 1890 in Baranchychi, Sambir county, Galicia, d 27 November 1941 in Stanyslaviv, Galicia. Painter and graphic artist. He studied at the Cracow Academy of Arts (1911-14, 191920) and taught drawing at the Ukrainian gymnasiums in Stanyslaviv (1920-6, 1929-39) and Sniatyn (1926-9). Sorokhtei worked mostly in pencil, pen, and watercolor. He drew expressionistic portraits of T. Shevchenko (1922), I. Kotliarevsky (1922), Ye. Hrebinka, and M. Menzinsky and 50 drawings on biblical themes and 42 on Christ's Passion; painted Subcarpathian landscapes and genre scenes, religious paintings, and still lifes; did caricatures of Ukrainian Sich Riflemen, public figures, church leaders, and intellectuals; and illustrated A. Lototsky's Zhyttia i pryhody Tsiapky Skoropada (The Life and Adventures of Tsiapka Skoropad, 1926). He took part in exhibitions organized by the Circle of Contributors to Ukrainian Art and the Association of Independent Ukrainian Artists in Lviv and in two international shows of graphic art in Warsaw (1931). Retrospective exhibitions of his works were held in Stanyslaviv (1942) and Lviv (1970).

The Soroky fortress Soroky. v-9. A city (1975 pop 29,500) on the right bank of the Dniester River in Moldova. It was first mentioned in 1499. Today the city lies on the Ukrainian ethnic border. It manufactures electric appliances, metal goods, and clothing. The old fortress and a cave monastery are tourist attractions.

Sosenko, Ksenof ont, b 9 February 1861 in Mezhyhirka, Halych circle, Galicia, d 17 April 1941 in Koniukhy, Kozova raion, Ternopil oblast. Ethnographer. While serving as a parish priest in a number of Galician villages, he gathered ethnographic materials and wrote several insightful studies, on the spring songs, hahilky (1922); the Ukrainian religious world view (1923); and the traditional Ukrainian Christmas (1928). A memorial regional museum was established in Koniukhy in 1991 in the building where Sosenko lived.

Modest Sosenko (self-portrait, oil, 1915) Sosenko, Modest, b 23 April 1875 m Porohy, Stanyslaviv county, Galicia, d 4 February 1920 in Lviv. Painter. He studied at the Cracow (1896-1900) and Munich (19012) academies of art and the Ecole nationale des beaux arts in Paris (1902-5). From 1906 he lived in Lviv but traveled often, to Italy (1908-13), Russian-ruled Ukraine (1913), and Egypt and Palestine (1914). He painted portraits, such as Portrait of a Girl (1913), Metropolitan Andrei Sheptytsky, and Self-Portrait (1915); Hutsul genre scenes, such as Boys on a fence (1912), Trembita Players (1914), Dance (1915), and Musicians; landscapes of Paris, the Carpathian Mountains, and southern Dalmatia; and large-scale murals, in the Lysenko Music Institute in Lviv (1915), the Wallachian (Dormition) Church in Lviv, and the Galician village churches of Pidbereztsi, Pechenizhyn, Rykiv, Bilche Zolote, Zolochiv, Tovmach, Slavsko, Puzhnyky, Deviatnyky, and Yabloniv. Together with Yu. Makarevych he painted the iconostases in the church in Zolochiv and the cathedral in Stanyslaviv. In his church paintings he combined the traditions of Byzantine painting with modern artistic approaches. He compiled a book of ornaments in i6th- and 17th-century Galician manuscripts from the Stauropegion Museum (1923). A catalog of his memorial exhibition was published in 1960.

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Sosenko, Petro, b 25 September 1900 in Duliby, Galicia, d ? Legal historian; son of K. Sosenko. In the 19208 he emigrated to Soviet Ukraine, where he was a research associate of the Commission for the Study of the History of Western-Ruthenian and Ukrainian Law of the YUAN. He wrote articles on contemporary Soviet law (1924) and the importance of church registers for the history of law (1929). He was arrested during the terror in 1933, and disappeared in prison.

Volodymyr Sosiura

Ivan Soshenko: Hay Selling by the Dnieper (oil, before 1850)

Soshenko, Ivan [Sosenko], b 2 June 1807 in Bohuslav, Kaniv county, Kiev gubernia, d 18 July 1876 in Korsun, Kaniv county. Painter. After studying at the St Petersburg Academy of Arts (1834-8) he taught painting in gymnasiums in Nizhen (1839-46), Nemyriv (1846-56), and Kiev. He painted portraits, such as Portrait ofM. Chali/'s Grandmother and Woman's Portrait} genre scenes, such as Hay Selling by the Dnieper and Boys Pishing (1857); landscapes; and icons. In 1835 he introduced T. *Shevchenko to Ye. Hrebinka, V. Zhukovsky, K. Briullov, and A. Venetsianov, and in 1838 he helped to purchase Shevchenko's freedom and to place him in the St Petersburg Academy. M. Chaly's biography of Soshenko was published in Kiev in 1876. Sosiura, Volodymyr [Sosjura], b 6 January 1898 in Debaltseve, Katerynoslav gubernia, d 8 January 1965 in Kiev. Poet. During the Ukrainian-Soviet War he fought in the UNR Army and then in the Red Army. After the war ended, he studied at the Artem Communist University in Kharkiv (1922-3) and at the workers' faculty of the Kharkiv Institute of People's Education (1923-5). He was a member of the literary organizations *Pluh, Hart, Vaplite, and the All-Ukrainian Association of Proletarian Writers. His first poem to be published appeared in 1917. His first collection, Poezïï (Poems), published in 1921, was followed by his Romantic revolutionary poem Chervona zyma (The Red Winter, 1922), which was acclaimed as the best example of epic poetry from the period of the struggle for independence in Ukraine, and brought him fame overnight. Sosiura was to write many other works thematically based on that struggle, in which he united intimate, community, and universal concerns, such as in the collec-

tions Misto (The City, 1924), Snihy (The Snows, 1925), and Zoloti shuliky (The Golden Hawks, 1927). His poems, filled with an organic lyricism, leave an impression of sincerity, revolutionary enthusiasm, and passionate feeling. Sosiura drew his unique lyrical style from the wellspring of folk literature. His style leaned toward classically simple verse, a songlike quality, and a Romantic, uplifted mood. Even in his early period Sosiura's poetry reflected his era and its contradictions, such as the impossibility of uniting loyalty to the Bolshevik revolution with feelings of duty toward one's country, a dilemma faced by all the Ukrainian intelligentsia of the 19205. It can be seen in the poem about internal strife (between communard and nationalist) Dva Volod'ky (The Two Volodias, 1930) and in the collection Sertse (The Heart, 1931), which was banned immediately after its release. Although Sosiura had been a Party member since 1920, until the early 19305 his poetry brought him into conflict with the Communist party. That, together with the deaths of millions of Ukrainian peasants as a result of the manmade famine and the persecution and shootings of Ukrainian cultural activists during the 19305, brought Sosiura near to a mental breakdown. Despite those difficult circumstances he was virtually the only poet in Ukraine in the 19305 who continued to work on lyric love poetry, such as in the collections Chervoni troiandy (Red Roses, 1932), Novi poezïï (New Poems, 1937), Liubliu (I Love, Ï939)' and Zhuravli pryletily (The Cranes Have Returned, 1940). From 1942 to 1944 Sosiura was a war correspondent. During that period he produced the collections Pid hul kryvavyi (During the Bloody Rumblings of War, 1942) and V hodynu hnivu (In the Hour of Anger, 1942) and the poem 'Oleh Koshovyi' (1943), among others. The most noteworthy of his postwar collections are Zelenyi svit (Green World, 1949), Solov'ïni dali (The Nightingale Distances, 1956), and Tak nikhto ne kokhav (No One Has Loved like This, 1960). An important part of Sosiura's works are his poems written on a grander epic scale, such as the poems '1871' (1923) and 'Zaliznytsia' (The Railway, 1924) and the versified novel Taras Triasylo (1926). In 1948 Sosiura was awarded the highest prize at that time, the Stalin Prize, but beginning in 1951 he was again harshly attacked. He was accused of bourgeois nationalism for his patriotic poem 'Liubit' Ukra'inu' (Love Ukraine), written in 1944. Although he was productive, Sosiura's poetic achieve-

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ments were much less than his talents promised. His collected works have been published in 3-volume editions (1929-30 and 1957-8) and in 10 volumes (1970-2). In 1988 the poem 'Mazepa,' only excerpts of which had previously been published (1929), and the autobiographical novel Tretia rota (The Third Company) were published.

Ukrainian on Ukraine in the international arena in 194565 (1966; his PH D diss at the Ukrainian Free University) and Dmytro Dontsov (1974), and wrote a brief survey history of Ukrainian political thought (1976). A large posthumous collection of his selected essays and articles appeared in 1979.

BIBLIOGRAPHY Dolengo, O. Tvorchist' V. Sosiury (Kharkiv 1931) Stebun, I. Volodymyr Sosiura (Kiev 1948) Burliai, lu. Volodymyr Sosiura: Zhyttia i tvorchist ' (Kiev 1959) Kudin, O. Volodymyr Sosiura (Kiev 1959) Radchenko, lu. Volodymyr Sosiura: Literaturno-krytychnyi narys (Kiev 1967) Morenets', V. Volodymyr Sosiura (Kiev 1990) I. Koshelivets

Soskin, Marat, b 8 April 1929 in Kiev. Physicist; AN URSR (now ANU) corresponding member since 1988. A graduate of Kiev University (1952), he joined the ANU Institute of Physics in 1956. Soskin has made substantive contributions in the fields of exciton spectroscopy of molecular crystals, quantum electronics, laser spectroscopy, and dynamic holography. Sosnivka. 111-5. A city (1975 pop 11,200) on the left bank of the Buh River in Lviv oblast, administered by the Chervonohrad city council. It was founded in 1955 in connection with the development of the Lviv-Volhynia Coal Basin. In 1968 it attained city status. Sosnivka has three coal mines and an enrichment plant.

Mykhailo Sosnovsky

Sosnovsky, Mykhailo [Sosnovs'kyj, Myxajlo], b i December 1919 in Hai, Ternopil county, Galicia, d 25 July 1975 in Jersey City, New Jersey. Journalist, scholar, and community leader. As a refugee in postwar Germany he served on the executive of the Central Union of Ukrainian Students, edited its organs Visit TseSUSu and Students 'kyi visnyk, contributed articles to the Fiirth newspaper Chas and journal Samostiinyk, and studied law at Erlangen University. In late 1948 he emigrated to Canada. In Toronto he cofounded the ""Canadian League for Ukraine's Liberation, served as a member of its executive (1949-68), cofounded its newspaper *Homin Ukraïny, was the newspaper's first chief editor in 1948-9, and was its editor again in 1951-4. After breaking with the OUN Bandera faction, he served as executive director of the World Congress of Free Ukrainians in Winnipeg and New York (1969-72). From 1972 he coedited the daily *Svoboda in Jersey City. Sosnovsky wrote widely on Soviet politics, émigré issues, and international affairs. He also published books in

The Oleksander Dovzhenko Literary Memorial Museum in Sosnytsia. Bronze statue of Dovzhenko by Anatolii Fuzhenko

Sosnytsia [Sosnycja]. 11-13. A town smt (1986 pop 8,000) on the Ubid River and a raion center in Chernihiv oblast. It was first mentioned in the Hypatian Chronicle under the year 1234. From 1340 it was under Lithuanian rule, and from 1618, under Polish rule. In 1637 one °f its residents, K. *Skydan, raised a rebellion against the Polish nobles. In 1648 the town was captured by the Cossacks, and thereafter became a company center of Nizhen and then Chernihiv regiment. After the abolition of the Hetmán state Sosnytsia belonged to Novhorod-Siverskyi vicegerency (1782-96) and then became a county center of Little Russia and Chernihiv (1802-1923) gubernias. Under the Soviet regime it was a raion center of Snov (1923-5) and Konotip okruhas and Chernihiv oblast (since 1935). Today its main industries are food processing and clothes manufacturing. The birthplace of O. *Dovzhenko, it has a literary memorial museum dedicated to him. It also has a rich regional museum founded by Yu. Vynohradsky. The wooden Church of the Holy Protectress (i/th century, reconstructed in 1724) and its bell tower (i9th century) remain neglected and in disrepair. Soton, Spyrydon, b ? in Tver (now Kalinin), d 1503 in the Ferapont monastery, in Moscow. Orthodox metropolitan. He was bishop of Tver until 1474, when the patriarch of Constantinople appointed him metropolitan of Kiev and all Rus', with his jurisdiction in the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and the Kingdom of Poland. Since this was done without consultation with the local bishops or King Casimir IV Jagielloñczyk (who had appointed his own candidate), Soton was not recognized as metropolitan, and was imprisoned when he arrived in Lithuania in 1476. After his release he fled to Moscow. There he was opposed by the metropolitan of Moscow, who also claimed jurisdiction over most of the Rus' eparchies, and he was imprisoned in the Ferapont-Belozerskii monastery. He re-

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mained in the monastery, where he wrote theological works and a hagiography of two monks of the monastery, until his death. Sotsialisticheskii Donbass (Socialist Donbas). A Russian-language organ of Donetske oblast's CPU Committee and Soviet, published five times a week in Donetske. It first appeared in July 1917 as Izvestiia of the Yuzivka Revolutionary and Party committees. From 1920 the newspaper appeared as Diktatura truda, and in 1932 it acquired its Sotsiialisticheskii Donbass name and became the oblast paper. From July 1944, a parallel Ukrainian-language paper, Sotsialistychnyi Donbas, renamed in December 1945 *Radians'ka Donechchyna, appeared. In 1975 Sotsialisticheskii Donbass had the largest pressrun (373,000) of any oblastlevel newspaper in Ukraine.

Sotsialistychna hromada. See Nova hromada. Sotsialistychna Kharkivshchyna (Socialist Kharkiv Region). An organ of Kharkiv oblast7s CPU Committee and Soviet, published five times a week in Kharkiv. It began publication in Russian in 1917 and changed names several times before becoming Proletarii (1920-4) and then Khar'kovskii proletarii (1924-30). From March 1930 it appeared in Ukrainian as Kharkivs 'kyi proletar, and in 1934 it acquired its last name. A parallel Russian-language edition, Krasnoe znamia, was established in 1938. In 1980 the latter had a pressrun of 131,000; that of Sotsialistychna Kharkivshchyna was only 62,000. Sotsialistychna kuVtura (Socialist Culture). A popular monthly journal of cultural, political, educational, and scientific affairs, published in Kiev in 1937-41 and since 1955. It was preceded by several journals with similar profiles, such as Kul'turno-osvitnia robota (1947-54) and Kolbud (1936-7) in Kiev, and, in Kharkiv, Kul'tfront (1931-5), Za masovu komunistychnu osvitu (1931-3), Kul 'trobitnyk (192830), Selians'kyi budynok (1924-30), and the Russian-language Kul'trabotnik (1927), Rabochii klub (1925-6), and Put' kkommunizmu (1921-4). Until 1970 the journal was intended for village cultural workers and librarians. From 1970 to 1990 it was an organ of the Ministry of Culture and Council of Trade Unions of the Ukrainian SSR, and dealt also with urban and working-class issues. In 1975 Sotsialistychna kul 'tura had a pressrun of 65,000. In 1991 the journal's name was changed to Ukrams'ka kuVtura to reflect its new orientation. It is now published by the Ministry of Culture, the Ukrainian Cultural Fund, and the Council of the Federation of Independent Trade Unions of Ukraine, and has a pressrun of 31,000. The chief editor is V. Burban.

Sotsialistychne Ukrainy.

tvarynnytstvo. See Tvarynnytstvo

Sotsiial-Demokrat (Social Democrat). An organ of the Ukrainian Social Democratic Workers' party, published in Poltava in 1907 and edited by P. Diatliv. After the fifth issue the newspaper was closed down by the tsarist authorities. Sotskyi. A term denoting a certain type of low-ranking official. It has feudal origins, and its meaning varies. In Kievan Rus' a sotskyi was a levy captain, although the word was used to refer to certain representatives of

833

princes in accounts of the looting of sotskyi homes in 1113. During the Lithuanian-Polish period in Galicia and Podlachia, suburban craftsmen and farmers were said to be part of sotni or under the jurisdiction of a sotskyi. The term disappeared in Lithuania in the 14th century. In the 17th and i8th centuries, in Left- and Right-Bank Ukraine and in Western Ukrainian territories, a sotskyi was a young messenger or minor official, particularly in municipal governments. Such officials were sometimes known as sotnychky or osavul'chyky. In the Russian Empire a sotskyi was a police officer of low rank in a village, chosen at a village council. Each one oversaw 100 to 200 households. In 1837 such officers were made a part of local police forces. South Russia Consumer Society (Russian: Potrebitelskoe obshchestvo Yuga Rossii). An association of consumer co-operatives, established in Kharkiv in 1912 on the initiative of the Moscow Union of Consumer Co-operatives. It attempted to impose central Russian control over the Ukrainian co-operative movement, but such control was resisted by the Ukrainian leaders. Its activities were limited to Kharkiv and Katerynoslav gubernias. With the emergence of the *Dniprosoiuz union in 1917, the South Russian Consumer Society lost its importance, and it was dissolved by 1919. It was headed by V. Tsellarius and M. Kuznetsov. South Russian Union of Workers (Pivdennorosiiskyi soiuz robitnykiv). The first revolutionary organization among workingmen in the Russian Empire. It was established in Odessa in October 1875 on the basis of existing workers' clubs or groups and was dedicated specifically to improving labor conditions and generally to changing the political situation in the empire. It had approx 60 members and was headed by E. Zaslavsky. It organized two strikes in Odessa, and it was in the process of attempting to establish comparable groups in other cities (Kharkiv, Tahanrih, Kerch, Sevastopil, and others) when it was shut down by the police late in 1875. Fifteen of its leading members were arrested. South Russian Workers' Union (Pivdennorosiiskyi robitnychyi soiuz). A revolutionary workers' organization in Kiev in 1880-1. Its membership consisted of several hundred workers, including Russians, Poles, Jews, and a majority of Ukrainians. The union was organized in the spring of 1880 by Ye. Kovalska and N. Shchedrin, two members of the Black Repartition (Chernyi Peredel) organization that had formed in the split of *Zemlia i Volia. The union demanded sweeping economic changes, including collective ownership of land and factories, the recognition of all basic liberties, and the satisfaction of more immediate labor demands (including shorter working days and safer conditions). Tactically, the union advocated the use of terror in order to achieve its aims. Sabotage and the murder of factory managers and owners were common threats made by the union leadership. Those tactics met with some success in the Kiev Arsenal, where Shchedrin concentrated his efforts. With the arrest of Shchedrin and Kovalska in October 1880, the union came under new leadership. The change signaled a substantial moderation in tactics, with individual acts of terror being rejected in favor of long-term propaganda and strike activity. The union was liquidated in April 1881 upon the arrest of its remaining leaders and

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the seizure of its printing press. Its leaders were sentenced by military tribunal to various terms of hard labor or exile to Siberia. South Volhynian dialects. The northeastern group of the ^southwestern dialects, spoken in the territory of what are today the southern parts of Volhynia, Rivne, and Zhytomyr oblasts and the northern parts of Lviv, Khmelnytskyi, and Vinnytsia oblasts. The dialects are bounded by the *Polisian dialects to the north, the ^southeastern dialects to the east, and the *Podilian and ^Dniester dialects, to which they are most similar, to the south. The phonetic features of the South Volhynian dialects are (i) raised pronunciation of unstressed o as u, particularly after labials and velars (eg, xulódna [Standard Ukrainian (su) xolódna] 'cool'); (2) lowered pronunciation of y as é and, after k, g, h, and x, as i (eg, réba, rúk'i [su ryba, rúky] 'fish, hands'); (3) prothetic h- before initial vowels (eg, horaty, húlyc'a, hínsyj [su oráty, vúlycja, ínsyj] 'to plow, street, other'); (4) hardened r' (eg, bum [su búrja] 'storm'); (5) s'c' instead of st' (eg, vús'c'ilka [su vystilka] 'padding'); (6) xv/ kv instead of/(eg, xvósa [su fosa] 'ditch'); (7) ran' instead of mj (eg, xomn 'ák [su xomják] 'hamster'); (8) coronal (eastern Ukrainian) pronunciation of palatal dentals s', z', c', dz' (also in the suffixes -ec', -ys'ko, -s'kij)', (9) bilabial or labiodental pronunciation of postvocalic v in the northeast (eg, dav [su daü] 'he gave'); (10) doubled soft consonants in forms such as z 'il 'I 'e, s'm'ijéc 'c 'a [su zíllja, smijetsja] 'herbs, he is laughing'. In nominal declension, dual forms have been retained (eg, dvi pól'i [su dva pólja] 'two fields'). In adjectives, softtype endings (eg, hárn 'ij, hírk'ij [su hárnyj, hirkyj] 'nice, bitter') and long forms (eg, muludája [su molodá] 'young') have been retained. Third-person pronouns after prepositions omit n- (eg, do jóho, z jéju, do jíx, z jímy [su do n 'oho, z néju, do nyx, z nymy] 'to him, with her, to them, with them'). Endings of the pronominal soft declension have influenced the hard (eg, tejí, méji [su tijéji, mojéji] 'of that, of my'). Sometimes such endings are also used in adjectives. Verbs have endings and forms of the type xod'at', dasys [su xódjat', dasy] 'they walk, you (sing) will give' and, in the east, pytát ', búdu robyt ' [SU pytáty, búdu robyty] 'to ask, I will make'. Certain features of the Sian and Dniester dialects are evident in the group of so-called Buh dialects west of the upper Styr River. There the stressed 'a after palatal sibilants and r has changed to 'e (eg, los'ét'a [SU losáta] 'foals') and, in the southern Kholm region, also to 'i (eg, t'ísko [su tjázko] 'heavily'); ky, gy, xy have changed to k'e, g'e, x'e when stressed and to k'i, g'i, x'i when unstressed (eg, k'énuü, rúk'i [su kynuv, rúky] 'he threw, hands'); stressed e is lowered to a (eg, dan' [su den'} 'day', and unstressed e, o is raised to i, u (eg, pirihórujut, rubyvim [su perehorjújut', robyv] 'they will endure, I made'). The dialects have been studied by linguists such as V. Kaminsky, S. Haievsky, P. Hladky, L. Rak, K. Dejna, H. Shylo, P. Lysenko, M. Peretiatko, L. Bova (Kovalchuk), T. Baimut, M. Kravchuk, L. Baranovska, Ya. Pura, F. Babii, H. Kozachuk, O. Horbach, and M. Korzoniuk. O. Horbach Southeastern dialects. A dialectal group consisting of the Middle Dnieper, Slobidska Ukrainian, and Steppe dialects. They have the same type of phonetics as the

Podilian and South Volhynian dialects of the southwestern group, and a type of simplified morphology, syntax, and, to a certain extent, vocabulary similar to that of the Polisian dialects. V. Hantsov and, later, O. Kurylo expressed the view that the southeastern dialects developed as a result of the intermingling of speakers of the southwestern and Polisian dialects who colonized southeastern Ukraine. L. Bulakhovsky and F. Zhylko maintained that they are one of the three primeval, fundamental Ukrainian dialects spoken by the ancient Polianians of the Ros River basin and the Pereiaslav region; they did not, however, point out any distinctive ancient traits, and their hypothesis is unconvincing. Modern Standard Ukrainian is based on the northern belt of the southeastern dialects. Southern Branch of the Ail-Union Academy of Agricultural Sciences (Pivdenne viddilennia Vsesoiuznoi akademii silskohospodarskykh nauk). Until the demise of the USSR in 1991, a regional center for agricultural research in the Ukrainian SSR and the Moldavian SSR. In 1991 it became the Ukrainian Academy of Agrarian Sciences. It was set up in Kiev under the jurisdiction of the presidium of the Ail-Union Academy of Agricultural Sciences and the Council of Ministers of the Ukrainian SSR in 1969. The branch had various sections, such as agronomy, animal husbandry and veterinary medicine, the mechanization and electrification of farming, hydrotechnology and melioration, and farm economics and organization. It had a publishing department and the Central Republican Agricultural Research Library. It oversaw the work of 19 scientific research institutes and their experimental stations and seed farms. The branch planned and co-ordinated agricultural research at scientific and higher educational institutions in Ukraine and Moldavia. Southern Buh River. See Boh River. Southern Economic Region of the USSR. See Regional economics. Southern Mineral Enrichment Complex (Pivdennyi hirnycho-zbahachuvalnyi kombinat). A large mineral enrichment plant located in Kryvyi Rih, Dnipropetrovske oblast. The first plant opened in 1955, and a second plant in 1961. The complex, which consists of an open-pit mine, two crushing mills, two wet magnetic separation plants, and two agglomeration plants, processes ore from the *Kryvyi Rih Iron-ore Basin. In 1969 it processed 33.2 million t of ore to produce 15.7 million t of concentrate (with an iron content of 64.6 percent) and 8.1 million of agglomerates (with an iron content of 56.4 percent). In the 19705 it employed over 4,000 workers. Southern Railroad. See Railroad transportation. Southern Rebels (Pivdenni buntari). An association of populist revolutionaries active in Ukraine in the mid18705. Formed in 1875 in Odessa by V. *Debohorii-Mokriievych and Ya. *Stefanovych, the group was among the first to express disenchantment with the tactics adopted by the 'going to the people7 movement and the populist organization Zemlia i Volia. The role of the intelligentsia in the countryside, the rebels believed, was to provoke the peasantry to revolution by any means possible. To that

SOUTHERN U K R A I N E

end the group's 20 or more members, based originally in Kiev and later in Yelysavethrad, disguised themselves as peasants and tradespeople while spreading revolutionary propaganda. Stefanovych attempted his most audacious scheme in November 1876 in Chyhyryn county. Disguising himself as an 'imperial commissioner/ he claimed to be bearing documents from the tsar which urged the peasants to rise up in revolution against the nobles and imperial officials. He managed to organize a clandestine force of approx 1,000 people before the plot was discovered and the people responsible arrested in September 1877. By 1878 the remaining members of the Southern Rebels either had been arrested or had joined other revolutionary organizations. Southern Society (Russian: Yuzhnoe obshchestvo). A conspiratorial organization of Russian military officers stationed in Ukraine that was part of what became known as the *Decembrist movement. The society was founded by Col P. *Pestel in March 1821 in place of the Tulchyn council of the *Union of Welfare. It was headed by a Fundamental Council and a Directory and, from the fall of 1825, Lt Col S. *Muravev-Apóstol. Its leaders (called boyars) met secretly each year during the January contract fair in Kiev to debate the program and tactics for the military overthrow of tsarist absolutism, the abolition of serfdom, and the creation of a unitary Russian democratic state and constitutional monarchy. In 1823 the society was divided into three branches, Tulchyn, Kamianka, and Vasylkiv. In September 1825 the ^Society of United Slavs, which had Ukrainians among its members, merged with the Vasylkiv branch. After the suppression of the uprising of the Chernihiv Regiment led by Muravev-Apóstol and the Vasylkiv branch in January 1826, the members of the Southern Society were arrested. Pestel, Muravev-Apóstol, and M. Bestuzhev-Riumin were hanged in St Petersburg in July, the other members were sentenced to long terms of hard labor and exile in Siberia, and the soldiers of the Chernihiv Regiment were punished and transferred to penal regiments in the Caucasus. Southern Ukraine. The largest (250,000 sq km) historical-geographic region of Ukraine, stretching from the Black Sea and the Azov Sea in the south to the foreststeppe in the north. Also known as Steppe Ukraine, it was permanently and conclusively settled by Ukrainians only in the second half of the i8th century. From the end of the i8th century until 1917 Southern Ukraine, as part of the Russian Empire, was known as *New Russia. Location and boundaries. The history of Southern Ukraine and the ethnic composition of its population were influenced by its location on the littoral of the Black Sea (into which flow all the major rivers of Ukraine) adjacent to the Asiatic steppes (the steppes of Southern Ukraine are their western extension). Throughout its history the region was repeatedly invaded by hordes of nomads from Asia, who severed the main territory of Ukraine and its inhabitants from the Black Sea. At the same time the Mediterranean seafaring powers tried to establish colonies and extend their influence on the northern littoral of the Black Sea, and the peoples inhabiting the main territory of Ukraine also tried to reach the Black Sea shore. Those three directions of expansion intersected on the territory of Southern Ukraine and resulted in conflicts that endured for millennia.

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In antiquity the Greeks established *ancient states on the northern Black Sea coast, some of which were subsequently united into the *Bosporan Kingdom and later incorporated into the Roman Empire and its successor, the Byzantine Empire. The influences of the highly developed Mediterranean cultures extended from them deep into the interior. Trade with them and Byzantium contributed to the growth of the Kievan Rus' state. The latter state's link with the south became tenuous in the loth to 12th centuries, when the *Pechenegs and then the *Cumans invaded Southern Ukraine, and was almost completely severed in the 13th century after the Mongol (*Tatar) invasion. The collapse of Byzantium and the occupation of Southern Ukraine at the end of the 15th century by Turkey through its vassal, the Crimean Khanate, converted Southern Ukraine into a depopulated steppe controlled by the nomads. The emergence of the Cossacks around the *Zaporozhian Sich in the mid-i6th century resulted in a protracted struggle for control of the steppes. The matter was resolved only in the late i8th century, after Turkey's defeats in the Russo-Turkish wars created the conditions for permanent Ukrainian settlement in the steppes and their unification with the rest of Ukraine. Southern Ukraine thus joined Ukraine, which by that time had been incorporated within the Russian Empire. The northern boundaries of Southern Ukraine are not precise. From the geographical standpoint they consist of a transition zone between the steppe and the foreststeppe. From the historical standpoint they correspond to the southern frontiers of the Kievan, Lithuanian, and Polish states, which together with the Ukrainian farming settlement fluctuated southward deep into the steppe or northward into the forest-steppe. From the end of the i8th century the northern boundary of Southern Ukraine corresponded to the northern limit of the new possessions of the Russian Empire. That limit followed the old frontiers between Poland and Turkey (from the Dniester to the Boh), Poland and Zaporizhia (to the Dnieper), and the Left Bank or Hetmán Ukraine and the Zaporizhia (along the Dnieper and its left-bank tributary, the Orel). It was also the northern boundary of the three gubernias that succeeded New Russia: Kherson, Katerynoslav, and Tavriia. The other boundaries of Southern Ukraine included the southern part of Bessarabia in the west and the western part of the Don region in the east, both of which were peopled by Ukrainians. With the rise of industry in the Donets Basin and the Dnieper Industrial Region from the i88os, Southern Ukraine underwent economic differentiation. Over time the division became pronounced, and today Southern Ukraine consists of the agricultural steppe (Odessa, Mykolaiv, Kirovohrad, and Kherson oblasts and the Crimea), the Donets Basin (Donetske and Luhanske oblasts), and the Dnieper Industrial Region (Dnipropetrovske and Zaporizhia oblasts). Physical geography. With the exception of southern Crimea, Southern Ukraine presents a monotonous, flat, predominantly low-lying landscape, with its particular steppe climate, vegetation, and fauna. All those characteristics vary over the great distances of Southern Ukraine, particularly on the fringe of the forest-steppe and in the east. The largest part of Southern Ukraine is occupied by the *Black Sea Lowland and its extension: to the south, the

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SOUTHERN UKRAINE

SOUTHERN UKRAINE, 2ND CENTURY BC TO 2ND CENTURY AD Crimean Lowland, and to the east, the narrow Azov Lowland, which widens eastward into the broad Lower-Don Lowland. The northwestern part of Southern Ukraine is occupied by the southern extremities of the undulating *Pokutian-Bessarabian Upland between the Danube and the Dniester, and the severely dissected *Podolian Upland. A considerably larger area is occupied by the southern part of the ^Dnieper Upland, the *Zaporozhian Ridge, and the *Azov Upland. The northeastern part of Southern Ukraine is occupied by the extensions of the ^Dnieper Lowland and the ^Central Upland, the Donets Lowland, and the highest part of Southern Ukraine, the *Donets Ridge (reaching 367 m). The southern part of the Crimea is occupied by the Crimean Mountains. The climate of Southern Ukraine differs from that of the rest of Ukraine. Influenced to a greater extent by the easterly winds, it is moderately continental and dry. The mean annual temperature ranges from 7°c to io°c. The coldest winters occur in the northeast (mean lanuary temperature, ~7°C); the warmest are recorded in the southwest (-2°c). Absolute minimum temperatures range from ~42°C to -28°C. Summer temperatures are nearly the same

throughout Southern Ukraine (fury means range from 21 °C to 23°c). The frost-free period increases from 150 days in the northeast to 210 days in the southwest; the growing period, from 200 to 230 days. The mean annual precipitation is highest along the border with the forest steppe (475 mm) and lowest over the sea (250-300 mm); from year to year, however, it varies widely (from 200 to 800 mm). Maximum precipitation is obtained in May, lune, and luly, when downpours prevail. The snow cover is uneven and may last from 30 to 100 days per year. Strong winds often include hurricanes, desiccating winds or sukhovii, and dust storms. Long, warm summers are conducive to the production of heat-loving crops, but frequent droughts and sukhovii cause wide fluctuations in yields. The river network of Southern Ukraine is not dense, but the region is crossed by several large rivers: the Danube, the Dniester, the Boh, the Inhul, the Dnieper and its tributaries (the Inhulets, the Orel, the Samara, and others), and the Don and its tributary, the Donets. A number of small rivers flow toward the Black Sea (such as the Kohylnyk, the Velykyi Kuialnyk, the Malyi Kuialnyk, and the Tyli-

SOUTHERN U K R A I N E

837

SOUTHERN UKRAINE IN THE SECOND HALF OF THE 18TH CENTURY hul) and the Azov Sea (the Salhyr, the Molochna, the Obytochna, the Berda, the Kalmiius, the Miius, and others), most of which empty into coastal lakes or limans. In the summer the small rivers of Southern Ukraine are shallow or dry up completely. Between the Dnieper and the Molochna and on much of the Crimean Lowland there are no rivers at all. Along the coast there are many lakes, formed out of former inlets cut off from the sea by bars. The soils and vegetation of Southern Ukraine reveal a zonal distribution reflecting the availability of moisture. Southern Ukraine, especially the Donets Basin and the Dnieper Industrial Region, is the richest part of Ukraine for mineral resources. Here one finds almost all the bitu-

minous coal (the Donets Basin, with total proven reserves of coal of 55.6 billion t in 1977) and iron ore (the Kryvyi Rih basin deposits, with proven reserves of 15.9 billion t in 1975) of Ukraine, all the manganese ore (the Nykopil basin deposits, with reserves of approximately 2 billion t), most of the common salt (the Artemivske rock salt deposits), and all the nonferrous metal ores (mercury at Mykytivka, northwest of Horlivka, in the Donets Basin, bauxite deposits in Dnipropetrovske oblast, chromite and nickel near Zavallia, on the Boh River). Refractory and flux materials, lignite coals, limestones, marls, gypsum, kaolin, graphite, marble, and all kinds of building materials are abundant.

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A D M I N I S T R A T I V E - T E R R I T O R I A L SUBDIVISION OF SOUTHERN U K R A I N E D U R I N G THE 19TH AND 20TH C E N T U R I E S Economy and demography. In the 18605 and 18705, great changes occurred in the economy and demography of Southern Ukraine in conjunction with the abolition of serfdom (1861), the construction of railroads (1865 to the i88os), which provided an all-season connection between the interior and the sea, and the beginnings of heavy industry. Large-scale industrial development of Southern Ukraine began at the end of the 18705 in conjunction with the exploitation of the Donets Basin coal (the output of which increased from 1.3 million t in 1880 to 23.5 million t in 1913), Kryvyi Rih iron ore (o.i million t in 1881, but 6.4 million t in 1913), and Nykopil manganese ore (beginning in 1886 and reaching 276,0001 in 1913) as well as the con-

struction of a dense network of railroads connecting the Donets Basin with seaports and with Kryvyi Rih (the railroad to Katerynoslav was completed in 1884). Industrial development was favored by the convenient geographical location of the coal and iron-ore deposits, not far from one another or from the sea, and stimulated by a rapid influx of foreign capital. Within a short period of time on the territory of Southern Ukraine arose two of the largest centers of heavy industry in Eastern Europe, the *Donets Basin (bituminous coal mining, metal smelting, and chemical industries) and the ^Dnieper Industrial Region (including the cities of Katerynoslav, Oleksandrivske, Kryvyi Rih, and Nykopil and specializing in the mining of iron and

SOUTHERN UKRAINE

manganese ores, metal smelting, and machine building). Of secondary significance were the industrial cities of Mariiupil and Kerch. Meanwhile the seaports, notably Odessa, Mykolaiv, Kherson, and Sevastopil, grew in industrial importance as they became sites of shipbuilding, food processing, machine building (especially for agriculture), and other branches of industry that used imported raw materials. As ports they were important centers of trade and commerce. The ethnic composition of the population in Southern Ukraine, the most varied in all Ukrainian lands, changed over time. Until 1820 the influx of Ukrainians was by far the strongest. Later the inflow of Jews and, especially after 1880, of Russians markedly increased (see table i). Odessa and Katerynoslav emerged as the main cultural centers in Southern Ukraine. Lower on the scale of significance were Yelysavethrad, Kherson, and other towns. The First World War and especially the Revolution of 1917 brought about an economic decline in Southern Ukraine. Foreign trade came to a standstill, and the port cities declined. During 1918-20 Southern Ukraine was a battleground for the armies of the Ukrainian National Republic, the Bolsheviks, the French, the Whites led by A. *Denikin and later P. *Wrangel, and the detachments of the anarchist N. *Makhno, as well as other insurgent forces. Ukraine incorporated Kherson, Katerynoslav, and Tavriia gubernias, although the Crimean Peninsula became an autonomous republic within the RSFSR. The western part of the former Don Cossack lands also went to Ukraine, but by 1924 Tahanrih and Shakhty counties had been transferred to the RSFSR. In the west, part of Bessarabia was occupied by Rumania. During 1919-20 the heavy industry of Southern Ukraine collapsed. The sown area had declined to onehalf its prewar levels by 1921-2, and the grain harvest to one-quarter by 1921, a drought year; the result was famine. Livestock declined to two-thirds of its 1916 level. The national composition of the population changed between 1910 and the 19205, with an increased number of Ukrainians and a decreased number of Germans, Jews, and Russians. The Ukrainian presence grew most markedly in the agricultural steppe but diminished in the Donets Basin, which continued to register an in-migration of Russians. The development of Southern Ukraine was interrupted once more by the Second World War. Political borders again underwent change. In 1940 the southern part of Bessarabia was annexed by Ukraine, and until 1954 it formed Izmail oblast (subsequently it became part of Odessa oblast). The western portion of the Moldavian ASSR, settled by Rumanians, was ceded by the Ukrainian SSR to the newly formed Moldavian SSR. In 1946 the Crimean ASSR was transformed into an ordinary oblast which, in 1954, was transferred from the RSFSR to the Ukrainian SSR. After frequent changes in the economic regionalization of the USSR, stabilization was achieved in 1962, and Southern Ukraine was defined to include all of the South region (Crimea, Kherson, Mykolaiv, and Odessa oblasts) and most of the Donets-Dnieper region (Dnipropetrovske, Donetske, Kirovohrad, Luhanske, and Zaporizhia oblasts). The population of Southern Ukraine as just defined reached 23.2 million on i January 1990. (At the end of the i8th century it was about i million, and in the mid-i9th century 2.5 million, but by 1897 it had grown to 6.7 mil-

839

lion, by 1926 to 11.4 million, and by 1959 to 17.2 million.) The population growth rate of Southern Ukraine has been considerably higher than that of the rest of Ukraine, and the region's share of Ukraine's population has grown continually: from 23 percent in 1897 (still within the Russian Empire) to 30 percent in 1926, 41 percent in 1959, and 45 percent in 1990. Fully 78 percent of the people in Southern Ukraine live in cities or urban-type settlements, compared to only 22 percent in 1926. The distribution of the population is not uniform. Population densities are highest in the two industrial regions, around Odessa, and along the southwestern coast of the Crimea, where dense clusters of cities, urban-type settlements, and suburbs abound. Rural population densities are related to natural conditions (soil fertility and moisture availability) and have not changed much since 1897, except for an increase in northern Crimea, where irrigation has been introduced. The distribution of population as of i January 1987 is shown in table 2. The growth of population has also been uneven. Since the 19305 the urban population has increased rapidly, and the rural population has generally declined (see table 3). As in all of Ukraine, the ethnic composition of the urban population differs from that of the rural population. Notably, Ukrainians are largely overrepresented (75.3 percent in 1970) in the rural population category. TABLE 1

Ethnic composition of Southern Ukraine, 1897 Ethnic group

1,000s

Ukrainians Russians Jews Germans Rumanians (Moldavians) Bulgarians Greeks Others

3,535 1,196 372 290 198 113 57 232

59.0 20.0 6.2 4.8 3.3 1.9 0.9 3.9

Total

5,993

100.0

TABLE 2 Population of Southern Ukraine by region, 1987 Total

per 1,000s sqkm 1,000s

Region Donets Basin Dnieper Industrial Southwest Steppe Crimea Total

Rural

Urban

% of per total 1,000s sqkm

8,217 154.5 7,350 5,921 100.2 4,782 6,392 57.6 4,076 2,397 88.8 1,671 22,927

91.6 17,879

89.4 867 80.8 1,139 63.8 2,316 69.7 726

16.3 20.2 20.9 26.9

78.0 5,048

20.2

TABLE 3 Rural and urban population of Southern Ukraine (in thousands), 1926-87 Year

Total

Urban

Rural

1926 1959 1987

11,440 17,186 22,927

2,840 11,195 17,879

8,600 5,991 5,048

840

SOUTHERN UKRAINE

The présent distribution of population (density of settlement) is shown on the map. The ethnic composition of the population is shown in table 4. In the i88os the steppes of Southern Ukraine became completely plowed. Since then land use has not changed significantly. The present land uses are shown in table 5. Lands held by agricultural enterprises, which account for 85 percent of the entire land area, are mostly devoted to agricultural land uses, as shown in table 7. The sown area of Southern Ukraine represents 45 percent of the sown area of Ukraine. The structure of the sown area in Southern Ukraine is indicated in table 6. The main grain crops of Southern Ukraine, their significance among all the grains of the region, and their share of the sown areas in Ukraine are illustrated in table 8. The number of livestock (as of i January 1976) and the livestock

Ukrainians Russians Jews Belarusians Bulgarians Rumanians Greeks Tatars Poles Gagauzy Others Total

1979

1970

12,852 (58.8) 7,587 (34.7) 275 (1.3) 269 (1.2) 222 (1.0) 172 (0.8) 93 (0.4) 61 (0.3) 35 (0.2) 27 (0.1) 248 (1.1) 21,841 (100.0)

%

Agricultural land uses Plowland Pastures Hayfields Orchards, vineyards, and berry plantings Forests and woodlots (estimate) Other (estimate)

19.1 15.9 2.5 0.1

89.7 74.7 11.7 0.5

0.6 1.2 1.0

2.8 5.6 4.7

Total held by agricultural enterprises

21.3

100.0

1,000 ha

1926

12,377 (60.7) 6,633 (32.5) 321 (1.6) 263 (1.3) 219 (1.1) 170 (0.8) 96 (0.5) 53 (0.3) 40 (0.2) 24 (0.1) 204 (1.0) 20,400 (100.0)

-

(65.5) (17.8) (5.4) (0.5) (1.3) (1.7) (0.9) (1.9) (0.5) (0.1) (4.4)

- (100.0)

TABLE 5 Land uses of Southern Ukraine, 1 November 1982 Million ha

%

77.6 63.6 11.6 2.4 6.8 15.6

Agricultural land uses 19.4 Plowland 15.9 Hayfields and pastures 2.9 Orchards, vineyards, and berry plantings 0.6 Forests and woodlots 1 .7 Other 3.9 Total land area

Million ha

TABLE 8 Main grain crops of Southern Ukraine (sown areas in 1965 and 1975)

TABLE 4 Ethnie composition of the population of Southern Ukraine, 1926-79 (total population in thousands; percentage of total in parentheses) Ethnic group

TABLE 7 Land uses of agricultural enterprises in Southern Ukraine, 1 November 1982

100.0

25.0

% of all grain

Share of Ukraine

1965

1965

1975

1965

1975

Winter wheat Spring barley Corn for grain

3,609 1,703 1,030

4,405 1,422 667

46.9 22.1 13.4

56.2 18.1 8.5

49.1 65.5 56.7

55.4 39.9 53.5

All grain

7,701

7,843

100.0

100.0

46.7

47.4

1975

density per 100 ha of agricultural land, with comparisons to the Ukrainian averages, are given in table 9. The annual output of animal products (the mean for 1971-5, inclusive) is given in table 10. Southern Ukraine may be divided into several agricultural zones: (i) grain-oil seed, with the production of sugar beets and milk-meat animal husbandry, in the northern part of the steppe; (2) grain-oil seed, milk-meat animal husbandry, poultry farming, and fruit and vegetable gardening in the middle zone of the steppe; (3) grain-oil seed, fruit and vegetable gardening, melon growing, vineyard keeping, and milk-meat animal husbandry in the southern and Crimean steppe; (4) vineyard-orchard, tobacco, and vegetable growing, milk-meat animal husbandry, and sheep raising in the foothills of the Crimea and southern Crimea; and (5) milk production and fruit and vegetable growing in suburban areas in the Donets Basin, the Dnieper Industrial Region, and around large cities. Industry. Possessing the largest supply of conveniently

TABLE 6 Sown area structure in Southern Ukraine, 1986

Donets Basin 1,000 ha %

Dnieper Industrial Region

Southwest Steppe

Crimea

Total Southern Ukraine

1,000 ha %

1,000 ha %

1,000 ha %

1,000 ha

%

Grain Technical crops Potatoes and vegetables Feed crops

1,451 291 156 980

50.4 10.1 5.4 34.1

1,969 441 172 1,149

52.8 11.8 4.6 30.8

3,735 837 300 2,046

54.0 12.1 4.3 29.6

587 78 43 503

48.5 6.4 3.6 41.5

7,742 1,647 671 4,678

52.5 11.2 4.6 31.7

Total sown

2,878

100.0

3,731

100.0

6,918

100.0

1,211

100.0

14,738

100.0

S O U T H W E S T E R N B R A N C H OF THE I M P E R I A L RUSSIAN G E O G R A P H I C SOCIETY TABLE 9 Livestock in Southern Ukraine, 1976 Units/100 ha of agricultural lane[

1,000s Cattle 9,065 Cows 3,188 Pigs 7,168 Sheep and goats 5,682

As % of Ukraine South Ukr

37.5 35.5 42.5 62.3

47.2 16.6 37.3 29.6

Ukraine

57.3 21.3 39.9 21.6

TABLE 10 Farm output of animal products (mean production; thousand tonnes), 1971-5 T/100ha agricultural land Ac % nf

Meat and fat Pork Milk Wool

1,000 1

Ukraine

South Ukr

Ukraine

1,219 560 7,543 17.99

37.2 37.1 37.0 67.6

6.3 2.9 39.3 0.09

7.8 3.6 48.2 0.06

located extractable mineral reserves in Eastern Europe, and having developed both heavy industry and other derivative, more complex branches of industry on the basis of those reserves, Southern Ukraine is the most industrialized part of Ukraine and one of the most highly industrialized regions in what was the Soviet Union. In 1968 it produced 185.2 million t of bituminous coal in the Donets Basin (93 percent of the Ukrainian output, 31 percent of the USSR output), 8 million t of lignite (from part of the Dnieper Lignite Coal Basin), 87.8 million t of iron ore (from Kryvyi Rih and Kerch, accounting for all of the republic's production and 55 percent of the USSR's), and 4.8 million t of manganese ore (from the Nykopil Manganeseore Basin, contributing all of the republic's and 56 percent of the USSR's output). Ferrous metallurgy in the Donets Basin, Mariiupil (formerly Zhdanov), and the Dnieper Industrial Region contributed 36.7 million t of pig iron (all of the republic's and 49 percent of the USSR's output), 42.8 million t of steel (all of the republic's and 42 percent of the USSR's output), and 30.6 million t of rolled metal (all of the republic's and 43 percent of the USSR's output). Southern Ukraine also provided all the nonferrous metallurgy of Ukraine (notably aluminum smelting in Zaporizhia), almost all its heavy-machine building (Donets Basin, Dnieper Industrial Region), and almost all the shipbuilding (in the seaports). Agricultural-machine building also was important. The region led Ukraine in the production of chemicals, especially coke-chemicals (100 percent of the country's production), sulfuric acid, caustic soda, mineral fertilizers, paints, synthetic tars, and plastics (all in the Donets Basin, the Dnieper Industrial Region, and Odessa). Southern Ukraine also produced about two-thirds of the electric power in Ukraine. The largest generating stations are found in the Donets Basin (thermal), the Dnieper (hydro as well as thermal), and Odessa (thermal). In addition four nuclear reactor complexes were to be built: near Zaporizhia, on the Boh River (the South Ukrainian), near Odessa, and in the Crimea (the plans for the Odessa and

841

the Crimea nuclear plants have been canceled). Of considerable significance is the preparation of building materials (Donets Basin, Dnieper Industrial Region, Crimea, Odessa), especially cement. The food-processing and textile industries are also important, particularly in the southwest steppe. BIBLIOGRAPHY Lebedintsev, A. Khanskaia Ukraina (Odessa 1913) Bahalii, D. Zaselennia Pivdennoï Ukraïny (Kharkiv 1920) Stepova Ukra'ina: Ekonomichno-heohrafichni narysy (Kharkiv 1929) Ohloblyn, O. Narysy z istorti kapitalizmu na Ukraïni, i (KievKharkiv 1931) Polons'ka-Vasylenko, N. The Settlement of the Southern Ukraine (1750-1775) (New York 1955) Khizhniak, A. Nizhnee Pridneprov'e (Moscow 1956) Druzhinina, E. Severnoe Prichernomor'e v 1775-1800 gg. (Moscow 1959) Polons'ka-Vasylenko, N. Zaselennia Pivdennoï Ukraïny v polovyni xvm st. (1734-1775), 2 vols (Munich 1960) - Zaporizhzhia xvm stolittia ta ioho spadshchyna, 2 vols (Munich 1965,1967) Druzhinina, E. luzhnaia Ukraina v 1800-1825 gg. (Moscow 1970) Kabuzan, V. Narodonaselenie Bessarabskoi oblasti i levoberezhnykh raionov Pridnestrov 'ia (konets xvm-pervaia polovina xix v.) (Kishinev 1974) - Zaselenie Novorossii (Ekaterinoslavskoi i Khersonskoi gubernii) v xvm-pervoi polovine xix veka (1719-1858 gg.) (Moscow 1976) Zelenchuk, V. Naselenie Bessarabii i Podnestrov'ia v xix v. (Etnicheskie i sotsial 'no-demograficheskie protsessy) (Kishinev 1979) V. Kubijovyc, Ya. Pasternak, M. Arkas, M. Zhdan, N. Polonska-Vasylenko, O. Ohloblyn, I. Stebelsky

Southwestern Branch of the Imperial Russian Geographic Society (Russian: Yugo-zapadnyi otdel Impera torskogo russkogo geograficheskogo obshchestva). A virtually independent learned association established in Kiev on 13 February 1873 to conduct geographic, ethnographic, economic, and statistical research in Ukraine. Unlike other regional branches of the imperial Russian society, such as the East Siberian, West Siberian, and Caucasian, the Southwestern branch left archeological and historical research to other, already-established learned societies in Kiev. Most of the founders and key members of the association were members of the Old *Hromada of Kiev, including V. Antonovych, V. Berenshtam, F. Vovk, M. Drahomanov, P. Zhytetsky, O. Lashkevych, M. Lysenko, and O. Rusov. The first president was Hryhorii *Galagan, and the managing director was P. *Chubynsky. The scholarly output of the association over the brief period of its existence is impressive. It published two volumes of Zapiski (1874-5) containing studies by O. Klosovsky, M. Yasnopolsky, O. Rohovych, and M. Levchenko as well as the aforementioned members. As supplements to the periodical, it published a collection of O. Veresai's dumas and songs, Rohovych's bibliography of naturalist studies of the Kiev school district (1874), H. Kupchanko's materials on Bukovyna, and a folk-song collection. It supported the publication of I. Rudchenko's collection of chumak songs (1874), Drahomanov and Antonovych's collection of historical songs (1874-5), and the preparation for print of Drahomanov's collection of folk legends and stories (1876) and of M. Maksymovych's collected works (1876-80). The society conducted a voluntary census of Kiev in March 1874 and published an analysis with its results (1875). In August 1874 it participated in the Third Archeological Congress, which it had helped organize in

842

SOUTHWESTERN B R A N C H OF THE I M P E R I A L RUSSIAN G E O G R A P H I C SOCIETY

Kiev, and in March 1875, in a geographic congress and exhibition in Paris. The society set up a library and museum that displayed artifacts collected during field expeditions by its members and sponsored a public lecture series on various aspects of Ukrainian life. Finally, some of its members gained editorial control over the newspaper Kievskii telegraf and often ran articles on Ukrainian themes. The accomplishments of the society and its success in generating interest in Ukrainian studies aroused the suspicion of Russian chauvinists. Starting in 1874, denunciations of the society arrived in the Third Section of the police in St Petersburg. The denunciations became more numerous and extreme when Antonovych was elected president and Chubynsky vice-president of the society, in May 1875. In his memorandum the curator of the Kiev school district, M. *Yuzefovych, who at first had been a strong supporter and an influential member of the association, accused the members of the society of political sedition and separatism. As a result an imperial commission was established in September 1875 to study the whole Ukrainian situation. Its recommendation of further repressive measures was approved by Alexander II and is known as the *Ems Ukase. The Southwestern Branch was dissolved in June 1876, and Chubynsky was forced to leave Kiev. According to the secret ukase, the society could be renewed if all the former members were excluded from it. In spite of its short life the Southwestern Branch made an important contribution to the Ukrainian national revival. Not only did it publish some valuable scholarly works and monuments of the oral tradition, it also brought together a group of Ukrainian scholars and civic leaders who spearheaded the national movement until the end of the century.

BIBLIOGRAPHY Zhytets'kyi, I. Tivdenno-zakhidnyi viddil Heohrafichnoho tovarystva u Kyievi/ Ukraïna, 1927, no. 5 Savchenko, F. Zaborona ukra'instva 1876 (Kiev-Kharkiv 1930; repr, Munich 1970) B. Kravtsiv

Southwestern dialects. A group consisting of the Podilian, South Volhynian, Dniester, Sian, Lemko, Transcarpathian, Hutsul, and Bukovyna-Pokutia dialects. Together with the group of ^southeastern dialects (the boundary between the two groups runs along the line Khvastiv-Pervomaiske-Tyraspil), they form the basic southern group of Ukrainian dialects. The dialects differ from the ^northern dialects in the change, independently of stress, of the ancient vowels ô, ê into i (u, ü, 'u, 'ü in the subdialects of the Carpathian region), ë into 'z, and ç into 'a ('e Ty], 'i in the subdialects of Bukovyna and central Galicia), and in morphological, syntactic, and lexical peculiarities. They differ from the southeastern dialects in retaining many phonetic and morphological archaisms and allowing fewer phonetic innovations.

Southwestern Economic Region of the USSR. See

Regional economics.

Southwestern land (Russian: Yugo-zapadnyi krai). An administrative territory set up by the Russian government in Right-Bank Ukraine in 1832. Known officially as Kiev general gubernia, it consisted of Kiev, Podilia, and Volhynia gubernias and existed until 1917. The designation 'southwestern' was in the context of the territory of the Russian Empire, and 'Yugo-Zapadnaia Rossiia' (Southwestern Russia) was also frequently used to refer to Russian-ruled Ukraine (eg, *Arkhiv lugo-Zapadnoi Rossii). That

SOVEREIGNTY

centralist Russian viewpoint remained in the terminology of the Soviet administration, wherein names such as Tivdenno-zakhidnyi ekonomichnyi raion SSSR' (Southwestern Economic Region of the USSR) were used to refer to Ukraine. Southwestern Railroad. See Railroad transportation. Sova, Andrii, b 30 December 1912 in Odessa. Film actor and reciter. He completed study at the Odessa Theater College (1938) and then worked in the Odessa (1938-41) and Kiev (1944-50) artistic film studios and the Kiev Philharmonic Society Ukrconcert (1951-9) and became known as a reciter in the genre of satirical miniature (1959-79). He acted in the films Taiemnychyi ostriv (The Mysterious Island, 1940) and V dalekomu plavanni (On a Distant Sea Voyage, 1945). Sova, Petro, b 1894 in Nové Zamky, Komarno county, Slovakia, d ? Russophile Transcarpathian historian and civic figure. After graduating from the Law Academy in Presov he worked for the Czechoslovakian civil service as a department head in the Uzhhorod regional branch of the Ministry of Education and as a cultural attaché in the governor's office. He was also a city council member and vicemayor (1924-7) of Uzhhorod and a founding member of the Russian National Autonomist party. As deputy head of the People's Council of Transcarpathian Ukraine (19445) he led a campaign to support the Soviet annexation of Transcarpathia after the Second World War. Sova wrote a number of regional studies, including Proshloe Uzhgoroda (Uzhhorod's Past, 1937) and Arkhitekturnye pamiatniki Zakarpat'ia (Architectural Monuments of Transcarpathia, 1958). He also translated Slovo o polku Ihorevi (The Tale of Ihor's Campaign) into Hungarian.

843

Lysenko Music and Drama School in Kiev, she worked in the Kiev Opera House and was active in the drama circle of the Kiev Hromada. She joined the State Drama Theater in 1918 and then worked in the Ruska Besida Theater in Lviv (1921-3), the Ruthenian Theater of the Prosvita Society in Uzhhorod (1923-31), the Tobilevych Theater (19323), the Zahrava and Kotliarevsky theaters (1934-9), the Lesia Ukrainka Drama Theater (1939-41), and the Lviv Opera House (1941-4)- After the Second World War she lived in Austria and, from 1949, in France. She led a Ukrainian troupe in Salzburg in 1945-9. Sovachiv, Vasyl [Sovaciv, Vasyl'], b 1876 in Pryluka, Poltava gubernia, d 3 May 1924 in Slyvky, Kalush county, Galicia. Army physician and civic activist. As a medical student in Kiev he was president of the Young Hromada for five years. He served as an army doctor in the RussoJapanese War and in the First World War. After returning to Kiev in 1917, he worked in the local hospitals and was active in the Ukrainian Democratic Agrarian party. With the UNR Directory's evacuation from Kiev to Vinnytsia, he was appointed chief of the Sanitary Administration of the UNR Army. Later he was a member of the chief executive of the Ukrainian Red Cross. In the 19205 he worked as a physician in the health resort of Pidliute, near Kalush.

Sova (Owl). A Russophile satirical paper published in 1871 in Uzhhorod (three issues) and Budapest (two issues). The journal was founded by the prominent Transcarpathian Russophile E. Hrabar. Edited by V. Kimak, it satirized the *Magyarone clergy in Transcarpathia. Sovacheva, Hanna [Sovaceva], b 7 December 1877 in Pryluka, Poltava gubernia, d 7 July 1954 in Abondant, near Paris. Character and comic actress, singer (mezzo-soprano), and stage director. After completing study at the

Hanna Sovacheva

Vasyl Sovachiv

Cover of the publication of the 1990 declaration of Ukraine's sovereignty, signed by members of Ukraine's parliament

Sovereignty. The legal and political concept that deals with ultimate authority in the decision-making process of the state. In international law it is the freedom of a state from outside interference in administering its internal and external affairs. Sovereignty is a fundamental principle of international legal relations and the essential property of a modern state. The source and locus of sovereignty may be a monarch or dictator or, as in democratic states, the people. In totalitarian regimes a single political party exercises sovereign powers. Relations of vassalage, protection, or union between states entail a limitation or loss of sovereignty. The Ukrainian Hetmán state of the 17th to i8th century enjoyed only partial sovereignty. The new states of the 19th to 2oth centuries gained sovereignty by claiming the right to 'self-determination. The Central Rada, acting as a sovereign power, proclaimed the establishment of the UNR

844

SOVEREIGNTY

in the Third Universal (20 November 1917) and the republic's complete sovereignty in the Fourth Universal (22 January 1918). According to the latter, full sovereignty belongs to the Ukrainian people. The unilateral declaration of sovereignty gave Ukraine the right to enter into international relations. Its sovereignty was recognized by several states: the Central Powers in the Peace Treaty of Brest-Litovsk, Soviet Russia in the same treaty and in the peace agreement of 12 June 1918, and Poland in the Treaty of Warsaw. The state organs of the Ukrainian SSR claimed sovereignty, beginning with the Declaration of the Rights of the Nations of Russia (15 November 1917) and continuing to the union agreement between the Ukrainian SSR and the Russian SSR (28 December 1920). Ukraine's agreements with Poland, the Baltic states, and others also presupposed this principle. In reality, however, the Ukrainian SSR had only nominal sovereignty, for it remained under the control of Soviet Russia and was used as a tool of Soviet foreign policy. In a formal sense Ukraine continued to exist as a separate state, but real sovereignty belonged to the central government in Moscow and the Russian Communist party. The declaration and agreement on the establishment of the USSR in 1922 stressed the sovereignty of the new Union republics, but this sovereignty was even more fictitious than before. The powers of the republics were minimal, and control over international relations was completely assumed by the USSR. The only attribute that could support the theoretical sovereignty of the republics was their right of secession from the USSR, which was guaranteed in all Soviet constitutions. As further proofs of sovereignty, Soviet jurists pointed to the Voluntary' entry of the republics into the USSR, the impossibility that the territory of the republics could be altered without their consent, and the restoration of some prerogatives in foreign affairs to the republics in 1944. According to the Soviet view the most important sovereign rights of the Ukrainian SSR were the right to enter into international treaties and agreements and the right to exchange diplomatic and consular envoys with other countries. As a result of these changes, the Ukrainian SSR and the Belorussian SSR acquired a partial international status, but not sovereignty. (See "International legal status of Ukraine.) The Soviet doctrine of sovereignty was complex and eclectic. In the international arena the USSR defended sovereignty as a hard and inalienable principle which included noninterference in the domestic affairs of the USSR and the members of the Soviet bloc, their equality, and their territorial integrity, but the USSR regarded anticolonial and national liberation movements as expressions of popular sovereignty, and therefore claimed the right to support them. Limiting of the state powers of the Union republics was interpreted as the joint exercise of the sovereign rights of the Union and the republics. Soviet theory described sovereignty as 'one whole' in which there could be no conflict between Union and republican sovereignty. The theory of the 'unity of sovereignty' had replaced the doctrine of 'dual sovereignty' only in the latter years of the USSR. A modified version of this doctrine applied to members of the Soviet bloc, which were said to exercise sovereignty vis-à-vis foreign states in solidarity and with the assistance of the USSR. The so-called Brezhnev doctrine, which was invoked to justify Soviet intervention in Czechoslovakia in 1968, rested on this definition of limited sover-

eignty. Matters were further complicated by the unilateral declaration of Ukraine's sovereignty on 16 July 1990 by the elected government of the republic. Up to its dissolution in 1991 the Union government had ignored such declarations in most of the republics. BIBLIOGRAPHY Paliienko, M. Problema suverenitetu suchasnoï derzhavy (Kharkiv 1929) Deklaratsiia pro derzbavnyi suverenitet Ukrainy (Kiev 1990) V. Markus

Sovetskaia Ukraina. See Pravda Ukrainy and Raduga. Soviet (Russian: sovet; Ukrainian: rada 'council'). The basic institution of government, with both legislative and executive functions, in the USSR. Soviets controlled all other government institutions at every administrativeterritorial level. The first soviets in the Russian Empire arose spontaneously during the Revolution of 1905 as workers' strike councils. They appeared in the larger industrial cities, including Kiev, Katerynoslav, and Mykolaiv in Ukraine. The method for choosing their delegates, their internal rules of order, and their powers differed greatly from soviet to soviet. Most leftist political parties were represented in the soviets. Formally the bodies were usually called soviets of workers' deputies. Within a month after the February Revolution of 1917 about 600 soviets sprang up in the gubernia cities and industrial centers of the empire. Initially they included representatives from a wide range of leftist parties and were usually dominated by Socialist Revolutionaries (especially in rural areas) or Mensheviks. In many instances the soviets acted as alternative parliaments or forums and won considerable popular support. At first the Bolsheviks were a small minority in most soviets and advocated 'all power to the soviets.' At the First All-Russian Congress of Soviets, held in June 1917, only 10 percent of the delegates were Bolsheviks. The second congress, held after the Bolshevik coup in November 1917, was taken over by the Bolsheviks after most of the other parties withdrew in protest. This body elected the Bolshevik-dominated AllRussian Central Executive Commitee, which in January 1918 dispersed the *All-Russian Constituent Assembly and proclaimed the transfer of all power to the soviets. In Ukraine the *All-Ukrainian Congress of Workers', Soldiers', and Peasants' Deputies, which convened in Kiev on 17-19 December 1917, endorsed the Central Rada. The Bolshevik delegates rejected this action, however, and left Kiev for Kharkiv to join an alternate congress of soviets from the Kryvyi Rih and Donets Basin. Calling itself the *All-Ukrainian Congress of Soviets, this body proclaimed Soviet rule in Ukraine and established the *A11Ukrainian Central Executive Committee (VUTsVK). Ukrainian democratic and nationalist parties generally rejected the soviet system of government on the grounds that it gave too much power to Russian or Russified workers and soldiers at the expense of the peasantry; they advocated a single parliament elected on the basis of universal suffrage. Eventually the Bolsheviks, with the support of the *Borotbists and then the "Ukrainian Communist party, were able to establish soviet power throughout the cities and towns of Ukraine. At the same time they were able to assert their authority over rural so-

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viets, most of which had been organized and controlled by the Ukrainian Party of Socialist Revolutionaries. Beginning in 1919-20 an entire system of soviets was constructed in Ukraine. At the base of the pyramid, rural, town, and city soviets were elected by local inhabitants. In 1925 there were 10,314 rural, 155 town, and 70 city soviets. At the higher levels elections were indirect: local soviets sent delegates to raion soviets, which in turn sent delegates to gubernia (to 1925), okruha, and oblast (from 1932) soviets. Even the All-Ukrainian Congress of Soviets, the highest legislative body in Ukraine, was elected on an indirect basis by the okruha (later oblast) soviets. Soviet elections were closely controlled by the Party and dominated by workers and soldiers, who were disproportionately represented (in 1920, for every 1,000 soldiers, 10,000 urban workers, and 50,000 peasants the gubernia and city congresses of soviets sent one delegate to the All-Ukrainian Congress). The soviets were required by law to meet for a certain length of time a set number of times a year (usually two). They elected their own executive committees, which had executive authority between sessions of the soviet. Central control over the soviets was assured by the subordination of local soviets and executive committees to their higher counterparts all the way up to the VUTsVK and the All-Ukrainian Congress of Soviets. Decisions of lower bodies which were deemed unconstitutional or contradictory could be overturned by higher bodies, and the instructions-circulars and orders of higher bodies were mandatory for lower ones. In the 19205 a degree of decentralization was preserved: the administrative personnel of the soviets was elected (although the Party in practice controlled the process); within their territory and competency local soviets were the highest authority; and the soviets controlled their own assets and budgets, which were set by them and only ratified by the higher bodies. The 1936 Constitution abolished the indirect electoral system and the unequal vote (although the 'dictatorship of the proletariat' remained a feature of Soviet political theory for many years) and introduced a system of direct elections to soviets at all levels. It also established the *Supreme Soviet of the Ukrainian SSR as the republic's highest legislative body. In 1985 there were 9,431 rural, 121 urban district, 421 town, 479 raion, and 25 oblast soviets in Ukraine, with a total of over 526,000 deputies. Elections to local soviets were held every two and a half years (formerly every two years); the Supreme Soviet was elected every five (formerly four) years. All citizens over the age of 18 were eligible and expected to vote. Candidates were usually nominated by the Party or some allied organization to ensure communist domination. Until the reforms initiated by M. Gorbachev, only one candidate per electoral district was permitted. At every level soviets elected their own executive committees to exercise executive power between sessions of the soviet. In theory the soviets were responsible for certain services in their districts, including housing, social security, public works, food distribution, cultural affairs, and the police. In reality they had very little authority. They were severely restricted by plans and budgets set by the central planners and authorities. Although they could make reports and recommendations to the higher authorities, they had little influence on the planning. Many enterprises and institutions within a local district were directly subordinated to central (Union, Union-republi-

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can, and republican) ministries and were beyond the control of the local soviet. In the last few years of the USSR there was a strong demand for decentralization. BIBLIOGRAPHY Hazard, J.N. The Soviet System of Government (Chicago 1957) Scott, D.J.R. Russian Political Institutions (London 1958) B. Balan

Soviet Army (Russian: Sovetskaia Armiia; Ukrainian: Radianska Armiia). The regular army of the USSR, known until September 1946 as the Workers' and Peasants' Red Army or simply the Red Army. It was established by decree of the Soviet government on 28 January 1918 out of Red Guard Detachments. The Bolshevik troops that brought Ukraine under Soviet control in 1918-20 were generally Russian in national composition. They received support from Ukrainian or partly Ukrainian units, such as the *Red Cossacks, the *Tarashcha Division, and the Bohun Regiment, and occasional help from partisan groups led by N. Makhno, N. Hryhoriiv, and D. Zeleny. For a while (January-April 1920) Galicians formed their own unit, the *Red Ukrainian Galician Army, within the Red Army. The Communist commander of the Ukrainian front, V. Antonov-Ovsiienko, was responsible to Moscow, not to the Bolshevik government of Ukraine in Kharkiv. The People's Commissariat for Military Affairs in Kharkiv had no real power and was abolished in 1919. The Ukrainian SSR never had its own army. In the 19205, territorial divisions consisting of Ukrainians and using Ukrainian as the language of command constituted a militia and were stationed in the larger cities. Except for the Red Cossacks, stationed near Proskuriv, Starokostiantyniv, and Berdychiv, regular army units in Ukraine were of mixed national composition, and used Russian. Most Ukrainians in the regular forces were stationed outside Ukraine. The commander of the Ukrainian-Crimean Military District was responsible not to the government of the Ukrainian SSR, but to Moscow. With the abolition of the territorial units (1934) and the division of Ukraine into three military districts (1938), Ukraine was integrated even more closely into the ail-Union military system. By 1937 Russian became the language of command in all military units. Also, the military traditions of the imperial Russian army (eg, officer ranks, uniforms, insignia) were gradually reintroduced. During the Second World War, 4.5 million Ukrainians served in the Red Army. Except for the First Ukrainian Partisan Division (est 1943) under Col P. *Vershigora, there were no separate Ukrainian units in the Soviet armed forces. Because of national discrimination, nonRussians refused at first to fight the German invaders: of 3.6 million Soviet prisoners of war by March 1943, 2 million were non-Russian. The harsh treatment of the population and POWs by the Germans eventually persuaded non-Russians to fight. Approx 1.7 million Ukrainians were decorated for bravery in the war. In 1943 the Bohdan Khmelnytsky Medal was introduced, and in 1944 a People's Commissariat of Defense was established for Ukraine (with Gen S. Kovpak as the first commissar), but this was only a symbolic gesture. After the war the Soviet Army remained an integrated multinational force. The territory of Ukraine was reorganized into three military districts (Kiev, Odessa, and Subcarpathia), and Donetske and Luhanske oblasts were

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assigned to the Northern Caucasia Military District. Because of its geographic location along the western border of the USSR and on the Black Sea, Ukraine was strategically important. It was the home of the Black Sea Fleet, major air-fields near Zhytomyr, and missile bases in the Carpathians. The Soviet Army was an instrument of Russification. Its medium of communication was exclusively Russian; all of its recreational, cultural, and press activities were in Russian as well. Conscripts spent their term of service outside their own republics, and demobilized servicemen were encouraged to live and work in new settlements, mostly in the east. Political education in the army promoted Russian chauvinism and glorified Russian military heroes. Besides national discrimination, the army suffered from a rigid caste system similar to that of the tsarist army. The officers were separated sharply from the common soldiers by material privileges, uniforms, honors, and statutes. In its Declaration on State Sovereignty (16 July 1990) the Supreme Soviet of the Ukrainian SSR stated its intention to nationalize the army in Ukraine. As the first step toward implementing this proclamation it demanded that all Ukrainians serving in the Soviet armed forces be stationed in Ukraine by i December 1990. BIBLIOGRAPHY Zakharov, V. (ed). 50 let vooruzhennykh sil SSSR (Moscow 1968) Avidar, Y. The Party and the Army in the Soviet Union (Jerusalem 1983) Seaton, A; Seaton, J. The Soviet Army, 1918 to the Present (London 1986) Hagen, M. von Soldiers in the Proletarian Dictatorship (Ithaca, NY 1990) L.Shankovsky

Soviet partisans in Ukraine, 1941-5. In Ukraine, Soviet partisans played a less important role in the Soviet war effort against the Germans than they did in other parts of the Soviet Union. Recruited from Party cadres left behind the German lines, escapees from German POW camps, and refugees from the German terror, they found little support among the population and, except for the northeastern region, no suitable terrain for their operations. At the end of June 1941, immediately after the Germans crossed the Soviet border, the Central Committee of the All-Union Communist Party (Bolshevik) ordered Party members to organize an underground on occupied territories. In 1941 underground cells sprang up in a few Ukrainian cities, but most Party members ignored the order. The first partisan detachments appeared in Chernihiv and Sumy oblasts. They developed out of M. Popudrenko's and S. *Kovpak's underground groups, which were joined by small army units that broke through the German encirclement of the Soviet forces east of Kiev. It was only in the spring of 1942, when these partisans established a radio link with Moscow and received special reinforcements dropped by parachute, that they began to show some activity. Apart from two other partisan detachments, which sprang up at the end of 1941 and were quickly wiped out by the Germans, one (500 men) in the Nykopil and Kryvyi Rih regions and the other (400 men) in the eastern Dnipropetrovske region, there were no other Soviet partisans in Ukraine at the time. A significant partisan movement developed by the spring of 1942 in oc-

cupied Belarusian and southwestern Russian territories, where 80 percent of the Soviet partisan activity was concentrated. In Ukraine, Soviet partisans achieved a significant strength only in mid-1943. Soviet partisans came under the Ministry of State Security, not under the defense ministry. On 30 May 1942 the Central Staff of the USSR Partisan Movement was set up in Moscow, and on 20 June the CC CP(B)U established the Ukrainian Staff of the Partisan Movement in Voroshylovhrad. The nominal chief of the Ukrainian Staff was N. ^Khrushchev, but its actual chief was T. Strokach, deputy commissar of the NKVD of the Ukrainian SSR. On its orders S. Kovpak and A. Saburov conducted an extended raid in October 1942 to March 1943 from the Briansk forests into northern Ukraine. German troops in the region were sparse; hence, they encountered little resistance. Then, in May 1943, Kovpak was sent on a long raid from Putyvl across Volhynia to the Carpathian Mountains to cut German supply lines and to demonstrate Soviet power in Volhynia and Galicia, where UPA forces were forming. His force was crushed by the Germans at Deliatyn on i August, and some of its surviving bands were wiped out by the UPA. In spite of the losses, the raid had an important psychological effect on the Ukrainian population: it destroyed its belief in German invincibility. The returning survivors were assigned to the First Ukrainian Partisan Division under the command of P. *Vershigora, which in January-July 1944 conducted a raid from Volhynia through northwestern Galicia, the Kholm region, Podlachia, and Belarus. The other partisan raids in 1943 - led by M. Naumov in southern Ukraine and Ya. Melnyk and A. Fedorov in Right-Bank Ukraine and Volhynia - were less significant. V. Behma's and Col D. Medvedev's Soviet units were based in Volhynia, but their operations extended into adjacent regions. As the Red Army advanced through Ukraine the partisan movement grew rapidly. According to Soviet sources there were 13,300 partisans in Ukraine at the beginning and 43,500 at the end of 1943. Small partisan units and Komsomol underground groups that arose spontaneously and had a distinctly national profile constituted a special branch of the Soviet partisan movement in Ukraine. They had no contact with the Ukrainian Staff and often were treated as hostile forces by the Soviets. For many years after the war, they were not recognized as Soviet partisans by Soviet authorities. The Young Guards in the Donbas, an underground group in Vinnytsia (arrested by the NKVD in 1944), a unit in the Chernihiv region (wiped out by Fedorov in March 1942), and Capt I. Kudria's group in the Dykanka forests are some examples of such groups. At the beginning of 1944 the number of Soviet partisans in Ukraine rose to 47,800, or about 10 percent of the USSR total. Moving west in advance of the Red Army, the partisans assumed the role of a vanguard. The leading Soviet partisan units in Ukraine were under Vershigora, Naumov, I. Artiukhov, V. Shangin, and M. Shukaev. The last unit was defeated by the UPA in the Carpathians. The partisans pursued the Germans into Poland, where Vershigora's division distinguished itself, and into Czechoslovakia. The Ukrainian Staff directed the Soviet partisan movement until it was abolished on i June 1945. BIBLIOGRAPHY Klokov, V; Kulyk, I; Slynko, I. Narodna borot 'ba na Ukraïni u roky Velykoï Vitchyznianoï viiny (Kiev 1957)

SOVIETOLOGY Armstrong, J. (ed). Soviet Partisans in World War n (Madison 1964) Ukraïns 'ka RSR u Velykii Vitchyznianii viini Radians 'koho soiuzu 1941-1945, 3 vols (Kiev 1967-9) Kucher, V. Partyzans 'ki kraï i zony na Ukraïni v roky Velykoï Vitchyznianoï viiny, 1941-1944 (Kiev 1974) Cooper, M. The Phantom War: The German Struggle against Soviet Partisans, 1941-1944 (London 1979) A. Makuch, L. Shankovsky, Ye. Stakhiv

Soviet people (mdianskyi narod). A concept of official Soviet "nationality policy which implied a total or near-total integration of the various nations and ethnic groups in the USSR. Concomitantly it implied their linguistic and cultural ^Russification. Less often, in casual usage, 'Soviet people7 was the synonym of sovetskie liudi (the Soviet population). The political and scholarly concept of the Soviet people was adumbrated under N. Khrushchev and was more fully developed under L. Brezhnev. In an emotive, nonanalytical sense V. Lenin used sovetskie liudi in 1919, and J. Stalin spoke of the sovetskii narod in his patriotic appeals during the Second World War. It was N. Khrushchev, however, who first used 'Soviet people' in a more precise sense. At the 22nd CPSU Congress in 1961 he claimed that the Soviet people were a new historical multinational community sharing a common economic base, socialist fatherland, social-class structure, worldview (Marxism-Leninism), and goal (the building of communism) and many common mental traits. Khrushchev, however, soon stopped using the concept altogether. For a number of internal political and external diplomatic-ideological reasons (such as competing pressures from non-Russians and Russian nationalist dissidents, the frontier war with China, and the competition with the Chinese leadership for influence in the world Communist movement), Brezhnev formally adopted the concept of the Soviet people, defined in terms similar to those used by Khrushchev, at the 24th CPSU Congress in 1971 and emphasized it during the 5Oth anniversary of the USSR in 1972. After the political and diplomatic-ideological crises ended in the mid-1970s, Brezhnev virtually dropped the use of the concept, in 1976 and 1977. An implicit reason for his caution was the opposition to the term 'Soviet people' in 1971 by republican leaders, including P. Shelest from Ukraine. The concept was also rejected by many Soviet scholars and was never fully defined. In the face of mounting pressure from the various national movements in the USSR, M. Gorbachev suspended use of the concept in September 1989, although he later made casual references to it on occasion. Ya. Bilinsky

Soviet Progress in Chemistry. See Ukraïns'kyi khimichnyi zhurnal. Sovietology. The interdisciplinary study of the Soviet Union, particularly of its political life, combining the methods of political science, history, economics, sociology, linguistics, and other sciences. Some Sovietologists have insisted that the field is sui generis, that it differs from French, German, or Italian studies because of the pervasiveness of politics in Soviet life and because of Soviet hostility to Western democracies. Others have questioned this claim. As recent events following Perestroika have shown, Sovietology has been too Russocentric and

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has not devoted sufficient attention to the non-Russian nationalities of the USSR. The study of Soviet Ukraine, or 'Ukrainology,' is a branch of Sovietology. The coverage of Ukrainian affairs has been uneven: some periods, such as the period of the struggle for independence (1917-20) and the period since the outbreak of the Second World War, have received more attention than the important interwar years. The first comprehensive and up-to-date studies of the development of Soviet Ukraine were by C.A. Manning (Ukraine under the Soviets, 1953), B. Dmytryshyn (Moscow and the Ukraine 1918-1953: A Study of Russian Bolshevik Nationality Policy, 1956), and R. Sullivant (Soviet Politics and the Ukraine, 1917-1957, 1962). Yu. Lavrynenko's annotated bibliography (Ukrainian Communism and Soviet Russian Policy toward the Ukraine: An Annotated Bibliography, 19171953, 1953) can be described as a protohistory of Soviet Ukraine up to 1953. R. Szporluk's brief popular history of Ukraine (1979) and O. Subtelny's college textbook in Ukrainian history (1988) cover the Soviet period to the year of their publication. A social history of Ukraine spanning over 60 years of Soviet rule and focusing on the development of national consciousness has been written by B. Krawchenko (Social Change and Consciousness in Twentieth-Century Ukraine, 1985). The revolutionary period of 1917-20 has been comprehensively dealt with by J.S. Reshetar, Jr (The Ukrainian Revolution, 1917-1920: A Study in Nationalism, 1952), J. Borys (The Russian Communist Party and the Sovietization of Ukraine: A Study in the Communist Doctrine of the Self-Determination of Nations, 1960; 2nd rev edn: The Sovietization of Ukraine, 1917-1923, 1980), and T. Hunczak, ed. (The Ukraine, 1917-1921: A Study in Revolution, 1977). It has also given rise to more specialized monographs by A.E. Adams (Bolsheviks in the Ukraine: The Second Campaign, 1963), O.S. Fedyshyn (Germany's Drive to the East and the Ukrainian Revolution, 1917-1918,1971), I. Majstrenko (Borot'bism: A Chapter in the History of Ukrainian Communism, 1954), and M. Palij (The Anarchism of Nestor Makhno, 1917-1921: An Aspect of the Ukrainian Revolution, 1976). The first 15 years of Soviet rule have been analyzed by J.E. Mace (Communism and the Dilemmas of National Liberation: National Communism in Soviet Ukraine, 1918-1933,1983). The most important specialized studies about the 19305 are R. Conquest's monograph (The Harvest of Sorrow: Soviet Collectivization and the Terror-Famine, 1986) and R. Serbyn and B. Krawchenko7s (eds) collection on the famine (Famine in Ukraine, 1932-1933, 1986), G.S.N. Luckyj's study of literary politics (Literary Politics in the Soviet Ukraine, 19172 934/1956), and H. Kostiuk's book on the terror (Stalinist Rule in the Ukraine: A Study of the Decade of Mass Terror, 1929-39, 1960). On Western Ukraine there is an older study by V. Kuchabsky [W. Kutschabsky] (Die Westukraine im Kampfe mit Polen una dem Bolshewismus, 1934) and a recent one by J. Radziejowski (The Communist Party of Western Ukraine, 1919-1929, trans A. Rutkowski, 1983). Ukrainian political life during the Second World War has been examined by J.A. Armstrong (Ukrainian Nationalism, 1939-1945,1955; 2nd edn 1963; 3rd edn 1990). On the postwar period the coverage is more extensive. The Ukrainian Party apparatus has been studied briefly by Armstrong (The Soviet Bureaucratic Elite: A Case Study of the Ukrainian Apparatus, 1959) and B. Harasymiw (Political Elite Recruitment in the Soviet Union, 1984). Ya. Bilinsky's

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thorough study of political developments in Ukraine (The Second Soviet Republic: The Ukraine after World War n, 1964) does not deal with the dissidents of the 19605. Two wide surveys of different areas of national life, with some attention to methodology, have been edited by P. Potichnyj (Ukraine in the Seventies, 1975) and B. Krawchenko (Ukraine after Shelest, 1983). B. Lewytzkyj has written an analytical study of the main changes in Ukraine in the postwar period (Politics and Society in Soviet Ukraine, 1953-1980,1984). The Ukrainian dissident movement has been analyzed by K. Farmer (Ukrainian Nationalism in the Post-Stalin Era: Myth, Symbol, and Ideology in Soviet Nationalities Policy, 1980) and J. Bilocerkowycz (Soviet Ukrainian Dissent: A Study of Political Alienation, 1988). The Chornobyl disaster has been described by D.R. Marples (Chernobyl and Nuclear Power in the USSR, 1986; The Social Impact of the Chernobyl Disaster, 1988) and M. Bojcun and V. Haynes (The Chernobyl Disaster: The True Story of a Catastrophe, 1988). The developments of the last few years under perestroika have been examined by Marples (Ukraine under Perestroika, 1991). The Ukrainian economy and Party history have been researched by V. Holubnychy, a selection of whose works came out posthumously under I. Koropeckyj's editorship (Soviet Regional Economics: Selected Works ofVsevolod Holubnychy, 1982). Koropeckyj has also edited three collections of articles on Ukrainian economics (Ukraine within the USSR: An Economic Balance Sheet, 1977; Integration Processes in the Ukrainian Economy: A Historical Perspective, 1988; Studies in Ukrainian Economics, 1988), and V. Bandera and Z. Melnyk have edited a book on the Soviet economy touching on Ukraine (The Soviet Economy in Regional Perspective, 1973). Ya. Bilinsky

Sovietophilism. A political disposition among people outside the Soviet Union to support or sympathize with the USSR. The policy was justified by various theories and was adopted out of different motives, from the idealistic to the mercenary. The left factions of the Ukrainian Party of Socialist Revolutionaries and the Ukrainian Social Democratic Workers' party, who, even before the Bolsheviks seized power in Ukraine, propagated an alliance with the Russian Communist party and the creation of a Soviet Ukraine, can be considered the first Sovietophiles. In 1919-21 these groups coalesced into the Borotbists and Ukrainian Communist party. In the early 19205 Sovietophile tendencies arose among Ukrainian émigrés in Prague and Vienna, especially the left Socialist Revolutionaries, led by M. Hrushevsky and grouped around the journal Boritesia-Poboretel; the Galician Social Democrats, under S. Vityk and grouped around his journal, Nova hromada; and followers of V. Vynnychenko, with his journal, Nova doba. In France in the 19205, the *Union of Ukrainian Citizens in France, led by E. Borschak, and its newspaper, Ukrains 'ki visty, were Sovietophile. Some circles of the Government-in-exile of the Western Ukrainian National Republic (those of Ye. Petrushevych and V. Paneiko) also favored rapprochement with the Soviet Ukrainian regime, especially after eastern Galicia had been awarded to Poland in 1923 by the Conference of Ambassadors in Paris. This stance was a tactical measure to gain political support from the USSR against Poland.

In the 19205 Sovietophilism became increasingly popular also in Galicia, primarily as a reaction to the colonial policies of Poland. Cultural Sovietophilism, or the belief that Ukrainian culture could develop only with the support of the Soviet Ukrainian state, was widespread. The Ukrainization policy of the early 19205 in Soviet Ukraine fed expectations of a national revival. Many soldiers and officers of the Ukrainian Galician Army who had served in central or eastern Ukraine stayed there or returned there later. Galician organizations, such as the Shevchenko Scientific Society and some Ukrainian co-operatives, worked with their Soviet counterparts but without supporting the Soviet regime. Several Western Ukrainian political parties adopted a pro-Soviet platform - the ^Ukrainian Party of Labor, headed by M. Zakhidny, the ^Communist Party of Western Ukraine, and the *Sel-Rob party. A section of the student movement represented by the ^Working Alliance of Progressive Students in Prague was Sovietophile. Many pro-Soviet groups and organizations in Galicia were supported and sometimes even funded by the Soviet consulate in Lviv. The collectivization, the man-made famine, and the widespread repressions of the 19305 greatly undermined the strength of Sovietophilism in Western Ukraine and abroad. Among Ukrainian immigrant communities in North and South America, Sovietophilism spread through the so-called progressive movement. It rested on many of the same hopes and expectations as those of the political émigrés in Europe. Moreover, many Ukrainian workers and farmers were influenced by leftist parties in their new homelands. The Soviet government encouraged Sovietophilism, especially during and immediately after the Second World War, when it enjoyed much sympathy in the West as an ally. The main pro-Soviet Ukrainian organizations in North America were the *League of American Ukrainians, the "Ukrainian Labour-Farmer Temple Association, and the *Association of United Ukrainian Canadians. Soviet agents and provocateurs encouraged Sovietophilism among the post-Second World War émigrés. Some effort was made to convince emigrants (especially in France and Argentina) to return to the Soviet Union. No Sovietophile organizations were established by the postwar refugees, however, and only a few people, such as Yu. *Kosach, supported the USSR openly. In the post-Stalin period Sovietophilism declined rapidly among Ukrainians in the West. Official Soviet attempts to encourage more contacts with the West often backfired: instead of attracting support for the Soviet regime they exposed its repressive and Russian-chauvinist nature. J. *Kolasky's denunciation of Russification in education, for example, made a strong impression in Canada. The arguments of advocates of accommodation and compromise with the Soviet regime, such as M. *Koliankivsky and T. *Lapychak, found no response in the Ukrainian community. Sovietophilism among Western political and trade-union circles was criticized frequently by Ukrainian human rights activists. B. Balan

Sovietskyi [Sovjets'kyj]. ¥111-15. A town smt (1986 pop 9,400) in the southeastern Crimean Lowland and a raion center in the Crimea. The village was first mentioned in historical documents in 1798, as Ichky. After the Crimean War many Tatar inhabitants of the area emigrated to Tur-

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key, and Russian and German colonists came in. In the 18905 Ichky became a station on a railway line. It was renamed in 1950. The town has a food industry and a winery. Sovnarkom. See Council of People's Commissars. Sowa, Antoni. See Zeligowski, Edward. Sowiriski, Leonard, b 7 November 1831 in Berezivka, Novohrad-Volynskyi county, d 23 December 1887 in Stetkivtsi, Zhytomyr county, Volhynia gubernia. Polish writer and translator. The son of a Polish noble and a Ukrainian peasant woman, he studied at Kiev University (1847-55), where he was a leading student radical. In his allegorical narrative poem Z zycia (From Life, 1860) he wrote about contemporary events in Ukraine. An early Polish popularizer of T. Shevchenko, from the beginning of the i86os on he translated and published several of Shevchenko7 s narrative poems and ballads and many of his lyrical verses in Kurier Wilenski and Warsaw periodicals. He also wrote a book of studies of Ukrainian literature (1860) and a study of Shevchenko (1861), which included his translation of 'Haidamaky7 (The Haidamakas). His translation of Shevchenko7 s 'Naimychka7 (The Servant Girl) was published separately in Lviv in 1871. In his five-act tragedy in verse Na Ukrainie (In Ukraine, 1875) he depicted the conflicts between the Polish gentry and Ukrainian peasantry during the Polish Insurrection of 1863-4, and in his novel Na rozstajnych drogach (At the Crossroads, 1887) he portrayed critically the Polish gentry in Ukraine. Sowinskr's familiarity with Ukrainian history, folkways, and literature is evident in his school and university memoirs (ist edn 1961). Translations of some of his poems have appeared in a Ukrainian anthology of Polish poetry (1979).

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the Ukrainian Husbandry Academy in Podëbrady in 1927 and then moved to France, where he set up a rubber factory. He headed the UNR government-in-exile (1954-5) and several Ukrainian organizations in France, including the Ukrainian Community Aid Society (1946-54), the Ukrainian Central Civic Committee (1948-69), and the executive branch of the Ukrainian National Council (1948-54). He founded the Franco-Ukrainian Hromada publishing house, which was active in 1948-56, and was the publisher of Vil'na Ukraïna and L'Ukraine libre (1953-4) in Paris.

Sozh River [Soz]. A left-bank tributary of the Dnieper River that flows for 648 km through Smolensk oblast (RF) and Mahiliou and Homel oblasts (Belarus) and drains a basin area of 42,100 sq km. The river is navigable for 373 km. For approx 20 km from its mouth the Sozh demarcates the border between Ukraine and Belarus along the northern edge of Chernihiv oblast.

Space travel. Along with the United States, the USSR was a world leader in exploring space as the final frontier. Scientists from Ukraine played a key role in the Soviet space program from its inception. Ukrainian scientists throughout the world have also contributed to planetary *astronomy and other space sciences. A number of Ukrainian scientists made important contributions to the development of jet engines and Brockets. The first world exhibition devoted to problems of outer space was held in Kiev from 19 June to i September 1925. The era of space travel was inaugurated by the successful Soviet launching of the first satellite, Sputnik, into orbit in 1957. Its designer, and the 'invisible scientist7 who actually controlled the Soviet space program, was the Ukrainian S. *Korolov, whose Luna-3 satellite brought back the first photographs of the far side of the moon (1959). Korolov put the first man in space (1961) and the first manmade object on the moon and planned the first walk of a man in space. His work was continued by another scientist of Ukrainian descent, M. *Yanhel, who headed manned and unmanned Soviet spaceflights after Korolov's death. Yu. *Kondratiuk (real name: O. Sharhei) analyzed ways to ensure the safety of the crew during space travel. As early as 1929 he proposed a manned lunar module and solved the problems of re-entry and landing on the earth. His Lunar Orbit Rendezvous technique of 1929 was used to land all US astronauts on the moon, and his works were translated and published by NASA. A number of Ukrainian astronauts have orbited the earth. In August 1962 P. *Popovych on Vostok-4 was the fourth person and the first Ukrainian in space. In October 1968 H. *Berehovy spent four days in orbit around the earth on Soiuz-3, doing geophysical, astronomical, and medical experiments. Other Ukrainian astronauts include H. Dobrovolsky (who died tragically in the explosion of Soiuz-n), A. Fylypenko, V. Horbatko, H. Hrechko, Yu. *Romanenko, L. *Kyzym, and I. *Volk. Besides B. *Paton and D. *Dudko, Ukrainian contributors to space technology include V. Bernadsky, V. Patón, V. Stesyn, V. Lapchynsky, A. Zahrebelny, E. Ternovy, S. Havrysh, M. Huzhva, N. Kovalenko, V. Pylypenko, V. Lakyza, A. Tsapenko, A. Buy, V. Dolodareníco, H. Tretiachenko, K. Herasymenko, A. Pidhorily, E. Oleksiienko, I. Taranenko, H. Volokyta, L. Korniienko, A. Mykolaienko, V. Fedchuk, A. Markus, V. Udovenko, N. Velychko, V. Shevchenko, E. Ivchenko, and V. Semenenko.

Sozontiv, Symon, b 20 July 1898 in Lahery, Zmiiv county, Kharkiv gubernia, d 17 March 1980 in Dammartin-surTigeaux, France. Political and community activist in France. He served as a captain in the Army of the UNR, was interned in Poland, and in 1923 emigrated to Czechoslovakia. He graduated with a degree in engineering from

Spain. According to Arabic chronicles Slavs, the ancestors of Ukrainians from the Black Sea coast, served as slaves, soldiers, and scholars to the Arab rulers of Spain. In the 17th century, as the exploits of the Zaporozhian Cossacks against the Turks became widely known throughout Europe, a number of books on Ukraine and

R. Senkus

Soybean (Glycine soja or max; Ukrainian: soia). An annual leguminous plant of the family Fabaceae, economically the most important bean in the world. It ranges from one to more than seven feet in height. The plant was introduced in Ukraine late in the 19th century. The seeds contain 24-45 percent protein, 20-32 percent carbohydrates, and 13-37 percent fat along with vitamins D, B, and E. Soybean occupies the leading place in the world's Vegetable-oil industry. Soybean oil is used for margarine and shortening, in food preparation, and, industrially, in the manufacturing of fibers, plastics, glue, paints, and soap.

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the Cossacks appeared in Spain. Occasionally Cossacks served as mercenaries in the Spanish armies. During the Napoleonic Wars some Ukrainians served in the French forces in Spain. During the period of Ukrainian independence Ye. Kulisher was appointed ambassador of the UNR to Spain, but he had no opportunity to serve in this capacity. Ukrainians fought on both sides in the Spanish Civil War (19369). A separate Ukrainian unit, the Shevchenko Company, was active on the republican side and published its own paper, Borot'ba. During the Second World War Yu. Karmanin served as an OUN information officer in Spain. After the war a small Ukrainian community established itself in Spain, chiefly in Madrid. From 1947 a group of 25 or 30 young Ukrainian refugees supported by Obra Católica de Asistencia Universitaria studied in Spain. The students formed a chorus and dance group, the Obnova Society of Ukrainian Catholic Students (1947), and the Ukrainian Student Hromada (1956). A few Ukrainian families also settled in Madrid. By 1953 the Ukrainian community numbered 68 members. The Association of Ukrainian Friends of Spain, headed by A. Kishka, was set up in 1957. A Ukrainian program was broadcast three times per week (1951-5) and then daily on the national radio. In 1952 a Ukrainian section was established at the Centro de Estudios Orientales under its director, Rev S. Morillo. The center's journal, Oriente (renamed Oriente europeo in 1956), published many articles on Ukrainian questions. The monthly Las cartas de Espania came out in Ukrainian, English, Polish, Czech, Slovak, Rumanian, Hungarian, and Croatian (1950-1). Concerts and other performances by Ukrainian students have popularized Ukrainian culture among the wider public. Two Ukrainian political institutions were established in Spain: a representation of the executive board of the Ukrainian National Council and a delegation of the Anti-Bolshevik Bloc of Nations. Spanish themes have an important place in Ukrainian literature. They are at the heart of masterpieces such as Lesia Ukrainka's Kaminnyi hospodar (The Stone Host), N. Koroleva's Predok (Ancestor), and B.I. Antonych's Al'kazar (Alcazar). D. Mordovets and Koroleva (a Ukrainian writer of Spanish origin) have written travel accounts of Spain. Translations of Spanish literature into Ukrai-nian have been done by M. Ivanov, M. Lukash, and D. Buchynsky. Spanish Civil War. A military struggle in 1936-9 between the Popular Front coalition government of the Spanish Republic and the Falange movement and its allies led by Gen F. Franco. In the USSR the International Organization to Assist the Fighters for the Spanish Revolution (IOAFSR) was set up; in it was a section for the Ukrainian SSR. By September 1936 the Ukrainian SSR had contributed 548,500 rubles to the IOAFSR fund. During the course of the war much material assistance to the Spanish Republic came from Ukraine. As well, a number of Ukrainians were among the 2,000 to 3,000 Soviet military and other specialists dispatched to Spain. Some 5,000 Spanish children were brought to the USSR to study in Soviet schools, a considerable number of them to Ukraine. Many Ukrainians from Western Ukraine and the diaspora (Canada, Argentina, France, the United States, Belgium) fought in the ranks of the International Brigades,

Ukrainian-Canadian volunteers in the Mackenzie-Papineau Battalion and Shevchenko Company of the 13th International Brigade during the Spanish Civil War

which were formed of people from 54 states. Some 400 Ukrainians came from Canada alone (accounting for 3040 percent of the total Canadian contingent), at least 200 from Galicia and Volhynia, 58 from Transcarpathia, and an undetermined number from Bukovyna and the diaspora outside Canada. Estimates of the total number of Poles and Ukrainians in the brigades run as high as 5,000, representing between 12 and 20 percent of the total International Brigade force. Ukrainians were dispersed among all the brigades, but fought mainly with the 13th and 15th. In the 13th International Brigade there was the Taras Shevchenko Company, while in the 15th International Brigade Ukrainian volunteers served in the Canadian MackenziePapineau Battalion (which contained a unit informally named after Maksym *Kryvonis) and in the American Abraham Lincoln Battalion. In December 1937 me Taras Shevchenko Company began publishing its own newspaper, Borot'ba (The Struggle), edited by V. Krys. In addition to participating directly in military operations, Ukrainians in Western Ukraine and the diaspora established several solidarity committees which supported the Republican efforts morally and materially. An insignificant number of Ukrainians also fought on Franco's side. BIBLIOGRAPHY Shevchenko, F. 'Rota im. Tarasa Shevchenka v boiakh proty fashyzmu v Ispanii/ UlZh, 1961, no. i Kravchuk, P. Za vashu i nashu svobodu (Toronto 1976) Momryk, M. "Tor Your Freedom and Ours": Konstantin (Mike) Olynyk, A Ukrainian Volunteer in the International Brigades/ Canadian Ethnic Studies, 20, no. 2 (1988) Lial'ka, la.; et al. Internatsional'na solidarnist' trudiashchykh zakhidnoukrains'kykh zemeV z respublikans'koiu Ispaniieiu (Kiev 1988) S. Cipko

Sparrow (Passer; Ukrainian: horobets). Small, chiefly seedeating birds with conical bills in the Old World family Ploceidae, the most common being the house sparrow (P. domesticas). Sparrows nest in tree hollows, burrows, and buildings and often inhabit populated areas. In Ukraine the tree or field sparrow (P. montanus), which nests in the wild, is also common. Sparrows may be useful or harmful in that they consume the seeds of both important crops and noxious weeds.

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Spartak (Spartacus). A USSR-wide sports society for white-collar employees in the state commerce, civil aviation, road transportation, culture, and health care sectors. It was founded in 1935 out of sports circles organized in 1925-6 by industrial co-operative artels. In 1960 Spartak was reorganized into a voluntary trade-union sports organization. About 50 forms of sport were cultivated by the society. In Ukraine, Spartak had over 2 million members. The Spartak Kiev women's handball team won 19 USSR and 12 European championships. Thirteen of its members were on the USSR teams that won gold medals at the 1976 and 1980 Olympic Games. Spartak (Spartacus). An organ of the central committee of the youth wing of the Communist Party of Western Ukraine. It was published in Berlin from November 1926 to May 1928 and distributed illegally in Western Ukraine. It was succeeded in Lviv by the monthly Molodyi Spartak (1931-4) and the Polish-language journal Spartak (1933). Spartakiad. The name applied to athletic contests in the USSR. Soviet Ukrainian republican Spartakiads were held from 1923. In 1928 the first USSR-wide Spartakiad took place as a counterpart to the Olympic Games, in which the USSR did not participate at the time. The Ukrainian SSR teams took second place overall and won gold medals in volleyball, handball, gymnastics, shooting, and motorcycling. In 1932-3 separate USSR Spartakiads for trade-union athletes and the Dynamo sports society were introduced. In the 19505 Spartakiads for the Peoples of the USSR, for the Voluntary Society for Assistance to the Army, Air Force, and Navy of the USSR, for schoolchildren, for secondary and postsecondary students, and for the military forces of the Warsaw Pact were added. The Spartakiad of the Peoples of the USSR, in which winners of republican Spartakiads competed, was the largest among them. From 1956 it took place every four years, usually a year or two before each Olympic Games, and its winners were sent as the USSR representatives to the Olympics. In the eighth such Spartakiad, held in 1983, 654 Ukrainian athletes participated and won 102 gold, 92 silver, and 91 bronze individual or team medals. Spas. iv-3. A village on the Dniester River in Staryi Sambir raion, Lviv oblast. Until the i8th century a monastery, which was said to be the burial place of Lev I Danylovych, stood there. In the i/th century Spas was the seat of the Orthodox Peremyshl eparchy. Today the ruins of a fortress and Queen Bona's palace remain. Spaska, Yevheniia [Spas'ka, Jevhenija], b i January 1892 in Nizhen, Chernihiv gubernia, d 12 September 1980 in Alma-Ata, Kazakh SSR. Art scholar. A graduate of the Moscow Higher Courses for Women (1914), she studied Ukrainian folk art under D. Shcherbakivsky at the AllUkrainian Historical Museum in Kiev and headed the handicrafts department at the Kiev Agricultural Museum (1925-6). Then she worked as production manager in the Kiev textile firm Tekstylkhudozheksport (1926-31), which had 6,000 employees. She studied old Chernihiv pottery and wrote Hanchars 'ki kakhli Chernihivshchyny xvm-xix st. (Ceramic Tiles of the Chernihiv Region in the i8th-i9th Centuries, 1928) and articles on the potters of Silesia (1929), the ornamentation of Bubnivtsi pottery (1929), P.

Yevheniia Spaska

Lytvynova's life and work (1928), and the porcelain factory of A. Miklashevsky (1959). In the 19308 she was arrested and exiled to Kazkhstan, where she worked in Uralsk, Semipalatinsk, and Alma-Ata and studied the copper pots of the nomads. Her memoirs remain unpublished. Spasky, Vasyl [Spas'kyj, Vasyl'] (Spassky, Vasilii), b 1831 in Shchigry, Kursk gubernia, Russia, d 30 January 1884 in Kharkiv. Pedagogue and statistician. As an educational worker in Kharkiv he was active in educational organizations, associations, and the first Sunday school for men in Kharkiv. In March 1873 he organized a one-day census of Kharkiv. His major work was Kharakteristika Kharkova v otnoshenii gramotnosti i prosveshcheniia (The Characteristics of Kharkiv with Respect to Literacy and Education, 1875). Special boards (osoblyvi narady; Russian: osobye soveshchaniia or OSO). Soviet internal police courts under the *GPU, *NKVD, and *MVD which played a key role from 1928 to 1953 in the system of mass terror. Composed of members of the secret police, they reached their verdicts on the basis of materials provided by the investigative organs and in the absence of the accused. Often the accused did not see the text of the charges before the sentence was put into effect. Until 1936 the boards had the power to sentence political prisoners ('counterrevolutionaries') to a maximum of five years in concentration camp, and to exile 'socially unsafe elements' (kulaks, priests, and criminals). After 1936, and especially in 1937-8 and 1947-8, the boards sentenced vast numbers of people to 10,15, and 25 years in concentration camp, and even to death. Under the secret police chief N. Yezhov (see *Yezhov terror), special boards were established at the oblast and raion levels. Three-member committees called troikas, composed of the local NKVD chief, the secretary of the Party committee, and the local militia chief, prepared lists of suspects to be arrested and passed them to the boards for approval. In some cases the troikas simply carried out arrests in the name of the boards without waiting for their approval. Special Broadcasting Service (SBS). An independent state-funded body established in 1977 to oversee ethnic broadcasting in Australia. Its mandate includes the Ukrainian radio programs produced in Adelaide (since 1975), Canberra (1976-), Newcastle (1978-), Perth (1976-), Melbourne (1975-), and Sydney (1976-). Initially all the broad-

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casts were prepared and aired by volunteers, with production costs funded by the Ukrainian community. More recently the Melbourne and Sydney broadcasts have received direct SBS assistance. Special Detachments (Russian: osobye otdely). Soviet security forces established in 1918 to deal with espionage within the Soviet armed forces, military districts, arms factories, and institutions connected with defense. In wartime (1918-22, 1941-2) they were granted extralegal powers to carry out secret executions and terrorize the population. Recruited among the secret police, they were subordinate to the Cheka, then the GPU, and finally the NKVD. In 1943 the Special Detachments were replaced by the independent counterespionage agency *SMERSH, which combated the Ukrainian Insurgent Army and the OUN underground. They were revived in 1946 and abolished after eight years of operation. Special schools (spetsiialni shkoly). Schools for children with physical and mental disabilities, until 1991 under the jurisdiction of the USSR Ministry of Education. There are nine types of special schools organized for students with various disabilities, among them schools for the deaf and schools for the blind. Special schools are boarding schools which offer vocational, incomplete, and complete secondary education. In Ukraine special schools were organized after 1917. In 1927 there were 101 special schools, with 4,600 pupils, and in 1987-8, 406 schools, with a total enrollment of 86,000. In addition, there are special schools for adults with visual and learning disabilities, which offer evening and part-time courses. Speedwell (Veronica; Ukrainian: veronika). Small herbs of the family Scrophulariaceae, with small white, purple, or pink blossoms, often cultivated as ornamentals. They grow in Ukraine in the natural state in forests, meadows, and marshes (43 of 300 species). Medicinal veronica (V. officinalis) is used as herbal tea and in folk medicine. Spendiarov, Aleksandr (Spendiarian), b i November 1871 in Kakhivka, d 7 May 1928 in Yerevan, Armenia. Armenian composer and conductor. For more than 40 years he lived and worked in the Crimea, where he was exposed to Ukrainian folk music influences. His works include Crimean Sketches for orchestra (two cycles: 1903, 1912); Ukrainian Suite for chorus and orchestra; the ballad 'Song of the Dnieper Sprite' (text by A. Podolynsky) for solo voice; Testament7 (text by T. Shevchenko) for male chorus a cappella; and arrangements of Ukrainian folk songs for chorus, duet, and solo voice. Speransky, Aleksandr [Speranskij], b 25 July 1865 in Moscow, d 26 August 1919 in Kiev. Chemist. A graduate of Moscow University (1886), he did postgraduate work in Leipzig and taught at Moscow University. A professor at Kiev University from 1907, he established the department of physical chemistry there. His research centered on solid solutions and the thermodynamics of concentrated and saturated solutions. Speransky, Mikhail [Speranskij, Mixail], b i May 1863 in Moscow, d 12 April 1938 in Moscow. Russian Slavist, Byzantinist, and archeographer; corresponding member of the Russian Academy of Sciences (from 1902) and full

member of the USSR Academy of Sciences (from 1921). He graduated from Moscow University (PH D, 1899) and taught at the Bezborodko Historical-Philological Institute (1896-1906; see *Nizhen Lyceum) and Moscow University (1907-23). He wrote numerous articles and reviews in the field of medieval East Slavic literature; book-length articles on Slavic apocryphal Gospels (his MA thesis, 1895), manuscripts at the Bezborodko institute (1901), the South Russian (Ukrainian) song (1904), and cryptography in South Slavic and Rus' literary monuments (1929); books on East Slavic translated collections of apothegms (1904) and Slavic relations in Russian literature (2 vols, 1903, 1905); numerous lithographed textbooks on the history of Russian literature (1896-1917); a history of old Rus' literature (1914; 3rd edn 1921); and a university textbook of Rus' oral literature (1917; repr 1969). He also wrote several articles about N. Gogol, one on I. Kotliarevsky's Eneida (Aeneid, 1902), and one on I. Kulzhynsky (1907). Sperkach, Valentyn [Sperkac], b 7 November 1939 in Kiev. Film director. He completed the director's course at the Kiev Institute of Theater Arts (1967) and has worked at the Kiev Studio of Chronicle-Documentary Films, where he has produced the propagandistic Znaiomtes ', Radians 'ka Ukraïna (Introducing Soviet Ukraine, 1982), Zemlia moikh predkiv (The Land of My Ancestors, 1982), and other films. Spetsfondy. Special depositories in Soviet libraries and archives consisting of materials confiscated or prohibited by the authorities. They were established in 1931, although in prerevolutionary imperial Russia and AustriaHungary political, pornographic, anti-Semitic, and antiChristian literature was also widely censored (see *Censorship). During the *terror 'provocative' books were taken directly out of stores and state publishing houses. Publications of political émigrés and foreign publications with an ideology contrary to the official line were also banned. Lists of such materials were published by the People's Commissariat of Education (Narkomos, only until the Second World War) and the government censorship agency *Glavlit. The names of certain prolific authors were often followed by the directive 'all titles, for all years, in all languages.' Spetsfondy were established at research libraries, particularly those of scientific institutes, and in museums and state archives. A maximum of two copies of each banned publication were preserved, and the rest were destroyed. Libraries with unrestricted public access were forbidden to hold the works, which were thus effectively taken completely out of circulation. In Ukraine in the 19305, all endeavors in Ukrainian studies that were at variance with Party directives were prohibited, as were all forms of art that departed from officially sanctioned ""socialist realism and some works of the Ukrainian canon, such as Lesia Ukrainka's Boiarynia (Noblewoman) and T. Shevchenko's works critical of B. Khmelnytsky. In the postwar period there was no consistent formula for the proscription of Russian or Ukrainian works, and censors were largely simple functionaries adhering to the latest inclinations of the Party. Numerous lists were compiled chaotically by various institutions and agencies, such as the Book Chamber of the Ukrainian SSR. The materials held in spetsfondy could be accessed only by

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Party officials and scholars at postsecondary institutions, scientific institutes, and museums, who had to present a letter, signed by the president of the institution they represented, in which the topic of their research was outlined. ^Libraries did not make available catalogs of their spetsfond holdings to the general readership. In 1989, as a result of Perestroika, substantial portions of the spetsfondy were transferred back to the open collections of libraries, and émigré publications were also made accessible to readers. But literature deemed to be subversive, ethnically, racially, or nationally inflammatory (particularly anti-Semitic items), pornography, and certain works by authors such as V. Vynnychenko and M. Khvylovy continued to be banned and collected. With the dissolution of the USSR, spetsfondy in newly independent Ukraine have been merged with other library holdings. BIBLIOGRAPHY Bilokin', S. 'Na polytsiakh spetsfondiv u rizni roky/ Slovo i chas, 1990, no. i S. Bilokin

Sphragistics (from the Greek sphragis 'seal'), also known as sigillography (from the Latin sigillum). A scholarly discipline with three branches, the art of making seals, the law of seals (legal norms in the use of seals), and the study of seals. Seals first appeared in the early civilizations (Egypt, Babylon) and were adopted by the Greeks and Romans. The use of seals was brought into Ukraine by the Scythians, the Antes, the Goths, and others. The law of seals (initially customary, then state, law) was codified in the early stages of the Kievan Rus' state. The study of seals as an academic discipline was initiated in the 13th century in Germany and in the mid-i8th century in Ukraine. Ukrainian seal making was categorized (as in Western Europe) according to the various materials in which impressions were made, such as metals (gold, silver, lead, etc) and various waxes. The use of seals engendered titles for persons whose duty it was to affix them, such as the pechatnyk (head of the prince's chancellery) during the Princely era, or the general chancellor during the Hetmanate. Ukrainian seals had their own national style (the octagonal seal was used almost exclusively in Ukraine) and were of high artistic quality. Early craftsmen included D. Galakhovsky, I. Shchyrsky, and I. Myhura; the bestknown modern craftsmen were H. *Narbut and L. *Terletsky. There were three basic types of state seal in the Kievan Rus' state. The oldest was the archaic or Old Rus' seal, which was used until the loth century. Its distinguishing feature was the dynastic mark of the Kievan rulers, the *trident or bident. The exact shape and characteristics of the archaic seal depended on the station of the bearer. A two-sided seal belonging to Sviatoslav I Ihorevych is among the oldest surviving examples of the art; it has a bident on one side and a rosette on the other. After the adoption of Christianity by the Kievan Rus' state the so-called Greco-Rus' seal was used until the late nth century. The face bore the likeness of the saint after whom the grand prince was named, and the reverse was marked with the Greek legend God Help Your Servant (name of the bearer of the seal), Archon of Rus'. The seal used by Yaroslav the Wise, with St George on the face and the legend God Help Your Servant Georgos, Archon of Rus', was of the Greco-Rus' type.

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From the left: the seals of the Kievan grand princes Sviatoslav I Ihorevych, Iziaslav Volodymyrovych, and Iziaslav Yaroslavych

In the 12th century a new form of seal emerged that was used until the late 13th or early 14th century. Its five types were as follows: (i) face with the likeness of the saint namesake of the ruler, reverse with a trident-bident; (2) face with the likeness of the saint namesake of the ruler, reverse with the likeness of the saint namesake of the ruler's father or overlord; (3) face with the likeness of the saint namesake of the ruler, reverse with the likeness of Christ; (4) face with the likeness of the saint namesake of the ruler, reverse with the Church Slavonic initials 1C XC'; (5) face with the likeness of one of various persons, reverse with a legend in Greek or Church Slavonic and some vestigial features of the older Greco-Rus' seal. An example of the last is the seal of Volodymyr Monomakh, the face of which has a likeness of St Basil, and the reverse, the Greek legend Seal of Basileus, the Most Venerable Archon of Rus' Monomakh.

The seal of Prince Yurii Lvovych of Galicia

Seals underwent a fundamental change beginning in the 13th century in the Principality of Galicia-Volhynia. They became heavily influenced by Western European heraldic and Gothic themes, and their legends were written in Latin. The new type of seal was subsequently adopted by the Lithuanian-Ruthenian state. The face of the seal of Yurii I Lvovych bears the likeness of the king seated on a throne and the annular legend (sigillum) Domini Georgi Regis Rusie. The reverse shows a likeness of a knight cavalryman who carries a shield on his left shoulder and a standard in his right hand. The shield is marked with the dynastic symbol of a lion, which is circumscribed by the legend S. Domini Georgi Duds Ladimerie. Prince Wladyslaw Opolczyk ruled Galicia as a vice-regent of the Hungarian king Louis I; the face of his seal bears a seated monarch, holding a sword in his right hand, positioned

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between two coats of arms (Silesia and Rus'), circumscribed by a Latin legend. The seals of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania bore a likeness of the seated ruler or a Lithuanian-Ruthenian pohon ' (a heraldic horseman, with a sword in the right hand and a shield with an Orthodox cross on the left shoulder), surrounded by the heraldic arms of the larger constituent principalities (Lithuania, Samogitia, Volhynia, Kiev, Belarus). It also showed the title of the prince as a legend. Beginning in 1648 new military, state, and national seals were introduced for the hetmans. They bore the likeness of a Cossack musketeer, a practice adopted from Zaporozhian Host seals, starting with Hetmán B. Khmelnytsky's seals. These showed the Middle Ukrainian annular inscription Seal of the Army of His Royal Grace of the Zaporizhia. Hetmán I. Vyhovsky's seal bore his coat of arms, his name, and the inscription Great Hetmán of the Principality of Rus' and Starosta of Chyhyryn. On Hetmán I. Mazepa's seal the traditional likeness of a Cossack warrior was circumscribed by the inscription Seal of the Little Russian Army of His Royal Illustrious Majesty of the Zaporizhia. The inscription on P. Orlyk's seal, Seal of Little Russia and of the Glorious Zaporozhian Army, reflected the schism between Ukraine and Russia. Hetmán K. Rozumovsky reverted to the traditional form of seal.

The seal of Hetmán Ivan Mazepa

The seal of the Zaporozhian Cossack Host

In 1766, after the abolition of the Hetmanate, a new seal was issued by the Little Russian Collegium, depicting the imperial eagle with a five-field shield on its breast (representing the five Ukrainian principalities of Kiev, Chernihiv, Pereiaslav, Novhorod-Siverskyi, and Starodub). Less important documents were frequently stamped with personal seals which bore family or personal coats of arms. In the icth century, emblems of Ukraine's former statehood appeared on the seals of the occupying foreign monarchies. They included the archangel of Kiev principality on the seal of the Russian Empire and the coats of arms of Galicia and Lodomeria (later also the seal of Bukovyna) on the seal of Austria-Hungary. The first seals of the independent Ukrainian state were adopted by the Ukrainian Central Rada on 22 March 1918. V. *Krychevsky designed both the Great and the Lesser seals. The Great Seal bore a trident (the heraldic emblem of the UNR) framed by a laurel ornament. The Lesser Seal showed a trident framed by a rhomboid ornament. Both seals had the annular Ukrainian inscription Ukraïns'ka Narodnia Respublika (Ukrainian National Republic), with three rings dividing the words. Both seals had elements of Ukrainian folk art, but their design was very different

The great seal of the 1918 Ukrainian State

The oldest municipal seal of Lviv

from that of the traditional seals of ancient Ukrainian states and those of European states. The seal of the Hetmán government bore a traditional likeness of a Cossack warrior, framed by a floral ornament, placed under a trident, and circumscribed by the legend Ukraïns'ka Derzhava (Ukrainian State). It adhered to heraldic conventions of European sphragistics, and its artistic style was closely modeled on lyth- and i8th-century Ukrainian seals. The seal of the Directory of the UNR, used by S. Petliura, was fairly modest, consisting of a trident and the Ukrainian initials 'UNR' in annular arrangement along with the legend Holovnyi Otaman Respublikans'kykh Ukraïns'kykh Zbroinykh Syl (Supreme Otaman of the Ukrainian Republican Armed Forces), the title of the head of state. Other seals were adopted by bodies that had jurisdiction over regions of Ukraine, including the Western Ukrainian National Republic, the Kuban, the Crimea, the Galician SSR (briefly), and Carpatho-Ukraine (in 1939). With the exception of that of the Ukrainian SSR they also all bore regional coats of arms. The use of the seal of the Ukrainian SSR (which bore the republic's coat of arms) was established by the Central Executive Committee (CEC) of the USSR on 17 June 1925. It was used only by higher central and local government institutions and some of their autonomous departments. Lesser state agencies used seals without the arms, and their inscriptions indicated their jurisdiction. Community, co-operative, and other organizations followed suit in their use of seals. The state seal of the Ukrainian SSR underwent numerous changes, as did its coat of arms. Initially it showed a crossed hammer and sickle, illuminated by the sun's rays and framed by sheaves of wheat, with the legend Proletari vsikh kraïn iednaitesia (Proletarians of All Countries Unite) and the name of the republic in Ukrainian and Russian (as adopted by the CEC of the Ukrainian SSR on 14 March 1919). When the republic's new constitution was ratified in 1929, the seal was changed to have only a Ukrainian legend, and the Ukrainian initials 'USRR' were placed above the hammer and sickle. The adoption of yet another constitution on 30 January 1937 meant replacement of the initials USRR with URSR. A law passed on 5 June 1950 placed a five-point star above the coat of arms, replaced the initials with Ukraïns'ka RSR, and restored the bilingual legend. The Moldavian ASSR, part of the Ukrainian SSR until 1941, had the Ukrainian seal with a bilingual legend in Ukrainian and Moldavian. In 1992 Ukraine, once again independent, declared the trident its seal. Territorial seals. These were official marks used in the

SPHRAGISTICS

appanage principalities and volosti of the Lithuanian principality; Ukrainian voivodeships and their subdivisions in the Polish kingdom; the regiments and palankas of the Cossack Hetmanate and the Zaporizhia; vicegerencies, gubernias, and other subdivisions of the Russian Empire; the crown territories of the Austro-Hungarian Empire; and all zemstvos until 1918. The seals of the appanage principalities of Kievan Rus' were identical to the state seal. The oldest such seal to have been preserved (nth century) belonged to Iziaslav Volodymyrovych. The face shows a trident framed by a legend, and the reverse has a legend only. The seals of princes of the Lithuanian states are of a transitional stage in Ukrainian territorial sphragistics. In the Polish kingdom all seals of voivodeships, territories, and districts bore the coat of arms framed by a Latin inscription (eg, Seal of Rus' Voivodeship). The seal of the Zaporizhia (mid-i6th century) had a likeness of a Cossack musketeer with the inscription, in Middle Ukrainian, Seal of the Zaporozhian Army. The oldest extant examples date from 1576,1596, and 1608. In 1648 seals for the regiments and companies of the Hetmanate were introduced. They bore the family or personal coat of arms of their commanding officer and an appropriate legend. The Zaporizhia, as an autonomous constituent of the Cossack state, had three types of its own seals, the territorial army seal, palanka seals, and kurin seals. The highest seal of the Zaporizhia had to be changed after 1648, when it was adopted as the Great Seal of the Hetmanate. A spear was added, thrust into the ground before the musketeer, and the annular inscription, in Middle Ukrainian, Seal of the Glorious Zaporozhian Host. In 1763 the words 'of Little Russia' and Imperial Majesty' were added. *Palanka seals showed the likeness of an animal (lion, horse, eagle, deer, etc) alongside the coat of arms of the regiment, and an appropriate legend. The seal of the Samara palanka, for example, bore a lion, the regimental arms, and the inscription Regimental Seal of the Samara Palanka. The seal of the Kodak palanka had a likeness of a horse, flanked by the regimental seal and the initials T.P.K.P/ The seals of Zaporozhian kurins had various figures and inscriptions and followed no set pattern. The last form of Cossack territorial seal was the seal for Cossack armies established in the late i8th and early 19th centuries, namely the Boh, Black Sea, Budzhak, Kuban, and other armies. Ukrainian territorial seals under the Russian Empire (for vicegerencies, gubernias, oblasts, etc) and AustriaHungary (the crownlands of Galicia, Lodomeria, Bukovyna, Transcarpathia, etc) were heraldic, and their inscriptions were in foreign languages. Local seals. Seals of cities, towns, and villages had many forms. City seals were already in use in the midi3th century in Western Ukraine. The oldest extant seal is from Volodymyr-Volynskyi (late 13th century), affixed to a document from 1324. It has a likeness of St George, the patron saint of the city, and a Latin legend identifying the seal. At the beginning of the 14th century seals began appearing in Lviv, Peremyshl, and other Galician and some Volhynian cities. The subsequent rapid development of city seals was influenced by the establishment of autonomous German ur-

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ban communities. All of these seals bear the city's coat of arms (designed with considerable thematic imagination and variety) and a Latin or early Middle Ukrainian annular inscription (some in the contemporary Western Ukrainian dialect). Larger cities, such as Kiev, had a lesser and a greater seal. During the Hetmanate in the 17th and i8th centuries, seals were dominated by Cossack symbols (maces, Cossacks, weaponry, various types of crosses, heavenly lights, etc). Rural communities in Ukraine had various seals the origins of which are difficult to trace. They have not been adequately studied, and most of them have been lost. Inscriptions on such seals were in Ukrainian, and they were adorned with emblems of everyday life, such as trees, animals, farm implements (scythes, sickles, rakes, hoes, etc), fruits, trees, and farm buildings. They were often of high artistic quality, and their style was characteristically Ukrainian. The Russian Empire's ascendancy arrested the development of Ukrainian local seals. Established traditional seals were replaced by new ones that had no historical relevance, on which the dominant image was the imperial eagle (eg, on the seal of Poltava). The seals of newly established cities had mundane designs, and rarely did they have historical themes. Cossack sphragistic traditions were maintained in the city seals of the Kuban. The Austrian authorities rarely made changes to city seals, and then only minor ones to adapt them to Austrian forms. In 1917-20 the independent Ukrainian government did not have sufficient time to address the issue of city seals, and after the Bolsheviks took power city seals disappeared completely. The use of city seals continued in Western Ukraine in the 19205 and 19305 but was discontinued in 1939. In the postwar Soviet period a new form of sphragistics and ^heraldry emerged, most of it far removed from Ukrainian and Western European traditions. A new seal for Kiev, for example, was created with a maple leaf (allegedly the floral emblem of the city) and a drawn bow (an imperfect reference to the crossbow that once appeared on the city's seal). Seals of lineage. In the early years of the Kiev principality leading families used their own seals or amulets, marked by emblems or runes, to denote their ancestral or personal holdings. The seals were of various provenance, including Slavic, Greek, Gothic, and Oriental sources. After the adoption of Christianity as the official religion a cross or a line perpendicular to the design was usually added. The designs of these seals of lineage provide the oldest images preserved on Rus' seals. Under the Galician-Volhynian state they became heraldic. Western European heraldry appeared in Ukrainian territories at the beginning of the 14th century. Leading families began displaying their emblems on their coats of arms, which had to be confirmed by monarchs and grand princes. The practice led to the creation of heraldic seals. In the Middle Ages they were widely used, particularly by princesses, boyars, members of the prince's host, merchants, and other classes. The peasantry also used emblems (eg, beekeepers for the marking of their hives), but their emblems did not come to be used as seals. The revival of the Ukrainian state in the 17th century resulted in further developments in family and personal seals. They were used by the nobility, Cossack officers, the clergy, burghers, and Cossacks of lower rank. Families and indi-

856

SPHRAGISTICS

viduals who did not have coats of arms created them in styles of their own choosing. Cossack traditions generated a new set of images used in seals, including those of weapons (swords, sabers, arrows, bows), heavenly bodies (the sun, half-moons, stars), and various crosses, hearts, towers, and so on. The seals provided the basis for the coats of arms of the descendants of Cossack officers and the LeftBank nobility. In some cases Cossack officers ignored the emblems of their ancestors and created their own, based on Cossack motifs. V. Dunin-Borkovsky, a general quartermaster, for example, replaced his family emblem of a swan with a saber and cross. Ukrainian octagonal coats of arms emerged in the seals of that time, and initials denoting the bearer's name and status were also added. In the 19th century the creation of Ukrainian family seals came to an end, since only the Russian or AustroHungarian imperial government conferred coats of arms and titles. Ukrainian family seals were reduced to two formats, a coat of arms without initials, or initials under the crown of a knight of the nobility, a baron, or a count. They were small, so-called signet or ring seals that served to seal letters and other missives. In the 2Oth century seals of lineage fell into complete disuse. Church seals. By the mid-2Oth century 18 impressions of the seal of the metropolitan of Kiev had been found. The oldest belonged to Metropolitan Theopemptos, who arrived in Kiev in 1037. On the face is a likeness of John the Baptist, and on the reverse the legend, in Greek, God Help Theopemptos, the Metropolitan of Rus'. Two other extant impressions from the nth century belonged to the metropolitans Yefrem and Georgios. In the 12th century the standard face image of the seal of the metropolitan showed Mary with the Holy Child. The legend on the reverse went through various minor variations. Exceptions to the standard format included the seal of Nicephorus II (from 1182), which bore a legend on both sides that read O Christ, Watch Over Me, the Archpastor of All of Rus', and Keep Me in Your Thoughts, and that of loan II (1189-1190), which bore a likeness of St John Chrysostom and the legend Watch over Your Servant loan, Metropolitan of Rus'. The seals of bishops were similar. Three impressions of the seal of Cosma, the bishop of Halych (from 1157), are extant. The face shows the traditional likeness of Mary, and the verso bears the legend Mother of God, Watch over Me, Cosma of Halych. Seals of old Ukrainian monasteries usually had only appropriate inscriptions and no images. As heraldry developed in Ukraine in the 14th century, church seals increasingly began using heraldic images. The seals of Ukrainian clerical hierarchs of the loth century were single-sided and had annular inscriptions. They usually had two sections for images. One section bore a likeness of Christ, Mary, a saint, or other religious figure; the other showed the family emblems of the hierarch and an appropriate symbol of his office (miter, crozier, or cross). The heraldic elements gradually became more prominent, as did elements of Western European church heraldry, such as ecclesiastical headgear, emblems, or Latin annular inscriptions. The lower orders of clergy used heraldic seals almost exclusively. In the 15th century the seals of monasteries, monastic orders, cathedral assemblies, brotherhoods, and parishes became increasingly sophisticated and of high artistic quality. The seal of the Lviv Dormition Brotherhood bore

a likeness of its church's bell tower (i6th century). The seal of Kiev metropoly and of the assembly of the St Sophia Cathedral in Kiev showed the Kievan Cave Monastery and a symbolic representation of God's wisdom (i7th century). The Mezhyhiria Transfiguration Monastery's seal bore a representation of a valley, a river, and mountains (i8th century). Other parishes adopted images of threedomed churches or likenesses of their patron saints. In the 2Oth century Ukrainian Catholic hierarchs adopted a new seal (influenced by Western European churches) that bears a two-field heraldic shield. The right field usually shows the emblem of the eparchy or exarchate (the unchanging symbol of the particular position); the left field shows the family or personal emblem of the person holding the post, accompanied by the appropriate symbol for the position. Governmental and institutional seals. Seals were already being used by diplomatic, trade, boyar, and military officials in the loth century, under Ihor I and Sviatoslav I Ihorevych. The oldest that have been preserved belonged to Ratybor, a vice-regent of Tmutorokan and tysiatskyi of Kiev in the late nth century (the face with the likeness of St Clement, the Roman Pope [Ratybor was his Christian name], and the verso with the legend From Ratybor). The legend on the seal used by D. Dedko, vice-regent of Halych in the early 14th century, was similar to those used in Western Europe at the time (Guardian and Overseer of Rus' Lands). Seals designed for municipal governments and institutions underwent accelerated development under the Hetmán state in the 17th and i8th centuries (eg, seals of the General Chancellery, the General Court, and regimental and company administrations). One of the best examples of institutional seals of the era belonged to the Kievan Mohyla Academy. It had an annular Latin inscription (Kiioviensis Sigillum Academia) and an image of the academy in sunlight and cloud. After the abolition of the Hetmanate this Ukrainian sphragistical style was lost as seals became copies of the Russian and Austro-Hungarian imperial models. In the mid-i9th century it was revived by various community organizations in Galicia and Bukovyna, and in 1917-18 there was a brief efflorescence in the design of governmental seals, such as postal seals and the ^postage stamps of the government of the Western Ukrainian National Republic (in the form of a trident) and of the military. After the Bolshevik takeover this form of seal was maintained only in Galician organizations and, partially, in émigré circles. In the first decades after the Second World War a number of émigré Ukrainian graphic artists produced seals in traditional styles for Ukrainian community institutions. The study of seals. Ukrainian sphragistics was one of the disciplines Hetmán K. Rozumovsky planned to have taught at his university in Baturyn (along with heraldry, diplomacy, and related subjects), but the university was never established. Academic study in sphragistics did not begin until the mid-i9th century. Scholars and hobbyists in the field have included K. Antypovych, B. Barvinsky, K. Bolsunovsky, M. Bytynsky, M. Hrushevsky, P. Klymenko, P. Klymkevych, I. Krypiakevych, O. Lazarevsky, Ye. Liutsenko, I. Lutsky, V. Modzalevsky, H. Myloradovych, H. Narbut, Ya. Pasternak, V. Prokopovych, M. Petrov, V. Seniutovych-Berezhny, M. and M. Slabchenko, A. Storozhenko, and P. Yefymenko (Sr), as well as the Russians A. Barsukov, E. Kamentseva, A. Lappo-Danilevsky, N.

SPILKA Likhachev, V. Lukomsky, B. Rybakov, and V. Yanin, the Poles A. Darowski-Weryha, M. Gumowski, F. Piekosiñski, W. Semkowicz, and W. Wittig, the German W. Ewald, and the Rumanian N. Banescu. In Soviet Ukraine in the 19708, D. Blifeld, V. Fomenko, V. Havrylenko, O. Markevych, V. Strelsky, and others published related works. Artifacts of Ukrainian sphragistics are held in various archives and museums of Ukraine and Russia, particularly the State Hermitage in St Petersburg, state museums of history in Moscow and Kiev, the ANU Institute of Archeology, the National Museum and the ANU Institute of Social Sciences in Lviv, and in the hands of private collectors. Other Ukrainian sphragistic collections are found in Belarus, France, Germany, Greece, Hungary, Latvia, Lithuania, Poland, Turkey, and the United States. BIBLIOGRAPHY Ivanov, P. Sbornik snimkov s drevneishikh russkikh pechatei (Moscow 1858)

Weryga-Darowski, O. 'Znaki pieczçtne ruskie/ in Noty heraldyczne (Paris 1862) Snimki drevneishikh russkikh pechatei (Moscow 1882) Barsukov, A. Travitel'stvennye pechati v Malorossii/ KS, 1887, no. 9 Bolsunovskii, K. Sfragisticheskie i gérai'dicheskie pamiatniki lugoZapadnogo kraia, 3 vols (Kiev 1899-1914) Hrushevs'kyi, M. Techad z okolytsi Halycha/ ZNTSh, 38 (1900) Likhachev, N. Russkaia sfragistika (St Petersburg 1900) Lappo-Danilevskii, A. Pechati poslednikh galitsko-vladimirskikh kniazei i ikh sovetnikov: Boleslav lurii n, kniaz ' Vsei Maloi Rossii (St Petersburg 1906) Slabchenko, M. Materialy po malorusskoi sfragistike (Odessa 1912) Kryp'iakevych, I. 'Z kozats'ko'i sfragistyky/ ZNTSh, 122,124 (1918) Antypovych, K. 'Ky'ivs'ka mis'ka pechatka/ in lubileinyi zbirnyk na poshanu akademika Dmytra Ivanovycha Bahaliia (Kiev 1927) Kornylovych, M. Techatky i6-ty kyïvs'kykh tsekhiv/ in luvileinyi zbirnyk na poshanu akademika Mykhaila Serhiievycha Hrushevs 'koho (Kiev 1928) Slabchenko, M. 'Zaporiz'ki pechatky xvn v./ ZIFV, 19 (1928) Prokopovych, V. Techat' malorossiiskaia: Sfragistychni etiudy/ ZNTSh, 163 (Paris-New York 1954) Klymkevych, R. 'Naidavnishi pechati ukraïns'kykh mist/ Ky'w, 1963, nos 1-2

lanin, V. Aktovye pechati drevnei Rusi x-xv vv. (Moscow 1970) Havrylenko, V. Ukra'ms 'ka sfrahistyka (Kiev 1977) R. Klymkevych Spilka, A. The collective pseudonym for Spilka Adeska (Odessa Association), a group of compilers of a RussianUkrainian dictionary published in Lviv (1893-1900) under the direction of M. Umanets (M. Komar). Members of the group included T. Desiatyn-Lukianiv, T. Zinkivsky, O. Kosach (O. Pchilka), V. Nazarevsky, M. Starytsky, and K. Ukhach-Okhorovych. Spilka, V. The collective pseudonym of the compilers (Yu. *Kobyliansky, L. *Kohut, Z. *Kuzelia, V. *Simovych, and Ye. Tsapler) who, together with V. *Kmitsykevych, published a German-Ukrainian dictionary in Chernivtsi in 1912. Spilka, Ukrainian Social Democratic (Ukrainska sotsiial-demokratychna spilka). A party formed by M. *Melenevsky and other orthodox Marxists who left the ^Revolutionary Ukrainian party (RUP) in December 1904.

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They rejected as bourgeois and nationalist the program of the RUP majority. They saw as their primary goal social revolution and fusion with the Russian Social Democratic Workers' party (RSDWP) as the unitary, centralized workers' party of all nationalities in the Russian Empire. In January 1905 the Spilka (the Ukrainian word for 'association' or 'union') was constituted as the autonomous, territorial section in Ukraine of the *Menshevik wing of the RSDWP to do political work on its behalf among the Ukrainianspeaking rural proletariat. Because the Spilka worked closely with the Russian and Jewish Mensheviks and the Jewish Workers' *Bund, in 1905-7 it built a mass-based organization in Ukraine's villages and small towns that was stronger and had more influence than RUP and its successor, the "Ukrainian Social Democratic Workers' party (USDWP). The Spilka had within its ranks not only nationally conscious Ukrainians (eg, H. Dovzhenko, M. Halahan, P. Kanivets, M. Korenetsky, P. Krat, V. Mazurenko, Melenevsky, O. Skoropys-Yoltukhovsky, H. and M. Tkachenko) and nationally indifferent ones (P. Tuchapsky), but also ethnic Ukrainians who were hostile to the Ukrainian national movement (I. Kyriienko) and non-Ukrainians (Yu. Larin, V. Perekrestov, A. Podolsky [Hoikhberg], R. Rabinovich, A. Rish, L. Slutsky, S. Sokolov, Y. Soroker, S. Zavadsky). During the Revolution of 1905-6 the Spilka's 3,000 to 7,000 members organized and led many strikes and other disturbances in Chernihiv, Kiev, Kherson, Podilia, Poltava, and Volhynia gubernias. At the same time, through its organ *Pravda (1905) and its propagandistic brochures in Ukrainian and Russian, the Spilka waged a fierce ideological struggle against the USDWP and thus gained the support of many former RUP cells. From December 1905 the Spilka published Pravda and most of its literature in Russian. The Spilka's gains were the greatest during the elections to the First and Second Russian state dumas, and in the Second Duma it had 14 delegates (the USDWP had i). At the Fifth RSDWP Congress in London in May 1907, the 10 Spilka delegates constituted 25 percent of all delegates from Ukraine. During the tsarist reaction of 1907, mass arrests brought the Spilka to nearly total collapse, and several of its leaders (eg, Rabinovich, Rish, Soroker, H. Tkachenko) were exiled to Siberia. Thereafter the Spilka had little impact in Ukraine. In 1908 Melenevsky moved the Spilka center from Kiev abroad and formed small fraternal groups in Lviv, Vienna, Paris, Geneva, and Zurich linked by L. Trotsky's Menshevik paper, Pravda (1908-12), published in Lviv (nos 1-4 in Ukrainian) and then Vienna (in Russian). Because its leaders increasingly compromised with the centralist, Russian chauvinist tendencies within the RSDWP at a time when national consciousness was on the rise within the Ukrainian peasantry, many of its remaining Ukrainian members left the party and joined the USDWP, and the 'internationalists' joined the RSDWP or the Bund. The Spilka held its last conference in 1909, and its last document, an appeal by Melenevsky, appeared in 1912. By 1913 the Spilka was defunct. BIBLIOGRAPHY Rish, A. Ocherki po istorii ukrainskoi sotsial-demokraticheskoi 'Spilki' (Kharkiv 1926) Halahan, M. Z moïkh spomyniv (8o-ti roky do svitovoï viiny), i (Lviv 1930)

R. Senkus

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SPINACH

Spinach (Spinacia olerácea; Ukrainian: shpinat, shpynat). A hardy, leafy annual vegetable of the goosefoot family Chenopodiaceae that grows wild in Central Asia and in Transcaucasia. It contains high levels of iron, calcium, and iodine, vitamins A, B complex, and C, proteins, and fat. In Ukraine garden spinach grows in a cool climate on rich soil. Sowing can be repeated several times a summer. Spinach is consumed fresh or cooked and is preserved frozen or canned. Spirea (Spiraea; Ukrainian: tavolha). Deciduous shrubs of the family Rosaceae, popularly cultivated for their attractive white, pink, or red flowers. In Ukraine seven species of spirea grow as underbrush on forest outskirts, on the slopes of ravines, in brushwood, and on steppes; they form dense ground covers. Ten other species are used as decorative hedges and ornamental borders in gardens and parks. Spiro, Petr, b 1844 in Moscow, d 1894. Physiologist. A graduate of Moscow University (1867), he worked at Odessa University (from 1871), where he obtained a medical degree (1874) and became a professor (from 1885). He researched the physiology of respiration, digestion, and hypnosis and participated in the work of the first experimental psychology laboratory in the Russian Empire (est 1882 in Odessa). Spis (German: Zips, Hungarian: Szepes). A region of northeastern Slovakia, located in the central Carpathian and the western Beskyd mountains. It includes the basins of the upper Poprad and Hornád rivers, the Spisská Magura massif, a small part of the Tatra Mountains, and the Slovenské Rudohorie Mountains. It covers an area of approx 3,700 sq km, with a population (1965) of 255,000. It constitutes part of the historical *Presov region of Ukrainian settlement. The territory was settled fairly late, initially by Slovaks in the south, Poles in the north, and Germans (i3th century). In 1270 the German settlers formed a union of 24 Spis towns. Of those, the Hungarian king Sigismund ceded 13 to Poland in 1412 (which Poland held until the i8th century). Otherwise, the region was controlled by Hungary and administered as Szepes komitat until 1919. It now belongs to Slovakia and Poland. In the 14th and 15th centuries Ukrainians (Lemkos) began settling there; they now live in the northern and eastern sections of the region, in the Stará L'ubovña district. They are divided between a compact settlement of approx 230 sq km and a number of small pockets (the westernmost Ukrainian outpost being Osturnia). There are about 15,000 Ukrainians living in the Spis area. Spis, Treaty of. An agreement concluded in 1214 between the Hungarian king Andrew II and the Polish prince Leszek the White to divide the principality of Prince Roman Mstyslavych of Halych upon that prince's death. Andrew's son, Kálmán, who was married to Leszek's daughter, Salome, was to assume the throne of Halych, and Leszek was to annex western Galicia, including Peremyshl. Soon after the plan was implemented, the Halych boyars overthrew their new master and called Mstyslav Mstyslavych to the throne.

Spisská Magura. A mountain massif in the western Beskyds in Czechoslovakia, on the border of Ukrainian and Slovak ethnic territory. The massif consists of lightly folded flysch formations with ridges reaching 1,156 m. The ridges are mostly covered with woods and meadows and are sparsely populated. Spivak, Borys, b 12 March 1925 in Shpola (now in Cherkasy oblast), d 4 June 1971. Historian. He graduated in history from Odessa University (1951) and taught at Uzhhorod University (from 1954, as professor from 1966). He wrote Narysy istoriï revoliutsiinoï borot 'by trudiashchykh Zakarpattia 1930-1945 rr. (Essays on the History of the Revolutionary Struggle of the Workers of Transcarpathia in 1930-45, 1961), Storinky istoriï (The Pages of History, 1962), and Revoliutsiinyi rukh na Zakarpatti v 1924-1929 rokakh (The Revolutionary Movement in Transcarpathia in 1924-9,1964). Spivak, Eliahu (Illia), b 22 October 1890 in Vasylkiv, Kiev gubernia, d 12 August 1952 in Moscow. JewishUkrainian philologist; AN URSR (now ANU) corresponding member from 1939. A graduate of the Hlukhiv Teachers' Institute (1919), he taught in Yiddish secondary schools in Kiev, Kharkiv, and Odessa in the 19203; at the Odessa Institute of People's Education (1927-30); and at the Kiev Institute of Professional Education (1930-2). In the early 19305 he was head of the philological section of the YUAN ^Institute of Jewish Culture in Kiev and then director of the ANU Cabinet of Jewish Culture (1936-48). He was arrested during the Zhdanov purge of Jewish intellectuals in 1949 and condemned to death with 25 other Yiddish cultural figures by a secret Military Collegium tribunal. He was executed in Lubianka Prison. Spivak wrote a Yiddish textbook (1923) and articles on the history of the Yiddish language, on Yiddish lexicology and lexicography, and on the language and style of Sholom Aleichem and Mendele Mocher Seforim. In 1935 ne initiated the academic Russian-Yiddish dictionary project. The manuscript of the dictionary was confiscated after his arrest, and was not published until 1984, in Moscow. Spivomovky. Short verses generally based on folk anecdotes, jokes, sayings, or tales. They can be found in literary works, such as L. Borovykovsky's and Ye. Hrebinka's fables. S. Rudansky wrote three collections of spivomovky (1851-60), and I. Franko wrote a cycle titled Novi spivomovky (New Spivomovky). Spokii (Tranquility). An art circle established in 1927 by Ukrainian students at the Warsaw Academy of Arts. Among its founding members were P. Andrusiv, V. Vaskivsky, N. Khasevych, and P. *Mehyk (its president). By the time it was dissolved in 1939, it had organized 13 exhibitions, including two traveling exhibitions in Volhynia, and published albums of woodcuts (1936) and N. Khasevych's bookplates (1939) and 13 catalogues of its shows. Its members also participated in the exhibitions of the Association of Independent Ukrainian Artists in Lviv and the exhibitions of Ukrainian graphic art in Berlin and Prague. In 1939 Spokii had 33 members.

SPORTS

Spolitakevych, Volodymyr [Spolitakevyc], b 6 January 1882 in Vytkiv Staryi, Radekhiv county, Galicia, d 6 December 1932 in Yonkers, New York. Greek Catholic priest and civic activist. After being ordained (1906) he came to the United States (1907) and served in several parishes in Pennsylvania and New York. In 1914 he was elected chairman of the education committee of the Ukrainian National Association. He also served as president of the United Ukrainian Organizations in America in 1924-6. Spomahateli. Wealthy elect Cossacks in 18th-century Left-Bank Ukraine who hired and equipped poor Cossacks to perform their military duty. The term was also applied to Cossacks who could not serve because of old age, illness, or a handicap. Such Cossacks were excused from service but were required to pay part of the cost of equipping a substitute. Sport (Sport). A monthly sports journal published in Kiev in 1936-41 by the Communist Youth League of Ukraine and the Committee on Physical Culture and Sports of the Council of People's Commissars of the Ukrainian SSR. Sport succeeded the Russian-language Vestnik fizicheskoi kul 'tury (Kharkiv, 1922-9) and Ukrainian-language Visnyk fizychnoï kul'tury (Kharkiv, 1929-30) and Fizkul'turnyk Ukrainy (Kharkiv, 1931-4; Kiev, 1934-6). Sportfishing (rybalskyi sport). The first fishing clubs were established in the larger towns of Ukraine before the 1917 Revolution. Under Soviet rule fishermen belonged to the Ukrainian Hunting and Fishing Society (est 1921); in 1984 it had over 500,000 members in its 25 oblast and 514 raion collectives. Sportfishing in the USSR as a whole was under the control of the All-Union Federation of Sportfishing in Moscow. Sports. Organized athletic games and competitions. In medieval Ukraine, certain sporting activities were engaged in as part of military training or religious ceremonies, or for entertainment. The chronicles mention that the upper classes engaged in bear hunting; capturing wild horses; fighting; and games involving running, dancing, singing, and wrestling. During funeral feasts duels and primitive boxing matches took place. Little is known about competitions among the Cossacks, but their reputation for marksmanship, swordsmanship, and horsemanship suggests that they trained to develop their skills and physical endurance. Western Ukraine. Sports in the modern sense were introduced in Ukraine in the latter half of the 19th century from Western Europe. The first organized Ukrainian competitions occurred only after the founding of the *Sokil (1894) and *Sich (1900) physical education societies in Galicia. The first sports circles sprang up at Ukrainian gymnasiums. In 1907-8 a soccer team was organized by I. *Bobersky at the Ukrainian Academic Gymnasium in Lviv. By 1911 its membership and activities had expanded so much that the Ukraina sports club was established. The club organized soccer matches with Polish, Czech, Hungarian, and German teams; track-and-field meets; and wrestling, tennis, and cycling competitions. So-called Zaporozhian Games were held in Lviv in 1911 and 1914. In Peremyshl the Sianova Chaika club was organized by

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local gymnasium teachers in 1912. Another club was organized in Ternopil. After the hiatus of the First World War, the Sokil, Sich, and Ukraina societies resumed their sports activities, and new sports clubs were formed. In Lviv, the Carpathian Ski Club, the Lviv Tennis Club, the Ukrainian Student Sports Club, *Plai, Bohun, Burevii, Chornomortsi, Meta, Tryzub, Strila, and the Tur hunting society appeared; in Peremyshl, Sian, Berkut, Spartanky, and Sianova Chaika; in Stanyslaviv, the Ukrainian Sports Club and Prolom; in Sambir, Dnister; in Stryi, Skala; in Ternopil, Podilia; and in Drohobych, Vatra. The Orly Catholic youth association and the Kameniari Union of Ukrainian Progressive Youth formed sports sections within their organizations. About a dozen clubs competed in the Zaporozhian Games, which were revived by the central Sokil branch in 1923 and held annually in either Lviv or Peremyshl. Outstanding female athletes were O. Sekela and M. Húsar from Berkut, and O. Kobziar and N. Nyzhankivska from Sokil in Lviv; outstanding male athletes were R. Shukhevych, Yu. Hnateiko, R. Rak, and V. Kobziar from Lviv, and Berkut's T. Kozak, M. Romanets, I. Medvid, and Yu. Semeniuk. The most popular sport was soccer; the Ukraina, Prolom, Podilia, Dnister, and Skala clubs had the best teams. In 1925 the ^Ukrainian Sports Union was founded in Lviv to co-ordinate the sports activities of the various societies and clubs. The rapid rise in the popularity of soccer led clubs such as Ukraina, Prolom, and Sian to join the Polish Soccer Association. Attempts by Polish authorities to obstruct the growth of the Western Ukrainian sports movement did not succeed. In 1939 there were over 200 Ukrainian clubs and sports sections within the Sokil and *Luh societies, with a combined total of over 3,000 participants. The Zaporozhian Games of 1934 and 1939 demonstrated the vitality of Ukrainian organized sports in Galicia. In Czechoslovak-ruled Transcarpathia, the Sich societies and the Plast scouting organization continued the sports activities they had begun before the war. The Rus' Ukrainian sports society of Uzhhorod became part of the Czechoslovak Soccer League. In interwar Bukovyna, the Rumanian authorities abolished the Sich societies that had been established there before the war. Most of the extant Ukrainian sports clubs were devoted to soccer. R. Petrushenko of the Dovbush club in Chernivtsi was a member of the Rumanian skating team in the 1936 Olympic Games. Ukraine under tsarist rule. Before the 1917 Revolution there were no Ukrainian organized sports activities. The upper classes, however, had access to yachting, tennis, and gymnastics clubs. Workers and students organized their own unofficial sports groups, and the Russian Sokol and Boy Scout organizations promoted gymnastics. Ukrainian athletes, such as the wrestlers I. Piddubny and O. Harkavenko, the fencers Klimov and Zakharov, and the equestrians Boboshko and Rodzianko, participated in competitions throughout Europe. Some Ukrainians represented Russia at the 1908 and 1912 Olympic Games. In 1913 the first All-Russian Olympiad took place in Kiev. Soviet Ukraine. Under Soviet rule, organized sports were well developed as a result of the Soviet state's emphasis on ^physical education for the entire population. In 1922 the Spartak organization was founded by the Kom-

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somol to unite all existing sports circles and to control their activities. In 1923 the first All-Ukrainian *Spartakiad took place in Kharkiv, and the Higher Council on Physical Culture of Ukraine was created to co-ordinate all physical education and organized sports in Ukraine. Thenceforth all sports clubs were part of Komsomol or trade-union organizations. At the 1928 All-Union Spartakiad, the collective Ukrainian team placed second overall and first in volleyball, handball, gymnastics, shooting, and motorcycling. In 1930 the first All-Ukrainian Rural Spartakiad took place in Kiev; competitors were the victors in 300 raion and 25 okruha Spartakiads. Prominent Ukrainian athletes who participated in republican, all-Union, and Red Sport International competitions in the 19205 and 19305 were V. Kalyna, H. Raievsky, M. Pidhaietsky, and Z. Synytska in track-and-field sports; M. Dmytriiev, Ye. Bokova, and T. Demydenko in gymnastics; V. Furmaniuk in swimming; H. Popov, H. Novak, Ya. Kutsenko, and M. Kasianyk in weight lifting; and P. Makhnytsky, M. Sazhko, and I. Mykhilovsky in Greco-Roman wrestling. Sports contacts with the West increased after the Second World War, and Soviet physical education and sports training were improved. In 1959 the Committee on Physical Culture and Sports of Ukraine's Council of Ministers was reorganized into the Union of Sports Societies and Organizations of the Ukrainian SSR; like its predecessors, it was subordinated to its all-Union counterpart in Moscow. Oblast, city, raion, and local councils of physical culture oversaw the work of all voluntary sports societies, physical culture collectives at industrial enterprises and collective and state farms, and sports clubs. Until August 1991 there were nine republican branches of all-Union *sports societies in Ukraine - *Avanhard (over 3 million members), *Burevisnyk (approx 560,000 members), *Dynamo, Kolos (formerly Kolhospnyk; 4.7 million members), Lokomotyv (approx 470,000 members), *Spartak (over 2.6 million members), Trudovi Rezervy (approx 690,000 members), Vodnyk (approx 90,000 members), and Zenit - with a combined membership of over 17 million. Military reservists were trained in paramilitary sports such as fly-ing, skydiving, gliding, car racing, motorcycling, skin diving, motorboating, and shooting by clubs of the ^Voluntary Society for Assistance to the Army, Air Force, and Navy. Ukraine was deprived of its own representation in international sports, but Ukrainian athletes participated in the ^Olympic Games as members of USSR teams from 1952. Since the 19505 over 80 world records and many European and Soviet records have been set by athletes from Ukraine. Kiev's Dynamo soccer team won the 1975 and 1986 European Cup-Winners' Cup and over a dozen USSR championships and cups. Many international competitions have taken place in Kiev: European equestrian championships (1973-5); international women's handball championships; European track-and-field, boxing, and judo championships (1975); the Golden Ring floor-exercises tournament (1976); a world wrestling championship (1983); and USSRWest Germany and USSR-United States track-and-field competitions (1983). Odessa hosted an international swimming and track-and-field competition in 1974; USSRUnited States boxing competitions took place in Donetske in 1979 and 1982; and a USSR-East Germany boxing competition was held in Zaporizhia in 1981. Today over 50 dif-

ferent sports are practiced in Ukraine. The 10 most popular are (in descending order) track-and-field sports, soccer, volleyball, shooting, basketball, table tennis, skiing, handball, swimming, and gymnastics. Recognizing the political importance of sports in fostering national pride and international recognition, the Soviet central authorities ruled out separate representations from the Soviet national republics at international competitions. Like any other colonial power, the USSR exploited the athletic potential of its constituent nations to build up the central sports organizations, which were Russian. Unofficial data show a staggering mortality rate among Soviet Olympic medal winners, which suggests that Soviet athletes were forced to ingest steroids and other dangerous drugs, and to undergo physiological experiments. Sports periodicals published in Ukraine include Vestnik fizicheskoikuVtury (1922-9), Visnykfizychnoïkul'tury (192930), Fizkul'turnyk Ukraïny (1930-5), Sport (1936-41), Radians'kyi sport (1934-9,1950-64), Fizkul'tura i sport (195764), Sportyvna hazeta (since 1964), and Start (since 1965). Abroad. In Canada, the Canadian Ukrainian Athletic Clubs (CUAC) in Winnipeg (1925) and in Oshawa (1927) were the earliest manifestations of organized sports activity by Ukrainians. Over 60 Ukrainian sports clubs, leagues, and teams have been active in Canada. The CUAC is still in existence; its women's softball team won the national championship in 1965. The other Ukraina teams have also won national championships - Montreal's soccer team in 1957 and Toronto's volleyball team in 1975. In the interwar period Sich societies in the United States and Canada established their own track-and-field, swimming, volleyball, soccer, softball, basketball, bowling, and tennis clubs and competitions. Ukrainian youth athletic competitions were held in Philadelphia in 1935 and 1936. Young athletes from the United States and Canada competed in the first Ukrainian-American Olympiad held in Philadelphia in 1936. In 1938 the Ukrainian National Association founded a baseball league; by 1940 it had 28 teams. Ukrainian refugees in postwar Germany set up the "Ukrainian Council for Physical Culture in November 1945 to co-ordinate the 51 sports clubs (with a combined membership of 3,700) that arose in the DP camps. The most popular sport was soccer, with 29 clubs in the US zone of Germany alone. In volleyball there were 29 men's and 16 women's teams. There were 15 basketball teams. The council's hockey team scored a victory over the best American army team. Track-and-field sports, skiing, swimming, table tennis, tennis, mountain climbing, boxing, and weight lifting were practiced also. The council organized games and athletic competitions among Ukrainian teams and between Ukrainian and non-Ukrainian teams, as well as courses for trainers and coaches (1946-7). At the 1948 DP Olympiad in Nuremberg, Ukrainian teams took first place in soccer, men's volleyball, the 4OO-m men's relay, and heavyweight boxing. After the mass emigration of refugees to the New World in the late 19403, new Ukrainian sports clubs were founded in the host countries. Soccer, tennis, volleyball, and swimming have been particularly popular. The ^Ukrainian Sports Federation of the USA and Canada was founded in 1953-4. In 1980 it organized, with other émigré communities of the captive nations of the USSR, the Free Olympiad in Tor-

SPRAWY

onto. The Ukrainian delegation won 11 gold, 8 silver, and 7 bronze medals and took second place overall. At the second such Olympiad, in 1984, the Ukrainian women's team placed first overall, the men's team second overall. (See also ""Acrobatics, ^Basketball, *Boxing, "Cycling, "Fencing, "Gymnastics, "Hockey, "Mountaineering, "Parachuting, "Rowing and canoeing, "Shooting, "Skating, "Skiing, "Soaring, "Soccer, "Sportfishing, "Swimming, "Tennis, "Track-and-field sports, "Volleyball, "Water polo, "Weight lifting, "Wrestling, and "Yachting.) BIBLIOGRAPHY

Al'manakh Radyfizychnoïkul'tury (Munich 1951) Chernova, le. Rozvytokfizychnoïkul'tury i sportu v Ukraïns'kii RSR (Kiev 1959) Sport na Ukraïni, 1957-1960: Dovidnyk (Kiev 1961) Sport na Ukraïni, 1960-1964: Dovidnyk (Kiev 1966) Sport na Ukraïni, 1965-1967: Dovidnyk (Kiev 1969) Kizchenko, V. 'Z istorii rozvytku sportu na Ukraïni (kinets' xixpochatok xx st.)/ UlZh, 1980, no. 7 Riordan, J. Soviet Sport: Background to the Olympics (Oxford 1980) Sportyvni vysoty Ukraïny (Kiev 1980) Rymarenko, P. Sports in Ukraine (Kiev 1988) E. Zharsky Sports palaces (palatsy sportu). Covered buildings for sports competitions and other mass events. Most such palaces have ice rinks and movable stands seating from 3,000 to 14,000 spectators. The largest sports palaces in Ukraine are the Kiev Sports Palace, built in 1960 by M. Hrechyna, O. Zavarov, and others; the Labor Reserve Palace in Lviv, built in 1970 by S. Sokolov; and the Youth Palace in Zaporizhia, built in 1972. Sports societies. In the USSR, the first all-Union mass voluntary societies providing the population with athletic and sports facilities, training, and activities were the Komsomol organization Spartak (est 1922) and the paramilitary Dynamo (Russian: Dinamo, est 1924). From 1926 on sports clubs were founded by various USSR trade unions, and in 1936-8 the Ail-Union Central Council of Trade Unions united them in 64 sports societies. By 1957 most of these societies had been amalgamated. In Soviet Ukraine there were republican branches of nine all-Union societies: Dynamo, for employees of the MVD, KGB, and other police and security forces; Spartak (est 1935; over 2 million members in 1986), for white-collar employees in state trade, civil aviation, culture, and public health; Lokomotyv (Russian: Lokomotiv, est 1936; 462,000 members in 1985), for railway workers; Zenit (est 1936; part of the Trud society in 1957-66), for employees of the machine-building industry; Vodnyk (Russian: Vodnik, est 1938; over 100,000 members in 1985), for river and sea transportation workers; Kolos (est 1950; 4.7 million members in 1984), formerly Kolhospnyk (1950-70), the republican equivalent of the all-Union Urozhai society for collective farmers and other rural-based employees; Avanhard (est 1957; over 3 million members in 1985), the republican equivalent of the ail-Union Trud society for industrial and construction workers; Burevisnyk (Russian: Burevestnik, est 1957; 525,000 members in 1985), for postsecondary students; and Trudovi Rezervy (Russian: Trudovye Rezervy, est 1943; 686,000 members in 1986), for students and employees of vocational and technical schools.

NARODOWOSCIOWE

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The Ukrainian societies were composed of athletic collectives (47,900 in Ukraine in 1987) and sports clubs, with a combined membership of over 17 million in 1984. All of them were governed by councils elected at society conferences held every four years and were supervised by the Ail-Union Council of Voluntary Sports Societies. The societies funded and trained their own individuals and teams participating in intersociety, republican, USSR, and international competitions. In the years 1952-80 Burevisnyk's athletes won 36 Olympic gold medals; Spartak's, 22; Avanhard's, 21; Dynamo's, 15; Lokomotyv's, 10; Kolos's, 5; Zenit's, 4; Trudovi Rezervy's, i; and Vodnyk's, i. Teams that have won Soviet and/or international cups are the Kiev Dynamo *soccer team; Avanhard's soccer teams Shakhtar in Donetske and Dnipro in Dnipropetrovske, and its Budivelnyk basketball team in Kiev; Burevisnyk's Medin women's volleyball team in Odessa; the Kharkiv Lokomotyv men's volleyball team; Spartak's women's volleyball team, Aviator rugby team, and Sokil ice hockey-team in Kiev; and Kolos's women's field-hockey team in Boryspil. R. Senkus Sportyvna hazeta (Sports Gazette). The only Soviet Ukrainian newspaper devoted solely to sports, founded in April 1934. It is published three times a week in Kiev as the official organ of the Committee on Physical Culture and Sports of the Ukrainian Supreme Soviet and Republican Council of Trade Unions. It was called Radians'kyi sport until 1964 and did not come out in 1940-9. In 1980 it had a circulation of 450,000. Sprat (Ukrainian: shprot, tiulka). A valuable commercial food-fish of the herring family Clupeidae (genus Clupea) that is usually less than 12 cm long, lives in vast schools, and feeds on plankton. Sprats (C. sprattus) are sold fresh, smoked, salted, spiced, or canned in oil. Some are used as bait or are processed for fish meal and oil. In Ukraine the Black Sea sprat (C. sprattusphalerius) and the tiulka (C. delicatula) are found in Black Sea waters, from which they migrate in the spring toward the Danube, Dnieper, Buh, Tylihul, and Berezan estuaries. Spravnyk (Russian: spravnik). A county police and court official in the Russian Empire. The office was created by Catherine ll's 1775 law on gubernial administration and was introduced in Ukraine in the 17805. The spravnyk was elected for a three-year term by the nobility of a county. In 1862 his powers were restricted to policing, and thenceforth he was appointed by the gubernial governor. The post existed until the Revolution of 1917. Sprawy Narodowosciowe (Nationality Issues). A bimonthly organ of the Polish "Institute for Nationalities Research, published in Warsaw in 1927-39. Edited by S. Paprocki, it printed articles and information on Polish communities outside Poland, on the various minorities within Poland, and on nationality and ethnic issues in general. It devoted attention to the League of Nations and the national question in the USSR and throughout the world, and featured an extensive book review section, bibliography, and chronicle of events. The journal remains an important source of information on interwar Ukraine. Indexes to it appeared in 1933 and 1937.

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Spring of Nations. See Revolution of 1848-9 in the Habsburg monarchy. Spring rituals. Traditional folk rituals practiced in the spring, from the equinox (20-21 March) to the summer solstice (21-22 June). Originally these rituals were believed to possess magical powers that ensured a bountiful harvest and fertility in domestic animals. The ritual cycle began with the rite of *provody (bidding winter farewell and welcoming spring), just before the beginning of Lent. Winter was usually personified by minor deities (Kostrub, Morena, Smertka, or Masliana), effigies of which were burned or drowned ceremonially. Spring was personified by a young girl crowned with a wreath and holding a green branch in her hand. She was the central figure in the ritual games, dances, and songs (see *Vesnianky-hahilky). The arrival of migratory birds signaled the beginning of the spring festival called stricha (from 'greeting'). On the Feast of the 40 Martyrs (22 March [9 March OS]) birdshaped buns called zhaivoronky (larks) were baked and tossed into the air by children and told to bring spring with them. The largest number of agrarian rituals was designated for the Lenten period and *Easter. Their magical meaning is clearest in the ritual first sowing, the first release of livestock to pasture (on St George's feast), and the decorating of fields and farmhouses with green branches (see *Rosalia). BIBLIOGRAPHY Voropai, O. Zvychaiï nashoho narodu, vol i (Munich 1958) Krut', lu. Khliborobs'ka obriadova poeziia slov'ian (Kiev 1973) Sokolova, V. Vesene-letnie kalendarnye obriady russkikh, ukraintsev i belorusov xix-nachalo xx v. (Moscow 1979) M. Mushynka

Spruce (Picea-, Ukrainian: smereka, yalyna). A coniferous, evergreen ornamental and timber tree of the family Pinaceae, with a straight trunk and thick conical crown, reaching heights of 20-80 m. Its wood is valuable in the production of construction lumber, paper, and musical instruments and as a source of tar, turpentine, and tanning substances. Two species grow naturally in Ukraine, Norway spruce (P. abies or P. excelsa) and mountain spruce (P. montana). Spruce trees cover an area of about 850,000 ha, or 12.5 percent of all forests in Ukraine (third most common after pine and oak trees), principally in the Carpathian Mountains, where pure spruce forests are also to be found. Smaller islands of spruce exist in the Roztochia, Podlachia, Podilia, and Chernihiv regions. Eastern spruce (P. orientalis) is found in Caucasia, and Engelmann spruce (P. engelmanni) and blue spruce (P. pungens) are cultivated as ornamentals. Spurry (Spergula-, Ukrainian: steliushok). A small, whiteflowered herb of the family Caryophyllaceae. Three species are found in Ukraine (S. arvenis is the most common) growing as weeds in sandy soils, in solonchaks, along roads, and in wastelands. Spurry green is a feed suitable for silage. Spynul, Mykola, 1867-1928. Bukovynian political and pedagogical activist. He published articles on education in the daily Bukovyna. He was a member of the Austrian parliament (1907-18) and the Bukovynian Diet (1911-18) from the National Democratic party, and he served as sec-

retary of the Bukovynian Ukrainian Club. He was deported to Siberia by the Russian occupational authorities in 1914 (released in 1915). Spynul participated in setting up the Ukrainian government in Bukovyna (November 1918). He served as consul for the Western Ukrainian National Republic in Vienna in 1919 and remained there until his death. Squash (Cucúrbita pepo or C. maxima-, Ukrainian: harbuz, kabachok). An annual vegetable of the gourd family Cucurbitaceae. Summer squash is a quick-growing, small-fruited bush, the young fruit of which (7 to 12 days old) is cooked as a vegetable. Pumpkin squash (C. pepo var.) is a round, hollow, deep yellow fruit of a vine plant; its seeds are used to produce cooking oil or dried as a popular snack food. Ukrainian folk custom held that if a girl rejected a marriage proposal she gave the unlucky suitor a large pumpkin, which he had to carry home in view of the whole village. Overripe squash is used as livestock feed. In Ukraine squash is grown predominantly in the steppe and forest-steppe regions. Squill (Scilla; Ukrainian: proliska). A grassy, perennial, bulbous herb of the family Liliaceae, with small white, blue, or purple flowers. Of its nearly 60 species, Ukraine has 4, including S. autumnalis, common in the southern steppes and the Crimea, S. bifolia, and S. sibirica, which grows naturally in forests and thickets and is also cultivated for decoration. Squirrel, Eurasian red (Sciurus vulgaris; Ukrainian: bilka, vyvirka). A bushy-tailed, tufted, arboreal mammal of the rodent family Sciuridae. Also known as the common or pine squirrel, in Ukraine it is found in the forest and forest-steppe zones, where it lives in tree hollows or in nests of leaves and twigs. Squirrels are hunted in Ukraine for their fur. Sreblo (aka serebro 'silver'). Silver coins minted in the loth and nth centuries by Volodymyr the Great and his sons Sviatopolk I and Yaroslav the Wise. Weighing between 1.73 and 4.68 g, they bore on one side an image of the prince and the Slavonic inscription Volodymyr (or Sviatopolk) Is on the Throne and on the other side the dynastic symbol, a trident, and This Is His Silver, or Yaroslav's Silver. The only other silver coins of the period were minted by Prince Oleh-Mykhailo of Tmutorokan in 1078. Beginning in the 13th century the word sreblo was used to denote any kind of coin and was interchangeable with the term kuna. Approx 300 silver coins of Kievan Rus' have been discovered, most of them in a hoard found in Nizhen in 1852. Srebrenytsky, Hryhorii [Srebrenyc'kyj, Hryhorij], b 1741 in Chernechyna, Okhtyrka region, d 1773. Copper engraver. He learned engraving at the Kievan Cave Monastery Press (to 1758) and the St Petersburg Academy of Arts, where he studied under E. Chemesov. From 1767 he taught at the academy. Srem. A historical region of what used to be northeastern Yugoslavia, lying between the Sava and Danube rivers and covering an area of 6,870 sq km. Its population is over 500,000 and includes Serbs, Croats, Hungarians, Slovaks,

SRIBNY

and Ukrainians (about 10,000). The larger, eastern part of Srem belongs to the Autonomous Region of Vojvodina within *Serbia; the smaller, western part belongs to ^Croatia. Ukrainians began to migrate into Srem from *Backa, just north of Srem, at the end of the i8th century. After the Second World War some Ukrainians from Bosnia moved to Srem. Ukrainian communities are found in cities such as Sremska Mitrovica, Indjia, Sid, Vukovar, and Vinkovci and in villages such as Bacinci, Berkasovo, Petrovci, Andrijevci, and Miklosevci. Sreznevsky, Borys [Sreznevs'kyj], b 31 March 1857m St Petersburg, d 24 March 1934 in Kiev. Meteorologist and climatologist; full member of the YUAN from 1920. He graduated from St Petersburg University (1879) and was a professor at Tartu University (1894-1918). From 1919 he headed the Kiev Meteorological Observatory. He did fundamental work on storms in the Black Sea region and wrote the monograph O vlazhnosti (On Humidity, 1915) and others on cyclonic atmospheric disturbances. He studied the effect of weather on people and developed several meteorological instruments. He also organized the publication of a number of Ukrainian meteorological periodicals.

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Treating Ukrainian as a dialect of one Russian language, he held that the 'southern' (ie, Ukrainian) dialect, as distinct from the 'northern' (Russian and Belarusian) dialect, arose only in the 13th to 14th century, and that in the 15th to loth century the former divided into the western (Transcarpathian and Ruthenian) and the eastern ('Ukrainian') dialects, while the latter divided into the Belarusian and Great Russian dialects. He believed wrongly that until the 13th century there was no distinction between the religious and secular styles of the literary language, that the structure of the vernacular changed in the 13th to 14th century, and that elements of the popular language began to enter the literary language in the 15th to loth century. These views and Sreznevsky's authority paved the way for the theory of the Proto-Russian and Old Russian language of the Eastern Slavs. Following A. Vostokov's example, he turned to grammatical and lexicographic studies and the publishing (not always very accurate) of medieval manuscripts. He systematically collected lexical data from old Eastern Slavic manuscripts, which his daughter edited and published posthumously as Materialy alia slovaria drevne-russkogo iazyka po pis 'mennym pamiatnikam (Materials for a Dictionary of the Old Russian Language of Literary Monuments, 3 vols, 1893-1912; 4th edn 1989). It is a unique lexicographic collection, based partly on monuments of Old Ukrainian. O. Horbach

Sribliansky, M. See Shapoval, Mykyta. Sribna Zemlia (Silver Land). A promotional and poetic name for Transcarpathia. Historically it referred to the Spis region of western Transcarpathia.

Izmail Sreznevsky

Sreznevsky, Izmail [Sreznevskij], b 13 June 1812 in Yaroslavl, Russia, d 21 February 1880 in St Petersburg. Russian philologist and Slavist; full member of the Imperial Academy of Sciences from 1854. A graduate in political science at Kharkiv University (MA 1837), he lectured in Slavic philology at Kharkiv (1842-6) and St Petersburg (1847-80) universities. He collected and published songs of wandering Slovak tradesmen (1832) and of Ukrainian peasants in Kharkiv, Poltava, and Katerynoslav gubernias (Zaporozhskaia starina [Zaporozhian Antiquity, 1833-8]). With I. Roskovshenko he published Ukrainskii al'manakh (Ukrainian Almanac, 1831), where his own verses in Ukrainian Romantic style and narratives in Russian appeared. He was a founder and editor of Izvestiia Impemtorskoi akademii nauk po otdeleniiu russkogo iazyka i slovesnosti, where he published many linguistic and historical monuments of the medieval period in Old Church Slavonic and Eastern Slavic. As a linguist Sreznevsky belonged to the Romantic school of philology. In his Mysli ob istorii russkogo iazyka (Reflections on the History of the Russian Language, 1849) he gave a synthetic survey of the comparative phonetics and morphology of the Slavic languages and then of the East Slavic languages, including Russian.

Sribne. 111-13. A town smt (1986 pop 3,600) on the Lysohir River and a raion center in Chernihiv oblast. In the medieval period the town of Serebriane, which was first mentioned in the chronicles under the year 1174, stood near the site of Sribne. In the 13th century it was destroyed by the Mongols. From the 13403 Sribne village was under Lithuanian rule, and from 1569, under Polish rule. In the 16405 an Orthodox brotherhood arose there, and it set up a school and hospital. Under the Hetmán state (16481782) the town was a company center in Pryluka regiment. In the 19th century it belonged to Pryluka county in Poltava gubernia. A sugar refinery and a soap factory were added in the 18405 to its woolen-cloth weaving shops. In 1965 Sribne was granted smt status. Today its main industry is food processing. Sribny, Fedir [Sribnyj], b 1881 in Nadvirna, Galicia, d 1950. Historian; member of the Shevchenko Scientific Society (NTSh) from 1917. He taught in gymnasiums in Stanyslaviv and Lviv and worked at the Lviv branch of the AN URSR (now ANU) Institute of History (1940-1). In 1943-4 he participated in the academic meetings of the historical section of the NTSh. Among his works was an important series of studies of the organization of the Lviv Stauropegion Institute from the late i6th to the mid-i8th centuries (Zapysky NTSh, vols 106,108,111-15 [1911-13]). Sribny, Viacheslav [Sribnyj, Vjaceslav] (pseud of V. Sribnytsky), b 17 September 1911 in Myhiia, Yelysavethrad county, Kherson gubernia. Writer. He wrote the s to-

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ry collections Liudyna zalyshylas ' zhyty (A Person Stayed to Live, 1958), Ty potrïbnyi liudiam (You Are Needed by People, 1970), and Ostannii litak (The Last Plane, 1976) and the novel Sosny na kameni (Pines on a Rock, 1958). Srochynsky, Kornylo [Srocyns'kyj], b 17 November 1731 in Peremyshl, Galicia, d 21 March 1790. Basilian priest, writer, and noted preacher. He entered the Basilian order in 1754 and, after serving as a missionary in the Za-

mostia region, became hegumen of the Krystynopil Monastery (1766-76). Later he served as consultator for the order in the Galician province and then hegumen of the Lavriv St Onuphrius's Monastery. He prepared a handbook of sermons for Basilian missionaries that was published in 1790 as Methodus peragendi missiones. Srochynsky also left histories of the Lavriv monastery and an account of the 1768 haidamaka uprising in Uman, which were published posthumously.