Encyclopedia of Soils in the Environment [Volume 4, 1st ed] 9780123485304, 0123485304, 0123485312, 0123485320, 0123485339, 0123485347

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ENCYCLOPEDIA OF SOILS IN THE ENVIRONMENT FOUR-VOLUME SET by Daniel Hillel (Editor-in-Chief) Hardcover: 2200 pages Publisher: Academic Press; 1 edition (November 8, 2004) Language: English ISBN-10: 0123485304 ISBN-13: 978-0123485304

Book Description More than ever before, a compelling need exists for an encyclopedic resource about soil the rich mix of mineral particles, organic matter, gases, and soluble compounds that foster both plant and animal growth. Civilization depends more on the soil as human populations continue to grow and increasing demands are placed upon available resources. The Encyclopedia of Soils in the Environmentis a comprehensive and integrated consideration of a topic of vital importance to human societies in the past, present, and future. This important work encompasses the present knowledge of the world's variegated soils, their origins, properties, classification, and roles in the biosphere. A team of outstanding, international contributors has written over 250 entries that cover a broad range of issues facing today's soil scientists, ecologists, and environmental scientists. This four-volume set features thorough articles that survey specific aspects of soil biology, ecology, chemistry and physics. Rounding out the encyclopedia's excellent coverage, contributions cover cross-disciplinary subjects, such as the history of soil utilization for agricultural and engineering purposes and soils in relation to the remediation of pollution and the mitigation of global climate change. This comprehensive, yet accessible source is a valuable addition to the library of scientists, researchers, students, and policy makers involved in soil science, ecology, and environmental science. Also available online via ScienceDirect featuring extensive browsing, searching, and internal cross-referencing between articles in the work, plus dynamic linking to journal articles and abstract databases, making navigation flexible and easy. For more information, pricing options and availability visit www.info.sciencedirect.com. * A distinguished international group of editors and contributors * Well-organized encyclopedic format providing concise, readable entries, easy searches, and thorough cross-references * Abundant visual resources — photographs, figures, tables, and graphs — in every entry * Complete up-to-date coverage of many important topics — essential information for scientists, students and professionals alike

EDITOR-IN-CHIEF Daniel Hillel Columbia University New York, NY USA

EDITORS Jerry L Hatfield National Soil Tilth Laboratory Ames, IA USA

Kate M Scow University of California Davis, CA USA

David S Powlson Rothamsted Research Harpenden UK

Michael J Singer University of California Davis, CA USA

Cynthia Rosenzweig NASA Goddard Institute for Space Studies New York, NY USA

Donald L Sparks University of Delaware Newark, DE USA

EDITORIAL ADVISORY BOARD R Bardgett Lancaster University Lancaster UK

K Reichardt Center for Nuclear Energy in Agriculture Piracicaba Brazil

J L Boettinger Utah State University Logan, UT USA

K Ritz Cranfield University Silsoe UK

G Gee Pacific Northwest National Laboratory Richland, WA USA

R Schulin Swiss Federal Institute of Technology Zurich Schlieren Switzerland

R Keren The Volcani Center Bet Dagan Israel

N Senesi Universita` di Bari Bari Italy

J Kimble USDA Natural Resources Conservation Service Lincoln, NE USA

J T Sims University of Delaware Newark, DE USA

M B Kirkham Kansas State University Manhattan, KS USA

K Smith University of Edinburgh Edinburgh UK

M Kutilek Prague Czech Republic

R L Tate Rutgers University New Brunswick, NJ USA

D Martens Southwest Watershed Research Center Tucson, AZ USA

N van Breemen Wageningen Agricultural University Wageningen The Netherlands

K Mengel Justus Leibig University Giessen Germany

W H van Riemsdijk Department of Soil Quality Wageningen The Netherlands

FOREWORD

The Encyclopedia of Soils in the Environment is a vitally important scientific publication and an equally important contribution to global public policy. The Encyclopedia brings together a remarkable range of cutting-edge scientific knowledge on all aspects of soil science, as well as the links of soils and soil science to environmental management, food production, biodiversity, climate change, and many other areas of significant concern. Even more than that, the Encyclopedia will immediately become an indispensable resource for policy makers, analysts, and students who are focusing on one of the greatest challenges of the 21st century. With 6.3 billion people, our planet is already straining to feed the world’s population, and is failing to do so reliably in many parts of the world. The numbers of chronically poor in the world have been stuck at some 800 million in recent years, despite long-standing international goals and commitments to reduce that number by several hundred million. Yet the challenge of food production will intensify in coming decades, as the human population is projected to rise to around 9 billion by mid-century, with the increased population concentrated in parts of the world already suffering from widespread chronic under-nourishment. Unless the best science is brought to these problems, the situation is likely to deteriorate sharply. Food production systems are already under stress, for reasons often related directly to soils management. In Africa, crop yields are disastrously low and falling in many places due to the rampant depletion of soil nutrients. This situation needs urgent reversal, through increasing use of agro-forestry techniques (e.g. inter-cropping cereals with leguminous nitrogen-fixing trees) and increasing the efficient applications of chemical fertilizers. In other impoverished, as well as rich, parts of the planet, decades of intensive agriculture under irrigation have led to salinization, water-logging, eutrophication of major water bodies, dangerous declines of biodiversity and other forms of environmental degradation. These enormous strains are coupled with the continuing pressures of tropical deforestation and the lack of new promising regions for expanding crop cultivation to meet the needs of growing populations. Finally, there looms the prospect of anthropogenic climate change. Global warming and associated complex and poorly understood shifts in precipitation extremes and other climate variables all threaten the world’s natural ecosystems and food production systems in profound yet still imperfectly understood ways. The risks of gradual or abrupt climate change are coupled with the risks of drastic perturbations to regional and global food supplies. The Encyclopedia offers state-of-the-art contributions on each of these challenges, as well as links to entries on the fundamental biophysical processes that underpin the relevant phenomena. The world-scale and worldclass collaboration that stands behind this unique project signifies its importance for the world community. It is an honor and privilege for me to introduce this path-breaking endeavor. Jeffrey D Sachs Director The Earth Institute at Columbia University Quetelet Professor of Sustainable Development Columbia University, New York, USA

PREFACE

The term ‘soil’ refers to the weathered and fragmented outer layer of our planet’s land surfaces. Formed initially through the physical disintegration and chemical alteration of rocks and minerals by physical and biogeochemical processes, soil is influenced by the activity and accumulated residues of a myriad of diverse forms of life. As it occurs in different geologic and climatic domains, soil is an exceedingly variegated body with a wide range of attributes. Considering the height of the atmosphere, the thickness of the earth’s rock mantle, and the depth of the ocean, one observes that soil is an amazingly thin body – typically not much more than one meter thick and often less than that. Yet it is the crucible of terrestrial life, within which biological productivity is generated and sustained. It acts like a composite living entity, a home to a community of innumerable microscopic and macroscopic plants and animals. A mere fistful of soil typically contains billions of microorganisms, which perform vital interactive biochemical functions. Another intrinsic attribute of the soil is its sponge-like porosity and its enormous internal surface area. That same fistful of soil may actually consist of several hectares of active surface, upon which physicochemical processes take place continuously. Realizing humanity’s utter dependence on the soil, ancient peoples, who lived in greater intimacy with nature than many of us today, actually revered the soil. It was not only their source of livelihood, but also the material from which they built their homes and that they learned to shape, heat, and fuse into household vessels and writing tablets (ceramic, made of clayey soil, being the first synthetic material in the history of technology). In the Bible, the name assigned to the first human was Adam, derived from ‘adama,’ meaning soil. The name given to that first earthling’s mate was Hava (Eve, in transliteration), meaning ‘living’ or ‘life-giving.’ Together, therefore, Adam and Eve signified quite literally ‘Soil and Life.’ The same powerful metaphor is echoed in the Latin name for the human species – Homo, derived from humus, the material of the soil. Hence, the adjective ‘human’ also implies ‘of the soil.’ Other ancient cultures evoked equally powerful associations. To the Greeks, the earth was a manifestation of Gaea, the maternal goddess who, impregnated by Uranus (god of the sky), gave birth to all the gods of the Greek pantheon. Our civilization depends on the soil more crucially than ever, because our numbers have grown while available soil resources have diminished and deteriorated. Paradoxically, however, even as our dependence on the soil has increased, most of us have become physically and emotionally detached from it. Many of the people in the so-called ‘developed’ countries spend their lives in the artificial environment of a city, insulated from direct exposure to nature, and some children may now assume as a matter of course that food originates in supermarkets. Detachment has bred ignorance, and out of ignorance has come the delusion that our civilization has risen above nature and has set itself free of its constraints. Agriculture and food security, erosion and salination, degradation of natural ecosystems, depletion and pollution of surface waters and aquifers, and decimation of biodiversity – all of these processes, which involve the soil directly or indirectly – have become abstractions to many people. The very language we use betrays disdain for that common material underfoot, often referred to as ‘dirt.’ Some fastidious parents prohibit their children from playing in the mud and hurry to wash their ‘soiled’ hands when the children nonetheless obey an innate instinct to do so. Thus soil is devalued and treated

PREFACE

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as unclean though it is the terrestrial realm’s principal medium of purification, wherein wastes are decomposed and nature’s productivity is continually rejuvenated. Scientists who observe soil closely see it in effect as a seething foundry in which matter and energy are in constant flux. Radiant energy from the sun streams onto the field and cascades through the soil and the plants growing in it. Heat is exchanged, water percolates through the soil’s intricate passages, plant roots extract water and transmit it to their leaves, which transpire it back to the atmosphere. Leaves absorb carbon dioxide from the air and synthesize it with soil-derived water to form the primary compounds of life. Oxygen emitted by the leaves makes the air breathable for animals, which consume and in turn fertilize plants. Soil is thus a self-regulating bio-physio-chemical factory, processing its own materials, water, and solar energy. It also determines the fate of rainfall and snowfall reaching the ground surface – whether the water thus received will flow over the land as runoff, or seep downward to the subterranean reservoir called groundwater, which in turn maintains the steady flow of springs and streams. With its finite capacity to absorb and store moisture, and to release it gradually, the soil regulates all of these phenomena. Without the soil as a buffer, rain falling over the continents would run off entirely, producing violent floods rather than sustained river flow. Soil naturally acts as a living filter, in which pathogens and toxins that might otherwise accumulate to foul the terrestrial environment are rendered harmless. Since time immemorial, humans and other animals have been dying of all manner of disease and have then been buried in the soil, yet no major disease is transmitted by it. The term antibiotic was coined by soil microbiologists who, as a consequence of their studies of soil bacteria and actinomycetes, discovered streptomycin (an important cure for tuberculosis and other infections). Ion exchange, a useful process of water purification, also was discovered by soil scientists studying the passage of solutes through beds of clay. However unique in form and function, soil is not an isolated body. It is, rather, a central link in the larger chain of interconnected domains and processes comprising the terrestrial environment. The soil interacts both with the overlying atmosphere and the underlying strata, as well as with surface and underground bodies of water. Especially important is the interrelation between the soil and the climate. In addition to its function of regulating the cycle of water, it also regulates energy exchange and surface temperature. When virgin land is cleared of vegetation and turned into a cultivated field, the native biomass above the ground is often burned and the organic matter within the soil tends to decompose. These processes release carbon dioxide into the atmosphere, thus contributing to the earth’s greenhouse effect and to global warming. On the other hand, the opposite act of reforestation and soil enrichment with organic matter, such as can be achieved by means of conservation management, may serve to absorb carbon dioxide from the atmosphere. To an extent, the soil’s capacity to store carbon can thus help to mitigate the greenhouse effect. Thousands of years are required for nature to create life-giving soil out of sterile bedrock. In only a few decades, however, unknowing or uncaring humans can destroy that wondrous work of nature. In various circumstances, mismanaged soils may be subject to erosion (the sediments of which tend to clog streambeds, estuaries, lakes, and coastal waters), to leaching of nutrients with attendant loss of fertility and eutrophication of water bodies, to waterlogging and impaired aeration, or to an excessive accumulation of salts that may cause a once-productive soil to become entirely sterile. Such processes of soil degradation, sometimes called ‘desertification,’ already affect large areas of land. We cannot manage effectively and sustainably that which we do not know and thoroughly understand. That is why the tasks of developing and disseminating sound knowledge of the soil and its complex processes have assumed growing urgency and importance. The global environmental crisis has created a compelling need for a concentrated, concise, and definitive source of information – accessible to students, scientists, practitioners, and the general public – about the soil in all its manifestations – in nature and in relation to the life of humans. Daniel Hillel Editor-in-Chief May 2004

INTRODUCTION

The Encyclopedia of Soils in the Environment contains nearly 300 articles, written by the world’s leading authorities. Pedologists, biologists, ecologists, earth scientists, hydrologists, climatologists, geographers, and representatives from many other disciplines have contributed to this work. Each of the articles separately, and all of them in sequence and combination, serve to summarize and encapsulate our present knowledge of the world’s variegated soils, their natural functions, and their importance to humans. Concise articles surveying specific aspects of soils (soil genesis, soil chemistry and mineralogy, soil physics and hydrology, and soil biology) are complemented by articles covering transdisciplinary aspects, such as the role of soils in ecology, the history of soil utilization for agricultural and engineering purposes, the development of soil science as a discipline, and the potential or actual contributions of soils to the generation, as well as to the mitigation, of pollution and of global climate change. This comprehensive reference encompasses both the fundamental and the applied aspects of soil science, interfacing in general with the physical sciences and life sciences and more specifically with the earth sciences and environmental sciences. The Encyclopedia of Soils in the Environment manifests the expanding scope of modern soil science, from its early sectarian focus on the utilitarian attributes of soils in agriculture and engineering, to a wider and much more inclusive view of the soil as a central link in the continuous chain of processes constituting the dynamic environment as a whole. Thus it both details and integrates a set of topics that have always been of vital importance to human societies and that are certain to be even more so in the future. Daniel Hillel Editor-in-Chief May 2004

CONTENTS Contents are given as follows: CHAPTER NAME Author(s) Page number

VOLUME 1 A ACID RAIN AND SOIL ACIDIFICATION L Blake 1 ACIDITY N Bolan, D Curtin and D Adriano 11 AERATION D E Rolston 17 AGGREGATION Microbial Aspects S D Frey 22 Physical Aspects J R Nimmo 28 AGROFORESTRY P K R Nair 35 AIR PHASE see AERATION; DIFFUSION ALBEDO see ENERGY BALANCE; RADIATION BALANCE ALLOPHANE AND IMOGOLITE see AMORPHOUS MATERIALS ALLUVIUM AND ALLUVIAL SOILS J L Boettinger 45 ALUMINUM SPECIATION D R Parker 50 AMMONIA D E Kissel and M L Cabrera 56 AMORPHOUS MATERIALS J Harsh 64 ANAEROBIC SOILS P W Inglett, K R Reddy and R Corstanje 72 ANION EXCHANGE see CATION EXCHANGE APPLICATIONS OF SOILS DATA P J Lawrence 78 ARCHAEA J E T McLain 88 ARCHEOLOGY IN RELATION TO SOILS J A Homburg 95 B BACTERIA Plant Growth-Promoting Y Bashan and L E de-Bashan 103 Soil L J Halverson 115 BACTERIOPHAGE M Radosevich, K E Williamson and K E Wommack 122

BIOCONTROL OF SOIL-BORNE PLANT DISEASES C E Pankhurst and J M Lynch 129 BIODIVERSITY D H Wall 136 BUFFERING CAPACITY B R James 142 BULK DENSITY see POROSITY AND PORE-SIZE DISTRIBUTION C CALCIUM AND MAGNESIUM IN SOILS N Bolan, P Loganathan and S Saggar 149 CAPILLARITY D Or and M Tuller 155 CARBON CYCLE IN SOILS Dynamics and Management C W Rice 164 Formation and Decomposition C A Cambardella 170 CARBON EMISSIONS AND SEQUESTRATION K Paustian 175 CATION EXCHANGE L M McDonald, V P Evangelou and M A Chappell 180 CHEMICAL EQUILIBRIA A P Schwab 189 CHEMICAL SPECIATION MODELS see SURFACE COMPLEXATION MODELING CHERNOZEMS see GRASSLAND SOILS CHILDS, ERNEST CARR E G Youngs 195 CIVILIZATION, ROLE OF SOILS D Hillel 199 CLASSIFICATION OF LAND USE see LAND-USE CLASSIFICATION CLASSIFICATION OF SOILS R W Arnold 204 CLASSIFICATION SYSTEMS Australian R W Fitzpatrick 211 FAO F O Nachtergaele 216 Russian, Background and Principles M Gerasimova 223 Russian, Evolution and Examples D Konyushkov 227 USA D J Brown 235 CLAY MINERALS D G Schulze 246 CLIMATE CHANGE IMPACTS P Bullock 254 CLIMATE MODELS, ROLE OF SOIL P Smith 262

COLD-REGION SOILS C-L Ping 268 COLLOID-FACILITATED SORPTION AND TRANSPORT R Kretzschmar 276 COMPACTION J J H van den Akker and B Soane 285 COMPOST T L Richard 294 CONDITIONERS R E Sojka, J A Entry and W J Orts 301 CONSERVATION see EROSION: Water-Induced; Wind-Induced; SUSTAINABLE SOIL AND LAND MANAGEMENT; TERRACES AND TERRACING CONSERVATION TILLAGE M R Carter 306 COVER CROPS L Edwards and J Burney 311 CROP ROTATIONS C A Francis 318 CROP WATER REQUIREMENTS L S Pereira and I Alves 322 CROP-RESIDUE MANAGEMENT D C Reicosky and A R Wilts 334 CRUSTS Biological J Belnap 339 Structural R L Baumhardt and R C Schwartz 347 CULTIVATION AND TILLAGE M R Carter and E McKyes 356

D DARCY’S LAW D Swartzendruber 363 DEGRADATION C J Ritsema, G W J van Lynden, V G Jetten and S M de Jong 370 DENITRIFICATION D A Martens 378 DESERTIFICATION D Hillel and C Rosenzweig 382 DIFFUSION T Addiscott and P Leeds-Harrison 389 DISINFESTATION A Gamliel and J Katan 394 DISPERSION see FLOCCULATION AND DISPERSION DISSOLUTION PROCESSES, KINETICS K G Scheckel and C A Impellitteri 400 DRAINAGE, SURFACE AND SUBSURFACE N R Fausey 409 DRYLAND FARMING G A Peterson 414

E EARTHWORMS see FAUNA EDAPHOLOGY A L Ulery 419 ELECTRON PARAMAGNETIC RESONANCE see ELECTRON-SPIN RESONANCE SPECTROSCOPY ELECTRON-SPIN RESONANCE SPECTROSCOPY N Senesi and G S Senesi 426 ELECTROSTATIC DOUBLE-LAYER see CATION EXCHANGE ENERGY BALANCE M Fuchs 438 ENVIRONMENTAL MONITORING P J Loveland and P H Bellamy 441 ENZYMES IN SOILS R P Dick and E Kandeler 448 EROSION Irrigation-Induced G A Lehrsch, D L Bjorneberg and R E Sojka 456 Water-Induced J E Gilley 463 Wind-Induced T M Zobeck and R S Van Pelt 470 ESSENTIAL ELEMENTS E A Kirkby 478 EUTROPHICATION A J Gold and J T Sims 486 EVAPORATION OF WATER FROM BARE SOIL C W Boast and F W Simmons 494 EVAPOTRANSPIRATION G Stanhill 502

F FACTORS OF SOIL FORMATION Biota A H Jahren 507 Climate O C Spaargaren and J A Deckers 512 Human Impacts J Sandor, C L Burras and M Thompson 520 Parent Material K R Olson 532 Time E F Kelly and C M Yonker 536 FAUNA T Winsome 539

VOLUME 2 FERTIGATION U Kafkafi and S Kant 1 FERTILITY J L Havlin 10 FERTILIZERS AND FERTILIZATION H W Scherer 20 FIELD CAPACITY see WATER CYCLE FLOCCULATION AND DISPERSION I Shainberg and G J Levy 27 FLUORESCENCE SPECTROSCOPY N Senesi and V D’Orazio 35 FOLIAR APPLICATIONS OF NUTRIENTS M Tagliavini and M Toselli 53 FOOD-WEB INTERACTIONS P C de Ruiter and J C Moore 59 FORENSIC APPLICATIONS W F Rowe 67 FOREST SOILS J R Boyle 73 FOURIER TRANSFORM INFRARED SPECTROSCOPY D Peak 80 FRACTAL ANALYSIS Y Pachepsky and J W Crawford 85 FREEZING AND THAWING Cycles B Sharratt 98 Processes G N Flerchinger, G A Lehrsch and D K McCool 104 FUNGI K Ritz 110 G GEOGRAPHICAL INFORMATION SYSTEMS J Bo¨hner, T Selige and R Ko¨the 121 GERMINATION AND SEEDLING ESTABLISHMENT A Hadas 130 GLOBAL WARMING see CARBON EMISSIONS AND SEQUESTRATION; CLIMATE CHANGE IMPACTS; GREENHOUSE GAS EMISSIONS GRASSLAND SOILS J A Mason and C W Zanner 138 GREEN MANURING see COVER CROPS GREENHOUSE GAS EMISSIONS K A Smith 145 GROUNDWATER AND AQUIFERS Y Bachmat 153 GROUNDWATER POLLUTION see POLLUTION: Groundwater

H HEAT AND MOISTURE TRANSPORT R Horton and A Globus 169 HEAT CAPACITY see THERMAL PROPERTIES AND PROCESSES HEAT FLOW see THERMAL PROPERTIES AND PROCESSES HEAVY METALS D C Adriano, N S Bolan, J Vangronsveld and W W Wenzel 175 HILGARD, EUGENE WOLDEMAR R Amundson 182 HOOGHOUDT, SYMEN BAREND P A C Raats and R R van der Ploeg 188 HUMIFICATION T C Balser 195 HYDRAULIC PROPERTIES, TEMPERATURE EFFECTS S A Grant 207 HYDRIC SOILS G W Hurt 212 HYDROCARBONS P Kostecki, R Morrison and J Dragun 217 HYDRODYNAMIC DISPERSION see SOLUTE TRANSPORT HYDRODYNAMICS IN SOILS T P A Ferre´ and A W Warrick 227 HYSTERESIS J H Dane and R J Lenhard 231

I IMMISCIBLE FLUIDS R J Lenhard, J H Dane and M Oostrom 239 INCEPTISOLS A Palmer 248 INDUSTRIAL POLLUTION see POLLUTION: Industrial INFILTRATION T P A Ferre´ and A W Warrick 254 INFRARED SPECTROSCOPY see FOURIER TRANSFORM INFRARED SPECTROSCOPY IRON NUTRITION K Mengel and H Kosegarten 260 IRRIGATION Environmental Effects S Topcu and C Kirda 267 Methods D L Bjorneberg and R E Sojka 273 ISOTOPES IN SOIL AND PLANT INVESTIGATIONS K Reichardt and O O S Bacchi 280 ISOTROPY AND ANISOTROPY T-C J Yeh, P Wierenga, R Khaleel and R J Glass 285 J JENNY, HANS R Amundson 293

K KELLOGG, CHARLES J D Helms 301 KINETIC MODELS P M Jardine 307 KIRKHAM, DON D R Nielsen and R R van der Ploeg 315 L LAMINAR AND TURBULENT FLOW see HYDRODYNAMICS IN SOILS LANDFILLS see WASTE DISPOSAL ON LAND: Municipal LAND-USE CLASSIFICATION J A LaGro Jr 321 LAWES, JOHN BENNET AND GILBERT, JOSEPH HENRY A E Johnston 328 LEACHING PROCESSES B E Clothier and S Green 336 LIEBIG, JUSTUS VON R R van der Ploeg, W Bo¨hm and M B Kirkham 343 LIMING E J Kamprath and T J Smyth 350 LIPMAN, JACOB G. J C F Tedrow 358 LOESS A J Busacca and M R Sweeney 364 LOWDERMILK, WALTER CLAY J D Helms 373 LYSIMETRY T A Howell 379 M MACRONUTRIENTS C W Wood, J F Adams and B H Wood 387 MACROPORES AND MACROPORE FLOW, KINEMATIC WAVE APPROACH P F Germann 393 MAGNESIUM IN SOILS see CALCIUM AND MAGNESIUM IN SOILS MANURE MANAGEMENT J T Sims and R O Maguire 402 MARBUT, CURTIS FLETCHER J P Tandarich 410 MATRIC POTENTIAL see HYDRODYNAMICS IN SOILS; WATER POTENTIAL; WATER RETENTION AND CHARACTERISTIC CURVE MEDITERRANEAN SOILS J Torrent 418 METAL OXIDES A C Scheinost 428 METALS AND METALLOIDS, TRANSFORMATION BY MICROORGANISMS S M Glasauer, T J Beveridge, E P Burford, F A Harper and G M Gadd 438 METALS, HEAVY see HEAVY METALS

MICROBIAL PROCESSES Environmental Factors P G Hartel 448 CommunityAnaly sis C H Nakatsu 455 Kinetics N S Panikov 463 MICRONUTRIENTS L M Shuman 479 MINERAL–ORGANIC–MICROBIAL INTERACTIONS P M Huang, M C Wang and M K Wang 486 MINERALS, PRIMARY P M Huang and M K Wang 500 MINERALS, SECONDARY see CLAY MINERALS MINIMUM TILLAGE see CONSERVATION TILLAGE MISCIBLE DISPLACEMENT see SOLUTE TRANSPORT MORPHOLOGY P R Owens and E M Rutledge 511 MULCHES C L Acharya, K M Hati and K K Bandyopadhyay 521 MYCORRHIZAL FUNGI L M Egerton-Warburton, J I Querejeta, M F Allen and S L Finkelman 533

VOLUME 3 N NEMATODES D A Neher and T O Powers 1 NEUTRON SCATTERING M J Fayer and G W Gee 6 NITROGEN IN SOILS Cycle M S Coyne and W W Frye 13 Nitrates D S Powlson and T M Addiscott 21 Nitrification J I Prosser 31 Plant Uptake A Hodge 39 Symbiotic Fixation J I Sprent 46 NITROGEN FERTILIZERS see FERTILIZERS AND FERTILIZATION NUCLEAR WASTE DISPOSAL G W Gee, P D Meyer and A L Ward 56 NUTRIENT AVAILABILITY N K Fageria and V C Baligar 63 NUTRIENT MANAGEMENT G D Binford 71

O ORGANIC FARMING C A Francis 77 ORGANIC MATTER Principles and Processes M Schnitzer 85 Genesis and Formation K M Haider and G Guggenberger 93 Interactions with Metals N Senesi and E Loffredo 101 ORGANIC RESIDUES, DECOMPOSITION A J Franzluebbers 112 ORGANIC SOILS D L Mokma 118 OVERLAND FLOW T S Steenhuis, L Agnew, P Ge´rard-Marchant and M T Walter 130 OXIDATION–REDUCTION OF CONTAMINANTS C J Matocha 133 P PADDY SOILS C Witt and S M Haefele 141 PARENT MATERIAL see PEDOLOGY: Basic Principles; FACTORS OF SOIL FORMATION: Parent Material PEDOLOGY Basic Principles M J Singer 151 Dynamic F C Ugolini 156

PEDOMETRICS I O A Odeh and A B McBratney 166 PENMAN, HOWARD LATIMER J L Monteith 176 PENMAN–MONTEITH EQUATION R Allen 180 PERCOLATION see HYDRODYNAMICS IN SOILS PERMAFROST see POLAR SOILS PERMEABILITY see HYDRODYNAMICS IN SOILS PERSISTENT ORGANIC POLLUTANTS (POPS) see POLLUTANTS: Persistent Organic (POPs) PESTICIDES R H Bromilow 188 PETROLEUM see HYDROCARBONS pH N Bolan and K Kandaswamy 196 PHOSPHORUS IN SOILS Overview J T Sims and P A Vadas 202 Biological Interactions M D Mullen 210 PHYTOTOXIC SUBSTANCES IN SOILS M Qadir, S Schubert and D Steffens 216 PLANT–SOIL–WATER RELATIONS R A Feddes and J C van Dam 222 PLANT–WATER RELATIONS C Gimenez, M Gallardo and R B Thompson 231 POISEUILLE’S LAW see HYDRODYNAMICS IN SOILS POLAR SOILS J C F Tedrow 239 POLLUTANTS Biodegradation P B Hatzinger and J W Kelsey 250 Effects on Microorganisms M E Fuller 258 Persistent Organic (POPs) D Johnson 264 POLLUTION Groundwater H Rubin 271 Industrial S P McGrath 282 POLYMERS AND MICROORGANISMS M C Rillig 287 POORLY CRYSTALLINE ALLUMINOSILICATES see AMORPHOUS MATERIALS POROSITY AND PORE-SIZE DISTRIBUTION J R Nimmo 295 POTASSIUM IN SOILS P M Huang, J M Zhou, J C Xie and M K Wang 303 PRECIPITATION, WATERSHED ANALYSIS J V Bonta 314

PRECIPITATION–DISSOLUTION PROCESSES W P Robarge 322 PRECISION AGRICULTURE see SITE-SPECIFIC SOIL MANAGEMENT PREFERENTIAL FLOW see UNSTABLE FLOW; MACROPORES AND MACROPORE FLOW, KINEMATIC WAVE APPROACH PRODUCTIVITY D L Karlen 330 PROFILE see MORPHOLOGY PROTOZOA W Foissner 336

Q QUALITY OF SOIL B J Wienhold, G E Varvel and J W Doran 349

R RADIATION BALANCE J L Hatfield, T J Sauer and J H Prueger 355 RADIONUCLIDES see ISOTOPES IN SOIL AND PLANT INVESTIGATIONS RAINFED FARMING see DRYLAND FARMING RANGE MANAGEMENT G L Anderson 360 RECYCLING OF ORGANIC WASTES see POLLUTANTS: Biodegradation REDISTRIBUTION see WATER CYCLE REDOX POTENTIAL R D DeLaune and K R Reddy 366 REDOX REACTIONS, KINETICS P S Nico and S Fendorf 372 REMEDIATION OF POLLUTED SOILS E Lombi and R E Hamon 379 REMOTE SENSING Organic Matter D K Morris, C J Johannsen, S M Brouder and G C Steinhardt 385 Soil Moisture T J Jackson 392 RHIZOSPHERE A C Kennedy and L Z de Luna 399 RICHARDS, LORENZO A. W R Gardner 407 ROOT ARCHITECTURE AND GROWTH L E Jackson 411 ROOT EXUDATES AND MICROORGANISMS B-J Koo, D C Adriano, N S Bolan and C D Barton 421

S SALINATION PROCESSES I Shainberg and G J Levy 429 SALINITY Management D Hillel 435 Physical Effects D Russo 442 SALT BALANCE OF SOILS see SALINATION PROCESSES SALT-AFFECTED SOILS, RECLAMATION R Keren 454 SAND DUNES H Tsoar 462 SATURATED AND UNSATURATED FLOW see HYDRODYNAMICS IN SOILS; VADOSE ZONE: Hydrologic Processes SCALING Physical Properties and Processes G Sposito 472 Transport Processes R P Ewing 477 SEPTIC SYSTEMS R L Lavigne 485 SHIFTING CULTIVATION R Lal 488 SITE-SPECIFIC SOIL MANAGEMENT C J Johannsen and P G Carter 497 SLASH AND BURN AGRICULTURE see SHIFTING CULTIVATION SLUDGE see WASTE DISPOSAL ON LAND: Liquid; Municipal SODIC SOILS G J Levy and I Shainberg 504 SOIL–PLANT–ATMOSPHERE CONTINUUM J M Norman and M C Anderson 513 SOLUTE TRANSPORT M C Sukop and E Perfect 521 SORPTION Metals D L Sparks 532 Organic Chemicals B Xing and J J Pignatello 537 Oxyanions C P Schulthess, H Wijnja and W Yang 548 SORPTION–DESORPTION, KINETICS D L Sparks 556 SPATIAL PATTERNS J H Go¨rres and J A Amador 562

VOLUME 4

SPATIAL VARIATION, SOIL PROPERTIES R Webster 1 SPECIFIC SURFACE AREA K D Pennell 13 STATISTICS IN SOIL SCIENCE R Webster 19 STERILIZATION see DISINFESTATION STOCHASTIC ANALYSIS OF SOIL PROCESSES D Russo 29 STRESS–STRAIN AND SOIL STRENGTH S K Upadhyaya 38 STRUCTURE V A Snyder and M A Va´zquez 54 SUBSOILING R L Raper 69 SULFUR IN SOILS Overview M A Tabatabai 76 Biological Transformations S D Siciliano and J J Germida 85 Nutrition M A Tabatabai 91 SURFACE COMPLEXATION MODELING S Goldberg 97 SUSTAINABLE SOIL AND LAND MANAGEMENT J L Berc 108 SWELLING AND SHRINKING D Smiles and P A C Raats 115 T TEMPERATE REGION SOILS E A Nater 125 TEMPERATURE REGIME see THERMAL PROPERTIES AND PROCESSES TENSIOMETRY T K Tokunaga 131 TERMITES see FAUNA TERRA ROSSA see MEDITERRANEAN SOILS TERRACES AND TERRACING G R Foster 135 TESTING OF SOILS A P Mallarino 143 TEXTURE G W Gee 149 THERMAL PROPERTIES AND PROCESSES D Hillel 156 THERMODYNAMICS OF SOIL WATER P H Groenevelt 163 TILLAGE see CONSERVATION TILLAGE; CULTIVATION AND TILLAGE; ZONE TILLAGE

TILTH D L Karlen 168 TIME-DOMAIN REFLECTOMETRY G C Topp and T P A Ferre´ 174 TROPICAL SOILS Arid and Semiarid H C Monger, J J Martinez-Rios and S A Khresat 182 Humid Tropical S W Buol 187 U UNSTABLE FLOW T S Steenhuis, J-Y Parlange, Y-J Kim, D A DiCarlo, J S Selker, P A Nektarios, D A Barry and F Stagnitti 197 URBAN SOILS J L Morel, C Schwartz, L Florentin and C de Kimpe 202 V VADOSE ZONE Hydrologic Processes J W Hopmans and M Th van Genuchten 209 Microbial Ecology P A Holden and N Fierer 216 VIRUSES see BACTERIOPHAGE VOLCANIC SOILS G Uehara 225 W WAKSMAN, SELMAN A. H B Woodruff 233 WASTE DISPOSAL ON LAND Liquid C P Gerba 238 Municipal D A C Manning 247 WATER AVAILABILITY see PLANT–SOIL–WATER RELATIONS WATER CONTENT AND POTENTIAL, MEASUREMENT G S Campbell and C S Campbell 253 WATER CYCLE D K Cassel and B B Thapa 258 WATER EROSION see EROSION: Water-Induced WATER HARVESTING D Hillel 264 WATER MANAGEMENT see CROP WATER REQUIREMENTS WATER POTENTIAL D Or, M Tuller and J M Wraith 270

WATER REQUIREMENTS see CROP WATER REQUIREMENTS WATER RETENTION AND CHARACTERISTIC CURVE M Tuller and D Or 278 WATER TABLE see GROUNDWATER AND AQUIFERS WATER, PROPERTIES D Hillel 290 WATER-REPELLENT SOILS J Letey 301 WATERSHED MANAGEMENT M D Tomer 306 WATER-USE EFFICIENCY M B Kirkham 315 WEED MANAGEMENT D D Buhler 323 WETLANDS, NATURALLY OCCURRING E K Hartig 328 WIDTSOE, JOHN A. AND GARDNER, WILLARD G S Campbell and W H Gardner 335 WIND EROSION see EROSION: Wind-Induced WINDBREAKS AND SHELTERBELTS E S Takle 340 WOMEN IN SOIL SCIENCE (USA) M J Levin 345 WORLD SOIL MAP H Eswaran and P F Reich 352 Z ZERO-CHARGE POINTS J Chorover 367 ZONE TILLAGE J L Hatfield and A T Jeffries 373