Encyclopedia of Nuclear Energy 9780128197257, 0128197250

Table of contents :
9780128197325v1_WEB
Front Cover
ENCYCLOPEDIA OF NUCLEAR ENERGY
ENCYCLOPEDIA OF NUCLEAR ENERGY
Copyright
EDITORIAL BOARD
Editor-In-Chief
Editor
EDITOR-IN-CHIEF
Introduction to the Encyclopedia of Nuclear Energy
Introduction
Encyclopedia scope
Intended readership
On the need for this Encyclopedia
On the importance of nuclear energy in avoiding climate change catastrophe
Concluding remarks
Acknowledgments
References
CONTRIBUTORS TO VOLUME 1
CONTENTS OF ALL VOLUMES
Introduction to Fundamentals and History of Development of Nuclear Energy
What Is the Universe Made of?
From the Greek philosophers, the alchemists, to Mendeleev
Rutherford and Chadwick, protons, neutrons, transmutations, basic nuclear properties, fission and fusion
Quarks and other elementary particles
Where were the elements produced?
More knowledge, more questions: Dark matter and dark energy
Further reading
Acknowledgments
References
Discovery of Radioactivity
Introduction
Natural radioactivity
Types and properties of nuclear radiation
Exponential decay law—1903
Development of artificial radioactivity
References
Discovery of the Quantum Structure of Atoms and Their Nuclei
Quantization
Rutherford scattering and the nuclear atom
Atomic energy levels and the Bohr model
Quantized energy levels in nuclei
References
Origins of Nuclear Energy
Introduction
Equivalence of mass and energy
Protons and neutrons
Descriptions and properties of the nucleus
Nuclear binding energy
Nuclear interactions
Extracting nuclear energy: Fission, fusion, and radioactive decay
References
Further Reading
Radioactive Decay
Radioactive decays
Source of Earth’s internal heating
Radioactive energy source for remote applications
Radioisotope thermal generators (RTG)
Direct and indirect conversion batteries
References
Nuclear Fission I
History and introduction
The process of nuclear fission: Excitation and breakup
The products of nuclear fission
Fission probabilities
Spontaneous fission
Conclusion
References
Relevant Websites
Nuclear Fission II
Review of neutron-induced fission
Fission chain reaction
The chain reaction and the first human-made nuclear reactor
CP-1 and Fermi reactor theory
The natural nuclear fission reactors of Oklo, Gabon
Feasibility of fuel self-sustaining fission (“breeding”)
References
Journal Articles
Books
References in This Encyclopaedia
Relevant Websites
Fissile and Fertile Fuels
Introduction
Actinides
Basic properties
Production of the actinides
Fundamental processes in nuclear reactor fuels
Decay
Fission
Capture
Fissionable fuels
Summary
References
Manhattan Project
Introduction
The critical mass, and the possibility of nuclear weapons
Uranium isotope effects, and the discovery of plutonium
The Manhattan Engineer District: Two pathways to atomic bombs
Uranium enrichment and plutonium production reactors
The German weapons program
Summary
References
Nuclear Fusion
Introduction
Energy balance in fusion devices
Confinement approaches
Fusion technology
References
Atomic and Hydrogen Bombs
Introduction
Principles of atomic bombs: Fission weapons
Principles of hydrogen bombs: Fusion weapons
Enhanced radiation warheads
The published arsenal of nuclear weapons
References
Phenomenology of Neutron Interactions
Neutron energy regimes
Fast and intermediate neutron interactions
Slow neutron interactions
Neutron moderation and thermalization
Thermal neutron absorption cross sections and resonance integrals
Free neutron decay
Neutron optics and scattering science
Neutron cross sections and related data online
References
Further reading
Phenomenology of Gamma Ray and Charged Particles Interactions
Introduction
Interaction of charged particle with matter
References
Further Reading
Radiation Sources
Radioactive decay background
Accelerator based
Neutron sources
References
Experimental Tools I: Radiation Detectors
Introduction
Physics of radiation detection
Scintillation detectors
Gaseous detectors
Semiconductor detectors
Specialty detectors
Applications by radiation type
Auxiliary systems for radiation detection
References
Experimental Tools II: Particle Accelerators
Need for accelerators: Applications
Ion and electron sources
Electrostatic accelerators
Cyclotrons and synchrotrons
Optical elements
Betatron oscillations and stable orbits
Linear accelerators
Colliding beams, the energy and intensity frontiers
Further reading
References
Commercial Nuclear Power Reactors and Their Design—Introduction
References
History of PWR and BWR Development
Introduction
Early reactor development
Navy reactor development
BWR early history
Shippingport
Commercial power plants
Commercial BWR development
Summary
References
Physics of the Fission Chain Reaction in Thermal and Fast Reactors
Fission reactions
Cross sections
Moderation and neutron economy in thermal reactors
Neutron economy in fast reactors
Neutron-induced fission chain reactions and neutron multiplication
Reactivity effects
U235 depletion
Control density
Moderator density or displacement
Burnable absorbers
Fuel temperature/Doppler effect
Plutonium buildup
Reactor physics
Physics-driven design considerations for thermal and fast reactors
Nuclear data
Acknowledgments
References
Relevant websites
Principles of Design and Operation of Nuclear Power Reactors
Introduction
Utility design requirements
Regulatory requirements
Operational design requirements
References
Relevant Websites
Pressurized Water Reactors
Introduction
PWR overview
Reactor core and fuel assemblies
Reactor vessel and internals
Steam generator
Reactor coolant pump
Pressurizer
Emergency core cooling system
Reactor containment
Ancillary PWR components
Balance of plant components
Operation of PWR
Future of the PWR
References
Boiling Water Reactors
Introduction
BWR overview
Emergency core cooling systems (ECCS)
Containment
Reactor pressure vessel and internal assembly
Reactor core and fuel assemblies
Control rod drive system
Recirculation system
Ancillary BWR components
Balance of plant components
Operation of BWR
International BWR development
Future of the BWR
ESBWR
Acknowledgment
References
Heavy-Water Reactors
Introduction
The CANDU-6 reactor system
Variants of the CANDU system
Pressure-vessel heavy-water reactors
Prototypes, advanced designs, and advanced-fuel-cycles
References
Further Reading
Commercial Nuclear Power Plant Statistics
Global statistics
Country statistics
References
Relevant Websites
Pros and Cons of Commercial Reactor Designs Part 1: Current Status of Electricity Generation in the World and Selected Coun ...
Introduction: Electricity generation in the world and selected countries
Basic general parameters of power plants
Thermal efficiencies of next generation or Generation-IV NPPs
Capacity factor
Conclusions
Introduction: Electricity generation in the world and selected countries
Basic general parameters of power plants
Thermal efficiencies of next generation or Generation-IV NPPs
Capacity factor
Conclusions
References
Pros and Cons of Commercial Reactor Designs: Part 2—Current Status and Future Trends in the World Nuclear-Power Industry an ...
Current status and future trends in the world nuclear-power industry
Technical considerations of various types of nuclear-power reactors
Conclusions
References
Economics of Nuclear Energy
Introduction
Nuclear power plant construction costs
Operating and maintenance costs
Fuel cycle costs
Concluding remarks
Acknowledgments
References
Economic Challenges of Nuclear Energy
Introduction
The cost of capital to the nuclear sector
Competition on the transmission grid: Regulated tariffs versus market pricing
Summary of challenges
Acknowledgments
References
Fuel Rod, Fuel Assembly, and Reactivity Control Assembly Design
Introduction
Fuel rod, fuel assembly and reactivity control assembly configuration
Materials of construction
Reactor environment
Fuel assembly and RCA design considerations
References
Heat Transfer Systems
Introduction
Energy transport and conversion within reactor heat transfer systems
Heat transfer system components in the basic electric power cycle
Heat transfer systems relevant to nuclear power generation
Reactor coolant system (RCS)
Major heat transfer components of the RCS
Heat removal systems during normal shutdown and following primary system breach
Heat removal systems for passive light water reactors
Optimization of the Rankine cycle
Summary
References
Instrumentation and Control Systems of Nuclear Power Plants
Introduction
Overview of I&C systems
Instrumentation in nuclear power plants
Control of PWRs and BWRs
Safety systems
Digital I&C modernization
Integral and small modular reactors
Summary
References
Reactor Operations
Introduction
PWR operation
BWR operation
References
Operational Analysis Methods
Introduction
Multi-physics computational methods: General considerations for multi-physics coupling
Neutronics computational methods
Thermo-hydraulic computational methods
Mechanical, thermo-mechanical, structural, and chemical analysis computational methods
Core simulator frameworks
Computational validation
Experimental validation
Core monitoring methods
References
Transient Analysis Methods
Introduction
Regulatory requirements and guidance for nuclear safety analysis
Design-basis event characterization
Evaluation model, phenomenological importance and scaling
Analytical requirements and software
Verification and validation
Deterministic and best-estimate analysis methods
Anticipated operational occurrences and postulated accidents
Undercooling transients
Overcooling transients
Core flow anomaly
Increase in reactor coolant inventory
Reactivity and power distribution anomalies
Loss-of-coolant accident (LOCA)
Steam line rupture
Containment response to a LOCA or SLR
Reactivity initiated accidents
Radiological evaluations
Licensing considerations related to transient analysis
References
Containment
Role of containment
PWR containment characteristics
BWR containment characteristics
Common engineered safety features
Conclusion
References
Further Reading
Design of the Balance of Plant
Introduction
Fuel storage and handling
Fuel and auxiliary pools cooling system (FAPCS)
Plant service water system (PSWS)
Reactor component cooling water system (RCCWS)
Control room area ventilation system (CRAVS)
Drywell and containment cooling system
Radiation monitoring system
References
Safety of Nuclear Reactors
Reactor safety principles
Inherent safety features
Operational modes of NPPs
Example reactor safety systems
Safety features of advanced reactors
Conclusions
References
Management of the Nuclear Waste – Via Disposition or Transmutation
Nuclear waste
Disposition of nuclear waste
Reprocessing
Partitioning and transmutation
Nuclear fuel cycle problems and challenges
Actinide transmutation
Fission product transmutation
Generation IV transmutation impacts
Transmutation systems and safety
Economic considerations
Environment, transportation, reprocessing safety
Impact of transmutation on waste management and disposal
Proliferation risk and proliferation resistance of nuclear waste management options
Acknowledgments
References
Relevant websites
Worldwide Status of Advanced Reactors (GEN IV) Research and Technology Development
Background
Status of GEN IV nuclear energy systems development
References
Sodium-Cooled Fast Reactors
Introduction
A bit of history
SFR basics
Reactor physics aspects of fast versus thermal neutrons
Major technology description
Safety considerations
SFR missions
Future SFR outlooks
References
The High Temperature Gas-Cooled Reactor
What is a high temperature gas-cooled reactor?
Ongoing HTR development
Beyond electricity: Emission-free process heat and cogeneration
Outlook
References
Lead Cooled Fast Reactors
Introduction
LFR and the goals of Generation IV
LFR design
LFR development status and initiatives around the world
Lead cooled accelerator driven systems
A forward look
Acknowledgments
References
Further Reading
Gas Cooled Fast Reactor System (GFR)
Introduction
History of GFR
GEN IV GFR design options
Allegro demonstrator development status and R&D major challenges
References
Molten Salt Reactors
Introduction
Historical experience
Developments within the Generation IV International Forum (GIF) collaboration framework
Thermal spectrum cores
Fast spectrum and intermediate cores
Open technical issues and future R&D priorities
Control of reactivity function
Decay heat removal function
Containment function
Proliferation challenges
Conclusion
References
Super-Critical Water-Cooled Reactor (SCWR)
Introduction
Historical developments
Thermodynamic cycle
SCWR core concepts
SCWR fuel assembly concepts
SCWR safety system concepts
SCWR plant concepts
Improvements in economics, sustainability, safety and proliferation resistance for SCWRs
Challenges
Future plans
Summary
References
Advanced Light Water-Cooled Reactor Concepts
Brief history and current status of LWRs
Challenges of the current fleet
Emerging solutions
Acknowledgments
References
Fluoride-Salt-Cooled High-Temperature Reactors
Introduction
Distinguishing features of FHRs
Reactor designs
R&D needs
References
Introduction to Breed and Burn Reactors
Introduction and motivation
A brief history of breed & burn reactor development
Types of breed & burn reactors
Fundamentals of breed-and-burn reactor physics
Engineering aspects of B&B systems
Summary
References
Molten Chloride Fast Reactors (MCFRs)
Introduction
Historical background
Neutronics characteristics of chloride salts
Historical and current MCFR concepts
Technical description
Operational, safety and public acceptance features
Summary and path forward
References
Traveling Wave Reactor (TWR®)
TWR definition and key advantages of TWR technology
Key challenges for TWR technology development and mitigation strategies
Feasibility of TWR core operating on depleted uranium
Areas of application
Development status and overall TWR program
References
CANDLE Reactor Concept
Introductions
Mathematical explanation of CANDLE burning
Typical examples of the CANDLE reactor (parametric survey)
Startup of CANDLE burning
Characteristics of CANDLE reactor
How CANDLE reactors satisfy the requirements for future ideal nuclear energy system
References
A Seed-Driven Breed-and-Burn Blanket Core Concept
Introduction
The Seed-and-Blanket core concept
Upper-bound performance—An illustration
More conservative S&B core design
Fuel cycle characteristics
Phased development of B&B reactors
Alternative fuel cycle options
Technology gaps
Summary
Acknowledgment
References
Worldwide Status of Small Reactors Research and Technology Development
Introduction
What is a small modular reactor?
Current status of SMR designs
Outlook and challenges to deployment
References
Relevant Website
Water Cooled Small Modular Reactors (Integral PWR and BWR)
Background
Status of water-cooled, water-moderated SMR design and technology development
Design description of PWR- and BWR-based SMRs
References
Floating Nuclear Power Plants With Small Modular Reactors
Background
Status of SMR technology development for floating nuclear power plants
References
Pebble Bed Gas Cooled Reactors
Introduction
The reactor system
Areas of application
Development status
Objectives of ongoing development work
Major challenges and R&D needs
References
Relevant Websites
Heavy Liquid Metal (HLM) Cooled Fast Small Modular Reactors
Introduction
History
Heavy liquid metal coolants
Current/recent HLM fast SMR technology developments
Special potential applications
Summary and conclusions
References
Relevant Websites
Micro-Reactors
Historical background
Concepts under development
R&D required for commercial applications
References
Relevant Websites
Light Water Reactors (LWR) Fuel Cycle Options
Commercial LWR used fuel characteristics
Motivations for Used Fuel Recycling
Single-Pass Recycling of Pu and MA in LWRs
Multi-recycling of Pu and MA in LWRs
Summary
Acknowledgments
References
Advanced Fuel Cycles Identification and Evaluation
Introduction
The nuclear fuel cycle evaluation and screening study
Fuel cycle Evaluation Criteria
Comprehensive set of fuel cycle options
Best performance potential of each evaluation group
Evaluation Criteria weighting scenarios
Key results on relative fuel cycle performance
Promising fuel cycles for performance improvement
The most promising fuel cycles
Additional potentially promising fuel cycles
Other potentially promising fuel cycles
Insights about fuel cycles
Challenges for fuel cycle development and deployment
References
Self-Sustaining Breeding in Advanced Reactors: Characterization of Natural Resources
Introduction
Primordial and synthetic actinides
Irradiation chains of primordial actinides
Nuclear physics implications
Neutron economy
Radiotoxicity of the irradiation chain
Summary
References
Self-Sustaining Breeding in Advanced Reactors: Characterization of Selected Reactors
Introduction
Applied tool, assumptions and simulated reactors
Equilibrium neutron spectrum
Equilibrium fuel composition
Equilibrium multiplication factor
Core size estimate
Equilibrium temperature coefficients
Summary
References
Self-Sustaining Breeding in Advanced Reactors: Comparison of Fuel Cycle Performance
Introduction
Methods of fuel cycle performance assessment
Breeding capability
Achievable burnup
Basic assessment of the B&B cycle
Initial fissile mass
Means of criticality maintenance
Transmutation capability
Neutron economy
Summary
References
Advanced Modeling and Simulation Methods
Introduction
Models and algorithms
Examples of applications
Acknowledgments
References
Additive Manufacturing in the Nuclear Reactor Industry
Introduction
Additive manufacturing
Nuclear reactor applications
Agile reactor design with additive manufacturing
Computational analyses of additively manufactured geometries
Future roles
Implementation under the Transformational Challenge Reactor program
Conclusion
References
New Reactor Concepts Deployment Challenges and Opportunities
Introduction
Current challenges
Economic considerations for new nuclear
Flexibility requirements for new nuclear
Innovative approaches
Policies required for nuclear deployment
Summary
References
9780128197325v2_WEB
Front Cover
ENCYCLOPEDIA OF NUCLEAR ENERGY
ENCYCLOPEDIA OF NUCLEAR ENERGY
Copyright
EDITORIAL BOARD
Editor-In-Chief
Editor
EDITOR-IN-CHIEF
Introduction to the Encyclopedia of Nuclear Energy
Introduction
Encyclopedia scope
Intended readership
On the need for this Encyclopedia
On the importance of nuclear energy in avoiding climate change catastrophe
Concluding remarks
Acknowledgments
References
CONTRIBUTORS TO VOLUME 2
CONTENTS OF ALL VOLUMES
Safety, Regulation, and Decommissioning of Commercial Nuclear Power Reactors—Introduction
Introduction
Unplanned events affecting reactor safety
Ensuring safety by design and evaluation
Regulation and regulatory framework
Probabilistic risk assessment
Decommissioning
Summary
Acknowledgments
References
Safety Lessons From Two Events Without Core Damage
Introduction
1975 Browns Ferry fire
1983 Salem Unit 1 Anticipated Transient Without SCRAM (ATWS) events
Summary
Acknowledgements
References
Relevant Websites
The Three Mile Island Unit 2 Accident
Introduction
TMI 2 design
Accident evolution
TMI 2 stabilization
Post-accident damage assessments
Lessons learned
Conclusion
References
Relevant Websites
The Chernobyl Nuclear Power Plant Unit-4 Accident
Introduction
RBMK design and Chernobyl plant overview
The accident
Post-accident surveys, analyses, international reaction
Summary—Insights and lessons learned
References
The Events at Fukushima Daiichi
Introduction
Plant design
Accident progression and endstate at Units 1, 2, and 3
Lessons learned /impact of post-accident investigations
Summary
References
Relevant Websites
Ensuring Safety by Design and Evaluation
Introduction
Critical safety functions
Defense-in-depth (DiD)
Regulatory framework
Safety evaluation importance example
Summary
Acknowledgments
References
Reactor Protection System
Introduction
Regulatory requirements
Mechanics of reactor scram system operation
Reactor protection system
Summary
References
Engineered Safety Features
Introduction
Engineered safety features (ESFs)
Summary
Addendum
References
Instrumentation and Control
Introduction
Historical events
Instrumentation
Control (protection) function
Summary
References
Guidance for Operating Within Design Basis Conditions
Introduction
Plant conditions
Operational states
Summary
References
Beyond Design Basis Event Considerations
Introduction
Plant conditions
History of BDBA and DEC
Three Mile Island Unit 2 accident
Terrorist activities in Europe
Chernobyl
World trade center and pentagon attacks
Fukushima
Summary
References
Safety Evaluations
Introduction
Historical
Analyses required to demonstrate safe operation
Emerging issues
Summary
References
Overview of Nuclear Regulation and Regulatory Framework
Introduction
Safety objective and scope
Roles
Regulatory functions
Regulatory attributes
Regulatory approaches
Future considerations
Acknowledgments
References
Relevant Websites
U.S. Regulation and Licensing—Historical Perspective
Introduction—Institutional evolution and technical issues
The institutional milieu
Regulatory process
The effect of accidents on regulatory process
Summary
References
U.S. Regulations for Commercial Nuclear Power Plants
Introduction
Organization of Title 10 of the US Code of Federal Regulations (CFR)
Broad requirements of Title 10 of the Code of Federal Regulations Parts 1–199
Particular issues that extended the regulations
Legal, procedural, and processes issues
Summary
References
U.S. Options for Licensing a New Commercial Power Plant
Introduction
Current alternatives for licensing commercial nuclear power plants
Summary and future activities
References
Regulation of Two U.S. Non-LWRs—Lessons Learned
Introduction
Background
Relevant operating experience
Regulatory framework, review, and oversight
Initial testing and operation
Complexity and technology advances
Example 1—The Fort St. Vrain (FSV) high temperature gas reactor
Example 2—The Enrico Fermi Unit 1 (EF1) sodium cooled fast reactor
Recent actions to address non-LWR regulation issues
Summary
Acknowledgments
References
Overview of International Nuclear Safety Regulation and Licensing
Introduction
Nuclear Law
Nuclear Related Conventions
Case Studies
Summary
Acknowledgments
References
Relevant Websites
Probabilistic Risk Assessment
Introduction
Definition
Basic elements of PRA
Steps in conducting a PRA
Summary
References
Regulatory Applications of Risk Assessment
Risk-informed regulation
Types of applications
References
Risk Assessment Insights and Impact
Introduction
Evaluating the results of a PRA for risk insights
Incorporating risk insights into advanced reactor design and licensing
Summary
Acknowledgments
References
Nuclear Power Plant Decommissioning
Introduction
Decommissioning strategies
US decommissioning status
US decommissioning regulations
US decommissioning practices
Upcoming decommissioning work in the US
U.S. decommissioning marketplace evolution
International decommissioning
Summary
References
SAFSTOR Decommissioning Example (Kewaunee)
Introduction
Decommissioning progress
Summary
References
DECON Decommissioning Example (Maine Yankee)
Introduction
Decommissioning progress
Summary
References
Introduction to Fuel Cycle Front End: From Mining Through Utilization
Introduction
Fuel design
overview
References
Uranium Resources
Geology and mines
Exploration: Identifying resources
Quantification of resources
Reporting uranium resources
Using uranium resources
Sustainability of uranium supply
Mining and milling uranium ore
Secondary sources of uranium
Uranium markets
References
Uranium Extraction From Seawater Makes Nuclear Power Virtually Renewable
Introduction
Present sources of uranium
Extraction of uranium from seawater
When nuclear becomes renewable
Cost
Conclusion
References
Relevant Websites
Unconventional Uranium Resources From Phosphates
Introduction
Past uranium recovery from phosphates
Potential uranium recovery from phosphates
Conclusions and outlook
References
Uranium Conversion and Enrichment
Introduction
Conversion processes
Enrichment process overview
Enrichment technologies
Global production summary
References
Relevant Websites
Fuel Design and Fabrication: Pellet-Type Fuel
Introduction
Fuel design
Temperature analysis in the radial direction of pellets
Properties
Irradiation behavior
Fabrication
UO2 pellets
MOX pellets
Nitride and carbide pellets
References
Fuel Design and Fabrication: Fast-Reactor Metal Fuels
Introduction
Design: Fuel alloy and fuel pin design to optimize performance
Design and fabrication of sodium-cooled fast reactor (SFR) metal fuels (EBR-II example)
In the future
Conclusions
References
Fuel Design and Fabrication: TRISO Particle Fuel
Introduction
TRISO fuel design
TRISO fuel fabrication
TRISO fuel characterization and quality control
Summary
References
Fuel Design and Fabrication: Research Reactor Fuel
Introduction
Fuel design considerations
Fuel element design
Fuel compounds and associated properties
Fabrication of plate-type dispersion fuel
Fabrication of plate-type monolithic fuel
Acknowledgments
References
Nuclear Criticality Safety
Introduction
NCS fundamentals and background
Criticality accident concerns in the light water reactor fuel cycle
Nuclear criticality safety of research reactor fuels
NCS with GEN-IV reactors
Summary
References
Fresh Fuel Properties: Ceramic Compounds
Introduction
Thermal properties
Mechanical properties
Summary
Acknowledgments
References
Zr-Alloyed Metallic Fuel Properties
Introduction
Thermal properties
Mechanical properties
Summary
Acknowledgments
References
Molten Salt Fuels: Properties, Purification, and Corrosion Control∗∗∗
Introduction
Properties of molten salts for reactor designs
Molten salt purification
Corrosion in molten salts and redox control
Conclusions
References
Irradiation Performance: Light Water Reactor Fuels
Introduction
Performance requirements
Normal operation performance
Anticipated transient performance
Design-basis accident performance
Fuel performance analyses
Summary
References
Further Reading
Irradiation Performance: Fast Reactor Fuels
Introduction
Fuel design
Fuel assembly structural material performance
Fuel performance under normal and anticipated conditions
Fuel performance under off-normal conditions
Fuel performance modeling
References
Irradiation Performance: High-Temperature Gas Reactor Fuels
Introduction
Irradiation performance
Summary
References
Irradiation Performance: Research Reactor Fuels
Introduction
Research reactor fuel performance requirements
Mechanical integrity
Geometric stability
Stable and predictable behavior
Research reactor fuel testing
Acknowledgements
References
Key Characteristics of Used Nuclear Fuel
Introduction
Nuclear fuel irradiation
Aging mechanisms of used fuel
The special case of SUPERFACT fuel
Conclusions
References
Fuel Storage (New Fuel/Used Fuel Pool)
Commercial spent nuclear fuel (CSNF) locations and amounts
Characteristics of CSNF requiring management during storage, transportation, reprocessing, and disposal
Commercial spent nuclear fuel storage systems
Dry storage licensing and design criteria
The need for longer-term storage
References
The Chemical Basis for Separating Recycling Materials by Hydro-Processes
Introduction
Nuclear fuel reprocessing by the PUREX process
PUREX process chemistry
Magnox and Thorp reprocessing
Future perspectives
Conclusions
Acknowledgments
References
Relevant Websites
The Chemical Basis for Separating Recycling Materials by Pyro-Processes
Introduction
Chemical basis for pyroprocesses
From the chemical reactions to a potential separation industrial scheme
Current experimental feedback and key demonstration projects
The key issue for developing an industrial pyroprocess
References
The Current Industrial Mono-Recycling of U and Pu: Reprocessing Step
The implementation of PUREX process at the industrial scale
The key role of streams management and effluent recycling
Buildings layout considerations
Remote control and monitoring
Short industrial feedback from worldwide commercial plants
Cost of reprocessing
References
The Current Industrial Mono-Recycling of U and Pu: Recycling Step
The rationale and properties of MOX fuels
Principles and industrial feedback of MOX fabrication
The U recycling: Specificity of fuel fabrication from RepU
Properties of MOX fuels
Overview of the overall cost associated to U/Pu recycling in MOX fuels
References
Routes for Pu Multi-recycling
Goals of Pu multi-recycling
The physics of Pu recycling in nuclear reactors
Plutonium recycling in light water reactors
Plutonium recycling in fast neutron reactors
The minor actinides issue
References
The Adaptation of Recycling Processes to Pu-Multi Recycling
Introduction
MOX reprocessing past experience and limitations of the existing PUREX process
Adaptation of the headend processes to FR fuel characteristics
Adaptation of the partitioning processes to the specificity of Pu from FNR fuels
Adaptation of processes for Pu conversion and FR MOX fabrication
Conclusion
References
Effluent Decontamination
Introduction
State of the art
A case study: The decontamination of cooling waters in Fukushima Daîïchi nuclear power plant
Concluding remarks
Acknowledgment
References
Relevant Websites
ILW conditioning and performance
ILW conditioning and performance
Cementation
Bitumen
Polymers
Wet oxidation
Thermal treatment
Summary
Acknowledgments
References
HLW Conditioning and Long-Term Performance
Introduction
Synthesis of the HLW typology and key characteristics
Rationale for selecting a relevant conditioning process
Description of the HLW conditioning processes, the sole industrially deployed conditioning process for HLW
Vitrified waste interim storage
Long term performance of HLW in geological disposal
Development of alternative conditioning processes for HLW
Conclusion
References
Spent nuclear fuel long term behavior and performance
Introduction
Radionuclide distribution in spend nuclear fuel
Long term interaction of spent fuel with water: Distinction between the instant release fraction IRF and release from fuel ...
Assessment of the IRF inventory as a function of spent nuclear fuel characteristics and irradiation history
Assessment of the matrix dissolution behavior, role of radiolytic oxidants, hydrogen and near-field buffering
Summary
References
The Concept of Geological Disposal of Highly Radioactive Nuclear Waste
Introduction
Types of radioactive waste
The basic tenets of geological disposal
Geological repositories
Site selection
Safety
Performance assessment models
Safety case
Regulatory framework
Public engagement and acceptance: The social filter
References
Relevant Websites
Radionuclide Migration in the Context of High-Level Nuclear Waste Management
The basis for radionuclide migration in the environment
Geological disposal of high-level nuclear waste (HLW)
Radionuclide migration in safety assessment exercises
References
Main Repository Projects Worldwide
Presentation of the sole geological repository in operation: The WIPP Site (US)
Summary of the Swedish and Finnish granite repository project
Summary of the French repository project in clay-rich rock
Summary of US repository project in volcanic tuff rock
Overview of other projects: Switzerland, Belgium, Japan and Russia
Conclusion
References
Actinide Immobilization in Dedicated Wasteforms: An Alternative Pathway for the Long-Term Management of Existing Actinide S ...
Actinide production and inventories
Purpose and design requirements of nuclear wasteforms
Ceramic wasteforms for actinide immobilization
Summary
Acknowledgments
References
Potential Fuel Cycle Back-End for Thorium Fuel Cycle
Main features of 233U and impact on spent Th-fuel properties
Evolution of Th-spent nuclear fuel radioactivity and toxicity with time
Key issues associated with Th-fuel processing and industrial experience
The key issues of the proliferation-concern
Comparison of the waste characteristics of the U-Pu and Th-U fuel cycles
Acknowledgment
References
Assessment of the Relative Environmental Footprint of Nuclear Energy and Its Fuel Cycle
Introduction
Rationale and limitations of LCA
Description of the nuclear fuel cycle
Comparison of the nuclear energy environmental footprint with other energy sources
Place of nuclear fuel cycle within the overall nuclear environmental footprint
Impact of mono-recycling in PWR
Impact of multi-recycling in FNR
Conclusion
References
Social Acceptability of Geologic Disposal
Introduction and framework
A strategy for long-term management of HLW and SNF emerges
Challenging the strategy: Social acceptability emerges as a critical concern
Why is social acceptability so problematic?
Reconstructing the deep-disposal strategy
What have we learned? What does the future hold?
References
Radiation Protection – Introduction
Article Titles
References
Ionizing Radiation: Discovery and Dose Quantities
Introduction
Discovery of ionizing radiation
Quantities describing ionizing radiation interactions with matter
Early radiation protection efforts
Acknowledgment
References
Fundamentals of Health Physics
Nuclear physics
Radioactive decay
References
Natural and Man-Made Sources of Radiation
Naturally occurring radioactive isotopes
Technology enhanced naturally occurring radioactive material
Reactor- and accelerator- produced isotopes
Research, medical, and industrial applications
Nuclear fuel cycle
Exposure from medical treatment and diagnostics
Nuclear weapons testing
References
Relevant Websites
Source Terms for Nuclear Reactors Operations, Accidents, and Waste
Introduction
Considerations for estimating source term
General features of LWRs, FBRs, GCRs, and MSRs important for source term estimation
Source terms encountered during normal operation of LWRs
Radiation releases from LWR accidents
Used nuclear fuel
References
External Dosimetry
Introduction
Regulations, standards, and accrediting bodies
Quantities, calibrations, and phantoms
Dose coefficients
Dosimeters
System calibration
References
Internal Dosimetry
Introduction
Basic concepts of internal dosimetry
Internal dosimetry parameters and models
Operational internal dosimetry
Software for internal dosimetry
Applicable regulations and guidance documents related to internal dosimetry
Future direction in internal dosimetry
References
Instrumentation and Practices for Radiological Assessments
Introduction to radiological survey instrumentation
Land area (surface soil) survey instrumentation
Common structure/surface survey instrumentation
Specialized survey equipment
Laboratory analysis and instrumentation
References
Emergency Response
Introduction
Protective actions
Phases of an emergency and how they relate to PAGs
Dose guidelines for emergency responders
Estimating dose
Conclusion
References
Standards to Control Radiation Exposures of Workers and the Public
Introduction
Health effects from radiation exposure
Principles of radiation protection
ICRP and NCRP recommendations on radiation protection standards
Current U.S. standards
Summary and conclusions
References
Risk Tradeoff Analysis
Introduction
Perceived versus actual effects of radiation
Risk tradeoff and analysis
Moral disengagement theory
Conclusion
References
Computer Codes for Determining Acceptable Levels of Contamination
Introduction
Radiation dose limits for remediation activities
Converting dose to concentration
Available computer codes
Conclusion
References
Characterization and Release of Contaminated Sites
Introduction
Scoping survey
Data quality objectives
Characterization surveys
Final status surveys
References
Radiological Control Practices
Introduction
The importance of planning
Engineering controls
Administrative controls
Exposure controls
Contamination controls
Optimization
References
Radiation Shielding Methods
Introduction
Basic principle of radiation shielding: Conversion of particle flux to dose rate
Basic tools of radiation protection: Time, distance, shielding
Hand calculations of spatial dose rates
Computer codes
Availability of computer codes
Sample Problem #2: 14MeV neutron source
Conclusion
References
Relevant Websites
Shielding Against Galactic and Solar Radiation in Space
Introduction
Galactic cosmic rays (GCR)
Solar energetic particles (SEP)
Trapped belt radiation
Shielding methodologies and materials
Integrated shielding concepts
References
Relevant Websites
Health Effects and Radiation Biology
Introduction
Types of ionizing radiation
The Curie and the Becquerel
Protective quantities and absorbed dose
DNA strand breaks—Single and double, chromosome aberrations
Cell survival curves, DNA repair
Modifiers to radiation effects, oxygen effect and radioprotectors
Cancer
Oncogenes and cancer, radiation carcinogenesis, leukemia, and solid tumors
Radiation effects on the embryo and fetus
Radiation dose risk with mammography, X-ray and computed tomography
Linear no threshold and hormesis theories
Summary
References
Further Reading
Estimation of Health Risks From Exposure to Ionizing Radiation
Introduction
Estimation of risks of stochastic health effects
Radio-epidemiological studies
Radiological health risk assessment
Summary and conclusions
References
Drones for Radiological Assessment
Introduction and general information
Technology review
Safety and security risks
Conclusion
Acknowledgement
References
Relevant Websites
An Illustrative Example of Microdosimetry—Boron Neutron Capture Therapy for Cancer
A brief description of boron neutron capture therapy
Modelling the human cell
Characteristics of neutron beams for BNCT
Contributions to the microscopic dose
The dose from the 10B(n,α)7Li and 10B(n,α γ)7Li reactions
The 14N(n,p)14C reaction
Gamma ray dose from the 10B(n,α γ)7Li reaction
Dose from recoil protons
Dose from the 1H(n,γ)2H reaction
Summary of the components to the radiation milieu
How the boron distribution affects the dose
Salient points
Summary
References
Radiation Protection: Glossary of Terms
Glossary of Terms
References
Further Reading
9780128197325v3_WEB
Front Cover
ENCYCLOPEDIA OF NUCLEAR ENERGY
ENCYCLOPEDIA OF NUCLEAR ENERGY
Copyright
EDITORIAL BOARD
Editor-In-Chief
Editor
EDITOR-IN-CHIEF
Introduction to the Encyclopedia of Nuclear Energy
Introduction
Encyclopedia scope
Intended readership
On the need for this Encyclopedia
On the importance of nuclear energy in avoiding climate change catastrophe
Concluding remarks
Acknowledgments
References
CONTRIBUTORS TO VOLUME 3
CONTENTS OF ALL VOLUMES
Introduction to Nonelectric Applications of Nuclear Energy
Motivation
Overview of nonelectric applications
Topics covered in section 8
Acknowledgment
References
Relevant Websites
District Heating and Nuclear Power
Overview
History
System components
Nuclear power generation
Current state of district heating deployment globally
Considerations for current and future development
Summary
References
Nuclear Driven Water Desalination
Introduction
Desalination technologies overview
Connection and control with NPPs
Economics
Providing regional potable water in Arizona
Conclusions
References
Nuclear-Supported Electrification of the Transportation Sector
Introduction
Overview of nuclear reactors
WTW GHG emissions of BEV recharged by electricity from nuclear and other sources
WTW CAP emissions of BEV recharged by electricity from nuclear and other sources
Impacts of regional electricity generation mix
FCEV powered with H2 produced from various technology pathways
Conclusions
Acknowledgments
References
Relevant Website
Heat Pumps Driven by Zero-Carbon Electricity
Introduction
The operation of a heat pump
Currently available high temperature heat pumps
Comparisons of simple HTHP applications
Requirements for refrigerants/coolants
The economics of heat pump operation
On-going research projects
References
Coupling Heat Storage to Base-Load Nuclear Reactors for Variable Heat, Electricity and Hydrogen
Introduction
Heat storage systems
Nuclear reactor heat to heat storage and power cycles
Heat storage technologies
Relationship between storing heat, work (electricity) and chemical (hydrogen) energy
Conclusions
References
Process Heat for Chemical Industry
Introduction
Industrial heat requirements
Nuclear reactors for process heating
Chemical process considerations (subheading)
Fluid mechanics considerations (subheading)
Long heat transport distances (subheading)
Temperature boosting (subheading)
Example: Use of nuclear heat for methanol production
Conclusions
References
Industrial Processes for Grid Stabilization
Introduction
Desalination
Alumina reduction
Chlorine production
Magnesium production
Titanium dioxide reduction
Hydrogen production
Electric arc steelmaking
Conclusion
Acknowledgments
References
Thermochemical Hydrogen Production
Introduction
Thermochemical and hybrid thermochemical hydrogen production processes
Sulfur-iodine cycle (S-I cycle)
Hybrid copper-chlorine cycle (Cu-Cl)
Hybrid sulfur cycle (HyS)
Energy requirements and economics
Conclusions
References
High Temperature Steam Electrolysis
Introduction
Cell makeup and materials
Fundamental thermodynamics
Economics of high temperature steam electrolysis
Dynamic operations of HTSE
Conclusion
References
Synthetic Hydrocarbon Fuels From H2 and Captured CO2
Introduction
Routes for CO2 to fuels or chemicals
Techno-economic analysis methodology
Co-electrolysis of co2 and water to syngas
Syngas to fuels via methanol-to-olefins process
Conclusions and future directions
References
Ammonia Synthesis
Introduction
Conventional ammonia production plants
Nuclear-integration with ammonia plants
Fossil fuel-free ammonia plants
Process modeling results
Economic comparison
Conclusions
References
Hydrogen-Based Flash Ironmaking Technology (HyFIT): A Novel Green Ironmaking Technology With Low Energy Consumption
Introduction
Description of the flash ironmaking technology (FIT)
Operation of a pilot-plant scale flash reactor
Flow sheet development, process simulation, and economic feasibility
Summary
Acknowledgments
References
Calcination
Introduction
Direct solar calcination
Indirect flameless calcination
Economics of flameless calcination
Energy neutral mineral processing
Conclusions and outlook
References
Marine Propulsion
The need and the beginning
Development in different countries
Present day characteristics
Nuclear propulsion of commercial vessels
Future applications of nuclear propulsion
Conclusion
References
Further Reading
Introduction to Space Nuclear Power and Propulsion
Introduction
Power sources
Nuclear power sources
Nuclear reactor power sources (Buden, 1994, 2011a; Voss, 1984)
Nuclear propulsion
Concluding remarks
References
Radioisotope Power: Benefits and Challenges
Introduction
Radioisotope thermoelectric generators (RTGs) (Buden, 2011; Cataldo and Bennett, 2011; Corliss and Harvey, 1964; Corliss an ...
Radioisotope heater units
Challenges of radioisotope power
References
Radioisotope Power: Historical Review
Introduction
Transit Navy navigational satellites
Nimbus-3 meteorological satellite
Early Apollo Lunar Surface Experiments Package (EASEP)
Apollo Lunar Surface Experiments Packages (ALSEP)
Lincoln experimental satellites 8 and 9
Interplanetary missions
Pioneer 10 and Pioneer 11
Voyager 1 and Voyager 2
Galileo
Ulysses
Cassini
New Horizons
Curiosity Mars Science Laboratory
Conclusions
Further Reading
Radioisotope Power: Technology Options
Introduction
Mission requirements
Improved thermoelectric materials
Dynamic conversion systems
Closed Brayton cycle
Rankine cycle
Stirling cycle
Concluding remarks
References
Space Fission Power: Benefits and Challenges
Introduction
The need for a robust power source in space
Advantages of fission over other power sources
Difference between space and terrestrial reactors
Applications/benefits of space fission power
Challenges of space fission power
The need for SFP technology evolution
Summary
References
Space Fission Power: Historical Review
Introduction
SNAP 1955–73
Interim studies and designs 1973–82
SP-100, thermionic fuel element (TFE) and MMW 1982–94
US/Russian Topaz II space reactor program 1991–95
Jupiter icy moons orbiter (JIMO)/Prometheus 2003–05
Fission surface power (FSP) 2006–07
Kilopower 2013–18
Follow-on space nuclear: Fission surface power and megawatt NEP 2019–present
Conclusions US space reactor program
References
Space Fission Power: Technology Options – Reactor Core
Introduction
Technology options for space reactors
Nuclear fuels
Cladding/structural materials
Core structural configuration
Neutron reflection
Neutron moderation
Reactivity control
Summary
References
Space Fission Power: Technology Options—Heat Transport
Introduction
Power conversion assumptions
Core cooling options
A comparison of cooling technologies
Design constraints of each option
Conclusions
References
Space Fission Power: Technology Options—Radiation Shielding
Introduction
Radiation shielding criteria and requirements
Shielding material options
Shield design considerations
In-space reactor shielding
Surface reactor shielding
Summary
References
Space Fission Power: Kilopower and KRUSTY
Attributes of a Kilopower reactor
Origins of the Kilopower concept
The DUFF test
The KRUSTY test
Kilopower applications overview
Conclusion
References
Nuclear Thermal Propulsion: Benefits and Challenges
Introduction
Benefits of NTP
Challenges of NTP
Summary
References
The History of Nuclear Thermal Rocket Development
Introduction
Early US NTR efforts
The beginning of the space race: NASA and Rover
Advanced nuclear thermal rockets
Conclusion
References
Nuclear Thermal Propulsion: Technology Options
Introduction
Reactor configuration options
Technology options for solid-core NTRs
Fuel options
Enrichment options
Propellant options
Structural options
Moderator options
Turbopump power options
Testing options
Launch safety options
Summary
References
Nuclear Electric Propulsion for Rapid Transportation Within the Solar System
Introduction
The importance of “ΔV”
The rocket equation
The power source
The case for a nuclear power source
Conclusion
References
Advanced Propulsion: Pulsed, Fusion, Antimatter and Breakthrough Physics
Introduction
1: On board energy sources
2: Beamed propulsion
3: New physics
References
Relevant Websites
Space Nuclear Power Safety and Safeguards
Introduction—Regulations for building and launching a space nuclear reactor
The Atomic Energy Act of 1954
Designing, building, and testing
Security for the manufacturing and testing phase
Transportation
Reactor ground testing
Launch safety and safeguards
Launch approval process
Safety analysis
Review process
Launching a reactor type that has been launched previously
Treaty issues
Summary
References
Nuclear Fusion – Introduction and Overview
Introduction
Energy production from the fusion process
Measures of plasma fusion performance
Current status of fusion R&D
Overview of Nuclear Fusion R&D
Conclusions
References
Magnetic Confinement Fusion—Principles
Introduction
Self-sustainment, Lawson criterion, and triple product
Practical fusion energy
Magnetic confinement
Stability, confinement, and fusion performance
Plasma stability
Plasma transport and confinement
Magnet technology
References
Magnetic Confinement Fusion Concepts/Configurations
Magnetic confinement configurations
References
Magnetic Confinement Fusion—Plasma Theory: Kinetic and Fluid Analysis
Introduction
Characteristic length and time scales in fusion plasmas
Particle orbits in tokamak geometry
From (gyro-)kinetic to fluid and MHD descriptions
Collisions and neoclassical theory
References
Further Reading
Magnetic Confinement Fusion—Plasma Theory: Transport and Confinement
Introduction
Small-scale fluctuations in fusion plasmas
On the nature of plasma turbulence
Theoretical description of turbulent transport in fusion plasmas
Controlling turbulent transport
Conclusions and outlook
References
Magnetic-Confinement Fusion—Plasma Theory: Tokamak Magnetohydrodynamic Equilibrium and Stability
Introduction
Physics principles of toroidal equilibrium and stability
Principal MHD instabilities
Summary
Acknowledgments
References
Magnetic Confinement Fusion—Plasma Theory: Energetic Particle Physics
Introduction
Single particle confinement
Wave particle interactions
Nonlinear evolution of EP-driven modes and energetic particle transport
Implications for burning plasmas
Acknowledgments
References
Magnetic Confinement Fusion—Plasma Theory: Heating and Current Drive
Introduction
Kinetic theory elements
RF wave propagation and damping
Plasma heating and current drive by energetic ions
Plasma heating and current drive by radiofrequency waves
Acknowledgements
References
Magnetic Confinement Fusion—Experimental Physics: Tokamak
Introduction
Energy confinement
Stability
Exhaust
Tokamak scenarios
Summary
References
Magnetic Confinement Fusion—Experimental Physics: Stellarators
Introduction
Basic concept of stellarators
Natural history and zoology of stellarators
Major findings and achievements in stellarators
Status of current leading projects
References
Magnetic Confinement Fusion—Experimental Physics: Reversed Field Pinches
Introduction
The RFP devices
The RFP MHD dynamics
Particle transport and confinement
MHD control in the RFP
Energetic ion confinement and stability
Inductive current drive and profile control
Plasma-wall interactions issues
Density and β limit
Neoclassical bootstrap current at high β
Acknowledgments
References
Magnetic Confinement Fusion—Technology: Fusion Core
Introduction
Superconducting magnets
Plasma facing components
Vacuum vessel
Remote maintenance
Concluding remarks
Acknowledgments
References
Magnetic Confinement Fusion Technology: “Plasma Engineering”
Introduction
Heating and current drive systems
Fuelling systems
Plasma diagnostics
Plasma control
References
Fusion—Reactor Materials
Introduction
Magnetic confinement fusion devices
Materials for inertial fusion devices
Summary and outlook
References
Magnetic Confinement Fusion—Reactor Blanket Technologies
Introduction
Tritium production and extraction
The fuel cycle
Heat removal
Neutron shielding
Blanket concepts
Blanket architecture
The ITER test blanket program
Blanket for tokamak and stellarator
Blanket for inertial fusion applications
References
Magnetic Confinement Fusion—Development Facilities
Introduction—The path towards fusion electricity
ITER
Demonstration reactors
Fusion materials test facilities
Non-nuclear development facilities
Acknowledgement
References
Magnetic Confinement Fusion—Power Plant Concepts
Introduction
Requirements for commercial fusion power
Physics issues
Key technologies
Conceptual power plant designs
Conclusions
References
Inertial Confinement Fusion – Physics Principles
Introduction
Basic requirements
Hot spot ignition
Compression and ignition options: Conventional and advanced schemes
Concluding remarks
References
Inertial Confinement Fusion – Key Elements of Plasma Physics
Introduction
Physics of target implosion
Laser plasma interactions in the ICF context
References
Inertial Confinement Fusion—Experimental Physics: Laser Drive
Introduction
Laser-Direct-Drive Research
Laser-Indirect-Drive Research
Acknowledgement
References
Relevant Websites
Inertial Confinement Fusion—Experimental Physics: Heavy Ion Beam Drive
Introduction
Target physics for HIF
Ion sources
Main accelerator
Beam compression
Final focusing
Summary and outlook
References
Inertial Confinement Fusion - Experimental Physics: Z-Pinch and Magnetized Liner Inertial Fusion
The classical Z-pinch
The pulsed Z-pinch
Magneto-inertial fusion
The future of pulsed power and Z-pinches
Acknowledgments
References
Overview of IFE Key Power Plant Technologies∗
Introduction
Key technical challenges for IFE
Summary of IFE chamber technologies
Supporting Technologies for IFPP
Future technologies
References
Inertial Confinement Fusion—Major Facilities
Introduction
Laser facilities
The National Ignition Facility (Livermore, CA, United States)
Laser Mega-Joule (Le Barp, France)
UFL-2M (Sarov, Nizhny Novgorod, Russia)
Shen-Guang III & IV (Mianyang, China)
Omega (Rochester, NY, United States)
Iskra 5 (Sarov, Nizhny Novgorod, Russia)
Shen-Guang-II Upgrade (Shanghai, China)
Gekko XII & LFEX (Osaka, Japan)
Pulsed Power Facilities
Z-Facility (Albuquerque, NM, United States)
Julong-I, Primary Test Stand (Mianyang, China)
Angara-5-1 (Moscow, Russia)
Other ICF relevant physics facilities
Acknowledgments
References
Inertial Confinement Fusion Power Plants
Introduction
IFE power plant design considerations
IFE power plant systems integration and interrelationships between the primary technology areas
IFE power plant design studies
References
Fusion—Safety and Environmental Considerations
Introduction
Main safety and environmental concerns for fusion
Implications from safety analyses
Licensing and regulations for fusion
Additional considerations for fusion-fission hybrids
Management of radioactive waste from fusion
References
9780128197325v4_WEB
Front Cover
ENCYCLOPEDIA OF NUCLEAR ENERGY
ENCYCLOPEDIA OF NUCLEAR ENERGY
Copyright
EDITORIAL BOARD
Editor-In-Chief
Editor
EDITOR-IN-CHIEF
Introduction to the Encyclopedia of Nuclear Energy
Introduction
Encyclopedia scope
Intended readership
On the need for this Encyclopedia
On the importance of nuclear energy in avoiding climate change catastrophe
Concluding remarks
Acknowledgments
References
CONTRIBUTORS TO VOLUME 4
CONTENTS OF ALL VOLUMES
An Introduction to Research Reactors
Introduction
First research reactors and development during World War II
Post-War research reactor development and activities
Research reactor design approaches
Categories of research reactors
Fuel conversion of operating research reactors
Regulation and safety of research reactors
References
Applications of Research Reactors
Introduction
Education and training
Neutron activation analysis
Prompt gamma analysis
Radioisotope production
Geochronology and thermochronology
Transmutation effects
Neutron imaging
Materials research
Positron sources
Neutron therapy
Materials testing
Other applications
References
Historical Survey of Test Reactor Programs at INL Over 70Years
Introduction
The right stuff
Bellwether achievements
Nuclear energy for the armed services
Testing the limits of safety
Developing fast reactor technology
Unplanned accidents
Fuels and materials development
Powering space exploration
The arc of reactor history in Idaho
References
Relevant Websites
Historical Survey of Fast Test Reactors
Introduction
The promise
Overview of design differences
The early years
The growth years
Some prototype reactors
Russian submarine reactors
Other reactors
Summary
References
Relevant Websites
The Transient Reactor Test (TREAT) Facility at the Idaho National Laboratory
Introduction
Summary
References
The Advanced Test Reactor
Introduction
Reactor internals
Reactor fuel
Reactivity control elements
Beryllium reflector
Instrumentation monitoring
Reactor vessel
Experiments locations and associated neutron fluxes
Additional information
Future of ATR
References
High Flux Isotope Reactor (HFIR)
Introduction
Operational history
Facility evolution
HFIR nuclear reactor design
Experiment capabilities and highlights
Conclusion
References
The National Bureau of Standards Reactor at the NIST Center for Neutron Research
Introduction
Nuclear reactor design
Experiment systems
References
Relevant websites
The Annular Core Research Reactor (ACRR) Description and Capabilities
Introduction
ACRR description
Cavity spectrum modification capability
Pulsing capabilities
Conclusion
References
MIR.M1 (100 MW)
History
Future prospects
Reactor fuel
Core configuration
Control and safety rods
MIR.M1 experimental capabilities
References
The BR2 Reactor: Short History, Characteristics and Utilization
Introduction
Nuclear reactor design
Conclusions
References
The Jules Horowitz Reactor
Introduction
JHR general description
JHR construction update status as of 2020
JHR safety design
Developing a modern experimental capacity
Radioisotopes production
JHR as an international user-facility through international joint programs and/or academic support
Conclusion
References
FRM II (20 MW Germany)
Introduction
Nuclear reactor design
Experimental support systems
Guiding neutrons to the instruments
Instrument classes
An outlook
References
Relevant Websites
MARIA Research Reactor
Introduction
MARIA reactor design
Experimental facilities
References
HANARO
Overview
Design features
Reactor operation
Utilization
References
Dhruva—A 100MWth Indian Research Reactor
Introduction
Indian research reactor program−A brief overview
Major design features of Dhruva
Operating experience
Reactor utilization
Final remark and conclusion
References
The OPAL Research Reactor
Introduction
OPAL reactor design
Experimental support systems
Reference
University of Missouri Research Reactor
Introduction
Nuclear reactor design
Experimental facilities and utilization
References
MIT Research Reactor (MITR-II)
Introduction
MITR reactor design
Experimental facilities
Vital nuclear engineering research
LEU fuel conversion program
References
North Carolina State University PULSTAR Reactor
Introduction
PULSTAR reactor design
PULSTAR experimental and educational systems
Utilization and services
References
TRIGA® Reactors: A Unique Approach in Research Reactor Fuel and Design
Introduction
History
TRIGA® reactor basic design features
Reactor fuel
Pulsing capability
TRIGA® fuel development
Reactor versions
TRIGA® reactor utilization
Summary
References
Accelerator Driven Subcritical Systems
Introduction
Partitioning and transmutation
ADS technology
ADS developments in the world
MYRRHA
Conclusions
References
Further reading
Research Reactor Conversion to Low Enriched Uranium (LEU) Fuel
Introduction
Challenges and Approaches to Reactor Conversion
Reactor Conversion Historical Overview by the Decades
1978–87: Pragmatism
1988–97: Momentum and Improved Methods to Open Design Space
1998–2008: Celebrating Successes, Sobered by 9/11
2009–19: Tackling Ongoing Challenges Together
The Continuing Effort to Achieve High Performance With Low Risk
Acknowledgement
References
Harnessing Nuclear Radiation
Introduction
Medicine
Agriculture
Modern industry
Environmental protection
Public safety and security
Cultural heritage
References
Medicine: Sterilization
Introduction
Why
How
How much
What
Where
When
Who
Further Reading
Medicine: Radionuclides Used in Nuclear Medicine
Introduction
Radionuclides used in nuclear medicine
Production of radionuclides
Widely used radionuclides
Radioisotopes of copper
Conclusion
References
Medicine: Radiopharmaceuticals and Their Use in Nuclear Medicine
Introduction
Radiopharmaceuticals
Therapeutic nuclear medicine
Conclusion
References
Medicine: New Drug Developments
Introduction
Strategies in the use of radiolabeled molecules
Radiotracer-based assays
Radiolabeling of molecules and molecular imaging
New drug development and use of radiotracers
Radiolabeled antibody therapy
Conclusion
References
Medicine: Therapeutic and Other Applications Using Sealed Radiation Sources
Introduction
External beam radiotherapy (EBRT) or teletherapy
Brachytherapy
Boron neutron capture therapy (BNCT)
Advances in radiation therapy
Applications of radiation processing
Conclusion
References
Agriculture: Improving Crop Production
Introduction
Mutation breeding for crop improvement
Nuclear and isotopic techniques in soil, water and nutrient management
Summary
Acknowledgments
References
Agriculture: Improving Livestock Production
Introduction
Nuclear and nuclear-related techniques
Area-wide integrated pest management (AW-IPM)
References
Relevant Websites
Agriculture: Electron Beam Irradiation Technology Applications in the Food Industry
Introduction
Challenges the food industry face requiring ionizing radiation technology
Ionizing radiation technologies in the food industry
Underlying principles of how ionizing radiation technology controls microbial populations
Ionizing radiation technology related terminologies of relevance in the food industry
Current challenges associated with gamma irradiation in the food industry
Basic principles of electron beam technology
Basic principles of X-ray technology
Low energy electron beam processing technology
International regulations governing ionizing radiation technology in the food industry
Future outlook
Conclusions
Acknowledgments
References
Modern Industry: Diagnostics and Process Control
Introduction
Nuclear diagnostics and process techniques
Typical fields of applications
Looking ahead
References
Modern Industry: Gamma Methods for Materials Testing and Inspection
Introduction
Gamma transmission and scattering
Various application examples
Gamma transmission and emission tomography
References
Relevant Website
Modern Industry: Neutron Basic Interactions, Sources and Detectors for Materials Testing and Inspection
Introduction
Neutron interactions with matter
Neutron energy classification
Neutron sources
Neutron detectors
References
Modern Industry: Application of Neutrons for Materials Testing and Inspection
Introduction
Neutron backscatter (or back-diffusion)
Neutron radiography and tomography
Neutron-based elemental analysis
Various neutron-based applications in the defense industries
Detection of illicit materials
Applications for “homeland security” purposes
Applications in space research
References
Modern Industry—Development of New Materials
Introduction
Polymers (low temperature materials)
Metals, ceramics and nanocomposites (high temperature materials)
Metallurgical, glass, paper and plastic industry
Antimicrobial properties of irradiation
Conclusions
References
Modern Industry: Non-nuclear Energy Applications
Introduction
Oil and the petroleum industry
Coal
Natural gas
Geothermal
Hydropower
Solar
Wind
A perspective on the renewables
References
Modern Industry: Personal Care, Conveniences, and Safety
Introduction
Personal care
Personal conveniences
Personal safety
Safety from crime
Summary
References
Environmental Protection: Managing Fresh Water Resources
Introduction
Principles of isotope hydrology
Different environmental and radioactive isotopes for water resources development
Modeling of environmental water isotopes
Conclusions
References
Environmental Protection: The Oceans—Formation and Global Climate Change
Introduction
Evolution of land and ocean through geologic history
Behavior of radionuclides in the sea
Climate change and the ocean
Developments in radioanalytical technologies
Conclusions
Acknowledgments
References
Environmental Protection: The Oceans—Implications of Manmade Radiation
Introduction
Testing of nuclear weapons fallout in the air or at the surface
Nuclear power plants
Contaminants emitted during the normal operation of nuclear power plants
Contamination of oceans due to nuclear reactor accidents
Application of the distribution of anthropogenic radionuclides present at sea for the environmental protection
Conclusions
Acknowledgments
References
Environmental Protection: Reducing Environmental Pollution
Introduction
Flue gas treatment
Wastewater treatment
Sludge hygenization and biohazards
Acknowledgments
References
Public Safety: Fighting Crime and Terrorism; Border Security
Introduction
Responsible organizations
Radioisotopes of concern for border security
Detection
Handheld gamma radiation detection equipment
Integrated alarm response at a border crossing point
Sustainability
Conclusion
References
Relevant Websites
Public Safety and Security: Emerging Inspection Technologies—Active Interrogation for Nuclear Materials
Introduction
Fission signatures and basic physics of active interrogation
High energy X-ray inspection
Neutron-based inspection techniques
Photofission-based techniques (Stevenson et al., 2011; King et al., 2011a; Danagoulian et al., 2010)
Conclusions
References
Public Safety: High Radiation Sources and Alternative Technologies
Introduction: Uses of high activity sources and their benefits
Alternative technologies
Conclusions
Acknowledgments
References
Relevant Websites
Public Safety and Security: Nuclear Forensics
The role and origins of nuclear forensics
International mechanisms of nuclear forensics
The model action plan and the nuclear forensics process
References
Relevant Websites
Cultural Heritage Preservation
Introduction
Provenance and authentication of cultural heritage objects by radiation analytical techniques
Nondestructive testing of cultural heritage objects
Acknowledgements
References
Global Market for Radiation Applications
Introduction
The myriad uses of nuclear technologies
Estimates of the sizes of the global markets for radiation applications
Summary
References
Introduction to the Social Issues of Nuclear Energy
References
Public Images of Nuclear Energy
Introduction: Images and memory
Nuclear energy before Hiroshima
Hiroshima and cold war
Nuclear reactors
Nuclear imagery in the 21st century
The future: Debating climate and nuclear power
References
Factors Affecting Public Opinion of Nuclear Energy in the United States
Public opinion in action
Favorability trends
Perception gap
Mushiness
Familiarity builds favorability
Plant neighbors more favorable
Foundations of local public support for nuclear power plants
Building support beyond local communities
Implications
References
Relative Nuclear Energy Health Hazards and Popular Acceptance
Introduction
Hazards overview
Radioactive materials
Radiation dose sources and public ignorance
Nuclear fission and societies
Nuclear power in the United States
Weighing of risks and benefits
Nuclear energy and climate change
References
Securing Nuclear Power’s Contribution to Decarbonization
Introduction
The opportunity for nuclear energy in a decarbonized electricity system
Industrial strategy to reduce the cost of nuclear power
Government policy
Conclusion
References
The Environmentalist’s Dilemma
Introduction
Appendix A
References
Mankind Benefits From Nuclear Energy and Radiation
Introduction
Electricity
Industrial heat
The nuclear—hydrogen connection
Nuclear propulsion
Neutron applications and treatments
Radioisotopes
Summary
References
Relevant websites
Origins and Resources of Uranium and Thorium
Introduction
Origins of fissile materials
Geoneutrino estimates of uranium and thorium
Concentration mechanisms for uranium in the Earth’s crust
Igneous processes
Average vertical distribution of uranium and thorium
Important trends and discoveries
Extraction of uranium from seawater
Conclusions
References
Economics of Nuclear Power versus Other Energy Sources
Introduction
Components of the levelized cost of electricity
Comparisons of nuclear generation costs with other power generating technologies
Observations on the past and the future of the nuclear power industry
Acknowledgments
References
How Innovative New Reactors Could Improve Public Acceptance
Introduction
The case for innovative new reactors—What problems could we solve?
Overview of new innovative reactors under development
What’s needed in tandem with technological innovation to improve outcomes?
Summary
References
Impact of Small Modular Reactors on the Acceptance of Nuclear Power by the Public, Investors, and Owners
Introduction
Background
Motivations for SMRs
Safety and public acceptance
Affordability and investor acceptance
Flexibility and owner acceptance
Bringing promises to reality
Summary
References
Floating Nuclear Plants to Improve Economics, Safety, Siting, and Proliferation Resistance
Introduction
History of floating nuclear plants
What problems could floating nuclear plants solve
Concept of floating nuclear plants
Proliferation and security concerns
Objections and disadvantages
Licensing and regulatory challenges
Summary
References
Microreactors for Decentralized Power Sources
Definition of microreactors and what role they have
Near term applications
Unique benefits and risks of microreactors
Current development efforts of microreactors
Summary
References
Non-Proliferation Aspects of Nuclear Energy
The early years
Special nuclear material
The nuclear fuel cycle
Thorium fuel cycle
Research reactors
A global fuel cycle
Evaluating proliferation risk
Prospects of mitigating proliferation risk
References
The Case for International Fuel Cycle Centers to Reduce Proliferation Risk
The fuel cycle
The problem
The solution
The challenges
International Uranium Enrichment Centers
Concluding remarks
References
Nuclear Waste Can Be Reduced by Recycling and Transmutation
What is a “nuclear waste”?
What to do with spent nuclear fuels (SNFs)?
Reprocessing and recycling SNFs save natural resources
Reprocessing SNFs makes waste management easier and safer
Partitioning and transmutation (P&T): a further step towards reduction of ultimate nuclear waste (NW) burden
Conclusion
Notes
References
Nuclear Waste Can Be Disposed of Safely
Introduction
Reactors in nature
What is nuclear waste?
Waste isolation pilot plant—The US first geological disposal site
The problem of disposing high level nuclear waste
United States Yucca Mountain high level waste repository
International status
Finland’s high level waste repository
Public acceptance
Summary and conclusions
References
International Nuclear Waste Disposal Centers
Legal and ethical context
International repository concepts
South Australian proposal
ARIUS and Europe—ERDO
ARIUS: The Persian Gulf and SE Asia
Fuel leasing
The Pangea proposal
Russian plans 2001–06
Summary
References
Relevant Websites
INDEX
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AUTHOR INDEX
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