Encyclopedia of Evolutionary Psychological Science [1st ed. 2021] 3319196499, 9783319196497

Table of contents :
About the Editiors
Contributors
A
2D:4D
A Man of Stature
Abhorrence
Ability and Willingness of Victim to Retaliate
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Evolutionary Benefit of Retaliation
Benefit of Direct Deterrence
Benefit of Penalization for Wrongdoing
Benefit of Deterring Third-Party Aggressors
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Ability to Recognize Individuals
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Auditory Recognition
Visual Face Recognition in Nonhuman Primates
Neurological Evidence
Behavioral Evidence
Developmental Evidence
Face Recognition in Non-Primates
Conclusion
Cross-References
Acknowledgment
References
Abnormal Fears
Aborticide
Abortion
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Incidence
Types of Abortion
Threatened Abortion
Clinical Features
Investigations
Treatment
Inevitable Abortion
Clinical Features
Signs
Investigation
Management
Complete Abortion
Clinical Features
Investigations
Management
Incomplete Abortion
Management
Missed Abortion
Investigation
Management
Recurrent Abortion
Etiology
Investigations
Management
Induced Abortion
Criminal Abortion
Septic Abortion
Diagnosis
Investigations
Management
Challenges and Issues Regarding Abortion
Global Efforts and Legislature About Abortion
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Absence of Events to Distinguish True Friends
Benefits of Friendships
The Absence of Events in the Modern Environment
Conclusion
References
Absence Prior to Puberty
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Life History Theory
Psychosocial Acceleration Theory
Criticisms and Debates in Literatures
Cross-Sectional Data and Causality
Populations
Genetic Confounds
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Absolutism
Absorption
Abstinence
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Abstinence in Sex Education
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Abstract Concept Formation
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Experimental Methods to Study Abstraction
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Abstraction
Abuse
Abusers: Husbands, Boyfriends, and Former Sexual Partners
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Human Aggression: Why Are Men More Physically Aggressive than Women?
How Did Women Become More Vulnerable to Partner Aggression?
Why Do Men Hurt Women They ``Love´´?
Is There a Typical Abuser Profile?
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Access to Alloparents
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Cross-Cultural Examples of Alloparenting
Categories of Alloparental Investment
Alloparents and Pair-Bond Stability
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Access to Resources
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Kinship and Access to Resources
Status and Access to Resources
Sex Differences in Access to Resources
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Accuracy of Self-Knowledge
Accuracy of Self-Perception
Accuracy of Self-View
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Perspectives on Accuracy of Self-View in the Psychological Literature
Evolutionary Account of Accuracy of Self-View
Measurement of Accuracy of Self-View
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Acheulean
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
The Acheulean Class of Tools and Their Importance
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Acoustic Competition
Acquaintance Rape
Acquisition
Act Nomination Method
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Identifying the Behavioral Output of Psychological Adaptations
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Action
Action Regret
Active Bait Fishing
Activist
Acts
Act-Utilitarianism
Ad Exposure
Ad Hominem
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Are Ad Hominem Attacks Ever Reasonable?
Ad Hominem Attacks and Decision-Making
Conclusion
References
Ádm Miklósi
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Projects and Research
The Family Dog Project
Book Publication
Summary of Research
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Adaptation
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Factors Important in Considering Adaptations
Examples of Adaptations
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Adaptation and Natural Selection
Definition
Introduction
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Adaptation Failure
Adaptation for Single Births
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Uterine Morphology
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Adaptationism
Adaptationist Framework
Adaptationist Perspective
Adaptationist Program, The
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
The Adaptationist Framework
The Adaptationist Approach
Critiques of the Adaptationist Program
Cross-References
References
Adaptations
Adaptations for Navigating Social Hierarchies
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Hierarchical Social Categorization
Motive Systems for Navigating Social Hierarchies
Communicating Systems Signaling Social Rank
Conclusion
Cross-References
Acknowledgment
References
Adaptations for Reciprocal Altruism
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Conditional Reasoning
Trust and Trustworthiness
Fairness and Fairness-Based Morality
One-Shot Generosity, a Bedrock Feature of Human Nature
Revenge and Forgiveness
Gratitude
Anger
Guilt
Empathy and Sympathy
Cross-References
References
Adaptations to Avoid Ostracism
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Social Pain
Conformity, Obedience, and Norm Adherence
Reciprocity and Free-Loading
Self-Control
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Adaptations to Human Sperm Competition
Adaptations to Sperm Competition
Adaptations: Product of Evolution
Definition
Introduction
The Process of Adaptation
Adaptive, Maladaptive, and Adaptation
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Adapted Mind, The
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Adaption
Adaptive Benefits of Matriliny and ``Walking Marriages´´ in Mosuo Culture
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
General Characteristics of the Mosuo
Reproductive Practices of the Mosuo
Challenges to Relationship Orthodoxy
Mosuo Practices as Solutions to Adaptive Problems
Solution to Women´s Problems of Assessing the Commitment and Quality of Mates
Solution to Men´s Problems of Demonstrating Mate Quality and Intrasexual Competition
Solution to Men´s Problem of Increasing Sexual Access to Multiple Mates
Solution to the Problem of Paternity Uncertainty
Solution to the Problem of Familial Instability
Solution to the Problem of Conflict over Whom to Invest in
Empirical Evidence for the Adaptive Benefits of Mosuo Practices
Future Research
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Adaptive Hypotheses of Infanticide
Adaptive Lag
Adaptive Learning
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Conformity and Imitation
Prestige Bias
Related Findings and Conclusions
Cross-References
References
Adaptive Memory
(Adaptive) Phenotypic Plasticity
Adaptive Plasticity
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
What Is Adaptive Plasticity?
A Brief Overview of the Baldwin Effect
Conclusion
Cross-References
Acknowledgment
References
Adaptive Play Behavior
Adaptive Polymorphisms
Adaptive Problem of Detecting Kinship
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Avoiding Interbreeding
Development of Altruism
Kin Detection Systems
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Adaptive Problems
Adaptive Solutions to Socialization
Adaptive Specialisations
Adaptive Variation
Adiposity
Adjunct Mother
Adjustment
Adjustment of Copulatory/Ejaculatory Investment
Adolescence
Adolescent Issues
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Friendships
The Peer Group
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Adolescent Parenthood
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Paternity Uncertainty Hypothesis
Mating Opportunity Cost Hypothesis
Parent-Offspring Conflict Theory
Decreased Life Expectancy
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Adolescents
Adoption
Adoption Preferences
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Resemblance/Kinship
Age
Health
Cuteness
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Adrenaline
Adrenogenital Syndrome
Adult Attachment
Adult Sex Ratio
Adultery
Advanced Age
Advanced Tool Use
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
The Importance of Advanced Tool Use and Its Practicality
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Advanced Tools of Neanderthals
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Toolmaking
Examples
Controversy
Conclusion
References
Advantageous Side Effects
Advantages of Having Close Blood and Affinal Relationships
Adverse Effects of Alcohol in Utero
Advertisements
Advertising
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Advertising: More Than Meets the Eye
Advertisements Reflect Evolved Psychology
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Advertising Effects
Aesthetic Display
Affair
Affective Bond
Affiliation
Affiliation and Sexual Behavior
Affiliation and Sexuality
Affiliative Bonds
After Life
Age
Age Categories
Age Categorization
Age Differences in Marriage Partners
Definition
Introduction
Consequences of Age Disparity Between Spouses
Theoretical Explanations of Age Differences Between Spouses
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Age Disparity
Age Groups
Age of Child
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Age of Menarche
Age of Mother at Birth of Her Child
Age of Parent
Synonyms
Definitions
Introduction
Evolution and Parental Age
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Age of Weaning in Human Evolutionary History
Age Perception
Agency-Detection
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Agency Detection Is Adaptive
Agency Detection as an Early Step of Social Inferences
Universal vs. Culture-Specific Aspects of Social Inferences
Agency Detection Is a Crucial Factor for the Emergence of Religious Intuitions
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Age-Related Reproductive Potential
Aggregation
Aggression
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Why Has Aggression Evolved?
How Has Human Aggression Evolved?
How Does Human Aggression Develop Over the Life Course?
How Do the Psychological Mechanisms That Regulate Aggression Work?
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Aggression for Sexual Access
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Sexual Aggression in Other Species
Frequency of Sexual Aggression in Humans
Sex Differences
Overview of EP Models
Data Pertaining to the Generalist Versus Specialist Models
Sexual Arousal to Force
Proposed Evolved Function of Sexual Arousal to Force
Specialization and Coercive Potential
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Aggressive Behavior
Aggressive Behaviors
Aggressive Fantasies
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
The Catharsis Hypothesis
Evidence Contrary to the Catharsis Hypothesis
Aggressive Fantasy as Social Cognition
Other Factors Affecting Aggressive Fantasy
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Aggressive Imitation
Aggressiveness
Aging
Agonistic Interactions
Agonistic Support
Agreeableness
Agropastoral Cultures of Violence
Agropastoral Honor Cultures
Aid
Alarm Call
Alarm Call Confuses Predator
Alarm Call Creates Confusion
Synonyms
Definitions
Introduction
Alarm Calling
Confusion
Conclusions
Cross-References
References
Alarm Callers Are Females with Greatest Genetic Representation
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Kinship as a Determinant of Alarm Calling
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Alarm Calling
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Evolutionary Function
Selfish Alarm Calling
Altruistic Alarm Calling
Information Content
Call Production
Call Comprehension
Call Sequences: Temporal and Morphological Structure
Compositionality
Ontogeny and Learning
Comprehension
Production
Usage
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Alarm Calling and Kinship
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
The Cognition of Animal Alarm Calls
The Evolution of Animal Alarm Calling
Individual Selection: Alarm Calling to Enhance Signaler Survival
Perception Advertisement
Prey ``Manipulation´´
Alarm Calling to Favor Kin
Alarm Call Evolution in Relation to Sex
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Alarm Calling Predicted by Inclusive Fitness
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Alarm Calling and Kinship
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Alarm Calling upon Predator Detection
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Alarm Caller Targeted by Predator
Alarm Callers and Genetic Representation
Conclusions
Cross-References
References
Alarm Calls
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Semantic Alarm Calling
Deceptive Alarm Calling
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Alarm Calls Warn Relatives
Alcohol
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Chemistry of Alcohol
Alcohol: Developmental Significance
History of Alcohol Use in the World
Alcohol: Pharmacokinetics and Pharmacodynamics
Alcohol: Effects on Physical Health
Alcohol: Effects on Mental Health
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Alcohol and Balance
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Effects of Alcohol on Balance
How Alcohol Affects Balance
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Alcohol and Rape on College Campuses
Definition
Introduction
Alcohol Consumption on College Campuses
Rape on College Campuses
Evolution, Alcohol, and Rape
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Alcohol Violence
Alcohol-Related Violence
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Attributes of Violence Associated with Alcohol Use
Prevention of Alcohol-Related Violence
Conclusion
References
Alert Call
Alert Calling
Alerting Calls
Alfred Russel Wallace (1858)
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
The Birth of a Naturalist
Amazon Basin
The Malay Archipelago
The Ternate Essay
Co-Discovery of Natural Selection
Back to England
Mental Processes: Evolutionary Continuity or a Superior Force?
Darwin´s Response
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Alfred Russel Wallace and Charles Darwin
Definition
Introduction
Affinity and mutability: the origins of an idea
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Alienation
All Psychology Is Evolutionary Psychology
Allergic Reactions
Allergies
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
The Toxin Hypothesis
Allergies and Cancer
Allergies and Protection Against Venom
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Alliance
Alliance Formation
Alliance Formation Theory
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
The Alliance Theory
The Role of Dominance Hierarchies
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Alliances
Allocare
Allocation of Attention
Allogrooming
Allomother
Allomothering
Alloparenting
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Defining Alloparenting
Is Alloparenting the Same as Cooperative Breeding?
How is Alloparenting Conceptualized?
Types of Alloparental Investments: Provisioning Versus Caregiving
Pathways of Alloparental Investments: Direct Versus Indirect
Alloparenting Systems: Substitutive Versus Additive
The Evolution of Alloparenting in Humans
Indirect Fitness Benefits
Direct Fitness Benefits
Learning-to-Mother/Parenting Experience
Costly Signaling and Mating Effort
Reciprocity
Key Alloparents Across Cultures
Grandparents
Siblings and Other Children
Peers of Parents and Other Households
Institutional Alloparents
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Alloparenting and Female Same-Sex Behavior
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Alloparenting
Sexual Fluidity
Sexual Fluidity as a Conditional Female Mating Strategy
But Why the Sex?
Conclusions
Cross-References
References
Alloparenting and Grandparenting
Definition
Introduction
Alloparenting
Grandparenting
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Alloparents
Allopreening
Alms
Alpha, Beta, and Gamma Males
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Nonhuman Primates
Canines
Birds
Marine Isopods
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Alteration
Alternating Attention
Alternative Adaptive Peaks
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Alternative Adaptive Peaks
Adaptive Peaks and Personality
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Alternative Mating Tactic
Alternative Reproductive Tactics
Alternative Strategies
Altriciality Life Span Hypothesis
Altriciality Lifespan Hypothesis
Altruism
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Kinship Altruism or Inclusive Fitness
Direct Reciprocity
Indirect Reciprocity
Group Selection
Spatial Cooperation
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Altruism Advertises Cooperativeness
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Altruism Advertises Generosity
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Public Generosity as a Status Signal
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Altruism Among Nonkin
Definition
Introduction
Evolutionary Altruism
Group Selection
Psychological Altruism
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Altruism and Costs to Altruist
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Cost and Benefit Toward Kin and Nonkin
Second-Order Costs: Altruistic Punishment
Reputation and Costly Signaling
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Altruism and Watching Eyes
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Reputational Fitness Benefits of Being Seen to Be Altruistic
Altruism and the Watching Eyes Effect
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Altruism Between Relatives
Altruism Defined by Benefits Conferred
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
The Puzzle of Altruism
Benefits to the Group
Benefits to Genetic Relatives
Benefits to those Who Helped Previously
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Altruism Displays Cooperative Potential
Synonyms
Definition
References
Altruism in Kin Selection
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Hamilton´s Law of Kinship Altruism
Studies on Brotherly Care in Female Eusocial Hymenoptera
Proximal Mechanisms in Kinship Altruism
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Altruism Norms
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Kin Selection and Pro-family Norms
Altruism Norms and Expectations of Altruism in Society
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Altruistic Behavior
Altruistic Nepotism
Altruistic Punishment
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Experimental Evidence
Proximate Mechanisms
Evolutionary Origins
Conclusions
Cross-References
References
Altruistic Punishment and Strong Reciprocity
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Experimental Evidence
Proximate Mechanisms and Evolutionary Origins
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Altruistic Punishment Enhances Reputation
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
The Public Goods Game
Benefits in Group Average Earnings
Number of Interactions and Reputation
Equity Motivations
Simulation Models
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Altruistic Rewarding and Punishment
Altruistic Suicide
Amalgamated Families
American Left
Amotz Zahavi
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
The Handicap Principle
Costly Signalling Under Mate Choice
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Amphimixis
Amputated Limbs
AN
An Abstract of an Essay on the Origin of Species and Varieties Through Natural Selection
An Essay on the Principle of Population
Analogical Reasoning
Anatomical Adaptations for Fighting
Definition
Introduction
Muscles
Human Fists
The Head and Face
Pain Tolerance
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Ancestor Worship
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Main Text
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Ancestral Birth Spacing
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Nonhuman Primate Birth Spacing
What Do We Know About Birth Spacing In Our Human Ancestors?
Evolutionary Optimality Models of Birth Spacing
Proximate Mechanisms Underlying Birth Spacing
Differences Between Women and Between Births
Predictions Which Have Not Consistently Been Upheld in the Research Evidence
Do Ancestral Birth Spacing Patterns Remain in Modern Industrialized Societies?
Conclusion: Should Women in Modern Industrialized Societies Space Births More Than 2 Years Apart?
Cross-References
References
Ancestral Environment
Ancestral Threats Versus Modern Threats
Introduction
Ancestral Threats
Modern Threats
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Ancestry
Ancient Homosexuality
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
The Multitude of Same-Sex Attractions
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Ancient Music
Androgen
Androgenic Hormone
Anger Proneness
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Evolutionary Models of Anger
Mechanisms of Selection
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Angry Personality
Animal Behavior
Animal Communication
Animal Emotions
Animal Intelligence
Animal Signaling
Animal Signalling
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Forms of Animal Signalling
Evolutionary Explanations
Information, Influence, and Evolution
Animal Signalling and Human Behavior
Conclusions
Cross-References
Acknowledgment
References
Animism
Anisogamy
Anne Campbell
Synonyms/Keywords
Definition
Introduction
Sex Differences in Aggression
Female Gang Members
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Anonymity
Anonymity of Cyberbullying
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Role of Anonymity
Negative Outcomes Associated with Cyberbullying
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Anorectic
Anorexia
Anorexia Nervosa
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Adapted-to-Flee-Famine Hypothesis
Kin Selection Theory
The Model of Parental Manipulation
Reproductive Suppression Hypothesis
Sexual Competition Hypothesis
Social Attention-Holding Power
Conclusion
Cross-Reference
References
Anorgasmia
Antagonizing
Anterior Cerebral Cortex
Anthropological Universals
Anthropologist
Anthropology
Anthropomorphism
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Anthropomorphism and Perspective-Taking
Anthropomorphism of Nonhuman Animals
Anthropomorphism as a Critical Tool
Anthropomorphism and Anecdotes
Anthropomorphism of Animal-Human Chimeras
Conclusion
References
Anti-cuckoldry
Anti-cuckoldry Adaptations
Anti-cuckoldry Tactics
Antigay Bullying
Antimicrobial Hypothesis
Antimicrobial Hypothesis, The
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Spice Use Through the Ages and Across Regions
Antimicrobial Hypothesis of Spices
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Antinatalism
Anti-natalism
Definition
Introduction
The Philosophy of Anti-natalism
The Human Bias Toward Optimism
Humans Choosing to Delay and Forgo Reproduction
Conclusion
References
Antinatalism Key Text
Antinatalist Philosophy of David Benatar
Anting
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Forms of Anting and Its Global Prevalence
Hypotheses for the Function of Anting
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Antipathy
Antipredator Behavior
Antipredator Calling
Antipredator Vocalization
Anti-predator Vocalization
Antipredatory Behavior
Antisocial
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Antisocial
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Antisocial Behavior
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Evolutionary Models of Antisocial Behavior
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Antisocial Personalities
Antisocial Personality
Antisocial Personality Disorder
Antisocial Personality Disorder (ASPD)
Anxiety
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Anxiety Disorders
Treatment of Anxiety Disorders
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Anxiety (Randolph Nesse)
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Anxiety as a Useful Defense
Error Management Theory and Cognitive Biases
Biases in Anxiety and Hazard-Detection
Selection Is Slow and Subject to Constraints
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Anxiety Disorders
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
The Anxiety Disorders
Anxiety and Fear
The Function of Anxiety and Fear
Anxiety-Like Responses in Non-Human Species
Anxiety and Defense Response to Individual Threat Cues
Optimal Threshold of Response to Cues of Threat
Optimal Levels of Trait Anxiety
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Anxiety of Strangers
Aplysia
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Habituation and Sensitization in Aplysia
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Apoptosis
Aposematism
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
What Makes Warning Signals Efficient?
Theoretical Expectations and Cognitive Aspects
Secondary Defenses Can Vary Too
Variation in Secondary Defenses Can Lead to Cheating
How Does Aposematism Originate and Evolve?
Aposematism and Multimodality
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Apparel
Appeal to Nature Fallacy
Appearance
Appearance Enhancement Effort
Appearance/Beauty in Girls
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Cultural Differences in Beauty
Attractiveness
Physical Attractiveness in Females
Beauty Before Puberty
Beauty and Dominance in Girls
Evolutionary Benefits of Beauty in Females
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Appearance-Reality Task
Appeasement
Applications of Evolutionary Psychology
Applied Behavior Analysis
Appraisals: Construals
Appraised Helplessness and Self-Slaughter
Apprehension
Apprenticeship
Synonyms
Definition
Cross-References
References
Approximate Number System
Aptation
Aquatic
Arbitrary
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Arbitrariness in Language
Iconicity in Language
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Archaeological Records
Definition
Introduction
Archaeological Records
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Archaic Adaptive Introgression
Archeology
Architectural Acoustics
Archival Research
Ardipithecus Group
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Discoveries and Initial Arguments
Classification and Hominid Status
Locomotion
Ecology and Behavior
Repercussions for the Savanna Hypothesis of Human Origins
Repercussions for the Chimpanzee Model of Human Origins
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Ardipiths
Arena Display
Argument from Nature
Arguments
Arithmetic Mimicry
Arizona Life History Battery (ALHB)
Arousability
Arranged Marriages
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Arranged Marriage Is Normative in Most Preindustrial Societies
Arranged Marriage Is Linked to Alliance Formation and the Retention of Rank and Resources
Arranged Marriage Is a Mechanism of Norm Enforcement
Arranged Marriage Is an Evolved Practice with a Deep Evolutionary History
Two Evolutionary Models of Arranged Marriage
Key Factors Affecting Who Controls Marriage Decisions
Age of Marriage
Gender
Material Wealth
Titles, Rights, Statuses, and Offices
Family Alliances
Economic Independence
Laws and Institutions
Arranged Marriage Is Patterned by Subsistence and Social Organization
Cross-References
References
Art
Definition
Introduction
The Adaptive Function(s) of Art
Prehistoric/Erotic Art
A Sexual-Fantasy Theory of the Evolutionary Origins of Art
The Adaptive Function(s) of Narrative Art
The Evolution of Gothic Art
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Art Production, Appreciation, and Fitness
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Ethology, Ecology, and Adaptation
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Articulation
Articulatory Loop
Artificial Insemination
Artificial Selection
Artificial Stimulus
Artificially Exaggerated Stimulus
Artistic Expression
As a Precursor to Partner Violence
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Types of Costly Mate Retention Tactics That Predict Intimate Partner Violence
Sex Differences in Cost-Inflicting Mate Retention Tactics
Men´s Use of Cost-Inflicting Mate Retention Tactics and Women´s Fertility
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
ASD
Asexual Reproduction
Asocial
Assault
Assessing Faithfulness
Assessing Genetic Similarity
Assessment of Fighting Ability
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
What Would a Cognitive Program that Assesses Fighting Ability Look Like?
Evidence for a Cognitive Program that Assesses Fighting Ability
Sex Differences in Fighting Ability and Its Assessment
Evidence that Assessment of Fighting Ability Is Species Typical
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Assessment of Unfaithfulness
Assimilation
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Jean Piaget´s Genetic Theory of Learning
Social Judgment Formation
Intercultural Relations and Acculturation Strategies
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Assisted Reproduction
Assisted Suicide
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Associationism
Associations
Associative Learning
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Historical Background of Associative Learning
The Study of Gastrointestinal System and Its Role in Classical Conditioning
The Evolution of Classical Conditioning
Further Conditioning: Second-Order Conditioning, Generalization, and Discrimination
Second-Order Conditioning
Generalization
Stimulus Discrimination
Classical Conditioning and Emotional Functioning
The Contributions of Edward Thorndike in the Study of Associative Learning
The Contributions of Skinner in the Study of Associative Learning
Types of Reinforcement
Responses with Punishing Qualities
Associationism as a Theory of Mental Structure
Contemporary Study of Associative Learning
The Rescorla-Wagner Model of Classical Conditioning
The Role of Prediction Error in the Study of Associative Learning
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Associative Tool Behavior
Assortative Mating
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Theoretical Considerations and Possible Functions of AM
Mechanisms Underlying AM
Assortative Mating for Various Characteristics
Consequences of AM
Conclusions
Cross-References
References
Assortment
Athletic Competition
Atrophy
Attachment
Attachment in Adulthood
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Pair Bonds as Attachment Relationships
The Defining Features of Attachment Bonds
From Parents to Peers: The Gradual Transfer of Attachment Functions
Similarities Between Pair Bonds and the Child´s Bond to Its Caregiver
Neurobiological Evidence of the Pair Bond as an Attachment Relationship in Adulthood
Individual Variations in Romantic Attachment
The Measurement of Individual Variations in Adult Attachment
The Developmental Continuity of Individual Differences in Attachment
Adult Attachment and Relationship Quality
Adult Attachment and Emotion Regulation
Romantic Attachment or Reproductive Strategies?
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Attachment Opportunity
Attachment Parenting
Attachment Security
Attachment Theory
Definition
Early Years
Use of Attachment Behaviors
Separations and Reunions
Sensitivity of Care
Measurement of Individual Differences in Infant Attachment
Measurement and Development of Adult Attachment
Are Adult Close Relationship Attachment Relationships?
Attachment Internal Working Models and Hierarchies
Attachment Stability
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Attack
Attention
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Attentional Process: Selective Attention, Divided Attention, Sustained Attention, and Alternating Attention
Selective Attention
Divided Attention
Sustained Attention
Alternating Attention
Attention Disorders
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Attention and Memory
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Dangers and Fear-Relevant Stimuli
Attraction and Other Positive Aspects in the Environment
Self-Relevant Information
Conclusions
Cross-References
References
Attention and Perception
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Capture by Predatory Threat
Attunement Toward Fearful Messages from Others
Relationship Maintenance and Procurement
Attention to Nutritional Resources
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Attentional Capture
Attire
Attitude
Attraction
Attraction During High Fertility
Attraction During Ovulation
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Ovulatory Shifts in Women´s Mate Preferences
Ovulatory Shifts in Women´s Behavior
Ovulatory Shifts in Men´s Attraction to Women
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Attractive
Attractiveness
Attractiveness and Anger-Proneness
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Attractiveness
Attractiveness and Anger
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Attractiveness Effort
Attribution of Human Traits
Attribution of Intentionality
Audition
Auditory Cerebral Cortex
Auditory Cortex
Auditory Nervous System
Auditory Neurobiology
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Structure of the Auditory System
Primary and Secondary Auditory Cortex
The Secondary Auditory Cortex
Mechanosensor
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Auditory Perception
Auditory Properties of Rooms
Auditory System
Auditory System, The
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
The Outer Ear
The Middle Ear
The Inner Ear
Cochlea
Otolith
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Aunt Care
Synonyms
Definitions
Introduction
Laterality and Gender Effects
Impact of Aunt Care on Development in Minority Families
Aunt Care and Aunts
Conclusion
References
Aural Perception
Aurelio José Figueredo
Definition
Private Life
Academic Education
Major Contributions to Evolutionary Psychology
Cross-References
List of Related Entries
References
Australopithecus aethiopicus
Australopithecus africanus
Definition
Introduction
History
Anatomy
Evolutionary Relationships
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Australopithecus boisei
Australopithecus garhi
Definition
Introduction
Anatomy
Evolutionary Relationships
Contemporaneous with Cutmarked Bone
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Australopithecus Group
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
History
Locomotion
Brain Size, Body Size, and Sexual Dimorphism
Tool Use
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Australopithecus robustus
Australopiths
Author
Autism
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Identifying Autism
Increasing Prevalence of Autism
Interest to Evolutionary Psychologists
Alternative Cognitive Models for Autism
Current Issues
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Autism Spectrum Disorder
Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD)
Autistic Disorder
Autobiographical Memory
Automatic Functioning
Autonomic Nervous System
Avenge
Aversion
Avian Clutch Size
Avian Sperm Competition
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Extra-pair Paternity in Birds
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Avoidance
Avoiding Stigmatization
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Stigmatization
Hiding Stigmas
Controlling Stigmas
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Awareness
Axons
B
B. F. Skinner and Behaviorism
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Verbal Behavior
The Philosophy of Behaviorism
Social Applications of Behaviorism
Conclusions
Cross-References
References
BA
Bab-El-Mandeb Strait
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
The Bab-El-Mandeb Strait and its Evolutionary Importance
Conclusion
References
Baby Brain
Baby Schema
Baby Talk (BT)
Babysitting
Back-Burner Relationships
Badge
Badges of Status
Bait Fishing
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Bait Fishing by Water Birds
Origins of Bait Fishing
Baiting Behaviors in Other Species
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Baiting
Balance
Balance and Motion
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
The Vestibular System
The Bony and Membranous Labyrinth
Semicircular Canals
Vestibular Ganglion
Vestibular Nuclear Complex
The Cerebellum
The Cortex
Alcohol and Balance
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Balance System
Band Societies
Barbara Smuts and Robert Smuts
Introduction
Barbara Smuts
Robert Smuts
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Bargaining Model of Suicidal Behavior
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Conflicts of Interest, Costly Signaling, and Suicidal Behavior
Powerlessness, Fitness Threats, and Suicidal Behavior
Cross-Cultural Research on Suicidal Behavior
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Baringa´s (1996) Crayfish
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Background on Social Behavior
The Behavioral and Environmental Influences on Social Status
The Underlying Neurobiology of Social Status
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Bateman´s Principle
Bateman´s Principle: Sex Differences in Reproductive Success Variance
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction/History
Evidence in Humans
Other Factors
Conclusion
References
Battering
Battle
Bawling
Bayes Net Theory
Bayes Theorem
Be Forgiving
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Evolutionary Functions of Forgiveness
Be Forgiving
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Beauty
Beauty Aids
Beauty Products
Bed-Sharing
Behavior Elimination
Behavior in Groups
Behavior Patterns
Behavior that Became Extinct
Behavioral Adaptations to Variation in Human Sex Ratios
Behavioral and Mental Traits for Navigating Social Hierarchies
Behavioral Changes: Overt Responses
Behavioral Economics
Definition
Introduction
George Katona
Daniel Kahneman and Amos Tversky
Richard Thaler
Vernon Smith
The Invisible Hand
Neuroeconomics
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Behavioral Engagement
Behavioral Evolution
Behavioral Flexibility
Behavioral Game Theory
Behavioral Genetics
Behavioral Immune System
Behavioral Inheritance
Behavioral Manifestations of Adaptations
Behavioral Matching
Behavioral Modernity
Behavioral Plasticity vs. Natural Selection
Behavioral Synchrony
Behavioral Syndromes
Behaviorism
Behaviors
Behavioural Genetics
Being a Sucker
Belief
Beliefs
Beneficial Side Effects
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Beneficial Side Effects: Relevance
Beneficial Side Effects: Clinical Implications
Conclusion
References
Benefit and Cost Asymmetries
Benefit Group Relative to Other Groups
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Ingroup Favoritism in Animals
Ingroup Favoritism in Humans
Explanations of Ingroup Favoritism
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Benefit Provisioning
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Mate Retention Domains, Categories, and Tactics
Benefit-Provisioning Behaviors
Positive Inducements
Public Signals of Possession
Mate Value and Benefit-Provisioning Behaviors
Personality and Benefit-Provisioning Behaviors
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Benefit Provisioning Domain
Benefit to Another at Cost to Self
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Accepted Theory #1: Kin Selection
Accepted Theory #2: Reciprocal Altruism
Accepted Theory #3: Indirect Reciprocity
Accepted Theory #4: Costly Signaling
Accepted Theory #5: Group Selection
Open Debate: Strong Reciprocity
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Benefit-Provisioning Behaviors
Benefit-Provisioning Mate Retention Behaviors
Benefits
Benefits of Commitment and Marriage
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Why Marriage?
Marriage Is a Form of Mate Guarding
Marriage Facilitates Reciprocal Division of Labor in the Raising of Children
Marriage Reduces Transmission of Diseases Through Sexual Intercourse
Marriage Is a Reciprocal Care Relationship
Conclusion
References
Benefits of Distractibility
Benefits of Gossip
Benefits of Profound Kinship Connectedness (and Problems from a Lack Thereof) Through an Evolutionary Mismatch Lens
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Effects of (a Lack of) Close Connections with Kin in the Modern Environment
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Benefits of Short-Term Mating
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Men´s Short-Term Mating Benefits
Women´s Short-Term Mating Benefits
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Benefits to Kin
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Theoretical Overview: Suicide and Benefits to Kin
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Benevolence
Bereavement Following a Child´s Death
Bernhard Fink
Definition
Introduction
Facial Attractiveness, and 2D:4D Ratio
Body Morphology and Movement
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Betrayal
Better Genetic Material
Better Never to Have Been
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Antinatalism
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Between-Community Raiding
Between-Group Competition
Between-Group Hierarchy
Between-Group Killing
Bias
Biased Grandparental Investment
Biases
Biases as a Product of Bounded Rationality
Error Management Biases
Biases as Artifacts
References
Biculturalism
Bidirectional Violence
Big Brain Evolution
Big Five
Big Man
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Why Are ``Big Men´´ Big Men?
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Bigamy
Bilingualism
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Physiological Adaptations Promoting the Evolution of Language
Geographical Pressures Leading to Either Monolingualism or Bilingualism
Sociocultural Pressures Leading to Either Monolingualism or Bilingualism
Hemispheric Lateralization and Specialization in Language Processing
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Biliousness
Binet-Simon Tests
Binge Eating Disorder
Binocular Disparity
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Use of Binocular Disparity for Depth Perception in Humans and Nonhuman Animals
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Binocular Parallax
Bioacoustics
Bioethics
Biofield Therapies
Biofunction
Biography of Charles Darwin
Biolinguistics
Biological Determinism
Biological Ecology
Biological Exuberance
Biological Function
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Functions, Teleology, and Normativity
Causal Role Functions
Selected Effect Functions
Fitness-Contribution Functions
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Biological Markets
Biological Sex of Friend
Biologically Significant Stimulus
Biologist
Biology of Homosexuality
Biology of Human Gender, The
Synonyms
Definitions
Introduction
Gender and Social Influences
Gender and Biology
Conclusion
Cross-References
Acknowledgment
References
Biology of Language
Biology Versus Environment
Biometrical Modelling
Biomusicology
Biosemiotics
Definition
History and Overview
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Biosocial
Biosocial Approach to Sociology
Biosocial Model of Social Status
Biosocial Research
Biosociology
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Evolutionary Sociology: Applying Evolutionary Theory to Sociology
In Search of Neurobiological Mechanisms of Sociality
Genetic Factors in Social Behavior and Development of Social Science Genomics
Fluid and Nascent Emerging Boundaries Between Biosociological Approaches
Conclusion
Cross-References
Acknowledgment
References
Biosociology of Dominance and Deference
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Evolved Adaptations to Hierarchical Social Relations
Biosocial Mechanisms of Social Dominance
Conclusion
Cross-References
Acknowledgment
References
Biosociology of Social Dominance Hierarchy
Biosociology of Social Status Hierarchy
Biparental Care
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
The Biparental Care Hypothesis and the Evolution of Monogamy
Bipedalism and Biparental Care in Human Evolution
Biparental Care and Human Psychological Dispositions
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Bipedal Gait
Bipedal Locomotion
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Potential Origins for Bipedal Locomotion
Predator Avoidance
Thermoregulation
Arboreal Locomotion
Gathering and Carrying Food
Biology of Bipedalism
Ardipithecus Ramidus
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Bipedal Motion
Bipedalism
Bird Clutch Size
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
David Lack and Clutch Size
Parent-Offspring Conflict
Clutch Size and Conflict
Intrabrood Sibling Conflict and Clutch Fitness
Sibling Competition and Selection on Clutch Size
Offspring Hierarchies
Siblicide
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Bird Tool Use
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Some Clarifications
What Is Tool Use?
Anatomy of a Tool User
Tool Use in the Wild: Four Case Studies
Egyptian Vultures (Neophron percnopterus)
Green-Backed Herons (Ardeola striata)
Woodpecker Finches (Cactospiza pallida)
New Caledonian Crows (Corvus moneduloides)
Tool Use in Captivity: Three Case Studies
Goffin´s Cockatoos (Cacatua goffini)
Kea (Nestor notabalis)
Rooks (Corvus frugilegus)
Is Nest-Building an Example of Tool Use?
Tool Use and the Avian Brain
Is Tool Use Intelligent?
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Birds
Birth Attendants
Birth Control
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
The Evolutionary Roots of Birth Control
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Birth Gaps
Birth Interval
Birth Level
Birth Order
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Cognitive Development
Physical Development
Pitfalls of Birth Order Theory
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Birth Order and Parental Investment
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
How Parental Investment Is Related to Birth Order
Intelligence and Education
Personality and Social Attitudes
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Birth Order and Sibling Relationships
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Evolutionary Theories of Family Relationships
Sibling Conflict
Sibling Cooperation
Asymmetry in Sibling Relationships: Origins of Birth Order Effects
Birth Order and Cognitive Performance
Birth Order and Personality
Birth Order and Parenting
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Birth Position
Birth Spacing and Birth Order
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Birth Spacing, Birth Order, and its Influence On Child Personality, Intelligence, Sexuality, and Health
Birth Spacing, Fertility, and Child Outcome
Birth Order, Personality, and Parental Investment
Birth Order, Birth Spacing, Intelligence, and the Only-Child Dilemma
Birth Order and Sexuality
Birth Order and Mate Selection
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Birthing Complications
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Human Birth
Anatomical Factors and Birthing Complications
What Role Do Psychological and Emotional Factors Play in Making Birth Complicated for Humans?
What Role Do Modern Medical Interventions Play in Making Birth Complicated for Humans?
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Birthrights and Bloodlines
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
The Generational Depth of Bloodlines and the Breadth of Co-descendants
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Bisexual Behavior
Bisexuality
Bistability
Bitter
Blank Slate
Blank Slate, The
Synonyms
Definitions
Introduction
Human Nature and the Role of the Environment: Instruction Versus Selection?
Fear of Genetic Determinism, the False Nature-Nurture Dichotomy, and (Intraindividual) Gene-Environment Interactions
BS Assumptions and Confirmation Bias Mislead Interpretation of Epigenetic Studies of Experience-Induced Gene Regulation Changes
Unconstrained Visions of Human Nature and Leftist Political Homogeneity among Social Scientists
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Blast Injury
Blended Family
Blending
Bleuler´s Syndrome (Obsolete)
Blindsight
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Phenomenology of Blindsight
Blindsight and the Brain Mechanisms of Conscious Perception
Neurobiology of Blindsight
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Blood Feuds
Blood Injection Injury Phobia
Blood Sharing by Vampire Bats
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Why do Vampire Bats Share Food?
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Blow Job
Blubbering
BMI
Boar Effect
Body and Hand Gestures
Body Attractiveness
Definition
Introduction
The Waist-to-Hip Ratio Hypothesis
Body Size
Breast Size
Men´s Body Shape
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Body Disposal
Body Fat Percent and Distribution
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
The Role of Body Fat in Mate Selection
Cross-Cultural Judgments
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Body Language
Body Mass
Body Mass Index
Body Modification
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Extreme Modification
Evolutionary Implications
Cross-References
References
Body Ornamentation
Body Parts Awareness
Body Position
Body Posture
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Dominance, Posture and Behavior
The Evolutionary Benefits of Dominance and Dominant Behaviors
Hormones: The Physiological Basis of Dominance
Behavioral Consequences of Dominant Cues: Mate Preferences and Selection
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Body Reserves and Food Storage
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Theories of Appetite and Obesity
Avoiding Starvation
Mechanistic Models
Optimality Models
Neutral Selection
Exploiting Gluts
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Body Shape
Body Temperature Regulation
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Fundamental Thermoregulatory Circuits
Effector Mechanisms for Body Temperature Regulation
Thermosensory Pathways Influence the Nerve Activity Controlling Thermoeffectors
Areas for Future Research
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
BOLD-MRI
Bond
Bonding
Bone Lissoir
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
The Bone Lissoir and Its Importance
Conclusion
References
Bonobo Sexuality
References
Bonus Family
Book
Booty Call
Booty Calls
Booty-Calls
Border Patrols
Borderline Tool
Boredom as an Adaptation
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Reasons for Boredom
Boredom as an Evolutionary Adaptation
Evolutionary Mismatch Between Modern Environments and Innate Capacities for Boredom
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Bottle Feeding
Synonyms
Definition
Bottle Feeding Is an Evolutionary Mismatch
Introduction
Formula Is a Poor Substitute for Breastmilk, and Bottle Feeding also Puts Mothers at Risk
Bottle Feeding Simulates Child Loss
Bottle Feeding Increases the Likelihood of Autism in Your Next Child
Bottle Feeding and Caesarean Sections
Putting Evolved Mechanisms Back on Track
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Bounded Rationality
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
The Theory of Bounded Rationality
Influence
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Bow-Wow
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Boy and Girl Social Learning
Boys
Boys Bully More Than Girls
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Sex Differences in Bullying
Intervention and Implications
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Boys Physical Bullying
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Why Do Males Engage in More Physical Bullying?
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Boys´ Rough-and-Tumble Play
Introduction to Rough-and-Tumble Play
Sex Differences in Play
Rough-and-Tumble Play as Training for Fighting Skills
Rough-and-Tumble Play for the Development of Cognitive Skills and Social Competence
Conclusion
References
Brachiation
Brain at Birth
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
How Large Are Mammalian Brains at Birth, and Why?
How Large Are Mammalian Brain/Body Ratios at Birth, and Why?
Human Neonatal Brain Size and Secondary Altriciality
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Brain Community Structure
Brain Death
Brain Development
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Stages of Neuron Development
Influence of Genetics, Epigenetics, and Genetic Disorders on Brain Development
Influence of Experience on Brain Development
Influence of Diet and Environmental Toxins on Brain Development
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Brain Development in Infancy
Brain Energy Absorption
Brain Evolution
Brain Evolution Resulting from Cooking
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Encephalization and Trade-Off Theories
Cooking: The Human Universal
Cooked Starches, Large Brain
A Case for Cooking: The Modern Raw Foodist
Nonthermal Processing: An Alternative Hypothesis
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Brain Fitness
Brain Growth
Brain Growth in the First Year
Synonyms
Definitions
Introduction
Embryology of Brain Development
Normal Developmental Process in the First Year
Head Circumference
Brain Volume
Biology of Brain Development in the First Year
Myelination
Dendritic Proliferation
Pruning
Glial Development
Imaging Studies of Brain Development
Primitive Reflexes and Disappearing Signs
Postnatal Developmental Milestones During the First Year
Motor Development
Language Development
Social and Cognitive Development
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Brain Imaging
Synonyms
Definitions
Introduction
History of Brain Imaging
Conventional and Contrast Radiography
Ultrasonography
Computed Tomography (CT Scan)
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI)
Nuclear Medicine Imaging
Magnetoencephalogram
Advantages and Disadvantages of Different Brain Imaging Modalities
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Brain Lesion
Brain Lesion Studies
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Historical Brain Lesion Studies
Modern Brain Lesion Studies
Simulated Brain Lesions
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Brain Mapping Studies
Brain Metabolic Costs
Brain Size
Brain Size and Intelligence
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
What Is Animal Intelligence?
Absolute and Relative Brain Size
Brain Complexity and Intelligence
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Brain Size Growth in Humans and Nonhuman Primates
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Brain Size Differences
Brain Development
Brain Size and Diet
Brain Size and Intelligence
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Brain Structure-Function Mapping
Breakup
Breast Feeding
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Evolution of Breastfeeding
Variation of Breastfeeding in Animals
Primate Breastfeeding
How Is Human Breastfeeding Different?
Social Factors that Assist Women´s Breastfeeding
Benefits of Breastfeeding
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Breast Feeding and Mother-Infant Attachment
Definition
Introduction
Background
Breastfeeding and Sensitivity
Breastfeeding and Attachment
Interventional Studies
Skin-to-Skin Contact
Maternal-Infant Bonding
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Breast Milk Composition
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Components of Human Breast Milk
Lipids
Nonprotein Nitrogen
Antibodies
Carbohydrates
Factors Influencing Breast Milk Composition
Time-Dependent Changes
Maternal Factors
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Breastfeeding Benefits
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Mortality Rate
Infection Risk
Additional Benefits
Benefits for the Mother
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Breastfeeding in Modern Environments
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Health Benefits and Risks of Breastfeeding
Other Benefits (and Costs) of Breastfeeding
Organizations Influencing Women´s Breastfeeding Decisions
Differences in Breastfeeding Between and Within Mothers
Other Factors Associated with Breastfeeding Behavior
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Breeding
Breeding Systems
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Breeding Systems
Pure-Breeding
Inbreeding
Outbreeding
Crossbreeding
Conclusion
References
Brett Laursen
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Social Exchange Theory
Evolutionary Psychology
A Developmental Model of Social Exchange in Adolescent Romantic Relationships
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Brian Boyd
Definition
Introduction
Art as Play with Pattern
The Evolution of Fiction
Social Underpinnings of Art and Storytelling
Artistic and Biological Adaptation
Evolutionary Theory and the Study of Art and Literature
The Importance of Attention
Multilevel Analysis
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Brian Hare
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Professional Work
Theory of Mind in Chimpanzees
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Bridal Cost
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Pre-Mortem Inheritance
Kinship Organizations and Mode of Production
Spread and Escalation of Dowry Payments
Equalizing Differences
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Bride Price
Bright Male Hypothesis
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Components of the Bright Male Hypothesis
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Broca´s and Wernicke´s Aphasia
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Comparative Anatomy of Speech and Language
Evolution of Motor Speech and Language Behaviors
Conclusions
Cross-References
References
Broca´s and Wernicke´s Areas
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Functional Localization and Hemispheric Specialization: The Dysphasias
A Structural Marker for Language Areas?
The Evolution of Broca´s and Wernicke´s Regions: Do Nonhuman Species Have Cortical Regions That Are Homologues?
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Brodmann Areas
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Methodical and Technical Basis
Discussion of the Concept of Brodmann Areas
Recent Mapping Strategies
Recent Understanding of Cortical Areas
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Brodmann Areas 21, 22, 41 and 42
Brodmann Areas 44 and 45
Broken Hill Man
Bromance
Brood Care
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Cooperative Care
Brood Parasites
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Brood Defense
Brother
Brothers
Brothers and Sisters
Bruce J. Ellis
Definition
Introduction
Private Life
Academic Education
Major Contributions to Evolutionary Psychology
Cross-References
References
Brutality
Bulimia Nervosa
Bullying
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Theoretical Perspectives on Bullying
Social Information Processing Theory
Social Dominance Theory
The Social Cognitive Theory of Moral Agency
Social-Ecological Framework
Impact of Bullying
Victims
Bullies
Bully-Victims
Bystanders
Factors Involved in Bullying
Gender
Age/Grade Level
Disability
Social Skills
Empathy
Positive Psychological Traits and Bullying
Emotional Regulation
Internalizing Symptoms
Family Factors
Peer and School Factors
Broader Social and Cultural Factors
Intervention Programs for Bullying
Effectiveness of School-Based Prevention and Intervention Programs
Methodology and Experimental Design
Setting
Developmental Level and Outcomes
Program Components
Review of Effective Bullying Intervention and Prevention Programs
Olweus Bullying Prevention Program
KiVa
Bullying Prevention in Positive Behavioral and Intervention Supports
Social Emotional Learning Programs
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Burial
Burials
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Earliest Evidence of Ritual Burials
Modern Human Burials
Ritual Burials and Religion
Ritual Burials and the Distinction Between Neanderthals and Modern Humans
Conclusion
References
Burrhus Frederic Skinner
Butterfly Mimicry
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Müllerian Mimicry
Evolution of Müllerian Mimicry
Batesian Mimicry
Conclusion
References
By-Product
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Identifying By-Products
Relative Importance Across Fields
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
By-Product Mutualism
By-Products
By-Products of Adaptations
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Morphological By-Products of Adaptations
Penis Versus Clitoris and Female Versus Male Nipples
Human Chin
Human-Like Manual Proportions
Physiological By-Products of Adaptations
Antibacterial Enzyme and Lactose-Production Regulatory Protein
Female Orgasm
Neuroplasticity
Behavioral By-Products of Adaptations
Play
Non-conceptive Sex
Language
Ritualized Behavior Patterns
Psychological By-Products of Adaptations
Conclusion
Cross-References
Acknowledgment
References
C
C < Rb
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Cacogenics
``Cads and Dads´´
Cainophobia
Calculated
Calculating Relatedness
Calculating Starvation Risk
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Mortality Risks and Rates
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Calidris pugnax
Callosotomized Patients
Callosotomy Patients
Callous-Unemotional Traits
Camouflage
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
A Short History of the Study of Camouflage
How Different Types of Camouflage May Work
Advantages of Camouflage in Nature
How Plasticity and Behavior May Facilitative Camouflage
How the Efficacy of Camouflage Links to Evolutionary Psychology
Concluding Remarks
Cross-References
References
Cancer
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Cancer Evolution
Early Detection and Intervention
Combination Therapy
Individualized Cancer Therapy
Mismatch Repair
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Canines
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Morality in Canines
Moral Behaviors
Moral Motivations
Moral Cognition
Moral Systems
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Cardiac Rate
Cardiovascular Collapse
Cardiovascular Metabolism
Career Women
Caregiver
Caregiving
Caregiving Sensitivity
Carnal Knowledge
Carnivorans
Carnivore
Carnivorous
Carruthers on Massive Modularity
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
The Nature of Modularity
The Argument from Biology
The Argument from Task Specificity
The Argument from Computational Tractability
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Carving
Castes
Castigation
Casual Mating
Casual Sex
Synonyms
Definition and Inclusion
Introduction
Sexual Strategies Theory
Predictors of Casual Sex
Sex and Age
Alcohol and Other Substances
Sociosexuality and Other Personality Characteristics
Self-Esteem
Ovulation and Shifts in Desire and Mate Preferences
Possible Outcomes and Consequences of Casual Sex
Sexually Transmitted Infections (STIs)
Unwanted Pregnancy
Likelihood of Orgasm and Pleasure
Well-Being
Negative Postcoital Emotions
Regret
Relational Outcomes
Sexual Harassment
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Casualty
Catastrophe
Catastrophes
Categorization
Categorization by Age
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
What Are Age Categories or Groups?
Variability of Age Categorization
How Do We Categorize by Age?
Visual Perception and Estimation of Age
Biological and Social Cues to Age
The Functions of Age Categorization
Cognitive Efficiency: Age Categorization of Others
Defining Own Identity: Age Categorization of the Self
The Risks of Age Categorization
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Categorization by Sex
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Theories of Social Categorization
Cues to Sex Categorization
Visual Cues
Face
Bodies
Other Sensory Cues
Modulations to Sex Categorization Processes
Social Cognitive
Motivational and Evolutionarily Informed Influences
Evaluative and Broader Implications
Mate Selection
Threat and Trait Evaluations
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Category Salience
Cathedral Acoustics
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Earliest Acoustic Amplifiers
Renaissance Acoustics and Religious Music
Modern Cathedral Technology
Conclusion
References
Catherine Salmon
Definition
Erotica
Family Interactions
Body Image
Evaluation
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Causal Attributions
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Causal Attributions: Types
Evolution of Causal Attributions
Clinical Relevance of Causal Attributions
Conclusion
References
Causal Cognition
Causal Inferences
Causal Reasoning
Definition
Introduction
Causal Reasoning Versus Causal Learning
Descriptive Versus Normative Approaches
Levels of Analysis: Algorithmic Versus Computational
Descriptive Approaches in Causal Reasoning Research
Naïve Theory Theories and Causal Power
Tool Use
Trap Tube-Trap Table Contraptions
Tool Selection
Ecology and Tool Use
General Criticisms of Current Causal Cognition Research
Graphical Models
Directed, Acyclic Graphs
Bayesian Networks
Probabilities Versus Contingencies
Markov Condition
Common Effect and Common Cause Models
Conditionality
Direct Versus Indirect Causation
Intervention
Hypothesis-Based Causal Reasoning
Diagnostic Reasoning Versus Predictive Reasoning
Precedence
Treating Typical Conditional Stimuli as Causes and Effects
Blocking, Backward Blocking, and Retrospective Revaluation
Outcome Maximality and Outcome Additivity
Substantive Psychological Theories of Causal Reasoning
Mentality
``Causal Reasoning-like Behavior´´
Learning About Cause and Effect
Associative Learning
Superfluity of Causal Reasoning in Associationist Thought
Causal Learning
Power PC
Concluding Remarks
Cross-References
References
Causal Reasoning in Rats (Blaisdell et al. 2006)
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Common-Cause Versus Causal-Chain Training
Predictions
Blaisdell et al.´s Results and Interpretation
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Causal Role
Causality
Causal-Model Theory
Causation
Cause
Causes of Criminal Behavior
Cave Art
Cave Painting
Cease-Fire
Celebrities
Cell Death as an Adaptation Against Cancer
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Metabolic Changes in Cancer: Implications in Cell Death
Apoptosis and Its Mechanism
Therapeutic Strategies Against Cancer Triggering Apoptosis
Conclusion
References
Census
Census Data
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
What Is Census Data and Why Is It Advantageous to Evolutionary Psychology?
The Methodological Advantages and Disadvantages of Census Data
How Has Census Data Been Used to Advance the Evolutionary Sciences?
Future Directions and Conclusions
Cross-References
References
Cephalopod Tool Use
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Why Tool Use?
Water as a Tool
Octopus Tool Use for Shelter Formation
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Cerebellum, The
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Cerebral Cortex
Cerebrum
Ceremonial Interments
Ceremonies
Cesarean Section
Chain of Command
Change in Male Hunting Returns
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Tests of Variation in Male Hunting Production
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Change in Ovulatory Cycle
Changes in Adaptation Expression
Changes in Self-Esteem Motivate Behavioral Changes
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Emotional Alarm
Cognitive Appraisal
Resource Redistribution
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Changes in Self-Esteem: Social Pain
Character
Characteristic
Characteristics of Human Language
Characteristics that Help One Stays Alive
Charitable Giving (Peter Singer)
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
The Argument from Analogy
The Basic Argument
Explaining Our Responses
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Charity
Synonyms
Definition (Merriam-Webster)
Introduction
Motives for Giving to Charity
Evidence for Motives
Factors Affecting Giving to Charity
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Charles Darwin
Introduction
The Man and His Life
Before Evolution
From Evolution to Natural Selection
The Later Years
Predecessors
Progress
France
Britain
The Origin of Species
True Causes
Artificial Selection
Natural Selection
Consilience
Reception
Fact Not Theory
Against Selection
Human Beings
The Descent of Man
From Pseudoscience to Popular Science
Today´ Science
Becoming a Professional Science
Artificial and Natural Selection
Consilience
Conclusion
His Place in Culture
American Religion
Creationism
Social Darwinism
Knowledge
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Charles Darwin: Theory of Natural Selection
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
The Origin of Natural Selection
The Strength of Natural Selection
Difficulties with the Term
Difficulties with the Theory
Prior to Publication of the Origin
Subsequent to Publication of the Origin
Natural Selection and Other Evolutionary Mechanisms in Darwin
Natural Selection and Human Evolution
Summary
Cross-References
References
Charles Darwin: Theory of Sexual Selection
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Sexual Selection
Secondary Sexual Traits and Mate Choice
Male-Male Competition and Sexually Selected Traits: Armaments Versus Ornaments
Female Choice and Male Modification
Evolution of Female Preference
Cryptic Female Choice
Why Do Female Choose?
Male Choice, Female Modification, and the Theory of Male Sex Drive
Sexual Selection and Adaptation
Sexual Selection and Rapid Evolution
Sexual Selection and Speciation
Sexual Selection and the Problem of Males
Cost of Sexual Selection
Sexual Selection and Human Evolution
Mating Systems, Mate Choice, and Female Beauty
Male Choice and Female Modification in Humans
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Charles Lyell
Biobibliographical Studies
Poulett Scrope (1797-1876)
Uniformitarianism
Darwin Correspondence Project
Principles of Geology
Antiquity of Man
Lyell and Darwin
The Horner Family
Lyell´s Loess Legion
Lyell and Darwin Interact
References
Chase-Away Hypothesis, The
Definition
Introduction
Darwin-Bateman Paradigm
Life History Trade-offs
Intersexual Conflict Over Female Optima and Sexually Antagonistic Coevolution
SAC Over Hormonal Control of Female Reproduction
Costs of Mating and Collateral Damage
Conflict Over Mating Frequency
Sensory Bias
Resistance to Sensory Bias
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Chastisement
Cheat
Cheater Detection
Definition
Introduction
Cheater Detection and Social Exchange
The Wason Card Selection Task
Supporting Evidence
Controversies
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Cheater Detection Adaptations
Definitions
Introduction
Evidence for Cheating Detection Adaptations
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Cheater Memory Advantage
Cheating
Chew-Chew Theory
Child Abuse
Child Abuse and Bullying
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Forms and Prevalence
Risk Factors
Effects on Target
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Child Care
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Evolutionary Accounts of Child Care
Need for Child Care in the Contemporary Context
Consequences of Child Care
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Child Custody
References
Child Development
Child Endangerment
Child Homicide
Child Malnutrition
Child Maltreatment
Child Mortality
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Child Mortality in Traditional-Living Societies
Causes of Child Mortality
Kin Effects on Child Mortality
Infanticide
Child Mortality in State-Level Populations
Causes of Child Mortality
Gender Biases
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Child Murder
Child Neglect
Child Spacing
Child Support
References
Childcare
Child-Centered Learning
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Narratives of Child-Centered Education: Multiple Constructions of Child-Centeredness
Critical Reflections on Child-Centered Learning
Conclusion
References
Child-Directed Speech (CDS)
Childhood Co-residence Duration
Childhood Fatalities
Childhood Maltreatment
Childhood Sexual Abuse
Childhood Sexual Victimization
Childhood Trauma
Childless Women
Childrearing
Child-Rearing
Children and Sibs Share Same Proportion of Genes
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Relatedness and Kin Investment
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Children Have Greater Reproductive Value than Sibs
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Reproductive Value and Kin Investment
Conclusions
Cross-References
References
Children Without Paternal Investment
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
The Effects of Low Paternal (Versus Maternal) Investment
Low Paternal Investment and Adolescent Risk Taking
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Children´s Antipredator Adaptations
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Neuroanatomical and Physiological Mechanisms
Cognitive Mechanisms
Cultural Mechanisms and Individual Differences
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Chimpanzee Raiding
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Intergroup Conflict in Chimpanzees
Chimpanzee Social Organization
Patterns of Lethal Raiding in Chimpanzees
Observations of Lethal Raiding
Frequency of Lethal Raiding
Adaptive Explanations
Resource Defense Hypothesis
Imbalance of Power Hypothesis
Reduce Rivals Hypothesis
Female Recruitment Hypothesis
Female-Targeted Attacks
Influence of Human Disturbance
Relevance to Human Warfare
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Chimpanzee Sexuality
References
Choice of Sides
Chomsky and Language Evolution
Cinderella Effect, The
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Child Abuse
Infanticide
Discriminative Parental Solitude
Cross-References
References
Circadian Rhythm
Circumcision
Circumventing Mate Choice
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Circumventing Mate Choice in Early Courtship
Circumventing Mate Choice in Existing Relationships
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Civic Commitment
Civic Duty
Synonyms
Definition
The Socialization of Civic Duty
Factors Influencing Individual´s Civic Participation
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Civic Engagement
Civic Involvement
Civic Obligation
Civic Participation
Civic Responsibility
Civil Archives
Civil Documents
Civil Records
Civilization
Civilization Division
Civilized Norms
Clan
Classical Conditioning
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
The Study of Gastrointestinal System and its Role in Classical Conditioning
The Evolution of Classical Conditioning
The Discrepancy Between Unconditioned and Conditioned Responses
The Relationship between Basic Affects and Conditioned and Unconditioned Responses
Affective Responses that Are Governed by Unconditioned Responses
Classical Conditioning and Emotional Functioning
Stimuli of External and Internal Nature
Biological Predisposition in Learning
Facilitating Factors
Further Conditioning: Second-Order Conditioning, Generalization, and Discrimination
Second-Order Conditioning
Generalization
Stimulus Discrimination
Extinction
Experimental Procedures
Conclusion
Cross-References
Reference
Classical Twin Design
Classically Conditioned Stimulus
Cleaver
Climacterium
Climate and Habitat Diversity
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
General Climates and Habitats of Human Evolution
Effects of Environmental Diversity on Human Evolution
Variation Selection and Habitat-Specific Hypotheses on Evolutionary Psychology
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Climate and Use of Spices
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
The Antimicrobial Theory
Cost of Spices
How Did It Start?
Modern Day Examples
Alternative Theories
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Climate Change
Climate Fluctuations in the Last 200 Ky
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Temperature
Climate
How Did Climate Fluctuations Impact Human Evolution?
How Does Climate Change Affect the Environment?
What Kinds of Climate Change Did Early Hominins Experience?
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Climax
Climax Disorder
Climbing Assists
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Evidence from the Wild
Chimpanzees
Orangutans
Gorillas
Western Red Colobus Monkeys
Evidence from Captivity
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Climbing Tools
Clinical Depression
Cliques
Close Kin
Clothing
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Evolution of Clothing
Origin Theories
Scientific Evidence
Prehistoric Technology
Psychology
Motives for Wearing Clothes
Effects of Wearing Clothes
Social Evolution
Hunter-Gatherers and Nakedness
Clothing and Social Complexity
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Clothing is Distinguished from Terms Like Adornment, Costume and Dress Which Encompass Body Painting, Cosmetics, Scarification...
Coalition
Coalition Alliance
Coalition Formation
Coalition Leaders
Synonyms
Definitions
Introduction
Coordination in Social Groups
Sex and Leadership
Leadership Benefits
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Coalition Members
Coalitional Aggression
Coalitional Hunting
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Evolution of Coalitional Hunting
Effects of Coalitional Hunting on Homo Sapiens
Coalitional Hunting and the Evolution of Human Psychology
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Coalitional Mate Retention
Definition
Introduction
Evidence of Coalitional Mate Retention
Benefits and Costs of Coalitional Mate Retention
The Coalitional Mate Retention Inventory
Empirical Research on Coalitional Mate Retention
Conclusions
Cross-References
References
Coalitional Partner Choice
Coalitional Psychology
Coalitional Relationships
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Coalitions in Primates
Coalitions in Humans
Conclusion
References
Coalitionary Killing
Coalitions
Cochlea
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Structure of the Cochlea
Function of the Cochlea
Evolutionary Status of the Cochlea
Organ of Corti
Endolymph and Perilymph
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Code of the Streets
Co-development
Co-efficient of Genetic Relatedness (r)
Coefficient of Relatedness
Coefficient of Relationship
Coercing
Coercion
Coercive Control
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Theoretical Explanations
Documented Consequences
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Coercive Controlling Violence
Coevolution of the Sexes
Co-evolution of the Sexes
Cognition
Cognitive Ability
Cognitive Biases
Cognitive Buffer Hypothesis, The
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Evidence that Large Brains Evolved to Buffer Against Environmental Changes
Mechanisms Underlying the CBH
Environmental Scenarios Selecting for a Cognitive Buffer
Brain Evolution and Life History Theory
Conclusion
Cross-References
Acknowledgment
References
Cognitive Capacities
Cognitive Changes in Adolescence
References
Cognitive Complexity
Cognitive Control
Cognitive Decline
Cognitive Development
Cognitive Development in Non-human Primates
Key Idea
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Major Theories
Piagetian Stage Theory
Vygotsky´s Sociocultural Theory
Information Processing
Core Knowledge
Developmental Contextualism
Evolutionary Developmental Psych
Cognitive Abilities Across the Lifespan
Attention
Infancy
Childhood
Memory
Infancy
Childhood
Language
Infancy
Childhood
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Cognitive Developmental Science
Cognitive Enhancement
Cognitive Ethology
Definition
Introduction
Text
History
Dangers of Anthropomorphism
Communication
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Cognitive Map
Cognitive Modularity
Cognitive Neuroscience
Cognitive Ornithology
Cognitive Primatology
Cognitive Psychology
Cognitive Revolution, The
Introduction
Background
Development
New Beginnings
Computation and Cognition
Impact and Aftermath
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Cognitive Schemas
Cognitive Science
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Components of Cognitive Functioning
Evolution of Cognitive Science
Encephalization and Cognitive Science
From Hominid to Artificial Intelligence
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Cognitive Specialization
Cognitive Universals
Cohabitation
Coition
Coitus
Coitus Interruptus
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Onanism Types
Evolutionary Meaning of Onanism
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Collaboration
Collective Action
Collective Efficacy
Collectives
Collectivism
Collusion
Colonization Effects
Colony Size
Color Red
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
What Causes Red Color?
Red as a Sexually Selected Signal
Red as a Socially Selected Signal
Red in Context
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Coma dépasse
Combat
Combat Sport
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Combat Sports in History
Cross-Cultural Correlates of Combat Sport
Combat Sports and Gender
Combat Sport and Mate Choice
Modern Combat Sports
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Combative Sport
Combined Oral Contraceptives
Comedy
Comical
Comicality
Commitment
Commitment Skepticism
Cross-References
References
Committal Practices
Committed Relationship
Common Knowledge
Commonsense Psychology
Communal Breeding
Communication and Developmental Milestones
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Language Comprehension
Language Production
Gesture
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Communication and Social Cognition
Synonyms
Definitions
Introduction
Aspects of Communication
Aspects of Social Cognition
Evolutionary Explanations for Social Communication
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Communication, Cues, and Signals
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Communication
Signals
Cues
Evolution of Signals
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Community Interest
Community Involvement
Community Participation
Community Principles
Companionships
Comparative Analyses
Comparative Cognition
Comparative Cognition in Corvids and Primates
Comparative Developmental Psychology
Comparative Evidence
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Phylogeny of Homosexual Behavior
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Comparative Neuroanatomy
Comparative Phylogenetic Analysis
Comparative Psychologist
Comparative Psychopathology
Comparative Psychopharmacology
Comparing Phenotypes
Comparison
Compensatory Mate Retention Tactics
Definition
Introduction
Compensatory Mate Retention Tactics
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Competition
Competition Between Groups
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Evolution of Between-Group Competition
Between-Group Competition and Within-Group Cooperation
Competition Between Which Groups?
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Competition for Mates or Resources Required to Mate
Competition for Parental Investment
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Parental Investment and Parent-Offspring Conflict
Birth Intervals as Components of Sibling Rivalry
Conclusions
Cross-References
References
Competition for Resources Desired by Females
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Females Compete with Each Other over Resources
Males Compete with Each Other for Control over the Resources Females Want
The Institution of Resource-Defense Polygyny
Females in Polygynous Bonds Can Compete with Each Other
Mother´s Use Resources to Improve Their Children´s Reproductive Success
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Competitive Altruism
Competitive Mating
Competitiveness
Competitor Derogation
Complete Family Unit
Complete Health
Completed Suicide
Complex Problem Solving
Complexity
Components of Humor
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Four Components of Humor
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Composition
Comprehensive Sexuality Education
Compulsion
Computation
Computational Neuroscience
Computer Metaphor
Concealed Estrus
Concealed Ovulation
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Controversies on the Changes in Ovulation Signaling in Human Evolution
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Concealed Ovulation and Multi-male Groups
Definition
Introduction
Emergence of Concealed Ovulation
Mating Systems
Adaptiveness of Concealed Ovulation
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Concealed Ovulation and Pregnancy
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Honest Signaling and Fertility
Concealed Ovulation in Humans
Ovulation May Not Be Entirely Concealed in Humans
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Concealing Imitation
Concealment
Concentration
Concept Discrimination
Concept Formation
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Thompson and Oden´s (2000) Framework
Conceptual Understanding in Nonhuman Animals
Same-Different Concepts
Understanding the Relation-Between-Relations
Conclusions
Cross-References
References
Concept Learning
Conception
Conception Risk
Conceptual Integration
Conceptual Mapping
Conceptual Representation
Concurrent Mate Retention Tactics
Definition
Introduction: The Taxonomy of Mate Retention
Concurrent Mate Retention Tactics
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Concussion
Condemnation
Conditional Stimulus
Conditional Strategies
Condition-Dependent Mating Tactic
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Sex, Investment and Environment
Operational Sex Ratio
Parasite Load
Mate Value
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Condition-Dependent Variation in Mating Decisions
Conditioned Associations
Conditioned Emotional Reactions
Conditioned Reflex
Conditioned Reflexive Response Classically Conditioned Response
Conditioned Response
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Classic Example
The Process of Acquisition and Its Role on the Functional Qualities of Classically Conditioned Responses
The Discrepancy Between Unconditioned and Conditioned Responses
Classical Conditioning and Emotional Functioning
Further Conditioning: Stimulus Generalization and Stimulus Discrimination
Cross-References
References
Conditioned Stimulus
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
The Study of the Gastrointestinal System and Its Role on the Concept of Conditioned Stimulus
Facilitating Factors
Biologically Prepared Learning and Its Role on Conditioned Stimuli
Further Conditioning: Second-Order Conditioning
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Conditioning and Association
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Respondent Conditioning
Operant Conditioning
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Conditions Required for Evolution of Warfare Adaptations
Definition
Introduction
Defining Terms: ``Adaptation´´ and ``Warfare´´
Conditions for the Evolution of Warfare
Reproductive Benefits
Coalitional Psychology
Auxiliary Observations Regarding the Uniqueness of Human Warfare
Research Note: The Levels of Selection Problem
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Confidence
Confidence Judgments
Configurations
Conflict
Conflict Between Parents and Offspring
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Parent-Offspring Conflict Theory
Factors Influencing the Intensity of POC
Prenatal Parent-Offspring Conflict
Weaning Conflict
Mate Choice
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Conflict Between the Sexes
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Mating Strategies
Mate Preferences
Women´s Preferences
Men´s Preferences
Mate Retention
Jealousy Triggers
Mate Retention Tactics
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Conflict of Mating
Conflict over Parental Investment
Conflicts
Confluence Model
Definitions
Introduction
Theoretical Approaches
Empirical Status
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Conformity
Confounding Use of Tools on Physical Tasks
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Confounds in Trap Tasks
Theoretical Accounts
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Confusion Effect
Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia (CAH)
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Early Work
Paradigm Shift
Future Efforts
Conclusion
References
Conjugal Dissolution
Conjugal Paranoia
Conjugality
Connection
Consanguineous Sexual Relationship
Conscientiousness
Conscious Experience
Consciousness
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Consciousness: Perspective from Neuroscience
Consciousness: Psychological Perspective
Consciousness: From the Perspective of Spirituality
Measuring Consciousness
Consciousness: The Dilemma
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Consequences
Consequences of Imbalanced Sex Ratios
Consequences of Possessing a Large Brain
Consequent
Consequentialism
Consequentialism and Suffering
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
A Strained Appeal to Divine Ends
The Ends of Suffering Reconsidered
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Consolidating Familial Power
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Kin Selection
Reciprocal Altruism
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Consonants
Conspecific Killing
Conspicuous Consumption
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Thorstein Veblen
Status, Conspicuous Consumption, and Sexual Success
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Conspicuous Consumption (Marketing and Economics)
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Contemporary Research on Conspicuous Consumption in Consumer Behavior
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Conspicuous Leisure
Conspicuous Prosociality
Conspicuous Reputation
Conspicuous Waste
Construction Play
Consumption
Contact Sport
Contamination Vulnerability
Content Specificity
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Biological Evidence of Content-Specific Memory
Adaptationism
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Contest Assessment Strategies
Contest Competition
Contests
Contests of Aggressiveness
Context - Sensitivity
Context, Environment, and Learning in Evolutionary Psychology
Introduction
The Importance of Context in Evolutionary Psychology
Evolved Learning Mechanisms
Context Effects in Evolutionary Psychology
Emotions
Cooperation, Altruism, and Group Living
Development
Mating
Men´s Mating Psychology
Women´s Mating Psychology
The Breadth and Diversity of Context Effects in Evolutionary Psychology
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Context, Instrumental Behavior
Context-Dependent Self-Conceptualization
Contexts
Contexts for Men´s Aggression Against Men
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Men´s Adaptations for Physical Aggression
Male-Male Aggression Occurs When There Is Competition for Women
Male-Male Aggression Occurs When Status Is at Stake
Male-to-Male Aggression Occurs When Men´s Opportunities to Obtain Resources Are Bleak
Male-to-Male Aggression Occurs When There Is an Abundance of Women
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Contexts for Men´s Aggression Against Women
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Contexts for Men´s Physical Aggression Against Women
Sexual Jealousy
Age of Woman
Sexual Rejection
Contexts for Men´s Sexual Aggression Against Women
Rape Outside of the Context of Intimate Relationships
Rapist Types
Assessment of Vulnerability of Victims
Ejaculate Quality in Rape
Age of the Woman
Rape in the Context of Intimate Relationships
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Contexts for Women´s Aggression Against Men
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Evidence of Women´s Violence
Women´s Use of Coercive Control
Women´s Violence as Self-defensive
Contrasting Patterns of Sex Differences in Aggression
Personality and Psychopathology
The Abusive Personality: Influence of Attachment and Borderline Personality Traits
Are There Sex Differences in Motivations for IPV?
Implications for Treatment and Intervention
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Contexts for Women´s Aggression Against Women
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Types of Aggression
Competition in the Context of Securing a Mate
Female Intersexual Competition
Female Intrasexual Competition
Self-Promotion and Ornamentation
Competitor Derogation
Competition in the Context of Retaining a Mate
Variables Influencing Mate Retention Behaviors
Jealousy and a Rival´s Characteristics
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Contextual Behavioral Science
Contextual Cues
Contingencies
Contingent Cooperation
Contingent Reciprocity
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Related Concepts
Contingent Reciprocity in Other Species
The Ontogeny of Contingent Reciprocity in Humans
Reasons for the Variability in Contingent Reciprocity in Humans
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Continuity
Continuous Breeding
Contraception
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
History
Modern Contraceptives
Techniques
Barrier Methods
Hormonal/Biological Methods
Permanent Methods
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Contraceptive
Contraceptive Pill
Contraceptive Use
Contralto
Contributions
Control
Control Education
Controlled Attention
Controversial Issues in Evolutionary Psychology
Controversies
Synonyms
Definitions
Introduction
Self-Awareness
Metacognition
Episodic-Like Memory
Imitation and Culture
Prosocial Sentiments
Causal Reasoning and Tool Use
Language
Theory of Mind
Conclusions
Cross-References
References
Controversies in Evolutionary Psychology
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Review
Intrinsic Critiques of Evolutionary Psychology
The Santa Barbara School
Critiques of the ``Standard Model´´
Massive Modularity on the Chopping Block
Individual Differences Are Evolutionarily Significant
Race and Population
Rapid Genetic and Cultural Variation: Beyond the EEA
Radical Critiques of Evolutionary Psychology
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Contusion
Conventional Form-Meaning Mapping
Conventionalization
Convergent Evolution of Cognition
Convergent Evolution of Dog and Human Social Cognition
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Support for Possible Dog-Human Convergent Evolution
Challenges and Other Considerations
Conclusions
Cross-References
References
Convergent Evolution of Hyena and Primate Social Systems
Definition
Introduction
Convergent Evolution of Social Structure
Convergent Evolution of Social Cognitive Abilities
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Convergent Evolution of Intelligence
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
What Is Intelligence?
How to Measure Intelligence
Evolutionary Pressures Favoring Intelligence
Food Availability
Seasonality and Habitat Heterogeneity
Sociality
Life History Traits
Convergence Across Multiple Cognitive Domains
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Convergent Evolution of Intelligence Between Corvids and Primates
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
What Is Advanced Intelligence?
Intelligence in Primates
Intelligence in Corvids
Selection Pressures Leading to Advanced Intelligence in Primates and Corvids
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Convolution
Cooperation
Cooperation Among Fishes
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Kin Selection
Reciprocity
Mutualism
Manipulation
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Cooperation Among Nonchimpanzee, Nonhuman Primates
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Ultimate Mechanisms of Cooperation
Kinship
Kin Selection and Nepotism
Cooperative Breeding and Alloparenting
Reciprocity
Grooming
Food Sharing
Coalitions
Biological Markets
Proximate Mechanisms for Maintaining Cooperation
Inequity Aversion
Partner Choice
Punishment
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Cooperation Among Non-kin
Cooperation and Social Cognition
Definition
Introduction
Social Cognition
Two Types of Cooperation
Social Cognition in Group-Based Cooperation
Social Cognition in Strategic Cooperation
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Cooperation in Social Carnivores
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Extent of Cooperation in Mammalian Carnivores
Hunting of Large Game
Coalition Formation and Defense of Resources
Predator Protection
Alloparenting
Conclusion
Cross-Reference
References
Cooperation in Social Insects
References
Cooperation to Solve the Prisoner´s Dilemma
Cooperation Varies with Genetic Relatedness
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Empirical Challenges
Survey Data
Observational Data
Experimental Data
Other Factors
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Cooperation-Defect
Cooperative Alliances
Cooperative Breeders
Cooperative Breeding
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Evolution of Cooperation
Why Delay Dispersal?
Why Help?
Proximate Mechanisms
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Cooperative Childrearing
Cooperative Foraging
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Mechanisms Driving the Evolution of Cooperative Foraging
Kin Selection
Direct Reciprocity
Indirect Reciprocity
Network Reciprocity
Group Selection
The Evolutionary Benefits of Cooperative Foraging
Increased Vigilance and Protection from Danger
Increased Information Regarding the Location of Food Sources
Increased Ability to Capture Prey
Increased Efficacy in Defending Resources
Increased Ability to Obtain Depletable Resources
Horn´s Principle of Group Foraging
The Evolution of Communication and Cooperative Foraging
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Cooperative Grooming
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Mechanisms and examples of cooperative grooming
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Cooperative Hunting
Cooperative Investments
Cooperative Returns
Co-opted Adaptation
Co-opted Spandrel
Coping Styles
Copulate
Copulation
Copulatory Intrasexual Competition
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Human Paternal Assurance Tactics
Semen Displacement
The Topping-Off Hypothesis
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Copulatory Plugs
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Taxonomical Variation
Paternity Protection
Other Functions
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Copulatory Wounding (pt.)
Copying
Core Design Principles
Core Tool
Coresidence
Co-residence and Early Maternal Perinatal Association
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
The Westermarck Effect
Co-residence and Altruism
Co-residence Between Other Family Members
Early Maternal Perinatal Association
Asymmetric Relatives
Conclusions
Cross-References
References
Corporal Punishment
Correction
Correlates
Correlates of Fear
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Neurobiological Correlates of Fear
Cognitive Processing in Fear-Related Mental Disorders and Its Maintenance
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Cortical Blindness
Cortical Neurons and Conducting Velocity
Synonyms
Definitions
Introduction
Cerebral Cortex: Evolution and Development
Cortical Neurons: Types and Organization
Cerebellar Cortex
Conduction Velocity
Factors Affecting Conduction Velocity
Conduction Velocity: Implications
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Cortisol Affords Immediate Action and Alertness
Definition and Synonyms of Cortisol
Introduction
How Cortisol Is Released
Effects on Immediate Alertness
Effects on Arousal
Effects on Other Systems
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Cortisol Reactivity
Cortisol Response
Corvids
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Social Systems
Social Learning
Cooperation
Theory of Mind
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Co-sleeping
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Exterogestation and Human Altriciality
Social Development and Attachment
Cultural Practices in Human Parenting
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Cosmetics
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
The Nature of Signaling
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Cosmides & Tooby
Cost and Benefit Trade-Off
Cost Inflicting
Synonyms
Definition
Costs of Intimate Relationship Development
Costs and Benefits of Relationship Defection
Cost-Inflicting Mate Retention
Individual Differences
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Cost of Same-Sex Friendships
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Maintenance Costs
Conflict, Competition, and Betrayal
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Cost-Benefit Analysis
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Theory of Cost-Benefit Analysis
Application to Evolution
Life History Theory and Cost-Benefit Analysis
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Costly Apology Model of Suicidal Behavior
Costly Displays
Costly Punishment
Costly Rewarding and Punishment
Costly Signaling
Costly Signaling and Altruism
Synonyms
Definition
References
Costly Signaling Model of Suicidal Behavior
Costly Signaling Theory
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Costly Signaling as Honest Signaling
Philanthropy as Costly Signaling
Risk Taking and Heroism as Costly Signaling
Conspicuous Consumption as Costly Signaling
Religious Commitment as Costly Signaling
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Costly Signalling
Costs
Costs and Benefits of a Large Brain
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Evolution of the Mammalian Brain
Costs of the Human Brain
Benefits of the Human Brain
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Costs and Benefits of Mate Poaching
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
The Relationship Types and Sex Differences
Cultural and Environmental Factors
Future Directions
Conclusions
Cross-References
Acknowledgment
References
Costs of Aggression
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
The Costs of Human Aggression
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Costs of Cooperate
Costs of Punishing
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Costs of Punishing
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Costs of Retaliation
Costs of Short-Term Mating for Women
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Social Costs of Casual Sex
Health and Reproductive Costs of Casual Sex
Mental Health Costs of Casual Sex
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Counter Strategies Against Infanticide
Counteradaptations/Female Counterstrategies
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Reproductive Strategies
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Counterfactual Mental States
Countershading
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Improving Background Matching
Counterbalancing Self-shadows and Disguising 3D Form
Evidence for the Camouflage Function of Countershading
Other Explanations for Countershading
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Courageous Rescue
Courting
Courtship
Courtship Gift
Courtship Orientation
Covariance of Partner Phenotypes
Covert Aggression
Coyotes
Creative Expression
Creativity
Credibility Displays
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
The Evolution of Credibility Enhancing Displays
Credibility Enhancing Displays and Cultural Group Selection
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Credibility Enhancing Displays
Creolization
Crime
Criminal
Criminal Acts and Criminal Behavior
Criminal Behavior
Criminal Behavior and Evolution
Criminal Justice System
Criminal Personality
Criminal Personality Variables
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Individual Differences
Crime and Personality
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Criminals Are Made Not Born
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Distal Explanations for Crime
Proximal Explanations for the Crime
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Criminology
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
What Is Criminology?
Current Perspectives of Criminology
Classical Theories of Criminology
Positivist Perspectives of Criminology
Strain Theories of Crime
Critical Perspectives of Crime
Evolutionary Logic of Criminology
Criminological Problems and Evolutionary Principles: The Elusive Cases of Sex and Age
Evolutionary Models of Criminology
Life History Theory
Evolutionary Neuroandrogenic Theory
Variations in Criminal Justice Systems
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Crisis in Sociology
Definition
Introduction
The Debate Within Sociology
The Need for Darwin
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Critical Period
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Critical Period and Language Development
Life History Theory and Critical Period
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Critical Period of Acquisition
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Acquisition Versus Learning
Definition of Critical Periods
Critical Period of Bilingual Acquisition
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Criticisms of Darwin´s Work on Natural Selection
Crocodilian Bait Hunting
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Crocodilians Using Hunting Tools
Crocodilians Using Lures
Cross Sex Friend
Cross-Cultural Comparisons
Cross-Cultural Comparisons: Evolutionary Paradox of Male Same-Sex Sexual Attraction
Cross-Cultural Differences
Cross-Cultural Expression
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
What Is Culture?
Nonhuman and Human Culture
How Does Culture Develop?
Cross-Cultural Similarities
Cross-Cultural Differences
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Cross-Cultural Pattern
Synonyms
Definitions
Introduction
Cross-Cultural Patterns in Homicide
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Cross-Cultural Psychology
Cross-Cultural Punishment
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Cross-Cultural Studies on Punishment
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Cross-Cultural Research on Grandparental Investment
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Evolutionary Perspectives
Cross-Cultural Research
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Cross-Cultural Similarities
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Assimilation Versus Acculturation
Cross-Cultural Similarities
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Cross-Cultural Studies
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Models of the Ancestral Form of Male Androphilia
Sexually Antagonistic Gene Hypothesis
Balanced Polymorphism Hypothesis
Conclusions
Cross-References
References
Cross-Cultural Universality
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Cultural Universals
Context Matters
Cultural Variation
Learned Is Not the Opposite of Evolved
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Cross-Cultural Variation
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
What Is Culture?
Individualistic Versus Collectivistic Cultures
Loose Versus Tight Cultures
Low-Context Versus High-Context Communication
Horizontal Versus Vertical Cultures
Culture and Language
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Cross-Cultural Variation in Intimate Partner Violence
Cross-Sex Antagonistic Pleiotropy
Cross-Sex Friend
Cross-Species Comparisons
Crowds
Crows
Crucial Time
Crying
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Functions of Crying
Etiology of Crying
Conclusions
Cross-References
References
Crying Diversity
Crying Versatility
Cryptic Female Choice
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Defining and Demonstrating Cryptic Female Choice
Mechanisms Used to Bias Sperm Use by Females
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Cryptic Ovulation
Cuckoldry
Cuckoldry Risk
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Paternal Uncertainty
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Cues
Cues of Being Watched
Cues of Female Estrous
References
Cues to Body Size
Cues to Height
Cues to Infidelity
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Prevalence of Infidelity
Linking Infidelity with Parental Investment Theory
Motives for Engaging in Infidelity
Cues of Infidelity: Intentions
Cues of Infidelity: Sexual Excitement and Performance Anxiety
Cues of Infidelity: Personality
Cues of Infidelity: Attachment
Cues of Infidelity: Actual Behaviors
Cues of Infidelity: Future Directions
Cross-References
Conclusion
References
Cues to Size
Cues to Weight
Cuisine of the Fittest
Cultural and Moral Relativism
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Moral Relativism
Descriptive Relativism
Metaethical Relativism
Normative Relativism
Evolutionary Psychology and Moral Relativism
Evolutionary Psychology and Descriptive Relativism
Evolutionary Psychology and Metaethical Relativism
Evolutionary Psychology and Normative Relativism
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Cultural Cortical Recycling Hypothesis Applied to Money
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
The Main Hypothesis
A Seminal Experiment
Inter-species Comparison
Adapting the Cultural Cortical Hypothesis
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Cultural Determinism
Cultural Development
Cultural Differences
Cultural Differences in Mate Preferences
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Explanations for Cultural Differences in Mate Preferences
Conclusions
Cross-References
References
Cultural Differences in Sexual Socialization
Synonyms
Definitions
Introduction
Mating Contexts
Mating Cultures
Conclusion and Implications
Cross-References
References
Cultural Display
Cultural Doctrines
Cultural Elements
Cultural Evolution
Cultural Evolution and Cultural Psychology
Cultural Heterogeneity
Cultural Homicide Patterns
Cultural Inheritance
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Criteria to Be Fulfilled for a Trait to Be a Part of Cultural Inheritance
Cultural Inheritance in Animals
Cultural Inheritance in Humans
Relevance of Cultural Inheritance to Psychology and Psychiatry
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Cultural Intelligence Hypothesis, The
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Cultural Intelligence Characteristics
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Cultural Learning
Cultural Plurality
Cultural Quotient (CQ)
Cultural Studies
Cultural Transmission
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Description
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Cultural Universals
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Cultural Universals Characteristics
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Cultural Variation
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Functional Aspects of Cultural Variation
Cultural Variations and Implications for Research and Practice
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Culturally Variable
Culture
Culture and Intelligence
Culture of Honor
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Explanations for the Culture of Honor
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Culture of Honor and Individual Differences
Synonyms
Definition
Cross-References
References
Culture of Honor and Nepotism
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Key Factors in the Creation of Cultures of Honor
US South
Other Cultures of Honor
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Culture of Honor and Retaliation
Definition
Introduction
What Is Honor?
Threatened Honor
Honor and Retaliation
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Culture Subdivision
Culture-Gene Coevolution
Cunnilingus
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Evolutionary Advantages of Cunnilingus in Humans
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Cunnilingus and Fellatio
Currency and Constraint
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Energetic Currencies
Beyond Energy and Darwinian Fitness
Constraint Assumptions
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Custodial Grandparents
Customs
Cutting
Cyber Harassment
Cyber/Internet/Online Harassment
Cyberaggression
Cyberbullying
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Definitional Controversy
Prevalence
Consequences
Motives for Perpetration of Cyberbullying
Theoretical Explanations of Cyberbullying Behavior
Social Learning Theory
Evolutionary Explanations
Prevention and Intervention Efforts
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Cyberstalking
Cycle of Violence
Cycle Variation
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
The Evolved Ovulatory Cycle
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Cyclical Breeding
D
Daily Conception Risk
Daily Fecundability
Danger
Dangerous Rescue
Dangers of Evolutionary Ethics
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Hitler and the Misuse of Evolutionary Ethics
Racial Differences
Promoting Reproduction in Superior Races and Reducing Reproduction in Inferior Races
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Daniel Dennett on Free Will
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Compatibilism
A Free Will Worth Wanting
Freedom Evolves
Criticism and Responses
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Daniel Dennett: A Review of His Evolutionary Work
Synonyms
Introduction
The Scope of Dennett´s Philosophy of Science
Content and Consciousness
The Intentional Stance
Research Programs
A Universal Acid
Humor
Memes
Cross-References
References
Daniel Nettle
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Explanations for Personality Variation
Natural Selection
Selective Neutrality
Mutation-Selection Balance, Balancing Selection, and Nettle´s Trade-Offs
Origins of Personality and the Big Five
Agreeableness
Conscientiousness
Extraversion
Neuroticism
Openness to Experience
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Daring Rescue
Dark Ages, The
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Renaissance Origins
Reformation and Enlightenment Adaptation
Modern Scholarship on the Middle Ages and Late Antiquity
Conclusion and uses in other areas
References
Darwin on Speciation
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Darwin´s Explanation of Speciation
Darwin´s Theory in Modern Context
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Darwin on the Origin of Language
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Language as a Natural Aptitude
The Musical Protolanguage Model
Sign Language
Sexual Selection in the Evolution of Language
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Darwin´s Beliefs
Cross-References
References
Darwin´s Education
Cross-References
References
Darwin´s Principle of Divergence
Darwin´s Struggle for Life
References
Darwin´s Theory on Language Evolution
Darwinian Ethics
Darwinian Gastronomy
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
The Antimicrobial Hypothesis
Spices as Drugs
Alternative Hypothesis to Explain Spice Use
Origin of Spice Use
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Darwinian Medicine
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Basic Principles of Darwinian Medicine
The Effect of Evolutionary Environments on Disease Risk
Adaptions with Disadvantages
Evolutionary Selection Mechanisms Creating Adversities
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Darwinian Medicine and Survival Problems
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Survival, Life History, and Kin Selection
Forms of Survival
Constitutive Traits
Phenotypic Plasticity
Developmental Plasticity
Behavior and Kin Selection
Psychology, Decision-Making, and Survival
Survival and Medicine
Implications for Public Health
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Darwinian Psychiatry
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
A Brief History of Darwinian Psychiatry
Darwinian Psychiatry´s Explanatory Models
Darwinian Psychiatry in Psychiatric Practice and Research
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Darwinism
Data
Data Analysis
Date Rape
Dating
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Adolescents´ Transition into Dating
Courtship Rituals and Their Importance in Relationship Development
The Modern World of Online Dating
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Daughter Guarding
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Sexual Selection Theory
Daughter Guarding Hypothesis
Current Implications
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Daughter-Guarding
Daughters/Females and Mate Selection
David Benatar
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Anti-Natalism
The Second Sexism
Inconsistencies in Sexual Ethics
Nonhuman Animals
Affirmative Action
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
David Buss
Definition
Introduction
Buss´s Personal Journey to Evolutionary Psychology
Evolved Mate Preferences
Tactics of Attraction
Derogation of Competitors
Tactics of Mate Retention
Mate Poaching
The Emotion of Jealousy
Strategic Interference Theory
Error Management Theory
The Evolution of Aggression and Murder
The Evolution of Personality and Individual Differences
Authored Books
Edited Volumes
Teaching and Mentoring PhDs in Evolutionary Psychology
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
David Edmonds
Synonyms
Definitions
Introduction
David Edmonds
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
David F. Bjorklund
Definition
Introduction
Career and Contributions
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
David Haig
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
The Kinship Theory for the Evolution of Genomic Imprinting
Conflict in the Evolution of Human Behavior
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
David Wasserman
Definition
Introduction
Education and Career
Books and Edited Volumes
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Day Care
Definition
Synonyms
Introduction
Daycare Research: Methodological Difficulties
Daycare Research: Consensus Findings
Daycare: Lingering Concerns
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Daycare
de Clérambault´s Syndrome
Death
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Scientific Aspects of Death
Death and Technology
Cultural and Historical Perspectives
Religion and Death
Gender and Death
Philosophy of Death
Criminology and Death
Psychology of Death
Evolutionary Psychology of Death
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Death by Suicide
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
The Multifaceted and Heterogenous Phenomenon of Death by Suicide
Risk and Protective Factors
The Suicidal States of Mind
Trauma and Death by Suicide
Theoretical Conceptualizations of Death by Suicide
Mentalization-Based Therapy
Cognitive and Behavioral Therapy
Ideation to Action Theories of Suicide
Fluid Vulnerability Theory
Interpersonal Theory of Death by Suicide
Integrated Motivational-Volitional Model of Suicidal Behavior
The Three-Step Theory
Evolutionary Perspectives on Death by Suicide
The Altruistic Hypothesis
The Bargaining Hypothesis
Pain and Brain Model of Suicide
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Death in Christianity
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Evolution of Supernatural Beliefs Regarding Death
Suicide in Christianity
Funerary Rituals
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Death in Islam
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Suicide in Islam
Funerary Rituals
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Death in the Eastern Religions
Death of Healthy (vs. Sick) Child Followed by More Grief
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Grief Tracks Inclusive Fitness and Propagation Potential
Accounting for the Costs of Grief
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Deaths from Famine
Debating Procreation (With David Benatar)
Definition
Introduction
The Procreation Debate
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Deceased
Deceit
Deceit and Self-Deception
Deception
Deception Kinship Psychology Manipulation
Deceptive Alarm Calls
Introduction
The Behavioral Ecology of Deceptive Alarm Communication
Mechanisms of Deceptive Alarm Calling
References
Decision Attributes
Decision Making
Decision Theory
Declarative Communication
Declarative Knowledge
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Evolution and Declarative Knowledge
Brain-Damaged Patients
One-Trial Learning
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Declarative Memory
Decline of Violence
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Intelligence, Communication, and Language
Competition Drives Cooperation
Cultural Group Selection
Self-Domestication: Survival of the Friendliest
Aggression and Testosterone
Cross-References
References
Decolonialism
Decoloniality
Decreased Chance of Predation
Decreased Reproductive Success
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Empirical Evidence on Offspring Number
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Defection
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Formalizing Defection Using Game Theory
Theories for Why Individuals Would Not Defect: Kinship and Reciprocity
The Effect of Defection on the Evolved Psychology of Humans
Defection in Large-Scale Societies
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Defector
Defectors/Sanctions/Violation of Social Contract
Defending Against Attack
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Evolution of Self-defense
Behavioral Defense
Physical Defense
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Defending Against Predator
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Victimization and Predatory Dynamics
Victimization and Prey Dynamics
Putting It All Together
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Defense Against Attack
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Violence as Self-Defense
Violence as Fear Response
Violence as Retaliation
Conclusion
References
Defense Regulation
Defense System
Deferred Adaptations
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Evolutionary Adaptations in Childhood
Deferred Adaptations
Plasticity in Developmental Outcomes: Conditional Adaptations
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Degenerate
Degree of Relatedness
Degrees Celsius
Degrees Fahrenheit
Deindividuation
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Deindividuation and Antisocial Behavior
Reducing Deindividuation
Internet and Deindividuation
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Delayed Discounting
Delayed Disengagement
Delayed Ejaculation
Delayed Reciprocity
Delinquent
Delusional Disorder - Jealous Type
Delusional Jealousy
Democratic Party
Dendrites
Denis Decatanzaro
Introduction
Overview of Evolutionary Theoretical Research
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Denominalization and Nominalization
Depression
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Why Does Normal Sadness Exist at All?
Evolutionary Theories of Depression
Social Competition Hypothesis
Behavioral Shutdown and the Resource Conservation Hypotheses
Analytical Rumination Hypothesis
Bargaining Hypothesis
Social Risk Hypothesis
Infection Prevention: Pathogen Host Defense Hypothesis
Sex Differences in Depression
Problems with Adaptive Theories of Depression
The Problem of Heterogeneity
The Problem of Genetic Variation
Can Mutation Selection Balancing Explain Why Depression Alleles Are Maintained in the Population?
The Future of Evolutionary Psychopathology of Depression
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Depression (Paul Gilbert)
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Toning Down of Positive Affect
Defeat/Loss
Submissive Behavior
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Depression (Randolph Nesse)
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Depression (Randolph Neese)
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Depressive Episode
Depth Perception
Definition
Introduction
Ocular Depth Cues: Accommodation
Binocular Depth Cues: Binocular Disparity
Dynamic Monocular Depth Cues: Motion Parallax
Static Monocular Depth Cues: Pictorial Depth Cues
Unique Static Monocular Cues: Retinal Defocus and Retinal Blur
Unique Static Monocular Depth Cues: Retinal Elevation with Respect to the Ground
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Derogation of Attractiveness
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
What Is Derogation of Attractiveness?
To Whom Does It Happen?
Effects Outside of Mating Contexts
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Derogation of Attractiveness Among Women (Intrasexual Rivalry)
Definition
Introduction
Contexts that Elicit Attractiveness Derogation
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Derogation of Promiscuity
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
What Is Derogation of Promiscuity?
To Whom Does It Happen?
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Derogation of Promiscuity Among Women
Definition
Introduction
The Costs and Benefits of Derogating a Rival´s Promiscuity
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Derogation of Rivals
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Competition and Derogation
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Descended Larynx
Descent Illusion, The
Definition
Introduction
The Descent Illusion
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Descent of the Larynx
Descent with Modification
Descriptive Relativism
Design Features of Language
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Cultural Transmission
Semanticity, Displacement, Arbitrariness, and Discreteness
Prevarication
Duality of Patterning and Openness
Hierarchical Organization
Language as Criteria for Responses
From Nonhuman to Human Language
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Designation
Desire and Arousal Disorders
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Sexual Desire Disorders
Sexual Arousal Disorders
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Desire to Be Included Among Desirable Women
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Evidence of Women´s Desire to be Physically Attractive
Social-Cognitive and Emotional Influences on Women´s Appearance Enhancement
Evidence of Women´s Desire to be Perceived as Chaste
Attractiveness, Sexual Behavior, and Social Status and Affiliation
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Desires in Mating
Despotism
Destitute
Detecting Infidelity
Cross-References
References
Detecting Romantic Cheating
Detestation
Developing Infant
Development
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Development: The main puzzles
Conclusion
Cross-References
Acknowledgment
References
Development of Adaptations
Definition
Introduction
Adaptations of Infancy and Childhood
Ontogenetic Adaptations
Deferred Adaptations
Conditional Adaptations
What Are Psychological Adaptations Made Of?
Infants´ Development of Face Processing
Developing Prepared Fears
Children as Tool Users
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Development of Aggression
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Is Aggression Adaptive?
Animal Models of Aggression Development
Development of Aggression Through the Life Span
Prenatal Factors
Early Childhood
Childhood
Temperament
Social Information Processing
Parental Influence
Aggression in Adolescence
Personality
Aggression in Adults
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Development of Civilizations
Development of Differences Between Males and Females
Development of Sex Differences
Synonyms
Definitions
Introduction
The Evolution of Sexual Reproduction
Proximal Development of Sex Differences
Ultimate Development of Sex Differences
The Functional Significance of the Magnitude of Sex Differences
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Development of Sex Differences in Brain and Behavior
Developmental Correspondence Between Childhood and Romantic Attachment
Developmental Milestones
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
The Five Senses: Vision
The Five Senses: Audition
The Five Senses: Smell and Taste
The Five Senses: Haptics
Physical Development: Gross Motor Skills
Cognitive Development: Piaget´s Four Stages
Cognitive Development: Attention and Memory
Cognitive Development: Language and Communication
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Developmental Noise
Developmental Plasticity
Developmental Psychologist
Developmental Psychology
Developmental Stage
Deviant
Device
Diabetes
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
The Evolutionary Relevance of Diabetes
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Diabetes Mellitus
Diamond Rings
Diane Ruble
Introduction
Background and Training
Research and Theorizing
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Dichogamy
Die Reichertsche Theorie
Diet
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
The Hunting Hypothesis
The Gathering Hypothesis
The Scavenging Hypothesis
Cooking
Food Preferences
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Dietary
Dietary Preferences
Dietary Shifts
Difference Judgements
Differences in Viral Infection
Different Functions of Memory
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Encoding
Storage
Retrieval
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Differential Male Reproductive Success
Differential Parental Investment
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Parental Investment
Differences in Obligatory Parental Investment
Examples of Parental Investment Theory
Implications of Differential Parental Investment for Human Sex Differences and Mating
Sexual Strategies
Risk-Taking
Aggression
Sexual Conflict
Sexual Misperception and Commitment Skepticism
Jealousy
Sexual Regret
Evolution of Nonobligatory Male Parental Investment
Offspring Survival
Paternity Certainty
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Differential Reproductive Success
Definition
Introduction
Differential Selection and Variance of Fitness Are Devices to Achieve Greater Differential Reproductive Success
Conclusion
References
Differentiation
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Witkin´s Psychological Differentiation
Bowen´s Differentiation of Self
Mahler´s Self-Object Differentiation
Other Applications of the Concept of Differentiation
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Digit Ratio
Synonyms
Definitions
Introduction
Measurement of Digit Ratio
Sex differences in Digit Ratios and Their Stability
Human Comparative Differences
Digit Ratios and Sex Steroids
Fetal Testosterone and Estrogen
The Ancient Origin of 2D:4D
Digit Ratio and Sensitivity to Testosterone
Digit Ratios, Target Traits, and Effect Sizes
Digit Ratio and Sports Performance
Digit Ratio, Aggression, Risky/Criminal Behavior
Aggression
Risky/Criminal Behavior
Personality
Sexual Orientation
Digit Ratios and Health
Sperm Production
Heart Disease
Cancers
Osteoarthritis
Smoking and Alcohol Choices
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Digital Age
Dignity
Diminish
Ding-Dong
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Direct Bullying
Direct Familiarization
Direct Fitness
Direct Guarding
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Direct Reciprocity
Direct Reciprocity and Group Formation
Direct Sexual Coercion
Directed Attention
Direction of Sounds
Directional Odor
Directional Smell
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Is There Directional Smell?
Conclusion
References
Directionally Random Morphological Asymmetries
Directory or Catalog of Behavior
Disabilities
Synonym
Definition
Introduction
Evaluating Disabilities
Learning and Social Disabilities
Laws Protecting Disabled People
Risk Factors for Children with Learning and Social Disabilities
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Discipline
Discounting of Future Returns
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Perceived Value Changes as a Function of Time
The Discounting of Future Returns and Evolutionary Psychology
The Discounting of Future Returns and Life History Theory
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Discrepancy
Discriminative Care
Discriminative Grandparental Solicitude
Discriminative Parental Solicitude
Discursive Reasoning
Discussions
Disease
Disease Avoidance
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Why Did Behavioral Defense Evolve?
Perception and Cognition
Emotion and Motivation
Behavior
Implications for Social Behavior
Antisocial Implications
Prosocial Implications
Culture and Cultural Differences
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Disease Avoidance Hypothesis
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Behavioral Immune System
Products of the Behavioral Immune System
Open Questions in Pathogen Avoidance Research
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Disease Cues and Immune Response
Disguise
Disguised Aggression
Disgust
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
The Experience and Expression of Disgust
The Functional Domains of Disgust
Pathogen Disgust
Sexual Disgust
Moral Disgust
Individual Differences
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Disgust and Immunity
Disgust Sensitivity
Disliked
Disorders of Sexual Preference
Disorganized Attachment and Reactive Attachment Disorder
Definition
Introduction
Disorganized Attachment
Reactive Attachment Disorder
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Disparity Between the Prehistoric Environment and the Current One
Dispersal
Displaced Reference
Definition
Introduction
Development of Displaced Reference
Is Displaced Reference a Linguistic or a Pre-Linguistic Capacity?
Socializing Children into Displaced Reference
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Displays
Disposable Soma Theory
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
An Example from Kirkwood (1977)
Gender Differences in the Trade-Off Between Fertility and Longevity
The Effect of Mating Cost and the Abundance of Food
Life History Theory and the Disposable Soma Theory
Challenges to the Disposable Soma Theory
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Dispositional Theories
Disruptive Camouflage
Disruptive Coloration
Synonyms
Definition
History and Mechanisms
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Disruptive Pattern
Disruptive Selection
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Dissimulation
Distinction According to Genealogical Level
Distinguishing the Direction of Sounds
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
The Direction of Sound
Hearing the Traveling Sound
Localization of Sounds
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Distress Calling
Distributive Justice
Divergent Selection
Diversified or Conservative Bet-Hedging
Divided Attention
Division of Labor
Divorce
DM
Docosahexaenoic Acid (DHA)
Definition
Introduction
DHA and the Evolution of the Modern Human Brain
DHA and Sexual Selection
Impact on Animal Behavior
Impact on Human Behavior
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Doctor
Does the Chimpanzee Have Theory of Mind?
Definition
Introduction
What Is a Theory of Mind?
Premack and Woodruff´s Experiments
Critical Commentary: Past and Present
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Dogs
Domain Specificity
Domain-Specific Reasoning About Dominance Hierarchies
Domestic Violence
Domestication
Domestication Hypothesis
Dominance
Dominance and Health
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Dominance and Health
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Dominance and Territory
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Examples of Territorial Dominance
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Dominance and Testosterone
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Dominance and Testosterone
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Dominance and Threat or Use of Force
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Dominance and Force
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Dominance Hierarchies
Dominance Hierarchy
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
How it Works
Different Dominance Hierarchy Structures
How the Dominance Hierarchical Rank Is Determined
How the Hierarchical Rank Influences the Life of an Individual
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Dominance in Humans
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Dominance in Humans
Physical Dominance
Prestige
Official Hierarchies
Sex, Gender, and Status
Dominance and Reproductive Success
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Dominance Theory
Dominance Theory (Cummins)
Definition
Introduction
Dominance Theory
Criticism of Dominance Theory
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Dominance, Testosterone, and Cortisol
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Cortisol and Dominance
The Challenge Hypothesis
The Biosocial Model of Status
Hormonal Correlates of Competition
The Dual-Hormone Hypothesis
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Dominant
Dominant Acts Expressed (Buss 1981)
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Conceptualizing Variation in Dominance
The Expression of Dominance
Dominance and Personality
Cultural Variation in the Expression of Dominance by Males and Females
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Dominant Hemisphere
Donation
Donations
Donner Party Disaster: Scarce Resources and Illness
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Factors Predicting Mortality
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Donner-Reed Party
Dopamine
Dorsal Pigmentary Darkening
Dorsal Stream, The
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Subcortical Visual Input to the Dorsal Stream
Geniculostriate Visual Pathway
Extrageniculostriate Visual Pathway
Extrastriate Visual Cortical Area ``Tributaries´´ to the Dorsal Stream
Reciprocal Subpathways Between Premotor Cortex and the Posterior Parietal Cortex
Dorso-Lateral Pathway
Dorso-Dorsal Pathway
Function
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Dorsal Visual Pathway
Douglas Kenrick
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Personality
Age Preferences
Mate Preferences
Dynamical, Complex Systems
Fundamental Motives
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Downfall of ``Tall Poppies´´
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Inferiority
Hostility
Perceived Unfairness
Envy
Gain
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Dowry
Drama
Drug Abuse
Drug Addiction
Drug Dependence
Drug Misuse
Drug Sensitization
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Drug Sensitization in Substance Abusers
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Drugs and Rape on College Campuses
Definition
Introduction
Drug Use and Rape
Evolution, Drugs, and Rape
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Dry Nurse
Dual Inheritance
Dual Inheritance Theory
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
History
Cultural Evolution and the Capacity for Culture
Culture-Gene Coevolution
Cultural-Group Selection
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Dual-Mating Hypothesis
Definition
Introduction
Short-Term or Long-Term Strategies?
Trade-Offs Between Strategies
Ovulation and the Dual-Mating Hypothesis
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Dual-Mechanism Morphology
Dual-Route Model
Dunnock Breeding System
Duplication
Duplicity
Duration of Breast Feeding in Ancestral Environments
Synonyms
Introduction
Theoretical Approach
Maternal-Offspring Conflict
Phylogenetic Context of Human Infancy
Breastfeeding and the Weaning Process
Threshold Model of Weaning
Facultative Model of Weaning
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Duration of Childhood
Synonyms
Introduction
The Four Stages of the Immaturity Period in Human Beings
Adaptive Value of the Childhood Stage
Adaptive Value of the Juvenile Stage
Adaptive Value of Adolescence
Sex Differences
Conclusion
References
During Ovulation
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
During Ovulation
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Dyadic Processes
Synonyms
Definition and Introduction
Why Studying Dyadic Processes Matters
Statistical Approaches for the Analysis of Dyadic Processes
Key Findings of Dyadic Processes
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Dyadic Relationships Versus Group Processes
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Dyadic Relationships: The Formation and Maintenance of the Pair Bond
Conflict in Dyadic Relationships
Group Processes and Intergroup Conflict
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Dyads
Dysfunctional
Dysgenic Concerns
Definition
Introduction
Review
Overview
Multilevel Selection
Actual Dysgenic Consequences
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Dyssocial
E
E. O. Wilson
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Sociobiology
``Lord of Ants´´
Biodiversity
Island Biogeography Theory
Biophilia
Conclusion
References
Early Association Cue to Kinship in Primates
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Maternal Kin Recognition
Paternal Kin Recognition
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Early Attachment Experiences and Romantic Attachment
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Attachment and Life History Strategies
Early Attachment Experiences as the Foundation
Hierarchical System of Attachment
Internal Working Models (IWMs)
Attachment Is Restructured During Middle Childhood
Adrenarche as a Developmental Switch Point
Emergence of Sex Differences in Attachment
The Role of Paternal Caregiving
Romantic Attachment in Adolescence and Adulthood
Continuity and Change
Continued Shifts in Attachment During Adolescence
Measurement of Romantic Attachment and IWM
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Early Brain Development in a Child
Early Care and Education
Early Castration
Early Childhood and Adolescence
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Early Childhood
The Juvenile Transition and Adolescence
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Early Definitions of Species
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Application of the Concept
Defining the Species Category
Defining Species Taxa
Darwin´s Contribution
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Early Homo
Early Life
Early Male and Female Socialization
Early Perspectives on Evolutionary Change
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Classical Greek Perspectives
Early Christian Perspectives
Post-Roman Islamic Perspectives
The Medieval Period
Eighteenth-Century Science
Into the Nineteenth Century: Erasmus Darwin and Jean-Baptiste Lamarck
Cross-References
References
Early Relationship Processes
Early Stage of Brain Development at Birth
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Early Stage of Brain Development at Birth
Experience in Brain Development
Conclusion
References
Early Theories of Language
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Friedrich Max Müller and His Early Theories on the Evolution of Language
Bow-Wow Theory
Ding-Dong Theory
Pooh-Pooh Theory
Ta-Ta Theory
Yo-He-Ho Theory
Charles Darwin´ Work on the Origin of Language
Language as a Natural Aptitude
The Musical Protolanguage Model
Sign Language
Sexual Selection in the Evolution of Language
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Ears of Mammals
Eating
Eating Disorders
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Anorexia Nervosa and Bulimia Nervosa
The Reproductive Suppression Model (RSM)
Intrasexual Competition
Binge Eating Disorder
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Eating Disorders (EDs)
eBullying
E-Bullying
Echoing
Echolalia
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Clinical Causes
Phenomenology
Evolutionary Aspects of Vocal Mimicry
Neurology of Echolalia
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Ecological Demands
Ecological Factors and Rape
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Proximate Versus Ultimate Causes
The Thornhill Theory
The Palmer Theory
Perpetrator Characteristics
Other Factors
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Ecological Influences
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Life History Theory
Life History Theorized Environmental Contingencies
Empirical Evidence: Nonhumans
Empirical Evidence: Humans
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Ecological Influences on Parent-Offspring Conflict
Definition
Introduction
Life History Theory
Ecological Conditions
Harshness and Unpredictability
Resource Scarcity
Dispersal
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Ecological Niche, The
Definition
Introduction
Review
Early History
The Hutchinsonian Niche
Criticisms
Revival and Expansion
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Ecological Rationality
Ecological Trap
Ecological Validity
Ecology
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Cultural Variation in Sociosexuality
Disease Threat and Variation in Sociosexuality
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Ecology and Behavior
Ecology of Pair-Bond Stability
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Behavioral Ecology and Pair-Bond Stability
Mate Desertion Theory
Other Costs and Benefits in Ecological Context
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Ecology of Paternal Investment
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Female-Dominated Care
Environmental Factors
Proximal Factors
Conclusion
References
Economic Deprivation
Economic Hardship
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Conflict
Cooperation
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Economic Resources: Wealth
Economically Vulnerable
Economists and Evolutionary Psychology
Definition
Introduction
Gabriel Tarde (1843-1904)
Thorstein Veblen (1857-1929)
F.A. Hayek (1899-1992)
Contemporary Economists
Social Exchange
Biological Markets
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Ectothermic Animals
EDs
Edward Hagen
Definition
Introduction
The Bargaining Model of Depression, Self-Harm, and Suicidal Behavior
Research on Psychoactive Drug Use
Defense of Evolutionary Psychology
Other Research
References
Edward John Mostyn Bowlby
Effect of Birth Control on Women´s Preferences
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Hormonal Contraceptives and Women´s Mate Preferences
Implications of Altered Mate Preferences
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Effect of Status on Social Reasoning (Cummins 1998)
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Hierarchies, Evolution, and Social Reasoning
Hierarchies and Social Reasoning in Humans
Evolution of a Neural Architecture for Social Reasoning
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Effect on Attachment
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Attachment Based on Food or Touch
Styles of Attachment
Effects of Opportunities for Attachment
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Effective Breeding Populations
Effects of Alcohol on Balance
Effects of Attachment Quality and Organization
Definition
Introduction
Elaboration of Bowlby´s Notions
Empirical Research on the Association Between Attachment Quality and Developmental Outcomes
Important Research Questions Regarding the Link Between Variations in Attachment Quality and Subsequent Development
The specificity of individual variations in attachment in relation to developmental outcomes and the need for developmental in...
Learning conditions as mediators
Specific competencies as mediators
Factors Moderating the Link Between Attachment Quality and Developmental Outcomes
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Egg Ejection
Egg Mimicry
Synonyms
Definitions
Introduction
Egg Mimicry in Avian Brood Parasites
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Egg Recognition
Egg Rejection
Synonyms
Definitions
Introduction
Egg Rejection as a Defence Against Brood Parasitism
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Eggs
Ego-Centered Kin Terminology
Synonyms
Definition
In Regard to Kinship Terms
As a Visualization Tool
Cross-References
References
Egocentrism
Einemsen (German)
Einfühlung
Ejaculate
Ejaculate Adjustment
Electronic Aggression
Electronic Bullying
Elementary Technology
Elimination
Embodied Language Processing
Embryo
Emergence of Deontic Reasoning
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Emergence of Social Norm Reasoning
Emergence of Social Contract Reasoning
Explanations of Early Emergence
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Emergence of Indicative Reasoning
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Theoretical Explanations
Evolutionary Explanation
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Emergence of Social Reasoning About Hierarchies
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Hierarchies: Simply Complicated
Learning Cues to Dominance
Applying Dominance Hierarchies to Real-World Social Groups
Applying Hierarchies to the Self
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Emergent Literacy
Emergentist Approaches to Language
Emesis Gravidarum
Emma Darwin
Introduction
Early Life
Marriage to Charles
Middle Life
Late Life
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Emotion
Emotion Detection
Emotional
Emotional Bond
Emotional Closeness Predicted by Relatedness
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Closeness and Kinship
Closeness and Reproductive Interest
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Emotional Communication
Emotional Contagion
Emotional Disposition
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Emotional Dispositions and Character Traits
Emotional Dispositions and Personality Characteristics
Regulation of Altruism by Emotional Disposition
Emotional Dispositions in Social and Political Life
Conclusions
Cross-References
References
Emotional Distress
Emotional Jealousy
Definition
Emotional Jealousy
Cross-References
References
Emotional Solutions to Free Riding
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Emotional Unfaithfulness
Emotions
Definition
Introduction
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Empathic Concern
Empathy
Empathy in Rats
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Empirical
Employer Versus Employee
Synonyms
Definition
References
Employment Status
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Evolutionary Background
Patterns of Violence
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Emulation
Encephalization
Encoded Memories
Encoding
Encoding and Sleep
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Sleep and Its Role in Encoding and Long-Term Memory
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Enculturation
End of Reproductive Ability
Endocrine Changes
Endocrinology
Endogamy/Exogamy
Endosymbiosis
Energy Balance
Energy Consumption
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Biological Functions of Energy Consumption in Mammals
Evolution of Human Brain Energy Consumption
The Role of Cerebral Energy Metabolism on Evolutionary Psychological Research
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Engagement Rings
Definition
Introduction
Engagement Rings as Signals
Engagement Rings as Signals Within the Relationship
Engagement Rings as Signals Outside of the Relationship
Marketing and Changing Norms
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Engagement Rings as Modern Commitment Cue
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Signaling Mate Quality
Cost-Benefit Analyses
Diamond Engagement Rings
The Expense of Engagement Rings
Population Sex Ratios
Gender Roles
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Enhancing Women´s Competitiveness
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Women and Competition: Using the Past to Explain the Present
Strategies to Enhance Women´s Competitiveness
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Enlarge Shadow of Future
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Evolutionary Models of Cooperation
The Shadow of the Future in Nonhuman Animals
The Shadow of the Future in Humans
Limitations to the Shadow of the Future
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Ensemble Representation
Entombment Customs
Entomologist
Entropy
Environment
Environment of Evolutionary Adaptedness
Environmental
Environmental Adversities
Environmental Aesthetics
Environmental Change Hypothesis
Environmental Contingencies
Environmental Effects
Environmental Factors Associated with Marital Harmony
Environmental Harshness
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Extrinsic Threats Versus Intrinsic Threats
Harshness in Nonhuman Animals
Harshness in Humans
Psychological Effects of Harshness in Humans
Critical Periods
Unpredictability
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Environmental Harshness/Mortality
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Life History Theory, Mating Strategies, and Pair-Bond Stability
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Environmental Heterogeneity
Environmental Influences
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Energetics
Psychosocial Stressors
Endocrine Disrupting Chemicals
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Environmental Instability
Environmental Risk
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Environmental Harshness
Resource Scarcity
Mortality-Morbidity
Environmental Unpredictability
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Environmental Scarcity
Environmental Stochasticity
Environmental Threats and Challenges
Environmental Unpredictability
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Adaptation to Environmental Unpredictability
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Environmental Unpredictability and Bet-Hedging
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Bet-Hedging as Risk Management
Examples of Bet-Hedging
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Environmental Variance
Environmental Variation
Envy
Epigamic Display
Epigamic Selection
Epigamic Traits
Epinephrine
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
History of Epinephrine
Biochemistry and Physiology of Epinephrine
Evolutionary Significance of Epinephrine
Epinephrine and Health Significance
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Epiphenomenon
Episodic and Semantic Counteraction
Episodic Memory
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Human EM
EM in Nonhumans
Species Differences in ``When´´
Recollection Versus Familiarity
Neurobiological Studies Inform the Integrative Nature of EM
Future Directions and the Combination of Cognitive Behavioral and Neurobiological Approaches
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Episodic-Like Memory
Epistemic Reasoning
Equalitarianism
Equality
Equity
Erasmus Darwin
Introduction
Science
Poetry
Erasmus Darwin´s Fall from Prominence
Influence on Charles Darwin
Cross-References
References
Erectile Disorder
Erectile Dysfunction
Eric Kandel
Introduction
Eric Kandel´s Biography
Kandel´s Aplysia
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Erotic Orientation
Erotica
Erotomania
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Sexual Strategies Theory
Erotomania Reconsidered in Light of Sexual Strategies Theory
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Error Management Theory
Definition
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Error Management Theory: Benefit and Cost Asymmetries
Definition
Cross-References
References
Escorting
Essential Fatty Acids
Essentialism and Speciation
Introduction
Essentialism
Species and Essentialism
Nonessentialist Definitions of Species
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Estradiol
Estrogen
Estrus
Ethanol
Ethical Intuition
Ethical Issues
Ethics
Ethics of Conception
Ethnic Identity
Ethnic Prejudice
Ethnicity
Ethnographic Fieldwork
Ethnographic Literature
Ethnography
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Overview
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Ethograms
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Types of Ethograms
Analysis of Ethograms
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Ethological Psychiatry
Ethologists for the Ethical Treatment of Animals
Ethology
Etiological Attributes
Etiology
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Classification of Etiology
Evolutionary Significance of Etiology
Establishing the Etiology
Clinical Significance of Etiology
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Etiology of Aggression
Etiology of Psychopathology
Eugenics
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Review
Ideology
Historicity
Application
Repudiation
Eugenics Behind the Natal Barrier
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Euler and Weitzel (1996)
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Preferential Grandparental Solicitude: Theory
Preferential Grandparental Solicitude: Original Data
Replications and Generalizations of Original Findings
Sex-Chromosome Relatedness
Cultural Limitations
Effects of Grandparental Investment on Grandchild Development
The Grandmother Hypothesis
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Europe
Eusociality
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
What Eusociality Is
Eusociality: Occurrence
Factors Favoring the Evolution of Eusociality: Genetic Factors
Factors Favoring the Evolution of Eusociality: Ecological Factors
Are Humans Eusocial?
Conclusions
Cross-References
References
Euthanasia
Evaluation
Evaluative Conversation
Events
Evidence for Modularity
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Incest Avoidance and Kin Detection
Pathogen Avoidance
Modularity in Moral Foundations Theory
Modularity in the Fundamental Motives Model
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Evidence of Brain Modularity
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Modularity in the Brain
Evidence of Brain Modularity (Functional and Anatomical Connections)
Anatomical Brain Networks
Functional Brain Networks
Functional MRI (fMRI)
Electrophysiological Techniques
Evolutionary Origins and Selection of Brain Modularity
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Evidence of Intentional Killing
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Review
Reasons for Conflict and Killing Within Groups
Reasons for Conflict and Killing Between Groups
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Evoked Culture
Evolution
Evolution and Guarding Behavior
Evolution and Memory
Evolution and Self-Awareness
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Continuity Between Human and Nonhuman Animals
Neurophysiology of Consciousness
Continuity Between Brains and Other Machines
Noise as a Determinant of Consciousness
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Evolution and the Theory of Games
Evolution of Adaptations
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Evolution: Change over Time
Biological Adaptations
Evidence of Psychological Adaptations as Evolved Adaptation Expressions
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Evolution of Altruism
Evolution of Altruistic Cooperation
Evolution of Auditory Perception, The
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Distinguishing the Direction of Sounds
The Basilar Membrane
Binaural Hearing
Reichert-Gaupp Theory
Evolution of the Mammalian Ear
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Evolution of Communication
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Comparative Study of Signaling
Evolution of Honesty
Evolution of Cooperation
Evolution of Individual Recognition
Evolution of Mating Preferences by Sexual Selection
Evolution of Communication in Noise
Some General Principles for the Evolution of Communication
Cross-References
References
Evolution of Cooperation
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Adaptive Cooperation
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Evolution of Crime, The
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Conflict Related to Status and Mating Opportunities
Evolution of Morality in Relation to Criminal Behavior
Crime and the ``Dark Triad´´
Sexual Selection and Asymmetrical Parental Investment in Relation to Male Violence
Infanticide: The Cinderella Syndrome
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Evolution of Culture
Evolution of Desire, The
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Desires in Human Mating
Mate Competition: Attraction and Derogation
Conflict Between the Sexes
Mate Retention and Mate Ejection
Mating Over the Life Span
Condition-Dependent Mating Adaptations
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Evolution of Emotion in Social Context
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
The Evolution of Emotions and the Importance of Functions
Theories of Constructed Emotion as an Alternative Framework
Constructivist Views Generate EvoEmo Hypotheses That Can Be Tested in Nonhuman Animals
Emotions Serve Social Functions
Social Functionalism Meets Constructivism in the Study of EvoEmo
Conclusion
References
Evolution of Female Resistance
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Do Females Select Via Resistance for Antagonistic Male Traits?
Is There Evidence for Female Resistance in Humans?
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Evolution of Fighting Assessment Abilities
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Assessment of Fighting Ability
Evidence for Assessment Strategies
Evidence for Pure Self-Assessment
Evidence for CAM
Evidence for Mutual Assessment
Assessment of Fighting Ability in Humans
Assessment of Resource Value
Does Resource Value Influence Human Aggression?
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Evolution of Free Will
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Unpredictability and Decisions in Noise
Cross-References
References
Evolution of Genitalia, The
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Morphology of Human Genitalia
The Role of Sexual Selection in Shaping Human Genitalia
The Role of Natural Selection in Shaping Human Genitalia
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Evolution of Hearing and Balance
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Distinguishing the Direction of Sounds
Reichert-Gaupp Theory
Evolution of the Mammalian Ear
The Auditory System
The Outer Ear
The Middle Ear
The Inner Ear
The Cochlea
Otolith
Balance and Motion
Bony and Membranous Labyrinth
Semicircular Canals
Alcohol and Balance
Evolutionary Perspective on the Vestibular System in Mammals
Auditory Neurobiology
Primary and Secondary Auditory Cortex
Mechanosensor
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Evolution of Homosexuality
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Natural History of Homosexuality
Is Homosexual Behavior a Darwinian Paradox?
Biological Models of the Prevalence of Homosexual Behavior
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Evolution of Human Male Homosexuality
Evolution of Human Sociality
Evolution of Human Sociality, The
Synonyms
Definition
Cross-References
References
Evolution of Humor, The
What Is Humor?
Verbal Humor
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Evolution of Intelligence
Evolution of Intelligence, The
Definition
Introduction
Review
Evolution of Intelligence: Theories
Climatic Selection
Variability Selection
Ecological Dominance
Slow Life History Selection
Modular Views of Intelligence
A Motivational Theory for the Evolution of Domain-General Mechanisms
Research on Animal Intelligence
Intelligence and Explicit Problem Solving in Humans
Mechanisms Underlying General Intelligence
Is Working Memory a Domain-General Mechanism?
Decontextualization as a Function of General Intelligence
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Evolution of Language
Evolution of Live Birth in Mammals (140 MYA)
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Overview
Reproductive Anatomy
Gestation Period
Placentae
Genomic Imprinting
Lactation Period
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Evolution of Long-Term Pair-Bonding in Humans
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Pathways for the Transition to Monogamy in Groups
Promiscuity
Harems
Multilevel Societies
Strict Monogamy
Hypotheses for the Evolution of Social Monogamy
Ecological Hypothesis
Protection Hypotheses
Provisioning Hypotheses
Conflict Hypotheses
Comparative Work
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Evolution of Mammalian Hearing
Evolution of Mammalian Vision, The
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Pre-mammalian Eyes
The Nocturnal Bottleneck
Seeing in Color
The Value of Vision
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Evolution of Mating Systems
Evolution of Memory, The
Synonyms
Definition
HM
Areas of the Brain Related to Memory
Memory, Learning, and Evolution
Memory Systems
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Evolution of Morality
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Morality
The Sources of Morality
Dual Process Model of Morality
The Five Moral Intuitions
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Evolution of Music
Evolution of Play
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Why Play?
Defining Play (Is Not So Easy)
Evolution of Play in Nonhuman Animals
Evolution of Play in Humans
The Playful Mind: Implications for Human Well-Being
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Evolution of Psychological Faculties
Evolution of Punishment
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Theories of the Evolution of Punishment
The Evolution of Spanking
Evolution of Less Violent Punishment
References
Evolution of Reciprocal Altruism
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Cooperation in Humans
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Evolution of Reciprocal Altruism and Punishment
Evolution of Religion
Evolution of Secondary Sexual Characters
Evolution of Self
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Getting a Grasp on the Self
On the Adaptive Functionality of the Self
Behavioral Evidence and Cognitive Evidence from Nonhuman Species Linking Evolution to the Self
For How Long Has the Human Species Possessed a Self?
Evidence Linking Brains, Genes, and the Self
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Evolution of Selfishness and Altruism
Evolution of Sight in Mammals
Evolution of Signaling and Responding
Evolution of Social Emotions
Evolution of Teaching
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Teaching and Cumulative Culture
Key Characteristics of Teaching
Importance of Relatedness
Behavioral Coordination
Adaptive Behaviors in Response to Learning
Studies on Learning in Other Species
Procedural and Declarative Knowledge
Controversy
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Evolution of the Brain, The
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Comparative Studies
Brain Size
Brain Component Size
Functional Significance of Changes in the Brain or Brain Component Size
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Evolution of the Human Brain
Evolution of Tool Use
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Comparative Tool Use in Other Species
The Hominin Fossil Record and Tool Use
The Australopithecines
Early Homo
Later Homo
Modern Humans
Tool Use and Reorganization of the Brain
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Evolution of Virulence
Synonyms
Introduction
Virulence and Trade-offs
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Evolution Theory
Evolution´s Empress: Darwinian Perspectives on the Nature of Women
Definition
Introduction
Integrating Evolutionary and Feminist Perspectives
Sex Roles, Aggression, Competition, and Cooperation
Mothering and Parenting
Health and Reproduction
Mating and Communication
New Disciplinary Frontiers
Conclusion
Cross-References
Evolutionary Aesthetics
Evolutionary Aggression
Evolutionary Altruism
Evolutionary Arms Race
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
The Evolutionary Arms Race and Genitalia
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Evolutionary Behavioral Psychology
Evolutionary Biologist
Evolutionary Biology and Feminism
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Evolutionary By-Products
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
A Few Evolutionary Processes and a Range of Constraints on the Evolution of Adaptations
Five Main Evolutionary Processes
Constraints
Five Main Products of Evolutionary Processes and Constraints: The Key Role of Causal History
Adaptation
Spandrel
Two Main Types of Exaptation
Residue of Noise
Testing the Hypotheses That a Trait Is an Adaptation or an Evolutionary By-Product
Conclusion
Cross-References
Acknowledgment
References
Evolutionary Change
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Heritability
Genetics
Epigenetics
Variation
Mutation
Gene Flow/Migration
Sexual Recombination
Mechanisms That Drive Evolution
Natural Selection
Convergent Evolution: Strong Evidence of Natural Selection
Selection at What Level?
Genetic Drift
Genetic Hitchhiking (``Genetic Draft´´)
Interpreting Evolutionary Evidence: Notes of Caution
Evolutionary ``Spandrels´´ and Exaptations
An Incomplete, Mysterious Fossil Record
Evolutionary Change over Life´s History
A History of Life, Skewed Toward Vertebrates
Human Evolution: Early Fossils, Close Relatives, and Genetic Traces
The Evolution of Psychological Traits
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Evolutionary Clinical Psychology
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Defining Psychopathology: The Harmful Dysfunction Analysis
Life History Approach to Taxonomy
Evolutionary Medicine: Why Does Psychopathology Exist?
Problems Within Evolutionary Clinical Psychology
The Problem of Explaining Diseases as Evolved Traits
The Problem of Genetic Variation
The Problem of Evolutionary Mismatch
Specific Disorders
Anxiety
Generalized Anxiety Disorder
Obsessive Compulsive Disorder
Panic Disorder and Agoraphobia
Social Anxiety Disorder
Specific Phobias
Depression
Bipolar Disorder
Eating Disorders
Personality Disorders
Schizophrenia
Sexual Dysfunctions
Substance Abuse and Dependency
Evolutionary Informed Psychological Treatments
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Evolutionary Cognitive Psychology
Evolutionary Contradiction
Evolutionary Criminology
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Basic Principles
Classic Criminology Issues and Evolutionary Propositions
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Evolutionary Cultural Psychology
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Culture: Definition and Concepts
Cultural Evolution
Concept and Relevance
Culture Variation
Pathways of Culture Variation
Evoked Culture
Food Sharing and Food Variance
Pathogen Load and Attractiveness
Transmitted or Epidemiological Culture
Cultural Transmission Pathways
Mechanism of Transmission
Memes
Evolutionary Psychology
Emerging Discipline
The Standard Social Science Model
Basic Principles of Evolutionary Psychology
Scope
Evolutionary Psychology Provides the Needed Causal and Explanatory Bridge from Evolutionary Theory to Manifest Behavior
The Method of Evolutionary Psychology
Cultural Universals
Conclusion
References
Evolutionary Forensic
Evolutionary Forensic Psychology
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
``Law´´ and ``Crime´´ as Reflecting Moral Impulses
Adaptive Criminal Calibration
Personality and Crime: A Focus on Individual Differences
Psychopathy: A Forensic-Revealed Adaptation?
Homicide
Homicide Committed by Men
Homicide Committed by Women
Types of Homicide
Is Homicide an Instance of Adaptation?
Sexual Crimes
Sexual Harassment
Rape
Intimate Partner Violence
Prostitution
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Evolutionary Foundations of the Attachment System and Its Functions
Definition
Introduction
Evolutionary and Ethological Foundations of Attachment Theory
Development of Behavioral Systems
Predictable Outcomes and Functional Consequences of Behavioral Systems
The Environment of Evolutionary Adaptedness and Development of Behavioral Systems
Bird Imprinting and Attachment Behavior in Other Primates
Nature vs. Nurture and Behavioral Systems
A Control Systems Approach to Behavior Systems
Attachment Theory and Current Evolutionary Perspectives
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Evolutionary Game Theory
Evolutionary Hierarchy of Needs
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Evolved Needs
The Sequence of Needs Within the Hierarchy
Individual Differences and Changes in Focus over the Lifespan
What to Do with Self-Actualization?
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Evolutionary Medicine
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
History
Fundamentals of Evolutionary Medicine
Proximate vs Ultimate Causes and Host Defenses vs Pathogen Offences
Sexual Selection and Reproductive Fitness
Constraints, Trade-Offs, and Life History Theory
Multiple Levels of Selection
Coevolution
Evolutionary Mismatch/Adaptations to Novel Environments
Plasticity and Cultural Practices
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Evolutionary Mismatch
Evolutionary Musicology
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
On the Origins of Evolutionary Musicology
Current Competing Hypotheses for the Adaptive Significance of Musilanguage
Music and Social Bonding in Non-human Primates
Music and Social Bonding in Human Child Development
Music and Social Bonding in Human Social Interactions
Direct and Derived Functions of Human Music
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Evolutionary Neuroandrogenic Theory
Definition
Introduction
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Evolutionary Paradox: Adoption
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Benefits of Adoption
Costs of Adoption
Is Adoption a Form of Altruism?
Forced Perceptions of Genetic Relatedness
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Evolutionary Paradox: Women Choosing Not to Have Children
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Reproductive Fitness
Operational Sex Ratio
Childcare Conditions
Other Reasons
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Evolutionary Personality Psychology
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Personality as an Instance of Developmental Adaptation
Life History Theory
Psychometrics of Personality Measures
The Big Five Model
The HEXACO Model
Genes and Personality
Personality and Prosocial Behavior
Personality and Antisocial Behavior
Sex Differences in Personality
Personality Throughout the Life Span
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Evolutionary Perspective, The
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
References
Evolutionary Perspectives on Rape
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
The Five Types of Rapists
The Specialized Rapist
The Disadvantaged Male
The Opportunistic Rapist
Partner Rapists
The High-Mating-Effort Rapist
Effects on Females
Defense Mechanisms
Emotional and Societal Effects
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Evolutionary Perspectives on Religion
Synonyms
Definition
How Did Religion Evolve?
Why Did Religion Evolve?
Religion as an Adaptation
Religion as a By-product
Cross-References
References
Evolutionary Political Psychology
Evolutionary Precursor to Language and Music
Evolutionary Pressure on Meat Eating
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
The First Meat Eating Primates
Later Hominids
The Expensive Organ Hypothesis
Culture and Cooking
The Effects on Fertility
A History of Continuous Change
Drifting Away from Carnivory
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Evolutionary Psychiatry
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Functional Capacities and Mental Health
Individual Differences
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Evolutionary Psychologist
Evolutionary Psychology
Evolutionary Psychology and Culture
Evolutionary Psychology and Intimate Partner Violence
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Sexual Conflict Theory
Jealousy and Sexual Control
Other Adaptive Problems and IPV
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Evolutionary Psychology of Crime
Evolutionary Psychology Research
Evolutionary Psychology, The Handbook of
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
What the Handbook Showcases
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Evolutionary Psychology´s Role in Behavioral Science
Evolutionary Psychopathology
Evolutionary Puzzle of Homosexuality
Evolutionary Social Psychology
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Recurrent Concepts
False Positives and False Negatives
Sexual Selection
Shaping Human Social Nature
Person Perception
First Impressions
Mechanisms for Avoiding Harm in Person Perception
Mechanisms for Avoiding Disease in Person Perception
Perceptions of Romantic Intentions
Important Considerations
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Evolutionary Sociology
Evolutionary Stable Strategies
Evolutionary Standards of Female Attractiveness
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Neoteny or Youthfulness
Symmetry or the Lack of Fluctuating Asymmetries
Averageness
Skin Texture and Coloration
Hormone Markers
Body Proportions
Olfaction
Motion and Voice
Multiple Cues or Redundant Signaling?
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Evolutionary Theory
Evolutionary Theory and the Causes of War
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Subsistence Resources
Sex and Reproduction
Status, Honor, and Prestige
Revenge
Power and the Security Dilemma
Ideas and Identities
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Evolutionary Theory of Aging
Evolutionary Theory of Homosexuality
Evolutionary Thinking in Sociology
Evolutionary Trap
Evolution-Based Theories
Evolutive Competitions of Civilizations
Evolved Food Preferences
Evolved Functions of Warfare
Evolved Infant Feeding Behaviors in Humans
Evolved Moral Foundations
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Moral Foundations Theory
Moral Foundations
Moral Foundations Criteria
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Evolved Moral Intuitionism
Evolved Navigation Theory
Definition
Introduction
Navigation and Cognitive Adapation Example: Falling
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Evolved Physiological Reactions
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Physiological Reactions to Stress and Reward
The Endocrine System
The Cardiovascular System
The Pupillary System
The Electrodermal System
The Respiratory System
The Motor System
Conclusion
References
Evolved Psychology
Evolved Psychology of Warfare
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Theoretical Perspectives on Warfare
Empirical Evidence
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Evolving Environments
Examples of Group Selection
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Group Selection
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Exaptation
Exclusive Pair Mating
Exclusivity and Pair-Bonding Among Non-humans
Definition
Introduction
Evolutionary Explanations of Pair Bonding
Proximate Causes of Pair Bonding
Vasopressin and Pair Bonding in Voles
Oxytocin and Pair Bonding in Voles
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Executive Attention
Executive Control
Executive Functioning
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Organizational EFs
Working Memory
Planning
Set-Shifting
Regulatory EFs
Inhibitory Control
Self-Monitoring
EF and Neural Correlates
EF and Psychopathology
EF Training
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Exercise
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Adaptations to Exercise: Heat Exchange and Bipedalism
Physical Appearance and Mating
Exercise in Modern Society
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Exotic-Becomes-Erotic Hypothesis
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Evidence that Genes Are Correlated with Sexual Orientation
Gender Conformity/Nonconformity Is Also Correlated with Sexual Orientation
Gender Conformity/Nonconformity and Feeling Different
How Does Exotic Become Erotic?
An Empirical Test of the Exotic-Becomes-Erotic Hypothesis
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Expanding Circle, The
Introduction
Definitions
Meaning
Theories Related to Expanding Circle
Sigmund Freud´s Psychoanalytic Theory
Jean Piaget´s Cognitive Development Theory
Daniel J. Levinson´s Theory of Positive Adult Development
Implications to Expand the Social Circle
Connect With Connectors
Meet New People Constantly
Establish Yourself as a Giver of Value
Commit to a Local Community
Reach Out to People on a Regular Basis
Know the Kind of Friends You Want in Advance
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Expanding Lifespan
Experiment
Experimental Analysis of Behavior
Experimental Economics
Explicit Memory
Exploitation of Psychological Mechanisms
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Food and Other Products
Why Sex Sells
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Exploitative
Exploratory Play
Exponential Growth
Expression of Altruism
Expressions of Emotions Theory
Expressive Theory
Extended Family
Extended Family Relations
Extended Kin Role
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Evolution of Extended Kin Role
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Extended Phenotype, The
Definition
Introduction
The Gene´s Eye View of Evolution
The Extended Phenotype
Criticisms
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Extended Phenotypic Effect
Extended Postmenopausal Lifespan
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Evidence
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Extending the Length of Life
External
External Ear
Externalities
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Failing Markets and Policy Responses
Market Failure
Government Responses to Externalities
Coasean Bargaining
Externalities and Cooperation
Conclusion
Connections and Extensions
Cross-References
References
Extinction
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Contemporary Definition of the Term Extinction
Functional Qualities of the Extinction as a Behavioral Process
A Theoretical Conceptualization of the Term ``Behavioral Extinction´´
The Role of Prediction Error in the Behavioral Process of Extinction
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Extinction of Neanderthals
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Neanderthal Morphology
Climate Change
Competition with Modern Humans
Assimilation
Conclusion
References
Extinguished Response
Extra Pair Copulation
Extractive Foraging Hypothesis, The (Parker and Gibson 1997, 2015)
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
A Taxonomy of Object Manipulation and Tool Use
Object Manipulation
Feeding Ecology
Tool Use
Taxonomic Distribution
Brain Evolution
Reevaluating the Extractive Foraging Hypothesis
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Extra-Dyadic Interaction
Extradyadic Involvement
Extra-Dyadic Relationships
Extradyadic Sex
Extra-Dyadic Sex
Extramarital Affair
Extramarital Sex
Extrapair Copulation
Extra-Pair Copulations
Extra-Pair Copulations (EPCs)
Extra-Pair Sex
Extrastriate Visual Cortex
Extraversion
Extreme Environments
Extrinsic Environmental Hazards
Extrinsic Morbidity-Mortality
Extrinsic Mortality
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Extrinsic Mortality and Life History Strategies
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Extrinsic Risk
Extrinsic, Age-Independent Environmental Mortality
Eye Contact with Adults Versus Babies
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Eye Contact in Babies
Eye Contact in Adults
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Eye, The
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
What is An Eye?
The Diversity of Eyes
The Vertebrate Eye
Vertebrate Eyes: A Case Study in Evolutionary Innovation
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Eyeball
Eyespots
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
The Divertive (Deflective) Effect of Eyespots
The Intimidating Effect of Eyespots
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
F
Fa´afafine
Definition
Introduction
Fa´afafine Gender, Sexuality & Social Acceptance
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Face
Face and Object Recognition
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
The Visual Processing System
The Computational Challenge
Object Recognition
Goal-Directed Behavior Shapes Visual Object Recognition
Face Recognition
Configural Information
Holistic Processing
Development of Visual Recognition
Object Recognition
Face Recognition
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Face Blindness
Face Memory
Face Perception
Face Preferences
Face Processing
Face Recall
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Recall Versus Recognition
Face and Memory Neural Systems
Face Recall Facilitates Group Cohesion
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Face Recognition
Face-Blindness
Facial Aesthetics
Facial Apperception
Facial Attractiveness
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
An Evolutionary Approach
Attractive Face Traits
Masculinity, Femininity, and Attractiveness
Variation in Perceived Attractiveness
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Facial Beauty
Facial Behavior
Facial Cues
Facial Disfigurement
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Facial Disfigurement and Disease Avoidance
Facial Disfigurement and Attraction
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Facial Expressions
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
A Brief History
Basic Emotion Theories
Contrary Evidence
Contemporary Research Agenda
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Facial Resemblance
Facial Resemblance and Kinship Detection by Strangers
Synonyms
Definitions
Introduction
Humans Prefer Similar Others
Perception and Use of Facial Similarity in Others
Summary
References
Facial Width to Height Ratio and Dominance
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Sexual Dimorphism in Craniofacial Shape and FHWR
Sexual Selection and FWHR as an Intra-sexual Cue of Dominance
Evidence from Behavioral Studies that FWHR Is an Intra-sexual Cue of Dominance
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Factors Associated with Suicide
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Reduced Ability to Contribute to One´s Fitness, and Perceived Burdensomeness to Kin
Parent-Offspring Conflict
Suicide as a By-Product of Bargaining
Comparing Theories of Factors Leading to Suicide
Suicide Terrorism
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Factors That Influence Bullying
Synonyms
Definitions
Introduction: Bullying and Ecological Systems
Age
Sex
Personality
Parenting
Peers
School
Community
Life Changes
Conclusions
Cross-References
References
Factual Information
Fairness
Fairness in Corvids
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Evidence For Fairness
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Fairness in Nonhuman Primates
Fairness in Primates
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Evidence for Fairness
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Fair-Weather Friends Versus True Friends
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Three Puzzles of Friendship
Friends Turn a Blind Eye to Past Inequity
Friends Cooperate Even When the Probability of Future Interaction Is Low
People have Difficulty Distinguishing True Friends from Fair-Weather Friends
Possible Solutions to the Puzzles of Friendship
Irreplaceability
Start-up Costs and the Raise-the-Stakes
Commitment Signals
Testing the Strength of a Bond
Conclusion
References
Fair-Weather Friends: Free-Riders
Faith
Faking Orgasm
Fall of ``Tall Poppies´´
False Beliefs
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
When Does False-Belief Understanding Emerge?
Spontaneous-Response Tasks
Different Spontaneous Responses
Different False Beliefs
Implanting False Beliefs
Different Linguistic Demands
Elicited-Intervention Tasks
Two-system view
One-system view
Predictions of the One-System View
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
False Negatives
Cross-References
References
False Perceptions
False Positives
Cross-References
References
False-Belief Test, The
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
The Sally-Anne Test
The False-Belief Test in Comparative Psychology
Contemporary Resistance to the False-Belief Test
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Falsifiability
Synonyms
Definition
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Familial Disease
Familial Violence
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Parent-Offspring Violence
Step-Parents
Biologically Related Parents
Sibling Violence
Partner Violence
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Familiarity-Based Kin Recognition
Familiarization
Familicide
Family
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Evolutionary Perspectives
Humans as Cooperative Breeders
Kin Conflict
Role of Family Structure on Pubertal Timing
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Family Constellation
Family Literacy
Family of Orientation
Family Order
Family Order Effects
Family Planning
Family Relations
Family Relationships
Family Roles
Family Size
Family Violence
Fantasy
Fantasy Aggression
Fantasy Violence
Fare
Fast and Slow Strategies
Fast Life-History Strategy
Fast Versus Slow Strategies
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Development
Mating
Parenting
Psychological Differences
Health
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Fat
Fat Man, The
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
The Fat Man
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Fatality
Father Absence
Definition
Introduction
Reproductive Development of Offspring
Behavioral Ecology Approaches to Reproductive Development in Offspring
Mortality and Morbidity Outcomes in Offspring
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Father Absence and Stress Reactivity
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
The Effect of Father Absence on the Stress Response System
The Effect of Father Absence on Reproductive Outcomes
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Father of American Anthropology
Father Presence
Father Responsibility
Father´s Father Versus Mother´s Mother
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Empirical Evidence
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Father-Absence and Stepfather Presence
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Father Absence
Father Absence and Stepfather Presence
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Fatherhood
Fatherlessness
FBO
Fear
Fear Affords Protection
Definition
Darwin on Fear
Fear as an Evolved Emotional System
Sex Differences in Fear Behavior
Malfunctions of The Fear System
Fear and Intergroup Prejudice
Fear in Art and Literature
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Fear of Cuckoldry
Fear of Strangers
Fear of Weight Gain
Fears
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Conditioning Theory of Fear Acquisition
The Three-Pathway Model
The Nonassociative Pathway
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Fears and Phobias
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Evolutionary Accounts
Acquisition of Phobias
Recent Evolutionary Developments
The Special Case of Blood Injury Injection Phobia
Treatment
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Febrile
Fecundity
Federal Public Archives
Federal Public Documents
Federal Records
Feeding
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Bento Boxes: A Contemporary Example of Enculturation Through Food
A Biocultural View of Feeding and Human Life History
Evidence from the Fossil Record
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Feeding Offspring
Feeling Sick
Feelings of Excitement and Brotherhood
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Within-Group Coalitions
Between-Group Coalitions
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Fellatio
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Fellatio and Evolution
Fellatio and Religion
Fellatio, Group Differences, and Life History Strategy
Future Research
Cross-References
References
Fellowships
Female Age as a Predictor of Men´s Aggression Against Women
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Intimate Partner Violence and Homicide
Stalking
Rape
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Female Choice
Female Choice and Sexual Conflict Theory
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Runaway Selection or the Sexy Sons Hypothesis
The Handicap Principle and Honest Advertisements
Is Female Resistance a Form of Female Choice?
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Female Choice for Men High in SDO
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Female Choice for Men High in Social Dominance
Conclusion
References
Female Choice Polygyny
Female Coalitions
Female Copulatory Orgasm
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Sperm Retention
Multiple Orgasms
Sedative Properties of Orgasm
Extra-Pair Copulations
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Female Counter-Adaptations to Rape
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Costs of Rape
Is Rape Evolutionary?
Animal Adaptations to Rape
Counter-Adaption Rape Behavior
The Bodyguard Hypothesis (Wilson and Mesnick 1997)
Hormonal Influences on Female Counter-Adaptations to Rape
Risk Avoidance Over the Menstrual Cycle
Increased Strength
Avoidance of Potentially Threatening Males
Evaluation of Potential for Coercion
Outgroup Evaluation
Directions for Future Research
Are Avoidance Behaviors Specific to Rape, or Risk More Generally?
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Female Deception
References
Female Extra-Pair Copulation
Female Filtering
Female Gangs
Female Homosexuality and Bisexuality
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Female Hypergamy
Female Infidelity
Synonyms
Definition
Cross-References
References
Female Intrasexual Aggression
Female Intrasexual Competition
Female Intra-sexual Competition for Resources and Mates
Female Jealousy
Female Manipulation of Men
Introduction
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Female Mate Choice
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Sex Hormones and Preferences
Mating Context and Relationship Status
Sexual Openness
Living Conditions and Country Characteristics
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Female Mate Choice (Intersexual Selection)
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Sexual Strategies Theory
Long-Term Relationship Preferences
Environmental Influence on Females´ Mate Choice
Menstrual Cycle
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Female Mate Interests
Female Mating Counter-adaptations
Female Mating Strategies
Female Mimics
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Alternative Mating Strategies
Permanent Versus Temporary Female Impersonation
Other Contexts
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Female Orgasm
Female Orgasm and In-Pair Copulation
Introduction
Female Orgasm and Conception
Pair-Bonding
Sire Choice
Critiques of Adaptive Perspectives
By-product Hypothesis
Limitations of Evolutionary Evidence
How Women Achieve Orgasm
Metascientific Critiques
Conclusion
References
Female Orgasmic Disorder
Female Partner Preferences
Female Reproductive Variance
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Female Reproductive Variance
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Female Same-Sex Alliances
Female Same-Sex Friendships
Female Sexual Interest/Arousal Disorder
Female Sexual Orientation
Female Sneak Copulation
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
The Lay of the Land
Female Multiple Mating (FMM)
Extra-Pair Copulation and FSC
Primate Tactical Deception and FSC
Hierarchies and Defiant FSC
FSC in Humans: ``Woman Beware Woman´´
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Female Strategies
Female´s Mate Retention Tactics
Female´s Romantic Partner Maintenance
Female-Biased Postcopulatory Sexual Selection
Female-Female
Female-Female Aggression
Female-Female Alliances
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Benefits of Female-Female Alliances
Costs of Female-Female Alliances
With Whom Do Females Form Alliances
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Female-Female Competition
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Female Aggression
Competition for Mates
Competition Between Mothers
Cooperation and Competition
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Female-Female Competition
Female-Female Friendships
Female-Female Strategies
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Competition for Limited Resources and Mates
Types of Aggression Used by Women in Competition
How Women Compete for Mates
Issues to Address in Future Work
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Femaleness
Female-Perpetrated Violence
Females as the Spoils of War
Females Remain with Natal Group
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
The Costs of Dispersal and Benefits of Philopatry
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Females´ Mate Maintenance Tactics
Females´ Mating Strategies
Femicide
Femininity
Feminism
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Women´s Oppression
Origin of ``Feminism´´
Major Traditions of Feminism: Liberal Feminism, Marxist Feminism, Radical Feminism
The Waves of Feminism
First-Wave Feminism: Suffrage
Second-Wave Feminism: Sisterhood and the Personal Is Political
Third-Wave Feminism: Popular Culture and Personal Choice
Fourth-Wave Feminism: Intersectionality and Social Media
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Feminist Waves
Fermentation
Fertile Window
Fertility
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Basic Fertility Concepts
Fertility and Economics
Linking the Environment to Fertility
Cross-References
References
Fetal
Fetal Alcohol Syndrome
Fetal Malformation
Fetal Programming
Fetus Development
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Pre-embryonic Development
Embryonic Development
The Placenta
Fetal Development
Birth
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Feuding
Fever
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Adaptive Value
Antipyretics
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Fiction
Synonyms
Introduction
Definition of Fiction
Concept of Fiction
Function of Fiction
Elements of Fiction
Genres of Fiction
Other Types of Fiction
Formats of Fiction
Difference Between Imagination and Fantasy
Impact of Fiction on Society
Impact of Fiction on Science
Related Genres
Best Sci-Fi Movies
Prominent Authors of Fiction
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Fictive Kin
Fictive Kinship
Fidelity
Field of Behavioral Ecology, The
Definition
Introduction
Proximate Versus Ultimate Causation
Key Individuals
Adaptive Behaviors
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Field of Comparative Psychology, The
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
History
Key Concepts
Methodology
Conclusion: The Future of Comparative Psychology
Cross-References
References
Suggestions for Additional Reading
Field of Linguistics, The
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
What Is Language?
Design Features of Language
Levels of Language
Phonetics and Phonology
Morphology
Syntax
Semantics
Pragmatics
Tools, Methodologies, and Subfields
Tools and Methodologies
Conclusions
Cross-References
References
Field Research
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Goals of Field Sampling
Sampling Methods
Sources of Error
Prominent Field Researchers
Cross-References
References
Fieldwork
Fighting
Fighting Ability
Fighting Ability Assessment
Fighting Assessment
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Recalibrational Theory of Anger
Physical Armaments
Facial Morphology
Threat Potential May Not Directly Relate to Formidability
Facial Width-to-Height Ratio (fWHR)
Future Directions
Conclusion
Cross-References
Acknowledgment
References
Fighting Sport
Fight-or-Flight
Filial Imprinting
Filial Infanticide in Humans and Other Primates
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Inclusive Fitness
Filial Infanticide
Inopportune Birth of Offspring
Lack of Childcare/Presence of Other Offspring
Economic/Resource Stress
Parental Perception of Fitness
Empathy and Altruism
Discussion
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Filicide
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Disaggregating Filicide to Identify Patterns in Characteristic Traits
Disaggregating Genetic Parents and Stepparents as Perpetrators
Disaggregating Maternal and Paternal Perpetrators
Disaggregating Perpetrators with Psychopathology
Criticism against Evolutionary Psychological Perspectives on Filicide
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Financial and Hierarchy Maintenance
Definition
Introduction
Heritable Wealth
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Financial Distress
Financial Pressure
Financial Prospects
Finger Length
First ``Period´´
First Coitus
First Intercourse
First Intercourse Experience
First Language Acquisition
First Menstruation
First Order Relational Reasoning
First Sexual Behavior
Fish, Amphibian, and Reptile Tool Use
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
A Historical Perspective
Tool Use in Fish
Tool Use in Reptiles
Tool Use in Amphibians
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Fisher Process
Fisher´s Reproductive Value
Definition
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Fisherian Process
Fisherian Runaway
Fisherian Runaway Process
Fisherian Runaway Selection
Synonyms
Definition
Darwin on Sexual Selection
Fisher on Runaway Selection
Runaway Selection After Fisher
Sexual Selection and Evolutionary Psychology
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Fitness
Fitness Benefits of Costly Signalling
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Maintaining Signal Integrity
Signalling in Humans
Female Signalling
Male Signalling
Summary
References
Fitness Benefits of Mate Guarding for Males
Definitions
Introduction
Fitness Benefits
Conclusion
References
Fitness Effect
Fitness-Related Goals
Fitness-Relevant
Five-Factor Model
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
The Big Five Factors and Specific Traits for the Most Common Models
Which Model Is Best?
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Fixed Action Patterns
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Fixed action patterns in nesting gray geese
Variance Versus Invariance: Arguments Against FAP/MAP
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Fixed Behavior Patterns
Fixed-Interval Schedule
Fixed-Ratio Schedule
Flashy Consumption
Flesh Eating
Flexibility
Flintknapping
Flirting
Flocking
Fluctuating Asymmetry
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Fluent Aphasia
Fluid Carrying Tools
Fluid Transportation
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Evidence from the Wild
Evidence from Captivity
Great Apes
Monkeys
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Fluidity in Self Perception and Expression
Flying
fMRI
Synonyms
Definitions
Introduction
Principles of fMRI
Advantages of fMRI
Limitations of fMRI
fMRI Examination: Task Protocol
Clinical Applications of fMRI
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Focus
Foetal Death
Folk Psychology
Food
Food Aversions and Cravings
Synonyms
Introduction
Dietary Aversions
Dietary Cravings
Conclusion
References
Food Dunking
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Food Dunking by Birds
Food Dunking by Primates
Food Dunking by Other Mammals
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Food Ingestion
Food Preferences
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Omnivores and their Dilemma
Innate Preferences Through Taste
Food Palatability
Developing Preferences: Genes and Environment
Modern Food Environment: The Mismatch
Conclusions
Cross-References
References
Food Restriction
Food Selection
Food Sharing
Food Sharing and Nonhuman Reciprocal Altruism
Definition
Introduction
Mechanisms and Examples of Food Sharing
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Food Sharing Hypothesis
Food Sharing in Vampire Bats
Food Washing
Footbridge
Foragers
Foraging Ability
Foraging Decision
Force
Forced Copulation
Synonyms
Definition
Forced Copulation
Cross-References
References
Forced In-Pair Copulation
Forced In-Pair Copulation (FIPC)
Forced Mating
Forced Matings
Forced Sexual Intercourse
Forecasting
Forgiveness
Formidability
Formidability Assessment
Formidability Perception
Forms of Adoption
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Adopting Related Children
Adopting Unrelated Children
Altruistically Motivated Adoption
Socially Motivated Adoption
Economically Motivated Adoption
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Formula Feeding
Fornication
Fostering
Fostering Values of Fairness
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Explaining Deviations from Selfishness
The Puzzle of Impartiality
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Founder of Four-Field Anthropology
Founders of Evolutionary Psychology
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Evolutionary Psychology Is Not Sociobiology
Basic Evolutionary Underpinnings
A Short Introduction to Evolutionary Psychology
A Meeting During an Earthquake
Wilson and Daly: Young Male Syndrome and Homicide
Young Male Syndrome
Homicide
Cosmides and Tooby: Human Universals and Interpersonal Competition
Culture, Learning, and Evolved Human Universals
Solving the Wason Selection Task
Strategic Modeling
Buss: Individual Differences and Mate Preferences
Cross-Cultural Mate Preferences
Evolutionary Personality Psychology
Sexual Strategy Theory
Jealousy
Considering Future Developments
Conclusions
Cross-References
References
Four-Stage Model of the Sexual Response
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Four-Stage Model of the Sexual Response
(1) Excitement
(2) Plateau
(3) Orgasm
(4) Resolution
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Foxes
Francis T. McAndrew
Definition
Introduction
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Frank Sulloway (1996) On Birth Order
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Role of Parental Investment in Creating Birth Order Effects
Sibling Niche Theory
Functional Birth Order and Adaptive Strategies
Evidence Presented in Born to Rebel: Birth Order and Scientific Revolutions
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Frans de Waal
Definition
Introduction
A Life Studying Primates
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Frans de Waal´s (1982), Chimpanzee Politics
Definition
Introduction
Power and Dominance in Chimpanzee Society
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Franz Boas
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Early Life and Education in Germany
Boas in the United States
Four-Field Anthropology
Cultural Anthropology (Ethnology)
Folklore and Mythology
Linguistics
Physical Anthropology
Archaeology
Social and Political Activism
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Fraternal Birth Order, The
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
The Fraternal Birth Order Effect and Its Origins
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Fraternal Relationality
Fraternity
Fratricide
Free Rider
Free Riding
Free Will
Free Will (Philosophy)
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
The Problem of Causal Determinism
The Manipulation Argument and Compatibilism
Libertarianism
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Freedom
Free-Rider
French Kissing
Frequency of Infidelity
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Research on Infidelity
Frequency of Infidelity
Evolutionary Pressures
Cultural Influences
Findings from the MARQ Studies of Five Cultures
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Frequency-Dependent Selection
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Types of Frequency-Dependent Selection
The Importance of Positive and Negative Frequency-Dependent Selection
Conclusion: The Conceptual Challenge of Frequency-Dependent Selection
Cross-References
Acknowledgment
References
Freud and Gender
Freud and Human Sexuality
Freud and Psychosexual Development
Freud on Sex
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Sex as the Foundation of All Neurosis
Infantile Sexuality
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Freud´s Psychoanalytic Theory
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
The Id
The Ego
The Superego
Defense Mechanisms
Stages of Psychosexual Development in Childhood
The Most Direct Path to the Unconscious Mind: Dreams
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Freudian Theory
Friends
Friends with Benefits
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Sex Differences in Approaching Friends with Benefits
Outcomes of Friends with Benefits
Friends with Benefits and Personality
Conclusions
Cross-References
References
Friendship
Friendship and Modern Life
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Standard Accounts of Friendship
Friendship and Modern Life
Three Kinds of Modern Friendship
The Capacity to Develop (True) Friendships
Maintaining Friendships
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Friendship Groups
Friendships
Frights
Frontal Cortex
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Frontal Cortex Anatomy
Evolutionary Structural Comparisons
Evolutionary Functional Comparisons
Other Potential Evolutionary Frontal Cortex Functions
Future Directions
Cross-References
References
Frontal Lobe
Frugivory By-Product Hypothesis
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
The Evolution of Frugivory Diets
Alcohol Consumption as a Byproduct of Frugivory Diets
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Fuck Buddies
Full Sibling
Full Siblings Versus Half Siblings
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Cooperation Between Full and Half Siblings
Conflicts Between Full and Half Siblings
Conclusions
Cross-References
References
Function of Adoption
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Altruistic Parental Substitution
Kin Support
Social Networking
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Function of Dominance
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Characteristics of the Hierarchy
Group Success
Methods and Mechanisms for Obtaining Status Through Dominance
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Function of Morality (Haidt)
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Foundations and Functions of Morality
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Function of Pathogen Prevalence (Thornhill and Fincher)
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Local Pathogens and Local Immunity
Regional Variation in Pathogen Prevalence
Functions of Pathogen Prevalence
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Function of Reproductive Strategy (Kurzban)
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Function Versus Capability
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
The Capabilities of Memory Systems
The Functions of Memory Systems
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Functional Behaviorism
Functional Benefits of Punishment
Functional Brain Imaging
Functional Fixity
Functional MRI
Functional Play
Functional Specialization
Fundamental Motives
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Conceptualizing the Fundamental Motives Framework
Activating Fundamental Motives to Explore their Effects
Examining Individual Differences in the Fundamental Motives
Looking at how Fundamental Motives Apply Cross-Nationally
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Fundamental Motives Framework
Fundamental Social Motives
Fundamental Tradeoffs
Definition
Introduction
Fundamental Trade-Offs in Life History Theory
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Funereal Rites
Funniness
Funny
Future Reproductive Capacity
FWHR
G
G. C. Williams
Gait
Game Theory
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
``Games´´ in Game Theory
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Game Theory as a Foundation of Evolutionary Psychology
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Game Theory
Historical Background
Traditional Game Theory
Overview
Types of Strategies and Strategy Sets
Types of Games
Solution Concepts
Examples and Notation
Evolutionary Game Theory
Overview
Biology: Game Theory at Many Levels
The Influence of Game Theory on Evolutionary Psychology
Classic Applications: Humans Are Not ``Rational´´
Altruism, Cooperation, and Monogamy
The Persistence of Human Psychological Variation: Rock, Paper, Scissors, Sandpiper
Frontiers of Game Theory in Evolutionary Psychology
The Imprint of Genetic Conflict on our Psyche
Humans: Camper Vans for Competing Microorganisms
V. Limitations of Game Theory
Traditional Game Theory: Poor Assumptions about Humanity?
Complications of Heritability and Individuality: A Crisis for Evolutionary Game Theory?
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Gamete Dimorphism
Gamete Size
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Isogamy and Anisogamy
Evolution of Gamete Size
Evolutionary Consequences of Gamete Size Dimorphism
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Gametes
Gang Affiliation
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Entitativity of Groups
Entitative Characteristics of Gangs
An Evolutionary Perspective on Groups
The Function of Gangs
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Gang Attacks
Gang Membership
Gaps in Darwin´s Initial Theory
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Fleeming Jenkin´s Critique
Explaining Seemingly Nonadaptive Traits
The Origin of Species and Transitional Forms
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Garment
Gathering Returns When Nursing Infants
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Calibration of Nursing Based on Environment
Evolutionary Benefits of Breastfeeding
Allonursing and Benefits of Nursing
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Gaze
Gender
Gender and Sexual Minorities (GSM)
Gender Categorization
Gender Development
Gender Differences
Gender Differences in Disgust
Gender Differences in Lachrymation
Gender Differences in Lacrimation
Gender Differences in SDO
Gender Differences in Sobbing
Gender Differences in Weeping
Gender Distinction
Gender Dysphoria
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Phenomenology
Epidemiology
Associated Psychopathology
Developmental Course of Gender Dysphoria
Casual (Etiological) Explanations
Therapeutics
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Gender Equality
Gender Identity Disorder
Gender Incongruence
Gender Inequality
Gender of Friend
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Levels of Friendship
The Evolutionary Roots of Friendship
Sex Differences in Friendship
Same-Sex Friendships Among Women
Same-Sex Friendships Among Men
Similarities Shaping Differences Between the Sexes
Cross-Sex Friendships: Sexual Strategies Theory, Risks, and Benefits
Caveats to Cross-Sex Claims
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Gender Role Inventory
Gender Schema
Gender Schema Theory
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Early Theory Development
Features of Bem´s Gender Schema Theory
Features of Martin and Halverson´s Gender Schema Theory
Summary
Applications to Evolutionary Psychology
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Gender Segregation
Gender Self-Stereotyping
Gene Disease
Gene-Centered Theory of Evolution by Natural Selection
Gene-Culture Coevolution
General Intelligence Factor G (Reader, Hager, and Laland, 2011)
Definition
Introduction
Review
Reader, Hager, and Laland (2011)
Fernandes, Woodley, and te Nijuenhuis (2014)
Burkart, Schubiger, and van Schaik (2016)
Woodley of Menie, Fernandes, te Nijenhuis, Peñaherrera Aguirre, and Figueredo (2016)
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Generativeness
Genes and Culture Interaction
Genetic Abnormalities
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
The History of Genetics
Genetics
Evolution and Psychology
Genetic Abnormalities
Psychological Aspect of Genetic Abnormalities
Other Psychological Effects
Benefits of Psychological Treatment
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Genetic Alterations
Genetic and Prenatal Components of Homosexuality
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Hormonal Influences
Genes
Conclusion and Societal Impact
Cross-References
References
Genetic Codes
Genetic Codification of Behavior
Genetic Conflict
Genetic Conflict Between the Sexes
Genetic Deterioration
Genetic Determinism
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
History
Hereditarianism and Existential Ideals
The Case for (Revised) Genetic Determinism
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Genetic Disorder
Genetic Diversity Hypothesis
Genetic Hypotheses of Homophobia
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Genetically Driven Threat Perception and Management
Mutation-Selection Balance and Assortative Mating
Sex Differences in Homophobia
Gene-Environment Interplay
Conclusion
Cross-References
Acknowledgment
References
Genetic Influences of Puberty
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Regulation of Puberty
Neuropeptide Regulation of Puberty
Genetic Factors Regulating Puberty
Metabolic Control of Puberty
Environmental Influences on Puberty
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Genetic Inheritance
Genetic Load
Definition
Introduction
Review
Genetic Load
The Significance of the Concept to Evolutionary Psychology
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Genetic Mutation
Genetic Polygamy
Definition
Introduction
Basic Methods for Examining Genetic Variation
Human Genetic Patterns of Mating
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Genetic Predispositions
Synonyms
Definitions
Introduction
Estimating the Heritability of a Trait
Implicating Genetic Variants
Population Genetics and Environmental Influences
Genetic Testing
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Genetic Quality
Genetic Relatedness
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
The Puzzle of Altruism
Solving the Puzzle
Using r in Hamilton´s Rule
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Genetic Relatedness Affects Aid to Kin
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Animal Studies
Self-Report Measures
Observational Measures
Proximate Mechanisms
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Genetic Relatedness and Child Abuse
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Kin Selection
Parental Characteristics
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Geneticist
Genital Arousal
Genital Coevolution
Genital Cutting
Genital Evolution
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Male and Female Genitalia
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Genital Evolution and Sexual Selection
Definition
Introduction
Lock and Key
Pleiotropy
Sexual Selection
Conclusion
References
Genital Mutilation
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Female Genital Mutilation
Male Genital Mutilation
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Genital Operations
Genital Surgeries
Genomic Imprinting
Genotype
Genuine Altruism
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Genuine Altruism: Points and Counterpoints
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Geoffrey Miller
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
The Mind as a Fitness Indicator?
Creativity
Language Use and Vocabulary
Altruism as a Courtship Display
Modern Day Consumerism as a Costly Signal
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Geoffrey Miller on Conspicuous Consumption
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Veblen on Conspicuous Consumption
Miller on Conspicuous Consumption
Conspicuous Consumption of Fine Wine
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
George C. Williams
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Theory of Senescence
Group-Level Versus Individual-Level Selection and Adaptation
Evolutionary Medicine
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
George C. Williams (Founder of Darwinian Medicine)
George Williams
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Main Idea
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
George Williams on Group Selection
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Probable Cases of Group Selection
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Germs
Gestalt Perception
Gestalt Psychology
Gestalt Theory
Synonyms
Definitions
Introduction
Gestalt Organization
Gestalt Grouping Principles
Figure-Ground Organization
Illusory Contours
Conclusions
Cross-References
References
Gestation
Gestation Period
Gestational Diabetes and Maternal-Fetal Conflict
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
What is Gestational Diabetes?
Prediction 1: Fetal Glucose Demand
Prediction 2: Maternal Countermeasures
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Gestational Diabetes Mellitus (GDM)
Gestural Communication
Gestural Glottogonic Theory
Gestural Origin Theory
Gestural Theory
Synonyms
Definitions
Introduction
The History of the Gestural Theory of Language Evolution
Conclusions
Cross-References
References
Gesture
Gestures
Gestures of Despair
Gifts
Girls Psychological Bullying
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Evolutionary Motives Behind Girls´ Psychological Bullying
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Girls´ Interest in Familial Care
Introduction to Girls´ Interest in Familial Care
Play Parenting
Biological Basis of Play Parenting in Humans
Conclusion
References
Giving Up
Global Homicide Trends
Global Warming
Gluteal-Femoral Region
Goal Detection
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Goal Detection is Precocious
Can Infants Detect Failed Goals?
Is Goal-Detection Species-Specific?
Conclusion
Cross-references
References
Goals
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Life History Strategies and Risky Adolescent Behavior
Rational for Sex Education in Schools
What Is Sex Education and What Are the Current Goals?
Implications for Intervention
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Gonadarche
Good Genes
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
The Role of Good Genes for Sexual Selection
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Good Genes Theory
Good Health and Stable Future
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Evolving Concept of Health
Determinants of Good Health
Determinants of Stable Future
Integrating Health with Future
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Good Parenting Qualities
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Parenting Behavior and Genetic Confounding
Mothers and Significant Others
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Good Standing
Good-Sperm Models
Gordon Orians
Introduction
American Blackbirds
Community Ecology
Savanna Hypothesis
Snakes, Sunrises, and Shakespeare: How Evolution Shapes Our Loves and Fears
Awards and Service to the Profession
Conclusions
Cross-References
References
Gossip
Gossip and Grooming Hypothesis
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Hominid Brain Expansion and Colonization of the Foraging Niche
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Gossip and Indirect Reciprocity
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Gossip, Rumors, and Social Exclusion
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
The Functions of Gossip and Rumors
Theoretical Advantages of Social Exclusion to Females
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Governmental Public Archives
Governmental Public Documents
Governmental Records
Gradually Deprive of Mother´s Milk
Grammar
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Innate Principles: Argument from the Poverty of the Stimulus (PoS)
Parameters: Explaining Language Variation
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Grammaticalization
Grammaticalization Theory
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Grammaticalization
Mechanisms
Explanations
Pathways
Issues
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Grammaticization
Grammatization
Grandfather Investment Versus Grandmother Investment
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Grandfather and Grandmother Investment
Conclusions
Cross-References
References
Grandiose Self-Esteem
Grandmother Hypothesis
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Senescence and Menopause
Grandmothers and Alloparenting
Evolutionary Timeline
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Grandmother Hypothesis of Menopause
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Empirical Evidence
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Grandmother Hypothesis, The
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Hypothesis and Background
Evidence
Other Hypotheses for Human Menopause, Post-Reproductive Life Span, and Longevity
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Grandparent Investment
Grandparental Care
Grandparental Investment
Synonym
Definition
Introduction
Definition and Measurement of Grandparental Investment
Consanguine Grandparental Investment
Non-consanguine Grandparental Investment
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Grandparental Investment and Genetic Relatedness
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Nonbiological Grandparents
Paternity Uncertainty
Sex Chromosome Relatedness
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Grandparental Involvement
Grandparental Solicitude
Grandparenting
Definition
Synonyms
Introduction
Theoretical Frameworks and Grandparenting
Grandparents and Grandchild´s Developmental Outcomes
Grandparenting Role and Grandparents
Factors Moderating Grandparenting
Personal and Contextual Factors
Conclusions and Implications
Cross-References
References
Grandparents and Grandchildren
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Biased Grandparental Investment Pattern
Parents as Gatekeepers
The Outcomes of Grandparental Presence and Grandparental Investment
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Grasslands
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Why Did We Leave the Treetops?
Climate Change
Were We ``Pushed Out´´?
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Gratitude, Sympathy, and Empathy
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Gratitude
Sympathy
Empathy
Evolutionary Explanations
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Gravidity
Gravity Hypothesis, The
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
More Recent Variations and Improvements of the GH
The Curvilinear GH
The Bridging GH
Findings and Controversy
A General Trade-Off Model to Explain the Evolution and Maintenance of Extreme SSD
Future Perspectives
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Great Ape Psychiatry
Great Apes
Greater Polygyny Selects for Greater Risk-Taking
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Sexual Selection and Polygyny
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Greater Risk-Taking and Status
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Status Competition and Risk Taking
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Green Beard Effect, The
Definition
Introduction
The Green Beard Effect and Kin Selection
Are Greenbeards Stable?
Greenbeards in Reality
Evil Beards
Conclusion
Cross-References
Acknowledgment
References
Green Exercise
Greenbeard Effect
Grief
Grooming
Grossed Out
Group Augmentation
Group Hunting
Group Leaders
Group Living
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Within-Group Processes
Navigating Social Hierarchies
Social Dominance
Prestige
Cooperation
Social Exchange
Friendship
Cooperation and the Supernatural
Social Exclusion and Stigmatization
Dyadic Cooperation
Selection for Within-Group Membership
Parasite Avoidance
Between-Group Processes
Categorization
Intergroup Psychology
Intergroup Competition and Conflict
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Group Mortality During Environmental Stress
Group Organization
Group Relationships
Group Selection
Definition
Introduction
Old Group Selection Versus Selfish Gene Theory: A History
New Group Selection and Multilevel Selection Theory
Formalizing Group Selection
Multilevel Selection Theory
The Equivalence of Group Selection, Kin Selection, and Evolutionary Game Theory
Kin Selection
Evolutionary Game Theory
The Imprint of Group Selection on Human Psychology
Altruistic Punishment as an Explanation of Human Ultrasociality
Groupish Psychological Tendencies
Criticism
Conclusion
Cross-References
Acknowledgment
References
Group Size
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Optimal Group Size
The Rules of Entry into Groups
Effect of Genetic Relatedness
Effect of Dominance Hierarchy
Group Size Distributions Observed in Nature
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Group Size Optimality and Stability
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Is the ``Optimal Group Size´´ Unstable?
Stable from Whose Point of View?
Resolution Models Predict the Observed Group Size
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Group Social Structure
Group Socialization Theory
Grouping and Predation
Synonyms
Introduction
The Social Response of Prey to Predation Pressure
Mechanisms for the Reduction of Predation Risk in Groups
The Dilution Effect, Attack Abatement, and Detecting Groups of Prey
The Selfish Herd
Confusion Effect
Group Defense
Group Vigilance (the ``Many-Eyes´´ Effect)
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Groups and Categories
Synonyms
Definition
Cross-References
References
Group-Serving Biases
Growth
Gua the chimpanzee
Guns, Germs, and Steel
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Environmental Pressure on Very First Civilizations
From Germs to Guns and Steel
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Gut Feelings
Gut Microbiome
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Symbiosis and Evolution
Human Physiological and Disease Associations
Human Behavioral Associations
Evidence for Behavioral Influences in Animal Models
Concluding Remarks
Cross-References
References
Gut Microbiota
H
Habitat
Habitat Change
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Our Original Habitat
The African Savannah
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Habitat Selection
Habitual Processing
Habituation
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Theoretical Background
The Nature of Habituation
Interstimulus Interval
Stimulus Generalization and Discrimination
Spontaneous Recovery
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Half-Siblings in Human Evolutionary History
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Relation of Half-Siblings
Siblings as Rivals
Siblings as Resources
Half-Siblings and Sexual Selection
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Hallucinations
Hamilton´s Forces
Hamilton´s Rule
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
The Rule
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Hamilton´s Rule and Genetic Relatedness
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Hamilton´s Rule
Hamilton´s Rule and Genetic Relatedness
Application of Hamilton´s Rule
Significance of Hamilton´s Rule
References
Hamilton´s Rule and Kin Investment
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Hamilton´s Rule and Human Populations
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Hamilton´s Rule and Theoretical Implications
Definition
Introduction
Useful Terms
Implications of Hamilton´s Rule
Questions That Biology Can Answer
Information and Price´s Formulation of Altruism
Genes, Selfish, and Otherwise
Cooperation and the Major Biological Transitions
Direct and Indirect Fitness
Relatedness
Families and Tribes
Strong Reciprocity and Economic Games
Group Selection and Selection for Groupishness
Misconceptions About Inclusive Fitness
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
``Hammer´´ and ``Anvil´´ Stones
Hand Axe
Handbook
Handicap Hypothesis
Handicap Principle
Handicap Principle, The
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
The Logic of the Handicap Principle
The Handicap Principle in Nonhuman Animals
The Handicap Principle in Humans
Is the Theory Likely to Be Correct?
Evaluating the Theory on Its Scientific Merits
Novel Hypotheses
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Handy Man
Harassing
Harassment
Hard to Fake Signaling
Harems
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
The Different Applications of the Term Harem
Harems and Their Evolutionary Implications
Under the Shadow of Harem Masters
Controversies Regarding the Term
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Harlotry
Harmed
Harming
Harris´ Moral Landscape
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Overview of The Moral Landscape
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Harsh Environments
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Disambiguating ``Harshness´´
Conclusion
The Importance of Harsh Environments
Cross-References
Acknowledgment
References
Head Injury
Headmen
Health
Health Benefits of Nature
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Stress and Recovery
Attention Restoration
Mood and Outlook on Life
From Research to Practice
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Health Cues
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
The Evolution of Cues and Signals of Health
Cues to Health
Proposed Cues to Trait Health
Proposed Cues to State Health
The Relative Importance of Cues to State and Trait Health
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Health Education
Health Markers
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Phenotypic Indicators of Health in Animals and Humans
Physical Traits, Symmetry, and Mate Preference in Humans
Condition-Dependent Signals and the Role of MHC and ``Good Genes´´ in Mate Preference
Sexual Dimorphism in Facial Traits, Attractiveness, and Indicators of Health
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Healthy Sexual Development
Healthy State
Hearing
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
The Auditory Process
Evolutionary Anatomy of Hearing Structures
Evolutionary Process of Discriminatory Properties
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Heart Pound
Heart Rate
Synonyms
Introduction
Definitions
Heart Rate
Ventricle
Is There Any Difference Between Heart Rate and Rhythm?
Source of a Pulse: The Heart
The Result of Heartbeat: Pulse
Genes Affecting Heart Rate
Arrhythmia
Bradycardia/Bradyarrhythmia
Tachycardia
Supraventricular Arrhythmia
Treatment of Dysrhythmia
Emotional State of the Mind and Role of Heart
Heart Rate and Heart Rate Variability
Heart Rate Variability
Heart Rate Variability and Psychiatric Disorders
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Heartbeat
Hedge Sparrow Mating System
Heidelberg Man
Height and Dominance
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Height and Dominance
Conclusion
Cross-References
References and Further Reading
Helper at the Nest Among Nonhuman Primates
Definition
Introduction
How Do Helpers Help?
Is Helping Costly?
Why Do Helpers Help?
Does Helping Make a Difference?
Helpers in Other Primates
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Helpers at the Nest
Definition
Introduction
Main Text
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Helping
Helping and Genetic Relatedness
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Hamilton´s Rule
Estimating Genetic Similarity
Familiarity-Dependent Kin Recognition
Phenotype Matching
Assessing Costs and Benefits of Altruism
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Helping and Inclusive Fitness Benefits to Helper
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Indirect Benefits for the Helper
Direct Benefits for the Helper
By-Product Benefits
Social Benefits
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Helping and Reproductive Value of the Recipient
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Sex of the Recipient
Age of the Recipient
Status and Resources of the Recipient
Physical Status of the Recipient
Mental Health of the Recipient
Sexuality and Reproductive Value
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Helping at the Nest
Helping More Likely with Close Kin than More Distant Kin
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Empirical Evidence
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Heraldry
Herding
Herding Culture of Violence
Hereditary Transmission
Heredity
Heritability
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Populations and Individuals
The Utility of Heritability Estimates
Heritability of Psychological Traits
Nonadditivity
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Heritage
Hero
Heroic Rescue in Humans
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Differentiating Heroic Behavior from Other Forms of Altruism
Heroic Rescuing of Relatives
Heroic Rescuing of Friends
Heroic Rescuing of Strangers
Sex Differences in Heroic Rescuing
War Heroism
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Heroism
Heroism in War and Civil Life
Heschel´s Gyrus
Heterosexism
Heterosexuality
Heuristic Process
Heuristics
Ecological Rationality
Building Blocks of Heuristics
Examples of Heuristics
References
Hidden Ovulation
Hide and Hurry
Hierarchical Climbing
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Evolutionary Aspects
Significance
Practical Aspects
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Hierarchical Position
Hierarchies
Hierarchy
High Achiever
High Blood Pressure
High SES Against Redistribution
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Redistribution and Status
Motivations for Redistribution
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
High SES Low Egalitarian Instincts
High SES Low Support for Redistribution
High Status
High Status Individual
High-Cost
High-Cost Altruism
High-Cost Altruistic Helping
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Disambiguations
Theory: How Can Helping Evolve, Particularly if It Is Extremely Costly?
The Intricacies of Studying High-Cost Helping
Evidence from Controlled Experimental Studies on Helping Behavior
Evidence from Documented Historical Cases of High-Cost Helping
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
High-Cost Helping
Higher Status in Group
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
The Antecedents of Higher Social Status
Freely Conferred Status
Coercively Imposed Status
The Consequences of Higher Social Status
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Higher Survival with Older Siblings
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Alloparenting by Siblings and Cultures
Sibling Caregiving
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
High-Level Representation
Highly Structured Society
High-Risk Rescue
High-Stakes Altruism
Hilarious
Hilariousness
Historical Contingency
History of Abuse
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Social Learning Mechanisms
Attachment Theory
Social Psychological Processes and Personality Traits
Neurophysiological and Genetic Explanations
Evolutionary Perspectives
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
History of Attachment Theory
Synonyms
Definition
Ethological Beginnings
Bowlby´s Attachment Theory
Empirically Measuring Attachment
References
History of Civilizations
History of Dominance Theory
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Origins of Dominance Theory (Ethology)
The History of Dominance Theory in Human Societies
Cummins on Dominance Hierarchies
Other Aspects of Dominance Hierarchies
Sex Differences and Dominance Hierarchies
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
History of Inheritance
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Inheritance and the Theories of Generation
Inheritance and Hybridization in Natural History
Inheritance and Evolution
Experimental Biology and the Discontinuous View of Inheritance
The Century of the Gene
Inheritance in the Post-Genomic Era
Conclusions
Cross-References
References
History of Natural Selection
History of Sperm Competition in Humans
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Evidence in Men
Evidence in Women
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Holistic Sexuality Education
Hollywood Actors
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Attractiveness and Hollywood Actors
Attractiveness and Anger
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Holmes and Sherman (1982) on Ground Squirrels
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Mechanisms of Kin Recognition
Ground Squirrels as Model Animals
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Home Language Acquisition
Home Literacy
Home Ranges
Homeostasis
Homicide
Homicide Adaptation Theory
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Homicide as an Adaptation
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Homicide and Life History Theory
Homicide by Design
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Homicide Adaptation Theory
Ideation and Design
Signal Affects
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Homicide Fantasies and Evolved Homicide Module Theory
References
Homicide Modules
Homicide, to Kill
Hominid
Hominidae
Hominids
Hominin Evolution
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Hominin Evolutionary History
Hominins in Comparative Perspective
Systematics of the Primates
Outline of Primate Evolution
Hominin Relationships to African Apes
Implications for Hominin Origins
Environmental Context for Hominin Evolution
Hominin Origins
Early Hominin Evolution
The Origins of Homo
The Evolution of Homo in the Pleistocene
Later Homo Diversity
The Evolution of Modern Humans
Genetic Evidence
Fossil Evidence
Archaeological Evidence
Admixture Between Modern Humans and Archaic Hominins
The Evolution of Human Diversity
The Pattern of Hominin Evolution
Bipedalism
Encephalization and Life History
Technology
Culture
Adaptive Radiations
Hominin Diversity
Transitions in Hominin Evolution
The Evolution of Human Cognition
Evidence for Evolving Cognitive Capacity
Social and Ecological Models for the Evolution of Hominin Cognition
The Costs of Cognition
The Evolution of Language
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Homo economicus
Homo erectus
Definition
Introduction
Chronology
Behavioral Innovations
Phylogenetic Position
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Homo floresiensis
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Discovery, Description and Evolutionary Scenaries
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Homo habilis
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Discovery and Anatomy
Controversy and Further Finds
Reconsideration of Homo habilis
Conclusion
References
Homo heidelbergensis
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Additional Finds
African Finds
Debate on Naming
Sima de los Huesos
Conclusion
References
Homo neanderthalensis
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Geographical Distribution and Geological Age
Neanderthal Anatomy
Neanderthal Behavior
Neanderthal Extinction
Neanderthal and Modern Human Interbreeding
Conclusion
References
Homo rudolfensis
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
History of Discovery and Taxonomic Challenges
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Homogamy/Heterogamy
Homology of Ear Ossicles to the Reptilian Jaw Bones
Homonegativity
Homophily
Homophobia
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Using Evolutionary Psychology to Understand (Sexual) Prejudice
Overview of Stereotypes of, Prejudices Toward, and Discrimination Against LGB
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Homophobic Bullying
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Prevalence of Homophobic Bullying
Demographic Differences in Homophobic Bullying
Impact of Homophobic Bullying
Homophobic Bullying and School Climate
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Homophobic Victimization
Homosexual Behavior
Homosexual Orientation
Homosexual Preference
Homosexual Receptivity
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Homosexual Behaviour
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Homosexuality
Homosexuality Paradox, The
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Does Homosexuality Have Heritable Components?
Is Homosexuality Universal and Frequent?
Does Homosexuality Reduce Reproductive Success?
Is Homosexuality an Ancestral Condition?
Evidence Against Male Sexual Fluidity
Evidence in Support of Male Sexual Fluidity
Is There an Evolutionary Puzzle?
Proposed Solutions
Male Hypotheses
Female Hypotheses
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Honest Signaling
Honest Signalling
Honest Signals
Honesty
Honor Code
Synonyms
Definition
Social and Cultural Underpinnings of Honor Code
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Honor Concern
Honor Cultures
Honor Killing
Honor-Related Violence
Hooking Up
Hookup Culture
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Creation of the Hookup Culture
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Hookups
Hook-Ups
Hopelessness
Horizontal Family Relations
Hormonal Component of Homosexuality
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Main Text: Orientation and Organizational Changes
Conclusion
Cross-References
Acknowledgment
References
Hormonal Contraception
Hormonal Contraceptives
Hormonal Cues to Attractiveness
Hormone Effects on Human Fetal Development
Prenatal Programming, Cortisol
Conclusion
References
Hormone-Based Contraception
Hormones
Horrors
Hostile Masculinity
Definition
Introduction
Factors Contributing to Hostile Masculinity
Evolutionary Theory and Hostile Masculinity
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Hostilities
Hostility
Hour Glass
How Evolutionary Psychology Can Still Explain Behavior
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Psychological Attributes as Biological Adaptations
Psychology as a Descendent of Biology
Evolutionary Mismatch Theory
Evolutionary Psychology and the Subdisciplines of Psychology
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
How the Mind Works
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Main Assertions
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Human
Human and Nonhuman Behavior
Human Artifacts
Human Behavior
Human Behavioral Ecology
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Trends
Case Study 1: Children´s Time Allocation and Schooling in Tanzania (Hedges et al. 2018)
Case Study 2: Temporal Changes of Grandmotherhood Patterns in Finland (Chapman et al. 2018)
Integration with Evolutionary Psychology and Cultural Evolution
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Human Brain Evolution
Definition
Introduction
Evolution of the brain in the human lineage
Cross-References
References
Human Brain Size Evolution
Human Computer Interaction
Human Constructed Elements
Human Cooperation
Human Copulation
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Human Copulation
Oral Sex
Vaginal Sex
Anal Sex
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Human Courting
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Parental Investment
Sexual Intent
Operational Sex Ratio
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Human Deception
Synonyms
Definitions
Introduction
Differential Temporal Strategies
Deception and Evolution
Frequency Dependent Selection
Single vs. Dual Selective Pressures on Mimic Cheaters
Differentiating Human Deception Strategies
Personality and Deception: The Dark Triad
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Human Dietary Predispositions
Human Diversity
Human Enculturation
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Evolutionary Adaptability
Social Values
Emergence of Identity within Culture
Morality
Darwinism and Moral Emotions
The Empirical and Normative Senses of Morality
Moral Behaviors in Nonhuman Species
Studies on Moral Behavior in Primates
Evolution of Justice
Embodiment of the Self in the Community
Rites of Passage
The Role of Honor Code
Development Levels for Compliance and Ethics
Spiritual Development
The Role of Spiritual Meditation in Enculturation
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Human Estrus
Human Evolution
Human Evolutionary Ecology
Human Genome Project, The
Definition
Introduction
History and Significance
Conclusion
References
Human Groups
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Social Group as a Researcher´s Construct
Lay Theory of Social Groups
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Human Improvement
Human Leukocyte Antigen (HLA) System
Human Locomotion
Human Mate Poaching
Human Mate Poaching (Schmitt and Buss, 2001)
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Patterns of Human Mate Poaching
Empirical Evidence for Mate Poaching
Limitations and Impacts
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Human Milk
Human Nature
Human Nature and Biocultural Evolution
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Human Ornamentation
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
The Conscious Ape
The Building Blocks of Human Ornamentation: Behavioral Modernity
Group Membership
The Human Canvas and Upping the Ante
Modern Ornamentation
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Human Paleontology
Human Play
Human Precopulatory Sexual Conflict
Introduction
Sexual Conflict Before Puberty
Sexual Conflict After Puberty
Conclusion
References
Human Products
Synonyms
Definitions
Introduction
Human Products as Indicators of a Pyramid of Human Needs
Human Products as Indicators of Niche-Construction Process
Human Products as Indicators of an Evolved Aesthetic Preferences
Human Products as Indicators of Positive Design
Personal Advertisements: Sources of Data about Mate-Choice Process
Human Products (Weapons) as Indicators of Intraspecific Aggression
Conclusions
Cross-References
References
Human Reproduction
Human Self-Domestication
Definition
Introduction
Domestication Syndrome
Human Self-Domestication
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Human Sexual Activity
Human Sexual Response
Human Sexuality
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Human Sexuality and the Comparative Approach
A Note on Hormonal Mechanisms Underlying Human Sexuality
Defining Mating Systems
Traditional Mating Systems
Mixed Mating Systems
Selection Pressures Influencing Vertebrate Mating Systems
The Polyandry ``Revolution´´ Within Behavioral Biology
Benefits of Female Multiple Mating
New Models of Sexual Selection Pressures on Males
Hominoid Mating Systems
The Ancestral State
Chimpanzee and Bonobo Mating Systems
Human Versus Pan Mating Systems
Unique Features of Human Systems
Limits on Reproductive Skew
Mating Arrangements and Sexual Exclusivity
Offspring Care
Mothers and Allomothers
Paternal Care
Parenting Effort and Testosterone
Views About Hunting as ``Parental Effort´´
Adaptations for Mating
Mutual Mate Choice
Pair-Bonding and Oxytocin
Men´s Mating Adaptations
Mating (Versus Parenting) Effort and Testosterone
Paternity Certainty and Male Care
Views About Hunting as ``Mating Effort´´
A Blended View on Hunting in Relation to Human Sexuality
Women´s Mating Adaptations
The Ovulatory Cycle
Mating Effort and Estradiol
Social Bonding and Progesterone
Cyclic Shifts in Women´s Mating Behavior and Preferences
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Human Sociobiology
Human Sperm Competition
Definition
Introduction
Competing Sperm: When, Where, and How
Insemination
In Vagina
In Cervix
In Uterus
In Oviduct
Fertilization
Selection on Men
Anticipation: Mate Choice
Prevention: Mate Guarding
Correction
Routine Sex
Masturbation
Response to Sight of a Copulating Pair
Urgent and/or Forced ``In-Pair´´ Copulation
Penis Shape and Copulatory Behavior
Testes Size
Sperm Morphology
Selection on Women
Weak Signals of Fertility
Timing of Double Mating by Women
Cryptic Female Choice
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Human Sperm Competition Tactics
Human Storytelling
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
A Bird´s-Eye View into Storytelling
Role in Evolution
Why Do We Even Bother?
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Human Tool Making
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Human Tool Making
Conclusion
Cross-References
Human Tool Manufacture
Human Universals
Human Visual Neurobiology
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
The Primary Visual Cortex
Structure: Retino-Geniculo-Cortical Tract
Function
Visual Cortical Streams of Processing
Dorsal Stream Functions
Ventral Stream Functions
Spatial Frequency
Color Detection
The Function of the Organizational Aspects of the Visual CortexRetinal Disparity
Modular Organization of the Primary Visual Cortex
Evolution of the Human Visual Brain
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Human-Dog Symbiosis
Humans
Humans as a Social Species
Humans as Social Animals
Humans as Social Primates
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Cooperation
Social Ties Throughout the Life Span
The Neurobiology of Human Sociality
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Humans Crawl: Species Atypical Movement
Synonyms
Definitions
Introduction
Factors Influencing the Ontogeny of Gait
Gait Ontogeny in Humans
Gait Ontogeny in Chimpanzees
Conclusion
References
Humans: Between-Group Conflicts
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Review
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Humans: Within-Group Conflicts
Definition
Introduction
Review
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Humor
Humor and Ostracism
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
The Relation between Humor, Laughter, and Ostracism
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Humor as a Mental Fitness Indicator
Humor as a Signal of Sexual Interest
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Humor as a Sexually Selected Trait
Sex Differences in Humor Mate Preferences
Sex Differences in Humor Production
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Humor Production
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Humor Styles
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Hunter
Hunter-Gatherer Lifespan
Hunter-Gatherer Societies
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Cross-References
References
Hunter-Gatherer Societies as Sources of Data in Evolutionary Psychology
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Which Hunter-Gatherers?
The Evolved Nest
Culture and Personality
Dealing with Conflict
Human Nature and Worldview
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Hunting Ability
Hunting Hypothesis
Hunting Out of Season
Hunting Strategies
Hyperadrenocorticism
Hyperpiesia
Hypertension
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Blood Pressure
Hypertension
Thrifty Gene and Salt Hypotheses
Barker Hypothesis
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Hypoactive Sexual Desire Disorder
Hypodermic Impregnation
Hypodermic Insemination
Hypothalamus
I
I Am Unaware of Any Synonyms for This Place Name
Iberian Peninsula
Ideal Partner Preferences
Identification of Animated Actors
Identifying Adaptive Functions
Identity
Identity Formation
Ill-Matched
Images of Nature
Imagination
Imitation
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Three Types of Imitation
Competition
Schumpeterian Competition
Evolution
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Imitation and Mimicry
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Top Down and Bottom Up
Neural Correlates
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Imitation of High-Status Others
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Neurobiology
Imitation: A Concept
Social Status: A Concept
Imitation and High Status: The Connection
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Imitation of Sound
Imitation of Sounds
Imitative Aggression
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Bandura´s Studies on Imitative Aggression
Social Learning Theory
Ethical Concerns
Contemporary Research and Media Violence
Sex Differences
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Imitative Assault
Immaturity
Immediate or Intermediate Recall of Processed Information
Immediate-Return Societies
Immigrant Parents
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Patterns of Language Use and Abilities Among Immigrant Children
Language Assimilation Across Generations
Patterns of Bilingual Language Use in the Home
Conclusion: Language Transmission in Bilingual Communities
Cross-References
References
Immoral
Immune Response to Disgust and Disease Cues
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Measure of Immune Activation: Cytokines, Antibodies, Proteins, and Body Temperature
Thermal and Immune Response to Disease Cues
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Immune System
Immune System Benefits
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Structure and Functioning of the Immune System
Benefits of Immune System: Evidences
Conclusion
References
Immunity
Immunocompetence
Immunocompetence Handicap Hypothesis
Immunologic Protection
Impact of Early Theory on Charles Darwin
Introduction
Pre-Renaissance
Renaissance
Post-Renaissance
The French Revolution
Environmentalism in France
Natural Theology in England
Naturphilosophie in Germany
The Darwins
Erasmus Darwin
Charles Robert Darwin
1809-1827
1827-1836
1836-1839
1839-1857
1858-1859
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Impairment
Imperative Knowledge
Impersonal Sex
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Implement
Implications for Pregnancy
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
The Basics of Pregnancy
Hypotheses about Gestation Length
Obstetrical Dilemma Hypothesis
Energetics of Gestation and Growth Hypothesis
Psychological Implications
Disease Avoidance
Motivation to Affiliate
Conclusions
Cross-References
References
Implications of Gossip
Implications of Object Permanence
Definitions of Object Permanence
Practical Implications of Object Permanence
Theoretical Implications of Object Permanence
Nativist and Other Challenges to Piaget
Challenges to the Nativist Position
The Perceptual Processing Response
The Dynamic Systems Approach
Conclusion
References
Implicit Memory
Importance of Grandparental Investment
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Grandparental Importance in Past and Present Societies
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Importance of Maternal Grandmother
Grandmother Hypothesis
Paternity Certainty Hypothesis Explanation
Stronger Matrilineal Family Ties as Explanation
Maternal Grandmother and Divorce
Cultural Variety
Conclusions
Cross-References
References
Imposing Humanlike Characteristics
Impotence
Impoverish
Impression Management
Imprinted Gene
Imprinting
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Imprinting as an Ethology Topic
Imprinting and Learning
Imprinting and the Development of Attachment
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Imprinting Effect
Impropriety
Improving Competition in Women
Impulse-Control Disorders
Impulsivity Disorders
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Impulsivity Disorders
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
In Nonhuman Primates
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Object Permanence Tasks
Evidence
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
In Vitro Fertilization
Inaction Regret
Inbreeding Avoidance
Inceptive and Derived Memory
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Human Memory and Computation
Adaptive Function of Memory and Its Properties
Benefits and Disadvantages
Trait Summaries
Stored Episodes
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Incest
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Incest: A Journey Through History
Incest: Current Status Across the Globe
Risk Factors for Incest
Impact of Incest
Conclusion
References
Incest Aversion
Incest Avoidance
Incest Avoidance and Dating
Introduction
Conclusions
References
Incestuous Behavior
Incidental Encoding
Inclusive Fitness
Inclusive Fitness Model of Suicide
Inclusive Fitness Theory
Income
Income Transfer
Incongruity
Increased Cortisol
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Cost-Benefit Trade-Offs
Functions of the Cortisol Response
What Does the HPA Axis Respond to?
Sex Differences in HPA Axis and Cortisol Response
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Increased Energy/Reduced Digestion
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Cooking: Digestion Costs
Net Energy Gain: Starches
Net Energy Gain: Fats
Net Energy Gain: Meat
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Increased Grandchild Survival
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Empirical Evidence
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Increasing Competitiveness of Women
Increasing Longevity
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Historical Factors
Genetic Factors
Environmental Factors
Resistance to Stress
Positivity
Religion
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Increasing Women´s Willingness to Compete
Incurrences of Higher Cognition
Independent Contrasts
Indicator Traits
Indicators
Indicators and Correlates of Status and Dominance
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Advantages of High Status
Nonhuman Animals
Humans
Indicators of Status and Dominance in Nonhuman Animals
Achieving Status in Humans
Definitions of Dominance
Overview of Indicators and Correlates to Status in Humans
Faces
Voices
Height
Nonverbal Behavior, Personality, and Hormones
Color
Wealth and Displays of Wealth
Relative Dominance
Summary
Cross-References
References
Indigenous Religion
Indirect Aggression
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Developmental Perspective of Indirect Aggression
Gender Differences in Indirect Aggression
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Indirect Benefits of Altruism
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Multi-Level Selection
Indirect Reciprocity
Image Scoring
Competitive Altruism
Altruistic Punishment
Altruism as a Costly Signal
Altruism and Mate Choice
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Indirect Benefits of Helping
Indirect Bullying
Indirect Care
Indirect Reciprocity
Indirect Sexual Coercion
Individual
Individual Aspects Related to Criminal Behavior
Individual Characteristics
Individual Differences
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Behavioral Genetics
Classical Twin Design
Adoption Studies
MZ Twins Reared Apart (MZA)
MZ Twin Discordance Methods
Molecular Genetics
Genome-Wide Association Studies (GWAS)
Gene by Environment (GxE)
Gene-Environment Correlation (rGE)
Passive rGE
Active rGE
Evocative rGE
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Individual Differences and Homicide
Individual Differences in Violence
Individual Discrimination
Individual Evolution
Individual Perception
Individual Recognition
Individual Selection
Individual Traits
Individual Variations in Attachment
Definition
Introduction
Bowlby´s Notion: Variations in Internal Working Models of Self and Others
Systematic Mapping of Individual Differences: Variations in the Organization or Quality of Attachment Behavior
Single Behaviors as an Insufficient Index of Attachment Quality
Organization of Attachment Behaviors as an Index of Attachment Quality: Children´s Ability to Use the Caregiver as a Secure Ba...
The Development of the Strange Situation Procedure and Measurement of Children´s Organization of Attachment Behavior
Organized Patterns of Attachment: Secure, Insecure-Avoidant, and Insecure-Resistant/Insecure-Ambivalent Attachment
Secure Attachment
Insecure-Avoidant Attachment
Insecure-Ambivalent/Insecure-Resistant Attachment
Insecure-Disorganized/Insecure-Disoriented Attachment
Reactive Attachment Disorder
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Individualism Collectivism
Individuals that Impose Costs
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Physical Formidability, Resource Control, and the Ability to Impose Costs
Dispositional Dominance and the Willingness to Impose Costs
The Costs and Benefits of Dominance and Cost Imposition
Constraining Dominance and Cost Imposition
Conclusion
References
Individuation
Induced Altruism
Induced Nepotism
Induced Ovulation
Definition
Introduction
Ovulation Induction Factors in Humans
Coitus Induced Menstrual Shifts in Humans
The Selection Pressure for Ovulation Induction Factors
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Inequity Aversion in Primates
Infancy
Infant
Infant Abandonment
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Infant Abandonment as a Maternal Adaptation
Infant Abandonment in Humans
Potential Factors Associated with Infant Abandonment
Environmental Factors
Child Characteristics
Parent Characteristics
Postpartum Depression
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Infant Mortality (as Opposed to)
Infant Survival
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Infant Survival by Means of Maintaining Proximity to Caregivers
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Infant-Directed Speech (IDS)
Infanticide
Infanticide and Parenting
Introduction
Definitions
Infanticide Law
Patterns in Neonaticide (Murder in the First Day of Life)
Patterns in Infanticide (Murder in the First Year of Life)
Patterns in Filicide (Murder Up to Age 18)
Maternal Filicides
Paternal Filicides
Filicide by Step-Parents
Motives
Evolution and Infanticide
Mental Illness and Infanticide
Evolutionary Psychology on the Law, Science, and Medicine
Conclusions
Cross-References
References
Infanticide by Females
Infanticide by Males
Infanticide in Non-human Mammals
Infanticide in Nonhumans
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Adaptive Hypotheses on Infanticide
Risk of Infanticide by Males in Nonhuman Mammals
Counterstrategies Against Infanticide by Males in Nonhuman Primates
Infanticide by Females
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Infection
Inferior Frontal Gyrus
Inferior Longitudinal Folliculus
Inferiority
Infidelity
Infidelity Risk
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Personal Level
Relationship Level
Contextual Level
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Infinite Capacity
Infinite Storage
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Infinite Storage: Is It Really?
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Influence
Informal Leadership
Information About Likely Combat Success
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Standard Explanations from a Rationalist Perspective
Potential Sources of Adaptive Military Incompetence
Sex Differences
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Information Age
Information Exchange
Information Processing and the Interdisciplinary Perspective
Synonyms
Definitions
Introduction
Information Is Distinct from Meaning and Often Reified in Psychology
Though Useful, Information-Processing Models Aren´t Necessarily Correct Descriptions
Abstract Meaning of Environmental ``Information´´ Is in the Head
Edelman´s Theory of Neuronal Group Selection Rejects Information-Processing
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Information Theory
Ingredients of Reciprocal Altruism
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Reciprocal Altruism in the Animal Kingdom
The Structure of Reciprocal Altruism
Ingredients of Reciprocal Altruism
Exchange Partners
Goods and Services
Giving and Receiving
Costs and Benefits
Gains in Trade
Strategies
Antidotes to Cheating
Group Contexts
The Origin of Adaptations for Reciprocal Altruism
Proximate Mechanisms
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
In-Group
Ingroup Favoritism
In-Group Morality
In-Group Versus Out-Group
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Kinship
Kin Psychology
Parochial Altruism
Phenotypic Matching and Strategic Coalitions
Religion
Political Beliefs
Humor and Laughter
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
In-Group-Out-Group Bias
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Types and Effects of Intergroup Bias
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
In-Group-Out-Group Dynamics
Inheritance
Inherited Disease
Inherited Status
Inhibited Ejaculation
Inhibited Sexual Desire
Inhibition
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Behavioral Inhibition
Cognitive Inhibition
Inhibition in Psychopathology
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Inhibitory Control
Inhospitable Environments
Injured Party
Innate
Innate and Learned Tool Use
Definition
Introduction
Is Tool Use Found in at Least One Age-Sex Class?
Is Tool Use Highly Heritable?
Is Tool Use an Evolved Adaptation?
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Inner Ear
Inner Ear Structure
Inner Ear, The
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
The Physiology of the Inner Ear
The Cochlea
The Vestibular System
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Inner-Directed Phase
Innovation
In-Pair Copulation
In-Pair Female Attractiveness
Bodily and Physical Cues
Facial Characteristics
Conclusion
References
In-Pair Mate Retention
Inquisitiveness
Insect Intrasexual Competition
Insect Sperm Competition
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Sperm Competition in Insects
Battle of the Sexes
Into the Twenty-First Century
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Insight
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Insightful behavior in Human- and Non-Human Animals
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Insightful Behavior
Insist on No More than Equity
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
The Relationship Between Reciprocity and Equity
Equity in Human Societies
Equity Across Development
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Instil Confidence
Institutional Anomie Theory
Instruction
Instructional Design
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Categories of Knowledge
Human Cognitive Architecture
The Information Store Principle
The Borrowing and Reorganizing Principle
The Randomness as Genesis Principle
The Narrow Limits of Change Principle
The Environmental Organizing and Linking Principle
Conclusions: Cognitive Load Theory and Instuctional Design
References
Instructionist
Instrument
Instrumental Associations
Instrumental Conditioning
Instrumentation
Intact Families
Integrative Biology
Intellect
Intellectual Ability
Intellectual Capacity
Intellectual Functioning
Intelligence
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
The Psychometrics of Intelligence
How Intelligence Works
Modularity
The Evolution of Intelligence
The Cost of Evolving Intelligence
Models of the Evolution of Human Intelligence
Ecological Dominance
Social Brain
Sexual Selection: Is Human Intelligence a Fitness Indicator?
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Intelligence Quotient
Intelligence Scales
Intelligence Test
Intelligence Testing
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Cross-References
References
Intelligence Versus Natural Selection
Synonyms
Definitions
Introduction
What Is Intelligence?
How Behavioral Plasticity Helps Dealing with Environmental Changes?
Intelligence as Alternative to Natural Selection
When Intelligence Is More Important than Natural Selection?
Can Plastic Behaviors Promote Evolutionary Diversification?
Genetic Assimilation
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Intention
Intentional Stance
Interactive Decision-Making
Interactive Language Development
Synonyms
Introduction
Evolution-Based Theories
Stages of Language Development
Child-Directed Speech (CSD)
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Interbirth Interval
Interbirth Interval (IBI)
Interbreeding
Interbrood Conflict
Intercourse
Intercourse Sexual Orientation
Interdependence
Interdisciplinarity
Interference
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
The Most Important Phenomena in Classical Interference Research
Retroactive Interference
Proactive Interference
Output Interference
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Interference Effect
Intergenerational Language Transmission
Intergenerational Relations
Intergenerational Transmission of Violence
Intergroup Aggression
Intergroup Bias
Intergroup Competition
Intergroup Conflict
Intergroup Killing
Intergroup Killing, Between-Group Killing
Interindividual Male Gamete Rivalry in Oocyte Fertilization
Interlocus Sexual Conflict
Internal
Internal Status Hierarchy
Internal Working Model
International Brides
Internet Brides
Internet Questionnaire
Internet Survey
Interparental Conflict
Interpersonal Aggression
Interpersonal Perception
Interpersonal Rejection
Interpersonal Relationships
Interpersonal Violence
Interposition
Interpretation About One´s Competence and Aversions of Certain Living Organisms
Interpretations
Interpreting Results of Psychological Studies
Introduction
Interpreting Results
Overview
t-tests
Analysis of Variance (ANOVA)
Conclusion
References
Intersexual Competition
Intersexual Deception
Intersexual Negative Inducements
Intersexual Relations
Intersexual Selection
Intersexual Strategic Interference
Interstimulus Interval
Definition
Introduction
Experimental Research on Interstimulus Interval
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Interstitial Cell-Stimulating Hormone
Interview
Intimate Partner Homicide
Intimate Partner Sexual Violence
Intimate Partner Violence
Intimate Partner Violence (IPV)
Intimate Terrorism
Intrabrood Conflict
Intragroup Competition
Intragroup Conflict
Intragroup Cooperation
Intragroup Killing
Intragroup Killing, Within-Group Killing
Intralocus Sexual Conflict
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
An Empirical Example
Consequences and Outcomes of IaSC
The Maintenance of Genetic Variation for Fitness
Sex-Chromosome Evolution
Sexual Dimorphism
The Tragedy of the Commons
Same-Sex Sexual Behavior
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Intralocus Sexual Conflict Across the Genome
Introduction
Sex Chromosomes or Autosomes: Model Predictions
Organelles Are Special
The Genomic Legacy of Sexual Conflict
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Intra-Sex Sexual Behavior
Intrasexual Aggression
Intrasexual Competition
Intra-sexual Competition
Intrasexual Competition Between Females
References
Intrasexual Homicide
Intrasexual Killing
Intrasexual Male Competition
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Direct Intrasexual Male Competition
Contest Competition
Dominance Hierarchies
Indirect Intrasexual Male Competition
Sperm Competition and Mate Guarding
Endurance Rivalry
Alternative Reproductive Tactics
Intrasexual Male Competition in the Context of Total Sexual Selection
Intrasexual Male Competition in Humans
Direct Intrasexual Male Competition
Indirect Intrasexual Male Competition
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Intrasexual Rivalry
Intrasexual Rivalry Among Men
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Intrasexual Rivalry in Humans
Noncombative Tactics
Male Intrasexual Aggression
Collective Male Aggression
Adaptive Physiology for Competition
Testosterone and Men´s Intrasexual Rivalry
Contextual Influence on Men´s Competition
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Intrasexual Rivalry Among Women
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Sex Differences in Physically Violent Competition
Verbal Derogation of Attractiveness, Promiscuity, and Other Components of Mate-Value
Indirect (Also ``Social´´ and ``Relational´´) Aggression
Ovulatory Shifts in Women´s Intrasexual Competition
Influence of Mate Scarcity on Women´s Intrasexual Rivalry
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Intrasexual Selection
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Competition for Mates, Available and Otherwise
Female-Female Competition
Male-Male Competition
Sperm Competition
A Note on Homicide
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Intra-sexual Signaling
Intrasexual Violence Among Women
Intrasexual Violence and Aggression
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Male Intrasexual Violence and Aggression
Consideration of Sex Role Evolution
Mating System can Predict Strength of Intrasexual Selection
The Relationship between Sex Ratios and Violence
Intrasexual Violence and Aggression in Women
Conclusions
Cross-References
References
Intraspecific Comparisons
Intrauterine Insemination
Intromission
Intuitive Morality
Invasion
Investment in More Certain Kin
Investment Versus Future Payoff
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Mating Versus Parental Investment
Quality Versus Quantity of Offspring
Cooperation
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
IPD
IQ
Iron Deficiency
Iron-Deficiency Anemia
Iron-Poor Blood
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Fighting Infection
Safety of Iron Supplements
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Irrational Fears
Isolation
Is-Ought Problem
Issues Associated with Not Having Intimate Bonds with One´s Relatives
Issues Related to Adolescent Development
Item Manipulation
Iterated Prisoner´s Dilemma Model
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Iterated Prisoner´s Dilemmas
Notable Characteristics of Prisoner´s Dilemmas
Modeling Social Evolution with Iterated Prisoner´s Dilemma Games
Tit for Tat
The Evolution of Nicer Forms of Cooperation
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Iteroparity
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Theoretical Models
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
J
Jack Kevorkian
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Jackals
Jamaican Symmetry Project
Janet Hyde (1984)
Janet Hyde (1986)
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Type of Aggression
Method of Measurement
Study Design
Developmental Effects
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Janet Hyde (2005)
Janet Hyde (2014)
Jay Belsky
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Life History Theory
Human Development
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Jealousy
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Sexual and Emotional Jealousy
Siblings
Rivals
Friends and Peers
Limitations to Jealousy Research
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Jealousy and Infidelity
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Jealousy
My Sex, Partner´s Sex, or Rival´s Sex: Three Main Explanations of Differences in Sexual/Emotional Jealousy
Infidelity
Infidelity as Sexual Intercourse
Infidelity as Extradyadic Sexual Activity
Infidelity as Emotional Betrayal
Prevalence of Infidelity
Correlates of Infidelity and Jealousy
Individual Factors
Relationship Factors
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Jealousy: Developmental Trajectory
Introduction
Jealousy in Infancy
Jealousy in Childhood and Early Adolescence
Jealousy in Late Adolescence and Adulthood
Jealousy in Late Adulthood
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Jealousy: Psychiatric Diagnosis
Synonyms
Introduction
Delusional Disorder-Jealous Type
Prevalence of Delusional Disorder-Jealous Type
Other DSM-5 Diagnoses
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Jean-Baptiste Chevalier de Lamarck
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
The Chevalier de Lamarck
A New Philosophy on Life
The Transmutation of Species Doctrine
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Jerome H. Barkow
Definition
Introduction
Private Life
Academic Education
Contributions to Evolutionary Psychology
Fieldwork Contributions
Links with Social-Cultural Anthropology
Links with Extraterrestrial Intelligences
References
JMS
Joanne Raio, Joannis Raii [Lat.]
John & Leda
John Bowlby
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Early Academic Training
Professional Career and Scientific Philosophy
Contributions to Evolutionary Psychology
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
John Bowlby and Attachment Theory
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
The Origin of Attachment Theory
Basic Tenets of Attachment Theory
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
John Bowlby: Pioneer of Attachment Theory
Definition
Introduction
Childhood and Education: Development of an Interest in Close Relationships with Caregivers and Effects of Early Separations
Bowlby and Psychoanalysis: A Complicated and Conflicted Relationship
Scientific Work and Collaborations: Scientific Evidence for the Importance of Close Relationships with Caregivers, Negative Ef...
The WHO Report and the Seminar Group: Developing a Theory of Attachment Based on Evolutionary Theory and Ethology, Cybernetics...
Research Immediately Following in the Footsteps of Bowlby: Individual Differences in Attachment
Conclusions
Cross-References
References
John Hartung (1995) Love Thy Neighbor
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Intergroup Dynamics
The Biology of Morality
Who Is Thy Neighbor?
Religious Justification
Realistic Conflict
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
John Manning
Synonyms
Definitions
Introduction
Sex and Symmetry
Digit Ratio (2D:4D)
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
John Maynard Smith
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Major Contributions and Phenomena of Interest
Influence on Evolutionary Biology and Behavioral Science
Conclusions
Cross-References
Acknowledgment
References
John Ray
Synonyms
Life
Natural Theology
Wilkins and Linguistics
Species and Systematics
Influence
Cross-References
References
John Tooby
John Turner
Definition
Introduction
Career and Contributions
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
John Watson
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
His Personal Life
The Precursors
The Beginnings of His Career: The Birth of Behaviorism
Watson´s Career After 1913
From Animals to Humans
Organization of Behavior
Reflexes and Habits
On Environmentalism
Application of the Principles of Behaviorism on Child Rearing
Watson and Advertising
Watson on Psychopathology
Watson as a Person
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
John Wray
Joint Activation of Derived and Inceptive Memories
Joint Family
Joint Intentionality
Jokes
Joking
Jonathan Haidt
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
The Social Intuitionist Model
Moral Disgust and Elevation
Moral Foundations Theory
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Jonathan Haidt´s The Righteous Mind
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Cross-References
References
Joseph Henrich
Definition
Introduction
Cultural Evolution
Culture-Gene Coevolution
Cognition and Culture
Prestige
Credibility Displays
Religion
WEIRD Societies
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Joseph Henrich on Religion
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Moralizing High Gods
Credibility-Enhancing Displays
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Journalist
Judgment and Decision-Making
Evolutionary Theory and the Currency of JDM
Ecological Rationality and Mechanisms of Decision-Making
Applying Evolutionary Theory to JDM Problems
Cross-References
References
Judgment of Cheating
Judith Jarvis Thomson
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Research
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Judith Rich Harris
Introduction
Parental Power: A ``Cherished Culture Myth´´
Genes and Peers
The Mystery of Human Individuality
The Modular Mind
Harris´s Legacy
Cross-References
References
Just So Stories
References
Justice
Juvenility
K
K Strategy
Kellogg Chimpanzee Study, The
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Rationale and Goals
Study and Findings
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Kellogg Study
Kenyanthropus
K-Factor (Figueredo)
Synonyms
Definition
Life History Theory
Individual Variability
K-Scales
Critique
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Killer
Killer Whale Life History
Definition
Introduction
Reproduction
Growth
Survival
Conclusion
References
Killing
Kin
Kin Altruism
Kin Bias
Kin Detection
Kin Detection by Odor
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Methods of Kin Detection
Detection of Kin Using Odor
Differential Behavior Resulting From Kin Identification Using Odor
Kin Detection Outside the Laboratory
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Kin Detection System
Kin Discrimination
Kin Elders Encourage Youth to Cooperate
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Context: Kinship and Cooperativeness
Context: Kinship, Cooperativeness, and Related Factors
Context: Kinship, Cooperativeness, and Contradiction
Conclusion
References
Kin Interest in Mating Relationships
Definition
Introduction
The Evolution of Human Mate Choice
Evolutionary Conflict Between Parents and Their Offspring
Evolutionary Parent-Offspring Conflict over Mate Choice
Indirect Conflict Over Mate Choice
Interest of Other Kin in Mate Choice
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Kin Recognition
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Direct and Indirect Kin Recognition Cues
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Kin Recognition and Classification in Humans
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Why Do We Feel and Behave This Way Toward Related Individuals?
How Do Individuals Recognize Their Kin?
Recognition Cues
Contextual Cues
Phenotypic Cues
The Heuristic Process of Kin Recognition
Recognition of Individuals from Contextual Cues
Recognition of Individuals from Phenotypic Cues
Empirical Support of Kin Recognition
Human Kin Detection System
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Kin Recognition Mechanisms
Kin Relations
Kin Selection
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction: History and the Underlying Logic of Kin Selection
William Hamilton and Kin Selection
Kin Selection, Hamilton´s Rule, and Inclusive Fitness
Inclusive Fitness Versus Neighbor Modulated Fitness
Criticism of Kin Selection, and General Versus Streamlined Models
Kin Selection Versus Group Selection
Conclusion
Cross-References
Acknowledgment
References
Kin Selection Hypothesis
Synonyms
Introduction
Homosexuality: An Evolutionary Paradox
The Kin Selection Hypothesis
Empirical Tests of the Hypothesis
Evidence of Adaptive Design in the Avuncular Cognition of Samoan fa´afafine
Development of Elevated Kin-Directed Altruism
The Adaptive Feminine Phenotype Model
Limitations
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Kin Selection Hypothesis for Male Androphilia
Kin Selection Hypothesis for Male Homosexuality
Kin Selection Theory
Kin Selective Suicide
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Altruistic Suicide: From Puzzle to Redefinition
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Kin System
Kin Term System
Kin Terminology
Kin Terms
Kin Vocabulary
Kin-Altruistic Behaviour
Kin-Cue Manipulation
Kinderschema
Kin-Directed Behavior
Kindling
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
The Kindling Phenomenon Demonstrated Experimentally
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Kinesics
Kinks
Kin-Recognition
Kinship
Kinship and Cortisol in Caribbean Village (Flinn et al., 2005)
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
The Stress Response
Stress and the Family
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Kinship and Emotional Closeness
Synonyms
Definitions
Introduction
Contributions of Kinship
Emotional Closeness and Kinship
Factors that Impact Emotional Closeness and Kinship
Recent Trends in Kinship Patterns and Care
Social Programs, Family Policies, and Kinship
Future and Limitations of Kinship Research
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Kinship Distinctions According to Generation
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Cross-References
References
Kinship Distinctions According to Sex
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Discussion
Cross-References
References
Kinship Estimator
Kinship Index
Kinship Is Central to Self-Concept
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Social Identity Theory
Kinship
Modern Family
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Kinship Psychology Manipulations
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Theory and Evidence for Kinship Psychology Manipulations and Suicide Terrorism
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Kinship Universals
Kissing
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Romantic Kissing: Theory and Data
Conclusions
Cross-References
References
Knowledge Enrichment
Kohlberg´s Rationalistic Theory
K-SF-42
L
Laceration
Lachrymation
Lack Clutch Size
Lack of Respect
Lacrimation
Lactation
Lactose Intolerance
Definition
Introduction
Diagnosis
Treatment
Biological Details
History
Conclusion
References
Lakatosian Philosophy of Science
Lamarckism
Landscape Aesthetics
Landscape Preferences
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Human Landscape Preferences
Sociocultural Perspectives on Landscape Preference
An Evolutionary Psychology Perspective
Landscape Preference Factors
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Landscape Preferences: Climate and Weather
Introduction
Landscapes, Climate, and Weather
Weather and Climate on the African Savanna
Causal Mechanisms
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Language
Language Acquisition
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
What Evolved?
Nativism
Behaviorism
Frequency Effects
Priming
Social Constructivism
Discriminating Abilities
Facial Expressions
Prelinguistic Gestures
Prelinguistic Vocalizations
Infant-Directed Speech (IDS)
Contingency
Functionalism
Socioemotional Approach
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Language Acquisition Device
Language Acquisition in Infants and Toddlers
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Language Acquisition Milestones
How Do Infants Learn Language?
Language Acquisition and Language Evolution
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Language Acquisition in the Home
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
A Developmental Perspective on Child Language and Literacy Acquisition at Home
Factors Affecting Home Language Acquisition Environment and Outcome
The Role of Parental Involvement in Language Acquisition at Home
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Language Acquisition Outside the Home
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Views of Acquisition
Current Fields of Research
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Language and Economic Cooperation
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Linguistic Relativity Hypothesis
Language, Culture, and Cognition
Linguistic Features and Cooperation
Terms of Address
Pronouns
Personal Pronouns
Pronoun Drop
Further Research for LRH and Cooperation
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Language and Handedness
Synonyms
Definitions
Introduction
Genetic Models
Multiple Genes, Multiple Circuits
Evolutionary Aspects
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Language Deficits
Language Development
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Evolutionary Adaptiveness of Communication
Specialization
Development
Social Support
Communication and Language in Human Infants
Communicating Through Gaze, Gestures, and Emotions
Following Gaze
Understanding and Producing Gestures
Understanding Others´ Emotions and Behaviors
The World of Language: Communicating Through Sounds, Words, and Sentences
Sounds and Intonation Patterns
Understanding and Producing Words and Sentences
Supportive Role of Caregivers
Diversity in Language Input
Temporal Contingency
Infant-Directed Speech
Gestures and ``Motionese´´
Increasing Language Demands
Language Functions in Early Childhood
Speech to Regulate Behaviors and Emotions
Decontextualized Speech and Narratives: Time and Space Travel
Language in Imagination and Pretend Play
Relationships with Teachers and Peers
Role of Educators: Language in Educational Settings
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Language Development in Formal and Informal Educational Contexts
Language Disorders
Language Disturbances
Language Dysfunction
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Aphasia
Language Disorders Following Right Hemisphere Damage
Brain Plasticity for Language
Language Deterioration in Dementia
Does Language Decline with Aging in Cognitively Healthy Persons?
Conclusion
Cross-References
Acknowledgment
References
Language Evolution
Language Impairments
Language Instinct
Language Instinct, The
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Refuting Misconceptions About Language
Innateness of Language
The Universal Sequence
Critical Periods
Cross-References
References
Language Learning
Language Modularity
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Fodor´s Modularity of Mind
Reconceptualizing Modularity
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Language Origins and Evolution
Language Stages
Large-Scale Cooperation
Largest Homo Brain
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Variations of Homo
What Influences Brain Size?
Brain Size and Intelligence
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Laryngeal Descent
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
History
Development
Adaptive Function
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Larynx
Lashing
Last Male Advantage
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Last Male Precedence
Lateral Geniculate Complex
Lateral Geniculate Nucleus
Definition
Synonyms
Introduction
Basic Anatomical Organization
Three Parallel Cortical Projection Systems
Functional Organization
Cortical Influences on LGN
Cross-References
Conclusion
References
Laughter
Law of Effect
Leadership
Leadership vs. Followership
Leading
Learnability
Learned Helplessness from an Evolutionary Mismatch Perspective
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Adaptive Functions of Helplessness
Helplessness in an Evolutionary Mismatched Environment
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Learned Irrelevance
Learner-Centered Education
Learning
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Orton-Gillingham Method
Neurological Aspects of Learning Disabilities
Learning Disabilities in Grade School
Learning Disability in College
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Learning Curve
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Development of the Concept and First Experiments
Reflections from Contemporary Uses in Research
Use of the Term in Colloquial Language: The ``Steep Learning Curve´´
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Learning Disorder
Learning Graph
Learning Process
Learning Through Associations
Learning Versus Imitation
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Innovation in Young Children
Imitation and Overimitation
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Leda Cosmides
Leda Cosmides and John Tooby (Founders of Evolutionary Psychology)
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Meet Cute
The Ontogeny of Evolutionary Psychology
Research Activities, Deep and Wide
Cross-References
References
Leech
Leftist
Left-of-Center
Left-Right Differences
Left-Wing
Lekking
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Lek Evolution
Sexual Selection and the Lek Paradox
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Leks and Choruses
Synonyms
Definitions
Introduction
Defining Leks
The Evolution of Leks
Taxonomic Overview
Leks and Female Choice
The Lek Paradox
Conclusions
Cross-References
References
Length
Lesbianism
Lesser-Known Theories of Homosexuality
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Adaptationist Hypotheses
By-Product Hypotheses
Dysfunction Hypotheses
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Lethal Aggression
Lethal Conflict
Lethal Intrasexual Competition
Lethal Raiding
Lethal Violence
Lev Vygotsky
Definition
Introduction
Main Ideas and Concepts
Sign Operation
The Sociogenetic Law
The Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD)
Ontogenesis of Verbal Thinking
Egocentric Speech
Inner Speech and Semantic Dynamics
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Level of Grandparental Investment
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Paternity Uncertainty
Sex-Specific Reproductive Strategies
Preferential Investment in More Certain Kin
Reproductive Value
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Levels of Explanation
Lever Box
Lexicon
LGB Victimization
LGBTQ+ Identity
Liberal
Liberty
Life Cycle
Life Expectancy
Life Expectancy and Reproduction
Synonyms
Introduction
The Pleiotropic View of Senescence
The Selfish Gene
The Disposable Soma
Life History Theory
Experimental and Empirical Validation
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Life Expectancy in Hunter-Gatherers
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Specifics of Hunter-Gatherer Lifespan
Does Life Expectancy Among Hunter-Gatherers Represent Humans´ Evolved Lifespan?
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Life History
Life History Model of Psychopathology
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Life History and Psychopathology
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Life History Strategies
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Life History Strategies
Ecological Conditions
Individual Differences in Environmental Sensitivity
Influences on Key Life History Domains
Somatic Development
Mating
Parenting
Influences on Other Domains
Risk-Taking
Personality
Psychopathology
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Life History Theory
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Human Ecology
Fundamental Tradeoffs
Cost-Benefit Analysis
Environmental Harshness and Unpredictability
Discounting of Future Returns
Life History Strategies
Clinical Applications
Conclusions
Cross-References
References
Life History Theory and Rape
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
The Role of Life History Theory
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Life History Tradeoffs
Life of Charles Darwin
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Early Years and Education
The Voyage of the Beagle
Darwin´s Relationship with FitzRoy
The Origin of the Origin of Species
Back in England
Marriage to Emma and Family Life
Back to Evolution
Friends and Allies
Publication and Reception of Origin
Life After Origin
Sex and Emotions: Darwin´s Follow-Up Books on Evolution
Darwin´s Theory Misused
Darwin´s Latter Years
Conclusion
References
Life Satisfaction
Lifespan
Lifetime Reproductive Success
Likelihood of Conception
Limited Dispersal
Limited Reproductive Fitness
Limited Reproductive Potential
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Sexual Selection
Bateman´s Principle
Strategic Pluralism Theory
Limiting Factors of Reproductive Potential
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Lineage
Linear Grammar
Linearity
Linguistic Development
Linguistic Evolution
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Language Origin
When Did Language Emerge?
Theories of Protolanguage
Biological Language Evolution
Brain Size
Speech Production
Cooperation
Imitation Learning
Cultural Language Evolution
Language Change as an Evolutionary Process
Emergent Languages
Gene-Culture Coevolution
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Linguistic Fossils
Linguistic Nativism
Linguistic Relativism
Linguistics
Literature
Lithic Technology
Little Albert
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
The Conditions Surrounding the Experiment
The Experiment
Who Was Albert B?
Ethical Concerns
Conclusion
References
Littlebrain
Living and Dying
Living in Groups
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
What Is a Group?
Is There an Optimal Group Size?
How Dynamic Is a Group?
Different Types of Group Living
Bases for a Functioning Group and Rank Order
Evolutionary Causes Behind Group Living
Benefits and Costs with Group Living
Important Consequences of Group Living for Cultural Development
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Local Mate Competition
Local Sex Ratio
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Changing Local Sex Ratio by Genotype at Fertilization (GSD)
Controlling of Local Sex Ratio in the Parasitic Wasp Nasonia vitripennis
Changing Local Sex Ratio by Environmental Factors (ESD)
Influence of Latitude and Water Temperature on the Atlantic Silverside (Menidia menidia)
Temperature-Sensitive Sex Determination in Emys orbicularis
Changing Local Sex Ratio After Birth and Partial Development
Brood Reduction and Sex-Biased Provisioning in the Zebra Finch and Crimson Rosella
Impact on Local Sex Ratio by Experienced Environmental Factors
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Local Sexual Practice
Synonyms
Definition
Norms and Local Sexual Practice
Life History Theory and Individual´s Sexual Behavior
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Localization of Memory Substrates
Localized Damage
Locomotion
Logic Game
Loneliness in Modern Life
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Loneliness as an Individual Difference
Gender and Loneliness
Age and Loneliness
Loneliness as a Chronic Condition
Antidotes to Loneliness
Loneliness in Evolutionary Beginnings
An Ultrasocial Species
The Heritability of Loneliness
Loneliness and Attachment
Loneliness Across Cultures
Loneliness in the Digital Age
Loneliness and the Internet
Loneliness and Online Communication
Loneliness and Social Networking Sites
Competing Models of ICT Use and Loneliness
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Longevity
Long-Term Growth Rate
Long-Term Mating
Long-Term Mating Strategy
Long-Term Memory
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
The Evolution of Long-Term Memory Through Time
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Long-Term Partnership
Long-Term Potentiation
Definition
Introduction
Properties of Long-Term Potentiation
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Long-Term Storage
Long-Term Store
Loop Variant, The
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
The Loop Variant
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Loser Effects
Loss of Conceptus
Low Birthweight and Preterm Infants
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Interaction Between Mothers and Low Birthweight or Preterm Infants
Effects of Remediation
Conclusions
Cross-References
References
Low Libido, Female Sexual Arousal Disorder
Low Sexual Desire
Low Social Status
Low Weight
Lower Classes
Lowering Partner Standards in a Short-Term Mating Context
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Mating Strategies
Global Standards for Long-Term Partners
Men´s Standards for Short-Term Partners
Women´s Standards for Short-Term Partners
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Low-Quality Fathering
Low-Status Males
Loyalty
Luring Hypothesis
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Remating When There Are Existing Children
The Single Mother´s Advantage
Preliminary Support for the ``Luring´´ Hypothesis
Future Directions
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Luteinizing Hormone
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Biochemical Profile of LH
LH Isoforms
Basic Reproductive Function
Indirect-Reproductive Adaptive Functions
Indirect Immune Function
Areas of Future Inquiry
Cross-References
References
Lutrophin
Lutropin
Lying
M
Machiavellian Intelligence
Machiavellian Intelligence Hypothesis
Mail-Order Brides
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
The Modern Mail-Order Bride Industry
Recent Research on Mail-Order Bride Mating Strategies
Mail-Order Brides and Domestic Violence
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Maintaining Rank in Dominance Hierarchy
Major Depression
Major Depressive Disorder
Major Hemisphere
Major Histocompatibility Complex (MHC)
Makeup
Making Love
Making the Best of a Bad Job
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Something Is Better than Nothing
Not ``Bad,´´ Just Efficient
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Maladaptation
Maladaptations
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Types of Maladaptations
Health Significance of Maladaptation
Psychosocial Relevance of Maladaptation
Evolutionary Significance of Maladaptation
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Maladaptive
Maladaptive By-Product Hypothesis
Synonyms
Definition
Suicide as an Adaptive or Maladaptive Behavior
Honor Killings as Maladaptive Behavior
Adoption
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Male Adaptations that Facilitate Success in War
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Theoretical Perspectives on Adaptive Problems Posed by Warfare
Nonhuman Evidence
Human Evidence
The Male Warrior Hypothesis
Research Support for the Male Warrior Hypothesis
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Male Adaptations to Assess Fighting Ability
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
The Evolutionary Function of Fighting Ability Assessment
Why Do Nonhuman Animals Assess Fighting Ability?
Are Humans Likely to Have Fighting Ability Assessment Mechanisms?
Adaptations for Assessing Fighting Ability
Visual Inspection of the Body
How Could One See Fighting Ability in the Body?
Can Humans Visually Assess Fighting Ability?
What Are the Cues of Fighting Ability in the Body that Are Being Estimated?
Is the Visual Assessment of Fighting Ability More Accurate on Male Targets?
Visual Inspection of the Face
How Could One See Fighting Ability in the Face?
Can Humans Visually Assess Fighting Ability From the Face?
What Are the Cues of Fighting Ability in the Face?
Is the Visual Assessment of Fighting Ability More Accurate on Male Targets?
Cues of Fighting Ability in the Voice
Can Humans Assess Fighting Ability From the Voice?
What Are the Cues of Fighting Ability in the Voice?
Self-Assessment of Formidability
Future Research: Aggression as Assessment
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Male Aggression
Male Battles
Male Bonding
Male Coalitional Aggression
Male Coalitional Psychology
Male Coalitions for Hunting
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Physical Capabilities for Hunting
Adaptations for Hunting
Risk-Taking Propensity
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Male Counter Strategies to Cyclic Shifts
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Sexual Interest
Jealousy and Mate Retention Behavior
The Challenge Hypothesis
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Male Defense
Male Detection of Deception
References
Male Display
Male Dominance
Male Dominance Hierarchies
References
Male Friendship
Synonyms
Definition
References
Male Guarding
Male Homicide Victims
Male Intrasexual Competition
Male Intra-sexual Competition
Male Intrasexual Homicide
Male Mate Choice
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Sexual Strategies Theory
Physical Attractiveness
Age
Strategy Change
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Male Mating Competition
Male Offenders
Male Ornamentation
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Sexual Dimorphism in Male Ornamentation Among Anthropoid Primates
Sexual Selection, Mating Systems, and Male Badges of Status
Social Group Sizes, Social Organizations, and Male Ornaments
Sexual Selection and Men´s Beardedness as an Ornamental Badge of Status
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Male Perception of Cycle-Related Fluctuations in Women´s Attractiveness
Synonyms
Definitions
Introduction
Cyclic Change in Women´s Appearance
Cyclic Changes in Behavior
Methodological Considerations
Evolutionary Interpretations
Conclusions
Cross-References
Acknowledgment
References
Male Preferences
Male Protection
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Male Protection for Females
Male Protection from Males
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Male Provision
Male Prudence and Sperm Limits
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Ejaculatory and Copulatory Adjustment
Ejaculate Production Is Costly
Extrinsic Factors Affect Ejaculate Investment Across Taxa
Ejaculatory Capacity in Humans
Evidence of Ejaculate Adjustment in Humans
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Male Qualities and Likelihood of Orgasm
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Mate-Choice Hypotheses of Female Orgasm
Mate-Choice Traits that Predict Orgasm Likelihood
Sire-Choice
Pair-Bonding
Alternative Considerations
Male Sexual Behavior
Conclusion
References
Male Reproductive Variance
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Coevolution with Parental Investment/Care
Coevolution with Mating Systems
Consequences of Variation in Male Reproductive Success
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Male Safety
Male Sexual Coercion
Male Sexual Jealousy
Male Sexual Jealousy to Deter Partner Infidelity
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
The Costs of Infidelity
Studies of Modern Humans
Competing Explanations
Other Means of Ensuring Paternity
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Male Social Dominance
Male Status
Male Strategies
Male Victims
Male Violence
Male Warrior Hypothesis
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Support for the Male Warrior Hypothesis
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Male Warrior Psychology
Male Wrongful Discrimination
Male/Female
Male-Male
Male-Male Competition
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Male-Male Competition in Early Development
Physical Features in Competition
Competition in Sports
Hormonal Influences
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Male-Male Competition for Resources
Male-Male Competition or Male Provisioning?
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Life History and Socioecology Shape How Men Choose Between Competition and Provisioning
Big Game Hunting: Competition, Showing-Off, and/or Provisioning?
Synthesis and Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Male-Male Contest
Male-Male Cooperation
Male-Male Strategies
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Forms of Male-Male Competition
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Maleness
Male-Provisioning Hypothesis
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Provisioning Does Not Require Hunting and Hunting Does Not Require Provisioning
Controversy/Alternative Views
Determinants of Male Parental Investment
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Males and Crime
Male-Warrior Hypothesis
Malicious Joy
Malleability
Malthus on Population
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Historical Context
Malthus´ Theory and Implications
Influence on Biology: First Law of Nature
Equal Fitness Paradigm
Malthus´ Influence on Society
``Neo-Malthusians´´ Versus ``Cornucopians´´
Malthus, Darwin, and Boserup
Conclusion
Current Population Trajectories
The (Im)Perfectibility of Humans
Alternatives to the Growth Paradigm
Cross-References
References
Malthusian Growth
Mammalian Ear Evolution
Mammalian Ear, The
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
The Eutherian Mammalian Ear
Motor Protein Prestin
Comparative Research
Conclusion
References
Man
Man with Backpack
Mandeb Strait
Manipulation
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Mate Retention in Marriage
Factors Associated with Romantic Partner Manipulation
Dark Triad and Intersexual Negative Inducements
Faking Orgasm to Manipulate a Partner
Intimate Partner Violence as a Costly Mate Retention Tactic
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Manipulation and Dishonest Signals
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Dishonest Signals in Nature
Contested Definitions
Stability and Dynamics
Conclusions
Cross-References
References
Manipulation by Others
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Theories and Evidence for Suicide Terrorism as Manipulation by Others
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Manipulative Use of Kin Terminology
Definitions
Introduction
Manipulation of Dyadic Bonds
Manipulation of Ideological Communities
Conclusions
Cross-References
References
Man-Made Items
Marc Bekoff
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
About the Author
Animal Emotions
Cognitive Ethology
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Margaret Profet
Margie Profet
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Background
Pregnancy Sickness
Allergies
Menstruation
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Margo Wilson
Maria Montessori
Definition
Introduction
Evolution and the Spiritual Embryo
Evolution, Ecology, and the ``Cosmic Plan´´
Scientific Pedagogy
Conclusion
References
Marital Status
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Evolutionary Background
Patterns of Violence
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Marital Status and Infanticide
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Historical Records
Contemporary Cross-National Patterns
Patterns in Small-Scale Societies
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Mariticide
Marketing Influences
Marriage
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Marriage Rates
Mate Choice
Marital Satisfaction and Stability
Sex in Marriage
Jealousy
Child Rearing
Cultural Factors
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Marriage Transaction
Martial Arts
Martin Daly
Martin Daly and Margo Wilson (Founders of Evolutionary Psychology)
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Margo Wilson: Early Years in Northern Climes
Martin Daly: From Toronto to Algeria and Back
Daly and Wilson: A First Book with Longevity
Patterns of Homicide and the Birth of a Society
Maturation and Internationalization of the New Discipline
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Martin Muller
Definition
Introduction
Kasiisi Project and Kibale Chimpanzee Project
Recent Research
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Martyrdom
Maryanne Fisher
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Women´s Intrasexual Competition
Evolutionary Psychology and Popular Culture
Evolution´s Empress and the Oxford Handbook
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Masculinity
Masculinity and Femininity
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Sexual Reproduction and Social Roles in Humans
Femininity in Women: Morphology and Maternal Tendencies
Masculinity in Men: Morphology and the Masculinity Paradox
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Masquerade
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
How Does Masquerade Work?
How Does Masquerade Differ from Crypsis and Batesian Mimicry?
Masquerade and Behavior
Nonvisual Masquerade
How Did Masquerade Evolve?
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Mass Extinction
Master Clock
Masters and Johnson
Definition
Introduction
Masters and Johnson
The Lives of Masters and Johnson
Influential Findings, Methodologies, and Publications
The Four Stages of the Sexual Response
The Treatment of Sexual Dysfunction
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Masturbation
Mate
Mate Attraction
Mate Choice
Mate Choice Copying
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Copying
Bias in Social Learning of Preferences
Prestige-Biased Learning
Effects of Age of Learner
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Mate Choice Criteria
Mate Choice Effects
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Hormonal Contraceptives Disrupt Women´s Mate Preferences
Hormonal Contraceptives Disrupt Men´s Mate Preferences
The Implications of Women´s Hormonal Contraceptive Use for their Long-Term Relationships
Summary
Cross-References
References
Mate Competition
Mate Copying
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Evidence for Mate-Choice Copying
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Mate Deprivation Hypothesis
Synonyms
Definition
Cross-References
References
Mate Desertion
Mate Expulsion
Marital Satisfaction
Frequency of Divorce and Breakups
Infidelity and Mate Expulsion
Emotional and Sexual Infidelity
Forgiveness, or Mate Expulsion
Access
Emotional and Sexual Access
Sexual Conflict
Frequency of Sex and Sexual Satisfaction
References
Mate Guarding
Mate Poaching
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Occurrence and Prevalence
Costs Associated with Mate Poaching
Reasons to Poach a Mate
Personality of Mate Poachers and Those Who Are Poached
Targets of Mate Poaching
Disguising Mate Poaching
Relationships Outcomes
Sexual Versus Emotional Mate Poaching
Conclusions
Cross-References
References
Mate Preference Copying
Mate Preferences
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Why Do Mate Preferences Evolve?
How Do Mate Preferences Evolve?
What Do We Know About Human Mate Preferences?
What Is Not Known About Mate Preferences?
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Mate Preferences After Having Children
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Women´s Preferences after Children
The Effect of Children on Women´s Mate Value
Men´s Mate Preferences after Children
The Effect of Children on Men´s Mate Value
WEIRD Populations and Researchers, Children, and Mate Preferences
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Mate Quality
Mate Quality Bias
Mate Rejection
Mate Retention
Definition
Introduction
Mate Retention Inventory
Mate Retention and Mate Value
Mate Retention Across the Ovulatory Cycle
Mate Retention and Concurrent Sexual Behaviors
Mate Retention and Individual Differences
Personality Dimensions
Sex Differences
Age, Relationship Length, and Parity
Attachment
Relationship Status and Sociosexuality
Coalitional Mate Retention
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Mate Retention After Children
Definition
Introduction
Biparental Care
Male Provisioning
Male-Male Competition
Mate Retention Effort
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Mate Retention and Romantic Attachment
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Mate Retention and Romantic Attachment
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Mate Retention Behavior
Mate Retention Behaviors
Mate Retention Strategies
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Composition of Retention Strategies
Differences Between Sexes in the Use of Retention Strategies
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Mate Retention Tactic
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Tactics of Mate Retention
Sex Differences in Use of Mate Retention Tactics
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Mate Selection
Mate Selection Criteria
Mate Selection Strategy
Mate Selection Strategy (Version of Sexy Sons Hypothesis)
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Mate Stealing
Mate Value
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Aspects of Mate Value and Its Variation
Mate Value in Mate Choice: Perception and Reflection
Sex Differences: What Males and Females Want
Sex Differences: What Men and Women Want
Mate Value in Social Evolution
Mate Value and Mental Evolution: Cognition, Language and Deception
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Mate Value Inflation
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Evolved Mate Preferences
Mate Value Inflation Strategies
Physical Enhancements
Conspicuous Consumption
Mate Value Inflation Through Social Media
Consequences of Mate Value Inflation Strategies
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Mate Worth
Mate-Choice Copying
Material Extrinsic Investments
Maternal Abandonment and Maternal-Fetal Conflict
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Infanticide
Postpartum Depression
Infant Countermeasures
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Maternal Age
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Characteristics of Older Mothers
Maternal Age and Child Outcomes
Maternal Age and Parent Well-Being
Conclusion
Cross-References
Acknowledgment
References
Maternal and Offspring Condition
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Maternal Behavior
Maternal Bonding
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Hormones and Maternal Behavior
The Brain and Mother-Infant Bonding
The Development of Maternal Behavior
The Neural Systems Underlying Mother-Infant Bonding May Provide a Foundation for Other Strong Social Bonds
Conclusion
References
Maternal Caregiving
Maternal Competency
Maternal Deprivation Hypothesis
Maternal Grandmother Invests Most
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Empirical Evidence
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Maternal Investment
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Contingent Model of Maternal Investment
Empirical Test of the Contingent Model of Maternal Investment
Physiological Processes in Maternal Investment
Conclusions
Cross-References
References
Maternal Love
Maternal Malnourishment
Introduction
Thrifty Genotype
Parent-Offspring Conflict
Growth Programming
Maternal Malnutrition and Fetal Brain Development
Conclusion
References
Maternal Motivation
Maternal Perinatal Association
Maternal Responsiveness
Maternal Role
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Tend and Befriend
Evolution of Maternal Role
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Maternal Sensitivity
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Antecedents and Consequences
Measurement
Intervention Studies Aiming Enhancing Maternal Sensitivity
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Maternal Support
Maternal-Embryo Conflict
Maternal-Fetal Conflict
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Parent-Offspring Conflict
Terminology
How Embryos Manipulate Mothers
Hormones and Fetal-Maternal Conflict
Maternal-Fetal Conflict and Microchimerism
Non-coding RNA and Fetal Maternal Conflict
Maternal-Fetal Conflict and Genomic Imprinting
How Are Genes Silenced?
Genomic Imprinting Is Revealed by Genetic or Epigenetic Accidents
Why Genomic Imprinting?
An Example of Imprinted Genes
Maternal-Fetal Conflict over Implantation
Maternal-Fetal Conflict over Spontaneous Abortion
hCG and Maternal-Fetal Conflict over Thyroid Function
Maternal-Fetal Conflict and Preeclampsia
Maternal-Fetal Conflict and Gestational Diabetes
Fatal Conflicts
Maternal-Fetal Conflict and the Social Brain
Diametric Imprinted Gene Disorders
Maternal Fetal Conflict and Autophagy
Maternal-Fetal Conflict and Cancer
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Mateship
Mate-Stealing
Mathematical Biology
Mating
Mating Advantage
Mating Aggregation
Mating Behavior
Mating Competition
Mating Effort
Mating Market
Mating Plug
Mating Preferences
Mating Prospects of Gang Members
Mating Psychology
Mating Psychology Manipulation
Mating Relationships
Mating Rivalry
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Asymmetric Constraints and Benefits
What Are Men Looking for?
Women´s Mating Rivalry
Men´s Mating Rivalry
Local Conditions Influence the Intensity of Mating Rivalry
Conclusion
References
Mating Sabotage
Mating Selection
Mating Sociometer
Mating Strategies
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Sexual Strategies Theory
Strategic Pluralism Theory
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Mating Strategy
Mating Strategy Equilibria
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Alternative Strategies
Mixed Strategy
Conditional Strategies
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Mating Systems
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Low Polygyny
Moderate Polygyny
High Polygyny
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Mating Tactics
Matriarch
Matriarchal
Matricide
Matrigene
Matrilateral Bias
Matriliny
Maturation
Maturation Achievement
Maturation Versus Enculturation
mDNA
Meaning (Philosophy)
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Propositional Meaning
Meaning and Intentions
Meaning and Conventions
The Evolution of Meaning
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Meaning Making and the Self
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Development of Self and Its Relation to Meaning Making
The Body as a Container of the Self
Relational Qualities of the Self
Mentalization, Meaning-Making, and the Self
Operational Processes of the Self
Self-Constitution, Self-Manifestation, and Self-Expansion
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Measure of Relatedness
Measurement: Categorical Versus Continuous
Definition
Introduction
Measurement of Attachment
Categorical or Continuous?
Conclusions
Cross-References
References
Measuring Well-Being
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
The Measurement of Well-being
Components of Well-Being
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Mechanisms
Mechanisms of Altruism
Mechanisms to Detect and Punish Cheaters
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Detection of Cheaters
Punishment of Cheaters
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Mechanisms to Prefer Traits in Coalition Members
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Judging Coalitional Ability
Coalitional Contribution and Social Status
Preferences for Traits in New Coalition Members
Preferences for Masculinity and Risk-Taking
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Mechanosensor
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Mechanosensors
Evolution Status of the Mechanosensors
Conclusion
References
Mechanosensory Molecules
Mechanotransduction Process
Media Violence
Medical Definitions of Death
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Main Text: Legal Definition of Death
Cardiopulmonary Criteria for Death Declaration
Brain Death Criteria for Death Declaration
Religious Understandings of Death
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Medically Assisted Reproduction
Synonyms
Definitions
Introduction
Methods of Treatment
Why Use Medically Assisted Reproductive Technology?
Risks Associated with ART
Ethical Concerns
Conclusions
Cross-References
References
Meditation
Melancholy
Members of Coalition Must Believe They Will Win
Synonyms
Definitions
Introduction
Strategic Considerations in Warfare
Victory must be Assured
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Memes
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
What Is Unusual About Man
The New Replicators
Survival Value and How Memes Can Replicate
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Memory
Memory and Survival
Memory Computation
Memory Enhanced for Cheaters Versus Non-cheaters
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Enhanced Memory for Faces of Cheaters?
Why Is Source Memory for Cheaters Enhanced?
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Memory for Reputations
Men but Not Women Will Have Adaptations for War
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Sexual Selection
Intrasexual Competition and the Antecedents of Warlike Behaviors in Men
Warfare: A Male Affair
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Men in Positions of Power
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Why Male Dominance?
Does Male Dominance Matter?
Conclusion
References
Men Riskier, More Aggressive
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Male Competition over Mating Opportunities
Life-Course Developmental Differences Between Men and Women
Socialized Gender Roles
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Men Romantic Partner Choice
Men Sexual Partner Selection
Men with Poor Mating Prospects
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Intrasexual Competition
Alternative Theories for Demographic Characteristics
Inclusive Fitness
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Men´s Aggression Against Women
Men´s Egoistic Dominant Acts
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
The Expression of Dominance Among Men
Dominance and Reproductive Benefits
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Men´s Mate Preferences
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Evolutionary Foundations for Sex Differences in Human Mate Preferences
Aspects of Men´s Mate Preferences
Facial Features
Body Features
Waist-to-Hip Ratio
Faithfulness and Paternal Uncertainty
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Men´s Mating Psychology
Men´s Short-Term Mating
Men´s Short-Term Mating Behaviors
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Strategies
Adaptive Problems Faced by Men Pursuing Short-Term Strategies
Partner Number
Minimizing Risk and Investment
Identifying Sexually Accessible Women
Identifying Fertile Women
Behaviors
Infidelity
Hook-Ups
Prostitution
Sociosexual Orientation Inventory: Behaviors
Contextual Influence on Mating Strategies
Perceived Effectiveness of Short-Term Strategies
Father Absence
Life Stage
Mate Value
Sex Ratio
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Men´s Suspicions of Partner Infidelity and Women´s Defection
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Evolutionary Foundation
Parental Investment Theory
Cuckoldry and Paternity Uncertainty
Partner Infidelity
Violence
Partner Rape
Defection from the Relationship
Violence
Homicide
Conclusion
References
Men´s Violence Against Female Partners: The Role of Culture
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Men´s Violence Against Intimate Partners: The Role of Culture
Variations in the Prevalence of Men´s IPV Between Countries
The Role of Culture in Explaining Men´s Violence Against Intimate Partners
Challenges to the Link Between Culture and IPV in the Age of Migration
Outlook: A Gender-Inclusive Approach to the Study of IPV in its Cultural Context
Cross-References
References
Menarche
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Onset, Trends, and Timing of Menarche
Heredity
Biological Factors
Environmental Factors
Psychosocial and Physiological Effects of Menarche
Attitudes Toward Menarche
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Mendel´s Experiments
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
The Experiments
Biological Mechanism
Conclusion
References
Mendel´s Laws
Mendelian Inheritance
Menopause
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
The Evolution of Menopause in Human Females
Physiology of Menopause
Possible Explanations Why Menopause Has Evolved
The Grandmother Hypothesis
The By-Product Hypothesis: A Physiological Trade-Off Between Early Fecundity and Longevity
The Mother Hypothesis
The Absent Father Hypothesis
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Menopause Affords Grandparental Investment
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Evidence
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Menopause as a Kin Selection Adaptation Sessation of Ovulation for Offspring Investment
Menstrual Cycle
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Description of the Normal Menstrual Cycle
Estimating the Phases
Disruptions of Regularity
Pregnancy and the Postpartum Period
Hormonal Contraceptives
Amenorrhea
Psychological Fluctuations Associated with the Menstrual Cycle
Motivations Associated with the Ovulatory Phase
Motivations Associated with the Luteal Phase
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Menstrual Cycle Changes
Menstrual Cycle Phase
Menstruation
Mental Grammar
Mental Illness
Mental Imaging
Mental Lexicon
Mental Map
Mental Modularity
Mental Processes
Mental State Attribution
Mentalizing
Mental-State Attribution
Messaging
Meta-analysis of Sex Differences in Aggression
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Parental Investment Theory
Physical Aggression
Relational Aggression
Emotion
Partner Aggression
Role of Hormones
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Metabolic Changes
Metabolism
Metacognition
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Approaches to Demonstrating Animal Metacognition
Positive Evidence
Ambiguous Evidence
Controversies About Animal Metacogition
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Metaethical Relativism
Metaethics
Metamemory
Metaphor
Metaphor and Analogy
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Evolutionary Psychology
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Metaphysical Freedom
Meta-tool
Definition
Introduction
How Widespread Is Meta-tool Use?
Anvil Propping
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Method of Successive Approximations
Methodological and Phenomenological Narrowness
Methodological Pluralism
Methodological Relativism
Methods and Enduring Impact of Behaviorism
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Methodology
Impact
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Methods of Filicide
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Methods of Filicide
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Metonymy
Mezzosoprano
MHC Compatibility
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Innate and Adaptive Immune System Responses
Evolutionary Origins of the MHC
MHC-Dependent Mating
Human Evidence
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Michael A. Woodley of Menie, Yr.
Professional Life
Background
Major Contributions
Cognitive Differentiation-Integration Effort Theory
The Co-Occurrence Model of Secular Trends in Human Intelligence: General Intelligence Decline
The Co-Occurrence Model of Secular Trends in Human Intelligence: Partitioning IQ Change
The Social Epistasis Amplification Model
Controversies
Reaction Times
Neurotoxic Pollution Versus Dysgenic Selection
The London Conference on Intelligence
References
Michael Tomasello
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
The Comparative Approach
Shared Intentionality Theory
A Case Study
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Michelle Scalise Sugiyama
Definition
Narrative
Predators
Cultural Variation
Extension
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Microbial Defense
Microbial Resistance
Mid-Cycle
Middle Ear
Middle Ear First and Second Pharyngeal Arches
Middle Ear, The
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Brief Anatomy of the Middle Ear
Stapedius and Tensor Tympani
The Oval and Round Windows
The Eustachian Tube
Evolutionary Status of the Middle Ear
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Migration
Milieu
Mimesis
Mimicry
Mimicry, Power, and Influence
Mind Modules
Mind Perception
Mind Reading
Mindblindness
Definition
Introduction
Main Text
Evolutionary Forces and the Adaptive Problem
The Intentional Stance
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Mindfulness
Mindreading
Mini-K
Minimal Obligatory Parental Investment
Mirages
Mirror Mechanism
Mirror Neuron System
Mirror Neurons
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Main Text
Basic Properties and Related Functions
Existence in Humans
Extended Mirror Neuron Network
Development Across the Lifespan
Role of Experience
Evolutionary History
Other Capacities that Involve Mirror Neurons
Neurorehabilitation
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Mirror Self-Recognition
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Tests of Mirror Self-Recognition with Apes
Tests of Mirror Self-Recognition with Other Primates
Tests of Mirror Self-Recognition with Non-primate Species
Theoretical Interpretation and Debates About Mirror Self-Recognition
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Mirror System
Mirroring
Mirth
Misanthropic
Miscarriage
Mise-en-scène
Misery
Misinterpreted as Cultural Relativism
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Historical Context of Cultural Relativism
Descriptive Cultural Relativism
Metaethical Cultural Relativism
Misinterpretations
Current Social Science Research Strategies
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Mismatch
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Evolutionary Mismatch: Diet
Evolutionary Mismatch: Social Groups
Evolutionary Mismatch: Education
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Mismatch Between Evolved Morality and Modern World
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Evolutionary Mismatch
Specifying T
Specifying C
Specifying E1 and E2
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Mismatch Theory
Missing Heritability
Misuse/Misapplication of Psychological Mechanisms
Mitochondrial DNA
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Function and Inheritance
Conclusion
References
Mixed Languages
Moaning
Mobbing
Mobbing Calling
Mobility: Crawling and Walking
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Historical Considerations
Shared Childrearing, Different Practices, and Constraints on Motor Skills
Handling and Containing Infants
Sleeping and Swaddling
Toileting and Dress
Expectations and Activities Shape Ways of Moving
Expectations
Daily Activities
Conclusions
Cross-References
References
Modal Action Patterns
Model Comparison
Modeling
Modeling Language Transmission
Definition
Introduction
Cultural Evolution and Language
Cultural Transmission Gives Rise to Compositionality
Compositionality Depends on Transmission and Communication
Cultural Transmission Gives Rise to Semantic Categories
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Modern Human Origins
Modern Moral Relativism
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Defining Moral Relativism
Psychological Studies of Folk Moral Judgments
Nichols on Moral Psychology and Moral Relativism
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Modern Technology (E.G., IVF)
Definition
Introduction
Assisted Reproductive Technologies in Infertile Patients
Assisted Reproduction in Fertile Patients
Cross-References
References
Modern Theories of Language
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Theories of Language Evolution and Change
Language as Product of Biological Adaptation
Language as Product of Cultural Transmission
Coevolution of Genes and Language
How Is Language Learned?
Social Shaping
Embodied Cognition as Expressed in Gesture and Speech
Bootstrapping in Complex Dynamical Systems
Usage-Based Learning
How Is Language Used?
Levels of Processing
Incremental Cascaded Processing
Interactive Processing
Top-Down Processing
Predictive Processing
Communicative Interaction
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Modern-Day European Union
Modification
Modified Behavior Towards Conspecifics
Mods
Modularity of Mind
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Fodor´s Modularity of Mind
Criticisms/Challenges: Skepticism to Fodor´s Proposal of Modularity of Mind
Massive Modularity
Conclusions
Cross-References
References
Molecular Clock
Mollusk
Momnesia
Monetary
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Theoretical Overview: Monetary Benefits to Kin
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Monetary Artifacts
Monkeys
Monoamine Oxidase and Antisocial Behavior
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Environment, Evolution, and Antisocial Behavior
What are MAOs?
Environmental Interactions of MAOs and ASPD Development in Males
Adolescents and Children
Brain Scans in Males
Animal Studies
Female Relationship of MAO´s and Antisocial
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Monogamy
Synonyms
Definition
General Considerations
Genetic, Hormonal, and Neural Mechanisms
Ecological Factors Driving the Evolution of Monogamy
Comparative Analyses in Vertebrates
Pair-Bonding and Monogamy in Humans
References
Monotropy
Mood
Moral
Moral Behavior
Moral Codes
Moral Concerns
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Review
The Reproductive Technology Market
Premature and Uneven Uptake of Reproductive Technology
Can Government Involvement in `Eugenics´ Be Justified?
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Moral Constructivism
Moral Conventionalism
Moral Development
Moral Dispositions
Moral Domains
Moral Emotions
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Grounding Moral Norms
Evolved Emotions
Moral Emotion Types
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Moral Foundation
Moral Foundations
Moral Foundations Theory
Moral Instincts
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Culturally Universal Moral Norms
Culturally Relative Moral Norms
Origins of Instincts to Behave in Moral Ways
Origins of Instincts to Behave in Altruistic and Group-Upholding Ways
Kin Selection
Triggering Kin-Selected Altruistic Instincts
Mental Mechanisms and Emotions Supporting Kin-Selected Altruistic Instincts
Sympathy and Empathy
Group Selection
Triggering Group-Selected Altruistic Instincts
Mental Mechanisms and Emotions Supporting Group-Upholding Altruistic Instincts
Sexual Selection
Triggering Sexually Selected Altruistic Instincts
Mental Mechanisms and Emotions Supporting Sexually Selected Altruistic Instincts
An Integrative Account of the Evolution of Emotional Sources of Altruism
Origins of Instincts to Respect Authority
Triggering Deferential Instincts
Mental Mechanisms and Emotions Supporting Deferential Instincts
Origins of Instincts to Behave Fairly
Triggering Instincts to Behave Fairly
Mental Mechanisms and Emotions Supporting Instincts to Behave Fairly
Gratitude
Guilt
Indignation and Vindictiveness
Forgiveness
Origins of Instincts to Uphold Purity
Imperfections in the Design of Psychological Mechanisms and the Role of Manipulation in the Activation and Evolution of Moral ...
Origins of a Sense of Morality
Emotional and Rational Aspects of a Sense of Morality
The Moral Senses
Origins of the Moral Senses
Origins of Moral Sentiments About Others
Origins of Sense of Moral Obligation
Origins of Conscience and a Sense of Guilt
Origins of a Sense of Justice
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Moral Instincts and Morality
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Moral Intuitionist Theory
Moral Intuitions
Moral Language Regulation
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
A Link Between Language and Morality
Moral Development
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Moral Philosophy
Moral Realism
Moral Reasoning
Moral Relationships
Moral Senses
Moral Sentiments
Moral Subjectivism
Moral Tribes
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
The Origins of Human Morality
Coalitional Psychology
Moral and Political Tribes
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Moral Values
Moralistic Aggression
Moralistic Punishment
Morality
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
The Empirical and Normative Senses of Morality
Moral Behaviors in Nonhuman Species
Evolution of Justice
Studies on Moral Behavior in Primates
Darwinism and Moral Emotions
Adam Smith and Morality
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Morality Is Cooperation
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
The Interdependence Hypothesis
Morality Improves Cooperation
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Morality of Creating New Life
Moralizing Gods and the Rise of Civilization
Synonyms
Definition
Cross-References
References
Morals
Morbid Jealousy
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
The Othello Syndrome
Morbid Jealousy and Alcoholism
Morbid Jealousy: Social and Evolutionary Significances
Morbid Jealousy: Neurobiological Implications
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Morning Sickness
Mortality
Mortality Rates
Mortality Risk
Most Perpetrators Are Men
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Men as the Perpetrators of Homicide
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Most Victims Are Men
Synonyms
Definitions
Introduction
Men as the Victims of Homicide
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Mother Hypothesis
Mother Tongue Hypothesis
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Monogenesis of Language
Is Language Older than Our Species?
A More Recent Origin of Language
What Was the Mother Tongue Like?
Conclusions
Cross-References
References
Mother´s Brain Size Decrease During Pregnancy
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Causes of Size Decrease
Effects of Size Decrease
Evolutionary Implications
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Mother´s Function
Mother-Child dyad
Motherese
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Mother-Fetus Conflict
Mother-Infant Attraction
Mother-Infant Co-sleeping
Mother-Infant Proximity
Mothers and Maternal Grandmothers and Childhood Survival
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Motion Parallax
Definition
Introduction
Use of Motion Parallax for Depth Perception in Humans and Nonhuman Animals
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Motivates Punishment
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Adaptationist Approaches
Seeking Better Treatment
Social Relationships
Reputation
Offsetting Fitness Differentials
Recruiting Labor
Multilevel Selection Approaches
Punishing Norm Violators
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Motivational States Promoting Survival and Reproduction
Motor Aphasia
Motor Control
Motor Development
Mouth-to-Mouth Kissing
Movement
mtDNA
Müller´s Language Hypotheses
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Bow-wow Theory
Ding-Dong Theory
Pooh-Pooh Theory
Ta-Ta Theory
Yo-He-Yo Theory
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Muller´s Theories on Language Evolution
Müllerian Association
Müllerian Mimicry
Synonyms
Definitions
Introduction
A History of the Idea
Examples of Müllerian Mimicry
The Evolution of Müllerian Mimicry
Müller´s Idea About Predators Attacking a Fixed Number of Prey During Learning
Evidence That There Is Selection for Signal Similarity
Species Differences in Defensive Chemical Concentrations, and Its Consequences for the Evolution of Müllerian Mimicry
Müllerian Mimicry and Speciation
The Molecules Behind Mimicry
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Multi-cultural
Multiculturalism
Multilevel Selection Theory
Synonyms
Definition
Multilevel Selection Theory
Cross-References
References
Multilingualism
Multiple Mating
Multiple Matings
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Identifying the Alternatives
Multiple Mating in Humans: Patterns
Multiple Mating in Humans: Selective Pressures and Adaptations
Conclusion
Cross-References
Acknowledgment
References
Multiple Memory Systems
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Neuroscientific and Cognitive Approach
Evolutionary Science Approach
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Murder
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
An Evolutionary Overview of Murder
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Murder by Design
Muscle
Muscle Conduction Velocity
Music
Music and Hormones
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Castrati: male sopranos in opera
Hormones in Musicians
Studies with Rodents
Conclusion
Cross-References
Acknowledgment
References
Music as Auditory Cheesecake
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
The Pleasure of Music
Music: Adaptation or Cultural Creation?
The Adaptive Value of Music
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Music as By-Product
Music Evolution
Musical Protolanguage
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Modern Versions of the Musical Protolanguage Hypothesis
Non-music Models of Protolanguage
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Mutation
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Types of Mutation and Their Health Implications
Mutation in Nonhumans
Mutations: From the Perspective of Evolution
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Mutation Accumulation Theory
Definition
Introduction
Review
Purifying Selection
Sources and Rates of De Novo Mutations in Humans
Germ-Line Mutations
Somatic Mutations
The Mutation Load Paradox and Estimates of Human Fitness Loss Due to Germ-Line Mutation Accumulation
The Mutation Load Paradox
The Consequences of Relaxed Purifying Selection in Industrialized Populations
Experimental Evidence for the Effects of Germ-Line Mutation Accumulation on the Fitness of Nonhuman Eukaryotes
Insects
Yeasts
Nematodes
Mammals
Potential Historical Micro-Evolutionary Manifestations of Germ-Line Mutation Accumulation in Humans
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Mutual Grooming
Mutual Parental Investment
Mutualism
Mutualistic Mimicry
Myth
N
Names and Titles
Synonyms
Definition
Cross-References
References
Narcissism
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
The Narcissist in Context
A Selfish Mind: How Does Narcissism Develop?
Selfish by Design? Natural Selection and Narcissistic Traits
Adaptation or Disorder: Is Narcissism an Advantage?
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Narcissistic Personality Disorder (NPD)
Narrative
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Narrative Structure and Function
Narrative, Storytelling, and Fiction as Discrete Phenomena
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Narrowing Birth Canal
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Implications of Bipedalism
Implications of the Birth Canal
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Natal Philopatry
Natalism
Nativism
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Key Concepts
Evidence for Linguistic Nativism
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Nativist Approach
Natural Parenting
Natural Selection
Definition
Introduction
Basic Issues
Heritable Differences
Variation in Heritable Features
Cooperation and Competition
Constraints on Natural Selection
Evolutionary Computation
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Natural Versus Artificial Environments
Introduction
Natural Environments
Artificial Environments
Interactions Between Natural and Artificial Environments
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Naturalism
Naturalistic Fallacy, The
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Moral Prescriptions from Evolutionary Principles to Morality
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Naturally Selected Seasonings
Nature
Nature Effects on Well-Being
Nature Versus Nurture
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Nature
Nurture
Conclusion: Nature and Nurture
Cross-References
References
Nausea
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Effects on the Body
Toxin Ingestion
Pregnancy
Motion Sickness
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Nausea and Vomiting in Pregnancy
Navigating Social Relationships
Cross-References
References
Navigational Strategies
Neanderthal Man
Neanderthals and Humans
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Interactions with Modern Humans
Conclusion
References
Necrotic Cell Death
Need-Based Support
Negative Affect
Negative Effects of Gossip
Negative Frequency-Dependent Selection
Negative Postcoital Emotions
Negative Punishment
Negative Reciprocity
Negative Reinforcement
Negative School Climate
Negative Sexual Imprinting
Negativity Engagement Bias
Neglect
Neighborhood Effects
Neonatal
Neonatal Brain Size
Neonatal Brain/Body Allometry
Neonatal Imitation
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
History of Neonatal Imitation Research
Replications and Subsequent Theories
Mechanisms of Imitation
Active Intermodal Mapping
Innate Releasing Mechanism
Arousal
Mirror Neuron System
Associative Sequence Learning
Functions of Imitation
Communication
Bonding
Breastfeeding
No Distinct Function
Is the Evidence for Neonatal Imitation Compelling?
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Neonate
Neonaticide
Neophilia (Antonym)
Neophobia
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
The Omnivore´s Dilemma
Infants and Neophobia
Neophobia and Disgust
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Neoplasm
Neo-Whorfianism
Nepotism
Definition
Introduction
Issues and Dilemmas
Nepotism in Human Society
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Nerve Conduction Velocity
Nervousness
Nest Abandonment
Nest Defense
Net Energy Gain
Neural Development
Neural Mirroring
Neural Recognition Systems
Neural Structure
Neurobiologist
Neurobiology of Language
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Models and Paradigms
Molecular Genetics
Linguistic Microcircuits
Comparative Models
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Neurodiversity
Neuroethics
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Ethical Implications of Neuroscientific Research
Social Implication of Neuroscientific Research
Legal Implications of Neuroscientific Research
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Neurogenesis
Neuroimaging
Neurolinguistics
Neurological Approach
Neurology of Humor
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Defining Humor
Abnormal Humor Processing
Pathological Humor
Personality and Sex/Gender Differences in Humor Processing
The Neural Basis of Humor
Real-Time Dynamics of Humor Processing
Laughter
Pathological Laughing
Therapeutic Benefits of Humor and Laughter
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Neuron Proliferation in Humans
Neurons
Neurons in the Cerebral Cortex
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
The Mammalian Brain
Evolution of the Cerebral Cortex
Psychological Adaptations of the Cerebral Cortex
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Neurophysiology
Neuropsychology
Neuroradiology
Neuroscience
Neuroscience of Language
Neuroticism
Newborn Behavior
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Stages of Cognitive Development
Sensorimotor Play
Primary Circular Reactions
Secondary Circular Reactions
Tertiary Circular Reactions
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Newborn Imitation
Niceness
Nisbett-Reaves Hypothesis
Nitric Oxide
No Strings Attached Sex
No Two Alike
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
About the Book
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Noam Chomsky
Introduction
Early Life
Education
Basic Ideas I. Science
Plato´s Problem
Principles and Parameters
Minimalist Program and the Biolinguistic Link
Politics and Activism
Cross-References
References
Noam Chomsky and Linguistics
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Chomsky´s View on Language
Chomsky and Language Evolution: A Conceptual Guide
Did Language Evolve from Animal Communication?
Is Language a Unique Trait or Is It Based on Mechanisms Shared with Other Species?
What Has Evolved, Then?
How Did FL Emerge?
When Did Language Emerge?
Why Does Language Imply an Evolutionary Asymmetry?
What Is the Role of Natural Selection?
Was Communication the Selective Pressure That Guided Language Evolution?
Some Criticisms
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Nomadic Foragers
Nomological Networks of Evidence
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Nomological Networks of Evidence
Examples of Adaptations for Which a Nomological Network of Evidence Has Been Build
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Non-adaptationist View of Music
Nonadaptive Hypotheses
Non-aptation
Nonassociative Learning
Non-associative Learning
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Theoretical Background
Habituation
Interstimulus Interval
Stimulus Generalization and Discrimination
Spontaneous Recovery
Sensitization
Long-Term Potentiation
Kindling
Drug Sensitization
Eric Kandel
Aplysia
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Non-biological Parents
Nonconforming Sexuality
Noncooperation
Noncooperative
Non-declarative Learning
Nonexploitative Partners
Nonfiction
Non-fiction
Non-fluent Aphasia
Nonhuman Intelligence
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
What Makes An Animal Intelligent?
Assessments in Nonhumans
Factors Contributing to the Evolution of Intelligence
Convergent Evolution
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Non-human Leadership
Synonyms
Definitions
Introduction
Collective Movements During Group Travel
Collective Acquisition and Distribution of Food
Leadership During Within and Between-Group Conflicts
Conclusions
Cross-References
References
Nonhuman Primate Tool Use
Nonhuman Primates
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Physical and Brain Development
Memory
Language and Communication
Social Cognition
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Non-human Primates
Nonhuman Primates: Between-Group Conflicts
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Review
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Nonhuman Primates: Species Typical Movement
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Brachiation
Grip
Walking and Running
Swimming
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Nonhuman Primates: Within-Group Conflicts
Definition
Introduction
Review
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Nonhuman Reactions to Death
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Diversity of Responses to Death
Behavioral Adjustment to a Risk Exposure
Intense Interest in Conspecific Carcasses
Infant Corpse Carrying
Sexual Arousal and Aggressive Interactions
Human-Like Grieving in Captive Animals
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Nonhuman Reciprocal Altruism
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
What is Reciprocity?
What is the Evidence for Nonhuman Reciprocity?
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Nonhuman Sexual Conflict
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Precopulatory Conflict
Postcopulatory Conflict
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Nonhuman Tool Use
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Modes and Functions of Tool Use
Ecology
Evolution
Cognition
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Noniconic Form-Meaning Mapping
Non-independent Mate Choice
Non-parental Child Care
Nonparental Childcare
Non-paternity
Non-penetrating Injury
Non-primate Mammal Sperm Competition
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Sperm Competition in Polyandrous Species
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Nonsenescent-Related Mortality
Nonsexual Social Selection
Non-transient Ontogenetic Adaptations
Nonverbal
Nonverbal Communication
Nonverbal Indicators of Dominance
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Static Cues
Dynamic Cues
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Nonviolent Coercive Control
Non-Western Homosexuality
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
The Multitude of Same-Sex Attractions
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Normal Sexual Development
Normative Ethics
Normative Relativism
Norms
Synonyms
Definition
The Emergence of Evolutionary Social Norms
The Kin Selection Model
The ``Reciprocal Altruism´´ Model
Simulating the Emergence of Evolutionary Social Norms with Play Games
The Spread of Social Norms
The Influence of Social Norms on Individual´s Social Behaviors
The Social-Norm Marketing Campaign
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Norms and Social Contract
Novel Male Effect
Number Sense
Numerical Cognition
Nuptial Gift
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Brief History
Evolutionary Development and Benefits
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Nursing
Nursing Advantages
Nursing Duration in Human Evolution
Nursing in Modern Environments
Nurture Assumption, The
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
About the Book
Critics´ Responses to the Book
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Nutrition
Nutritional Independence
Nutritional Status
O
Obesity
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
The Evolution of Our Diet
Thrifty Genes?
Are We Eating to a Protein Target?
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Object Choice Task
Object Imprinting
Object Manipulation
Object Perception
Object Permanence
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Short- Versus Long-Term Object Permanence
Is Object Permanence Innate?
A Special Case: The Self
Object Permanence and Time
Phylogenetic Distribution and Evolutionary History
Object Permanence and the Social Brain
Evolutionary Developmental Perspective
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Object Permanence in Monkeys and Apes
Object Play
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
An Evolutionary Perspective
Characteristics of Playful Behavior
Play and Exploration
Play with Objects
Gender Differences in Object Play
Tool Use
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Objectivism
Objectivity
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Evolutionary Arguments and Skepticism About Objectivity
Evolution´s Contribution to Perceived Moral Objectivity
Responses to Evolutionary Debunking
Third-Factor Accounts
The Overgeneralization Response
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Obligatory Investment
Obligatory Parental Investment
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Parental Investment Theory
Differences in Minimum Obligatory Parental Investment
Examples of Parental Investment Theory
Implications of Asymmetrical Obligatory Parental Investment for Human Sex Differences and Mating
Sexual Strategies
Sexual Conflict
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Obliterative Shading
Observation
Observation Cues
Observation of Altruism
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Observations of Sexual Dimorphism
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Male Ornamentation
Costly Signalling
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Observed Mating Behavior and Women´s Long-Term Mating
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Pubertal Development
Mate Preferences
Strategies to Optimize Mating and Reproduction
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Obsessive Fears
Obstetrical Dilemma
Obstructed Labor
Occipitotemporal Projection System
Occlusion
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Occlusion and Visual Completion in Humans and Nonhuman Animals
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Occurrence
Ocelli
Ocellus
Octave
Odor and Memory
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
What Is Odor-Evoked Memory?
Characteristics of Odor-Evoked Memory
Context-Dependent Memory
Conclusion
References
Odor Expertise
Odor Familiarity
Odor Recognition
Offensive Sexual Advance
Offerings
Offspring
Offspring Defense
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Defense Across Development
What Do Parents Defend Offspring Against?
How Do Parents Defend Offspring?
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Offspring Diversity Hypothesis
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Benefits of Offspring Diversity
Offspring Diversity Mechanisms
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Offspring Mating Behavior
Offspring Protection
Offspring Sex
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Facultative Adjustment of Offspring Sex
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Offspring-Parent Attachment
Definition
Introduction
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Old Age
Older Men
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Olduvai Gorge, The
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Importance of the Site
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Olfactory Brain
Olfactory Bulb, The
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
The Architecture of the Olfactory Bulb
Laminar Structure of the Olfactory Bulb
The Function of the Olfactory Bulb
Conclusion
References
Olfactory Memory
Olfactory Navigation
Olfactory Perceptual Learning
Omega-3 Fatty Acids
Omophagous
On the Origin of Species
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Evolutionary Mechanisms in the Origin
Speciation in the Origin
Extinction in the Origin
Classification in the Origin
Geographical Distribution in the Origin
Instinct in the Origin
The Initial Reception of the Origin
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection, or the Preservation of Favoured Races in the Struggle for Life
Onanism
One Offspring
One Parent´s Offspring Whose Other Parents Are Different
One-Male Group
One-Male Troop
One-Male/Multi-female Group
One-Male-Multi/Female Troop
One-Night Stand
One-Night Stands
Online Questionnaire
Online Survey
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Benefits of Online Surveys
Disadvantages of Online Surveys
Mechanical Turk
Tips for Conducting Online Studies
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Onomatopoeia
Onset of Menstruation
Ontogenetic Adaptations
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Ontogenetic Adaptations of the Prenatal Period and Infancy
Ontogenetic Adaptations of Childhood
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Ontogenetic Versus Deferred Adaptations
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Ontogenetic Adaptations
Deferred Adaptations
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Ontogeny
Open to Sex
Openness to Experience
Operant Behavior
Operant Conditioning
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Overview of Operant Conditioning
The Work of B. F. Skinner
Necessary Conditions for Learning
Contiguity
Discrepancy
Principles of Operant Conditioning
Consequences and Contingencies in Operant Conditioning: Reinforcement and Punishment
Schedules of Reinforcement
Shaping
Chaining
Superstitious Behavior
Applications of Operant Conditioning
Behavior Modification
Applied Behavior Analysis (ABA)
Evolutionary Perspectives on Operant Conditioning
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Operant Conditioning Chamber
Operational Sex Ratio
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Evolutionary Dynamics
Sex Roles in Reproduction
Male-Biased Sex Ratios
Female-Biased Sex Ratios
Polygyny
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Opportunistic Mating
Opposing Reproductive Goals
Opposite-Gender Friend
Opposite-Sex Friend
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Historical and Social Context
Evolutionary Psychology and Opposite-Sex Friends
Sexual Attraction in Opposite-Sex Friendships
Advantages and Disadvantages of Having Opposite-Sex Friends
Methodological Considerations in Researching Opposite-Sex Friendships
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Opposite-Sex Friendships
Opposite-Sex Interpersonal Relationships
Opposite-Sex Peer Acceptance
Opposite-Sex Relationships
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Peer Relationships
Opposite-Sex Peer Relationships
Research Findings
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Opposition to Economic Redistribution
Opposition to Human Sperm Competition
Definitions
Introduction
Female Infidelity and Levels of Extra-Pair Paternity
Sperm Fertility
Sperm Biology
Male Genitalia
Seminal Fluids
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Oppressing
Optical Flattening
Optical Illusions
Optimal Clutch Size
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Lack´s Model
Individual Variation and the Underestimation of Fitness Trade-Offs
Additional Costs of Clutch Size
Individual Optimization
Litter Size and Interbirth Interval in Humans
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Optimal Designs
Products and Byproducts of Natural Selection
Case Study: The Spandrels of San Marco
What Is Optimal?
A Note on Terminology
Optimal Designs Are Peaks on the Adaptive Landscape
Natural Selection Cannot Cross a Fitness Valley
Genetic Drift Gets in the Way of Natural Selection
What ``Optimal´´ Means
What ``Optimal´´ Does Not Mean
Optimal for What Purpose? And for Whom?
Game Theory and Evolutionary Stable Strategies
Symbiosis and Parasitism
Intragenomic Conflict
Examples of Optimal Designs and Suboptimal Equilibria in Psychology
The Regions of the Brain: Layers of a Kluge
Optical Illusions: The Pitfalls of Solving an Impossible Problem
Cognitive Biases: Optimized Shortcuts
Summary
References
Optimal Foraging Models
Optimal Imitation
Optimal Learning
Optimal Litter Size
Optimal Skew Theory
Optimal Versus Stable Group Size
Optimally Primed Stimulus
Option Attributes
Or Markers of Adultery
Oral Cavity
Oral Contraception
Oral Contraceptives
Oral Gesture Theory
Oral Sex
Oral Sex and Human Sexual Behavior
Definition
Introduction
Functional Hypotheses of Oral Sex in Humans
Limitations and Future Directions
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Oral Sex and Initiation
Oral Sex and Sexual Debut
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Rates of Oral Sex, Overall and by Demographic Factors
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Oral Sex as Mate Retention
Definition
Introduction
Oral Sex as Mate Retention
Oral Sex as Benefit-Provisioning Mate Retention
Limitations and Future Directions
Conclusion
Cross-References
Acknowledgment
References
Ordinal Position
Organ of Corti
Organising Instruction
Organized
Organized-Insecure Attachment
Definition
Introduction
Insecure-Avoidant Attachment
Ambivalent/Resistant Attachment
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Organizers
Orgasm
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Physiological and Psychological Effects of Orgasm
Orgasm as an Adaptation
Orgasm as a By-Product
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Orgasm Triggered by Sexual Intercourse
Orgasmic Disorders
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Premature Ejaculation
Delayed/Inhibited Ejaculation
Female Orgasmic Disorder
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Orientation
Oriented Smell
Origin of Language
Origin of Species
Origins of Patriarchy
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Mechanisms of Control of Female Sexuality
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Ornamentation
Orrorin
Orrorin tugenensis
Definition
Introduction
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Ostensive Communication
Ostentatious Consumption
Ostracism
Othello Jealousy
Othello Syndrome
Other Children
Other-Focused Emotions
Otolith
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
The Saccule
The Utricle
Functions of the Otoliths
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Otolithic Membrane
Otolithic Organs
Outcomes of Homophobic Abuse
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Outcomes of Homophobic Abuse
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Outer (External) Ear
Outer Ear, The
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
The Pinna
The Ear Canal
Conclusion
References
Out-Group
Outgroup Derogation
Out-Group Members
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Social Identity Theory
Out-Group Homogeneity Bias
Perceived Threat
Contact Hypothesis
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Overconfidence
Overimitation
Overweight
Ovulate
Ovulation
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Cyclic Variation in Female Mate Preferences
Changes in Female Sexual Motivation
Changes in Female Attractiveness
Male Detection of Ovulation
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Ovulation Suppression
Ovulatory Cycle
Ovulatory Cycle Phase
Ovulatory Cycle Phases
Ovulatory Hormones
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Ovulatory Shifts in Attraction
Ovulatory Shifts in Psychology
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Concealed Ovulation?
Sexual Desire
Attractiveness and Desire
Dual Mating
Dressing During the Ovulatory Cycle
Preferences for Partners
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Oxidants
Oxidative Stress and Free Radicals
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Oxidative Stress
Free Radicals
Mechanism of Action of Free Radicals
Health Implications of Oxidative Stress and Free Radicals
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Oxytocine
P
Pace of Life
Pacification
Paddling
Pain/Absence of Pleasure
Pair Bonding
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
The Evolutionary Function of Pair-Bond Attachment
Increased Offspring Survival by Means of Strong Affectional Ties between Mates
Further Reproductive Advantages of Pair Bonds
Pair-Bond Functioning and Romantic Attachment Styles
Individual Differences in Pair Bonding: Attachment or Reproductive Strategies?
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Pair Bonds
Pair-Bond Attachment
Pair-Bonding
Pair-Bonding in Other Mammals
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
What is Pair-bonding and How do we Measure it?
What Other Mammals Pair-Bond?
What Is the Neurobiological and Physiological Basis of Pair-Bonding in Other Mammals?
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Palatability
Paleoanthropology
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Paleoanthropology
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Paleoneurology
Pallium
Pan
Panhuman Manifestations of Genealogical Relationships
Pant Hoots
Paraaustralopithecus aethiopicus
Parable
Paranthropus
Paranthropus aethiopicus
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Morphology and Evolutionary Relationships
Key Specimens
Behavior
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Paranthropus boisei
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Morphology and Evolutionary Relationships
Key Specimens
Behavior
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Paranthropus robustus
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Discoveries
Dating
Morphology
Taxonomic Views
Dietary Habits
Tool Use
Sexual Dimorphism and Mating System
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Paraphilia
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Official Definitions of Paraphilias
Defining Paraphilia from an Evolutionary Perspective
Paraphilia and Sexual Drive
Sexuality and Psychopathology
Sexuality and the Law
How Can Disorders of Sexual Preference Be Defined?
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Paraphilias
Parasite Adversity
Parasite Avoidance
Parasites
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
An Evolutionary Overview of Parasites
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Parasite-Stress Theory
Parasitic Male
Parasympathetic Nervous System
Parencephalis
Parent Influences
Synonyms
Introduction to Parental Influence
The Role of Parental Investment
Attachment Theory and Parental Influence
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Parent(s)
Parental Behavior
Parental Care
Parental Care, Parenting
Parental Choice
Parental Effort
Parental Effort Versus Mating Effort
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Parental Filicide
Parental Infanticide
Parental Influence
Parental Investment
Parental Investment and Parenting
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Evolutionary Psychology Approach
Analytical Systems Approach (Interactions of Individual Traits)
Context-Dependent Parenting
Parental Condition Dependent
Normative Cultural Value-Based Versus Functional Fitness-Based Approach
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Parental Investment and Sexual Selection
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Parental Investment and Parental Care
Sex Differences in Parental Investment, Mate Competition, and Sexual Selection
Multiple Mating and Parentage Can Affect Parental Investment and Sexual Selection
Time Out of the Mating Pool Post-Care Can Affect Investment and Sexual Selection
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Parental Investment and Sexual Selection (Trivers Foundational Theory)
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Trivers´ Model
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Parental Investment as Mating Effort
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Care for the Offspring as a Strategy of Sexual Competition
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Parental Investment Theory
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Forms of Parental Investment
How Are Asymmetries Determined?
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Parental Investment Theory (Middle-Level Theory in Evolutionary Psychology)
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Fisher´s Principle
Hamilton´s Inclusive Fitness (Kin Selection) Theory
Trivers´ Model of Parental Investment
Parent-Offspring Conflict
r/K Selection Hypothesis and Life-History Theory
Differential Parental Investment in Sons and Daughters
Trivers-Willard Hypothesis
Reproductive Variance Hypothesis
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Parental Investment vs. Mating Effort
Parental Mate Choice
Parental Monitoring
Parental Sensitivity
Parent-Child Resemblance
Parenthood
Parenting
Parenting Benefits
Parenting Costs
Parenting Decisions
Parenting Effort
Parent-Offspring Conflict
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Conflict Over Continuation of Parental Investment
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Parent-Offspring Conflict (Trivers)
Definition
Introduction
The Status of the Theory
Parent-Offspring Conflict in Relation to Relatedness and Age
Who Wins Parent-Offspring Conflict?
The Paradox
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Parent-Offspring Conflict in Mate Selection
Parents-as-Mediators
Parity
Parochial Altruism
Partial Migration
Partner Abuse
Partner Abuse and Homicide
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Theoretical Overview
Risk Factors
Sex
Age
Jealousy and Cuckoldry Risk
Women Who Abuse Men
Relationship Status
Psychopathy
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Partner Abuse and Homicide: Victims and Perpetrators
Explaining Characteristics of Perpetrators and Victims
Cross-References
References
Partner Characteristics
Partner Choice
Partner Death as Designed Outcome
Cross-References
References
Partner Desertion
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Partner Exploitation
Partner Homicide
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Hypothesis: Reproductive Conflicts Are at the Core of Partner Homicides
Predicted Traits of Partner Homicide and Their Empirical Support
Sex Differentiation in Motive for Partner Homicide Perpetration
Sexual Proprietariness
Staying Alive
Age of Perpetrator and Victim
The Woman´s Age as a Predictor for the Risk for Victimization
The Woman´s Age as a Predictor for the Risk for Perpetration
Age Disparity as a Predictor for the Risk to Both Sexes
Increased Risk Among Cohabiting Couples Compared to Married Couples
Children from Previous Relationships
Familicide
Nonheterosexual Relationships and Partner Homicide
Cross-National Variance in Rates of Partner Homicide
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Partner Killing
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
The Evolution of Paricide
Paricide Prevalence
Adolescent Dating Violence as a Risk Factor
LGBTQIA Community
Emotional Factors
Means Used to Commit Paricide
Motives to Commit Paricide
Married or Cohabitating
Neurological Factors and Intimate Partner Killings
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Partner or Acquaintance Rape
Partner Preference
Partner Preference Effects
Partner Preferences
Partner Rape
Synonyms
Definition
Causes of Partner Rape
Cross-References
References
Partner Reproductive Value
Partner Sexual Coercion
Partner Violence
Partner-Directed Violence
Partnerships
Passive Coping
Pasture
Paternal Assurance Tactics
Paternal Care
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Particularities and Predictors of Paternal Care
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Paternal Discrepancy
Paternal Disengagement
Paternal Grandfather Invests Least
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Empirical Evidence
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Paternal Grandfather Versus Maternal Grandmother
Paternal Insecurity
Paternal Investment
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Background
Testosterone and Paternal Investment
Paternal Investment and Offspring Developmental Outcomes
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Paternal Investment Relative to Maternal Investment
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Evidences of PI Theory in Nonhuman Animals
Human Tests of PI Theory
Competing Theories of Cooperative Breeding
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Paternal Resemblance
Definition
Introduction
Hypothetical Investment
Resemblance, Investment, and the Brain
Adult Versus Child Faces
Maternal Strategies
Conclusions
Cross-References
References
Paternal Role
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Evolution of the Paternal Role
Family Dynamic
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Paternal Uncertainty
Paternal-Offspring Conflict
Paternity Certainty
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Paternity Certainty and Paternal Care
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Paternity Confusion
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Biological and Behavioral Adaptations Related to Paternal Confusion
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Paternity Uncertainty
Paternity Uncertainty and Father-Offspring Conflict
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Paternity Uncertainty and Father-Offspring Conflict
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Paternity Uncertainty and Investment in Sons and Daughters
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Paternal Investment and Paternity Uncertainty
Grandparental Investment and Paternal Uncertainty
Adoption and Paternal Investment
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Paternity Uncertainty Hypothesis
Synonyms
Definitions
Introduction
Paternity Uncertainty
Conclusions
Cross-References
References
Pathogen Avoidance
Pathogen Defense
Pathogen Disgust and Perceptions of Attractiveness
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Health and Perceptions of Attractiveness
Individual Differences in Pathogen Disgust
Temporary Salience of Pathogen Threat
Environmental Variation in Pathogen Prevalence
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Pathogen Load and Attractiveness
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Immunocompetence Handicap Hypothesis
Human Cues to Pathogen Load
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Pathogen Prevalence
Pathogen Protection
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Resistance and Tolerance: An Intricate Dance
Immune Structure and Interactions
The Fetal Role: An Active Player
Conclusions
References
Pathogen Resistance
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Pathogen Resistance: Evolutionary Perspectives
Evasion of Host Immunity by Pathogens
Resistance Against Antimicrobial Drugs
Resistance Genes from Food
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Pathogen Resistance Theory
Pathogen Risk
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Physiological and Behavioral Immune Systems
Psychological Consequences of Pathogen Risk
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Pathogens
Pathological Jealousy
Patriarchy
Patriarchy and Feminist Perspectives
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Male Dominance and the Origins of Patriarchy
Feminist Perspectives: Female Resistance as a Threat to Patriarchy
The Darwinian Feminism
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Patrigene
Pattern of Biased Grandparental Investment
Patterns of Helping Behavior
Paul Vasey
Definition
Synonyms
Introduction
Research Interests
Japanese Macaque Research
Cross-cultural Research
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Pavlovian Conditioning
Pay Equity
PD
Peck Order
Pecking Order
Pedigree
Peer Acceptance
Peer Competition and Cooperation
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Evolutionary and Psychological Perspectives of Peer Competition and Cooperation
Peer Competition
Developmental Trajectory of Peer Competition
Cross-Cultural Differences in Peer Competition
Norm-Driven Peer Competition
Peer Cooperation
The Two Problems of Peer Cooperation
The Ontogeny of the Mechanisms for Generating and Distributing the Benefit of Peer Cooperation
The Phylogeny of the Mechanisms for Generating and Distributing the Benefit of Peer Cooperation
Peer Cooperation and Shared Intentionality
The Cooperative Origins of Shared Intentionality
The Role of Ontogeny in the Evolution of Human Peer Cooperation
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Peer Effect
Peer Feedback and Norms
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Need to Belong Theory
Assimilation
Differentiation
Positive Feedback
Negative Feedback
Conclusion
References
Peer Groups
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Stratification of Peer Groups
Peer Groups as an Adaptation
Social Dominance
Sex Differences in Peer Groups
Male Peer Groups
Female Peer Groups
Potential Outcomes of Peer Group Membership
Well-Being and Health
Academic Performance
Risk-Taking
Bullying and Victimization
Conclusion: Implications of Evolutionary Research on Peer Groups
Cross-References
References
Peer Networks
Peer Norm
Peer Pressure
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Peer Pressure and Child Development
Peer Pressure and Mating
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Peer Rejection
Peer Rejection, Gender Differences in Response to
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Psychological Detriments
Physiological Detriments
Behavioral Outcomes
Conclusion
References
Peer Rejection, Sex Differences in Initiation of
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Varieties of Rejection
Cyber Rejection
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Peer Relationships
Peer Relationships in Childhood
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
The Evolutionary Significance of Peer Relationships
A Developmental Perspective on Peer Relationships
Determinants of Peer Relationships
Relationship Competencies and Motivations of Individual Children
Relationships as an Entity
Quality and Impact of Peer Relationships
Building Effective Peer Relationships
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Peer Socialization
Synonyms
Introduction to Peer Socialization
Defining Peer Socialization
Homophily in Social Groups
Mate Selection
Group Socialization Theory on Personality Development
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Peer Victimization
Peers
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Evolutionary Perspectives on Peer Relationships in Adolescence
Neurobiological Bases of Peer Influence in Adolescence
Implications for Interventions
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Peer-to-Peer Aggression
Peggy Mason
Synonyms
Definition
Peggy Mason
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Penalize
Penetrating Injury
Penile Evolution
Penile-Vaginal Sex
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Activating the Vagina for Coitus
The Female Orgasm Problem
The Anterior Vaginal Wall Complex
Is the Cervix Stimulated in PVI Causing Sexual Arousal?
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
People´s Responses to Personal Ads
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Sex Sells Sometimes
Same-Sex Stimuli May also Sell
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Perceived Control and Suicide from an Evolutionary Mismatch Perspective
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Evolutionary Underpinnings of Perceived Control-Suicide Link
Perceived Control-Suicide Link from an Evolutionary Mismatch Viewpoint
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Perceived Income Inequality
Perceived Insurmountable Problems and Self-Murder
Perceived Social Threat
Perceiving Sexual Intent
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Error Management Theory and the Overperception Bias
The Influence of Alcohol on Overperception
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Perception of One´s Capability and Extreme Fears of Some Creatures
Perceptions of Infidelity
Synonyms
Definition
Perceptions of Infidelity
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Perceptions of Infidelity Cues
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Male Masculinity
Female Femininity
The Role of Attractiveness in Perceptions of Infidelity
Implications for Mate Choice
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Perceptions of Race
Percussive Lithic Tools
Performance
Performance Enhancement
Perinatal Depression
Peripartum Depression
Peripheral Auditory System
Permanent Marking
Permissibility of Reproduction
Synonyms
Definitions
Introduction
The Natalist Debate
The Antinatalist Debate
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Perpetrators Mostly men
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Gender Differences in Criminal Involvement: Why are Perpetrators Mostly men?
Matting Effort: Competition, Fitness, and Sexual Selection
Genetic and Neurohormonal Differences: Evolutionary Androgenic Theory
Conclusion
References
Persistence
Personal Distress
Personal Memory
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Self-Observation
Self-Observation as a Social Process
Self-Observation and Consciousness
Self-Observation Within Psychotherapy
Inceptive and Derived Memory
Human Memory and Computation
Adaptive Function of Memory and Its Properties
Benefits and Disadvantages
Trait Summaries
Stored Episodes
Scope Hypothesis
Boundary Conditions on the Scope of Generalizations
Decision Context
The Self-Study
The Mother Study
Summary Representation
Summary Representation as a Function in Scope Hypothesis
The Statistical Nature of Summary Representation
Change Blindness
The Role of Attention
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Personal Protection
Personal Value
Personality
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Personality and Mate Poaching
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Personality Correlates of Mate Poaching Attempts
Personality Correlates of Mate Poaching Success
Personality Correlates of Being a Target of Mate Poaching
Personality Correlates of Being Successfully Poached
Personality Correlates of Being a Victim of Mate Poaching
Sex Differences in Personality Correlates of Poaching Experiences
Cross-Cultural Universality of the Relationship Between Personality and Mate Poaching Experiences
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Personality Development
Synonyms
Introduction
Defining Personality
Heritability and Behavior
A Brief History of Personality Psychology
Personality, Development, and Change
Contextual Mechanisms of Change
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Personality Dimensions
Personality Disorders
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
The Ten Personality Disorders
Cluster A
Cluster B
Cluster C
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Personality Models
Personality Traits
Personality, Gender, and Culture
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Personality and Darwinian Fitness
Sex Differences in Personality Traits
Sex Differences in Sociality and Social Outcomes
Culture, Development, and Caveats
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Personalized Experience
Perspective Taking
Peter Kropotkin
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Early Life
Mutual Aid and Siberia
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Petroglyphs
Phantom Limbs
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Phantom Pain
Phantom Sensations
Pharynx
Phenomenological Self
Phenoptosis
Phenotype
Phenotype Linked Fertility Hypothesis, The
Definition
Introduction
Predictions, Assumptions and Evidence
Constraints on Investment
Current Evidence
Assumptions of the PLFH
Conclusion
Cross References
References
Phenotype Matching
Phenotypic and Genotypic Plasticity
Phenotypic Cues
Phenotypic Matching
Phenotypic Quality Advertisement
Phenotypic Resemblance and Kinship Detection
References
Phenotypic Similarity
Phenotypic Variance
Philippa Foot
Synonyms
Definitions
Introduction
The Scholarship of Philippa Foot
Conclusions
Cross-References
References
Philomachus pugnax
Philopatry
Philosopher
Philosophical Antecedents of Darwin
Philosophical Foundations for a Modern Morality
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
What Is ``Modern Morality´´?
Naturalism
Substantive Ethics
Metaethics
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Philosophie Zoologique
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Zoological Philosophy: An Exposition with Regard to the Natural History of Animals
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Phobia
Phobias
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Phobic Disorders
Specific Phobia
Social Phobia
Agoraphobia
Developmental Theories of Phobias
Treatment
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Phonemes and Symbols
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Signs and Phonemes
Phonemes and Allophones
Minimal Pairs
Phonemic Inventories
Levels of Representation
Symbolic Operations and Rules
Distinctive Features
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Phonological Loop and Rehearsal
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
The Two-Component Model of Phonological Loop
Evidence for the Phonological Loop
Evolutionary Functions of the Phonological Loop
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Phonological Short-Term Memory
Phonological Store and Articulatory Rehearsal
Phylogenetic
Phylogenetic Analysis Within Comparative Psychology
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Phylogenetic Signal
Phylogenetic Independent Contrasts
Phylogenetic Generalized Least Squares Regression
Phylogenetic Path Analysis
Phylogenetic Logistic Regression and Phylogenetic Generalized Linear Mixed Models
Correlated Evolution with Categorical Traits
Phylogenetic Meta-Analysis
Models to Test and Compare Evolutionary Processes
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Phylogenetic Comparative Methods
Phylogenetic Generalized Least Squares Regression
Phylogenetic Meta-analysis
Phylogenetic Path Analysis
Phylogenetic Signal
Phylogenetic Study of Homosexual Behavior
Phylogeny of Light Detection and Vision
Phylogeny of Play Behavior
Physical
Physical Activities
Physical Activity
Physical Aggression
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Sex Differences in Physical Aggression
Explanations of Sex Differences from an Evolutionary Perspective
Aggression in a Modern Context
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Physical and Verbal Aggression
Physical Assault
Physical Attacks
Physical Attractiveness
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Female Attractiveness
Male Attractiveness
Physical Attractiveness Is Adaptive
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Physical Bullying
Physical Characteristics
Physical Cognition
Physical Discipline
Physical Force
Physical Health
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Physical Activity for Mood, Cardiovascular Health and Body Concept
Nutrients and Sports
Conclusion
Acknowledgment
References
Physical Punishment
Physical Self-Similarity
Physical Shape
Physician
Physician-Assisted Death
Physiologic Processes
Physiological Evidence for Human Sperm Competition
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Ejaculate Adjustment
Semen Displacement
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Physiological Mechanisms
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Physiological Mechanisms: Variations
Physiological Mechanisms: Evolutionary Significance
Physiological Mechanisms: Health Significance
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Physiological Responses
Physiology
Physiology of Language
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Physiology of Speech Perception
Physiology of Speech Articulation and Production
Physiology of Reading
Conclusions
Cross-References
References
Physiology of Reading Processes
Physiology of Speech Articulation
Physiology of Speech Perception
Physique
Picture Brides
Pidgins and Creoles
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
On the Nature of Pidgins and Creoles
On the Superstratist, Substratist, and Universalist Views of Creole Genesis
Current Theories of Creole Formation: The Interlanguage Hypothesis, Relexification, Language Creation, and Feature Recombinati...
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Piercings
Pinker and Chomsky
Pinker Evolutionary Psychology
Pinker´s (1994) The Language Instinct
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Universal Grammar and Innateness of Language
The Myth of Degenerating Language
Mentalese
Design of Language
Evolution and Language
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Placental Proteins in Semen
Definition
Introduction
Pregnancy Outcomes
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Plain
Planned
Plant Hybridization
Platonic Jealousy
Play
Play and Social Learning
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Development Through Social Learning
Importance of Play
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Play and Tool Use
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
What Is Play?
Object Play
Tool Use
Cross-References
References
Play as Adaptation
Play Fighting in Boys
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Definition of Play
Types of Play
R&T and Play Fighting
Underlying Factors in Play Fighting
Evolutionary Factors in Play Fighting
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Play with Others
Playful Behavior
Pledge to Marry
Pleiotropy
Definition
Introduction
Evolutionary Theory of Aging
Molecular Genetics
Prevalence and Disease
Types of Pleiotropy Based on Effects
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Pointing
Political Affiliation
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
What Is Evolutionary Political Psychology?
Evolutionary Predictors of Political Affiliation
Moral Foundations and Motivated Social Cognition
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Political Attitudes
Political Bias
Political Ideologies
Political Ideology
Political Interest
Political Left, The
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Relativism Versus Human Rights
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Political Mechanisms
Political Orientation
Political Psychology
Political Scientist
Politics in Science
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Psychological Mechanisms Involved in Political Ideologies
Pathogen Aversion
Moral Modules
Political Bias in Science
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Poll
Polyadic Aggression
Polyandry
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Explanations for Polyandry
When Polyandrous Marriages Persist: A Multidimensional Conundrum
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Polygamy
Polygamy (Behavioral Ecology)
Synonyms
Definition
Polygamy and Parental Investment
Environmental Influences on Mating Systems
Mammalian Mating Systems
Avian Mating Systems
Mating Systems and Sexual Conflict
The Evolution of Polyandry
Lek Mating Systems
Human Polygamy
References
Polygamy in Humans
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Evidence for Polygyny
Evidence for Polyandry
Advantages of Monogamy
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Polygamy Threshold
Polygynandry
Polygyny
Polygyny and Effective Population Sex Ratio
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Reproductive Dynamics
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Polygyny and Male Risk-Taking for Status
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Human Reproductive Dynamics
Polygyny
Human Polygyny and Risk-Taking
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Polygyny Threshold (Behavioral Ecology)
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
From Monogamy to Polygyny
The Polygyny Threshold Model
Counter-Evidences and Criticism
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Polygyny Threshold, The
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Parental Investment and Female Choice
Female Mate Preferences
Women´s Preference for Resources
The Polygyny Threshold: Theory
The Polygyny Threshold in Humans: Empirical Evidence
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Polyvagal Theory
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Vagal Tone
Vagal Paradox
Polyvagal Theory
Afferent Pathways: Neuroception
Efferent Pathways: Phylogenic Differences
DVC
VVC
Vagal Brake
Phylogenetic Hierarchies
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Pooh-Pooh
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Popular Children
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Social Dominance: Aggression and Victimization
Risk-Taking Behaviors
Positive Outcomes for Popular Children
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Popularity
Population Bottleneck
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Population Bottleneck with Respect to Climate Fluctuations
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Population Ecology
Pornography and Women´s Short-Term Mating
Definition
Introduction
Opposition to Pornography
Short-Term Mating
Two Human Natures
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Pornography as a Human Product and Source of Data
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Pornography and Environmental Mismatch
Content of Pornography Appealing Primarily to Men
Content of Pornography Appealing to Women
Content Specifically Related to Increasing Reproductive Success
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Positive and Negative Reinforcement and Punishment
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Positive and Negative Reinforcement
Primary and Secondary Reinforcement
Intrinsic and Extrinsic Reinforcement
Positive and Negative Punishment
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Positive Frequency-Dependent Selection
Positive Impacts of Exposure to Nature on Human Health
Positive Parenting
Positive Psychology
Positive Punishment
Positive Reinforcement
Positive Sexual Development
Synonyms
Definitions
Introduction
Factors Affecting Sexual Development
Positive Sexual Development
Implications
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Positive Sexual Imprinting
Postcolonial Studies
Postcolonialism
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Colonialism and Its Effects
Postcolonialism and Mainstream Psychology
Conclusion
References
Postcoloniality
Post-Copulation Strategies in Oocyte Fertilization
Postcopulatory Conflict
Postcopulatory Sexual Selection
Post-Copulatory Sexual Selection
Postmenopausal Altruism
Postmenopausal Somatic Maintenance Post-Reproductive Longevity
Postnatal
Postpartum Depression
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Etiopathogenesis of Postpartum Depression
Clinical Features of Postpartum Depression
Nosological Status of Postpartum Depression
Management of Postpartum Depression
Implications of Postpartum Depression
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Post-Reproductive Life Span
Potential Mate or Partner Fitness Value
Potential Mates
Pounding Tools
Power
Powerlessness
Practical Reasoning
Practice
Practice Play
Practices
Praeanthropus
Pragmatics
Prairie
Precopulatory Conflict
Precopulatory Intrasexual Competition
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Context, Causes and Consequences
Weapons and Fights
Alternative Reproductive Tactics and Intrasexual Dimorphism
Precopulatory Mate Guarding
Precopulatory Intrasexual Competition and Sexual Conflict
Female-Female Competition
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Precopulatory Sexual Selection
Precursor to Language
Predacious
Pre-Darwinian Evolutionary Ideas
Pre-Darwinian Species Definitions
Predator Attraction
Predator Confusion Hypothesis
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Alarm Call Creates Confusion
Confusion Enables Escape
Conclusions
Cross-References
References
Predator Detection
Predator Deterrence Hypothesis
Predator Satiation
Predator Saturation
Predator Swamping
Synonyms
Cross-References
References
Predators
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Effects on Hunting Behaviors
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Predators as Attention-Grabbing
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Threats, Fears, and Attention
Related Findings and Conclusions
Cross-References
References
Predicting Events and Behavior
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Predicting Events
Predicting Behaviors
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Predictors of Grandparental Investment
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Genetic Relatedness
Sex and Lineage
Sex of a Grandchild
Outcomes of Grandparental Investment
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Predictors of Infanticide
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Biological Parents vs. Stepparents
Discriminative Parental Solicitude, Life History, and Infanticide
Low-Fitness Offspring
Mothers´ Age
Paternal Support
Resource Scarcity
Birth Spacing
Can We Reduce Infanticide?
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Predictors of Sexual Debut
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Theoretical Perspectives
Sex Differences
Environmental Predictors
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Predictors of Violent Intergroup Conflict
Predisposing Factors
Predisposition
Preference
Preference by Mating Context
Preference for Solitude
Preferences in Long- Versus Short-Term Mating
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Men`s Preference by Mating Context
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Preferential Investment Hypothesis
Preferential Investment in More Certain Kin
Pre-frontal Cortex
Pregnancy
Pregnancy Brain
Pregnancy Complications
Definition
Introduction
Objectives of the Chapter
Pregnancy with Previous Caesarean Section
Definition
Impact of Complications on the Outcome
Complications During Pregnancy and Postpartum
Effects on the Scar
Effects on the Healing Wound
Diagnosis
Management
Elective C-Section
Emergency C-Section
Vaginal Birth After Caesarean Section
Pregnancy in RH-Negative Women
Impact of RH Alloimmunization
Diagnosis
Management
Elderly Primigravida
Complication
During Pregnancy
During Labor and Delivery
Fetal Risks
Puerperium
Perinatal Outcome
Grand Multipara
Definition
Parity
Incidence
Complications of Grand Multipara
Pregnancy
Labour and Delivery
Puerperium
Long-term effects
Management
Bad Obstetric History
Anti-phospholipid Syndrome
Inherited Thrombophilia
Management
Vigilance
High-Risk Pregnancy
Obesity in Pregnancy
Effects on Pregnancy
Effects on Labor
Puerperium
Management
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Pregnancy Prevention
Pregnancy Sickness
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Is pregnancy sickness adaptive?
Prediction 1
Prediction 2
Prediction 3
Prediction 4
Prediction 5
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Pregnancy-Induced Diabetes
Prehistoric Human Art
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Prehistoric Human Art
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Prejudice
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Overview
Implicit Versus Explicit Prejudice
Forms of Prejudice Expression
Functions of Prejudice
Prejudice as Affect
Prejudice from an Evolutionary Perspective
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Prejudice as an Expression of Tribalism
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Cross-References
References
Premarital Sexual Permissiveness
Introduction
Concept of Sexual Permissiveness
Factors Affecting Premarital Sexual Permissiveness
Age
Religious Beliefs
Social Belief Systems
Knowledge About Health Risks
Perceptions of Gender Role Expectations and Traditional Norms
Scales for Measurement of Premarital Sexual Permissiveness
Premarital Sexual Permissiveness Among Various Ethnicities
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Premature Birth
Premature Ejaculation
Premature Infants
Prematurity
Premeditated Homicide
Premeditated Murder
Premodern Language Capacity
Prenatal
Prenatal Androgens
Prenatal Development
Prenatal Environment, The
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Background
Prenatal Environment as a Forecast
Parent-offspring Conflict
Maternal Stress and the HPA Axis
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Prenatal Hormones
Prenatal Sex Steroids
Prepuberal Gonadectomy
Presence of Children
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
How Parent´s Age Influences Their Mate Preferences in a Subsequent Partner
What Characteristics are Important in a Subsequent Partner?
How Children Actively Manipulate Mate Preferences of their Parents for Prospective Stepparents
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Presence of Siblings
Synonyms
Definition: Alloparents
Introduction
Presence of Siblings and Life Span Development
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Prestige
Prestriate Visual Cortex
Pretense
Preterm Birth
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
The Burden of Preterm Birth
Human Pregnancy, in Brief
Evolutionary Perspectives on Birth Timing in Humans
Mismatch and PTB
Trade-Offs and PTB
Evolutionary Conflicts and PTB
Conclusion
Cross-References
Acknowledgment
References
Preterm Labor
Prevalence of Forced Copulation in Orangutans
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Orangutan Background Information
Defining Forced Copulations
Why Do Forced Copulations Occur?
Forced and Cooperative Matings, by the Numbers
Why Are Forced Copulations Prevalent in Orangutans
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Prevalence of STDs
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Scope of the Problem
Subsequent Morbidities of STDs
STD Prevention
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Prevention of Infidelity
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Preventing Infidelity
Men´s Strategies to Prevent Female Infidelity
Women´s Strategies to Prevent Male Infidelity
Mechanisms to Detect Infidelity Cues in Partners and Interlopers
Men´s Infidelity Detection Mechanisms
Women´s Infidelity Detection Mechanisms
Reducing Adaptive Costs of Infidelity
Men´s Mechanisms
Women´s Mechanisms
Individual Differences in Infidelity Prevention
Physical Differences
Personality and Infidelity Prevention Strategies
Conclusion
References
Previously Hominid Evolution
Prey Availability
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Prey Availability and Foraging Decisions
Prey Availability, Plasticity, and Evolution
Predator-Prey Dynamics and Prey Availability
Prey Availability and Human Foraging
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Prey Choice
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Modeling Prey Choice
Learning Processes
Applications to Human Evolutionary Psychology
Evolution, Plasticity, and Prey Choice
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Prey Preference
Prey Selection
Pride
Primary and Secondary Auditory Cortex
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
The Primary Auditory Cortex
The Secondary Auditory Cortex
Conclusion
References
Primary Circular Reactions
Primary Language Acquisition
Primate
Primate Aggression
Primate Brain Size Evolution
Primate Cooperation
Definition
Introduction
Diversity of Primate Cooperation
Mechanisms of Primate Cooperation
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Primate Dominance Hierarchies
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Describing and Quantifying Dominance Hierarchies
Dominance Hierarchies in Primates: Variation and Phylogenetic Patterns
Explaining the Evolution of Primate Dominance Hierarchies: Socioecological Models
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Primate Economic Strategies
Primate Gesture
Definition
Introduction
Primate Gestures
Intentional Communication
Relevance to the Origins of Language
Gesture Development and Social Cognition
Pointing and Other Nonverbal Deictic Signals
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Primate Menopause
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Great Apes
Baboons
Macaques
New-World Monkeys
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Primate Object Permanence
Primate Sexual Behavior
Primate Sexuality
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Primate Socio-Sexual Ecology
Sexual Behavior of Solitary Species
Sexual Behavior of Pair-Bonded Primates
Sexual Behavior of Polyandrous Primates
Old World Monkeys
Sexual Behavior of Uni-male Groups
Sexual Behavior of Multi-male Groups
Apes´ Sexuality
Rape in Orangutans
Gorillas and Incest Behavior
Bonobo Sex for Resources and Sex as a ``Social Vehicle´´
Other Relevant Aspects of Primate Sexuality
Consorting
Copulation Dynamics
Sperm Competition
Sperm Plugs
Sneakers and Rape
Extra-Pair Copulation
Male Masturbation
Female Masturbation
Homosexual Behavior
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Primate Sperm Competition
Definition
Introduction
Sperm Quality
Ejaculate Physiology and Frequency
Social Organization
Male Behavior
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Primate Tool Use
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Stick Tools and Foraging
Hammers and Anvils for Foraging
Fluid Transportation
Climbing and Other Motion Assists
Agonistic Encounters Using ``Weapons´´
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Primates
Priming Paradigm
Primitively Eusocial
Primogeniture
Principles of Geology
Cross-References
References
Prior Relationships
Prisoner´s Dilemma
Prisoner´s Dilemma and Cooperation
Synonyms
Brief Definition
Introduction
The Prisoner´s Dilemma
Solution 1: Repeated Interactions
Solution 2: Kin Selection
Solution 3: Cooperative Assortment
Solution 4: Communication and Coordination
Multilevel Selection and the Evolution of Cooperation
Limitations of the PD for Understanding Cooperation
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Prisoner´s Dilemma Outcomes
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Prisoner Dilemma Scenarios in the Repeated Prisoner´s Dilemma
Mutual Cooperation/Mutual Defection
Sucker´s Payoff and Temptation to Defect
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Prisoner´s Dilemma, The
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
The Prisoner´s Dilemma Game
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Privileges of the Human Brain
Proactive Aggression
Proactive Homicide
Proactive Murder
Probability
Probability of Anger
Probability of Fertilization
Probability Theory
Probing Tools
Problem of Altruism
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Formal Definition of Altruism
Altruism in the Real World
Alternative Definitions of Altruism
Altruism and Multilevel Selection
Short-Term Altruism
Evolutionary and Psychological Altruism
Does Psychological Altruism Exist?
Case Study of Human Altruism: Behavior in Economic Games
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Problem of Cheating
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Theory and Evidence
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Problem of Genetic Inheritance, The
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Alternative Strategies
Conditional Adaptation
Gene-Environment Correlation
Gene-Environment Interactions
Epigenetic Modification
The Missing Heritability Problem
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Problem Solving
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Types of Problems
Problem Solving Strategies
Problem Solving Methods
Obstacles and Aids in Problem Solving
Neuropsychology of Problem Solving
Cross-References
References
Problem Solving Ability
Problems of Assessing Fertility
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Physiological Measures
Basal Body Temperature (BBT)
Cervical Mucus Monitoring
Counting Methods
Hormonal Methods
Luteinizing Hormone (LH) Measurement
Estrogen-to-Progesterone (E/P) Ratio
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Problems with Group Selection
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Alternative Explanations for Group Selection
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Procedural Knowledge
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Evolutionary Perspective of Procedural Knowledge
Gibson´s Theory
Nonhuman Species and Evolvement of Knowledge
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Procedural Learning
Procedures for Dealing with Bullies
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Definition of Bullying
Prevalence of Bullying
Evolutionary History of Bullying
Motivations for Bullying During Development
Psychological Effects of Bullying on Victims
Procedures for Curbing Bullying
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Procreation
Procreative Ethics
Procryptic Resemblance
Producing Young
Production
Production of Eggs and Sperm
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
The Evolution of Sex-Differentiated Gametes
From Asexual to Sexual Reproduction
The Origins of Gamete Dimorphism, or Males and Females
Intrasexual and Intersexual Selection Drives Production of Large Numbers of Tiny Sperm to Compete for Access to Valuable Femal...
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Professor
Professor of Political Science and Public Policy
Profet
Progenicide
Progression
Progressive
Progressive Learning
Projected Confidence
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Self-Enhancement
Attractiveness
Coercion
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Prolificacy
Promiscuity
Promoting Paternity (You Look Like Your Father Phenomenon)
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Empirical Evidence
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Propagation
Proprietariness
Proprietary Mate Retention Tactics
Proprioception
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
The Role of Proprioception
Proprioception and Rehabilitation
Testing Proprioception at Sport
Proprioception Training Techniques
Proprioception and Consciousness
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Prosocial
Prosocial Behavior
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Proximate Causes of Prosocial Behavior
Other-Regarding Preferences: Helping and Sharing
Other-Regarding Concern: The Role of Empathy
Ultimate Causes of Prosocial Behavior
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Pro-social Behavior
Pro-social Emotions
Prosocial Norms
Prosociality
Prosodic Protolanguage
Prosopagnosia
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Prosopagnosia and Modularity of the Mind
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Prosopagnosia (Face Recognition)
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Clinical Chartacteristics
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Prospective Mates
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Self-Esteem and the Selection of Mates
Narcissism and Prospective Mates
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Prostitution
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
History of Prostitution
Regulation and Control
Service and Deviation
Customer Preferences
Male Prostitution
An Evolutionary Perspective
Conclusion
Acknowledgment
References
Prostitution and Legal Regulation of Sex
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Prostitution and Evolution
Legal Regulation of Sex
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Prostitution and Women´s Short-Term Mating
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
What´s in it for the Woman?
Daddy Issues
Sex Ratios
How Much to Charge?
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Protected Values
Protection and Evolution
Protective Resemblance
Protolanguage
Proto-Language
Proto-Sapiens
Protosyntax
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Emerging Languages
Modern Languages
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Proto-tool
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Fixed Anvils
How Different Is Proto-Tool Use from True Tool Use?
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Prototypical r-/K-Selected (Fast/Slow) Species
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Why Is There So Much Life History Variation?
Life History Theory
r-K Strategies
Extending the r-K Dichotomy: The Fast-Slow Continuum
Beyond Dichotomies: The Fast-Slow and Reproductive Strategies
Conclusions
Cross-References
References
Proto-World
Provisioning
Proximate and Ultimate Explanations
Proximate Behavior
Proximate Versus Ultimate Explanations
Psychiatric Darwinism
Psychiatry of Nonhuman Apes
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Measurement Challenges and Potential Solutions
Homologous Features in Individual Differences and Expression of Behavioral Symptoms
Behavioral and Psychopharmacological Interventions
Conclusions
Cross-References
References
Psychic Unity
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
History of the Concept
The Philosophical Origins of the ``Psychic Unity´´ Idea
Human Variation in Times of Biological Racism
The Search for Universals in the Rising Psychological and Cultural Sciences
Ideas of Psychic Unity in (Anthropological) Linguistics
The Biological Foundations of the Idea of Psychic Unity
Contemporary Debate on the Idea of Psychic Unity
Conclusion
Cross-References
Acknowledgment
References
Psychodynamic Foundations
Definition
Introduction
Psychodynamic Roots to Attachment Theory
An Alternative Motivational Theory
An Alternative Method
Similarities Between Attachment Theory and Psychoanalysis
Attachment Theory and Psychoanalysis Today
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Psychodynamic Theory
Psycholinguistics
Psychological Altruism
Psychological Determinism
Synonyms
Definitions
Introduction
Psychology Studies That Appear to Undermine Human Agency, via Deterministic Forces
Social Pressure
``It Was Not Me, It Was My Brain´´
The Illusion of Conscious Will?
Reasons and Causes
Quantum Mechanics and Determinism
Conclusion
References
Psychological Disorder
Psychological Evidence for Human Sperm Competition
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Copulatory Desire Adjustment
Distress upon Sexual Refusal and Sexual Coercion
Sexual Stimuli Preferences
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Psychological Mechanisms
Psychological Reasoning
Psychologist
Psychology
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
The Psychology Behind the Trolley Problem
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Psychology of Reciprocal Altruism
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Cognitive Building Blocks
Partner Identification
Individual Recognition
Attributes of Payoffs
Quantification
Inhibitory Control
Time Lag
Memory for Actions
Memory for Individuals
Patience
Language
Emotional Building Blocks
Donor Emotions
Sympathy and Empathy
Trust and Betrayal
Anger and Moralistic Aggression
Recipient Emotions
Gratitude
Guilt
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Psychology of the Ovulatory Cycle
Psychoneuroimmunology
Psychopathology
Psychopathology Versus Adaptation
Synonyms
Definition
References
Psychopathy
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Psychopathy in Context
A Calloused Mind: How Does Psychopathy Develop?
Adaptation or Disorder: Is Psychopathy and Advantage?
Callous by Design? Natural Selection and Psychopathic Traits
Conclusions
Cross-References
References
Psychopathy (Mealey)
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Psychopaths in Society
Terminology
What Is a Primary Psychopath?
What Is a Secondary Psychopath?
Preventative Measures
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Psychophysics
Psychoses
Psychosis
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Psychosis
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Psychotic
Puberty
Puberty in Boys
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Puberty: Regulation, Variability and Pathology
Conclusion
References
Puberty in Girls
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Development and Puberty Within a Life History Approach
Typical Characteristics of the Human Life History and Sexual Differentiation During Puberty
Sequence of Puberty in Girls in the Context of Mammalian and Primate Evolution
Sexual Bimaturism, Sexual Dimorphism in Size and Shape, and the ``Fat Spurt´´
Sequelae of Puberty in Girls and Variation in its Timing
Genetic and Environmental Influences on the Timing of Puberty in Girls
Significance of Variation in the Timing of Puberty in Girls and Its Sequelae
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Pubescence
Public Archives
Public Behaviors
Public Display of Altruism
Public Documents
Public Goods
Public Goods Game
Public Othermindedness
Public Records
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Availability and Use of Public Records
Types of Public Records
Online Resources for Public Records
The Evolution of Societies and the Need for Public Records
Freedom of Information Act
Issues with Availability of Public Information
Use of Public Records
Future Research in Evolutionary Psychology Using Public Records
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Public Register
Public Written Material
Pulsastion of the Heart
Pulse Rate
Punish
Punishment
Punishment I
Punishment II
Punitive Sentiment
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
How does Punishment Evolve?
Group-Selection Accounts of Punishment
``Big-Mistake´´ Explanations of Punishment
Individual-Level Benefits of Punishment
How Is Punishment Studied in the Lab?
Motives Underpinning Punishment
Punitive Sentiment Reflects Fairness Concerns
Punitive Sentiment Reflects Desire for Revenge
Conclusion
References
Purpose
Pursuit Deterrence Hypothesis
Puzzle of Altruism, The
Synonyms
Definition
Cross-References
References
Pyrexia
Q
Qualitative Versus Quantitative in Evolutionary Science
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
The Art or The Real?
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Quality of a ``Catch´´
Quality of Attachment
Quality Versus Quantity
Quantity Estimation
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Quantity Representation
Quantity Versus Quality of Offspring
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Ecological Conditions Affecting Reproductive Trade-Offs
Environmental Harshness
Environmental Unpredictability
Offspring Quality Versus Quantity Preferences in Humans
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Quasisocial
Queasiness
Questionnaire
R
R = Coefficient of Relatedness
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Calculating the Coefficient of Relatedness: r
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
R and K Strategies
r Strategy
r/K-Selection Strategies
Race as a Social Badge (Kurzban)
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Race Perception and Encoding: A Badge for Social Categorization
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Race Encoding
Race Prejudice
Racial Discrimination
Racial Group Relationships
Racial Identity
Racism
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Social Categorization and Discrimination
Evolution and Modern-Day Racism
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Racism and Prejudice
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Social Categorization and Prejudice
Race Encoding and Racial Identification
Racial Discrimination
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Radical Behaviorism
Raiding
Random Effects
Randy Thornhill
Definition
Introduction
Open vs Closed: Opportunities or Threats?
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Rank
Rank Order
Ranking
Rape
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Rape Costs
Theories of Rape
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Rape and Dating
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Natural Selection, Sexual Selection, and the Ancestral Environment
Aggressive Behavior, Narcissism, and Social Hierarchy
Date-Rape and Adolescents
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Rape Avoidance
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Rape Avoidance Mechanisms
Measuring Rape Avoidance Behavior
Individual Differences in Rape Avoidance
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Rape in Warfare
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Evolutionary Background
Reproductive Advantages in Warfare
Psychological Associations between Mating and Warring
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Rate of Death and Disability
Rate of Learning
Rational Actors
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Homo Economicus
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Rationality
Reaction Norms and Tokens
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Distinguishing Genotype and Phenotype from Reaction Norms
Tokens
Significance of Human Reaction Norms to Evolutionary Psychology
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Reactive Aggression
Reality-Incongruent Beliefs
Reasoning About Social Norms
Reasons to Punish Wrongdoers
Recalibration Theory of Anger
Definition
Introduction
The Evolutionary Biology of Animal Conflict
Function of Anger
How Do Humans Represent Conflicts of Interests?
The Welfare Trade-Off Ratio
Computational Design of Anger
Sketch of the Computational Structure of Anger
The Recalibrational Theory and Features of Anger
The Triggering Conditions of Anger
Factors that Trigger Escalation of Anger
Bargaining Aggression
The Function of the Anger Face
Cooperative Withdrawal
The Content of Anger-Based Arguments
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Recall
Recall of Cheaters
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
A Memory Focused on Cheaters?
Empirical Testing of Reputational Recall
Violation of Social Expectations
Personal Relevance to Expectation Violations
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Recessive Genes
Definition
Introduction
Recessive and Dominant Genes
Directional Dominance
Overdominace
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Reciprocal Altruism
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Background
Trivers´ Model
Cheater Detection and the Evolution of Human Emotional Systems
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Reciprocal Altruism (Middle-Level Theory in Evolutionary Psychology)
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Prisoner´s Dilemma
Tit-for-Tat and Related Strategies
Direct Reciprocity
Indirect Reciprocity
Network Reciprocity
Empathy-Altruism Hypothesis
Examples
Vampire Bats
Primates
Mobbing Behavior and Nest Protection
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Reciprocal Altruism and Cooperation for Mutual Benefit
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Indirect Fitness Benefits or Kin Selection
Direct Fitness Benefits
The Free-Rider Problem
By-Product Mutualisms
Direct and Indirect Reciprocity
Conclusions
Cross-References
References
Reciprocal Altruism and Group Living
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Reciprocal Altruism
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Reciprocal Altruism, Dyadic Cooperation Among Genetically Unrelated Individuals
Reciprocal Cooperation
Reciprocal Grooming
Reciprocal Rewards
Reciprocity
Recognition
Recollection
Reconciliation
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Consolation
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Recounting
Recreation
Red Queen Hypothesis, The
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
The Red Queen Hypothesis and it´s Relevance
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Red Queen´s Race
Redistribution of Resources
Redistribution Preferences and Low Socioeconomic Status
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
The Influence of SES on Redistributive Preferences
Income
Education
Employment
Perceived Mobility and Personal Narrative
Explaining SES´s Subdued Influence on Redistribution
Greed and Optimism
Neoliberal Intellection
Confusion
Delusion
Natural Justice
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Reduction of Predation
Reductionism
Reeve (Female Ruff)
Reflexive Conditioning
Reflexive Response
Regulation of Body Temperature
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Gender Differences in Human Thermoregulation
Body Temperature in Obesity
Conclusion
Credits of Pictures
Cross-References
Acknowledgment
References
Reichert-Gaupp Theory
Reichurt-Gaupp Theory
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
What the Theory Postulates
Conclusion
References
Reinforcement Delivery
Reinforcement Schedule
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Methodology for Measuring Responses Under Different Reinforcement Schedules
Ratio Reinforcement Schedules
Interval Reinforcement Schedules
Comparison of Different Reinforcement Schedules
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Rejected Children
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Characteristics of Rejected Children
Victimization
School Adjustment
Psychosocial Adjustment
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Rejection
Rejection Thresholds
Synonyms
Definitions
Introduction
Rejection Thresholds in Hosts
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Relatedness
Relatedness Coefficient
Relatedness Parameter
Relational
Relational Aggression
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Correlates of Relational Aggression
Development
Childhood
Adolescence and Young Adulthood
Adulthood and Older Adulthood
Consequences, Implications, and Applications
Conclusion
Limitations and Future Directions
Treatment and Intervention
Cross-References
References
Relational Bullying
Relational Uncertainty
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
From Paternity Uncertainty to Relationship Uncertainties
The Prevalence of Paternity Discrepancy
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Relational Understanding
Relational Value
Relation-Between-Relations
Relationship Between Culture and Race
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Race as a Social Rather than Biological Construct
Evolutionary Explanations for Race
Relationship Between Culture and Race
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Relationship Between Sexuality and Gender
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Causes of Gender Differences
Gender and Sexual Behavior
Gender and Sociosexuality
Gender Variance and Diversity
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Relationship Certainty
Relationship Choices and Sexuality
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Relationship Choice
Emergent Relationships
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Relationship Closeness
Relationship Dissolution
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Human Evolution and Relationship Dissolution
Pursuit of Novelty
Habituation and Sensitization
Hunter-Gatherer Innovations: Marriage, Father, and Family
Relationship Dissolution in Foraging Societies
Relationship Dissolution After the Agricultural Revolution
The Coolidge Effect
The Coolidge Effect in Therapeutic Practice
Relationship Dissolution Today
Birth Control
No-Fault Divorce
Prenuptial Agreements
Financial Independence of Women
Alimony and Child Support
Welfare for Women and Their Children
Decline in the Power of Religious Prohibitions
Social Acceptance of Cohabitation
Custody
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Relationship Longevity
Relationship of Evolutionary Behavioral Sciences and Social Sciences
Relationship Outcomes
Relationship Pattern
Relationship Satisfaction and Commitment
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Relationship Satisfaction
Factors Influencing Relationship Satisfaction
Relationship Commitment
Conclusion
References
Relationship Status
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Relationship Status: Online Activities
Implications of Relationship Status
Evolution and Relationship
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Relationship Violence
Relationships
Relative Brain Size, Encephalization Quotient
Definition
Introduction
Review
Overview
Brain Size, Brain-Body Size Ratio, and Encephalization Quotient
The Size of Specific Brain Regions as Alternative Neuroanatomical Measures of Cognition
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Relative Parental Investment
Relative Sex Distinction
Relatives
Relativism
Relevance of Evolved Interests to Modern Morality
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
The Explanatory Promise of Evolutionary Psychology
Morality as an Adaptation
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Reliability and Deception in Language
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Human Language and Honest Signalling Theory
Voice Pitch as an Honest Signal
Vocabulary Size as an Honest Signal
Reputational Consequences of Dishonest Signalling
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Reliability, Efficiency, and Economy
Definition
Introduction
Criteria for Adaptations
Further Developments
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Religion
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Near Universal Features of Religion
Religion as an Adaptation: Society as Organismic
Religion as a By-product: From Hyperactive Agency Detection to Mating and Attachment
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Religion and Development of Civilization
Religion and Religious Beliefs
Religion and Sexuality
Religiosity
Religious Beliefs
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Supernatural Agents and Counterintuitive Beliefs
Moralizing High Gods
Costly Displays and Rituals
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Religious Building Design
Religious Teachings
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Religious Teachings Regarding Reproduction at Societal Level
Religious Teachings Regarding Reproduction at Individual Level
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Religious Terrorism
Religious Views
Remating
Reminiscence
Repeated or Iterated Prisoner´s Dilemma
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Game Theory and Its Behavioral Ally
Prisoner´s Dilemma and Public Goods
Evolutionary Mechanisms May Explain Game-Theoretic Violations
To Cooperate with Humans, Computers Need to Integrate Evolutionarily Salient Variables
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Replicating Entities of Culture
Replication
Representational Mental States
Reproduction
Synonyms
Definitions
Introduction
Advantages of Sexual Reproduction
Disadvantages of Sexual Reproduction
The Evolution of Sexual Reproduction
Evolution of Two Biological Sexes
Sex Differences in Early Development
Sex Differences in Later Development
Ultimate Explanations for Sexual Dimorphism in Humans
Sexual Strategies Theory
Strategic Pluralism Theory
Pair-Bonding as an Adaptation for Reproduction
Philosophy and Reproduction
Is Modern Life Changing Reproduction?
Conclusions
Cross-References
References
Reproduction, Suicide, Euthanasia
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Reproduction
Suicide
Euthanasia
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Reproduction+
Reproductive Aging
Reproductive Benefits Must Outweigh Costs
Reproductive Cell Size
Reproductive Coercion
Reproductive Competition
Reproductive Competition Among Members of the Same Sex
Reproductive Costs
Reproductive Development
Reproductive Fitness
Reproductive Frequency
Definition
Introduction
Orgasm and High Frequency Sex
Cross-References
References
Reproductive Limitations
Reproductive Maturation
Reproductive Parasite
Reproductive Potential
Reproductive Roles
Reproductive Skew
Reproductive Skew Theory
Reproductive Strategies
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Development of Reproductive Strategies
Sex Differences in Reproductive Strategies
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Reproductive Strategy
Reproductive Success
Reproductive Suppression and Sexual Conflict During Mating
Definition
Introduction
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Reproductive Timing
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Temporal Synchronization
Seasonal Breeding
Cyclical Breeding
Induced Ovulation
Continuous Breeding
Spatial Proximity
Internal Versus External Fertilization
Spatial Proximity and Insemination
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Reproductive Value
Reproductive Value and the Evolution of Aggression
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Reproductive Variance
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Sexual Selection
Bateman´s Principle
Parental Investment Theory
Modern Research
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Repulsion
Reputation
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Theoretical Overview: Suicide Terrorism and Reputational Benefits to Kin
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Reputation and Altruism
Synonyms
Definitions
Introduction
Altruistic Reputations
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Reputation as a Context for Men´s Aggression Against Men
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Status, Hierarchy, and Other Related Constructs
Accessing Resources for Survival
Accessing Mates
Aggression Between Groups
Building a Reputation
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Reputational Memory
Rescue
Rescuing Friends and Relatives
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Helping Relatives
Helping Friends
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Rescuing Strangers
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Costly Signaling Theory and Rescuing Strangers
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Research Methods
Researcher
Researchers
Resemblance
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Facial Resemblance and Paternal Investment
Adoption and Facial Resemblance
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Resentment
Residual Reproductive Value
Resistance to Welfare Policies
Resisted Mating
Resisted Matings
Resolution
Resource Availability
Resource Competition
Resource Control
Resource Defense
Synonyms
Definitions
Introduction
The Logic of Economic Defensibility
Variation in Human Resource Defense
Variation Across Space
Variation Over Time
Differential Defense Across Resources
Group-Level Territoriality and Collective Action Problems
Conclusions
Cross-References
References
Resource Holding Potential
Resource Limitation
Resource Provision
Resource Scarcity
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Literature Review
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Resource Selection
Resource-Defense Polygyny
Resource-Holding Potential
Resources
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Resources as a Signal of Parental Investment
Males´ Signal Resources to Attract Mates
Females Are Attracted to Signals of Resources in Mates
Females Are Attracted to Signals of Willingness to Share Resources
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Resources for Brain Development
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Resources and Experience
Resources in Development
Nutrition as a Lifelong Resource for Brain Development
Brain-Derived Neurotrophic Factor (BDNF)
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Respect
Respiratory Sinus Arrhythmia
Respondent Bias
Respondent Conditioning
Response Bias
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Types of Common Response Biases
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Response Inhibition
Responsibility for Child Suffering
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Responsibility for Harm
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Restricted Reproductive Potential
Retaliation
Retina, The
Definition
Introduction
The Vertebrate Retina
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Retribution
Rett Syndrome
Reunion
Revenge
Revulsion
Reward
Rhinencephalon
Rhodesian Man
Ribonucleic Acid
Richard Dawkins on Constraints on Natural Selection
Introduction
Time Lags
Historical Constraints
Trade-offs
Available Genetic Variation
Imperfections at One Level Due to Selection at Another Level
Mistakes Due to Environmental Unpredictability
Further Constraints: Antagonistic Pleiotropy and the Conflict Between Survival and Reproduction
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Richard Lewontin and Stephen Jay Gould
References
Richard Wrangham
Definition
Introduction
Kasiisi Project and Kibale Chimpanzee Project
Recent Research
Books
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Riddoch-Syndrome
Right and Wrong
Right and Wrongs
Righteousness
Rising Life Expectancy
Risk
Risk Attitude
Risk Aversion
Risk Contract of War
Risk Factors
Synonyms
Definitions
Introduction
Types of Risk Factors
Evolution of Risk Factors
Distribution of Risk Factors
Risk Factors: Clinical Implications
Risk Factors: Implications in Prevention
Risk Factors: Research Implications
Risk Factors: Statistical Relevance
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Risk of a Lifetime, The
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
The Risk of a Lifetime
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Risk of Conception
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Mating Psychology
Intrasexual Competition
Perceptions
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Risk of Illness
Risk Propensity
Risk Spread
Risk Variation
Risk Variation with Parent Age
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Altruistic Filicide
Filicide Due to Mental Illness
Unwanted Child Filicide
Accidental/Fatal Abuse Filicide
Retaliation/Spouse Revenge Filicide
Infanticide and Neonaticide
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Risk-Taking
Risky Behavior
Synonyms
Introduction
Exploring Risky Behavior in a Life-History Framework
Understanding the Role of Risky Behavior in Mate Attraction
Measuring Risky Behaviors Within Evolutionary Content Domains
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Rite of Passage
Synonyms
Definition
Theoretical Framework
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Rites
Ritual
Ritual and Speech Coevolution
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
The Problem of Cooperation in Communication
Cross-References
References
Rituals
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
In-Group Functionality of Religious and Cultural Rituals
Coming-Of-Age Rituals
Religious Burial Rituals
Rituals and Health
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Rivalry
Rivka Weinberg
Definition
Introduction
Part One: Metaphysics of Life and Death
The Nonidentity Problem
Existence as a Precondition for Interests
Common Moral Principle
Part Two: Reproductive Ethics
Procreative Justice
Procreative Conflict of Interest
Rawlsian Contractualism
Theories of Parental Responsibility
Voluntary Commitments
Intent to Raise
Genetics/Gestation
The HazMat Theory
Transfer of Parental Responsibility
Gamete Selling and Donation
The Love Obligation
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
RNA
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
RNA Structure
Functions
Protein Synthesis
Gene Regulation
Significance in Diseases
Diseases Involving mRNA Metabolism
Diseases Involving miRNA and siRNA
Diseases Involving lncRNA
Conclusion
References
Robert Axelrod
Synonyms
Definition
Education and Awards
Research and Publications
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Robert Axelrod´s (1984) The Evolution of Cooperation
Definition
Introduction
Theoretical and Empirical Basis
Characteristics of Robust Successful Strategies
Spatiotemporal Patterns of Cooperation
Implications for Promoting Cooperation
Implications for Evolutionary Biology
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Robert Hinde
References
Robert Kurzban
Definition
Introduction
Career
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Robert Kurzban on Group Processes
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Cognitive Mechanisms and Group Processes
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Robert Trivers
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Early Life and Education 1943-1966
Academic Career at Harvard 1966-1978
Reciprocal Altruism
Parental Investment Theory 1972
Trivers-Willard Effect 1973
Parent-Offspring Conflict 1974
Haplodiploidy and the Evolution of Social Insects
Deceit and Self-Deception
University of California, Santa Cruz, 1978-1994
Social Evolution 1985
Mate Choice
Fluctuating Asymmetry
Rutgers University 1994-2017
Genetics
Self-Deception
Current Research Interests
Honors and Awards
Wild Life
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Robin Baker and Mark Bellis
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Baker and Bellis Studies
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Robin Baker and Mark Bellis: Pioneers of Research on Human Sperm Competition
Definitions
Introduction
The Collaborative Decade (1985-1995)
Kamikaze Sperm (1988)
Ejaculate Adjustment During Copulation (1989)
Frequency of Human Sperm Competition (1989-1990)
Female Promotion of Sperm Competition (1990)
Ejaculate Adjustment During Copulation and the Function of Male Masturbation (1993)
Female Orgasm (1993)
Final Joint Publication (1995)
Post-collaborative Publications
Legacy: Growth of a Field, Support, and Opposition
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Role
Role of Experience in Tool Use
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Previous Experience vs. Training
Cognitive Mechanisms Involved in Tool Use
Conclusions
Cross-References
References
Roles
Romantic Attachment
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
How Romantic Attachment Differs and Develops from Infant-Caregiver Attachment
Romantic Attachment as Evolved Mechanism
Measurement of Romantic Attachment
Linking Romantic Attachment and Relationship Outcomes
Individual Differences in Romantic Attachment
Age Differences
Sex Differences
Cultural Differences
Sexual Orientation
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Romantic Attachment and the Prototype Hypothesis
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Childhood and Romantic Attachment: Similarities and Differences
Theoretical Background of the Prototype Hypothesis
Empirical Evidence for the Prototype Hypothesis with Regard to Romantic Attachment
Romantic Attachment and Retrospective Measures of Childhood Attachment
Romantic Attachment and Prospective Studies of Attachment Beginning in Early Childhood
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Romantic Desirability
Romantic Identity
Romantic Kissing
Romantic Love
Romantic Rejection
Ronald Aylmer Fisher
Fisher´s ``Sociological Views´´
Eugenics and the Question of Race
References
Room-Sharing
Rotation Injury
Rough and Tumble
Roy Baumeister
Overview
Honors and Awards
Research Activity
Areas of Research of Special Interest to Evolutionary Scientists
Protégés
Postdoctoral Fellows
Graduate Students
Visiting Graduate Students
Educational Background
Employment History
References
Royal Lineages
Ruff Sandpiper
Ruff Shorebird, The
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
General Biology
Breeding
Alternative Reproductive Tactics
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Rule
Rule Extraction
Rule of Law
Rule Violations Checked If High Status
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
High-Status Individuals and Cheaters
Complexities in Cheater Detection
The Many Faces of Status
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Rule Violations Not Checked If Low Status
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Low-Status Individuals and Cheaters
Complexities in Cheater Detection, Defining Status, and Enforcing Rules
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Rules Violations
Rule-Utilitarianism
Ruling Class
Rumination
Rumor Spreading
Runaway Selection
Runaway Sexual Selection
Runaway Tram
Running
Rushton, J. Philippe
Cross-References
References
S
Sacred Values
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Sacred Values
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Sacredness/Purity/Disgust
Synonyms
Definition
Cross-References
References
Sadism
Sadness
Safety in Numbers
Sahelanthropus
Salience of Category
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Salience of Social Categories and Stereotyping
Salience of Social Categories and Intergroup Behavior
Salience of Social Categories, Diversity, and Team Performance
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Salience of Social Categorizations
Salter, Grammer, and Rokowski (2005)
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Tactics to Rise in the Hierarchy
Tactics of Subordinates
Sex Differences in Subordinate Tactics
Conclusions
Cross-References
References
Salty
Same Sex Aggression
Same-Different Categorization
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Demonstrating Sameness/Difference Concepts in Nonhumans
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Same-Different Concepts
Same-Gender Parents
Sameness Judgements
Same-Sex Behavior
Same-Sex Coalitions That Exclude Women
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Evolutionary Background
Male Coalition Building
Coalitional Functionality
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Same-Sex Friend
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Kin Selection and Same-Sex Friendships
Reciprocity and Same-Sex Friendships
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Same-Sex Friendships
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Same-sex Friendships
Benefits and Costs of Same-Sex Friendships
Similarities and Differences in Males´ and Females´ Same-Sex Friendships
Explaining Sex Differences in Same-Sex Friendships
Same-Sex Friendship and Well-Being
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Same-Sex Homicide
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Violence and Sexual Selection
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Same-Sex Murder
Same-Sex Relationships
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Evolutionary Origins
Adaptive Significance
Homophilic Peer Preferences
Sex Differences in Communication Styles
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Same-Sex School Bullying
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Goals of Same-Sex School Bullying
Parental Investment and Sexual Selection
Same-Sex School Bullying in Boys
Same-Sex School Bullying in Girls
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Same-Sex Sexual Behavior
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Types of Same-Sex Sexual Behavior
Prevalence Rates Among Men
Prevalence Rates Among Women
Risk for HIV
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Same-Sex Sexuality
Sanctions
Sanctity
Sarah Blaffer Hrdy
Definition
Introduction
Personal Biographical History
Infanticide
The Woman That Never Evolved
On Mothering
On the Importance of Others
Conclusions
Cross-References
References
Sarah Brosnan
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Monkeys React to Unequal Pay
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
SAS
Satisfaction with Life
Savagery
Savanna Hypothesis and Landscape Preferences, The
Definition
Introduction
Stages of Exploration
Weather Patterns and Seasonal Transitions
Landscape Preferences
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Savanna Hypothesis, The
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
The Savanna Hypothesis
Landscape Features
Tree Shapes
Leaves
Cliffs
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Savannah
Savoriness
Savory
Scaffolding in Learning
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Development of Scaffolding
Parental Scaffolding
Scaffolding in the Classroom
Limitations of Scaffolding and Recommendations to Use It Effectively
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Scaling Factors
Scares
Scarification
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Scarification as a Right of Passage
Badges of Honor
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Scavenge Hunting
Schadenfreude
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Origins of Schadenfreude
Enjoying Potential Romantic Rivals´ Downfalls
Enjoying Out-Group Misfortunes
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Schematic Memory
Schizophrenia
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Evolutionary Accounts of Schizophrenia
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
School Bullying
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Theoretical Perspectives on Bullying
Social Ecological Theory
Evolutionary Theory
General Strain Theory
Who Is Involved in School Bullying?
Bully
Victim
Bully-Victim
Bystander
Prevalence Rates
Types of School Bullying
Physical Bullying
Verbal Bullying
Relational Aggression
Cyberbullying
Impact of Bullying on Youth
Effective Prevention and Intervention
School-Wide Bullying Prevention
Targeted Prevention and Intervention
Intensive School-Based Intervention
Additional Considerations
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
School Climate
School Context
School Culture
School Environment
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Aspects of the School Environment
Assessment
Variations in the School and Classroom Environment
Association of the School Environment with Student and Teacher Outcomes
Academic Outcomes
Externalizing Problem Behavior
Students´ Psychological Well-Being
Students´ Health Behaviors
Teacher Stress and Burnout
Intervention Research
Relating Genetic Dispositions and the School Environment
The View of Evolutionary Psychology on the School Environment
Gene-Environment Correlations and Interactions
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Science and Morality
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Computational Heuristic Models
Moral Condemnation by Third Parties
Tripartite Theory of Machiavellian Morality
The Evolution of Fairness by Partner Choice
Moral Alliance Strategies Theory
Universal Moral Grammar
Moral Foundations Theory
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Science and Religion Compatibility
Definition
Introduction
Perspectives, History, Studies, and Resources
How Has the Perception of the Relationship Between Science and Religion Developed Over Time?
What Are Some Ways in Which Science and Religion Intersect?
In What Ways Have Empirical Methods Been Used to Study Religion and Spirituality?
A Representative List of Resources with a Focus on Science and Religion
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Scientific
Scope Hypothesis, The
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Boundary Conditions on the Scope of Generalizations
Decision Context
Research Studies on Scope Hypothesis
The Self-Study
The Mother Study
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Scott Atran
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Sacred Values and Conflict Resolution
Symbolic Concessions
Real-World Applications
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Sea Slug
Search Latency
Search Time
Synonyms
Definition
Cross-References
References
Seasonal Breeding
Second Language Acquisition
Second Sexism
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
The Second Sexism
Sex Differences and Second Sexism
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Secondary Adaptation
Secondary Sex Characteristic
Secondary Sex Characteristics
Secondary Sex Traits
Secondary Sexual Characteristics
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
The Evolution of Sexual Characters as Weapons by Means of Male-Male Competition
The Evolution of Secondary Sexual Characteristics as Ornaments by Means of Female Choice
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Secondary Sexual Characters
Secondary Sexual Traits
Secure Attachment
Definition
Introduction
Secure Attachment
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Seeking Extra-Pair Partners
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Extra-Pair Copulations
Downsides of EPCs
Reasons for EPCs
Male-Female Differences
Change and the Future
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Segments
Selected Effect
Selection
Selection by Consequences
Selection for Cooperative Relationships
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Selection Pressures for Cooperation
Mechanisms for Cooperation
Identifying and Selecting Cooperative Partners
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Selection in Relation to Sex
Selection Pressures as a Function of Age
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Historical Origins
Age-Related Selection and Aging
Hamilton´s Forces of Natural Selection
Evidence
Implications
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Selectionist Models: Implications for Behavior
Synonyms
Definitions
Introduction
Deconstructing a Common Misconception
A Natural Relation Between Modern Behavioral and Evolutionary Theory
But What About the Brain and Information Processing?
But What About Cognitive Psychology and Information-Processing?
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Selective Attending
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Selective Attention
Selective Attunement to Adaptive Problems
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Human Cognition and Survival Threat
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Selective Breeding
Selective Focus
Selective Imitation
Self Determination
Self-Agency
Self-Aggrandizement
Self-Annihilation
Self-Assessment
Self-Assessment of Fighting Ability
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Evolutionary Foundation
Minimizing Costs of Competition
Characteristics of Rival Assessment
Characteristics of Self-Assessment
Cross-References
References
Self-Awareness
Self-Beneficial Political Attitudes
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
The Classic Puzzle About the Influence of Self-Interest on Political Attitudes
An Evolutionary Approach to the Concept of Self-Interest and Political Attitudes
Genetically Selfish Goals and Inclusive Interests
The Debate Over Self-Interest and Political Attitudes Continues
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Self-Concept
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Fluidity in Self-Concept
Social Identity
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Self-Concept and Family
Self-Concept Determined by Relatives
Self-Consciousness
Self-Control
Self-Deception
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Early Interest in Self-Deception
Development of an Evolutionary Theory of Self-Deception
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Self-Defense
Self-Defense and Female-Perpetrated Violence
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Motivation for Violence
Self-Defense
Retaliation
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Self-Destruction
Self-Domestication
Self-Efficacy, Animal Phobias, and Evolutionary Mismatch
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Self-Efficacy: An Adaptive Mechanism Against Animal Threats
Evolved Self-Efficacy and Zoophobias in the Modern World
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Self-Enhancement
Self-Enhancement Relative to Others
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Self-Enhancement and Relationships with Others
Self-Enhancement in an Evolutionary Context
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Self-Esteem
Self-Esteem and Perceived Social Value
Self-Esteem and Social Status: Dominance Theory and Hierometer Theory?
Synonyms
Definitions
Introduction
Dominance Theory
Hierometer Theory
Empirical Evidence for the Link Between Social Status and Self-Esteem
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Self-Esteem as a Status-Tracking Mechanism
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Perspectives on Self-Esteem
Introduction to Sociometer Theory
Multiple Domains
The Mating Sociometer
Attachment Theory
The Extended Informational Model of Self-Esteem
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Self-Esteem as Manipulative Status Communication
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Sociometer Theory
Ethological Theory
Terror Management Theory
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Self-Esteem as Self-Perceptions of Social Worth
Self-Esteem Feelings
Self-Esteem Increase Motivates Similar Behavior
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Rationale for Self-Esteem
Learning, Motivation, and Behavior
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Self-Esteem Reflects Assessments of Valuation
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Global Self-Esteem Reflects Perceived Global Relational Value
Domain-Specific Self-Esteem Reflects Perceived Domain-Specific Relational Value
The Attunement of Global Self-Esteem to Domain-Specific Self-Esteem
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Self-Esteem Tracks Mate Value
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Self-Esteem and Romantic Relationships
Self-Perceived Mate Value
Experimental Studies
Other-Rated Mate Value
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Self-Esteem Tracks Social Evaluation and Relational Value
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Self-Esteem: The Sociometer Hypothesis
Domain-Specific Sociometers
Evolutionary Mismatch and Self-Esteem
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Self-Evaluation
Self-Evaluations Track Perceived Mate Value
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Social Comparison and Mate Value
Self-Esteem as a Global Self-Evaluation
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Self-Examination
Self-Harm
Selfhood
Self-Inflicted Suicide
Self-Injury
Self-Insight
Self-Interest
Selfish
Selfish Gene, The
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
The Gene-Centered View of Life: Replicators and Gene Machines
The Evolution of Altruism
Memes: The Cultural Replicators
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Selfish Genetic Elements
Selflessness
Self-Monitoring
Synonyms
Definitions and Conclusions
Investigating Self-Awareness
The Paralimbic Network as a Signature of Self-Awareness and Conscious Self-Monitoring
From Association to Causality
Ontogenesis of Self-Awareness and Metacognition
Pathophysiology
Perspectives for Prevention and Treatment
Cross-References
References
Self-Murder
Self-Observation
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Self-Observation as a Social Process
Self-Observation and Consciousness
Self-Observation Within Psychotherapy
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Self-Other Bias
Self-Perceptions
Self-Recollection
Self-Referent Processing
Self-Reflection
Self-Regard
Self-Reinforcing Choice
Self-Reported Data
Self-Reports
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
The Value of Self-Reports in Evolutionary Psychology
Criticisms and Limitations of Self-Report Methods
Addressing the Limitations of Self-Report Methods
Conclusion
References
Self-Sacrifice
Self-Scrutiny
Self-Stereotyping
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Self-Stereotyping by Sex
Evolutionary Reasoning on Own-Sex/Gender Self-Stereotyping
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Self-Thought
Self-Worth
Semantic Content
Semantic Memory
Semelparity
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
The Evolution of Semelparity
Semelparity and K-Selection
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Semen
Semen and Vaginal Chemistry
Definition
Introduction
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Semen Displacement
Semen Familiarity
Definition
Introduction
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Semen from In-Pair Partner
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Sperm Competition
Psychological Effects of Semen
Preeclampsia Risk and Semen Ingestion
Conclusion
References
Semen Toxicity
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Males and Females Have Different Reproductive Strategies
Seminal Proteins Are Critical Contributors to Reproductive Success
Differences in Reproductive Strategies Impact Seminal Protein Evolution
Semen Toxicity Occurs in Some Taxa and Likely Relates to the Sexes´ Differing Reproductive Strategies
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Semen-Based Cost of Mating
Semicircular Canals
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Structure of Semicircular Canals
Function
Otoliths
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Seminal Fluid
Seminal Plasma
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Compounds in Seminal Plasma
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Semiotic Constraints
Definition
Introduction
Semiotic Constraints on the Population Level
Semiotic Constraints on the Biological Level
Semiotic Constraints on the Evolutionary Level
Semiotic Constraints on the Human Sociological Level
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Semiotic Square
Definition
Introduction
The Relevance of the Semiotic Square in Language Evolution Studies
Conclusion
References
Senescence
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Evolution and Stressors
Stressors and Senescent Biology
Stress-Limiting Systems
Human Evolution and Variation
Assessing Senescence
Physiological Dysregulation and Senescence
Frailty, a Clinical Syndrome of Functional Losses
Senescence: An Evolutionary Trade-Off
Stressors and Life Span
Physiological Losses
Male-Female Mortality Differentials
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Sense of Powerlessness/Helplessness and Self-Destruction
Sensitive Mothering
Sensitive Period
Sensitivity
Sensitization
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Theoretical Background
Characteristics of Sensitization
Long-Term Potentiation
Kindling
Drug Sensitization
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Sensitizing
Sensorimotor Play
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
An Evolutionary Perspective
Jean Piaget´s Theory
Central Developmental Ideas
Stages of Cognitive Development
Sensorimotor Play
Primary Circular Reactions
Secondary Circular Reactions
Tertiary Circular Reactions
Object Permanence
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Sensorimotor Stage
Sensory Aphasia
Sensory Bias
Sensory Drive
Sensory Exploitation Hypothesis
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Animal Mating Systems via Sensory Exploitation
Perception and Behavior
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Sensory Trap
Sentence Structure
Sequential Hermaphroditism
Sequential Tool Use
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Empirical Evidence
Cognitive Mechanisms Involved in Sequential Tool Use
Conclusions
Cross-References
References
Sequestered Ovulation
Sequestration
Serotonin and Dominance
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Serotonin and Social Hierarchy
Serotonin Affects Facial Cues Recognition
Serotonin Affects Voice Processing
Serotonin Affects Aggression, Cooperation, and Affiliation
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Serotonin Transporter
Serotoninergic System
Servant Leadership
Service-for-Prestige Theory of Leader-Follower Relations
Definition
Introduction
What Are the Characteristics of ``Bad´´ Versus ``Good´´ Leadership, and Why Does Leadership Quality Vary So Widely?
Leader-Follower Relations Are Perceived as Good When They Involve Voluntary, Mutually Beneficial, Service-for-Prestige Exchange
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Setting
Settlement
Sex
Sex as a Mate Guarding Strategy
Sex as Bonding Mechanisms
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Biological Mechanisms of Bonding
Human Social Bonding Facilitated Through Sexual Behavior
Conclusion
References
Sex Categorization
Sex Cell Size
Sex Changing
Sex Difference in Reproductive Success Variance
Sex Differences
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Sex Differences After Having Children
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Sex Differences for Pursuing
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Why Do We Engage in Infidelity?
Is the Gap Closing?
Limitations
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Sex Differences in Ability to Assess Fighting Ability
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Empirical Evidence
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Sex Differences in Aggression
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Gender-Gap in Offending
Social Influences on Offending
Cultural and Community Influences
Peer Influences
Family Influences
Biological Influences on Offending
Neurological Influences
Hormones
Genetics
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Sex Differences in Anger Proneness
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Sex Differences in Anger
Components of Anger
Sex Differences in the Elements of Anger
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Sex Differences in Attachment
Definition
Introduction
Sex Differences in Attachment
Sex Difference in Adult Attachment
Conclusions
Cross-References
References
Sex Differences in Attractiveness of Humor
Synonyms
Definition and Introduction
Theoretical Suggestions on Why Humor Is Perceived as an Attractive Trait
Major Findings on Sex Differences
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Sex Differences in Cognitive Development
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Gender Differences in Language Abilities
Why Gender Differences in Cognitive Development?
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Sex Differences in Commitment Skepticism
Definition
Cross-References
References
Sex Differences in Costs and Benefits of Mate Poaching
Sex Differences in Crying
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Sex Differences in Frequency and Duration Across the Life Span
Sex Differences in Types of Crying and Self-Reported Reasons for Crying
Causes of Sex Differences in Crying
Conclusions
Cross-References
References
Sex Differences in Cyber Bullying
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Sex Differences in Cyberbullying
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Sex Differences in Death by Filicide
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Sex Differences in Perpetrators of Filicide
Sex Differences in the Victims of Filicide
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Sex Differences in Death by Homicide
Synonyms
Definition
Sexual Selection and Male Homicide
Homicide Rates and Individual Difference Variables
Intimate Partner Violence, Uxoricide, and Honor Killings
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Sex Differences in Emotional Communication
Synonyms
Evolution of Emotional Communication
Sex Differences in the Perception of Emotional Signals
Sex Differences in the Production of Emotional Signals and Their Consequences
Conclusion
References
Sex Differences in Guarding Behavior
Sex Differences in Human Mate Preferences (Buss, 1989)
Introduction
Overview
Limitations and Reflections
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Sex Differences in Inferring Sexual Interest
Definition
Cross-List: Error Management Theory
References
Sex Differences in Intimate Partner Violence
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Intimate Partner Violence Definition and Typology
Intimate Partner Violence Assessment
Causal Factors of Intimate Partner Violence
Interaction of Proximal and Ultimate Causation
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Sex Differences in Jealousy
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Sex Difference in Emotional Versus Sexual Jealousy
Jealousy as an Evolved Sex-Specific Mechanism
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Sex Differences in Lachrymation
Sex Differences in Lacrimation
Sex Differences in Long-Term Mating Preferences
Women´s Specialized Long-Term Mating Psychology
Men´s Specialized Long-Term Mating Psychology
Conclusion
References
Sex Differences in Mental Rotation
Sex Differences in Morbid Jealousy
Synonyms
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Sex Differences in Navigation
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Spatial Cognition in Women and Men
Home Ranges
Reproductive Roles
Sexual Division of Labor
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Sex Differences in Parenting
Sex Differences in Parenting and Parental Investment
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Background
Anisogamy
Mating Opportunity Cost
Paternity Uncertainty
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Sex Differences in Participation
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Gender Schema Theory
Sex Differences in Political Participation
Sex Differences in Sports Participation
Sex Differences in Mathematics Participation
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Sex Differences in Pursuit
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Male/Male Competition
Female/Female Competition
Dominance Versus Prestige
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Sex Differences in Same-Sex Aggression
Definition
Introduction
Evolution and Aggression
The Evolution of Sex Differences
How Do the Sexes Differ in Terms of Aggression?
Sex Differences in Direct Aggression
Sex Differences in Indirect Aggression
Sex Differences in Other Aggression Related Areas
Explaining the Sex Difference: Male and Female Competition
Risk and Fear
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Sex Differences in SDO
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Sex and SDO
SDO and the Gender Invariance Hypothesis
Causes for Sex Differences in SDO
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Sex Differences in Sexual Socialization
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Parental Influence
Cultural Influences
Abusive Influence
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Sex Differences in Sexual Versus Emotional Jealousy
Sex Differences in Short-Term Mating Preferences
Evidence of Women´s Specialized Short-Term Mating Psychology
Men´s Specialized Short-Term Mating Psychology
Conclusion
References
Sex Differences in Sobbing
Sex Differences in Social Development
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Parental Socialization
Same-Sex Peer Groups
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Sex Differences in Spatial Abilities
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Real-World Significance
Etiology of Sex Differences in Spatial Ability
Conclusions
Cross-References
References
Sex Differences in Spatial Information Processing
Sex Differences in Spatial Rotation
Sex Differences in Spatial Visualization
Sex Differences in Standard Deviation
Sex Differences in Three-Dimensional Processing
Sex Differences in Variability
Sex Differences in Variance
Sex Differences in Variance Traits
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Potential Causes of Sex Differences in Variance
Genetics: X Chromosome
Polygyny: Sex Difference in Fitness Variance
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Sex Differences in Visuospatial Ability
Sex Differences in Weeping
Sex Differences Versus Gender Symmetry
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Sex Differences in Relationship Duration Preference
Long-Term Mate Preferences
Short-Term Mate Preferences
Criticisms and Responses to Criticisms of Evolutionary Perspectives on Mate Preferences
Compromises in Mate Preferences
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Sex Differences, Initiating Gossip
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Gossip as an Adaptation to Overcome Adaptive Problems
Gossip as an Intrasexual Competition Strategy
Sex Differences in Initiating Gossip Episodes
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Sex Ed
Sex Education
Sex Education in Schools
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
The Need for Sex Education in Schools
Goals of Sex Education
Content and Characteristics of an Effective Sex Education Program
Future Directions
Conclusion
References
Sex Effect
Sex Hormone
Sex of Offspring
Sex Ratio
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Mating Strategies
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Sex Ratio and Men´s Long-Term Mating
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Mating Behavior and Sex Ratios
Empirical Evidence
Discussion
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Sex Reversal
Sex Segregation
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Types of Segregation
Causes and Consequences of Sex Segregation
Sex Segregation and Social Change
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Sex Similarities
Sex Steroid Hormones
Sex Switching
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Evolution of Sex Switching
Protandry
Protogyny
Bidirectional
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Sex Trade
Sex Typing
Sex Work
Sex, Power, and Conflict
Introduction
Definitions
Evolution Relating Sex, Power and Conflict
The Biological Battle of the Sexes
Marital Conflict
Sexual Harassment
Offenders and Victims of Sexual Coercion
The Feminist Perspective
Is Rape About Sex or Violence?
Substance Use and Its Impact on Perception and Behaviour
Sexual Politics
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Sex-Biased Parental Investment
Sex-Biased Transcription
Sex-Differences in Disease Avoidance
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Disease Avoidance
Disgust
Differences in Disgust and Disease Avoidance
Functional Reasons for Sex Differences in Disgust Sensitivity
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Sex-Differentiated Behavior
Sexism
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Control of Female Sexuality
Coevolution of Men´s Intrasexual Competition and Women´s Partner Preferences
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Sexism Against Male
Sex-Role Inventory, The
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
The Bem Sex-Role Inventory (BSRI)
Debate Over Bem´s Sex-Role Inventory
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Sex-Specific Link Between Self-Esteem and Mate Value
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Physical Attractiveness and Self-Esteem
Social Status and Self-Esteem
Experimental Research
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Sexting
Definition
Introduction
Motives
Risks Associated with Sexting
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Sexual Abuse
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Prevalence
Intraindividual Effects
Psychological Distress: Adapting to Trauma
Neurobiological Effects: The Impact of Stress
Identity Impairment and Emotion Regulation
Cognitive Disturbances
Interindividual Effects
Social and Relational Difficulties
Attachment and Negative Relational Schemas
Revictimization
Sexuality
Social Context: How Culture and Society Shape SA and Its Effects
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Sexual Abuse in the Workplace
Sexual Access
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Parental Investment and Sexual Selection
Gang Membership and Sexual Access
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Sexual Access and Friendship
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Twentieth-Century Views on Sexual Access and Friendship
Modern Views on Sexual Access and Friendship
Friends-With-Benefits Relationships
Back-Burner Relationships
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Sexual Access as Benefit of Victory in War
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Adaptation vs By-Product Hypotheses on Male Coalitional Violence and Sexual Access
Prediction One: Coalitional Violence Has Been Ancient and Widespread
Prediction Two: Coalitional Violence Will Be Perpetrated by Males
Prediction Three: Male Coalitional Violence Increases Sexual Access to Women
Direct Access
Indirect Access
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Sexual Access as the Reason For going to War
Sexual Access During Warfare
Sexual Access Manipulation
Sexual Access Manipulations
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Sexual Reward in the Afterlife
Intrasexual Competition
Limitations of Sexual Access Manipulation Models
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Sexual Activities
Sexual Aggression
Sexual and Reproductive Development
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
In the Beginning
Beyond Father Absence
Testing the Puberty Prediction
Genetics, Gene-Environment Interaction, and Differential Susceptibility
The Distinctive Influence of the Father
Conceptualizing the Environment
Mechanisms of Influence
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Sexual Antagonism
Sexual Antagonistic Co-evolution
Sexual Antagonistic Selection
Sexual Arousal
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Measuring Sexual Arousal: Genital Responses
Measuring Sexual Arousal: Subjective Sexual Arousal
Sexual Arousal Patterns
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Sexual Assault
Sexual Assault and Intimate Partner Violence
Synonyms
Definitions
Introduction
Theoretical and Empirical Review
Behavioral Genetics of IPV and Sexual Assault: (Epi)Genetic Differences Matter
Intimate Partner Violence as a Form of Sexually Coercive Mating Effort
Extra-Pair Copulation and Sperm Competition: Sexually Coercive IPV as an Anti-Cuckoldry Tactic in Men
Men´s Pornography Preferences, Sperm Competition, and Sexual Coercion of a Partner
Rape: Adaptation or By-Product?
Are Sexually Coercive Men Competitively Disadvantaged, Mate Deprived, Both, or Neither?
Use of Sexual Coercion in Both Sexes
Life History Strategy, Antagonistic Social Strategies, and Sexual Coercion
LH Strategy, Negative Androcentrism, and Mating Aggression
Cross-References
References
Sexual Asymmetry
Sexual Attitudes
Sexual Attraction
Sexual Aversions
Sexual Avoidance
Sexual Behavior
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Evolutionary Theories of Sexual Behavior
Sexual Selection
Social Mating Systems
Mating Competition in Males and Females
Interspecific Variation in Sexual Selection
Parental Investment
Costs of Reproduction and Life History Strategies
Reasons for Sex?
Specific Types of Sexual Behaviors
Reproductive Sexual Behavior
Nonreproductive Sexual Behavior
Extended Sexuality
Masturbation
Extra-Pair Sex
Sexual Harassment and Coercion
Inbreeding Avoidance
The Use of and Response to Erotica, Pornography, and Sexual Stimuli
Same-Sex Sexual Behavior
Prostitution
Effects of Culture
Conclusions
Cross-References
References
Sexual Behaviors
Sexual Coercion
Sexual Coercion and Dating
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Forced In-Pair Copulation
Evolutionary Evidence from Animal Research
The Feminist Perspective
Types of Men Who Sexually Coerce and Rape
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Sexual Coercion and Rape
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Measurement
The Scale of Sexual Aggression
Risk and Vulnerability Factors
Consequences
Conclusions
Cross-References
References
Sexual Coercion and Violence
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Measuring Sexual and Physical Violence
The Scale of Sexual and Physical Violence
Official Statistics and Victimization Studies
Research Studies
Co-occurrence of Physical and Sexual Violence
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Sexual Coercion as a Mechanism of Sexual Selection
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Forms of Coercion
Female Counterstrategies to Coercion
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Sexual Conflict
Sexual Conflict After Conception
The Adaptive Function of Marital Dissatisfaction During Child-Rearing
Violence During Pregnancy
After Delivery: Resemblance to Kin as a Decision-Maker to Investment
Problems After the First Child
Four-Year Itch
Transition to Parenthood (TTP)
Sex After the First Child
Infidelity and Jealousy
Child Custody and Child Support Conflict
References
Sexual Conflict and Sex Differences in Parental Investment
Cross-References
References
Sexual Conflict in Mating Strategies
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Evolutionary Roots of Sexual Conflict in Mating Stategies
Sex Differences in Standards and Eagerness for Casual Sex
Conflict Concerning if and when Sex Occurs
Error Management Theory
Sexual Aggressiveness
Evidence for Female Antirape Adaptations
Conflicts of Deception
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Sexual Conflict in Nonhumans
Definition
Introduction
What Is Sexual Conflict?
Who Is Involved in the Conflict?
When Is There a Conflict?
How Does Sexual Conflict Vary Depending on the Species´ Specific Mating Strategy?
Causes of the Conflicts
Causation
Survival Value
Ontogeny
Evolution
Summary and Concluding Remarks
Cross References
References
Sexual Conflict Theory
Sexual Conflict Theory (Middle-Level Theory in Evolutionary Psychology)
Definition
Introduction
History
Middle-Level Theory in Evolutionary Psychology
Intralocus Sexual Conflict
Interlocus Sexual Conflict
Sexual Conflict Before Mating
Sexual Conflict During Mating
Sexual Conflict After Conception
Limitations to Sexual Conflict Research
Conclusions
Cross-References
References
Sexual Congress
Sexual Contact and Sexual Disgust
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Sex and Pathogens
Pathogen Avoidance and Sexual Strategies
Pathogen Avoidance and Mate Preferences
Sexual Disgust: More Than Just Pathogens
The Function of the Qualia
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Sexual Control
Sexual Daydreaming
Sexual Debut
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Rates and Timing
Risks Factors
Protective Factors
Outcomes of Early Sexual Debut
Further Considerations
Conclusion
References
Sexual Deviation
Sexual Differentiation
Sexual Dimorphism
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Evolution of Sexual Dimorphism
Human Reproductive Ecology and Adaptations
Development of Human Sex Differences
Developmental Elaboration of Sexually Differentiated Socio-Competitive Competencies
Conclusions
Cross-References
References
Sexual Dimorphism and Sex-Biased Gene Expression
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Transcriptional and Phenotypic Sexual Dimorphism Are Correlated
Sex-Biased Expression Evolves to Resolve Sexual Conflict
Sex Steroids Regulate Sex-Biased Expression
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Sexual Dimorphism in Body Size
Sexual Discrimination
Sexual Exploitation at Work
Sexual Expression
Sexual Fantasies
Definition
Introduction
How Are They Studied?
Common Fantasies
Rape Fantasies
Theoretical Approaches and Sex Differences
Conclusions
Cross-References
References
Sexual Fantasy
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Sexual Fantasies Among the General Population
Sexual Fantasies Among Sexual Offenders
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Sexual Fluidity
Sexual Harassment
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Types of Sexual Harassment
Sexual Harassment in the Workplace
Evolutionary Psychological Perspective
Feminist Psychological Perspective
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Sexual Harassment in the Workplace
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Evolutionary Perspective and Sexual Harassment in the Workplace
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Sexual Identity
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Theories of Sexual Identity
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Sexual Imprinting
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
The Evolutionary Function of Sexual Imprinting
Evidence for Sexual Imprinting in Humans
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Sexual Infidelity Versus Emotional Infidelity
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Evolutionary View on Sexual Versus Emotional Infidelity
Conclusions
Cross-References
References
Sexual Initiation
Sexual Injustice
Sexual Intercourse
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Who Do Men and Women Prefer for Sexual Partners?
Appearance
How Often Do Men and Women Have Sexual Intercourse?
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Sexual Intimidation
Sexual Jealousy
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Jealousy as an Adaptation
Men´s Sexual Jealousy and Aggression
Factors that Influence the Intensity of Jealousy and Aggression
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Sexual Jealousy Among Women
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
The Adaptive Function of Women Sexual Jealousy
Female Jealousy Specializations for Detecting Potential Rivals
Women´s Mate-Guarding Behavior
Women´s Intrasexual Competition and the Green-Eyed Monster
Derogation of Competitors
Women´s Aggression in Response to Sexual Jealousy
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Sexual Jealousy in Long-Term Relationships
Definition
Sexual Jealousy in Long-Term Relationships
Cross-References
References
Sexual Life
Sexual Manipulation
Sexual Maturation
Sexual Maturity
Sexual Minorities
Sexual Motivations of Gang Members
Sexual Nature
Sexual Onset
Sexual Orientation
Nature and/or Nurture
Bisexuality and Evolutionary Strategies in Women and Men
Proximate Mechanisms of Orienting: An Evolutionary-Developmental Enigma
Experiments of Nature: Against Nurture?
The Development of Sexual Preferences in Nonhuman Animals
Orientation and Universal Darwinism
References
Sexual Orientation and Human Sexuality
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Evolutionary Theories of Sexual Orientation
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Sexual Orientation Identity
Sexual Outcomes
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Biological Outcomes
Behavioral Outcomes
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Sexual Pathology
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
What Is Evolutionary Sexology?
Determining Sexual Normality and Abnormality Is Independent from Contemporary Environmental, Societal, and Cultural Norms
Emphasis of Individual Symptoms and their Relative Independence from Presently Valid Medical Diagnoses
The Application of Knowledge from Classical Ethology, Human Ethology, and Evolutionary Psychology
Nature/Nurture and the Innate/Acquired Together Complete the Final Result of Human Sexuality
The Importance of the Phylogenetic History of Sexual Behavior, Variation, or Disorder
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Sexual Personality
Sexual Preference
Sexual Preferences
Sexual Prejudice
Sexual Prejudice (Personality Correlates of)
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Bases of Sexual Prejudice
Personality and Individual Differences in Sexual Prejudice
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Sexual Promiscuity
Sexual Receptivity
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Continuous Sexual Receptivity
Sex Differences in Sexual Receptivity
Hormonal Variation in Sexual Receptivity
Cues to Sexual Receptivity
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Sexual Regret
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Evolutionary Psychological Theory of Casual Sex Regret
Predictors of Casual Sex Regret
Future Research and Unanswered Questions
Conclusions
Cross-References
References
Sexual Rejection
Sexual Relations
Sexual Reproduction
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
The Origins of Sex
The Problem of Sexual Reproduction
Genetic Diversity as an Outcome of Sexual Reproduction
Purging Bad Genes
Pathogen Resistance
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Sexual Response
Sexual Response Pattern
Sexual Reverie
Sexual Selection
Sexual Selection and Humor
Sexual Selection Hypothesis
Sexual Selection Hypothesis of Infanticide
Sexual Selection in Evolutionary Psychology
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Natural Selection Versus Sexual Selection
The Science of Sex Appeal and Human Sexual Selection
Intrasexual Competition
Maladaptive-Seeming Traits that Are Adaptive for Sexual Selection
Sexual Selection in the Animal Kingdom
Costly Signaling in Humans
How Humans Have Shaped Selection: Selective Breeding of Dogs and Cats
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Sexual Selection via Direct Male-Male Interactions
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Special Characteristics of Sexual Selection Versus Natural Selection
Alternative Tactics
Flexibility Versus Rigidity: Conditional Strategies Versus Evolutionarily Stable Strategies
Female Acceptance
Ubiquity of Alternative Strategies
Why Male-Male Battles Are So Often Decided by Threats and ``Honest´´ and ``Dishonest´´ Signals
Conflict Between Natural Selection and Different Types of Sexual Selection
Exaggerated Traits and How to Measure Them
Sexual Selection at Different Stages: Precopulatory, Copulatory, and Postcopulatory
An Example of Conflict Between Types of Sexual Selection: The ``Beautiful Weapons´´ of Fiddler Crabs
General Lessons
General Significance for Psychobiology
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Sexual Self
Sexual Signal
Sexual Signaling During Ovulation
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Attractiveness and Cycle
Voluntary Signals?
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Sexual Signalling
Sexual Size Dimorphism
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Sexual Size Dimorphism
Evolutionary Hypotheses for Sexual Size Dimorphism
Sexual Size Dimorphism in Humans and Other Primates
Intralocus Sexual Conflict over Body Size
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Sexual Socialization
Definition
Introduction
Parents
Peers
Media
Reflections to Consider in Future Research
Conclusion
References
Sexual Stigmatization
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
The Sexual Double Standard
Historical Context
Early Sexual Double Standard Research
More Recent Work
Theoretical Frameworks
Current Research
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Sexual Strategies Theory
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
The Two Major Axes of Sexual Strategies Theory
The Psychology of Short-Term Mating for Men and Women
The Psychology of Long-Term Mating for Men and Women
Mating Psychology Is Context Dependent
Conclusions
Cross-References
References
Sexual Timing
Sexual Trauma
Sexual Unfaithfulness
Sexual Variants
Sexual Versus Emotional Infidelity
Sexual Versus Emotional Jealousy
Sexual Violence
Sexuality
Sexuality and Birth
Sexuality Education
Sexuality in Community
Sexuality in Neighborhood
Sexually Accepting
Sexually Antagonistic Genetic Variation
Sexually Antagonistic Hypothesis
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Sexual Antagonistic Selection in Animals
The Sexually Antagonistic Hypothesis in Humans
Empirical Data
Models Tested
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Sexually Antagonistic Polymorphism
Sexually Communicable Disease/Infection
Sexually Dimorphic Gene Expression
Sexually Explicit Material
Sexually Transmitted Infection
Sex-Work
Sexy Son Hypothesis
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Controversies and Obstacles for the Hypothesis Testing
The Sexy Son Hypothesis in Humans
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Sexy Sons Hypothesis
Shamanism
Shaping
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Skinner´s First Experiments and the Invention of the Term ``Shaping´´
The Shaping Procedure
Behavior Modification Using Shaping
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Shared Genetic Material
Sharing
Shelter and Protection
She-Male
Shifting Dominance
Definition
Introduction
Hierarchy Formation
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Short and Long Term Preferences
Shortcomings in the Origin of Species Related to Darwin´s/Wallace´s Theory of Natural Selection
Shortcomings of the SSSM
Definition
Introduction
The Methodologies of the Social Sciences
The Ten Steps of the SSSM
A Short History of the SSSM
Shortcomings in the Methodology of Economics
Why Has the SSSM Remained So Persistent?
Criticisms of Tooby and Cosmides´ Account of the SSSM
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Short-Term Mating
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Short-Term Mating Strategies
Short-Term Mating Strategy
Showing-Off
Shunning
Siblicide
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Factors that Influence the Likelihood of Siblicide
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Sibling
Sibling Comparison
Sibling Configuration
Sibling Conflict
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Sibling Conflict Theory: Predicting Likelihood of Competition Versus Cooperation
Factors That Affect the Prevalence and Intensity of Sibling Conflict
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Sibling Constellation
Sibling Design
Sibling Method
Sibling Order
Sibling Position
Sibling Position Effects
Sibling Relationships
Sibling Rivalry
Sibling Spacing
Sibling Studies
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Twin Designs
Differential Sibling Exposure Design
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Sibling Violence
Siblings
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Kin Selection Theory
Sibling Rivalry
Birth Order
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Siblings Pose Unique Adaptive Problems
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Birth Order and Development
Sibling Relationship Quality
Niche Picking
Conclusions
Cross-References
References
Sibships
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Recognizing Siblings
Conflict Among Siblings
Quality-Quantity Trade-Off
Cooperation Between Siblings
Sibling Relations Throughout the Life Course
Conclusions
Cross-References
References
Side Effect
Sidetrack
Sign Language
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Sign Language Acquisition
Sign Language Communication
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Signal Reliability
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Alignment of Signaler and Receiver Interests
Nonalignment of Signaler and Receiver Interests
Why Are Signals Typically Reliable When Signaler and Receiver Interests Do Not Align?
When Is Deception Expected?
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Signaling
Signaling Body Dimensions
Signaling Theory
Signals
Signals of Body Size
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Acoustic Cues to Body Size
Visual Cues to the Body Size
Conclusion
Cross-References
Acknowledgment
References
Significance of Helping
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
What Is Helping?
Why Do We Help?
Who Is More Likely to Help?
Conclusion
The Significance of Helping
Cross-References
References
Signs
Silent Ovulation
Silly
Silver Fox Domestication Experiment
Synonyms
Definition
References
Similar Tools Are also Called Slickers and Burnishers in Modern Leather-Work
Similarity
Similarity Selection
Simile
Simon Baron-Cohen (Darwinian Psychiatry)
Definition
Introduction
Proposed Cognitive Model from ``Mindblindness´´
The Eye Direction Detector
The Shared Attention Mechanism
The Theory of Mind Mechanism
The Autism Connection
Eyes and Emotions
Autism and ``Extreme Male Brain´´
Autism Assessment: The ``Autism Quotient´´
Intervention
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Simple Phobias
Simulating Orgasm
Single Parent
Single Person
Single Trial Learning
Single-Male Group
Single-Male Troop
Single-Male/Multi-female Group
Single-Mother Families
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Causes of Single Motherhood and Its Effects on Mental Health and Employment
Single-Mother Households and Child Outcomes
Conclusions
Cross-References
References
Single-Subject Experimental Design
Sister
Sisters
Situational Awareness
Situational Behavior
Size
Size and Dominance
Synonyms
Definitions
Introduction
Selection for Size
Size and Dominance in Males
Size and Dominance in Females
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Size Dimorphism
Size Dimorphism and Locomotion
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Sexual Size Dimorphism in Hominins
SSD in Ancestors of Modern Humans
Bipedalism and SSD: Intrasexual Competition and Male Body Size
Bipedalism and SSD: Selection on Female Size Through Reproduction
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Skew Theory
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Models of Reproductive Skew
Transactional Models
Compromise Models
Synthetic Models
Skew Theory Applied to Humans
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Skinner Box, the
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
The Skinner Box Design
Uses of the Skinner Box in Research
The Evolution of the Skinner Box in the Digital Era
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Sleep-Wake Cycles
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Brain and Function
Disruption
Evolution
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Smacking
Small Infants
Small-Band Hunter-Gatherers
Smarties Task, The
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Variations
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Smoother
Snail
Sneak Copulation
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Description
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Sneak Copulation as an Alternative Mating Strategy
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Sneaking as a Reproductive Tactics
Phenotypic and Life History Differences
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Sneaker
Sneaker Males
Sneaking
Sneaky Mating
Snivelling
Sobbing
Sobriety
Social Aggression
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction: Theoretical Perspectives
Who´s Involved and What´s the Prevalence?
Effects
Prevention and Intervention
Conclusion
Cross References
References
Social Anxiety
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Different Theories of the Evolution of Social Anxiety Disorder
General Discussion of the Theories
A Cognitive Therapy Approach
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Social Anxiety Disorder
Social Authority
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
The Emergence of Social Authority
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Social Avoidance
Social Belonging
Social Bias
Social Bond
Social Bonding
Social Bonds
Social Brain Hypothesis
Social Categorization
Social Categorization by Age of Faces
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Categorization by Age of Faces
Function of Age Categorization
Consequences of Age Categorization
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Social Categorization by Race
Social Change
Social Closeness
Social Cognition
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Social Cognition as an Adaptation
Sociality and the Evolution of Human Cognition: Four Hypotheses
Uniquely Human Social Cognition
The Structure of Social Cognition
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Social Cognition and Communication in Chimpanzees and Bonobos
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
The Species
Social Development and Behavior
Social Cognition
Cooperation
Theory of Mind
Social Learning and Culture
Communication
Gestures
Vocalizations
Facial Expressions
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Social Communication
Social Communication Disorder
Social Comparison
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Theory of Social Comparison
Social Comparison - An Evolutionary Perspective
Social Comparison in Mating
Social Comparison in the Modern World
Evolutionary Mismatch
Social Media and Modern Societies
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Social Competence
Social Complexity Hypothesis
Social Conditions
Social Consequences of Initiating Gossip
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Providing and Gathering Information
Group Protection
Strengthening Bonds
Social Status
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Social Constructionism
Social Context
Synonyms
Definitions
Introduction
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Social Contract Rule Violation
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Social Cooperation
Social Cues
Social Customs
Social Darwinism
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Natural Selection
Contemporary Social Darwinism
Cross-References
References
Social Development
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Humanity´s Inheritances
Social Development in Primal Societies
Social Development in Civilized Societies
Differences Between Civilized and Primal Societies
Cross-References
References
Social Development in Nonhuman Primates
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Normative Development
Interindividual Variation
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Social Dilemma
Social Disabilities
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Autism Spectrum Disorder
Rett Syndrome
Social Communication Disorder
Social Anxiety Disorder
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Social Disorganization Theory
Social Dominance
Social Dominance and Sexual Access
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Dominance and Resource Holding Potential
Mate Choice
Glucocorticoids and Their Impact on Reproductive Processes
The Importance of Reproductive Skew
Dominance, Sexual Access, and Human Societies
Conclusions
Cross-References
References
Social Dominance Hierarchy
Social Dominance Orientation (SDO)
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
The Construct of Social Dominance Orientation (SDO)
Dimensionality
Predictive Power of SDO
Distinctions Between SDO and Related Constructs
SDO Is Contingent upon Hierarchical Position but Is also a Stable Trait
Interpretation of Low SDO Scores
Evolution of Dominance and Egalitarianism
Evolution of Sex Differences in Social Dominance Orientation
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Social Dominance Reduces Fighting
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Conflict and Dominance
Conclusions
Cross-References
References
Social Dominance Structure
Social Emotion Evolution
Social Evolution
Social Exchange
Social Exchange Algorithms
Social Exchange Among Non-kin
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Social Exchange Among Non-kin
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Social Exchange Theory
Definition
Introduction
Background and Principles of Social Exchange Theory
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Social Exclusion
Social Exclusion or Rejection
Social Factors and Crime
Social Grooming
Social Groups
Social Habit Development
Social Hierarchies
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Individual-Level Fitness Benefits of Social Hierarchy
Dominance and Prestige: Two Evolved Mechanisms to Navigate Social Hierarchies
Group-Level Fitness Benefits
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Social Hierarchy
Social Hypotheses of Homophobia
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Religiosity, Fundamentalism, and Right-Wing Authoritarianism
Gender, Gender Role, and Masculinity
Are Heterosexual Homophobes Secretly Attracted to Homosexuals?
Homophobia as a Culturally Driven Phenomenon?
Conclusion
Cross-References
Acknowledgment
References
Social Identity
Social Identity Formation
Social Inclusion or Acceptance
Social Information Processing
Social Intelligence Hypothesis, The
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Origins of the SIH
Social Intelligence in Primates
Social Correlates with Brain Size in Primates
Defining Social Complexity
Summary: Primates Are Specialized for Social Intelligence
Testing the SIH in Non-primates
Mammals
Birds
Fish
Invertebrates
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Social Interaction
Social Interaction Source
Social Isolation
Social Knowledge
Social Learning
Definition
Introduction
Cognitive Load Theory
An Update of the Theory Aligned with Evolutionary Psychology
The Link Between Cognitive LoadTtheory and Geary´s Evolutionary Cognition Theory
Biological Primary Knowledge
Biological Secondary Knowledge
Discovery Learning Versus Explicit Instruction?
Schooling, Observation, and Learning
Domain General and Domain-Specific Knowledge
A Collective Memory Through Socialization
Cross-References
References
Social Learning and Culture
Social Learning and Social Cognition
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Language and Social Cognition
Language and Social Learning
Social Interaction is Cultural Interaction
Language and Culture
Individualistic Versus Collectivistic Cultures
Loose Versus Tight Cultures
Low Context Versus High Context Communication
Horizontal Versus Vertical Cultures
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Social Learning in Mate Choice
Social Learning of Mate Preferences
Social Learning Theory
Social Media
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Current Theories of Social Media Usage and Effects
The Evolutionary Basis of Social Media Use and Effects
Social Media Hijacks Our Evolved Social Psychology
Harmful Outcomes of Social Media Use
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Social Monitoring
Social Monogamy
Social Networks
Social Neuroscience of Self-Categorization
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Self-categorization in Social Psychology
The Social Neuroscience Approach to Self-categorization
The Brain Structures Involved in Neural Processing of Self-categorization
Neural Processing of Self-categorization: Key Findings
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Social Neuroscience of Social Identity
Social Norm
Social Norm Violation
Social Norms
Social Organization
Social Outcomes and Sex Ratio
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Potential Mechanisms
Methodological Issues
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Social Partner Choice
Social Phobia
Social Play
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Social Play - An Overview
Social Play Interactions During Childhood
Massively Multiplayer Online Games
The Neurobiology of Social Play Behavior
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Social Playing
Social Problem Solving
Social Psychologist
Social Psychology
Social Rank
Social Rank and Fitness
Social Ranking
Social Reasoning
Social Reasoning Affected by Rank (Mealey, Daood, Krage, 1996)
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Dominance Theory
Is Social Reasoning Affected by Social Rank?
Is Memory for Cheaters Affected by Social Rank?
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Social Rejection
Social Relations Theory (Fiske)
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Communal Sharing
Authority Ranking
Equality Matching
Market Pricing
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Social Relationships
Social Reputation
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
The Social Ecology of the Environment of Evolutionary Adaptedness
Reciprocal Altruism
The Emergence of Social Reputation
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Social Responsibility
Social Roles
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Types of Roles and Role Theory
Multiple Roles and Psychological Adjustment
Conclusion
References
Social Sanctions
Social Science
Social Signal
Social Signals
Social Skills
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Main Text
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Social Source Memory
Social Standing
Social Stature
Social Status
Social Status and Economic Resources
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Preference for Social Status
Preference for Economic Resources
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Social Status: Prestige
Social Structure
Social Support
Social Thinking
Social Tool
Definition
Introduction
Social-Target Tool Use
Social-Means Tool Use
Social-Means-Target Tool Use
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Social Value
Social Values
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Emergence of Identity Within Culture
Embodiment of the Self in the Community
Rites of Passage
The Role of Honor Code
Development Levels for Compliance and Ethics
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Social Withdrawal in Childhood
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Defining Social Withdrawal
Social Withdrawal as Evolutionarily Maladaptive
Survival and Reproduction
Childhood Peer Interactions and Relationships
Happiness, Health, and Individual Well-Being
Can Certain Subtypes of Social Withdrawal Be Adaptive?
Future Directions: Considering Context
Culture
Computer-Mediated Communication
Conclusions
Cross-References
References
Social/Contextual Factors
Sociality
Socialization
Socialization Processes
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Features of Socialization in Childhood
The Role of the Child
The Nature of Values
Intuitive Morality
Domains of Socialization
Conclusion
References
Sociobiology Controversy
Sociobiology Debate
Sociobiology Wars, The
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Dissecting the Sociobiology Debate
Evolutionary Psychology, the New Sociobiology?
Sociobiology and Sociology
Cross-References
References
Sociocultural Theories of Language
Sociocultural Theories of Violence
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Cultural Approaches
Social Learning Theory
Subcultures of Violence Theory
The Culture of Honor Thesis
The Civilizing Process
Social-Structural Approaches
Social Disorganization Theory
Strain Theory
Conclusions
Cross-References
References
Socioeconomic Flattening
Socioeconomic Status
Socioendocrinology
Sociogenomics
Sociometer
Sociometer Hypothesis
Sociometer Theory
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
The Nature of Self-Esteem and Its Function
The Mating Sociometer
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Sociometric Status
Sociomoral Emotion
Sociopathy
Sociosexual Behavior in Primates
Sociosexual Orientation
Sociosexuality
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Sociosexuality Measures
Theories of Sociosexuality
Cross-Cultural Differences in Sociosexuality
Sociosexuality and Other Individual Differences
Sociosexuality and Mating Behavior
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Sociosexuality and Sexual Conflict in Mating Strategies
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Sex Differences in Sociosexuality
Conflict About the Occurrence and Timing of Sex
Sexual Aggression
Individual Differences
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Solidarity
Solitude
Solution to Paternity Uncertainty
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Paternal Assurance Tactics
Insemination Prevention
Counter Insemination Strategies
Pregnancy Termination Strategies
Postpartum Investment Strategies
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Somatic Maintenance
Somatosensory System
Son/Daughter
Soprano
Sororicide
Sound Generation
Sound Perception
Soundwaves Direction
Sour
Source Memory
Source Memory Advantage for Faces of Cheaters
Southern Cultures of Violence
Space, Time, and Number
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Key Features of Space, Time, and Number
Adherence to Weber´s Law
Increasing Precision Throughout Development
Neural Activation
Representing Small Versus Large Values: Two Distinct Systems
Cross-Domain Interference
Cross-Domain Transfer
Basic Quantitative Processing and Academic Achievement
Does a Common Magnitude System Exist?
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Spandrel
Spandrels
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Spanking
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
A Historical Perspective
Theoretical Framework
What Is Spanking?
Prevalence of Spanking
To Spank or Not to Spank: Effects of Spanking
Externalizing Effects
Internalizing Effects
Cognitive Effects
Cultural Considerations on Spanking as a Disciplinary Practice
Alternative Strategies
Build Knowledge and Awareness
Early Education and Intervention
Laws and Social Norms
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Spatial Abilities
Spatial Mapping
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Environmental Influences on Spatial Mapping
Neural Correlates of Spatial Mapping
Conclusion
References
Spatial Navigation
Spatial Processing
Spatial Reasoning
Special
Special Case of Bonobos and Female Counter-Adaptations to Rape
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Special Case of Sexual Coercion in Bonobos
Socio-Spatial Interactions and Social Structure of Bonobos
Role of Nonconceptive Sex and Less Honest Signals About Ovulation
Self-Domestication Hypothesis
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Special Case: Autism
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Extreme Male Brain Theory of Autism
Alternatives to the Mindblindness Theory of Autism
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Special Friendships Among Baboons
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Male-Female Friendships in Baboons
Adaptive Benefits of Friendships for Female Baboons
Adaptive Benefits of Friendships for Male Baboons
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Special Relationships
Special Resemblance
Specialization
Specialized Cognitive Skills
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Social Cognition and Specialized Cognitive Skills
Specialized Cognitive Skills and Functional Systems Theory
Evolutionary Cognitive Neuroscience
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Species Concepts
Species Definitions
Specific Brain Damage
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Brief History of Brain Damage and Neuroimaging
Methods in the Detection of Specific Brain Damage
Computed Tomography
Magnetic Resonance Imaging
Positron Emission Tomography
Electrophysiological Techniques
Neuropsychological Assessment
Types of Brain Damage
Acquired Brain Injuries
Evolution of Pain and Neuroplasticity
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Specific Friendships
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Nonexploitative Personality Traits
Nonexploitative Personality Traits and Friendships
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Specific Phobias
Speech
Speech Amplitude
Speech Intensity
Speech Loudness
Speech Volume
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Sperm
Sperm Allocation
Sperm Choice
Sperm Competition
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Psychological Adaptations to Sperm Competition
Sperm Competition and Pornography
Sperm Competition and Female Orgasm
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Sperm Competition in Birds
Sperm Competition Risk and Partner Abuse
Cross-References
References
Sperm Competition Tactics
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Precopulatory Tactics
Postcopulatory Tactics
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Sperm Competition Theory
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Sperm Quantity: The Numbers Game
Game Theory Models of Ejaculate Size and Expenditure
Resolving Areas of Confusion
Evidence that Sperm Competition Favors Greater Sperm Production
Is Sperm Quality Sexually Selected?
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Sperm Competition: Evidence in Nonhumans
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Sperm Competition in Invertebrates
Sperm Competition in Vertebrates
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Sperm Expenditure
Sperm Plug
Sperm Storage
Definition
Introduction
Sperm
Variables Necessary for Survival
The Penis as a Sperm Displacement Device
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Sphragis
Spicy Food in Hotter Countries
Spillover Effects
Spillovers
Spiritism
Spirits
Spiritualism
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Spirituality
Split-Brain Patients
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Hemispheric Asymmetry and the Divided Brain
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Spontaneous Abortion and Maternal-Fetal Conflict
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Spontaneous Abortion in Other Mammals
Early Decision Making
Fetal Response
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Spontaneous Language
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Language Change and Diversification
Creolization
Biological Origin of the Language Faculty
Iterated Learning Experiments
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Spontaneous Problem-Solving
Spontaneous Recovery
Definition
Introduction
The Process of Spontaneous Recovery
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Sports
Spousal Abuse and Homicide: Byproduct Theory (Daly and Wilson)
Synonyms
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Spousal Abuse and Homicide: Evolved Homicide Module Theory (Buss) [Spousal Homicide]
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Squirrel Family Sciuridae
SSSM
Stable Cooperation
Stages of Development
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Conclusion
References
Stages of Life
Stalking
Stammering
Stamping In
Standard
Standard Model
Standard Social Science Model
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
The Main Assumptions of Standard Social Science Model
Alternative Integrated Model
Criticism of the View on Social Science Through the Lens of SSSM
Conclusion
Cross-References
Acknowledgment
References
Standard Social Science Model, Tabula Rasa, Empiricism, Environmentalism
Standing Tall
Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scales
State Self-Esteem
State-Sanctioned Punishment as Deterrent to Violence
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
State-Sanctioned Punishment
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
State-Sanctioned Punishment as Substitute for Tribal Vengeance
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Evolution of Punishment
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Statistical Summary
Status
Status Acquisition
Status and Dominance Hierarchies
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Types of Status Hierarchies
Physical Correlates of Status
Social Skills, Reputation, and Social Capital
Social Cognition and Status Acquisition
Sex Differences in Status Striving
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Status and Redistribution of Resources
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Status and Distribution
Status and Redistribution
Social Dominance
Strategies for (Re)distribution
Criticism of Evolutionary Perspectives on Status and Redistribution
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Status and Reproductive Success
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Status and Reproductive Success in Small-Scale Societies
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Status and Wealth
Status Competition
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Status Competition and Peer Relationships in Childhood
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Social Hierarchy During Childhood
Social Status
Popularity
Social Preference
Social Rank
The Routes to Social Status
Dominance
Prestige
Conclusion
References
Status Gradient
Status Hierarchies
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Evolution and Social Hierarchies
Male Armaments and Female Choice
Status Cues and Female Choice
Female Intrasexual Competition and Status
Attaining and Maintaining Social Status
Aggressive Tactics
Cooperative Tactics
Communication Tactics
Hierarchies and Hormones
Testosterone and Armaments
Testosterone and Dominance
Testosterone and Competition
Female Hormones
Hierarchies and Health
Employment Rank
Comparative Evidence
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Status Hierarchy
Status Striving
Status Symbol
Status-Leveling
Steady Future
Stepchildren
Stepfamilies
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Challenges Faced in the Stepfamily
Myths and Reality about Stepfamily
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Step-Parenting
Definition
Introduction
Step-Parenting in the (Standard) Social Sciences
The Evolutionary Approach to Understanding Stepparental Behavior
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Stepparents
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Stepparents and Evolution
Stepparents and Parental Care
Stepparents and Child Abuse
Conclusions
Cross-References
References
Stereotyped Vocalizations
Definition
Introduction
Animal Vocal Behavior
Vocal Control
Acoustic Flexibility in Animal Calls
Animal Call Sequences
Meaning in Animal Calls
Intentionality in Animal Communication
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Stereotypes
Steroid Hormone
Steve Gangestad
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Sexual Hide and Seek
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Steven Pinker
Education and Research on Visual Cognition
Research on Language
Research on Violence
On Writing
Awards
Cross-References
References
Steven Pinker and Language Development
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
The Language Instinct (1994)
How the Mind Works (1997)
Words and Rules (1999)
The Blank Slate (2002)
The Stuff of Thought (2007)
The Sense of Style
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Steven Pinker How the Mind Works
Steven Pinker on Genetic Determinism
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Benefits
Genetic Determinism of Psychological Traits
Pitfalls
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Steven Pinker on Language
Steven Pinker on Universal Grammar
Stick Tools for Foraging
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Probe Tool Use in Birds
Probe Use in Nonhuman Primates
Probe Tool Use in Bearded Capuchin Monkeys
Probe Tool Use in Orangutans
Probe and Pounding Stick Tools Use in Chimpanzees
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Stigma
Stigmatization and Ostracism
Definition
Introduction
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Stimulation of Partner´s Genitalia and Having Partner Stimulate Genitalia
Stimulus Generalization and Discrimination
Definition
Introduction
Differentiation of Stimulus Generalization and Stimulus Discrimination Concepts
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Stochastic Environment
Stochastic Phenotype Switching
Stone Hammers
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Use of Stone Hammers in Birds
Use of (Passive) Stone ``Hammers´´ in a Non-primate Mammal
Use of Stone Hammers in Nonhuman Primates
Tufted Capuchin Monkeys (Sapajus sp.)
Long-Tailed Macaques (Macaca Fascicularis)
Chimpanzees (Pan Troglodytes) and Other Apes
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Stopping Early Hypothesis
Stopping-Early Hypothesis
Story
Storyteller
Storytelling
Strain Theory
Stranger Anxiety
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Evolution of Stranger Anxiety
Implications of Stranger Anxiety
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Stranger Sex
Strategic Aggression
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Sex Differences
Then and Now
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Strategic Ejaculate Investment
Strategic Ejaculation
Strategic Interference
Strategic Pluralism Theory
Strategies
Strategies for Navigating Social Rank Hierarchies
Strategies for Successful Cooperation
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Defining Cooperation
Adaptive Problems and the Evolution of Cooperation
Proximate Mechanisms for the Evolution of Cooperation
The Five Rules
Additional Potential Mechanisms for the Evolution of Cooperation
Core Design Principles
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Streetwalking
Strength
Strength and Anger-Proneness
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
The Link Between Physical Strength and Aggression
What Explains the Relationship Between Strength and Aggression?
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Stress
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Functions of the Stress Response
Phylogeny of the Stress Response
Sex Differences
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Stress and Cortisol
Definition and Synonyms
Introduction
Physiology of Cortisol in the Body
Effects of Cortisol
Diagnostic Measures of Cortisol
Treatment of Stress and Cortisol
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Stress Hormones
Stress Reactivity
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Hypothalamic-Pituitary-Adrenal (HPA) Axis
Adaptive Calibration Model
Psychosocial Acceleration Theory
Harshness and Unpredictability Dimensions
Hypervigilance and Psychopathology
Psychosocial Acceleration Theory Revisited
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Stress Reduction and Mental Health
Synonyms
Introduction
Conclusion
References
Stress Response
Stress Response System
Stressor
Strike Back
Strong Negative Reciprocity
Strong Reciprocity
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Experimental Evidence
Proximate Mechanisms
Evolutionary Origins
Conclusions
Cross-References
References
Structure
Student-Centered Learning
Studies on Adaptation of Human Behavior and Behavioral Outcomes
Study of Animal Minds
Study of Dunnock Mating, The
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Variable Mating System
The Genetic Eyepiece
Personality and Its Implication for Dunnock Mating
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Study of Instinct, The
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Arguments for the ``Instinct´´ Concept
The ``Instinct´´ Concept: Arguments Against
Conclusion
Cross-References
Acknowledgment
References
Stumble
Stuttering
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Developmental Stuttering
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Subcultural Theory
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Subculture Characteristics
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Subgroup
Subjective Arousal
Subjectivity
Submission
Subordinate Behavioral Tactics
Substance Abuse
Substance Addiction
Substance Dependence
Substance Misuse
Substance Use Disorder
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Evolutionary Benefits of Naturally Occurring Substances
Evolutionary Mismatch
Life History Theory
False Fitness Theory
Neurobiological Perspective
Conclusion
References
Substantive Ethics
Sufferer
Suicidal Enactment
Suicidality
Suicide
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Suicide from an Evolutionary Perspective
The Study of Clusters in Suicidal Behavior
Risk and Protective Factors of Suicide
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Suicide (Evolutionary Clinical Psychology)
Introduction
The Inclusive Fitness Model
The Bargaining Model
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Suicide as Kin-Directed Altruism
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Research on Suicide as Kin-directed Altruism
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Suicide Bombers
Suicide Terrorism
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Relevant Concepts in Evolutionary Psychology
Terrorism and Suicide Terrorism: A Brief Summary
Psychological Perspectives on Terrorism and Suicide Terrorism
Terrorism from an Evolutionary Psychological Perspective
Suicide Terrorism as Altruism
Suicide Terrorism as Direct or Indirect Reciprocal Altruism
Suicide Terrorism and Kin Selection
Suicide Terrorism as Induced Altruism/Fictive Kinship
Critique of the Evolutionary Psychological Explanations of Suicide Terrorism
Multiple Causes of Suicide Terrorism and the Need for Empirical Psychological Research
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Summary Representation
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Memory and Personality Traits
Scope Hypothesis
The Statistical Nature of Summary Representation
Change Blindness
The Role of Attention
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Superior Longitudinal Folliculus
Superiority
Super-K
Supernormal Sign Stimulus
Supernormal Stimuli
Definition
Introduction
Animal Research
Human Implications
Conclusion
References
Supernormal Stimuli (Konrad Lorenz)
Synonyms
Definition
Konrad Lorenz and Niko Tinbergen
Examples of Supernormal Stimuli
Pornography and Mirror Neurons
Can Supernormal Stimuli Be Adaptive?
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Supernormal Stimulus
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
From Early Ethology to Today´s Consumerism
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Supernormality
Super-Stimulus
Superstition
Supremacy
Surreptitious Mating
Surroundings
Surveillance Cues
Survey
Surveys and Questionnaires
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Keep Your Target Population in Mind
Construct Your Questions Purposefully
Verify That Your Efforts to Avoid Bias Have Been Adequate
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Survival Advantages of ADHD Symptoms Based on Evolutionary Mismatch Approaches
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Leading Evolutionary Mismatch Approaches of ADHD
ADHD Symptoms as Adaptive Hunters´ Traits
Survival Benefits of ADHD Symptoms for Waders
Individuals with ADHD as Better Fighters
ADHD Traits Facilitate Swift Reactions
Survival Advantages of ADHD-Associated Capricious Behaviors
The Adventurous Nature (and Hence Survivability) of Individuals with ADHD
Integration of Key Evolutionary Mismatch Approaches
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Survival and Death
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Longevity and Causes of Death in Hunter-Gatherers
The Nonhuman Environment
The Human Environment
Other ``Life-and-Death´´ Considerations
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Survival and Reproduction
Survival of the Fittest
Survival-Relevant
Survivorship
Susceptibility
Sustained Attention
Swarming
Swatting
Sweet
Swimming
Sycophant
Symbiosis and Mutualism
Synonyms
Definitions
Introduction
Types of Symbiosis
Mutualism
Types of Mutualism
Intraspecies Mutualism
Synergistic and By-Product Mutualism
Mutualism, Reciprocity, and Pseudoreciprocity
The Evolution of Mutualism
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Symbiotic and Mutualistic Relationships
Symbolic Behavior
Symbolic Culture
Synonyms
Definitions
Introduction
Semiosis
Evolution of Symbolic Thought
Conclusions
Cross-References
References
Symbolic Knowledge
Symbolic Signs
Symmetry
Synapse
Syntagmatic Relations
Systems
T
Tactical
Tactics to Solve Adaptive Problems of Sperm Competition
Definition
Introduction
Paternal Assurance Tactics
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Tactics Versus Strategies
Definition
Introduction
Strategies and Tactics
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Talking About Others
Tall Poppy
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Tall Poppy Syndrome
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Tandem Memory Retrieval
Taste
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Cells Found in Taste Buds
Transmission of Signals from Receptors to the Brain
Genetic Variations in Taste Perception
Conclusions
Cross-References
References
Taste Preferences
Ta-ta
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Tattoos
Teacher
Teaching Procedures
Team Athletes
Team Sport
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Groups Versus Teams
Team Dynamics
The Evolution of Sport
Involvement in Team Sports Matters
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Tearing
Technical Intelligence Hypothesis, The
Definition
Introduction
How to Test for the Technical Intelligence Hypothesis?
Tool Manufacture and the Technical Intelligence Hypothesis
Technical Innovations and the Technical Intelligence Hypothesis
Did Tool Use/Technical Innovations Drive Brain Enlargement and the Evolution of Intelligence?
Conclusion
Cross-References
Acknowledgment
References
Technological Bullying
Teenage Issues
Teenage Pregnancy
Teleology
Telomerase
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Empirical Support
Importance to Evolutionary Psychology
Conclusion
References
Telomere
Telomere Attrition
Telomere Depletion
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Overview
What Are Telomeres?
Telomere Evolution
Environmental Exposures Correlate with Depleted Telomere Length
Causal Models and Alternative Hypotheses Explaining Correlations
The Future of the Field and the Need for Longitudinal Research
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Telomere Erosion
Telomere Shortening
Telomeric Repeat Sequence
Temper
Temperament
Temperature
Temporal Discounting
Temporal or Spatial Fluctuation
Temporal Processing
Temptation
Tend and Befriend Adaptations
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Tend and Befriend Theory
Biological Underpinnings
Evolutionary Advantages of Tending and Befriending for Females
Evidence for Tend-and-Befriend Adaptations
Oxytocin and Stress Responses in Human Females
Sex Differences in Stress Reactivity
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Tenor
Tenth Cranial Nerve
Teratogenic Effects of Alcohol Exposure on the Fetus
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Alcohol as a Teratogen
Growth
CNS Damage
Craniofacial Abnormalities
Alcohol-Related Birth Defects
Mechanism of Alcohol Teratogenicity
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Terminal Altruism
Territoriality
Terrorism
Terrors
Testable
Testament
Testosterone
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
History and Mechanisms
Testosterone and Life History Theory
Mating Versus Parenting Trade-Off
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Tests of Male Quality
Thanatology
Thayer´s Law
The Big Five
The Breadth of General Evolutionary Theory
The Causes of War
The Civilizing Process
The Evolution of Genitalia
The Extractive Foraging Hypothesis
The Four-Card Problem
The Gravity Hypothesis of Sexual Size Dimorphism
The Handicap Principle
The Interjectionist Theory
The Mating Mind
The Middle Ages
The Musical Protolanguage Model
The Origin of Species
The Peripheral and Central Auditory System
The Preconscious
The Procreation Debate
The Psychology of Crime
The Red Queen Effect
The Sally-Anne Test
The Science of Strategy
The Sexual Double Standard
The Sexual Response Cycle
The Size of a Group
The Stress Response
The Subconscious
The Traveling Sound
The Wason Selection Task
The Westermarck Effect
The Zone of Proximal Development
Theoretical Reasoning
Theories
Theories of Language
Theories of Language Evolution
Theories of Morality
Theorist
Theory of Asymmetric Investment
Theory of Close Relationships
Theory of Games
Theory of Mind
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
The False-Belief Task Controversy
Two Views on the Evolution and Development of Theory of Mind
Does Theory of Mind Emerge Early or Late in Development?
Can Apes Pass False-Belief Tasks?
The two-Systems View
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Theory of Mind and Evidence of Brain Modularity
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Theory of Mind
The Modularity-Nativist Approach
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Theory of Mind and Nonhuman Intelligence
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Social Intelligence Hypothesis
The Logical Problem
Multiple Systems Hypothesis
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Theory of Moral Development
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Kohlberg´s Three Levels
Assessing Morality
Criticisms of Kohlberg´s Theory
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Theory of Reciprocal Altruism
Theory of Senescence
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Meaning of the Term Senescence
Reduced Selection Pressure with Increasing Age
Theories of the Evolution of Aging
The Apparent Anomaly of Human Post-reproductive Survivorship
Evidence
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Theory of the Descent
Theory of War
Therapeutic Touch
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Basis of Therapeutic Touch
Clinical Use of ``Therapeutic Touch´´
Process of Therapeutic Touch
Phases of Touch Therapy
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Thermal Processing of Food
Thermodynamics
Thermometer
Thermoregulation
Thirteen Misunderstandings About Natural Selection
Introduction
Misunderstanding 1: Natural Selection Is a Random, Chance-Driven Process
Misunderstanding 2: Natural Selection Is Primarily About Survival
Misunderstanding 3: ``Natural Selection´´ Refers to an Agent That Actively ``Selects´´ the Best Organisms for the Next Generat...
Misunderstanding 4: Natural Selection Is Teleological - It Is Working Toward a Goal or Final Purpose
Misunderstanding 5: Natural Selection Favors the Survival of The Species
Misunderstanding 6: Natural Selection Builds Perfectly Designed Biological Mechanisms
Misunderstanding 7: Evolution Implies Genetic Determinism
Misunderstanding 8: Adaptations Must Be Present at Birth (or Must Emerge Very Early in Life)
Misunderstanding 9: The Products of Evolved Mechanisms Are Fixed and Unchangeable
Misunderstanding 10: You Can Use the Principles of Natural Selection to Bypass the Psychological Level of Analysis and Predict...
Misunderstanding 11: Natural Selection Is the Only Driver of Evolutionary Change
Misunderstanding 12: Evolutionary Hypotheses Are Primarily Post-Hoc Storytelling - Also Known as ``Just-So´´ Stories
Misunderstanding 13: Natural Selection Has Stopped for Our Species, So Humans Are No Longer Evolving
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Thomas Cathcart
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Thorndike´s Law of Effect
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Development of the Theory
Evaluation and Influence of the Theory
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Threat Avoidance
Threat Detection
Threat Detection Systems
Threat Reactive
Threat Responses
Threats of Sperm Competition
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Threat of Cuckoldry
Behavioral Responses
Postconception Responses
The Threat of Sperm Competition to Women
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Three Stages of Habitat Selection
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Stage 1
Stage 2
Stage 3
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Thrifty Genotype
Time
Tinbergen´s Four Questions
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Causal/Mechanistic Explanations
Ontogenetic Explanations
Phylogenetic Explanations
Functional Explanations
Tinbergen´s Four Questions in Psychology
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Tinbergen´s Four Whys
To Afford Protection Against Climate and Weather
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Human Cold Tolerance
Hypothermia
Frostbite
Climate Variables
Temperature
Wind Chill
Environmental Moisture
Clothing Physiology
Principles
Measuring the Thermal Value
Climate and Clothing Evolution
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
To Kill Yourself
To Stop Nursing
Tolerance
Tool
Tool Behavior
Tool Innovation
Tool Manufacturing
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Avian Toolmakers
Woodpecker Finches
New Caledonian Crows
Goffin´s Cockatoos
Northern Blue Jays
Rooks
Sculpting Wire Hooks
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Tool Play
Definition
Introduction
Evidence from the Wild
Chimpanzees
Bonobos
Orangutans
Gorillas
Capuchins
Western Red Colobus
Vervet Monkeys
Interspecies
Evidence from Free-Ranging Populations
Rhesus Macaques
Evidence from Captivity
Chimpanzees
Bonobos
Orangutans
Gorillas
Gibbons
Capuchins
Vervet Monkeys
Macaques
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Tool Use
Toolmaking
Tool-Use Tasks
Top Dog
Tormenting
Totemism
Touch
Introduction
Discriminative Touch
Social Touch
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Towards Methodological Pluralism in Psychological Sciences
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
A Historical Unity
Psychology and Anthropology: An Important Relationship
Cognitive Science
A Theoretical Unity
The Importance of Culture in Cognition
Theory of Mind
Visual Information Processing
A Methodological Disunity
Shortcomings of Experimental Methods
Context Impoverishment
Low Ecological Validity
Limited Scope
Moving Towards Methodological Pluralism and Interdisciplinarity
Multimodal Approaches
Interdisciplinary Collaborations
The Case of Human Behavioral Ecology and Evolutionary Psychology
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Toxic Molecules in Seminal Fluid
Tradeoff
Trade-Off Between Exploration and Exploitation
References
Trade-Off Between Reproductive Fitness and Longevity
Trade-Offs
Tradeoffs in Mate Selection
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Strategies for Optimal Reproductive Success
Sex Differences in Mate Preferences
Trade-offs in Mate Selection
Differences in Preferences Based on Mating Contexts
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Traditional Life-Expectancy
Training
Trait
Trait Anger
Trait Judgment
Trait Self-Esteem
Trait Theories
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Allport´s Theory
Eysenck´s Theory
Cattell´s Theory
The Big Five
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Traits
Traits that Facilitate Continued Existence
Transformed Information
Transient Ontogenetic Adaptation
Transient vs. Non-transient Ontogenetic Adaptations
Transition
Transmission of Sound
Transmutations Theory
Transsexualism
Trap Tasks
Traumatic Brain Injury
Traumatic Insemination
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Benefits of TI to Males
Costs of, and Female Response to, TI
Benefits of TI to Females
Evolutionary Trends in TI
Traumatic Sexual Intercourse in Humans
Open Questions and Future Research
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Traumatic Mating (pt.)
Treachery
Treatment of Females in Sexual Socialization
Treatment of Males in Sexual Socialization
Trial-and-Error Learning
Tribal Religion
Tribalism
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
The Origins of Tribalism
The Evolution of Intergroup Conflict
Intergroup Conflict in Humans and Chimpanzees
Tribalism in Social Perception: In-Groups Versus Out-Groups
Theories of Social Cooperation
Tribalism in the Modern Day
Tribalism and the Coronavirus Pandemic
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Tribalism in Moral Tribes
Tribes
Trickery
Triggering Kin Selection
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Kin Selection and Hamilton´s Rule
The Triggers of Kin Selection
Kin Recognition
The Greenbeard Effect
Population Viscosity
Kin Selection at Work
The Monogamy Hypothesis
Coalitions in Wild Turkeys
Kin Selection and Class Structure
Summary
Cross-References
References
Trivers-Willard Effect
Trivers-Willard Hypothesis
Definition
Introduction
Parental Variation of Offspring Sex
Offspring Sex Ratios and Characteristics of Dominance in Fathers
Offspring Sex Ratios and Characteristics of Dominance in Mothers
Parental Hormones and Offspring Sex Ratios
Assortative Mating and Offspring Sex Ratio
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Trolley Problem
Trolley Problem, or Would You Throw the Fat Guy Off the Bridge?
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
To Pull or Not to Pull the Switch
Why the Trolley Problem Matters
What Others Think
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Trolley Problem, The
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
The Trolley Problem in Research and Variations
Cross-Cultural Trolley Problem
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Trolleyology
True Friends
Trust
Tu Quoque, Argumentum Ad hominem, Character Attack
Tumor
Twin Studies
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Quantifying Genetic and Environmental Influences on Trait Variation and Covariation
Twin Studies and Evolutionary Psychology
Conclusions
Cross-References
References
Two-Parent Families
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Two-Parent Versus Single-Parent Families
Variation in Parental Identity and Quality of Investment
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Type III Diabetes
Types of Crying
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Watery Eyes
Flowing Tears and Facial Expressions
Vocal Emissions
Tears of Sadness and Pain
Tears of Need
Tears of Joy
Conclusions
Cross-References
References
Types of Sexual Coercion
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Direct Sexual Coercion
Indirect Sexual Coercion
Sexual Coercion in Humans
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
U
UG
Ultimate Behavior
Ultimatum
Uncertainty Monitoring
Uncertainty of Biological Kinship
Uncommitted Mating
Uncommitted Sexual Encounters
Unconditional Response
Unconditional Stimulus
Unconditioned Reflex
Unconditioned Response
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
The Nature of Unconditioned Responses
Unconditioned Response and Its Role in Classical Conditioning
The Discrepancy Between Unconditioned and Conditioned Responses
Emotional Reactions Based on Unconditioned Responses
Cross-References
References
Unconditioned Stimulus
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Classical Conditioning and Unconditioned Stimuli
Emotional Reactions Based on Unconditioned Responses
Cross-References
References
Unconscious, The
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Unconscious Conflict
Dreams: The Royal Road to the Unconscious
Unconscious Sexual Motivation
The Parapraxes (or Freudian Slips)
The Cognitive Unconscious
Cross-References
References
Unconstrained Vision of Human nature
Uncontrollability
Under-5 Mortality
Undereducated
Underemployed
Understanding
Understanding Human Gaze
Introduction
Psychological Basis of Gaze-Following Across Primate Species
The Adaptive Value of Gaze-Following
Conclusions
Cross-References
References
Understanding Human Points
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Pointing in Nonhuman Animals
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Undesirable
Undetected Extra-Pair Copulation
Undisclosed Ovulation
Uneducated
Unemployed
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Low Social Status Not Associated with Suicide Terrorism
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Unexpected Contents Task
Unfair Male Disadvantage
Unfaithful Behavior
Unfaithfulness
Unfolding
Unipolar Depression
Unique Patterns in the United States
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Sociocultural Factors and IPV Symmetry
Conclusions
Cross-References
References
Unit of Cultural Transmission
Unit of Imitation
Universal Aspects of Kinship
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Intrinsic Kinship Universals
Kin Recognition Universals
The Evolutionary Background of Human Kin Recognition
Kin Recognition in Humans
Relational Kinship Universals and Their Consequences
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Universal Grammar
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
The Role of UG in Language Acquisition
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Universal Human Fears
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Evolutionary Evidence for Fear of Dangerous Animals
Threatening Objects Promote Visual Attention
Gender Differences in Common Fears
Why Humans Display a Fear of Harmless Stimuli
Conclusion
Cross-References
Acknowledgment
References
Universalism
Universals in Beauty
Unknown Territory
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Navigating Unfamiliar Areas
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Unlimited Storage
Unobservability Hypothesis, The (Vonk and Povinelli, 2006)
Definition
Introduction
Testing the Unobservability Hypothesis
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Unokai
Unokais and the Headmen of the Yanomamö
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Noble Savages
Social Hierarchy
Pursuing Status and Mates
Conclusion
References
Unpopular
Unpredictable Environment
Unpredictable Environments
Unrestricted Sexuality
Unstable Environments
Untruth
Unusual
Unwanted Sexual Advance
Upbringing
Upper Body Strength
Definition
Introduction
How Important Is Upper Body Strength to Aggression?
What Are the Correlates of Greater Upper Body Strength in Men?
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Upper Body Strength and Fighting Ability
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Empirical Evidence
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Upper Body Strength from Photo
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Empirical Evidence
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Urban Gangs
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Female Gang Members
Women´s Membership and Roles Within Gangs
Induction of Female Members
Violence and Aggression
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Urban Sexuality
Usage-Based Linguistics
Use It or Lose It
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Enriched Environments Can Reduce Cognitive Decline
Enriched Environments May Not Affect Cognitive Decline
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Use of Implements
Use of Instruments
Use of Mate Retention Strategies
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Introduction
The Problem of Infidelity
Why Engage in Costly Mate Retention Efforts?
Taxonomy of Mate Retention Tactics
Men´s Use of Mate Retention Tactics
Women´s Use of Mate Retention Tactics
Concurrent Mate Retention Tactics
Compensatory Mate Retention Tactics
Individual Differences in Mate Retention Tactics
Coalitional Mate Retention
Role of Emotion in Motivation of Mate Retention
Environmental Factors That Influence Mate Retention Tactics
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Usefulness of Hyperactivity
Utensil
Utilitarianism
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Act- and Rule-Utilitarianism
The Psychology of Utilitarianism
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Utility
Utility Attributes
Utilization of Complex Instruments
Utopian Vision
Uxoricide
V
Vagal Tone
Vaginal Evolution
Vaginal Plug
Vaginal-Penile Sex
Vagus Nerve
Valuation Motive
Value Attributes
Synonyms
Introduction
Context and Value
Context and Decision-Making
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Value Features
Vampire Bat Food Sharing
Vanity
Variability of Aggression
Definition
Introduction
Male-on-Male Aggression in Cultures of Honor
Female-on-Female Aggression
Male-on-Female Intimate Partner Violence
Evolutionary Approaches to Variation in Aggressive Behavior
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Variable-Interval Schedule
Variable-Ratio Schedule
Variance in Female Reproductive Success
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Constraints on Reproduction
Female Multiple Mating and Reproductive Variance
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Variance in Reproductive Success
Variant
Variant Sexuality
Variation
Variation in Disease Risk
Venereal Disease
Ventral Stream, The
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Subcortical Visual Input to the Dorsal Stream
Geniculostriate Visual Pathway
Extrageniculostriate Visual Pathway
Extrastriate Visual Cortical Area ``Tributaries´´ to the Ventral Stream
Cortical Connections of the Visual Inferotemporal Cortex
Intrinsic Connections
Cortical Output Pathways
Medial Temporal Lobe Pathways
Dorsolateral, Ventrolateral, and Ventromedial (Orbitofrontal) Prefrontal Pathways
Function
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Ventral Visual Pathway
Verbal
Verbal Achievement
Verbal Aggression
Verbal Bullying
Verbal Communication
Verbal Derogation
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Indirect Verbal Derogation Versus Direct Verbal Derogation
Efficacy of Competitor Derogation
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Verbal Derogation Among Women
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
A Function of Derogation
Derogation: Targets and Content
Derogation: Benefits and Costs
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Verbal Knowledge
Verbal Mimicry
Verbing and Nouning
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Why Are Verbing and Nouning Important for Language Evolution?
Are Prescriptive Grammarians Right to Be So Hostile to Verbing and Nouning?
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Vestibular System
Victim
Victimization
Victims Mostly Men
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Routine Activates Theory
Delinquent Lifestyles Theory
Self-Control Theory
Conclusion
References
Victims of Violence
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Pre-Violence Adaptations
Running Example: Pre-Violence Antirape Adaptations
Mid-Violence Adaptations
Running Example: Mid-Violence Antirape Adaptations
Post-Violence Adaptations
Running Example: Post-Violence Antirape Adaptations
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Vigilance of Close Kin Versus Distant Kin
Vigilance over Kin´s Romantic Relationships
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Why Parents Have an Interest in Their Children´s Romantic Relationships?
Diverging Genetic Interests and Parental Influence over Mating
Converging Genetic Interests and Parental Influence over Mating
Contingencies in the Opportunity Cost of Free Mate Choice
Daughters Versus Sons
Mothers Versus Fathers
Parental Influence over Mating Across Societies
Preindustrial Societies
Hunting and Gathering Societies
Agropastoral Societies
Agropastoral Versus Hunting and Gathering Societies
Postindustrial Societies
Preindustrial Versus Postindustrial Societies
Parental Control over Mating Across Time
Sexual Selection and Parental Control over Mating
Areas of Future Research
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Vigilance, Sentinels, and Alarms
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Vigilance
Sentinels
Alarms
Cross-References
References
Violation of Long-Term Mate Preferences
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Long-Term Relationships
Inaccurate Initial Assessment of Traits
Relative Decline in Partner´s Mate Value
Conflicting Strategic Interests
When Long-Term Preferences Are Violated
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Violation of Short-Term Mating Preferences
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Short-Term Mating Preferences
Violation of Short-Term Mating Preferences
Expectations of and Reactions to Mating Preference Violations
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Violence
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Sexual Selection Theory and Parental Investment Theory
Male-Male Violence
Female Aggression and Violence
Intimate Partner Violence
Violence Against Children
Violence During War
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Violence as Coercive Control
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Physical Violence as Coercive Control
Sexual Violence as Coercive Control
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Violence from Women´s Kin
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Guarding Female Kin
Retaliation and Revenge
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Violence to Control Women´s Sexuality
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
The Adaptive Problem
Violence as an (Ancestral) Solution
Conclusions
Cross-References
References
Violent
Violent Extremism
Violent Fantasy
Viral Agent
Virility
Virion
Virtue
Virus
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Structure
Classification
Replication
Immunity Against Virus
Evolution of Virus, Mutations, and Consequences
Health Implications
Laboratory Diagnosis
Advantages of Viruses
Conclusion
References
Viscous Population
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Altruism in Viscous Populations
Class Structure in Viscous Populations
Kin Competition
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Vision
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
The Blueprint of Vision
Lower Organisms to Humans
Molecular and Anatomical Evolution of Vision
Concluding Remarks
Acknowledgment
References
Vision Science
Visual Agnosia for Faces
Visual Association Cortex
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Parasensory Visual Association Cortex
First Order Visual Association Cortical Areas
Second and Third Order Visual Association Cortical Areas
Paralimbic Visual Association Cortex
Properties and Functions of Visual Association Cortex
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Visual Awareness
Visual Cognition
Visual Illusions
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
The Nature of Illusions
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Visual Processing
Visual Recognition
Visual Similarity
Visual Statistical Representation
Visual-Gestural Language
Visual-Spatial Language
Viviparity
Vocabulary
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Finding Words in Speech
Associating Words with Meanings
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Vocal Amplitude
Vocal Attractiveness
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Vocal Attractiveness in Men
Vocal Attractiveness in Women
Considerations and Future Directions
Cross-References
References
Vocal Communication
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Vocal Competition
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Vocal Contests
Indirect Vocal Competition
Indirect Vocal Competition in ``Selfish´´ Choruses
Vocal Competition in Cooperative Choruses
Conclusions
References
Vocal Duets
Vocal Fundamental Frequency
Vocal Grooming
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Manual Grooming in Primates
Vocal Grooming
Transitions to Language
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Vocal Indicators of Dominance
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Voice as an Index of Body Size and Strength
Voice-Based Assessments of Dominance
Reliability and Deception in Vocal Indicators of Dominance
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Vocal Intensity
Vocal Loudness
Vocal Tract Reconfiguration
Vocal Turn-Taking
Vocalization
Vocalizations
Voice Acoustics
Voice Attractiveness
Voice Box
Voice Depth
Voice Pitch
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Voice Pitch Variation and Modulation
Sexual Selection and Voice Pitch
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Voluntary Redistribution
Volunteering Publicly
Synonyms
Definition
References
Vowels
Vulnerability Factors
Vulnerability to Mental Disorders
Vygotskian Intelligence Hypothesis, The (Moll Et Al., 2007)
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Origins of Cognition
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
W
Wailing
Waist-to-Hip Ratio
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Sexual Dimorphism in Human Body Composition
Sexual Selection on Female WHR and Singh´s ``First Pass Filter´´ Hypothesis
Cross-cultural variation in the attractiveness of low WHRs in women
Multivariate Selection on Preferences for Female Body Shape
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Walking
War
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Male Competition for Mates Is Intense
Could War Heroism Be Adaptive?
Have Men Evolved to Make War?
What Are the Necessary Precursors to War?
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
War More Likely with Higher Likelihood of Success
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
The Risk Contract of War
Offensive Versus Defensive Warfare
Nobody´s Perfect: Overconfidence, Positive Illusions, and Military Incompetence
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Warfare
Warfare, War, Feuding, Primate Aggression
Warning
Warning Call
Warning Coloration
Warning Display
Warning Signal
Wason (1966) Selection Task
Synonyms
Definition
Human Performance in the Early Days
Evolutionary Psychology and the Selection Task
Conclusion
References
Wason´s Four-Card Problem
Wason´s Selection Task
Waterspouts (Archerfish, Sharks, Rays)
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Using Waterspouts as Tools
Using Innate Objects as Tools
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Watson
Wealth Reallocation
Wealth Transfers
Weaning
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Process of Weaning
Abrupt Weaning
Gradual Weaning
Timing of Weaning
Current Recommendations
Historical and Cultural Variation
Benefits of Early Weaning
Benefits of Later Weaning
Evolutionary Perspective
Support for Breastfeeding and Weaning
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Weaning and Maternal-Fetal Conflict
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Weaning in Primates
Time of Weaning in Humans
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Weaning Conflict
Web-Based Questionnaire
Web-Based Survey
Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale
Wechsler Intelligence Scale
Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children
Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scale of Intelligence
Wechsler-Bellevue Intelligence Scale
Wedding Rings
Weeping
Weight
Welfare
Wellbeing
Well-Being
Well-Liked
Wellness
Westermarck Effect
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Empirical Tests of the Westermarck Effect
Other Kin-Recognition Cues and the Proximate Regulation of Incest Aversion
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Westermarck Effect and Imprinting
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
The Evolutionary Function of Inbreeding Avoidance
Evidence for Westermarck Effect in Humans
Conclusion
Cross-References
Reference
Westermarck´s Hypothesis
Western Europe
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Migration Patterns
Evidence for Human Populations
Modern Human Interactions in Europe
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Western Perspectives on Death
Wet-Nursing
Definition
Introduction
History of Wet-Nursing
Optimization of Lactational Beneficiaries
Benefits for the Child
Benefits for the Breastfeeding Woman
Logical Resource Provisioning
Increased Community Altruism
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
What Makes a Tool
Definition
Introduction
What Makes a Tool?
Definitions of Tool Use
Challenges with Defining Tool Use
A Perception-Action Perspective on Tool Use
Conclusions
Cross-References
References
Whimpering
Whipping
Whoredom
Whorfianism
WHR
Why Humans Are Unique
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Tool Use
Language
Abstraction
Prosociality
Imitation and Culture
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Wife Killing
Wild Justice
Synonyms
Definitions
Introduction
Cooperation
Empathy
Justice
Conclusions
References
Will After Death
Synonyms
Definition
Cross-References
References
William Hamilton
Definition
Introduction
Brief Biography
Kin Selection and Social Evolution Theory (1963 onward)
Other Major Scientific Contributions
Senescence (1966)
Sex Allocation (1967)
The Evolution of Gregarious Behavior (1971)
Dispersal Strategies (1977)
Evolution of Sex and Sexual Selection (1980)
Awards, Recognition, and Legacy
Cross-References
Acknowledgment
References
Winner Effects
Winthrop Kellogg
Within-Group Competition
Within-Group Killing
Within-Sex Competition
Within-Sex Selection
Within-Species Comparisons
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Comparisons Between Naturally Occurring Groups
Sex Differences
Age Cohort Effects
Sociality
Comparisons Along an Environmental Gradient
Cross-Cultural Comparisons
Cross-Cultural Comparisons in Humans
Cross-Cultural Comparisons in Nonhuman Animals
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Wolves
Women
Women and Competition, The Oxford Handbook of
Definition
Introduction
Book Overview
Conclusion
Cross-References
Women Marry Up
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Female Hypergamy and Evolution
Female Hypergamy in Modern Societies
Future Research
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Women Pretending Orgasm
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Women´s Reasons for Pretending Orgasm
Measures of Women´s Reasons for Pretending Orgasm
Individual Differences in Women Pretending Orgasm
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Women Romantic Jealousy
Women Romantic Partner Choice
Women Sexual Partner Selection
Women Use Verbal Derogation to Be Included
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Verbal Derogation as an Intrasexual Competitive Adaptation
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Women´s Intrasexual Competition
Women´s Liberation
Women´s Long-Term Strategies
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Men´s Mate Preferences Form Women´s Competitive Strategies
Long-Term Versus Short-Term Strategies
Benefits of Long-Term Mating for Women
Women´s Self-promoting Strategies
Women´s Rival-Derogating Strategies
Other Strategies Women Use in a Long-Term Relationship
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Women´s Mate Interests
Women´s Mate Preferences
Synonyms
Definition
Female Mate Preferences
Introduction
Mating Strategies
The Face
Facial Symmetry
Facial Averageness
Sexually Dimorphic Features
The Body
Behavior
The Context
General Environment
Local Interpersonal Environment
Menstrual Cycle
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Women´s Mate Retention Tactics
Women´s Mate Value
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Reproductive Value
Physical Attractiveness
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Women´s Movement
Women´s Personal Resources
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Hypotheses
Cross-Cultural Research
Historical Trend Analysis
Individual Differences Research
Explanations and Interpretations
Conclusion
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Women´s Preferences During Ovulation
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Evolutionary Explanations for Changes in Women´s Preferences Across the Menstrual Cycle
Evidence for Changes in Women´s Preferences Across the Menstrual Cycle
Evaluating Research Designs of Studies on Women´s Preferences Across the Menstrual Cycle
Variation in Methods Used to Assess Women´s Menstrual Cycle Phase
Mechanisms and Semantic Concerns in Research Examining Women´s Preferences Across the Menstrual Cycle
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Women´s Preferred Partners
Women´s Prosocial Dominant Acts
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Women´s Prosocial Dominance in Childhood
Theoretical Perspectives on Women´s Expressions of Dominance
Prosocial Expressions Through Cooperative Breeding
Post-Reproductive Prosocial Dominance Expressions
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Women´s Rights
Women´s Sexual Preferences
Women´s Use of Direct Versus Disguised Social Aggression
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Unique Aspects of Human Females´ Lives: Staying Healthy, Finding Assistants
Forms of Individual Aggression
Forms of Coalitionary Aggression
Prioritizing Aggressive Strategies of Females
Sex Differences in Aggression
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Women´s Violence
Words and Rules
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
The English Past Tense: The First Battleground for Single- and Dual-Route Models
Inflectional Morphology and Child Language Acquisition
Crosslinguistic Data
Challenges for the Words and Rules Model
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Work Relationship Legitimation
Work Relationships
Worker Caste
Working Class
Working Memory
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Working Memory Versus Short-Term Memory
Working Memory Is an Executive Functioning System
Limitations of the Working Memory System
Working Memory Deficits
Interventions
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Working Mothers
Working Poor
Working Relations
Working Women
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Working Mothers
Mother´s Work in Prehistory
Conclusion
References
Workout
Workplace Connection
Workplace Harassment
Workplace Relationships
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Worry
Worship
Would You Kill the Fat Man?
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
The Trolley Problem
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
X
Xenophobia
Y
Yanomami
Yanomamo (Chagnon, 1983)
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Social Structure and Sexual Access
Conclusions
Cross-References
References
Yo-Heave-Ho Theory
Yo-he-ho
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Conclusion
References
Young
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Theoretical Considerations
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Young Male Syndrome
Youth
Youth and Fertility
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Waist-to-Hip Ratio
Fluctuating Asymmetry
Voice
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Z
Zero Conversion
Zinjanthropus boisei
Zone of Proximal Development
Zoological Philosophy