Encyclopaedia Britannica [8, 8 ed.]

Citation preview

ENCYCLOPEDIA BRITANNICA. OR

DICTIONARY

ARTS, SCIENCES, AND GENERAL LITERATURE.

EIGHTH EDITION.

WITH EXTENSIVE IMPROVEMENTS AND ADDITIONS; AND NUMEROUS ENGRAVINGS.

VOLUME VIII.

ADAM AND CHARLES BLACK, EDINBURGH. MDCCCLV. [The Proprietors of this Work give notice that they reserve the right of Translating it^\

ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA

DIAMOND. Diamond.

DIAMOND, adamas of the ancients, almas of Persia and heera of Hindustan, is the most brilliant of gems; and although known from the remotest times, if we may judge by the casual notice made of it in Scripture, it had in the earlier periods of history obtained little more than a name. Pliny states that it bore a price above all things in the ivorld, and was known to very few except princes and crowned heads. His meagre remarks on this gem are even less satisfactory than those upon almost any other; which affords another reason to conclude that the diamond still remained in his time an object of great rarity. The localities quoted by Pliny appear to be quite erroneous; at least subsequent observations give us reason to think so. Up to the commencement of the eighteenth century diamonds were wholly derived from India, where they were found in detached crystals, accompanied with grains of gold, amongst metallic sand washed down from surrounding mountains. In 1728 a similar territory, loaded with the two most valuable substances in nature, was discovered on the southern continent of the New World. When in pursuit of gold, crystals of diamond were often found ; but the labourers being ignorant of their value, laid them aside as curiosities. A miner, who is said to have arrived in Brazil at this time, first directed attention towards them; and, without attempting to appropriate his discovery to his own aggrandizement, he led his comrades to turn their pursuit to the more engaging object. It soon, therefore, attracted the notice of the government, and the district was shortly afterwards taken possession of in name of the sovereign. Hitherto the supply of diamonds was entirely confined to Hindustan and the island of Borneo; and, as might reasonably be expected, the opening of a new field, the extent of which was as yet wholly unknown, could not fail to affect the market. I he discredit which was at first thrown upon the accounts from Brazil, as also on the purity and perfection of the stones, repressed the fears of the Asiatic dealers; and the increased demand after the purchase of the Pitt diamond, a circumstance which no doubt rendered that gem far more recherche at the gay and luxurious court of France, all tended to increase the demand, and keep it more upon an equilibrium with the increased supply than VOL. vm. /

could possibly have been anticipated. At a subsequent period, no doubt, the revolution of France interfered with the value of jewels; but the surplus thus produced was soon absorbed by the wealth of Britain, and diamonds of the first water for a long time maintained their ground. At the present day this perhaps cannot be said to hold good. As a commercial commodity, diamonds must have suffered depression like all others, and may, particularly those beyond the smallest sizes, perhaps be valued at from twenty-five to thirty per cent, under the prices which they bore in the times of Tavernier; although Mawe appears to have been anxious to inculcate a different doctrine. After his examination of the Brazilian district, he says there would be no difficulty in calculating the period requisite to work out the whole of the diamond ground in that country ; and as many of the mines of Hindustan are considered as exhausted, the period must come sooner or later when diamonds will be no longer to be had. In India, Golconda has always been cited as one of its principal repositories, although none was ever found in the immediate vicinity of that fortress, a circumstance traceable perhaps to the geological character of the neighbourhood, which is entirely syenitic. It may have arisen, however, from the fact, that the diamond mines of Raolconda and Ganee Purteeal were situated in the territory of the Kootub Shahee kings of Golconda. When that dynasty was overthrown, and their country occupied by the officers of the Mogul emperors, Golconda ceased to be the capital, and Hyderabad, which is only a few miles distant, became the occasional seat of the new government. The territory in which the mines are situated has since been ceded to the East India Company. It lies near Condapilly, on the northern bank of the Kistna, about fifty miles from the sea, and near the Pass of Bezoara, where the river appears at some period to have forced its way through a chain of hills, and to have emptied an extensive lake which had existed to the westward of them. All attempts to work them have been abandoned, as the produce has ceased to refund the expense of labour. The localities of the diamond in Hindustan are so various that it would be almost endlqss to enumerate them. Those on the Mahanuddy, A cJdd*

Diamond,

*

2

D I A M O N D.

vvith those on the Kistna and at Mallavilly, north-west of able tenacity has in several instances been sent, as the ma- Diamond] i Ellora, may be mentioned as probably the most productive trix of the diamond. ^ ^ ] v of this gem. The island of Borneo is the only other eastFrom anything that has hitherto been ascertained, it does ern locality which can boast of its production. The diamond not appear that the diamond has ever yet been seen in a maoccurs at Pontiana, in that island, directly under the line, trix which could be esteemed its original position. Heyne and ar, Benjarmassin, about three degrees south of the equa- has given two coloured engravings of diamonds in the mator. Here it is said to be of a quality superior to that of the trix, but they are in all probability only accidentally agglugems found in the other Indian localities; and to be distin- tinated in ferruginous matter, devoid of the character of guished in consequence by the name of Landak, the place rock. The Musnuddy, which joins the Mahanuddy, is where they are found. Here also the diamond occurs in allu- mentioned as affording an indication which might lead*to a vial soil, accompanied with gold. One diamond of 367 favourable result in such an investigation. At its conflucarats was found there upwards of a century ago, and is sup- ence with the Maund River, near Chunderpoor, and not posed to be now in the hands of the chief of Pontiana. farther down than Sonpoor, and only on the left bank of rrom Heyne’s account of the working of diamond mines the river are diamonds found. Hence the Maund is the in Hindustan, it seems to afford a very miserable livelihood. point at which the examination should commence ; and if He states that the diamond has hitherto been found only in the country can be effectually penetrated, it would be well alluvial soil, or in the most recent rocks; and that the stones worthy the attention of some enterprising mineralogist. are not scattered through the whole of these beds, but conWe have few satisfactory geological accounts of any of fined to one rather harder than the rest. The upper stra- the diamond countries ; a slight sketch by Voysey, in the tum, of eighteen inches, consists of sand, gravel, and loam; article above quoted, is the best that we can refer to. He next there is a deposit of stiff black clay or mud, about four particularly alludes to a range of hills called the Nalla feet thick; and next the diamond bed, which is distinguished Malla, or Blue Mountains, near Cummum, on the Gunby a mixture of large rounded stones. It is from two to lacummum river, which are composed of schistose rocks, two and a half feet thick, closely cemented together with of all varieties, from clay-slate to pure limestone, accomclay. Sometimes this stratum is covered with calcareous panied with quartz rock, sandstone, sandstone brescia, flinty tufo. Here shallow pits are excavated, of a few feet in slate, hornstone slate, and a tuffaceous limestone, containing diameter, in such spots as the practice of the workman may imbedded, rounded, and angular masses of all these rocks. induce him to select; he sinks to a depth of a few feet, These are bounded on all sides by granite, which appears and searches the bed which he considers most promising to pass under and form the base. The only rock of this for his purposes; and if he meets with little encouragement, formation on which the diamond is found is the sandstone he shifts his situation and proceeds elsewhere. Thus a brescia. “ I have as yet,” says he, “only visited the rich great deal of the country may be turned to waste and ne- mines of Banaganpilly (lying in Heyne’s map Long. 78. 4., glected, and, when it comes to be again wrought over more Eat. 15.4.), where the brescia is found under a compact sandcarefully, may give rise to the absurd fancy of regenera- stone rock, differing in no respect from that which is found tion. under other parts of the main range. It is composed of a The miners, M. Voysey (Asiatic Researches, vol. xv. beautiful mixture of red and yellow jasper, quartz, calcep. 120) says, are of opinion all over India, that the chips and dony, and hornstone, cemented together by a quartz paste. small rejected pieces of former searchers actually increase It passes into puddingstone, composed of rounded pebbles in size, and in process of time become large diamonds; and of quartz, &c., cemented by an argillo-calcareous earth, of he finishes his paper by hoping that some future mineralo- a loose friable nature, in which the diamonds are most fregist would ascertain whether there were any foundation quently found.” for the vulgar opinion of the continual growth of the diaHeyne states, that in some of the mines in India the mond ; particularly as he hoped at some future period to diamonds are found entirely broken or crushed, and only produce undeniable proof of the re-crystallization of ame- of value for pounding; but at the same time thinks it must thyst, zeolite, and felspar, in alluvial soil. This ingenious be owing to carelessness. He mentions also that the diawriter did not live to bring forward his proofs; but had monds of Cuddapah are carried to Madras to be used for he been doomed to arrive at the age of the patriarchs of the same purpose, and the price he quotes for a carat of old, we are of opinion he would have been puzzled to pro- stones fit for brilliants is only seven rupees. duce them. In 1829, a number of small diamonds were discovered In Brazil, the diamond is more confined to one spot than in the gold sands of the Ural Mountains, in a deposit very in India. 1 he district of Minas Geraes comprehends, as similar to that in Brazil, in a quartzose mica-slate, to which far as we yet know, the whole of the diamond grounds some have given the name of Itacalumite; and more lately hitherto discovered in Brazil. There the workings ap- a few have, it is said, been found in the gold washings of pear to be carried on more systematically than in India. Georgia and N. Carolina, as well as in the Sierra Madre, 1 he operations at the Serra do Frio we have already noticed S.W. of the city of Mexico. in the article BRAZIL (vol. v. p. 293). The Serra do Frio, The diamond, in its primitive form, is that of the equior Cold Mountain, is a mountainous platform, having an ele- lateral octahedron. It passes into the dodecahedron and the vation of from sixteen to eighteen hundred metres. The cube, presenting modifications in each. The colourless diadistrict over which the diamonds are searched for extends mond of the first water is the most valuable ; but very fine about sixteen leagues from north to south, by about eight from diamonds sometimes present a deep red tinge, also yellow, east to west. It is situated twelve leagues north of Tdjuco,on orange, green, blue, and black. Those which have a slight the river Tigitouhonha, which falls into the river San Fran- tint of yellow are often remarkably brilliant, and are said to cisco. By the decomposition of the granite and mica-slate, be of a superior hardness. an agglomerate is formed, composed of rounded white quartz The value of diamonds is always calculated by the carat, pebbles and light-coloured sand, to which the natives give which consists of four grains ; but it must be remembered, the name of cascalaho; and it is in this substance that the that the diamond grain differs from the Troy grain, as it diamonds are found, along with gold, which is sometimes takes five of the former to weigh four of the latter, or more crystallized. It is exactly similar to some of the samples of exactly one carat = 3T74 gr. Troy. the diamond deposits of Hindustan sent to the Royal SoIn valuing diamonds, either rough or cut, the practice is ciety of Edinburgh by Mr Swinton, but differs considerably to take the weight in carats, to square that weight, and then from otheis, where a conglomerated sandstone of consider- to multiply the product by such a rate of price as may cor-

Diamond,

.

DIAMOND. The second was purchased for a bit of rock-crystal, on a stall in the market-place of Florence, at the cost of a few penee: it is of a beautiful lemon-yellow colour, and is now in possession of the house of Austria. The diamond mentioned as the property of the Emperor of Russia ornaments the top of his sceptre. It is of the size of a pigeon’s egg, and is said to have been the eye of an Indian idol pillaged by a deserter from the French service, who had the address to get himself installed as a priest in the service of the Malabar deity at Seringham, as narrated by Dutens. The Em press Catherine purchased it for L.90,000, together with an annuity of L.40G0, and a title of Russian nobility. The Koh-i-noor is described by Tavernier as an irregularly-shaped diamond, but cut and polished. It was found in the district of Golconda previous to the Christian era, and is said to have weighed 900 carats before cutting; but this appears a most enormous sacrifice. Of the Brazilian diamond some suspicions have been entertained. It has been insinuated that it is only a mass of very fine colourless topaz, and it is not likely that the king of Portugal will run the hazard of ascertaining the fact. The supply of diamonds from Brazil, according to Baron d’Eschwege,duringtheeighty-fouryearsfrom 1730 to 1814, was at the rate of 36,000 carats per annum : but the return from the registers of the administration of the diamond mines from 1800 to 1806 was only 19,000 carats. It is also added, that the revenue derived by government during the first period was only eighteen or nineteen francs the carat, whilst from forty to fifty were obtained during the last; a certain indication of a diminished supply. A singular circumstance is noticed with respect to the uniformity of the diamond ground of Do Frio. The same cubic mass of cascalho will yield, on washing, pretty nearly the same number of carats, in large or small diamonds, so that the superintendent can calculate on the probable produce of the washing. Large stones do not abound in Brazil, but there are some of considerable dimensions. Mawe mentions one of 120 carats from the little rivulet D’Albaite; but they do not often exceed from eighteen to twenty. The prices of diamonds quoted by Heyne, who visited with a scrutinizing eye the principal mines of Hindustan, Length L2437 inches. differ from those laid down by the rule of Tavernier and Breadth 1'177 Depth '859 Jeffreys. Without attempting to reconcile them, we shall Weight in Troy grains, 434. quote the value which the Hindus put upon what they conThat of the Grand Duke of Tuscany (now Austrian) sider as the best, and denominate the Brahma diamond : it is sold by the manjalin, which is equal to two carats, and weighing 139|- carats, valued as above at L.153,682. That of the Emperor of Russia, weighing 195 carats. This each carat at the price of ten pagodas. One manjalin 10 Madras pagodas. diamond is rose cut. Two 24 The Koh-i-noor, weighing 186 carats, also rose cut. Three 40 That of the King of Portugal, weighing 1680 carats, being Four 80 rough, not less than L.5,644,800. Five 100 It is consequently quite evident that this rule can obSix 150 Seven 250 tain only among diamonds of moderate size; and, if it Eight 400 should establish something by which a price may be named, He adds that these are the prices of stones free from speck, all else must be left to subsequent arrangement. Of the remarkable diamonds we have enumerated, the flaw, or crack. Cut stones are valued in a different way. The most remarkable circumstance in the history of the first is that known by the name of the Regent or Pitt diamond. It was found at Pasteal, in the Golconda district. diamond is to be found in the nature of its composition. This It was imported into this country by Mr Pitt, governor of proud, this imperial ornament, which has ever occupied the Madras, who purchased it from a native for 48,000 pagodas, summit of the diadem, this most brilliant of gems, and hardabout L.20,400 at the exchange of the day; and after being est of all known bodies, is, after all, but a morsel of charoffered to different crowned heads in Europe, was purchased coal, which has been made to yield to the rays of the sun, by the regent of France in 1717 as a jewel for the crown. and dissolve into a noxious vapour. As early as 1607, It was placed by Napoleon in the hilt of the sword of state, Boetius de Boodt threw out the hint that diamond was inand, according to Brard, the price paid for it was 2,250,000 flammable. In 1673 Boyle discovered that when it was francs; Jeffreys calls it L. 125,000, and other authors say exposed to a great heat it was dissipated in acrid vapour. L. 130,000. Any of these, however, although by much the In 1694, the experiments of Boyle were confirmed by those largest price ever paid for any jewel, is not equal to the rule of Cosmo III., Grand Duke of Tuscany, with his celebrated of value. This is esteemed the finest and most perfect dia- burning glass. About the same time, but whether before or not is uncertain, Sir Isaac Newton was led, from the great mond known.

respond to the state and quality of the stone ; thus, if a natural crystal of diamond be clear, without flaws, and of a favourable shape, the • price by which the square of its weight should be multiplied is L.2; so that if the stone weigh one carat, its value will be L.2, if two carats, 2x2 = 4, and 4 X 2 = 8, or a stone of two carats is worth L.8. A stone of ten carats, in the same way, will give 10 x 10 = 100, and 100x2 = L.200, the value of a perfect rough diamond of this weight. If the diamond has been worked into a brilliant of just proportions, the same rule is observed of squaring the weight in carats; but a much higher price is used as the multiplier of the product, as L.8 is considered to be the proper multiplier when the stone is perfect in water and shape. Thus a diamond of 5^ carats gives 30| as its square, and this multiplied by 8 makes L.242 as its price. If the stone has been worked into the form which is termed a rose, L.6 is used as the multiplier; and if it be of the form termed table-cut, it is still lower. Considerable modifications, however, must be made in these multipliers, according to the quality of the diamonds and the state of the market. If a brilliant be what is termed “ off colour,” that is, not absolutely colourless, or if it be in any other way imperfect in shape or purity, a corresponding diminution must be made in the multiplier. Thus a brilliant with a yellow or milky hue, or with a small speck or flaw, may not be multiplied by more than L.4, L.5, or L.6, according to the nature or extent of the imperfection. The state of the demand in the market must likewise have great influence. At present the demand for good brilliants of one carat and under is greater in proportion to the supply than for heavier stones, and such stones will therefore sometimes cost L.10 the carat; whilst there being fewer purchasers for the larger sizes, they may often be had in commerce at a lower rate than has been mentioned above. The finest known diamonds are the following:— That of the crown of France (Pitt diamond), weighing 136f carats, the value of which, taken according to the above rule, would be L.141,058. The dimensions of this fine stone are stated to be,

3 Diamond.

DIAMOND.

4

refractive power of the diamond, to pronounce it “ an unc- is rose cut. This celebrated gem was found, according to Diamond. ^ tuous substance coagulated ” Lavoisier proved it to be com- Hindu legend, in Southern India, in one of the mines of posed of carbon, by throwing the sun’s rays concentrated Golconda” situate near the left bank of the river Krishna. by a powerful lens upon a diamond inclosed in a vessel with It resembles in shape the half of an egg, and is acknowoxygen gas ; when the diamond and the oxygen disap- ledged to be of the first water. Its weight is 186 carats ; peared, and carbonic acid was generated. Sir George Mac- a gravity in reference to which, under the ordinary mode kenzie repeated the experiments of Boyle in 1800; and, of computation, a pecuniary value may be assigned to it of finally, when Sir Humphry Davy visited Florence in 1814, L.276,768. The fortunes of this magnificent jewel have the experiment of the grand duke was performed again with been for the most part decided by the leading political^ the same lens ; and mineralogists no longer hesitated to events which have swayed the destinies of the country of its origin ; its possessors having been almost without excepplace the gem amongst inflammable bodies. According to Ellicot, the specific gravity of Brazil dia- tion either the rulers or the conquerors of India. At the monds is 3'513, and of India diamonds 3'519. The former commencement of the Christian era, it appears to have been the property of the powerful rajah of Oojein, from whom it is the mean of four, the latter of ten experiments. Diamond cutting was little understood till 1476, when an descended to his successors, the rajahs of Central India. artist of the name of Berghem, residing at Bruges, intro- Upon the subversion of the principality of Malwa by the duced the practice of using diamond powder for forming and Mohammedans in the early part of the fourteenth cenpolishing the facets. Holland, in consequence, long main- tury, it became the prize of Ala-ud-din, the Patan sultan tained a monopoly of this trade ; and to this day the smaller of Delhi. Baber, the founder of the Mogul dynasty, obdiamonds are almost entirely manufactured for the Euro- tained the gem with his empire in 1526; and from him it was pean market at Amsterdam. The Pitt diamond was, how- transmitted through a line of illustrious princes to Mohamever, cut and polished in London, as most of the larger med Shah, the great grandson of Aurungzebe. This prince sized stones continue to be. It is a very laborious and in 1739 surrendered it to Nadir Shah, the Persian invader tedious operation. The grinding into the required form is of India. According to popular tradition, Mohammed wore entirely done by the hand. Two stones are cemented to the diamond in his turban at his interview with Nadir, who, the ends of tool handles, and rubbed with a powerful pres- espying the jewel, proposed an exchange of turbans as a sure against each other, a leaden model being first taken token of mutual regard and confidence. Nadir bestowed of the rough stone intended to be cut. The faces are thus upon his prize the name of the Koh-i-noor or Mountain of determined. The two stones are then rubbed together over Light. Upon the assassination of this monarch the gem a little metal box having a double bottom, the upper one fell into the hands of Ahmed Shah, the founder of the Abbeing loose and perforated with small holes, through which dali dynasty of Caubul. From this prince it descended to the diamond dust passes, and is-carefully preserved. The his successor Shah Shuja, who being expelled from his throne desired form being thus obtained, the dust, mixed up w ith ve- became, in 1813, the nominal guest, but substantially the getable oil, is afterwards used in polishing the faces of the dia- prisoner of Runjeet Singh, the lion of the Punjaub. Runjeet mond on a common lapidary’s wheel, and the brilliancy of the resolved to set a price upon the liberty of his captive, and gem brought out. The period of constant work required to demanded from him the Koh-i-noor. After a considerable reduce a stone of between twenty-four and thirty carats to interval, during which remonstrance and artifice were fruita regular form will extend to at least seven or eight months’ lessly employed, the Shah yielded a reluctant consent, and constant work. The Pitt diamond was said to occupy a day was fixed for its delivery to a new master. Accordtwo years. Form the outline in Plate CCIIL, there was ingly on the 1st June Runjeet waited on the Shah with a a great deal of extraneous matter to reduce, and that space few attendants, to receive the jewel. He was met by the of time may very likely have been required. When the exiled prince with much dignity, and both being seated, a mass to be removed is of such a size as to render it of im- pause and solemn silence ensued, which continued for nearly portance to keep it entire, the piece is cut off by means an hour. Runjeet then getting impatient, whispered to one of a steel wire, extended on a bow of cane or whalebone, of his attendants to remind the Shah of the object of the anointed with diamond powder. This process is very com- interview. No answer was returned, but the Shah made a monly adopted in India. The diamond is sometimes also signal to an eunuch who retired and brought in a small split by means of a chisel under a sharp stroke of a hammer; packet which he set down on the carpet at equal distance but this means requires great firmness of mind and dex- between the chiefs. Runjeet desired an attendant to open terity of hand, for a valuable stone is sometimes destroyed the packet, when the diamond was exhibited, and the ruler of the Punjaub retired with his prize. Runjeet was highly by an unlucky blow. The forms into which the diamond is cut are the bril- elated by the acquisition, and wore it as an armlet at public liant, the rose, and the table. The first is composed of a festivals. After his death it was preserved for a time to his principal face, which is called the table, surrounded by a successors, and was occasionally worn by Khurruk Singh and fringe composed of a number of facets, which is all that is Sheer Singh ; but in 1849, upon the abdication of Dhulep visible above the bezil when set. The proportion for the Singh, the Maharajah of the Punjaub, and the annexation of depth should be half the breadth of the stone, terminated his dominions to the British empire, it was stipulated that with a small face, parallel to the table, and connected with the the Koh-i-noor should be surrendered to the Queen of surface by elongated facets. As the octahedron is the most England. It was accordingly brought to this country by common natural form of the stone, and the brilliant cut is by Lieutenant-Colonel Mackeson and Captain Ramsay, who far the most advantageous in point of effect, and as this is also deposited their charge in the hands of the chairman and generally the most economical form that can be adopted, it is deputy-chairman of the East India Company, by whom, in preferred. The others are suggested by the shape of the mass. company with the president of the India board, the Koh-iThe rose is entirely covered with facets on the surface, noor was presented to her Majesty on the 3d July 1850. and is flat below. The table form is adopted in consequence Thus the unrivalled gem for which kings and emperors have of the shape of the mass, whether crystal or fragment, and contended, finds its resting-place with the sovereign of the produces the least effect. It is principally used in India, most widely extended empire that ever existed—an empire where the native jewellers cleave stones into plates, having stretching over countries in the east which the previous often a large surface with little proportioned weight or bril- possessors of the Koh-i-noor never subdued, while in the liancy, except at the edges, which are ornamented by being west it embraces dominions to which, even in imagination, cut into facets. The great diamond called the Koh-i-noor their views never extended.

Diamond,

D

I

A

D I A

5

during the periodical rains in July, August, and Diamond The Koh-i-noor formed part of the treasures displayed at especially September, owing to the exhalations from the swamps, and s 1| the Great Exhibition in London in 18o], since which time the heavy dews. A good road has been constructed be- j)iana. Diamond jj- ]ias been recut with increased effect. tween the harbour and the metropolis ; and communication \ ^ j Harbour. M h 0f the value of diamonds depends on the cutting v —0f the stone. A late celebrated philosopher, who required is also maintained between the two places by means of an telegraph. Lat. 22. 12.; Long. 88. 10. a piece of diamond for philosophical purposes, found a large electric DIAMOND Island is situated on the east side of the Bay mass in the hands of a jeweller. It was of an awkward Bengal, 12 miles S. of Cape Negrais. It is about a mile form, and presented a flaw which very greatly deteriorated of a half long, by one broad; low, covered with wood, and its value, as, in consequence of the refraction and reflec- and surrounded by shoals, which render it dangerous for boats tion which took place within the mass, the flaw seemed to to land. It has fresh water, and abounds with turtle. It occupy nearly the whole of the interior. The gentleman, however, was not afraid. He paid a large sum for the stone, belongs to the British, but is uninhabited. E. Long. 94. directed the workman in cutting it, amputated the piece he 19. ; N. Lat. 15. 51. DIAMPER, a town of Hindustan, province of Cochin, wanted, separating the flaw, and sold the remainder back to the jeweller, after it had been properly cut and polished, said to be inhabited chiefly by Christians. Here in 1599 a synod was held by the Portuguese archbishop and others, for double the price he paid for it. Hopes at one time were excited that a new diamond in the hopes of converting the Nestorians to the faith of the district had been discovered in Siberia by Baron Von Hum- Roman Catholic Church, but without effect. N. Lat. 10. 2.; boldt. He thought he had met with appearances in a ter-^ E. Long. 76. 29. DIANA, in the mythology of Rome, a Latin deity, whose ritory belonging to Count Demidoff, analogous to that of Minas Geraes, and recommended a search for the gem. history and office bore so many points of resemblance to This has more lately been successful; and about fifty small those of the Grecian Artemis, that she was latterly identified with that divinity. The worship of Diana, who seems diamonds have been obtained from the Ural district. Explanation of the Plate, No. CCIIL—The three figures to have been at first rather a local Latin goddess than one at the top, Nos. 1, 2, 3, are representations of the Regent of the recognised deities of Rome, is first mentioned as or Pitt diamond, the Koh-i-noor, and the Grand Duke, of celebrated by the lower classes of citizens in the reign of the full size and form. No. 4 presents the brilliant cut, Servius Tullius. She was at that time regarded as the looked at perpendicularly. No. 5, the same sidewise. Nos. tutelary goddess of the slaves and plebeians; and her rites 6 and 7 also represent the brilliant before it undergoes the were yearly celebrated by these classes of the people on the process of re-cutting. Nos. 8 and 9 are the vertical and anniversary of the day on which her temple was consecrated lateral appearances of the rose-cut diamond ; and Nos. 10 on the Aventine Hill. The name and attributes of Diana and 11, that of the table-cut. The scale No. 12 exhibits were derived from the Sabines, and became known to the the sizes of the set diamond within the bezil, together with Romans when that people was incorporated with the original the depth of the stone, and the number of carats a diamond plebeians of the Roman state. From them the worship of of that size is likely to weigh. This estimate can only be the goddess became gradually diffused among the knights and an approximation to the exact weight; but the weight of patricians; and as soon as it was known that a divinity in all a set stone may thus be very nearly ascertained. No. 13 is respects corresponding to Diana had a high place in theGreek the figure of the octahedral diamond seen perpendicularly, mythology, she was ranked by the Romans among the dii with the table traced where the stone should be cut; and majorum gentium, and worshipped with the greatest honours. As soon as the identity of Artemis and Diana was estaNo. 14 is the same crystal seen laterally, with the table and the opposite face also traced. By these figures it will be blished, the Grecian myths regarding the birth, history, and seen how much more advantageous it is to adopt the bril- functions of the goddess were universally adopted. According to these, Diana was the daughter of Jupiter and liant form than any other. Diamonds have been imitated with great success by the Latona, and the twin-sister of Apollo. She was born along French artists. To this composition, to which they give with her brother on Mount Cynthus, in the isle of Delos, the name of strass, they not only communicate the adaman- which up till this time had been a floating island, but was tine lustre of the zircon, but succeed in giving it such a permanently fixed by Neptune in its present place in order similitude to the real stone in all respects, hardness excepted, that Latona might there find refuge from the persecutions that it is nearly impossible for unpractised eyes to detect of Juno, and give birth to her children in peace. By the the difference. Recently quartz has been used with great Greeks and Romans Diana was worshipped under a variety of aspects. She was both a destroying and a preserving effect to form the faces of factitious stones. goddess. In the former capacity she was represented as DIAMOND, used by Glaziers, an instrument of steel or iron, into the point of which a diamond is introduced and a full-grown virgin, bearing, like Apollo, a bow and a quiver fixed by solder. The diamond must be so adjusted, that by full of arrows with which she darted death and pestilence applying the instrument in a particular position the angle of among those who offended her ; as a preserving deity she watched over the sick, and assisted the unfortunate. Young the crystal will come in contact with the glass. girls and child-bearing women were believed to be under DIAMOND, in Heraldry, a term used for expressing the her especial protection. From this circumstance she was black colour in the achievements of peerage. Guillim does not approve of blazoning the coats of peers called by the Greeks llithyia, and by the Latins Genitalis; by precious stones instead of metals and colours ; but the and as she herself was proof against the allurements of love, English practice allows it. Morgan says the diamond is an the priests and priestesses consecrated to her service were compelled to live in the strictest chastity. As Apollo was emblem of fortitude. the god of the sun, Diana was in like manner believed to DIAMOND Harbour, a port so called, situate on the Hooghly river, about 30 miles below Calcutta. Previous to the re- be the goddess of the moon, from which circumstance she linquishment of commerce by the East India Company, this was called by the Greeks Selene, and by the Romans Luwas the spot where many of their ships unloaded and took cina. The last and most splendid of all the ceremonies in in great part of their homeward bound cargoes. There are honour of Diana was the national festival instituted at Rome mooring chains for the accommodation of shipping and by Augustus, in compliance with the orders of the Sibylstorehouses on shore ; and in the adjacent villages, consist- line books, in honour of which Horace composed his famous ing of a few thatched houses with some petty shops, provi- Carmen Seeculare. In this hymn Apollo and Diana are sions may be purchased. But the place is very unhealthy, invoked together as the presiding deities of Rome ; and the Diamond

uc

D I A

6 Dianse Arbor

I

Diaper.

D

I A

DIAPHANOUS (Siawvr], the voice), the doctrine ot v ^ ^ , represented in Greek works of art as a tall and handsome refracted sounds. . . . virgin, with long hair floating down her neck—drawing an DIAPHORESIS (Sta^op^cns), in Rhetoric, is used to arrow from her quiver with her right hand, and with her express hesitation or uncertainty in the speaker. left restraining a stag which is endeavouring to escape. As DIAPHORETICS (Sta, I carry through), such the o-oddess of the moon she is represented with a long robe medicines as promote perspiration. , -j reaching to her feet, while her forehead is adorned with the DIAPHRAGM {Diaphragma), in Anatomy, the midcrescent of the moon. . „ called by anatomists septum transversum. It is a strong Besides the general homage paid at Greece and Home riff, muscular substance, separating the breast or thorax from to Diana, as one of the dii consentes, there were certain the abdomen or lower venter, and serving as a partition beplaces in which she was worshipped with peculiar rites, and tween the abdominal and the thoracic viscera. (See ANAvested with special functions. Of these the most important TOMY, vol. hi., p. 39.) Plato, as Galen informs us, first was Ephesus', where the temple of the goddess was so called it diaphragm, from the verb Sia^parreiv, I separate. splendid as to be reckoned one of the wonders of the world. his time it had been called “ugh the city-a mark of power of nominating a man to the o ce w deter'_ consuls had formerly enjoyed, but which had b made over to one ot the consuls. It a ^dictator lished in their case by the Valerian law. mined to which of these offices the nominaUon °f a dmtato Though the power of the dictators was thus great, it , properly appertained. Sometimes it was the consul who hap- nevertheless, limited by certain indirect restrictions The pened to hive the fasces at the time ; sometimes he most important of these was, that the dictator had no who happened to be nearest the city ; at other times tne control whatever over the public money, a,\d to wconsuls themselves either drew lots or came to an agiee- tpnt himself with such sums as were allowed hi ment as to which of them should perform the duty, in any enate He was not allowed to leave Italy ; and could not “ate the nomination of the consul was indispensable; and important was it considered, that on »ne occasion when both She consuls refused to name a person for the dicMor ^s a/y tacCS designs on the part f ‘".or Ship the senate had. recourse to the tribunes of the people, wY the shortness of the period during winch he renamed to whose influence the consuls were obliged to give way.

D

I

C

Dictionary, in office. This was never permitted to exceed six months : 'wand if the crisis which had called for the election of a dictator passed over before the expiry of that period, it was expected that he would immediately resign. When a dictator was appointed, all the ordinary magistrates ceased to be directly responsible to the governing authorities of the state, and took their orders directly from him. The only magistrates exempt from this necessity Avere the tribunes of the commons. The inferior officers, however, did not, as has been supposed, retire from office altogether. They merely obeyed the dictator so long as he continued in power, and on his resignation entered once more upon the untrammelled exercise of their authority. It remains to be added that dictators were only appointed at Rome so long as Italy remained unsubdued. The last dictator appointed at Rome held office in B.C. 202: from that time the constitutional dictatorship disappears from Roman history. DIC1IONARY, in its original acceptation, is the arranging of all the words of a language according to the order of the alphabet, and annexing a definition or explanation to each word. When arts and sciences began to be improved and extended, the multiplicity of technical terms rendered it necessary to compile dictionaries, either of science in general, or of particular sciences, according to the views of the compiler. DICTIONARY of the English Language. The design of every dictionary of language is to explain, in the most accurate manner, the meaning of every word ; and to show the various ways in which it can be combined with others, in as far as this tends to alter or modify its meaning. The dictionary which does this in the most accurate manner is the most complete work of the kind ; therefore the principal study of a lexicographer ought to be to discover the method which may seem best adapted for that purpose. Dr Johnson, with great labour, has collected the various meanings of every word, and quoted the authorities ; but it would have been an improvement if he had given an accurate definition of the precise meaning of every word ; pointed out the way in which it ought to be employed with the greatest propriety ; showed the various deviations from the original meaning, which custom had so far established as to render allowable ; and fixed the precise limits beyond which it could not be employed without becoming a vicious expression. .With this .view it would have been necessary to exhibit the nice distinctions which take place between words nearly synonymous, and without which many words can only be defined in such a manner that they must be considered as exactly synonymous. We omit making any quotations from Johnson in order to point out these defects; and shall content ourselves with giving a few examples, to show in what manner, according to our idea, a dictionary of the English language ought to be compiled. IMMEDIATELY,

adv. of time.

1. Instantly, without delay. Always employed to denote futuie time, and never past. Thus we may say, I will come immediately; but not I am immediately come from such a place. See PRESENTLY. 2. Without the intervention of any cause or event; as opposed to mediately. PRESENTLY,

adv. of time.

1. Instantly, without delay. Exactly synonymous with immediately ; being never with propriety employed to denote any thing but future time. 2. Formerly it was employed to express present time. Thus, The house presently possessed by such a one, was often used, but this has now become a vicious expression ; and we ought to say, The house possessed at present. It differs from immediately in this, that VOL. VIII.

Die

9

even in the most corrupt phrases it never can denote Dictionary, past time. FORM, subst. The external appearance of any object, when considered only with reference to shape or figure. This term, therefore, in the literal sense, can only be applied to the objects of sight and touch, and is therefore nearly synonymous with figure ; but these terms differ in some respects. Form may be employed to denote more rude and unfinished shapes; figure, those which are more perfect and regular. Form can never be employed without denoting matter, whereas^/z^wre may be employed in the abstract: thus we say a square or a triangular^^re, but not a squaie or triangular yorwi. And in the same manner we say the figure of a house; but we must denote the substance which forms that figure if we use the word form ; as, a cloud of the form of a house. See FIGURE.

2. In conti ast to irregularity or confusion. As beauty cannot exist without order, it is by a figure of speech employed to denote beauty, order, and the like. 3. As form respects only the external appearance of bodies, without regard to their internal qualities, it is, by a figure of speech, employed in contrast to these qualities to denote empty show, without essential qualities. In this sense it is often taken when applied to religious ceremonies, pageantry, and so forth. 4. As form is employed to denote the external appearance of bodies, so, in a figurative sense, it is applied to reasoning, denoting the particular mode or manner in which this is conducted; as, the form of a syllogism, &c. 5. In the same manner it is employed to denote the particular mode of procedure established in courts of laiv; as, the forms of law, religion, and the like. 6. Form is sometimes, although improperly, used to denote the different circumstances of the same body ; as, water in a fluid or a solid form. But as this phrase regards the internal qualities rather than the external figure, it is improper, and ought to be, water in a fluid or a solid state.

7. But when bodies of different kinds are compared Avith one another, this term may be employed to denote other circumstances than shape or figure; for we. may say, a juice exuding from a tree in the form of wax or resin; although, in this case, the consistence, colour, &c. and not the external arrangement of parts, constitutes the resemblance. 8. From the regular appearance of a number of persons arranged in one long seat, such persons so arranged are sometimes called a form ; as, a form of students, &c. And, 9. By an easy transition the seat itself has also acquired that name. GREAT, aej?. A relative word, denoting largeness of quantity, number, &c., serving to augment the value of those terms with which it is combined, and opposed to small or little. The principal circumstances in which this word can be employed are the following: 1. When merely inanimate objects are considered with regard to quantity, great is with propriety employed to denote that the quantity is considerable : as, a great mountain, great house, and the like; and it is here contrasted with small. When great is thus employed, we have no other word which is exactly synonymous. 2. When inanimate objects are considered with regard to their extent, this term is sometimes employed, although with less propriety ; as, a great plain, a great B

10 Dictionary.

DICTIONARY. o. As this is an indefinite term, tending to denote any Dictionary, and the like. In this sense it is nearly synonything which is elevated above us, it maybe combined — mous with large; and these terms were often used inwith almost every noun which admits of this elevadiscriminately, but with some difference of meaning i tion. Hence, as objects high above us are always out of for, as large is a term chiefly employed to denote exour reach, it is in a metaphorical sense used to denote tent of superficies, and as great more particularly reany thing which seems to be above the ordinary congards the quantity of matter, therefore, when large dition of mankind, or those qualities or endowments is applied to any object which is not merely superof mind which are not easily acquired; as, dignity or ficial, it denotes that it is the extent of surface which elevation of sentiment, dignity of rank, acuteness in reais there meant to be considered, without regard to soning on difficult subjects, pride, haughtiness, or any the other dimensions ; whereas, when the term great other quality which seems beyond the ordinary level is employed, it has reference to the whole contents. of mankind; dearness of price. > . If therefore, we say a large house, or a large river, 6. In the same manner we apply this term to time, whicn we express that the house, or the river, has a surface having a metaphorical resemblance to a river flowing of great extent, without having any necessary conon with an unceasing current through all successive nexion with the size in other respects. But it we ages, any thing of remote antiquity is denoted by the say a great house, or a great river, it at once denotes that these objects have not only a large surface, but 7. Likewise to those degrees of latitude far removed from are also of great size in every respect. _ ' the line, where the pole becomes more elevated. 3. Great, when applied to the human species, never de8. And also to some particular crimes, as being attended notes the size or largeness of body, but is apphe with peculiar degrees of guilt, as high treason. solely to the qualities of the mind. Thus when we TALL, adj., signifies elevated to a considerable degree in say that Socrates was a great mail, we do not mean a perpendicular direction : opposed to low. . , that he was a man of great size, but that he was a 1. This term is chiefly employed to express the height man who excelled in the endowments of the mind. of man and other animals; and is applied to denote The terms which denote largeness of size in the huthe height of the body only, without having any reman body are hig, bulky, huge. , . ference to the mind. When applied to man, no other 4. Great is sometimes applied to the human species, a word can be substituted in its stead; when applied to denoting high rank. In this case it is oftener used other animals, high is sometimes considered as nearly in the plural number than otherwise. Thus we say simply the great, meaning the whole body of men in 2. YAThkeTse emplo^edYo denote the perpendicular high station, as opposed to the mean. It should selheight of vegetables, and in this case it is nearly sydom be employed in this sense, as it tends to confound nonymous with high. See HIGH. dignity of rank with elevation of mind. 3. It can in no case be employed to express the heig 5. As this is a general term of augmentation, it may be of merely inanimate objects, as we can never say a * joined with all nouns which denote quantity, quatall steeple, tower, or pillar, but a high steeple, &c. lity, number, excellence, or defects; or such as imp y the distinctions in these cases, see HIGH. praise, blame, anger, contempt, or any other affection LONG, adi. A relative term, denoting the distance beof the mind. tween the extremes of any body which is extended 6. It is employed to denote every step of ascending more in one of its geometrical dimensions than in descending consanguinity, great-grandfather, greatanother. It is opposed to short. _ ,. . « qrandson, and so on. 1. This term maybe applied to all inanimate objects, o HIGH, adj. Exalted in a perpendicular direction at a whatever kind, whose dimensions in one way exceed distance from the surface of the earth, and opposed their dimensions in the other, and when not in an erect posture, whatever be the other circumstances attend1 Offiah is a term altogether indefinite, and is employed ing them, whether it relates to superficies alone or to to express the degree of elevation of any inanimate solidbodies, whether these be bounded or open, straight body. Thus we say a high mountain, a high house, or crooked, flexible or rigid, or in any other circumsteeple, tower, pillar, and the like. Nor is there any stances whatever: thus we say a long or short Ime, a other word which can here be considered as synonylong or short ridge, street, ditch, rope, chain, staff, and mous ; lofty being employed only to denote a very the like. But it is to be observed, that although long eminent degree of elevation. ,, is in the strict sense only opposed to short, yet as it 2. To express the perpendicular elevation of vegetables expresses the extension of matter in one of its geoeither high or tall may be employed, as being in this metrical proportions, it is often contrasted by those tlieref case nearly synonymous. We may ^e say words which express the other proportions when we high or tall tree, a high or tall mast, and so forth, but mean only to describe the several proportions; as, a with this difference between these two expressions, table long and broad. And as these several dimensions that to//can be more properly applied to those which are expressed by different words, according to the are much elevated and of small dimensions ; and high, various forms, modifications, and circumstances m to such as are more bulky and of greater size. which bodies are found, therefore it is in this sense 3. The perpendicular height of man can never be excontrasted by a great diversity of terms; as, a Long pressed by the word high, tall being here tie pi ope and broad or wide, narrow or strait, street or lane; a expression. And although %/i is sometimes used to long and thick or small rope, chain, staff, for the disexpress the height of other animals, yet it seems o tinctions in these cases see BROAD, W IDE, &C. be an improper expression. See TALL. 2. Objects necessarily fixed in an erect position can 4. High, when applied to the human species, always renever have this term applied to them, and therefore fers to the mind, and denotes haughtiness, stateliness, we cannot say a long, but a high tower or steeple. An pride, and when combined with expressions indicating for the same reason, while trees are growing and fixenergy of mind, it denotes that in a higher degiee. ed in an erect position, we cannot apply this term In this sense it is opposed to meanness, abjectness, and to them; but when they are felled and laid upon the field,

zs

humility.

DICTIONARY. ground, it is quite proper and necessary. Thus we do not say a long, but a tall or high tree, while it is growing; but we say a long, not a tall log of wood; and in the same manner we say a tall mast when it is fixed in the ship, but a long mast v/hWe it lies upon the beach. See TALL and HIGH. 3. Those vegetables which are of a tender, pliant nature, or so weak as not to be able to retain a fixed position, being considered as of a middle nature between erect and prostrate bodies, admit of either the terms long, tall, or high ; as, a long or tall rush or willow wand, or a long, tall, or high stalk of corn. See HIGH and TALL.

4. The parts of vegetables, when considered as distinct from the whole, even when growing and erect, assume the term long ; for we do not say a tall, but a long shoot of a tree, and a tree with a long stem, in preference to a tree with a high stem. 5. For the same reason, a staff and pole, even when fixed in a perpendicular direction, assume the word long, in preference to tall or high. 6. With regard to animals, the general rule is applied, without any exceptions; tall, and not long, being employed to denote the height of the human body when in an erect posture; and long, and not tall, to denote its length when in an incumbent situation. Long applied to all other animals which do not walk erect, always denotes their greatest length in a horizontal position from head to tail. 7. In a figurative sense, it denotes, with regard to time, any thing at a great distance from us. 8. As also, any thing that takes up much time before it is finished, as, a long discourse, a protracted note in music, and the like. BROAD, adj-, denotes distance between the two nearest sides of a body whose geometrical dimensions are laro-er in one diiection than in another. It has a reference to superficies only, and never to the solid contents, and is opposed to narrow. 1. Broad, in the strictest acceptation, is applied to denote those bodies only whose sides are altogether open and unconfined ; as, a broad table, a broad wheel, &c. and in these cases it is invariably contrasted with narrow; nor is there any other word which in these cases can be considered as synonymous with it, or be used in its stead. 2. When any object is in some sort bounded on the sides, although not quite closed up, as a road, street, ditch, and the like, either broad or wide may be employed, but with some difference of signification ; broad beinomost properly used for those which are more opeiR and wide for those which are more confined; nor can this term be ever applied to such objects as are closely bounded all around, as a house, a church, and the like, wide being here employed. For the more accurate distinctions in these cases see the article WIDE. adj. A term employed to denote relative extent in cei tain circumstances, and opposed to narrow and strait.

WTDE,

1. Ihis term is in its proper sense applied only to denote the space contained within any body closed all i ound and on every side; as, a house, gate, or the like; and it differs from broad in this, that it never relates to the superficies of solid objects, but is employed to express the capaciousness of any body which contains vacant space ; nor can capaciousness in this sense be expressed by any other word but wide. 2. As many bodies may be considered either with respect to their capaciousness or superficial extent, in all these cases either the term broad or wide may be used;

3.

11

as,a broad or wide street or ditch, &c.; but with a greater Dictionarv. or less degree of propriety, according to the circumvO stances of the object, or the idea which we wish to convey. In a street where the houses are low and the boundaries open, or in a ditch of small depth and large superficies, as this largeness of superficies bears the principal proportion, broad would be more proper; but if the houses are of great height, or the ditch of great depth, and capaciousness is the principal property which affects the mind, we would naturally say a wide street or ditch ; and the same may be said of all similar cases. But there are some cases in which both these terms are applied, with a greater difference of meaning; thus we say a broad or a wide gate. As the gate, however, is employed to denote either the aperture in the wall, or the matter which closes that aperture, these terms are each of them used to denote that particular quality to which they are tjenerallv applied; and as the opening itself can never be considered as a superficies, the term ivide, in this case, denotes the distance between the sides of the aperture ; whilst, on the contrary, broad denotes the extent of matter fitted to close that aperture; nor can these two terms be in any case substituted for one another. for a mistake ; as, you are wide of the mark ; that is, not near the truth. NARROW, adj. A relative term, denoting a proportional smallness of distance between tbe sides of the superficies of plain bodies, and opposed to broad. 1. As this is only applied to superficies, it is exactly contrasted by broad, and is applied in all cases where the term broad can be used (see BROAD); and in no other case but as a contrast to it, excepting tbe following. 2. It sometimes is employed to describe the smallness of space circumscribed between certain boundaries, as opposed to ivide, and nearly synonymous with straight; thus we say a wide or a narrow house, church, and the like. For the necessary distinctions here, see the article STRAIT. 3. In a figurative sense it denotes poverty, confined sentiments, and so forth. STRAIT, a^'. A relative term, denoting the extent of space in certain circumstances, and opposed to wide. See WIDE. 1. This term is employed, in its proper sense, to denote only space, as contained between surrounding bodies in such circumstances as to denote some degree (if confinement, and is exactly opposed to wide; as, a wick or a strait gate, &c. See WIDE. 2. So necessary is it that the idea of confinement should be connected with this word, that in all those cases where the space contained is large, as in a church oi house, we cannot express a smaller proportional width by this term. And as we have no other word to express space in these circumstances, we are obliged to force the word narrow from its natural signification, and make it express this. See NARROW. 3. In some particular cases, narrow or strait may be applied to the same object; as, a narrow or a strait line ; but here strait is never employed except where an idea of confinement is suggested, and where it is exactly conti asted to wide ; nor can be employed except in such circumstances where broad would be a pei feet contrast to it. Iherefore these two terms may be always used in the same circumstances as those which contrast with them. For an account of these see WIDE.

A

DICTIONARY.

12 Dictionary,

The term strait is likewise in a peculiar manner used t , denote the smallness of the internal diameter of those bodies which are fitted to rece.ve or contom others as any kind of bag, tube, body clothes, mor& tises^and ame kind ;^andm and in all jhese these tises, and others of the ssame

to be clearly and distinctly pointed out under each pard-Dictionary, cular article. This is the more necessary, as some of these words have others formed from them which might be readily mistaken for their plurals, although they have a very diiterent g „P,i;fWnt cloth,not butdenote weardifferent ssignification; as clothes, kinds whichofdoes ofc/o^but wear-

their lesser uidinetci, auvi

:L

T',e

tollo in8 example wi

" “ But v.i ».in•■*•**•*' certain circumstances ^ the word tight heaWOOD, . subst. A solid substance of which the trunks may be substituted for it. See IIGHT. and branches of trees consist. 5. Strait, in a figurative sense, denotes any sort of con1 This term is employed to denote the solid pai finement of sentiment or disposition. ' vegetables of all kinds, in whatever form or circumTIGHT, adj. A term employed in certain circumstances stances they are found. Nor does it admit or a plural to denote the internal capacity of particular bo les, with propriety, unless in the circumstances after mentioned ; for we say, many different kinds oj wood, in Tb^t cSr^ftofe the —ue. preference to many kinds of woods; or we say, oak, ash, or elm wood, not woods. 2 But where we want to contrast wood of one quality bodies, and can be employed in no other case An ' or country with that of another, it admits of a plural; although it agrees with strait, in always denoting con for we say, white woods are in general softer than red; finement, and by being applicable to the same species or West Indian woods are in general of greater speof obiects, yet it differs in the following respects: cific qravity than the European woods. But unless 1. If there be any difference of the diameter of t ie wBere the colour, or some quality which distinguishes obiects to which the term strait can be applied, has it from growing wood, is mentioned, this plural ought always reference to the smaller; yet tight may be as much as possible to be avoided, as it always sugapplied to any sort of confinement, whether it regards gests an idea of growing wood. . the length or breadth. 2. Strait can be applied to al 3 ^Wood likewise denotes a number of trees growing bodies of capacity when of small diameter, wi hout ‘ near one another, being nearly synonymous wUh > any sort of reference to the nature of the substance rest See FOREST. In this sense it always admits of which it may be capable of containing. For vve can a plural ; as, Ye woods and wilds whose melancholy a st lt say a strait bag, a strait sleeve, a strait mortise, ™ ante, and so on, whereas tight can only be applied to ASnt; cannot be reckoned complete wltboot exC’body is considered words - and if the teris of the severalf any uu .ybody he it,, P ?ny body whenwhich it is reference nhaving another U intendedastto be contained contained iin to dia,ects were likewise given, it would be ° ?P

row. / tjtAJ•

and is pinched from want of room.

I hus we

y

I

Nor would this occupy much space, became of these words need no other explanation than them the words which had come in ] ce when there happened to be one perfect y y receive any sort of objects. And hence it happens ^ ^ in those ses where the same idea could that in many cases the dimensions of the same bo y J } jn modern language without a penphraly be expressed by tight or strait, when considered not b^ressed m . n ^ distincl,y; so that, t Yt

sleeve of a coat is too tight for the arm, the mortise is too f thyhtfor the tenon, and so forth ; but we cannot say ^ bag or the gate is too tight, because they a } ;

in different circumstances.

x:

Thus

rnay say,

7^

XoX x

found

himself at a loss for a term and was

rXXrrXiX^hff to fXel:?;oiL;Xdrrat:rrfrdgpuXs:,“,ia„Xbf-

iXcridXt;;: i^ .n we have tried it upon the ;arm whmh it ,s mte nded gt^e^in P^ C tQ cover,"that ^we* call h tight And we may^a date is too strait or too tight; but in t

a u ex.

consider it as being too confined for admitting objects S n^s through it; and in the next, as being too con- rtwinglrom foreign languages The Allowing examp e fined with respect to the “ leaves” which are to shut may serve to give some idea ot the manner of ti eating this the aperture not allowing them space to mov Pa MOE, (JE, or MO, adj. aaj. An obsolete term still enT^ed^n Thes^ examples may serve to give some idea of the the Scotch dialect, and by them pronounced denoting a greater number, and nearly synonymous wit nlan of an EngHsh dictionary composed upon philosoph Zre ; but it differs in this respect, that in the Scotch cal principles^ But, besides the circumstances above enudialect, mae and mair (English more) are each emmer ited, fhere are many others which would require pa ployed in their distinct sphere, without encroaching ticular attention in the execution ot a worit »f‘his kmd. upon one another, mae being employed to denote In the English language a great variety c;r_ number, but never quantity or quality, and which denote matter under certain gener cumstances, without regarding the minute diveisiUes that denote quantity and quality, but never number; thus ant may take place; as the word « which denotes maUe^ they say mae, not mair, apples, men, &c. j inc as manufactured into a particular form, . th Particular mae, cloth, earth, courage, &c. See MAIR. Both the e all the variety of stuffs manufactured in at particula terms are supplied by the word winch in the English language is applied mchscnminately way, of whatever materials, colour, textme, they may be. The same may be said of wood, iron, ya , note quantity, quality, and number. See MORE. _ As the English anguage is so exceedingly irregular in and a gTeat variety of terms of the same nature some of the pronunciation, the same letter in the same situation which cannot assume any plural; whilst otheis a m in all cases, and others, again, admit or ,refuse f aCC^. often assuming sounds totally different in ‘ ingg to tne the uineieub different circumstances in which they are con t 1S impossiDle to esiauusn auy ^ to admit of many exceptions; therefore “a fered. . . „bt u iecis tapojsible which do not sidered. f

m

In a dictionary, therefore, all this variety of cases ought ject wn.cn

I

DICTIONARY. Dictionary.

dictionary is the best means of ascertaining and pointing out the proper pronunciations of words. For. it the writer first pointed out all the different sounds which the same letter could ever be made to express, and assigned to every particular sound which each letter could be made to assume, a particular mark, appropriated to denote that particular sound of the letter whenever it occurred, by placing these particular marks above the letters in the dictionary, the sound of each letter would be pointed out in all cases with the utmost certainty. It is impossible to illustrate this by examples, without first ascertaining all the sounds of each letter, which would lead into a discussion too long for this place. We shall only further observe, that besides having the accented syllable of every word properly distinguished in a dictionary to assist in the pronunciation, the English language requires another essential improvement, namely, the use of accents to distinguish the meaning of words and phrases, which, although it is not so properly confined to a lexicographer, yet it is not quite without his sphere. Thus, the word as admits of two very different sounds, as well as different significations ; for example, “ Cicero wras nearly as eloquent as Demosthenes in which the first as is pronounced ass, and the last is pronounced az. Now it often happens that, in reading, the particular way in which it ought to be understood is not pointed out by the context till after the word itself is pronounced, which has an equal chance at least of being pronounced wrong; whereas, if it were always accented when employed in the one sense, and not in the other, it would free the reader from this perplexity. There are other cases in which the proper use of accents in writing would be of great consequence ; as at the beginning of a sentence when it is put as a question, or used ironically. But this does not so properly belong to the lexicographer as the grammarian. The above examples, we hope, will be sufficient to give the reader some idea of the plan which we would propose, and will enable him to determine whether or not a dictionary, executed in this way, would convey to his mind a more perfect knowledge of the English language than those dictionaries which have hitherto been published. These examples are given rather with a view to show the manner in which a work of this kind may be conducted, than as perfect and unexceptionable explanations of the several articles there enumerated ; and therefore we have not thought it necessary to produce any authorities, although we are sensible that they would be requisite in such a work. The following is a list of the principal dictionaries in the various ancient and modern languages:— Aegyptian.—Sharpe (Lend. 1837); Birch (Lend. 1838); J. F. R. Champollion (Paris 1841); Tattam (Lond.) Aethiopian.—Wemmers (Rome 1638) ; Ludolf (Frankf. 1699). Afghan.—Dorm (St Petersburg 1845). Albanian.—Blanchus (Rome 1635); Kaballioti (Venice 1770); Xylander (Frankf. 1835). Amharic.—Ludolf (Frankf. 1698) ; Bruce (Lond. 1805); C. W. Isenberg (Lond. 1841). Anglo-Saxon.—Somner (Oxon. 1659); Benson (Oxon. 1701); Lye (Lond. 1772); Bosworth (Lond. 1838). Angola.—De Cannecattim (Lisb. 1804). Arabic.—Gieuharrius (Scutari 1802); Richardson and Johnson (Lond. 1829) ; Baretti (Calc. 1806) ; Freytag (Halae 1837) ; Ciadyrgy (Milan 1832); De Biberstein Kazimirski (Paris 1846). Vulgar Arabic.—Germanus de Silesia (Rome 1639); Canes (Madrid 1787). Aramaic.—Buxtorf fil. (Basil 1648). Armenian.—Aucher (Venise 1817); translated into English by Brand (Venice 1825). Bengalee—Forster (Calc. 1802); W. Carey (Seramp. 1826); J. C. Marshman (Seramp. 1827); Ch. Haughton (Lond. 1833); Ram Comul Sen (Lond. 1835). Biscayan.—Anonymous (Bayonne 1706) ; De Larrimandi (St Sebastian 1745).

i

13

Bohemian.—Tomsa (Prag. 1791); Jungman (Praze 1839). Dictionary. J Burman.—Hough (Seramp. 1825); Judson (Calc. 1826). ^ Chaldee.—Elias Levita (Col. Agr. 1560); Buxtorf (Argenton 1639); Landau (Prag. 1820). Chinese.—Morrison (Macao 1823) ; Medhurst (Batav. 1842) ; Biot (Paris 1842); Gallery (Macao 1845). Cinghalese.—Clough (Colombo 1830) ; Callaway (Colombo 1821). Cochin Chinese.—De Rhodes (Rome 1651); Taberd (Serampore 1838); Du Ponceau (Philad. 1838). Coptic.— Kircher (Rom. 1644); Lacroze (Oxon. 1775); Parthey (Berlin 1844). Danish.—Anonymous (Leipzig 1844). Dutch.—Hexham & Manley (Rotterd. 1675) ; Werninck (Lond.) English.—Phillips (Lond. 1678); Bailey (Lond. 1764); Johnson (Lond. 1755); Sheridan (Lond. 1789); Ash (Lond. 1795); Booth (Lond. 1835); Webster (Lond. 1842); Richardson (Lond. 1836). Esquimaux.—Egede (Hafn. 1750); Fabricius (Copen. 1804). Finnish.—Renvall (Aboae 1826). French.—Dictionnaire de 1’Academie Franfoise ; Boyer ; Chambaud; Fleming and Tibbins; Spiers; Tarver. Gaelic.—Macfarlane(Lond. 1815); Armstrong (Lond. 1825); Highland Society (Edin. 1828); M'Leod and Dewar (Glasgow 1831) ; M‘Alpine (Edin. 1845). Georgian.—Klaproth (Paris 1827). German—Bailey (Jena 1823); Hilpert (Karlsr. 1839); Fliigel (Leipzig 1838) ; Grieb (Lond. 1847). Gothic.—Lye (Lond. 1772); Ulfilas (Leipzig 1843). Greek.—Hesychius (Lug. Bat. 1746); Suidas ; Hederich ; Passow ; Pape; Dunbar; Liddell and Scott. Hawaii.—Andrews (Cahainaluna 1836). Hebrew.—Buxtorf (Basil 1735) ; Cocceius by Schulz (Leip. 177795); Gesenius (Leip. 1846), Edited by Tregelles (Lond. 1846); Parkhurst (Lond. 1823); Robinson (Boston 1844) ; Lee (Lond. 1840); Fiirst (Leip. 1842). Hindee.—Rousseau (Lond. 1812); Adam (Calc. 1833). Hindustanee.—Roberts (Lond. 1800); Taylor (Calc. 1808); Gilchrist by Roebuck (Lond. 1825); Shakspeare (Lond. 1834). Irish.—Maccurtin (Paris 1732); Shaw (Lond. 1780); O’Reilly (Dublin 1822) ; O’Brien (Dublin 1832). Icelandic.—Haldorsonius (Copen. 1814). Italian.—Venerani; De la Crusca; Baretti; Graglia ; Meadows. Japanese.—Medhurst (Batav. 1830) ; De Sibold (Lugd. Bat. 1835); Medhurst (Lond.) Latin.—Forcellini and Facciolati; Schiller (Leip. 1805); Freund (Berlin 1845); Georges (Leip. 1843); Riddle (Lond. 1851); Andrews (Lond. 1852). Lettish.—Stcuder (Riga 1791). Malay.—Anonymous (Amster. 1802); (Arnheim 1803). New Holland.—Meyer (Adelaide 1843); Schiirmann (Adelaide 1844). New Zealand.—Kendal (Lond. 1820). Norwegian.—Hallager (Copen. 1802); Hanson (Copen. 1840). Oordoo.—Thompson (Lond. 1842.) Persian.—Richardson and Johnson (Lond. 1829); Burhani Kati (Calc. 1818); Rousseau (Lond. 1802) ; Baretto (Calc. 1806); Ciadyrgy (Milan 1802); Samachscharius by Wetzstein (Leip. 1845). Polish.—Schmidt (Breslau 1834); Troyanski (Berlin 1838); Czarnecki (Krotoshin 1843). Portuguese.—Vieyra, ed. by Cunda (Lond. 1840); Wagener (Leip. 1812). Provengal.—Raynouard (Paris 1843). Rabbinic.—Buxtorf (Basil 1735) ; Otho (Altona 1757) ; Hornheim (Halle 1807); Landau (Prag. 1819-24). Russian.—Schmidt (Breslau 1836) ; Reiflf (St Petersburg 1836) ^ Constantinon (Lond.) Samaritan.—Castelli; Cellarius (Frankf. 1705) ; Otho (Frankf. 1735); Uhleman (Leipzig 1837). Sanscrit.—Wilson (Calc. 1832); Yates (Calc. 1820); Haughton (Lond. 1833); Johnson (Lond.) Scotch.—Brown (Edin. 1845); Jamieson (Edin. 1846). Swedish.—Granberg (Orebro 1832). Semitic.—Hottinger (Frankf. 1661); Castelli (Lond. 1669); Otho (Frankf. 1702). Spanish.—Real Academia Espanola (Madrid 1844) ; Neumann and Baretti (Lond. 1823) ; Meadows (Lond. 1843). Syriac. —Schaaf and Leusden (Lugd. Bat. 1717) ; Castelli by Michaelis (Gottingen 1788); Kirschius (Lipsiae 1836-41); Roediger (Hal. Sax. 1838). Tamil.— Rottler (Lond.) Telugu.—Campbell (Madras 1821); Morris (Madras 1835). Tibetan.—Schroeter by Carey (Serampore 1826); Croma de Kbrbs (Calc. 1834); Schmidt (St Petersburg 1841).

■

14

DID

D

I D

contributed greatly to the diffusion of those free-thinking Diderot, opinions which had now become so prevalent in h ranee. Soon after this period, Diderot, in conjunction vyith D’Alembert, concerted the plan of that vast undertaking, the Dictionnaire Encyclopedique. The professed object of this work was to form a magazine of every branch of human knowrledge; it has been also alleged that it was intended by the DICTYNNIA, in a festival with sacrifices ce- authors and editors as an engine by means of which those lebrated at Cydonia in Crete and also at Sparta, in honour established opinions, whether of a religious or political naof Diana, surnaraed Dictynnia; or, according to others, in ture, which they were pleased to suppose had their origin honour of a nymph taken for her, who, having plunged into in fraud and superstition, were to"be subverted. The dethe sea to escape the passion of Minos, was caught in a fish- partment of this work which was intrusted to Diderot was the description of arts and trades (arts et metiers). In fact, erman’s net (StKTuov) ; whence the name. DICTYS CRETENSIS, one of the early historians from he was the principal architect of the edifice ; and, besides the whom the later Roman grammarians imagined that Homer Prospectus, and the Systeme des Connaissances Humaines, derived materials for the Iliad and Odyssey. He is said to which has been much commended for its classification, he contributed many articles in various departments of science. have followed Idomeneus, king of Crete, in the Trojan war ; and the MS. of his work, written in Phoenician characters, But his articles have been considered extremely verbose diffuse; in many of them he is pedantically prodigal of was found in his tomb at Gnossus in the reign of Nero, and and metaphysical subtil ties, and indulges in a pompous paiade translated into Greek by order of that prince. A Latin of scientific language. The first two volumes of the Dicversion of the first five books has alone come down to us; appeared in the year 1751, and the first edition was but this work is generally regarded as a forgery. The best tionary completed and published in 1765, in 17 vols. fob and 11 editions are those of Perizonius and Dederich. DIDACTIC (SiSacmu, to teach), signifies the manner of vols. of plates ; but although Diderot was occupied in this speaking or writing adapted to teach or explain the nature laborious undertaking for a period of nearly twenty years, the recompense which he obtained for his labours is said to of things. , , been extremely small. He himself acknowledged the There are many words which are only used in the didac- have many defects of the work, not a few of which he attributed tic and dogmatic way; and there are also many works, an- to the publisher Le Breton, who, he declared, often played cient and modern, both in prose and verse, written after this editor himself, scratched out anything which he thought method ; such as the Georgies of Virgil, Lucretius’s poem might compromise him, and filled up the chasms as he best JJe Rerum Natura, Pope’s Essays on Criticism and on could. Diderot’s literary labours, however, were not conMan, &c. DIDEROT, DENIS, a French writer and philosopher, fined to the Dictionary. Just before he commenced, and engaged upon it, he composed numerous woiks, was the son of a cutler, and born at Langres in Champagne, while amongst which may be mentioned—(1.) Lettres sur les in 1713. He received his early education among the Je- Aveugles (1749), “ for the use of those who see.” This work suits at the college of that order in his native towu, and made a good deal of noise, and, in consequence of some ol afterwards at the college D’Harcourt at Paris. At first he sentiments it contained, gave offence to the governwas destined for the church, one of his relatives having a the for which reason the author was detained in confinecanonry to bestow upon him. But he discovered little in- ment, ment during several months at Vincennes. (2.) Lettres clination for the ecclesiastical profession, and his father les Sourds et Muets, 2 vols. 12mo, 1 ™er. manner. The ine emac emaciation supplied from the admixture of some other ali increased every day, its ^^"8* “Jed though , azote be s pj, it, though in oporti0„. J in small small pr ment containing proportion. continued to eat from three or four ounces of sugar daily, Upon these principles, alimentary substances may nait became so weak that it could neither chew nor swallow, turally and philosophically be divided into three great and of course could not move. It died on the thirty-second cl&SSGS. day of the experiment; and, on opening its body, theie I. Those which contain azote, carbon, hydrogen, and was a total absence of fat; the muscles were reduced to oxygen. one sixth of their bulk, and the stomach and intestines II. Those which contain carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. were much contracted. The gall and urinary bladder III. Those which contain neither azote nor carbon. were both filled with fluid; but on analysis, the bile and urine resembled those of herbivorous animals. The urine, I. Alimentary Principles which contain Azote, Carbon, Hydrogen, and Oxygen. instead of being acid, as in those which eat flesh, was like that of herbivorous animals, sensibly alkaline, and did The aliments which contain azote correspond with the not contain a trace of uric acid or the phosphates, while animal substances in general, and are calculated to repair the bile contained the picromel so remarkable remarkaoie ^ in ox gai. gall solid® and flu}ds without great alteration The excrements also contained much less azotethan usu. orh effort in the dl vPSt.inir organs. digesting organs. All All the the immediate immediate prinprinThis experiment was twice repeated, with nearly the same ciples of this class are not, however, equally digestible, or result. possessed of the same properties. We shall say a few Olive-oil was next tried with two healthy young dogs, words of each. which seemed to agree with them for the first fifteen days, Fibrin constitutes the great mass of the solid matter but then produced the same bad effects, and both died on of the muscles of animals, especially of those which are the thirty-first day. old and have dark-coloured dry flesh. It is also a prinGum was given to several dogs, and always with the cipal constituent of the blood of all animals. There can same result. ,. , , be no doubt, therefore, that it is pre-eminently nutritious Butter, an animal substance, but which does not contain in these its natural of combination, butpowers we know of azote, was also also tried; tried; and and although, although, after y^ experiments to forms ascertain its nourishing when azote, was after tnet the thirty-second could ea day, the dog was allowed as much ’ „pd ^alone. n lonei The Urest form used The ppurest form of of fibrin fibrin which which occurs occurs in in died on the thirty-sixth day, similarly affected common circumstances is the fibre of flesh which has been M. Magendie also killed several dogs at a proper period, long boiled in a great quantity of water, as in the remains after they had got a full meal of oil, sugar, or gum, ia °^" of the meat from which beef-tea is made, or of that boiled der to observe the nature of the chyle thus furnished. down for soup. This is generally considered, and is often The chyle of the oil was of a decided milky white, whilst thrown away, as totally indigestible, and deprived of all those of the gum and sugar were transparent, opaline, and its nourishing principles; but this is probably a vulgar more watery. These experiments, in M. Magendie s opi- error, for animal fibre in this state still contains, as much nion, render it doubtful whether the oils, fats, gum, and especially sugar, are so nutritive as is generally suppos- as ever, all the elementary substances which are necesed. But before we adopt his conclusion, we must remem- sarv for animal food; and the only circumstance which ber that whole nations subsist upon food which contains can account for their indigestibility, is their great aggrellll^lCaOVVA Vy V

J

5

~

Memoire

o

'

1

*1

sur let propriket nutritives des substances qui ne conticnnent pas d'azote, 8vo,

Paris, 1816.

DIETETICS.

19

Dietetics, gation, which it is the business of cookery to overcome. living blood, but in every other instance is a tough solid: Dietetics, ^ Fibrin also forms a large proportion of the substance of and that gelatin is very soluble in boiling water, and gelasome of the internal organs of animals, all of which are tinizes on cooling; that albumen in soluble in cold water, nutritious. Pure fibrin is white and opaque when moist, and coagulates at 165° ; and that fibrin is not soluble either but acquires a dark colour on being dried. It does not in cold or hot water. We may also remark that, although become putrid when kept in the air, nor even when im- chemists have given very definite characters of each, as mersed in water for a considerable length of time. It if they constituted absolutely distinct species of matter, contracts and shrinks on the application of heat, and gives these characters are taken from certain selected kinds of out, on being burnt, the smell of burning horn or feathers. each, and that, in reality, we find that there is a regular It is insoluble in cold water; is corrugated by boiling in and insensible gradation from mucus, through gelatin and water; is insoluble in alcohol; but strong acetic acid swells albumen, to fibrin; and that, as in the process of animaliit considerably, and renders it transparent like cartilage, zation, as well as in the progress of life, they pass into in which state it may be dissolved, or, at least, diffused each other, and many intermediate states are found which cannot be distinctly referred to any of them. through water by long boiling. Fibrin varies in every species of animal, and in the same Osmazome, or animal extractive, differs very much from animal at different ages, either from a difference in its the preceding principles; chemically, in being soluble in nature, or from a difference in the matter with which it alcohol, and to the senses, in being very savoury or sapid. is combined. In many fishes, and the lower classes of It is upon this, which seems to admit of considerable vaanimals in general, it is semitransparent and colourless. rieties, that the flavour of animal food, and of each of its In veal, pork, salmon, chicken, and some other kinds of kinds, depends. It exists chiefly in the fibrous organs, poultry, it has a pink colour; in beef and mutton it is of or combined wdth fibrin in the muscles, while the tendons a fuller red; and in pigeon and game, both birds and and other gelatinous organs seem to be destitute of it. quadrupeds, it is dark coloured. In general it is more The flesh of game and old animals also probably contain tender in the female than in the male, and in the young it in greater quantity than that of young animals aboundanimal than in the old. ing in gelatin. Albumen is also a principal constituent of animal subGluten is the only vegetable substance which contains stances, in which it exists in two states, one uncoagulated a notable proportion of azote in its composition. When and the other coagulated. Of the former, the purest separated from other principles, it forms a tough, ductile, example occurs in the raw white of eggs. Cartilage, horn, elastic, and tenacious mass of a gray colour, resembling, hair, nails, consist chiefly of the latter. It is also a prin- when drawn out, thin animal membrane; when dried it cipal constituent of blood and brain ; and it seems to be is brittle, hard, and slightly transparent, like glue. When the chief substance of oysters, mussels, and snails. Un- kept moist it ferments and acquires some of the procoagulated albumen is sometimes solid, often glairy, al- perties of cheese. Immersed in water it at last putreways transparent, and, when fluid, is soluble in water, fies. WThen burnt or distilled it resembles in its properand its taste is bland or almost insipid. At 165° Fahren- ties horn or feathers. It is soluble in concentrated acetic heit it is converted into a white solid mass, of which we acid, and, by the assistance of heat, in muriatic acid and have a familiar example in the white of a hard-boiled egg. in the alkalies. It then bears a strong analogy to the aniThere can be no doubt that albumen, especially in its un- mal substances in general, resembling, by different procoagulated state, is highly nutritious and easily digestible. perties, fibrin, albumen, and gelatin. It is very generally The curd of milk may be considered as a variety of found, though only in a small proportion, in the vegetable albumen, although it possesses some peculiar properties, kingdom, in all the farinaceous seeds, in the leaves of cabespecially that of being converted into cheese by a parti- bages, cresses, &c.; in some fruits, flowers, and roots, and cular mode of management. in the green feculum of vegetables in general; but it is Gelatin is a third very principal constituent of animal particularly abundant in wheat, and imparts to wheatsolids, as bones, ligaments, tendons, membranes, skin, flour the property of fermenting and making bread. On muscles, &c. and exists in much larger proportions in the the nutritious powers of gluten separated from other prinflesh of young than of adult animals. Thus we see the ciples nothing certain is known; but the superior nutrigravy of veal and lamb always gelatinize, while that of tious powers of wheat-flour over that of all other farinacebeef and mutton does not. The swimming bladder of the ous substances sufficiently proves that, in combination with several species of sturgeon is gelatin in a state of very starch, it is highly nutritive; and in all probability it is great purity, and by boiling it may be extracted pure the gluten of the green feculum which supplies the azote from the shavings of hartshorn. Its taste is bland and necessary for the support of the herbivorous animals. nearly insipid. It is characterized by its solubility in water, being much increased by a boiling temperature, and by the solution, when of a certain strength, gelatiniz- II. Alimentary Principles which contain Carbon., Hydrogen, and Oxygen. ing or cooling. It is highly nutritious, and supposed to be the most easily digestible of animal matters. Starch is very abundantly diffused through the vegeMucus differs from albumen chiefly in not being coagu- table kingdom. It exists in great purity in various farilated by heat or corrosive sublimate, and from gelatin in naceous grains, such as rice, barley, maize, and millet; it not being precipitated by vegetable astringents, nor gela- is combined with gluten in wheat; with saccharine mattinizing when its solution is concentrated. It exists nearly ter in some grains, as oats, and in many leguminous seeds, pure in saliva, and is a constituent of most of the secre- such as haricot-beans, lentils, vetches, and peas; with tions. There can be no doubt of its easy digestion and viscous mucilage, in rye, potatoes, and Windsor beans; nutritious quality. with fixed oil and mucilage in the emulsive seeds, such Of these four principal constituents of animal matter nuts, almonds, cocoa, tamarinds, in linseed, rapeseed, we may remark, that in themselves they are almost insi- as hempseed, poppyseed, and, in general, all those from which pid ; that gelatin exists almost entirely in a solid form, an oil can be obtained by expression. Lastly, starch ia more or less dense; that mucus and albumen exist in sometimes united tou a poisonous substance. PVP™ fr.,.™ r.c • „ —' *' “ puiouuuua Buusuuiue. Of this sin0 a r dpn Jfv . Sg egation, perfect fluidity union of a nutritious with anininjurious ) nf cai tilage; and thatfi’om fibrin is only fluid to in the the gular most remarkable instance occurs the rootsprinciple of the the Ja-

DIETETICS.

20

• ofr fEo fnr of species —V- mer of which the negro slaves of the West Ind.es are indebted for their cassada bread, and fi om the latte prepared the best arrow-root starch. Only one species of grain, arain uie the JUUUUW Lolium temulentum, is hurtful;^ but many legu-^ minous seeds are poisonous, of which the most familiar example occurs in the laburnum peas. Starch is artificially prepared in great purity from various substances. Starch is got from wheat and potatoes, arrow-root from various species of arum, cassada-jiour trom the manioc root, salep from the orchidese in general, sago from the pith of various species of palm-trees, tapioca irom the bitter and sweet cassava root. In all of these varieties of form, starch furnishes a bland and wholesome nutriment. Gum or Mucilage is also a principal ingredient m the composition of our alimentary vegetables. The distinctive character of gum is its solubility in cold as evoiQ well as hot its insolubility of uui. water, wai-ci, and — —- -j in alcohol. It .is devoid Tr. or smell, and to the taste it is bland and agreeable. In -

Dietetics,

tropha manihot, and

many

arum,

cnmp analoffv with action sugar inexists in the called bile, and it is a Dietetics. niorbid the disease diabetes. product of morbid They dlffer most ob. fluidity, and they coincide in being insoluble in ^ter a larger proportion of hydrogen water, andalimentary in coniammatters ^ already g ^ ^ of. ^ The oils nils than the spoken may be divided into the fluid and concrete, and both are furnished by the vegetable and animal kingdoms. Tluid oil exists in quantity in the emulsive seeds ; in some ot them combined with prussic acid, as in the bitter almond, and in others with an acrid matter, as in the seeds of the ricinus; but it is obtained in greatest quantity and purity from the olive. The animal fluid oils are all more or less nauseous, as spermaceti oil, seal oil, whale oil, and cod liver oil. The concrete oils are generally furnished by the animal kingdom, and these are often bland and agreeable when fresh, but are apt to become rancid in proportion as they are less solid. Butter is~ the least , consistent, non uiev aic if we pxceot the fat of some birds; then hogs .lard,, the P f f b f anc[ tbe kidney fat of beef and nrnduct

of

”i;?,3^;U‘:.s:“r7£r,:rs; irrisii v-» mutton in successiuu.

bark of which it exudes in great purity; and in hot climates in general it is furnished by many trees, especia y those which have an astringent bark. In our own country an example of its production is seen onucthe bark of the plum and cherry trees. Where it is P^ fe^^ ^be quantity it constitutes a principal article of diet, Africans of Senegal are said to live entirely upon it during the gum harvest. Eight ounces of gum are eac the da y allowance, and furnish sufficient nourishment, for ^ Mucilage is the alimentary principle of many of our esculent vegetables. In some it is united only to green colouring nfatter, as in the leaves of beet and spinach ; with bitter matter, which may be prevented by p cess of blanching, as in endive, lettuce, succory, and cardoon, or by using the plant very young, as in asparagus, [t exists also in every part of the mallow tribe; in many roots, as scorzonera, salsafy, and Jerusalem artichokes, in the receptacle of the flower of the artichoke. It is combined with an acid in sorrel leaves; with saccharine matter in many fruits, as the fig and date; in roots, as the carrot, parsnip, and beet; and with slight acrimony in the turnip, cabbage leaves, cauliflower, and broccoli, and with considerable acrimony in the radish, cress, am and mus mustaid. ai . It exists in great quantity, combined wi h a pecuha ^ seous principle, in onions, garlic, shalot, lee , ‘ ’ lastly, in small quantity, with much aroma, in thos^ veg^' Leas UL

***

7

'

.

^

x.ic

• —

—

from the vegetable kingdom is the butter o. cocoa. III.

Alimentary Principles which do not contain Carbon.

nerhans the only real alimentary substance to tins class, butfit is one of the most essential, b necessary to replace the constant waste ot from our bodies, by the secrecuticular discharge, and the vapour of the breath, . itself strictly digestible, and capable of supplying t0 tbe system, as may be reh dro y8 either y g When tb e nature of olr other food , proportion of the whole weight of , ronsists 0f water only, and that the fluids reour water othan y, the ^ solids, the ^_ ca;tv quirebodies more consists frequentotrenewal necessity of water as an aliment cannot be disputed. Some animals, as the rabbit, are supposed to be capable of living a long time or altogether without water ; but this is a mere deception, for their vegetable food consists almost entirely of water. On the other hand, Dr Fordyce kept gold fishes six months in distilled water, and thought himself warranted in concluding that animals could live in water and air alone. Pouteau allowed some of his patients nothing but * ^ severai weeks, without their falling off; and the h[st0Jes 0f shipwrecked mariners prove with how small a . f ao]:(i f00fl man can subsist, provided he has sufPcient allowance 0f water, whilst without water, or a sub-

whidi belongs

OUT UOUiCfc CUiiaioto v/x

7

1

S

l”SritU ist^generaT/fo^d8 .CugLJ the stitute no quantity of solid food can support tuan for even vegetable kingdom, and in every mode of un.on with other a perhapS; not altogether unalimentary. Not Pri

^'the common properties of which in a state appreaching to purity, are familiar, is also h,«1 ^ ""“‘““f i^rt^r^rrSn^ j o ^ r . . _ _• Tiprmpnsolved in sufficient water, the vinous and acetous fermentation, but, on the other hand, when concentrated, preserving vegetable substances. Chemically considered, it presents many varieties. It exists in greatest quantity, combined with mucilage, in the juice of the sugar cane, of the maple tree, the manna ash tree, and of beet-root. It seems to be a constant attendant upon the inflorescence of vegetables, for almost every flower furnishes honey too the bee, and is a chief constituent of all the acerb, sut acid, and sweet fruits, in combination with vegetable jelly, Sugar is produced, or at least collected, by several insects. To the bee we are indebted for honey ; and a species of locust in New Holland covers the trees and ground with a kind of sugar. In all animals a principle havmg UlCUIlUl clIlU LUC vvccirv

“

*

-

• Tableaux de la Nature.

Tn “ ' .‘'m fci„de,ds, and such substances, earth is sought alter ana uy whole — — luxurious a^d uevuuicu devoured by nation, - Capuans — paid a considerable tribute to the Neapolitans for an earth called Leucogceum, which they considered necessary for the preparation of a favourite dish, Alica. rl he fungusses, according to Laxmann, eat a fine clay with rem-deer s milk. Chandler saw the women and children in bamos chewing pieces of steatite as a luxury. La Billardiere saw the same practised in New Caledonia, and found edible earth sold in the market in several villages in Java. hout aU India lime is used along with the betel nartook of the butter earth, which is eaten e • P spread upon bread, by the millstone with great! ejish, SP^ d dP^ t, HUmboldt has made quarne s of Thur ngia, ^ & whole 1 nation of us accl . Qttomacs on the Orinoco. We may earth-eaters, the Ottomacs^n_tne £

Par A. Humboldt, 2 tomes 12mo, Pans, 1803.

DIETETICS. Dietetics, also mention that bird-fanciers find it necessary to supply birds shut up in cages with sand and earth. All these facts, we are aware, might be explained upon principles different from the digestibility of the earthy substances taken into the stomach; and we have no idea that any earthy substances can supply carbon or azote to the system ; but we have absolute proof that earthy matter may enter into the circulation, in the growth and absorption of the bony frame of our body, for which phosphate of lime is as necessary as carbon or azote for our soft solids. Sea Salt is more obviously necessary than earth. Even in insular and maritime situations it is voluntarily used as a condiment by all; but it is only in inland countries, at a distance from the sea, that its necessity is duly appreciated. Muriate of soda enters into the composition of all our fluids, and is thrown off by many of our secretions ; hence its waste must be supplied, and where the vegetables are not naturally impregnated with it, it becomes one of the most indispensable articles of our food. Alimentary substances, as presented to us by nature or prepared by art, maybe considered in various points of view. Digestibi- They differ in regard to digestibility, or the facility with lityofvariby the powers of the ousa.imen-w^hichj they i are decomposed combinations fitted to repair thestomach, waste of en er nto new

tary substances.

the blood. In this particular, also, they may differ in respect to the length of time, or in regard to the digestive power of the stomach, required for their digestion. Thus the digestion of one substance may be slow, though ultimately complete, even in a weak stomach, and that of another quick enough in a strong stomach, although imperfectly digested by one that is weak. In reference to their digestibility, aliments are commonly described as being light or heavy ; but in this respect there is very great difference in regard to different individuals, the same substances being light to one and heavy to another, and vice versa.

Sir Astley Cooper made some experiments to ascertain the comparative digestibility of different kinds of raw meat without fat; and the following table exhibits the loss 100 parts of each sustained in the stomach of dogs, which were killed, one, two, three, and four hours after being fed. Pork 10 20 98 100 Mutton... 9 46 87 94 Beef. 0 34 37 75 Veal 4 31 46 69 In another experiment, after four hours, the digestibility appeared in the following order,—cheese, mutton, pork, veal, beef, hat appeared to be also much more digestible than cheese; beef than potato, and codfish than beef. Boiled veal was much more digestible than roast; and of different parts of the same kind of food, the digestibility was in the following order,—fat, muscles, skin, cartilage, tendon, and bone.1 From the experiments detailed in the inaugural dissertation of Dr Macdonald, De Ciborum Concoctione, Edinburgh, 1818, which were made in company with the late Dr Gordon, there appears to be great irregularity in the time necessary for the completion of digestion, so that they scarcely furnish any conclusion as to the comparative digestibility of different substances. Dr Macdonald infers that, of those he tried, butter was the most, and rice the least, digestible in the stomach of t ie dog. In the experiments which Dr Stark made upon

five n3feat'Se °n '‘if ^Sat1ure anTc] ^ure °f Gout and Rheumatism, including General Considerations on Morbid States of the Diffes * Thfw *e“arks K'gimen and Practical Observations on Gravel. By Charles Scudamore, M. D.Tvo L^don 181?; 0 la e and Statistical, Statistic] 8revised . ^ and ^ published Stark, from his M.original D. consisting Manuscripts. of Clinical Byand James Anatomical Carmichael Observations, Smyth, M.with D. 4to, Experiments Con 1788? Dietetical

hr™?

i

21

himself, to ascertain the nutritious properties of oily sub- Dietetics, stances, he found that, with a daily allowance of thirty ounces of bread and three pounds of water, two ounces of olive oil taken at one meal was so large a quantity as to be disagreeable; three ounces in the day caused some uneasiness in his bowels; and four ounces griped him very much, although he gained weight; but this experiment was not conclusive, as at that time he was suffering under sloughing gums, the effects of a protracted diet of sugar. A diet of four ounces of pure fat, obtained from the subcutaneous fat of beef, made into a pudding, with twenty ounces of flour, and twelve or twenty ounces of water, with the remainder of three pounds of water in drink, was both nourishing and agreeable ; but when the fat was increased to six ounces, great part of it passed unassimilated, and his bowels were affected. The same pudding without the suet was not sufficiently nutritious, and did not satisfy his appetite in the same manner. When the pudding was made with butter, although only four ounces were used, he was made very ill by it. Oil of butter agreed very well; and oil of marrow, of all the fats Dr Stark tried, he found to be the mildest in the bowels. His gums having again become purple and swelled, with petechial appearances on his body, while making these experiments, suggested to him the following queries, which seem important to the science of dietetics. “ Although at present I take more food than what is absolutely necessary for the support of the body, I remain perfectly well, whereas I have several times suffered considerable inconvenience from committing any excess in the quantity of oils. Is it not evident that excess in the quantity of oils is more hurtful to the body than excess in any other article of food ? and that, of course, we ought to be particularly careful in regulating the quantity and quality of the oils we may employ in diet ? Is it not probable, then, that animal oils, though they nourish and increase the weight of the body, are not of themselves sufficient to prevent a morbid alteration from taking place in the blood and fluids ? whilst, on the other hand, the lean of meat, though less nutritious, is of more efficacy in preserving the fluids of the body in a sound state.”2 Aliments also differ in regard to the proportional quan- Difference tity of nourishment they furnish, and, in this point of view,in of aliments they are said to be strong and weak, or rich and poor. This , respect difference may arise either from the proportional quantity^*/ Ilulliof digestible and indigestible parts in the various kinds of^°n’ aliment, or from the digestible parts being different in kind, and furnishing a supply of a different kind to the blood. There is even in this respect some opposition between light food and strong food, and it maybe generally observed, that food which is most quickly digested, requires the soonest to be repeated, while digestible food, that is only slowly digested, supports the body for a greater length of time. Aliments also differ in the impression they make on our palate ; and it is chiefly in this respect that they are considered by the epicure. This impression proceeds from two distinct qualities in the aliment; the one depending upon their grosser physical properties, and the other upon their finer, recognizable only by the senses of taste and smell. To the former class belong the sensations of solid and fluid, hard and soft, tough and tender, crisp and stringy, hot and cold, greasy, glutinous, gritty, smooth, &c. These are judged of by the tongue and palate, rather

22

DIETETICS.

Some experiments have been made in order to ascertain Dietetics, quantity of different kinds of food necessary for the suspendent of flavour, as capable of affecting the organs of the tenance of individuals. Dr Franklin, when a journeyman taste and smell. The latter class consists of all the variety printer, lived a fortnight on bread and water, at the rate of tastes properly so called, namely, sweet, bitter, sour, salt, ten pounds of bread a week. Dr Stark, whose weight alkaline, astringent, aromatic, nauseous, pungent, acrid, of spirituous, cooling, &c., and also the want of taste, the vapid was 171 pounds avoirdupois, found that thirty-eight ounces bread daily were not more than sufficient to satisfy his or mawkish. Of these, some are almost universally agree- of appetite; forty-eight ounces were the utmost he could conable, and others generally disliked, but much depends upon sume in one day, and the greatest quantity he could take idiosyncracy, state of health, education, habit of the indiat one meal, without uneasiness, was thirty ounces; and, vidual, and upon the degree or quantity of flavour. Aliments also differ in the impression made upon the with this diet, he required necessarily three pounds of stomach ; but the sensations arising from this source are water for drink, for with only two pounds he was not saIn another experiment, thirty ounces of bread and more obscure and less varied. Except the sensation of tisfied. three pounds of water, with six ounces of boiled beef, sufheat, which may arise from caloric, and is transient, or ficed : with four ounces of the beef his appetite was not from acrimony or spirit, which is more durable, most of satisfied; with two pounds of bread and three pounds of the sensations experienced in the stomach are indications infusion of tea, he found that one pound of cold stewed of its mechanical state, or of affections of the appetite. beef was not more than sufficient: he was not satisfied Hence we have the feeling of gratification, from removal with four ounces of beef to breakfast; but eight ounces at of a sense of emptiness, of repletion, distension, cessation dinner, and four ounces at supper, were rather too much. of hunger or thirst, satiety, and sickness. Absolute starvation produces diminished excretions, General We should also consider the effect of different kinds of fetid breath, foul skin, and death. The most distressing observa- diet, when the body is in a state of health, and different tions on states of disease; but accurate experiments are still want- histories of this dreadful end are recorded in the account diet. shipwrecks, and of those unfortunate persons who fall ing to enable us to give any thing more than fragments of into the hands of the Arabs of the desert. Man can susof this interesting subject. It is extremely difficult to in- tain the absolute want of food for several days, more or stitute these experiments satisfactorily. They are irksome fewer in number according to circumstances; the old betto the person on whom they are tried ; and so many causes ter than the young, and the fat, probably, better than the tend to interfere with the results, that it is only by fre- lean. The total want of drink can be borne only a very quent repetition that the real effects can be fairly deduced. short time, and its effects are even more distressing than Our diet may be either proper, or it may err,, and this either in quantity or quality. When the quantity is too those of want of food. They have been strikingly described Mungo Park and by Ali Bey, as experienced in thensmall, the body is not nourished; it becomes lean, the fat by own persons. The narratives of shipwrecked mariners also disappears, and the muscles either get soft and flabby, or shrivelled and dried up, accompanied by loss of strength prove with how very little food life may be supported for considerable length of time; and the history of those or stiffness, with predisposition to an actual disease. .Errors aimpostors who pretend to live altogether without food or in regard to the quantity of food are merely relative ; so drink display this adaptation of the wants of the body to much depends upon circumstances, as individuality of con- its means of supply in a still more striking manner; for, stitution, period of life, state of health, degree of mental even after the deception in such cases as that of Ann Moore and corporeal exertion, habit and temperature. Each per- is exposed, it will be found that the quantity of aliment son may be said to have a different standard quantity, de- actually taken was incredibly small.2 viations from which are to be accounted errors. In our Captain Woodard has added to his interesting narrative army, the rations allowed for each soldier at home are, many instances of the power of the human body to resist three quarters of a pound of meat, boiled so as to afford the effects of severe abstinence.3 He himself and his five broth, with l|d. worth of potatoes and other vegetables, companions rowed their boat for seven days without any one pound of bread, or one and one eighth pound of oat- sustenance but a bottle of brandy, and then wandered meal ; and in most cases one pound of milk or coffee is about the shores of Celebes six more without any other purchased for his breakfast. On service the rations are, food than a little water and a few berries. Robert Scotone pound of meat, one and a half pound of bread, and ney lived seventy-five days alone in a boat, with three one pint of wine or one sixth of a pint of spirits. pounds and a half of meat, three pounds of flour, two Mr Buxton states that the diet allowed to the prisoners hoo-sheads of water, some whale oil, and a small quantity in the jails in London varies from fourteen ounces of bread of^salt. He also used an amazing quantity of tobacco. per day, and two pounds of meat per week, which, he says, Six soldiers deserted from St Helena in a boat on the is not enough to support life, up to one pound and a ha f 10th of June 1799, with twenty-five pounds of bread and of bread, one pound of potatoes, two pints of hot gruel, about thirteen gallons of water. On the 18th they reduand either six ounces of boiled meat, without bone, an ced their allowance to one ounce of bread and two mouthafter boiling, or a quart of strong broth, mixed with vege- fuls of water, on which they subsisted till the 26th, when tables, per day, which is as much more than enough; and their store was expended. Captain Inglefield and eleven Mr Buxton thinks that the meat should be discontinued. others, after five days of scanty diet, were obliged to reA fit prison diet, in his opinion, should consist of one pound it to a biscuit divided into twelve morsels for breakand a half of bread, at least one day old, to each prisoner, strict fast, and the same for dinner, with an ounce or two of daily, and one pint of good gruel for breakfast; and, upon water daily. In ten days, a very stout man died, having good behaviour, half a pound of meat on Sundays.

Dietetics. as organs of touch than of taste, and are altogether inde-

* An Inquir, whether Crime or Misery are produced or prevented by our present System of Prison Discipline. By Thomas Fowell Buxton, M. P. 12mo, Edinb. 1818. -pveHntr Woman of Tutburv, illustrated bv Remarks on other Cases

* The Narrative of Captain David Woodard and Four Seamen. 2d edit. 8vo, London, I8U0.

DIETETICS.

23

become unable to swallow, and delirious. Lieutenant Bligh of nourishment, or it passes through the canal simply in- Dietetics, '■'’’Y''-' and his crew lived forty-two days upon five days’ provisions. digested, or it undergoes the fermentation natural to it. '—'-Y'*-' In the tenth volume of ttufeXand's Journal, M. Gerlach, An excess of nourishment either produces a great or raa surgeon-major of the Prussian army, has related a very pid increase of the size of body generally, or of the fat remarkable and well authenticated case of voluntary star- and abdominal viscera in particular, or, by inducing great vation. A recruit, to avoid serving, had cut off the fore- fulness of blood, produces diseases which sometimes counfinger of his right hand. When in hospital for the cure of teract the effects of the plethora. When the excess passes the wound, dreading the punishment which awaited him, smiply indigested, it only occasionally proves hurtful as he resolved to starve himself, and on the 2d of August a mechanical irritation in the bowels, especially when it is began obstinately to refuse all food or drink, and persist- of a hard substance, and has sharp angles. When it uned in this resolution till the 24th August. During these dergoes its natural fermentation this is either acid or putwenty-two days he had absolutely taken neither food, trid, as the substance is vegetable or animal, or rather as drink, nor medicine, and had no evacuation from his it is destitute of or contains a notable proportion of azote. bowels. He had now become very much emaciated, his . When diet errs in quality, it gives rise to a greater vabelly was somewhat distended, he had violent pain in his riety of cases. It may either produce a directly hurtful loins, his thirst was excessive, and his febrile heat burning. effect upon the constitution, in the manner of a poison or His behaviour had also become timid. Having been pro- medicine, in its natural state, or after fermenting in the mised his discharge unpunished, he was now prevailed stomach; or it may prove injurious more indirectly by not upon to take some sustenance, but could not at first bear supplying an element necessary for its healthy condition, r even weak soup and lukewarm drinks. Under proper or by supplying one in excessive proportion. The poisontreatment he continued to mend for eight days, and his ous effects of alimentary substances are always occasional, strength was returning, when, on the 1st of September, he and arise from a peculiarity in the aliment itself, as in the again refused food, and assumed a wild look. He took a case of poisonous fishes, or in the individual, as in those little barley water every four or five days to the 8th ; from persons who cannot eat particular kinds of food, which are that day to the 11th he took a little biscuit with wine ; but to others wholesome and nutritious. The unpleasant efagain, from the 11th September to the 9th October, a fects of substances undergoing their natural fermentation period of twenty-eight days, he neither took food, drink, in the stomach are much more frequently observed. They nor had any natural evacuation. From the 9th to the 11th occur either from a very strong disposition in the food to he again took a little nourishment, and began to recruit; ferment, so that the action of a healthy stomach is not but, on the 11th, he finally renewed his resolution to starve able to restrain it, or from excess of the food, so that part himself, and persevered until his death, which took place of it is left to its natural changes, or from weakness of the on the 21st November, after a total abstinence of forty- stomach, which exerts little action upon it. Fermenting two days. substances are hurtful, by acting as direct poisons, and by On the other hand, the quantity of nourishment which distending the stomach; in the non-azotized substances can be devoured with impunity is often very great. Al- becoming acid and producing flatulencies, in the azotized most every person in good circumstances eats more than substances becoming putrid and producing fetid eructais necessary for supporting his body in a state of health, tions and flatus. Diet, which errs by supplying one of the and many bring their stomachs to require a very exces- elementary constituents of our body in excess, or in not sive allowance as almost necessary. In some individuals supplying another, does not produce its full effects at an inordinate appetite seems constitutional. Charles Do- once, but gradually changes the condition of the body. mery, aged twenty-one, six feet three inches high, and When an elementary principle is furnished in excess, it is well made, but thin, when a prisoner of war at Liver- thrown off by the various excretions, and hence we find pool, consumed in one day four pounds of cow’s udder that the urine of omnivorous animals, when confined to and ten pounds of beef, both raw, together with two animal food, contains more urea, and their perspirations pounds of tallow candles and five bottles of porter, and, and stools are more fetid; while the urea disappears, and although1allowed the daily rations of ten men, he was not the stools and perspirations lose their fetor, when they are satisfied. Baron Percy has recorded a still more extra- lestricted to vegetables. The same observations have been oi dinary instance in a soldier of the name of Tarare, who, in regard to man. Also, when the supply of an eleat the age of seventeen, being of moderate size, rather thin, made principle is deficient, it ceases to be thrown off and weighing only a hundred and seventy pounds, could mentary by excretion, even after it has performed its functions in devour, in the course of twenty-four hours, a leg of beef the body, but is re-absorbed, and thus the body, for a time, twenty-four pounds in weight, and thought nothing of swallowing the dinner prepared for fifteen German boors.2 lives as it were upon itself. The chief varieties of diet, in regard to quality, depend But these men were remarkable, not only for the quantity upon their immediate effects, and in this respect they may t ley consumed, but also for its quality, giving a prefedivided into the simply nutritious and the stimulant. rence to raw meat, and even living flesh and blood. Do- be mery in one year eat 174 cats, dead and alive; and Ta- All animal flesh seems to be more or less stimulant, and, rare was strongly suspected of having devoured an infant, in general, the more so the darker its colour is; and upon which disappeared mysteriously. Many other histories of this principle chiefly has Dr Darwin founded his classifithe same kind are preserved; and although some of the cation of aliments, but he has erred in considering them individuals were men of large stature and great strength, as also more nutritious. Moor-game, pigeon, hare, and others were of ordinary size. The excess of food may be venison, are more stimulating, but perhaps not more nutaken either m the form of too much at one meal or of too tritious, than the turkey or barn-door fowl, veal, or lamb. many meals. It is either digested and furnishes an excess The effect upon the composition of our bodies is the secondary but most important effect. In this respect, food Dietetics,

|p”y?EeaUy“„TlhNihdeen"?d. 1

ix. live, Paris, An. iiij!,l’T1,l“Bie'

UST

Jo mal ds 1 K:d

“

'

u

Fle,h

’ ^ ^ Jol‘nsto"! “

lhe Medical

“d

Journal, by

* 'v, Chinirgie, et Pharmacia, par MM. Corvisart, Leroux, at Boyer, tome

24

DIETETICS. The chemical theory of the scurvy is, that it is owing Dietetics might be divided into the azotized, hydrogenous, caibonathe want of ^xygenous food; and it cannot be denied — ' ceous, and oxygenous, or rather into those which supply to that this theory has been very ingeniously supported by abundantly azote, hydrogen, carbon, and oxygen. This Dr Trotter, Beddoes, and others. The rapidity with view is, however, chiefly theoretical, as we are very tcir which those Dr afflicted with it recover by the use of recent from possessing facts enough to establish it completely, or vegetables, especially the fresh citric acid, shows that it to overturn it; but yet there are some which favour it. We proceeds from an error in diet, but whether from a dehhave already noticed Magendie’s experiments on substan- ciencv of nourishment in general, or from a deficiency of ces which do not contain azote, from which he inferred oxygenous aliment, is not quite so clear. When we comthat a certain supply of it was absolutely necessary to the pare the accounts of the ravages formerly committed by support of animal life. Other facts lead to the same con- this dreadful disease, even during short voyages, with the clusion, especially the effect of restriction to one kind of almost total immunity which the British fleet has enjoyed aliment in the generation and cure of disease. since the time of Captain Cook, we have the strongest It is many years since Dr Iloilo1 was led, by the singu- possible proof of the influence of diet upon the human lar sweetness of diabetic urine, to conclude that, if he de- frame, either as inducing or preventing disease.3 prived the patient of all food which contained sugar, or the Hydrogenous food, such as the excessive indulgence m principles of sugar, he should be able to cure this hitherfat meat, butter, and oil, and still more especially in spito untractable disease. He accordingly restricted his pa- rituous liquors, produces a change in the chemical constitients to the use of animal food, especially fat, and abso- tution of our bodies, independently of the exhaustion of lutely prohibited all vegetables, even bread, and all fer- excitability by excess of stimulus. Bilious diseases, and mented liquors. The effects were very striking, and some a tendency to unwholesome fatness, are its most common patients were believed to be cured; at least the nature effects; and it is only in the excessive hydrogenation of of their urine was completely altered from a morbid to a the system that we can find a rational explanation of that healthy state. As conducted by others, the same regimen very singular phenomenon called the spontaneous combushas produced the same effects ; but it is so disagreeable to tion of the body; for even admitting that the clothes are the patients that they can seldom be prevailed upon to accidentally set on fire in these cases, there appears no adhere to it, and unfortunately, notwithstanding the tem- reason to doubt that the combustion is continued by the porary removal of this prominent symptom, the disease burning of the body itself. Now the greatest number o generally continues its fatal course. We may, however, instances have occurred in old women addicted to the notice, that Rollo and others were guided in their choice abuse of ardent spirits.4 of regimen by the principle of withholding the elements The effects of oxygenous food, in imparting oxygen to of sugar, and hence fat formed a chief part of it, and was the body, are not so well ascertained. Acids, and the a principal cause of the disgust it excited; but perhaps it subacid fruits, quench thirst, and are supposed to reduce would be better to select a highly azotized diet, in which animal heat; but their more obvious action is to attect the point of view the muscular parts of dark-fleshed animals, bowels and induce diarrhoea, and ultimately to render the such as game and old mutton, and those kinds offish, such body spare and thin. The new chemical pathology led to as skate, which contain much azote in a loose state 01 co™' the exhibition of nitric acid for the cure of syphilis, as bination, should be selected; while wheaten bread, the mercury was supposed to act by oxygenizing the system; want of which is so distressing to many, might be allowed, and this acid has since been much employed also, from and fat, which contains no azote, should not be prescribed. analogy, in the liver complaint. That the acid has excelMagendie2 ascribes the gravel to the superabundance of lent effects as a tonic, seems to be perfectly ascertained. azote in our food, as the uric acid of which gravel consists It does not act upon the bowels like the vegetable acids, is a highly azotized substance, and seems to be produced but there is no proof of its decomposition in the stomach, as a means of throwing off the excessive azote ; and among or of its imparting oxygen to the body. The oxygenizing the various causes with which gravel is connected, the of the system by means of the nitro-muriatic or oxymumost active in its agency is high living, or the use of ani- riatic bath, now so fashionable in London, is a mere chimal food in excess. A Hanseatic citizen, who kept a good mera. Pulmonary consumption was also, at one time, contable previous to 1814, was afflicted with the grav T-)> " DIVAL, in Heraldry, the herb nightshade, used tor sable or black by such as blazon by flowers and herbs instead of colours and metals. DIVALIA, in Antiquity, a festival celebrated by the Homans on the 21st of December, in honour of the goddess An-erona; whence it was called Angeronalia. On this day5 the pontifices performed sacrifices in the temple of Volupia, the goddess of pleasure, who, according to some, was the same as Angerona. DIVAN (Arabic diwan), among the Arabs, 1 ersians, and Turks, is a word that bears very various significations. It primarily denoted a book of accounts, a muster-i oil o troops, &c.; and hence came to be applied to a collection of lyric poems (called gazelles) arranged in a kind of alphabetical order. Thus we have the Diwan of Sadi, the Diwan of Hafiz, &c.; a practice which has been imitated by Goethe in his Westostlicher Divan—z collection of poems in the Oriental style. The word among the Orientals denotes also a council-chamber, a tribunal of justice, and in^ like manner is applied to the general council of state. Under the khaliffs of Baghdad, the diwan was a court of justice over which the khaliff presided in person. At Constantinople in the present day the term is used to denote the great council of the empire. It is also a common appellation among the lurks for a saloon or chamber of reception, or in which business is transacted, or used as a place of occasional repose. The divan more properly is a kind of stage, raised about a foot above the floor of the saloon, covered with rich tapestry, and furnished with a number of embroidered cushions leaning against the wall ; and on this the master of the house is seated when he receives visitors. Hence the word is frequently applied by other nations to a kind of public coffee-room, furnished in a manner somewhat similar. DIVERGENT or Diverging, separating or receding from each other, as lines which proceed from the same point; a term of frequent use in mathematics and optics. It is opposed to convergent. A convex lens renders the rays of light convergent; a concave lens, divergent. A convex mirror makes the rays diverge ; a concave one, converge. A diverging series in mathematics is a series of which the terms increase more and more the further it is continued. DIVERSIFYING, in Rhetoric, a mode of varying a subject,which maybe done, says Vossius, in the six following ways : 1. By enlarging on what was briefly mentioned before; 2. by a concise enumeration of what had been insisted on at length; 3. by adding something new to what is repeated ; 4. by repeating only the principal heads of what had been said ; 5. by transposing the words and periods ; 6. by imitating them. DIVERSION, in JVar, the act of drawing the attention and troops of the enemy from the point where the principal assault is intended to be made, by an attack or alarm in another quarter. DIVESTING signifies literally the stripping off a vestment or garment, in contradistinction to investing. In law it is used for the act of surrendering or relinquishing one’s effects. DIVIDIVI, the commercial name of the pod of the Ccesalpinia coriaria, which is pretty extensively used for its astringent qualities in tanning, and also as a mordant in dyeing. It yields a large quantity of tannin. DIVINATION, a general term descriptive of the various illusory arts anciently practised for the discovery of things secret or future. In those countries and ages where ignorance of physical laws has combined with super-

D

I

V

stition to debase the human mind, it has sought to gratify Divine. its innate disposition to pry into futurity by looking for piesao-es in things between which and the object of its anxiety no* connection existed but in the diviner’s imagination. Scarcely a single department of nature but was appealed to, as furnishing, on certain conditions, good or bad omens of human destiny; and the aspect of things, which, perhaps by the most casual coincidence, marked some event or crisis in the life of one or two individuals, came to be regarded as the fixed and invariable precursor of a similar result in the affairs of mankind in general. By such childish and irrational notions was the conduct of the heathen guided in the most important, no less than in the most ordinary occuirences of life ; and hence arose the profession of augurs, soothsayers, et hoc genus omne of impostors, who, ingrafting vulgar traditions on a small stock of natural knowledge, established their claims to the possession of an occult science, the importance and influence of which they dexterously increased by associating it with all that was pompous and imposing in the ceremonies of their religion. This pretended science was divided into various branches, each of which had its separate professors. In a general view, divination may be considered as either natural or artificial; the first being founded on the notion that the soul possesses, from its spiritual nature, some prescience of futurity, which it exemplifies particularly in dreams, and at the approach of death : the second, resting on a peculiar interpretation of the course of nature, as well as on such arbitrary observations and experiments as superstition introduced. The different systems and methods that were anciently in vogue are almost incredible ; as, for instance, Aeromancy, divining by the air ; Arithmomancy, by means of numbers; Capnomancy, by the smoke of sacrifices ; Chiromancy, by the lines on the palms of the hands; Hydromancy, by water; Pyromancy, by fire, &c. It is beyond our limits to enter upon the enumeration and explanation of the various arts of divination that were practised by the ancients. These the reader, curious in such inquiries, will find detailed at length by Cicero {De Divinatione), and Cardan {De Sapientid). Egypt, the cradle of arts and sciences, if she did not give it birth, seems to have encouraged the practice of divination at an early age ; and it is well known that at the time of the Hebrew exodus there were magicians in that country whose knowledge of the arcana of nature, and dexterity in the practice of their art enabled them, to a certain extent, to rival the miracles of Moses. By what extraordinary power they changed their rods into serpents, the river into blood, and introduced frogs in unprecedented numbers, is an inquiry that has perplexed many learned men. Some have ascribed their performances to jugglery and legerdemain ; the serpents, the frogs, &c., having been secretly provided and dexterously produced at the proper moment. Others prefer the supposition that these conjurors were aided by infernal agents, with the Divine permission, in the performance of their wonderful feats. See Daemon. But it was Chaldaea to which the distinction belongs of being the mother-country of diviners, and especially of judicial astrologers. Such a degree of power and influence had they attained in that country, that they formed the highest caste and enjoyed a place at court; nay, so indispensable were they in Chaldaean society, that no step could be taken, not a relation could be formed, a house built, a journey undertaken, a campaign begun, until the diviners had ascertained the lucky day and promised a happy issue. DIVINE, pertaining to the true God; or to a false god among the heathens. The word is also applied figuratively to anything superexcellent, extraordinary, or that seems to surpass the power of nature and the capacity of man.

55

DIVING. Diving.

Diving is the art of descending under water to considerable depths, and of remaining there some time, so as to be able to collect valuable, articles, such as pearls, sponges, coral, and other submarine productions, from the bottom of the sea or rivers, or property from the sunken wrecks of vessels. Difliculties This art is one of great utilit}^, but is attended with peof diving, culiar difficulties, owing to the very limited powers which ofsdr'in'11 man naturally possesses within the liquid element. On the the lurio-s. surface he may no doubt continue a long time floating or ° swimming, and hence arises the wonderful art of navigation. But the moment he plunges within the mass he is cut off from the vital air, and life is speedily extinguished. The necessity of a constant supply of air for the support of life is shown by simply attempting to withhold it by shutting the mouth and nostrils. No one can continue holding in the breath in this manner much longer than a minute or a minute and a half. If we begin to hold after having made an expiration, we cannot do it longer than a quarter of a minute; but if we take a large inspiration, and fill the lungs, this supply is found to last longer; so that we can readily hold breath a full minute, and, with practice and great exertion, some may even continue to do so two minutes. Now this is exactly what the diver must do to remain alive under water; and accordingly we find that in general a person cannot remain longer than half a minute without the danger of suffocation, and the most practised divers not above two minutes; such is the necessity for fresh air continually present in the lungs. Necessity The nature and cause of this necessity for air has been of air,cause illustrated by the discoveries of modern chemistry. These have proved that it arises from a certain chemical action which the atmosphere exerts on the blood as it passes through the lungs, and which is continually going on, and cannot for a moment be intermitted. The nature of this action is not yet exactly understood, but the object of it undoubtedly is to purify the blood, as it becomes vitiated by circulating through the system. For this purpose, the air inspired into the lungs, and coming there into contact with the blood, imparts to it its oxygen, a small portion of which is supposed to combine with the blood, and to give it renewed vigour ; but by far the greater portion combines with the carbonaceous matter of the blood, and carries off this impurity in the shape of carbonic acid at each expiration. This is proved by a very simple experiment. Let a person, for instance, respire by means of a pipe into a bag or bladder of air of the capacity of a gallon or more; he will breathe freely enough at first, but in a very short time with great difficulty, and at last will feel the sense of suffocation the same as in holding the breath in the ordinary way. If the air in the bladder be now examined, it will be found to have entirely changed its nature; it will no longer support the flame of a candle, but extinguish it the moment it is immersed, thus showing the loss of oxygen. Hence arises that sense of closeness and oppression which is felt in crowded assemblies, where, as generally happens, the ventilation is imperfect. The same air being breathed again and again, becomes unfit for respiration, and produces those unpleasant sensations which are usually felt. A very curious and interesting set of experiments on respiration were made by Messrs Allen and Pepys, and narrated in the Philosophical Transactions for 1808. The following bears particularly on the present subject. “ Th ree hundred cubic inches of common air contained in one of the mercurial gasometers were respired. In less

than a minute it became necessary to take deeper and Diving, deeper inspirations, and at last the efforts were so violent that the glass was in danger of being broken. A great sense of oppression and suffocation was now felt in the chest, vision became indistinct, and after the second minute the attention of the operator seemed to be withdrawn from surrounding objects, and fixed upon the experiment. A buzzing in the ears took place, as in breathing nitrous oxide ; and after the third minute there was left only sufficient recollection to close the gasometer after an expiration ; after which he became insensible, having made thirty-five inspirations. The expired air contained ten per cent, of carbonic acid, four of oxygen, and eighty-six of azote.” With 300 cubic inches of air, then, in the gasometer, the Quantityoperator began to be insensible in the space of two mi-cessal of air nett utes ; and if we suppose that the lungs, which were jn lu (ie 7? their natural state at the commencement of the operation, mcreasin ! ’ °/ contained 100 cubic inches of atmospheric air, then jt 8 would follow that 200 inches each minute w ould be necessary to support life, so as to remain at the same time quite sensible. Hence, supposing the lungs to contain, with a full inspiration, 250 cubic inches, which is a pretty large allowance, it would follow that a man might hold breath, or remain under water, a minute and a quarter, which agrees verj' well with what occurs in ordinary cases. But a very curious fact has been mentioned to us by Professor Faraday of the Royal Institution, London, and was first noticed to him by a gentleman connected with the Asiatic Society, a fact which may often be of great importance, not only in diving, but in cases of fire, and of accidents in brewers’ vats, &c. The lungs in their natural state are charged with a large quantity of impure air, being a portion of the carbonic acid gas which is formed during respiration, but after each expiration still remains lodging among the involved passages of the pulmonary vessels. In proof of this, it is only necessary to breathe by a small pipe, or roll of paper, into a common water bottle, throwing away the first portion of the expiration, and propelling the last into the lower parts of the vessel. Then insert this over a taper, and it will be instantly extinguished. Now, by breathing hard for a short time, as one does after taking any violent exercise, this impure air is expelled, and its place is filled up with atmospheric air. The consequence is, that if we then take a full inspiration, the breath can easily be held for two minutes. This experiment any one can make. On trying it in the ordinary way, we could hold breath for about three quarters of a minute, but this with great difficulty. We then made eight to ten forced respirations, and on closing the mouth and nostrils felt no inconvenience even on the first trial, till after a minute and a half, but continued, however, to the end of the second minute. The knowledge of this fact might be of essential use in diving, and, we have no doubt, might often be the means of saving life ; for if in the ordinary way we can only remain a single minute under water, of what importance is it to be capable of doubling the time ? A single minute in these cases must be invaluable. Whether the professed divers are aware of this circumstance or not, we do not know; but it is probable, at any rate, that in many cases the exertion induced by swimming may have the effect of clearing the lungs. Another curious fact illustrative of the same principles occurred to Mr Bruneli in descending to examine the breach which the river had made in the Tunnel under the Thames. Having lower-

DIVING. ed the divine-bell nearly thirty feet to the mouth of the them thus company for some time in their voyage, con- Mving. opening, thifwas found too narrow to admit the bell, so versing and asking questions ; and after eating a hearty that "o further observation could be made on the state meal with them, he took his leave, and, jumping into the of the Shield and other works, which were perhaps eight sea, pursued his voyage alone. or ten feet deeper. Brunell, therefore, laying hold of the “ In order to aid these powers of enduring in the deep, end of a rope, left the bell, and dived himself down the nature seemed to have assisted him in a very extiaoidiopening; his companion in the bell being alarmed at the nary manner; for the spaces between his fingers and toes length of his stay, now about two minutes, gave the sig- were webbed, as in a goose ; and his chest became so very nal^for pulling up; and the diver, unprepared for the sig- capacious that he could take in, at one inspiration, as nal, had hardly time to catch hold of the rope which he much breath as would him for aa whole « The account of so serve extraordinary personday. did not fail had let go, and was surprised on coming up to find that so much time had elapsed. On descending again, he to reach the king himself, who commanded Nicholas to be found that he could with ease remain fully two minutes brought before him. It was no easy matter to find Nichogenerally his time in the, solitudes underwater. The reason evidently was, that the atmo- las, —, whoo- ^ spent ^ r ofi thei sphere in the bell being condensed by a column of water deep ; but at last, after much searching, he was found and nearly thirty feet in height, contained nearly double the brought before his majesty. The curiosity of this moquantity of air in the same bulk, and thus nearly a double narch had been long excited by the accounts he had hear d of th supply in the luno-s e bottom of the Gulf of Charybdis; he now there' Difficulty Besides the difficulty of holding the breath, another fore conceived that it would be a proper opportunity to from the arises in diving, particularly at considerable depths, from have more certain information He therefore commanded pressure ofthe external pressure of the fluid on the chest, and on our poor diver to examine the bottom of this dreadful the water. e cayi of. the bod 0n the chest this tends to whirlpool, and, as an incitement to his obedience, he orcompress it together, and to expel the air out of it, and dered a golden cup to be flung into it. Nicholas was not thus increases greatly the difficulty of holding the breath, insensible of the danger to which he was exposed, dangers At each foot of descent this pressure will increase up- best known only to himself, and therefore he presumed to wards of sixty lbs. on every square foot of the body ; and if remonstrate ; but the hopes of the reward, the desire of we suppose the chest to expose half a square foot, we have, pleasing the king, and the pleasure of showing his skii, at at the depth of fifteen feet, a force equal to the weight of last prevailed. He instantly jumped into the gulf, and 450 lbs. loading the chest, and tending to propel the in- was as instantly swallowed up m its bosom. He continued eluded air. A very great muscular exertion, therefore, for three quarters of an hour below, during which time will evidently be required to resist this enormous strain; the king and his attendants remained on shore anxious for nor is it practicable, by any breastplate or other contriv- his fate ; but he at last appeared, holding the cup in ance, to defend the chest from this pressure, as this, to triumph in one hand, and making his way good among do any good, would require to be so large, and of such the waves with the other. It may be supposed he was strength, as greatly to obstruct the free motions of the received with applause when he came on shore; the cup diver. It is this pressure of the deep water, and the violent was made the reward of his adventure ; the king ordered exertion necessary to overcome it, that causes, in divers him to be taken proper care of; and, as he was somewhat who go down frequently, the eyes to become blood-shot, fatigued and debilitated by his labour, after a hearty meal and brings on a spitting of blood. he was put to bed, and permitted to refresh himself by MarvelThe art of diving having always in it, and particularly sleeping.” lous ac- during the infancy of science, something of the marvellous, The diver then, according to the account, gave a narcounts of the most extraordinary accounts have been given, by dif- rative of the wonders he had seen, which so excited the divers. ferent authors, of the feats of some of the most noted curiosity of the monarch, that he again tempted the diver divers. The most singular of these is that given by Kir- to a second and fatal descent. After plunging into the cher, of the Sicilian diver Nicolo Pesce, taken, as he states, whirlpool, he was never more heard of. from the archives of the kings of Sicily. But to return to more authentic statements, these on Authentic “ In the times of Frederick king of Sicily,” says Kircher, the whole agree very well with the views already stated, statements Sicilian “ there lived a celebrated diver, whose name was Nicholas, Among the pearl divers at Ceylon and other parts cf the ^ diver. and who, from his amazing skill in swimming, and his per- East, instances have been known of a diver remaining sixjj?^.0 severance under water, was surnamed the Jish. This man minutes under water ; but these are very rare ; the ordihad from his infancy been used to the sea, and earned his nary time seldom exceeds a minute, and sometimes it is scanty subsistence by diving for corals and oysters, which a minute and a half, or two minutes. There are generalhe sold to the villagers on shore. His long acquaintance ly ten divers in each of the boats belonging to the fishery; with the sea at last brought it to be almost his natural ele- five descend into the sea at a time, and the other five rement. He was frequently known to spend five days in main above to recruit their strength. In order to hasten the midst of the waves, without any other provisions than their descent, a large stone is used, with a rope attached the fish which he caught there, and ate raw. He often to it, which the diver seizes with the toes of his right foot, swam over from Sicily into Calabria, a tempestuous and while he grasps a bag of net-work with those of the left. dangerous passage, carrying letters from the king. He He then seizes another rope with his right hand, and was frequently known to swim among the gulfs of the Li- keeping his nostrils shut with his left, plunges into the pari islands, noway apprehensive of danger. water, and soon reaches the bottom. Then hanging the “ Some mariners out at sea one day observed something net round his neck, he speedily collects the oysters, and at some distance from them, which they regarded as a sea resuming his former position, he makes a signal to those monster; but upon its approach it was known to be Nicho- in the boat, and is immediately hauled up, and the stone las, whom they took into their ship. When they asked which assisted his descent is pulled up afterwards, him whither he was going in so stormy and rough a sea, The divers are all Indians, who are accustomed to this and at such a distance from land, he showed them a packet seemingly dangerous occupation from their infancy, and of letters which he was carrying to one of the towns of who fearlessly descend to considerable depths. They will Italy, exactly done up in a leather bag, in such a manner frequently make from forty to fifty plunges in a day; but as that they could not be wetted by the sea. He kept the exertion is so extremely violent, that in coming up they

Diving.

Florida Indian divers. Use of sponges-

South Sea divers.

Apparatus for aiding the divers.

57 DIVING. discharge water, and sometimes blood, from their mouths, 2>dly, The diving-bell, which, from its simplicity, safety, Diving, ears, and nostrils. Some of them rub their bodies with and perfect efficiency, has now almost entirely superseded oil, and stuff their ears to prevent the water from enter- every other, though there is no doubt that in many cases ing; but the greater part use no precautions whatever. these may still be of considerable utility in subservience They take no food while in the boats, nor till they return to the bell. on shore and have bathed themselves in fresh water. The In regard to dresses or armour, a number of different Wateronly danger to which they are exposed is from meeting, plans of this kind are detailed in Leopold’s Theatrurn^^^ while at the bottom, with the ground-shark, which is a Machinarum Hydraulicarum. At depths of twelve or fif-mour‘ common inhabitant of those seas, and of which the divers teen feet these may often be of essential use; but beyond are under dreadful apprehensions; some of them indeed this they become inapplicable, owing to the great pressure are so expert as to avoid this enemy, even when they re- on the limbs of the diver, which must eithqr be exposed, main under water for a considerable time; but the uncer- or covered only with a flexible material, not to impede tainty of escaping is so great, that, in order to avert the his motions; and in that case the pressure, acting on all danger, they consult, before they begin, their priests or sides like a ligature, is liable to obstruct the circulation conjurors, in whom they place implicit confidence. of the blood in the limbs, and to drive it from these into Dr Halley relates, as a remarkable circumstance, that those parts of the body within the armour, causing exhe observed a Florida Indian diver at Bermudas, who treme pain. In any great depth, also, the necessary could remain two minutes under water. He states, that strength of the armour renders it unwieldy; and it is exthe divers for sponges in the Archipelago are in the prac- tremely difficult, if not impracticable, to fit it tightly on tice of taking down in their mouths a piece of sponge every part; while the smallest opening, by admitting wadipped in oil, and by this are enabled to dive longer than ter, may endanger the life of the diver. others who have none. It is not easy to conceive how this One of the best of these contrivances is perhaps that Klingert’s can assist the diver’s breathing; for the introduction of proposed by M. Klingert, and described in a pamphletarmour. any foreign substance into the mouth must necessarily published at Breslau in 1798. The harness or armour is diminish the quantity of air he can take down. But it made of strong tin-plate, in the form of a cylinder, with a has been lately said that the real object of taking oil in round end to inclose the head and body, and, for the contheir mouth is to calm those small waves on the surface of venience of putting it on, is made in two parts, the headthe sea which prevent the light being so steadily transmit- piece or helmet, and the body. Besides this, there is a ted to the bottom as is necessary to enable the divers to leather jacket, with short sleeves, and a pair of drawers of find the small objects they search for without delay. By the same, which are made water-tight, buttoned on the ejecting a little oil from their mouths, it rises to the sur- metal part where they join, and made tight with brass face, and spreading upon it, calms- the waves in a most hoops, going round the leather and the metal upon the remarkable manner, and gives a brilliant light at the bot- outside. The chief peculiarity in this machine is the tom. mode in which fresh air is supplied, and respiration effectMany nations, and particularly the savages in the South ed. This is done by two distinct flexible pipes proceeding Sea and other islands, are remarkable for the expertness from the inside of the helmet to the surface of the water; they acquire by habit in diving and moving about in the the one is for inhaling the air, and terminates in an ivory water. Being accustomed to it from their infancy, the mouth-piece, w'hich the diver may embrace with his lips element becomes so natural to them that they seem to and inhale the air; the other enters the helmet at the have the use of all their faculties in the water the same same place, and opens merely into the inside of the maas on the dry land. According to the accounts of voy- chine, so as to allow the foul air to be discharged. The agers, they are such expert divers, that when a nail or diver, therefore, draws in the fresh air by the mouth, and other piece of iron was thrown overboard, they would in- discharges it into the helmet by the nostrils ; and from stantly jump into the sea after it, and never fail to recover the interior of the machine it is propelled by the act of it. On one occasion a smith’s anvil is said to have fallen inspiration, the expansion of the chest contracting the overboard. Not being able to bring this up, the island- space between it and the armour, and forcing out exactly ers notwithstanding contrived to bring it ashore, by de- as much air as is drawn in, keeping up always a due equiscending a great many times to the bottom, and rolling it librium. This is certainly a very ingenious arrangement; over and over till it reached the land. for, if there were no second pipe to discharge the air, the Such is the length to which diving has been carried by expansion of the chest would compress the air round the the natural powers of the body alone. But from the curious body of the diver, and, unless this were of large capacity, and difficult nature of the object, and the many important which would be inconvenient, would create a difficulty in purposes to which the art might be employed, ingenious the operation. The construction of the apparatus will be men were led to the invention of various contrivances for understood from the draw ing, fig. 1, Plate CCV., which the use of the diver, which have greatly extended his is a front view of the diver, and by the following descrippowers and the usefulness of the art. A multitude of tion : A is the helmet-piece, fifteen inches in height, these contrivances of different descriptions have been and the diameter adapted to the size of the body of the brought forward by mechanical projectors for the last two diver ; BB is the lower part of the cylinder, of the hundred years. They all resolve themselves into three same diameter, and of such a height as to meet the different kinds. other at the dotted line C; ddC is the jacket, and jfjfE ls£, Water-tight armour or dresses for the body, so the drawers; these are attached to the cylinder by butstrong as to protect it from the external pressure of the tons, as seen ; and a, c, bb are the three brass hoops fitfluid ; and, along with this, the means of supplying the ted over each joint to make it water-tight; the hoops diver with fresh air, so as to enable him to remain any are made of brass-plate, with their ends turned up, and time under water. fitted with screws, by means of which they can be drawn 2r%, Water-tight vessels of metal for inclosing the very tight upon the leather. The cylinder has holes diver, and of such capacity as to contain a supply of air for the arms, one half in the upper piece and one half in for a limited period of perhaps half an hour or an hour or the lower; and when the jacket is fastened on, it binds more, and giving him also the use of his hands and arms the upper and lower parts of the cylinder together. It is externally by a sort of flexible sleeves. fastened at the arms with brass screw hoops, dd, and the VOL. VIII. H

D I V I N G. 58 Diving, drawers by similar ones k h represent tlie breath- unfortunately lost off Weymouth in 1804. It consisted of Diving, jng pipes, the first for drawing in the air, the second foi a body of copper with iron boots, put together and jointed discharging it; these are united to a little metal cylmdei, in the manner of coats of mail; the whole is then coveied which screws on the helmet at the aperture g; this is with leather, and afterwards with canvass to distinguish it shown more particularly at fig. 2, where a partition will under water. The arms are made of strong water-proof be observed in the cylinder dividing the fresh air com- leather ; and the place for sight is about eight inches diapartment from the other, the one terminating in the ivory meter, glazed over wuth a plate of glass an inch thick. mouth-piece v, the other just entering the machine at t. The diver is sunk in this machine by means of weights, W is a small reservoir at the lower part of the pipes, for fastened equatorially round the waist of it; and he is suscondensing any air, or receiving what may penetrate pended by a rope, by means of which his situation is through the pipes. To resist the external pressure of the changed at pleasure. A flexible air-tube communicates water on the limbs, the leather drawers have a framing of with an air-vessel in the boat above. Through this tube^ iron within them, represented at fig. 3; this consists of a the diver gives his instructions and obtains his supply of semicircular piece ll, also seen at U, fig. 1, extending be- fresh air. This machine was used with very good effect tween the legs of the diver, and fastened to the lower ex- in a depth of water of near seven fathoms, and enabled the tremity of the cylinder at the front and back; also two diver to direct the operations of several curious machines, irons n?i outside the thighs, which are jointed to the cy- such as saws for clearing away the ship’s decks, and maklinder, and extend down to f, where they are attached to ing sufficient openings to give him access to the treasure a hoop surrounding the thigh; there is another hoop for below, as well as tongs, &c. for taking up the heavy goods each thigh farther up at q ; these hoops are farther con- by tackle in the vessel above. In regard to the second kind of diving machines, thatBorelli’s nected by irons, which at the upper end are fitted to slide diving upon the semicircular hoop, as at t; and by this means, proposed by Borelli is only curious as showing the low bladder though the frame-work is very strong, the diver is at li- state of physical knowledge in his time. He proposed to berty to walk, ww are weights hooked on the cylinder, have a copper vessel, or vesica as he terms it, about two to keep the diver down. P is a small pump for discharg- feet diameter, to contain the diver’s head, and to be ing any leakage water which may penetrate through the fixed to a habit of goat skin for the body. Within the vessel there were pipes contrived to produce a circulation of joints. When the different parts of the machine have been fitted air, by which Borelli supposed that the objections to other to the body of the diver, and the proper weights are at- diving machines from the want of air would be obviated; tached, he enters the water till it rises as high as his eyes, “ the moisture,” as he says, “ by which it is clogged in while the end of the pipe is held by an assistant above the respiration, and by which it is rendered unfit for the same surface ; and if he finds that he can breathe freely, and no use again, being taken from it by its circulation through water is forced into the pipe, he may venture to go deeper; the pipes, to the sides of which it would adhere, and leave and, stopping for some time, to ascertain whether respi- the air as free as before.” It also contained an air-pump, ration he not inconvenient from the want of fresh air, he by means of which the diver could raise or lower the apmay advance to still greater depths, while he makes the paratus, by condensing or rarefying the air, on the prinproper signals by means of the rope which is secured to ciple of the air-bladder of fishes. Mr Martin, in his Philosophia Britannica, mentions an Leather one of his arms, or by speaking through the pipe. By this . • i, i -♦..^r.^divintr kind of exercise for some time, the diver acquires confi- apparatus contrived by an Englishman, consisting of strongc )es ' dence and ease for conducting the necessary operations. leather, so prepared that no air could pass through. It fitWhen he is desirous of ascending he has only to unhook ted to his arms and legs, and had a glass window placed in the weights attached to the apparatus, or to fix them to a the fore part of it. When dressed in this apparatus, which rope let down for the purpose, that they may not be lost, was large enough to contain half a hogshead of air, he and as he is then lighter than the same bulk of water, he could walk on the ground at the bottom of the sea, and enter the cabin of a sunk ship to take out the goods. The rises to the surface. By following these directions, any one may be able to use inventor is said to have himself used this machine very the apparatus, and dive to moderate depths, in a very short extensively in recovering wrecks, and with such success time. In one of the trials upon the Oder, near Breslau, as to have acquired considerable property by it. We are the diver was a huntsman taught by the author; the water not informed of the depths to which he descended. Mr Klingert, the inventor of the water armour, also con- Klingert’s was of considerable depth, and the current strong, and there dlvin were a great number of spectators present. He sawed trived a diving chest, of the form of a hollow cylinder, toc 8 be used along with it. This contained fifty-eight cubic ^‘ through the trunk of a tree which was lying at the bottom ; he showed also that he could have fastened sunk bodies to feet of air, which, he estimated, would last two hours. It a rope in order to be drawn up, and that in case any impe- was suspended from a boat, but could be raised and dediment should prevent the use of the saw, the trunks of pressed independently of this by a pump compressing or trees might be hewed to pieces by an axe. On the whole, dilating the included air. Thus the ballast is so adapted this apparatus, or one similar, might certainly be of great to the size of the machine, as to make it sink so far use in many cases, particularly in hydraulic works, where that only a cubic foot of it remains above water. In the diving-bell and the machinery connected with it might this state an additional weight of a hundred pounds will not be attainable. The water-proof cloth of Mackintosh depress it below the surface, or make it sink to the botmight also be substituted with good effect for the leather. tom. The effect of adding extra weights is produced by Apparatus Another mode of supplying air to the diving apparatus diminishing the volume of contained air, by condensing it by Tonkin, lias been adopted in some cases. This consists in forcing into a smaller space. To accomplish this, a large cylinder the fresh air into the machine by a bellows or pump, till is applied in the bottom of the vessel, and provided with its elastic force is equal to the pressure of the water. The a piston, which, by a rack and pinion, can be moved from foul air may in this case be suffered to escape into the one end of the cylinder to the other, when the diver turns water through a valve, or may be conducted to the surface a handle, coming through the side of the machine, and by a pipe. Of this kind is the apparatus contrived by communicating motion by a worm and wheel to the piMr Tonkin, and employed for some time in raising parts of nion of the rack before mentioned. The lower end of the the wreck of the Abergavenny East India ship, which was cylinder is open to the water, and the upper end opens

59 D I V I N G-B ELL. within the machine; therefore, when the diver turns the snatching or twitching the line a certain number of times, Diving, handle in the direction to raise up the piston in its cylin- as has before been agreed upon. This is immediately der, it necessarily diminishes the bulk of the included air, felt by the person above, who gives orders accordingly. and the machine will sink; but on depressing the piston The size of the vessel is such that he can continue at the in the cylinder, it will ascend again. The inventor pro- bottom about half an hour, without, any pipes or other posed to furnish the machine with two small oars to move supply, and will be enabled to do many things very readily, it in the water, and an anchor or grapnel to make it fast such as recovering moorings, chains lost in rivers or harwhilst the diver walks about on the bottom, within the bours, hooking ropes for weighing up lost anchors, or any limits of the length of the pipe, to examine sunk bo- other purpose where there is free access to the object dies, and discover the best mode of raising them. To pre- sought; though in entering and searching the wrecks of vent danger from any accident happening to the machine, ships, it would be less convenient than some others which the diver is to be provided with the means of quickly we shall describe. Besides the above, several other projects of a similar Diving madetaching the pipes from the machine, and retaining a to sufficiency of air in the armour to carry him to the sur- kind have been proposed, not only with means within it-chine move un face when he throws off the weight suspended from his self of raising and lowering the vessel, but with contri- er walervances in the shape of screw arms for moving it when^ ’ girdle. Another diving machine or chest was invented by Mr under water in any direction; but none with much sucRowe in 1753, and is represented in Plate CCV. fig. cess. This is said to have been tried in the reign of King 4. It consists of a trunk or hollow copper vessel AB, James I. by a famous English projector, Cornelius Drebell, soldered or riveted together with strength proportioned who, we are told by Mr Boyle, made a submarine vessel, to the depth of water where it is to be fixed. It contains which would carry twelve rowers besides the passengers; the diver’s body, and also a sufficiency of air for the time and that he had also discovered a liquid which had the he intends to dive. He enters with his feet first at the singular property of restoring the air when it became imopen end A, which is then closed by a lid or cover screw- pure by breathing. This last circumstance, with the numed on by a number of screw bolts passing through the ber of persons inclosed in the machine, and the imperfect flanches. The vessel is bent at F, for the bearing of the state of mechanics at the period alluded to, render the diver’s knees, and has a sufficiency of leaden ballast at B whole story extremely improbable, though it shows clearly to sink it in the right position. There are two hoops sur- that the idea had been entertained, and perhaps some rounding it, which, at the same time that they strengthen attempt made. The celebrated Bishop Wilkins, in his it, afford points of suspension by a bar, which is attached Mathematical Magic, takes up the scheme of Drebell, and, to them, and is pierced with several holes to admit a span with all the sanguine facilities of a projector, describes upon the rope, which is so adjusted as to suspend the the benefits of these submarine enterprises. The submawhole, with the diver in it, nearly in the position of the rine vessel of Mr Bushnell of Connecticut, in America, figure, when he will be in a convenient posture for working constructed in 1787, though very complex, appears to with his arms, which come through openings C in the ves- have been a curious and ingenious machine, and to have sel, to which sleeves E, of very strong leather, are attached promised success if persevered in, according to the acby a hoop or ring, screwed to the vessel with the leather counts published of it. It was intended to act chiefly as between them. The sleeves are lined with cloth, and the an engine of war, by advancing under water towards an edges round the holes are defended by soft quilting, from enemy’s ship, and fixing in the bottom of it a magazine of hurting the diver’s arms by the pressure, as well as to pre- powder, which, by peculiar contrivances, was intended to vent the sleeves and his arms being thrust inwards. D is take fire after the machine had got to a sufficient distance an aperture covered by a strong lens, for the diver to see to be out of danger. But if this be the only use of such through. At H and G are two other openings in the up- a machine, its failure need not be regretted. Let us now per part of the vessel, covered by screw caps, which are turn, then, to the most important of all diving machines removed when fresh air is to be introduced into the ma- yet contrived, namely, chine by the nose pipe of a pair of bellows being applied to force fresh air into one, and drive out the foul air at the The Diving-Bell. other. The lower opening is also of use to pump out any water which may leak through at the joints, though this The principle of the diving-bell is extremely simple. General is as much as possible prevented by fitting leather into the Let any one insert a wine glass in a tumbler of water; on principles, joints of the cover and the caps before they are screwed sinking it to the bottom, the inside of the glass will be tight. The mass of lead F is fastened to the lower side of observed to remain nearly full of air, so that any small the vessel in a line between the diver’s arms, by means of object within the glass will remain perfectly dry, the inhoops. On this the whole rests if it comes to the ground, cluded air being confined on all sides, and by its impeneand remains in a proper position for the diver to work, and trability excluding the water from its place. If this exfasten ropes to any thing which is to be drawn up, as shown periment be made with a pretty large bell-glass, inverted over a taper floating on the surface of the water in a still in fig. 5. If the water be very deep, the diver must wear a kind of larger vessel, the taper will be observed to descend with saddle on his back, which, having a ridge touching the the glass to the bottom; and though surrounded on all top part of the vessel withinside, enables him to keep his sides with water, it will be found to remain perfectly dry, arms properly out of the apertures, otherwise he would and to continue burning for some time. Conceive then not have strength to resist the pressure acting upon the a vessel of wood or metal, in the shape of a wine-glass or surface of the arms and sleeves, which forces them into it truncated cone, but so large as, when inverted, to admit with a weight proportional to the quantity of surface ex- several persons within it, sitting, for instance, on a board posed, and to the depth of water. The diver gives his in- along one of the sides. Let the whole then be suspended struction to those above by a small line, which is laid by a rope or chain over the side of a vessel, with a jib pulthrough a staple at the side of the machine, and has a ley and crane, to lower or raise the machine at pleasure. handle always hanging in reach of the diver’s hand. The Then, on the machine being lowered and loaded with sufupper part of this line is held by a person in the boat or ficient weight to sink it, the persons may all descend to a ship above, to whom any signal is given, by the diver great depth in the sea, without being wetted in the small-

D I V I N G-B E L L. 60 of a divine-machine, that which approaches nearest to the DivingDiving- est degree; and there is nothing to prevent them remain- diving-bell is in a book on fortification by Lorini; who de- Bell, Bell. ing any time in this situation, and moving about and doing scribes a square box bound round with iron, which is furv operations at great depths. . , nished with windows, and has a stool affixed to it for the The above, then, was the original construction ot the diver. This ingenious contrivance appears, however, to History. divino--bell; and the great advantage of it, and what dis- be older than that Italian ; at least he does not pretend to tinguishes it above every other similar invention, and reninventor of it. ... ders it vastly superior, is, that being perfectly open below, be “the In the year 1617, Francis Kessler gave a description the divers can get out and in with the utmost facility. of his water-armour, intended also for diving, but which This invention, according to Professor Beckmann, is ge- cannot really be used for that purpose. In the year 1671, nerally assigned to the sixteenth century; and “ I am ot Witsen taught, in a better manner than any of his predeopinion,” says he, “ that it was little known before that cessors, the construction and use of the diving-bell; but period. We read, however, that in the time of Aristotle he is much mistaken when he says that it was invented at divers used a kind of kettle, to enable them to continue Amsterdam. In 1679 appeared, for the first time, Borelli’s longer under the water ; but the manner in which it was well-known work De Motu Animalium ; in which he not employed is not clearly described. The oldest information only described the diving-bell, but also proposed another, which we have of the use of the diving-bell in Europe is the impracticability of which was shown by James Berthat of John Taisnier, who was born in Hainault in 1509, noulli. When Sturm published his Collegium curiosum in and had a place at court under Charles V., whom he at- 1678, he proposed some hints for the improvement of this tended on his voyage to Africa. He relates in what man- machine, on which remarks were made in the Journal des ner he saw, at Toledo, in the presence of the emperor and Sgavans.” The diving-bell, as hitherto used in the above several thousand spectators, two Greeks let themselves simple form, is liable to two great defects, viz. down under water, in a large inverted kettle, with a burn1. The elasticity of the included air prevents it from ing light, and rise up again without being wet. It appears resisting entirely the entrance of the water into the lower that this art was then new to the emperor and the Spa- part of the bell. The water, by the universal law of fluids, niards, and that the Greeks were caused to make the ex- presses the bell on all sides, in proportion to the depth of periment in order to prove the possibility ot it. “ When the English in 1588 dispersed the Spanish fleet the immersion. This pressure therefore it exerts upwards called the Invincible Armada, part of the ships went to on the bottom of the bell, and against the included air; the air being extremely compressible, yields to the the bottom, near the Isle of Mull, on the western coast of but Scotland; and some of these, according to the account of pressure, and is contracted into a smaller volume, allowing the Spanish prisoners, contained great riches. This in- the water to enter and occupy the lower portion ot the formation excited, from time to time, the avarice of spe- bell. Such is the effect of this pressure, that at the depth culators, and gave rise to several attempts to procure part of thirty-three feet the air becomes compressed into half of the lost treasure. In the year 1665, a person was so its volume, and the bell fills half full of water; and the fortunate as to bring up some cannon, which, however, same proportion at every other depth. But, 2. The air within the bell, by continued respiration, bewere not sufficient to defray the expenses. Of these attempts, and the kind of diving-bell used in them, the lead- comes speedily unfit to support life; and the whole appaer will find an account in a work printed at Kotterdam in ratus therefore must be raised from time to time, to re1669, and entitled G. Sinclari Ars nova et magna gravi- ceive a fresh supply. Suppose that only two persons detatis et levitatis. In the year 1680, William Phipps, a na- scend in the bell at a time, we have seen that a supply of tive of America, formed a project for searching and un- two hundred cubic inches of air per minute is absolutely loading a rich Spanish ship sunk on the coast of Hispa- necessary for each person to keep in life and sensibility. niola ; and represented his plan in such a plausible man- But in order to breathe freely, at least double that quanner, that King Charles II. gave him a ship, and furnished tity would be required; say for two persons half a cubic him with every thing necessary for the undertaking. He foot per minute. If then we have a bell six feet long, set sail in the year 1603 ; but being unsuccessful, return- and four feet average diameter, this would contain about ed again in great poverty, though with a firm conviction seventy cubic feet, and would last upwards of two hours. of the possibility of his scheme. By a subscription, pro- So that for at least one hour or more respiration might be moted chiefly by the Duke of Albemarle, the son of the carried on with all manner of freedom. At great depths, such as twenty, thirty, forty, and sixty Effects of celebrated Monk, Phipps was enabled, in 1687, to try his fortune once more, having previously engaged to divide feet, where the usual pressure on the body from the at-pressure, the profit according to the twenty shares of which the mosphere above is doubled and tripled, amounting in the subscription consisted. At first all his labour proved fruit- latter case to nearly forty pounds in every square inch, less ; but at last, when his patience was almost entirely one would imagine that respiration, and indeed the whole exhausted, he was so lucky as to bring up, from the depth system of the body, would be deranged under so thick and of six or seven fathoms, so much treasure, that he return- confined an atmosphere. But experience proves that no ed to England with the value of L.200,000. Of this sum great inconvenience arises from this circumstance; and he himself got about sixteen, others say twenty thousand, the reason is, that the air pressing into every cavity withand the duke ninety thousand pounds. After he came in the body, as well as externally, the pressure is exactly back, some persons endeavoured to persuade the king to balanced; so that the effect of the actual increase is renPain in ^ seize both the ship and the cargo, under a pretence that dered nearly insensible. The only particular sensation feltears in descending in the bell is some pain in the ears, parPhipps, when he solicited for his majesty’s permission, had not given accurate information respecting the business. ticularly at first. This increases a little as we descend, But the king answered, with much greatness of mind, that but, after resting at the bottom, goes entirely off. It arises he knew Phipps to be an honest man, and that he and his from the effect of the condensed air acting externally on friends should share the whole among them, had he re- the tympanum of the ear, before the air within the tympanic turned with double the value. His majesty even confer- cavity has acquired the same density to counterbalance red upon him the honour of knighthood, to show how it. The tympanum on the outside communicates directly \ much he was satisfied with his conduct. We know not the with the atmosphere, the pressure of which therefore acts construction of Phipps’s apparatus; but of the old figures instantaneously. But on the inside the tympanum bounds

D 1 V I N G-B ELL.

61

Diving- the tympanic cavity; and this has no communication with clear glass, as a window, to let in the light from above ; Bell, the external air, excepting by the Eustachian tube, which and likewise a cock to let out the hot air that had been Bell, leads from the cavity into the mouth. Through this tube, breathed ; and below, about a yard under the bell, I placed therefore, the condensed air must pass from the mouth, to a stage, which hung by three ropes, each of which was supply what is necessary within the cavity for restoring the charged with about one hundredweight to keep it steady, same equilibrium within and without. But the Eustachian This machine I suspended from the mast of a ship by a tube is a long and narrow passage; at its commencement sprit, which rwas sufficiently secured by stays to the mast in the ear it has a bony structure, but towards its termi- head, and w as directed by braces to carry it oyeiboait nation in the mouth, behind the nostrils, it becomes soft clear of the ship’s side, and to bring it again within board, and fleshy, so as readily to close the passage, particularly as occasion required. . with any pressure acting externally. It admits therefore “ lo supply air to this bell when under water, I caused an easy passage from the ear to the mouth ; but when any a couple of barrels, of about thirty-six gallons each, to be pressure arises in the opposite direction, it acts in some cased with lead, so as to sink empty; each of them havdegree like a valve, shutting the passage, until the increas- ing a bung-hole in its lowest parts to let in the water as ing pressure again forces it open. Some time then elapses the air in them condensed on their descent, and to let it before all this can be accomplished ; and during this time out again when they were drawn up full from below. And the external air pressing with full force on the tympanum, to a hole in the uppermost part of these barrels I fixed a produces the pain which is felt. When the Eustachian leathern trunk or hose well liquored with bees-wax and tube opens, it is generally all of a sudden, and with a oil, and long enough to fall below the bung-hole, being slight explosion or pop, which is followed by instant relief kept down by a weight appended ; so that the air in the from the pain. This relief may often be produced by fill- upper part of the barrels could not escape, unless the lower ing the mouth, or gulping the air and pressing it into the ends of these hose were first lifted up. “ The air-barrels being thus prepared, I fitted them tube. Different accounts have been given of this effect on the with tackle proper to make them rise and fall alternately, ears in the diving-bell; but the above seems the most ac- after the manner of two buckets in a well; which was curate, and what really takes place. The effect, indeed, done with so much ease, that two men, with less than half may be shown experimentally by shutting the mouth and their strength, could perform all the laboui required, and nostrils, and exhausting the air from them by the action of in their descent they were directed by lines fastened to the lungs. The air in the tympanic cavity immediately the under edge of the bell, which passed through rings on rushing through the Eustachian tube into the mouth, the both sides of the leathern hose in each barrel; so that, external air acts on the tympanum, and produces a slight sliding down by these lines, they came readily to the hand sensation of deafness, such as is felt in the bell. But, in- of a man who stood on the stage on purpose to leceive stead of exhausting the air, attempt to compress it, and them, and to take up the ends of the hose into the bell, force it through the tube into the internal ear; at first no Through these hose, as soon as their ends came above the effect is produced: but after exerting a considerable pres- surface of the water in the barrels, all the air that was insure, a slight pop is felt, and a little pain in the ear, which eluded in the upper parts of them was blown with great is just the sudden opening of the tube. force into the bell, whilst the water entered at the bungThe great inconveniences of the diving-bell already holes below, and filled them ; and as soon as the air of one mentioned were completely removed by the labours of barrel had been thus received, upon a signal given, that the celebrated and ingenious philosopher Dr Halley, who was drawn up, and at the same time the other descended, about the year 1715 introduced the grand improvement of and, by an alternate succession, furnished air so quick, and supplying it with fresh air for any length of time without in so great plenty, that I myself have been one of five who raising the bell out of the water. This he effected by have been together at the bottom in nine or ten fathom letting down from the vessel from which the bell was sus- water, for above an hour and a half at a time, without any pended, barrels of fresh air, which, by means of pipes, dis- sort of ill consequence ; and I might have continued there charged their contents into the bell; while the foul air as long as I pleased, for any thing that appeared to the escaped by a small cock in the top of the bell. In this contrary. Besides, the whole cavity of the bell was kept manner the air within the bell was kept perfectly fresh, entirely free from water, so that I sat on a bench which and for any length of time. Another remarkable advan- was diametrically placed near the bottom, wholly dressed, tage arose from this plan. The force of the air in the with all my clothes on. I only observed that it was nebarrels was made to discharge the whole of the water out cessary to be let down gradually at first, as about twelve of the bell, which the elasticity of the included air had feet at a time; and then to stop and drive out the air that hitherto allowed to enter and partially to fill the cavity, entered, by receiving three or four barrels of fresh air beThis wras easily done by stopping the cock at the top, and fore I descended further. But being arrived at the depth letting down the barrels below the level of the bell, by designed, I then let out as much of the hot air that had which means the air included in them received a sufficient been breathed as each barrel would replenish with cool, preponderating pressure to enter the bell and drive out by means of the cock at the top of the bell; through the water. In this manner the whole cavity of the bell whose aperture, though very small, the air would rush became available for working ; and, what was of still more with so much violence as to make the surface of the sea importance, the diver could with ease descend and walk boil, and to cover it with a white foam, notwithstanding on the bottom of the sea, the feet being only slightly im- the weight ot the water over us. mersed. The following is the interesting account which “ Thus I found that I could do any thing that required Dr Halley gives of his arrangements: to be done just under us ; and that, by taking ofl the “ The bell I made use of was of wood, containing about stage, I could, for a space as wide as the circuit of the sixty cubic feet in its concavity, and was of the form of a bell, lay the bottom ot the sea so far dry as not to be truncated cone, whose diameter at the top was three feet, over shoes thereon. And, by the glass window, so much and at the bottom five. This I coated with lead so heavy light was transmitted, that when the sea was clear, and that it would sink empty ; and I distributed the weight so especially when the sun shone, I could see perfectly well about its bottom, that it would go down in a perpendicular to write or read, much more to fasten or lay hold on any direction, and no other. In the top I fixed a strong but thing under us that was to be taken up. And, by the re-

D I V I N G-B ELL. a considerable addition of weight; the leaden DivingDiving- turn of the air-barrels, I often sent up orders written with without Bell. an iron pen, on small plates of lead, directing how to move caps were therefore made to weigh about half a hundred—us from place to place as occasion required. At other weight, to which was added a girdle for the waist, formed times, when the water was troubled and thick, it would be of large weights of lead nearly of as great weight in the as dark as night below ; but in such cases I have been whole ; also two clogs of lead for the feet, of about twelve able to keep a candle burning in the bell as long as I pounds each. With this accession of weight Dr Halley pleased, notwithstanding the great expense of air neces- found a man could stand well in an ordinary stream, and sary to maintain flame. This I take to be an invention even go against it. It is necessary for the diver to be applicable to various uses, such as fishing for pearls, div- provided against the cold of the water, which, though it ing for coral or sponges, and the like, in far greater depths could not be removed so that a man could endure it long,r than has hitherto been thought possible. Also for the fit- yet it was much eased by wearing a waistcoat and draw ting and placing of the foundations of moles, bridges, &c. ers made close to the body, of that thick woollen stuff of in rocky bottoms, and for the cleaning and scrubbing of which blankets are made. This becoming full of water, ships’ bottoms when foul, in calm weather, at sea. I shall would be a little warmed by the heat of the body, and only intimate, that by an additional contrivance, I have keep oft’ the chill of new cold water coming on. When the water is not turbid, things are seen suffifound it not impracticable for a diver to go out of an engine to a good distance from it, the air being conveyed to ciently distinct at the bottom of the sea; but a small dehim with a continued stream, by small flexible pipes ; gree of thickness makes perfect night in a moderate depth which pipes may serve as a clue to direct him back again of water. To obtain an open view from the leaden caps, which, from their use, the doctor called caps of maintewhen he would return to the bell.” Plate CCV. fig. 5, represents the construction and opera- nance, he at first used a plain glass before the sight, but soon found that the vapour of the breath made such a tions of Dr Halley’s bell as thus described. In 1721, shortly after the above experiments were dew on the surface of the glass that it lost its transpamade, Dr Halley contrived additional apparatus, to enable rency. To remedy this, he found it necessary to prolong the diver to go out from the bell to a considerable dis- that side of the cap which was before the eyes, and theretance, and stay a sufficient time in the sea, and walk by enlarge the prospect of what was beneath. Another plan of the diving-bell was proposed by Mr about on the bottom, with full freedom to act as occasion required. Considering that the pressure being greater on Martin Triewald, F-11. S. and military architect to the the surface of the water in the bell than on any other king of Sweden, which, for a single person, is in some resurface which was higher than that in the bell, the air spects thought to be more eligible than Dr Halley’s, and is would pass by a pipe from the bell into any cavity for air; constructed as follows. AB, fig. 6, is the bell, which is sunk where the surface of the water was higher, he concluded by lead weights DD hung to its bottom. This bell is of that a man, by putting on his head a bell or cap of lead, copper, and tinned all over in the inside, which is illumimade sufficiently heavy to sink empty, and in form re- nated by three strong convex lenses P, with copper lids sembling the bell itself, might keep his head dry, and to defend them. The iron ring or plate below the bell might receive a constant stream of air from the great bell, serves the diver to stand on when he is at work, and is so long as the surface of the water in the cap was above suspended at such a distance from the bottom of the bell the level of that in the bell, by means of a flexible pipe by the chains, that when the diver stands upright, his head is just above the water in the bell, where the air which he would carry coiled on his arm. In pursuance of this idea he procured pipes to be made, is much better than higher up, because it is colder, and which answered all that was expected from them. They consequently more fit for respiration. But as the diver were secured against the pressure of the water by a spi- must always be within the bell, and his head of course ral brass wire, which kept them open from end to end, in the upper part, the inventor has contrived, that even the diameter of the cavity being about the sixth part of there, when he has breathed the hot air as well as he an inch. These wires being coated with thin glove lea- can, he may, by means of a spiral copper tube 6c, plather, and neatly sewed, were dipped into a mixture of ced close to the inside of the bell, draw the cooler and hot oil and bees-wax, which, filling up the pores of the fresher air from the lowermost parts ; for which purpose leather, made it impenetrable to water; several thick- a flexible leather tube, about two feet long, is fixed to nesses of sheep’s entrails were then drawn over them, the upper end of the copper tube; and to the other end which, when dry, were covered with paint, and then the of this tube is fixed an ivory mouth-piece, by which the whole defended with another coat of leather to keep them diver draws in the air, at the same time expiring by the from fretting. Several of the pipes were as much as forty nostrils. I his bell may be supplied with fresh air by barfeet long, the size of a half inch rope. One end of a pipe rels, the same as Dr Halley’s. being fixed in the bell at some height above the water, I he next improvements introduced in the construe-Spalding’s the other end was fastened to a cock which opened into tion of the diving-bell were those by Mr Spalding of trials in Dr the cap. The use of the cock was to stop the return of Edinburgh, and for which the Society of Arts voted him Halley’s the air whenever there was occasion to stoop down or go a reward. Ihese are certainly deserving of attention, below the surface of the air in the bell, which occurred as although they do not appear to have afterwards been often as there was occasion to go out or return into the ma- adopted in practice. Mr Spalding had, in the two prechine. The diver, therefore, when he has descended to ceding years, acquired considerable experience in the the bottom in the great bell, puts on his cap with the management of a bell on Dr Halley’s plan, which he had pipe hanging on his arm like the coil of a rope. As soon constructed in the hopes of recovering part of a conas he leaves the bell, he opens the cock in the pipe, and siderable property which had been lost in a ship wrecked walks on the bottom of the sea, giving out the coils of his on the Scares, or hern Islands, in 1774, in the night, when pipe as it is required ; and this serves as a clue to direct all the crew perished. Some of the light goods were him back again to the great bell, from whence he derives thrown on shore, and it was proposed to recover the rest his supply of air by means of the pipe. by diving, the remainder of the owners giving up the maThe weight of a man being very little more than that of nagement of the whole to Mr Spalding. His first experihis bulk in water, he could not act with any strength, nor ments were made in depths of five, six, and eight fathoms, stand with any firmness, especially' if there is any current, in Leith Roads; and having in these made his apparatus

D I V I N G-B E L L. 68 Diving- tolerably perfect, he sailed for Dunbar, thirty miles dis- two or three miles nearer the land, I could execute this Diving, Itelb tance, in an open longboat, sloop-rigged, and of about six design with less difficulty, especially as the weather con- ®elb ^ > "'w' or eight tons burthen. By a mistaken account he had tinned still favourable. Having procured all the intellibeen informed the bottom of the Fox ship of war lay there ; gence possible, we went to the place, where I went down but upon his arrival, the oldest seaman in the place could four different times, but could find no marks of any wreck, give him no intelligence; and as that vessel had perish- notwithstanding my walking about in five and six fathoms ed in the night with all on board, somewhere in Dunbar water, as far as it was thought safe to allow the rope to Bay, and by storms, so long before as thirty years, it was the bell, continuing generally twenty minutes each time thought to be sanded up. In order to gratify the curio- at the bottom. On this occasion I was obliged to carry a sity of some friends there, he still determined to descend cutting hook and knife, and clear away the sea weeds, where it might be thought probable her bottom lay; hut which at this place are very thick and strong; without in seven and eight fathoms water he found nothing but this method I could not move about. At the fifth going a hard sandy bottom, from which he was led to conjec- down, each trial being in a different place, I was agreeture that the proprietors of the valuable effects which ably surprised to find a large grove of tall weeds, all of were on board that vessel might have found their account them from six to eight feet high, with large tufted tops, in sweeping for her. Being informed that a vessel, which mostly in regular ranges, as far as the eye could reach, a was thrown up by accident in the river Tay, near Dun- variety of small lobsters and other shell-fish swimming dee, with a large quantity of iron, lay within two fathoms about in the intervals.” He then discovered the place of the surface at low water, he determined to make trial where one of the cannons lay ; but was too much exthere, and accordingly sailed across the frith to that place, hausted, by having been down at intervals for near three about forty-five miles distant from Dunbar. Here he went hours, to attempt bringing it up. In these descents Mr Spalding found out two very sedown three different times, changing the ground at each going down, and at last fell in with a stump of the wreck, rious dangers attendant on the use of the bell on Dr Halsunk five fathoms deep at low water to a level with the ley’s plan. These are, 1. By Dr Halley’s construction, the soft bed of the river, which is composed of a light sand sinking or rising of the bell depends entirely upon the peointermixed with shells. The principal parts of this wreck ple who are at the surface of the w ater; and as the bell, were supposed to have been carried away by an immense even when in the water, has a very considerable weight, body of ice the year before. He found that the muddi- the raising of it not only requires a great deal of labour, but ness of the river occasions a darkness at only two fathoms there is a possibility of the rope breaking by which it is from the surface that cannot be described ; and from the raised, and thus every person in the bell would inevitably smallness of his machine, which contained only forty- perish. 2. As there are, in many places of the sea, rocks eight English gallons, it was impossible to have a candle which lie at a considerable depth, the figure of which burning in it, which would consume the air too quickty cannot possibly be perceived from above, there is danger for any man to be able to work, and at the same time pay that some of their ragged prominences may catch hold attention to receiving the necessary supplies of air. of one of the edges of the bell in its descent, and thus These trials were only preparatory to his views at the overset it before any signal can be given to those above, Scares, hoping to acquire experience which would enable which would infallibly be attended with the destruction him to surmount the dangerous difficulty of the unequal of the people in the bell, especially as it must always be rocky bottom which he expected to meet with ; but in the unknowm, before trial, what kind of a bottom the sea has preceding trials, and different alterations of the machinery, in any place. To obviate these defects, Mr Spalding introduced a Spalding’s so much time had been lost, that the weather became improvestormy, and be was obliged to wait at Bamborough Castle balance-weight suspended below the bell, and which,nients some time till the weather became more favourable. He when it reached any rocky or uneven ground, settled then sailed to the Scares with his brother, three sailors, down first, and then the bell being made too light to sink and two pilots. It was four in the afternoon, about high without the weight, remained suspended and free from water, when he went down at a small distance from the danger; and for the purpose of raising or levelling the place where he judged the wreck to lie. The depth was bell without aid from above, be divided with an air-tight about ten fathoms. He fortunately alighted on a flat part partition the upper portion of the bell from the lower. of the rock, within a small space of a dreadful chasm, and The former was capable of being filled either with water or had just gone two steps with his machine, when the ter- air at pleasure, and of thus increasing or diminishing the ror of the two pilots was so great, that, in spite of his buoyant effect at pleasure, on the same principle as the brother, they brought him up very precipitately, before he air-bladder in fishes. Plate CCV. fig. 7, represents these arrangements, which had in any degree examined around him. On coming into the boat, they remonstrated on the danger of the will be understood from the following description : ABCD machine being overturned either on the wreck or the represents a section of the bell, which is made of wood; rocks, and also on the impossibility of raising any of the ee are iron hooks, by means of which it is suspended by weighty goods with so small a purchase in an open boat, ropes QBFe, and QAERe, and QS, as expressed in the and in a place where, at this season, no large vessel figure ; cc are iron hooks, to which are appended lead would venture to lie, as the nights were then so long, weights, that keep the mouth of the bell always parallel and only two passages for a small vessel to run through, to the surface of the water, whether the machine, taken in case of a gale of easterly or southerly wind ; one of altogether, is lighter or heavier than an equal bulk of wathe passages being extremely narrow, and both of them ter. By these weights alone, however, the bell would not sink; another is therefore added, represented at W, and dangerous. “ Convinced from this,” says Mr Spalding in his account, which can be raised or lowered at pleasure by means of a “ that with an open boat nothing could be accomplished, rope passing over the pulley, and fastened to one of the and that, except in June and July, no man would risk sides of the bell at M. As the bell descends, this weight, himself with me in a sloop, to continue a few days and called by Mr Spalding the balance-weight, hangs down a nights at anchor there, I was obliged to abandon my pro- considerable way below the mouth of the bell. In case ject; yet I determined to take a view of the guns of a the edge of the bell is caught by any obstacle, the Dutch ship of war lost in the year 1704; and as they lay balance-weight is immediately lowered down, so that it

64 D I V 1 N G-B E L L. Diving- may rest upon the bottom. By this means the bell is the bell, could be let off at pleasure, and filling the lower DivingBeil, lightened, so that all danger of oversetting is removed ; bell, would displace the water and increase the buoyancy. Bell. The last great improvement on the diving-bell, and what f01i being lighter without the balance-weight than an equal bulk of water, it is evident that the bell will rise as well stands next in importance to that of Halley, and has as the length of the rope affixed to the balance-weight brought the machine to that perfect state in which itmcnt in jn_ will allow it. This weight, therefore, will serve as a kind is now so successfully employed, was introduced by the troduction of anchor, to keep the bell at any particular depth which celebrated engineer Mr Smeaton. This consisted in sub-of an airthe divers may think necessary ; or, by pulling it quite up, stituting for the air-barrels of Halley a forcing air-pump, pump by by which a continued stream of air was poured intokmeaton. the descent may be continued to the very bottom. Bv another very ingenious contrivance, Mr Spalding the bell without any fa»ther trouble or apparatus than a rendered it possible for the divers to raise the bell, with man or two to work the pump. It was about the year Trial at all the weights appended to it, even to the surface, or to 1779, in the repairs of the foundations of Hexham Bridge, Hexham stop at any particular depth, as they might think proper ; that Mr Smeaton first tried the use of the diving-bell; Bridge. and thus they could still be safe, even though the rope de- and this was the first attempt indeed to introduce it into signed for pulling up the bell was broken. For this pur- the operations of engineering, where it has since renderpose the bell is divided into two cavities, both of which ed such essential service. The piers of the bridge having are made as tight as possible. Just above the second bot- been undermined by the violence of the current sweeping tom EF, are small slits in the sides of the bell, through away the gravel from under the floor timbers of the caiswhich the water entering as the bell descends, displaces sons by which they were founded, it occurred to Smeaton the air originally contained in this cavity, which flies out that by means of the diving-bell the cavities under the at the upper orifice of the cock GH. When this is done, foundations might be filled up with rough stones, ramthe divers turn the handle G, which stops the cock ; so med and wedged firmly together. His diving-bell conthat if any more air was to get into the cavity AEFD, sisted of a square box or chest of wood, three and a half it could no longer be discharged through the orifice H, feet long, two feet broad, and four feet high. The as before. When this cavity is full of water, the bell pump for supplying it with air was fixed on the top of the sinks; but when a considerable quantity of air is admit- bell, and worked by a handle at one side. The depth of ted, it rises. If, therefore, the divers have a mind to the river being small, it was not intended to go down so raise themselves, they turn the small cock g, by which a as to cover the whole of the bell, else the air-pump would communication is made between the upper and under have required to be removed; it was only necessary to cavities of the bell. The consequence of this is, that a sink the mouth of the bell down to the level of the caisson quantity of air immediately enters the upper cavity, forces bottom. With the assistance of this machine Mr Smeaton out a quantity of the water contained in it, and thus ren- succeeded in underpinning the foundations of some of the ders the bell lighter by the whole weight of the water piers. The calamitous accident which followed in 1782, which is displaced. Thus, if a certain quantity of air is when the whole structure was carried away by a sudden admitted into the upper cavity, the bell will descend very and violent flood, only proved the great insufficiency of slowly; if a greater quantity, it will neither ascend nor the natural bed of the river. descend, but remain stationary; and if a larger quantity In 1788 Mr Smeaton constructed a second diving-bell, Operations of air is still admitted, it will rise to the top. It is to be for the operations contemplated at Ramsgate harbour, on at liamsobserved, however, that the air which is thus let out into a much more substantial and improved plan; and this isgateharthe upper cavity must be immediately replaced from the the model on which all the succeeding diving machines Dour‘ air-barrel; and the air is to be let out very slowly, or the have been formed. Instead of the usual form of a bell or bell will rise to the top with so great velocity that the conical inverted tub of wood, sunk by weights attached to divers will be in danger of being shaken out of their seats. the outside, this consisted of a square chest of cast iron, But, by following these directions, every possible accident four and a half feet long, four and a half feet high, and may be prevented, and people may descend to great three feet wide, affording sufficient room for two men at depths without the least apprehension of danger. The a time to work under it. Instead of the weights applied bell also becomes so easily manageable in the water, that externally, the bell itself was cast of such thickness, partiit may be conducted from one place to another by a small cularly at the bottom, that its own weight, viz. fifty cwt., boat with the greatest ease, and with perfect safety to was more than sufficient to sink it when full of air. The those who are in it. pump also for supplying fresh air was placed in a boat by Instead of wooden seats used by Dr Halley, Mr Spald- itself, on which several hands were stationed, to keep the ing made use of ropes suspended by hooks bbb, and on pump continually in action. The air from the pump was these ropes the divers may sit without any inconvenience. conveyed to the machine by a flexible tube, which allowI and K are two windows made of thick strong glass, for ed the bell to be moved up or down, or in any direction, admitting light to the divers. N represents an air-cask independent ot the motion of the boat. From the above with its tackle, and NP the flexible pipe through which dimensions, the bell would always contain about fifty cubic the air is admitted to the bell. In the ascent and descent feet of air, which, from what we have already shown, would of this cask the pipe is kept down by a small weight ap- be sufficient to support life for two persons for about an pended, as in Dr Halley’s machine. F is a small cock by hour, independent of any supply from above; so that any which the hot air is discharged as often as it becomes idea of danger from this source is completely removed. troublesome. Fig. 5 is a representation of the whole diving It was in clearing the foundations for the advanced pier apparatus, which it is hoped will be readily understood at Ramsgate that it occurred to Mr Smeaton the operawithout any further explanation. Two air-barrels are tion might be facilitated by the diving-bell. A large quanrepresented in this figure ; but Mr Spalding was of opi- tity of stones had been thrown in, to secure the old pier nion that one air barrel capable of containing thirty gallons head ; and it seemed doubtful whether they could be got is sufficient for an ordinary machine. up in nine and ten feet water by the usual method of An improvement has been suggested on Mr Spalding’s tongs from the barges. The diving-bell was found to plan of raising or lowering the bell, by shutting up the answer completely the object intended. In the course upper bell entirely, and forming it into a magazine of con- of two months the foundations were cleared; and it was densed air, which being charged by two air-pumps within computed that of 160 tons of stone raised out of the foun-

D I V I N G-B ELL. 65 giving- nation, about iUU stones, many of them above a ton each, left, up or down, until they be exactly over the stone; DivingBell. were brought up by the diving-bell, without which a full then making fast a strong chain to the lewis of the stone, the other end of which is attached to a ring in the top season would have been lost. The pier, which was afterwards built on the foundation of the bell, they give the signal to heave, and the bell, thus cleared, was founded by caissons, but in the course with the stone under it, are both suspended by the tackle, of years was found to require renewal in some places, and and being moved right or left until it cover exactly over in others to be protected by an apron or outside wall of its place in the wall, it is then let down, and the chain regularly-built masonry; and here a new application of being detached, the operation proceeds with another stone the diving-bell arose in the building of this wall under in the same manner, until the wall be completed. No water. For this purpose the bell is suspended by power- cement is generally used to unite the stones; their own ful tackle to the extremity of a long wooden frame, which weight, and the accuracy of the joints, being sufficient to rests on the top of the pier, the one end projecting over hold them together Since the completion of Ramsgate harbour, the diving-Divingthe pier, and the other running back and turning on a centre pin, which is fixed in a heavy stone on the pier. bell has been applied with great success to various other bell em-n The frame thus sweeping with a long radius, and the operations of a similar kind in different parts of the king-Pj”^^ * weight of the whole being borne by a roller running along dom, and particularly at Dublin, Donaghadee, and other V near the edge of the pier on a cast-iron plate or rail in harbours in Ireland, and at Holyhead and Portpatrick on ^ the segment of a circle, the bell is capable of having a this side the channel. Plate CCIV. contains drawings of considerable motion right or left along the wall, and the the bell and machinery used for the harbour of Howth, block of the tackle being moveable along the frame, the near Dublin, under the direction of the late eminent Mr bell is by this means shifted out or in from the wall at Rennie, and with which the foundations of the pier wall pleasure; and by these two motions can be set in any re- were laid with success at very considerable depths below quired position wfithin the sweep of the apparatus. The water. Fig. 1 is a section showing the machine and the bell Account of directions for moving it are given by the divers, and comand municated to those who have charge of the apparatus viewed in the direction of the length of the wall which is bell a above, by merely striking with a hammer on the inside of to be erected, and fig. 2 is an elevation of the same as it^ ^"^ the bell. From the great facility with which water con- appears when viewed from the sea. A is the bell, which isnear ducts sound, the strokes of the hammer are heard at a made of cast iron. It is suspended by strong chains passed Dublin, great distance, and have a peculiar character, which is not through eyes rr, fig. 5, and through the ring m of a tackle easily mistaken for any other. To convey various directions, B. FF, figs. I and 2, are strong beams supported in a the divers have established a sortof language from the num- horizontal position by cross beams G, resting at one end ber of blows of the hammer. One blow, for instance, de- on the shore, and the other ends supported by a scaffoldnotes more air ; two, stand fast; three, heave up ; four, lower ing L of piles firmly braced. On the beams F two iron down ; and so on. The first operation in the building is to railways are laid for the wheels of two carriages to run clear and level the foundation. If this be loose materials, upon ; one of these carriages contains the tackle which they are removed by dredging, in the usual manner; but suspends the bell, and tbe other has a similar tackle to wherever rock occurs, it is done by the bell, with two men hoist the large stones, which are to be laid on the wall X. in it, being let down to the bottom, which, at Ramsgate, Each carriage runs with four wheels aa upon the railways is a hard chalk rock. When it stands thereon, it lays the F, and has a smaller or upper carriage running upon it in chalk dry to the level of the bottom edge of the bell; but a transverse direction ; and this upper carriage contains if the surface is uneven, the bell cannot descend so low the windlass purchase tackle, by which the bell or the but that it will leave six or eight inches of water on the stone is raised. Thus F' is the timber frame of the prinbottom. The surface of this water is the level they work cipal carriage, on the top of which are railways for the to, and by cutting away every eminence which rises above wheels dd of the upper carriage, of which D is the frame ; the water, they soon obtain a perfectly level surface. They and C is the roller or barrel to wind up the rope or fall of work with a small pick, made something like a narrow adze, the great purchase tackle B, which is suspended from for this purpose; and the work proceeds rapidly, for the the frame of the carriage, and bears the weight of the chalk is not very hard. When they have accumulated as bell. On the end of the barrel is a large cog-wheel M, much rubbish as becomes inconvenient, they give three which is turned round by a pinion fixed on the axis N knocks on the bell to order the people to draw it up, till of a second wheel O, and this is turned by a pinion, to they, standing on the bottom, find themselves knee deep; which the handles H are applied. By turning these, two then two knocks to stand fast. They now take in a shal- men can raise or lower the bell with ease. In order to low basket which has been previously let down from above, move the bell in either direction, the wheels aa of the and fill the rubbish into it, then snatch it to order it to be lower carriage E are provided with cogs at one edge, and drawn up, and strike four times on the bell, that they may pinions b work in the teeth of these ; both pinions b are be lowered down to proceed with their wmrk. Having in fixed on the same axis, which extends across the frame ; this manner hewed away the surface till the water, stand- and wheels c are also fixed on each extremity of the axis. ing equally all over it, shows it to be a perfect level plane, These wheels have holes or mortises in them to receive they give orders to be removed to a new situation, yet at handspikes or levers, by which they can be turned round, such a small distance that part of the surface they before and will then move the lower carriage and the bell along levelled is still beneath the bell, in order that both may the railways FF, in the direction of the length of the wall, be brought to one plane. Thus continuing the work, they which is to be built as shown by X. In like manner the get all the rock prepared for the stone-work, without any wheels dd of the upper carriage are provided with cogs other level than the water. and pinions e, on the end of which are the capstan head f The foundation being thus levelled, the stones are in to receive handspikes, when it is required to move the upthe mean time all prepared and jointed, either square or per carriage and the bell in a transverse direction. By with dovetails. These are first hoisted from the pier by means of these two motions in transverse directions, the means of a crane, and let down to their places in the bell or the stone can be suspended over any required spot work, as nearly as can be done, by the crane. As each in the wall, and lowered down thereupon as the men in the stone is thus laid, the divers direct themselves right or bell direct. Fig. 5 is a section of the bell, and fig. 6 a VOL. vm.

D I V D I V 66 A platform S is fixed on the deck to lower it upon when Divisibilitj Divinity, plan to show the apertures nn for the lenses which give out 11 of use. light. Two men descend together, a seat s being hxed The diving bell has lately been employed with success iJivmgDivisi across on each side of the bell. The air-pipe is screwed bility on at k, and proceeds to the air-pump as shown in fig. 1 in improving the navigation of the Clyde between Glas-beUs^on The pump is placed on the top of the scaffold G; it has gow and Greenock, by raising up and removing out of the two barrels 11, which are worked by a lever K, by one or bed of the river a number of large stones which obstructthe channel, and could not be so readily got out by any two men; they act as forcing pumps, and the air which ed other The bell is constructed similarly to that in is thrown down escapes from the lower edge of the bell, fig. 3, means. but instead of being let down at the end or side of and rises up through the water in bubbles. By this means the barge, has a well constructed in the middle of the vesthe air in the bell is at all times quite fresh and pure. The stones which are to be used in building the wall sel itself, in which it is made to rise and fall by strong are prepared on shore, and fitted to each other. W hen chains, tackling, and cranes. Recently a second barge and have been constructed, and are now employed on the all is prepared, these stones are lowered down the bank bell river for the same purpose. The management of the vessel by a capstan to the position w. I he rope of the machine is then attached, and by the aid of both ropes the stone and bell requires six or seven hands. The whole can be is lowered down upon the wall. The divers then descend moved with great facility to different parts of the river, in the bell, and the two carriages are brought close toge- and moored wherever their assistance is required. Such, then, is an account of the construction and uses ther, by which means the bell will hang partly over the stone W, fig. 2, so that the men can guide it into its place of the different diving machines, and particularly the divon the wall X, and make signals to those above to direct ing-bell ; and we have no doubt that the principle, as it is them which way to move the stone, and where to lowei it. susceptible of it, may yet be still more extensively applied, The bell was also employed, in the first instance, to clear and in various other ways. The only disadvantage attendthe foundation for the walls. It was then lowered quite ing the machine in its present form is the expense and down on the bottom, and the men worked the rock to a cumbrous nature of the apparatus, which prevents its use level surface. In many parts it was requisite to blast it in many cases where it might be of real service; so that with gunpowder. The divers bored the hole in the rock, it is only in some great and extensive public work that it and placed the powder in a tin cartridge, which was well can ever be thought of. It is to be hoped, therefore, that secured in the hole, by running in small fragments of the skill and ingenuity of our mechanicians may yet sucstone. A small tin pipe was affixed to the canister, long ceed in introducing the machine in a more accessible and enough to reach up above the surface of the water. When manageable form. See Halley, Phil. Trans. 1716, vol. xxix. p. 492, also all was prepared, the bell was drawn up out of the way, and vol. xxxi. p. 177; Triewald, Phil. Trans. 1/36, vol. a nail or other small piece of iron heated red hot was dropped into the tin pipe, thereby to descend to the powder. xxxix. p. 377; Spalding, Transactions of the Society of Figures 3 and 4t represent a vessel which was fitted up Arts, vol. i. p. 220; Klingert, Phil. Mag. vol. iii. p. 172; under the direction of Mr Rennie, to carry a diving-bell of Lawson, Phil. Mag. vol. xx. p. 362; Bushnell, Transaccast iron. This vessel was used in Plymouth Sound, and tions of the American Philosophical Society, vol. iv. p. 303 ; the bell was swept over the bottom to discover and take up Repertory of Arts, vol. xv. p. 383 ; Nicholson s Journal, old anchors, &c. The bell A is suspended over the bow of vol. iv. p. 229 ; Healy, Phil. Mag. vol. xv. p. 9; Robertthe vessel, by a strong tackle q, from the extremity of a son, Phil. Trans. 1757, p. 30; Franklin’s Works, letter Iv.; pair of shears ; that is, two masts DB, DB, fig. 4. The fall Leopold’s Theatrum Pontific. tom. i. ii. xxvi.; Borelli and or rope of the tackle q is drawn up by a windlass at C. Mersenne, in Hooke’s Phil. Collections, No. ii. p. 36 ; There is also another strong tackle GH, extended be- Bachstrom’s Kunst zu schwimmen, Berlin, 1742; Bazin, tween the head of the mast I and the top of the shears Hamb. Mag. i. iii. and xxi.; Gelacy, Mem. de l Acad. Par. D. This is drawn by the windlass F. The use of this is 1757; and Coulomb, Recherches sur les moyens d'executer (g. b.) to raise the shears upright, and bring the bell on board. sous Veau Travaux Hydrauliques.

DIVINITY, Deity, godhead ; the Deity ; the nature or essence of God. It likewise denotes any celestial being ; and among the pagans was applied to their false gods. Divinity also signifies the science of divine things, and hence is used as synonymous with theology. DIVISIBILITY, that general property of bodies by which their component parts or particles are capable of separation. All bodies that possess sensible extension are divisible; for since no two particles of matter can exist in the same place, it follows that they are really distinct from each other ; which, indeed, is all that is meant by being divisible. In this sense the least conceivable particle must still be divisible, since it consists of parts which are really distinct. 1 o illustrate this by a familiar instance, let the least imaginable piece of matter be conceived lying on a smooth plane surface ; it is evident the surface will not touch it everywhere, and those parts, therefore, which it does not touch may be supposed separable from the others. All that is supposed in strict geometry, says Mr Maclaurin, concerning the divisibility of magnitude, amounts to no more than that a given magnitude may be conceived to

be divided into a number of parts equal to any given or proposed number. It is true that the number of parts into which a given magnitude may be conceived to be divided is not to be fixed or limited, because no given number is so great but a greater may be conceived and assigned ; but there is not, therefore, any necessity for supposing the number of parts actually infinite ; and if some have drawn very abstruse consequences from such a supposition, yet geometry ought not to be loaded with these. How far matter is actually capable of being divided, may in some measure be conceived from this, that a piece of wire gilt with so small a quantity as eight grains of gold, may be drawn out to a length of 13,000 feet, the whole surface of it still remaining covered with gold. We have also a surprising instance of the minuteness of some parts of matter in the nature of light and vision. Let a candle be lit and placed in an open plain, it will then be visible for about two miles round; and consequently, were it placed two miles above the surface of the earth, it would fill with luminous particles a sphere four miles in diameter, and this before it had lost any sensible part of its weight. A single grain of blue vitriol will communicate an azure tinge to five

Division II Divorce, v—''

i

D

I

V

gallons of water; consequently it will be divided into as many parts as there are visible portions of matter in that quantity of water. There are perfumes which, without a sensible diminution of their quantity, will fill a very large space with their odoriferous particles: these must therefore be of an inconceivable smallness, since there is a sufficient number in every part of that space sensibly to affect the organ of smelling. Dr Keill demonstrates, that any particle of matter, how small soever, and any finite space, how large soever, being given, it is possible for that small particle of matter to be diffused through all that space, and to fill it in such a manner as that there shall be no pore in it whose diameter shall exceed any given line. The chief objections against the divisibility of matter ad infinitum are, that an infinite cannot be contained by a finite ; and that it follows from a divisibility ad infinitum, either that all bodies are equal, or that one infinite is greater than another. But the answer to these objections is easy ; for the properties of a determinate quantity are not to be attributed to an infinite considered in a general sense; and who has ever proved that there could not be an infinite number of infinitely small parts in a finite quantity, or that all infinites are equal ? The contrary is demonstrated by mathematicians in innumerable instances. DIVISION, in general, is the separating a thing into two or more parts. Mechanical Division signifies that separation which is occasioned in the parts of a body by the aid of mechanical instruments, such as a mortar and pestle, a mill, &c. Division, in military language, signifies generally a certain portion of an army, consisting of infantry and cavalry, either together or separately. The divisions of an army are the several brigades and squadrons of which it is composed. The divisions of a battalion are the several platoons into which a regiment or battalion is divided. The term is also applied to any number of men on military duty detached from an established body ; as a division of artillery, a division of pioneers, &c. Division, in the Royal Navy, a select number of ships in a fleeter squadron, under a commander, and distinguished by a particular flag or pendant. A squadron is commonly ranged into three divisions, that of the commanding officer being in the centre. Division, in Algebra, and in Arithmetic. See Algebra, and Arithmetic. DIVORCE (Lat. divortium), a breach or dissolution of the bond of marriage. Both among the pagans and the Jews a great latitude was allowed of in divorce. At Athens and at Sparta, the only Greek states of whose laws on this subject we have any certain information, a divorce might be effected either by the husband or the wife; though in the woman’s case it was a matter of some difficulty. The husband, on the other hand, was permitted by the Athenian law to divorce his wife by a very summary process—namely, by turning her out of his house. This was usually done in the presence of witnesses ; but the husband was bound to restore her portion, or in lieu of it to pay her the interest on it at the rate of nine oboli per drachma every month, besides an allowance for alimony. A woman could only sue for a divorce by appearing in person before the archon, and delivering up a memorial stating the grounds upon which she sued for a divorce. The terms expressing the separation of men and women were different; the man being said aTroTrefjLTreiv, to dismiss his wife, and the woman a.7roA.et7mv, to leave her husband. At Sparta, according to Herodotus, a man might divorce his wife on the plea of barrenness. The Cretans, again, are said to have permitted a man to divorce his wife if he was afraid of having too great a number of children. , Among the Romans, the ordinarv causes of divorce were

D

I

v

67

sterility, old age, bodily disease, insanity, and banishment; Div°rce. to which were afterwards added by Justinian a vow of chastity and the profession of the monastic life—with a view to conciliate his Christian subjects. Divorce always existed in the Roman polity, and appears to have been permitted on very slight grounds, since either party might declare his or her intention to dissolve the marriage on the plea of the absence of conjugal affection—abiding consent being considered essential to the continuance of the connection. The dissolution of the marriage might be effected without any judicial process. According to Plutarch (Romulus, c. 22), the husband alone originally was able to effect a divorce ; but his authority on this point is questionable. The earliest instance of a divorce at Rome is said to have occurred under the consulship of M. Attilius and P. Valerius, about the year b.c. 234, when Sp. Carvilius Ruga put away his wife on the plea of barrenness; but it would appear that his behaviour was much censured. Divorces were of comparatively rare occurrence at Rome till towards the latter end of the republic; and under the emperors they became very common. Doubtless the state of the law tended greatly to multiply divorces, since either party was at liberty to contract a new marriage. Pompey divorced his wife Mucia on the charge of adultery ; Cicero divorced his aged wife Terentia and married a young woman; Cato the younger lent his wife Marcia to his friend Hortensius, or in other words he divorced her that his friend might marry her and have children by her; and Julius Caesar divorced Pompeia because shewas suspected of intriguing with Clodius. As a general rule, the portion (dos) of the wife was returned to her when divorced by the husband, or when they separated by mutual consent. Their offspring in all cases remained at the disposal of the father. A constitution of Diocletian and Maximian, however, empowered a competent judge to declare whether the father or the mother should be entrusted with the care of the children. In certain cases, a sixth part of the wife’s portion might be retained by the husband; as, for example, when the wife had been convicted of infidelity. It was necessary, in proceeding to effect a divorce, to make a distinct notice or declaration of the intention to separate. The term repudium is said to differ from divortium, in that the former properly applies to a marriage only contracted ; but these terms appear to be sometimes used indifferently. In the time of Augustus an attempt was made to restrain the facilities for divorce, by the Lex Julia de Adulteriis and the Lex Pappia—Poppcea. “ The law of Moses,” observes Archdeacon Paley, “ for reasons of local expediency, permitted the Jewish husband to put away his wife; but whether for every cause, or for what cause, appears to have been controverted amongst the interpreters of those times. Christ, the precepts of whose religion were calculated for more general use and observation, revokes this permission, as given to the Jews ‘for their hardness of heart,’ and promulgates a law which was thenceforward to confine divorces to the single cause of adultery in the wife: ‘ Whosoever shall put away his wife, except it be for fornication, and shall marry another, committeth adultery; and whoso marrieth her which is put away, doth commit adultery.’ ” By the law of Scotland, a divorce may be obtained on the ground either of adultery or of wilful desertion. Neither of these grounds, however, dissolves the marriage ipso jure ; and if a process of divorce be not instituted, the marriage subsists, notwithstanding the adultery or desertion. Until recently the action of divorce proceeded before the commissaries of Edinburgh ; and in every such action, whether founded on adultery or desertion, the pursuer must make oath that the action is not collusive. The legal effect of divorce on the ground of desertion is, that the offending party loses the “ tocher,” as it is called, and the donationes

DIVORCE. 68 Divorce. propter nuptias; that is, the offending husband is bound mysterious reverence, of the nuptial tie,” that the causes of Divorce, V / ' to restore the dowry, and to pay or make good to the wife divorce are purposely limited to a few extreme and specific all her provisions, legal or conventional ; and the offending provocations; and the preservation of that union, so long wife forfeits her dowry, and all that would have come to her as it can be secured, is so manifestly essential to the best had the marriage been dissolved by the predecease of her interests of society, that before it can be dissolved it must husband. It is now held that recrimination is not a good be clearly established by the strictest proof that the offence defence against divorce for adultery; yet, as the mutual has been committed ; that there is no contrivance by which guilt may affect the patrimonial interests of the parties, it the parties are endeavouring to escape from their solemn may be stated in a counter action. But lenocinium, or the obligations to themselves and their children ; that they canhusband’s participation in the profits of his wife’s prostitu- not discharge their mutual duties by continuing any longer tion, nay, even the husband’s connivance in her guilt, is a to cohabit with each other; and that the party complaining good defence to the wife against an action of divorce on is free from guilt. A divorce d mensd et thoro will neither bar the wife of the ground of adultery. The statute 1600, cap. 20, declares marriages contracted between the adulterer and the person her dower, nor deprive the husband of his marital rights in with whom he or she may be found by the sentence of respect of her property. Nor will it enable either of the divorce to have committed the crime, to be null and un- parties to marry again; nor will it exempt them from the lawful, and the issue of such marriages to be incapable of censure of the ecclesiastical court for living incontinently. succeeding to their parents; but the act, nevertheless, has Nor will it bastardize the subsequent born issue ; but during not the effect of bastardizing such issue. The right to in- the separation the court will decree a competent allowance stitute a divorce is personal to the husband or wife ; but if, to the wife for her maintenance under the name of alimony. after the action has been raised, either party die before the This allowance depends on the innocence or delinquency of decree of divorce becomes final, it has been argued that the the parties, and is measured by the means and circumstances natural dissolution of the marriage by death supersedes and of the husband. definitively closes all proceeding commenced for dissolving it Before the Reformation, marriages were liable to be set on any other ground. The natural dissolution, it has been aside on the ground of some antecedent incapacity which contended, is the first effectual one, and that which is to rendered it in reality void from the beginning; upon proof regulate all questions as to the status of the survivor. How of precontract with some other person ; or because the confar litiscontestation in such a case renders it transmissible nexion was within the degrees of consanguinity or affinity to representatives, has not yet, we believe, been decided. prohibited by the canon law, which was far more restrictive Divorce in The following is the substance of the inquiries and recom- than the law of God.1 But since the Reformation these England. mendations of the commissioners appointed by Her Ma- rules have been altered on account of the inconveniences jesty in December 1850 to inquire into the law of divorce. which resulted from them ; for, to use the language of an Divorces in England are of two kinds—the one partial, and old statute, “ Marriages were brought into such uncertainty the other total. Partial divorces are called divorces a mensd thereby, that none could be surely knit and bounden, but it et thoro, because they separate the married parties from each should be in either of the parties’ power and arbiter (casting other’s society without dissolving the marriage union. Total away the fear of God by means and compasses) to prove a divorces are called divorces d vinculo matrimonii, because precontract, a kindred and alliance, or a carnal knowledge, they dissolve that union altogether, either on the ground of to defeat the same.” The only grounds, therefore, since some antecedent incapacity which rendered the contract the passing of that statute, for nullifying and absolving the void from the beginning, or on the ground of some super- marriage contract by reason of some antecedent incapacity, venient cause, which having arisen subsequently to the mar- are relationship within the forbidden degrees, a previous riage justifies the parties in desiring to put an end to it. marriage, corporal imbecility, or mental incompetency. Divorces d mensd et ihoro are little more in the eye of In cases of this description the ecclesiastical courts do the law than simple separations; they only last until the not exercise, nor do they possess, a rescinding power. parties think fit to be reconciled; and they are granted at The effects of a sentence nullifying a marriage are, first, the suit of the husband or wife, when the gross misconduct that the wife is barred of her dower ; secondly, that the issue of either of them—such as cruelty, adultery, or the like— are illegitimate ; and thirdly, that the parties so divorced have rendered it impracticable for them to live together; may marry again. but so careful is our law to encourage reconciliations, that By the law of England the marriage contract is indisan express clause to that effect ought always to be inserted soluble ; and when once it has been constituted in a legal in the sentence of divorce. manner, there are no means of putting an end to it in any The common law of England, which follows in this case the of our courts. Nevertheless, the actual dissolution of such canon law of the church, “ deems so highly, and with such a contract, when adultery has been committed, is so conEvery one knows how much it was the policy of the Roman Church to multiply impediments to matrimony ; the power of granting dispensations having been in all ages a fruitful source of ecclesiastical revenue. Not only were marriages with cousins interdicted, but the relation of affinity was held to be contracted by mere commerce between the sexes. Thus, if a man had connection with one sister, though not married to her, it would have been incestuous in him to marry, or to have sexual intercourse with the other sister, or even with her relatives, by consanguinity or affinity, to the eighth degree! Thus, on the death of James IV. of Scotland, his widow Margaret u or married the Earl of Angus. In 1524 she procured (by collusion with her husband) a sentence of divorce d vinculo matrimonii upon proof of his having been “ precontracted.” Sentence of nullity (that is, in the ecclesiastical phraseology divorce a vinculo matrimonii) was thereupon pronounced ; and the queen, freed from her fetters, gave her hand to Lord Methven, whom, however, she very soon dismissed by another suit in the ecclesiastical court, upon evidence that Methven was cousin, eight degrees removed to her former husband, Angus; this constituting an affinity by the laws of holy church, and a just impediment to matrimony. In another case, Janet Betoun (the Lady Buccleugh of the “ Lay of the Last Minstrel,”) having married Simon Preston of Craigmillar, sued a divorce against him in the ecclesiastica! court, not on the ground of any misconduct on his part, but on the ground that before their marriage she, the plaintiff, had had sinful intercourse with Walter Scott of Buccleugh, and that Buccleugh and Preston were within the prohibited degrees. On toUnbnrrrriSdOWri?118’ a Senteiice of dlvorce «y vinculo matrimonii was pronounced. (Riddell’s Exposition of Ancient Consistorial Law, What the laW Was in the Roman Cath tPllT tw toil ^ +®Se C-aS^ S m°St Clear olic times on the points in question. Lord Coke divor e wifeWnlin T t was w notVIbyV V'VHenry of one mimon sterling. to and from the saw-pits, with teams o ou ,[la The advantages arising from the adoption of this plan are, occasions in all the other yards. a The addition of nineteen acres of ground to the docklarge space of ground which these saw-pits would occ py > b ^ in the whole of the muddy western shore of to be appropriated to other purposes. the Medwav beyond the low-water mark of neap tides, and The first division of royal “hamln exf elm bS gett“g rid of thl offensive and unwholesome smell which it five companies, is stationed at Chatham, m excelle™ ° nernetuallv occasioned. 2dlu, The construction of a wet racks, situated near to one of the extremities of the doc P^P ^ ^ ^ in len|th by 300 in width, equal in yard. (See article Marines.) _ ..iQ. c,irface to three and one-half acres, and capable of containmg a. iieei ui icu oo-n parTlymthelariTo/chSm iT^tl? inlltl Ro- ingafleet often sail wi of the line, in which Urejican take ,on F ^ from rwhich r • i the ,1 ships u: and nt Sheerness Shpemes board all their stores, ammunition, and provisions, and be Chester, at Chatham and at equipped in all respects ready to proceed to sea. 1 lie enand the Nore received a supply of provisions and water. trance into this basin is from the Medway, through a lock The premises are still in existence. The establishment con- that is closed by a floating dam-gate. Fhe constiucsisted of an agent, clerk of the check, storekeeper, and their tion of three dry docks on the eastern side of the basin, an respective clerks,’ which, messengers, la opening into it, each capable of holding a first-rate s up o ■ '--v ,, with k„„.the nlnptv nm-vnns porters, Shins now burners,,&c, amounted to emes, except the lul 4(%, Ample space for constructing storehouses, obtain their supplies from Deptford S^nes^exce^ ^ ^ast.po‘ndSj and sllp, smithery, and artificers fresh meat and vegetables, which aie obta’i e workshops of every description, othly, A further extension tracts on demand. situated on a of the dock-yard, by the addition of ten or twelve acres of Sheerness M-Yard.-’YEe is a low marshy tract of land called Major’s Marsh, which y low point of land on the ^nd of S ^epp was below the level of the sea, and the water kept out, as in composed of san am ^ b fi Holland, by embankments, but is now raised several feet by ot er and as so one side and down ie • :ver as completely to the excavation of the basin, the dry docks, and the mastmuch contracted the mouth of tffis ponds, so as to allow of drains to carry off the water to the command the entrance • ‘ narticularlv from shore, affording space for timber-berths, houses, and gardens, c 1 point of view, is a most impor ant one ^ the for aU the officfrs of the dock-yard, as well as for the admiral its vicinity to the North Sea and to the anch | commanding in chief at Sheerness and the Nore. These Nore ; by which anchorage, and the works « ^ ’ additi ther with SOme part of the premises held by the mouths of the Thames and the Medway are completely ^ 0f ordnance) maUe 'the whole area of the docke en ed. nbipctions to which it was yard of Sheerness amount to upwards of fifty acres. T he As a situation for a d»*q„ account wharf wall on the south side of the basin in front of the ea8ur e ved liable are now m a great “ w , r“ tood f"v““ and mast-houses is a hundred feet, and that on the river front of the low swampy ground J^Xhts and sixty feet in width, lined on both sides with as complete agues were at one time so prevalent, that snipwngius aim J , ,, .P , nf 0 W Dunis) says, Vallem reperit arenarum collibus, quos in- Downs St Patrick; and Inch Abhey, founded by Sir John de Courcy in 1180. de Draco. The number of monastic ruins is also considerable. The most an- voice Duynen vocant, undique cinctam. It is also applied to a large open plain, primarily on ele- v ^ cient and celebrated is the Abbey or Cathedral of Downpatrick supposed to have been founded by St Patrick soon after his arrival here vated land. c in 432, and said to contain his remains, together with those of the Downs is particularly applied to a famous roadstead tor other favourite saints of the Irish, St Columb and St Bridget. It was ships along the eastern coast of the county of Kent, from restored in 1790, when the adjoining round tower was taken down. Beneath the foundation of the round tower a wall was found to pro- Dover to the North Foreland, where both outward and ceed to the main building of the abbey. Struel, or as it is some- homeward bound ships frequently make some stay, and times called, St Patrick’s Wells, to the east of Downpatrick, merits squadrons of men-of-war rendezvous in time of war. It notice from its connection with former religious observances. These affords excellent anchorage, and is defended by the castles wells are four in number, each covered by a stone vault, and bav- of Deal, Dover, and Sandwich. in "the water conveyed from the others by subterraneous aqueducts. DOWNTON, a town of Wiltshire, formerly a parliaGreat numbers of people from various parts of Ireland resort to this place on Midsummer eve, and on the Friday before Lammas, mentary borough, but disfranchised by the Reform act. It to perform religious ceremonies, chiefly consisting of penances, is situated on the Avon, which is here divided into three and to obtain relief from bodily complaints. . The ruins of many branches, each of which is crossed by a bridge, 6 miles castles, particularly upon the coast, are still visible. Amongst the S.S.E. of Salisbury. It consists chiefly of one long irregumost remarkable is Greencastle, built on an islet in the barony of larly built street. The principal building is the parish Mourne, by De Burgo Earl of Ulster, and intended to maintain a communication between the English settlers in this county and church, a large cruciibrm edifice with a tower. The marthose in the county of Louth. This castle was considered of much ket formerly held here has long been discontinued. 1 op. importance; and in consequence of the rapid assimilation of manners (1851) 2727. and the sympathy usually found to exist between the. natives and DOWRY, the money or fortune which the wife brings the descendants of settlers, no person but one of EnglishH birth was her husband in marriage. It is otherwise called maritapermitted to be its constable. ( Down, the fine feathers on the breasts of several birds, giurn, or marriage goods, and is considered to differ fiom particularly of the duck kind. I hat of the eidei duck is dower; but this distinction is merely arbitrary. See A1 . , the most valuable. These birds pluck the down from their Dower. DOXOLOGY, a hymn used in praise of the Almighty, breasts and line their nests with it. Three pounds of this down may be compressed into a size scarcely larger than and distinguished by the title of greater and lesser. I he one’s fist; yet it is afterwards so dilatable as to fill a quilt lesser doxology was anciently only a single sentence, withresponse, running in these words, “ Glory be to the five feet square. That found in the nests, and termed live out Father, and to the Son, and to the Floly Ghost, world withdown, is most valued; being much more elastic than that out end, Amen.” Part of the latter clause, “ As it was in plucked from the dead bird. DOWNHAM, a market-town of England, county of the beginning, is now, and ever shall be,” was inserted some Norfolk, on the right bank of the Ouse, which is here crossed time after the first composition. Some read this ancient by a stone bridge, 11 miles S. of Lynn. Pop. (1851) 2867. hymn, Glory be to the Father, and to the Son, with the The town is situated on an acclivity, the summit of which Holy Ghost; ” and others, “ Glory be to the Father in or is occupied by the parish church, an ancient Gothic edifice, by the Son, and by the Holy Ghost.” This difference of with a low embattled square tower surmounted with a spire. expression occasioned no dispute in the church till tlie time The market is held on Saturday, and is noted for its supply of the Arian heresy ; but when the followers of Ai ius began to make use of the latter as a distinguishing charactei of of fish and wild fowl. DOWNPATRICK, a municipal and parliamentary bo- their party, it was entirely laid aside by the Catholics, and rough and market-town of Ireland, capital of the county of the use of it was enough to bring any one under suspicion Down,74 miles N.N.E. of Dublin. It is situated in thebottom of heterodoxy. The doxology was used at the close of of a valley formed by hills of some elevation, near the S.W. every solemn office. The Western church repeated it at extremity of Strangford Lough, and is divided into the Eng- the end of every psalm, and the Eastern church at the end lish, Irish, and Scotch quarters. It consists of four main of the last psalm. Many of their prayers were also constreets meeting near the centre, the principal of which are cluded with it, particularly the solemn thanksgiving or comthe Irish and English streets. In the former all business is secration prayer at the eucharist. It was also the oidinaiy carried on; the latter is well built, and contains several neat conclusion of their sermons. The greater doxology, or anprivate residences. The principal buildings are the cathe- gelic hymn, was likewise of much consequence in the andral parish church, Roman Catholic chapel, two Presbyte- cient church. It began with these words, which the angels rian and three Methodist meeting-houses, diocesan school, sung at our Saviour’s birth, “ Glory be to God on high, county court-house, prison, alms-houses, widows houses, &c. It was chiefly used in the communion service, and in barracks, infirmary, and fever hospital. A small trade is private devotions. Both the doxologies have a place in the carried on at Strangford Lough by means of vessels of 100 Church of England, the former being repeated after every tons, which discharge at Quoil quay, about a mile from psalm, and the latter used in the communion service. DRABLER, in seamen’s language, a small sail or piece the town ; it is, however, projected to deepen the Quod of canvas laced to the bonnet of a sail to give it more drop. river, and make a harbour close to the town. 4 he linen DRABS, wooden boxes used in saltworks for holding the. manufacture is carried on to a small extent, as well as brewing, tanning, and soap-making. Market-days Tuesday and salt when taken out of the boiling pan. The bottoms of Saturday. Adjoining the town are the ruins of Inch Abbey, the drabs are shelving or inclining, that the moisture may a large rath in good preservation, and a race-course. Pop. drain off. DRACHMA, an ancient Greek silver coin, in value about (1851) 4098. Downpatrick returns a member to parliament; constituency (1853) 222. Previously to the Reform act it 9|d., or equivalent to the French franc. 4 he weight of was the most open borough in Ireland; as all the persons the Attic drachma was about 66 grains; and the Eginetan who paid scot and lot, or boiled a pot, in the town, were was If of the Attic. An Alexandrian drachma weighing 126 grains has aiso been found. 44ie weight called drachm, electors. DOWNS, a bank or elevation of sand, which the sea used by the modern apothecary, is equivalent to the eighth gathers and forms along its shores, and which serves it as a part of an ounce, or 60 grains, or 3 scruples. DRACO, the Athenian legislator, flourished b. c. 622. barrier. The w ord is formed from the French dune, or the Celtic dun, a mountain. Charles de Visch (Compend. See Attica. Draco, in Astronomy. See Dragon. Clironolog. Exord. et Progress. Abbot. Clariss. B. Mar ice,

D R A Dracona- DRACONAKIUS, in Antiquity, a standard-bearer, rius Several nations, as the Persians, Parthians, and Scythians, Jl bore dragons on their standards ; and hence the standards Drainage. j-}lemse[ves were called dracones, or dragons. The Romans are generally supposed to have borrowed the same custom from the Parthians ; though Casaubon thinks they took it from the Daci, and Codin that they derived it from the Assyrians. The Roman dracones were figures of dragons painted in red upon the flags, as appears from Ammianus Marcellinus ; but amongst the Persians and Parthians they were, like the Roman eagle, figures in full relievo. DRACONTIC Month, the time of the revolution of the moon from her ascending node, called caput draconis, to her return thither. DRAGOMAN, or Drogueman, an interpreter ; a term of general use in the Levant and .throughout the East. There are dragomans attached to the embassies and consulates of Christian nations residing at the Porte. The word is formed from the Arabic targeman or targiman, of the verb taragem, “he has interpreted.” From dragoman the Italians formed dragomanno, and, with a nearer relation to its Arabic etymology, turcimanno ; whence comes trucheman, as well as dragoman and drogueman. DRAGON (Lat. draco, Gk. Spanuv), a fabulous kind of fiery winged serpent, or nondescript creature, much celebrated in the romances of the middle ages. The dragon, in heraldry, is borne in coats, crests, and supporters. Dragon is also the name of a constellation in the northern hemisphere. See Astronomy. The name Draconidce is likewise applied to a genus of small Saurian reptiles. Dragon’s Head and Tail (caput et cauda draconis'), are the nodes of the planets, or the two points in which the ecliptic is intersected by the orbits of the planets, and particularly that of the moon, making with it angles of 5 degrees and 18 minutes. One of these points looks northward, the moon beginning then to have north latitude ; and the other southward, where she commences south. Thus her deviation from the ecliptic seems, according to the fancy of some, to made a figure like that of a dragon, whose belly is where she has the greatest latitude; the intersection representing the head and tail, from which resemblance the denomination arises. But these points abide not always in one place, but have a motion of their own in the zodiac, and retrograde 3 minutes 11 seconds per day, completing their circle in 18 years 225 days; so that the moon can be but twice in the ecliptic during her monthly period, and at all other times she will have a latitude or declination from the ecliptic. It is about these points of intersection that all eclipses happen. They are usually denoted by these characters, 9, dragon’s head, ts dragon’s tail. Dragon’s Blood, a resinous substance much used for tinging spirit and turpentine varnishes, for preparing gold lacquer, staining marble, &c. It is the produce of several

D R A 125 trees,—as Calamus draco, Dracaena draco, Pterocarpus Dragonneu draco, &c.; and is imported from the East Indies, Africa, Jl and South America, in dark red lumps, in rolls, and in irre- DrainaSegular cakes. When pulverized it is of a bright red colour. Its solvents are alcohol, ether, and oils. DRAGONNEE, in Heraldry, is said of a lion or other beast of which the hinder half terminates like the hinder part of a dragon. DRAGOON, in military affairs. See Army. DRAGOONING (Fr. dragonnade), abandoning to the rage of soldiers ; one of the methods that have been used for converting refractory heretics, and bringing them within the pale of “ the true church.” The manner of dragooning the French Protestants, after the revocation of the edict of Nantz, under Louis XIV., is described as follows in a French work translated in 1686. “ The troopers, soldiers, and dragoons, went into the Protestants’ houses, where they marred and defaced their household stuff, broke their looking glasses, and other utensils and ornaments, let their wine run about their cellars, and threw about their corn and spoiled it. And as to those things which they could not destroy in this manner, such as furniture of beds, linen, wearing apparel, plate, and the like, they carried them to the market-place, and sold them to the Jesuits and other Roman Catholics. By these means the Protestants in Montaubon alone were, in four or five days, stripped of above a million of money. But this was not the worst. They turned the dining-rooms of gentlemen into stables for their horses ; and treated the owmers of the houses where they quartered with the highest indignity and cruelty, lashing them about from one to another, day and night, without intermission, not suffering them either to eat or drink; and when they began to sink under the fatigue and pains they had undergone, they laid them on a bed, and when they thought them somewhat recovered, made them rise, and repeated the same tortures. When they saw the blood and sweat run down their faces and other parts of their bodies, they drenched them with water, and, putting over their heads kettle-drums turned upside down, they made a continual din upon them till these unhappy creatures lost their senses. When one party of these tormenters were weary, they were relieved by another, who practised the same cruelties with fresh vigour.” DRAGUIGNAN, a town of France, capital of the department of Var, as well as of a cognominal arrondissement, situated in a fertile valley surrounded by vine and olivecovered hills. The town is tolerably well built, and is ornamented with numerous public fountains. The principal buildings are the court-house, prison, clock-tower, and hospital. Draguignan has a public library of 15,000 vols., botanic garden, natural history museum, communal college, and a society of agriculture, besides manufactures of broad cloths, silks, stockings, soap, leather, brandy, and earthenware. There are also several oil mills in the town. Pop. (1851) 8009.

DRAINAGE. ^rainage Under this head we shall commence with the drainage of wus. towns and other inhabited places, with more particular reference to the removal and discharge of cloacal and other foul matters in a liquid state from human habitations. We shall then notice the drainage of lands for agricultural purposes, and the drainage of fens, marshes, &c. The first of these subjects has been already referred to in the supplement to Architecture (vol. iii.), and the remarks made in that place may be taken as introductory to the present article. For the drainage of fields for farming operations, see also Agriculture.

It was there sho’wn that the removal of sullage by means of sub-surface sewers, whereby it has acquired the name of sewage, is of comparatively recent introduction. Towns are commonly built upon sites of which the immediate subsoil is percolable by liquids, and into which the excreta arising in and from human habitations have been dejected into cesspools formed in it; and no volatile and active gases are thrown out, under such circumstances, in quantities sufficient to produce any sensibly injurious effect upon the atmosphere. The gases which are evolved are deadly; but are comparatively innocuous while undisturbed.

D R A I ^ A G E. 126 It is further requisite to the effectual drainage of a town Drainag? Drainage The foulness of old towns which stand upon dry sand or of Towns. gravel, or other percolable stratum of soil, may be referred that there be such a supply of water to all buildings occu- of Towns, pied for the purposes of life, that all matters entering their rather to accumulations in and about the buildings ol drains may be attended or be followed by water enough to such corruptible animal and vegetable refuse as may not carry the sullage onward without depositing in the drains, be thrown into the cesspool, and which cannot be made and that there°be also such a supply of water to scour the to pass away by drains: so that, in truth, effective sca- main drains or sewers, either in a constant flow or in frevengering is the first essential to wholesome ventilation, quent and copious flushes, as will prevent the sullage from when excreta are dejected upon or into a soil which will ab- being arrested within them long enough either to deposit sorb the liquids, and'such must be the case indeed whatever filth or to throw off noxious gases. system of sewering may be applied. It is not to be overThe fall of drains and sewers ought to be greater, and looked, nevertheless, that such soils as allow the liquid parts may be less, according to the provision available for scourof excreta to pass away, do but filter them down into the ing them, or of keeping up a current within them in any water, for the sake of which, probably, the site was origi- case. Half an inch of fall in every ten feet is the slightest pernally chosen, and that these liquid excreta are thus apt to missible fall for a house-drain under the best circumstances; reappear in the wells, and to poison one of the supports that is to say, when the supply of water to the house is so of life in another direction. But, however, disgusting this ample that the waste will certainly furnish a good scour idea mav be upon reflection, it does not always occur to the therefrom; but one, two, or even three inches of fall in mind; and it is not until the close crowding together of every ten feet in length of such a drain may be requisite human beings into the commonly small space which the ori- when the supply of water is scanty and the waste is likely ginal site of an old town comprises, that any effect really therefore to be slack. injurious to health can arise from that source ; nor is it, inA fall of one and a half inches in every 100 feet in deed to the source referred to that the most disgusting ap- length is fall enough for a main drain or common sewer prehension is traced, but to the deposit of the mortal re- when it has a well-formed and evenly-built concave bottom, mains of humanity within the strata from which springs of and when a constant flow of water, in quantity sufficient to water are derived. Nor has the necessity of drainage, as a prevent the sullage from depositing any of its heavier matmeans of relieving towns of sullage, and of the exhalations ters in the sewer, may be relied upon; but the fall should consequent upon its exposure to heat and air, become regreater when mere flushes of water are to be used as a cognised because of the defects of the system which re- be of carrying on the sullage. As regards size, housetained the solids of human excreta within or immediately means and town-drains,—or private drains and common about the buildings in a town situated upon a bed of dry drains sewers, to use the terms more commonly applied to them, o-ravel, but because towns have outgrown their sites, and extended their buildings to the clay which so commonly —do not require to be of the large sizes of which they^ are occurs under beds of sand or of gravel. It has been seen usually made for the mere reception and conveyance of the that London has in this manner outgrown the limits of the sullage of the building, or of the town or district; but theie sufficient reasons why they should be made larger regravel bed, and has been thrown upon the blue clay under- are spectively than would be sufficient for those purposes alone. lying the fine stratum of gravel which forms the banks and It is a good general rule in all matters relating to conbed of the Thames in its course through London, and which comes to the surface at from one to two miles inland on structions, that every part of any work liable, in its use, to each side of the river. No sooner was the clay touched by derangement from any cause, be made accessible for the buildings, than the necessity of providing for the immediate purposes of repair or of renewal. This rule ought to be removal of sullage became apparent; and in the endeavour especially adhered to in all matters relating to the drainage to secure such removal by drainage in places wheie drain- of buildings ; whether it be of water, as liable to affect the age is absolutely essential to allow of the occupation of the structure, or of sullage, as liable to affect the health and site for human habitation at all, a system deficient in a most comfort of the inhabitants; and what is true of a building is important particular has been carried out to the seiious de- true of aggregations of buildings in a town. But, in providing for easy access to whatever pipes and triment of those parts and places which had been already closely built over, and the air of which is injured more by drains may occur inside a building, the arrangements to the exhalations of the steaming sullage drain, than by anything secure that object should be made in such manner as to occasion the smallest possible amount of inconvenience emitted from a close cesspool dry-steined in gravelly soil. But sewering will not supersede the necessity of scaven- within the building whenever occasion may arise for emgering, nor, indeed/ if due regard be paid to the wholesome- ploying them. And in like manner, as it regards the conness of the locality, ought sewering to be preferred to the diy nexion of private or house drains with the main drains or cesspool, where a dry cesspool is available to the effect al- sewers,—and as to the building and the repair of the sewers ready indicated, unless provision be first made for scouring themselves, indeed,—arrangements should be devised to the contents away, and for removing directly to the 1upper such effect that all such works may be executed without interfering, or with the smallest possible amount of interferair the gases which they will evolve in their passage. It is obviously esssential to the effectual relief of a town ence, with any public way, or with the convenience of the by drainage, that no building in or out of which matters public in the use of the public ways. requiring to be carried off by drains can arise, be built at so In providing for the relief of any place from superfluous low a level, with reference to the eventual removal from the towm of such matters, that the perfect drainage of the waters, the first thing to be secured is an outfall or place at building cannot be effected by existing and available means which they may be discharged, or otherwise so disposed of of discharge ; and no system of drainage can be carried out that they shall not return. An outfall must, therefore, be in any town lying low with reference to the outfall, urdess at a lower level than the place to be relieved, but it may provision be made by authority to the effect that when ex- be either natural or artificial. A country like Holland, or isting buildings cannot be otherwise fully relieved, artificial a place like the Isle of Dogs, east of London—the one fronted by a tidal ocean, and the other almost girt around means shall be employed to relieve the low-level sewers. 1 In coal countries, where ash and cinder arise in large quantities in even the poorest dwellings, and go to the ash-pit or dust-bin with animal and vegetable refuse, and excreta, the injury to the air of the locality from defective scavengering is not so great as it is in London, and other towns where coal is dear, and ash and cinder therefore scanty.

D R A I N A G E. 127 Drainage by a tidal river—-finds natural vent for its superfluous waters run over before it has time to reach the outfall, as rivers Drainage of Towns, at intervals, though at the expense of artificial works, and are apt in their lower reaches to overflow by flushes of water Towns, '-msubject to whatever inconvenience may arise from the re- coming into them too rapidly from their upper and more tention of the waters during the intermediate periods. The steeply inclined reaches; whilst in the case of barrelled or outfalls obtained in these cases are not such as would be tunnelled drains, the sullage wall be choked back to its chosen when better are obtainable, nor would such be re- source when the structure of the drains is strong enough jected when they present themselves at a level available to to resist the pressure of the head that may be formed, or, the relief of the surface of a site, although they may not be the structure being weak the drain gives way, and a filthy at a level low enough to relieve subterranean conduits of bog is formed. Subterranean built drains, whether large whatever they may contain. or small, when they are well built of brick or stoneAn outfall being obtained, whether it be natural or arti- work, and of substance enough to withstand the pressure of ficial, means are to be devised for collecting the liquid waste the ground about them, are generally found to be strong and bringing it together to the outfall for discharge. If this enough to resist whatever head may be formed by backbe so much below the level of the area to be relieved as to water hurrying down from upper reaches ; but drains comallow of fall enough in channels or other conduits,—and the posed of pipes of pottery, or other substance strong enough, receptacle at the point of discharge be such as to allow of it may be, to bear the pressure of the ground, are weak at the such disposal,—the waste waters may be permitted to carry joints, which commonly give way to a comparatively slight with them not only matters in solution, as culinary and head of water acting within the drains, in which case the soil cloacal refuse from the dwellings of men, but even the in which the pipes are laid is softened by the ejected liquid, muddy washings of the streets of a town. If, however, the the joints are drawn,and the above-stated result follows. But available outfall be not so low, or the eventual receptacle every part in the length of a drain is low'er than the part be not of such a character as to admit matters liable to de- above, and is liable, therefore—irrespective of obstructions posit silt, prudence will dictate the propriety of keeping the arising from the casual presence within the drain, in any foul matters, though solved in water, from becoming en- part below, of foreign and uncontemplated substances—to be tangled with what may check their course to the outfall, exposed to pressure from a head of backwater sufficient to and providing for the removal of the comparatively clean, destroy a weakly-built drain, or a pipe drain of which the though heavy dirt, being the street washings, by another joints are so wreak as to be unable to withstand the pressure channel. That is to say, a town situated on high ground of a head equal to that of the overflow level at which relief and near, for instance, to the sea, may be relieved of its may be obtained. But such relief to the insufficient or illsurface waters, the washings of its streets, and its sullage, disposed drain is purchased by the inhabitants of the place being its cloacal refuse, kitchen and washing waste, by the at which the overflow may occur at too high a price in ansame sewers without any inconvenience, and consequently noyance to be suffered; and to avoid this contingency, all at less cost than a town can be relieved of its waste under drains ought to be made large enough in every part to give other and less advantageous circumstances, in respect of free passage onwards, and to the eventual outfall, of everyrelative level of outfall and area to berelievedv In the case thing that can pass into them under the most exigent cirlast supposed, a single system of sewers may suffice ; but in cumstances possible in any case. And this consideration is the other case a double system ought to be formed, that the irrespective again of that which regards the larger drains or heavy and insoluble washings of the street may not mingle common sewers under public ways, or near to heavy buildwith and delay the solved and soluble domestic refuse. ings, or elsewhere, at a great depth in the ground, which are Taking the more difficult case of a town of which the with great advantage made larger than their purposes as available outfall for its sullage is low with relation to the conduits for waste waters might require them to be made, general area, the question naturally presents itself, what rate that there may be roomy access within them for workmen cf fall is sufficient to secure relief, in the particular case con- to form inlets from branches, to amend possible defects in templated, by or through the given outfall ? And the obvious the structure, or to remove casual obstructions. answer is, that the rate must depend upon the degree of It often happens that, as in the cases of much of the area fluidity of the sullage, and the condition as to smoothness of Holland, and all the Isle of Dogs before alluded to—exor otherwise of the surface over which it is to run. Tar or cept, indeed, as to the sea and the river walls or embanktreacle will not run so fast upon a surface of glass as oil ments respectively—the waste waters accruing within the will travel over a surface of lead laid at the same inclina- area to be relieved between half, or even three-quarters ebb, tion ; and water will make its way over a rough surface of and quarter or half flood of the tide in either sea or river, brickwork laid with a like fall more rapidly than either of must be penned back in the sewers, or be lifted out by artithe viscid liquids can travel over the smoother surfaces as- ficial power applied through pumps; and under such circumsigned to them. The rate of inclination proper for drains stances itis most important that nothing that can be deposited or other conduits for the ready relief of a town of its liquid by the still waters should pass into the sewers. For in such waste depends, therefore, firstly, upon the degree of fluidity case, it is no longer a removal of casual obstructions that of the waste, and, secondly, upon the condition as to smooth- has to be provided for, but a certain and often-recurring neness of the surface over which it is to make its way to the cessity of sending labourers into the sewers to collect and outfall. Hence the objects to be aimed at when the outfall remove deposits which must always be foul, having regard is bad, that is to say, high with reference to the area to be to the company into which, when suspended, they had relieved, are to bring the waste as nearly as may be to the travelled, and always, therefore, offensive, and probably condition as to fluidity of unclogged water, and to provide noxious upon being disturbed. No mere run of backwater drains the inside surface of which shall offer the least pos- as a scour will remove such deposits, even if they are a sible degree of resistance to the fluid by roughnesses or in- mere slime; but when they consist, as they commonly do, equalities of surface, especially as regards the transverse sec- of grit and cementitious matter, they are apt to form a contion of the drain. It is to be borne in mind, at the same crete that cannot be removed except by means which act time, that although the fluidity of waste water, bearing sul- upon the substance of the sewer itself, and tend to wear it lage in solution, cannot be too perfect, having regard to the out. The nidus of slime in sewers is soap-suds, a waste more effectual removal of the solved foul matters, the rate that must be allowed to pass by house drains, and so into of fall may be too great for the conduits, whether they and by the sewers ; but it is only under the circumstance are open channels or covered drains. Open channels may first above supposed that the washings of the streets of a be overfilled by a too rapid backwater, and the sullage town ought to be permitted to pass into the sullage drains

D ft A I 128 Drainage and sswers at all. It senrns certain, therefore, that as a of Towns. ru]e? ti-,e drainage of towns should be effected by a double system of drains—one part applied to the surface drainage being the rainfall upon the roadways, carrying with it the not necessarily offensive, but heavy and insoluble silt, the result of the wear and tear of the road material, and tlm droppings of graminivorous animals used in the service of man—and the other part devoted to the relief of the particular habitations of men of liquid refuse, and matters soluble in water, but commonly offensive, and capable of becoming noxious, and requiring, moreover, to be led to points of discharge at or from which they may be dissipated. When a single system adapted to the former purpose only has been extended so as to include the latter, and a whole town has become inextricably involved in the vicious mesh, the best that can be done is to lead the commingled silt and sullage together to points of temporary lull, where the sand, the heaviest part of the silt, may deposit, and to draw offer pump out, as the case may require, and lead to the eventual points of discharge, the liquid sullage over it.

N A G E. with ease and economy, in lengths of about two feet, which Drainage length, indeed, cannot be much exceeded in practice. Elon- of Towns gated drains of pot-pipe involve, therefore, a multiplicity of '' joints \ and as pot-pipe drains, as well as bi ick-bmlt drams, are exposed to the intrusion of uncontemplated substances which tend to obstruct the free passage through them of legitimate matters, whilst pottery is very liable to be broken even in the laying and under the process of filling in over them, it has been sought to make the joints in such manner that they shall be water-tight, and at the same time easily opened and easily re-made. The common practice is to make them spigot and faucet fashion, or socketted, in rough resemblance to the jointing of a flute, one end of every length of pipe being widened out into a faucet or socket, and the other adapted to run into the socket, as the spigot does into the faucet, the hollow way being preserved when the joint is made. Such a joint in pot-pipes must be a loose one, and therefore not water-tight; and if it be packed with a cementitious mortar, the adhesion of the mortar will prevent the separation of the parts when occasion requires it, whilst in the rough workmen’s hands the mortar is often pressed into the pipes, The practice of drainage, so far as regards the structure and dries into a hard and obstructive ridge, where the way of sewers and drains, is mere matter of construction, and is should be smooth and free throughout. Mere plastic clay both simple and easy. Drains as structures may be divided is used therefore to pack the joints, it being a substance easily into three classes—the tunnel sewer drain, the barrel drain, softened and broken down into mud by the passing liquids ; and the pipe drain. There are varieties of each class, and but it is also so weak against any force, that if from any the classes continually blend one into another, but the cause a head of water or other liquid is formed within a sockclasses are, nevertheless, sufficiently distinct for general de- etted pipe drain, the clay soon gives way, the joints are, in technical phrase, blown ; and the liquid is not merely scription. The tunnel sewer is built of brick-work or of masonry, let out, it is driven out into the soil in which the pipe is cylindrical or of some conic section in form transversely, and embedded. But, as it has been already intimated, pot-pipe of such size that men may pass into and through it. I he is liable to be broken in laying the pipes—the liability arising barrel drain, smaller in size than the tunnel, is in like man- mainly out of the process of punning or ramming the ground ner built, and the best and most available form is the egg in, about, and over the pipes, after they have been placed and shape, with the small end downwards. The pipe drain is the joints formed. The consciousness of this liability, and formed of pipes or tubes laid together in short lengths, vari- of the equally mischievous result of ramming over and about ous expedients being employed for connecting the pipes by such a structure as a pot-pipe drain laid in the usual manner in and on the naked earth, leads to a mere filling in ot tiieir ends. The tunnel sewer (and by the term tunnel a drifted the earth about the pipes, and over them to such a depth that or tunnelled work is not necessarily implied) though simple the rammer cannot be felt through the bed of earth, unless in its form and of easy construction, is an important work it be felt through the agency ot a piece of gravel or a spall of hydraulic architecture, and as such must be dealt with of hard stone casually dropped in over a pipe, by which f rom as a construction requiring to be laid or placed evenly upon the blow above, a hole may be punched in the pipe, or the a well-resisting foundation, and to be either sustained with- pipe broken throughout, and in either case the newly-formed in itself as a bridge or as a church must be, or be so laid in drain is choked up, and made worse than useless. 1 he the ground that it shall be pressed upon in every direction more common case, however, is the blowing of the claywith reference to the power its form and the mode of con- stopped joints and the softening of the loosely packed soil struction employed may give it of resisting pressure for the about the drain, when the pipe sinks at the loosened joint, which is thus drawn, and the drain is a drain no longer. security of its own structure. The barrel drain must be laid, in like manner, on an un- It is to be repaired—the floor must be taken up if the yielding foundation, and be so placed within and under the course of the drain is within a building, or the pavement ground that the pressure upon it shall act in every direc- above it if out of doors ; and the ground is to be dug out along the line, until the point of failure be reached. tion alike. What is above referred to as a pipe drain, may be a con- The already loosened lengths of pipe are pulled asunder, structed barrel drain of the smallest size that can be built or broken up if the small ends have been run too well up with brick in the form of a cylinder ; but brick-built drains in the sockets, the penned-back filth in the upper reach obof small size, that is to say, of less than fourteen or fifteen tains vent, and it is either allowed to go on by the hitherto inches internal diameter, will not be employed when pot- unobstructed lower reach, carrying with it all of the sodden pipe of fitting kind and quality can be obtained, unless tire clay that it can render liquid enough to flow, or the filthy drain is near the surface, and under a roadway exposed to bog is baled out and carted away. The pipes have now to be relaid ; but, as the joints are socketted, it is physically imheavy carriage traffic. The use of tubes or pipes of pottery for drains is by no possible to make good (as it is technically termed) without means new, but the removal of cloacal refuse from the ha- beginning at the beginning and taking up all the pipes above bitations of man by underground conduits, whether as pipes the fault to get lengths enough in again. Belaid in the or otherwise, is of recent introduction into the general ser- same manner, the structure is liable to the same occurrence vice of towns ; and of all the devices hitherto recurred to for again and again ; and whether the pipes are large or small, such purpose there is none equal to pot-pipe rendered in- if they are no larger in the bore than barely suffices for absorbent by glazing. Such pipes may be made of suffi- the passage of the calculated waste, pipe drains laid upon cient strength to resist the dead pressure of the ground in naked and soluble soil—the commonest kind of soil—and which they are, for the most part, laid up to a bore of twelve jointed with soluble material, are all liable to the casualties or fifteen inches in diameter, and they may be and are made, above described.

Drainage of Towns, ^ —'

'

129 DRAINAGE. The foregoing observations have reference to one great be dug out from six to twelve inches deeper than is re- Drainage defect in the pot-pipe system of drainage, but that one is quired for the drain, and a layer of concrete of that thick- v° owns,y "v in all essential particulars the result of a mistaken aim at ness, and of the full breadth of the trench, placed in it, cheapness. Pottery, like all other substances produced by and formed with the fall required for the inside of the drain. or under the action of heat, is most liable to be defective This can be done under the eye, and will be open to the at such parts of the thing produced as are larger in any correction, of the supervisor, as in building a brick-drain ; particular direction. Socketted cast-iron pipes are liable and the pipes may be laid, and the joints formed, upon the to be unsound in the sockets where the metal is of dif- firm and evenly laid concrete with truth and certainty, ferent and unequal thickness and the body of greater ex- even though the joints be socketted. Concrete being filled tent in circumference, because of the unequal cooling of the in under and about the pipes when so laid, up to half the metal; and socketted pot-pipes are liable to be unsound diameter of the round body, the ground may be filled in over in the sockets, because the whole body of the pipe cannot, the drain, with confidence that it will possess the great rebecause of the socket, expand and again cool simultaneously quisites of truth and strength, with the peculiar excellence throughout. Simple hollow cylinders, whether of iron or which the pipe possesses of smoothness of surface in the of pottery, are more likely, with the same care in the manu- run of the drain. A pipe drain so laid will not be cheaper facture, to be sound, than socketted pipes of either substance; than a drain of the same size of brickwork; but it will be and for this reason, if for no other, pot-pipes should be simple strong against everything short of crushing pressure. Light hollow cylinders, and some other expedient ought to be em- weight is crushing pressure to pot-pipes, however, and pipes ployed for making the joints than that by which the pipe of pottery may not, therefore, be laid under carriage roads, is liable to be rendered both unsound in its manufacture, nor anywhere else, indeed, of such large size as to break and impracticable when the work requires to be repaired. under any dead weight that can come upon them, or under Expedients have been devised to this effect, and are gradu- any impact to which they may be exposed. I he strength ally making their way into use j1 while, at the same time, of the strongest pottery pipes is, nevertheless, but weakness the mischievous influence of a bad practice is shown by that as compared with the thinnest brickwork in tubular drains. In fine, with careful workmanship and a good foundation, which is immediately superseding it—the practice of cutting off half the round of the socket, so that any one length of either brick and mortar, or sheet-iron collared pipes, will pipe may indeed be taken up and relaid without disturbing make a good, lasting, and serviceable drain; whilst with careany other length, but the effect of the operation upon the less or bad workmanship, and an infirm bed, a brick drain pipe is that the part of the socket remaining detracts more may be bad, but a pipe drain under the same circumstances than the whole socket does from the soundness of the struc- must be so. But the best built and best laid and jointed sewers and ture of the pipe, and the upper half of every joint remains drains, of whatever materials or however put together, and uncovered. But the soundest pipes jointed in the soundest man- with the best outfall, are but the means by which the matener will not produce a sound and certainly effective drain rial parts of cloacal and other foul refuse in a liquid state without truth and stability in the construction of the drain. are made to pass away; the immaterial parts are not thereby The exclusive advocates of pot-pipe drains, which they en- ejected. The hot waste-water of the scullery helps, by dideavour to distinguish by the term tubular, stigmatize brick- luting it, to hurry on the more sluggish matters which enter built drains as sewers of deposit. This, however, is absurd, the same drain from the cloaca; but the heat in the culinary since the same cause which renders brick-built drains occa- waste not only throws off in a gaseous form, and often ensionally faulty in their course does the same by the pipe veloped in steam, the sickening odour which the water has drain, with this difference against the latter, that whereas the taken out of the esculents boiled in it, but it induces the brick-built drain is of the same kind of structure through- evolution of faint but foul gases from the cloacal filth itself, uut, and strong enough to bear the rude process of filling and these rise and run back to the highest attainable level, in, and is essentially larger than the pipe, whereby a deposit and seek egress into the upper air. This is commonly obin a casually depressed part is not necessarily an impracti- tained through some faulty sink, or by crannies in the drain cable obstruction to the course of the drain, nor is a head of within the house from which the matters had proceeded, water above such a defect the certain means of destroying it. the escape being aided powerfully by the kitchen, and in The pipe is laid in lengths—weak in the joints—both weak wintertime by the focal, fires; and in the streets of sewered and fragile in its structure, and liable to the defects above de- towns the reeking stench rises through gully gratings ; or if scribed when defectively constructed. But all that either these are effectually trapped, then through holes made for brick-built sewers or pot-pipe drains require, when good ma- the purpose in the carriage-roadway, where, however, they terials and skilful workmanship are employed, to make sound, are very commonly clogged up with road stuff, which now effective, and trustworthy conduits, free alike from liabi- and then drops down into the sewer, and forms an obstruclity to be choked or blown by water or by liquid waste, are tion to the turbid stream there. By some or other of these nn unyielding and even foundation, a firm seat, and truth in vents, however, the stench escapes from drains and sewers, the setting of the work. All this is easily attainable, and is rises and mingles with the air, to be again inhaled by human commonly attained in the modern practice of building sewers beings. And thus it is that the air is circulated and the of brickwork. The broader base afforded by brickwork will sewers ventilated in our best sewered towns ! Now, the course proper to be pursued is almost the reverse find a resisting foundation upon a soil into which a mere pipe of the same internal capacity would sink ; and a brick of that commonly practised, from which the inhabitants of structure will bear the ground to be forced in around and sewered towns suffer in comfort and in health, more perhaps above it by a process that pot-pipes of the strongest make than the inhabitants of unsewered towns, in which there is may not be exposed to. But if, instead of a false eco- commonly no such concentration of foulnesses. Give freenomy under the name of cheapness, true economy be em- dom to the foul gases of the drains, as freedom is given to braced, the trench in which a pipe drain is to be laid will the air which has served the purposes of combustion in the 1 The best expedient known to the present writer is one recently patented by Mr Jennings, a London manufacturer. Mr Jennings makes the pipes simple hollow cylinders, and lays their ends upon half-round chairs, and covers the joint with a half-round saddle which completes the circuit. The chair and saddle are both rebated, and form together a short length of pipe. Much depends upon the strength and soundness of the chair; but these qualities being secured, the joints may be made upon them in mortar with, confidence. This is better than the sheet-iron collar which the writer has heretofore advocated. R VOL. VIII.

130 D It A I Agricul- chimney-grate. Make a flue for the foul air of the drain of tural every house, at or near to its upper end, as a flue is made Drainage, for the escape of the burnt air of the smokeless coke or char/ coal fire, as well as for the combined burnt air and dirty, but harmless, smoke of the coal fire to pass off by, and both will alike rise into the upper air, to be dissipated by the winds of heaven and prepared by nature’s chemistry to reappear as the course of nature prescribes. A lofty shaft built at the head of every main line of sewer, and provided with the means of securing an up-draught through the shaft—means to which the wind wdll always give effect in even the stillest weather—would give vent to all the emanations which arise in the sewer itself; but to assure this result there must be no trapping or flapping of the inlets to the sewer—the air must be allowed to pass down freely, which it will do, firstly, by its own gravity, and, secondly, by the draught established in the sewer by the upper draughting shaft and by the house drain flues. But the mechanical details involved in the practice of drainage is matter for technical and professional consideration. The frequent and careful removal of all dirt and filth from the surfaces of the streets by scavengering—the constant flow to an efficient outfall in subdrains of all liquid waste and foul matters soluble in water, and rendered fluid by a copious backwater, may make and keep a town clean ; but neither a town as a whole, nor any place in a town,—be it palace or cottage,—can be sweet and wholesome unless the drains and sewers are swept by constant currents of air, or, in other words, thoroughly ventilated from the lower into the upper air.—The metropolis of the British empire, the home of the Sovereign, the seat of the Legislature, the place of birth and the constant residence of more than a million and a half of human beings who consider themselves high in the scale of civilization, is but indifferently scavengered, is drained and sewered upon a wholly defective system, and its drains and sewers reek with filth and pour out under our nostrils foul air for want of legitimate outfalls for the one, and elevated outlets for the other.1 (w. n—G.) AGRICULTURAL DRAINAGE. To drain land is to rid it of its superfluous moisture. The rivers of a country with their tributary brooks and rills are the natural provision for removing the rain water which either ■flows directly from its surface, or which, after percolating through porous strata to an indefinite depth, is again discharged at the surface by springs. The latter may thus be regarded as the outlets of a natural underground drainage. This provision for disposing of the water that falls from the clouds is usually so irregular in its distribution, and so imperfect in its operation, that it leaves much to be accomplished by human labour and ingenuity. The art of the drainer accordingly consists— 1st, In improving the natural outfalls by deepening, straightening, or embanking rivers; and by supplementing these, when necessary, by artificial canals and ditches ; and, 2d, In freeing the soil and subsoil from stagnant water, by means of artificial underground channel. Trunk The first of these operations, called trunk drainage, is drainage, the most needful; for until it be accomplished there are extensive tracts of land, and that usually of the most valuable kind, to which the secondary process either cannot be applied at all, or only with the most partial and inefficient residts. Very many of our British rivers and streams flow with a sluggish and tortuous course through valleys of flat alluvial soil, which, as the coast is approached, expand into l!

N A G E. extensive plains, but little elevated above the level of the Agricul sea. Here the course of the river is obstructed by shifting tural shoals and sand banks, and by the periodic influx of the Draiaagts tides. The consequence is, that immense tracts of valuable land are at all times in a water-logged and comparatively worthless state, and on every recurrence of a flood are laid entirely under water. In a preceding volume (see Agriculture) some account has already been given of the extent of this evil, and of the efforts that have been successfully devoted to its remedy. Some of these fen-lands and estuary drainage works have been accomplished in the face of natural obstacles of the most formidable character, and constitute trophies of engineering talent of which the country may well be proud. Great as the natural difficulties are which have to be encountered in such cases, there are others of a different kind which have often proved more impracticable. It has been found easier to exclude the sea and restrain land-floods, than to overcome the prejudices and reconcile the conflicting interests of navigation companies, commissioners of sewers, owners of mills, and landed proprietors. Although all these classes suffer the most serious losses and inconveniences from the defective state of many of our rivers, yet it is found extremely difficult to reconcile their conflicting claims, and to allocate to each their proper share of the cost of improvements by which all are to benefit. A most interesting and instructive illustration of the urgent necessity for improving the state of our rivers, of the difficulties to be encountered in doing so, and of the incalculable benefits thus to be obtained, has been published in an essay on Trunk Drainage by John Algernon Clarke, Esq., published in vol. xv., part 1st, of the Journal of the Royal Agricultural Society of England. Mr Clarke, after some most important observations on trunk drainage, describes in detail works projected under powers granted in an act of parliament, passed in 1852, “ constituting commissioners for the improvement of the river Nene and the navigation thereof.” There is not a district of the kingdom in which works similar in kind are not absolutely indispensable, before extensive tracts of valuable land can be rendered available for profitable cultivation by means of underground drainage. It is interesting to know that the necessity for trunk drainage, and the means of accomplishing it, were distinctly set before the public 200 years ago by a practical draining engineer, to whose writings the attention of the agricultural community has been frequently directed of late by Messrs Parkes, Gisborne, and others. From the third edition (1652) of The Improver Improved, by Walter Blithe, the author referred to, in which the true principles of land drainage are stated as distinctly, and urged as earnestly, as by any of our modern writers, we here quote the following remarks :— “ A strait watercourse, cut a considerable depth, in a thousand parts of this nation, would be more advantageous than we are aware of, or I will task myself here to dispute further. And though many persons are interested therein, and some will agree, and others will oppose; one creek lyeth on one side of the river, in one lord's manor, and another lyeth on the other side, and divers men own the same ; why may not one neighbour change with another, when both are gainers? If not, why may they not he compelled for their own good, and the commonwealth's advantage ? I daresay thousands of acres ot very rich land may hereby be gained, and possibly as many more much amended, that are almost destroyed ; but a law is wanting herein for the present, which I hope will be supplied if it may appear advancement to the public; for to private interests it is not possible to be the least prejudice, when every man hath benefit, and each man may also have an equall allowance if the least prejudiced. “ But a word or two more, and so shall conclude this chapter—and

h s T t,hat 'vr.ll«r of th'! » “"“l attention to the means above indicated of ventilating house drains the T "minaTv CriesSrSkn-'Ilo ”?eto ‘•“T lemnity and splendour, on the 25th of January 1502. Under this supposition, we can have little hesitation in believing that Dunbar was the person then styled the Rhymer of Scotland, who received L.6. 13s. 4d. in reward from Henry VII. on the 31st of December 11501, and a similar sum on the 7th of January following.” He speaks of his long and faithful services to the king, and of his having been employed in many foreign countries, in England, Ireland, France, Spain, Italy, and Germany. Mr Laing conjectures, perhaps with sufficient probability, that in these extensive peregrinations he was attached to diplomatic missions, in which his knowledge of Latin and French might be available to persons of higher rank and inferior learning. On the 17th of March 1504, or, according to our present computation, 1505, Dunbar for the first time said mass in the king’s presence; and on that occasion he received a gratuity of seven French crowns, which was a larger sum than the king usually allotted for a priest’s first My advocat, bayth fair and svveit, The hale rejosing of my spreit, mass. At the term of Martinmas 1507 his pension was Wald speid in to my errandis than, encreased to twenty pounds; and on the 26th of August And ye war anis Johne Themsounis man. 1510 it was encreased to eighty pounds, to be paid during, Whether Dunbar’s advancement was in any degree re- his life, or until he should be promoted to a benefice of tarded by his own imprudence, can only be conjectured. the yearly value of one hundred pounds or upwards. How The clergy of that age do not appear to have been gene- long he enjoyed this pension, and whether he ever exchan-2 rally promoted for their piety or learning; and so very ged it for a” benefice, no research has yet ascertained. moderate was the ordinary standard of external decency, On the 9th of September 1513 the king perished at Flodmay be some reason to apprehend that it must only have been the most gross and flagrant don-field ; and there r profligacy that could operate as a disqualification for pre- that his interest w as not unaffected by that fatal event. ferment. It must however be acknowledged that some From one of his poems, written “ quhen the Governour of his strains are highly reprehensible: his compositions past into France,” it is evident that he must have survivare occasionally tinctured with expressions which we can- ed for several years. John duke of Albany, regent of the not but regard as grossly indecent and profane ; one of his kingdom, sailed for France in June 1517, again in Octoaddresses to the queen is such as might offend a modern ber" 1522, and finally in May 1524 ; nor can we safely decourtezan ; the more solemn observances of the church he cide to which of those three voyages the poet refers. It has converted into topics of ridicule ; the litanies are bur- is at least certain that he was dead in the year 1530, lesqued in a parody which is not easily to be paralleled when Sir3 David Lindsay composed his Complaynt of the for its profanity. But it is more than probable that such Papingo. He describes himself as having attained loan indecent levities excited little or no disgust in his con- advanced age ; nor does he appear to have been so unwise temporaries : the age was not distinguished by any un- as to continue his levities to the utmost verge of life; secommon share of piety, nor had it attained to that degree veral of his poems are written in a moral and religious of refinement which frequently secures a certain osten- strain, not unbecoming an aged priest. The poems of Dunbar are numerous and miscellaneous, sible decorum, a decent appearance of virtue, where virtue itself is not to be found. To whatever cause his fail- but none of them extends to any considerable length. ure may be attributed, there is reason to suspect that he Fie evidently unites a brilliant imagination with an elenever obtained a benefice. But we learn from the public gant taste; nor is he less conspicuous for his skill in the records that he was indebted to the king for a regular pen- mechanical part of poetry. The elasticity of his mind sion, as well as for occasional grants of money. The re- and the versatility of his talents enabled him to arrive at gister of the privy seal, 15th August 1500, mentions a eminence in different departments of composition : his yearly pension of ten pounds, payable at Whitsuntide and allegorical poems display a rich and fertile invention ; and Martinmas, to “ Maister William Dunbar for all the dayis he is equally distinguished for his powers of description of his life,” or until he should be promoted by the king to and satirical humour. His diction is of ten remarkable for a benefice of the yearly value of forty pounds or upwards. its terseness and forcible simplicity ; but it is not always It appears from the treasurer’s accounts that the payment free from the vicious and pedantic phraseology with which due at Martinmas 1501, was deferred on account of his the English poetry of that period is so deeply infected. being then in England ; and it has been considered as Dr Nott observes that Dunbar, “ a poet of a rich and “ probable that he accompanied the ambassadors who were lively fancy, and possessing great natural command of lansent to England to conclude the negociations for the guage,” was nevertheless induced to use such pedantic king’s marriage in October 1501; and that he remained to diction as occurs in the opening of his beautiful moral

DUN 246 Dunbar. later compositions, that those hopes had been completely frustrated. “ Why shouldst thou,” says the desponding poet, “ be induced to hope for preferment, when an Italian impostor finds means to thrust himself into the chair of an abbot ? How the affairs of the church are managed, I know not ; but assuredly its benefices are not distributed with an impartial hand. Wdiile some enjoy seven, I am not possessed of one; and some, unworthy as they are to fill a stab, would fain climb to the rank of cardinal, a bishopric being too mean an object for their ambition.” He addressed some stanzas to the king when many benefices were vacant; he frequently renewed his petition, and frequently complained that his life was suffered to wear away in fruitless expectation. From the wish which he expresses “ To the King, that he war Johne Thomsounis Man,” it may be inferred that Queen Margaret was anxious to promote his interest: the tenor of his prayer is, that the king were more subservient to the wishes of his consort.

1 2

Laing’s Memoirs of Dunbar, p. 20. “ The treasurer’s accounts from the 8lh of August 1513 (a month previous to the battle of Floddon) to the 2ftth of January 1515, which might have thrown some light on the subject, have not been preserved; and in those from that date to the 4th of September 1518 (from which time to the 5th of June 1522 there is another blank in the series) there is no mention of Dunbars name. We ^annot therefore discover the date of the last payment of his pension; but although we now lose all trace of his name, it by no means follows that his pension was entirely withdrawn : it might either have been transferred to some other branch of the royal revenue, or the poet might at last have been promoted to a benefice, when consequentlv his pension would cease.” (Laing’s Memoirs of Dunbar, p. 34.) The treasurer’s accounts, 1st April 1513, mention a payment to Dunbar of so small a sum as fortytwo shillings. » Lindsay’s Works, vol. i. p. 285.

D UNBAR. 247 Dunbar, poem, entitled the Goldyn Targe.1 He has employed a ven and hell. Mahoun, or the devil, proclaims a dance of Dunbar, great variety of measures; and his versification, when those wretches who have died without absolution ; he comcompared with that of his most eminent contemporaries mands them to prepare a mummery, and to “ kast up gain both kingdoms, will in general appear highly ornamen- mountis” according to the newest French fashion. The ted and poetical. seven Deadly Sins immediately present themselves, and Mr Ellis, after having quoted three of his shorter are each accompanied by a select band of votaries. Pride poems, subjoins the following remarks: “ In these spe- is with evident propriety represented as leading the dance, cimens we see much good sense and sound morality, ex- and is dressed in the first fashion of that period : his hair pressed with force and conciseness. This indeed is Dun- is thrown back, his bonnet is placed on one side of the bar’s peculiar excellence. His style, whether grave or head, and his gown flows to his heels in ample folds. humorous, whether simple or ornamented, is always enerLat se, quoth he, now quha begynnis : getic; and though all his compositions cannot be expectWith that the fowll sevin Deidly Synnis ed to possess equal merit, we seldom find in them a weak Begowth to leip at anis. 2 And first of all in dance was Pryd, or redundant stanza.” The accomplished historian of With hair wyld back, and bonet on syd, English poetry likewise mentions him with no faint apLyk to mak vaistie wanis; probation. “ I am of opinion,” says Mr Warton, “ that And round abowt him, as a quheill, the imagination of Dunbar is not less suited to satirical Hang all in rumpillis to the heill than to sublime allegory; and that he is the first poet His kethat for the nan is. who has appeared with any degree of spirit in this way Mony prowd trumpour with him trippit; Throw skaldand fyre ay as thay skippit, since Pierce Plowman. His Thistle and Rose and GoldThay gyrnd with hyddouss granis. en Terge are generally and justly mentioned as his capital works: but the natural complexion of his genius is of This group is succeeded by holy harlots; but Mahoun and the moral and didactic cast.”3 But, subjoins Mr Pinker- the other fiends are not much entertained till a company ton, “ this remark must not be taken too strictly. The of priests present their shaven crowns. Goldin Terge is moral, and so are many of his small Heilie harlottis on hawtane wyiss pieces; but humour, description, allegory, great poetical Come in with mony sindrie gyiss, genius, and a vast wealth of words, all unite to form the Bot yit luche nevir Mahoun, complexion of Dunbar’s poetry. He unites in himself, Quhill priestis come in with bair schevin nekkis: Than all the feyndis lewche and maid gekkis, and generally surpasses, the qualities of the chief old Black-belly and Bawsy-Broun. English poets; the morals and satire of Langland, Chaucer’s humour, poetry, and knowledge of4 life, the allegory Anger, who next makes his appearance, is very forcibly of Gower, the description of Lydgate.” described in a single distich. But the most striking proofs of his genius are certainly Than Yre come in with sturt and stryfe, to be found in his two allegorical poems. The Thrissill His hand wes ay upoun his knyfe. and the Rois was composed in celebration of the nuptials of James the Fourth and Margaret Tudor; an event pro- He is attended by a band of ruffians, who follow in pairs, all ductive of very important consequences to both kingdoms, equipped for war; and, as they move along, they frequentinasmuch as it ultimately led to that happy union which ly wound each other with swords and knives. The train the nature of the territory and the kindred origin of the of Anger is followed by that of Envy. He is attended by people rendered so suitable and so desirable. In the plan of many a dissembler, flatterer, and back-biter, with “ rownthis poem Dunbar displays boldness of invention and beau- aris offals lesingis,” or whisperers of lies ; from whom the ty of arrangement; and some particular passages are re- poet cannot avoid expressing his regret that the courts of markable for their strength and even beauty of colouring. princes are never free. The next prominent figure in the The Goldyn Targe, which is written in a different stanza, dance is Covetousness, who is accompanied by catives, is another allegorical poem of nearly equal merit. The wretches, usurers, and hoarders of wealth. From their golden targe, or the shield of reason, is found an insuffi- throats they discharge at each other torrents of molten cient protection against the assaults of the train of love. gold; and when this ammunition is exhausted, the fiends Some of his short poems, of a serious character, are replenish them with the same metal. likewise to be distinguished from the ordinary composiNixt him in dans come Cuvatyce, tions of that period. The stanzas bearing the title of llute of all evill, and grund of vyce, Learning vain without guid Lyfe possess superior merit as That nevir cowd be content: Catyvis, wrechis, and ockeraris, a moral descant. His Meditatioun in Wyntir is also to Hud-pykis, hurdaris, and gadderaris, be classed among the best of his serious pieces: some of All with that warlo went. the stanzas are beautiful and pathetic; and they may all Out of thair throttis thay schot on udder be perused with more than common interest as the soliHett moltin gold me thocht a fudder, tary musings of neglected genius. As fyre-flawcht maist fervent; Nor are his satirical less remarkable than his serious Ay as thay tumit thame of schot, Feyndis fild thame new up to the thrott productions. His poem entitled the Dance of the sevin With gold of allkin prent. Deidly Synnis presents many admirable strokes of comic and grotesque description. On the eve of Lent, the poet Sloth, after being twice called, joins unwillingly in the falls into a trance, and is presented with a glimpse of hea- dance, attended by many suitable companions. He drags 1 2 3

Nott’s Dissertation on the State of English Poetry before the Sixteenth Century, p. cxci. Ellis’s Specimens of the Early English Poets, vol. i, p. 385. Warton’s History of English Poetry, vol. iii. p. 10!). 4 Pinkerton’s List of the Scotish Poets, p. xciv—>• It is evident,” says Dr Drake, “ that a union of talents of this wide range must necessarily be ot rare occurrence ; nor can we wonder that a century should elapse before a poet in any high degree approaching the genius of Chaucer made his appearance in our island. Not indeed until Dunbar arose in the sister kingdom, had we another instance ot the combination ot first-rate abilities for humour and comic painting, with an equally powerful command over the higher regions of fiction and imagination.” (Mornings in Spring, vol ii. p. 4. Lond. 1828, 2 vols. 8vo.)

■a a

DUNBAR. 248 Dunbar. Dunbar. tliGm alonsj witli a cliairi) and IBclial lasliGS tlicrn on tliG morning of June, the poet walks by a goodly garden, and, on hearing the sound of voices, is induced to look through loins; but "their motion is nevertheless so tardy, that they are occasionally roused by being scorched in fire. The the lofty hedge, when he perceives three ladies seated in succeeding group consists of Lust and his loathsome train ; a preen arbour, and regaling themselves with wine: he he snorts like a stallion, is led by Idleness, and is attend- secretly listens to their conversation, of which he professed by many foul associates who have died in their sins. es to give a faithful report. As the wine circulates, they When they engage in the dance, their visages become as become more communicative, and, at the suggestion of the red as the turkis stone. The foul monster Gluttony next widow, they successively detail their experience of a marpresents himself, followed by many a drunkard and prodi- ried life. The sentiments which they utter, are as profligal. When they become clamorous for drink, the fiends gate as can well be imagined; and it is to be hoped that drench them with melted lead. All these terrific exhibi- Dunbar did not intend this as a general representation of tions might have been expected to satisfy Mahoun him- the ladies of his own age and nation. Two of his satirical poems relate to a certain Italian, self ; but he is nevertheless pleased to close the entertainnamed John Damian, on whom James the Fourth had bement with a Highland pageant. stowed the abbacy of Tungland in Galloway. This advenThan crvd Mahoun for a Heleand padyane, turer appears to have been an empiric and an impostor, Syne ran a feynd to feche Makfadyane, and to have persuaded the king that he had discovered Far northwart in a nuke : the secret of converting baser metals into gold; nor is it Be he the correnoch had done schout, surprising that Dunbar should feel some degree of indigErsche men so gadderit him abowt, In hell grit roume thay tuke. nation on seeing high preferment bestowed upon such a Thae tarmegantis, with tag and tatter, person. The abbot having failed to produce the promised Full lowd in Ersche begowth to clatter, gold, made a still more desperate attempt to maintain his And rowp lyk revin and ruke. reputation as an adept in science and art: he provided himThe devill sa devit wes with thair yell, self with a pair of wings, and appointed a particular day That in the depest pot of hell He smorit thame with smuke. for taking his flight from the walls of Stirling castle; Dunbar’s tale of “ The twa maryit Wemen and the We- when the day arrived, he indeed plunged from the ramdo” presents us with the only specimen of blank verse part, but instead of mounting in the air, he fell to the which the ancient Scotish language affords. The rhythm mound, and broke his thigh-bone. These anecdotes do is of that species which the author of Piers Plowman, or not rest on the authority of a satirical poet, for this must some of his predecessors, borrowed from the Anglo-Saxon commonly be regarded as a very dubious authority; but related by Bishop Lesley in his poets, and which appears to have derived its origin from they are circumstantially 2 a remote era. It was employed by the Islandie as well as history of that reign ; and the one account may so far be by the Anglo-Saxon poets, and was constructed with some considered as a confirmation of the other, although the degree of nicety.1 Their lines are generally short, and poet has added many particulars of ludicrous exaggerathey do not rigorously confine themselves to a definite tion. Thus, according to Dunbar’s dream, he slew a friar number of syllables. Here alliteration supplies the place in Lombardy, in order to obtain possession of his habit; of rhyme ; the corresponding sounds are at the commence- and having ‘fled to France, he began to practise physic, ment, not at the termination of words. In two contiguous and in this way committed many new murders. Hie and connected lines there must be three words beginning course of his adventures at length conducted him to bcotwith the same letter; and, according to the strictest rule, land, where he followed his leechcraft with similar suctwo of those words ought to occur in the first, and the other cess. When raised to the dignity of a prelate, he was not ought to begin the second^ line. It was on such a model to be seen at mass; he did not appear at matins in his that Dunbar and the author of Piers Plowman constructed stole and scarf, but was generally to be found in Ins labotheir verses, though they have not observed all the niceties ratory, as sooty as a blacksmith. of their predecessors. In the editions, and indeed in the In lechecraft he was homocide; manuscripts of their respective poems, what is exhibited He wald haf for a nycht to byd, Ane haknay and the hurt mannis hyd, as a single verse is in reality a distich, and admits of a diSo mekle he was of myans. vision without any degree of violence. His irnis was rude as ony rauchtir, This work of Dunbar presents us with a lively though Quhar he leit blude it was no lauchtir,* indelicate picture of ancient manners, and is a very curious Full mony instrumentis for slauchtir relique of ancient poetry. Bishop Percy considers it as Was in his gardyvians. equal to one of the most humorous productions of Chaucer. He couth gif cure of laxatif, The peculiarity of the versification has compelled the auTo gar a wicht horse want his lyf; thor to adopt many uncouth terms; and accordingly the Quha evir assay wald, man or wyf, language of this tale is more difficult to be understood, Thar hippis yeid hiddy-giddy. His praktikis nevir war put to preif and appears more obsolete, than that of his other poems, Bot sudand deid, or gret mischeif; but his shrewdness of remark and strength of description He had purgacioun to mak a theif shine through the mist of obscure phraseology in which To de without a wedye. they are sometimes involved. Soon after midnight in a . • p. Hafnise 1636 4to. Olafsen om Nordens gamle Digtekonst, dens Grundregler, Yersarter, 1W T . T, * Woman.. Literatura Itunica, llasks Vejledning til det Islandske eller ga.nle Nordiske Sprog, S. 211. Sprog og Foredragsmaade, S. 5?. Kmbenha% n,17«o Stokholm, 1817, 8vo. Hickesii Grammatica Anglo-Saxomca, p. 195. Kiobenh. 1811, 8vo. Basks Angelsaksisk Sprogtere, S. 108. stokno , of A lo.Saxon Poetry, p. Ixv. Percy s 217. Bosworth’s Elements of Anglo-Saxon Grammar, ^ ^ Whitaker’s Introductory Discourse on P. Ploughman, Essay on the Metre of Pierce Plowmans Vision, itenques, p P" . . c oi- Tfomae 1578 4to “ Eadem tempestate rex (ut hoc quoque, quod vulgo non sine risu ^uc^que mmioratur^dkam^Itadum ”qiiendam,°cujus f£e\osennone ingemoque delectatus erat, abbatem Tunglandi, creavit. See likewise Lesley’s History of quiestoit medecin de la reyne, et de mon temps en Angleterre, il * Lors que mon frere fut en Escosse, i! n y aa oit qu u ,q ^ tondoient seulement.” (Scahgerana, n y avoit gueres de medecms. En Escosse un menuisiei &«ugiiuiw, j ^ p. 223 )

DUNBAR. 249 Bishop Douglas, who certainly did not fall below the comDunbur. Dunbar. Unto no mess preissit the prelat, ^ For sound of sacrying bell nor skellat; mon standard of clerical decorum, has not scrupled to beAs blak smyth brukit was his pellat, deck bis compositions with abundance of oaths. The vice For battiring at the study. of profane swearing at length arrived at so scandalous a Thocht he come hame a newe maid channoun, height as to require the interference of the legislature^ He had dispensit with matinnis cannoun ; and it was found necessary to extend the penalties to the On him come nothir stole nor fannoun, For smwking of the smedye. clergy as well as the laity : by an act of Q. Mary in 1551, His unfortunate flight is afterwards related in a very lu- a “ prelate of kirk,” earl, or lord, was to be fined in twelve dicrous manner. The abbot of Tungland has furnished pence for the first offence committed within the next three Dunbar with the subject of another poetical dream, which months; different penalties were apportioned to different contains one passage remarkable for the strength of its sa- ranks during the first year; and for the fourth offence committed after the expiration of that period, a prelate, tirical conception. earl, or lord was to be banished or imprisoned for the He sail ascend as ane horrible griphoun, space of a year and a day.2 Him meit sail in the air ane scho dragoun ; Dunbar has left some examples of a motley species of Thir terrible monsteris sail togidder thrist, composition, which at that period was not uncommon, and And in the cludis gett the Antechrist, Quhill all the air infeck of thair puysoun. in which shreds of different languages are fantastically Many of the comic and satirical compositions of Dun- combined. It does not strictly come under the denomibar are valuable memorials of ancient manners; and, if nation of macaronic poetry, in which Latin are mingled incapable of gratifying the reader of taste, they are at with vernacular words of Latin terminations, and in which least objects of curiosity to the antiquary. Of this de- the rules of 3prosody are observed with at least some description are the stanzas entitled the Devill’s Inquest; gree of care. The earliest macaronic poet is sometimes which strongly evince that our ancestors were grossly ad- supposed to have been Teofilo Folengo, a Benedictine dicted to profane swearing. “ It might,” as Dr Ogden monk, better known by the name of Merlinus4 Cocaius, remarks, “ puzzle a philosopher to trace the love of swear- who was born near Mantua in the year 1491. Of his ing to its original principle, and assign its place in the Macaronics the first edition bears the date of 1518; but constitution of man.” This vice is now regarded as a during the preceding century a work had appeared under characteristic of the vulgar, of those who are truly vulgar the title of “ Typhis Odaxii Patavini Carmen Macaroni5 in their habits and associations, whatever may be their cum de Patavinis quibusdam Arte magica delusis.” This model was followed by Folengo, and by Antonius Arena, external circumstances; but during the age of Dunbar, it seems to have been practised by all ranks and denomina- or Antoine du Sablon, a French lawyer; and these two tions. To swear like a Scot, was once a proverbial ex- are the most celebrated poets of this fantastic school. pression.1 In this general muster of swearers, the priest Among the Scotish poets they have found a few imitators, particularly Drummond and Dr Geddes. Dunbar has not takes precedence. adhered to the same model; without regarding the rules 3Ie thocht as he went throw the way, of prosody, he intermingles Latin with Scotish lines, and Ane priest sweirit braid, be God verey, produces an effect sufficiently ludicrous. Of this particuQuhilk at the alter ressavit he. lar mode of composition, much earlier specimens are to be Thou art my clerk, the devill can say, llenunce thy God, and cum to me. found; and Dante himself has written a canzone which

1 “ I have never been able to discover,” says Lord Hailes, “ from what cause our ancestors became so monstrously addicted to profane swearing. I remember Tom Brown some where uses, ‘ swear like a Scotsman,’ as a proverbial expression. There certainly must be a tradition on the continent, that the inhabitants of the whole island were apt to swear in common conversation ; for in Holland, the children, when they see any British people, say, ‘ there come the G—dams and the Portuguese, when they acquire a smattering of English, say, ‘ How do you do Jack, G— damn you ?’—Queen Elizabeth was a common swearer.” (Notes on Ancient Scottish Poems, p. 241.) Of the truth of one of these remarks we find a curious confirmation in the collection of Norman chansons subjoined to the “ Vaux-de-Vire d’Olivier Basselin.” Caen, 1821, 8vo. Mauldicte en soyt trestoute la lignye 1 Us ont charge 1’artellerye sus mer, Force bisquit et chascun ung bydon, Et par la mer jusq’ en Bisquaye aller Pour couronner leur petit roy Godon. Their little king G— damn was Henry the Sixth, who succeeded his father at a very tender age. The subsequent passage occurs in the works of Cretin, a Norman poet who wrote about the beginning of the sixteenth century. (Les Poesies de Guillaume Cretin, p. 168. Paris, 1723, 8vo.) Cryant qui vive aux Godons d’Angleterre. 2 Acts of the Parliaments of Scotland, vol. ii. p. 485. See likewise p. 482. 3 Dr Good has made the following remarks in reference to the English translators of Blainville’s Travels through Italy: “ When they tell us that macaronic poetry, which is a mixture of Italian and Latin words, possessing a Latin termination, ‘ is so called from its being supposed to resemble (as being a mixture) the Italian maccheroni, these being composed of flour, cheese, and butter’—they display a woeful ignorance of the subject they attempt to elucidate. Maccherone is a term in the Italian language, significative of a blockhead, an ignoramus, or in equivalent English a pudding-pated fellow : and Maccheronea (Macaronics) are obviously, therefore, burlesque imitations of the unclassical style of such writers.” (Memoirs of the Bev. Alexander Geddes, LL- D. p. 256. Lond. 1803, 8vo.) The style, of blockheads must generally be unclassical; but the origin of the term macaronic, as applied to this motley species of composition, is nevertheless very truly explained by the translators. For this explanation we have the authority of Folengo himself, who in the Apologetica prefixed to his Opus Macaronicorum speaks in the following manner: “ Ars ista poetica nuncupatur ars macaronica, a macaronibus derivata, qui macarones sunt quoddam pulmentum, farina, caseo, botiro compaginatum, grossum, rude, et rusticanum ; ideo macaronice nil nisi grassedinem, ruditatem, et vocabulazzos debet in se continere.” See likewise Menage’s Origini della Lingua Italiana, p. 301. *3 Tiraboschi, Storia della Letteratura Italiana, tom. vii. p. 1469. Morellii Bibliotheca Pinelliana, tom. ii. p. 456. Tiraboschi, tom. vii. p. 1468. Specimens of Macaronic Poetry, p. xi. Lond. 1831, 8vo VOL. VIII. 21

250 RUN Dunbar, contains a mixture of three languages, Latin, Romance, ■V"-'' and Italian. It concludes with the following lines : Chanson, vos pogues ir per tot le mond ; Namque locutus sum in lingua trina, Ut gravis mea spina Si saccia per lo mondo, ogn’ uomo il 1senta : Forse pieta n’ avrk chi mi tormenta. Skelton, the contemporary of Dunbar, has occasionally indulged in this vein of humour; and a poem of the same description occurs among the works of Dr Arbuthnot, though it has likewise been attributed to Meston. The following stanza, which forms the conclusion of Dunbar’s Testament of Kennedy, may be considered as a sufficient specimen. I will na priestis for me sing Dies ilia, dies irae,® Na yit na bellis for me ring, Sicut semper solet fieri; Bot a bag-pipe to play a spryng, Et unum ail wosp ante me; In stayd of baneris for to bring Quatuor lagenas cervisise, Within the graif to set sic thing In modum crucis juxta me, To fle the feyndis, than hardely sing De terra plasmasti me. The Flyting of Dunbar and Kennedy is an extraordinary effort of unrefined wit; and is at least sufficient to evince that the ancient Scotish tongue was not deficient in terms of abuse.3 Lord Hailes is inclined to believe that this altercation may have been a mere play of illiberal fancy, without any real quarrel between the antagonists; and this opinion he supposes to be confirmed by the affectionate manner in which Dunbar afterwards speaks of Kennedy, and of Quintin Shaw, who in this literary duel seems to have acted the part of Kennedy’s second. A similar altercation was maintained by Luigi Pulci and Matteo Franco ; although for the amusement cf their readers they loaded each other with the grossest abuse, yet the intimacy of their friendship is said to have continued without interruption.4 The example of Dunbar and Kennedy was followed by James the Fifth and Sir David Lindsay, and at a later period by Montgomery and Hume. It is not to be imagined that a king and one of his courtiers were engageci in actual hostilities; and in the verses prefixed to the “ Flyting betwixt Montgomery and Polwart,” it is expressly stated that their altercation was not the result of a real quarrel, but of w hat is there described as generous emulation. A comic tale, entitled the Freiris of Berwik, and possessing a large fund of genuine humour, seems to have been composed about the period to which our attention is now directed. Mr Pinkerton supposes it to have been written by Dunbar; but this opinion is founded on no historical evidence, nor can the internal evidence, of style and manner be considered as very striking or satisfactoiy. “ But this tale,” he remarks, “ cannot at any rate be above thirteen years later than Dunbar, who must have died

BAR. about 1525. In 1482, Berwick was wrested from Scot- Dunbar, land, and w'as ever after in the possession of the English. i * Now this poem speaks of all the monasteries as actually standing and flourishing while it was written; and it is well known that in 1535 Henry VIII. suppressed the lesser monasteries, and in 1539 the greater. It follows that this tale must, at all events, have been written before 1539.”5 But the poet, whoever he may have been, does not speak of the monasteries of Berwick as actually flourishing; he merely avers, that when the adventures took place, friars of the different orders w'ere not to seek, but were dwelling in the town. It is therefore evident that this chronological argument is by no means satisfactory, and that the tale may have been written after the suppression of the English monasteries. In the Freiris of Berwik, every reader acquainted with the poems of Allan Ramsay must recognize the original of the Monk and the Miller’s Wife; and we will venture to add that the ancient is greatly superior to the modern tale. Ramsay’s tale, says Lord Wroodhouselee, “ would of itself be his passport to immortality, as a comic poet. In this capacity he might enter the lists with Chaucer and Boccaccio, with no great risk of discomfiture. Though far their inferior in acquired address, his native strength was perhaps not widely disproportionate. Of this admirable tale, I conceive he has the merit of the invention; as the story is not to be found in any of the older writers, as Sachetti, Boccaccio, or in the Cento Novelle antiche. In a few circumstances there is indeed a small resemblance to the 73d of the Cent nouvelles Nouvelles, entitled ‘ L Oiseau en la Cage,’ which barely affords a presumption that Ramsay may have read that story; but in all the material circumstances, his Monk and the Miller’s Wife is original. A story of more festive humour could not have been devised. The characters are sustained with consummate propriety ; the manners are true to nature ; and poetic justice 6is most strictly observed in the winding up of the piece.” But whatever merit this comic tale may possess, it is evident that the praise of invention does not belong lo Ramsay: he had doubtless read the old Scotish tale in Bannatyne’s MS. from which he transcribed other poems less capable of arresting his attention. It may scarcely be worth while to remark that the ecclesiastic whom he introduces is a secular, a parish-priest, and is therefoie most improperly described as a monk, lhat the author of the Freiris of Berwik was likewise indebted to some preceding poet, may perhaps be considered as highly probable. In the collection of Le Grand d’Aussy there is a fabliau which exhibits some lineaments of the story. A poor clerk, after having studied at Paris, is returning homeward without any money in his pocket, and, on the approach of night, calls at a solitary house to entreat a lodging; but the farmer’s wife very unceremoniously refuses to shelter him during the absence of her husband. As he is leaving the house, he observes a servant bringing some wine in a basket; and at the same time the maid

1 Opere di Dante Alighieri, tom. iv. p. 342. ed. Yenezia, 1758, 4 tom. 4to—Rodrigo de Valdes, a Jesuit, has written a long and extraordinary poem, containing a mixture of Latin and Spanish, and entitled “ Poema heroyco Hispano-Latino panegynco de la Fundacion y Grandezas de la muy noble y leal Ciudad de Lima.” Madrid, 1(187, 4to. , j i ,, a brown or root-coloured ground may different proportions, according to the different processes. 1

VOL. VIII.

Stockholm Trans. 1753.

2Q

To diminish the quantity of galls, which are an expen- Simple Simple When the gum is dissolved, and the bath near the boiling Colours, temperature, it is left to settle for about an hour. The sive ingredient in dyeing silk black, other substances have Colours, proposed as substitutes. With this view the followsilk, which in general is previously divided into three been ing process is recommended. _ for calls. * parts, that each may be successively put into the bath, is "The silk being boiled and washed, is immersed in a immersed in it. Each part is then to be three times wrung, and after each wringing hung up to air. The silk strong decoction of green walnut peels, and allowed to rebeing thus exposed to the action of the air, acquires a main till the colouring matter of both is exhausted. 1 It is deeper shade. This operation being finished, the bath is then to be slightly wrung out, dried, and washed. lo again heated, with the addition of gum and sulphate of give the silk a blue ground, logwood and verdigris are iron ; and this is repeated two or three times, according employed, in the proportion of one ounce of the latter for as the black required is light or heavy. When the process every pound of silk. The verdigris is dissolved in cold of dyeing is finished, the silk is rinsed in a vessel with water, and the silk is allowed to remain two hours in this, solution. It is then immersed in a strong decoction of some cold water, by turning or shaking it over. Softening. Silk, after it has been taken out of the dye, is extreme- logwood, slightly wrung out, dried, and afterwards washed ly harsh, to remove which it is subjected to the operation at the river. The bath is prepared by macerating two of softening. A solution of four or five pounds of soap for pounds of galls and three of sumach in twenty-five gallons every hundred pounds of silk is poured through a cloth of water, over a slow fire, for twelve hours. The liquid into a vessel of water. The solution being completed, being strained, three pounds of sulphate of iron and the the silk is immersed, and allowed to remain in it for about same quantity of gum-arabic are to be dissolved in it. The silk is dipped in this solution at two different times ; fifteen minutes ; it is then to be wrung out and dried. Dveing When raw silk is to be dyed, that which has a natural it is to remain in the bath two hours each time, and it raw silk, yellow colour is preferred. The galling operation must be must be aired and dried between each dip. After being performed in the cold, if it be proposed to preserve the twice beetled at the river, it is dipped a third time, and whole of the gum, and the elasticity which it gives to the left in the bath four or five hours, after which it is to be. silk ; but if part only of the gum is wished to be preserv- dried, washed, and beetled, as before. The temperature of the bath should not exceed 120°. After the first dipping, ed, the galling is to be performed in the warm bath. The dyeing operation is also performed in the cold. it may be necessary to add half a pound of sulphate of All that is necessary is to add the sulphate of iron to the iron, and an equal quantity of gum-arabic. Silk which has been previously dyed blue with indigo, water in which the stuff is rinsed. By this simple process the black dye is communicated. It is then washed, once it is said, takes only a mealy black ; but when it has been or twice beetled, and dried without wringing, that its prepared with logwood and verdigris, it acquires a velelasticity may not be destroyed. Raw silk may be dyed vety lustre. A fine black may be obtained from green A speedier by a more speedy process. After galling, it may be turn- walnut peel; but the addition of logwood and verdigris process. eci or shaken over in the cold bath ; and thus, by alter- renders a smaller quantity of sulphate of iron necessary, nately dipping and airing the stuff, the operation may be and this is of importance, because it is apt to weaken the completed. It is then to be washed and dried, as in the silk. The only use of galls, according to some, is to increase the weight of the silk ; for tin; purposes of dyeing, former process. 2 Improved The method of dyeing velvet at Genoa, which has been sumach is considered sufficient. process for s;mplifiecl and improved in France, is thus described by IV.— Of the Processes for dyeing Cotton and Linen Black. velvet. Macquer. For every hundred pounds of silk, twenty pounds It is more difficult to communicate a fine black to linen Must be of Aleppo galls, reduced to powder, are boiled in a sufficient quantity of water for an hour. The bath is allowed or cotton than to silk or woollen stuffs. lo succeed, in to settle till the galls have fallen to the bottom ; they are producing a black colour of that degree of intensity which then taken out, and two pounds and a half of sulphuric will resist soap, it is necessary to adopt particular proacid, twelve pounds of iron filings, and twenty pounds of cesses. In dyeing animal matters black, as silk and wool, gum, are put into a copper vessel, or cullender, furnished the best colours are obtained on those which have been with two handles. This vessel is immersed in the bath, previously dyed blue. This also is an essential preliminary and supported that it may not touch the bottom. The process in dyeing linen and cotton black; for it is found gum, which is allowed to dissolve for an hour, is to be oc- that the process which succeeds best is first to give a deep casionally stirred; and if it appear that the whole of the blue grain to the cotton or linen. The first part of the process is the operation of galling. Galling. gum is dissolved, three or four pounds more are to be added. Excepting during the operation of dyeing, the The stuffs, which have been previously dyed blue, wrung cullender is to remain in the copper, which must be kept out, and dried, are kept twenty-four hours in the gall hot the whole time, but at a temperature below the boil- liquor, composed of four ounces of galls to every pound of ing point. In galling the silk, one third of Aleppo galls thread. A bath is then prepared of a solution of iron in is employed, and the stuff should remain six hours in the acetic acid. This solution is obtained by saturating the liquor the first time, and twelve hours the second. By acid with oxide of iron. In France, vinegar, small beer, frequent additions of sulphate of iron, and repeated im- or small wine, is employed for this purpose, do promote mersions of the stuff, a fine black, according to Lewis, has. the acid fermentation, rye meal, or some other substance, been obtained. In the above process, the proportion of is added, and pieces of old iron are thrown into the liquid, sulphate of iron is too small; and the gum, according to which are allowed to remain for six weeks or two months, some, being carried off in the washing, may be considered that the acid may be saturated with the iron. This soluas useless. Berthollet thinks, that although the quantity tion, called iron liquor in this country, is prepared from be excessive, it has some effect in keeping up the bath ; fermented worts, to which old iron is added, as is describand he adds, if it is to be diminished, it would be useful ed above. Five quarts of the iron liquor for every pound to add the sulphate of iron in separate portions during of stuffs are put into a vessel. In this the stuffs are Dyeingwrought with the hand, pound by pound, for fifteen mieach interval. 1 The decoction of walnut peels is prepared by boiling for fifteen minutes, after which it is taken from the fire. After it has subcirloH tVio cilL- which has been previously immersed in iki warm warTYi water, urnfdr is ic dipped HirmpH in it. * Berthollet, l>GrtllOil0t« ii. 20. sided, the silk,

Simple Colours.

Another process.

Preparationofsolution of lron '

Its application.

Walnut peels.

DYEING. 307 colour. When the inner part of the peel, taken fresh, is Simple nutes; they are then wrung out and aired. This operation is to be again repeated, taking care to add a fresh put into weak oxymuriatic acid, it assumes a brown colour. Colours. quantity of the iron liquor, which should be carefully If the decoction of walnut peels be filtered and exposed scummed, after which the stuffs are to be wrung out, air- to the air, its colour becomes of a deep brown ; the pellied, and washed at the river. In the next operation, a cles on evaporation are almost black; the liquor detached pound of alder bark for every pound of stuff is boiled in a from these yields a brown extract, completely soluble in sufficient quantity of water for an hour. One half of the water. The colouring particles are precipitated from a bath which was employed in the galling, and about one decoction of walnut peels by means of alcohol, and they half the quantity of sumach as of alder bark, are then are soluble in water. No apparent change is at first proadded. The whole is boiled together for two hours, and duced by a solution of potash ; but it gradually becomes strained through a sieve. When this liquid is cold, the turbid, and the colour is deepened. A copious precipitate, stuffs are immersed, wrought pound by pound, and occa- of a fawn colour, approaching to an ash colour, is produsionally aired. They are afterwards put into the bath, ced in a decoction of walnut peels, by means of a solution and, after remaining for twenty-four hours, are wrung out of tin, and the remaining liquor has a slightly yellow tinge. A decoction of walnut peels yields a small quantity of Properties, and dried. The above is tbe process which, according to D’Apligny, is followed at Rouen for dyeing cotton and fawn-coloured precipitate by means of a solution of alum, and the liquor remains of the same colour. Sulphate of linen. The process followed at Manchester, which is describ- copper renders it slowly turbid, and throws down a small ed by Mr Wilson, is the following. For the operation of quantity of precipitate of a brownish-green colour, leaving galling, galls or sumach are employed. The stuff is after- the supernatant liquor of the same colour. Sulphate of wards dyed in a bath consisting of a solution of iron in iron deepens the colour; when diluted, the colour beacetic acid. This bath is also frequently composed of al- comes brownish green, without the deposition of any seder bark and iron. After having passed through this bath, diment. Sulphate of zinc also deepens the colour, and the stuff’is dipped in a decoction of logwood, to which a produces no precipitate. The same properties are exsmall quantity of verdigris has been added. This process hibited by a decoction of the walnut-tree wood, but the is to be repeated till a black of sufficient intensity is ob- colouring matter is not obtained from it in such abundance as from the peels; and the bark may also be used with tained, observing to wash and dry after each operation. According to Guhlicbe, a solution of iron may be pre- advantage in dyeing. pared by the following process. A pound of rice is to be The affinity of the colouring matter of walnut peels forAdvanboiled in twelve or fifteen quarts of water, till the whole wool is very strong ; and it readily imparts to it a durable tages. is dissolved. A sufficient quantity of old iron made red colour, which even mordants do not seem capable of inhot, to reach half way to the surface of the liquor, is creasing, but they are generally understood to give it adthrown into the solution. The vessel in which the solu- ditional brightness. A lively and very rich colour is obtion is kept must be under cover, but exposed to the air tained with the assistance of alum. Walnut peels afford and light, at least for a week. In another vessel, contain- a great variety of pleasing shades ; and as they require ing a quantity of warm vinegar equal to the solution of not the intervention of mordants, the softness of the wool rice, an equal quantity of red-hot iron is to be put. This is preserved, and the process of dyeing becomes both vessel must also be exposed in the same way to the air cheap and simple. Walnut peels are not gathered till the nuts are com- Preparaand light. After several days, the contents of both vessels are mixed together, and the mixture is to be exposed pletely ripe, when they are put into large casks, along tioa for a week to the open air, after which it is to be decant- with as much water as is sufficient to cover them. When ed and kept for use in a close vessel. To give a sufficient used in dyeing at the Gobelins in Paris, Berthollet inblack to linen and cotton, it is only necessary, it is said, forms us, they are kept for upwards of a year, and very to steep them twenty-nine hours in this solution; and if extensively used ; but if not made use of till the end of it should appear that the liquor is exhausted of colouring two years, they yield a greater quantity of colouring matmatter, a fresh portion is to be employed. In this way a ter, at which time their odour has become peculiarly disfine permanent black is obtained. According to the same agreeable and fetid. The peels separated from the nuts author, this solution may be advantageously employed as before they arrive at maturity, may likewise be used in a substitute for sulphate of iron, in dyeing silk and wool. dyeing, but in this state they do not keep so long. Sumach (jhus coriaria, Lin.) is a shrub produced na-Sumach, But to give them a fine black, silk and woollen stuffs must be dipped in a decoction of logwood after they are taken turally in Palestine, Syria, Portugal, and Spain, being carefully cultivated in the last two of these countries. Its from the bath. shoots are annually cut down, dried, and reduced to powder in a mill, by which process they are prepared for Sect. V.— Of Brown. the purposes of dyeing. The infusion of sumach, which is of a fawn colour with Properties, The last of the simple colours is brown. This is also known under the name of fawn colour (fauve, Fr.). It is a greenish tinge, is changed into a brown by exposure to that brown colour which has a shade of yellow, and might the air. A solution of potash has little action on the reperhaps be considered as a compound colour, although it cent infusion of sumach ; its colour is changed to yellow by the action of acids ; the liquor becomes turbid by is communicated to stuff’s by one process. means of alum, a small quantity of precipitate being at the I.— Of the Substances employed in Dyeing Brown. same time formed, and the supernatant liquor remaining The vegetable substances which are capable of indu- yellow. A copious precipitate of a yellowish-green colour cing a fawn or brown colour on different stuffs are very is thrown down by sulphate of copper, and the liquor renumerous, but those chiefly employed for this purpose mains clear. No change is speedily produced by muriate are walnut peels and sumach. The peels constitute the of soda (common salt), but it becomes rather turbid at the green covering of the nut; they are internally of a white end of some hours, and its colour is rather clearer. Sulcolour, which is converted into brown or black by expo- phate of copper produces a copious precipitate of a yellowsure to the air. The skin, when impregnated with the ish green, which after standing some hours changes to a juice of walnut peels, becomes of a brown or almost black brownish green ; the supernatant liquor, which is slightly

308 DYE Simple yellow, remains clear. Sulphate of zinc renders the liquor Colours, turbid, darkens its colour, and produces a deep blue precipitate ; but when the sulphate of zinc is pure, the precipitate, which is of a brownish fawn colour, is in very small quantity. Acetate of lead gives a copious precipitate of a yellowish colour ; the supernatant liquor is of a clear yellow colour. No astringent has so strong a resemblance to galls as sumach; but the precipitate thrown down from an infusion of it by a solution of iron, is not so copious as that which is yielded by an equal quantity of galls, on which account sumach may be generally employed as a substitute for galls, only its quantity will require to be increased. Bark of The bark of the birch tree (betula alba, Lin.) yields a birch. decoction of a clear fawn colour, but it soon becomes turbid and brown. The addition of a solution of alum, in the open air, produces a copious yellow precipitate; a solution of tin gives also a copious precipitate of a clear yellow colour. With solutions of iron the decoction of the birch tree strikes a black colour, and it dissolves in considerable quantity the oxide of iron, but in smaller proportion than the "decoction of walnut peels. On account of this property, it is employed in the preparation of black vats for dyeing thread. Sandal Sanders or sandal wood (Petrocarpus sachtalinus) is also wood. employed for the purpose of giving a fawn colour. There are three kinds of sandal wood, the white, the yellow, and the red. The last only, which is a compact heavy wood, brought from the Coromandel coast, is used in dyeing. By exposure to the air it becomes of a brown colour; when employed in dyeing, it is reduced to fine powder, and it yields a fawn colour with a brownish shade, inclining to red. But the colouring matter which it yields of itself is in small quantity, and it is said that it gives harshness to woollen stuffs. When it is mixed with other substances, as sumach, walnut peels, or galls, the quantity of colouring matter is increased ; it gives a more durable colour, and produces considerable modifications in the colouring matter with which it is mixed. Sandal wood yields its colouring matter to brandy, or diluted alcohol, more readily than to water. Soot. Soot communicates to woollen stuffs a fawn or brown colour, of a lighter or deeper shade, in proportion to the * quantity employed; but the colour is fading, and its affinity for wool is not great; and besides leaving a disagreeable smell, it renders the fibres harsh. In some manufac* tories it is employed for browning certain colours, and it produces shades which could not otherwise be easily obtained. II.— Of the Processes for dyeing Woollen, fyc. a Fawn or Brown Colour. With wal- In dyeing with walnut peels, a quantity proportioned to nut peels. t]ie quantity of stuff, and the intensity of shade wanted, is boiled for fifteen minutes in a copper. All that is necessary in dyeing with this substance is, to moisten the cloth or yarn with warm water previous to its immersion in the copper, in which it is to be carefully stirred till it has acquired the proper shade. This is the process it the aluminous mordant is not employed. In dyeing cloth, it is usual to give the deepest shades first, and the lighter ones afterwards ; but in dyeing woollen yarn, the light shades are given first, and the deeper ones afterwards. An additional quantity of peels is joined to each parcel. BertholBerthollet made a number of experiments to ascertain let’s expe- the difference of colour obtained from the simple decocnments. 1

Elements of Dyeing, if. 296.

I N G. tion of walnut peels, and the addition of metallic oxides Compound as mordants. The oxide of tin, he found, yielded a clearer Colours, and brighter fawn colour than that of the simple decoction. The oxide of zinc produced a still clearer colour, inclining to ash or gray. The colour from oxide of lead had an orange cast, while that from oxide of iron was of a greenish brown.1 A fawn colour, which has a shade of green, is obtained Dyeing from sumach alone ; but to cotton stuffs which have been^^saimpregnated with printers’ mordant, or acetate of alumina, sumach communicates a good and durable yellow. Here, however, some precaution is necessary in the use of this substance for this purpose ; for as the colouring matter is of so fixed a nature, the ground of the stuff cannot be bleached by exposure on the grass. This inconvenience is avoided by impregnating the whole of the stuff with different mordants, producing in this way a variety of colours, and leaving no part white. Vogler employed the tincture of sanders wood for dye-With saning patterns of wool, silk, cotton, and linen, having previ-dal wood, ously impregnated them with a solution of tin, and afterwards washing and drying them. Sometimes he used the solution unmixed, and at other times added six or ten parts of water, and in whatever way he empk^ed it he obtained a poppy colour. When the mordant employed was the solution of alum, the colour was a rich scarlet; with sulphate of copper it was a clear crimson, and with sulphate of iron a beautiful deep violet.2 CHAPTER V. OF COMPOUND COLOUKS. A mixture of two colouring substances, it is well known, Nature of produces a very different shade from that of either of the colouiS compound uncombined colouring matters; hence compound colours * are obtained, which are merely mixtures of simple colours. It would undoubtedly be a desirable thing to ascertain with accuracy the peculiar shade produced by the combination of two colouring matters ; but these results can only be certainly known by experiment, because by the action of different substances in the bath they are subject to great variations in their effects, according to the affinities which are brought into action, and the new combinations which are formed. W’hat is natural to colouring particles is not to be considered as a constituent part of compound colours, but only the difference of shade which they ought to assume with a particular mordant, or in a particular bath. The effects, therefore, of the chemical agents employed in these processes, and the result of different combinations, ought to be particularly attended to. It is in dyeing compound colours that skill and ingenuity are most conspicuous, and their application of greatest utility, to enable the dyer to vary his processes according to the shade desired, and at the same time to accomplish his operations by the shortest and cheapest means. As compound colours are obtained by the mixture of^re3t y,3* simple colours, very different shades will be obtained from1-^^0 different proportions of the simple colours; hence compound colours exhibit an indefinite variety of shade, and the processes by which they are produced are very numerous. It would extend this treatise to an unusual length were we to attempt to describe every variety of shade which is obtained from the mixture of simple colours. We shall therefore limit our observations to some of the principal 5

Crell. Ann. 1790

309 DYEING. in the same way as for dyeing yellow, with this difference, Compound Compound compound colours, and an account of the processes by Colours, which they are obtained, leaving it to our readers, who that a larger proportion of weld is employed, excepting for Coloiirs.^ have made themselves familiar with the principles already lighter shades, when the proportion must be smaller. In detailed, to vary these colours by employing different pro- dyeing green, it is usual to have a succession of shades at portions and different combinations of simple colouring the same time ; the process is begun with the deepest and ends with the lightest. Between each dip there should be matters. Compound colours have been usually divided into four an interval of one half or three quarters of an hour, and at classes, namely, green, purple, orange, and gray or drab each interval water is added to the bath. It is the praccolour. These are obtained from mixtures of the follow- tice of some dyers to give each parcel two dips, beginning the first time with the deep shades, and the second with ing simple colours: the lighter ones ; but when this practice is followed, the 1. Blue and yellow produce a green. time of immersion should be shortened. In dyeing very 2. Red and blue produce a purple, y t ic olowing process, described by Decroizille, a durable dye is produced by means of this wood. He dissolved tin in sulphuric acid, to which were added common salt, red acidulous tartrite of potash, and sulphate of copperor it may be more conveniently done by making a solution of t'n in a mixture of sulphuric acid, common salt, and water, to which are to be added the tartrite and sulphate in the state of powder. Of this mordant not less than ^ ^ made in twenty_four hours> in a leaden vessel to which a moderate heat was applied, A very lu-

crative trade was carried on for three years by Decroizille, who sold it at the rate of Is. 3d. steiling pei pound, If wool in the fleece is to be dyed, it vvill require a third Process, of its weight of this mordant, while a fifth is a proportion sufficient for stuffs. A bath is prepared of such a degree of temperature as the hand can bear, with which the mordant is properly mixed, and the wool or stuff dipped in it and stirred ; the same degree of temperature being kept up for two hours, and increased a little towards the end ; I.— Of dyeing Wool Violet, Purple, 8$c. after which it is taken out, aired, and well washed. A In the attempts which have been made to communicate fresh bath of pure water is prepared at the same tempea violet or purple colour to a scarlet ground, according to rature, to which is added a sufficient quantity of the dethe observations of Hellot, the colour is very unequal. It coction of logwood; the stuff is then immersed, stirred, becomes therefore necessary to give the blue colour first; and the heat Increased to the boiling temperature, which and for violets or purples, the shade of blue ought not to be is to be continued for fifteen minutes, after which, the deeper than that of sky blue. The stuff being dyed blue, stuff being taken out, aired, am,! carefully rinsed, the prois boiled with alum, and two fifths of tartar, and is after- cess of dyeing is completed. If for every three pounds of wards dipped in a bath composed of nearly two thirds wool one pound of decoction of logwood has been used, the quantity of cochineal required for scarlet, with the and a proportionate quantity for stuffs which require less, i i• of(' tartar. A 7 'I'M- _ same process, :indeed, 1 1 as ^ for dye- Oa fine G.-vr* violet colour ic is produced, to whipfl which aa SllmClPnt sufficient auanquanaddition The ing scarlet, is followed. It is a common practice to dye tity of Brazil wood imparts the shade known in France by these colours after the reddening for scarlet, making such the name of prune de Monsieur. Logwood and Brazil, fustic and yellow wood, are co-Different additions of cochineal and tartar as the intensity of the louring substances which may be fixed with advantage shades shade may require For lighter shades, as lilacs, dove-colours, &c. the stuff upon wool by means of this mordant. . Ihe colour com" substa'nces! Lilac, &c. may be dipped in the bath which has served for violet municated by the two first of these is liable to be changed and purple, and is now somewhat exhausted, taking care in the fulling by the action of the soap or urine employed to add a quantity of alum and tartar. For reddish shades, for that purpose; but this change, which is always prosuch as a peach-blossom, a small proportion of solution duced by alkaline substances, is remedied by a slightly of tin is added. It may be observed in general, that acid bath a little hot, called brightening, for which the although the proportion of cochineal is less in dyeing sulphuric acid has the preference. Ihe colour becomes - - the - quantity ■ of" tartar must not ■be dimi” • as deep, and frequently much brighter than before the lighter shades, change. Wools which have been dyed by means of this nished. Cheaper To obtain the same colours, a shorter and less expen- mordant are said to admit of being spun into a finer and andshorter sive process is recommended by Poerner. In this process more beautiful thread than by the use of alum. It the process, he employs sulphate - .. of-.indigo. He boils the stuff in a so- use of sulphate of copperas omitted, more beautiful colution of alum, in the proportion of three ounces of the lours are produced by fustic and yellow wood, as well as latter to one pound of the former, for an hour and a half, by weld. An orange-red colour is communicated by madand afterwards allows it to remain in the liquid for a night der, but not so deep as with a similar quantity of a um. after it has cooled. The dyeing bath is prepared with an When sulphate of copper is omitted, the wool is said to ounce and a half of cochineal, and two ounces of tartar, become much harsher, and the mordant thus prepared which are boiled for three quarters of an hour; two ounces yields but indifferent colours with logwood, and in paitiand a half of sulphate of indigo are then added, the whole cular with Brazil wood. Ihe use and carriage of das moiis stirred, and boiled gently for fifteen minutes. The dye- dant are inconvenient, on account of the heavy sediment ing operation is conducted in the usual way, and a beau- by which the vessel is half filled under a coriosive liquor, tiful violet is thus obtained. To have all the variety of capable only of being kept in stone ware. Ihese xnconshades which are produced by the mixture of red and venieuces may be remedied by the omission of the water blue, the proportion of the sulphate of indigo is increased in the receipt, which leaves only a paste more conveor diminished. It is sometimes increased to five ounces, niently used, and the carriage of it two fifths cheaper. The above process is thus explained by Berthollet. The Nature of and diminished to five drachms, for each pound of stuff. The quantity of cochineal is also varied, but when it is decomposition of the muriate of soda is effected by the theprocess. less than an ounce the colour is dull. Different proportions action of the sulphuric acid; and the muriatic acid being of tartar are also employed. To produce variety of shades, thus disengaged, dissolves the tin, part of which is precithe stuff is also prepared with different proportions of so- pitated by means of the tartaric acid, producing the sediment already mentioned. The oxide of copper produces of tin. Purple lution To communicate a purple colour to wool, as well as the blue with the colouring particles of the logwood; the from logsome other shades, logwood, with the addition of galls, violet is formed by the oxide of tin with the same wood, wood.

DYEING. 312 duced to powder, with a drachm of tartar, and the remain-Compound Compound and the red with the colouring matter of the Brazil wood. ing part of the bath, which has answered the purpose of a Colours. The same ingenious chemist farther observes, that as an mordant, with the addition of a sufficient quantity of waexcess of acid is retained in the liquor, it might probably ter. When slightly boiled, such a quantity of solution of be of advantage to employ acetate as a substitute for sul- indigo is added as may communicate to the bath a proper phate of copper, in which case the action of the free acid shade of violet; after which the silk is immersed, and would be moderated. He thinks it would still be more boiled till it has acquired the intended shade. It is then advisable to make use of verdigris; because the uncom- wrung, washed in a stream, and, like every other delicate bined part of the oxide of copper would in that case unite colour, must be dried in tbe shade. The light shades exwith the excess of acid, on which account a smallei quan- haust the bath. But it ought to be observed that this cotity of acid would remain in the liquor; and probably the lour, which is said to be a beautiful violet, possesses but quantity of tartar might be diminished, as a smaller quanlittle durability, and is apt to assume a reddish tinge, tity of tin would thus be precipitated.1 owing to the colour of the indigo fading first. A violet colour may be imparted to silks by immersing Another, Of dyeing Silk Violet or Purple. them in water impregnated with verdigris, as a substiTwo kinds Silk is capable of receiving two kinds of violet colours, tute for aluming, and next giving them a bath of logof violet, denominated the fine and the false, the latter of which is wood, in which they assume a blue colour, which is conproduced by means of archil or Brazil wood. When the verted to a violet, either by the addition of alum to the fine violet colour is required, the silk must first be passed bath, or by dipping them in a weaker or stronger solution through cochineal, and dipped afterwards in the vat. of that substance, which communicates a red colour to The preparation and dyeing of the silk with cochineal the particles of logwood. This violet possesses but a are the same as for crimson, with the omission of tartar small degree of beauty, and little durability ; but if alumed and solution of tin, by means of which the colour is height- silk be immersed in a bath of Brazil wood, and next ima ened. The quantity of cochineal made use of is always bath of archil, after washing it at the river, a colour is obproportioned to the required shade, whether it is more or tained possessing a much higher degree of beauty and inless intense ; but the usual proportion for a fine violet co- tensity. The process described above for dyeing wool lour is two ounces of cochineal for each pound of silk. succeeds equally well, according to M. Decroizille, in When the silk is dyed it is washed at the river, twice communicating to silk a violet coloui. beetled, dipped in a vat more or less strong in proportion to the depth of the violet shade, and then washed and HI. Of dyeing Cotton and Linen Violet. dried with precautions similar to those which all colours The most mode by which a violet colour is Common require that are dyed in the vat. If the violet is to have communicatedordinary to cotton and linen stuffs, is first to give Proce!5greater strength and beauty, it is usual to pass it through them a blue ground in the vat, proportioned to the inthe archil bath; a practice which, though frequently abused, quired shade, and to dry them. They are afterwards is not to be dispensed with for light shades, which would galled, in the proportion of three ounces of galls to a otherwise be too dull. , . pound of stuff, and being left in this bath for twelve or Purple. When silk has been dyed with cochineal according to fifteen hours, are wrung out and dried again. I hey are the above directions, only a very light shade is requisite next passed through a decoction of logwood, and when for purple; the shades which are deepest are dipped in a thoroughly soaked and taken out, the bath receives an weak vat, while dipping them in cold water is sufficient addition of two drachms of alum and one of dissolved verfor such as are lighter, the water having been incorporated digris for each pound of cotton or thread. Ihe skeins with a small quantity of the liquor of the vat, because in are then dipped again on the skein sticks, and turned for the vat itself, hov/ever weak it might be, they would ac- about fifteen minutes, when they are taken out and aired. quire too deep a tinge of blue. In this manner are the are next immersed in the bath for fifteen minutes, light shades of this colour, such as gilly-flower, peach- They taken out, and wrung. To complete the process, the vat blossom, &c. produced by diminishing the quantity of co- employed is emptied; half of the decoction of logwoo chineal. . . ... , not formerly made use of is now poured in, with the addiThere are various ways of imparting to silk what are tion of two drachms K„lse vio_ of alum, and the thread is again dipped III. denominated the false violets; but those which are most in it till it has acquired the shade proposed, which must frequently used, and possessed of greatest beauty, aie always regulate the strength or weakness of the decoction prepared with archil, the bath of which is, in point of of logwood. This colour resists considerable degree strength, to be suited to the colour required. . Having the action of the air, but in pointinofa permanency is much been beetled at the river after scouring, the silk is turned inferior to that which is obtained from the use of madder. in the bath on the skein sticks; and when the colour is deemed sufficiently deep, a pattern is tried in the vat, to ascertain whether it takes the violet colour intended to Sect. III.— Of the Mixtures of Yellow and Red, or Orange. be produced. If the shade is found to have acquired the is the usual result of a composition of yellow proper depth, the silk is beetled at the river and dipped andOrange colours; but an almost endless variety of shad es in the vat, in the same way as for the fine violet colours; may red be produced, according as we vary the propoition o and less either of the blue or of the archil colour is given, the ingredients, the particular nature of the ye ow according as it is meant that the red or blue shade of the made use of. Itand is sometimes the practice of dyeis to violet colour should predominate. combine blue with yellow and red, the result of whic i is Process of The process recommended by Gubliche for commum- the colour denominated olive. Many varieties may e Guhliehe. eating a violet colour to silk is the following. A pound obtained from the use of weld, saw-wort, dyers-weed, an of silk is to be soaked in a bath of two ounces of alum and a like quantity of solution of tin, after having care- other yellows, and by employing tartar, alum, sulphate o fully poured off the sediment formed in the mixture. Ihe zinc, or sulphate of copper, in the bath, or in the preparadye-bath is prepared with two ounces of cochineal re- tion of the cloth. 1

Berthollet, ii. 340.

313 DYEING. tions are mixed together in various proportions, according Compound C to the particular shade required. The thread or cotton is Colours. CoCld h—Of dyeing Wool Orange. By a process exactly the same as that which is followed dipped in the compound solution in the usual way. Orange by in communicating to stuffs a scarlet colour, an orange may the scarlet be given to wool; but the quantity of red must be dimi- Sect. IV.— Of the mixture of Black with other Colours. process. nished, and that of the yellow increased. If wool is dyed The compound colours which are obtained from the Brown, a red colour by means of madder, and afterwards yellow with weld, the resulting compound is a cinnamon colour, mixture of black and other colours, are brown, gray, drab, and the most proper mordant in this case is a mixture of &c. according to the nature and proportions of the simple alum and tartar. The shades may be varied at pleasure colours employed. by substituting other yellow dyestuffs instead of weld, and I.— Of dyeing Woollen Stuffs Brown, Gray, fyc. by varying the proportions as circumstances may require. To give a browning to cloth, as soon as it has been dyed, Wool may receive a reddish yellow colour by passing it through a madder bath, after it has undergone the usual it is dipped in a solution of sulphate of iron, with the adprocess for yellow, which has already been described. The dition of an astringent, which makes a black bath. It is strength of the madder bath is always to be proportioned more common to mix a small quantity of solution of iron to the shade required. Brazil wood is sometimes em- with a bath of water, adding more till the dyed stuff dipployed with yellow substances, or mixed with cochineal ped in it has received the intended shade. Sulphate of and madder. Snuff, chestnut, musk, and other shades are iron is sometimes added to the dye bath; but by dipping produced by substituting walnut-tree root, walnut peels, the dyed stuff in a solution of this salt, the end is more easily attained. It is the usual practice of M. Poerner to or sumach, for weld. soak the stuff in a solution of sulphate of iron, to which II.— Of Dyeing Silk Orange, fyc. other ingredients are sometimes added ; and after having Marone Logwood, Brazil wood, and fustic, communicate to silk taken it out of the mordant, it is dipped in the dye bath. In order to obtain coffee and damascene colours, withco Coffee &c. a marone and cinnamon colour, together with all the inur termediate shades. The silk is scoured in the usual man- other shades of browns of the common dye, the first me- l° * ner, alumed, and a bath is prepared by mixing together thod is adopted; a colour more or less deep is communidecoctions of the three different woods mentioned above, cated to them, according to the shade intended to be obmade separately, varying the quantity of each according tained by the browning; and a bath is made of galls, suto the shade intended to be given; but the proportion of mach, and alder bark, with the addition of sulphate of fustic should be greatest. The silk is turned in the bath iron. Those stuffs are first dipped to which the lightest on the skein sticks, and when it is taken out, if the colour shades are to be communicated, and when these are finishbe uniform, it is wrung and again dipped in a second bath ed, the browner ones are dipped, a quantity of sulphate of of these three ingredients, according to the effect pro- iron being added for each operation, proportioned to the duced by the first, in order to obtain the shade required. effect intended to be produced. Bluish grays are communicated to stuffs, according to Gray. Olive. The blue vat is not made use of when an olive colour is to be communicated to silk. After being alumed, it is Poerner, by the solution of indigo in sulphuric acid, comdipped in a bath of weld, which is made very strong. To bined with a mixture of decoction of galls and sulphate of this is afterwards added the juice of logwood, with a small iron, varying the shades according to the different quanquantity of solution of alkali when the silk is dipped. tities of these ingredients made use of. If to a bath comThis converts it into green, and gives the olive colour. posed of cochineal, fustic, and galls, sulphate of iron be It is dipped again in this bath till it has acquired the added, other shades are obtained. For marone, and such other colours as bear a strong reshade wanted. To communicate to it the colour known by the name of semblance to it, sanders and galls are employed, and somerotten olive, fustic and logwood are added to the bath after times a browning with the addition of logwood. If dyed welding, without any alkali. If the colour wanted is to in the remains of a cochineal bath, these colours may be incline more to a red, the addition of logwood alone is made to incline to a crimson or purple; and the same efsufficient. A sort of reddish olive may likewise be ob- fect is produced by adding a small quantity of madder or tained by dyeing the silk in a fustic bath, to which a cochineal to the bath. A little tartar gives a greater degreater or less quantity has been added of sulphate of gree of brightness to the colour. With a mixture of galls, fustic, and logwood, and a greater or smaller quantity of iron and logwood. madder, with the addition of a little alum, those colours III.— Of dyeing Cotton and Linen Orange, &$c. may be communicated to stuffs which are known by the Hazel. Cinnamon A cinnamon colour is communicated to thread and cot- name of hazel. colour. M. Guhliche produces what is called a puce colour, by puce coton by commencing the process for dyeing them with verdigris and weld; they are afterwards to be dipped in a boiling for fifteen minutes a pound of woollen stuff with lour, solution of sulphate of iron, denominated by the French two ounces of alum, a certain proportion of vinegar and bain d'assurage, and then wrung out and dried. As soon as solution of iron, after which he leaves it in the mordant for they are dried, they are galled in the proportion of three twelve hours. He then makes a bath with the decoction ounces to the pound of stuff; then dried again, alumed as of two ounces of white galls carefully poured off from the for red colours, and maddered. After being washed and sediment, and mixed with four ounces of madder, in which, dried, they are put into hot soap suds, and turned till they when it grows hot, the stuff is immersed, after being taken have acquired a sufficient degree of brightness. It is the out of the mordant, allowing it to remain there, while the practice of some dyers to add to the aluming a decoction temperature is gradually increased, till the colour intendof fustic. ed has been imparted to it; after which it is boiled for two By boiling four parts of weld and one of potash in a suf- minutes, washed, and dried in the sun. The colour thus Olive. ficient quantity of water, M. d’Apligny informs us, a fine obtained possesses a great degree of durability. It is of olive colour is communicated to cotton and thread. Brazil a deeper brown by the omission of the alum and vinegar wood which has been steeped for a night is boiled sepa- in the mordant; and after these colours the lighter shades rately with a small quantity of verdigris, and these solu- are dyed. Sumach may be employed as a substitute for VOL. VIII.

DYEING. 314 dipped in a weak solution of sulphate of copper, and last CalicoCompound half of the madder. Different brown colours, possessing Ofall in soap suds. . . Printing Colours, considerable permanency, may likewise be produced by For some hazel and snuff colours, a browning is comv—^ ' the use of Brazil and logwood, if more or less of a solution municated to stuffs by means of soot, after the welding Hazel, of iron be mixed with a decoction of these substances. The wool being previously alumed and galled, is dyed in it. and madder bath, to which galls and fustic have been added; sometimes soot is mixed with this bath, and a II.— Of dyeing Silk with Mixtures of Black, fyc. browning is likewise imparted by means of a solution of Purple M. Guhliche imparts to silk a purple violet without a sulphate of iron; and for browning colours, walnut peels violet. blue ground, with a mixture of one part of galls dissolved are sometimes employed as a substitute for solutions of in white wine, with three parts of water, in w'hich a pound iron. For such wools as are designed for the manufacture of silk is macerated for twelve hours, soaked in a mordant of tapestry they are very advantageous, because the comade up of two ounces of alum, one ounce of solution of lour is not changed into yellow by exposure to the air, as tin, and half an ounce of muriatic acid. After wringing is the case in browning, which is imparted by means of the stuff, it is dyed in a bath composed of two ounces of iron, but remains a considerable time without any sensicochineal and a small quantity of solution of iron, till the ble change. The hue is indeed rather dull, but its goodintended shade has been communicated; and for shades ness and very moderate price are sufficient to recommend which are lighter, the residua of these baths are sufficient, a more extensive use of it for grave colours, which in comeither separately or mixed together. Madder may be used mon stuffs are sometimes fashionable. in the same way, macerating a pound of silk in a solution of alum mixed with an ounce of muriatic acid and a CHAPTER VI. quantity of solution of iron. When the stuff is wrung out, it is dyed in a bath made of eight ounces of madder. OF CALICO-PRINTING. When deeper colours are wanted, some of the solution of galls in white wine is mixed with the madder and cochiCalico-printing is the art of communicating different neal baths. colours to particular parts of the surface of cotton or Silk may be dyed in a bath made of equal parts of Brazil and logwood juice, adding a certain quantity of solu- linen cloth, while the rest of the cloth retains its white tion of iron after the stuff has been soaked in a solution of colour ; or the whole of the cloth may be dyed one colour, two ounces of alum and an ounce of muriatic acid. If so- as red or blue, except particular parts, to which some other colours, as yellow, orange, green, &c. are given. The lution of galls be added, the colour becomes deeper. is not confined to linen and cotton cloth ; it may Brick Colours resembling that of brick may be produced by process be applied also to silk and woollen cloth; but as the nacolour. immersing silk in an anotta bath, after preparing it with a solution of galls mixed with a certain quantity of solu- ture of the processes is in all cases the same, it will antion of iron. By the mixture of Brazil, logwood, archil, swer our purpose sufficiently if we give a sketch of the and galls, and by a browning with sulphate of iron, a num- methods followed by the calico-printers. There is a curious passage in Pliny’s Natural History, ber of different shades are produced; but the whole of them have more or less a tendency to fade, although their from which it is evident that calico-printing in his time (the first century) was understood and practised in Egypt. brightness is very pleasing to the eye. The following is a translation of this passage. “ There exists in Egypt a wonderful method of dyeing. Practised HI. Of dyeing Cotton and Linen with Mixtures of Black, SfC. The white cloth is stained in various places, not with dye-b y the a11' cie 1 stuffs, but with substances which have the property of With black A permanent violet colour may be given to thread and cask. cotton, when scoured in the ordinary way, by preparing a absorbing (fixing) colours. These applications are not mordant with two quarts of the bath of what is called the visible upon the cloth; but when the pieces are dipt into black cask, and four quarts of water, for each pound of stuff, a hot caldron containing the dye, they are drawn out an which is made to boil, and the scum is removed vyhich instant after dyed. The remarkable circumstance is, that forms on the surface, till it wholly disappears. The liquor though there be only one dye in the vat, yet different cois poured into a vat, and, when warm, four ounces of sul- lours appear on 1the cloth ; nor can the colours be afterphate of copper and one ounce of nitre are dissolved in it. wards removed.” It is evident enough that the substances The skeins are left to soak in it for ten or twelve hours, employed to stain the cloth, as Pliny expresses it, were wrung out, and dried. If it is required to produce a deep different mordants, which served to fix the dye upon the violet colour, two ounces of verdigris must be added to cloth. Thus if we suppose certain parts of a piece of the bath; and if the nitre be omitted, the colour becomes cotton cloth to be impregnated with alumina, and the cloth still deeper by galling the thread more or less prior to its afterwards dyed with madder, after the clearing, those being put into the mordant. If the nitre be increased, and parts only impregnated with the mordant would retain their the sulphate of copper be diminished, the violet colour red colour, while the remaining parts will continue white. The general opinion is, that this ingenious art originatbecomes more inclined to lilac. A number of various shades may be produced by different modifications of the ed in India, and from that country made its way into Egypt. Whether this notion be well or ill founded, it is mordants employed. Marone Cotton is galled, dipped, and wrought in the common certain that calico-printing was known and executed by colour. way, when different shades of marone colour are wanted. the Indians at a very early period. Their colours were To the bath employed must be added more or less of the beautiful and fast, and the varieties of pattern and the liquor of the black cask. The cotton is then washed in a number of colours which they understood to fix on differbath mixed with verdigris, next welded, and dyed to a ent parts of the cloth gave to their printed calicoes a fustic bath, to which a solution of soda and alum is some- beauty and a value of no ordinary kind; but their processes times added. When the cotton prepared in this manner are so tedious and so clumsy that they could be put in has been thoroughly washed, it is next well maddered, practice only where labour was exceedingly cheap. 1

Plinii Hitt. Nat. xxxv. 11.

315 DYEING. CalicoCalicoIt is not more than a century and a half since calico- dip into a small box or trough containing the colour, dis- Printing. printing. printing was transferred from India to Europe, and little charge, mordant, or resist to be applied ; and as the cylin- _ m ' more than a century since it became common in Great der revolves and leaves the colour-trough, it is scraped by Introduced Britain. The nations with whom it has made the greatest a steel blade called a “ doctor,” which takes off the excess into Eu- progress are Switzerland, France (especially in Alsace), of colour, and then it comes into contact with the white rope. some parts of Germany, and Great Britain. In Europe calico, passing between this roller and a larger one made the art has been in a great measure created anew. By of wood or cast-iron, and covered with felt, acting with the application of machinery, and by the light thrown on pressure. By this means the exact figures on the engraved the processes by the progress of chemistry, the tedious me- roller are printed on the cloth. To prevent the colours or thods of the Indians have been wonderfully simplified; and mordants from dirtying or “running” into the whites, the the processes are remarkable for the rapidity with which printed pieces are immediately dried by passing them over they are now executed, and for the beauty, fastness, and va- tin cylinders, or flat cast-iron boxes, in which steam cirriety of the colours which are applied on the surface of culates. There are now machines in use having as many cotton. So great have been these improvements, that at the as 8 or 16 pairs of rollers, and which are technically called present time in Manchester, a piece of calico can be printed “8 or 16 colour machines,” which implies that they are in the short period of one minute; and the quantity of made to print 8 or 16 distinct colours successively on one calicoes printed in Manchester in one year amounts to the piece of fabric. Another result of modern improvements is, that it only requires 1^ minutes to print one piece, where it extraordinary number of from 12,500,000 to 13,000,000. The different processes to which the cotton cloth des- formerly required five minutes. On the Continent the intended figures are sometimes en- Perrotine tined to be printed is subjected, are the following : singeing, bleaching, calendering, printing, washing, and finish- graved upon a flat copper plate of about a square yard or machine, ing ; or, in some instances, after having been printed, they more in size. Upon this plate the colour to be applied is spread. The plate is then pulled backwards, the excess of are stoved, dunged, dyed, brightened, and finished. The singeing is intended to remove the fibres of cot- colour being removed by a “ doctor,” and the colour remainton which protrude on the surface of the cloth, and which ing on the engraving is then printed on the white cloth. Whether the printing is applied by the block, the printis called “ nap.” This is done by passing the cloth rapidly over the surface of a red-hot iron plate, which burns off all ing machine, or the perrotine, the treatment of the goods the “nap” or protruding fibres of cotton without injuring is nearly the same. Most commonly the printing process consists merely in the cloth. Of late years singeing has been effected by a very ingenious coal-gas apparatus, or by a mixture of hydro- fixing mordants on the cloth, which is aflerwards dyed in gen and oxide of carbon. But we need not dwell upon the common way, those parts only retaining the colour which this preliminary process, because the singeing has been have imbibed the mordant, while the other parts of the cloth described already in this Encyclopaedia under the article remain white. Sometimes the substance called “ a discharge ” is applied to cloth already dyed, in order to remove the colour Bleaching, to which we refer the reader. We shall endeavour in this chapter to give a sketch of from certain portions of it which are either intended to rethe different processes of calico-printing, such as they are main white, or to receive some other colour afterwards. Sometimes it is applied to cloth before it is dyed, in orat present practised by the most scientific printers in Lander to prevent the indigo, or any other colour, from being cashire, and in the neighbourhood of Glasgow. MousseMany of the calico-printers of the present day carry on a fixed on those parts to which it is applied, that they may line-de- large trade in printing mousseline-de-laines, viz., fabrics remain white, or be afterwards made to receive other colours. laines. which are composed of cotton and wool; but we shall not Substances possessed of this property are called “ resists.” Sometimes the cloth is mordanted with stannic acid, and enter here into any special description of this branch of the colours are then applied, and the whole submitted to manufacture. Methods of There are two modes of printing ; namely, block-printing the action of steam, and called “ steamed goods.” Finally, printing. and machine-printing. The former has been practised from the printing process is frequently employed to communitime immemorial; the latter is a modern invention, and cate mordants and colouring matter at once to the cloth. originated after the introduction of the art of printing into Let us take a view of these different processes. Great Britain. The figure intended to be communicated I.—Mordants. to the cloth is cut out upon a block of sycamore, the parts The principal mordants employed by calico-printers are which are to make the impression being left prominent, and the rest of the block cut away, just as practised for wood en- the following:— 1. Alumina.—The usual alumina mordant of the ca-How made, gravings. When the figure is too complicated, and the lines too fine, to admit of being cut in wood, it is made by means lico-printer is prepared by partly decomposing alum, held acetate of lime, commonly called pyof small pieces of copper, which are very ingeniously driven in solution by impure rolignite of lime j1 sulphate of lime precipitates, and acetointo the block, and the interstices are filled up with felt. Of late years several colours have been applied at once sulphate of alumina is thus obtained. Red liquors thus on the cloth by means of one block ; and the machine used prepared have a specific gravity of LOS, and are composed for this purpose is called a “ toby,” which consists of a box as follows:— Composition of four red Mordants per Gallon. divided into several compartments filled with various colours, and which are in communication through tubes with bottles FORMULA, 2 3 3 filled with the same colours; and by means of a gentle pres2 3 3 4 3 3 Al O4 , +3 2 3So H O ) + C3 H 3O + Al2 O43 + 3So33, sure the colouring fluid in each of the compartments of the SUBSTANCES. Al O+, NSoH3+ So2 3(CHO NH , So , HO + 2(C H O ) machine is propelled through the felted cloth which covers each compartment. The block being pressed against the Mordant A. Mordant B. Mordant C. Mordant D. cloth, it takes the colour which is to be conveyed to the oz. grs, Grains. oz. grs, Grains. oz. grs. Grains. white calico by the block-printer. 1680 0 3 18 1830 0 4 19 1239 0 2 369 2164 4 4 416 Alumina MachineMachine-printing is effected by one or several copper 2800 0 6 178 3017 0 6 395 1664 6 3 323 6 20 2642 5 Sulphuric Acid printing. cylinders, of 3 feet 6 inches long, and about 6 inches in Acetic Acid — 3369 8 7 307 3970 0 8 70 1281 7 2 406 3679 2 8 179 and 674 1 1 236 910 0 2 35 693 1 1 215 diameter, upon which the different figures to be given to Ammonia Water the cloth are engraved. Each cylinder or roller is made to 1

Pyrolignite of lime is obtained by neutralizing with lime impure vinegar obtained by the dry distillation of wood.

DYEING. 316 In the manufacture of pyrolignite of alumina, or “ red and becomes partially peroxidized. Pyrolignite of iion of CalicoCalicoPrinting. liquor,” sulphate of alumina is frequently substituted for the specific gravity of P05 gives a black with madder and Printing, several “ tannin ” substances. Various shades of purple are -vr—^ alum,’and acetate of lead for pyrolignite of lime. When cloth to be dyed red or pink is impregnated with obtained by adding different proportions of water to the Purple, this mordant, it is not thickened. When applied only to mordant previously to applying it to the cloth ; and various particular parts of the cloth by the block or the machine, shades of chocolates are produced by mixing this mordant it is thickened with flour or calcined farina, according to with the alumina one previously described, and then dyeing also with madder. These are the principal mordants em- Chocolate, the nature of the style of work. ployed by the calico-printer. Several dyeing substances 2. Perchloride of Tin.—Perchloride of tin is very much “Topical'’ have so strong an affinity for calico that they require used as a mordant. The colouring matter is previously colours. mixed with it, and both are applied at once. Such appli- no mordant; this is the case with indigo, Prussian blue, cations are called “ topical” colours. The mixture is al- safflower, peroxide of iron, sesquioxide of manganese, &c. lowed to dry on the cloth, which is then merely washed II,—Substances used for Discharging Colours. with water. Colours so applied are easily altered by light, A discharge is a substance which has the property of Discharges soap, &c. , . , , removing a mordant, or destroying a colour so completely, Hence a topical colour is one which is easily injured by that when the printed piece is properly washed no trace of exterior agents, and is commonly called, among printers, a “loose” colour. The colours produced in this way are either the mordant or the colour will be visible. In fact, pinks or reds, from peach or sapanwood ; purples from log- the whites so produced will be as pure, or nearly so, as if wood ; yellows from quercitron bark or fustic; and greens no colour or mordant had been previously applied. And, most colours are fixed on cloth either by means of morfrom the last-mentioned dyes with the addition of Prussian as dants, or by oxidizing the colouring principle, hence the blue. c Perchloride of tin is much used in another process ot ca- printei’s employ something that will dissolve the mordant Steam colours. lico-printing for producing what are technically known as in its normal state, or by deoxidizing it; but if no mox“ steam colours ;” it is decomposed by an excess of caustic dant be present, it will be by destroying the colouring matter soda, and the peroxide of tin or stannic acid at first preci- through suroxidation or combustion, as is the case with chlorine, or with oxygen liberated from chromic acid. pitated is re-dissolved, giving rise to stannate of soda. The cloth is immersed in this liquid and dried, and the Therefore discharges employed are either acids, or substannic acid is then precipitated upon the cloth by immers- stances having a strong oxidizing power. 1. Citric Acid is much used by printers to dissolve alu- their ing it in a solution of sal-ammoniac or sulphate of magmink and peroxide of iron, and thus to prevent the colours action, nesia, but most commonly in a solution of free sulphuric which these mordants would fix from remaining on the acid, and the pieces of calico are then washed and dried. Some calico-printers use crystallized stannate of soda, cloth. This discharge is obtained by using pure citric dissolving it in water, and employing it as above described. acid, or by evaporating lemon juice, and thickening it with calcined starch, or farina for machine-printThe different colouring matters intended to be applied on gum-arabic, ino-; or with the same and pipe-clay for block-printing. such prepared cloth are generally mixed vyith a small proIt is occasionally assisted by bisulphate of potash oi weak portion of sal-ammoniac, and sometimes with either salts of ammonia, salts of tin, or chlorate of potash, w hich aie in- sulphuric acid. Sometimes citric acid is printed on white cloth, and alutended to give fixity and brilliancy to such colours. I he colours are then thickened with starch and printed on the mina or iron mordant, slightly thickened and diied imabove-mentioned calico, and the whole is submitted to the mediately to prevent the swelling of the acid figures; at action of steam. To effect this the calicoes are introduced other times the mordants are first applied, and the acid into a square iron box called a “ steam chest, and sub- printed over them. In both cases the goods are afterwards passed through mitted to the influence of steam, a powerful oxidizing and hot water containing cow’s dung, and well washed befoi e fixing agent; or the printed cloths are rolled round a perforated^roller and submitted to the same action. The pieces being dried. By these means all the mordant is removed then only require to be well washed, dried, and finished, to from those parts on which the citric acid was applied, which, of course, remain white when the cloth is dried. be ready for the market. 2. Tartaric Acid, thickened with gum, is applied by the The result of the combined action of moisture and heat block or printing machine to cloth previously dyed Turkeyis, that a combination takes place between the colouring red. It is then passed through an aqueous solution of bleachprinciple and the peroxide of tin, or stannic acid, which renders the colouring matter insoluble. In this manner ing powder, and the acid disengaging the chlorine, the led pinks, reds, purples, crimsons, yellows, oranges, blues, colour is discharged from those places to which it had been applied, while all the other parts of the cloth retain their greens, browns, and drabs, are produced. 3. Oxides of /row.—These metallic oxides are much used red colour. Sometimes the Turkey-red calico is folded beOxides of as mordants, either in the state ot protoxide or peroxide. tween metallic plates which are perforated with designs, The salt most employed is the impure pyrolignite of and so arranged that each figure of the design corresponds protoxide of iron, which is prepared either by decomposing through the pile of prints so folded. 1 he whole is then green copperas with pyrolignite of lime, or by placing in submitted to pressure, and a chlorine liquor is forced by large vats pyrolignous acid and old iron, when, after a pressure to percolate through the mass, which destroys the few months, the iron, which is gradually oxidized, dissolves red colour in all those parts where the perforated plates . M in the acid, and gives rise to pyrolignite of protoxide of iron. allowed the bleaching powder to circulate. 3. Oxalic Acid—To obtain white on indigo-blue dip?, how pro This valuable mordant is thickened with calcined farina,1 duced. and applied on the calico. After being exposed for a few the blue-dipped pieces of calico are printed with chromate days in a moist atmosphere, it loses a part of the acid, of lead, and the pieces so prepared are passed through an 1

Of late years gum arable and tragacanth have been nearly entirely replaced by calcined farina, which is potato st^ch heated to a temperature of about 360° Fahrenheit, or until it has assumed a light buff colour and become soluble in co wa . I j® the same, or wheat starch which has been mixed with a small percentage of weak nitric acid, and then a oviei emp , • j to produce the conversion of the insoluble starch into a soluble gummy substance. “ British gum is a erm app _ wheat starch. “ Flummery ” is obtained in the manufacture of wheat starch, being found swimming as a scum on e sur a moved, drained by centrifugal force, and calcined.

317 DYEING. 2. Mild resist consists of sulphate of zinc, flummery, and CalicoCalico- acid liquor composed of a solution of hydrochloric acid of a Printing, specific gravity of I'OSO, and 1 ounce of oxalic acid per pipe-clay. It is used along with other colours which copper Printing^ ^ gallon. Chlorine is thus generated, and the blue indigo would injure, or which would be destroyed by immersion colouring matter, called indigotine, is destroyed in all those in sulphuric acid. It resists a pale-blue, and the removal of oxide of zinc afterwards by an acid is not necessary, as is parts to which the chromate of lead was applied. Protochloride of iron is sometimes used to discharge the the case when copper is employed. 3. Red paste consists of the alumina mordant above demanganese brown. This it does by depriving the oxide of manganese of a part of its oxygen, and thus renders it scribed, mixed with acetate of copper, and calcined British soluble ; whilst the protoxide of iron, converted into a per- gum, or flummery and pipe-clay. It resists pale blues, and chloride, deposits peroxide of iron on the cloth, which com- the alumina remains upon the portions of the cloth which bines and produces the characteristic buff or orange colour are white, and which are to be afterwards dyed with madder to produce red, or with quercitron bark for yellow. of that oxide. 4. Neutral resist is a name given by calico-printers to a 4. Proiochloride of tin, when applied to cloth dyed brown 1 by sesquioxide of manganese, immediately reduces it to the compound of lime juice, sulphate of copper, British gum, state of protoxide, and thus discharges the colour and leaves and pipe-clay. It resists during a short dip in the indigo the parts white. If it be mixed with Brazil wood or co- vat, and the lime juice gives it the property of remaining chineal, it discharges the manganese as before, but leaves a white when the piece is dyed in madder, even where the pink. When mixed with logwood, it leaves a purple, and preceding alumina resist goes over it. This acid also prewith Prussian blue a blue. The protochloride of tin is used vents the lime of the blue indigo vats from precipitating in a variety of ways in calico-printing to remove iron mor- copper upon the cloth, which would give it a deep-brown dants, so as to prevent the colours fixing themselves in those tinge in the madder beck. 5. Chrome yellow resist consists of a mixture of a salt of parts which are intended to remain white. The above organic acids, namely, citric, tartaric, and copper to resist the blue indigo vat, with a salt of lead to oxalic acids, are preferable to metallic discharges, as they produce a chromate of lead, after having been dyed blue in not only remove the mordants which generally fix colours the blue vat. (See Blues.) ftftiese are the five principal resist pastes. There are a upon calico, but also because they leave no trace of their presence after they have fulfilled the objects for which few others, but they will easily suggest themselves to those they were employed ; whilst, on the contrary, metallic who understand the principles of chemistry. Besides the above methods, the process called “conver- “ Converdischarges are apt to leave some sub-salt, which is easily slon * produced when the water used by calico-printers is calca- sion,” which has been discovered within the last few years, reous, and these traces of metallic salts are apt to dirty the has proved a great acquisition to the calico-printer, as it enables him to increase the various effects which he may be whites. desirous of producing on his prints. It consists in increasIII.—Resist Pastes. ing or decreasing the tints of certain colours without affectResists were first employed in China and India, ft hey ing the whites; and this is effected by having a roller so should possess the following general properties :—First, pre- disposed, that while one or two or more rollers are producventing effectually any colour or mordant from fixing on ing certain colours longitudinally, another roller will be printthose parts of the cloth to which they have been previously ing transversely another colour, which in acting chemically applied, and at the same time of not injuring the colours on those printed longitudinally will alter their shades. Instead of describing the method of printing mordants which are to be subsequently employed. Secondly, resists should be of such a nature as to be easily removable by and colouring matters at once, or of applying “ topical ” colours, or of producing “ steam colours,” we think it will washing, after they have fulfilled their object. Resists. There are two distinct classes of reserves or resists, those be better to make a few observations on each particular which act by mechanically preventing the colour from reach- colour in succession, without distinguishing whether it is aping the cloth, and those which act chemically, by oxidizing plied by dyeing or printing. the colour previously to its coming into contact with the Reds and Pinks. fabric, and thus rendering it insoluble or incapable of fixing ftffie most important dye stuff for producing red amongst itself on the fibres of the fabric. A mixture of both these calico-printers is madder. Goods which have received the resists is often used. Mechanical The resists which act in a purely mechanical manner, alumina mordant as applied in figures, either by the machine resists. such as those composed of wax, resin, or tallow,* are seldom or the block, are first hung, or “ aged,” as technically termed, resorted to, owing to the difficulty of ultimately removing for several days in large rooms, ft’he purport of this opethem; but the use of pipe-clay, conjointly with a chemical ration is to allow the acetic acid to evaporate, and leave on resist, is very common. In “ steam goods,” mechanical re- the print a basic aceto-sulphate of alumina, ft'he pieces sists are those chiefly used ; they consist of arsenite or phos- are then passed through nearly boiling water, containing phate of lime, of phosphate of zinc and magnesia, or of ace- cow-dung, or a chemical substance, such as silicate or arseniate of soda, or a mixture called “ Mercer’s dung substitate of lime and zinc. 1. Blue resist or vitriol resist consists of a mixture of sul- tute.” The pieces, after having been sufficiently “ aged,” phate, acetate, and sometimes nitrate of copper, and the are well washed and put into a dye-beck, containing water solution is thickened with British gum, or calcined flum- and madder; and the whole is gradually heated to 180° for mery, together with pipe-clay for the block, and flour for two hours, and lastly, to boiling point for half an hour, ftftie machine-printing. When the cloth on which this paste has prints, having been kept constantly in motion during the been printed is dipped into an indigo vat, the indigo is oxi- above operation, and having assumed the required shades dized before it reaches the surface of the cloth. (See Blue.) of pink and red, are washed and ready for a second series After dyeing, the pieces are passed through weak sulphuric of operations, called “soaping” or clearing,” which is effected acid, not only to remove the oxide of copper, which has by passing them for 2.5 minutes into a weak solution of soap, been precipitated, but also to fix the indigo on the calico, heated to about 185°, which substance has the property of removing the loose colours on the white parts, and of giving by liberating it entirely from its lime combination. 1 “Lime juice” is a commercial term applied to lemon juice, which is imported principally from Sicily, and from which also citric acid can be obtained.

318 DYE I N G. Calico- brilliancy and fixity to the red and pink figures on the cloth. sulphate of lead is printed, dried, and the pieces dyed in CalicoPrinting. por certain styles of pinks, protochloride of tin is added to an indigo vat. They are then passed through weak sul- Printing, v"-*the soap. All madder colours require two soapings to give phuric acid, and then into an alkaline chromate of potash, great brilliancy and vividness to the colours, and purity to when orange chromate of lead designs are produced, or into a bichromate of potash, when yellow chromate of lead dethe whites. signs are raised. Of late years, madder has been nearly replaced in calicoQuercitron bark is also employed frequently to communiprinting by garancine 1 and garanceux, which have the property of yielding colours more brilliant than madder, although cate a yellow colour to calicoes. The alumina mordant is not so fast. But the chief reason why garancine has been first applied, and the cloth is passed in the dung-beck in substituted for madder is, because with it the prints, after the way described when giving an account of madder-dyeing. they are dyed, require only a simple washing and no soaping Quercitron bark yields its colouring matter at a lower temperature than madder; and the parts of the cloth to which to clear the whites. Turkey red is one of the most beautiful and valuable no mordant has been applied remain tolerably white after styles of calico-printing, in consequence of the brilliancy of the cloth has been washed in cold water. Fustic is sometimes substituted for quercitron bark, but the colour and its durability. It is also obtained with madder, but the pieces previously to being dyed have to un- the yellow or orange colours which it produces are not so dergo a long series of operations, which consist in passing fast as those given by quercitron bark. Persian berries.—A decoction of these berries constithe pieces successively in Gallipoli oil and carbonate of soda, and hanging them in the air between each process. They tutes likewise a yellow dye for calico-printers, and it may are then passed into a weak solution of red mordant, and be employed in the same manner as the above substances, afterwards of gall-nuts, well washed, and dyed in madder. but generally it is used to produce steam yellows and When this has been effected, the colours are brightened by oranges. For this purpose the decoction is mixed with oxalic being boiled, under pressure, in a solution of soap and chlo- acid, or a little acetate of alumina, and printed on calico prepared with stannic acid. For oranges the solution of ride of tin. When sapanwood or peachwood is used instead of mad- Persian berries is mixed with chloride of tin in excess, and der or garancine, the mordant and method of dyeing are the thickened with starch. The goods, after having been same; the cloth, however, does not receive the same treat- printed, are dried and steamed, and they only require washment after dyeing, and does not require it, because these ing in water. Quercitron bark and fustic are sometimes used in cheap colours are much more easily removed from the parts of the styles of prints as substitutes for Persian berries ; but the cloth which are destitute of mordant. The chief employment of these dye-stuffs is in producing yellows and oranges are rapidly injured by the atmosphere, steam reds or pinks. To effect this, a decoction of these which communicates to them a dirty brownish tint. Buff.—To produce this colour the cloth is printed with woods is mixed with chlorate of potash, nitrate of alumina, and thickened with wheat starch. This prepared colour is printed a mixture of sulphate and pyrolignite of iron, or with nitroon calico which has been mordanted with stannic acid; and sulphate of iron. After having had time to be partly oxidwhen dried it is ready to be introduced into a square iron ized and partly decomposed, it is washed in water; or if a box called a “ steam-chest,” and submitted to the action of stronger bath is wanted, it is raised in milk of lime till the an atmosphere of steam for 25 minutes, which has the pro- protoxide of iron is converted into a sesquioxide. No morperty of fixing the colours on the cloth ; or the printed cali- dant is required, as peroxide of iron has a strong affinity for coes are rolled round a perforated roller and submitted to cotton cloth. It is very easy to produce whites on such the same influence. The pieces then only require to be colour, all that is necessary being to print a discharge composed of oxalic and citric acids, which dissolve the hywell washed, dried, and finished, to be marketable. Beautiful reds and pinks are produced by means of co- drate of sesquioxide of iron, and leave those parts of the chineal. The mordant is either alumina or oxides of tin, calico thus treated free of colour. Buff colours are also and the method of proceeding is similar to that already de- produced by printing an alkaline solution of annotto on scribed for madder and garancine colours. Cochineal is calico prepared with stannic acid, and submitting it to the also extensively employed to obtain these colours on steamed influence of steam. mousseline-de-laines. Blue. Safflower cannot be applied to calico in figures, but it is Not only the most ancient but also the most general frequently employed for giving numerous crimson or pink dyes to pieces of cloth. The safflower is first dipped into means of obtaining blues on calicoes is by indigo, which water containing carbonate of soda, which dissolves its is applied in various ways. hidigo-blue dips.—This fine blue colour is produced by colouring matter. The solution, freed from the fibrous part of the dye-stuff, is then saturated by impure citric acid, adding, in a vat capable of holding from 900 to 1000 gals, or lemon juice, otherwise lime juice. A piece of cloth im- of water, 60 lbs. of finely ground indigo, to which is gramersed in this solution extracts the colouring matter from dually added 140 lbs. of green copperas, or sulphate of proit, which is afterwards heightened by immersion in weak toxide of iron, together with 212 lbs. of slack lime. Owing solution of cream of tartar. By this means a very beautiful to the lime removing the sulphuric acid from the salt of iron, the protoxide of that metal is liberated, and by its but fugitive colour is communicated to calico. affinity for oxygen removes a part of the oxygen of the blue Yellows and Oranges. indigo, and thus transforms it into white indigo, which is A fine yellow is produced by a very simple process, which soluble in the excess of lime employed in the operation. was first introduced in calico-printing by Professor Thom- After the lapse of a few hours, the dye vat being ready, a son, which consisted in fixing on calico, especially blue in- piece of calico is hooked on a wooden frame and well digo dips, a yellow or orange chromate of lead. To produce stretched out; it is then dipped into the vat for 15 minutes, this well-known style, a reserve consisting of nitrate and taken out and left exposed to the air for 5 minutes. 1 Garancine is obtained by treating madder with weak sulphuric acid, and raising the whole to the boiling point for 2J hours, then washing and submitting the charred mass to pressure. By this operation a chemical action ensues, and “ alizarine,” the colouring principle of madder, is produced, so that one part of garancine is equal to two parts of madder. Garanceux is prepared by a similar process, only commercial madder is replaced by madder which has been partly exhausted by having been previously employed for dyeing.

DYE I N G. The piece of calico which is white when it comes out of GalicoFrinting. the vat gradually becomes green, and then blue ; owing to the oxygen of the air oxidizing the white indigo, transforming it into blue, which is insoluble in water, and fixed on the calico. The number of successive dips that the piece undergoes varies according to the various shades of blue which the printer requires. The pieces, after having been passed into a weak solution of sulphuric acid or “ sours,” which fixes the indigo thoroughly, only require to be well washed and dried. To produce the well-known style of print which consists in a blue ground and white design, it is simply necessary to print the blue resist described above, passing the pieces in a vat containing lime, and then dyeing them in the above indigo vat. The pieces only require to be passed through vitriol, well washed and dried. We have also described the mode of obtaining oranges or yellows on such prints. China blue.—This style of print is obtained by printing on the calico a mixture composed of pulverised indigo and sulphate of protoxide of iron, to which is sometimes added orpiment, and thickened with British gum. The pieces so printed are passed alternately, by means of rollers, first into a milk of lime, and then into a solution of sulphate of protoxide of iron; when there ensues one of the most interesting phenomena of calico-printing, for as fast as the blue indigo is reduced into white indigo, instead of being dissolved by the lime of the bath, it is retained with force through the molecular attraction of the fibre of the calico, and prevented leaving the cloth, until it is fixed by the exposure of the piece to the oxygen of the atmosphere. The pieces then only require to be passed into weak sulphuric acid, washed, and dried, in order to be completed. Pencil blue is obtained by reducing blue into white indigo, by boiling it for several hours with protochloride of tin and alkali. When the indigo is well reduced, citrate of soda and starch are added; and after having carried the whole to the boiling-point, the calico is printed with it, passed into a milk of lime, washed, and dried. Prussian blue may be applied to cloth in various ways. We shall mention some of the principal of these. 1. An iron mordant is first applied to the cloth, and allowed to remain untouched till the iron has had time to be partly peroxidized and become fixed. The pieces are then dipped into a solution of prussiate of potash, mixed with a little sulphuric acid, which acid liberates the prussic acid, which, in yielding its cyanogen to the iron of the oxides, produces cyanides of iron or Prussian blue. Sometimes the calico to be dyed is boiled for five hours in a solution of yellow prussiate, common salt, and chloride of tin, and afterwards into a second bath, containing sulphuric acid and alum ; when Prussian blue is produced on the cloth, which only requires washing. To produce white designs on such prints, it is usual to thicken with British gum a solution of caustic alkali, and to print it on all those parts of the cloth from which it is intended to discharge the colour. The pieces are then passed into a solution of oxalic or muriatic acid, well washed and dried. 2. Prussian blue is dissolved in muriatic acid, oxalic acid, perchloride of tin, or nitrate of iron, and the solution is applied to the cloth immediately in the usual way. 3. Ferrocyanic acid is printed upon cloth prepared with stannic acid, and decomposed under the influence of steam, in the ordinary steaming process ; prussic acid escapes, and cyanides of iron, or Prussian blue, remains on the cloth. The blue is developed by exposure to the air, or by being passed through a weak solution of bleaching powder, or bichromate of potash. 4. Prussian blue is often obtained by printing prussiate of tin on prepared calico, and then submitting the print to the influence of steam.

319 Greens. Calico1. The fast green discovered by Mr James Thompson of ^, Primrose Hill, near Clitheroe, Lancashire, and commonly ^ known by the name of “ Warwick’s Green,” is a mixture of the pencil blue already described and aluminate of potash. The mixture is thickened and applied in a similar way to the Prussian blue. The alumina is then precipitated from its alkaline solution, by being passed through a weak solution of sal-ammoniac or sulphate of magnesia. The cloth is then dyed yellow in quercitron bark. It is well known that blue and yellow form green. In this operation the alumina mordant can be replaced with advantage by oxide of tin. 2. The most common process followed to obtain green on prints, consists in printing, on prepared calico, prussiate of tin, together with Persian berries, and an alumina mordant, and subjecting such prints to the influence of steam. For producing a cheap style of prints, quercitron bark is often substituted for Persian berries; but the greens thus produced, though cheaper, are not fast. 3. Arsenites of copper, or “ Scheele’s greens.” There are several modes of producing these greens on calicoes. The one most commonly employed consists in passing the cloth in a mixture of salts of copper, then into a weak solution of caustic lye, and lastly into a solution of arsenious acid. To obtain green patterns, the pieces are passed into an arsenite of soda, and then the salts of copper are printed on all those parts where green patterns are required. Blacks. 1. Various methods are employed by the calico-printers to produce a black upon cotton. An iron mordant of the specific gravity of 1*05 gives a black with madder. The same mordant, mixed with “ red liquor,” gives a black when the cloth is passed through a hot solution of logwood. Great fixity has been imparted of late years to this black, as well as that produced with shumac, by passing the dyed pieces through a weak solution of bichromate of potash, which, in suroxidizing the colouring matter, completely fixes it on the fibres of the calico. No process in calico-printing is easier than to produce white designs on black; it is sufficient to print a mixture of oxalic and tartaric acids, thickened with calcined farina or starch, and passing through water. By this means the colour is discharged, owing to the iron mordant being dissolved, and the loosened colour washed away. By passing such pieces into an alumina mordant, and then into a beck containing sapanwood or peachwood, a red is produced; with logwood a purple, or with quercitron bark or fustic a yellow. Of late years, madder extract has been printed on such discharged blacks. 2. A topical black is made from a decoction of gallnuts, mixed with nitrate of peroxide of iron. Another topical black is produced by mixing a decoction of logwood with a solution of protoxide of iron, or of pyrolignite of iron. Lilacs and Purples. These colours are communicated to cloth by printing a diluted solution of pyrolignite of iron, thickened with calcined farina. The cloth is then dyed in madder exactly as described for producing reds. Steam lilacs and purples are obtained by thickening logwood with alumina mordant, or red liquor, and printing this mixture on calico prepared with stannic acid, and then submitting such prints to the influence of steam. Cochineal is sometimes substituted for logwood on mousseline-de-laines. Topical lilacs and purples are procured by printing a logwood solution previously mixed with perchloride of tin containing a little salts of iron. Chocolates. Various shades of chocolate are produced, as above stated, by printing on calicoes as mordant a mixture of pyrolignites of alumina and iron, and dyeing, as also described, in a madder beck.

320 Dyer.

D Y N Finishing Processes. Dyle After the prints have undergone the various operations | which we have described, there is still another which they er have to undergo to give them a finish—prints in their rough v ‘ and uneven state being unmarketable. Consequently, they are submitted to a series of processes, whose object is to o-ive to the fabrics such an appearance as will please the eye of the buyer, and obtain a better price in the market. All the finishing processes have one common end, namely, to fill up the interstices which exist between the fabrics, and thus give to the calico a more substantial and glossy appearance; and this is effected by filling the cloth with boiled starch, farina, or sour flour, which is obtained from wheat flour which has been allowed to ferment. To these are often added large quantities of sulphates of lime or baryta. To give a compact and glossy appearance to the surface of the cloth, it is passed between heated rollers under pressure; and according to the heat and pressure applied, so is the degree of lustre imparted to the fabric. At other times the calico-printer gives little or no lustre to his fabrics; and in such cases the buyer, if he intends the goods for a foreign market, submits them himself to a process Dove. called “ calendering,” which consists in passing the pieces, A weak iron mordant dyed in cochineal, sapanwood, or either dried or slightly moistened, between heated rollers, and under high pressure. See Calender. (f.c.c.) peachwood.

DYE Browns. ] Oflate years, browns and wood colours have been obtained extensively, by employing either a solution of catechu made with vinegar or weak alkali, and mixing it with salts of copper, iron, or tin, according to the shades required ; and with sal-ammoniac for steam colours, lo give fixity to such colours, the pieces, after having been printed and steamed or dyed, are passed into a wTeak solution of bichromate of potash or milk of fime. 2. By far the most fixed brown is communicated to cotton by means of the sesquioxide of manganese; but this process of producing browns has almost fallen into desuetude. Drab. This colour is procured by printing the cloth with an iron mordant, and then dyeing it in quercitron bark or shumac. Olive. This colour is formed by printing a mixture of iron and alumina mordants, and dyeing in quercitron bark or shumac.

DYER, Sir James (1511-1582), an eminent English lawyer, who was at one time speaker of the House of Commons, and was afterwards chief judge of the court of common pleas in the reign of Elizabeth. He published a large collection of Reports, and several law tracts, which have been eulogized both by Coke and Camden. Dyer, John, an English poet, the son of Robert Dyer, a Welsh solicitor of great ability, was born in 1700. He received his education at Westminster school under the care of Dr Freind, and was then called home to be instructed in his father’s profession. His genius, however, soon led him to abandon the study of law ; for besides his early taste for poetry, he had a passion no less strong for the arts of design, and determined to make painting his profession. With this view, having studied some time under a master, he became, as he himself narrates, an itinerant painter, and wandered about South Wales. About }^ he printed Grongar Hill. Being probably dissatisfied with his own proficiency, he made the tour of Italy, wheie, besides the usual study of the remains of antiquity, and the works of the great masters, he frequently spent whole days sketching the picturesque scenery in the neighbourhood of Rome and Florence. Images drawn from thence naturally transferred themselves into his poetical compositions. The principal beauties of The Ruins of Rome are perhaps of this kind ; and the description of various landscapes in Ihe Fleece have been particularly admired. On his return to England he published The Ruins of Rome, 1740 ; but soon found that he could not relish a town life, nor submit to the assiduity required in his profession. Having been advised by his friends to enter into holy orders, he was ordained

by the Bishop of Lincoln, and had a degree conferred on him. About the same time he married a lady of Coleshill, named Ensor, “ whose grandmother,” says he, u was a Shakspeare, descended from a brother of every body’s Shakspeare.” His ecclesiastical provision was for a long time but slender. His first patron, Mr Harper, gave him, in 1741, Calthorpe, in Leicestershire, of L.80 a-year, on which he lived ten years ; and in April 1751 he exchanged it for Belchford, in Lincolnshire, of L.75, which was given him by Lord Chancellor Hardwicke. His circumstances afterwards began to be more favourable. In 1 < 52 Sir John Heathcoate gave him Coningsby, of L.140 a-year; and, in 1756, when he received the honorary degree of LL.B., he obtained from the chancellor, Kirby-on-Bane, of L.110. In 1757 he published The Fleece, his chief poetical work, of which Dr Johnson relates this ludicrous story. Dodsley the bookseller was one day mentioning it to a critical visitor, with more expectation of success than the other could easily admit. In the conversation the author’s age was asked; and being represented as advanced in life, “ He will,” said the critic, “be buried in woollen.” He did not indeed long outlive that publication, nor enjoy the increase of his preferments ; for a consumptive disorder, with which he had long struggled, carried him off in 1758. DYLE, a river of Belgium. See Belgium. DYNAMETER, an "instrument for ascertaining the magnifying power of telescopes, consists of a small tube with a transparent plate accurately divided. It is fixed to the tube of the telescope, in order to measure the diameter of the image of the eye-glass.

321

DYNAMICS. Dynamics.

1. This name marks that department of physico-mathematical science which contains the abstract doctrine Definition. 0? moving forces; that is, whatever necessarily results from the relations of our ideas of motion, and of the immediate causes of its production and changes. Object of 2. All changes of motion are considered by us as the dviiamics indications, the characteristics, and the measures of chanis change ging causes. This is a physical law of human thought, and ofthat con-(.|ieref'ore a principle to which we may refer, and from dition of which we must derive all our i